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    "ocrText": "January 27, 1956\n(I-103)\nNATIONAL MANPOWER COUNCIL\nInformation Memorandum No. 103\nDIRTO THE\nREPORT ON WOMANPOWER CONFERENCE\nNew York, N. Y., January 16-17, 1956\nSummary\na. This memorandum reports on a conference held in New York City to\nreview with outstanding women leaders the proposed scope of the\nCouncil's study on womanpower and the Council's present tentative\nposition with respect to the areas of policy recommendation.\nb. The participants thought that the Council should be aware that\nthe term \"womanpower,' if it is used for the title of the report, will\nbe viewed by some as too broad and by others as too narrow. Neverthe-\nless, there does not appear to be another term better suited to\nconvey the focus of the Council's study.\nC. The discussion emphasized two major problem areas in womanpower--\nthe career woman on the one hand, and the intermittent woman worker\non the other. With respect to the first, i.e., the women who enter\nemployment with an adequate educational background and training, and\nwho remain as full-time workers making a major investment in their\njobs, industry still fails to utilize them effectively. It fails\nto identify these women or to offer them opportunities for training\nand advancement to high level administrative and policy-making posts.\nd. With respect to those women who do not remain as full-time workers\nin the labor force, the problems are in many ways more complex. The\ndeclining age of marriage which interrupts the education and training\nprocess; the early withdrawal from the labor force for home-making\nand family responsibilities; the scarcity of part-time employment\nopportunities which might enable those women who had acquired skills\nto continue to use them; the de-valuing of volunteer experience\nwhich might serve a. similar function; the inadequacy of training\nand guidance facilities for older women who wish to enter or re-enter\nthe labor force; all these are aspects of the current problem which\nneed fresh consideration with a view to making concrete and realistic\nrecommendations.\ne. In searching for a basis for re-evaluating these problems, the\nconference stressed the following: Quite apart from what a high\nquality education might contribute toward the more effective utiliza-\ntion of women as workers at any stage of their lives, this education\nis needed if women are to survive as individuals in this scientific\nage. In the process of improving their education for living, a\nsubstantial contribution is likely to be made toward increasing their\nemployability. Educational guidance for girls needs to place in-\ncreased emphasis on the multiple roles which, the probabilities\nindicate, they will be called upon to play in the coming years.\nIndustry, on the other hand, needs to place increased emphasis on the\nindividual workers and to abandon some of its easy but false generali-\nzations about women workers.\n-2-\nOUX\nA. Introduction\n1. This memorandum reports on a conference held in New York\nCity on January 16 and 17, 1956, to review with women leaders\nthe proposed scope of the study on womanpower, and the Council's\npresent tentative positions in the areas of policy recommendation.\nMiss Margaret Hickey, Consultant on the womanpower project,\nwas primarily responsible for selecting the conference\nparticipants, each of whom has a wide background and knowledge\nof many aspects of the subject, as well as personal experience\nin the world of paid or volunteer employment. Dr. Leo\nBartemeier also attended the conference. A list of the\nparticipants will be found in an Appendix to this report.\n2. The conference discussion can be summarized under two major\nheadings: the scope of the study and the Council's present\ntentative position with respect to the areas of policy\nrecommendation.\nB. The Scope of the Council's Study\n(a) An Appropriate Title for the Study\n3. To the proposal that the title of the study include the\nterm womanpower (e.g., \"A Report on Womanpower\"; \"Report on\nWomanpower\"; \"Womanpower\"; \"Womanpower: A Report by the\nNational Manpower Council\"; or \"A Policy on Womanpower\")\nobjections were offered by conference participants on two\ndifferent grounds. Some indicated that, if the primary focus\n-3-\nof the study is to be on women in paid employment, the term\nwomanpower is too broad and too ambitious because it suggests\nDEPARTMENT THE D:\nLIBIQ17\nconsideration of other aspects of women's experience as well.\nOthers objected to the term womanpower on the ground that if\n\"manpower\" is a generic term, it presumably includes \"womanpower\".\nConsequently, \"women in paid employment or \"women workers\"\nare better ways of indicating the subject without being\nredundant. Furthermore, said these participants, unless\nmanpower is regarded as a generic term, it implies that women\nare being treated as a separate and special group, rather than\nas an integral part of the labor force.\n4. A Council staff member commented that the Council considers\nwomanpower as part of the nation's total manpower resources,\nand its previous publications have consistently referred to\nwomen 1n precisely these terms. The Council recognizes that\nalthough women are a part of the labor force, they tend to\nbe considered from a national policy point-of-view only in\nperiods of national emergency; or they are considered only in\nrelation to very separate and distinct problems, as for example,\nthe clerical shortage, or the teaching or nursing shortage. The\nabsence of a thoroughgoing consideration of women as half of the\nnation's resources, with an examination of all of the relevant\nquestions, and of the more effective development and utilization\nof this \"manpower\" segment prompted the Council to undertake its\nstudy.