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STATE DRICALM OF
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
1 Cyclotron Road Berkeley. California 94720
THE
Building 90, Room 1060
FTS 451-5172, Commercial (415) 486-5172
Confirm: FTS 451-6584, Commercial (415)486-6584
DATE: 3/30/90
FAX number: (202) 456-6218
Stephanie Belessey
white House Office
TO:
Room 111
(202)456-7750
Office or Location Phone Number
FROM: Hashem Akbani
RBL
(415)486-4287
Office or Location Phone Number
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS
Total number of pages: 20
LBL Account Number: 4712-01
101 265#
TEL NO:4154865172
CENTER 1200-06 787:01 61:60 06.-02-20W
HEAT ISLAND PUBLICATIONS
(Rev. Date: December 1989)
For further information contact:
Hashem Akbari
Heat Island Project
Energy Analysis Program
Applied Science Division
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Berkeley, CA 94720
Tel: (415) 486-4287; FTS: 451-4287
Akbari, H.; Rosenfeld, A.; Taha, H. 1990. "Summer heat islands, urban trees, and white surfaces,"
Proceedings of American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Airconditioning Engineers,
Atlanta, Georgia, (February); also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL- 28308.
Akbari, H.; Rosenfeld, A.; Taha, H. 1989. "Recent Developments in Heat Island Studies, Technical and
Policy", Proceedings of the Workshop on Urban Heat Islands, Berkeley CA, (February 23-24).
Akbari, H.; Huang, J.; Martien, P.; Rainer, L.; Rosenfeld, A.; Taha, H. 1988. "The Impact of Summer
Heat Islands on Cooling Energy Consumption and Global CO2 Concentration," Proceeding of
ACEEE 1988 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, Vol 5, pp11-23, Asilomar CA,
(August).
Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; Rosenfeld, A. 1987. "Vegetation Micro-climate Measurements," Research report
to UC/UERG.
Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; Martien, P.; Huang, J. 1987. "Strategies for Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Savings,
Conflicts, and City's Role," Presented at the First National Conference on Energy Efficient Cooling,
San Jose CA, (Oct 21-22).
Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; Martien, P.; Rosenfeld, A. 1987. "The Impact of Summer Heat Islands on Residen-
tial Cooling Energy Consumption," Presented at the 8th Miami International Conference on Alter-
native Energy Sources, Miami FL, (Dec 14-16).
Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; Huang, J.; Rosenfeld, A. 1986. "Undoing Summer Heat Island Can Save Giga
Watts of Power", Proceeding of ACEEE 1986 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings,
Vol. 2, pp7-22, Santa Cruz, August 17-23, 1986, also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-
21893, (July).
Garbesi, K.; Akbari, H.; Martien, P. (editors) 1989, "Controlling summer heat islands," Proceedings of
the Workshop on Saving Energy and Reducing Atmospheric Pollution by Controlling Summer Heat
Islands, Berkeley CA, February 23-24, 1989; also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-
27872.
Huang, Y. J.; Akbari, H.: Taha, H. 1990. "The wind-shielding and shading effects of trees on residential
heating and cooling requirements," Proceedings of American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and
Airconditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, (February); also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Report LBL- 24131.
Auwer2/bed/h_shis/PUBLICATION/pub.dec89
202 265#
TEL NO:4154865172
MAR-30-'90 09:20 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
-2-
Huang, J.; Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; Rosenfeld, A. 1987. "The Potential of Vegetation in Reducing Summer
Cooling Load in Residential Buildings," J. of Climate and Applied Meteorology, Vol. 26, No. 9, pp.
1103-1116. also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-21291, July 1986.
Martien, P.; et al. 1989. "Approaches to Using Models of Urban Climates in Building Energy Simula-
tion", LBL Draft Report.
Rainer, L.; Martien, P.; Taha, H. 1989. "Measurement of Summer Residential Microclimates in
Sacramento CA", Proceedings of the Workshop on Urban Heat Islands, Berkeley CA, (February
23-24).
Taha, H.; Akbari, H.; Rosenfeld, A. 1989. "Heat Island and Oasis Effects of Vegetative Canopies:
Micrometeorological Field Measurements", Submitted to Theoretical and Applied Climatology.
Taha, H.; Akbari, H.: Rosenfeld. A.; Huang, J. 1988. "Residential Cooling Loads and the Urban Heat
Island: The Effect of Albedo," Energy and Environment, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 271-283. Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-24008.
Taha, H. 1988. "Site-Specific Heat Island Simulations: Model Development and Application to Microcli-
mate Conditions", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report No. 26105, Masters Thesis, University of
California at Berkeley.
Taha, H. 1988. "Nighttime Air Temperature and the Sky View Factor: A Case Study in San Francisco
CA", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report No. 24009.
Taha, H.; Akbari, H.; Rosenfeld, A. 1988. "Vegetation Canopy Micro-Climate: A field Project in Davis,
California", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-24593.
Selected Popular Articles
H. Gilliam, "How we can fight the greenhouse effect," San Francisco Chronicle, July 31, Page 18, 1988.
H. Gilliam, "Dangling a carrot to save environment," San Francisco Chronicle, October 16, Pages 19-20,
1988.
D. Blum, "Trees may save world from greenhouse effect threat," The Sacramento Bee, November 25,
1988.
N. Sampson, "A way to combat greenhouse effect," Minneapolis Star Tribune, October 20, 1988.
N. Sampson, "Cool the greenhouse, plant 100 million trees," Los Angeles Times, October 16, Part V,
1988.
A. Lipkis, "With a forest for Los Angeles," Los Angeles Times, October 16, Part V, 1988.
R. M. Kidder, "Plant a tree, salve a nation," The Christian Science Monitor, November 14, Page 25, 1988.
C. Hodge, "Natural heat relief researched: Trees called way to cool, cut cost," The Arizona Republic, July
23, 1988.
"November in desert Gardens: Some of the year's best planting days are here. Head for the nursery,"
Sunset, Page 227, November 1988.
Auser2/bed/h_shis/PUBLICATION/pub.dec89
200 265#
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-3- -
"Trees displace power plants?" The National Urban Forest FORUM, Editor G. A. Moll, Vol 8, No. 4,
July/August 1988.
J. N. Wilford, "New climate factor: The golf-course effect," New York Times, September 13, Page B8,
1988.
fuser2/bed/h_shis/PUBLICATION/pub.dec89
#593 P04
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From "Proceedings of the ACEEE 1986 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings",
Volume 2 "Small Building Technologies", PP 2.7-2.22, Santa Cruz, California.
UNDOING UNCOMFORTABLE SUMMER HEAT ISLANDS
CAN SAVE GIGAWATTS OF PEAK POWER*
Shephanie:
Nate data
Hashem Akbari, Haider Taha, Joe Huang, and Arthur Rosenfeld
on page 2.20
Applied Science Division
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Harben
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720
Abstract
Man has created summer heat islands of daily average intensity of 3-5 ° c,
adding to discomfort and increasing in air conditioning loads. (For example the
Los Angeles basin uses 5 GW of air conditioning, thus tying up $10 billion of
power plants and another $5-10 billion in HVAC equipment). We have been
studying how to mitigate this heat, with increasing the amount of urban vegeta-
tion as an example.
We first discuss the major factors that create the heat island, its magnitude
and impact on residential cooling energy use, and mitigation techniques. We then
simulate building cooling demand as a function of the heat island intensity. Sim-
ple heat island energy balance models are used to predict the changes in dry bulb
temperatures that are then used as input to DOE-2 hourly simulations. The
DOE-2 results enable us to rank measures for preventing the urban heat island.
Our preliminary results indicate that planting trees can save as much as 34,
18, and 44% of residential cooling demand on a hot summer day in Sacramento
CA, Phoenix AZ, and Los Angeles CA, respectively. The cooling energy savings
are 53, 33, and ~ 0%ᵀ. Direct shading of a house itself yields only 11, 6, and
12% savings in peak power in the same locations.
I. INTRODUCTION
The urban heat island is a well documented urban phenomenon [Landsberg
1981, Lowry 1967]. The larger the city, the more intense is the summer heat
island [Oke 1973] and hence the magnitude of discomfort and air conditioning
load. For instance for St. Louis, Missouri, the summer heat island intensity is
4° C during nighttime and 1°C at noon [Vukovich et al. 1979].
Researchers have started to look at the causes and implications of the heat
island, and have correlated its magnitude to the activities within and physical
The work described in this report was funded by the Assistant Secretary for Conservation and Renewable Energy, Office
of Building and Community System, Buildings Systems Division of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No.
DE-AC0376SF00098.
t Study of the air conditioning control strategies for Los Angeles have yielded in 2 saving of 7% in peak power and 88%
in the annual cooling energy by simply switching from the present indoor temperature control in "smark" duul
outdoor/indoor temperature control.
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Akbari et al.
reflection and scattering, but the urban surface albedo (~ 15%) is lower than the
Akbari et al.
characteristics of the city, such as its rate of anthropogenic heat release [Torrance
and Shum 1975], concentration of pollutants [Bennett and Saab 1982, Bornstein
1968, Vukovich et al. 1979), and thermal storage capacity [Myrup 1969, Atwater
1972]. The urban energy balance has been related to the canyon geometry of city
streets [Nunez and Oke 1976] and to urban physical characteristics [Ojima and
Moriyama 1982]; its nocturnal intensity has been related to the sky view factor
[Barring and Mattsson 1985].
In fact, all the above variables work together to create the urban heat island,
which makes it desirable to closely investigate their interactions SO as to isolate
the important causes and, if at all possible, to avoid them. In the last two
decades researchers have attempted to simulate the urban heat island with one,
two and three dimensional models. For an overview of the heat island history
and models, the reader is referred to [Landsberg 1981 and Bornstein 1984b].
On a qualitative level, traditional and scientific observations indicate there
are simple tools to alleviate the microclimate problems associated with cities.
Traditional urban architects in hot climates have used whitewashed exterior walls,
central courtyards, fountains, plants, windtowers, air scoops, masonry and heavy
materials to control the quality of the indoor and outdoor micro-climates. The
effects of these simple techniques, however, have never been quantified, nor do
they specifically address changing the microclimate of an entire urban area.
The objective of our work is to quantify the potential of strategies such as
evapotranspiration and shading to mitigate the summer heat island and reduce
cooling energy use. We have used the DOE-2.1C program to simulate the reduc-
tion in cooling energies due to the application of these strategies.
II. THE HEAT ISLAND PHENOMENON
The best way to understand the formation of urban heat island is to look at
the basic surface energy balance equation:
=
L'S
Extended Page
Akbari et al.
III. MODELING
A. Shade
Two shading scenarios are modeled, the addition of one tree or three trees
near each house. We have placed the trees on the west and south sides of the
house so as to maximize shading effects and to minimize the peak power consump-
tion of the house. The tree shading model is restricted to the reduction of the
solar radiation on the building envelope, while in actuality, trees will also affect
the ambient temperatures, wind speeds and humidity ratios. Those changes are
simulated in other models we have developed that will be explained later.
We have assumed that each mature tree has a top view projection area of 50
m², and that the suburban housing density is one house per 500 m² of land. There-
fore, an increase of one tree per house is equivalent to a 10% increase in the urban
tree canopy.
We have modeled the location of the trees relative to the prototype house
such that the canopy does not overlap the roof and extends from 3 to 10 meters
above ground surface (see Figure 1). This location maximizes window shading
without seriously reducing night sky radiation from the roof.
B. Wind Modification
Depending on its position upwind of a reference point, a barrier might
increase or reduce the wind speed and turbulence. In our work, we have assumed
that the trees. are close enough to the building envelope SO that their effect is to
retard the wind flow. At the city scale, the effect of the increased roughness is to
decrease the wind speed at the surface. In both cases we have used a wind speed
reduction formula derived by McGinn in his study of the vegetation and canopy
effects at Davis, California [McGinn 1982].
C. Evapotranspiration
Estimating the effect of evapotranspiration of trees on the ambient conditions
requires the solution of the transport equation in three dimensions. The authors
are not aware of a verified model to analyze moisture migration and its effect on
ambient conditions. To get an early estimate of this effect, we have devised a
simplified model which assumes adiabatic evaporation. Given the unperturbed
ambient condition as available from weather tapes and the added amount of tree
cover, we use agricultural data to estimate the evapotranspiration rate as a func-
tion of insolation and dry-bulb temperature. The heat of evaporation is assumed
to be extracted from the ambient air. The air volume (per unit width) contribut-
ing to this process is estimated as the product of the wind speed and the urban
mixing height which is calculated for each hour. The mixing height is a function
of many ambient variables including wind speed, anthropogenic heat release, heat
Cost of Avoided Peak Power (CAPP) =
Total Investment ($)
Avoided Peak Power (kW)
normalized for life of & nominal power
plant (normally 20 years).
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Akbari et al.
island intensity, rural lapse rate upwind of city and surface roughness. We have
assumed a complete mixing of ambient air in this volume. Details of this model
are described in [Huang 1986a]. An example of the original and modified dry bulb
temperature for some trees covers for Sacramento is shown in Figure 2.
D. Prototypical House
To estimate the energy savings due to increased tree canopy, we used DOE-
2.1C to calculate the air conditioning usage for a prototypical house in three cities
under varying canopy conditions. The prototypical house is a one story house
with 143 m2 of floor area and a window-to-floor ratio of 10%. A 0.6 m roof
overhang is assumed on the south. Construction details are standard U.S. building
practices and the operating conditions as well as the infiltration rates are based on
statistical surveys of current typical houses [NAHB 1979]. The house has R=3.34
W/(m²K) roof insulation, R=1.95 wall insulation, and single-pane windows. The
assumed equipment is an air conditioner of SEER 9.2 and capacity dependent on
the climate. For peak air conditioning demands see Tables 1 and 2. Thermostat
is set at 25.5 C for cooling and it is assumed that the occupants or a "smart"
control system turns off the air conditioner and open the windows whenever the
temperature and enthalpy of the outside air is lower than that of the indoors, and
cooling loads can be met by ambient air at 10 air changes per hour. To account
for venetian blinds, curtains, etc, a shading coefficient of 0.63 is assumed for all
windows. The shading on the south and west windows due to trees is calculated
automatically by the DOE-2.1C program. This house has been used in many pre-
vious studies to simulate energy performance of houses in different climates. The
details of this prototype house are fully explained in [Huang 1986b].
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Two sets of analyses were performed for one tree or three trees per house.
The addition of three trees per house will probably cancel out the urban heat
island, restore the original rural climate, and perhaps even introduce an "oasis"
effect. A preliminary parametric analysis performed for Los Angeles confirmed
that trees shading the west window produced the largest peak power savings.*
The simulation results for both the one-tree and three-trees cases in the three
locations are presented in Table 1. It may be surprising that Table 1 shows only
65 cooling hours per year for the base case house with no additional trees in Los
Angeles (all of which, incidentally, occur on only 10 days). This low number is due
to our assumption of diligent occupants or a "smart control" that opens windows
a
The impact of tree location on the peak power of a typical house in Los Angeles with "smart" air-conditioning control is
as follows:
Tree location
none
west
south
east
Peak kW
4.46
4.03
4.41
4.32
The peak power reduction due to trees on the south is relatively small because it is assumed that a south overhang already
exists.
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to allow natural venting whenever the outside conditions are suitable. If we had
assumed air conditioning control without natural ventilation, the number of cool-
ing hours would have been increased more than tenfold (see Appendix; a more
detailed description of air conditioning control strategies and their effects on
energy and power consumption is the subject of a forthcoming paper).
The following observations are made from Table 1:
Percentage power savings potential is highest for Los Angeles with 44%, fol-
lowed by Sacramento with 34%, and Phoenix with only 18%. In terms of
absolute power saved, the potential is highest in Sacramento with 2.44 kW,
second in Los Angeles with 1.96 kW, and finally Phoenix with 1.57 kW.
Percentage energy savings potential is highest for Sacramento with 53% fol-
lowed by Phoenix with 33%. Potential energy savings in Los Angeles is
negligible. As we discussed earlier, most of cooling energy use in Los Angeles
can be overcome by ventilation cooling.
In all cases the effect of having two trees to the south and one to the west
(=30% cover) is about twice as effective as a single tree on the west (10%
cover), thus clearly showing the importance of orientation in trees placement.
In Los Angeles, 30% cover reduces the number of cooling hours by 84%
bringing them down to only 10 hours, or one day during the whole cooling ,
season. In Sacramento, the curtailment is of the order of 56%, down to 390
hours from an original of 904 cooling hours. In Phoenix, the reduction is
17%, down to 3028 hours.
The net effect of wind reduction on the cooling load (both peak and energy)
is negligible 1%.
The Present Value (PV) of the power and energy saved by planting trees for
two scenarios are shown in Table 2. These two scenarios are based on the age of
trees and their prices; we expect these two cases provide upper and lower limits
for cost of conserved energy and power. For the first case we assume planting see-
dlings at a price of $5 per tree [McPherson 1984, p. 173]; it takes 10 years for the
seedling to mature [McPherson 1984, p. 159]. For the second case, we assume
planting 5-ft trees at a price of $60 per tree including labor costs [McPherson
1984, page 173]; we estimate that it would take 7 years for the 5-ft tree to grow
to full size. We add this cost to the water cost in order to obtain the total cost of
each tree.
The water consumption of a beech tree is estimated to be ~ 1 kg/h
[Berustzky, 1982]. This would translate to an annual consumption of ~ 2000
gal/year. Current prices of water varies between 7-10 cent per hundred gallons*.
Therefore, total water consumption of a tree is about $2/yr. In addition to the
above, we have made the following assumptions:
*The current price of water from the San Francisco East Bay Municipal Utility District is 63.5 cents per one hundred cubic
feet:
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Akbari et al.
The energy and power conservation potential of trees during the growing
period is neglected.
As trees mature, their roots grow deep in the ground and for most parts of
the country they will become self-sufficient in absorbing water from ground;
they do not need further watering.
Even though the average life span of a tree is high (100 years) we have
assumed here a time horizon of 20 years, same as an average power plant.
Interest rate is assumed to be 7% real.
The results from this table are encouraging. The cost of conserved energy
(CCE) and avoided peak power (CAPP) is between 0.3 to 4.3 e/kWh and 19 to
217 $/kW for all three locations studied. The present value of conserved energy is
much higher in Phoenix and Sacramento than Los Angeles. The high but indeter-
minate values of conserved cooling energy in Los Angeles is due to use of "smart"
control algorithm where the initial annual air conditioning energy use is only 359
kWh. It is interesting to note that the average price of electricity is about 8
c/kWh, and major utilities in California offer a rebate of $100-$300 for each kW
of peak power avoided. Therefore, even with the upper limit cost of trees the
CCE and CAPP seem extremely appealing.
To obtain the actual power savings in each of these locations, three essential
data are required. This data include the number of households that may undergo
tree planting project, the saturation and average size of actual air conditioning
units used in houses, and the coincident factors for use of air conditioning units
for each location. Presently, we do not have enough data to make a detailed cal-
culation. Alternatively, we assume that one million air-conditioned houses in Los
Angeles, and 250,000 each in Sacramento and Phoenix will plant trees. Table 1
can then be transformed into Table 3. The results obtained for power and energy
savings in each location is encouraging; in Los Angeles ~ 2 GW (equivalent to 2
standard GW power plants) could be unloaded. Peak power savings in
Sacramento and Phoenix are about 0.6 GW and 0.4 GW, respectively. These
encouraging results warrants further investigation of this subject.
V. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The major factors that create the heat island, its magnitude and impact on
residential cooling energy use, and mitigation techniques are discussed. We have
correlated the effect of planting trees on residential cooling energy and power, with
specific case studies for three U.S. cities. The effects of two selected strategies
(evapotranspiration and shading) and their potential in reducing the heat-island
induced cooling load have been simulated.
Simulations were performed using DOE-2 building energy analysis program,
in conjunction with some simple models to predict the effect of planting trees on
the atmospheric dry-bulb temperature and humidity ratio. These simulations
were done for three locations: Sacramento CA, Los Angeles CA, and Phoenix AZ.
The location of trees is optimized with respect to the house so as to maximize the
effects of shading and evaporative cooling.
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Akbari et al.
Our work suggests potential energy and power savings can be realized by use
the simple strategy of planting trees.* In the cities studied, the effect of planting
three trees around the house can save 18%-44% of the peak power, and up to
53% of the total annual cooling electricity use. The present value of the saved
peak power and the saved electricity are 29-217 $/kW and 0.3-4.3 e/kWh for
three seedling or three trees. Planting three trees for the approximately one mil-
lion houses in the Los Angeles area can save up to 2 GW peak power. For the
other two cities, 250,000 trees can save ~ 1 GW.
At this stage, we believe the following topics deserve further investigation:
1. Study the effect of changing the thermal mass of building materials.
2. Study the effect of changing the city albedo by substituting concrete pave-
ments for asphalts, and by painting roofs and city surfaces in light colors.
3. Refine the evapotranspiration model used in this work and analyze its effect
on temperature depression.
4. Refine the evapotranspiration model to consider differences between local and
global effects. Although shading is modeled on a local level, evapotranspira-
tion has been modeled assuming that the city is uniformly vegetated at the
given cover percentage. We need to know the effect of spatial variations in
vegetation canopy on the overall global as well as the local distribution of
temperature and humidity ratio.
5. Gather observational data to validate various aspects of the heat island
model. This data should include quantification of urban and neighborhood
variations in surface conditions, including amounts of vegetative cover,
albedo, etc., along with recorded variations in microclimate conditions.
REFERENCES
Barring L. and Mattsson J.O, 1985, "Canyon Geometry, Street Temperature and
Urban Heat Island in Malmo, Sweden", in Journal of Climatology, 5, pp.433-444.
Bernatzky, Aloys, 1982, "The Contribution of Trees and Greenspaces to a Town
Climate," in Energy and Buildings, 5, pp.1-10.
Bornstein R., 1984b, "Urban Climate Models: Nature , Limitations and Applica-
tions," Reprints from WMO Technical Conference on Urban Climatology and its
Application with Special Reference to Tropical Areas, Mexico City.
Huang J., Taha H. and Akbari H. and Rosenfeld H, 1986a, "The Potential of
Vegetation in Reducing Summer Cooling Loads in Residential Buildings," LBL
Report No. 21291.
Huang J., Ritschard R. et al., 1986b, "Affordable Housing through Energy Con-
servation," LBL Report 16343.
A byproduct of our simulations are data showing that additional savings are possible by improving our habits or air
conditioner control; Le: opening windows ("smart" control) instead of turning on or leaving on the air conditioner ("dumb"
control) when the outdoor conditions are suitable and pleasant.
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south tree representation
in DOE-2 simulations.
3-7m
Akbari et al.
Knowles R., 1982, Sun, Rhythm, Form, MIT Press, Cambridge Mass.
-
TT M
Extended Page 10. 1
95
Base
90
10% cover
85
25% cover
Temperature (F)
80
75
70
65
60
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Hour
Figure 2. Outdoor dry-bulb temperatures for Sacramento, as simulated for July
27, 1980. The "base" curve shows the original temperature at the present level of
vegetation. The subsequent curves show the new temperatures resulting from the
evaporative cooling effect of trees, as produced by the evapotranspiration model.
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Table 1. Peak power and energy savings per house resulting from planting trees. All entries except the base-
case column are savings compared to that column. Note that wind modification contributes little, and evapo-
transpiration overshadowes direct shading. Note that the macro-effect of 10% coverage (1 tree/house) is to
avoid about 1 kW/tree; for 3 trees/house we can avoid 2/3 kW/tree.
