Ask the Scholar
Document scope · 1 page
Scholar
Ask about this object, its catalog metadata, its source description, or the page inventory.
For page-specific OCR and visual context, open one of the page chats.
Scholar Source Context
Document identity
localId
323152906
label
Honduras Departure Statement 4/17/90 [OA 8311]
core
doc
dtoType
document
citationUrl
pageCount
1
Source metadata
id
323152906
contentType
document
title
Honduras Departure Statement 4/17/90 [OA 8311]
citationUrl
identifierLocal
13714-006
collections
Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Speech Backup Chronological Files
imageCount
1
hasImages
yes
source
import
hasTranscription
no
Source extras
naId
323152906
levelOfDescription
fileUnit
recordType
description
ocrSource
nara-archive
Single page context
seq
1
pageIndex
0
type
document
mediaId
d047f82fa43c6bed
ocrText
Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
Subseries:
Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13714
Folder ID Number:
13714-006
Folder Title:
Honduras Departure Statement 4/17/90 [OA 8311]
Stack:
Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
G
26
20
5
2
PRESIDENT CALLEJAS / DIPLOMATIC ENTRANCE
Bob
APRIL 17, 1990 / 1:05 P.M.
MR. PRESIDENT, MEMBERS OF THE HONDURAN DELEGATION
-- LET ME AGAIN THANK YOU FOR COMING TO THE WHITE
HOUSE. WE ARE VERY PLEASED AND HONORED THAT YOU ARE
HERE. III
IT HAS BEEN A GREAT AND PERSONAL PLEASURE TO MEET
PRESIDENT CALLEJAS [[CAH-YAY-HAAS]] IN HIS FIRST
OFFICIAL VISIT TO WASHINGTON.
- 2 -
THE PRESIDENT IS A LONGTIME FRIEND OF THE UNITED
STATES, DATING BACK TO HIS UNIVERSITY DAYS IN
MISSISSIPPI. AND VICE PRESIDENT QUAYLE CARRIED OUR
WARMEST REGARDS IN JANUARY WHEN HE ATTENDED PRESIDENT
CALLEJAS' HISTORIC INAUGURATION -- THE FIRST PEACEFUL
TRANSFER OF POWER To AN OPPOSITION PARTY IN NEARLY 60
YEARS -- AND AN INSPIRING EXAMPLE OF THE DEMOCRATIC
PROMISE TODAY SPREADING THROUGHOUT THE AMERICAS.
- 3 -
I REMEMBER WITH GREAT FONDNESS THE NATURAL BEAUTY
OF HONDURAS, AND THE HOSPITALITY OF THE HONDURAN
PEOPLE, WHEN I VISITED TEGUCIGALPA [[TAY-GOO-SEE-GAL-
PA]] SOME YEARS AGO FOR THE INAUGURATION OF HIS
DISTINGUISHED PREDECESSOR.
PRESIDENT CALLEJAS AND I SHARED VERY FRIENDLY AND
USEFUL TALKS TODAY ON SEVERAL SUBJECTS. WE BOTH
EXPRESSED OUR APPRECIATION FOR THE STABLE AND
CONSTRUCTIVE RELATIONS SHARED BY OUR TWO NATIONS.
- 4 -
THE UNITED STATES APPLAUDS HONDURAS' PRODUCTIVE
ROLE IN ACHIEVING A MULTILATERAL AGREEMENT ON THE
PEACEFUL DEMOBILIZATION AND REPATRIATION OF THE
NICARAGUAN RESISTANCE IN CONDITIONS OF SAFETY FOR ALL
CONCERNED. WE SUPPORT THIS PROCESS AND WILL WORK TO
ENSURE HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE TO THOSE IN NEED IN BOTH
NICARAGUA AND HONDURAS AS THEY RETURN TO THEIR HOMES,
THEIR FAMILIES AND THEIR JOBS, AND PLAY A VITAL ROLE IN
HELPING NICARAGUA ESTABLISH LASTING DEMOCRATIC
INSTITUTIONS.
- 5 -
THE PRESIDENT AND I EXPLORED OUR MUTUAL GOALS FOR
CENTRAL AMERICA AND FOR OUR BILATERAL RELATIONSHIP. WE
AGREED ON THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTINUING OUR CLOSE
COOPERATION IN THE STRUGGLE AGAINST THE SCOURGE OF
COCAINE IN OUR HEMISPHERE. THE UNITED STATES REMAINS
FIRMLY COMMITTED TO HELPING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN
HONDURAS, AND WE FULLY SUPPORT PRESIDENT CALLEJAS' BOLD
ECONOMIC REFORMS.
- 6 -
AND WE ARE WORKING TOGETHER TO HELP ARRANGE NEW
FINANCING OF HONDURAS' INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS.
MR. PRESIDENT, IN YOUR INAUGURAL ADDRESS YOU
PROCLAIMED THAT "BURNING IN THE HEART OF THE PEOPLES OF
CENTRAL AMERICA IS A FLAME OF HOPE AND FAITH IN. THE
DEMOCRATIC PATH.' AND MR. PRESIDENT, THE PEOPLE OF THE
UNITED STATES SHARE YOUR HOPE, WE SHARE YOUR FAITH.
IT IS WELL KNOWN THAT, IN SPANISH, THE WORD
"HONDURAS" MEANS "GREAT DEPTHS."
- 7 -
BUT WE BELIEVE THAT THE "DEMOCRATIC PATH" OF WHICH YOU
SPOKE IN JANUARY WILL LEAD TO GREAT HEIGHTS FOR
HONDURAS, AND FOR ALL OF CENTRAL AMERICA.
THANK YOU FOR COMING. WE WISH YOU GODSPEED, AND
SUCCESS IN YOUR CONTINUING TALKS HERE OVER THE NEXT TWO
DAYS.
#
#
#
McNally/Simon
April 11, 1990
Draft Two (B:HONDURAS.DEP)
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: DEPARTURE STATEMENT: PRESIDENT CALLEJAS
DIPLOMATIC ENTRANCE, SOUTH PORTICO
TUESDAY, APRIL 17, 1990, 1:15 P.M.
Mr. President, Members of the Honduran delegation -- let me
again thank you for coming to the White House. We are very
pleased and honored that you are here. 111
chrisdroling
It has been a great and personal pleasure to meet President
Callejas [[cah-YAY-haas]] in his first official visit to
State draft
Washington. The President is a longtime friend of the United
States, dating back to his university days in Mississippi. And
Vice President Quayle carried our warmest regards in January when
he attended President Callejas' historic Inauguration -- the
Calligas
first peaceful transfer of power to an opposition party in nearly
inangend 60 years -- and an inspiring example of the democratic promise
UPI
1-27-90
today spreading throughout the Americas.
see
file
I remember with great fondness the natural beauty of
1-27-86 Honduras, and the hospitality of the Honduran people, when
I
schedule
visited Tegucigalpa [[TAY-goo-see-GAL-pa]] some years ago for the
inauguration of his distinguished predecessor.
President Callejas and I shared some very friendly and
useful talks today on several subjects. We both expressed our
appreciation for the stable and constructive relations shared by
our two nations.
state/
The United States applauds Honduras' productive role in
NSC
achieving a multilateral agreement on the peaceful demobilization
draft
and repatriation of the Nicaraguan Resistance in conditions of
2
safety for all concerned. In Honduras, the demobilization has
now been completed. We support this process and will work to
ensure humanitarian assistance to those in need in both Nicaragua
and Honduras as they return to their homes, their families and
their jobs, and play a vital role in helping to shape Nicaragua's
emerging democratic institutions.
The President and I explored our mutual goals for Central
NSC/
America and for our bilateral relationship. We agreed on the
State
draft
importance of continuing our close cooperation in the struggle
against the scourge of cocaine in our hemisphere. The United
States remains firmly committed to helping economic development
in Honduras, and we fully support President Callejas' bold
economic reforms. And we are working together to help arrange
new financing of Honduras' international obligations.
Mr. President, in your inaugural address you proclaimed that
U-Z7-90
"Burning in the heart of the peoples of Central America is a
see
flame of hope and faith in. the democratic path. And Mr.
file
President, the people of the United States share your hope, we
share your faith.
Emeryclopedia
It is well known that, in Spanish, the word "Honduras" means
depths." But we believe that the "democratic path" of
1989
fill
which you spoke in January will lead to great heights for
Honduras, and for all of Central America.
Thank you for coming. We wish you Godspeed, and the best of
success
luck in your continuing talks here over the next two days.
#
#
#
THE OFFICIAL WORKING VISIT
TO
WASHINGTON, D.C.
OF
HIS EXCELLENCY
RAFAEL LEONARDO CALLEJAS
PRESIDENT
OF
THE REPUBLIC OF HONDURAS
AND
MRS. CALLEJAS
APRIL 17 TO 19, 1990
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
TUESDAY
APRIL 17
6:40 am-
Greeted by Assistant Chief of Protocol Black,
6:50 am
Miami International Airport, Miami, Florida.
6:50 am-
United States Presidential Aircraft to Andrews
9:00 am
Air Force Base, Washington, D.C.
9:00 am-
Greeted by Deputy Chief of Protocol Fitzgerald,
9:05 am
Ambassador Hernandez-Alcerro, and Welcoming
Committee.
9:05 am-
United States Presidential Helicopters to Washington
9:15 am
Monument Grounds, Reflecting Pool.
-6-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
TUESDAY
APRIL 17
(Continued)
9:15 am-
Greeted by Secretary of State Baker and Chief of
9:20 am
Protocol Reed.
9:25 am
Arrive Blair House.
11:00 am-
Meeting with President Bush, Oval Office, The White
11:15 am
House. *
11:15 am-
Expanded Meeting with President Bush, Cabinet
12:00 pm
Room, The White House. *
12:00 pm-
Working Luncheon with President Bush, Old Family
1:00 pm
Dining Room, The White House. *
1:05 pm-
Departure Statements by President Bush and
1:15 pm
President Callejas, Diplomatic Entrance, The White
House. *
1:40 pm-
Wreath-Laying Ceremony, Tomb of the Unknown
2:00 pm
Soldier, Arlington National Cemetery.
2:30 pm-
Meeting with Secretary of State Baker and Assistant
3:00 pm
Secretary of State Aronson, Blair House. *
*Mrs. Callejas does not attend.
-7-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
TUESDAY
APRIL 17
(Continued)
3:00 pm-
Mrs. Callejas tours the National
4:45 pm
Gallery of Art.
3:15 pm-
Meeting with Secretary of the Treasury Brady, Blair
3:45 pm
House. *
4:00 pm-
Meeting with Secretary of Defense Cheney, Blair
4:30 pm
House. *
4:30 pm-
Meeting with Assistant Secretary of State Levitsky,
5:00 pm
Blair House. *
7:00 pm-
Reception offered by President and Mrs. Callejas,
8:30 pm
Intelsat Building.
8:45 pm-
Private Dinner at Blair House.
10:00 pm
*MIS. Callejas does not attend.
Overnight: Blair House.
-8-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
WEDNESDAY
APRIL 18
9:00 am-
Working Breakfast with The Vice President, Room 272,
10:00 am
Old Executive Office Building. *
10:30 am-
Meeting with House Appropriations Subcommittee
10:50 am
for Foreign Operations Chairman Obey, Room H-307,
United States Capitol.
11:00 am-
Meeting with Senate Majority Leader Mitchell and
12:00 pm
Senate Minority Leader Dole, Room S-221, United
States Capitol. *
12:30 pm-
Meeting with President Iglesias, President's
1:00 pm
Office, Inter-American Development Bank. *
1:00 pm-
Luncheon offered by President Iglesias in honor of
2:15 pm
President Callejas, Andres Bello Auditorium,
Inter-American Development Bank. *
2:30 pm-
Meeting with House Foreign Affairs Committee
3:20 pm
Chairman Facell, Room H-139, United States Capitol. *
3:30 pm-
Meeting with House Minority Leader Michel,
4:20 pm
Room H-232, United States Capitol.* *
4:30 pm-
Coffee offered by Senate Foreign Relations
5:20 pm
Committee Chairman Pell in honor of President
Callejas, Room S-116, United States Capitol. *
*Mrs. Callejas does not attend.
-9-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
WEDNESDAY
APRIL 18
(Continued)
6:30 pm-
Reception offered by Caribbean Central American
8:00 pm
Action Committee in honor of President and Mrs.
Callejas, Room 2172, Rayburn House Office Building.
Private evening.
Overnight: Blair House
-10-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
THURSDAY
APRIL 19
9:00 am-
Morning Newsmaker, National Press Club. *
10:00 am
10:30 am-
Protocolary Session in honor of President Callejas,
11:20 pm
to be followed by Address before Permanent Council,
Hall of the Americas, Organization of the American
States.
11:35 am-
Meeting with Director Castellanos, Director's
12:00 pm
Office, Pan-Americn Health Organization. *
12:30 pm-
Working Luncheon with International Monetary Fund
1:00 pm
Alternate Director General Erb, Blair House.*
1:30 pm-
Meeting with World Bank President Conable, Blair
2:00 pm
House.
*
3:00 pm-
Farewell Ceremony with Acting Secretary of State
3:05 pm
Eagleburger, Deputy Chief of Protocol Fitzgerald,
and Farewell Committee, Washington Monument
Grounds, Reflecting Pool.
3:05 pm-
United States Presidential Helicopters to Andrews
3:15 pm
Air Force Base.
3:20 pm-
United States Presidential Aircraft to La Guardia
4:10 pm
Airport, New York, New York.
4:15 pm
Resume private schedule upon arrival.
*Mrs. Callejas does not attend.
-11-
April 12, 1990
PLANNING MEETING
OFFICIAL WORKING VISIT
President Callejas, Honduras
10 a.m., Situation Room
Participants:
Bill Sittmann
David Pacelli
PRESS: Bill Harlow
SOCIAL: Cathy Fenton
MIL OFFICE: Sean Byrne
COMM: Bob Simon
STATE:
Protocol:
Jennifer Fitsgerald
Bill Black
Dan Growney
Desk:
Chris Sandrolini
Area:
Jerome Hoganson
ExSec:
Denise Burgess
Departure Statement
Visit of President Callejas
April 17-19, 1990
It has been a great pleasure to meet President Rafael Callejas
in his first official visit to Washington. President Callejas
is a longtime friend of the United States, dating back to his
university days in Mississippi, and Vice President Quayle
carried our warmest regards in January when he attended
President Callejas' inauguration. The President and I had a
very friendly and useful talk on several subjects. The United
States applauds Honduras' constructive role in achieving a
multilateral agreement on the peaceful demobilization and
repatriation of the Nicaraguan Resistance in conditions of
safety for all concerned. The demobilization has now been
completed in Honduras. We support this process and will work
to ensure humanitarian assistance to those in need in both
Nicaragua and Honduras as they return home and reintegrate into
Nicaraguan society.
The President and I explored our mutual goals in the coming
years for Central America and for our bilateral relationship.
We agreed on the importance of continuing our close cooperation
in the fight against drugs in our hemisphere. The United
States remains firmly committed to helping economic development
in Honduras, and we fully support President Callejas' bold
reform program. We are working together to help arrange new
financing of Honduras' international obligations.
Wernay Castro do or any Environment Earth quents Day in Call their McNally/Simon April 10, 1990
insect
Draft One (B:HONDURAS.DEP)
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: DEPARTURE STATEMENT: PRESIDENT CALLEJAS
DIPLOMATIC ENTRANCE, SOUTH PORTICO
TUESDAY, APRIL 17, 1990, :
.M.
Mr. President, Members of the Honduran delegation -- let me
again thank you for coming to the White House. We are very
pleased and honored that you are here. \\\
It has been a great and personal pleasure to meet President
Callejas [ [cah-YAY-haas] in his first official visit to
Washington. The President is a longtime friend of the United
States, dating back to his university days in Mississippi. And
Vice President Quayle carried our warmest regards in January when
he attended President Callejas' historic Inauguration -- the
first peaceful transfer of power to an opposition party in nearly
60 years -- and an inspiring example of the democratic promise
today spreading throughout the Americas.
And I remember with great fondness the natural beauty of
your country, and the natural hospitality of the your people,
1-27-86when I visited Tegucigalpa some years ago, for the inauguration
schedule of your distinguished predecessor.
President Callejas and I shared some very friendly and
useful talks today on several subjects. We both expressed our
appreciation for the stable and constructive relations shared by
our two nations.
Mr. President, in your inaugural address you proclaimed that
"Burning in the heart of the peoples of Central America is a
flame of hope and faith in
the democratic path. And Mr.
assoc. Hondurun De
ecologica
504-32-90-18
2
President, the people of the United States share your hope, we
share your faith.
The United States applauds Honduras' productive role in
achieving a multilateral agreement on the peaceful demobilization
and repatriation of the Nicaraguan Resistance in conditions of
safety for all concerned. In Honduras, the demobilization has
now been completed. We support this process and will work to
ensure humanitarian assistance to those in need in both Nicaragua
and Honduras as they return to their homes, their families and
their jobs, and play a vital role in helping to shape Nicaragua's
emerging democratic institutions.
The President and I explored our mutual goals in the coming
years for Central America, and for our bilateral relationship.
We agreed on the importance of continuing our close cooperation
in the struggle against the scourge of cocaine in our hemisphere.
The United States remains firmly committed to helping economic
development in Honduras, and we fully support President Callejas'
bold economic reforms. And we are working together to help
arrange new financing of Honduras' international obligations.
Mr. President, it is well known that, in Spanish, the word
"Honduras" means "great depths." But we believe that the
"democratic path" of which you spoke in January will lead to
great heights for Honduras, and for all of Central America.
Thank you for coming. We wish you Godspeed, and the best of
luck in your continuing talks here over the next two days.
#
#
#
McNally/Simon
April 10, 1990
Draft One (B:HONDURAS.DEP)
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: DEPARTURE STATEMENT: PRESIDENT CALLEJAS
DIPLOMATIC ENTRANCE, SOUTH PORTICO
TUESDAY, APRIL 17, 1990, :
M.
Mr. President, Members of the Honduran delegation -- let me
again thank you for coming to the White House. We are very
pleased and honored that you are here.
It has been a great and personal pleasure to meet President
Callejas [[cah-YAY-haas]] in his first official visit to
Washington. The President is a longtime friend of the United
States, dating back to his university days in Mississippi. And
Vice President Quayle carried our warmest regards in January when
he attended President Callejas' historic Inauguration -- the
first peaceful transfer of power to an opposition party in nearly
60 years -- and an inspiring example of the democratic promise
today spreading throughout the Americas.
I remember with great fondness the natural beauty of
Honderon
your country, and the natural (phonete) hospitality of the your people,
when I visited Tegucigalpa some years ago, for the inauguration
of your distinguished predecessor.
President Callejas and I shared some very friendly and
useful talks today on several subjects. We both expressed our
appreciation for the stable and constructive relations shared by
our two nations.
Mr. President, in your inaugural address you proclaimed that
"Burning in the heart of the peoples of Central America is a
flame of hope and faith in
the democratic path. " And Mr.
2
President, the people of the United States share your hope, we
share your faith.
The United States applauds Honduras' productive role in
achieving a multilateral agreement on the peaceful demobilization
and repatriation of the Nicaraguan Resistance in conditions of
safety for all concerned. In Honduras, the demobilization has
now been completed. We support this process and will work to
ensure humanitarian assistance to those in need in both Nicaragua
and Honduras as they return to their homes, their families and
their jobs, and play a vital role in helping to shape Nicaragua's
emerging democratic institutions.
The President and I explored our mutual goals in the coming
years for Central America X and for our bilateral relationship.
We agreed on the importance of continuing our close cooperation
in the struggle against the scourge of cocaine in our hemisphere.
The United States remains firmly committed to helping economic
development in Honduras, and we fully support President Callejas'
bold economic reforms. And we are working together to help
arrange new financing of Honduras' international obligations.
Mr
President it is well known that, in Spanish, the word
"Honduras" means "great depths. " But we believe that the
"democratic path" of which you spoke in January will lead to
great heights for Honduras, and for all of Central America.
Thank you for coming. We wish you Godspeed, and the best of
luck in your continuing talks here over the next two days.
#
#
#
State Dept. 9/89
Belize
Isla de Roatão
/
Caribbean Sea
Restes
Grif of
Hondur
Puerto Castilla
16
Rio
Sarstun
Trujillo
Cortás,
La Ceiba
Palana
Guatemala
uerto Banne
Tela
Sonaguera
Lago de Izabal,
San Pedro
Molagua
Sula
El Progreso
San Lorenzo,
Santa Rita
Dulce Nombre
Puerto Lempiraliou
El Liano
Yoro
de Culmi
Paluca
RIO
Zacapa
Santar
Lago
Bárbara0
de
Santa Rosa
Yojoa
RioCoco
de Copan
Libertad
Leimes
Juticalpa
Gracias
Sigualepeque
Cedros,
Rio
Nueva
Comayagua
Ocotepeque
Jalan
R10
La Paz
RIO
Humma
La
Esperanza
Coro
Rid
Tegucigalpa
Dank
14
Puerto Cabezan
El Salvador
2
uscarán
into
San Salvador
Honduras
ago de
llopango
Rio
Nicaragua
Zacatecoluca
Nacaome
International boundary
National capital
Choluteca
Railroad
Road
Gullo
Esteli
+
Funseca
International airport
Pacific Ocean
0
25-1
50
75 Miles
Sébaco,
0
25
50
75 Kilometers
BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION IS
NOT NECESSARILY AUTHORITATIVE
86
84
GEOGRAPHY
artifacts in the Parque de la Concordia
on the Meso-American Indian civiliza-
in Tegucigalpa.
tions and their trading partners to the
Honduras is bordered by Guatemala, El
Several Honduran authors achieved
south, they neglected Honduras.
Salvador, and Nicaragua. Two major
international prominence in the early
This neglect caused difficulties long
mountain ranges run through Honduras
20th century, notably the modernist,
after the five Central American Repub-
from north to south, and tropical low-
Juan Ramon Molina, a journalist and
lics gained independence from Spain on
lands lie along both coasts.
lyric poet, and Roberto Sosa and Daniel
September 15, 1821. The disparity be-
The climate ranges from temperate
Lainez. Recent years have seen notable
tween the sociopolitical and economic de-
in the mountainous interior to tropical in
achievement in the plastic arts. The
velopment of Honduras and its regional
the lowlands. The dry season lasts from
painter, Jose Antonio Velasquez, is fa-
neighbors exacerbated harsh partisan
November to May and seriously affects
mous for his brightly colored scenes of
battles among provincial leaders, result-
the southern, western, and interior
Honduran villages.
ing in the collapse of the Central Ameri-
areas of the country.
Today, there is a small but active
can Federation in 1838. The Honduran
cultural community that sponsors poetry
national hero, Gen. Francisco Morazan,
readings, art exhibits, and musical
was a leader in unsuccessful efforts to
PEOPLE
events at the National University and at
maintain this federation. Until 1922, the
the Manuel Bonilla National Theater.
chief aim of Honduran foreign policy was
About 90% of the population is mestizo.
to restore Central American unity.
There also are small minorities of Euro-
Honduras has had difficulty estab-
pean, African, oriental, and American
HISTORY
lishing a stable government. Since
Indian descent. Most Hondurans are Ro-
independence, the country has been
man Catholic. Spanish is the predomi-
Honduras has obvious similarities in
plagued with nearly 300 internal rebel-
nant language, although some English is
language, culture, customs, and religion
lions, civil wars, and changes of govern-
spoken along the northern coast and on
with its Central American neighbors.
the Bay Islands in the Caribbean.
ment, more than half occurring during
However, its historical and evolutionary
this century. Moreover, with a severe
pattern of development has been quite
lack of economic infrastructure and
Cultural Achievements
different. Since the Spanish colonists
sociopolitical integration, Honduras did
based their empire in Central America
Honduras offers some of the most im-
not enjoy the social or economic advan-
pressive examples of Mayan culture, es-
tages of nationalism, central decision-
pecially at Copan and the collection of
making, or substantial private
investment.