\n-4-\n5. Titles suggested to avoid using the term womanpower included\nthe following. \"What Women have Contributed to the American\nWay of Life Through Paid Employment\"; \"Women Workers and Their\nPotential in the Labor Force\"--a double title which emphasizes\nboth women workers and the development of their potential;\n\"Women in Paid Employment -which was not assumed to exclude\nconsideration of the development of potential; \"The Changing\nPower of Women in the Labor Market\"; \"A Policy for Manpower:\nThe Development and Utilization of Women in Paid Employment\"--\nwhich emphasizes the Council's \"trademark\"; and \"Women's\nRole in Industrial Development.'\n0.1951m0 942 Lister\n6. Further discussion indicated, however, general agreement\nthat, even when the primary focus in a report on women is on their\nrole in paid employment, the analysis bas to touch on other\naspects of their experience as well. A staff member pointed\nout that, although the Council regards women as an essential\npart of the manpower story, the facts about women's employment\nare still different from those for men. Although the differences\nbetween the employment of women and men seem to be growing\nsmaller, their patterns of employment are still not identical.\nTherefore, the Council recognizes that the problems in employing\nthe mothers of young children are not the same as those in\nemploying men; or, similarly, that the discontinuous work\npatterns of many women represent a substantial difference by\n-5-\ncomparison with men. The Council's primary focus is\non women in paid employment, but other aspects of women's\nexperience which bear on that must be taken into consideration.\n7. Related to this comment was the observation of a\nparticipant that women who engage in volunteer work could\nobject to a title such as \"women workers\", a term conventionally\nconfined only to women in paid employment. The consultant to\nthe Council pointed out that the objective of the study is not\nto deal solely with the paid employment of women, but to\nput that theme in the context of the larger contribution which\nwomen are making and of the relevant social and economic\nSTATE\nfactors which affect the relation of the individual woman\nFRE\nLIQUID\nto her role in paid employment.\n8. After this discussion, the concensus of the group seemed to\nbe that, in preference to identifying the focus of the study\nas \"women workers,\" it would be preferable to use the term\n\"womanpower\" and to suggest some of the special emphases of\nthe study by a sub-title. One conferee pointed out that even\n\"womanpower\" might be too narrow a term, to the extent that it\nimplied the utilization of women in the manpower sense, 1.e.,\nas part of the economically active working force. Since the\nother roles of men are usually not considered in relation to\ntheir paid employment, this might suggest that the multiple\nroles of women would also not be covered by the term \"womanpower.\"\n-6-\n(It should perhaps be noted that manpower, in a technical sense,\nis usually distinguished from the working force by the inclusion\nof potential as well as active workers. This does imply a\nconsideration of all of the factors which affect the\nutilization of the potential of any individual worker.\n9. Following general acceptance of the term womanpower these\ntitles were suggested: \"A Study of Womanpower: Its Effective\nDevelopment and Utilization for Society\"; \"A Policy for the\nDevelopment and Utilization of Womanpower\"; \"Womanpower Report\nin a Transitional Period\" where transitional refers to the\nnation's social and economic development and not to the role\nof women in paid employment; and \"Womanpower: Its Potentialities\nand Utilization.\" The latter title met with the widest agreement\namong the conferees.\nDWISDED\n(b) Adequacy of the Factual Material Relating to the Study\n682\nLIBIRTY\n10. When asked to comment on the adequacy of the factual\nmaterial which the Council staff is preparing for the report,\nparticipants identified five aspects of the subject which they\nbelieved needed some additional emphasis. These were employment\nopportunities for career women; the cost of employment for\nmarried women and the adequacy of present incentives; differences\nbetween the education of girls and boys, particularly at the\nsecondary level, and problems of motivating girls at both\nthe secondary and college levels; the role of women in the Armed\nForces and as a civilian defense reserve; and the responsibility\n-7-\nof individuals themselves, both men and women, for contributing\nto a more effective use of women in paid employment. The\ndiscussion with respect to each of these subjects was as\nfollows:\n11. Employment opportunities for career women: One conferee\npointed out that it was important not to overlook the women\nwho stay in the labor market, with particular reference to\ntheir opportunities for advancement. An example of a specific\nproblem in this area was provided from the banking industry.\nDISTINO\nIt was pointed out that three out of four of the graduate\nFRE\nLIBITY\nschools of banking, maintained by the bank associations for\nbank employees, are closed to women, even though three-fourths\nof the employees in banks are women. Persons eligible for\nthis advanced training are generally older and already advanced\nin position and salary level. Therefore, among the women, there\nis really no question of the long-term consequences for home,\nfamily life, or the birth rate. Obviously these women are\nalready \"career women,\" and are going to remain in paid\nemployment. The present policy, therefore, means that they\nwill remain in the lower level jobs. Even though the number\nof women involved in this kind of problem may be relatively\nsmall, the principle of not advancing women has wide-ranging\nresults and conflicts with the goal of effective utilization\nof the nation's total human resources.