Number of additional trees
None
1 tree = 10% cover
3 trees = 30% cover
Energy savings
Energy savings
TEL NO:4154865172
Base case
shade
shade
shade+wind
shade
shade
shade+wind
energy use
only
+wind
+evapotrans.
only
+wind
+evapotrans.
Location
(not savings)
(4)
(A)
(4)
(% 4)
(4)
(4)
A
(%A)
Sacramento
Note
kW
7.10
0.66
0.72
1.24
17.5
0.76
0.81
2.44
34.4
Cooling hrs
904
36
29
165
18.3
64
95
514
56.9
2.20
kWh/yr
1420
122
114
343
24.2
225
218
757
53.3
CENTER
Phoenix
kW
8.87
0.47
0.53
0.80
9.0
0.53
0.57
1.57
17.7
Cooling hrs
3647
18
16
157
4.3
86
79
619
17.0
kWh/yr
6911
208
208
873
12.6
417
418
2289
33.1
09:28 ID:LBL 90-COPY
Los Angeles
kW
4.48
0.43
0.45
0.90
20.2
0.53
0.55
1.98
43.9
Cooling hrs
65
12
8
43
68.2
18
17
55
84.6
kWh/yr
359
~0
~0
0
~0
NO
~0
~ 0
~O
MAR-30-'90
Table 2. Present value of saved peak power and cooling energy in 1986 dollar for savings of Table ].
Each entry shows two value corresponding to planting seedlings or 5-ft trees at $5 and $60, respectively.
Water consumption for a growing tree is estimated to average to ~ $2/yr for 10 years for the seedling
#594 P02
and 7 years for the 5-ft tree. A time horizon (n) of 20 years for trees and a discount rate (d) of 7% real
is assumed for these calculations.
Number of additional trees
None
1 tree = 10% coverage
3 trees = 30% coverage
Present Value
Present Value
Base case
power use
shade
shade
shade+wind
shade
shade
shade+wind
Location
(kW)
only
+wind
+evapotrans
only
+wind
+evapotrans
TEL NO: 0:4154865172
Sacramento
7.10
CAPP¹ ($/kW)
36-172
33-158
19-92
93-449
88-421
29-140
CCE+ (c/kWh)
1.9-8.8
2.0-9.4
0.7-3.1
3.1-14.3
3.2-14.8
0.9-4.3
Phoenix
8.87
CAPP ($/kW)
50-242
45-214
30-142
13-1-643
124-598
45-217
2.21
CCE (d/kWh)
1.1-5.2
1.1-5.2
0.3-1.2
1.7-7.7
1.7-7.7
0.3-1.4
Los Angeles
4.46
CAPP ($/kW)
55-264
53-253
26-126
134-643
129-620
36-174
CCE (d/kWh)
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Total Investment ($)
MAR-30-'90 09:31 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
Cost of Avoided Peak Power (CAPP) =
normalized for life of a nominal power plant (nor-
Saved Power (kW)
mally 20 years).
Annualized Investment ($/yr)
Cost of Conserved Energy (CCE) =
Saved Annual Energy (kWh/yr)
d
Annualized Investment = Total Investment X
1-(1+d)"
Table 3. Peak power and energy savings resulting from planting trees near 1,000,000 houses in Los
Angeles and 250,000 houses in Sacramento and Phoenix. All entries except the base-case column are
savings compared to that column.
#594 P03
No. of trees
Base-case
1 tree = 10% COV.
3 trees = 30% COV.
per house
(not
Savings
Savings
Location
Savings)
shade
shade+wind
shade+wind+evap.
shade
shade+wind
shade+wind+evap.
SACRAMENTO
A =
A =
A =
A = (%)
=
=
A =
A = (%)
MW
1775
165
180
310
17.5
190
202
610
34.4
GWh/yr
355
30.5
28.5
85.8
24.2
56.3
54.5
189.3
53.3
PHOENIX
TEL NO: NO:4154865172
MW
2,218
118
133
200
9.0
133
143
393
17.7
GWh/yr
1,728
52
52
218
12.6
104
104
572
33.1
LOS ANGELES
MW
4460
430
450
900
20.2
530
550
1960
43.9
GWh/yr
359
~ 0
~ 0
~ 0
~ 0
~ 0
~ 0
~ 0
~ 0
2.22
CENTER
09:31 ID:LBL 90-COPY
MAR-30-'90
MAR-30-'90 09:32 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
TEL NO: 4154865172
#594 P04
Akbari et al.
Our work suggests potential energy and power savings can be realized by use
the simple strategy of planting trees.* In the cities studied, the effect of planting
three trees around the house can save 18%-44% of the peak power, and up to
53% of the total annual cooling electricity use. The present value of the saved
peak power and the saved electricity are 29-217 $/kW and 0.3-4.3 c/kWh for
three seedling or three trees. Planting three trees for the approximately one mil-
lion houses in the Los Angeles area can save up to 2 GW peak power. For the
other two cities, 250,000 trees can save ~ 1 GW.
At this stage, we believe the following topics deserve further investigation:
1. Study the effect of changing the thermal mass of building materials.
2. Study the effect of changing the city albedo by substituting concrete pave-
ments for asphalts, and by painting roofs and city surfaces in light colors.
3. Refine the evapotranspiration model used in this work and analyze its effect
on temperature depression.
4. Refine the evapotranspiration model to consider differences between local and
global effects. Although shading is modeled on a local level, evapotranspira-
tion has been modeled assuming that the city is uniformly vegetated at the
given cover percentage. We need to know the effect of spatial variations in
vegetation canopy on the overall global as well as the local distribution of
temperature and humidity ratio.
5. Gather observational data to validate various aspects of the heat island
model. This data should include quantification of urban and neighborhood
variations in surface conditions, including amounts of vegetative cover,
albedo, etc., along with recorded variations in microclimate conditions.
REFERENCES
Barring L. and Mattsson J.O, 1985, "Canyon Geometry, Street Temperature and
Urban Heat Island in Malmo, Sweden", in Journal of Climatology, 5, pp.433-444.
Bernatzky, Aloys, 1982, "The Contribution of Trees and Greenspaces to a Town
Climate," in Energy and Buildings, 5, pp.1-10.
Bornstein R., 1984b, "Urban Climate Models: Nature Limitations and Applica-
tions," Reprints from WMO Technical Conference on Urban Climatology and its
Application with Special Reference to Tropical Areas, Mexico City.
Huang J., Taha H. and Akbari H. and Rosenfeld H, 1986a, "The Potential of
Vegetation in Reducing Summer Cooling Loads in Residential Buildings," LBL
Report No. 21291.
Huang J., Ritschard R. et al., 1986b, "Affordable Housing through Energy Con-
servation," LBL Report 16343.
A byproduct of our simulations are data showing that additional savings are possible by improving our habits or air
conditioner control; i.e; opening windows ("smart" control) instead of turning on or leaving on the air conditioner ("dumb"
control) when the outdoor conditions are suitable and pleasant.
2.15
MAR-30-'90 09:33 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
TEL NO: 4154865172
#594 P05
Akbari et al.
Knowles R., 1982, Sun, Rhythm, Form, MIT Press, Cambridge Mass.
Landsberg, H.E., 1970, "Man Made Climatic Changes," in Science, Washington,
170, pp.1265-1274.
Landsberg, H.E., 1981, The Urban Climate, Academic Press, N.Y.
Brazil. Lombardo Magda, 1985, Ilha de Calor nas Metropoles, Editora Hucitec, Sao Paulo,
Lowry, W.P., 1967, "The Climate of Cities," in Cities, Readings from Scientific
American, San Francisco, 1973.
McGinn C., 1982, Micro Climate and Energy Use in Suburban Tree Canopies,
Ph.D. Thesis, University of California at Davis.
National Association of Home Builders Research Foundation, Inc., 1981, "Sus-
tained Builder Survey Responses Result in Data Bank of Over One Million
Houses," NAHB Research Foundation, Inc., Rockville MD.
Nunez M. and Oke T.R., 1976, "The Energy Balance of an Urban Canyon," in
Journal of Applied Meteorology, 16, pp.11-19.
Ojima O. and Moriyama M., 1982, "Earth Surface Heat Balance Changes Caused
by Urbanization," in Energy and Buildings, 4, pp.99-114
Oke, T.R., 1973, "City Size and the Urban Heat Island," in Atmospheric Environ-
ment,7, pp.769-779.
Torrance K.E. and Shum J.S.W., 1975, "Time-Varying Energy Consumption as a
Factor in Urban Climate," in Atmospheric Environment, 10, pp.329-337.
APPENDIX. THE ENERGY SAVING POTENTIALS
OF "SMART" WINDOW VENTILATION
For most places in the U.S., ventilation cooling is practical during much of
the cooling season. The energy savings can be observed in Table A.1 where two
algorithms, mechanical cooling "dumb" and a combination of ventilation and
mechanical cooling "smart" are compared. Use of the "smart" algorithm has
resulted in savings of 375 watts of peak power. The reason for this saving is that
the building is pre-cooled as its mass exposed to the cool ventilation air. There-
fore, although the loads are similar in both "smart" and "dumb" modes, the
former requires less cooling power. In our simulations, we have assumed the
"smart" option to avoid overpredicting the energy savings for vegetation,
although We realize that windows in most homes would not be operated in this
optimal fashion.
This preliminary result on the savings of "smart" window ventilation is of
great importance to utilities in Los Angeles area. It shows that by changing the
control of the air conditioning unit from only the indoor temperature ("dumb"
control) to the dual control by both indoor and outdoor temperature ("smart"
control) the peak power and annual cooling energy use will be reduced by 7% and
88%, respectively.
2.16
MAR-30-'90 09:33 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
TEL NO:4154865172
#594 P06
Akbari et al.
Table A.1 Comparison of air conditioning without ventilation
("dumb") to combined air conditioning and ventilation with
"smart" controls in Los Angeles.
Control strategy
Peak kW
Hours Cooling (annual)
kWh/year
"dumb"
4.83
752
886
"smart"
4.46
65
108
2.17
MAR-30-'90 09:34 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
TEL NO:4154865172
#594 P07
south tree representation
in DOE-2 simulations.
3-7m
3m
50m2
north
8.5m
16.7m
south and west trees
representation.
N
means of planar surfaces that approximate the tree effect.
Figure 1. Schematic sketch of the simulated tree canopy. It is simulated by
2.18
CANADA THE OF ALSORMA
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
1 Cyclotron Road Berkeley, California 94720
07.1.13
Building 90, Room 1060
FTS 451-5172, Commercial (415) 486-5172
Confirm: FTS 451-6584, Commercial (415) 486-6584
DATE: 3/30/90
FAX number: (202) 456-6218
Stephanie Beleosey
white House Office
TO:
Room III
(202)456-7750
Office or Location Phone Number
FROM: Hashem akbani
RBL
(415)486-4287
Office or Location Phone Number
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS
Total number of pages: 20
LBL Account Number: 4712-01
101 265#
TEL NO:4154865172
MAR-30-'90 09:14 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
HEAT ISLAND PUBLICATIONS
(Rev. Date: December 1989)
For further information contact:
Hashem Akbari
Heat Island Project
Energy Analysis Program
Applied Science Division
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Berkeley, CA 94720
Tel: (415) 486-4287; FTS: 451-4287
Akbari, H.; Rosenfeld, A.; Taha, H. 1990. "Summer heat islands, urban trees, and white surfaces,"
Proceedings of American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Airconditioning Engineers,
Atlanta, Georgia, (February); also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL- 28308.
Akbari, H.; Rosenfeld, A.; Taha, H. 1989. "Recent Developments in Heat Island Studies, Technical and
Policy", Proceedings of the Workshop on Urban Heat Islands, Berkeley CA, (February 23-24).
Akbari, H.; Huang, J.; Martien, P.; Rainer, L.; Rosenfeld, A.; Taha, H. 1988. "The Impact of Summer
Heat Islands on Cooling Energy Consumption and Global CO2 Concentration," Proceeding of
ACEEE 1988 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, Vol 5, pp11-23, Asilomar CA,
(August).
Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; Rosenfeld, A. 1987. "Vegetation Micro-climate Measurements," Research report.
to UC/UERG.
Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; Martien, P.; Huang, J. 1987. "Strategies for Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Savings,
Conflicts, and City's Role," Presented at the First National Conference on Energy Efficient Cooling,
San Jose CA, (Oct 21-22).
Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; Martien, P.; Rosenfeld, A. 1987. "The Impact of Summer Heat Islands on Residen-
tial Cooling Energy Consumption," Presented at the 8th Miami International Conference on Alter-
native Energy Sources, Miami FL, (Dec 14-16).
Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; Huang, J.; Rosenfeld, A. 1986. "Undoing Summer Heat Island Can Save Giga
Watts of Power", Proceeding of ACEEE 1986 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings,
Vol. 2, pp7-22, Santa Cruz, August 17-23, 1986, also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-
21893, (July).
Garbesi, K.; Akbari, H.; Martien, P. (editors) 1989. "Controlling summer heat islands," Proceedings of
the Workshop on Saving Energy and Reducing Atmospheric Pollution by Controlling Summer Heat
Islands, Berkeley CA, February 23-24, 1989; also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-
27872.
Huang, Y. J.; Akbari, H.; Taha, H. 1990. "The wind-shielding and shading effects of trees on residential
heating and cooling requirements," Proceedings of American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and
Airconditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Georgia, (February); also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Report LBL- 24131.
Auser2/bed/h_ahis/PUBLICATION/pub.dec89
202 2652
TEL NO:4154865172
MAR-30-'90 09:14 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
-2-
Huang, J.; Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; Rosenfeld, A. 1987. "The Potential of Vegetation in Reducing Summer
Cooling Load in Residential Buildings," J. of Climate and Applied Meteorology, Vol. 26, No. 9, pp.
1103-1116. also Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-21291, July 1986.
Martien, P.; et al. 1989. "Approaches to Using Models of Urban Climates in Building Energy Simula-
tion", LBL Draft Report.
Rainer, L.; Martien, P.; Taha, H. 1989. "Measurement of Summer Residential Microclimates in
Sacramento CA", Proceedings of the Workshop on Urban Heat Islands, Berkeley CA, (February
23-24).
Taba, H.; Akbari, H.; Rosenfeld, A. 1989. "Heat Island and Oasis Effects of Vegetative Canopies:
Micrometeorological Field Measurements", Submitted to Theoretical and Applied Climatology.
Taha, H.; Akbari, H.; Rosenfeld, A.; Huang, J. 1988. "Residential Cooling Loads and the Urban Heat
Island: The Effect of Albedo," Energy and Environment, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 271-283. Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-24008.
Taha, H. 1988. "Site-Specific Heat Island Simulations: Model Development and Application to Microcli-
mate Conditions", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report No. 26105, Masters Thesis, University of
California at Berkeley.
Taha, H. 1988. "Nighttime Air Temperature and the Sky View Factor: A Case Study in San Francisco
CA", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report No. 24009.
Taha, H.; Akbari, H.; Rosenfeld, A. 1988. "Vegetation Canopy Micro-Climate: A field Project in Davis,
California", Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Report LBL-24593.
Selected Popular Articles
H. Gilliam, "How we can fight the greenhouse effect," San Francisco Chronicle, July 31, Page 18, 1988.
H. Gilliam, "Dangling a carrot to save environment," San Francisco Chronicle, October 16, Pages 19-20,
1988.
D. Blum, "Trees may save world from greenhouse effect threat," The Sacramento Bee, November 25,
1988.
N. Sampson, "A way to combat greenhouse effect," Minneapolis Star Tribune, October 20, 1988.
N. Sampson, "Cool the greenhouse, plant 100 million trees," Los Angeles Times, October 16, Part V,
1988.
A. Lipkis, "With a forest for Los Angeles," Los Angeles Times, October 16, Part V, 1988.
R. M. Kidder, "Plant a tree, salve a nation," The Christian Science Monitor, November 14, Page 25, 1988.
C. Hodge, "Natural heat relief researched: Trees called way to cool, cut cost," The Arizona Republic, July
23, 1988.
"November in desert Gardens: Some of the year's best planting days are here. Head for the nursery,"
Sunset, Page 227, November 1988.
/user2/ed/h_ahis/PUBLICATION/pubdec89
#592 P03
TEL NO:4154865172
MAR-30-'90 09:15 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
-3-
"Trees displace power plants?" The National Urban Forest FORUM, Editor G. A. Moll, Vol 8, No. 4,
July/August 1988.
J. N. Wilford, "New climate factor: The golf-course effect," New York Times, September 13, Page B8,
1988.
Auser2/ted/h_ahis/PUBLICATION/qub.dec89
#592 P04
TEL NO:4154865172
MAR-30-'90 09:16 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
6218- Can Sel
March 15, 1990
MEMORANDUM FOR DAN MCGROARTY
PEGGY DOOLEY
FROM:
STEPHANIE BLESSEY
man your
SUBJECT:
ARBOR DAY TREE PLANTING
The following is information I gathered on the pre-advance
to Indianapolis:
BACKGROUND:
Attendance: 10-15,000 people (hopefully)
2,000 5ml,
2,
3-4,000 school children
Remainder of audience will be downtowners since
event is in a downtown park.
Setting:
Park in front of Dan Quayle's law school. Skyline
would be backdrop. Banner with "Trees for
Tomorrow" and school children standing directly
behind him.
Time: 11:00 a.m.
Event: Give remarks
?Give 50 trees to students on behalf of the
Plant tree
city. will up eltas.
PROGRAM: TREES FORest TOMORROW
A citywide campaign to plant 30,000 trees during 1990
-- the program stresses tomorrow i.e. children. The
program also wants to involve the entire community.
Attached is program brochure.
April is "Clean and Green Month," A and they plan to give
away 1,000 trees.
NOTE:
Although this is Mayor Hudnut's project, he will be in
Jerusalem during the event. The W.H. political office
isn't concerned that he appear because he has publicly
criticized the President. Their fear is that he will
decide to show up.
CONTACT: Mark Goff
is,
fintree
and
Mayor Hudnut's office
(317) 236-3600
less
,
Tu or its or of on Urgania
March 5, 1990
INFORMATION
MEMORANDUM TO THE PRESIDENT
THROUGH:
CHRISS WINSTON
FROM:
MARK LANGE
SUBJECT:
Remarks to the American Electronics Association
I. SUMMARY
On Wednesday, March 7, at 11:30 a.m. you will speak to the
American Electronics Association. Your remarks are brief
(10-12 minutes) and will be TelePrompted. The audience will be
made up of approximately 400 senior high-tech industry
executives.
Your remarks applaud the work of the electronics industry,
especially the diversity of what the industry offers America.
The remarks briefly outline steps taken by the Administration
which will help the electronics industry, suc
FROM THE OFFICE OF THE MAYOR
CONTACT:
2501 City County Building
Mark J. Goff
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204
Special Assistant for Public Affairs
(317) 236-3610
(317) 236-3980 FAX
TO: CURT SMITH
White House Communications
202-456-2772
Curt:
Attached pls. find the news release you requested. Please call if you need
additional assistance.
MJG
POI
SITOSVNVIONI 10 ALIC* WIT9:90 06 22 'EO
FROM THE OFFICE OF THE MAYOR
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE, CONTACT:
2501 City-County Building
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204
Mark J. Goff
Office: (317) 236-3610
Mark Bowell
Office: (317) 924-7037
March 22, 1990
HUDNUT ANNOUNCES PRESIDENT BUSH TO HELP PLANT "TREES FOR TOMORROW"
Nation's chief executive to visit Indianapolis on April 3
Culminating nearly a year of discussions, Mayor William H. Hudnut, III
today confirmed that President George Bush will visit Indianapolis on April 3,
1990, to help the City's Department of Parks and Recreation launch its urban
forestry program, "Trees for Tomorrow." Hudnut, a member of the
Environmental Protection Agency's Environmental Financial Advisory Board, first
initiated discussions on the possible Bush visit when he met with EPA Director
William K. Reilly at the United States Conference of Mayors convention last June
in Charleston, South Carolina.
"We're delighted that the President has officially accepted our invitation to
come to Indianapolis to participate in this monumental program that is destined
to improve air quality in our City," said Hudnut. "We've been working on this
program for some time, and are pleased that the President has endorsed it and
is willing to participate in its debut. Statistics show that one mature tree can
generate enough oxygen for one person to breathe for one year, but for every
one tree we plant we're loosing four trees. Trees for Tomorrow' represents a
positive step forward toward reforesting the urban landscape. I believe that if
every person were to plant one tree, we could cut our air pollution problem in
half."
The "Trees for Tomorrow" program includes a goal of planting 30,000 trees
by the end of the year. Funding for 5,000 of the trees will come from the
existing Department of Parks and Recreation revenues, and DPR is working
to identify corporate sponsors and other interested individuals to assist in
funding the remaining 25,000 trees.
The White House announced yesterday that Bush has officially agreed to
participate in the program's kickoff here in Indianapolis, the "Trees for
Tomorrow Celebration." Bush and Hudnut will plant the first tree near the
intersection of Washington and Maryland streets in the late morning on April 3,
1990.
- more
-
PO2
SITOdONVIONI 09:91:90 OS 22. O
TREES
PAGE TWO
3-22-90
Featured entertainment at the celebration includes performances by Sandi
Patti, The Marlins, and the Jimmy Coe Band. Corporate sponsors for the event
are AT & T, Methodist Hospital of Indianapolis, and Marsh Supermarkets.
For more information on Trees for Tomorrow, contact the Parks Department
at 924-7037.
- 30 -
POS
SITOSVNVIONI 30 ALIC* NIT9:90 06 03.20.
OF
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
THE
THE
VINDOSITY
1 Cyclotron Road
Berkeley, California 94720
THEREY
Building 90, Room 1060
FTS 451-5172, Commercial (415) 486-5172
Confirm: FTS 451-6584, Commercial (415) 486-6584
DATE: 3/29/90
FAX number: (202) 456-6218
TO:
Stephanie Belessey White House Office (202) 456-7750
Office or Location Phone Number
Rm III
FROM: Hashem akbani
RBL
(415)486-4287
Office or Location Phone Number
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS
Total number of pages:
9
LBL Account Number: 4712-01
#578 P01
TEL NO: :4154865172
MAR-29-',90 10:49 ID:LBL 90-COPY CENTER
Presented at ASHRAE January 1990 Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia LBL-28308
AT-90-24-1
Dear stephenie,
It was a pleasure
SUMMER HEAT ISLANDS, URBAN TREES, Two table to you
AND WHITE SURFACES
Harhem
H. Akbari, Ph.D.
A.H. Rosenfeld, Ph.D.
H. Taha
Member ASHRAE
Member ASHRAE
ABSTRACT
ways to mitigate this negative effect on both micro- and
Temperature trends for the last 100 years in sev-
meso-scales (Landsberg 1978; Thurow. 1983).
eral U.S. cities were analyzed. Since 1940 there has
Urban trees and light-colored surfaces are effec-
been a steady overall increase in urban témperatures.
tive and inexpensive measures IU reduce heat islands
Summer monthly averages have increased by 0.25-1°F
and create summer oases. Trees can improve the
per decade (- 1°F for larger cities like Los Angeles and
urban climate by shading, wind-shielding, and evapo-
0.25°F for smaller cities). There is no evidence that this
transpiration and thus reduce summer cooling energy
rise is moderating, and of course global greenhouse
use in buildings at about 1% of the capital cost of the
warming will add a comparable rise. Typical electric
avoided power plants and air-conditioning equipment.
demand of cities increases by 1% to 2% of the peak for
Light colors decrease surface absorption of short-wave
each °F, and most major cities are now -5°F warmer
radiation. thereby reducing surface temperatures and
than they were in the early 1900s. Hence. we estimate
convective heating of near-surface air. On the urban
that about 5% to 10% of the current urban electric
scale. this results in cooler cities. External surfaces of
demand is spent to cool buildings just to compensate for
buildings can be painted white (or a light color) and
the heat island effect. For example, downtown Los
streets and parking lots resurfaced with white sand
Angeles is now 5°F hotter than in 1940 and so the L.A.