2
During the relatively stable but aus-
came host to the largest Peace Corps
tere years of the Great Depression,
mission in the world, and nongovernmen-
Honduras was controlled by a harsh
tal and international voluntary agencies
authoritarian, Gen. Tiburcio Carias An-
proliferated.
dino, whose ties to dictators in neighbor-
Most important, with strong en-
ing countries and to foreign companies
dorsement and support from the Hon-
on the north coast enabled him to main-
duran military, the Suazo administra-
tain power until renewed turbulence be-
tion ushered in the first peaceful trans-
gan in 1948. By then, provincial military
fer of power between civilian presidents
leaders had begun to gain control of the
in more than 30 years when in January
two major parties, the Nationals and the
1986, newly elected Jose Azcona Hoyo
Liberals. After two more authoritarian
(Liberal Party) assumed the presidency.
civilian administrations controlled by
The Liberal Party gained power through
the National Party and a general strike
an idiosyncracy of the electoral law,
by radical labor unions on the north
which gives the presidency to the candi-
coast in 1954, young military reformists
date with the most votes from the party
staged a palace coup in October 1955 that
with the collective majority, rather than
installed a provisional junta and paved
the candidate with the greatest plu-
the way for constituent assembly elec-
rality. Thus, National Party candidate
tions in 1957. This assembly, led by the
Rafael Callejas (with 42% of the vote)
opposition Liberal Party, appointed Dr.
peacefully conceded defeat to Azcona,
Ramon Villeda Morales as president and
whose Liberal Party won more than 50%
transformed itself into a national legisla-
of the vote with several candidates run-
ture for a 6-year term.
ning. Azcona won only 27% of the na-
Liberalism flourished during this
tional vote.
time, as did the military. The newly cre-
The Azcona administration has
ated military academy, graduated its
faced numerous difficulties. The coun-
first class in 1960. The armed forces be-
try's economy has endured severe
gan to professionalize its leadership
pressures caused by an overvalued
alongside the civilian establishment, par-
exchange rate, large fiscal and balance-
ticularly the economic establishment.
of-payments deficits, and major struc-
These changes were particularly strik-
tural barriers to investment and devel-
ing during the civilian presidency of
opment of new exports. Nevertheless,
Ramon Villeda Morales (1957-63). But in
the ensuing years, building army and
Honduras has managed to maintain
October 1963, conservative military offi-
security forces comparable to those of
relatively lower rates of inflation, and
cers preempted constitutional elections
the Central American neighbors, and an
relatively higher economic growth, than
by deposing Villeda in a bloody coup.
air force superior to all of them. The suc-
its more developed neighbors in the re-
They exiled Liberal Party members and
cessive regimes of Gen. Melgar Castro
gion. The government also is attempting
took control of the national police, which
(1975-78) and Gen. Paz Garcia (three-
macroeconomic reforms that should help
they organized into special security
man junta 1978-82), largely built the cur-
to improve conditions in the future.
forces.
rent physical infrastructure and tele-
Politically, the Azcona administra-
The armed forces, led chiefly by
communications system of Honduras.
tion has maintained relatively good rela-
Gen. Lopez Arrellano and his proteges
The country also enjoyed its most rapid
tions with the armed forces, still the
in the National Party, governed until
economic growth during this period.
most powerful institution in Honduras.
1982. Civilian President, Ramon Cruz,
During this time, the military slow-
Meanwhile, the National Congress has
(National Party) was in power for less
ly prepared to turn the country back to
for the first time in modern history be-
than 1 year following elections in 1970,
civilian rule. A constituent assembly was
come a truly separate branch of govern-
but he was unable to manage the govern-
popularly elected in April 1980, and gen-
ment, expressing views on both domestic
ment. Popular discontent had continued
eral elections were held in November
and external policy. Freedom of press
to rise after the 1969 border war with El
1981. A constitution was finally approved
and speech has continued to strengthen.
Salvador, and in December 1972, Lopez
in 1982, and the government of President
There are no known political prisoners,
staged another coup. Lopez now adopted
Roberto Suazo Cordoba, of the Liberal
and the privately owned media fre-
more progressive policies, including land
Party, assumed power. Faced with se-
quently exercises its right to criticism
reform. His regime was finally brought
vere economic recession, the threat
(even of the most sensational sort) with-
down in the mid-1970s by successive
posed by the new revolutionary Marxist
out fear of reprisals. Reinforced by the
scandals. His government had misused
government in Nicaragua, and civil war
media and several political watchdog or-
international emergency aid after Hurri-
in El Salvador, Suazo was a strong sup-
ganizations, human rights and civil liber-
cane Fifi ravaged the north coast in 1974
porter of U.S. policy in Central Ameri-
ties are reasonably well protected in
and accepted large bribes in 1975 from
ca. Close cooperation on political and
Honduras, notwithstanding occasional
the United Brands Company to reduce
military issues with the United States
highly publicized cases of abuses com-
taxes on banana exports. His proteges
was complemented by ambitious social
mitted by security forces in both rural
continued modernization programs in
and economic development projects spon-
and urban areas. Compared to other
sored by the U.S. Agency for Interna-
countries in the region, Honduras' re-
tional Development (AID). Honduras be-
cord on human rights is quite good.
3
perception of lack of progress in many
developmental areas, chronic corruption,
inefficiency in the civilian bureaucracy, a
decline in the level of basic public sector
services, and a rise since 1986 in the lev-
el of violent street crime and politically
inspired extremist acts.
The two major parties (Liberal and
the National), are running active cam-
paigns throughout the country. Their
ideologies, primarily are centrist, par-
ticularly regarding national security is-
sues and foreign policy. On domestic
policy, the diverse factions within the
Liberal Party tend to pull the party left-
ward from the center-right Nationals,
offering more populist rhetoric-if not
concrete programs-than their conser-
vative opponents. The coalition-style
Liberal/National government pact of 1986
has since disappeared in the politics of
this election year. Nevertheless, the par-
ties in the legislature continue to cooper-
ate on many national issues.
The two smaller registered parties,
the Christian Democrats and the Innova-
Pre-Columbian Mayan ruins, Copan.
tion and Unity Party, remain marginal
left-of-center groupings with few cam-
paign resources and little organization.
GOVERNMENT
Foreign Relations-Carlos Lopez
They probably command no more than
Contreras
the 5% of the 1985 vote and may have lost
The 1982 constitution continues the Hon-
Economy and Commerce-Reginaldo
ground. Despite significant progress in
duran tradition of a strong executive, a
Panting Penalba
training cadre and installing more skill-
unicameral legislature (the National
Finance and Public Credit-Carlos Falck
ful advisers at the top of each party
Congress), and a judiciary appointed by
Defense and Public Security-Col.
ladder, electoral politics in Honduras
the National Congress. The president is
Wilfredo Sanchez
remain traditionalist and paternalistic.
elected directly by popular vote. Con-
Education-Elisa Valle de Martinez
gressional seats are assigned propor-
Labor-Adalberto Discua Rodriguez
tionally to the parties' candidates
ECONOMY
according to the number of votes each
Ambassador to the United States-Jorge
Hernandez Alcerro
party received. The judiciary includes a
Ambassador to the United Nations—
Honduras is one of the poorest and the
Supreme Court of Justice, courts of ap-
Roberto Martinez Ordonez
least developed countries in Latin Amer-
peal, and several courts of original juris-
Ambassador to the Organization of
ica. The economy is based primarily on
diction, such as labor, tax, and criminal
American States (OAS)-Leon
agriculture, but there are extensive for-
courts.
Paredes Lardizabal
est, marine, and mineral resources.
For administrative purposes, Hon-
Although unemployment officially is
duras is divided into 18 departments,
Honduras maintains an embassy in
estimated at 10%-15%, underemployment
with departmental and municipal offi-
the United States at 4301 Connecticut
is much higher, perhaps as high as 40%
cials elected for 2-year terms. The presi-
Avenue NW., Suite 100, Washington,
of the work force. The literacy rate is
dent, members of Congress, mayors, and
D.C. 20008 (tel. 202-966-7700).
only about 60%. The life expectancy at
other municipal officials are elected to
birth is 63 years, while infant mortality
4-year terms.
is 60 per thousand. Honduras has one of
POLITICAL CONDITION
the highest birth rates in Latin America
Principal Government Officials
at 5.6 per thousand. After the severe re-
General elections for the presidency, the
cession of the early 1980s, Honduras has
President-Jose Simon Azcona Hoyo
legislature, and municipalities will be
achieved moderate but steady economic
Commander of the Armed Forces-Gen.
held in November 1989. This has raised
growth, partly due to sizable U.S. eco-
Humberto Regalado Hernandez
the level of domestic tension, caused by
nomic assistance. During 1988, the econ-
Ministers
uncertainty over the future course of
omy grew about 3.8%, sparked by strong
Government and Justice-Enrique Ortez
U.S. policy, nagging socioeconomic prob-
growth in the mining, construction, and
Colindres
lems, unemployment, and the continuing
service sectors. The year 1988 was the
Presidency-Celeo Arias Moncada
concerns about Marxist Nicaragua.
Much popular dissatisfaction with the
Azcona administration springs from a
4
second consecutive year in which Hon-
duras claimed an increase in real per
Travel Notes
capita gross domestic product (GDP), ac-
companied by a rate of inflation that
Climate and clothing: Tegucigalpa's climate
eastern standard time and does not observe
the Honduran Government calculated at
is fresh and springlike-tropical during the
daylight saving time.
4.5%. While official statistics understate
day and cool at night-except from mid-
actual inflation rates for various rea-
Transportation: Eastern, Continental,
November to February, when the days are
TACA, and the Honduran national airline,
sons, Honduras continues to have one
chilly. March, April, and May are hot and dry.
Tan Sahsa, serve Tegucigalpa, San Pedro
of the lowest rates in Latin America.
The rainy season begins in mid-May and
Sula, and La Ceiba from Miami, New Orleans,
The United States is Honduras'
continues through mid-December. Heavy
and Houston, as well as cities throughout
chief trading partner, supplying about
showers fall once or twice a day with heavy
Mexico and Central America. LACSA serves
38% of its imports and purchasing about
rains ending in mid-September. Bring
San Pedro Sula from San Jose, Costa Rica,
half of its exports. Leading Honduran
lightweight clothes, a sweater or light coat,
and Cancun, Mexico. Limited rail service is
and rainwear.
exports to the United States include cof-
confined to the Caribbean coast. In the cities,
fee, bananas, other fruits and vegeta-
Customs: Americans must have a passport.
crowded buses, microbuses, and taxis are
bles, seafood, and beef. The United
Tourist visas are strongly recommended but
available. Taxis are not metered, so check the
States accounts for about 85% of total di-
not required. The Honduran Embassy or
fare first.
rect foreign investment in Honduras,
consulates issue visas and answer queries
Tourist attractions: Honduras offers pre-
regarding tourism in Honduras. In general,
worth about $230 million. The largest
no immunizations are required for entry.
Columbian Mayan ruins at Copan, pristine
U.S. investments in Honduras are in
beaches on the north shore, rolling scenery
fruit (particularly banana and citrus)
Health: Water is not potable, must be boiled
with volcanoes and mountains, and sailing
and filtered, and often is in short supply
and diving off the Bay Islands.
production, petroleum refining/
during the dry season. Clean fruits and
marketing, and mining. In addition,
Local holidays: Businesses and shops may be
vegetables carefully, and cook meats until
U.S. corporations have invested in to-
well done. The main health hazards include
closed on the following holidays:
bacco, shrimp culture, beef, poultry and
rabies and various intestinal diseases,
New Year's Day
January 1
animal feed production, insurance, leas-
including typhoid, hepatitis, parasites, and
Holy Thursday*
ing, food processing, brewing, and furni-
dysentery. Take a malaria suppressant if
Good Friday*
ture manufacturing.
traveling outside Tegucigalpa.
Day of the Americas
April 14
Honduras suffers from serious
Labor Day
May 1
Telecommunications: Local telephone
structural problems and must undertake
Independence Day
September 15
service is adequate. Long-distance calls
Birthday of Francisco Morazan
October 3
major economic reforms if it is to achieve
within the country and to the United States
Columbus Day
October 12
long-term, sustained rates of growth
can be dialed directly. Worldwide service is
Armed Forces Day
October 21
above the rate of population increase.
available, and connections are usually good.
Christmas Day
December 25
These problems include large fiscal and
Tegucigalpa is one standard time zone behind
balance-of-payments deficits, a bloated
*Date varies
public sector, inefficient state enter-
prises, and an overvalued exchange rate.
As a result, it is having increasing diffi-
culty in servicing its official and private
at The Hague over the final boundary
Rica, has not been viable in the face of
debt and is becoming overly dependent
between their countries and have agreed
lack of genuine commitment to the demo-
upon external economic assistance, par-
to accept the Court's decision as binding.
cratic process by the Sandinistas. It re-
ticularly from the United States. During
In the face of continued regional un-
mains to be seen whether the Central
1984-87, Honduras received about $900
certainty, Honduras is embarked on sev-
Americans will be able to develop a
million in U.S. economic and military
eral diplomatic fronts to achieve its
workable diplomatic strategy to resolve
assistance. Of this total, $605 million
principal security goals. It faces a diffi-
the regional crisis largely brought about
was in direct economic aid, including
cult suit by Nicaragua in the World
by the Sandinistas' subversive foreign
$347 million in economic support funds
Court, problems with a massive influx of
policy, repressive domestic policy, and
(ESF), which provide balance-of-
Nicaraguan refugees, spillover of the in-
massive military aid provided by com-
payments support. Economic assistance
surgency in El Salvador, and serious eco-
munist countries.
for FY 1989 was $138 million, including
nomic problems related to international
Honduras has acted to protect its
$85 million in economic support funds.
market and credit trends. Honduras also
interests by proposing a border verifica-
The Government of Honduras signed a
is seeking ways through multilateral
tion program on the Nicaraguan and Sal-
structural adjustment loan agreement
mechanisms to reduce geopolitical ten-
vadoran frontiers. The proposal calls on
with the World Bank in September 1988,
sions in the region and to address the
the United Nations and the Organization
which will require strict macroeconomic
high degree of militarization in neigh-
of American States to set up a mecha-
reforms.
boring Nicaragua.
nism whereby other countries (Spain,
Central America is no closer to
Canada, and West Germany) could lend
peace now than it was in 1987. Although
technical advisers or even peacekeeping
FOREIGN RELATIONS
still alive, the original plan of Nobel lau-
troops to ensure the security of the two
reate President Oscar Arias of Costa
borders. Honduras hopes to reduce the
Honduras and El Salvador signed a trea-
unimpeded traffic of guerrilla irregular
ty in 1980 ending the state of war that
forces across its frontiers while stem-
had existed since the 1969 "Soccer War."
ming the tide of refugees into Honduras.
The two countries have agreed to litiga-
tion in the International Court of Justice
5
DEFENSE
Further Information
Honduras traditionally has sought to
protect itself by maintaining a strong air
These titles are provided as a general indication of material published on this country. The
force. The dramatic increase in the size
Department of State does not endorse unofficial publications.
and capability of the Nicaraguan mili-
Adams, Richard N. Cultural Surveys of
tary resulted in increasing Honduran
Peckenhorn, Nancy and Annie Sweet.
Panama, Nicaragua, Guatemala, El
Honduras. Praeger, 1985.
concern with security on its southern
Salvador, Honduras. Washington, D.C.:
Scherzer, Karl. Travels in the Free States of
border. Honduras' opposition to radical
Pan American Sanitary Bureau, 1957.
Central America: Nicaragua, Honduras
leftist forces in the area has made the
Anderson, Thomas. War of the Dispossessed.
and San Salvador. 2 vols. AMS Press,
country a target for subversive and ter-
Bancroft, H.H. History of Central America.
Inc.: 1970.
rorist attacks. In response to these
3 vol.
Stockes, William S. An Area Study in
threats, Honduras has concentrated on
Chamberlain, R.S. The Conquest and
Government. Greenwood Press: 1973.
developing a mobile deterrent force with
Colonization of Honduras. Francisco
Von Hagen, Victor. The Ancient Sun
Morazan: 1950.
a strong counterterrorism capability.
Kingdoms of the Americas.
Cline, William R., ed., et al. Economic
Wells, William V. Exploration and
Integration in Central America.
Adventures in Honduras. New York:
Washington, D.C.: The Brookings
Harpers, 1857. Spanish ed.: Tegucigalpa,
U.S.-HONDURAN RELATIONS
Institution, 1978.
1960.
Durham, William H. Scarcity and Survival
Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. Central America;
The United States and Honduras tradi-
in Central America; Ecological Origins
A Nation Divided. Oxford University
tionally have maintained close and cor-
of the Soccer War. Stanford University
Press: 1976.
dial relations. Both countries have
Press: 1979.
Karnes, Thomas L. The Failure of Union:
Available from the Superintendent of
expressed a desire to maintain these ties
Central America 1824-1975. Arizona
Documents, U.S. Government Printing
of friendship and common purpose.
State University: 1976.
Office, Washington, D.C. 20402:
The United States cooperates with
MacLeod, Murdo J. Spanish Central
Honduras in efforts to achieve sustained
American University. Area Handbook for
America; A Socioeconomic History 1520-
Honduras. 1984.
economic, political, and social develop-
1720. University of California Press: 1973.
ment. It encourages the responsible
Martz, John D. Central America, Crisis and
participation of U.S. investment that
Challenge.
contributes to Honduran development
For information on foreign economic trends, commercial development, production, trade
and bilateral trade. The United States
regulations, and tariff rates, contact the International Trade Administration, U.S.
favors stable, peaceful relations between
Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20230, or any Commerce Department district
office.
Honduras and its Central American
neighbors. Facing mounting regional po-
litical pressures, increased economic
needs, and growing security concerns,
AID and the U.S. Information
Honduras attaches significant impor-
Agency are active in Honduras. The
Published by the United States Department
tance to U.S. material assistance and
of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
Office
Peace Corps has some 340 volunteers
political support-the most visible mani-
of Public Communication Editorial Divi-
there, with programs primarily in
sion
festation being the conduct of major joint
Washington, D.C.
September 1989
health, education, and forestry.
Editor: Juanita Adams
military exercises and significant in-
creases in the levels of bilateral
Department of State Publication 8184
economic aid.
Principal U.S. Officials
Background Notes Series
This
material
is
Ambassador-vacant
in the public domain and may be reprinted
Deputy Chief of Mission-John Penfold
without permission; citation of this source
Aid Director-John Sanbrailo
is appreciated.
Consul General-Richard Laroche
For sale by the Superintendent of Docu-
The U.S. Embassy in Honduras is
ments, U.S. Government Printing Office,
located on Avenida La Paz, Tegucigalpa
Washington, D.C. 20402
(tel. 32-31-20).
7
Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1985 / May 21
tes and in
Remarks Following Discussions With President Roberto Suazo
happen
ernments.
Córdova of Honduras
ws what.
May 21, 1985
couraged
P leader-
President Reagan. It's been a privilege to
under the Rio treaty and the OAS Charter.
new aid?
have President Suazo of Honduras, a friend
Finally, it was a great personal pleasure
couraged
of the United States and a friend of democ-
to meet again with President Suazo. Hondu-
ng here.
racy, here for a visit.
ras is on the path to democracy-a course
We've had very useful discussions during
which will in the long run ensure its people
did you?
which both of us expressed our satisfaction
the fruits of freedom and prosperity.
few sec-
with the positive relationship that our two
I and the people of the United States look
e haven't
countries enjoy. We're in full agreement
forward to continued close friendship and
that the growth of democracy and econom-
cooperation with President Suazo and the
ind you
ic opportunity is essential to peace and se-
people of Honduras.
"A free,
curity in Central America.
President Suazo. Mr. President, this is the
What
We reviewed the accomplishments of the
fourth meeting between us since I became
believe
U.S.-Honduran joint commission established
President of my country as a result of the
ered the
last year to promote the closest possible co-
freely expressed will of the Honduran
ed States
operation between our two governments.
people.
) believe
The joint commission is an excellent exam-
This visit takes place a scant 6 months
aith and
ple of how friends can work together in a
prior to general elections in Honduras. And
aith and
framework of mutual respect and coopera-
for the first time in 50 years, a civilian will
tion.
have the great privilege of handing over
vigorous
I expressed to President Suazo my per-
the reins of government to another civilian
1 people
sonal appreciation for his government's
elected in free and honest elections.
to the
strong support for our policies in Central
Our emerging democracy has been sub-
nate the
America. Our two governments share seri-
jected to the worst economic crisis of the
: makes.
ous concern over the threat to the entire
century and exposed to the most severe
haven't
region posed by the Communist Sandinista
international threats. These circumstances
me here
regime in Nicaragua and its Cuban and
have made our task more difficult. Not ev-
ssued to
Soviet supporters. President Suazo and I re-
erything I would have liked to have done
newed our commitment to face this chal-
has been possible. However, I will hand
an is not
lenge together and to counter aggression
over to my legitimate successor a nation
by any
and subversion.
enjoying complete freedom, ready to face
been a
I also expressed today my continued sup-
the challenges of the future with faith in its
le never
port for peace efforts through the Conta-
capacity for progress and with a deep-
ns on a
dora process. Honduras and the United
rooted conviction of justice.
country
States both back a comprehensive solution
Honduras, which has honored friendship
based on full, verifiable implementation of
and solidarity with other democracies, also
the Contadora document of objectives, in-
needs it friends. It requires a clear expres-
contras
cluding dialog to achieve national reconcili-
sion of support in order to continue its de-
ation through democratic elections.
velopment in peace, security, and with jus-
President Suazo and I are today issuing a
tice and liberty for all.
joint statement that sums up the state of
My visit to this beautiful country under-
relations between our two countries. In it,
lines the beginning of a new relationship
) in the
the American commitment to the sover-
between Honduras and the United States, a
resident
eignty and territorial integrity of Honduras
new relationship which is based on mutual
remarks
is restated in clear and firm terms.
respect and cooperation with interdepen-
Honduras is a friendly nation facing a se-
dency. A new relationship takes into ac-
rious threat of Communist aggression and
count our differences and our common in-
subversion. There should be no doubt that
terests, our needs, and our potential.
we will fulfill our mutual defense obligation
As a result of high-level negotiations be-
641
May 21 / Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1985
tween our countries over the past 6 months,
the 21 objectives set forth by the five Cen-
Joint Honduras-
President Reagan and I have today commit-
tral American states.
May 21, 1985
ted ourselves to a more solid friendship and
Mr. President, our talks have proven to
to closer cooperation based on mutual re-
be very helpful in promoting excellent links
spect of our own dignity.
of friendship and cooperation between our
The Presidents oi
Thus, we have reaffirmed the general
peoples and governments, as well as for the
America and the
principles of a new relationship in economic
peace and security of the Central American
meeting in Washing
as well as security matters. We have decid-
region. I shall return to Honduras having
1985, with full com
ed to continue to maintain on a permanent
reaffirmed my admiration for the American
ernments to the idea
basis the high-level commissions which have
people, my faith in the understanding of its
democracy that the
been meeting to deal with these matters
legislators, and my confidence that the lead-
Hemisphere seek, ai
and to have systematic consultations be-
ership, which you undoubtedly exert, will
cal situation in whic
tween the Secretary of State and the For-
always be present to serve the ideals that
tested in Central A
eign Minister of Honduras.
make this nation great, ideals which were
the urgent obligati
President Reagan, with great sensitivity,
shared by the founding fathers of our re-
issue this communic
has understood the urgent need to cooper-
spective nations when they were searching
The two Preside:
ate with the Honduran people in order to
for independence, democracy, and liberty.
tion the warm, CO
stabilize and reactivate our economy. We
Thank you very much.
the two nations, in
have reached a mutually satisfactory agree-
Q. Mr. President, we understand you've
security relationshi
ment for the disbursement of aid programs
pounded the table in frustration over Nica-
peace and stability
for this year. And talks have been initiated
ragua. Is that right, sir?
region and strengt
to project economic and technical coopera-
tion over the coming years. This dialog will
President Reagan. I was slapping a fly.
and sovereignty of
[Laughter]
Both Presidents ex]
allow us to give proper attention to the re-
Q. Are you going to get aid to the contras
with the work of t
newed efforts which will have to be made
U.S.-Honduran rela
in order to speed up a process of economic,
through now, sir?