\n-8-\n12. In answer to the objection that an employer cannot identify\nthose women who will remain in the field and become \"career women,\"\nand who will thereby justify the training investment, it was\npointed out that the very statistics which are used to point up\nthe problems in employing women also support the possibility\nFUL\nof identifying the \"career woman. 11 As the age of marriage\ndeclines, the chances that a woman of 30 will marry and, therefore,\nleave the labor market also decline. It was admitted that this\ndoes not answer the problem of the cost of recruiting and training\nwomen in their early twenties, many of whom will withdraw from\nemployment after two or three years. Nevertheless, it was argued,\nit does suggest that it would be wise to provide both short- and\nlong-term training for those women whose tenure is doubtful and\nfor those who are clearly as permanent as male employees. Employers\noften losé their training investment in men also, it was pointed\nout, when they leave one company for another, or for a different\nfield.\n13. Another conferee emphasized the fact that much self-screening\nfor long-term training, either by industry or in the graduate\nand professional schools, goes on among women themselves.\nMany women are not willing to make the investment of time and energy\nunless they have some idea that they will use it. Employers\nhave failed to take advantage of this fact. Nor have they used\nthe other selection devices available, even such a simple one\n-9-\nas observing those women who do a good job and take their work\nseriously and who thereby merit, in many cases, some executive\ntraining. It was pointed out that this is a subject in which\nemployers have a great interest at the moment and are anxious\nfor information on what other companies are doing. It was\nthought that many employers would \"follow the leader,\" if their\nattention were directed to effective policies and practices in\nthis area.\n14. One conferee speculated on the possibility of using the\ndevice of the armed services to assure a return on a training\ninvestment, namely \"x\" years of service for \"x\" years of training.\nIt was pointed out that to a certain extent industry does employ\nthis device. Social agencies or educational institutions, for\nexample will grant a leave of absence if an employee wishes to\nundertake additional training. It was said, however, that in\nthese cases the training must be paid for by the individual and\nso it is only job tenure: which is given in return. It was\nagreed that, if industry were to adopt such a policy, the contracts\nwould probably not be enforceable. The moral commitment on the\npart of the individual, however, would be a very strong one,\nsimilar to that now involved in the Rockefeller Awards, Ford\nFellowships, trade union scholarships, etc.\n-10-\n15. It was also observed that this is not a problem which\naffects women alone. Industry probably does not rely sufficiently\non \"self-screening\" in finding male executives either. Instead\nof offering incentives which might make the potential executive\ncome forward and identify himself, industry tends to select\nthose men who it believes--often with little or no evidence--\nwill make satisfactory leaders, and then to push them ahead.\nORIGINAL\n16. The cost of employment for married women: One conferee\npointed out that in analyzing the factors which affect the\ndecision of a married woman to enter paid employment it would\nbe helpful to present data which would provide a basis for\nevaluating the cost of such employment to her and her family in\nterms of changes in the family income tax bracket, cost of\nhousehold help, cost of additional clothing for the woman, etc.\nIn many cases, it was speculated, these costs are probably\nso high, in relation to what the woman can earn, that it\nsubstantially alters the number of women who are willing to\nenter the labor market. Another conferee, commenting on case\nhistory data obtained a few years ago, indicated that it\nis difficult to formulate any generalization in this\narea..\n17. It was also pointed out that the steady increase in the\nproportion of women in employment indicates that on balance\nwomen must find it economically advantageous to work. On the\nother hand, the shortage of women workers in certain areas\nalso suggests that the economic incentives are inadequate\n-11-\nAnother conferee noted that \"shortage\" also suggested the\nabsence of incentives other than economic, as, for example, the\navailability of only routine and uninteresting jobs. There\nwas general agreement that the Council report should include\nan examination of incentives drawing women into the labor\nmarket, of what keeps the quit rates for women high, etc.\nLIDIES 081\n18. Differences between the education of girls and boys: The\nneed for a detailed analysis of this problem and the difficulties\ninvolved, in view of the absence of information, were stressed\nby several of the conferees. The motivation of college women\nto think about the role which work might play in their lives\nwas also underscored as an important problem.\n19. The role of women in the Armed Forces: A question was\nraised as to why this topic appeared to be so de-emphasized in\nthe proposed report. A staff member pointed out that the topic\nwould certainly be covered by the report; however, it was seen\nas a much more specialized problem which should be dealt with\nafter the more general problems had been covered. Related to\nthis topic was the observation that the role of women as a\ncivil defense reserve should also be covered by the report.\n15 has been estimated that at least 60 percent of the civilian\ndefense reserve are women who must be trained for their jobs.\n-12-\n20 The responsibilities of individuals for the more effective\nuse of womanpower: One conferee indicated that in her opinion\nthe report should not ignore what women themselves have, can,\nand must do to advance themselves. However, another conferee\ncautioned against over-generalizations about the attitudes\nof women, and urged that the report avoid discussion of the\nUNIVERSITY Library SEX\nconflicts of roles among women, women's frustrations, etc.