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26
22
6
7
AMERICAN
HERITAGE
GAVE US
THE
PFADIPOLITICIANS?
NOVEMBER 1991
THE RACIST
PRESIDENT
who started
modern civil rights
CREDIT
Diners
CARD
Amrican Express Company
OFFICE CARD
AMERICA
02
master
It grew up
VISA
overnight
I FOUGHT FOR FIDEL
An American rebel's
Harry'S. Truman
farewell memoir
AMERICAN
HERITAGE
"I think one man is just as good as another," he said, "as long as he's honest
and decent and not a nigger or a Chinaman." Yet Truman broke with his con-
victions to make civil rights a concern of the national government for the
first time since Reconstruction-and in so doing he changed the nation forever.
THE CONVERSION
OF HARRY TRUMAN
by William E. Leuchtenburg
RINGER
THROUGHOUT
THE
LAND
His unprecedented
1948 civil rights
message won
Truman this salute
from the cartoonist
Herblock.
arry Truman approached national pol-
and he came to view Lincoln as a man of heroic
H
itics with divided memories and di-
stature. Perhaps nothing revealed so well the
vergent loyalties. He was reared in a
conflicting tugs on him as a letter he wrote in
border-state county as Southern in
1941 to his daughter, Margaret: "Yesterday I
its sympathies as any Mississippi Delta town
drove over the route that the last of the Con-
and by a family that shared Mississippi's racial
federate army followed before the surrender. I
outlook and held dear the hallowed symbol of
thought of the heartache of one of the world's
the Stars and Bars. Yet Truman also harbored a
great men on the occasion of that surrender. I
powerful nationalist strain. He never regretted
am not sorry he did surrender, but I feel as your
that the Civil War had ended in a Union victory,
old-country grandmother has expressed it-
COPYRIGHT 1948 BY HERBLOCK IN The Washington Post
NOVEMBER 1991 . AMERICAN HERITAGE 55
Mary Jane and Anderson Truman, the President's paternal
but the frontier saga of his maternal grandfather, Solomon
grandparents, had strong ties to the slave South
Young (shown with grandmother Harriet), made the deepest mark.
'What a pity a white man like Lee had
the pro-Union Jayhawkers. Truman's
ablaze for miles. In later years Martha
to surrender to old Grant."
grandmother never wearied of telling
Truman would have no compunction
Truman's direct ancestors identified
of the morning in 1861 when, with her
about saying, "I thought it was a good
strongly with the slave South. All four
husband away, Jim Lane, at the head
thing that Lincoln was shot."
of his grandparents were born in Ken-
of a scruffy band of horsemen wearing
The women in his family sought to
tucky, and when they migrated to Mis-
red sheepskin leggings, rode into her
imbue Truman with an intense dislike
souri in the 1840s, they brought their
farmyard, ordered her to hop to it and
of the Union cause and its leaders.
slaves with them. Truman's grandpar-
cook for him and his men, then killed
When in 1905 the twenty-one-year-old
ents received slaves as a wedding
her hens, slaughtered all the livestock,
Truman, proud of his splendid new
present, and in Missouri one of his
including more than four hundred
National Guard uniform, called on his
grandfathers owned some two dozen
hogs, toted off the still-bloody hams,
grandmother, she gave him a once-
slaves on his five-thousand-acre plan-
pocketed the family silver, and set the
over, then told him sternly, "Harry,
tation. His parents, Truman recalled,
barns afire.
this is the first time since 1863 that a
were "a violently unreconstructed
Truman's family rehearsed, too, the
blue uniform has been in this house.
southern family" and "Lincoln haters."
awful time in 1863 when a Union com-
Don't bring it here again." More than
His mother was an ardent admirer of
mander, retaliating for Quantrill's sack
four decades later, when the Presi-
of Lane's home-
dent's mother was invited to the White
Truman literally learned at his mother's
town of Lawrence,
House, one of her sons said that the
issued the notori-
knee to share the South's view of the War
only unoccupied bed was in the Lin-
ous General Order
coln Room. She retorted, "You tell Har-
Between the States. He also acquired an
No. 11, which rout-
ry if he tries to put me in Lincoln's
abiding belief in white supremacy.
ed all the people of
bed, I'll sleep on the floor."
Jackson County, the
Truman literally learned at his moth-
den of Quantrill's
er's knee to share the South's view of
bushwhackers, and
the War Between the States. He grew
William Quantrill, the Confederate
herded them to a Federal fort, where
up detesting the meddlesome aboli-
guerrilla leader who, pillaging Law-
for months they were compelled to
tionists, decried the racial experimen-
rence, Kansas, in 1863, slew at least
live on handouts. As a girl of eleven
tation of Reconstruction, and sneered
one hundred and fifty of its citizens, in-
Truman's mother, Martha, trudged
at Thaddeus Stevens, that "crippled
cluding women and children. One his-
through the dust with her mother and
moron." He also acquired an abiding
torian has called him "the bloodiest
five other children behind an oxcart
belief in white supremacy. In 1911,
man in American history."
carrying all that was left of a once-
when he was twenty-seven, he wrote
Truman's Jackson County, though,
proud holding. After the Trumans
Bess Wallace: "I think one man is just
revered Quantrill, because he had his
and their neighbors had been evict-
as good as another so long as he's
counterpart in James Lane, chieftain of
ed, Union forces set the countryside
honest and décent and not a nigger
56 AMERICAN HERITAGE NOVEMBER 1991
BOTH PAGES: HARRY S. TRUMAN LIBRARY, INDEPENDENCE, MO.
or a Chinaman. Uncle Will says that
Oregon trails. As a boy he played on
away so long that his young daughter
the Lord made a white man from
the tracks of the first railroad that ran
did not know him when he returned.
dust[,] a nigger from mud, then He
west of the Mississippi, and in the
He went West one year from Indepen-
threw up what was left and it came
1920s he became president of the Na-
dence with no fewer than 1,500 head of
down a Chinaman. He does hate Chi-
tional Old Trails Association, which
cattle, and in the summer of 1860 he
nese and Japs. So do I. It is race preju-
required him to travel around the
reached Salt Lake City with forty wag-
dice I guess. But I am strongly of the
country to promote using the routes of
ons and 130 yoke of oxen.
opinion that negros [sic] ought to be in
the historical trails to the West for in-
Truman took full political advantage
Africa, yellow men in Asia and white
terstate highways. On one of his trips
of this frontier past. As he campaigned
men in Europe and America."
he visited Boot Hill in Dodge City and
through the West in 1948, he claimed
More than a quarter of a century lat-
encountered a gunslinger who had
so many places were spots at which
er, in a letter home to his daughter
faced Bat Masterson. Truman was hap-
Solomon Young had stopped that re-
about dining at the White House when
py, he announced on one occasion, to
porters wondered how the man had
he was a U.S. senator, he described
be "back home-once more a free and
ever made it to Sacramento. In that
the waiters, who he thought were "ev-
independent citizen of the gateway
campaign, the veteran correspondent
idently the top of the black social set
city of the old Great West."
Richard L. Strout recalled, "the further
in Washington," as "an army of coons,"
west he got the more his western ver-
and in a letter to his wife in 1939, he re-
f Truman's family constantly re-
nacular increased.
All the way
ferred to "nigger picnic day."