President Reagan. Well, we'll see. We are
Washington in Nov
social, and administrative reform. The suc-
on the basis of
cess of democracy in Honduras will depend
going to try.
mutual respect, S
on carrying out these efforts.
Q. Are you optimistic about it?
social development
Even though social justice, the sustained
President Reagan. I'm always optimistic.
The Presidents
development of our economy, and political
Q. Did you really pound the table,
recent discussions
participation should be the basis of our na-
though?
within the Joint (
tional security, President Reagan and I have
President Reagan. I killed a fly.
the program for
evaluated the international dangers faced
Q. Does it have to go through the CIA to
being developed
by Honduras, the Central American region,
be acceptable to you?
Honduras and the
and the United States itself. Our countries
President Reagan. I am not going to give
by the United Sta
will not fail to provide assistance to each
any details.
sistance funds. Th
other in order to face these threats. In the
Q. Would you like to disband Congress?
ments reached by
case of Honduras, we have received securi-
Be truthful, now.
the disbursement
ty guarantees from the United States.
million in Econo
Honduras does not have aggressive de-
Note: President Reagan spoke to reporters at
two Presidents e
signs on any country. In the crisis faced by
1:34 p.m. at the South Portico of the White
objectives of the
Central America, we shall continue our ef-
House. President Suazo spoke in Spanish,
gram to achieve
forts to reach a negotiated agreement
and his remarks were translated by an in-
economic growth
within the Contadora peace initiative. We
terpreter. Earlier, the two Presidents met in
trol fiscal and bal
look forward to a full and verifiable regional
the Oval Office and then attended a lunch-
They endorsed
peace and cooperation agreement based on
eon in the Residence.
courage expansio
exporting sectors
my. They agree
will cooperate clo
ing levels of bila
nomic assistance
ity, growth, and
642
May 27 / Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1986
Remarks Following Discussions With President José Simeon Azcona
Hoyo of Honduras
May 27, 1986
President Reagan. It's been my honor to
the framework of the Contadora negotia-
welcome to Washington and to confer with
tions, and, Mr. President, you have our sup-
President Azcona of Honduras. And we've
port in these efforts. The United States con-
had extremely useful discussions today. We
tinues to believe that a realistic and en-
both expressed our appreciation for the
forceable agreement, based on the full im-
positive and solid relationship that our two
plementation of the Contadora Document
countries enjoy. We reviewed recent devel-
of Objectives, is one way to bring peace to
opments in Central America, including the
Central America.
summit meeting this past weekend.
And finally, it was a great personal pleas-
President Azcona and I are in full agree-
ure to meet President Azcona. I look for-
ment on the necessity of working for great-
ward to continuing our work in the same
er economic growth in Central America
spirit of friendship and respect that was so
and the importance of democratic institu-
evident in our meeting today. So, Mr. Presi-
tions to the cause of peace in the region. I
dent, we thank you for coming. Godspeed
reaffirmed the commitment of the United
on your way home.
States to cooperate closely with Honduras,
President Azcona. It has been a great
both in helping to build its economy and in
pleasure to talk with President Reagan. I
bolstering its democracy. I expressed to
believe that these exchanges of views, held
President Azcona my personal thanks and
in a climate of great cordiality and frank-
that of the American people for his govern-
ness, are always beneficial, because they
ment's responsible stand on regional issues.
lead to greater understanding and a better
Our two governments share a serious
relationship between our governments and
concern over the threat to peace, stability,
peoples.
and freedom posed by the Communist
With President Reagan, we have re-
regime in Nicaragua. The Nicaraguan Com-
viewed the various aspects of the harmoni-
munists, with extensive Soviet and Cuban
ous bilateral relations between our two
support, persist in repressing their own
countries. I am happy to say that in the
population and in backing the subversion of
economic field he was receptive to the
their democratic neighbors. This endangers
points I made to him. So, I am certain that
all of Latin America and ultimately the
his great country will give broad support to
United States as well. In this regard, I un-
the measures which my government is
derscored to the President our promise to
taking to reactivate the Honduran economy
stand by Honduras in defense of its national
and reduce our present high unemploy-
sovereignty and territorial integrity, as is in
ment levels, as a complement to Honduran
accordance with our reciprocal internation-
short- and medium-term efforts, all without
al rights and obligations. A joint communi-
neglecting our security needs.
que will be issued today reiterating this
I have told President Reagan about the
mutual commitment. President Azcona and
efforts we are making in Honduras to devel-
I agree that our countries and the other
op our country. In this context, I reiterated
democracies in the region must act togeth-
the fact that our government assigns the
er to end the conflict that plagues Central
highest priority to foreign investment,
America, but it's not just up to us.
while at the same time recognizing that at
Securing regional peace will require an
present we also require the participation of
end to Communist aggression as well as na-
government and the cooperation of friendly
tional reconciliation and democratization
countries, among which the United States is
within Nicaragua. Honduras has been dili-
one of the closest. Because of the fact that
gent and persistent in its pursuit of a com-
we believe in the necessity of offering the
prehensive and verifiable solution within
foreign investor a climate of tranquillity,
676
Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1986 / May 27
encouraging his participation in the effort
is necessary to conclude fully verifiable, ju-
being made by Hondurans to develop our
ridical arrangements among the Central
country, and of offering him guarantees
American States. President Reagan reiterat-
which ensure the protection of his legiti-
ed to me that, in accordance with the spe-
mate rights, I have authorized the Foreign
cial security relationship which exists be-
Minister to sign during this visit the treaty
tween our two countries, as long as grave
on the settlement of investment disputes
threats to Honduras security and to the sta-
between states and nationals of other states.
bility of our institutions persist, the Govern-
This treaty will provide the foreign investor
ment of the United States will be prepared,
in Honduras with access to international
in the case of armed aggression against
legal mechanisms of recognized impartiality
Honduras, to render it any necessary assist-
and competence, which together with those
ance which the Honduran Government
offered by Honduran law will guarantee to
may request.
him the full enjoyment of his rights. In the
Finally, I would like to say how very
political field, we reaffirmed our identity as
gratified I am that in the course of this visit,
a regime governed by rule of law and based
the relations of friendship and cooperation
on the effective exercise of democracy and
which exist between Honduras and the
on respect for human rights.
United States have been strengthened
When we examined the situation in Cen-
within a framework of trust and mutual re-
tral America, we noted with concern that
spect. Thank you very much.
conditions jeopardizing peace and security
still exist. We agreed that major new efforts
Note: President Reagan spoke at 1:26 p.m.
must be made to find a negotiated solution
in the East Room at the White House. Presi-
to the crisis, based on concrete actions for
dent Azcona spoke in Spanish, and his re-
national reconciliation, on free and honest
marks were translated by an interpreter.
elections, on disarmament, and in general,
Earlier, the two Presidents met privately in
on the creation of a climate in which free-
the Oval Office and then with U.S. and
dom and security for all can guarantee the
Honduran officials in the Cabinet Room.
economic and social development of the
Following their meetings, they had lunch
peoples of Central America. To that end, it
in the Residence.
Honduras-United States Joint Communique
May 27, 1986
The Presidents of the United States of
through mutual assistance and the develop-
America and The Republic of Honduras,
ment of defensive capabilities. To this end,
meeting in Washington, D.C., on May 27,
the Government of the United States will
1986, recognizing the continuing serious-
continue to cooperate, as necessary and ap-
ness of the Central American crisis and the
propriate, in the strengthening of Hondu-
need to take appropriate measures to pro-
ras' defenses and the modernization of its
tect the mutual security of their respective
armed forces.
countries, issue the following communique:
The Government of the United States fur-
The Presidents reaffirmed the joint com-
ther reiterated its firm and unwavering
munique issued in Washington, D.C., on
commitment to cooperate in the defense of
May 21, 1985, with particular reference to
the sovereignty and territorial integrity of
the review of the security relationship. The
Honduras in accordance with the reciprocal
two Presidents reiterated their govern-
rights and obligations relating to legitimate
ments' intention to continue to work closely
individual and collective self-defense and
together in the face of the serious threats to
the use of armed force, as expressed in the
the peace and security of both countries
Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assist-
677
new
heights
1. The Land
Spanish, is a rugged land of steep depth
Honduras, which means "great
tain ranges. The mountains march
occasional broad valleys etched into ravines high
across the country, generally from east to
Physiography. The Central
ra climbs across the
dor border. In
ern Caribbean shore to the Guatemala-El
rise steeply from the Gulf of Fonseca,
Pacific slope is no longer actively volcanie
coast and the short Pacific shoreline.
Narrow plains fringe the long Caril
floodplains extend inland between
spurs along some rivers. Within the mo
Highlands are numerous basins, a few of
have wide, level floors; the largest and most
portant of these is the Comayagua Valley.
most extensive area of lowland is the north
ern corner of the country.
All but two of the major rivers drain
series of roughly parallel systems into the
bean Sea: the Ulúa-Chamelecón complex.
Aguán, the Patuca, and the Coco along the
raguan border. The two that flow into the
ic are the Lempa, which transects El Salva
but has several tributaries in Honduras, and
Choluteca, which enters the Gulf of Fonsect
Climate. The prevailing wind currents
the configuration of the mountain ranges into
to determine Honduran climate. Seasonal
© GEORGE HOLTON/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
shifts set off the hot rainy season (May-Now
Classic Maya sculpture of the 8th century adorns commem-
ber) from the cooler dry season (Decem
orative stone slabs (steles) at Copán in Honduras.
April). As the northeast trade winds lift over
mainland, they deposit moisture picked up
the warm Caribbean. Between 70 and
CONTENTS
inches (1,775-2,500 mm) of rain drench the
Section
Page
Section
Page
ical evergreen forest that covers the Caribb
1. The Land
336
4. Education and
coastal region. Here the "dry" season is on
2. The Economy
337
Culture
339
less rainy season and is shorter in duration.
5. History and
3. The People
339
Government
340
the Central Highlands pine-and-oak forests
nate with grassy savannas. The highlands
ceive 30 to 60 inches (750-1,500 mm) of rain.
HONDURAS, hon-door'es (Spanish, on-doo'räs), a
elevations above 7,000 feet (2,100 meters)
country in Latin America. Honduras drives like
manent cloud cover propagates dense fore
a wedge through the wide northeastern end of
called montañas. The sharper wet-dry season
the Central American isthmus between Guate-
ity of the Pacific slope gives rise to semide
mala and El Salvador to the west and Nicaragua
duous forests on the southern mountainsides.
to the southeast. It is the second-largest country
Mountain elevation and bearing determi
in Central America behind Nicaragua and was,
local weather, which varies enormously
until after the mid-20th century, thinly populat-
short distances: generally, temperatures cool
ed. Steep mountains and fever-ridden coast-
rainfall increases with elevation. Valleys
lines traditionally insulated Hondurans from one
southwest-facing slopes lying in the "rain sha
another and the outside and hindered its people
ow" of the mountains are comparatively dri
from developing economically and culturally.
because as the air masses descend they warm
Spanish soldiers conquered Honduras early
retaining their moisture.
in the 16th century and imposed Roman Cathol-
icism and the Spanish language on the natives.
Although early gold and silver strikes whetted
Spanish greed, the colonists were unable to find
INFORMATION HIGHLIGHTS
a steady, profitable export. The colony quickly
Total Area (land and inland water): 43,277 square
lapsed into rural seclusion and poverty. Formal
miles (112,088 sq km).
Boundaries: North, Caribbean Sea; southeast, Nice
separation from Spain in the early 19th century
ragua; south and southwest, Gulf of Fonseca
afforded Hondurans political independence but
(Pacific Ocean) and El Salvador; west, Guate
left them poorer and more isolated.
mala.
At the beginning of the 20th century the cul-
Elevations: Highest-Cerro Las Minas (9,400 feet,
2,865 meters); lowest-sea level.
tivation of bananas on large foreign-owned es-
Population: (1988) 4,800,000.
tates brought economic growth and integrated
Capital and Largest City: Tegucigalpa.
Honduras with the world economy. Since then
Major Language: Spanish (official).
Major Religious Group: Roman Catholics.
the increasing tempo of change has catapulted
Monetary Unit: Lempira 100 centavos).
Honduras into the modern age, with all its ad-
For the flag of Honduras, see under FLAG, both
illustrations and text
vantages and dangers.
336
HONDURAS: The Land-The Economy
337
Honduras contains five natu-
Early in the 20th century the control of trop-
Central Highlands, the most
ical fevers, the rapidly expanding food market in
hich means "great
ged land of steep
lated The section, constitute 80% of the
the United States, and refrigerated shipping
1900 both the
made tropical-fruit production on the ideally
valleys etched into
Gulf Coast have
suited coastal and river plains of Honduras at-
e mountains march
very hot and
tractive to American capitalists. Honduras
y, generally from
The Central American
ultia region, which straddles the
quickly became the world leader in banana pro-
aragua border in the northeast, is
duction. For many decades afterward, bananas
the country
lated and undeveloped. Finally,
consistently led the list of Honduran exports de-
ore
sesses small islands such as Ama-
spite their vulnerability to hurricanes, diseases,
e
of Fonseca
in the Gulf of Fonseca and the
transportation disruptions, labor unrest, and fluc-
D longer actively vol
off the Caribbean coast.
tuating world prices.
S fringe the long
The mountains largely de-
After 1950 other export commodities-nota-
hort Pacific shoreline
Honduran resource base. Both the
bly coffee, cotton, tobacco, and beef-rose in
d inland between
Cordillera and the Volcanic Highlands
volume and value. Nevertheless, food produc-
ific are highly mineralized, bearing
tion and agricultural exports have not kept pace
e rivers. Within the
lead, zinc, opals, and iron. Al-
with the burgeoning population to be fed; nor
merous basins, a few
loors; the largest and
country has neither coal nor oil, hy-
have agricultural exports sufficed to earn enough
potential is considerable. Honduras
foreign exchange for the imports needed to mod-
; the Comayagua Vall
ea of lowland is the
heavily forested of the Central Amer-
ernize the economy and raise the standard of liv-
tries, but good farmland is scarce. Ex-
ing.
country.
f the major rivers
and river plains, the soil typically
Forestry and Fishing. Fast-growing pine covers
arallel systems into
Bily eroded, and not fertile.
more than half of Honduras, and hardwoods are
úa-Chamelecón compl the
relatively abundant, but difficulties in providing
my
adequate transportation and port facilities have
and the Coco along
Honduran economy is divided into sub-
kept lumber exports below potential. The lack
e two that flow into the
and export sectors. The subsistence
of meaningful reforestation, fire prevention, and
which transects El
butaries in Honduras,
sant agriculture and petty manufactur-
pine beetle controls threatens the future expan-
enters the Gulf of Fons
Ining) employs the bulk of the popula-
sion of timber production. Although inhibited
orevailing wind curre
the export sector is the driving force of
by primitive equipment, commercial fishing and
the mountain ranges
economic life.
shrimping expanded rapidly after the mid-20th
luran climate. Season
Despite generally infertile soil
century to supply the insatiable North American
terrain, agriculture has always been
market. The most valuable fishing grounds are
ot rainy season (May
stivity of both economic sectors. More
off the North Coast around the Bay Islands.
oler dry season (Dec
heast trade winds lift
of the country's labor force are campe-
Mining and Energy. Gold, later silver, strikes
asants) engaged in subsistence cultiva-
brought the Spaniards to the Central Highlands.
osit moisture picked
ean. Between 70
lize (corn) and beans, using machetes,
However, colonial and subsequent mining never
) mm) of rain drench an the
occasionally ox-drawn wooden plows.
amounted to much, the one exception being the
their small plots by cutting and burn-
operations of the New York and Honduras Rosa-
st that covers the Cari
re the "dry" season is
tural vegetation, but because the soil is
rio Mining Company for almost a century after
nd is shorter in duration
usted and not improved with fertilizers
1882. Contemporary mineral production ac-
esinos move on to new ground every
counts for only a tiny percentage of the gross
ids pine-and-oak forest
Cattle ranchers initially monopolized
domestic product but makes a modest contribu-
avannas. The highlan
relatively fertile valleys to produce beef
tion to export earnings from shipments of lead,
S (750-1,500 mm) of rain
for local consumption.
zinc, and silver.
000 feet (2,100 meters)
er propagates dense
he sharper wet-dry seas
lope gives rise to semi
e southern mountainsid
CARIBBEAN SEA
ion and bearing deter
Bay Is:
ch varies enormously
Puerto
erally, temperatures cool
Cortes
ith elevation. Valleys
R.
Tela
La Ceiba
pes lying in the "rain
ins are comparatively
Caratasca
Pedro Sula
Olanchito
agoon
asses descend they warm
R.
EI Progreso,
ture.
Chamelecon Santa Rosa
Patuca R
QUITIA
de Copan
Juticalpa
Coco
TION HIGHLIGHTS
Gracias
inland water): 43,277 sq
MINAS
Siguatepeque
GuayapeR.
km).
Comayagua
ribbean Sea; southeast, Nig
southwest, Gulf of Fonst
nd El Salvador; west, Gua
Tegucigalpa
*
Danlí
Cerro Las Minas (9,400 feet,
vest-sea level.
ADOR
100,000.
ity: Tegucigalpa.
Choluteca
NICARAGUA
rish (official).
: Roman Catholics.
Amapalad
HONDURAS
Γa (= 100 centavos).
Choluteca
nduras, see under FLAG,
DICOCEAN
o
60 Mi.
Gulf
of
0
60 Km.
© CARL FRANK/PHOTO RESEARCH
A Honduran cattle rancher prepares his horse for herding cattle. Much of the country's beef is exported
Virtually all of Honduras' electrical energy
Bananas for overseas shipment are hauled by an over
derives from imported petroleum and from hy-
cable. The north coast is ideally suited to this crop.
dropower. A refinery was built at Puerto Cortés
WALTER HODGE/PETER
to process imported crude for domestic consump-
tion. Major hydroelectric installations at Río
Lindo, El Níspero, and El Cajón began to tap the
vast hydroelectric capacity. Wood, used widely
by poor Hondurans to cook their food and heat
their homes, is a renewable energy source if
managed properly.
Manufacturing. Small manufacturers and sub-
sidiaries of the foreign fruit companies, many of
which are located in San Pedro Sula, have re-
duced the need to import nondurable consumer
goods such as detergents, pharmaceuticals, bot-
tled and canned goods, textiles, and furniture.
Most manufacturing is highly dependent on im-
ports of raw materials, semifinished goods, and
equipment and spare parts. This constraint hin-
ders industrial autonomy.
Transportation and Trade. The mountainous ter-
rain long limited transportation to mules and
horses. Despite the best efforts of the govern-
ment, railroads never reached beyond the North
Coast banana plantations, and highway construc-
tion and maintenance proved difficult. Hondu-
ras early took the lead in Central American air
transport with international airports at Teguci-
galpa and San Pedro Sula. Although the Inter-
American Highway just barely catches the
southern edge of the country, the North-South
highway and several of its offshoots such as the
route from Tegucigalpa northeast to Juticalpa
have done much to improve automobile and
truck transportation.
Honduras struggles to export sufficient ba-
nanas, coffee, minerals, seafood, and wood to af-
ford imports. From the United States, Europe,
and Japan it obtains the machinery, vehicles,
petroleum, industrial raw materials, consumer
durables, and even food that it needs to raise
economic standards.
338
HONDURAS: The People-Education and Culture
339
People
evangelical mission, while at the same time the
brutal Spanish conquest of native Lenca,
church evinced renewed concern for promoting
Jicaque, Social other peoples set demo-
the improvement of life among the poor.
forces in motion that still
Social Structure. Although Honduran society
Honduran society.
features a typical three-tier Latin American
Groups. Some 90% of Hondurans are
structure, it remains unusually open. The tradi-
mestizos (persons of mixed Indian and
tional rancher oligarchy, sometimes called La
ancestry), the result of five centuries
Primera ("the first"), were joined in the 20th
tic and cultural mingling. Indians con-
century by agrobusiness, professional, commer-
such elements of everyday Honduran
cial, financial, military, and industrial elites.
maize, building materials and styles, and
The divergent origins and interests of these
means "mountain of
groups have prevented them from coalescing
the language, reli-
into an intransigent aristocracy as occurred in
base, political institutions, and general cul-
neighboring Central America. However, con-
ethos of the nation. Later immigrants-
centrated in the urban areas, they monopolized
slaves, Black Caribs, North American ad-
political power, educational opportunities, medi-
and banana plantation managers, and
cal care, and other amenities. Only after mid-
weaturers Purers stinian Arab merchants-supplemented the
century with the growth of commerce, industry,
sh-Indian mélange without disturbing the
and government bureaucracy has a small middle
of the Honduran popula-
sector emerged.
refugees from neighboring
The vast majority of Hondurans still are peas-
Central American states usually were mestizos
ants, and as such they remain outside the politi-
cal, economic, and even religious mainstream.
Two factors account for Honduras' homoge-
Nevertheless, the intrusions of new roads and
society. The rugged topography cut local
telecommunications media have begun to inte-
and farmsteads off from one another and
grate them into the national society. So, too, has
outside world. The resulting isolation inten-
growing population pressure on the limited ara-
racial mixing and cultural uniformity. Al-
ble land, by fostering migration to towns and cit-
© CARL FRANK/PHOTO RESEARCH
one community might differ from the
ies from which the newcomers maintain contact
the country's beef is exported.
in proportion of Spanish genetic and Indian
with their peasant villages. The small urban
tural attributes, the final result of isolation
working class is surprisingly well organized, giv-
in the formation of a blended, mestizo soci-
en the country's minute industrial base.
S shipment are hauled by an over
Generalized poverty, a second factor, not
4. Education and Culture
bast is ideally suited to this crop.
heightened the rural seclusion but kept
WALTER HODGE/PETER
hers and other local elites from being able to
Learning and the arts in Honduras long were
a luxurious standard of living necessary to
restricted to the elites. The sunup-to-sundown
themselves up as a class apart from their
demands of cultivating maize and bean patches
neighbors, a situation that occurred next
put literacy and cultural attainment outside the
in El Salvador and Guatemala.
reach of the peasantry. And yet, despite poverty
Several small pockets of unassimilated
and isolation, individual genius and personal te-
oples remain in Honduras but account for less
nacity have produced an ample cultural heritage
10% of the population. Descendants of the
and a voracious hunger for education among
Lenca and related natives in the extreme western
Hondurans.
of the country still partly retain their Indian
Education. Although many of the larger towns
tuages, communal landholding patterns, and
had primary schools, the elites hired tutors for
certain religious practices. The Miskito, a peo-
their children. Such duties often fell to a local
of mixed Indian, African, and European
priest, as it did, for example, to José Trinidad
live along the margins of the Mosquitia
Reyes. Father Reyes founded the Academia Lit-
egion, which was named for them; they speak
eraria de Tegucigalpa in 1845 to provide his stu-
Indian language. English-speaking Black
dents with a place to continue their studies.
Caribs-a blend of blacks and Carib Indians, of
Even after his academy had been raised to uni-
West Indian origin-share the Bay Islands with
versity status two years later, most students went
cendants of British colonists; both groups fol-
abroad to Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua,
old ways. Jamaican blacks who came to
and even to Paris or New York to finish their
work the banana stands and the North Americans
education.
who arrived as plantation managers congregated
Not until the 1950's could Honduras afford to
the North Coast region.
build a nationwide education system. Unfortu-
Religious Groups. The overwhelming majority
nately, a population explosion that began in that
Hondurans-upward of 90%-are at least
decade released a flood of students into the
nominal Roman Catholics. Since first estab-
schools, swamping the government's best efforts
whed early in the 16th century, the church in
to provide basic education for all its citizens.