\nSeveral conferees pointed out that at the level of the individual\nany discussion of women would also require a discussion of men's\nroles as husbands and/or employers in contributing to the more\neffective utilization of women in paid employment.\nC. The Council's Present Tentative Position With Respect\nto the Areas of Policy Recommendation\n(a) The Proportion of Women in Paid Employment\n21. In the special Working Paper prepared for the conference,\nthere was an indication of the boundaries of policy concern\nupon which the Council has agreed. In this context the statement\nwas made that the Council \"has concluded that there are no\ncompelling reasons to establish as a policy objective a continuing\nincrease in the female component of the labor force as such.\"\nThis was subject to considerable misunderstanding by the conferees.\nOne commented that it implied that women are needed in the labor\nforce only in an emergency. Another pointed out that it was a\ngratuitous observation and, as it is formulated, it is not clear\n-13-\nwhether the Council would make the same or an opposite statement\nwith respect to the male component. Another said that the\nsentence suggests that women workers reduce the number of\njobs available to men.\n22. In response to these observations it was pointed out that\nit is not possible to demonstrate that there would be a\nretardation in the economy if the proportion of women in paid\nemployment remained stable. The Council was simply trying to\nindicate that the economy requires certain kinds of trained\npersons, but it cannot be argued that these persons must be\nLibrary UT>\nwomen. It is true that almost all men who are able to work\nare in the labor force today, and, therefore, if additional\npersons are needed, they would most likely be women. However,\nthe presence of so many other variables-- declining work week,\nthe differential growth in automation, etc. make it impossible\nto predict the shifts in employment or to determine accurately\nthe need for additional workers, except on a very short-run\nbasis. The concensus of the group, however, was that this\npoint could be made in a less prejudicial way by emphasizing\nthat there were no compelling reasons at the present time for\nurging an increase in the female or any other component of the\nlabor force.\n-14-\n23. The consultant to the Council on the womanpower project\npointed to another reason for the statement, namely, there\nis a body of public opinion which objects to an economy which\ndraws women out of the home when, presumably, a rising standard\nof living would enable a larger proportion of them to remain\nat home. This opinion finds expression, for example, in the\nwidespread objection to publicly supported child care programs\nwhich may make it easier for women to go to work and may\ncontribute to the deterioration of family life. The Council\nhas decided that it is not appropriate for it to take a position\non this kind of social question. Another conferee pointed out that\nthe facts show that the increase in women in paid employment\nhas been accompanied by an increase in the number of marriages\nand in the birth rate and by a decline in the divorce rate.\nDeight D The\n(b) Development of Potential\n24. Discussion of the present thinking of the Council with\nrespect to policy issues revealed that there was general\nagreement among the conferees on the importance of emphasizing\nthe need to develop in girls those skills which are taken for\ngranted in a technological age-- driving a car, using a\ntypewriter, repairing an electrical switch, etc. But the\ndevelopment of these skills cannot be at the expense of providing\ngirls with a high quality education which stresses mathematics\nand science, not necessarily for their immediate \"use\" value,\n-15-\nbut because this area of knowledge is essential for living in\na scientific age. However, the education must also include\nlanguages, the arts, history, and the social sciences.\n25. Women, it was pointed out, who grow up unprepared to deal\nwith the technological and scientific world in which they find\nthemselves are essentially illiterate. It does not much matter\nwhether the consequences of this illiteracy show up in the\nhome, in paid employment, or in volunteer work. In short,\nthe primary objective of the education of girls should be to\nmake them literate in this larger sense. The very fact that\nwomen have more than one role today underscores the need for more,\nnot less, education for girls, if they are to be intelligent\npersons in whatever role they are called upon to play. The\ncontribution which women have made and are making, and the even\ngreater contribution which they will be called on to make, in\nthe area of community life calls for more and better education\nfor girls today.\n26. With respect to secondary education, one conferee observed\nthat the development of homemaking skills can be achieved much\nmore appropriately in the home than in the school which, as an\ninstitution, in no way matches the real homemaking situation.\nAnother conferee raised the problem of the kind of education\nmost suitable for the girl who is not going on to college\n-16-\nand who will probably find herself in one of many \"unskilled\"\njobs, for example, on the assembly line, or as a waitress.\nAutomation, it was pointed out, is likely to make this problem\nmore acute in the sense that it will bring an increase in leisure\ntime.\n27. The conferees were generally agreed that vocational\nDeight D.\ntraining for these kinds of jobs was the responsibility of\nindustry and not of the schools, which must use their time\nin providing an education that will be a preparation for\nliving. The problem of the heavy concentration of girls in\ncommercial programs in the high schools was noted by conferees\nas an instance of quite narrow vocational training presumably\nin answer to industry's demands upon the schools.