(which is necessary anyway), thereby reducing cooling
basin demand is up by 1500 MW, worth $150,000 per
energy needs at relatively low costs.
hour on a hot afternoon (the equivalent national bill is
in addition to saving energy, urban trees and
=$1M/hour). In major cities, smog episodes are absent
light-colored surfaces are the most cost-effective ways
below about 70°F, but they become unacceptable by
to slow the growth of atmospheric CO2. By reducing
90°F, so a rise of 10°F because of past and future heat
the need to burn fossil fuels for generating electricity.
island effects is very significant.
urban trees are many times more efficient at limiting
There are some strategies that can alleviate the
atmospheric CO2 than is rural forestation.
heat island effect. Computer simulations and field stud-
Our calculations indicate that heat island mitiga-
ies have quantified the potential of trees and lighter sur-
tion strategies such as urban trees and light-colored
faces for reducing summer heat islands. Results
surfaces can save 0.5 quad per year at a cost of less
indicate that the cost of saved energy and avoided
than 1c/kWh and decrease CO2 emissions by about 17
CO2 through greening and whitening of urban greas is
million tons of carbon ner vear
less than 12/kWh and 2c/kg of carbon, respectively.
HEAT ISLAND EFFECTS AND CONSEQUENCES
INTRODUCTION
Cities are getting warmer than their suburban and
Long-Term Urban Temperature Trends
rural surroundings (Karl et al. 1988; Kukla et al. 1986).
Temperature data for the analysis were obtained
and this long-term warming is responsible for an
from the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
increase of 1% to 2% in cooling loads (with respect to
(CDIAC 1987) and Goodridge (1987.1989). The data
the peak) for each °F raise. As temperature rises, so
have been adjusted for station moves (relocation).
does the severity of smog and the production of other
change of height, time of observation bias, change in
airborne pollutants.
type of instruments, and discontinuity in record (Karl et
Before mechanical air conditioning, people
al. 1986, 1987). They have not been corrected for urban
cooled their homes by planting trees around them and
growth (population) effects.
painting the walls and roofs white. The disappearance
For example, Los Angeles is a large metropolis
of such simple practices in many urban areas con-
with a mild to warm climate. Figure 1a depicts the
tributes to summer theat islands" with typical daily
annual temperature highs between 1877 and 1984. It
average intensities of 3° to 5°C. However, there are
clearly indicates that downtown Los Angeles was
Note
H. Akbari is a staff scientist at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, A.H. Rosenfeld is a professor of physics at the University of Cal-
ifornia and director of the Center for Building Science, and H. Taha is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of California. All are
members of the Heat Island Project at the Applied Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA,
THIS PREPRINT IS FOR DISCUSSION PURPOSES ONLY. FOR INCLUSION IN ASHRAE TRANSACTIONS 1990. V. 96. Pt. 1. Not to De reported in whole or in part
without written permission of the American Society of Hearing, Reingeraung and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 1791 Tullie Circle, NE. Atlanta, GA 30329. Opinions.
findings. conclusions. or recommendations expressed in this paper are those or the author(s) and 00 not necessarily reflect the views of ASHRAE.
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120
cooling at a rate of 0.05°F/yr up to 1930 and then
Downtown Los Angeles CA.
started a steady warming of 13°F/yr (1.3°F/decade)
afterwards. In other words, downtown Los Angeles's
101 F
annual high temperatures are now -6°F higher than
they were in 1940. Figure 1b shows the post-'40s
warming trend in further detail. One can see that aver-
age temperature slopes of the summer months are in
the range of 0.11 to 0.13 (±.02)°F/yr. Table 1 summa-
Year high temperature (°F)
110
108 *F
100
99 F
rizes some related statistics:
TABLE 1
Summary Statistics for the
Fig. 1.8
Monthly Average Temperature Trends
90
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
(ε is standard error of the slope, and a Is significance).
Year
Month
Fit
r2
E
a
June
0.346
0.027
0.00
July
0.346
0.023
0.00
90
August
T=71.47(1940)+0.1173"yr
0.389
0.022
0.00
September
T=70.46(1940)+0.1108"yr
0.278
0.026
0.00
june
MY
Figure 2 depicts the long-term trend in annual
august
mean temperatures in Washington, DC, between 1871
ao
segiember
and 1987. One can see that since 1900 there has been
a steady rise of 0.5°F/decade and that the total rise over
"
80 years is about 4°F. Contrary to Los Angeles, whose
70
temperatures were all urban (Figure 1), Washington,
DC's urban stations moved to airport locations in 1942.1
The data indicate that this recent warming trend is
typical of most U.S. metropolitan areas. As an example,
Fig. 1.b
so
consider some California cities. Figure 3 (Goodridge
30
40
50
60
70
50
90
1989) shows that before 1940, the average urban-rural
temperature differences for 31 urban and 31 rural sta-
Year
tions in California were always negative, i.e., cities were
Figure
1 Long-term annual high temperatures (a), and
cooler than their surroundings (both annual and 10-year
monthly averages (b) in Los Angeles, CA
averages show this). We speculate that this is a result of
oasis effects in the relatively more vegetated city cen-
Heat Islands and Cooling Loads
ters. After 1940, when built-up areas took over the veg-
Figures 4a and b depict the dependence of sys-
etated ones, the urban centers became as warm as or
tern-wide utility load on dry-hulb temperature for the
warmer than the suburbs. and the trend becomes quite
portion of the city of Los Angeles served by the Los
obvious after 1965, with a slope of about 0.7°F/decade.
Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP). in
The heat island effect has thus become dominant in
Figure 4a, the 4 p.m. load is plotted against the 4 p.m.
these urban areas.
temperature for 365 days in 1986.2 One can distinguish
Goodridge (1989) shows that San Diego, Los
some weekend scatter, base load scatter, and temper-
Angeles. San Francisco, and Sacramento have warm-
ature-dependent cooling load. The upper boundary of
ing trends exceeding 0.4°F/decade. Our data support
the peak demand "envelope" slopes at -72 MW/°F
his findings and indicate that the August warming
(2%/°F). In Figure 4b. the same procedure is repeated
trends in San Diego. CA, and San Bernardino, CA, are,
by plotting peak load (at 4 p.m.) vs. average daily tem-
respectively, 0.8°F/decade and 0.6°F/decade. They
perature for 365 days in 1986; the slope is 75 MW/°F.
also indicate that the maximum temperatures in Davis
about 2%/°F of the peak. Recalling that the city of Los
and Pasadena, CA, have increased by -0.8 and
Angeles has warmed by -5°F since 1940 (Figure 1),
-0.9°F, respectively.
one can see that we have incurred an Increase of 375'
MW or 10% of the current peak load.
in Figure 5, a similar plot is constructed for a south-
1 Up to 1942. the Washington data are for urban weather stations, but
ern California utility (SCE)³ whereby the 4 p.m. loads are
after 1942. the stations moved to airports. Figure 2 thus depicts data
from different locations. So while urban heat island information is
plotted against the daily average temperatures for 365
needed, the last 40 years provide mostly airport data (adjusted or
days in 1986. Although representative temperatures for
unadjusted) that may underestimate the urban effects, because cities
the SCE service area were available, we decided to plot
warm up faster than their suburbs where airports are usually located.
the SCE load data against the LADWP temperatures, so
This is not only the case with Washington, DC, but also with most
major cities in the U.S. The authors are not aware, at this time, of any
continuous urban temperature data base for the last 100 years
2 We chose 1986 because weather and load data were already
(except for Los Angeles and San Francisco, CA), and we believe that
available.
monitoring of this kind should be undertaken, if city-wide energy use
3 The system area surrounds Los Angeles but does not include the city
is to be better understood and mitigation strategies property applied.
itself, which is served by LADWP.
200 8258
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Urban stations
Airports stations
58
°F
Mean temperature (°F)
4 'F/80 years
$6
100 MWCF . 2%/*F (with respect to & ceak of 5211 MW):
So & warming of 4*F/80 years $ equivalem 10 400 MW,
54
and if peak electricity 18 worth 10enwh, this IS
$40.000/hr or acout $50M/year
52
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
Year
Figure 2 Annual mean temperatures in Washington, DC (1871-1987).
Data source: Mayberry, E. Potomac Electric Power Company. Washington, DC.
15
Annual
10-year average
du
1.0
Urban Rural temp (°F)
0.5
*
Slope:
HOT
0.67 *F/decader
0.0
COOL
g
D
B
.0.5
-1.0
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
Year
Figure 3 Urban-rural temperature differences in California. Based on 31 urban and 31 rural stations.
Data Source: Goodrige (1989)
we can consistently use them4 for comparison with the
Figure 5 shows an envelope's upper boundary
long-term trend shown in Figure 1.
slopes at 225 MW/°F, or about 1.6%/°F. If we add this to
the LADWP slope (75 MW/°F). the total reaches 300
MW/°F. and for a 5°F rise since 1940, that means -1.5
d To study peak load/temperature dependence. an appropriate
GW of heat island-dependent load. If peak electricity is
method is to use 4 p.m. (peak) temperatures over the period of inter-
est, as was the case in Figure 4a. But hourly data are not always
worth 10c/kWh, then this represents $150,000/°F for each
available for long-term periods, i.e., the last 100 years, and only
hour. For Washington. DC (Figure 2). the slope is 100
daily or monthly averages can be found. The use of the average
MW/°F (2%/°F of the 5200 MW peak). So for an increase
temperature is thus justified, and we have shown that in Figure 4b.
of 4°F over 80 years, this is an additional 400 MW costing
We saw that there was no major change in the slope, compared to
<$40,000/hr. There are about 1300 hours of air-condition-
Figure 4a. When the SCE load was plotted against LADWP temper-
atures (Figure 5), it resulted in a similar pattern. We will use temper-
ing in Wahington, DC, resulting in =$50M annually. We
ature averages in our analysis of load/temperature data for other
estimate that the hourly cost of all the heat islands in the
locations. as well.
U.S. is of an order of magnitude of $1 million.
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5000
LADWP 1986 (4 p.m. data)
Heat Islands and Smog
71.5 MW/F = 2%/°F
Not only do summer heat islands increase sys-
4000
tem-wide cooling loads, but they also increase the
365 payments 11986)
4pm LOAD (MW)
amount of smog, brought on by higher urban tempera-
3000
tures. For example, Figure 6 shows the daily maxima in
ozone (O₃) levels for Los Angeles. Below 74°F. smog
never exceeds the National Atmospheric Air Quality
2000
weekend
Standard (NAAQS). but by 94°F. smog levels are too
high (=26 pphm). Restated. smog is very sensitive to
Figure 4a.
this 20°F increase of which one-fourth is already
1000
attributable to the heat island effect. Argento (1988)
50
60
70
80
90
100
reports similar results for 13 cities throughout the state
4pm Temperature (°F)
of Texas.
HEAT ISLAND MITIGATION
5000
Light-colored urban surfaces and trees are
LADWP system (1986)
proven and inexpensive measures to reduce heat
islands and create summer oases. The effects of mod-
4000
75 MW/°F E 2%/°F
Ifying the urban environment by planting trees and
163 points (1986)
Spin LOAD (MW)
increasing albedos are best quantified in terms of
direct and indirect contributions. The direct effect of
3(K)
planting trees around a building or painting the build-
ing surfaces with a light color is to alter the energy bal-
ance and cooling requirements of that particular
2000
building. However, when trees are planted and albe-
dos are modified throughout an entire city, the energy
Figure 4b.
balance of the whole city is modified, producing city-
1000
50
60
70
80
90
wide changes in climate. Phenomena associated with
the city-wide changes in climate are referred to as indi-
Average daily temperature (°F)
rect effects, because they indirectly affect the energy
Figure 4 Load vs. temperature in downtown
use in an Individual building.
Los Angeles (1986)
An important reason for making a distinction
between direct and indirect effects is that, while direct
+ pm Load of the S.C. Edison versus Downtown Los Angeles
daily average temperature
16000
225 MW/°F = 1.6%/°F
14000
4 pm LOAD (MW)
12000
10000
8000
6000
50
60
70
80
90
Daily average temperature (°F)
Total LA Basin: 75 MW (LADWP) + 225 MW (SCE) . 300 MW
300 MW 5 °F a. 1500 MW, worth - $150.000 per hour
Figure 5 Load vs. temperature for the SCE system (1986)
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30
25
20
-
24
SMOG, measured Ozone in PPHM (parts per hundred millions)
22
20
18
10
14
NAAQS
12
10
6
6
&
2
0
50
70
90
Daily maximum temperature (*F)
Figure 6 Ozone level vs. temperature in Los Angeles. CA (1985)
effects are well recognized and accounted for in pre-
Trees affect energy use in buildings through direct
sent models of building energy use, indirect effects
processes such as (1) reducing solar heat gain through
have received much less recognition. Methods of
windows, walls, and roofs by shading, (2) reducing the
accounting for indirect effects have not been as well
radiant heat gain from surroundings by shading and
developed and remain comparatively less certain.
view factor reduction; and (3) reducing infiltration by
Understanding these effects and incorporating them
shielding a particular building from wind. Deciduous
into accounts of building energy use is the focus of our
trees are beneficial because they allow solar gain in
current research. It is worth noting that the phe-
buildings during wintertime.
nomenon of summer urban heat islands is itself the
On the other hand. the indirect effects of trees
consequence of indirect effects of the built environ-
include (1) reducing the rate of outside air infiltration by
ment. We are proposing to use the same principles to
increasing surface roughness and decreasing urban
cool hot cities.
wind speeds and (2) reducing the heat gain of build-
The issue of direct and indirect effects also enters
ings by lowering ambient air temperatures through
into our discussion of atmospheric CO₂. Planting trees
evapotranspiration (the evaporation of water from soil-
has the direct effect of reducing atmospheric CO₂
vegetation systems). On hot summer days, trees act as
because each individual tree directly sequesters car-
natural "evaporative coolers." using up to 100 gallons
bon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
of water a day each, thus lowering the ambient temper-
However, planting trees in cities also has an indirect
ature. A significant increase in urban trees leads to
effect on CO2. By reducing the demand for cooling
increased evapotranspiration, thus producing an
energy, urban trees indirectly reduce emission of CO₂
"oasis effect" and significantly lowering urban ambient
from power plants. As will be seen, the amount of CO₂
temperatures. Buildings in these cooler environments
avoided via the indirect effect is considerably greater
will require less cooling power and energy. The effect
than the amount sequestered directly.
of evapotranspiration is minimal in winter because of
Urban Trees
lower ambient temperatures and the absence of leaves
on deciduous trees.
Case studies have documented dramatic differ-
ences in cooling energy use between houses on land-
Urban Albedo
scaped and unlandscaped sites. Parker (1981)
The energy balance of a building or an entire City
measured cooling savings resulting from well-planned
depends on the net solar radiation at its surface. To
Note
landscaping and found that properly located trees and
describe the relative amounts of reflected vs. absorbed
shrubs reduced daily air-conditioning electricity use by
radiation, the term "albedo" is used. An albedo of 1.0
as much as 50%.
corresponds to a surface that completely reflects. while
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TABLE 2
TABLE 3
Simulated Direct Savings in Cooling Energy and
Simulated Indirect Savings In
Peak Power Resulting from Planting Trees
Cooling Energy Use and Peak Cooling Power for
peak Nisl.
and Whitewashing Buildingss
Single-Story 1980-Prototype Houses?
1973 Houses
1980 Houses
Urban canopy density
energy
~B0%
Location
Albedo of house and
(leaky and low insulation) (tight and high Insulation)
increased by 3 treas/house
surrounding increased²
Savings
Savings
Location
Percent energy savings
Base
Percent energy savings
(A%)
Base
(0%)
Sacramento. CA
Chicago, IL
1400 It2
+
2000 t12
Peak kW
23
21
Peak KW
3.60
23.6
3.20
29.1
Annual kWn
37
45³
Annual kWh
2584.0
peah N261
19.9
1888 0
21.6
Phoenix, AZ
Miami, FL
1400 ft2
1600 ft2
12
energy
~20°1
Peak kW
Peak kW
5.42
25.3
3.29
23.4
Annual kWh
27
Annual kWh
13623.0
22.5
8730.0
16.5
Lake Charles. LA
Minneapolis. MN
1400 tt2
2000 H2
Peak kW
15
total
Peak kW
3.14
27.1
2.65
317
Annual kWh
31
Annual kWn
1916.0
20.2
1325.0
22.6
$ Canopy savings are annual figures. Albedo savings are for the period from
peak N30%
Phoenix, AZ
1400 112
1600ft2
July 9 to July 12 only. (All entries are indirect effects.)
Peak kW
7.56
26.2
5.18
31.1
1 Data from Huang et al. (1987). Assumes an increase of three trees per nouse.
Annual kWh
13117.0
7789.0
17.3
2 Data estimated from Taha et al, (1988). Assumes an increase from 0.26 to
Energy yo%
19.8
0.40 in the albado of the surroundings.
Pittsburgh, PA
1600 n²
1600ft2
3 Canopy savings are annual savings. Albedo savings for the penod from
Peak kW
3.50
24.9
2.36
23.3
July 9 to July 12.
Annual kWh
1821.0
23.3
1177.0
20.1
Sacramento, CA
1400 n²
16001t2
1973 stock is representative of leaky and poorly insu-
Peak kW
5.40
25.4
3.85
26.0
Annual kWh
3767.0
lated housing, while the 1980 homes are tight and well
28.3
2372.0
23.8
insulated. The savings are calculated for an increase in
Washington. DC
2000 ft2
2200 112
tree cover of 30% (three trees per house) and an
Peak kW
5.80
30.3
3.98
29.4
Annual kWh
4368.0
22.7
2790.0
20.0
increase in a building's albedo from 30% to 70% over
that of a base case.
Average
Peak kW
26.3
28.0
Table 3 shows the simulated indirect savings in
Annual kWn
21.9
18.6
cooling energy and peak power. For the cities mod-
$ Tree cover was increased by 30% with respect to the base case, whereas
eled, the effect of an additional three trees per building
albedo was increased from 30% to 70%. We have used these estimates for
results in approximately 30% savings in annual cooling
calculating the national savings.
energy and approximately 15% to 20% annual savings
in peak cooling power. The indirect effects of albedo
were quantified for Sacramento. CA, for only four days
an albedo of 0.0 refers to one that completely absorbs
in July. Simulations showed that increasing the albedo
all incident solar radiation. The albedo of an individual
of the surroundings from 0.25 to 0.40 reduced the cool-
building can be modified to achieve direct savings: a
ing energy by 45% and peak power by 21%. This sug-
lighter building reflects more solar radiation and there-
gests that for residential buildings the potential savings
fore stays cooler. The albedo of an entire city can be
from albedo and vegetation are roughly equivalent.
modified to achieve indirect savings by lowering urban
We have comparatively few simulations of indi-
temperatures.
rect effects. Since our urban climate models are still
Most buildings and cities have albedos in the
under development, we conservatively interpret these
range of 0.20 to 0.35. Traditional cities of white-washed
results as maximum effects. When extrapolating to
buildings found in hot areas have albedos in the range
determine national savings (Table 4), we typically
of 0.30 to 0.45 (Taha et al. 1988). Reflective roof mem-
assume smaller effects.
branes and popular "solar control" glazings of com-
Table 4 shows savings of primary energy use for
mercial buildings both have albedos of up to 0.8. There
air conditioning in the U.S. The total residential electric-
is a practical constraint in the maximum achievable
ity use for air conditioning (room and central) is about
urban albedo if this strategy is used in conjunction with
100 billion kWh or 1.2 quads of primary energy per
increased urban vegetation, since a dense urban tree
year (Akbari et al. 1988). In the U.S. in 1987, commer-
canopy will cover a large amount of the surface area
cial buildings used 670 billion kWh of electricity (EIA
(the albedo of green trees is =0.25). We have esti-
1987) of which approximately 20% was used for cool-
mated an upper limit of 0.40 for the albedo of a highly
ing. corresponding to about 130 billion kWh or 1.5
vegetated city with light-colored surfaces.
quads of source energy per year. Together, residential
and commercial cooling uses 2.7 quads of source
Energy Savings
energy per year, worth $20 to $25 billion.⁵
Table 2 shows the simulated direct savings in
In our calculations, we have assumed that tree
cooling energy and peak power resulting from the
planting and albedo modification can be applied to
direct effects of increased urban tree cover and
albedo. The results are shown for both the 1973 hous-
$ Most residential electricity is still soid at an average price of
-7.5c/kWh, but air-conditioning power IS mainly on-peak and the cost
ing stocks and newer 1980 prototypical houses, The
of new peak power is closer to 10c/kWh,
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Nate This and hate infous : a sol sourings are trus
TABLE 4
Annual Cooling Energy Savings and Reductions in Released Carbon from
Heat Island Mitigation Using Trees and White Surfaces 5.1
Residential
Small Commercial
Large Commercial
Total
Energy
Carbon
Energy
Carbon
Energy
Carbon
Energy
Carbon
(%) (1014 Btu)
(M Tona)
(%) (1015 Btu)
(M Tons)
(%) (1015 Btu)
(M Tons)
(1015 Btu)
(M Tons)
Cooling
Energy
1.2
36
0.75
24
0.75
24
2.7
34
Use
Heat
Island
15
0.18
5
10
0.08
2
3
0.02
1
0.27
8
Portion²
Direct
Savings
10³
0.12
4
44
0.03
1
0
0.0
0
0.15
5
indirect
Savings
20
0.23
8
12
0.09
3
55
0.04
1
0.36
12
Total
Savings
30
0.35
12
16
0.12
4
S
0.03
1
0,51
17
$ We assumed 100 million trees, white-colored homes, streets. and parking lots.
2 , Production of carbon (as CO₂) from a peak power plant assumes 11,600 Stu/kWh sold, and . 14.500 Blu/lb of carbon.
We assumed that the overall heat island effect on the cooling energy use is 10%. We esumate that the effect of heat istengs to be largest (15%) on residential.
moderate (10%) on small commercial, and small (3%) on large commercial buildings.
3 1 Residential. We assumed 3 trees (plus light surfaces) for 50% of our 50 million air-congitioned homes. so 75 million trees (plus light surfaces).
Small Commercial. We assumed 30% coverage by trees (25 million more trees).
in Large Commercial. We assumed no additional vees.
only 50% of the 51 million air-conditioned houses in the
for natural-gas-fired power plants to about 1 lb car-
U.S. Tree density may already be high (especially in
bon/kWh for coal-fired power plants. Because cooling
older cities) and increasing tree cover and/or.albedo
energy is almost always used during periods of peak
may not be acceptable to all municipalities. and some
demand (except in the case of thermal storage), the
areas may not have a significant cooling load. We have
electric utility must meet this demand using a combina-
also assumed that half of the commercial building
tion of coal-, oil-, and gas-fired power plants. The frac-
stock of 4 million buildings is small enough to be
tion of each fuel type used varies greatly, depending
directly affected by shading and albedo increase.
on the region of the country, and can vary from all coal
The analysis shows that the direct effect of planting
in some parts of the East to all oil and gas in Texas.