Honduras has been constantly hampered in its
Meanwhile, Catholic and Protestant boarding
aission by the country's poverty. Just to main-
schools, together with French, German, and
a visible presence among the widely dis-
North American schools, supplemented public
ersed population, it has had to depend heavily
instruction and that provided by large corpora-
foreign-born priests. Various Protestant de-
tions for their workers' dependents.
ominations, the earliest being the Methodists
Culture. Neither colonial nor modern Hondu-
(1859), have made modest inroads in urban areas
ras had been able to duplicate the splendor of the
establishing schools and hospitals, and Mora-
ancient Maya culture, still visible amid the ruins
vian missionaries long have labored among the
at Copán in northwestern Honduras. Nonethe-
Miskito. After the mid-20th century, Pentecos-
less, over the years Hondurans have added to the
tals began holding irregular but highly visible
cultural heritage of their native country. For
revival meetings. The Protestant challenge trig-
example, José Cecilio del Valle, author of the
rered a rededication of the Catholic Church to its
Central American Declaration of Independence,
Increasing numbers of
attending the National
in Tegucigalpa. An
institution, the university
founded in 1845 by Father
Trinidad Reyes as the
Academy of Tegucigalpa.
© CARL FRANK/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
broke free from his impoverished surroundings
The Period of Imperial Consolidation. In 1539
to garner an international reputation among the
15,000 or so remaining Indians were put
philosophers and scientists influenced by the
the care of Spanish colonists, who were to
18th century Enlightenment. In the 20th centu-
vide religious indoctrination for the natives
ry, Rafael Heliodoro Valle's histories elicited at-
lect tribute for the king, and keep the Ind
tention beyond the borders of Honduras, as did
working. This encomienda system merely
the "primitive" paintings of José Antonio
ized abuses. Soon Guatemalan Indians and
Velásquez.
can slaves had to be imported to supplem
5. History and Government
Indian labor.
Just as the placer mines began to play out
The historical evolution of Honduras has pro-
the 1560's, silver was discovered farther
ceded in six stages: pre-Columbian Indian soci-
eties (8000 B.c.-1520 A.D.); the Spanish conquest
The silver boom made Tegucigalpa more import
tant than its more northerly rival, Comayag
(1520-1540); colonial consolidation (1540-
The subsequent jockeying for dominance
1700); the assertion of independence (1700-
tween these two towns continued until the
1870); Neo-Liberal reforms (1870-1950); and the
contemporary crises.
vailed. This rivalry prevented urban concentra pre-
19th century, when Tegucigalpa finally
The Pre-Columbian Period. For thousands of
tion in just one primary city as typically occurres
years small bands roamed across Honduras hunt-
in Spanish colonies.
ing small game and gathering fruits, seeds, and
During the colonial period Honduras was
nuts. When game and wild plants became
province of the Kingdom of Guatemala, which
scarce, some groups were forced to invent agri-
was attached to the Viceroyalty of New Spain
culture. By the 5th century A.D. the highly civi-
Provincial affairs were administered by royal of
lized Guatemalan Maya had colonized the west-
ficers in a chain of command that ran from Home
ern highlands around Copán. Although the
duras up to the captain general in Guatemala
Maya theocracy abruptly collapsed in the 9th
City. From there the line of authority ran both
century and Copán was abandoned, three dis-
to the viceroy of New Spain in Mexico City and
tinct cultural levels remained-progressively
the Spanish king in Madrid.
less sophisticated from west to east.
Although these officials were interested most
The Conquest Period. Columbus briefly touched
in the mining industry, the majority of the colo-
Honduras in 1502 on his last voyage to the New
nists scattered thinly across the Central High-
World. In 1524, Spanish soldiers marching
lands practiced agriculture. Ranching flour-
south from Mexico and north from Panama con-
ished to supply mining camps with leather and
verged on Honduras. For the next decade and a
meat. Ranchers also drove herds to market in
half rival bands of Spaniards butchered each oth-
Guatemala and El Salvador. Peasants, on the
er and fought the Indians, most notably the Len-
other hand, eked out an existence tending small
ca chief Lempira, who was defeated in 1538.
plots of maize and beans in basins tucked among
The Indian population diminished sharply as a
the steep mountains.
result of battle casualties, famine, and epidem-
By the 1580's the mining boom had collapsed,
ics. Spaniards sold other Indians into slavery
a victim of poor roads and ports, inadequate cap-
outside Honduras. A large number of those who
ital, inappropriate technology, and dispersed de-
remained died of ill-treatment and overwork, es-
posits. The increasingly acute labor shortage
pecially after the governor of Guatemala, Pedro
and lack of mercury to separate silver from its ore
de Alvarado, discovered placer gold in western
also helped shut down the mines.
Honduras in 1536. By the 1540's discovery of
For the next 175 years Honduras languished.
the fabled Guayape River goldfields in the east-
Whole regions remained unsettled and some set-
ern highlands made equidistant Comayagua the
tled regions reverted to Indian control. Nothing
leading town in Honduras.
of sufficient export value could be found to justi-
340
HONDURAS: History and Government
341
cost of building roads through the
dom of Guatemala; Guatemala tried to maintain
Hgh ountains. Tropical fevers, smugglers,
its grip on the outlying provinces of Central
abbean pirates periodically closed the
America; and Comayagua, despite desperate ef-
In 1643 the British sacked
forts, failed to stave off Tegucigalpa's thrust for
sought to establish colo-
autonomous municipal status.
and mainland. On the
Amid the chaos, news arrived of Mexico's
they began their long association with
declaration of independence from Spain (1821).
Indian and black fisherfolk misnamed
Tegucigalpa campaigned stridently for an inde-
Indians that eventually evolved into a
pendent Central American union. Comayagua
fier state. Although the "Miskito King-
advocated what actually took place-incorpora-
ever came to much, it further reduced
tion with the just-formed Mexican Empire. But
Increasing numbers of
an contact with the outside.
when the empire disintegrated in 1823, Central
attending the National
Assertion of Independence. Following the
Americans had no choice but to chart their own
in Tegucigalpa. An
the Spanish Succession (1701-1715), the
future. For some 60 years following the declara-
institution, the university
arbon kings of Spain set about the task of
tion of an independent United Provinces of Cen-
founded in 1845 by Fath
zing the empire in order to defend it.
tral America in 1823, Honduras served as a bat-
Trinidad Reyes as the
enda unleashed a continuous struggle
tlefield for two opposing Central American polit-
Academy of Tegucigalpa.
the agents of change and the partisans
ical factions. One, the Conservatives, advocated
a strong central government, an established
ion. Bourbons lowered the tax on gold and
Catholic Church, and an aristocracy, values de-
and reduced the cost of mercury, briefly
rived from the colonial regime; the other, the
lating mining around Tegucigalpa in the
Liberals, favored decentralized government,
much-hated monopoly was estab-
freedom of religion, and social equality, values
SEARCHERS
on A tobacco, and a trading-monopoly com-
borrowed from revolutionary France and the
riled to trigger North Coast commerce as
United States. Honduras supplied the early
id of Imperial Consolidation. In 1539
Campaigns to build roads and bridges
leaders for both camps: José Cecilio del Valle led
too puny to break the lock grip of isola-
the Conservatives until his untimely death in
0 remaining Indians were put
Spanish colonists, who were to
levitalized military efforts (especially the
1834; General Francisco Morazán, the Liberal
us indoctrination for the natives
of a major fort at the port of Omoa), the
champion, twice served as president of the Cen-
for the king, and keep the Ind
ishment of Trujillo, and tenacious diplo-
tral American federation.
'his encomienda system merely
aneuvering had pushed the British off
High-handed Liberal reforms led Conserva-
tives to disband the Central American federation
Soon Guatemalan Indians and
orquito Shore and Bay Islands by 1786, but
had to be imported to suppler
the Bourbon projects raised unrealistic
in 1838, thus raising Honduras to the status of a
Γ.
ran expectations while new tax levies
sovereign republic. Political adversaries within
ne placer mines began to play
Honduran ire.
Honduras and bands of exiles from neighboring
silver was discovered farther
extension of the royal intendancy system
Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nicaragua threat-
oom made Tegucigalpa more im
tral America in 1786 increased provincial
ened, by their constant fighting, to tear the infant
; more northerly rival, Comay
any and fostered separatism in the region,
state apart. The disarray attracted adventurers
uent jockeying for dominance
the intendants, although appointed by
like Frederick Chatfield and William Walker,
two towns continued until the
mish crown, were given broad fiscal and
who tried to take over parts of the republic and
y, when Tegucigalpa finally
powers in the areas under their jurisdic-
set up British or American colonies. To make
rivalry prevented urban concer
Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808, a
the situation even worse, government officials
ne primary city as typically occur
his strategy to deny the Iberian Peninsula
ruined Honduran credit by an ill-advised attempt
plonies.
ritain, touched off a multifaceted power
to build an interoceanic railroad across the isth-
e colonial period Honduras
de that outlasted the Napoleonic Wars and
mus. In exchange for 36 miles (58 km) of poorly
was
the Kingdom of Guatemala, wh
all the way into Honduran politics.
constructed narrow-gauge rail line, Honduras as-
to the Viceroyalty of New Spa
ico sought to retain control over the King-
sumed the world's largest per capita debt.
airs were administered by royal
in of command that ran from H
the captain general in Guaten
An improved strain of rice is examined at the well-known Pan American Agricultural School in Zamorano.
LYNN McLAREN/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
here the line of authority ran
of New Spain in Mexico City
ing in Madrid.
hese officials were interested me
industry, the majority of the CO
I thinly across the Central Hi
ed agriculture. Ranching flor
y mining camps with leather
rs also drove herds to market
1 El Salvador. Peasants, on
ed out an existence tending sm
and beans in basins tucked amo
tains.
's the mining boom had collapse
r roads and ports, inadequate
ate technology, and dispersed
ncreasingly acute labor short
cury to separate silver from its
it down the mines.
175 years Honduras languisht
remained unsettled and some
erted to Indian control. Nothi
ort value could be found to just
342
HONDURAS: History and Government
Neo-Liberal Reforms. In the final quarter of the
reservoir of goodwill enabled them to
19th century a new generation of leaders came to
power. The first of these "neo-Liberals" was
natural and social catastrophes such as win the
Marco Aurelio Soto. He and his successors re-
hurricanes that struck in the early 1970
tained the Liberal commitment to economic
worst of the three, Fifi, smashed into the
growth but borrowed the Conservative notion of
and leveling the banana stands.
Coast in September 1974, claiming 10,000
strong central government concentrated in the
The introduction of modern health
executive branch. Soto quickly linked up the
nated a demographic explosion that prod care
most important towns by telegraph, an important
weapon in his pacification of the countryside.
population that was 50% under the age of
He moved the capital from Comayagua to Tegu-
that doubled approximately every 20 years
avalanche of people soon outstripped
cigalpa and connected it to the outside world by
agricultural land, severely taxed urban
building the Southern Highway to the Gulf of
and glutted the labor market.
Fonseca. He encouraged all manner of econom-
The demographic crisis was the
ic development schemes, the most promising of
of the "Soccer War" between Honduras main
which was the reopening of the silver mines. Of
Salvador. The Honduran military goven
the more than 100 American and British mining
unable to lead the country out of econom
companies, only the New York and Honduras
pression despite membership in the
Mining Company was profitable. The brief min-
American Common Market (CACM), blam
ing boom, however, did reduce Honduran seclu-
300,000 Salvadorian immigrants for the
sion. Ships again began to make regular calls at
rating economy and began repatriating
ports on both coasts, and roads built to transport
Tensions erupted in violence in June 1969
foreign mining equipment from the ports further
ing World Cup soccer play between the
promoted Honduran commerce.
countries; diplomatic relations were brok
By 1900 silver mining once more had played
in July, El Salvador invaded. The crack
out its role in getting the economy on track, but
ran air force turned back a Salvadoran
bananas already offered a lucrative substitute.
thrust that had bogged down in the mount
Refrigerator ships made commercial distribution
the western highlands. The fighting left
of bananas possible, and soon the Standard Fruit
nations bloodied and the CACM a shambl
and United Fruit companies organized the ba-
The Soccer War underscored yet another
nana trade. Benefiting from generous land and
portant development in contemporary Hond
tax concessions and the conquest of yellow fever,
political development: the intrusion of new
these North American companies quickly colo-
terest groups into politics. Since the 1950's
nized the North Coast plains. By 1930 huge
ganizations such as teachers' unions,
plantations crisscrossed by narrow-gauge rail
syndicates, and cattlemen's associations
lines made Honduras the world's number one
somed, and the Catholic Church was revited
banana producer.
These groups increasingly challenged the
The creation of a "banana enclave" by for-
nance of the traditional National and Liberal
eign investors had important repercussions in
ties by attempting to voice and enact their
Honduras. The relatively generous wages of-
spective programs. By far the best organis
fered by the fruit companies attracted Jamaican
and most effective of these new political gros
blacks and inland peasants and shifted the center
was the military itself, which repeatedly
of population dramatically northward. San Pe-
vened to stave off perceived internal political
dro Sula was transformed from a dusty town to a
ses, even at times establishing military
bustling commercial center soon challenging the
Unlike the militaries in neighboring Centi
economic preeminence of Tegucigalpa. The
American countries, however, the Honduran
new affluence that attended the banana boom
itary did not become the enforcing arm of
widened the gap between rich and poor, thus
closed aristocracy. Instead it seemed to see
eroding social homogeneity. The machinations
role as broker and referee of the civilian sec
of banana captains-the Vaccaro Brothers, Samu-
The protracted leftist guerrilla warfare
el Zemurray, and Minor C. Keith-blighted
right-wing semiofficial terrorism that engulfs
Honduran democracy through their use of
Honduras immediate neighbors constituted
bribes, cooption of officials, and diplomatic
haps the most serious crisis for the country.
strongarm tactics. Banana production, however,
ugees fleeing to Honduras from the violence
spawned an active union movement.
their homelands, as well as neighboring militan
While the banana enclave prospered, the
in hot pursuit of rebels crossing the Hondum
Central Highlands remained insulated from
border, repeatedly taxed the sagacity of the
change and politically unstable. During the
tion's diplomats. The attendant military build
1930's, however, President Tiburcio Carías im-
to protect Honduran sovereignty from interas
posed political peace. This austere dictator kept
and external threats seriously stressed civilina
himself in power from 1933 to 1948. Despite the
political, economic, and social development
multiple shocks of the Great Depression, out-
KENNETH V. FINNE
breaks of Panama fungus disease and sigatoka
North Carolina Wesleyan Colle
leaf blight on the banana plantations, and World
War II trade restrictions that devastated the
Bibliography
economy, Carías managed to accomplish much.
Finney, Kenneth V., The Quest for El Dorado: Precise
He extended the road system, paid off most of
Metal Mining and the Modernization of Honduras (185)
the national debt, and with funds from the Unit-
1900) (Garland 1987).
MacLeod, Murdo, Spanish Central America: A Sociores
ed States modernized the military, especially the
nomic History, 1520-1720 (1973; reprint, Univ. of
fledgling air force.
Press 1985).
The Contemporary Crises. After the mid-20th
Morris, James A., Caudillo Politics and Military
(Westview 1984).
century, Honduras managed to consolidate itself
Newson, Linda A., The Cost of Conquest: Indian Decline
further in many ways, even though faced by an
Honduras Under Spanish Rule (Westview 1986).
array of crises. The Hondurans' resilience and
Rudolph, James D., ed., Honduras: A Country
(USGPO 1984).
HUNDOR As: EYE OF THE STORM
11/83
N THE HOLIDAY WEEK before Eas-
ter the beach at Tela, on the Caribbean
coast of Honduras, displays a crowd di-
vided by neither wealth nor race.
All the colors of Honduras are here:
Indian rust, African black, European
white. Families arrive hanging onto groan-
ing yellow buses, castoffs from United
States school systems, and in expensive cars.
Willowy girls in swimsuits from Miami
boutiques draw admiration. Campesino
women wade the surf in their underwear; no
one criticizes them. Millionaire and cane
cutter, both know equality on Tela's beach.
There are T-shirts that say "M*A*S*H"
and "100 Percent Fat Free" (this on a buxom
lady). Everyone consumes: skewers of char-
coaled beef, ices drenched in pink and pur-
ple, the water and flesh of coconuts.
Palms wave, the surf is cool. Only the pas-
sage of an army patrol-four men in camou-
flage with pistols and carbines-suggests
that Hondurans have anything to worry
about save the pursuit of tropical pleasures.
Geography locks Honduras into the tur-
moil of Central America. To the south, the
Sandinista government that came to power
in Nicaragua in 1979 seems increasingly
Marxist. Honduran and Nicaraguan sol-
diers have skirmished. To the southwest, in
El Salvador, vicious warfare continues be-
tween U. S.-backed government troops and
guerrillas. Nicaragua has been accused of
slipping arms across Honduras to the Salva-
doran guerrillas; those guerrillas have been
accused of terrorist acts within Honduras.
To the northwest, Guatemala has known
years of strife (map, pages 620-21).
Alarmed by the increased presence
among its neighbors of leftists/Communists
(take your pick), the Honduran government
snuggled up closer to the United States, be-
coming in effect a U.S. bastion. Honduras
looked the other way as the CIA sent coun-
terrevolutionaries into Nicaragua from its
soil. Last summer Honduras allowed Green
Berets to set up a base for training Salvador-
an troops while preparing to welcome thou-
sands of other U.S. soldiers on extended
maneuvers. Meanwhile, U.S. warships
steamed off the coasts. Honduras is receiv-
Journey out of fear brings a Honduran
ing from its ally 37 million dollars in military
campesino family to the treacherous
aid and 97 in economic aid this year.
road from Las Trojes to the abandoned
Yet, as I watch the happy crowd on Tela's
village of Cifuentes, less than a mile from
618
TO U.S.
U.S.
MEXICO
TO
TO U.S.
NICARAGUAN AND SALVADORAN
REFUGEES, 1983
BELIZE
More than 50,000 known
MEXICO
immigrants-many of
them illegal-have
23,000
23,
GUATEMALA
sought refuge in
(No relief services
the United States.
for refugees)
HONDURAS
20,000
18,000
17,000
NICARAGU
12,000
NUMBER OF
NICARAGUAN REFUGEES
12,000
EL SALVADOR
NUMBER OF
SALVADORAN REFUGEES
HONDURASTAR
RICA PANAMA 1,000
BELIZE PANAMA 11,000 12,000
COSTA
RICA
COSTA RICA
PANAMA»
REFUGEE DATA FROM REFUGEE BUREAU OF U.S. DEPT. OF STATE AND UN HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR REFUGEES
COLOMBIA
BELIZE
Isla de
Roatán
Although disease and hurricanes
Roatán
Bahía
have frequently depleted banana crops
LOBSTER
in Central America, production along
SHRIMP
Islas (Bay de Islands)
Caribbean Sea
the rich alluvial north coast of
Honduras is flourishing.
FERRY
Puerto Castilla
FERRY
Puerto Cortés
Trujillo
GUATEMALA
Tela
La Ceiba
Balfate
Aguan
Political instability continues
1
Cuyamet
PALM
PALMFOIL
GR)
PEFRUIT
Sula
de
Dios
ORE-PINPAPPLE
in Guatemala. Amilitary coup
BANANAS
Nombre BANAS
BRAPEFRUIT
LUMBER
Valley
CATTLE
Cordillera
a
San Pedro
Lancetilla
Tocoa
in August 1983 ousted
government brought to power
Sula
Olanchito
PALM
BANAMAS
La Vega
Savá
OIL
by another coup only
La Lima
El Progreso
BANANAS
LUMBER
17 months earlier.
TOBACCO
Chamelecon
SUGARCANE
COFFEE
Duice
Ulúa
Santa Rita
San Esteban
Nambre
2,064 m
de Cuim
COFFEE
EL CAJON DAM
SUGARCANE
Yoro
+
6,772 ft
ELTESORO
Jicatuyo
(UNDER CONSTRUCTION)
2.744 m
2,590 m
9,003 ft
8,497 ft
TOBACCO
COFFEE
+
Santa Rosa
SILVER
Copán
H
O
N
D
R
de Copán
ZINC
(RUINS)
Lago
Humuya
COFFEE
Catacamas
Cucuyagua
Juticalpa
de Yojoa
CATTL
1
2.849 m
Gracias
PAN AMERICAN
Nueva
9.347 ft
Siguatepeque
HIGHWAY SYSTEM
COTTON
Ocotepeque
SUGARCANE
Guayape
2,350 m
MESA
ordillera
7,710 ft
+
Comayagua
GRANDE
La Paz
Talanga
upler
COTTON
La Esperanza
Sumpul
Guarita
+2,123 m
2,290 m
Teupasenti
Cordillera Entre Coo Rios
6,965 ft
Marcala Tegucigalpa
7,513 ft
Las
Lempa
Cifuentes
TOBACCO
Trojes
Virtud
Comayagüela
COLOMONCAGUA
Jacaleapa
Danlí
El Zamorano
Torola
Poteca
Tablazo
Lempa-
de Dipilto
1
SanSalyador
Goascorah
1
Las Manos Cordillers
2,106 m
NICAR
EL SALVADOR
6,909 ft
Nacaome
Volcán de San Miguel
San
Seeking land and employment,
+2 130m 6,988 ft
Lorenzo
'Choluteca
Coco
Anti-Sandinista rebels, or
contras, train on Honduran
WETLAND
thousands of Salvadorans migrated
Volcan
1
soil under CIA guidance, and
to Honduras for more than half a
Conchagua
have attacked across the borde
1,250 m
Amapala
COTTON Choluteca
century. In 1969 this influx led to
CATTLE
4,10Lft
armed conflict. Today, however,
SUGARCANE
Golfo de
1
SANTALOUPE
refugees find shelter in Honduras.
Fonseca
Volcán
Cosiguine
N
U
NFULFILLED DREAM of Central
beach, Honduras seems better prepared for
3
American harmony finds expression in
peace than for war.
the Honduran flag. Each star represents
During the centuries that Spain ruled
a constituent of the United Provinces of
Central America, from the 1500s until 1821,
Central America-Honduras, Guatemala,
Honduras was a backwater, sparsely popu-
El Salvador, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua-
lated. Conquistadors sought quick wealth in
established in 1824 after declaring
independence from Spain, but
gold and silver, but never found a bonanza
dissolved in 1838.
lode. Only a handful of Spaniards settled
The region's poorest
and farmed. Revolutions bloodied the coun-
country, Honduras now
try-the government has changed hands a
finds its own problems
hundred times-but the typical Central
compounded by those of
American alliance of rich landowners and
old confederates (chart).
army never became so oppressive here.
AREA: 112,088 sq km (43,277 sq mi).
In recent years land reform has proceed-
POPULATION: 4,200,000. CAPITAL:
ed, albeit in fits and starts. The press freely
Tegucigalpa. RELIGION: Roman Catholic.
reports. Labor enjoys guaranteed rights. In
LANGUAGE: Spanish. LITERACY: 60 percent.
ECONOMY: Export crops: bananas, coffee,
1981 more than 80 percent of the eligible vot-
lumber, beef, sugar. INDUSTRIES: food
ers cast ballots for a president, ending 18
processing, textiles, mining. LIFE
years of almost continuous military rule.
EXPECTANCY: 58 years. PCI: $600.