I
minded him of his Confederate
across the West as his vernacular got
Yet if Truman absorbed his family's
heritage, it also relayed to him
thicker he told about Grandpa's cov-
and his county's Southern heritage al-
vivid recollections of his ances-
ered wagon trip to Oregon and pro-
most by osmosis, other legacies drew
tors' experiences on the frontier. His
duced an historical relative or two in
him toward identification not with a
great-grandfather, the son of an ad-
virtually every area where he spoke."
section but with the nation. Early in
venturer allied with Daniel Boone, is
Truman's behavior in that campaign
1860 one of Truman's great-uncles in
said to have been the first white
left observers at the time, and
Kentucky wrote his brother-Harry's
child born in Kentucky, and
commentators since, bewildered
grandfather-in Missouri: "Andy
I
his great-grandmother wore a
about just where he located him-
am in hopes that you are not a seced-
lace cap to conceal a scar from
self. If in talking to Western au-
er. I am for the union now and forever
being scalped in an Indi-
diences he exploited his grand-
& so is old Ky." The next year he wrote
an raid in 1788. As a boy
father's feats on the Great
again: "Ky. is not willing to turn traitor
Truman heard these
Plains, he took pains to re-
yet awhile. God forbid that she ever
tales countless times.
mind Southern audiences of
should. You see I am a union man yet
But it was the saga
and expect to live and die one
Are
of his grandfather
you still in
the union, or have you
Solomon Young that
seceded? Oh I hope not. I hope you
made the most last-
have not turned against this glorious
ing impression. He
union to follow Jeff Davis and Co."
had first headed
West in the "year of
ruman's forebear's fierce
decision," 1846, the
T
loyalty to the Union, though,
same year as Fran-
did not carry with it admi-
cis Parkman's journey
ration for Abraham Lincoln.
on the Oregon Trail.
"My old woman is distant relation of
A Conestoga wagon
old Abe Lincoln," he explained in 1864,
master who drove
"but we are not Lincolnites."
huge herds of cattle
Truman's capacity for perceiving a
across the plains,
national interest transcending his fam-
he would leave one
ily's devotion to the Lost Cause owed a
spring and not get
great deal to the fact that the commu-
home until the
nity in which he was raised, instinc-
next. He was once
tively Southern though it was, turned
its face, in a highly self-conscious way,
Truman's parents
toward the West. Truman was keenly
were, he said,
aware of Independence as the entrepôt
"violently
to the Santa Fe, the Mormon, and the
unreconstructed."
his Kentucky ancestry and his fond-
olina Burnet Maybank assured a South-
rights. To carry out this huge assign-
ness for Stonewall Jackson.
ern friend, "Everything's going to be all
ment, he appointed fifteen prominent
To add to the confusion, some per-
right-the new President knows how
citizens under the chairmanship of the
ceived him to be neither Western nor
to handle the niggers."
president of General Electric, Charles
Southern. A Truman follower could
But on December 5, 1946, Truman
E. Wilson. Only two of the fifteen were
call him at different spots in the same
demolished these comfortable as-
from the South, and both of them were
book a man "from a midcontinen-
sumptions by announcing the cre-
conspicuous liberals.
tal state," "a Midwesterner," and "com-
ation of a President's Committee on
In October 1947 the committee is-
ing from a border state
neither
Civil Rights. He had been moved
sued its historic report, "To Secure
a Northerner nor a Southerner." The
to act after a delegation had called
These Rights." It found that a gaping
on him to protest
disparity between the country's ideal
On being told of the blinding of a black
outrages against
of equality and its behavior had re-
sergeant, Truman turned pale; then he rose
blacks. He was ap-
sulted in "a kind of moral dry rot
palled especially
which eats away at the emotional and
and said, "My God. I had no idea it was as
by an incident in
rational bases of democratic beliefs."
terrible as that. We've got to do something!"
Aiken, South Car-
Furthermore, it said, with an eye to-
olina, where, only
ward the Cold War, the United States
three hours after
"is not so strong, the final triumph of
a black sergeant
the democratic ideal is not so in-
last comment is closest to the mark.
had received his separation papers
evitable, that we can ignore what the
He was a border stater, a man from
from the United States Army, police-
world thinks of us or our record."
Missouri.
men gouged out his eyes. In Geor-
The committee came forth with
But rather than being "neither a
gia, Truman heard, the only black to
nearly three dozen recommendations,
Northerner nor a Southerner," he was
have voted in his area was murdered
including expanding the civil rights
both. He was in the position to be at
by four whites in his front yard. In
section of the Justice Department, cre-
the same time inside and outside the
another Georgia county two black
ating a permanent Commission on Civ-
South, able to empathize with its hurts
men were gunned down by a white
il Rights, enacting an anti-lynching
and its hopes but to surmise that its
gang, and when one of
statute and a law pun-
destiny lay in the finding of a place for
their wives recognized
ishing police brutality,
itself within the nation.
one of the killers, both
expanding the suffrage
the wives were shot
TRUMAN
by banning the poll tax
onetheless, entering the
to death too. On being
and safeguarding the
N
United States Senate in
told at a meeting with
FIGHTS FOR
right to cast ballots in
1935, Truman immediate-
the National Emergen-
HUMAN
primaries and general
ly gravitated toward the
cy Committee Against
elections, and outlawing
Southerners. They, in turn, accepted
Mob Violence of the
RIGHTS
discrimination in pri-
him as one of their own. Months be-
blinding of the black
vate employment. It
fore the 1944 campaign some South-
sergeant, the President,
also favored "renewed
erners had come to view Truman as a
his face "pale with hor-
A button from the 1948
court attack, with inter-
feasible vice-presidential nominee, and
ror," rose and said, "My
presidential campaign.
vention by the Depart-
at the 1944 Democratic National Con-
God. I had no idea it was
ment of Justice," on ra-
vention Southerners helped conspic-
as terrible as that. We've got to do
cially restrictive covenants in housing
uously in putting him across. After-
something!"
and ending "immediately" discrimina-
ward Gov. Chauncey Sparks of Ala-
The very next day he wrote his At-
tion in the armed services and in fed-
bama said, "The South has won a sub-
torney General, "I know you have been
eral agencies. Most controversial, it
stantial victory.
In the matter of
looking into the
lynchings
but
I
opposed not only racial discrimina-
race relations Senator Truman told me
think it is going to take something
tion but segregation. In particular, it
he is the son of an unreconstructed
more than the handling of each indi-
advocated denying federal money to
rebel mother."
vidual case after it happens-it is go-
any public or private program that
When Franklin Roosevelt's death,
ing to require the inauguration of some
persisted in Jim Crow practices and
on April 12, 1945, catapulted Truman
sort of policy to prevent such hap-
making the District of Columbia a mod-
into the White House, the white South
penings." On December 5 Truman
el for the nation by integrating all its
felt confident that Truman would find
signed an order creating a President's
facilities, including its public schools.
its racial customs congenial. On the
Committee on Civil Rights, which he di-
The publication of "To Secure These
funeral train carrying FDR's body, the
rected to look into not merely racial vi-
Rights" aroused a storm of criticism.