Note
three trees per house and changing the building albedo
However, the national average is approximately half
from 30% to 70% is equivalent to an average of 20%
coal and half oil and gas (DOE 1988). This results in an
cooling energy savings (see Table 2). Applying this to
average emission of 0.8 lb carbon/kWh generated for
the 25 million available houses, using 75 million trees,
peak power.
would result in energy savings of 0.12 quad. The corre-
About half the savings from the combination of
sponding direct savings due to the planting of a 30%
direct and indirect effects shown in Table 4 would result
NJ.
tree cover around small commercial buildings is about
from planting 100 million urban trees. This savings of
8% (Akbari et al. 1987). When this is applied to 50% of
0.25 quads (22 billion kWh) corresponds to a savings of
the 2 million small commercial buildings, using another
9 million tons of carbon. A fast-growing forest tree
25 million trees, this would save an additional 0.03 quad.
sequesters carbon at the rate of -13 lb carbon per year.
Conservatively, a direct savings of 0.15 quad would be
Therefore, 100 million trees could directly sequester
achieved if 100 million trees were planted.
0.65 million tons of carbon. or only one-fifteenth of the
Data presented in Table 3 suggest that the indi-
Jobs:
energy saved through their reduction in cooling energy
rect effects of tree planting and albedo modification
use. To directly sequester the amount of carbon saved
alone can save at least 20% of the 1.2 quad of residen-
by the planting of 100 million urban trees would require
tial cooling energy use (thus 0.23 quad). Because
planting 1.5 billion forest trees corresponding to 1.5 mil-
small commercial buildings are less sensitive to out-
lion hectares of forest (by comparison, the total area of
door temperature than houses, we expect indirect sav-
Connecticut is about 1.3 million hectares).
ings of only about 12% of the 0.75 quad of small
commercial cooling energy use (thus 0.09 quad). By
THE COST OF HEAT ISLAND
reducing urban temperatures, these measures also
MITIGATION MEASURES
decrease cooling energy use in large commercial
Table 5 gives the cost-effectiveness, energy sav-
buildings by increasing system efficiency and econo-
ings, and carbon reduction of urban trees/light surfaces
mizer operating hours. We estimate this would save an
compared to other conservation and generation strate-
additional 5% or 0.04 quad.
gies. All energy conservation measures that reduce fos-
CO₂ Savings
sil fuel use also reduce carbon emissions. For example.
the trend to more efficient electric appliances yields a
Carbon, produced in the form of CO₂ from elec-
cost of conserved energy (CCE) of about 2e/kWh.
tricity generation, varies from about 0.5 lb carbon/kWh
equivalent to a cost of conserved carbon (CCC) of
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TABLE 5
TABLE 5
Cost-Effectiveness, Energy Savings, and Carbon
Elements of a Multi-Year Research Program for Control
Reduction of Urban Trees/Light Surfaces Compared to
of Summer Heat Islands
Other Conservation and Generation Strategiess
(1) Quantity the heat island effect
CCE'
COC'
AE
AC
gather. benchmark. develop, and test heat Island simulation models
Strategy
(e/kWh)
(c/lb C) (Quad/yr) (M Tons/yr)
- collect data and make experimental measurements to validate the models
evaluate other ways of obtaining heat island data (e.g. satellite and air-
Conservation
craft data)
(Direct * Indirect Effect)
- integrate all simulated and measured data into à single data base
Urban Trees/
- develop simplified tools to extract heat island data for major urban
Light Surfaces
0.2-1.0
0.25-1.25
0.5
17
areas in the U.S. from the integrated data base
(direct CO₂ sequestered)
(0.65)
(2) Verify the mitigation savings
Efficient Electric
- model the peak power and energy savings of the heal island mitigation
Appliances²
2
2.5
0.6
21
measures
Efficient Cars³
4.2
8.3
2.8
60
- design and develop wind-tunnel and full-scale experiments to compare
(50c/gal)
and improve simulation results
New Generation
- perform field monitoring of energy savings to verify estimated savings
Coal Power
8
Base Case
1
Base Case
(3) Develop implementation guidelines
Nuclear Power
114
-
60
- evaluate the cost-penelits of heat island miligation measures and com-
pare savings in energy. equipment. and avoided generation to the
§ (Source: Akban et al. 1988)
costs of Implementation
, CCE is Cost of Conserved Energy and CCC is Cost of Conserved Carbon.
- develop implementation strategies and guidelines
2 Improved standards as defined by National Appliance Energy Conserva-
(4) Quantity the heat island effect on pollution and global warming
tion Act (NAECA).
- develop algorithms to correct for heat island contamination of tempera-
: Improved car efficiency from 26 mpg to 36 mpg.
ture data used to estimate the severity of global warming
- estimate the fossil energy saved by the miligation measures and hence
2.5c/lb carbon. Another conservation strategy is to
the delay in global warming
improve efficiency in automobiles. The cost of con-
- measure the relation between heat islands, smog. and creation of
served carbon in going from a 26 mpg to a 36 mpg
smog feedstocks
automobile is 10c/lb carbon. Both these measures are
effective, but they are much more expensive than urban
CDIAC. 1987. "CDIAC numeric data collection." Environmen-
trees and light-colored cities.
tal Science Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Urban trees and light surfaces have a CCE of
Report NDP-019.
DOE. 1988. "Technical support document for the analysis of
about 0.2 to 10c/kWh and a CCC of about 0.3 to 13c/lb
efficiency standards on refrigerators, refrigerator-freezers,
of carbon. This is as much as 10 times less expensive
freezers, small gas furnaces, and television sets,"
than either of the alternative strategies just cited. The
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory draft report.
point of the comparison is not to discredit the other
EIA. 1987. Monthly energy review. DOE/EIA-0035(87/09).
conservation strategies but to suggest that planting
Goodridge, J. 1987. "Population and temperature trends in
urban trees and modifying urban albedos seems
California." Proceedings of the Pacific Climate Workshop,
attractive and definitely worth investigating.
Pacific Grove, CA, March 22-26,
There are still many things to learn about summer
Goodridge, J. 1989. "Air temperature trends in California, 1916
to 1987." J. Goodridge, 31 Rondo Ct., Chico, CA 95928.
heat islands. A multi-year effort in research, modeling,
Huang, Y.J.: Akbari, H.; Taha, H.; and Rosenfeld, A. 1987.
and data gathering is required to further Investigate the
"The potential of vegetation in reducing summer cooling
energy-saving potentials and ways for controlling sum-
loads in residential buildings." Journal of Climate and
mer heat islands. Table 6 shows some elements of a
Applied Meteorology, Vol. 26, No.9, pp. 1103-1116.
multi-year research program, including quantifying the
Karl, T.R.: Williams, C.N., Jr.: Young, P.M.: and Wendland,
heat island effect. verifying the mitigation savings,
W.M. 1986. "A model to estimate the time of observation
developing implementation guidelines, and quantifying
bias associated with monthly maximum, minimum, and
the heat island effect on pollution and global warming.
mean temperatures for the United States." Journal of Cli-
mate and Applied Meteorology, Vol. 25, pp. 145-160.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Karl, T.R., and Williams, N.C. 1987, "Data adjustments and
edits to the U.S. historical climate network." National Cli-
This work was supported by the Assistant Secretary for
matic Data Center, Federal Building, Asheville, NC 28801.
Conservation and Renewable Energy, Office of Building and
Karl, T.R.: Diaz, H.F.; and Kukla, G. 1988. "Urbanization: its
Community Systems, Building System Division of the U.S.
detection and effects in the United States climate record."
Department of Energy. under contract No. DE-AC0376SF00098.
Journal of Climate, Vol. 1, pp. 1099-1123.
This work was in part funded by a grant from the University-Wide
Kukla, G.: Gavin, J.: and Karl, T.R. 1986. "Urban warming."
Energy Research Group, University of California . Berkeley.
Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, Vol. 25, pp.
1265-1270.
REFERENCES
Landsberg, H.E. 1978. "Planning for the climate realities of
Akbari. H.: Taha, H.; Martien, P.; and Huang, J. 1987. "Strate-
arid regions." Urban Planning for Arid Zones: American
gies for reducing urban heat islands: savings, conflicts. and
experience and Directions, ed. Gideon Golany. New York:
city's role." Proceedings of the First National Conference on
John Wiley & Sons.
Energy Efficient Cooling, San Jose CA, Oct. 21-22.
Parker. J. 1981, "Uses of landscaping for energy conserva-
Akbari, H.; Huang, J.; Martien, P.; Rainer, L.; Rosenfeld, A.;
tion." Department of Physical Sciences, Florida Interna-
and Taha, H. 1988. "The impact of summer heat islands
tional University, Miami. Sponsored by the Governor's
on cooling energy consumption and CO2 emissions." Pro-
Energy Office of Florida.
ceedings of ACEEE 1988 Summer Study on Energy Effi-
Taha, H.; Akbari, H.; Rosenfeld, A.; and Huang, J. 1988.
ciency in Buildings, Vol 5. pp. 11-23. Asilomar CA (Aug.).
"Residential cooling loads and the urban neat island: the
Argento. V.K. 1988. "Ozone nonattainment policy vs. the facts
effects of albedo." Building and Environment. Vol. 23, No.
of life." Chemical Engineering Progress, Dec., pp. 50-54.
4. pp. 271-283.
#578 P09
TEL NO:4154865172
CENTER
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Mouvovoim
Articles
Observational Constraints on the Global
Atmospheric CO₂ Budget
PIETER P. TANS, INEZ Y. FUNG, TARO TAKAHASHI
uptake on the land (except for the highest occan uptake estimates) to
Observed atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and data on
balance the atmospheric CO2 budget (6, 7).
the partial pressures of CO2 in surface ocean waters are
The inorganic carbon chemistry that describes the ultimate uptake
combined to identify globally significant sources and
capacity of the oceans io well understood; however, the capacity of
sinks of CO2. The atmospheric data are compared with
the oceans for uptake of CO₂ also depends sensitively on their
boundary layer concentrations calculated with the trans-
circulation dynamics and the biological processes in them. The
port fields generated by a general circulation model
atmosphere exchanges CO2 with the ocean surface layer, in which
(GCM) for specified source-sink distributions. In the
biological processes keep the partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂) much
model the observed north-south atmospheric concentra-
lower chan in deeper waters. High-latitude areas, where deep water
tion gradient can be maintained only if sinks for CO2 are
outcrops at the sea surface during winter, are an exception. The high
greater in the Northern than in the Southern Hemi-
pCO₂ in waters below about 300 m depth is attributed mainly to the
sphere. The observed differences between the partial
downward transport of C, via gravitational settling of biogenic
pressure of CO₂ in the surface waters of the Northern
debris produced in the photic zone, and the slow vertical mixing rate
Hemisphere and the atmosphere are too small for the
of deep water. The models that have been used to estimate the
oceans to be the major sink of fossil fuel CO2. Therefore,
uptake of CO2 by the oceans incorporate these oceanic features in
a large amount of the CO2 is apparently absorbed on the
varying degrees and have been validated with observed distributions
continents by terrestrial ecosystems.
of tracers such as ¹²²Rn, 14C, ³H, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC),
nutrient salts, and O₂. However, none of these tracers behaves
exactly like CO₂. Furthermore, in all models the circulation is
assumed to be in steady state, and in many of them changes in
ISING ATMOSPHERIC CO2 CONCENTRATIONS ARE EXPECT-
biological processes and the seasonal nature of C uptake are not
R
ed to lead to significant global climatic changes during the
included.
coming decades (1). After 30 years of measurements in the
Measurements of pCO₂ in the surface waters and of total inorgan-
atmosphere and the oceans, the global atmospheric CO2 budget is
ic carbon (TCO2) dissolved in the oceans have not yet led to a direct
still surprisingly uncertain. An improved understanding of the CO2
confirmation of the amount of fossil CO₂ removed from the
cycle is essential to predict the future rate of atmospheric CO2
atmosphere by the oceans (8), in part because the expected increases
increase and to plan eventually for an international CO2 manage-
are small compared to the natural variation. For example, if half of
ment strategy.
the cumulative fossil fuel CO₂ emitted since 1850 were distributed
Combustion of fossil fuels, the amount of which is well docu-
uniformly in the upper 1000 m of the oceans, TCO2 would have
mented (2), is a major contributor to the observed concentration
increased by only 1%.
increase of CO2 in the atmosphere. The measured rise was about
Any geographical distribution of CO2 sources and sinks is
57% of the fossil fuel input from 1981 to 1987. Other sources may
reflected in the sparial and temporal variations of CO₂ concentration
have also contributed to the rise, but the amount of CO₂ released by
patterns in the atmosphere. Numerical models of atmospheric
changes in land use remains uncerrain (3, 4), as is the response of
transport can simulare these patterns; they thereby allow us to test
terrestrial ecosystems to higher CO2 levels and to other climatic and
hypotheses of the atmospheric CO₂ budget (9, 10). With the use of
environmental perturbations (5). Estimates of the uptake of CO₂ by
rwo-dimensional models (lacirude, height) the observed concentra-
the occans have been based entirely on computational schemes of
tion gradients in the atmospheric boundary layer can be inverted
varying complexity (6), from "box" models to three-dimensional
directly to yield the net surface source as a function of latitude and
ocean circulation models (7). The "consensus" among these studies
time (11). In this article, we use three-dimensional (3-D) transport
is that the oceans might be absorbing between 26 and 44% of the
fields to simulate the global distribution of CO2 in response to
fossil CO2. This would leave no room for any significant net loss of
specific assumptions about the strength and location of surface
C from terrestrial ecosystems, but instead would require net C
fluxes of CO2. Global CO₂ budgets are constructed as linear
combinations of separate sources and sinks, including new estimates
for the oceanic fluxes. The mean annual meridional gradient ob-
P. P. Tans is with the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences,
University of Colorado/Nanonal Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Campus
served from 1981 8 1987 is then compared with the model values,
Box 216, Boulder, CO 80309. L Y. Fung is with the National Acronautics and Space
calculated as the corresponding linear combinations of the distribu-
Administration Goddard Space Flight Center, Insurance for Space Studies. 2880
Broadway, New York, NY 10025. T. Takahashi is with the Lamont-Doherty Geologi-
tions generated separately for each source or sink, and thus used to
ea) Observatory, Columbia University, Palisades, NY 10964.
select acceptable CO₂ source-sink scenarios.
23 MARCH topo
ARTICLES 1431
Atmospheric Observations
were divided into 2° by 2° "pixels". and the mean 4=CO₂ value for
each pixel was computed separately for two seasonal periods,
The Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change (GMCC)
January through April and July through October (18) (Fig. 3). To
division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
estimate the global distribution of ApCO2 during each of the two
(NOAA) has been collecting air samples in flasks for CO2 analysis
seasonal periods, we extrapolated the observed values into regions
from more than 20 sites since 1980 (Table 1) (12). All flasks have
where observations were lacking using relations between water
been analyzed on the same nondispersive infrared analyzer in
temperature and surface water pCO₂ observed in various oceano-
Boulder, Colorado, and referenced to the international manometric
graphic regimes (19).
mole fraction scale (13) adopted for CO2 monitoring. The seasonal
The net CO₂ flux (F) across the air-sca interface was computed
cycles of CO2 concentration observed at these sites have been used
from
to estimate the seasonal net ecosystem production of the major
terrestrial biomes of the world (10, 14). In this study we have used
F = E₄pCO₂ = V₂SA₂CO₂ =
(1)
the average of the annual mean concentrations for 1981 to 1987
(Table 1 and Fig. 1). We have not used the data from all of the
where E is the gas transfer coefficient, Vₚ is the gas transfer piston
GMCC sites. Records from Niwot Ridge, Colorado, as well as
velocity, and S is the solubility of CO2 in seawater; Vₚ depends on
Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, were not used because mountain-
turbulence in both media and hence on the wind speed, W. Because
ous terrain is not resolved well in the transport model. Specifically,
the effects of temperature on Vₚ and S nearly cancel each other, E is
we do not know what effective model height to assign to these sites.
mainly a function of wind speed alone. Measurements of Vₚ made
At some other sites, such as Cape Meares, Oregon, the data are too
under various wind regimes in the field and in wind runnels show
noisy to extract annual averages with sufficient confidence. The data
that Vp is nearly zero for W < 3 m They also show a wide range
yield a large-scale meridional gradient that corresponds closely to
of variation (abour a factor of 2) in Vₚ for W > 3 m s⁻¹, the cause
those obtained by other atmospheric CO₂ monitoring programs
of which is not clearly understood. For W > 3 m (the wind
(14, 15).
speed at 10 m above the sca surface), WE adopted the relation (20)
E(moles of CO2 m⁻² year"' µatm⁻¹) IM 0.016 [W(m 5-1) - 3]
Oceanic Observations and CO₂ Flux Estimates
(2)
The observed pCO₂ difference (ApCO₂) between the surface
whereas E is taken to be zero for W < 3 m s⁻¹. This relation yields
ocean and the atmosphere represents the thermodynamic driving
Vₚ values slightly lower than the upper limit of the wind-tunnel data
potential for transfer of CO2 gas across the sea surface and includes
(21). For comparison, Liss and Merlivat [(22), see also (23)], using
implicitly the combined effects of all the processes that influence the
results of experiments in wind tunnels and in the field (24), chose
CO₂ distribution in the oceans and atmosphere. We have analyzed
values about one half of our values. If their values are adopted, the
measurements of ApCO2 obtained from 1972 to 1989 (16) (Fig. 2).
resulting CO₂ transfer flux would be halved for a given value of
El Nino events, occurring irregularly every few years, reduce the
ApCO2.
CO₂ Aux from the Eastern and Central Equatorial Pacific waters to
We calculated monthly values of E for every 2° by 2° pixel using
virtually zero (17), but the equatorial measurements during the
Eq. 2 and monthly climatological wind speeds compiled by Esben-
1982-1983 and 1986-1987 events have been excluded. The oceans
sen and Kushnir (25). The resulting annual mean global value for E
Table 1. Annual average concentrations of B2 above 300 ppmy (by
1987 and the year. In order B avoid biasing the global averages by the
volume) in dry air. Years for which the date quality was deemed insufficient
addition or omission of stations, the averages were calculated from third-
have been omitted (dashes), and the lack of an ongoing program is indicated
degree polynomial curve firs to the available yearly date. The reported SD is a
by blanks. For the calculation of the 1981 to 1987 average, all years were
measure of the variability of the annual averages at each erecion after
first normalized to 1987 by adding the globally averaged difference between
normalization to 1987.
Name
Code
Location
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
Average
SD
South Pole
SPO
90*5
38.5
39.3
40.7
42.2
43.6
44.6
46.8
46.59
.17
Halley Bay
HBA
76°S, 26°W
41.2
-
-
45.0
47.2
47.11
.23
Palmer Station
PSA
65°S. 64°W
39.5
40.9
42.7
43.9
-
47.0
40.91
.13
Cape Grim
CGO
41°S, 145°E
42.5
43.7
44.6
46.5
46.54
.11
Amsterdam Island
AMS
38'5, 78°E
39.3
41.1
42.4
43.9
45.0
-
46.82
.20
Samoa
SMO
14°S, 171°W
39.3
40.3
41.4
43.5
44,7
45.2
47.1
47.44
.27
Ascervion Island
ASC
8°S, 14°W
39,8
40.7
42.6
43.9
45.0
45.8
48.1
48.07
.33
Seychelles
SEY
5°S, 55"E
40.2
40.5
41.1
44.1
45.2
46.1
-
47.93
.41
Christmas Island
CHR
2°N, 157"W
44.7
45.9
46.3
48.5
48.56
.32
Guam
GMI
13°N, 146°E
41.0
42.7
44.4
46.0
-
-
48.64
.19
Virgin Island
AVI
18°N. 65°W
40.3
40.9
42.0
43.4
45.4
46.4
48.2
48.13
.28
Cape Kumukahi
KUM
20°N, 155W
40.6
41.2
42.6
44.3
45.0
40.5
48.5
48.52
.14
Key Biscayne
KEY
26°N, 80°W
45.2
46.7
47.6
49.5
49.47
.06
Midway
MID
28°N, 177"W
47.6
49.7
49.61
.21
Assores
AZR
39°N, 27°W
41.2
43.0
44.5
-
-
-
48.77
.21
Shemya Island
SHM
53°N, 174°E
48.9
50.0
50.39
.52
Cold Bay
CBA
55°N, 163°W
41.0
41.8
43.3
45.5
47.2
48.1
49.7
49.58
.34
Station "M"
STM
66N, 2°E
41.8
42.1
43.1
45.5
46.5
48.2
48.8
49.49
.42
Point Barrow
BRW
71% 157°W
41.4
42.6
43.7
45.4
46.4
48.6
49.5
49.73
.39
Mould Bay
MBC
76°N, 119°W
41.8
42.4
43.6
45.6
46.7
48.0
49.8
49.85
.28
Alert
ALT
83°N, 62"W
48.0
49.5
49.68
.25
Global average
40.00
40.65
42.03
43.91
45.27
46.26
48.10
48.10
1432
SCIENCE. VOL. 247
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Table 2. Estimates of sea-ro-air CO2 Aux (Gt of C per year) based on the
the ApCO2 and the winds has been taken into account. The north Indian
compilation of ApCO₂ in microsemospheres in various oceans (Fig. 3) and
Ocean is included in the equatorial oceans. Extrapolation of ApCO₂ into
transfer coefficients depending on wind speeds (sec texr). The seasonality of
ocean areas with no measurements is based on water temperatures (19).
January to April
July to October
Annual mean
Ocean
Location
ApCO2
Flux
ApCO2
Flux
ApCO₂
Flux
>50°N; 90°W to 20°E
-22
-0.15
-53
-0.31
-37
-0.23
Atlancic subaratic
15°N to 50'N; 90°W to 20°E
-29
-0.58
-1
-0.02
-15
-0.30
Adentic gyre
-11
-0.14
14
0.33
2
-0,06
North Pacific
15°N; 110°E to 90°W
15*3 to 15°N; 180°W to 180°E
37
1.56
28
1.69
33
1.62
Equatorial
50°S to 15°S; 180°W to 180°E
-9
-1.46
-25
-3.31
-17
-2.39
Southern 5yres
Antarcric
>50°S
-23
-0.38
-10
-0.03
-17
-0.20
3
-1.5
- 1
-1.7
1
-1.6
Global
is 0.067 mol of CO2 year-' µatm⁻¹, which is consistent with
transport fields have been validated by the simulation of Inert racers
the global mean CO2 gas exchange rare of 20 = 3 mol of CO₂
(27). For tracers with Northern Hemisphere mid-laricude sources,
year⁻¹, based on the distribution of 14CO2 in the atmosphere and
the interhemispherle exchange time has been adjusted via 4 subgrid
oceans (21) (hence Eq. 2 is "empirical"). The ocean fluxes were
diffusion parameterization to 1.0 year, intermediate berween what is
caiculated from the seasonal ApCO2 maps (Fig. 3), Eq. 2, and the
needed to march the observed north-south distributions of CFCs
monthly climatological winds (25) (Table 2). This analysis gave a
and "Kr (exchange times of 0.9 and 1.1 years, respectively).
net CO₂ uptake of 1.6 Gt of C per year (1 Gt equals 10th 8), which
Two-dimensional models based on transport coefficients derived
corresponds to about 30% of the current rate of fossil futl
(28) from the GCM developed at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
emissions.