\n28. Another major problem in the view of the conferees is that\nof motivating girls at the secondary level. The falling age of\nmarriage and the preoccupation of high school students with\nthis goal, it was pointed out, seriously affects their performance\nin school. The studies of Macfarlane and Sontag, which report\nthat the intelligence quotients and grades of girls in high\nschool become lower when they consider that successful academic\nwork militates against their popularity or femininity, were cited\nin support of this point. It was noted by other conferees that\nthere is conflicting evidence on this question, and that the\n-17-\nchanging attitude toward early marriage, as well as toward\nthe employment of married women, calls for continuing investigation\nof it.\n29. Several conferees commented on the changing pattern\namong women college students today, who no longer see marriage\nand a career as alternatives between which they must choose.\nThe change was seen as affecting a whole series of choices\nLIMIT\nwhich, in the past, a girl usually had to make, i.e., between\ngetting married or going to college; between work and marriage;\nbetween having children or a career; between remaining permanently\nin the labor force and permanent withdrawal. It was noted\nthat in the concentration of the women college student today\non the combination of marriage and work, the idea of \"a career\"\nhas been downgraded to \"a job\" in which a minimum investment\nwill be made for maximum financial return. The objective now\nis practical, temporary employment to supplement the new family's\nincome, and this objective frequently becomes clear only about\nsix months before graduation.\n30. This changing pattern, it was observed, is creating new\nproblems in motivating college women to think in long-range\nterms in planning and completing their college program so that\nit will assist them in (a) their immediate job interests;\n(b) their homemaking role; (c) their service to the community;\n-18-\nand (d) their possible--and indeed probable--interest in\nentering or re-entering the labor market at a later date.\n31. The conference discussion also dealt with training for\nthe older woman who wants to enter employment and who, because\nof early marriage, acquired no training in her earlier years.\nThis, it was said, is a much more serious and difficult\nproblem than that of retraining, and likely to become more common\nin the future. The point was also made that where a woman\nhas acquired some professional training or some work experience\nprior to marriage or child-rearing, there is still the problem\nof keeping her skills alive during the interim period when\nher family responsibilities make full-time participation\nin the labor force impossible. One conferee pointed out that\nsur LIBIESS\ncollege guidance counsellors should, perhaps, emphasize\nthose jobs in which part-time employment possibilities, compatible\nwith family responsibilities,are greatest, as for example,\nteaching, writing, public relations work, social or community\nrelations work. Another conferee emphasized that experience\nin non-paid jobs as members of School Boards, as board of\ndirector members of community agencies, etc., should not be\nminimized and that the de-valuing of unpaid work was very\nunfortunate. Such volunteer work may be one way of enabling\na woman to retain her skills for some later period when she\nre-enters paid employment.\n-19-\n32. The role of industry in developing the potentialities of\nwomen through the attitudes taken towards women's employment\nand their advancement was also noted. Most young women enter\nemployment with the thought of simply holding down a job for\nsome temporary period of time, but the possibility always exists\nof converting the job-holder into a career worker, if the proper\nencouragement and training are given.\nLibrary FEL\n(c) Employment Opportunities\n33. Discussion of the Council's present thinking about policy\nissues related to employment opportunities turned primarily on\nthe role of legislation. The conferees noted distinctions\namong equal rights laws, equal pay laws, and other kinds of\nspecial legislation for women. However, the discussion failed to\ndistinguish clearly between the role of legislation in\nprotecting women workers and in expanding or contracting their\nemployment opportunities.\n34. Among the women's organizations, the National Federation\nof Business and Professional Women's Clubs, the National\nWomen's Party, and the National Association of Women Lawyers\nhave worked for the passage of an equal rights law. Other\nwomen's organizations, convinced that the passage of such a law\nwould negate all of the laws specifically designed to protect\nwomen, and stressing equity rather than equality, have been\nopposed or neutral with respect to it. Equal pay laws, on the\n-20-\nother hand, have had the active support of all of the women's\norganizations ,and an inter-organizational committee exists\nto facilitate their working together for the passage and\nSUX\nimprovement of these laws.\nLIVE #\n35. According to the conferees, special legislation for\nwomen workers is still considered by most women's organizations\nan important way of dealing with specific local situations\nin which women need protection, as in the case of limitations\non hours or minimum wage laws, particularly in the South. It\nwas pointed out that an educational process accompanies\nlegislative action, and results are often broader than those\ndirectly attributable to the laws. When a basic rate is\naffected by a minimum wage law, for example, the whole\nrate structure of a plant is raised.\n36. There was some difference of opinion among conferees,\non how crucial the issue of special legislation is today.