Democratic senator from South Car-
olence but the entire universe of civil
The chairman of the Democratic com-
58 AMERICAN HERITAGE NOVEMBER 1991
DAVID ) FRENT COLLECTION
mittee in Danville, Virginia, wired Tru-
Yet the white South had good rea-
President I know this is bad. I shall
man, "I really believe that you have
son to conclude that by 1947 Truman
fight to end evils like this."
ruined the Democratic Party in the
had changed. He had done so, in part,
On February 2, 1948, Truman, un-
South," and a Baptist minister in Jack-
for political reasons. In World War II
daunted by Southern criticism, sent a
sonville, Florida, informed him: "If that
Southern blacks had migrated in large
special message to Congress asking it
report is carried out, you won't be
numbers to states, such as Michi-
to enact a number of the recommen-
elected dogcatcher in 1948. The South
gan and California, with big blocs of
dations of his committee. Never be-
today is the South of 1861."
electoral votes, and in the 1946 elec-
fore had a President dispatched a spe-
In one respect the shock expressed
tions, dismayed by Southern racist
cial message on civil rights. He called
by the South is surprising, for Truman
demagogues, they had given evidence
for an anti-poll tax statute, a perma-
of drifting away
nent FEPC, an anti-lynching law, and
The Florida State Association of County
from the Democrats.
creation of a Commission on Civil
Even in the South
Commissioners found the President's
Rights. To end intimidation at the
black voters prom-
polls, he asked for legislation banning
program "odious, detestable, loathsome,
ised to be an in-
interference by either public officials
repulsive, revolting and humiliating."
creasing presence
or private citizens with the free exer-
following a 1944 Su-
cise of the suffrage. He did not em-
preme Court deci-
brace his committee's recommenda-
sion outlawing the
tion to deprive states of federal grants
had built a sturdy record on behalf of
white primary. Truman was motivated
if they did not abandon Jim Crow,
civil rights as early as 1937. As senator
too by foreign policy concerns. Dis-
but in keeping with recent Supreme
he had twice cooperated with the Na-
crimination against people of color
Court decisions, he did call upon
tional Association for the Advance-
was proving an embarrassment to the
Congress to forbid segregation in in-
ment of Colored People in signing
government as it vied with the Soviet
terstate travel. "As a Presidential pa-
petitions to break filibusters over anti-
Union for the allegiance of Third World
per," the historian Irwin Ross has writ-
lynching legislation, and less than two
nations. Probably most important,
ten, "it was remarkable for its scope
months after he took office as Presi-
though, was Truman's outrage against
and audacity."
dent he had written a public letter ask-
the mistreatment of blacks. Truman
ing the House Rules Committee to
had never been willing to condone
nce again the white South
advance legislation for a permanent
denying to citizens, black or white,
O
reacted with rage. A Geor-
Fair Employment Practices Commis-
their fundamental rights, and as Pres-
gia congressman said his
sion (FEPC).
ident he was expanding his awareness
section had been "kicked
of the need to use federal power to
in the teeth" by Truman, the Nashville
et until 1947 Southern politi-
secure to all Americans the liberties
Banner denounced his proposals as
Y
cians had tolerated such ac-
guaranteed by the Constitution. What
"vicious," and in Florida the State As-
tions because they thought
Southern politicians thought could be
sociation of County Commissioners
them merely expedient.
explained only as self-interested bids
declared that "all true Democrats"
They assumed that since, as senator,
for black votes actually represented
found the President's program "ob-
he came from a state with 130,000
both long-held beliefs and maturing
noxious, repugnant, odious, detestable,
black voters, he had to make a show of
convictions.
loathsome, repulsive, revolting and
going along with civil rights bills that
Once Truman set out on this new
humiliating."
were doomed to defeat anyway. Even
course, he would not relent. When
No state exceeded Mississippi in the
while supporting such measures, Tru-
Democratic leaders asked him to back
fury of its rhetoric. "Not since the first
man had made a point of announcing
down from his strong stand on civil
gun was fired on Fort Sumter, resulting
that he did not question Jim Crow. In
rights, he replied: "My forebears were
as it did in the greatest fratricidal strife
1940 he told the National Colored
Confederates.
Every factor and in-
in the history of the world, has any
Democratic Association of Chicago: "I
fluence in my background-and in my
message of any President of these glo-
wish to make it clear that I am not ap-
wife's for that matter-would foster
rious United States
resulted in the
pealing for social equality of the Negro.
the personal belief that you are right.
driving of a schism in the ranks of our
The Negro himself knows better than
"But my very stomach turned over
people, as did President Truman's so-
that."
when I learned that Negro soldiers,
called civil rights message," asserted
His performance as President had
just back from overseas, were being
Rep. William M. Colmer. Truman,
also been ambivalent. He had asked
dumped out of Army trucks in Missis-
agreed Rep. John Bell Williams, "has
for an FEPC bill, for instance, but then
sippi and beaten.
run a political dagger into our
had run away from the fight to get it
"Whatever my inclinations as a na-
backs and now he is trying to drink
enacted.
tive of Missouri might have been, as
our blood."
60 AMERICAN HERITAGE NOVEMBER 1991
In a long speech on the Senate floor,
Sen. James Eastland charged that the
President's program was an effort "to
secure political favor from Red mon-
grels in the slums of the great cities of
the East and Middle West" who
FLORIDA
SAS
planned to defile "the pure blood of
TEXAS
the South." The President's "anti-
southern measures," he maintained,
would destroy the South "beyond
hope of redemption." Indeed, he con-
cluded: "This much is certain. If the
present Democratic leadership is right,
then Calhoun and Jefferson Davis were
wrong. If the present Democratic lead-
ership is right, then Thaddeus Stevens
and Charles Sumner were right, and
Lee, Forrest, and Wade Hampton were
wrong. If the President's civil-rights
program is right, then reconstruction
was right. If this program is right, the
carpetbaggers were right."
t the Jefferson-Jackson Day
Former Democrats from the Deep South
A
launch the States' Rights party convention in
the nervous calm that fell upon it in
dinners in mid-February,
Truman got rude reminders
Birmingham, Alabama, July 17, 1948.
the days before Gettysburg." On the
of Southern hostility to his
following day he wrote: "There was an
the Constitution," he replied. "I take
air of confidence among the Yankee
program. In Washington at the most
back nothing of what I proposed and
hordes already assembled
that the
important dinner, a table at the May-
flower Hotel reserved and paid for by
make no excuses for it."
rebels would begin falling to fragments
Sen. Olin Johnston of South Carolina
With Truman unrepentant, the South
before they crossed the Chicka-
was deliberately left vacant, in a con-
wrote him off. When he announced
hominy." Though Mencken had nó
spicuous spot near the dais. Mrs. John-
formally that he would run for re-elec-
sympathy for Truman or his civil rights
tion, John Bell Williams told his con-
notions, his story a day later indicated
ston, a vice-chair of the dinner com-
gressional colleagues that the Presi-
that this confidence was justified.
mittee, decided not to attend, she
explained, "because I might be seated
dent should "quit now while he is still
When the Southerners caucused in
next to a Negro."
just 20 million votes behind." The
Philadelphia, they revealed that they
Truman, shocked by the ferocity of
South and the border states were go-
had little strength outside a few Gulf
the assault on him and recognizing
ing to cast 147 electoral votes in
states, he reported, adding: "After the
that his re-election was in jeopardy,
November, said Senator Johnston,
count of bayonets
[Gov. Ben] Laney
sought to placate his Southern critics,
"and they won't be for Truman. They'll
asked if there were any copperheads
but he would not appease them by
be for somebody else. He ain't going to
present
A lone Trumanocide from
abandoning fundamental principles.
be re-elected. He ain't going to be
Indiana then made himself known, and
After a meal at the White House with
renominated." On the floor of the
was politely applauded. But there were
members of the Democratic National
House, L. Mendel Rivers of South Car-
no others, and the gathering broke up
Committee, Alabama's national com-
olina, shaking his finger, his voice
in depressed spirits."
mitteewoman lectured the President: "I
trembling, cried, "Harry Truman is al-
want to take a message back to the
ready a dead bird. We in the South are
he Southern Democrats con-
South. Can I tell them you're not ram-
going to see to that."