But enormous problems still dog Hondu-
ras. Nearly half of the four million people
With Central America's strongest air force,
Honduras has accepted a U.S. offer to
cannot read. Development lags; Central
enlarge airstrips and build a training
America looks risky to investors. Tourism
an Sea
center near Puerto Castilla. The U.S. charges
has shrunk to a trickle of divers lured to reefs
that Salvadoran guerrillas are supplied
by Nicaragua through Honduras.
around the Bay Islands, off the Caribbean
FERRY
Tocamacho
coast. Most visitors pursue other affairs. At
nona
my hotel in Tegucigalpa, the capital, were
Brus
arrayed one day a table of missionaries, one
Laguna
MBER
of arms merchants, and one of journalists
WETLAND
looking for a war:
ONDURAS REACHES OVER from its
Duke
Patuca
Puerto
Nombre
WAMPUSIRPP
Lempira
de Culm
H
long Caribbean shore to poke a toe into
the Pacific, on a littoral squeezed be-
Adida
MOCORON
tween Nicaragua and El Salvador. Be-
R
A
S
(Segovia)
tween oceans, it is a nation of parts. The
Coco
savannas and rain forest inland from the
Auasbila
Leimus
Mosquito Coast are the back, back of be-
yond. To the west, pine-clad peaks spill over
from Guatemala and El Salvador.
Highway 1, the nation's main stem, wrig-
era Entre Coco Rios
Terrified by violence and guerrilla warfare,
gles northwest from Tegucigalpa, descend-
many of licaragua's Miskito Indians
fled their homeland after the Sandinistas
ing to great tropical trees, the soaring ceiba
took control in 1979. Some have taken
and the wide-reaching castaño. "The north
up arms against the government.
Puerto
coast," Hondurans call the region around
Cabezas
the cities of San Pedro Sula and La Ceiba.
Millions in the U.S. slice and sprinkle a bit
ARAGUA
of the north coast's production over their
cornflakes; bananas and sugar, along with
WETLAND
or
coffee, beef, and lumber, are important
duran
e, and
exports. Especially bananas.
he border.
Refugee camp
Refugee reception center
Toward the fruit on a big, drooping stem,
Roberto Hernandez thrust calipers set at the
o
KILOMETERS
75
right diameter for harvest, a fraction less
O
STATUTE MILES
75
DRAWN BY JAMES E. McCLELLAND
COMPILED BY DAVID B. MILLER
621
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC CARTOGRAPHIC DIVISION
than an inch and a half. The fit was snug.
earlier in this century, they were no ladies.
Two easy swings of his machete and he had
Samuel Zemurray, a U.S. planter, may
fulfilled his job title, which is cortador-cut-
have financed the overthrow of a Honduran
ter. The stem fell on the shoulder of Angel
president in 1911, to gain concessions from
Castro, a cablero or cableman. Angel trotted
a friendlier regime. At least, many Hondu-
off to hang his hundred-pound load on a
rans believe he did. Fruit companies got
heavy wire; a tractor would draw this stem
possession of a million acres; by 1915 Hon-
and dozens more to a packing shed.
duras was the quintessential banana repub-
I watched them work a few miles from La
lic. As recently as 1975 United Brands was
Lima, headquarters of the Tela Railroad
accused of paying a Honduran official one
Company. You know its product as Chi-
and a quarter million dollars for a tax break.
quita Banana. The Boston traders who cre-
"We have made mistakes in the past,"
ated the United Fruit Company (now
acknowledged Fred Koch, Tela Railroad's
United Brands) at the turn of the century
general manager. "But we live here and we
also built railroads; Honduras rewarded
try to act responsibly."
them with land grants. The tracks never
This much is certain: In its relations with
went farther than the plantations and ports.
its employees, the company has improved
Bananas locked the United States and
enormously. Cortador Hernandez and
Honduras into a relationship almost famil-
cablero Castro will each earn in a fair day
ial. Honduras's 20-centavo coin, worth ten
about $15, more than some agricultural
U.S. cents and the size of a dime, is called
laborers earn in a week.
a "die-meh." Teenagers at Puerto Cortés
I met Señor Isabel Canales, whose mus-
attend "El Franklin"-El Colegio Franklin
cles bulge from hefting stems, over a beer.
D. Roosevelt. Rarely in two months in Hon-
We walked to his home, a three-bedroom
duras did I hear anti-U. S. sentiment.
house, painted blue, fringed with red hibis-
It is curious, this good feeling, for when
cus. It cost $9,400. "I pay half," he said.
Chiquita and her friends were riding high,
"The company pays the other half."
622
National Geographic, November 1983
Diplomas on the living-room wall testi-
banana variety, the company harvests more
fied to the completed schooling of Oswaldo,
fruit on less land-in a good year, 800 mil-
Fernando, and Maria Canales. The com-
lion pounds of bananas on 17,000 acres.
pany paid for their education through the
sixth grade. "I didn't learn to read and write
OME of Tela Railroad's redundant
myself until five years ago, Isabel said. The
company paid for that too.
S
workers got jobs in San Pedro Sula, a
20-minute drive from La Lima. Sticky
Rafael Valle, president of the 10,000-
after a rain, San Pedro seems too tropi-
member Tela Railroad union, recalled the
cal to be the energetic city that billboards ad-
year 1954, when he earned $1.15 a day. "We
vertise. Five miles outside the city signs
were being exploited. The government had
proclaim manufacturers of jeans, swim-
no laws with which to rule the banana
wear, and chemicals. The main enterprise
companies." Twenty-five thousand United
seems to be none of these, but billboards.
Fruit employees struck for 67 days that year.
Edgardo Canahuati, 26, Georgia Tech
The workers won; the benefits accrued to
graduate, explained the energy: "Arab peo-
the entire country: legal recognition of work-
ple are aggressive. They like to work, they
ers' rights, guaranteed minimum wages.
like to make money, they like to live good."
"Companies learned they could not exploit,"
Edgardo's father migrated from Bethle-
Señor Valle said. "Workers learned how to
hem when it was still part of Palestine. In a
settle problems." Many Hondurans believe
small building he began to produce bras-
the lesson of 1954-that disputes can be set-
sieres for the Lovable Company, a major
tled peacefully-has helped the nation enjoy
supplier to U.S. stores. The venture has
greater internal peace than its neighbors.
been successful, not to say uplifting. Before
Tela Railroad shrank its payroll by 60
the recession the company was shipping as
percent. But worker productivity soared.
many as 10,000 dozen brassieres to the Unit-
The company returned much land to the
ed States in a week. Another 5,000 dozen
government. Planting a more compact
were produced for Central American
Taking aim with M-16
rifles, Honduran security
forces get target practice
under guidance of United
States Green Berets at a
regional military training
center (left). Opened in
June near Puerto Castilla,
the U. S.-financed center
trains Honduran and
Salvadoran troops.
Near the Salvadoran
border, Gen. Gustavo Alvarez
Martínez (right, at right),
head of the Honduran armed
forces, briefs a battalion
commander on plans to
enlarge the airstrip at
Cucuyagua. By dispatching
its own troops for
maneuvers in Honduras and
stationing aircraft carriers
offshore, the U.S. hopes to
"establish its presence" in
Central America.
Honduras: Eye of the Storm
623
markets-markets now constricted on
account of the region's troubles.
I went to a factory that produces shirts,
underwear, and pajamas to meet Gabriel
Kattan. He spoke machine-gun English,
honed on buying trips to the United States.
"My father came from Palestine at the time
of World War I on a Turkish passport," he
said. "That's why we're called Turcos here.
[Many consider the nickname degrading.]
People were fleeing the Ottoman Empire,
which wanted to conscript them as soldiers.
They were Christians-they wouldn't fight
for the Turks. My father was 18. My grand-
mother got him a bride, got him married,
and 'Out you go.
Few Hondurans had deigned to enter
commerce; there was little manufacturing.
Long tradition in trade well prepared the
Arabs to fill the vacuum. They now number
some 12,000, mostly Palestinians.
Sewing does not pay well, but it is work.
Women in towns near San Pedro sew covers
on a fifth of all the softballs pitched in the
world. I watched Mirtala Carranza pull
threads with a needle in each hand, stretch-
ing her arms in a politician's victory ges-
ture. An affiliate of Tennessee-based Worth
Sports Company pays her $5.50 if she sews
48 softballs in 'day, and a bonus for any
over that. Her record: 72.
The trouble with such work, as manufac-
turers see it, is that there isn't enough of it.
"So many of the garments your people wear
come from Asia," Señor Kattan reminded
me. "Why can't we make them here? We're
in your backyard. Your country would not
have such problems in Central America if
we could keep the people busy."
EAR QUIET Comayagua, once Hon-
N
duras's capital, I turned off Highway 1
and headed for La Paz. Attention has
been lavished on this town: new water
mains, paved streets, a renovated bridge on
the new highway. Such are the rewards of
being a president's birthplace.
Dr. Roberto Suazo Córdova, country
doctor turned politician, led the Liberal
Party to victory in the 1981 election. His
La Paz retreat is a plain house built around
are limited to the north coast. Main
a small courtyard.
arteries are paved, but dirt roads
To Hondurans, President Suazo's simple
predominate.
tastes are refreshing. The government he
Honduras: Eye of the Storm
627
took over from the military smelled of cor-
T THE END of April, Tegucigalpa is
ruption. But many people, long used to
army rule, wonder if their government now
A
praying for winter-thatis for the rainy
season, which usually arrives with
has two heads, one the president's, the other
May. Water is rationed in the new
a general's. "There is only one head, Presi-
neighborhoods that climb the mountain-
dent Roberto Suazo Córdova's," the presi-
sides, and some days the airport is closed on
dent told me firmly.
account of smoke.
He talked briefly of plans for a campaign
Slash-and-burn agriculture is still the
against illiteracy. But mostly this day he
norm in Honduras, at a cost both to the for-
gives
wanted to talk about threats from without.
ests and to comfort in the capital, which
"We are in a half-moon of convulsion, he
appears some days almost as smoggy as Los
said, citing El Salvador's civil war and
Angeles. Once the rains begin, however, the
neighboring Nicaragua, "definitely Marx-
fires are quenched and the mountainsides
ist, receiving support from Cuba."
turn brilliant green.
As to the future? "If the guerrilla is suc-
On a hazy Sunday evening I could detect
cessful in El Salvador, both Honduras and
no gloom in the central park, clutched in
Guatemala are finished." It is the domino
tangled thoroughfares. Strolling families
theory. "If Central America falls, Mexico
met around the equestrian statue honoring
falls too, and then the problem will be at the
Francisco Morazán, hero of a brief Central
border of the United States."
American federation in the 1820s and '30s.
Honduras, he added, intends to maintain
Young men made the acquaintance of young
"the tightest relationship with the United
women, buying them cotton candy or pizza.
States"; so tight, in fact, that 125 U. S. sol-
There is the look of the country about
diers now train Salvadoran troops on Hon-
many of these strollers; half, in fact, proba-
duran soil (page 622). The base was built last
bly grew up in some small town. A city of
summer-a favor to the Reagan Adminis-
only 150,000 in the early 1960s, Tegucigal-
tration, which preferred not to invite con-
pa-possibly "silver hill" in an Indian
gressional ire by sending more military
tongue-has almost quadrupled.
advisers to El Salvador.
One Sunday I walked in Colonia Kenne-
"La Base" worries some Hondurans, who
dy, one of the first subdivisions built to cope
fear that it will bring terrorist retaliation by
with spurting growth. Funds from Presi-
Salvadoran rebels.
dent John F. Kennedy's Latin American
"I don't think we should be a training
program, the Alliance for Progress, built the
ground for El Salvador or a post office for
first 750 houses. Expanded with soft loans
counterrevolutionaries in Nicaragua," a
from the Inter-American Development
young man told me. "If we've got to fight
Bank, Colonia Kennedy now holds 48,000
somebody, I'll do my part, but first I think
people. Roses and geraniums show the pride
we ought to try to settle things peacefully."
that residents take in their modest homes.
Declared Efraín Díaz Arrivillaga, U.S.-
Among Hondurans, Kennedy is beloved
educated member of the Honduran Con-
as no recent U.S. President-although
gress and outspoken critic of government
President Reagan is gaining because of his
policy: "I don't think the Sandinistas are a
strong anti-Communist stand.
real threat to Honduras, nor are the guerril-
I heard praise for Mr. Reagan inside the
las in El Salvador, if they win." He believes
turreted armed-forces headquarters in
the U.S. government has used Honduras to
Tegucigalpa's sister city, Comayagüela.
further its own aims-to bolster El Salvador
As commander of Honduras's 17,000-
while trying to cripple Nicaragua.
man military force, including police, Gu-
"We should be more worried about
stavo Alvarez Martínez wears the four stars
strengthening our democratic institutions,"
of a general. His status is unique in the
Señor Díaz said. "The government should
world, he believes: He cannot be fired by the
work harder on social problems-health,
president. "I was elected by Congress. To
malnutrition, housing, land reform, illiter-
replace me, the president would have to get
acy. If we do not attack our social problems,
Congress to pass a petition." That was
we will have fertile ground for revolution."
not defiance. He added emphatically: "The
628
National Geographic, November 1983
president gives me orders. The military ac-
the way. They have four Ilyushin transports
cepts the role of being governed."
and will receive more."
At one point he spoke of the "human
Not with optimism, I think, General Al-
responsibility for protecting the environ-
varez reckons the future of Honduras de-
ment"-the restoration of United Fruit's bo-
pendent upon public opinion in the United
tanical garden at Lancetilla is one of his
States. "How can we defend ourselves
special interests. A few minutes later he was
alone? The United States can say "That's
declaring that as a last resort "direct military
your problem,' but I think there is a moral
intervention" might be necessary to curb
commitment. Latin America was inspired
Nicaragua. I pass on his emphasis: This
by the American example of 1776 and the
S
would be a last-resort step. "It could not be
French Revolution. How can it be that you
e
done if the United States did not go in."
would abandon us and allow those princi-
S
Nicaragua, the general contends; is the
ples to be lost in this hemisphere?"
chosen base for "an aggressive invasion" of
Some Hondurans contend that the army
Central America, "originated by the Soviet
and police have not always paid diligent
Union through Cuba." He cites the arms
attention to democratic principles. Dr.
S
buildup there and the thousands of Cuban
Ramón Custodio López, a physician who
advisers and workers. "Nicaragua just got
chairs the private Committee for Defense
two new helicopters and four more are on
of Human Rights, told me the committee
S
1
S
1
Floating market comes to the customers on Roatán, largest of Honduras's Bay
Islands. Small craft bring bananas, plantains, and cassavas from the mainland to
island harbors, where the boatmen peddle the produce. Bananas are the country's
chief product, accounting for one-third of all exports.
Honduras: Eye of the Storm
629
Tallest power plant in Central America, a 745-foot-high dam
under construction at El Cajón (above) will generate a third
of the country's electricity. Damming the Humuya River will
flood 36 square miles of land rich in unearthed ancient Indian
artifacts, possibly Maya. While archaeologists bemoan that
loss, ecologists decry the destruction of forest by slash-and-burn
agriculture. Fire set by this farmer (right) to clear land for an
orchard burned out of control, scorching 40 acres of pine.
counts 31 murdered Hondurans and 33 dis-
offered no indication that skirmishes had
appearances this year and last. Many-not
erupted in the vicinity. Some miles distant,
all-were leftists; in most instances the com-
two U.S. journalists were killed last June;
mittee suspects the security forces.
Honduran officers said their car hit a Sandi-
This record pales beside those of neigh-
nista mine on a Honduran road.
boring nations where political victims are
On their side of Las Manos, a group of
counted in the hundreds or thousands. Still,
Honduran soldiers played soccer. Others
Dr. Custodio asks: "Why is this possible in a
lounged about in combat gear. Beyond a 50-
democracy?"
yard strip of highway respected as a no-
man's-land, a Nicaraguan soldier watched
HE U.S. M-16 confronts the Soviet AK-
the game.
T
47 at the ragged town of Las Manos, on
"Sometimes we hear them shouting slo-
the Nicaraguan border, less than a three-
gans like 'Live Free or Die,' said a Hon-
hour drive from Tegucigalpa. The weird
duran lieutenant. "I think they try to
nonwar confrontation I glimpsed there
encourage themselves." An extra clip was-
630
National Geographic, November 1983
taped to his M-16. A gold parachute emblem
Malo, the school's director. "You don't learn
signified that he had made a hundred jumps;
farming just by reading books."
like many Hondurans, he was trained at a
At the urging of Samuel Zemurray, he of
U.S. installation in Panama.
the 1911 revolution tale, the United Fruit
Nearer to Tegucigalpa on the route from
Company founded this school in 1942; it is
Las Manos, I met other men uniformly
independent of the government.
dressed-students in denim. They planted
No agricultural school in Latin America
bananas, sacked seed corn, and sprayed
enjoys a better reputation. Students work
insecticide. The Pan-American Agricultural
hundreds of hours on its 2,000-acre farm,
School at El Zamorano believes in getting
besides going to classes. This labor helps the
dirt under the fingernails.
school earn half a million dollars a year from
"The trouble with most agricultural
vegetables and seed. Some 15 nations, in-
schools in Latin America is that they pro-
cluding Nicaragua, are represented among
duce agrónomos who don't know what to do
this year's 425 students. Many graduates
when they hit reality," said Dr. Simon E.
take advanced degrees in the U.S.
Honduras: Eye of the Storm
631
Food production lags in Honduras and
"What do you think of this place?" asked
other Latin American nations, which im-
Bill Fash, Harvard-trained U.S. archaeol-
port much of what they eat. "There aren't
ogist and a colleague of Ricardo's.
nearly enough trained men to take informa-
"Peaceful," I said.
tion to the farmer,' Dr. Malo said. He hopes
"You got it," Bill said, laughing. "That's
the school can find funds to quadruple en-
one reason I've worked here five years."
rollment. It could do a lot with the price of a
Three deer ambled out of the woods,
couple of Huey helicopters-or a couple of
making our tranquillity complete.
Ilyushin transports.
Do not think Copán is static. Less than a
mile from the main plaza I stood atop the
NE DAY at San Pedro Sula I got into a
house of a man of influence in the eighth cen-
O
Huey lent by the Honduran Air Force.
tury and watched 35 archaeologists, work-
Second Lt. Rafael Rivera Suazo rose to
men, and students from Pennsylvania State
2,000 feet and clattered south. After
University. Probing the remains of numer-
half an hour we spied a blade of a ridge
ous stone buildings, they used wheelbar-
through which the Humuya River had
rows, buckets, shovels, trowels, dental
forced a notch. San Juan trees bloomed on
picks, brushes, and transits. Honduras bor-
the flanks, flashing yellow through the haze.
rowed three million dollars to finance an
Closer, we hovered over hairpinning roads
ambitious study of Copán and the restora-
and a temporary town.
tion of temples and residential buildings.
With 360 millions in borrowed dollars,
Bill Fash turned to the long bench behind
Honduras is building Central America's
me. Perhaps it had been the sleeping area of
tallest dam here in order to trim the nation's
oil bill. The 745-foot-high El Cajón dam will
hold back a lake of 36 square miles.
Beyond the construction site, Lieutenant
Rivera plunged into the river canyon. Sud-
denly we were looking up at trees-flashing
past at 90 knots. Only 23, and only six
months out of flight training, my pilot was
cool as ice; while skimming the water, he
was listening to rock music on his headset.
The air force, pride of Honduras, has
about 70 pilots and 50 combat aircraft,
including French Super-Mystères and up-
dated Sabre-jets of Korean War vintage.
Hardly modern, this air force is nevertheless
rated as Central America's best.
Copán, near the Guatemalan border, is
hardly modern either. I drove to this site,
one of the great Maya centers of Middle
America, with Ricardo Agurcia, the young
director of the Honduran Institute of An-
thropology and History. "I love this place,"
Ricardo said. The feeling is infectious.
In the afternoon came a gentle shower,
and we took cover beneath a corbeled arch. I
looked across the main plaza, at the temples,
the stairway with more than 1,250 glyphs,
the ball court, and the elaborately carved
statues of rulers whom archaeologists know
Silent beauty beneath the waves lured
as Squirrel and 18 Rabbit. There is, to me,
Leah Riley (above) from a desk job of
no edifice here so awesome as to overpower.
selling insurance in Oregon to the Bay
The plaza is like a garden of sculpture.
632
National Geographic, November 1983
of 10 glypns. "Nobody beat the artisans of
archäeologists believe it could no longer feed
Copán at carving," he said. "They had the
itself. Preliminary analysis of bones from
best stone in the Maya realm, this volcanic
burials at the end of Copán's greatness sug-
S
tuff. Soft when quarried, it could be
gests that the people were malnourished and
worked easily. Exposed to air, it hardened.
diseased. Many died young.
"Their writing was very stylized," Bill
For modern Honduras, these indications
continued. "There was a lot of competition,
are sobering. At the present growth rate, it
a
and the way to distinguish yourself was to
will have 20 million people in half a century.
e
put your message in an innovative way. He
regarded the figure in the glyph at the left
TOOK the good highway that climbs to
end of the row. "This little curl under the fel-
Santa Rosa de Copán, an antique town
e
low's eye is the numeral eleven. This little
with cobbled streets, two hours from the
torch that the next figure carries stands for
ruins. In this vicinity the mountains get
three. He read more, then calculated that
serious about being mountains, sending two
1
the building was dedicated in A.D. 786, late
peaks beyond 9,000 feet; in the valleys the
in the Maya's Classic period.
isolation is intense.
1
A figure holding a "sun glyph" suggests
The road on to Gracias was a jarring chal-
that the occupant watched the heavens; per-
lenge, all ruts, rocks, and fords. Briefly in
haps he was an astronomer.
the 1540s Gracias was the seat of the Spanish
1
Copán's population may have climbed to
audiencia that governed Central America.
15,000. But soon after the dedication that
But the government moved to Guatemala in
Islands, where she co-manages a resort, teaches scuba diving, and leads tours.
Off Roatán (right) she explores coral formations that, diving enthusiasts say,
compare in splendor to Australia's Great Barrier Reef.
Honduras: Eye of the Storm
633
1549, and Gracias is today merely the capi-
Soldiers told me that the nation's best
tal of the Department of Lempira, boasting
troops are recruited in this area. "They're
neither industry nor asphalt.
hardheaded, but when they learn to fight,
Men travel miles to earn a dollar or two in
nothing stops them," a sergeant said.
Gracias, bending under loads of heavy red
Recruited? Not precisely. Compulsory
pottery. Sometimes a trudging man is ac-
military service is enforced by the press-
companied by a boy. Not really a boy, it
gang, an old Central American custom.
seems, but a miniature adult, with his own
"The soldiers take anyone who is healthy,"
load of pots roped to his forehead.
a woman in the Gracias market told me.
Indian blood courses the veins of the pèo-
A villager said: "A comandante tells the
ple who claw the hillsides and sell a bit of
mayor to produce 25 young men. He cannot
pottery. They revere the Indian leader that
refuse. A truck comes. The boys cry because
the Spaniards called Lempira-Lord of the
they do not want to leave their mothers. The
Mountain. He fought valiantly against the
mothers cry because they want their sons at
conquest for two years beginning in 1537;
home." Once in the army, however, many
the Spaniards killed him during a truce.
Lempirans make it a career.
823
634
National Geographic, November 1983
NTIL A FEW YEARS AGO frequent
U
the first Italian to reach this place. That was
air service relieved the isolation of such
Christopher Columbus, in 1502.
towns as Gracias. But air service
Trujillo, an early Spanish stronghold, is
shrank as it grew more costly, and Hon-
guarded by a massive brick fortress whose
duras's road network is far from complete.
rusting cannon still point scaward. Behind,
So I chartered a Cessna when I started along
the town is small and drowsy. There being
the Mosquito Coast. Charlie Wettstein, son
no taxi, I engaged Arturo René Ramos and
of German immigrants, set me down first
his old pickup. "To the cemetery," I said.
at Trujillo.
Among the leaning stones we found one
My host was a voluble Italian, manager of
that said "Wuliam-Walker 1860.' Contem-
a little jerry-built hotel sheltered by sea
poraries called William Walker a "filibus-
grapes and almond trees. In this pleasant
ter," a military adventurer. Nashville-born,
but plain setting Angelo Rubboli strove to
he made himself dictator of Nicaragua for
maintain a patrician aura, dressing in white
one year in 1856. On another expedition he
shirt and white pants with a blue scarf at his
captured Trujillo but was pried out by a
neck. Angelo, wanderer of the world, is not
British man-of-war. Pursued by Hondu-
rans, he surrendered to the vessel's captain,
who gave him to the locals. They shot him.