Laboratory (GFDL) have an interhemispheric exchange time for
A rigorous error analysis for this estimate cannot be made at this
85Kr (11) nearly identical to that in the GISS model. An indepen-
time, but most of the uncertainty is attributed to the sparsity of dara
dent 3-D transport model based on analyzed winds, 25 obtained by
in the South Pacific and South Indian oceans. In the North Pacific
the European Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting,
Ocean, where 26 trans-Pacific transects have been made during
together with a convective vertical mixing scheme, gives an inter-
various seasons from 1984 to 1989, the uncertainty in ApCO₂ due
hemispheric transport time for 85Kr of 1.39 years (29). The calcular-
to the finite number of samples can be estimated. We removed an
ed verrically and hemispherically averaged difference between the
east-west transect dara set (about 40 values) and computed pixel
hemispheres for the fossil fuel source by the GISS model is the same
values using the remaining data (about 260 values for a seasonal
as that derived for a simple atmospheric two-box model with an
map). after which we compared the values on the computed map
with the removed transect. This comparison was made for three
352
separate data sets, representing transects across the northern high-
351
AMS
laritude areas in summer and winter, respectively, and one across the
COD
0115
S
mid-iatitudes during the winter. The root-mean-square difference
between individual computed and measured values was B µatm,
350
whereas the mean difference was about 1 paun. This result suggests
good consistency between the transces and only minor statistical
sampling enors in this ocean basin, but does not address possible
Average CO2 concentration (ppen)
349
systematic crrors. A systematic error of 1 flatm in the annual average
348
4pCO₂ would lead to a total flux error of about 0.07 Gt of C per
347
year for the Aretic, North Atlantic. and North Pacific oceans
combined. On the other hand, the same error in ApCO₂ for the
348
Southern Hemisphere oceans (south of 10°S) would cause an error
in the net flux of about 0.15 Gt of C per year, mainly because of the
is
KUM
U.I.M
SILM
345
greater area.
cu
344
1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Transport Modeling with Surface Sources
Sine of latitude
and Sinks
Flg. 1. Observed stmospheric CO₂ concentrations at the sires of the
NOAA/GMCC fizsk network. The three-letter station codes are explained in
We used a global 3-D atmospheric tracer model derived from the
Table 1. The error bars represent 1 SD of the annual averages at each site
general circulation model (GCM) developed at Goddard Institute
after adjustment to 1987. Curve (a) is a least-squares cubic polynomial fit TO
for Space Studies (GISS) of the National Aeronautics and Space
the data. The residual SD of the points with respect to the curve is 0.39 ppm.
The concentration distributions at the NOAA/GMCC sites have also been
Administration (26) to model the distribution of CO2 in the
calculated with the NASA/GISS GCM transport fields. Other curves are
atmosphere. The 3-D model is fully seasonal in terms of its transport
polynomial fies to the calculated CO₂ distributions (not shown) with fossil
and mixing characteristics (including parameterized diffusion) as
fuel emissions. sessonal vegetation (no net annual source or sink), tropical
well as in the sources and sinks of CO2- The parent GCM has diurnal
deforestation of 0.3 Gt of C per year, and three different cases of ocean
and seasonal cycles. and four hourly mass fluxes, as well as monthly
uprake: (c), the compilation of CO2 uptake based on the ApCO₂ dara (Table
2) and our empirical transfer cosificients; (b), CO₂ upeake based on the same
averaged convective frequencies, were saved for the tracer transport
ApCO2 map, bur calculated with the Liss-Merlivar (22) relation for air-sca
model. In addition to producing realistic simulations of the large-
exchange; (d), an carlier estimare of ocean uptake (21) rotaling 2.6 Gt of C
scale features of the general circulation of the atmosphere, the GCM
per year.
23 MARCH 1990
ARTICLES 1433
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3-27-90 3:18PM ;202 682 0816
45665691# 4
interhemispheric exchange time of 1 year. Also, our two-dimension-
modeled annual oscillations are similar to those observed at the
al model based on the transport derived from the GFDL GCM gave
surface sampling sites, as well as to those found in aircraft data from
a virtually identical result.
Scandinavia, Japan, Australia (Fig. 4), and from various latirudes in
The GISS transport model has been used to simulare the effects of
the Northern Hemisphere at 500 and 700 mbar (31).
seasonal CO2 exchange with the terrestrial biosphere (30). The
The covariance of seasonal transport and seasonal CO2 sources
and sinks may lead to annually averaged concentration differences
between different sites, both in the model and in the atmosphere,
even in the absence of net annual sources: If transport is less
vigorous during the season when a surface region is a source rather
than when it is a sink, a positive net annual concentration anomaly
will result. With purely seasonal annually balanced sources, the GISS
3.D model calculates annual mean concentrations for the GMCC
sites in the Northern Hernisphere that are on average 0.25 ppm
higher than for the sites in the Southern Hemisphere, whereas a 2-D
model (11) gives a difference of only 0.05 ppm. There are no
independent tracers to validate this aspect of the models. The most
important reason for the difference is the summer-to-winter variabil-
ity of vertical convective mixing at high latitudes. The greater
vertical stability in winter would tend to keep the respired CO2
closer to the ground, which would result in higher annual average
Flg. 2. The distribution of measurements of 4PCO₂ since 1972. Where
observations were made quasi-continuously, the values have been averaged
surface CO2 concentrations in the Northern Hemisphere.
over 2° intervals in longitude and latitude, and each of these intervals is
We used the 3-D model to test hypotheses about global CO₂
represented by a single dot on the map.
budgets, constructed as linear combinations of separate source-sink
Flg. 3. Observed ApCO2 (in mi-
croatmospheres) between surface
waters of the oceans and the atmo-
sphere during two seasonal periods,
(A) January through April and (B)
July through October. These maps
have been compiled from direct ob.
servations made since 1972 (Fig. 2)
and represent the mean distribu-
tions during the past 16 years, ex-
cluding the Ei Niño conditions in
the equatorial Pacific. Areas of ice
cover are indicated in light gray.
I434
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patterns. We first calculated the CO2 distribution for each source
(22); this scenario results in 2 total ocean uprake of only 0.8 Gt of C
separately by running the model with that source for 3 years, during
per year, in which case an extra sink of 1.8 Gt of C per year is
which the annual average concentration gradients became stabilized.
required. In the third. we ser the global net ocean sink to 2.6 Gt of C
The CO2 distributions computed for the last year of the simulations
per year (21). thus balancing the budget.
were used in our analyses. As a sign convention, fluxes into the
The simulated difference in atmospheric CO2 between the north
atmosphere (sources) are positive, fluxes from the atmosphere
and south poles resulting exclusively from fossil fuel combustion
(sinks) negative. For any hypothesized global budget to be accept-
without any CO2 sinks was 4.4 ppm. The uncertainty in the CO₂
able, it must satisfy two observational criteria: first, the total
production from fossil fuel combustion is estimated to be between 6
atmospheric inventory must increase by 3.0 Gt of C per year
and 10% (33), and about 5% (34) of the fuel carbon is only partially
(corresponding to 1.4 ppm per year), and second, the correspond-
oxidized to CO during combustion. This CO is oxidized in the
ing linear combination of the modeled response distributions must
atmosphere by reaction with OH radicals, which are concentrated at
reasonably resemble the observed atmospheric concentration differ-
lower latirudes. This effect is neglected in the scenario, so that the
ences at the stations.
calculated pole-to-pole gradient for fossil fuel combustion alone
The residuals, departures of the modeled annual average CO₂
could be berween 3.8 to 4.6 ppm. The seasonal terrestrial CO₂
concentrations from those observed at the GMCC sites, were fit
exchange and cropical deforestation together are calculated a add
with 2 third-order polynomial and with a straight line. In this way
another 0.6 PPm to the poie-to-pole gradient. The inclusion of the
we were looking for consistent patterns of disagreement between
oceanic sink, acting strongly in the Southern Hemisphere, resulted
the model and the data, because we did not want to adjust sources
in a meridional gradient between both poles of 5.7 to 7.3 ppm,
solely on the basis of discrepancies at single points. A source
depending on the ocean scenario. These values are contradicted in all
scenario is considered not plausible if the slope of the linear fit or
any structure in the polynomial fit is statistically significant. The
linear slope constraint requires that the strength of extratropical
A
sources and sinks in the Northern relative to those in the Southern
Troposphere
Hemisphere be determined to within about 0.2 Gt of C per year.
> 9km
7 to 9 km
A Test of Some Current Views of the
CO2 Budget
8 to 7 km
The geographical distribution of fossil fuel combustion (32) was
combined with several global compilations of CO₂ exchange with
3.5 to 5.5 km
3 to 5 km
the oceans and the terrestrial biosphere. The fossil fuel source was
5.3 Gt of C per year. typical of that from 1980 9 1987, when the
global fossil fuel consumption remained fairly constant. Seasonal
1 to 3 km
exchange with the terrestrial biosphere (30) was included although it
10 ppm
1 ppm
does not affect the global budget. Tropical deforestation was
assumed to be a source of 0.3 Gt of C per year, at the low end of the
release estimates. Three ocean estimates were tested. In the first, our
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
À
S
o
N
D
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
0
N
D
ocean data analysis presented above (Table 2) was used, and in this
Month
Month
case an additional CO2 sink of 1 Gt of C per year is required to
balance the budger because the observed atmospheric increase is 3.0
Fig. 4. Comparison of the observed (31) (solid line) and GISS-model
calculated (30) (dashed line) annual cycle of CO₂ at different alritudes in the
Gt of C per year. In the second, the ApCO₂ values were combined
troposphere over (A) Scandinavia (67%, 20°E) and (B) Bass Strait (40°S.
with the air-sea transfer coefficients proposed by Liss and Merlivat
150'E).
Table 3. Four modeled secnarios of the global atmospheric cycle. Flaxes are
terrestrial biosphere have been postulated, uptake by the oceans is adjusted
in units of gigatons of C per year and ApCO, is in microstmaspheres. The
to minimize the SD (in parts per million, last line) of the residual differences
terrestrial sources and sinks correspond to the basis functions: (i) tropical
between the observed and calculated atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. The
deforestation, (ii) carbon sequestering by temperate ecosystems, and (iii)
required annual average ДрСО₂ is estimated for ocean basins with empirical
CO₂ fertilization (see text). Fossil fuel combustion and the seasonality of the
air-sea gas transfer coefficients.
terrestrial biosphere is included in all cases. After fluxes to and from the
Source or sink
Scenario 1,
Scenario 2,
Scenario 3.
Scenario 4.
Aux ApCO2
flux AsCO2
flux ApCO2
flux ApCO2
Tropical deforestation
0.3
0.3
2.0
2.0
Temperate ecosystem uptake
0.0
0.0
0.0
-1.0
CO2 fertilization
0.0
-1.0
0.0
0.0
Total terrestrial
0.3
-0.7
2.0
1.0
North Atlantic (>50°N)
-0.7 -72
-0.5 -52
-0,7 -72
-0.5 -52
North Atlantic gyre (15° to 50°N)
-1.0 -52
-0.8 -42
-1.4 -73
-1.0 -52
North Pacific gyre (>15°N)
-1.0 -24
-0.7 -17
-1.4 -34
-1.0 -24
Equatorial (15'5 to 15°N)
1.0
22
1.0
22
1.0
22
1.0
22
Combined southern gyres (15° to 50°3)
-1.4 -14
-1.1 -11
-2.3 -23
-2.3 -23
Antarcric (>50°5)
0.5
9
0.5
9
0.5
9
0.5
9
Toral oceans
-2.6
-1.6
-4.3
-3.3
SD of residuals
0.25
0.24
0.26
0.25
22 MARCH zopo
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cases by the atmospheric data (Fig. 1) which exhibit a difference of
1
only 3.0 ppm: What is wrong? In order to decrease the modeled
a
0
gradient due to the fossil fuel source alone, either the extratropical
0
net sink in the Northern Hemisphere must be larger than in the
0
do
DO
Southern Hemisphere, or there is a serious problem with the
1
simulations of stmospheric transport in the GCM.
0
The annually averaged interhemispheric transport in the GCM is
this part of the uncertainty in the calculated pole-to-pale concentra-
co₂ (ppm)
o
80
0
constrained by the 85Kr and CFC calibrations, and we estimate that
0
o
0
0
tion gradient is 10% or less. The behavior of the seasonal cycle of
CO₂ as a function of altitude is well represented by the model (30,
0
0
31) in the few places where data are available. Inverse calculations
with two-dimensional transport models (11) have similarly shown
1
0
that the sink of CO2 needs to be substantially larger in the Northern
0
08
Hemisphere than in the Southern Hemisphere. As the peak-to-
&
0
trough amplitude of the mean Northern Hernisphere CO2 annual
cycle is about 8 ppm, ir is unlikely that covariation of this seasonal
2
1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
source and seasonal transport could produce a north-south counter-
gradient 25 large as 3 to 4 ppm to allow the southern oceans to be
Sine of latitude
the dominant sink of fossil fuel CO2, Therefore, the presence of a
Pig. 5. Results of model calculations (scenario 1, Table 3) of the atmospheric
large sink of C in the Northern Hemisphere is at more likely cause for
CO₂ concentrations at the GMCC sites (squares and dashed curve) are
the discrepancy than problems with the model transport.
compared with the observed concentrations (circles and solid curve). All
values are relative to the global mean. The curves are least-squares cubic
polynomial fits; the differences between the curves are nor statistically
significant.
CO₂ Patterns from Single Source Regions
Before we discuss CO₂ source-sink scenarios, that is, linear
of NPP if ecosystem respiration remained the same. This amount is
combinations of sources and sinks that sacisfy the two constraints,
easily within the uncertainties of global NPP estimates (36).
we describe the series of "basis" sources and simulations of the
In the simulations we took into account the covariance of the
corresponding CO2 response distributions made with the 3-D
annually balanced seasonal CO₂ exchange (30) with terrestrial plants
model. Atmospheric CO2 patterns were calculated separately for
(no net annual flux) and the seasonality of the transport as a separate
eight oceanic source regions: the equatorial oceans between 15"N
"basis" source scenario. The Inclusion of this scenario significantly
and 15°S, the North Pacific gyre north of 15"N, the North Atlantic
improved the comparison between the modeled and the observed
north of 50°N, the North Atlantic gyre berween 15°N and 50°N, the
concentrations with respect to the longitudinal variability.
South Adantic, Scuth Pacific and Indian ocean gytes each between
15°S and 50°S, and the Antarctic Ocean south of 50°S. In each of
these cases the source was assumed, as a first approximation, to be
Adjustment of Oceanic Uptake to Terrestrial
constant in time and uniformly distributed in its respective area. The
Scenarios
resulting concentration patterns were as expected: for example, if
there is a CO₂ source of 1 Gt of C per year in the North Aclantic
After we specified a priori certain combinations of gain and loss of
gyre, the CO2 concentrations at AZR, KEY. and AVI (Table 1)
C on the continents, uptake by the oceans was adjusted in each case
stand our from values at Pacific stations at similar latitudes by about
until satisfactory agreement with the atmospheric observations was
0.6 ppm. To reduce the number of independent variables, we
obtained. The four scenarios (Table 3 and Fig. 5) all fit the
assumed that the fluxes were proportional to area in the three
acmospheric observations equally well; these data by themselves do
southern ocean gyres, and we held the equatorial ocean source fixed
not permit us to determine whether any one is more likely. In firting
at 1 Gt of C per year (21). We then had five ocean areas left as
the data, we could, to a limited extent, trade off uptake of C by
variables, the North Atlantic, the two north temperate gyres, the
terrestrial ecosystems against uprake by the oceans, for example,
combined southern gyres, and the waters around Antarctica.
boreal forest and tundra ecosystems against the North Atlancic.
We considered four "basis functions" of net annual CO₂ exchange
Monitoring techniques need to be developed for and extended to
with the cerrestrial biosphere: (i) net release due to deforestation in
the continental interiors to preclude such freedom in modeling and
the tropies (3); (ii) C sequestering by temperate ecosystems; (iii)
to pinpoint the source-sink distributions much more definitively.
storage of C by high latitude boreal ecosystems; (iv) and a hypo-
The disagreement with Table 2 for the uptake of CO2 by the
thetical sink due to enhanced net photosynthesis, which is referred
southern oceans stems mainly from the limited number of A2CO₂
to as CO2 fertilization. For the second basis function, the C sink was
observations in the high-latirude waters near Antarctica. The atmo-
uniformly distributed among locations associated with cold-decidu-
spheric data seem to indicate that there is a CO2 source in the waters
ous forests (13 x 106 km2); similarly for the chird, the sink was
around Antarcrica. This estimate for the Antarctic waters rests on
distributed among evergreen needle-leaved forests and woodlands
the concentration difference between HBA and PSA on the one
(12 X 10⁶ km²) and tundra (7 X 10⁶ km²). Carbon sequestering in
hand and SPO, CGO, and AMS on the other hand (Fig. 1). Recent
these regions may be through processes such as reforestation (35) or
occanographic measurements (37) appear to have provided some
accumulation of organic matter in soils. For the fourth sink, we
confirmation for the presence of a CO₂ source (Fig. 3B).
assumed that the net fertilization is proportional to net primary
Atmospheric CO2 concentrations at AVI, KEY, and AZR (Table
productivity (NPF); thus, this sink is Intense in tropical regions
1) in the Atlantic relative to KUM and MID in the Pacific suggest
because of their high NPP (56). A global ferrilization effect of 1 Gr
that the average pCO₂ of the North Pacific should be higher than
of C per year, for example, would represent an increase of only 2%
the North Atlantic. The ApCO₂ observations confirm this (Fig. 3).
1416
SCIENCE, VOL. 247
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455555914
All of the scenarios (Table 3), however, are equally unrealistic
The modeled CO2 gradients are not very sensitive to the magni-
because the mean annual ApCO₂ required for the Northern Hemi-
tude of tropical deforestation because the GMCC sites are remore
sphere oceans is much greater than observed (Fig. 3). The discrep-
from deforestation activities and the released CO2 is dispersed
ancy is much larger than can be explained by the uncertainty in the
rapidly via vigorous vertical mixing, If the release of CO2 from
ApCO₂ data. Use of the gas exchange rates of Liss and Merlivar (22)
tropical forest destruction is balanced by the fertilization effect, half
would double this discrepancy.
of the extra CO₂ is taken up in the tropics themselves, and thus
smaller amounts of carbon uptake are required at temperate latitudes
in both hemispheres. A large amount of tropical deforestation
Adjustment of Terrestrial Exchange to
(scenario 8, Table 4) can only be accommodated if CO2 fertilization
is 2 strong sink, so that the modeled tropical CO2 concentrations do
Observed ApCO₂
not become significantly larger than those observed.
Because of the conflict of the ApCO₂ required by the foregoing
We have not included in the simulations the atmospheric oxida-
scenarios and the observed 4pCO2 of the northern oceans, we
tion of CO, which produces a total of 0.85 = 0.25 Gt of C per year
constructed several scenarios in which CO2 fluxes in better known
of CO₂ (34). Simulations with a two-dimensional model of a
oceanic regions were kept fixed (with linear interpolation for the
laritudinal and seasonal distribution of CO oxidation totaling 1 Gt
intervening months), namely uptake by the northern oceans and
of C per year globally (38) suggest that a broad maximum in CO2
CO2 ourgassing from the equatorial oceans (Table 2). Exchange
concentrations forms at 30°N that decreases by 0,3 ppm toward the
with the terrestrial ecosystems and with the southern oceans was
South Pole and by 0.15 ppm toward the North Pole. The inclusion
varied to produce agreement with the atmospheric data.
of this process would have reinforced the need for E northern mid-
Several types of scenarios (four are presented in Table 4) all
latitude sink. As a related problem, a small part of the terrestrial sink
agreed about equally well with the atmospheric data. The constraint
for CO2 that we infer will not contribute to C storage on the land
of the observed north-south gradient imposes two important com-
because C is recycled by the biosphere into reduced volatile com-
mon fearures. First, a large terrestrial sink at northern temperate
pounds that are oxidized, often via CO, to CO2 in the atmosphere.
latitudes is necessary, and second, total CO₂ uptake by the oceans is
considerably less than uptake by terrestrial systems. The total
terrestrial sink at high northern and temperate latitudes (including
Conclusions
its share of the global CO2 fertilization) varies between 2.0 and 2.7
Gt of C per year in the four scenarios. The sum of the temperate and
From 1981 to 1987 atmospheric CO₂ increased at an average rate
high-latitude sources and sinks is tightly constrained, but the two
of 3.0 Gt of C per year. The release of CO2 from fossil fuel burning
can be traded off against one another to some extent. However, a
(5.3 Gt of C per year) and land USC modification (0.4 to 2.6 Gt of C
large temperate sink requires a smaller high-latitude source to
per year) is being partially balanced by the uptake of CO2 by the
prevent the modeled CO₂ concentration at arctic sites from becom-
oceans and by terrestrial ecosystems. Observations and simulations
ing too low.
of the meridional gradient of CO2 in the atmosphere suggest that
The following scenarios were unsuccessful: The additional ab-
these sinks are larger in the Northern Hemisphere than in the
sorption of more than a few tenths of a gigaton of C by high latitude
Southern Hemisphere.
ecosystems or the Arctic Ocean resulted in predicted concentrations
The atmospheric gradient constrains the combined uptake by the
for the rive northernmost stations that were too low. Balancing the
southern ocean gyres and Antarctic waters to be from 0.6 to 1.4 Gt
global budget by uptake via CO₂ fertilization proportional to NPP
of C per year. In consideration of the large data base of seasonal
(and no tropical deforestation) left the concentrations at equatorial
ApCO₂ measurements in the surface waters of the Northern Hemi-
latirudes too low; half of the NPP takes place in the tropics, so that
sphere, the uncertainties in ApCO₂ are most likely not large enough
the area would in that case act as a net sink for CO2.
to accommodate the values of C removal required without a large
Table 4. Four modeled scenarios of the global atmospheric C cycle in which
atmospheric observations. The estimates of uptake by the oceans are based
uprake by the northern and equatorial occans is held fixed. Fluxes are in units
on observed sessonal ApCO₂ values, monthly climatological winds and two
of Gt of C per yezr. Equatorial ocean ourgassing is lower than in Table 2 by
sets of air-sea gas transfer coefficients, our empirical relation (Emp), and the
0.32 Gt of C per year to take into account El Niño episodes occurring about
Liss-Merlivat (22) relation (LM). In the latter case the equatorial oceanic
once every 4 years. After the rate of tropical deforestation has been
source is smaller, 50 that less uprake is required at temperate larirudes in both
postulated, CO₂ exchange with terrestrial ecosystems and the southern
hernispheres to balance the budget.
oceans is varied (indicated by asterisk) to produce agreement with the
Scenario S
Scenario 6
Scenario 7
Scenario 8
Source or sink
Emp
LM
Emp
LM
Emp
LM
Emp
LM
Tropical deforestation
0.0
0.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.5
2.5
CO2 fertilization*
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
-1.0
-1.0
-3.0
-3.0
Temperate uptake*
-2.0
-2.0
-3.0
-2.9
-2.3
-2.0
-1.9
-1.9
Boreal source*
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.7
0.7
Total terrestrial
-2.0
-2.0
-1.6
-1.5
-1.9
-1.8
-1.7
-1.7
Arctic and sub-arctic (>50'N)
-0.23
-0,12
-0.23
-0.12
-0.23
-0.12
-0.23
-0.12
Combined northern gyres (15'N to 50"N)
-0.30
-0.18
-0.36
-0.18
-0.36
-0.18
-0.36
-0.18
Equatorial (15°S to 16°N)
1.30
0.65
1.30
0.65
1.30
0.65
1.30
0.65
Combined southern gyres* (50°S to 50°S)
-1.5
-1.1
-1.9
-1.6
-1.6
-1.3
-1.8
-1.4
Antarctic (>50°S)
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0,5
0.5
Total oceans
-0,3
-0.3
-0.7
-0.8
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.6
SD of residuals (ppm)
0.26
0.28
0.27
0.29
0.27
0.28
0.28
0.29
23 MARCH 1990
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terrestrial sink. We infer that the global ocean sink is at most 1 Gt of
longitude or ladrade interval WEE computed and used as 1 dats paint (Fig. 2). The
C per year. Our analysis thus suggests that there must be a terrestrial
4,CO2 values were obtained by subtracting the stmospheric pCO₂ values at nearby
locations from the oceanie values. WE computed the values by using
sink at temperate lacitudes to balance the carbon budget and to
the mole fraction concereration in dry air (measured with the same instrument as
match the north-south gradient of atmospheric CO2, The mecha-
that used for pCO₂ measurements in sea water). the barometric pressure, and the
nism of this C sink is unknown; its magnitude appears to be as large
securated water vapor pressure & see surface temperature.