T
tinued to send off salvos
ming miscegenation down our throats?
Sectional animosity enveloped the
against the President, but it
1948 Democratic Convention that sum-
did not take long for them
That you're not for tearing up our
social structure-that you're for all
mer, a mood no one captured so vivid-
to learn that their threat to deny him
the people, not just the North?" Tru-
ly as H. L. Mencken. His dispatch of
renomination was an empty one. At
July 9 began, "With the advancing Con-
the Southern caucus Gov. Strom Thur-
man reached into his pocket, whipped
federate Army still below the Potomac,
mond of South Carolina insisted, "We
out a copy of the Constitution, and
read her the Bill of Rights. "I stand on
Philadelphia was steeped tonight in
have been betrayed and the guilty
AP/WIDE WORLD PHOTOS
62 AMERICAN HERITAGE NOVEMBER 1991
sentatives, where the South would
have substantial bargaining power. To
lead them in the forthcoming cam-
paign, the States' Rights party, or Dix-
iecrats as they were commonly known,
chose Strom Thurmond as their pres-
idential candidate and Mississippi's
governor, Fielding Wright, as his run-
ning mate. Thurmond told seven thou-
sand cheering, stomping delegates:
"There are not enough troops in the
Army to force the Southern people to
admit the Negroes into our theaters,
swimming pools, and homes
We
have been stabbed in the back by a
President who has betrayed every
principle of the Democratic party in
his desire to win at any cost."
ROSS
The Dixiecrats constituted a serious
threat to Truman's bid for re-election.
00
DEPT
He already faced a formidable chal-
REAT.
lenge from the Republican nominee,
Gov. Thomas E. Dewey of New York,
On October 29, 1948, thousands of
and the left wing of his party had
shall not go unpunished." When the
Harlem residents turn out and press up
broken away to back the Progressive
roll was called, however, Truman eas-
against barricades to see Truman.
nominee, Henry Wallace. Truman's
ily defeated the Southern favorite, Sen.
chances, slim at best, seemed negligi-
Richard B. Russell of Georgia. Russell
gates alike agreed that, as Time re-
ble if he could not hold the South. But
swept almost the entire South, but that
counted, "the South had been kicked in
in Alabama the Dixiecrats kept the
is about all he got. So mutinous was
the pants, turned around and kicked in
name of the President of the United
the stomach." Sen. Walter George of
States off the ballot altogether. In Mis-
the South, though, that the conven-
tion chairman did not dare attempt to
Georgia, in what one writer has called
sissippi and South Carolina, state
"a splendid Catherine wheel of mixed
Democratic committees selected Thur-
make Truman's nomination unani-
mous, as was traditionally done to sig-
metaphors," expostulated: "The South
mond as their presidential nominee.
is not only over a barrel-it is pil-
Summing up the situation in the after-
nify party harmony.
Truman's opponents sustained an
loried! We are in the stocks!" Having
math of the Philadelphia convention,
even greater setback over the plat-
sustained severe losses, "the defeat-
the Chattanooga Free Press wrote:
ed army," Mencken
"This should be a day of mourning for
The era marked the end of the Solid South.
concluded, "retired
Southern Democrats. Their only con-
to a prepared
solation is the grim satisfaction that
Not until LBJ's day would the most serious
position on the
President Truman and his unfaithful
cleavage appear, but Truman opened
swamps bordering
cohorts are going down in ignomin-
a fissure that would never be mended.
the Swanee River."
ious defeat."
After the civil
rights plank was
ruman, though, held firm to
adopted, thirteen
form when a determined group of lib-
Alabama delegates (one of them was
T
his commitment to bolster
the constitutional rights of
erals pushed through a strong civil
Birmingham's police commissioner,
blacks. When an Army bud-
rights plank cosponsored by Hubert
Eugene ["Bull"] Connor) and all of the
dy advised him, from the perspective
Humphrey, the mayor of Minneapolis.
Mississippi delegation stalked out of
of a Southerner, not to press on civil
"As I walked with the young mayor
the hall. The rebels reconvened
rights, the President responded, "The
out of that hall," one liberal activist
in Birmingham to organize a States'
main difficulty with the South is that
later recalled, "I actually thought he
Rights party with the intent of defeat-
they are living eighty years behind the
was going to be shot,
It was very
ing Truman and his program by gain-
times and the sooner they come out of
ing enough electoral votes to throw
it the better it will be for the country
tense, very tense."
Journalists and the Southern dele-
the contest into the House of Repre-
and for themselves." He added: "When
AMERICAN HERITAGE NOVEMBER 1991
UPI/BETTMANN
64
the mob gangs can take four people
out and shoot them in the back, and
everybody in the country is acquaint-
ed with who did the shooting and
INSTITUTE
RESIVESS
nothing is done about it, that country
is in a pretty bad fix from a law en-
forcement standpoint." Truman con-
DAVIN
ALBEES
SHOE
cluded by saying, "I can't approve of
such goings on, and
I am going to
try to remedy it and if that ends up in
my failure to be elected, that failure
will be in a good cause."
Truman meant what he said. On July
26 he issued two Executive orders.
One, drawing upon his authority as
Commander in Chief, affirmed the prin-
ciple of equality of treatment in the
armed forces without respect to race.
The other directive forbade discrimi-
nation in the federal civil service. On
October 29 he became the first Presi-
dent ever to solicit votes in Harlem.
ell before the Harlem
W
Waving from his Cadillac, a President
speech, analysts gave
of the United States campaigns through
dition of localism. Even after blacks
Truman little chance of
Harlem for the first time in history.
hailed him as their champion, he con-
carrying the South. It
tinued to sprinkle his private conver-
came as no surprise, then, when in
Lyndon Johnson pushed through far-
sation with terms such as nigger. He
November he lost four Deep South
reaching civil rights legislation, would
not only opposed the 1960s sit-ins but
states to Governor Thurmond. Lou-
the most serious cleavage occur, but
thought they might well be Commu-
isiana gave Thurmond more than 49
Truman is the one who opened the fis-
nist-inspired. In 1961 he told reporters
percent of its votes, Truman less than
sure that would never be mended.) In
that Northerners who went south on
33 percent. In some northern parish-
1948 four Deep South states had bro-
Freedom Rides were meddling out-
es Truman ran third-behind both
ken away to the Dixiecrats; in the next
siders bent on stirring up mischief
Thurmond and Dewey. He fared still
election, four more Southern states
where they did not belong, and in 1965
worse in other states. In South Caro-
defected to the Republicans. So by
he called the Selma to Montgomery
lina Thurmond got 72 percent, Tru-
1952 eight of the former Confederate
march "silly" and Martin Luther King,
man 24 percent; in Mississippi Thur-
states had abandoned the Democrats.