Arturo regarded the stone. "He doesn't
deserve anything this good," he said. "He
was a mafioso, and he didn't like blacks."
Arturo, who is black, knew that Walker had
planned to introduce slavery in Nicaragua.
Trujillo has forgotten another William
who, like Walker, arrived in difficulty. Wil-
liam Sydney Porter was on the lam in 1896,
avoiding trial for bank embezzlement (for
which he eventually served time). This was
before he became famous as short-story
writer O. Henry. In the book of stories called
Cabbages and Kings, in which Trujillo is
"Coralio," Porter described paradise: "The
fetterless, idyllic round of enchanted days
a life full of music, flowers, and low
laughter
and the many shapes of love
and magic and beauty that bloomed in the
white tropic nights
"
In a beachside cottage at Angelo's hotel,
lulled by the surf and the drum of rain on the
thatched roof, I rejoiced that Trujillo
seemed unchanged.
It will change. At nearby Puerto Castilla,
Honduras is spending 45 million dollars to
develop a port for lumber, bananas, and
palm oil. A new paved road reaches back
into the Aguán River Valley, a promising
An open-door-and open-window-
policy prevails in Tela, where residents
visit with passersby. Life geared down
to a slower pace in Tela when the United
Fruit Company, now United Brands,
moved offices inland to La Lima.
Honduras: Eye of the Storm
635
agricultural area. And, close by, Green
Many who reached Wampusirpi tell of vi-
Berets train Salvadoran soldiers.
olence. Sidney Kittle Goslen, minister of the
Moravian faith, the dominant faith among
NGLISH SEA DOGS who preyed on
Miskitos, said Sandinista soldiers burned
E
Spanish galleons spread the name Mos-
his village. Son of a Texan who mined in
quito Coast, possibly commemorating
Nicaragua, he spoke fair English. "They
its premier pest, or taking the name of a
burned my house first and killed my little
prominent group of Indians in this region.
cattle. They burned another house. They
Charlie's Cessna followed the coast, over
went to the church and burned it down."
savannas green and flat as a billiard table.
His village was beside the Coco River,
Turning, we trailed the Patuca River in-
also called the Segovia, which forms part of
land. Above the dense treetops of rain for-
the border between Nicaragua and Hon-
est, I had the sensation of flying over
duras. The Sandinistas apparently burned
broccoli in a supermarket. We pancaked
riverside villages to clear the border of
down on the grass strip at Wampusirpi.
inhabitants. Miskitos who did not flee were
Ilooked there at people standing in a line,
compelled to resettle elsewhere.
expecting to see in their rust-hued faces con-
"It's my faith that the people will be able
fusion and fear. But the eyes revealed noth-
to go back," said Señor Kittle, who is 69.
ing. Each person, each silent, withdrawn
"I'm getting old, and I'm not very healthy.
person, seemed simply stunned. All had
Maybe I ain't going." He looked away, but
walked days to get to Wampusirpi.
not before I saw that his eyes were wet.
Name, age. Names and ages of children,
The little clapboard Moravian church in
grandmothers, uncles. At the line's end the
Wampusirpi filled with people after dark,
information was recorded. Then each fam-
and presently there floated in the velvety
ily could draw a ration of food: corn, beans,
night yearning voices. A good Baptist would
rice, powdered milk, enough coffee for one
recognize the old hymn as "What a Friend
cup per person per day.
We Have in Jesus." As the Miskitos know it,
Miskito Indians from Nicaragua, some of
the words, in rough translation from their
these people fled heavy-handed changes
language, say that in time of trouble,
imposed by the Sandinista government.
Some fled fighting between the Sandinistas
I run fast to God,
And tell him in his ear.
and counterrevolutionaries. Nearly four
thousand Miskitos have been settled along
He knows everything about me,
the Patuca by World Relief, an evangel-
He understands my suffering.
ical church organization headquartered in
WENT BACK to Tegucigalpa and took
Wheaton, Illinois.
the highway that twists to the hot Pacific
Everything is boomtown raw in Wampu-
coast. A dugout bore me to Amapala, on
sirpi. Smoke rises from cooking fires by
an island in the little Gulf of Fonseca.
tents. A private bath in the creek? Maybe af-
Three Honduran patrol boats painted with
ter ten at night. Lacking dormitory space,
menacing shark's teeth rode at anchor there.
World Relief's staff lays pallets on office
From the island it is possible on a clear day
floors and strings hammocks for a second
to see the volcano named Cosigüina in Nica-
tier of bodies. It is makeshift, crude, urgent
ragua and two volcanoes, Conchagua and
ministration to the burdened. It is beautiful.
7,000-foot San Miguel, in El Salvador.
At the present time Honduras is sheltering
"Where the hell is Honduras?" asked a T-
23,000 refugees from Nicaragua, 20,000
shirt I had seen on a boy in Tegucigalpa.
from embattled El Salvador, and 500 from
(Yes, they have those there, too.) I can an-
Guatemala.
swer: It is between volcanoes.
Facing an uncertain future, a 13-year-old Miskito Indian clears land at Wampusirpi
resettlement area after she and her family walked for more than a week from Nicaragua.
Supplied with basic farming tools, they and countless other refugee families throughout
Central America struggle to carve out new lives free from the ravages of war.
636
National Geographic, November 1983
City of Kings and
COPAN
By GEORGE E. STUART
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC STAFF ARCHAEOLOGIST
Photographs by
KENNETH GARRETT
N OR ABOUT OCTOBER 14, A.D.
652, Lord Smoke Imix, the Sun
King, 12th in the royal succes-
sion, ordered that four carved
stone monuments be placed at
widely separated points on the upper slopes
of the Copán Valley in what is now western
Honduras. His reason for this action is un-
known. Some experts believe that the stelae
marked astronomical alignments; others, that
Smoke Imix wished to reinforce his ancestral
identity with the sacred mountains surround-
ing his capital; and still others, that they sim-
ply helped to define the king's domain.
One - labeled Stela 12 in the catalog of the
monuments of ancient Copán-stands soli-
tary on the heights about two miles east of the
modern town. Whenever I am there, I make
the trek to that windblown summit, for I
know of no other place in the realm of the
Maya where one can behold in a single sweep
the loveliest of landscapes and SO many tangi-
ble reminders of the 3,000 years of human
culture that have played out upon it.
Here, inscribed in stone, is the most com-
plete chronology of a Maya royal house. And
here, as nowhere else, continuing work in de-
ciphering the hieroglyphs and artistic symbol-
ism of the Maya has been matched by that
Battered by the ages, a stone portrait of the
Maya ruler known as 18 Rabbit shelters the
nest of a great kiskadee, a flycatcher. The
eighth-century reign of this powerful lord saw
the metropolis of Copán in its full flowering.
488
d|Commoners
seeking to unveil the finer points of their soci-
plazas that adjoin it as the Main Group of
ety and its everyday life.
Copán. The Main Group also holds what art
If you stand by Stela 12 and know just
historian Linda Schele calls "a forest of
where to look, you will spot Stela 10 across
kings" - stone figures, larger than life, of
the widest part of the valley, about level with
Copán's greatest rulers, portraits sculptured
the eye. Like a tiny grain of rice on end, it
almost in the full round and so laden with the
appears all but lost amid the fields and
symbols of ancient power politics and the
foliage. Lower, near the river, red-tile roofs
complex ideology behind it that, even to the
and white stucco define the living town of
layperson, Copán's art seems unique.
Copán Ruinas.
It was the famed American traveler John
The clump of dark forest on the near side
Lloyd Stephens and his companion, English
of town shrouds the most extraordinary fea-
artist-architect Frederick Catherwood, who
ture of the whole valley - the soaring Acro-
brought the first widely popular notice of
polis of ancient Copán, a royal city of the
Copán - and the first accurate drawings of its
Classic Maya (A.D. 250 to 900), whose ornate
intricately carved monuments - to the outside
buildings and sculptures, even in ruin, make
world. The pair came across the ruin in deep
it one of the greatest treasuries of art and
forest in the rainy winter of 1839:
architecture in all the Americas.
"It lay before us like a shattered bark in
Archaeologists refer to the Acropolis and
the midst of the ocean, her masts gone, her
the platforms, pyramids, stairways, and
name effaced, her crew perished, and none to
490
National Geographic. October 1989
The spectacle of the ball game packed thou-
ruled from A.D. 763 to 820, watches with his
sands into Copán's ceremonial center. More
family (below) from a temple terrace now in
than a sport, it was a metaphor for contesting
ruins. The buildings and monuments around
mythical beings and concepts. Yax Pac, who
him proclaim his power and divine lineage.
PAINTING BY H. TOM HALL
tell whence she came, to whom she belonged
Copanec farmer as by his ancient counter-
or what caused her destruction."
part. The rest, between the plain and the
Since 1885, when Englishman Alfred P.
ridge summits- vertical distance of around
Maudslay began to document and excavate
3,000 feet - is an amphitheater of slopes inter-
Copán in earnest, four generations of scien-
rupted by tributaries and ravines that carry
tists have sought to answer the questions
the rainwater between May and November.
posed by Stephens.
To archaeologists the 9.25-square-mile
heart of the valley bottomland is the "Copán
Y THE LATE I940S archaeologists
pocket." It holds some 3,500 mounds the
B
from Harvard University and the
overgrown ruins of buildings-including the
Carnegie Institution of Washington,
great mass of the Main Group. Up and down
D. C., in association with the
the valley lie at least 1,000 other mounds.
Honduran government, had excavated and
In this microcosm of the Maya world
restored some buildings, while others had de-
anthropologists, epigraphists, art historians,
ciphered dates on the monuments. The half
and many others whose specialties range from
century of effort at Copán was paced by in-
pollen study to bone pathology have wrested
vestigations at other sites ranging from
a saga of power and pomp, of the lives and
northern Yucatán to the
Pacific coast and from the
Chiapas jungle to the Carib-
bean. The Maya image was
that of a peaceful stargazing
people obsessed with the gran-
deur of time; a society of
farmers ruled by astronomer-
priests; a people without writ-
ten history, largely untouched
by trouble. In other words the
Maya were like no other civili-
zation on earth.
The picture began to
change dramatically about
1960. Carnegie Mayanist Ta-
tiana Proskouriakoff demon-
strated that the hieroglyphic passages on the
Razor-sharp edges of chert lance heads found
monuments dealt with human history, and
in a cache dating from A.D. 755 show profiles of
epigraphist Heinrich Berlin isolated the "em-
human faces (detail, right). Each piece, about
blem" glyphs of Maya polities or lineages.
a foot tall, must have taken hundreds of hours
About the same time, Soviet scholar Yuri
to produce. Brandished by the king, the lances
Knorozov showed that elements of the writ-
probably were emblems of his authority.
ing stood for syllables in the spoken language.
The last decade or so has witnessed a giant
labors of the humblest corn farmers, and of
step in our knowledge of the Maya, and
everyone in between. Perhaps the most im-
Copán has played a primary role in the pro-
portant discovery of all is that the story of
cess. Under the continuing guidance of the
Copán's nobility, artists, merchants, crafts-
Honduran Institute of Anthropology and
men, and farmers is more pertinent to our
History, a series of international efforts has
times than we could ever have imagined for
focused not only on the Main Group but also
it illustrates the folly of the misuse of land.
with equal intensity on the surrounding land-
scape. The National Geographic Society has
HE COPÁN ACROPOLIS rises 100 feet off
provided support for several of these projects.
T
the old riverbed to dominate the Main
The Copán River follows a tortuous course
Group. Its whole east edge was clean-
through the region, bisecting a valley of
ly sliced off by more than a millen-
about 80 square miles. Some of the valley is
nium of erosion after the site was abandoned.
fertile flatland, as prized by the modern
In the late 1930s archaeologists rechanneled
494
Copán
Rebuilding
2
AND G3
ALTARS G1 G2
10. ISTELA F
9. STELA A
8. STELA 4
7. STEL B
6. STELA C
5 STELAD AND AL LTAR
4. STRUCTURE 4
3. STRUCTURE:
2. STRUCTURE 2
AND.STELAE AND STELA E
1 1. STRUCTURE 1
10
23 TEMPL 26
9
22. HIEROGL PHIC STAIRWAY
STELA M AND ALTAR
20, STELAT
19 STRUCTURE 9
18. STRUCTURE 10
17 BALL COURT
(6) STELA 2 AND ALTAR
15. STEL 3
14. STELA AJ
13. STELA
12. STELA H
and earthquakes had toppled
ings, vines had invaded cracks,
had tumbled stones from build-
shrouded the ruins." Tree roots
1839, "an immense forest
from a local farmer for $50 in
Lloyd Stephens bought Copán
When diplomat explorer John
8
North Plaza
12
COPAN RUINS ARC ARCHAEOL OGICAL PARK
35
34
33
28
25.
STRUC URE
STEL NAND ALTAF
STRUCTURE URE
32 STELAI
31 ALTAR Q
30. STRUCTURE URE 13
29 STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE 6
27 STRUC TURE 32
26. STRUCTURE 18
JAGUAR STAIRWAY
124 STRUCTURE 22
National Geographic, C
Over the past cent
followed.
tions of archaeologis
trigued him-and him - and th
that hung over [the si
the woods and tl
sculpture, the solem
stelae. But the bea
Great a P aza a Z a
6
Ruins
Modern buildings
House of the Bacabs
Copán
TRAIL
Las Sepulturas
enclave
New riverbed
Old riverbed
CAUSEWAY
Main Group
HIGHWAY
FENCE
El Bosque
enclave
Artist's depiction shows ruins as
restored at present (for clarity, trees
within Main Group are not shown).
TRAIL
NGS CARTOGRAPHIC DIVISION
SIGN: ROBERT E. PRATT
SEARCH: LISA R. RITTER, JUAN J. VALDES,
VISITOR CENTER
HISTORY
ANN R. PERRY, JONATHAN E. KAUT
PRODUCTION: JAMES E. McCLELLAND, JR.
MAP EDITORS: GUS PLATIS, ERIC A. LINDSTROM
INFORMATION PROVIDED BY THE INSTITUTO
HONDURENO DE ANTROPOLOGÍA E HISTORIA
o
500 m
CAUSEWAY
Stela 5
CONSULTANTS: WILLIAM L. FASH, JR., BARBARA FASH,
HASSO HOHMANN
o
2000 ft
Stela 6,
PAINTING BY LLOYD K. TOWNSEND
of campaigns at this site in west-
Las Sepulturas and El Bosque.
New World. But the city fell
of
ern Honduras has cleared and
Farmers moved to this fertile
victim to its own success. The
restored what we see today.
river valley about 1000 B.C.
growing population covered
Early work investigated the
In its glory, from A.D. 600 to
farmland with houses and lev-
ceremonial structures and royal
800, Copán was a major center
eled the forest. The political
residences of the Main Group
of Classic Maya civilization.
hierarchy collapsed at the start
(above). Recent projects have
Its graceful art and architecture
of the ninth century, and the
studied houses in the areas of
were almost unrivaled in the
site was slowly abandoned.
Copán: City of Kings and Commoners
495
Mah K'ina Yax
Smoke
unknown
unknown
Cu Ix
unknown
unknown
K'uk' Mo'
Yax Pac
Shell
6
5
4
3
2
I
16
15
the river to prevent any further damage.
the whole building is oriented so that its long
The exposed cross section is every archae-
axis is in perfect alignment with distant Stela
ologist's fantasy the sense of loss over
12. The outer corners of Structure 22 are dec-
what has vanished is overcome. The cut re-
orated with stacked countenances of "Cauac
veals a profile of successive plastered floors,
monsters," representing mountains. Accord-
masonry walls, vaulted cavities, and other
ing to Yale art historian Mary Miller, the
features that show the whole to be the sum
whole is nothing less than a celebration of
of many parts. The growth of the Acropolis
rulership frozen in stone.
coincided with the long golden age of royal
So palpable was the power of the imagery
Copán, for its heights served as the seat of
of Structure 22 that Yax Pac later constructed
power of at least 16 kings.
an annex perfectly aligned on its major axis,
What meets the eye is merely the last set of
and he made sure that his own mortuary me-
buildings. The Maya, ever conscious of archi-
morial, Structure 18, was placed in the same
tectural relationships as statements of power
aura of power on the south edge of the Acrop-
and ancestry and as mirrors of the layout of
olis in special relationship to the monster-
their cosmos, often built time and time again
mouth facade of his revered ancestor.
on the same spot.
Thus, by means of decor and positioning,
Consider Structure 11 on the north edge of
the Main Group served as a stupendous ar-
the Acropolis. Its stairway of cut stones the
chitectural metaphor for power derived from
size of sofas provided the sole access to the
real and supernatural ancestors and from the
heights of power. Erected in the late eighth
very earth and sky. The images, in effect,
century by the last major ruler of Copán, Yax
composed an artificial landscape with pyra-
Pac - whose name means Rising Sun - it con-
mids as mountains and doorways as caves.
ceals, among other things, part of a deeply
The stelae complete the replication of na-
buried stairway that once led to one of the
ture's visible world, for they are labeled in hi-
first buildings on the site. That remnant, re-
eroglyphs with the term te-tun, or tree-stone.
vealed by an exploratory tunnel, is inscribed
While the royal saga of Copán is at least
with the name of Mah K'ina Yax K'uk' Mo,
partly recoverable from the carved texts of
Great Sun Lord Quetzal Macaw, the founder
the "official" histories, that is only part of
of the dynasty early in the fifth century.
the story. Data on the lives and ways of the
Or contemplate Structure 22, built by the
rest of the valley people are equally crucial
famous 18 Rabbit, who ruled Copán between
-and infinitely more difficult to come by.
695 and 738. On the summit of the Acropolis,
Hence the formation in 1977 of an interdisci-
it faces south, across a courtyard dedicated to
plinary archaeological project by the Hondu-
the planet Venus. The ornate facade, now
ran government in collaboration with a series
fallen except for its basal "porch" with stone
of eminent Maya scholars.
teeth, once depicted a huge monster mouth.
Gordon Willey of Harvard was instrumen-
Crouching supernatural figures flank the
tal in the new effort, calling upon his decades
door of its inner chamber. They share the
of experience in the analysis of settlement
burden of a two-headed monster representing
patterns - the reconstruction of the nature of
the heavens. The "front," or east end, of the
a society through study of the ways in which
monster bears symbols of Venus; the "rear,"
its remains are arranged on the landscape.
or west, those of the sun. Not surprisingly,
To create a control for a valid sampling, he
National Generabhic October 1989
7
designed a progression of categories based on
of mounds outside the Main Group itself.
the size and complexity of the mound groups
In effect the map supplied two dimensions
that dotted the valley. A Type 1 group was
of the Copán Valley study area. Intensive ex-
smallest, no more than a few low simple
cavation at Las Sepulturas under William T.
structures around a courtyard. At the other
Sanders and David Webster of Pennsylvania
end of the scale were Type 4 groups, those
State University refined what was known of
with dozens of mounds and occasional struc-
the third necessary dimension. Digging
tures exhibiting such hallmarks of distinction
down, layer by layer, and dating the material
as vaults, sculptures, or unusual height.
found in each, it was possible to establish the
When the anthropologists applied the
dimension of time.
scheme to the completed map of the valley,
"Las Sepulturas was linked to the Main
certain patterns emerged. Type 4 complexes
Group by a causeway;" archaeologist Bill
in the Copán pocket were clustered in two
Fash remarked as he guided me through the
areas. One of these "urban enclaves,"
place in 1987, "so we knew it was important.
called El Bosque, or the Woods, filled the
What we didn't count on was the depth of the
flats just southwest of the Main Group. The
deposits here. They provided us with much of
other, Las Sepulturas, the Tombs, lay to the
what we know of Copán in the Middle Pre-
east and north, the largest aggregation
classic period, about 1000 to 300 B.C."
Incense swirls around a
jaguar sacrifice. As in
many important ceremo-
nies, attendants dress as
aspects of Chac, the god of
rain and lightning. Cen-
tral figures wear plumes
and jades of privilege.
On the sides of the
altar, the 15 predecessors
of Yax Pac, Copán's last
major ruler, sit atop their
name glyphs or descrip-
tive signs (top). On the
front, facing his own ac-
cession date, Yax Pac re-
ceives insignia of office
from the city's first king.
Behind the altar archae-
ologists found small
crypts with macaw bones
and a larger one with the
remains of 15 big cats-
perhaps killed in honor of
Yax Pac's royal ancestors.
PAINTING BY H. TOM HALL
EOPLE CAME here around 1000 B.C.,"
900 B.C. indicates trade in luxury raw materi-
"P
says Fash, "and probably the reasons
als, for the jade came from the Motagua Riv-
were simple. The valley had water
er Valley of Guatemala. And the decoration
and good bottomland-everything
on the accompanying pottery suggests affili-
you needed to be a good Maya farmer."
ations with the Olmec people, who, centered
Little is known of those earliest Copanecs,
on Mexico's Gulf coast some 500 miles north-
save for the information afforded by a Pre-
west of Copán, exerted their still little under-
classic cemetery seven feet beneath the sur-
stood influences up and down the Pacific
face of Las Sepulturas. A necklace of jade
coast. Other burials of the same time proved
jaguar claws placed with one burial of about
devoid of goods, suggesting, even then, a
thriving village population with a growing
differentiation between elite and commoner.
We know even less of Copán during the
several centuries around the time of the birth
of Christ. As a frontier settlement between
the Maya area and various other groups to
the east and south, it was situated in a locale
propitious for trade. The archaeological
record, however, is without evidence of any
public buildings or ceremonial precincts. Per-
haps the clues still lie buried deep in the very
lowest levels of the Acropolis or under the
present town, where several important Early
Classic monuments have been found. Or
maybe such remains were simply razed by
later builders.
At any rate, while the burgeoning Maya cen-
ters at El Mirador, Tikal, and Uaxactún, in the
lowlands of Guatemala's Petén, immortalized
their powerful Late Preclassic elite in painted
stucco adorning great public buildings, and
while such highland centers as Kaminaljuyú in
Guatemala and Chalchuapa in El Salvador
passed through spectacular periods of prosper-
ous state formation, Copán remains almost
mute until the fifth century A.D.
Around A.D. 450 a shaman died and was
buried at Las Sepulturas with all the trap-
pings of his office -tortoiseshell rattles and a
ritual "kit" containing divining stones, a
codex, and animal teeth and bones. The
accompanying pottery, lidded vases with slab
legs, is typical of Early Classic times, reflect-
ing relationships with the Maya highlands to
the west and, ultimately, with the metropolis
of Teotihuacan in Mexico's central highlands.
This burial of such an important person
Erected by the ruler who founded the royal
away from the Main Group suggests that
line, Copán's oldest dated monument captures
power in the valley-may have been shared
the attention of epigraphist David Stuart, the
among several lineages. And, according to
author's son. The glyphs for December 11, 435,
appear at the top of the stela, which was found
Sanders and Webster, the population was still
last spring in a building buried under Struc-
relatively low - perhaps no more than 3,000.
ture 26 and its Hieroglyphic Stairway (right).
The origins of these Early Classic families
Just enough text remains below the break to
of power is still a matter of debate among the
read the king's name, Mah K'ina Yax K'uk' Mo'.
Copán investigators. Sanders and Webster
498
National Geographic, October 1989
the
may
have
entered
the
V-
valley shortly before this time. Fash thinks
that a Maya elite simply developed in place.