17. R. A, Feely of al., J. Graphys. Res. 92, 6546 (1987).
as 2.0 to 3.4 Gt of C per year, depending on the sources in the
18. The measured values were weighted inversely proportional to the aquare of the
tropical and the boreal and tundra regions.
distance from the center of the pixcl, and those obtained in different years were
weighted equally: AoCO. values in pixels with no measurements, but surrounded
The global C cycle is not well understood. Unraveling the
by pixels with measured ApCO₂ values, were estimated in gyre areas by linear
contemporary CO2 cycle and the development of future mitigation
interpolation in both latitude and longitude. In the equatorial zone, where currents
strategies requires a concerted measurement program to determine
are dominated by sonal flows, the value interpolated along the same laritude was
used.
the seasonal fluxes of CO₂ berween the atmosphere, land, and
19. To extrapolate ASCO, values into areas where measurements were not available
oceans. Our hypothesis suggests that annually averaged ApCO₂
(black areas in Rig. 2), the seawater PCO₂ was assumed B be a function of
values in the combined southern oceans are small negative values.
temperature alone. The following temperature coefficients were determined on the
bests of the measurements made during various seasons and are assumed to be
Collection of data on air-sea exchange of CO2 in these areas in all
Independent of issure: 1.6% - in the weatern North Adantic (10'N to 40"N)
seasons should be given high priority. Understanding the role of the
and the south Indian Oceans (10'S to 34'S); 2.3% 'C⁻' in the South Atlantic
(10'S to 34°S) and South Pacific (10°S B 84°S); 4.3% 'C⁻¹ in the castem North
land in the C budget must include a reanalysis of the contribution of
Pacific (10°N to J4N, 64°W to 154°W); 1.2% "C"I in the Southern Ocean (34'S
mid-latitude reforestation as well as studies of the feedbacks between
to 62°S). The climatological too surface temperature data complied by S. Levitus
ecosystem functioning, climate, and atmospheric composition.
[Climatological Atlas of the World Ocean, NOAA Prof. Pap. 13, pp. 173 (1982)]
were used. In the Pacific coastal areas along the Central and South Americas, where
The atmosphere integrates the fluxes from all sources and sinks. It
high ApCO₂ values occur because of upwelling of deep water, the ApCO2 date
thus contains the large-scale signatures of CO2 source arcas that are
obtained outside the two sessonal periods have been used with the assumption that
often highly variable, and therefore hard to measure, on smaller
the values do act change seasonally.
20. T.H. Peng and T. Takahashi. in Biogeochamity of CO, and the Greethouse Effect, M.
scales. Data from the present international nerwork of CO2 moni-
P. Farrell, Ed. (Am. Chem. Sec. Symp., CRC/Lewis, Boca Raton, FL, in press).
toring sires, located almost exclusively in occanic areas, cannot be
21. W. S. Brocuker " al., 1. Geophys. Res. 91. 10517 (1986); T. Takahashi at al.,
Seasonal and Geographic Variability of Carbon Dioxide Sink/Source in the Oceanic Areas
used to resolve longitudinal gradients, and thus identification of the
(Tech. Rip. for Cour. MRETTA 19X-89675C. Lamont-Doherty Geological Obser.
important source-sink areas is currently difficult. In addition, high-
vatory, Palisades, NY, 1986); H.C. Broecker, J. Petermann, W. Siems, J. Mar.
precision measurements of the large-scale variations of 13C/12C
Res. 86, 595 (1978).
ratios in CO₂ and the concentration of atmospheric O₂ are needed
22. P. Line and L. Merlivar, in The Role of Air-Sra Exchange in Geschemical Cycling. P.
Buar-Menard, Ed. (Adv. Sri. Inst. Ser. 185, Reidel, Hingham, 1986), PP. 113-127.
to untangle the contributions of the land and oceans.
Their formulation of the wind-spacd-dependent gas exchange is
E - 0.00048W for 0 s W 5 3.6 m
REFERENCES AND NOTES
E = 0.0083() - 3.39) for 3.6 K W = 13 m 1-1
E . 0,017(w - 8,26) for We 13 m
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(1987).
of the general circulation.
6. W. S. Broecker, T. Takahashi, H. J. Simpson, T.-H. Peng, Science 206, 409
27. M. Prather, M. McElroy. S. Wofsy. G. Russell. D. Rind, J. Comploys. Rev. 92. 6579
(1070).
(1987); D. J. Jacob, M. J. Prather, S. C. Wotly. M. B. McElroy, loid.. p. 6614.
7. C.D. Keeling, in Chemistry of the Lower Atmosphere. S. I. Rasool. Ed. (Plenum, New
28. R. A. Plumb and J. D. Mahiman, 1. Atmas. Sci. 44, 298 (1987).
York, 1973). PP. 251-329; H. Oeschger, U. Siegenthaler. U. Schotterer. A.
29. M. Heimann and C. D. Keeling. in Aspects of Climer Vanability In the Parific and the
Gugalmann. Tellus 27. 168 (1975); R. Bacastow and A. Bjorkstrom. in Carbon
Western Americas, D. H. Peterson, Ed. (Comphysical Monugraph 55. American
Cyde Medelling. B. Bolin, Ed. (Wiley, New York, 1981) PP. 29-80; T.H. Peng,
Grophysical Union, Washington, DC, 1989).
Rediocation 28. 363 (1986): E. Maier-Reimer and K. Hasseimann. Climate Dyn. 2.
30. I. Y. Fung. C. I. Tucker, K C. Prentice, J. Grophys. Res. 93, 2999 (1987).
62 (1987); 1. R. Toggweller, X. Dixon, K. Bryan. 1. Geophys. Res. 94, 8217
31. We have made comparisons with aircraft data from C. D. Keeling. T. B. Harris. E.
(1989): lbid., A 8243 (1989).
M. Wilkins, J. Grophys, Res. 73, 4511 (1968); B. Boiln and W, Bischer, Telhis 22,
8. J. R. Trabalka, Ed., Atmospheric Carbon Diaxide and the Global Carbon Cycle (U.S.
431 (1970): G 1. Pearman and D. J. Beardsmore, its. 36B, 1 (1984); M. Tanake.
Dept. Energy Rep. DOB/ER-0239, National Technical Information Service, Spring-
T. Nakasawa S. Aoki, ibid. 39E. 3 (1987).
field, VA. 1985).
32. G. Marland. R M. Romy, R. L. Treat, Telho 37B. 243 (1985).
9, G. I. Pearman and P. Hyson, J. Geophys. Res. 85. 4468 (1980).
33. G. Marland and R. M. Rony, isid. 265. 282 (1984).
10. 1. Fung " J., 1010. 88, 1281 (1933).
34. W. Seller and R. Conred, in The Grophysiciogy of Amexoule. R. E. Dickinson. Ed.
11. I. G. Enting and J. V Mansbridge, Tellus 41B. 111 (1989): P. P. Tans. T. 1.
(Wiley, New York, 1987). PP. 133-160.
Conway. T. Nakasawa, J. Geophys. Res. 94, 5151 (1989).
38. T. V. Armentano and C. W. Reison. Can. 3. Porest. Res. 10, 55 (1980): W. C.
12. W. D. Komhyr of al., 1. Grophys. Res. 90, 5667 (1985); T. J. Conway 11 al., Tellus
Johnson and D. M. Sharpe, (bld. 13, 372 (1983).
40B. 81 (1988). Since 1923 the flask samples have also been analyzed for methane
36. H. Lieth, in Primary Productivity of the Biosphere, H. Lieth and R. Whittaker, Eds.
(L P. Steele # al., J. Aimas. Chem. 5, 125 (1987)).
(Ecelog. Stred. 14, Springer, New York, 1975), PP 203-318.
13. All values are relative to the World Meteorological Organization X85 scale for CO2
37. H. Inove and Y. Sugimura. Telhes 40B. 308 (1988).
(P. R. Guenther and C. D. Kacling, Scripps Refirmer Gar Calibration System for CO₂.
38. P. Legan, personal communication.
Standards: Revision of 1985 (Scripps Institute of Oceanography. La Jolla. CA,
39. We chank T. Conway, X. Mararie, K. Thoning, and L. Waterman for obtaining the
1985)].
atmospheric data of the NOA/GMCC Bask network. and many people at the field
14. G. 1. Pearman and 2. Hyson. J. Attres. Chem. &, 81 (1986).
sites for collecting the air samples over the years. 3. John executed 3.D model runs
15. C. D. Keeiing and M. Heimann. J. Geophys. Res. 91. 7782 (1986).
and, together with ]. Jonas and P. Pairner, provided support for the color graphics.
16. The data base used consists mainly of the measurements obtained by the Lumont-
Assistance by D. Chipman, 1. Goddard, S. Sucherland, and E. A. Takahashi is
Doherty Geological Observatory. This has been supplemented by data in the North
appreciated. 1. Gammon and E. Garvey contributed their data to this ready. This
Atlantic by M. Roos and G. Gravenhorst 11. Crophys. Res. 89. 8181 (1924)]; in
work has been supported by the Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change
the equatorial Atlantic by C. Andrie, C. Oudot, C. Geathon, and L. Merlivat (ibid.
division of NOAA, the National Science Foundation, Martin Marietta's Carbon
91. 11,741 (1984)]; and in the North and Souch Pacific oceans and the eastern
Dioxide Information Analysis and Research program for the U.S. Department of
Indian Ocean by R. Gammon (personal communication]. When measurements
Energy under contract DE-AC05-84OR21400, and the EXXON Research and
were made continuously with 1 flow-through equilibrator, a mean value for each 2"
Engineering Company.
1438
SCIENCE, VOL 247
DRAFT
NATIONAL TREE TRUST
INTRODUCTION LETTER -- PRESIDENT BUSH
TAB A
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
TAB B
INCORPORATORS
TAB C
NATIONAL TREE TRUST ACT
C1 Background -- Link to America the
Beautiful
C2 FY 1991 Budget Narrative -- America
the Beautiful
C3 National Tree Trust Act of 1990
C4 Fact Sheet
TAB D
MISSION STATEMENT
TAB E
ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY
TAB F
PROPOSED ACTION PLAN
TAB G
CONTACTS
X TAB
DRAFT
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The President's Tree Planting Foundation
President Bush has a record of strong support for employing
tree planting as a progressive pollution fighting method,
including six presidential tree planting events. As a part of
the America the Beautiful initiative, the President's budget
proposal recommends a yearly $175 million dollar tree planting
program to be administered by the Department of Agriculture. In
the first year only, a portion of these funds, $35 million, will
be granted to a private tree planting foundation. Proposed
legislation will be submitted to authorize the President to
designate a charitable nonprofit tree planting foundation to
receive the funds. The foundation's purpose is to raise upwards
of an additional $500 million for the planting of trees
throughout America. The funds will be used to support community
based, volunteer oriented, forestation efforts. The initiative
will be similar in concept to the Statue of Liberty restoration
venture, with added emphasis on individual participation. Two of
the President's more popular themes, reawakening the spirit of
community service and improving the environment, will be melded
together in a successful symbiotic alliance.
If enacted, the legislation will allow the President to
choose a foundation to receive the $35 million in Federal funds.
The Office of the White House Counsel and the Department of
Justice have advised that the designated foundation needs to be
private, but that the White House can assist and advise the
founders.
As an incorporator, the President asked for your assistance
in establishing a foundation to be called the National Tree Trust
and seeks your leadership, as a Director, in implementing the
objectives of the Trust. The White House has prepared this
briefing book containing background material, the National Tree
Trust Act of 1990 as drafted, a suggested action plan, a synopsis
of the Trust's mission and goals and other informational material
to be used by you and the other incorporators at your discretion,
in establishing and operating the Trust. As the initial board,
you, with the other incorporators, will also be choosing
additional Directors, with advice from the White House, creating
a governing board which is non-partisan in composition.
Through Presidential remarks, participating Presidential
events, and White House cooperation, this private non-profit
foundation will be informally regarded by the public as the
President's foundation. The National Tree Trust will provide the
institutional framework for the President's efforts to encourage
private tree planting at the local level.
DRAFI
The National Tree Trust will begin operations, including
fund-raising (individual and industry commitments are already
significant), upon incorporation. With the authority provided by
legislation, the President will designate the National Tree Trust
as the recipient of the $35 million in Federal funds. Should the
legislation not pass, the National Tree Trust will successfully
continue its mission through private donations.
of the White House staff will assist
you, as needed, in the weeks ahead. Please contact
at
should you have any questions or comments concerning
material in the briefing book or relating to the National Tree
Trust in general.
TAB B
INCOR PORATORS
(To be completed)
TAB C
C1
DRA
NATIONAL TREE TRUST
AND
THE AMERICA THE BEAUTIFUL INITIATIVE
The President's FY 1991 America the Beautiful Initiative
has been proposed to address the protection, conservation and
enhancement of America's natural resources. The initiative
includes three components, cutting across the Interior and
Agriculture Departments. These components are (1) expanded
Federal recreational land acquisition, which involves both
departments; (2) a National tree planting and forest
improvement initiative, to be administered by Agriculture; and
(3) an Interior Department resource protection and recreation
enhancement effort, called "Legacy '99".
The National Tree Planting and Forest Improvement Program
at USDA is a part of the new America the Beautiful account in
the Forest Service budget. The tree-planting initiative
includes $175 million to pursue the goal of planting a billion
trees a year on private lands.
The initiative includes two basic components to be
coordinated by USDA, a rural component to address reforestation
of private, non-industrial lands and a Community Trees
initiative. Within rural areas, the budget provides $110
million to USDA for cost-sharing and technical assistance with
private landowners to plant, improve and maintain trees on
suitable lands. The program will be implemented through
existing delivery mechanisms within USDA and through state
forestry agencies. For Community Trees, the budget includes
$30 million to USDA to provide leadership, coordination and
technical assistance to support tree planting and care in
community and urban environments. This program also will rely
on the existing technical assistance delivery system with the
Forest Service working through State Foresters and other
operators. Both components will be carried out under existing
authorities.
In concert with the President's tree planting initiative,
the budget also proposes the one-time capitalization of a
private, non-profit foundation to promote public awareness,
solicit financial and non-financial support and to mobilize a
spirit of volunteerism to further the President's tree-planting
goals.
Legislation will be submitted to authorize the President
to make a grant of $35 million to a designated foundation.
Following this initial capitalization, the $35 million would be
reallocated to other components of the Tree Initiative in years
1992 through 1995 at USDA.
C2
120
THE BUDGET FOR FISCAL YEAR 1991
EXERCISING RESPONSIBLE STEWARD-
volve all Americans in strengthening the Na-
SHIP OF AMERICA'S NATURAL RE-
tion's natural resource heritage; and his firm
SOURCES
commitment to providing responsible steward-
ship of the country's natural assets for the
America the Beautiful
benefit of generations to come.
President Theodore Roosevelt began this
The budget contains a new initiative,
century by directing the Nation's attention to
"America the Beautiful", that underscores
the protection of valuable public lands-Amer-
these Presidential priorities. It would finance
ica's treasure trove of parks, wildlife refuges,
expanded land acquisition for the national
forests, and rangelands. It was Roosevelt who
parks, wildlife refuges, forests, and other
identified "the conservation of natural re-
public lands. It would launch a new national
sources and their proper use" as a national
program of reforestation. And it would provide
problem of fundamental concern.
substantial funds for enhanced recreation, and
As the end of the century approaches, it is
protection and restoration of key natural re-
appropriate that its final decade be one in
sources, under a program called "Legacy
which conservation, enhancement, and protec-
'99"-a reflection of the Administration's
tion of these irreplaceable national assets rises
desire to leave behind a legacy in which these
to the forefront of national concerns. The 1991
natural resource assets have been restored by
budget reflects the President's support for ap-
the end of the century. The budget supports
propriate expansion and proper maintenance
the America the Beautiful initiative by propos-
of the Nation's parks, refuges, forests, and
ing a 75 percent increase in funding for these
other public lands; his determination to in-
activities above 1990 levels.
AMERICA THE BEAUTIFUL
(Budget authority in millions of dollars)
Funding Summary
1990
1991
Proposed
increase
Land Acquisition
215
250
+35
Reforestation
-
175
+175
Legacy '99
146
205
+59
Total, America the Beautiful
361
630
+ 269
Land Acquisition.-The President believes
and increase the value of the assets passed on
that America's national system of parks, wild-
to future generations.
life refuges, forests, and other public lands
The 1991 budget proposes to expand this pro-
should be expanded and passed on in better
gram of acquiring high priority lands by creat-
shape than they are now.
ing a new America the Beautiful fund. Funds
In 1990, the Administration proposed new
for land acquisition would be provided, as in
funds for the first time in several years for
the past, through annual appropriations from
Federal acquisition of lands with particularly
the Land and Water Conservation Fund. The
high value for the environment and for recrea-
America the Beautiful initiative would fund
tion purposes. The $215 million program to
the purchase of $1 billion of key land and
which the President and the Congress agreed
water resources over the next 4 years.
will preserve these lands for public purposes
III.F. PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT
121
The America the Beautiful fund will also be
wildlife, trees can be a "sink" for carbon diox-
able to join in partnership with private parties
ide emissions-and thus can help to address
and State and local governments to maximize
any effect that increases in CO2 emissions from
the significance of the purchases it makes and
human activities may have.
the overall value of land set aside for public
purposes.
Trees are roughly 50 percent carbon. As
they grow, trees remove carbon from the air
Concurrent with the submission of this
and store it as plant tissue. A single forest tree
budget, the Administration will propose to the
absorbs 26 pounds of carbon dioxide (CO2) a
Congress a priority listing of lands to be ac-
year, and an acre of trees can remove 2½ to
quired by the National Park Service, the Fish
nine tons of CO2.
and Wildlife Service, the Bureau of Land Man-
agement, and the Forest Service with the $250
Trees are valuable as a source of energy con-
million proposed for acquisition through Amer-
servation for homes and businesses. In the
ica the Beautiful in 1991. This list has been
summer, the shade provided by trees can
developed through a competitive rating
greatly reduce cooling requirements. In winter,
system, in which particular importance was
deciduous trees allow sunlight through to a
placed on the extent to which a potential ac-
home, and closely placed, dense conifers near a
quisition parcel contains valuable wetlands, is
home can save up to 20 percent in fuel costs.
in proximity to population centers, has the po-
tential to offer increased recreational opportu-
Trees can provide forest buffer strips which
nities to the public, is important for the protec-
reduce the flow of nutrients and pesticides as-
tion of endangered species, or possesses other
sociated with agricultural production into the
characteristics which make its early acquisi-
Nation's waterways. Planting timber on cer-
tion for public purposes of special importance.
tain highly erodible and marginally productive
An explanation of the rating system will be
croplands can produce a higher return on
provided to the Congress with the list of priori-
those lands than many other crops.
ty acquisitions.
Currently, about 3½ million acres of public
Reforestation: Planting Trees for America's
and private lands are planted in trees and
Future.-Recent years have witnessed growing
seedlings annually. This is up from the ap-
attention to global environmental trends, a
proximately ½ million acres of 40 years ago.
strong upsurge in the concern of the American
Nevertheless, the U.S. experiences a net loss of
people about the national and international
about 700,000 acres of forest land per year.
environment, and an increased willingness on
the part of individual Americans to take per-
Much of America's 730 million acres of for-
sonal responsibility for their environmental
ests lies on Federal and State lands or on
future.
lands owned by large, commercial forest prod-
ucts enterprises. The Federal government cur-
The 1991 budget contains funds for a major
rently undertakes substantial reforestation ac-
reforestation initiative which will serve both to
tivities on lands under its jurisdiction: last
address emergent environmental concerns and
year, nearly 200 million trees were planted on
to encourage the involvement of communities,
National Forest lands; and another 27 million
corporations, State and local governments and
trees were planted on Department of the Inte-
individuals in creating solutions. The budget
rior lands, principally those managed by the
proposes $175 million for the first year of a
Bureau of Land Management. Some of the
multi-year initiative with twin objectives:
lands enrolled in the Conservation Reserve
planting a billion trees a year on private land
Program (CRP) since 1986 have been forested.
across America; and launching a community
trees program, designed to plant another 30
But almost half of America's forest land is
million trees in communities across the coun-
private land that is not used by large enter-
try
prises in the forest products industry. This pri-
Trees are a remarkably valuable resource.
vate, non-industrial forest land, due to low
In addition to their obvious value as the source
levels of management and investment, tends to
of wood products and habitat for all manner of
be in poor condition. Thus, reforestation and
stand improvement investment on these lands
0-1990-4
QL3
can yield an especially high level of CO2 se-
technical assistance to support this massive
questration and other benefits.
volunteer effort. In addition, the Administra-
Most private landowners neither seek nor
tion will submit legislation to the Congress to
receive technical advice concerning timber
establish a private, non-profit foundation to
management or reforestation practices; less
lend further leadership and help build broad-
than a third of those who actually harvest
based support for planting trees in communi-
timber have a management plan before the
ties across the Nation.
harvest.