Jr., a "troublemaker."
mond received 87 percent to Truman's
As one scholar has said: "The signifi-
miserable 10 percent. Alabama, of
cant fact is that a Democratic Presi-
et Truman's foes had good
course, registered no votes at all for
dent proposed to Congress the enact-
Truman.
reason for thinking him their
ment of laws to improve the status of
nemesis, because if he had a
Thurmond, though, gained no states
Y
the Negro. This was heresy; the whole
Confederate lineage he also
beyond these four, as Truman aston-
logic of the South's loyalty to the
felt intense loyalty to the Constitution
ished prognosticators by sweeping all
Democratic party was the assumption
and the Union. He especially revered
the rest of the South and winning re-
that the party was pledged to leave
the memory of Andrew Jackson, a
election. Most Southern Democrats
race relations in the hands of the
Southerner but a nationalist. Eventu-
could not bring themselves to bolt the
states. When the Democratic party
ally he was even able, despite his fam-
party of their fathers to join the Dix-
ceased to be the party of white su-
ily background, to bring himself to
iecrats, and they felt even less com-
premacy, the deepest basis of South-
cherish the Great Emancipator.
fortable with switching to the Repub-
ern solidarity had been destroyed."
Shortly after departing the White
licans, the party of Reconstruction.
In one respect, his opponents in the
House, Truman reflected: "Old Abe
The Truman era, however, proved to
South misperceived Truman, for he
Lincoln is
a president I admire
be the end of the Solid South, at least
never wholly abandoned the racist
of a South solid for the Democrats.
tremendously. In a way, it's surpris-
view he had absorbed from his family
ing
because I was born and raised
(To be sure, not until the 1960s, when
or his sympathy for the Southern tra-
in the South
and a lot of southern-
66
AMERICAN HERITAGE NOVEMBER 1991
UPI/BETTMANN
Two decades after he issued the order that
ers still don't feel that way about him
integrated the services, the former
the Army of the United States of Amer-
at all. And that included the Truman
President reviews a Marine honor guard.
ica, and viewed the Constitution as sa-
family, all of whom were against him.
cred text. That nationalist theme, a
Some of them even thought it was a
Independence and the Bill of Rights
minor one when he was a child, was
fine thing that he got assassinated.
had led him to question the assump-
the one that prevailed in the end. As a
"I realized even as a child that was
tions on which he was raised. He acted
consequence Truman permanently al-
pretty extreme thinking or worse; let's
as he did not because he believed in
tered the character of Southern poli-
just call it dumb thinking, or no think-
the social equality of the races, not
tics. For the first time since Recon-
ing at all. But it still took me a while to
because he was "anti-South," but be-
struction, he made civil rights a proper
realize what a good man Lincoln really
cause he took solemnly the oath he
concern for the national government,
was, with a great brain and even
had sworn to sustain the Constitution.
and for the first time ever the Demo-
greater heart. a man who really cared
cratic party became the main protag-
about people and educated himself to
S a border-state Democrat
onist for the rights of blacks. The
the point where he knew how govern-
A
Truman carried within him
South, and the nation, would never be
ment should work and tried his best to
the conflicts that divided
the same again.
make ours work that way. I felt just
not only Missouri but the
the opposite of the rest of the Truman
country. He had been nurtured on the
William E. Leuchtenburg, William Rand
family after I studied the history of the
valor of Robert E. Lee, the iniquity of
Kenan Professor of History at the Univer-
country and realized what Lincoln did
the Union raiders, the melancholia of
sity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, is
to save the Union. That's when I came
the Lost Cause: Only someone who
president of the American Historical As-
to my present conclusion, and that
understood himself to be a Southerner
sociation. An expanded version of this
was a long, long time ago.
Lincoln
could have felt such empathy for the
essay, which was one of the three Flem-
was a great and wonderful man in ev-
traditions of the South. Yet he also
ing Lectures in Southern History he de-
had a schoolboy's love of the history
livered at Louisiana State University in
ery way."
Truman's reading in history and in
not of a section but of a nation, took
April, will be published by LSU Press in
documents such as the Declaration of
pride in having been a doughboy in
Three "Southern" Presidents.
68
AMERICAN HERITAGE NOVEMBER 1991
UPI/BETTMANN
Mar. 25, 1991
THE
Price $1.75
NEW YORKER
ESEARCH CENTERARY
20 the 101
STATE
BEWORT
40
ANNALS OF GOVERNMENT
SERVING THE PRESIDENT
THE TRUMAN YEARS-I
M
Y first political memory is of
transformed by the war. Washington
in Vietnam, were predictably defensive
Election Day, 1916. My fa-
in 1944 buzzed with energy, excite-
about any sign of weakness. One had to
ther was a loyal Democrat,
ment, and purpose. Men and women in
look behind the official briefings in
and our family supported President
uniform rushed through the once
order to assemble an accurate picture.
Wilson against his opponent, Charles
sleepy streets. I found the commotion a
My legal experience was useful in deal-
Evans Hughes. To inform the people
bit overwhelming at first. I had visited
ing with the military, but a different
of St. Louis of the results as quickly as
Washington a few times on legal busi-
and less confrontational procedure was
possible, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch
ness, but I had never got to know the
necessary. I believe that my real prepa-
had made an ingenious arrangement
city, its people, or its culture. I com-
ration for service as Secretary of De-
with the local utility companies. In the
muted each morning to the Navy De-
fense twenty-four years later began on
evening, "the electric lights in homes
partment, where I was assigned routine
that inspection tour in 1944.
and street cars will flicker out once and
staff work.
Once we were back in Washington,
be turned on again if President Wilson
Shortly after D Day, I was selected
Pearson and I assembled our conclu-
has been re-elected," the newspaper
as one of two officers assigned to make
sions and submitted a lengthy report,
proudly announced. "If Hughes is
a survey of Navy logistical activities on
emphasizing the need to unify Navy
elected, the lights will flicker out three
the West Coast, in preparation for the
logistical- operations on the West
times." I was nine, it was the first
coming push against Japan. My part-
Coast. Acting on those recommenda-
election I was aware of, and this novel
ner on this mission was a Reserve
tions, the Navy reorganized and
way of learning the outcome especially
lieutenant-commander from Pitts-
strengthened the Western Sea Frontier
excited me, because it might allow me
burgh named Nathan Pearson, who
-the command responsible for coördi-
to stay up late. I begged my parents to
had worked in marketing research for
nating supply activities on the West
allow me to await the signal, and they
U.S. Steel before the war. The pattern
Coast. To direct this new effort Wash-
agreed.
of our inspection tours soon became
ington chose the Commander-in-Chief
We waited in our living room as the
familiar. At each stop, Pearson and I
of the Atlantic Fleet, Admiral Royal E.
evening wore on. Finally, near mid-
handed the base commander a letter
Ingersoll, who had the experience and
night, our lights blinked once. As we
from the top Navy brass in Washing-
the four-star rank essential for exercis-
began cheering for Wilson, our lights
ton requesting his full coöperation. In-
ing effective control over the flow of
suddenly blinked twice more. Plunged
variably, we received an effusive wel-
material from the West Coast ports
into despair, we went to bed thinking
come-and almost no information of
into the Pacific theatre.