\nOne conferee indicated that, while her organization still\nsupports special legislation, the conviction is that such\nlegislation has, in the main, already accomplished the objective\nwhich had been sought through it. This organization is now much\nmore concerned with women as citizens, and the stress of its\nprogram has shifted to such issues as foreign policy, conservation,\nloyalty, etc. Another conferee also indicated that her\norganization had given up its concern with special legislation\n-21-\nand now considered other areas more important. Another\nconferee commented that special legislation served some\nfunction in establishing a floor, and that community, rather\nthan governmental, action is required to improve employment\nconditions and opportunities for women. Such action should\ninclude general education to be undertaken by community\norganizations, helped by legislation, as well as collective\n181\nbargaining.\n37. Other conferees asserted that it is not accurate to say\nthat women's organizations had given up an interest in special\nlegislation. At the national level these organizations still\nvote on the broad principles they wish to support, much staff\ntime is still devoted to considering the issues, and, at the\nlocal level, study groups are still organized to consider these\nissues and to stimulate grass-roots activity.\n38. On the question of whether considerations of sex are\nidentical with those of race, color, religion, or national\norigin in relation to discriminatory practices in employment,\nthe consensus of the group was that they are not. Sex, it\nwas pointed out, is a biological and functional factor which\noften must and should be taken into account and will, consequently,\nstand in the way of identical treatment of men and women workers.\nThis cannot be properly described as \"discrimination.\" In\n-22-\nmany instances, it was observed, limitations on the employment\nof women are a form of social progress, and where women\nhave special needs they must be singled out for separate action,\nas in the case of protective legislation.\n39. Nevertheless, the majority of conferees argued that\na real case could be made for the existence of actual discrimina-\ntion against women in employment today. Among the examples\ncited were: well qualified women are often recommended but\nDEPARTMENT\nSEX\nseldom chosen for higher administrative jobs in education,\na field which they dominate at the lower levels; where women\nare selected for jobs, discrimination often persists in the form\nof salary differentials, removal of privileges usually\nassociated with the job, or circumscribed policy-making\nfunctions; employers will frequently go out of their way to find\nreasons for not hiring the best qualified person who happens\nto be a woman, and will often hire a mediocre or second rate\nman instead. The number of women thus affected, it was\nobserved, may not be large because such policies relate primarily\nto higher level, policy-making jobs. The consequences--1n terms\nof failing to develop incentives for women and in maintaining\na system of differential treatment based on irrelevant considera-\ntions of sex--are much broader. Several of the conferees indicated\nthat it would be extremely helpful if the Council's work\ncontributed to a clearer identification of the relevant and\nirrelevant considerations which bar women from certain jobs\ntoday.\n-23-\n40. In general, the conferees were agreed that it is not\npossible to legislate the elimination of discrimination. However,\nit was also agreed that legislation has an educational value\nin directing attention to the problem. Similarly, certain\nadministrative measures can be taken to increase employment\nopportunities for women. As an example, the Defense Advisory\nCommittee to the Secretary of Labor, on which representatives\nof the women's organizations served, was cited.\n41. With respect to the special issue of making it easier\n187\nLIVE\nfor mothers of young children to work, the conferees were in\nagreement that the program of aid to dependent children should\nbe such that mothers would be financially able to remain at home.\nHowever, in the absence of appropriate funds, the communities\nhave a responsibility to provide adequate child-care facilities.\n(d) Utilization Practices\n42. Discussion of the Council's present thinking with respect\nto utilization practices stressed again the \"self-screening\"\nwhich goes on among women workers. The conferees shared the\nconviction that the most serious mal-utilization of women by\nindustry occurs in the failure to identify those whose training,\nabilities, job investment, and work patterns are similar to\nmen's. One conferee thought that the Council would be well\nadvised to state forthrightly that, \"if industry will use the\nright promotional ladders and take advantage of the cues\nwhich are available,\" it can solve a long-existing problem\nwith profit to itself, the individual worker, whether man\nor woman, and the nation as a whole. Another conferee expressed\n-24-\nthe same thought in saying that industry accepts too many\nconventional generalizations about women and, therefore,\nfails to utilize the potential among them. Industry cannot\nemploy the same recruiting and training practices for women\nas for men in their early twenties, without losing money,\nbut the situation is different for women who remain in employment\nthrough age thirty. For this group, there is far less risk\nattached to a sizeable investment in further training and\ndevelopment.\n43. Another conferee pointed out that industry's investment\nin the colleges and universities of the country is not predicated\nupon a guaranteed return in terms of individual workers who will\nbe hired for specific jobs. It looks to general gains flowing\nfrom investing in the institutions which develop highly trained\nmanpower resources. It was thought that industry might be\n981\npersuaded that there are desirable long-term results\narising from investments in the training of women even though\nimmediate labor supply gains appear to be lacking. Another\nconferee pointed out that tax relief considerations which operate\nin the support of colleges and universities are lacking\nwhen employers contemplate on the job training for women.