The Foundation will be capitalized with a
The budget includes $110 million designed
one-time appropriation of $35 million in funds
primarily to improve the management and en-
from the community tree initiative, with
courage the reforestation of these lands. Spe-
which it will promote public awareness, solicit
cifically, the government will provide cost-
financial and non-financial support, and, most
shared assistance through the Forest Service
importantly, mobilize individuals, business,
and State forestry agencies to encourage small
governments, and community organizations in
lot owners to plant trees and undertake other
cities and towns throughout America. The goal
improved practices on private non-industrial
of the plant a tree initiative is to plant 30
lands and marginal agricultural lands. The ini-
million trees in various communities every
tiative also would provide grants to State for-
year
estry agencies to allow them to provide needed
materials, direct technical assistance, and
In total, the tree planting programs support-
seedlings to private landowners, municipal ar-
ed by the budget can have a substantial impact
borists, and community groups.
on sequestration of CO2 emissions by the
United States. Initial estimates are that the
The goal of the program is to achieve the
one billion trees a year envisioned in the Presi-
planting of trees on over one and one-half mil-
dent's reforestation initiatives could absorb 13
lion acres of private land annually, and timber
million tons of CO2 per year, and thus seques-
stand improvement and other stewardship ac-
ter up to 5 percent of annual U.S. CO2 emis-
tivities on another 180,000 acres.
sions within 20 years. And they will help
The Community "Plant a Tree" Initiative.-
greatly to improve wildlife habitat and water
A second promising target of reforestation as-
and air quality, and to increase outdoor recrea-
sistance is community trees. These include
tion opportunities.
street trees, trees in local parks, community
forests, and residential trees. Available infor-
Enhancing Recreation and Restoring Natural
mation indicates that community trees are de-
Resources: Legacy 99.-A third component of
clining in number and in health. One recent
America the Beautiful, beyond land acquisition
survey found that in most American cities,
and reforestation, is designed to focus Federal
only one tree is planted for every four re-
funding and expertise on a wide range of
moved Moreover, because of their location in
threatened natural resource treasures and key
population centers, studies indicate that com-
recreational areas in need of improvement.
munity trees have up to 15 times as much
The Department of the Interior is committed
value in overall reduction of CO2 as forest
to accomplishing these improvements by the
trees.
end of the decade-its 150th anniversary as a
Department-and hence has designated the
Thus, a second element of the President's
effort "Legacy '99."
plan to promote reforestation, provided for in
the budget, will be to assist in the creation of
The budget includes $205 million, an in-
tree planting programs in every community in
crease of 40 percent above 1990, for improved
America. The President is asking every town
resource protection and restoration (including
and city, every school and university, every
wetlands conservation and endangered species
company and indeed every citizen to join to-
activities) and enhanced recreational opportu-
gether in planting trees for America's future.
nities in national parks, wildlife refuges, and
other public lands. Included in Legacy '99 are
The budget contains $30 million in funding
funds for certain resources that are of special
needed to provide leadership, coordination and
importance:
TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES:
DRAFT
Today I am pleased to transmit a legislative proposal
entitled the "National Tree Trust Act of 1990." This proposal is
a key part of my America the Beautiful initiative, and it would
enhance the growing partnership between the public and private
sectors to plant trees across America.
President Theodore Roosevelt began this century by directing
the Nation's attention to the protection of valuable public
lands -- America's treasure trove of parks, wildlife refuges,
forests, and rangelands. As the end of the century approaches,
it is appropriate that this final decade be one in which
conservation, enhancement, and protection of our irreplaceable
national assets rise to the forefront of national concerns. With
this as our goal, my FY 1991 Budget proposes a new initiative --
"America the Beautiful." Our initiative reflects my support for
appropriate expansion and proper maintenance of the Nation's
parks, refuges, forests, and public lands. It is also based on
my determination to involve all Americans in strengthening the
Nation's natural resources heritage. Finally, this initiative
expresses my firm commitment to providing responsible stewardship
of the country's heritage for the benefit of generations to come.
My America the Beautiful initiative includes three
components. First, we propose to expand Federal recreational
land acquisition, which involves activities of the Departments of
the Interior and Agriculture. Second, the Department of the
Interior is undertaking an effort -- "Legacy '99" -- to enhance
resource protection and recreation. Third, we DRAFT propose a national
tree planting and forest improvement initiative, to be
administered by the Department of Agriculture. These components
will largely be implemented under existing authorities.
The proposal I am transmitting to Congress today authorizes
Presidential designation of a private nonprofit Foundation to
receive a one-time grant for the purpose of promoting community
tree planting and cultivation projects. It also authorizes
appropriations to the Secretary of Agriculture for a grant to
permit the Foundation to begin its important work. The
Foundation will promote public awareness and a spirit of
volunteerism, solicit private sector contributions, and oversee
the use of these contributions to encourage tree planting and
cultivation projects throughout the United States.
The Foundation will help forge cooperation between
individuals, businesses, governments, and community
organizations, and provide financial assistance to grassroots
volunteers to plant trees. It will help draw national attention
to the need for increased planting of trees in our communities,
where, on average, only one tree is now being planted for every
four that die or are removed. It is a program that will reach
every State, if not each and every community. All of our
citizens will be encouraged to participate in this program.
Trees are one of our most valuable resources. They
contribute to the environmental, economic, and social well-being
of this country. They enhance biodiversity, wildlife, air and
water quality, and recreational opportunities. Trees improve
-2-
DRAFT
landscape esthetics and property values, reduce soil erosion, and
provide many valuable wood products. They also contribute to
energy conservation through the shading and cooling of buildings
and by serving as windbreaks.
Enactment of this proposal will permit us to harness the
efforts of individuals and organizations to undertake the
nationwide planting and cultivation of invaluable trees. The
prompt passage of this proposal by Congress will demonstrate our
shared commitment to preserving one of our most valuable natural
resources, our precious heritage of trees. Let us ensure that
our descendants will be able to share our pride in referring to
this land as America the Beautiful.
-3-
To authorize the President to designate a private nonprofit
Foundation as eligible to receive funds for the purpose of
promoting community tree planting and cultivation projects.
Be it enacted by the Senate and the House of Representatives
of the United States of America in Congress assembled,
SEC. 1. SHORT TITLE.
This Act may be cited as the "National Tree Trust Act of
1990".
SEC. 2. FINDINGS.
The Congress finds that --
(1) trees provide beauty and are an important part of
America's heritage;
(2) trees capture and safely store greenhouse gases,
and each additional tree can reduce the possibility of
global warming;
(3) the shading, wind-blocking, and evaporation
provided by trees, especially in urban areas, can
significantly reduce energy use;
(4) trees planted adjacent to croplands filter run off
and prevent erosion that threaten water quality, fish, and
wildlife; and
(5) community service and service to others is an
integral part of the American tradition.
SEC. 3. PURPOSES.
The intent of this Act is to provide for a grant to a
private nonprofit Foundation to be used for the following
purposes --
(1) to promote public awareness, education, and a
spirit of volunteerism in support of community tree planting
and cultivation projects nationwide;
(2) to solicit private sector contributions through the
mobilization of individuals, businesses, governments and
community organizations with the goal of increasing the
number of trees planted in communities and urban
environments;
(3) to accept and administer private gifts and make
grants, including matching grants to encourage local
participation, for the planting and cultivating of trees;
and
DRAFT
(4) to ensure that our descendants will be able to
share their ancestors' pride when referring to their land as
America the Beautiful.
SEC. 4. AUTHORITY.
(a) The President is authorized to designate a private
nonprofit organization, which for purposes of this Act shall be
referred to as the Foundation, as eligible to receive funds
pursuant to section 6(a), upon determining that such organization
can, consistent with its charter, carry out the purposes stated
in section 3, and that the officers of such organization have the
experience and expertise necessary to direct the activities of
the organization.
(b) Nothing in this Act shall be construed to make the
Foundation an agency or instrumentality of the United States
Government, or to make officers, employees, or members of the
Board of directors of the Foundation officers or employees of the
United States.
SEC. 5. FUNDING.
In fiscal year 1991, the Secretary of Agriculture is
authorized to make a grant, from funds authorized to be
appropriated under section 8 of this Act, of not to exceed
$35,000,000 to the Foundation designated pursuant to section 4.
SEC. 6. GRANT.
(a) Funds made available pursuant to section 5 shall be
granted to the Foundation by the Department of Agriculture --
(1) to enable the Foundation to carry out the purposes
specified in section 3; and
(2) for the administrative expenses of the Foundation.
(b) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the
Foundation may hold grant funds contributed pursuant to
subsection (a) of this section in interest-bearing accounts,
prior to the disbursement of such funds for purposes specified in
section 3, and may retain for such program purposes any interest
earned on such deposits.
SEC. 7. ELIGIBILITY OF THE FOUNDATION FOR A GRANT.
(a) A grant may be made to the Foundation under this Act
only if the Foundation agrees to comply with the requirements
specified in this Act.
(b) The Foundation may use funds provided by this Act only
for programs and projects which are consistent with the purposes
specified in section 3.
-2-
(c) Officers and employees of the Foundation DRAFT may not receive
any salary or other compensation for services rendered to the
Foundation from any source other than the Foundation.
(d) The Foundation shall not issue any shares of stock or
declare or pay any dividends.
(e) No part of the funds of the Foundation shall inure to
the benefit of any board member, officer, or employee of the
Foundation, except as salary or reasonable compensation for
services or expenses. Compensation for board members shall be
limited to reimbursement for reasonable costs of travel and
expenses. No director, officer, or employee of the Foundation
shall participate, directly or indirectly, in the consideration
or determination of any question before the Foundation affecting
his or her financial interests or the interests of any
corporation, partnership, entity, or organization in which he or
she is an officer, director, or trustee, or in which he or she
has any direct or indirect financial interest.
(f) The Foundation shall not engage in lobbying or
propaganda for the purpose of influencing legislation and shall
not participate or intervene in any political campaign on behalf
of any candidate for public office.
(g) For the fiscal year in which the Foundation receives the
grant awarded under section 6(a), and for the succeeding five
fiscal years, the accounts of the Foundation shall be audited
annually in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards
by independent certified public accountants or independent
licensed public accountants certified or licensed by a regulatory
authority of a State or other political subdivision of the United
States. The report of each such independent audit shall be
included in the annual report required by subsection (j) of this
section.
(h) The financial transactions undertaken pursuant to this
Act by the Foundation may be audited by any agency designated by
the President for the fiscal year in which the Foundation
receives the grant awarded under section 6(a) and for the five
succeeding fiscal years.
(i) The Foundation shall ensure --
(1) that each recipient of assistance provided
through the Foundation under this Act keeps, for five
years after the receipt of such assistance, separate
accounts with respect to such assistance and such
records as may be reasonably necessary to disclose
fully the amount and the disposition by such recipient
of the proceeds of such assistance, the total cost of
the project or undertaking in connection with which
such assistance is given or used, the amount and nature
-3-
DRAFT
of that portion of the cost of the project or
undertaking supplied by other sources, and such other
records as will facilitate an effective audit; and
(2) that the Foundation, the agency designated by
the President pursuant to subsection (h) of this
section, or any of the Foundation's duly authorized
representatives shall have access for the purpose of
audit and examination to any books, documents, papers,
and records of the recipient that are pertinent to
assistance provided through the Foundation under this
Act.
(j) Not later than three months after the conclusion of each
fiscal year, the Foundation shall publish an annual report for
the preceding fiscal year. The report shall include a
comprehensive and detailed report of the Foundation's operation,
activities, financial condition, and accomplishments under this
Act. The Foundation's obligation to publish annual reports
pursuant to this subsection shall terminate after publication of
the report incorporating the findings of the final audit required
by subsection (g) of this section.
SEC. 8. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS.
There is authorized to be appropriated for fiscal year 1991,
$35,000,000 for a one-time grant from the Secretary of
Agriculture to the Foundation designated pursuant to section
4(a).
-4-
DRAFT
Section-by-Section Analysis
"National Tree Trust Act of 1990"
Section 1 provides that the Act may be cited as the "National
Tree Trust Act of 1990.'
Section 2 sets forth five congressional findings. Four of these
findings are related to the environmental and social value of
trees, including adding beauty, reducing the possibility of
global warming, reducing energy use, and preventing erosion. The
fifth finding emphasizes community service as an integral part of
the American tradition.
Section 3 outlines the purposes of the Act. The intent is to
provide a grant to a private nonprofit Foundation to be used to
(1) promote public awareness and volunteerism for community tree
planting and cultivation nationwide, (2) solicit private
contributions with the goal of increasing tree planting in
communities and urban environments, (3) accept and administer
gifts and make grants to encourage local participation in the
planting and cultivation of trees, and (4) ensure that our
descendants will be able to share the pride of their ancestors
when referring to their land as America the Beautiful.
Section 4 authorizes the President to designate a private
nonprofit organization, referred to as the "Foundation," to carry
out the purposes of the Act. The Foundation will not be an
agency or instrumentality of the United States. Officers,
employees, or members of the board of directors of the Foundation
will not be officers or employees of the United States.
Section 5 authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to make a grant
of up to $35 million to the Foundation during fiscal year 1991.
The grant will be funded from appropriations authorized in
section 8 of the Act.
Section 6 requires the Foundation to use the grant from the
Department of Agriculture to carry out the purposes specified in
section 3 and for administrative expenses of the Foundation.
Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the Foundation is
authorized to hold grant funds in interest-bearing accounts until
they are needed. Interest earned on such deposits may be
retained by the Foundation and used for the purposes specified in
section 3.
Section 7 directs that the Foundation must agree to comply with
the requirements of the Act before a grant may be made to the
Foundation. The Foundation must use funds provided by the Act
only for the purposes specified in section 3. Officers and
employees may not receive compensation for services rendered to
the Foundation from any source other than the Foundation. The
Foundation shall not issue shares of stock or declare or pay any
dividends. The Foundation is prohibited from lobbying for the
DRAFI
purpose of influencing legislation and from intervening in any
political campaign. Accounts of the Foundation will be audited
for the fiscal year in which the grant is received under section
6 and for each of the succeeding five fiscal years. The results
of the audit will be included in each of six required annual
reports that shall include a comprehensive and detailed statement
of the Foundation's operation, activities, and financial
condition. The Foundation shall ensure that those who receive
assistance from the Foundation under the Act keep such records as
may be reasonably necessary to facilitate the annual audits.
Section 8 authorizes the appropriation of $35 million for fiscal
year 1991 to be used for a one-time grant from the Secretary of
Agriculture to the Foundation.
-2-
C4
FACT SHEET
DRAFT
President Bush's Proposed
National Tree Trust Act
Today, President Bush transmitted to Congress the National
Tree Trust Act of 1990, a key part of his America the Beautiful
initiative. This proposal will be the catalyst to forge new
partnerships between individuals, business, governments, and
community organizations with the goal of planting trees across
America. It authorizes:
Presidential designation of a new private nonprofit
Foundation to receive Federal funds through a one-time
grant for the purpose of promoting community tree planting
projects; and
the appropriation of funds to the Secretary of Agriculture
for such a grant.
It is anticipated that the Foundation will:
promote public awareness and a spirit of volunteerism;
solicit private sector contributions; and
oversee the use of these contributions to encourage tree
planting projects.
The Foundation will help draw national attention to the need
for increased planting of trees in our communities, where, on the
average, only one tree is now being planted for every four that
die or are removed. It is a program that will reach every State,
if not each and every community, by working in partnership with
existing national and community organizations, businesses, State
forestry agencies, and youth groups.
The President encourages all citizens to express their
personal commitment to their communities and to the environment
by participating in this program.
The National Tree Trust is a fitting complement to the
National Tree Planting and Forest Improvement component of the
President's America the Beautiful initiative. The FY 1991 Budget
includes the America the Beautiful initiative to address the
protection, conservation, and enhancement of America's natural
resources. The initiative includes three components involving
the Departments of the Interior and Agriculture. These
components are (1) expanded Federal recreational land
acquisition, which involves both departments; (2) an Interior
Department resource protection and recreation enhancement effort,
called "Legacy "99"; and (3) a National Tree Planting and Forest
Improvement Program, to be administered by Agriculture.
DKAFI
The National Tree Planting and Forest Improvement Program
includes $175 million in fiscal year 1991 to pursue the goal of
planting a billion trees a year on private lands. This program
includes two basic components to be coordinated by Agriculture, a
rural component to address reforestation of private,
non-industrial lands and a Community Trees component:
Rural Areas. The FY 1991 Budget provides $110 million
to Agriculture for cost-sharing and technical assistance
with private landowners to plant, improve, and maintain
trees on suitable lands. The program will be implemented
through existing departmental delivery mechanisms and
through State forestry agencies.
Community Trees. The 1991 Budget also provides $65
million to provide leadership, coordination, and technical
assistance to support tree planting and care in community
and urban environments. This program will rely on the
U.S. Forest Service's existing technical assistance
delivery system which operates through State foresters and
other cooperating parties.
Both components will be carried out under existing
authorities. The funds proposed for the community tree planting
program include $35 million for the one-time grant in fiscal year
1991 to the Foundation designated by the President.
Enactment of the President's "National Tree Trust Act of
1990" will permit us to harness the efforts of individuals and
organizations to undertake the nationwide planting and
cultivation of our Nation's precious trees. Thus, the President
hopes we can ensure that our descendents will be able to share
our pride in referring to this land as America the Beautiful.
-2-
TAB D
DRAFT
MISSION STATEMENT
Reaching out to rekindle a spirit of volunteerism, rejuvenate
community partnerships, involve America's youth and encourage an
individual commitment to the environment, the Nation Tree Trust
seeks to forge new partnerships with individuals, businesses,
governments and community organizations with the goal of planting
trees across America.
The National Tree Trust is to provide the institutional
framework for the President's efforts to encourage private tree
planting at the local level. Two of the President's more popular
themes, reawakening the spirit of community service and improving
the environment, should be melded together in a successful
alliance aimed at tree-planting. The muscle of the Trust,
however, will rest in its ability to leverage significant private
sector contributions. These funds should be allocated at a
minimum of cost through, to the extent feasible, existing
delivery mechanisms in a manner that further stimulates local
giving and local participation.
PURPOSE
The National Tree Trust shall be established and operated for
the following purposes:
(1) to promote public awareness and a spirit of
volunteerism in support of community tree planting and
cultivation projects nationwide;
(2) to solicit private sector contributions through the
mobilization of individuals, businesses, governments and
community organizations with the goal of increasing the
number of trees planted in community and urban
environments;
(3) to accept and administer private gifts and make
grants, including matching grants to encourage local
participation, for the planting and cultivating of
trees; and
(4) to ensure that our descendents will be able to share
their ancestors' pride when referring to their land as
America the Beautiful.
TAB E
DRAFT
ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGY
It is anticipated that the National Tree Trust's principal
functions will be, 1) the solicitation of private sector
contributions, and 2) the making of grants for the purpose of
increasing the number of trees planted in community and urban
environments. Separate advisory committees comprised of
appropriate resource professionals, operating through the Board's
Executive Community, may be used to advise both in the
solicitation of funds and in grant-making activities.
The methods used in accomplishing tree planting are, however,
as important to the President as the number of trees actually
planted. The President challenges the National Tree Trust, both
through its activities and as a result of its work, to:
rekindle a spirit of volunteerism;
rejuvenate community partnerships;
involve America's youth; and
encourage individual commitment to the environment.
In order to achieve these results, private sector
contributions will provide the capital stock and tree planting
should be the tool. In this manner, the National Tree Trust
should function mainly as a conduit, ensuring a least cost
allocation of resources to support principally community based,
grassroots oriented projects that achieve the President's
objectives.
The allocation of resources (the process of both soliciting
funds and grant-making) should be achieved with the least amount
of bureaucratic structure and at the lowest cost. Project
implementation, the on-the-ground efforts financed by Trust
grants, should, however, be carried out efficiently and by
organizations worthy of support. Instead of the Trust conducting
the necessary review and oversight of project implementation, it
is suggested the Trust utilize existing delivery mechanisms
operated through established organizations.
Global Releaf -- American Forestry Association
Though numerous national organizations currently exist with
at least a partial involvement in tree planting efforts, (Tree
People and the National Arbor Day Foundation for example) the
American Forestry Associations (AFA) Global Releaf campaign
offers the largest existing network for reaching community based
needs and the ability to expand operations as resources increase.
DRAFT
Through its Global Releaf strategy, AFA has worked to
establish effective partnerships with State forestry agencies.
Virtually every State forestry has assigned a Global Releaf State
Coordinator to the Global Releaf Campaign. These coordinators
represent a vital link to local programs and to other forestry
specialists that serve communities under the general umbrella of
the Federal-state cooperative forestry programs.
With supplemental funding, AFA could coordinate an enlarged
cooperative effort with central AFA staff and new regional
coordinators that would assist state coordinators and local
groups to identify potential projects and oversee implementation.
In this manner, the Global Releaf campaign could recommend
projects for funding, coordinate local cooperation and
participation and administer grants awarded by the Trust.
O Community Foundations
A community foundation is a publicly supported organization
that makes grants for charitable purposes. These foundations
generally receives financing from many sources and normally
limits its grants to organizations within a specific region or
local community. There are nationally over 300 community
foundations.
The National Tree Trust could use existing community
foundations by making designated donations, granting money to
the community foundation for specific purposes, in this case,
most probably planting trees. Appropriate guidelines could be
developed to ensure that the objectives of the Trust are fully
met. The Trust could seek opportunities to leverage the
knowledge, experience, reputation and support inherent to
existing community foundations as a means of implementing
effective programs at the local level.
O Recognized Youth Organizations
The Tree Trust should take advantage of existing youth
organizations as an effective delivery mechanism. Groups such
as the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, Boys and Girls Clubs. YMCA,
YWCA, Little league, and Special Olympics provide a ready source
of expertise and person-power necessary to recommend projects,
oversee grant awards and accomplish results.
O State Forestry Networks
State Forestry agencies have a long and established history
of cooperation with Federal agencies, local communities and
professional organizations relating to urban and community
forestry. State urban and community forestry coordinators act
as catalysts in initiating local action. Utilizing the existing
-2-
DRAFT
State Forestry cooperative network encompasses both professional/
technical expertise and the cross section of on-going activities
from the Federal to the local level.
O Limited Specific Grants
The National Tree Trust should also, on a limited basis,
reach out beyond existing delivery organizations to fund specific
projects identified to or by the Trust. Such grants may be used
in conjunction with specific events, as part of educational
campaigns, or in any manner to help focus the objectives of the
Trust.
-3-
Private Support
Public and Corporate
contributions
NTT Financial
$
Advisory
Committee
The NATIONAL TREE TRUST
NTT Technical
$
Advisory
$
Committee
TDEAS- I
Global Releas
Existing
Regional à state
Community
Youth
State
Coordinators
Foundation
Organizations
Forestry
$ $
DRAFT
Networks
$
LOCAL PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS
TAB F
DRAFT
PROPOSED ACTION PLAN
ACTION ITEM
DATE
National Tree Trust Act transmitted
March 20
to Congress. White House ceremony
to highlight President's interest
in the Tree Trust concept.
Founding members or designees meet
April 2
with WH staff.
Incorporate. Prepare and file Articles
By April 10
of Incorporation and Bylaws; submit
application for tax exempt status.
Select additional Board members.
By April 11
Work with WH Staff to arrange for
By April 13
President to call to congratulate
final Board members.
Earth Day. WH Ceremony. Hold first
April 22-23
Board meeting.
Organize office and staff. Develop
April 22-June 1
short-term action plan.
Begin operations including active
June 1
fundraising and issuance of
initial grants.
TAB G
DRAFT
CONTACTS
White House
James P. Pinkerton
456-6407
Deputy Assistant to the President
for Policy Planning
Office of Policy Development
Emily Mead
456-6252
Paul Roellig
456-7173
O
Department of Agriculture
Patricia M. Kearney
447-7173
Acting Assistant Secretary
for Natural Resources and
Environment
Department of the Interior
Thomas Weimer
343-4203
Chief of Staff
[quier no termy Conn
DR
SUBJECT: White House Ceremony for the National Tree Trust
OBJECTIVES:
1) Presidential transmittal of the National Tree Trust Act
of 1990.
2> Issuance of President's challenge that Earth Day 1990 be
the start of a new commitment to the environment through,
in part, the planting of trees. Begin planning to plant
as many trees as possible on Earth Day and let the effort
grow from there.
METHODS:
1) Signing ceremony for transmittal (?)
2) Presidential remarks issuing the challenge
3) Tree Planting on South Lawn (?)