Hughes had been elected. It was not
substance. After several hours of this
Admiral Ingersoll was impressed by
until a day later that we, and the
empty ritual, we searched out lower-
our report, and soon Pearson and I
nation, learned that California's vote,
ranking Reserve officers stationed at
were headed back to San Francisco, this
which was counted late, had gone to
the installation. Then we invariably
time as part of Ingersoll's staff. Upon
Wilson, and, with it, the 1916 election.
got a different story, revealing key
arriving at the Western Sea Frontier
Of the many election nights I have
information about the base's strengths
headquarters, we began organizing
lived through since, only one, in 1948,
and weaknesses.
Navy supply lines from the West Coast
was as memorable.
I learned an important lesson from
to forward areas in the Pacific, in prep-
After graduating from college and
this tour, which served me well in the
aration for the planned invasion of
law school, I practiced law in St. Louis
distant future: to find out what was
Japan.
for fifteen years, and then, on April 28,
really going on in the military, it was
On April 12, 1945, in the middle of
1944, at the age of thirty-seven, I
necessary to look beyond the official
a cool, clear, and breezy afternoon, the
executed the oath of office as lieutenant,
chain of command. Top commanders,
Western Sea Frontier received the
junior grade, in the United States Na-
whether in the Second World War or
news of President Roosevelt's death.
val Reserve. Armed with my new com-
Like everyone else, I was stunned, and
mission, I went downtown to buy a
wholly unprepared for it. Certainly I
uniform, as well as a "how to" book on
could not have imagined the conse-
Navy customs and regulations. I knew
quences for me personally-conse-
absolutely nothing about military pro-
quences that led me to the White House
cedures-not even how to give and
in less than three months, and launched
receive a salute.
a career that would last for the rest of
A few days later, I received orders to
my life.
report to the Office of the Chief of
Naval Operations, in Washington,
D.C. I arrived by train in a city that,
EVEN EVENOCK, at the moment of initial
however, I felt a small,
like the nation it governed, had been
TGoddard:
personal flutter when I realized that I
41
had once met the man who was now
President of the United States. It was
in 1939, at a cocktail party at the St.
Louis home of a friend and client,
James K. Vardaman, Jr., who was one
of the city's few businessmen to have
supported Harry Truman's successful
bid for the Senate in 1934. My meeting
with Senator Truman had been brief
and inconsequential. But my acquain-
tanceship with Vardaman turned out to
be the key to my career in Washington.
Shortly after Roosevelt's death, I got
an unexpected telephone call from Var-
daman, who was now a Naval Reserve
officer. He was in San Francisco and
wanted to see me right away. We met a
few hours later at a downtown hotel.
Almost vibrating with excitement, he
told me he was going to be the naval
aide to the new President. We both
knew that it would be unprecedented
for the naval aide to come from the
Naval Reserve rather than the regular
Navy. That may have seemed like a
distinction without a difference to the
rest of the world, but it meant every-
thing in the tradition-laden Navy,
"Laugh if you will, but my kind once ruled the earth."
which believed that a post of such
prestige should always be given to a
career officer. Vardaman, angry at the
way the regulars scorned the Reserves,
the future of postwar Europe and plan
in, some history. I would be nearer my
saw his new post as a way of settling
the final phase of the Pacific war. But
family, who were staying with relatives
some scores.
Vardaman's immediate concern, was
in Boston. And the work would be
During our discussion, Vardaman
not Russia or Japan; instead, it was one
more interesting than what I was doing
raised the possibility that I might even-
that gave me my first glimpse of Wash-
at the Western Sea Frontier.
tually join him in Washington. In
ington power struggles. His problem
After our conversation, Vardaman
June, Vardaman returned to San Fran-
was with the Navy, and its strong-
gave me a ticket for the signing of the
cisco for a momentous event: the sign-
willed Secretary, James V. Forrestal.
United Nations Charter, at the War
ing of the Charter of the United Na-
As we had both anticipated, the Navy
Memorial Opera House on June 26th.
tions. America seemed to stand at the
was upset that a Naval Reserve officer
From a red plush seat in the balcony I
absolute height of its power and self-
held the job of naval aide to the Presi-
looked down at a wondrous sight: the
confidence, and its hopes for its new
dent. Forrestal had offered to send
brilliant colors of the fifty flags of the
President, the new world organization,
someone over to "take care" of Var-
nations present, each on a gilded flag-
and a peaceful postwar world all
daman's office while he was at Pots-
pole, arrayed behind a large circular
seemed to converge on chat lovely city
dam. Vardaman interpreted the offer as
table with a green baize cover, on
in June of 1945.
a Navy effort to protect its parochial
which lay two large books bound in
Only the war still going on in the
interests and spy on him. He had a
gleaming hand-tooled blue leather and
Pacific shadowed the mood. Some of
solution to this problem which would
waiting to be signed. Below me, in the
the men dealing with Stalin-future
also bring me to Washington, if only
orchestra, I could see the delegates of
colleagues of mine, like Averell Harri-
temporarily: he would assign me to the
many countries, bathed in floodlights.
man, Robert Lovett, James Forrestal,
White House as his assistant while he
When the time came for the United
George Kennan, and Dean Acheson-
and the President were at Potsdam. My
States to sign the document, I felt
may have already seen the clouds of the
main function would be to keep any
euphoria and pride as I watched our
Cold War, but they were not visible to
regular Navy officers-Navy "spies"
President walk onstage, accompanied
a slightly overage naval lieutenant
-from entering his office while he was
by the Secretary of State, Edward R.
thinking about his meeting with the
away. Vardaman even thought that he
Stettinius, and, next to him, the Presi-
new President's naval aide.
could get me a temporary promotion,
dent's military aide, Colonel Harry
When we met, Vardaman told me in
on the ground that the position re-
Vaughan, and Vardaman. In honor of
confidence that the President would
quired someone of a higher rank. The
the official color of the United Nations,
shortly be going to Potsdam for a meet-
idea was irresistible. I might get a
the President had dressed himself in a
ing with Churchill and Stalin to settle
chance to observe, and even participate
navy-blue suit, with a blue necktie and
THE NEW YORKER
43
up maps and putting documents in fold-
ers, preparing to transport part of the
Map Room to Potsdam for the confer-
ence. I was impressed by the sight of
these efficient young men, and noted
THE SECOND
that I was older than any of them.
One of the men I met in the Map
Room that day was a twenty-seven-
TIME AROUND
year-old Naval Reserve lieutenant
named George M. Elsey, and he be-
came my closest associate and collabo-
rator over the next twenty-five years.
SALE
Elsey told me later of the intense curi-
osity with which he and his colleagues
greeted me. They were already ex-
tremely uncomfortable with what they
viewed as Vardaman's abrupt and crude
style, and were wary of the man he had
brought in to replace the popular and
respected Tyree.
W
HILE I was excited by the op-
portunity that Vardaman had of-
fered me, I looked at Washington as
simply a temporary assignment. I
planned to return to St. Louis and my
05
law firm as soon as the war was over.