\n44. Another conferee urged a campaign to organize and promote\nacceptance of the combination of homemaking and employment\nfor women today. This \"combination\" might vary at different times\n-25-\nin a women's life. At some stages it might be part-time\nemployment and part-time homemaking; at others, full-time home-making,\nor full-time employment. This conferee thought that the time has\ncome, perhaps, to take active steps to alter the social values\ncurrently assigned to the homemaking function on the one hand,\nand paid employment on the other.\n45. There was no clear-cut answer to the question of whether\nextension of the practice of granting maternity leaves would\ncontribute to the more effective utilization of women. The\ndiscussion revealed that underlying social issues were involved\nin the question. The conference thought that the Council\nshould not register judgments of value upon social problems\nDATE\nFUL\nlinked to changes in the paid employment of women. It was\npointed out in the course of this discussion that in organized\nplants the number of maternity leave contracts have doubled or\ntripled in the last three years. It was also observed that many\nindustries in which women are employed are not organized. Assuming\nthat at present the majority of women work for reasons of\neconomic necessity, the effect of extending maternity leave practices\nwould be to protect and contribute to the economic security of\nthe child, or of other children in the family. Where the effect\nmight be other than this, namely to encourage women who did\nnot have to work for economic necessity to return to the labor\nmarket, the conferees in general were non-committal.\n-26-\n46. One conferee pointed out that the practice did pose\nproblems for industry, particularly with respect to keeping\nhigher level jobs open while the woman is away on maternity\nleave. On the other hand, another conferee observed that\nwoman as a child-bearer is performing a service to society,\nand she should not be penalized for this reason.\nDelai\nOUL\n(e) Manpower Shortages\n47. One conferee stressed the importance of the effective\ndevelopment, education, training, and utilization of individuals\nwithout reference to the specific shortages existing at present.\nOthers, who thought the Council should deal with manpower\nshortages, emphasized that they should be considered in terms\nof the individual, whether man or woman, who prepares for an\noccupation in short supply.\n48. The conferees admitted that, where facilities or finances\nfor professional training are limited, it is difficult to\ndetermine whether training should be provided on the basis\nof ability alone, or with some consideration of the subsequent\nuse likely to be made of the training. Nevertheless, there\nwas general agreement that the degree of serious dedication\nshown by the individual, regardless of sex, should be a paramount\nconsideration. In a free society, the long-term effects of such\na policy would be the more desirable. Again it was emphasized\n-27-\nthat in the case of professional training, much self-screening\nby the individual occurs, and that this fact makes the problem\nless difficult in practical terms than it appears to be in\ntheory.\n(f) Women in the Armed Services\n49. There was no extensive discussion of this topic.\nOne conferee observed that a deeper and more extensive\nstudy of the need for women in the Armed Services should be\nmade. The biggest problem, she said, is the prejudice on\nthe part of parents, clergy, teachers, and community leaders\nagainst the use of women in the services. This prejudice\ngoes beyond the general antipathy to the military which is almost\nuniversal in this country.\nISSIS\n50. Another conferee pointed out that, at best, there has\n081\nLIBIRTY\nbeen a kind of toleration of women in the armed services\nin peacetime and no active support except in times of emergency.\nAs a consequence, recruitment has been difficult, and the\ngoals, even though low, have never been met, although the\nservices have a relatively good mark concerning fair treatment\nof women. On the other hand, there is little evidence that\nthe numbers recruited have been inadequate. These considerations\nwere said to confirm the need for a reappraisal of the numbers\nand the role of women in the armed services.\n-28-\nD. Summary Comments by Conference Participants\n51. At the conclusion of the conference each of the\nparticipants was asked to identify some major consideration\nthought to be particularly significant for the Council in\ndeveloping its Statement and Recommendations. These\ncomments served to summarize the highlights of the preceding\ndiscussion.\n52. The Council would be well advised, one conferee pointed\nout, to concentrate on the newer aspects of the problems\nin womanpower. These arise from the fact that women are\nFEA\nLibrary\nmarrying at younger ages and are, therefore, often prevented\nfrom acquiring any training for employment. Although the\ntraditional \"career girl\" is vanishing, an increasing number\nof women are acquiring some work experience during the early\nyears of marriage. Lack of training and/or limited work\nexperience, however, pose major problems in integrating these\nwomen into the work force when they elect to return at some\nlater date, as an increasingly large number of them are doing.\nThis problem should be related to the manpower shortages\nin several occupations which require extensive professional\ntraining.\n53. Other conferees stressed the importance of volunteer\nwork as a means of keeping the skills of women up to date\nEuring the period of their withdrawal from the labor force.