The President should recognize the on-going efforts of
national organizations such as the American Forestry
Association's Global Relief campaign (President could hold up the
Global Relief Action Guide), and the expertise and technical
assistance provided through State forestry agencies.
EVENT:
The significance of the President's challenge is that it
gives citizens something to do now. The President will urge each
of us to begin planning now as individuals, families, through
existing organizations or through new groups to include a tree
planting event as a part of their celebration of Earth Day and
Earth Week. Efforts should be aimed at not only how and where to
plant a tree, but how to care for it, why we should plant trees,
and how trees benefit the environment.. The goal is to plant as
many trees across America as possible, as the beginning to a new
commitment to the environment
As part of the President's challenge, President Bush could
present to the Association of State Foresters four (or the
appropriate number) gold shovels that they, in turn, would
present to the organization or individual that, through their
planning efforts, best represent the President's objectives in
the tree-planting initiative:
rekindle a spirit of volunteerism;
rejuvenate community partnerships;
involve America's youth and
encourage individual commitment to the environment,
. SENT BY:OMB/NRD/AG. BRANCH
; 3- 5-90 ; 9:07AM ;
2023954941-
OPD:# 3
DRAFT
With these gold shovels, the recipients would be asked to
come to the White House during Earth Day Week and help President
Bush plant a White House Tree. The National Tree Trust could
finance the event.
NOTE: Rather than using the Association of State Foresters, some
other national organization could be used, or the Forest
Service or a combination of organizations.
-2-
(Smith/Blessey)
8 A.M.
March 26, 1990
INDY
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: ARBOR DAY EVENT
INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA
TUESDAY, APRIL 3, 1990
Dan Coats, Mayor Hudnut, Director Strong, distinguished
is
guests, ladies and gentlemen. It is indeed great to be back home
"
again in Indiana. And as the banner says, to plant "trees for
tomorrow" that will benefit our Nation and its kids. //
( (Not far from here is the law school of a friend of mine.
And in that context, let me tell you a story. // A guy came up
to me today and said, "Mr. President, the press has been wrong
about your foreign and domestic policy." // And I said to him,
"That may be true -- but you left out an important fact. //
They've also been wrong about Dan Quayle."
( (Let me say how proud I am of the job Dan has done as Vice-
President. He's served our Administration well. He's served the
Nation well. // Given the choice again, I'd pick him as my
Vice-President more quickly than you can say, "Indiana loves
basketball. "//))
Today, the Vice-President is back in Washington. // As you
can see, he let me play hookie. // Nor, sadly, could Bobby
Knight be with us. He's out recruiting what Dan assures me is
yet another national champion. //
But on this Arbor Day, I am glad to see all of you here in a
city which, unlike some, can always see the forest for the trees.
2
// And which intends this year to plant thirty thousand of the
trees, that are the sanctuaries of man. Renewing and refreshing.
// And that represent the continuity of man. An inheritance
passed from one generation to another.
//
3
Manyozyan
Like any schoolboy, I grew up reading the great Hoosier
poet, James Whitcomb Riley. And I recall how once he said, "Life
is a cycle larger than any individual." // Well, so it is with
trees. They renew and restore the natural magic of mankind. //
Think of how trees enhance our atmosphere. Providing oxygen and
absorbing carbon dioxide. // And how they enhance our
jump
environment. Preserving the beauty of trees that is
breathtaking. And the bounty of trees that is breathgiving. //
"Trees For Tomorrow" will ensure both through a community of
pride. Talk about cooperation -- individuals, private groups,
your City's Department of Parks and Recreation. And results --
this month alone, you're donating 1,000 trees. // This urban
forestry program will help volunteers show new volunteers not
only how and where to plant trees. That's the easy part. It
will also teach the difficult part -- how to care for trees --
why we need them -- and how they help the environment. //
( (You know, one of my grandkids once told me he'd rather be
a doctor than a tree surgeon. His reason? A doctor never falls
out of his patients. // Well, the record shows that
Indianapolis isn't falling down on the job of protecting the
environment. And neither will our Administration. )) //
3
That's why in the budget I submitted in February to the
Congress, I asked for $175 million to plant a billion trees
year. And why two weeks ago I asked Congress to approve another
a nahras antry prople
step to protect the environment. // We call it the National
Tree Trust Act of 1990. An initiative that, like "Trees for
Tomorrow," will foster the partnership between the public and
using discarpges
private sectors to plant trees across America. //
Under our plan, we will designate a private nonprofit
Foundation to receive a one-time Federal grant to promote
community tree planting and cultivation projects. // It will
solicit contributions from private sources. Sound a nationwide
call for each American to protect the environment. And most of
all, plant the trees that clean our air, prevent erosion, consume
carbon dioxide, and purify our water.
By acting as one of a Thousand Points of Light, the National
Tree Trust Act of 1990 will help create Ten Billion Trees of
fiyt
Life. // It is a key part of our national tree planting and
forest improvement initiative, to be administered by the
speech
lvdl
didn't
Agriculture Department. // This two-part program involves both
rural areas as well as local urban tree planting programs in cities
like Indianapolis. And it, in turn, is central to my "America
the Beautiful" program, which I announced ten weeks ago. //
"America the Beautiful" will help maintain and expand our
parks, wildlife refuges, forests, and public lands. It's like
your April "Clean and Green Month" campaign -- but on a more
national scale. // It will enrich the urban landscape -- and
4
plant the seeds of environmental stewardship. Not only through
planting trees -- but through other steps, as well. //
Clean air, for example. Our clean air proposal promises
relief from the smog, acid rain, and toxic pollution that harm
trees and people. Once again -- and the Vice-President joins me
-- I call on the Congress to pass that bill. // I also call on
them to help us improve pollution prevention and energy
efficiency. // A recent study showed that if city temperatures
are cut by five to ten degrees, energy used for cooling can be
slashed by fifty percent. Trees can cool those temperatures. //
And help realize these words of a Chinese proverb: "One
generation plants the tree -- another gets the shade." //
I began by talking about two great Indiana exports -- Dan
Quayle and basketball. Let me close by referring to a movie
close to the Vice-President's heart. // It's called Hoosiers.
You've seen it -- probably memorized it. It was filmed here and
in three nearby towns. // Yes, it's about basketball. But it
also portrays -- unforgettably -- the values of Indiana. //
The next time you see Hoosiers, look for kids ? they're
everywhere -- like the 2,000 here today. And trees -- they're
even more numerous than the movie's kids. // A lot of people
don't know it, but Indiana is among our most heavily forested
States. Look around you: Trees enhance the beauty of Indiana's
cathedral of the outdoors. //
So let's help these youngsters plant trees -- nurture them
-- in this State and all fifty States. And so knock Johnny
5
Appleseed from the Guinness Book of Records. // Let's plant the
"trees for tomorrow" that will bless the children of tomorrow -
the generations who will inherit our earth. //
Thank you for what you're doing. Hats off to the City of
Indianapolis. God bless the land we so richly love -- the United
States of America. And now, it is my great pleasure to
officially plant the first tree of this magnificent campaign.
?
#
#
#
underestimating she importance
(Smith/Blessey)
8 A.M.
March 26, 1990
INDY
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: ARBOR DAY EVENT
INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA
TUESDAY, APRIL 3, 1990
Dan Coats, Mayor Hudnut, Director Strong, distinguished
"
guests, ladies and gentlemen. It is indeed great to be back home-
C.
2)
again in Indiana. And as the banner says, to plant "trees for
tomorrow" that will benefit our Nation and its kids. //
( (Not far from here is the law school of a friend of mine.
And in that context, let me tell you a story. // A guy came up
to me today and said, "Mr. President, the press has been wrong
about your foreign and domestic policy." // And I said to him,
"That may be true -- but you left out an important fact. //
They've also been wrong about Dan Quayle."
( (Let me say how proud I am of the job Dan has done as Vice-
President. He's served our Administration well. He's served the
Nation well. // Given the choice again, I'd pick him as my
too
Vice-President more quickly than you can say, "Indiana loves
collams
hard you
basketball "//))
of
Today, the Vice-President is back in Washington. // As you
can see, he let me play hookie. 11 Nor, sadly, could Bobby
Knight be with us. He's out recruiting what Dan assures me is
yet another national champion. //
But on this Arbor Day, I am glad to see all of you here in a
city which, unlike some, can always see the forest for the trees.
2
trees. that are the sanctuaries of man. humankind Renewing and refreshing.
// These And which intends this year to plant thirty thousand of the
// And that represent the continuity of man. An inheritance
passed from one generation to another.
3
Like mony of you 11 who have read
Like any schoolboy I grew up reading the great Hoosier
poet, James Whitcomb Riley. And I recall how once he said, "Life
is a cycle larger than any individual." // Well, so it is with
trees. They renew and restore the natural magic of mankind. //
Think of how trees enhance our atmosphere. Providing oxygen and
absorbing carbon dioxide. // And how they enhance our
jump
expand on environment
environment. Preserving the beauty of trees that is
breathtaking And the bounty of trees that is breathgiving. //
"Trees For Tomorrow" will ensure both through a community of
pride. Talk about cooperation -- individuals, private groups,
your City's Department of Parks and Recreation. And results --
this month alone, you're donating 1,000 trees. // This urban
forestry program will help volunteers show new volunteers not
only how and where to plant trees. That's the easy part. It
will also teach the difficult part -- how to care for trees --
1.7
,
why we need them -- and how they help the environment. //
( (You know, one of my grandkids once told me he'd rather be
a doctor than a tree surgeon. His reason? A doctor never falls
out of his patients. // Well, the record shows that
Indianapolis isn't falling down on the job of protecting the
environment. And neither will our Administration. )) //
3
That's why in the budget I submitted in February to the
Congress, I asked for $175 million to plant a billion trees
a
people
year. And why two weeks ago I asked Congress to approve another
step to protect the environment. // We call it the National
Tree Trust Act of 1990. An initiative that, like "Trees for
Tomorrow," will foster the partnership between the public and
antion
private sectors to plant trees across America. //
Under our plan, we will designate a private nonprofit
Foundation to receive a one-time Federal grant to promote
community tree planting and cultivation projects. // It will
solicit contributions from private sources. Sound a nationwide
call for each American to protect the environment. And most of
all, plant the trees that clean our air, prevent erosion, consume
carbon dioxide, and purify our water.
By acting as one of a Thousand Points of Light, the National
Tree Trust Act of 1990 will help create Ten Billion Trees of
Life. // It is a key part of our national tree planting and
forest improvement initiative, to be administered by the
speech
Agriculture Department. // This two-part program involves both
rural areas as well as local wban tree planting programs in cities
like Indianapolis. And it, in turn, is central to my "America
the Beautiful" program, which I announced ten weeks ago. //
"America the Beautiful" will help maintain and expand our
parks, wildlife refuges, forests, and public lands. It's like
your April "Clean and Green Month" campaign -- but on a more
national scale. // It will enrich the urban landscape -- and
4
plant the seeds of environmental stewardship. Not only through
planting trees -- but through other steps, as well. //
Clean air, for example. Our clean air proposal promises
relief from the smog, acid rain, and toxic pollution that harm
trees and people. Once again -- and the Vice-President joins me
-- I call on the Congress to pass that bill. 11 I also call on
them to help us improve pollution prevention and energy
efficiency. // A recent study showed that if city temperatures
are cut by five to ten degrees, energy used for cooling can be
slashed by fifty percent. Trees can cool those temperatures. //
And help realize these words of a Chinese proverb: "One
generation plants the tree -- another gets the shade." //
I began by talking about two great Indiana exports -- Dan
Quayle and basketball. Let me close by referring to a movie
close to the Vice-President's heart. // It's called Hoosiers.
You've seen it -- probably memorized it. It was filmed here and
in three nearby towns. // Yes, it's about basketball. But it
also portrays -- unforgettably -- the values of Indiana. //
The next time you see Hoosiers, look for kids they're
everywhere -- like the 2,000 here today. And trees -- they're
even more numerous than the movie's kids. // A lot of people
don't know it, but Indiana is among our most heavily forested
States. Look around you: Trees enhance the beauty of Indiana's
cathedral of the outdoors. //
So let's help these youngsters plant trees -- nurture them
-- in this State and all fifty States. And so knock Johnny
5
Appleseed from the Guinness Book of Records. // Let's plant the
"trees for tomorrow" that will bless the children of tomorrow -
the generations who will inherit our earth. //
Thank you for what you're doing. Hats off to the City of
Indianapolis. God bless the land we so richly love -- the United
States of America. And now, it is my great pleasure to
officially plant the first tree of this magnificent campaign.
?
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Let me just address a word to the press corps who have
watched me plant trees all over the country. Many of you have
scoffed at these tree plantings. There goes Bush again
shovelling some more dirt. Well, it's bigger than that. It's
more important. And it's not funny, silly or frivolous. We're
talking about the ?environment. And planting trees is something
everyone can do to keep our air clean. Communities and families
can work together to
.
Let me give you some fiqures to think about: A recent study
has shown that if city temperatures are reduced by five to ten
degrees, energy used for cooling can be reduced by fifty percent.
That's a lot of energy saved by cooling things off (adding some
shade).
So it's really not so funny after all. It's serious and
it's ?productive, and I commend those of you who have reported on
the importance of trees and I encourage the rest of you to do the
same.
nurture trees
It's like buying p dog. Taking it
home is easy. It's the coring that's
important and st times difficult. But w/ X
lot of love they dog will stick pround &
love you back.
Cincinnati Staff Office
(513)241-3591 -/PX.
Is Ronno Romney doughter or wife ?
Fred Nation (317) 232-4578 Gov. Boyhes Off.
Ryan White - contracted ANDs
had hard time going to school
T.V. morie done about him
is dying
14 years old
Dr. Mortin Cleimon
Ratey Children's Hosptal
New how to stop garbage importation
into Indiana
Waster management
JOINT Center
1) 636-3509
for Political
Jane Eichart
studies
2) Any info. on Ctr.
626-3577
626-3500
3) speech HHS Sec. Sullivar
Just A little
4) info. a on Smth Corps
in this BUDGET.
HIST. Black Colleges
Gor
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Anti - dug
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Title: jcps
March 29, 1990
Draft: Five
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: JOINT CTR. POLICY STUDIES, HILTON
House wed quest
7:30 p.m., Wednesday, April 4, 1990
6:45 DIAMES
((Eddie Williams, David Kearns and Robert Washington, thank
you. It is also good to be out on the town with our good
Patty
Presack
friends, Elsie and И husband] Hillman. And I would especially
like to recognize two of the elected officials among us tonight:
David Dinkins -- Your Honor; and Doug Wilder -- Governor. ))\\\
It's remarkable to think that in 1968, less than two years
before the Joint Center was founded, there were only 200 elected
Cenuae State
black public officials in all of America. Twenty years later,
829
there are more than 6,000 -- an amazing record.
But you know what I find most heartening of all? It's the
way in which black leadership in America has become an ordinary
and accepted feature of our national life. And this new
leadership has a tremendous resource in the Joint Center for
NOI
Policy Studies. Voltaire said that no problem can stand the
assault of sustained thinking. If that is true, then no problem
we face today is a match for the Joint Center, truly one of the
leading academies of independent thought in Washington today.
We can see for ourselves, tonight, that Washington is still
a city that thrives on ideas. And as Americans from different
professions and political parties, we are together on this
wonderful evening to celebrate our shared ideals. We may not
muse
2
agree on everything, but we agree on a few great things --
liberty, equality, opportunity and justice for all.
On this day, the anniversary of Dr. Martin Luther King,
Jr. s, martyrdom, the world looks to Montgomery, Alabama -- to
the granite wall of the new civil rights memorial. And through a
veil of flowing water we read these words from the Bible:
"
let judgment run down as waters, and righteousness as a mighty
stream.
Amosiz4
Like a mighty river, justice can cut a channel through the
hardest of stone. And, like a mighty river seeking the sea,
justice can be impeded. But its quest is unstoppable -- in the
end, justice cannot be denied.
Last month, a distinguished group of fifteen black
publishers joined me for lunch in the White House. We discussed
everything from the importance of black history in American
education, to South Africa, to our struggle to rid this nation of
drugs and crime.
Together, we walked outside, one of those beautiful
Washington days we all live for. And, together we strolled
around to the Residence, up to the Lincoln Bedroom, with its
Ushars Office Gatey
imposing high ceiling, its tall windows, lace curtains and
Victorian furnishings. But you know what it is about that room
that impresses Barbara and me, and impressed Vaclav Havel when he
joined us there? It's not that Lincoln slept there. In fact, he
didn't. It is impressive because he worked there. Because he
made some of his greatest decisions there. It was his office and
3
Proclamation.
Cabinet Room. It was where he signed the Emancipation 410ts
In a display case, along the wall, is a copy of the
Gettysburg Address, written in Lincoln's dignified hand. Above
it is a great painting titled "Watch Meeting, Waiting for the
Hour.' It's a very poignant scene, depicting slaves and their
friends gathered around an elderly man, a man who had lived in
America all his life, and had never known a minute of freedom.
But Lincoln had proclaimed January 1, 1863, as the first day of
freedom. And so all their eyes are fixed on a watch -- waiting
for the stroke of midnight, waiting to be free.
It is said that Lincoln's hand shook as he dipped his quill
into the ink well before he signed the Emancipation Proclamation.
Perhaps he felt the weight of history. Perhaps he was just
weary. But in any event, he waited a moment to steady his hand,
so that no one would think he wavered on his most important
decision. And then Abraham Lincoln signed the proclamation with
a firm hand. In a stroke, millions were freed.
Together, we felt the greatness of the events that had taken
place in that small room, and the profound consequences of a
simple stroke of the pen. In moments like these, history returns
as a revelation. I know that for Barbara and me, it was
certainly a very special moment, one that leads to me to reflect
on the special responsibilities of the Presidency that haven't
changed since that freedom midnight. Every president is
4
challenged to be a part of the legacy of Lincoln, the continuum
of freedom.
So when Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt asked Marion Anderson
Ave
to sing ( (the Battle Hymn of the Republic at the White House) )
they were living up to the legacy of Lincoln.
asegnower
When Ike Eisenhower acted decisively to protect a school
girl in Little Rock, he was living up to the legacy of Lincoln.
When Lyndon Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act into law, he
was living up to the legacy of Lincoln.
I believe that the day will come -- and it is not far off -
- when the legacy of Lincoln will finally be fulfilled -- when a
black man or woman will sit in the Oval Office. And when that
day comes, the most remarkable thing about it will be how easily
and how naturally it occurs. He or she will be another
President, another traveler in the continuum of freedom,
representing all the people of America, representing all that is
best about America. You know, I meet a lot of school kids, many
of them black, inner-city kids; and I wonder as I look at the
faces of brave ten-year-olds swearing to fight drugs: Is one of
them my successor? Is this the child who will fulfill the
legacy?
But I know we aren't quite there yet. I know that prejudice
and racial tensions still exist in America. So I will support,
and intend to sign into law, a measure to collect as much
information as we can on crimes motivated by religious, racial or
ethnic animosity -- the Hate Crimes Bill. And that is why I
5
will only appoint energetic defenders of our civil rights to the
Civil Rights Commission.
In my many meetings, black Americans have challenged me to
live up to the highest ideals of the civil rights movement. Now
let me challenge you to work with my Administration, from this
day forward, to build a better America.
There are new missions for the civil rights movement in the
1990s. From now on, the protection of civil rights must also
mean the removal of all barriers to opportunity, for there are
forms of poverty that cannot be measured or solved by dollars
alone.
First and foremost -- there is the poverty of the spirit.
Government cannot teach young men and women to have faith in
themselves if their mothers and fathers have lost all faith.
Government cannot teach that achievement is to be found in quiet
moments and subtle rewards, instead of the murderous materialism
of easy drug money. But, as leaders, as parents, as communities,
we can instill values. We can cultivate character.
Your own publications debunk the myth of black indifference
and dependency. Black Americans have inherited a strong
tradition of philanthropy and self help, from the underground
railroad to the civil rights struggle of our own times.
So what we need now is a new partnership, one that draws
inspiration from achievements both at home and abroad, from the
civil rights and Solidarity movements, and from the new hope
dawning in South Africa today. For after all, from the country
6
roads of Selma twenty years ago to the cobbled streets of Warsaw
and Budapest today, a common refrain echoes through the history
of our times: "We shall overcome." Now the winds of change have
come to South Africa, where Nelson Mandela is a free man.
Where Mister Mandela and President DeKlerk are gradually moving
toward negotiation, and we hope, reconciliation.
( (Insert on Africa to come))
Has the world known more improbable heroes than these sons
of South Africa, white and black? Or Rosa Parks and Lech Walesa?
But heroes they are. Let us honor them by working together, in
solidarity.
But opportunity alone is not enough, for there is yet
another form of poverty caused by fear. When people, going about
the ordinary business of their lives -- waiting for a bus,
walking to a corner grocery store -- must fear for their lives -
-then fear has stolen our most precious possession -- freedom.
In January, in Kansas City, I saw people who had suffered
from crack and crackling bursts of gunfire not heard there since
the days of the Old West. In Alexandria, just across the
Potomac, I saw another neighborhood where a crack-crazed addict
had slain a policeman. And here in the District, I held a so-
called border baby suffering the agony of withdrawal.
But everywhere I went, I also found hope. I found people
who have had had enough of fear, had enough of crime, had enough
of dope. Just as the people of East Berlin stood up for freedom,
so the people of this poor neighborhood are rallying together,
these
7
using people power to fight for another kind of freedom --
freedom from crime and drugs -- freedom from fear.
We must march with them in a solidarity, side by side, block
by block, city by city.
Then there is yet another kind of poverty, a growing poverty
of knowledge and skills.
Many young men and women in this country -- white, as well
as black -- are simply not learning -- not learning -- the basic
skills they need to hold down a job or to raise a family. That
is a national disgrace.
We are used to thinking of unemployment as a case of too
many people, too few jobs -- a game of musical chairs that leaves
minorities standing when the music stops.
But in the years to come, our problem will be just the
opposite: more than enough jobs -- and too few qualified people
to fill them. Think about what that means. For every child
growing up today -- black or white -- there will be a job
waiting. 11 The question is whether that child will have the
education and the skills to seize that opportunity. The new
service and manufacturing industries will require higher skills,
more training and, at the very least, literacy. I am delighted
Congress passed our youth training wage last year. But we need
to do more. After all, equal opportunity begins with equal
education.
So we must again work in a solidarity to better our schools.
You know my proposals. First, I believe parents deserve choice.
8
They deserve the power to choose their children's child-care,
whether it comes from a grandparent or a church-affiliated
center. Parents also deserve one thing more -- the power to
choose their children's school.
And where disadvantaged pre-schoolers are concerned, I am
asking Congress to boost Head Start by half-a-billion dollars.
( (I could go on. But I am reminded of the preacher who
asked his congregation what he should speak about. Someone
shouted from the back pew: "How about five minutes?") 1111
So let me say in conclusion, straight from the heart: This
is no time for politics. This is the time for solidarity.
Martin Luther King spoke of an arc of justice, a continuum of
freedom. It is our legacy, our freedom legacy, that makes the
sons and daughters of this American nation like no other.
I spoke earlier of the Biblical proverb that compared
righteousness to a mighty stream. This same vision can be found
in a poem by Langston Hughes, who compared the odyssey of black
men and women to the crossing of many rivers. And with each
crossing, their souls have grown deep -- deep, like the rivers.
This odyssey shaped the soul of a people, and because of
black leadership, it is also shaping the soul of our nation.
Thank you, God bless you, and God bless America.
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B.
-ACM
T-Pack
Educ