My ambition remained at that time
exactly what it had been since 1929: to
be the best trial lawyer in St. Louis, to
of
live there for the rest of my life and
bring up my family there. Washington
0E
-even the White House-was merely
another, albeit better, assignment in my
AD
Second World War service. I had been
educated in St. Louis, had lived for only
the briefest time in the East, and did
not feel myself to be in any way part of
the so-called Eastern Establishment,
Some things get better the
which dominated the corridor of finan-
second time around. Some things get
cial, legal, and political power between
more affordable. Like a previously-owned
New York and Washington. But I
Rolex, Patek, Piaget, or other classic watch.
welcomed the chance to see how it
If you thought a Rolex was out of reach before, it could be
worked.
yours today. Tourneau presents New York's largest collection
I reported to the White House for
of pre-owned classics, all outstanding values. All expertly
official duty on July 11th, four days
reconditioned and guaranteed. Many are in near-new
after the Presidential party left for the
condition, most are identical to styles still being sold today.
long sea trip to Europe. The place was
We buy, sell or trade. Browse through Tourneau's vintage
quiet compared with the bustle I had
collection. For a watch that just keeps-getting better
at a price that couldn't be better too.
encountered only a few days earlier.
And when I arrived a pleasant surprise
awaited me: a temporary office on the
second floor of the East Wing, on the
northwest corner, facing Pennsylvania
TOURNEAU
Avenue. It was not a large office, but
that was of no importance: I had an
office in the White House.
Gesterday
As I settled in, I discovered quickly
that there was very little for an assis-
Madison Ave. & 52nd St. 488 Madison Ave. (2nd floor)
tant to the naval aide to the President
Madison Ave. & 59th St. 635 Madison Ave.
to do when the President and his naval
Seventh Ave. & 34th St. 200 West 34th St.
aide were both away. The only specific
Major credit cards welcome. Phone inquiries invited 212-758-3671. Outside NY 1-800-348-3332.
assignment Vardaman had given me
44
MARCH 25, 1991
was to oversee the redesign of the
one of F.D.R.'s successors removed the
aide. It has guided me ever since. He
Presidential seal and flag-a project
word "special" from the title, reëstab-
stressed one basic point: the White
on which George Elsey, who had gone
lishing Roosevelt's original title for the
House staff exists for a single purpose
to Potsdam, was already working.
position.)
-to serve the President. Presidential
Guarding Vardaman's office, taking
Rosenman had the second-largest
assistants who become controversial vi-
care of his mail, and keeping an eye on
and second-best office in the White
olate the first rule of their service to the
the Map Room took, at the most, only
House, situated approximately where
man whom the people of the United
a few hours a day. It was quite a change
the Vice-President's office is today, fac-
States have elected: they should never
from the feverish pace of the Western
ing the magnificent Old Executive Of-
advance a personal agenda if it conflicts
Sea Frontier.
fice Building. I noticed immediately
in any way with the President's policies
Nevertheless, I was thoroughly en-
that while much of the rest of the
or interests. If a member of the Presi-
joying myself and, to make the most of
White House seemed to slumber in the
dent's staff becomes controversial, he
the assignment, I decided to get to
President's absence, Rosenman's office
weakens the man who has chosen him,
know the White House better. In those
was a beehive of activity. Three typists
and should, if he is honorable, offer the
days, before the Secret Service had sub-
were constantly busy, and Rosenman
President his resignation. (It is re-
divided even the inside of the White
himself was buried in papers. He told
markable how many Presidential assis-
House into security zones, one could go
me he had just been ordered to meet
tants, in almost every Administration
pretty much anywhere except into the
President Truman in Europe to take
from Truman to Bush, have not un-
family quarters. The feeling of being
charge of drafting a sort of interim
derstood that their basic obligation is to
at the center of history affected me
State of the Union Message, which the
the President who has chosen them.) I
deeply. The Cabinet Room, the Fish
President wished to give upon his re-
believe that Roosevelt was entirely cor-
Room (now called the Roosevelt
turn. The fact that the President, sur-
rect in his feeling-shared fully by
Room), and the rest of the West Wing
rounded by the rest of his staff in
Rosenman-that members of the Pres-
seemed accessible and inviting, on the
Potsdam, still needed Rosenman had a
idential staff should not become public
one hand, and highly intimidating,
profound impact on me. It was evident
personalities. True, the rise of a larger
on the other. Although the White
that no one on the new team possessed
and ever more voracious press corps in
House was filled with the offices of
anything approaching his vast experi-
Washington, together with the temp-
powerful Presidential aides, it did not
ence as a Presidential assistant.
tations of publicity and fame, has made
have the feeling of an office building.
From the moment I met Rosenman,
his dictum increasingly difficult for
Partly because it is the home of the
we hit it off. We shared a reverence for
many senior aides to live up to in recent
President and his family, the White
the law and an enjoyment of the nu-
years. However, in those long-ago
House has always reflected the style and
ances of the legal profession, which we
days, when White House aides did not
personality of its current residents. At
discussed often as we got to know each
make regular public and press appear-
the time, it just seemed simple and
other. He had bright, intelligent eyes,
ances, Rosenman epitomized this phi-
informal, like the Trumans them-
which contrasted with a heavy, ponder-
losophy. Unlike today's senior White
selves.
ous bearing. His manner was wise and
House officials, who often build person-
With free time on my hands, I began
thoughtful, and his advice was always
al staffs in order to enhance their own
to look around to see if there was
carefully thought out and carefully
positions, Rosenman worked without
anything I could do to make myself
presented. He combined a subtle wit
any aides, simply reaching out to any-
more useful. As was the custom in those
with a fine sense of irony. His advocacy
one he thought could be of help. One
more civilized times, I made courtesy
on a matter was powerful, and usually
of the many items on his agenda when
calls on people with whom the office of
decisive, with President Truman, and
I arrived at the White House was
the naval aide worked. The most im-
later I saw him confront, without the
preparing a message to Congress on
portant of these early calls was on the
slightest concern for his own bureau-
universal military training, and, be-
special counsel to the President, Judge
cratic position, men who were much
cause I was available, he asked me to
Samuel I. Rosenman, one of F.D.R.'s
closer personally to the President. He
assist him on it. Rosenman left for
most valued associates, and the most
was a confirmed liberal, who believed
Europe to meet the President at the end
important Roosevelt holdover in the
deeply in resuming the Roosevelt New
of July, only about two weeks after I
Truman White House. Roosevelt had
Deal as soon as the war was over.
arrived. But so informal and small was
so valued Rosenman's advice that he
In many conversations, before and
the White House in those days that
wanted to create for Rosenman the
after his trip, Rosenman gave me his
neither of us saw anything odd in the
plain and elegant title of "counsel to
view of the proper role of a Presidential
fact that, upon leaving, the President's
the President," but he had been dis-
special counsel turned over such a re-
suaded at the last minute by Attorney
sponsibility to the temporary assistant
General Francis Biddle, on the ground
naval aide.
that such a title would undercut the
role of the Attorney General as the
As
I toiled in obscurity in the East
President's legal adviser. So F.D.R.
Wing in July, momentous events
simply added the word "special" to the
were unfolding at the conference of the
title he had in mind, and Rosenman
Big Three in Potsdam, and at a place
became the special counsel to the Presi-
code-named Trinity, in the desert near
dent. (In the nineteen-seventies, as the
Alamogordo, New Mexico. Since the
power of the White House staff grew,
L.FAIRALL
Manhattan Project was run by the
THE NEW YORKER
45
Army, operating directly under the
did not sink in-a clear demonstration,
President through Major General Les-
if any were needed, of the need to keep
lie Groves, the head of the Manhattan
the Vice-President fully informed of
Project, and Secretary of War Henry L.
important events, so that he (or she)
Stimson, and since information about
can deal with any decisions that need to
it was carefully compartmentalized, I
be made quickly if the President is
knew nothing of the July 16th test of
unable, for whatever reason, to perform
the atomic bomb at Trinity or of the
his functions.
plans to drop the bomb on Japan.