\n-29-\nFurthermore, it was said, the significance of the role of\nvolunteer work in the community is perhaps even more important\nthan the role of volunteer work in the life of the woman.\nThis fact should be kept in mind in any treatment of volunteer\nwork.\n54. The importance of using the schools for the training\nor re-training of older women, and the need for more facilities\nand greater vision in the matter of guidance for these older\nwomen were also stressed. The desirability of developing\nmore opportunities for part-time employment, both as a way\nof protecting family life and as a way of keeping skills in\nuse during the interim years, was also urged.\n55. Another conferee emphasized the need for \"total guidance\"\nfor girls, as opposed to a narrower concept of vocational\nguidance. The inadequacy of the kind of guidance proposed\nLibrary OHE\nin A Policy for Skilled Manpower --assumed to be vocational\nguidance in the narrowest sense--was decried.\n56. Other conferees stressed the role of the true \"career girl.\"\nThey urged that attention be paid to her problems, particularly\nthe importance of assuring her training opportunities at the\nappropriate time and of her advancement and promotion when she\nwas qualified for a job at a higher level. These women, it\nwas pointed out, demonstrate what women can do, and thus widen\nthe horizons for other women.\n-30-\n57. Another conferee pointed to the danger of over-generalization,\nand observed that even in the same community different groups\nhave different attitudes and convictions about women at work,\nand that the work patterns of women differ greatly. Caution\nis needed even on the extent to which major attitudinal changes\nhave occurred, because all of the changes might be explained in\nterms of a continuing period of high employment.\n58. Several conferees urged the Council to place primary\nemphasis on allowing the individual, whether man or woman, to\ndevelop in accordance with his own abilities and ambitions.\nThe development of the individual woman, it was pointed out, is\nimportant for the development of the country. Pride can be\ntaken in thecontribution which women have made to the American\nway of life and the American standard of living, and this\nachievement is a result of the extent to which American women\nhave been allowed to be and have been treated as individuals.\n59. Other conferees stressed that the value of the Council's\nSEX\nLIBIT\nreport on womanpower would lie in its overall consideration\nof the subject from the manpower point of view, rather than\nfrom the more restricted point of view of the feminist, the psychia-\ntrist, the union, or the employer. At the same time, conferees\n3750 urged that specific, realistic recommendations be included\nin the report. It should not merely elaborate a philosophical\n-31-\nposition or concentrate on the significant facts which would\nsuggest ways of solving certain problems. It was also\nsaid that the Council should not emphasize problems of\n\"discrimination, 11 because in the last analysis these problems\nare going to be solved only with the passage of time.\nOF\nLIBIRTY\n-32-\nAppendix I\nList of Participants\nConference on Womanpower\nJanuary 16-17, 1956\nNew York, N.Y.\nDr. Leo Bartemeier\nMiss Margaret Hickey\nMedical Director\nEditor, Public Affairs Department\nThe Seton Psychiatric Institute\nLadies' Home Journal\n6420 Reistertown Road\nIndependence Square\nBaltimore 15, Maryland\nPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania\nMiss Bess Bloodworth\nDr. Althea K. Hottel\n85 High Street\nDean of Women\nNewburyport, Massachusetts\nUniversity of Pennsylvania\nPhiladelphia 4, Pennsylvania\nDr. Helen D. Bragdon\nGeneral Director\nMrs. Katherine G. Howard\nAmerican Association of\nSpecial Advisor, Federal Civil\nUniversity Women\nDefense Administration\n1634 I. Street, N.W.\n3322 G.S.A. Building\nWashington 6,D. C.\n19th & E. Street N.W.\nWashington, D. C.\nMrs. Frances T. Cahn\nExecutive Director\nMiss Hazel McCalley\nNational Council of Jewish Women\nDirector, Department of Personnel\n1 West 47th Street\nand Training\nNew York, N. Y.\nCamp Fire Girls, Inc.\n16 East 48th Street\nMiss Catherine B. Cleary\nNew York 17, N.Y.\nNational Advisory Council on\nDeligio\nVocational Rehabilitation\nMiss Margaret Mealey\nOFX\nLIBITY\nFirst Wisconsin Trust Company\nExecutive Secretary\nMilwaukee 1, Wisconsin\nNational Council of Catholic\nWomen\nMiss Margaret Divver\n1312 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.\nChairman, Defense Advisory\nWashington 5, D. C.\nCommittee on Women in the\nServices\nMiss Thelma Mills\nJohn Hancock Mutual Life Insurance Executive Director\nCompany\nThe Young Women's Christian\n200 Perkeley Street\nAssociation of the City of N.Y.\nBonton 17, Massachusetts\n610 Lexington Avenue\nNew York 22, N.Y.\n-33-\nMrs. Anne G. Pannell\nMiss Sarah Ann Stauffer\nPresident, Sweet Briar College\nTreasurer, Board of Directors\nSweet Briar, Virginia\nAssociation of the Junior\nLeagues of America, Inc.\nMiss Nancy Pratt\nP. O. Box 606\nResearch Department\nLancaster, Pennsylvania\nAmerican Federation of Labor\nand Congress of Industrial\nMiss Dorothy C. Stratton\nOrganizations\nNational Executive Director\n901 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.\nGirl Scouts of the United States\nWashington 1, D. C.\nof America\n155 East 44th Street\nMiss Marguerite Rawalt\nNew York 17, N. Y.\nPresident, The National\nFederation of Business and\nMiss Anna Lord Strauss\nProfessional Women's Clubs, Inc. 27 East 69th Street\n1801 Sixteenth Street, N.W.\nNew York 21, N. Y.\nWashington 9, D. C.\nMrs. Robert Whitelaw Wilson\nMrs. Oscar Ruebhausen\nNational Director\nDirector, League of Women\nOffice of Volunteers\nVoters of the United States\nThe American National Red Cross\nAge East 52nd Street\nWashington 13, D. C.\nNew York 22, N.Y.\nNational Manpower Council Staff\nStanley Allen\nBryna Ball\nJean Scott Campbell\nHenry David\nEli Ginzberg\nLibrary"
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