Whatever the answer, all agree that the
d
power of one lineage accounts for the monu-
mental record of the Main Group that begins
r-
in the fifth century.
d
T
HE DYNASTIC LINE of royal Copán,
whose span of existence virtually
defines the Classic period there, is fro-
zen on the four sides of Altar Q, a great
block of greenish andesite set at the base of
the ruined staircase to Structure 16. Near it
lie the fallen stone skulls that once graced
that building- - the tallest in the Main Group.
e
The sides of the altar hold the portraits of
16 individuals, the rulers of the dynasty, each
in full regalia and seated upon his name glyph
r-
(pages 496-7). The group is positioned so that
Yax Pac - who commissioned the altar-is
receiving the trappings of office from the
y
long-dead founder of the dynasty.
Few details of the lives of these men are
known until the reign of Smoke Imix (628 to
695), whose long life and reign witnessed the
n-
first great period of the city. During his time
e
the valley population increased as never
d
before both in numbers and in complexity, as
1
the sprawl of buildings and clearings slowly
moved outward from the Copán pocket.
The sampling of rural mound groups of the
time indicates a diversity of activity. Some
r-
householders manufactured pottery, blending
the old traditions of the Pacific littoral of El
Salvador with Maya styles of the western
highlands to create what archaeologists call
Copador ware. Others may have been wood-
workers, for they left behind a great number
of razor-sharp bladelets made of obsidian,
mainly from the Ixtepeque quarry in Guate-
b
mala. Still others drew upon the geologic
bounty of the slopes and ridges at hand,
manufacturing metates, or corn grinders,
of durable rhyolite.
Smoke Imix's power as ruler was appar-
ently matched by his prowess as warrior, and
it may not have been limited to the valley.
Altar L at Quiriguá, a site on the Motagua
River in Guatemala-some - 30 miles north of
Copán and the center of a city-state ruled by
a rival lineage-bears the image of a lord
seated cross-legged Copán style beside the
name Smoke Imix. If it is indeed the Copán
ruler's name, as epigraphist David Stuart of
499
Vanderbilt University believes a date
"A real building spree that Smoke Shell
on Quiriguá Monument 12, readable as May
hoped would reinstate the good old days of
30, 653, is certainly right for this - then it is
Smoke Imix."
possible that the eroded relief marks a Copán
The 50-foot-wide stairway once consisted
takeover of the smaller Quiriguá polity.
of 72 steps, each a foot and a half high,
When the powerful Smoke Imix died at
between ornate balustrades. Its risers hold a
Copán in June 695 in his 80s, 18 Rabbit
text of more than 1,250 hieroglyphs chroni-
inherited the Copán throne.
cling the entire dynastic history of Copán to
On Stela B, his accession monument in
the year 755, when the stairway was dedicat-
the Great Plaza, 18 Rabbit is depicted in full
ed. As epigraphist Berthold Riese noted, the
glory. His costume bears all the symbols of
content of the Hieroglyphic Stairway text
Classic Maya power the jade belt of minia-
equals that of perhaps 20 stelae. Punctuated
ture ancestor heads and dangling trios of
by five life-size seated figures of stone, it
sacred mirrors; the loincloth blending ele-
stands as the longest single written inscription
ments of the holy countenance and the sacred
from all pre-Columbian America.
tree that centers the universe; and the great
Unfortunately the Hieroglyphic Stairway
headdress dominated by indicators of place
collapsed in the 1800s. As a consequence only
and lineage, giant macaw heads and tiny fig-
30 of its risers are in their original order. The
ures amid the swirls of stone corn foliage.
rest are jumbled, and, even now, detached
Such monuments depicting 18 Rabbit as a
stones from the original come to light in near-
god fill the Great Plaza, but it was his role as
by piles of fallen rubble.
warrior that seems to have been his undoing
This state of affairs with regard to what
and that led to one of the most disastrous
surely must be one of the prime cultural mon-
days in the history of Copán - May 3, 738.
uments of the world impelled the Honduran
On that day, according to passages carved on
government to approve the Copán Mosaics
the graceful sandstone Stela E at Quiriguá,
Project in 1985, an endeavor taken on by Bill
King Cauac Sky of that neighboring polity
Fash and his wife, Barbara, staff artist for
captured 18 Rabbit and had him beheaded.
the project. With the aid of epigraphists
Ironically that day fell in the midst of what
Linda Schele, David Stuart, and Nikolai
would normally have been a season of high
Grube, they will try to restore the stairway
hopes in the Copán Valley the time of the
text to its original state at least on paper.
burning of fields for the planting. Shortly
"Casts of the whole thing should be
after the first rains, the new ruler, Smoke
made," says Bill, "and the original stones
Monkey, took office. In the wake of the
placed in a protected environment. The old
catastrophe he appears to have run the course
photographs tell all too clearly how much the
of his reign (738 to 749) without distinction.
stairway has suffered from rain and ground-
His son, Smoke Shell, a contrasting person-
water. It's a sad case and a big, big job."
ality, acceded to the Copán throne in Febru-
Perhaps the largest task facing the Fashes
ary 749. Soon afterward he instigated a
is the sorting of the piles of sculpture that
renaissance of construction such as Copán
have fallen from the carved facades of the old
had seldom witnessed. Among his works is
buildings.
that which has become to Mayanists and lay-
"We're getting pretty good at this," Bar-
people alike the most memorable feature of
bara told me as we wandered through an
Copán - the great Hieroglyphic Stairway.
alleyway of stone monster noses. "Each
building had its set, its system of adornment,
WESOME even by Copán standards, the
and lucky for us no two were quite alike."
A
stairway rises wide and steep up the
"Of course, we still have our GOK piles,"
west face of the pyramid that sup-
Bill adds. "Those are the stones whose origi-
ports the vestiges of Structure 26,
nal locations God only knows."
between the Ball Court and Structure 11,
A great cache beneath the Hieroglyphic
creating a plaza designed to impress. This,
Stairway was uncovered a couple of seasons
indeed, may have been the primary reason
ago by David Stuart. It proved to be one of
for its construction.
the most sumptuous ever found in the Maya
"I see the Hieroglyphic Stairway as a sort
area. Two elaborate carved jades-one a
of rally cry for the dynasty," says Bill Fash.
pectoral, or chest ornament, the other a short
500
National Geographic, October 1989
t-
on
e
1-
11
PAINTING BY H. TOM HALL
In sight of the palaces and public buildings, valley residents pursued livelihoods
that supported the city's ruling elite. Most farmed corn, beans, and squash and
lived in thatch-roofed dwellings. Tradesmen, artists, and nobles built more elabo-
rate homes. Far from being an empty religious center, as researchers first thought,
Copán had a population as large as 20,000 at its peak.
standing figure - were among the talismans
felt was rapidly slipping away. To emphasize
of sacred power carefully placed inside a clay
his position in the dynasty, he commissioned
incense burner, along with a sacrificial knife,
the carving of Altar Q and dedicated it by
bloodletting lancets of stingray and sea
sacrificing jaguars, the ultimate symbol of
anemone spines, and a spiny oyster shell full
Maya royalty.
d
of red pigment.
Beside the sealed cache vessel lay three of
IN SUBURBAN COPÁN in the era of Yax
the finest "eccentric flints" ever found - deli-
L
Pac is best mirrored by the unusually
cately flaked silhouettes of translucent chert,
complete record found buried at Las
each depicting seven Maya profile faces
Sepulturas. From the very beginning
(pages 492-3).
Gordon Willey had suspected that the site
The archaeology of the valley suggests that
was an elite residential zone, and Bill Sanders
even as the stairway was dedicated, shadows
and David Webster's excavations beginning
lay over the region. Rebecca Storey's analysis
in 1980 confirmed that. There were, how-
of Copán skeletal material shows hints of
ever, a fair share of surprises.
malnutrition and disease as the farmsteads
The largest compound in the zone is com-
pushed the forest farther and farther toward
posed of 40 to 50 buildings arranged so as to
the ridges around the time when the next
create 11 courtyards. The compound is domi-
king, Yax Pac, took office on July 2, 763.
nated by what Webster calls "the House of
Yax Pac continued the frantic building,
the Bacabs," or officials. The palace boasts a
perhaps to reinforce the power he must have
massive hieroglyphic bench and facades, now
Copán: City of Kings and Commoners
501
Transforming the back of Structure 22, work-
men remove rubble and restore fallen walls.
Inside, a hieroglyphic frieze beneath a step
(bottom) has eroded dramatically since 1885,
when Alfred P. Maudslay took the photograph
laid beside it. Efforts to stop such deteriora-
tion include plans to set up a museum nearby
for the major pieces of sculpture. Reproduc-
tions would replace originals at the site.
partly restored, that once featured ten life-
size male figures with elaborate feather head-
dresses, each seated on a giant hieroglyph na,
or house. Eight of these adorned the upper
facades. The two lower ones, flanking the
front door, appear to be scribes, for each
holds a cut conch-shell "ink pot."
The man who lived here-archaeologists
see him as the patriarch of a powerful lineage
of scribes and artists-held tremendous
power, perhaps exceeded only by that of Yax
Pac himself.
The domain of the patriarch at Las Sepul-
turas around the year 800 held a population
of some 250, counting kin and others. Its
buildings, arranged around courtyards of
varying size and prestige, include houses for
young men (one seems to have been a dress-
ing room for ball players), temples, shrines,
storage rooms, kitchens, and workshops.
Some of the residential quarters-distin-
guished by sleeping and sitting benches and
refuse dumps-may have served as quarters
for women, others as men's dormitories.
Refuse in nearby rooms suggests that profes-
sional craftspeople also lived at Las Sepul-
turas. Judging by the character of associated
burials, "foreigners" - perhaps tradesmen
then the Main Group stood complete, as we
from central Honduras-may have been part
know it today. The population of the Copán
of the patriarch's extended household as well.
Valley had reached its all-time peak, an esti-
mated 18,000 to 20,000, scattered over every
available farm plot. It is at this point that the
O
N JUNE 28, 810, the Long Count-
the elegant mechanism by which
fortune of the once powerful Copán lineage
the Classic Maya counted the pas-
took its fatal turn as competition from valley
sage of days through eternity- -
nobles, overpopulation, and growing prob-
rested at the station 9. 19.0.0.0, the all-
lems of land misuse negated the relevance of
important ending of the 20-year-long katun.
the royal power centered in the Main Group.
And it was only seven days off the solstice. The
A single undistinguished sculpture, Altar
city, without doubt, observed the occasion
L, suggests the moment, if not the nature, of
with all the pomp it could muster, and it is logi-
the end of the last chapter in the royal history
cal to believe the celebration took place in the
of Copán.
plaza of red plaster embraced by the Ball
Linda Schele and University of Hamburg
Court, the pyramid of the Hieroglyphic Stair-
epigraphist Nikolai Grube made the discov-
way, and the brooding bulk of Structure 11.
ery. "Here were two people shown in royal
Yax Pac died during the winter of 820. By
regalia, just as on Altar Q," explains Linda.
502
National Geographic, October 1989
"They're even sitting on their name glyphs.
HE WORK GOES ON. Barbara and Bill
The one on the right is Yax Pac. The other is
someone we've never heard U Cit
T
Fash continue to supervise the Copán
Mosaics Project, and many of the
Tok', meaning perhaps 'the father of flint.'
GOK piles have shrunk as the isolated
And there's an accession glyph."
pieces of sculpture, numbered and removed
According to the best possible reconstruc-
to the safety of the laboratory facility, await
tion of the date, the event depicted on Altar L
possible reassembly.
took place on February 10, 822, the very last
Meanwhile Rudy Larios applies a genius
date set to stone in Copán.
that even the master architects of ancient
"The clincher," notes Linda, "came when
Copán would have envied. On my last visit
Barbara Fash drew the thing and realized
he was supervising the consolidation of the
that the carving had never been finished! In
complex masonry walls behind Structure 22.
other words, one day the sculptor of Altar L
Wendy Ashmore of Rutgers University has
picked up his tools,
completed her second
walked away, and never
season of excavating
came back to finish the
two elite house sites on
job. For me that single
the slope above the lab
episode marks the end of
and storage facility.
royal Copán."
She is testing the idea
And how did the val-
that at least some such
ley fare after the demise
elite compounds were
of the royal court? Not
deliberately arranged in
too badly, if we accept
accordance with the an-
the startling findings of
cient notions of sacred
Ann Freter, who spe-
geography that, even to
cializes in dating obsidi-
this day, pervade the
an, and David Rue, who
With each sun that sets behind God N
Maya belief system.
studies the implications
(right), we learn more about glyphs
And Bill Fash, along
of old pollen deposits.
like this one representing the ruler's
with his colleagues
Dates from thousands
title, Divine Lord of Copán, and con-
Ricardo Agurcia
of obsidian blades found
firm John Lloyd Stephens's belief that
Fasquelle of the Hon-
the people of Copán "published a
in the course of the sam-
duran Institute and
record of themselves, through which
pling of valley mound
Bob Sharer of the
we might one day hold conference
groups make a consis-
with a perished race."
University of Penn-
tent line on a graph that
sylvania, continues to
ends not around A.D. 800 but four centuries lat-
pick away at the secrets of the Acropolis,
er. And the pollen profile of the Copán pocket
helped by the large team of Copanecs whose
substantiates these findings: The forest did not
skills range from photography and drafting
begin its recovery there until about 1200.
to the flawless excavation of the fragile
"What we have, then," notes Webster, "is
cache deposits.
the fascinating conclusion that the Maya 'col-
Recently the tunnels into the dense rubble
lapse' at Copán is much more complex than
behind the Hieroglyphic Stairway yielded
we formerly envisioned."
what Bill Fash calls the "founder's stela" a
In short, Copán did not die suddenly, as a
near pristine monument from the early fifth
study of its royal monuments alone would
century, the era of the shadowy Mah K'ina
indicate. Rather it was a slow process, the log-
Yax K'uk' Mo', who started the royal city on
ical result of exhausted forest and farmland,
its journey to immortality.
that saw the population in slow decline. Popu-
Truly, as Fash has said, quoting another
lation remained relatively high, even in the
noted for his skills of deduction, "The game
rural areas, well after 800, and there was con-
is afoot." And who can guess what further
tinued elite activity for another couple of cen-
discoveries await at Copán, where an
turies in the area surrounding the abandoned
extraordinary archaeological richness is
Main Group. But after 1200 the valley was
matched by the extraordinary and continuing
without population, as it had been in the be-
teamwork of scientists from many
ginning, vulnerable to the encroaching forest.
disciplines.
504
National Geographic, October 1989
Dec. 3 / Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1982
democratic ideals as manifested in the
ment in its internal efforts. He stressed his
recent elections and in the Salvadoran deci-
concern about the prosecution of those im-
sion to hold Presidential elections no later
plicated in the murder of American citizens
than March, 1984. He expressed apprecia-
in El Salvador and asked for unstinting ef-
tion for efforts of the Salvadoran Govern-
forts to prosecute those responsible for the
ment to reduce the number of deaths
deaths of the American Churchwomen and
caused by violence, despite the opposition
the AFL-CIO consultants and the disap-
of anti-democratic forces. He also indicated
pearance of other American citizens.
his satisfaction with the continuation of the
Both leaders also examined the situation
land reform program.
in Central America and expressed concern
The Salvadoran leader pointed out the
for the increase of tensions in the area.
desire of his government for peaceful devel-
They rejected the use of force in the resolu-
opment and full observance of human
tion of bilateral conflicts, interference in
rights. He noted the creation of the Com-
the internal affairs of other countries and
mission on Human Rights and the forma-
the violent imposition of alien ideologies
tion of a Peace Commission charged with
and systems rejected by democratic soci-
proposing a practical plan for the participa-
eties. President Magaña emphasized the
tion of all citizens and political movements
need for all countries to respect the princi-
in the democratic process.
ple of self-determination as exercised by the
President Magaña suggested that as im-
Salvadoran people in the elections of March
portant as the efforts that each country
28. He noted that this principle is funda-
makes internally to correct its structural
mental to the peaceful coexistence of peo-
economic problems is an international eco-
ples. Both leaders reaffirmed their commit-
nomic situation which encourages full de-
ment to the principles of the Final Act of
velopment of that country's human and nat-
the October 4 San José conference of demo-
ural resources. In this regard, he praised the
cratic nations-principles which, in their
U.S. Caribbean Basin Initiative and ex-
opinion, represent the best hope for peace
pressed the hope that the trade and invest-
in Central America.
ment provisions would be approved quickly
The two leaders agreed to maintain
by the U.S. Congress.
direct contact in order to further high
President Reagan referred to the interest
levels of bilateral cooperation.
of the American people and government in
Given in San José, Costa Rica, December
cooperating with the Salvadoran Govern-
3, 1982.
Remarks to the People of Honduras
December 4, 1982
President Suazo has been gracious in in-
countries are concerned by the economic
viting me to visit your country, and I'm
problems and the threat to peace the coun-
anxiously looking forward to it. Early this
tries in Central America face.
summer, we were honored to have your
Honduras has been a leader in Central
President visit Washington, and I'm happy
America. You've put forward concrete pro-
to have this early opportunity to continue
posals for a comprehensive peace through-
our talks.
out your region. Your transition to democra-
He told me then of the pride of the Hon-
cy answered those who argue that freedom
duran people in their democratic achieve-
is a luxury that struggling countries cannot
ment, of their desire for peace with their
afford. And you've proved that a freely
neighbors, and of the measures you are
elected government has the will and deter-
taking to revive your economy. These are
mination to take the actions needed to put
all goals we share with you. Both of our
your economy on a sound course.
1554
Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1982 / Dec. 4
The Honduran people have won the ad-
by one neighbor. against another. These are
miration of my fellow countrymen, and the
goals which can be achieved, and it is with
peace proposals your President presented to
this hope that I will come to Honduras to
the Organization of American States last
meet with President Suazo.
March are ones which we in the United
We have common aspirations and values.
States support fully. They were incorporat-
I'm sure we will be able to strengthen the
ed in the Final Act of the eight democratic
cooperation between our two nations and
countries that met in San José in October.
our people. I will bring with me the best
They are reasonable and attainable for all
parties, and I hope they will lead to peace
wishes and friendship of the American
in Central America.
people.
Honduras has also played a prominent
Thank you.
role in the Central American Democratic
Community, which is dedicated to freedom,
Note: The President's remarks were taped on
economic development, and the security of
November 22 at the White House for later
each nation against aggression in any form
broadcast on Honduran television.
Radio Address to the Nation on the Caribbean Basin Initiative
December 4, 1982
I'm speaking to you today from San José,
are in trouble, their troubles inevitably
Costa Rica. Later this evening, I'll return to
become ours, unless we work together to
Washington, having visited with six neigh-
solve them.
boring heads of state. Our delegation has
Right now their difficulties are not entire-
seen firsthand the vitality and potential of
ly of their own making. World prices for
our New World neighbors. We've also heard
their traditional products-sugar, bananas,
and discussed their needs and aspirations
bauxite, and coffee-have been declining
and how they affect our own vital national
sharply for several years. At the same time,
interests.
the prices for their essential imports, par-
United States interests require that we
ticularly petroleum, have remained high.
support our fellow Americans with a hemi-
This worldwide recession, the longest and
spheric policy which preserves and pro-
most severe in postwar history, has hit their
motes democratic institutions, advances and
economies with all the fury of the tropical
encourages free market economies, and
storms they're exposed to each year.
provides the security essential for these sys-
We cannot afford to ignore these difficul-
tems to develop and flourish. In our discus-
ties. Our ties with the countries of the Car-
sions during these last 4 days, I pledged our
ibbean Basin are very close. One-half of our
continued commitment to work as friends
trade passes through this area. Prolonged
and neighbors with the other nations of this
social and economic disruption would cause
Western Hemisphere. We'll stand firmly
an exodus of desperate people seeking
with them to achieve the promise of eco-
refuge where so many others have already
nomic progress and political stability that is
found it-in the United States. The interests
the legacy of peace in the Americas.
of Caribbean Basin countries are our inter-
Through cooperation, together we can
ests; their security is our security.
protect ourselves from counterfeit revolu-
The difficulties in the Caribbean Basin
tionaries who seek to destroy growth and
may seem overwhelming, but just as tropi-
impose totalitarianism on people who love
cal storms give way to sunshine and calmer
freedom. Let us remember something very
seas, economic despair will give way to opti-
important: If our neighbors, particularly our
mism if people have the prospect to build a
nearest neighbors in the Caribbean Basin,
better life in freedom. Our support for
1555
Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1982 / Dec. 4
Rica. God bless
the urgency of adequate cooperation to
ation. I particularly want to reaffirm to all
overcome the crisis and to defeat poverty.
of you the pledge that my administration
President Reagan, you are among friends
has made to the economic well-being and
11:16 a.m. in
willing to cooperate in every action in favor
security of the peoples of Central America
mbers of the
of liberty, justice, and peace.
and the Caribbean. We know that political
r guests.
Thank you very much.
principles and collective security are not
sident Reagan
President Reagan. Mr. President, first on
served by unstable economies.
1onge Alvarez
Our Caribbean Basin Initiative offers a
behalf of those who are with me today from
idencial. They
realistic foundation on which to build in-
our country, let me thank you and the
r delegations.
creased trade between our countries-trade
people of Costa Rica for your hospitality.
that will benefit all our citizens. This eve-
Last month in Washington President
ning I'm returning to Washington, where I
Monge warned against the arrogance of any
will continue to press for quick congression-
leader who believes that his own political
al action on the important trade and invest-
S Alberto
formulation is perfect. And as our fellow
ment provisions of the initiative.
1 in San
citizens often let us know, none of us is
In that spirit of mutual commitment, may
perfect. But the basic value of the demo-
we rise now in a toast to President Monge,
cratic societies that we represent are far
to Costa Rica, and to liberty.
more perfect than those of any other form
of government. Our dedication to freedom,
Note: President Monge spoke at 12:37 p.m.
erican democ-
our respect for human rights, our adher-
at the Casa Presidencial. He spoke in Span-
ence to the rule of law are far superior to
ish, and his remarks were translated by an
the totalitarian rule that others would
1 our country
interpreter.
the incidents
impose in the name of the false revolutions.
Following the luncheon, the two Presi-
registered in
Theirs are hollow promises and empty rhet-
dents participated in a departure ceremony
istorically ex-
oric.
at Juan Santamaria Airport, and President
Costa Rican
We celebrate today our commitment to
Reagan traveled to San Pedro Sula, Hondu-
1 trauma will
freedom and to peaceful political reconcili-
ras.
e official visit
ted States of
el that the sig-
not founded
Remarks Following a Meeting With President Roberto Suazo
Córdova of Honduras in San Pedro Sula
[ three official
lited States in
December 4, 1982
of the life of
r, during the
President Suazo and I have just complet-
from that noble principle.
esident Cleto
ed a very useful exchange of ideas on the
We are in agreement that we must work
o 1932; Presi-
full range of bilateral issues and regional
together to oppose those who seek to dis-
; the adminis-
problems that confront our two democra-
rupt the promise of economic progress and
, Orlich; and
cies. In this, our second meeting this year,
political stability that is the legacy of peace
who does me
we have continued the close consultation
in the Americas. My administration is con-
beginning of
that we began in Washington last July. This
vinced that through cooperation and soli-
we confront
has given our dialog continuity and enabled
darity, our governments can protect our
e in Central
us to analyze these problems in greater
democratic institutions and free-market
ea.
detail.
economic systems from the counterfeit rev-
at with your
I have expressed my administration's sup-
olutionaries who seek to destroy growth and
an, the moral
port and my nation's admiration for Presi-
impose totalitarianism on free people.
ica has begun
dent Suazo's efforts to ensure, for the Hon-
We will cooperate in every way we can
pite its small
army in this
duran people, the benefits of a democratic
with Honduras and the other democratic
government elected on the principles of the
governments of Central America to further
and liberty. I
rule of law. President Suazo has made it
our common objectives.
u understand
clear to me that there will be no retreat
It's a pleasure to be here, and our only
1561
Dec. 4 / Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1982
regret is that it has to be such a very short
where he and President Suazo and their
cake for ou
visit. But, again, we're grateful to the Presi-
delegations had met.
after 26 year
dent, the people of Honduras for giving us
Earlier in the afternoon, President
baggage.
this opportunity to visit with them.
Reagan was accorded a welcoming ceremo-
Q. You do:
ny at La Mesa International Airport.
Q. You do:
Note: The President spoke at 5:15 p.m. to
As printed above, this item follows the
The Presic
reporters assembled in Hangar 3, near the
transcript released by the Office of the
to that after
headquarters building of an Air Force base
Press Secretary.
I'm not tired
Q. Really
The Presic
fruitful one.
Remarks in San Pedro Sula, Honduras, Following a Meeting With
Q. Do yo
President José Efrain Rios Montt of Guatemala
thing?
December 4, 1982
The Presic
established \
Q. Do yo
Well, ladies and gentlemen, President
posing plans and ideas of their own. I know
that you visi
Ríos Montt and I have just had a useful
they were sincere, and yet I think there
better at cl
exchange of ideas on the problems of the
was a certain insensitivity connected with
distance?
region and on our bilateral relations.
what they were doing. I said from the first
The Presi
Our conversation today has done much to
day and until this, our last stop on this visit,
improve the climate of relations between
that we came here to ask, not tell. We have
met a coup
had come L
our two governments. I know that Presi-
come here to find out and to learn what we
established
dent Ríos Montt is a man of great personal
can about the possible differences between
us and the possible answers to those differ-
friendships.
integrity and commitment. His country is
think they d
confronting a brutal challenge from guerril-
ences. And we know now a great deal more
las armed and supported by others outside
about the problems confronting Guatemala.
Q. Do yo
Guatemala.
And we're going home and do our best to
announceme
see if we can't be helpful now in finding
justify resum
I have assured the President that the
United States is committed to support his
some answers to the problems.
The Presia
efforts to restore democracy and to address
And I will now turn the microphone over
Q. Is Pre
to President Ríos Montt.
ment about-
the root causes of this violent insurgency. I
in March of
know he wants to improve the quality of
Note: The President spoke at 6:05 p.m. to
tual election
life for all Guatemalans and to promote
reporters assembled in Hangar 3, near the
there. Is tha
social justice. My administration will do all
headquarters building of an Air Force base
tion of milit:
it can to support his progressive efforts.
where he and President Rios and their dele-
The Presic
We have heard a great presentation, and
gations had met.
of material
as I said on the first day of my visit far
Following his remarks, the President re-
for us to stu
south of here in Brasilia, people from my
turned to La Mesa International Airport
been getting
country-government officials of my coun-
and departed Honduras for the return trip
elected Pre
try in the past have come to South and
to Washington, D.C., where he arrived
allowed to t
Central America to various countries pro-
shortly before midnight.
ular coup ca
the coup ca
office he'd t
But he is
Question-and-Answer Session With Reporters on the President's
in Guatema
Trip to Latin America
real probler
December 4, 1982
to-they br
presentation
tion and m
Q. You've been partying all night-from
The President. No, I just brought a birth-
inclined to
one cabin to another.
day cake, and then I brought a farewell
bum rap.
1562
284
HONDURAS SINCE 1823
HONDURAS SINCE 1823. When final independence
flared into meaningless armed struggles between rival
came to Central America in 1823, Honduras embraced
elite factions, which often enjoyed the support of sym-
approximately 60,000 square miles but contained prob-
pathizers in neighboring states. Banditry spread like
ably fewer than 150,000 inhabitants, of mixed Indian,
cancer across the countryside in the atmosphere of
Iberian, and African ancestry. Most of these mestizos
violence.
lived in pocket-sized villages nestled in isolated valleys
In the 1850s the stream of forty-niners rushing to
scattered throughout the deeply corrugated mountain
the California gold workings prompted an American
spine that dominates the interior. No roads linked these
diplomat-archaeologist Ephraim George Squier, to
villages; horse and mule trains provided the only trans-
promote the construction of an interoceanic railway
portation.
across Honduras. However, a change in local adminis-
The overwhelming majority of the villagers wrung a
tration, conflicting estimates of the cost of the enter-
meager sustenance from small patches of corn and
prise, and monetary crises in New York and Europe
beans. Frequent floods, droughts, infertile soil, and rude
delayed the project until the PANAMA RAILROAD and
farming skills made subsistence agriculture a precarious
completion of the transcontinental railroad across the
undertaking. Folk miners called guirises eked out a
United States made the Honduran route nonessential
livelihood grubbing in abandoned colonial mines. To-
for international transportation. The Honduran gov-
gether, the peasants and folk miners made up the lower
ernment nevertheless continued to dream of opening up
strata of Honduran society.
its undeveloped hinterland by means of an interoceanic
An occasional prosperous hacienda owner grazed
rail system. In the late 1860s it secured several large
cattle on suitable highland savannas or on the coastal
loans from European bankers, with which it constructed
plains. Landed creoles of this type dominated the rural
a mere 60 miles of track, from Puerto Cortés through
society around their estates. In the more important
and beyond San Pedro Sula, before funds ran out. This
"urban" centers, especially Comayagua and Teguci-
railway did little to ease the lack of transportation into
galpa, bureaucrats manned small governmental and
the interior, where most of the people lived. The
ecclesiastical outposts and a few merchants handled the
completion of the Panama Railroad (1855) and the
limited trade. Unable to produce the cochineal, indigo,
inauguration of regular shipping from Panama to San
or cacao that other Central American countries ex-
Francisco made the island port of Amapala on the Gulf
ported to European markets, Honduras had little con-
of Fonseca the preferred point of entry for goods and
tact with the outside world. In this circumstance, the
passengers for this area. On the other hand, the huge
politicians, clergy, and businessmen were social and
foreign debt incurred to construct this spur of rails
political dependents of the landed elite.
hung like a dark cloud over Honduras for three-quarters
Until internecine struggles finally destroyed the
of a century, inhibiting the inflow of capital.
Federation of Central America in 1839-1840 (see
In 1876 Marco Aurelio SOTO, a reform Liberal, as-
CENTRAL AMERICA, FEDERATION OF), "Liberals" usu-
sumed power in Honduras. With the collaboration of
ally controlled the government at Comayagua but ef-
like-minded executives in neighboring states who dis-
fected little reform beyond reducing the already-weak
couraged exiles from continuing the practice of launch-
authority of the Catholic Church. With the defeat of
ing attacks from sanctuaries within their borders, Soto
Gen. Francisco MORAZÁN by the Guatemalan strong
was able to pacify Honduras. Factional warfare and
man José Rafael CARRERA, "Conservatives" gained the
banditry virtually ceased during his Presidency (1876-
upper hand and led their country out of the Federation.
1883). Convinced that emulation of advanced societies
For the next thirty years, the Conservatives maintained
in Europe and North America would develop his un-
nominal control, but actual power devolved on the
developed domain, Soto initiated an ambitious program
dominant regional cattle barons. Personal jealousies
to provide Honduras with a modern infrastructure. By
1880 most important towns and villages had been tied
into a telegraph network with international cable con-
nections to the United States and Europe. Soto also
Islands
CARIBBEAN
commenced construction of a cart road, the Southern
Bay
S.E.A
Highway, from Amapala to Tegucigalpa, to which the
Puerto Cortés
seat of government had been transferred in 1880. Suc-
GUATEMALA
La Ceiba
cessors completed this vital artery and extended it to
Tela
several other important districts. See also LIBERAL
San Pedro Sula
Puerto Lempira
PARTY (HONDURAS).
Beginning in 1880 American capitalists, and later
3
HONDURAS
English ones, formed more than 100 companies to
rework old silver and gold mines with modern tech-
Tegucigalpa
NICARAGUA
niques and imported machinery. With the important
EL SALVADOR
exception of the New York and Honduras Rosario
Mining Company, most of the concerns failed before
San Lerenzo
they produced much bullion, being overcome by stead-
ily declining silver prices, monetary panics, and a re-
crudescence of domestic turmoil in Honduras from
ACIFIC
1891 to 1894. The mining boom failed to realize early
OCEAN
expectations, but many new roads were opened and
old ones repaired to facilitate the importation of mining
HONDURAS
equipment, commerce was stimulated, and small-scale
Area: 43,277 sq. mi.
Population: 2,495,000 (1969 est.).
ancillary industries were created.
HOPKINS, EDWARD A. 285
By 1900 bananas emerged as the most important
Common Market expanded encouragingly, the coun-
Honduran export. For several decades before the turn
try's inferior industrial capacity caused imports to rise
of the century, ships touching north coast Honduran
at a more rapid pace and the balance of payments to
ports had purchased bananas from natives for sale in
turn permanently against Honduras: in 1968 this im-
New Orleans and other Gulf Coast cities of the United
balance amounted to more than $15 million. Moreover,
States, but commercial production was delayed until
a provision of the Common Market that eliminated all
rapid refrigerated shipping became a reality. American
restrictions on workers seeking employment across
capitalists, who possessed the essential entrepreneurial
frontiers led to a flood of Salvadoran peasants wanting
skills and initial investment capital required to establish
land in relatively unpopulated Honduras. For these and
and manage the large banana plantations, the fleet of
other reasons, relations between Honduras and El
cargo ships, and the market outlets abroad, quickly
Salvador became increasingly strained. Finally a minor
gained control of the industry. By 1930 the two giants,
incident triggered the so-called FOOTBALL WAR in 1969.
the UNITED FRUIT COMPANY and the Standard Fruit
In the uneasy aftermath of that conflict Honduras
Company, had made Honduras the leading banana ex-
withdrew from the Common Market and reinstated
porter in the world, shipping almost 30 million bunches
tariffs on Central American imports. At first, officials
in 1930. By 1940, however, sigatoka and Panama dis-
appeared eager to make Honduras autarkic, but recent
eases had ravaged the banana plants, and Honduras
negotiations reveal that they are now attempting to use
dropped behind Ecuador in production. See also
the threat of sabotage of the Common Market system
BANANA INDUSTRY (CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE
as a means of exacting more favorable conditions for
CARIBBEAN).
Honduras in its economic intercourse with its Central
The development of the banana "enclave" on the
American neighbors.
north coast wrought important changes in Honduras. A
Bibliography. Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of
major transfer of population occurred as laborers and
Central America, vol. III, New York, n.d.; Vincent
service personnel migrated to the north coast from the
Checchi et al., Honduras: A Problem in Economic De-
interior. The demands of the banana plantations en-
velopment, New York, 1959; Rómulo E. Durón,
couraged the growth of commercial and light industrial
Bosquejo histórico de Honduras, 1502-a-1921, San
activity in the San Pedro Sula-Puerto Cortés area,
Pedro Sula, 1927; Luis Mariñas Otero, Honduras,
causing a shift in the locus of economic power away
Madrid, 1963; Franklin D. Parker, The Central Ameri-
from Tegucigalpa. The increased wealth accruing to
can Republics, London, 1964; Ephraim G. Squier,
Honduras widened the gap between the upper and
Honduras: Descriptive, Historical, and Statistical,
lower classes; the banana tax revenue and the influence
London, 1870; Charles L. Stansifer, "E. George Squier
of foreign elites reinforced the dominant political and
and the Honduras Interoceanic Railroad Project,"
social position of the ruling class. Finally, the plantation
Hispanic American Historic Review, vol. XLVI, no. 1,
system provided a fertile environment for developing
February 1966, pp. 1-27; William S. Stokes, Honduras:
a labor movement despite efforts by the dictator
An Area Study in Government, Madison, Wis., 1950.
Tiburcio CARÍAS ANDINO (1933-1948) and his suc-
KENNETH V. FINNEY
cessor, Juan Manuel GÁLVEZ (1949-1954), to dis-
courage union activity. In 1954 banana workers began
HOPKINS, EDWARD A[UGUSTUS] (1823-1888).
a wildcat strike for higher wages and a shorter work-
North American entrepreneur and the first United
week. The strike spread to other industries; ultimately
States diplomatic agent to the Republic of Paraguay
50,000 wage earners, a sizable portion of the Honduran
(1851-1855). An officer in the United States Navy,
work force, walked off their jobs. Negotiations for
Hopkins resigned from the service in 1845 to pursue a
settlement of the strike were prolonged because of the
dream of exploiting the untapped riches of South Amer-
struggle of rival labor leaders for control of ad hoc
ica and becoming wealthy in the process. He had
unionization and because of the fruit companies' lack
economic interests in several American republics, but
of good faith.
Paraguay attracted him the most, and in 1845 he ob-
Since 1950 the government has taken a more direct
tained an appointment from President James Polk as
interest in the development of the country. An ambi-
special agent to Paraguay, basically to ascertain
tious road-building program funded by international
whether the United States should recognize that nation.
agencies has begun integrating the country with all-
In Paraguay he exceeded his orders and assured Presi-
weather roads and paved arterial highways. Exports of
dent Carlos Antonio LÓPEZ that the United States
timber, coffee, cotton, and citrus fruits have been en-
would soon recognize Paraguay, writing Secretary of
couraged. An AGRARIAN REFORM law enacted under
State James Buchanan that Paraguay must be recog-
President Ramón VILLEDA MORALES (1957-1963) at-
nized because it was a modern, powerful state.
tempted to eliminate unproductive landholdings. Much-
After his initial short visit, Hopkins made several
needed programs of public health and municipal sanita-
other trips to Paraguay in the late 1840s, explored the
tion services have been put into operation, causing a
country, and expounded on its commercial possibilities.
rapid population growth. By 1969 the population had
In 1851 he was appointed United States Consul to
reached almost 2.5 million.
Paraguay just as López was making him a special
By 1950 Central Americans, including Hondurans,
Paraguayan envoy to the United States. Hopkins
had realized the obstacles to further economic develop-
promised United States recognition of Paraguay in
ment inherent in the small size of their countries. In an
return for a monopoly of steam navigation on the
effort to overcome this problem, the five countries
Paraguay River. He returned to the United States, set
banded together to form the CENTRAL AMERICAN COM-
up a navigation company, and then went back to Para-
MON MARKET in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Al-
guay with machinery and trade goods and the sought-
though Honduran exports to the other partners in the
for recognition. However, López soon lost his apprecia-
Services of Mead Data Central
PAGE
/
Proprietary to the United Press international, January 27, 1990
need to go forward without hesitation in transtorming the social structures to
give way to an era of progress,'' Callejas said.
Callejas interrupted his speech to embrace Azcona, and recognized ettorts
ot Central American presidents to seek a peacetul solution to the regional
contlict.
''I want to take advantage of this occasion to tirmly and candidly recognize
the ettorts undertaken by the Central American presidents in seeking the
detinite establishment of peace in Central America, Callejas said.
Arias said the Central American presidents were ''encouraged and satisfied'
with Callejas' promises to Join their efforts to establish peace in the
region.
''Although ( Callejas) 010 not sign the (1989 peace) accord he will have to
carry on the peace-seeking work so that it bears truit as soon as possible,'
Arias said.
The Central American presidents did not discuss when a next summit might
take place, Arias said.
Reterring to Nicaragua, Callejas said, ' ' Ine political efforts of the
Central American leaders have been truitful. An electoral process IS under way
in the brother nation of Nicaragua. The political and negotiated option won over
the language of death by ritle and wartare propaganda.
'Burning in the heart ot the peoples ot Central America 15 a tlame ot hope
and taith in that the Nicaraguan electoral process Will live and tinish Its
democratic path and that a genuinely democratic and pluralistic national
government WILL spring torth trom the Dallot boxes, Callejas said.
In an open allusion to E1 Salvador, Callejas said, ' ' Other brother peoples
of our martyred Central America still live with machine-gun tire and terror. 1
hope that the leaders of these nations might be able to share the atmosphere of
peace and democracy that we Hondurans live in.
'A'A trustworthy peace tor Central America 15 one that 15 based on the
reduction of armies and elimination of ottensive arms.
LEXIS® ® NEXIS® ® LEXIS® NEXIS®
Services of Mead Data Central
PAGE
6
281H STORY ot Level 2 printed in FULL format.
Proprietary to the United Press international 1990
January 27, 1990, Saturday, BC cycle
SECTION: international
LENGTH: 64/ words
HEADLINE: Callejas assumes office, expresses hope for regional peace
BYLINE: By VILMA ROSALES
DATELINE: TEGUCIGALPA, Honduras
KEYWORD: HUNDURAS
BODY:
Katael Leonardo Callejas took the oath Saturday to become the third
consecutive civilian president of Honduras, and expressed hope for a peacetul
solution to the regional conflict.
Callejas, of the conservative National Party, won the NOV. 26 elections on
a campaign plattorm of reducing unemployment and increasing tunds for the poor.
He was sworn in at 10:50 a.m. by Rodolto Irias Navas, president ot the newly
elected, 128-member National Assembly.
Minutes before, outgoing President Jose Azcona Hoyo of the Liberal Party
bestowed Callejas, 46, with the presidential sash at legucigalpa's National
Stadium before 20,000 people, including tour Latin American presidents and U.S.
Vice President Dan Quayle.
Atter taking the oath, Callejas applauded Azcona in his houriong inaugural
speech for guiding a peacetul transter of power.
' ' And 1 make public betore these people gathered here that thanks to his
(Azcona's) guidance for the tirst time in the democratic history ot Honduras
since 1932, a president ot the republic trom a governing party transters''
presidency to an opposition party, Callejas said.
Roberto Suazo Cordova of the Liberal Party assumed office Jan. 21, 1982,
heading Honduras' tirst civilian government in 1U years and ending a virtually
uninterrupted 18 years of military rule. Azcona was inaugurated tour years
later, the tirst time in 26 years that one civilian president passed power to
another.
Presidents Vinicio Cerezo of Guatemala, Altredo Cristiani ot E1 Salvador,
Uscar Arias of Costa Kica and Carlos Andres Perez of Venezuela attended the
ceremony.
Some 25 additional delegations trom abroad and 6U diplomats also attended
the inauguration. Nicaragua's delegation was headed by Interior Minister lomas
Borge.
'We attend this historical event in the institutional and democratic lite
of our country, at a time when the people of the world teel an unpostponable
LEXIS® NEXIS® LEXIS® NEXIS®
Services of Mead Data Central
PAGE
5
(c) 1990 Reuters; January 27, 1990
A pro-American sympathiser under increasing pressure to disband 10,000
U.S. -backed Nicaraguan Contra rebels camped here, Callejas did not reter to
the rebels in his address.
Many Contras, who were to disband in December according to a plan signed by
tive Central American presidents last August, have retused to lay down their
arms.
Callejas said he was contident that the Central American peace process
would continue, adding: "Enduring peace in Central America 15 also Duilt on the
restructuring of troops and the elimination of arms."
Callejas, who holds a master's degree trom the University of Mississippi
served in military regimes during the 19/Us, rising to natural resources
minister in 1975-80.
EMIR
Honduras, a major partner in U.S. military and intelligence activities in
the region during the 1Y8US and considered one of washington's closest allies in
Central America, has staged almost constant military manoeuvres with U.S. troops
since 1983 and 15 a permanent base to about 1,200 U.S. soldiers.
SUBJECT: POLITICS
EARTH
DAY
LEXIS® ® NEXIS® ® LEXIS® NEXIS® ®
Services of Mead Data Central
PAGE
4
241H STORY of Level 2 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (C) 1990 Keuters
The Keuter Library Report
January 27, 1990, Saturday, BC cycle
LENGTH: 461 words
HEADLINE: CALLEJAS ASSUMES HONDURAN PRESIDENCY, VOWS 10 RESCUE ECONOMY
BYLINE: By Lori Hawkins
DATELINE: IEGUCIGALPA, Jan 21
KEYWORD: HONDURAS
BODY:
Katael Callejas became president of Honduras on Saturday, vowing to
rescue the country from near-bankrupcy with an emergency economic plan which
includes drastic reductions in government spending.
"One commitment of my government 15 to adopt the most austere policy over
public spending to stabilise prices, eliminate intlation and encourage economic
growth," Callejas said in his inaugural address.
in the third civilian transition since the military handed over power in
1981, Callejas and his technocratic cabinet need to pull Honduras, the
poorest country in Central America, from Its worst economic crisis in history.
The inauguration, attended by U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle, marked the
first time the presidency has been handed over to an opposition party since the
military stepped down.
Callejas, 46, said ne would cut government spending and call for
international economic aid.
"Reality makes It necessary tor us to ask tor the international help which
have been ottered to the region in various torms to accelerate the economy,
Callejas of the National Party.
Callejas has said he would close down state institutions to reduce the
tiscal deticit, last year running at 1.4 per cent of gross domestic product
against 4.1 per cent in 1980.
Honduras was declared ineligible for new loans by the International
Monetary Fund atter President Jose Azcona of the ruling Liberal Party stopped
payments on 25.6 million dollars of obligations in November.
The World Bank declared Honduras ineligible tor turther loans last February
because it was 5/ million dollars In arrears.
Callejas, who campaigned on a promise to mend tences with the international
tinancial community, has said he Will renew talks with the 1MH and the World
Bank.
LEXIS® NEXIS® LEXIS® NEXIS
Services of Mead Data Central
PAGE
3
The Associated Press, January 27, 1990
"We should maintain relations with the United States, including military
exercises designed to help protessionalize our army," he has 5810.
Peace 15 vital to Callejas' ettorts to attract new toreign investment to
Honduras, the president said.
The new president has promised to decentralize the government, sell some
state-owned companies and create incentives tor investment and exports.
Honduras 15 one of the poorest nations in the Western Hemisphere, with a
per capita income of about $$500. Literacy 15 56 percent.
Honduras' principal exports are bananas, cottee, Deet, lumber, metals and
sugar. Its major trading partner 15 the United States.
Honduras returned to elected government in 1980 atter nearly 20 years of
military rule.
The last time there was a party-to-party transition came in 1933, when
liburcio Carias Andino ot the National Party took over trom Liberal Vicente
Mejia Colindres. Carias didn't allow another vote until 1948.
LEXIS® NEXIS® LEXIS® ® NEXIS
Services of Mead Data Central
PAGE
2
19TH STORY of Level 2 printed in FULL tormat.
The Associated Press
The materials in the AP tile were compiled by The Associated Press. These
materials may not be republished without the express written consent of The
Associated Press.
January 27, 1990, Saturday, AM cycle
SECTION: international News
LENGTH: 425 words
Columber 1502
HEADLINE: Honduran President Sworn In
BYLINE: By FREDDY CUEVAS, Associated Press Writer
DATELINE: TEGUCIGALPA, Honduras
KEYWORD: Honduras
BODY:
in the tirst peacetul transter ot power to an opposition party in 57 years,
Katael Leonardo Callejas was sworn in Saturday as president before 40,000
people in Honduras' national stadium.
Vice President Dan Quayle and tour Latin American presidents were among
dignitaries from 6U nations at the inauguration of Callejas, who has
promised to sell some state-owned companies and to establish a "direct dialogue"
with neighboring Nicaragua and E1 Salvador.
He taces grim problems in this underdeveloped U.S. ally of 5.2 million people
- a stagnant economy, a $$3.2 billion debt that Honduras has stopped making
payments on, and CIVIL wars in Nicaragua and t1 Salvador.
The new president of the legislature, Rodolto Irias Navas, placed the
presidential sash on Callejas, whose term runs through January 1994. Among
those attending the ceremony were presidents Vincio Cerezo of Guatemala, Carlos
Andres Perez of Venezuela, Altredo Cristiani of E1 Salvador, and Uscar Arias of
Costa Kica.
Callejas, 46, comes from a landholding tamily and was trained as an
agricultural economist at Mississippi State University.
The National Party candidate won the election NOV. 26 by beating Carlos
Flores of the governing Liberal Party. He replaces Jose Azcona Hoyo.
Relations between Honduras and Nicaragua have been tense tor years because
Honduras has allowed anti-Sandinista Contra rebels to set up bases on its
territory.
Callejas has said he wants the U.S.-backed rebels removed but wants to keep
military relations with the United States close. The United States maintains an
air Dase in Honduras.
LEXIS® ® NEXIS® LEXIS® NEXIS® ®
Honduras
THE white HOUSE
washington
praise
staong economic
reform plan