When Stimson heard nothing more
I was in my office in the White
on the subject from the new President
House on August 6th when I heard
for two weeks, he asked to see him "on
about Hiroshima. My initial reaction to
a highly secret matter. He brought
the news was as simple as that of most
with him General Groves. They hand-
other Americans: the war
ed President Truman a de-
would be over sooner than
tailed memorandum that
we had expected, with less
contained a heart-stopping
loss of American life. Merci-
sentence: "Within four
fully, that proved to be the
months we shall in all proba-
case, but I knew too little to
bility have completed the
suspect the larger truth: that
9 hotels
most terrible weapon ever
we had entered an age in
known in human history,
which warfare would never be the
in the Big Apple
one bomb which could destroy a whole
same; that, in fact, the development of
city."
where you get
nuclear weapons would turn out to be.
This is the way that President Tru-
the most significant event of the centu-
man learned that he would soon face a
top-of-the-line suites
ry-even more significant than the rise
decision unique in history, and would
at bottom-line rates.
and fall of Fascism and Communism.
face it under very difficult conditions.
Had I known that over twenty years
While the men on whom he relied for
later, as Secretary of Defense, I would
Pick one.
advice had worked with each other for
be the direct link between the President
years, he knew what they now told him
and the Joint Chiefs of Staff in the
for only the first time. Given the num-
Locations from Midtown
nuclear chain of command, my excite-
ber of other pressing matters with
to the Upper Eastside:
ment would undoubtedly have been
which he had to deal, he had no time to
tempered by more sombre reflections.
Beekman Tower Hotel, Dumont Plaza,
educate himself adequately. But from
Eastgate Tower, Lyden Gardens,
When President Truman and I be-
the moment he met with Stimson and
Lyden House, Plaza Fifty,
came closer, he talked often about the
Groves he understood that the final
Shelburne Murray Hill,
decision to drop the atomic bomb on
decision would have to be his, and his
Southgate Tower or Surrey Hotel.
Japan. Although he never evinced any
alone. "I am going to have to make a
doubt about his decision, he wanted his
decision which no man in history has
actions to be understood. He always
ever had to make," he said to the very
emphasized the point that no one had
next person he saw after Stimson left
told him about the Manhattan Project
his office-Leonard Reinsch, a radio-
before he became President. To with-
station director who was temporarily
hold from the man next in the chain of
assigned to the White House staff. "I'll
command the most vital secret of the
make the decision, but it is terrifying to
war was not an oversight but a deliber-
think about what I will have to de-
ate-and, I believe, irresponsible-de-
cide."
cision by President Roosevelt and his
When President Truman discussed
senior advisers.
these events later, he always made it
President Truman told me he had
clear that he had only one goal: to end
first heard of the existence of "the most
the war as soon as possible. I stress this
terrible weapon" on the evening he
point because of the controversy that
became President, less than four hours
Daily, monthly and weekly rates
continues even today concerning three
available. For reservations or a
after Roosevelt died and only twenty
aspects of these events.
brochure, call your travel consultant
minutes after being sworn in as Presi-
First, there has been speculation,
or 1-800-ME-SUITE, Ext. 183.
dent. Secretary of War Stimson had
over the years, that the use of the bomb
then taken him aside and told him that
against Japan instead of Germany was
Roosevelt had set up a special organi-
related to racial factors; that, not wish-
zation to develop a "superbomb,"
MANHATTAN EAST
ing to use it against Europeans, the
which was almost ready for its first test.
United States reserved it for Asians.
SUITE HOTELS
President Truman said he had been SO
That notion is utterly false. The use of
overwhelmed by the events of the day
Get the better of New York.™
new techniques, such as incendiary
that the information about the bomb
© 1991 Manhattan East Suite Hotels
bombing, against targets that included
46
MARCH 25, 1991
or on the cruiser during the most criti-
THE WHEEL OF LIFE
cal period-between the flash in the
New Mexico sky on July 16th and the
flight of the Enola Gay on August 6th
-meant that he was never presented
with a full-scale argument for a dem-
SIX
onstration bomb. He told me later,
M
however, that he had considered it, and
had come to the conclusion that a
DENTALLUP
demonstration would not suffice after a
war of such terrible carnage-that
Japanese lives would have to be sacri-
ficed to save many more lives, both
American and Japanese.
In the end, what weighed most heav-
ily with President Truman was the
military estimate that enormous num-
bers of American casualties would be
suffered in an assault upon the main
islands of Japan. Only eight months
earlier, the American Army had suf-
fered heavy losses in the Battle of
the Bulge, against a German enemy
N
DENTAL
thought to have been already defeated.
0
The assumption was that the Japanese,
3
deeply committed to their emperor,
would fight even more tenaciously than
Germany, and everyone remembered
that the Third Reich had resisted down
to the last street in Berlin. In our
R.Chnt
conversations the President mentioned
this factor more than any other. The
estimate that stayed in his mind was a
Dresden was nearly as devastating as
its new President wanted nothing more
total of five hundred thousand, consist-
the atomic bomb. Besides, the men who
than to end the Pacific war quickly and
ing of half killed in action and half
built the bomb, including J. Robert
bring the rest of the troops home, con-
wounded. Thus in President Truman's
Oppenheimer, had hoped to finish it in
siderations of postwar strategy and re-
mind the decision was relatively simple
time for it to be used against Germany.
lations with Moscow were low on the
-a choice between sacrificing a hor-
I have no doubt that if it had been
national agenda, and unrelated to the
rendous number of Americans and us-
finished in time to be useful in shorten-
discussion of what to do with the new
ing a weapon that could shorten the
ing the European war President Roo-
weapon.
war dramatically. Although he later
sevelt or President Truman would
Finally, there is the most frequently
spent considerable time defending his
have used it.
debated question about the decision to
decision, he did not agonize over it at
Second, a theory has frequently been
drop the bombs on Hiroshima and Na-
the time. Death and destruction on the
advanced that one of the main reasons
gasaki: Why did the President not or-
most extreme scale had been the hall-
for the use of the bomb against Japan
der a demonstration bomb dropped on
marks of both the First World War, in
was to intimidate the Russians. As
an unpopulated area before using one
which Harry Truman fought, and the
recently as late 1989, Eduard Shev-
on a populated area?
one whose conclusion was now in his
ardnadze, then the Soviet Foreign Min-
To President Truman the issue was
hands. He wanted to end the war as
ister, repeated this charge. "Militar-
not as complicated as it seems to many
quickly as possible.
ily there was no need to drop nuclear
people today. There were several rea-
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki,"
sons he did not consider the idea of a
he said in a speech in New York. "It
T
HE pace of epochal events in Au-
demonstration bomb. First, his scien-
gust and September of 1945 was
was a political decision taken to intimi-
tists and military advisers, with only
intense. President Truman and his en-
date us. This tragedy of the century
one test behind them, were not abso-
tourage returned from Europe on Au-
must be brought to light and its perpe-
lutely certain that the next bomb would
gust 7th. Two days later, on the same
trators globally denounced." There is
perform properly, and they did not
day as the second atomic bomb was
no evidence to support this theory.
want to risk a publicized dud. Second,
dropped, on Nagasaki, President Tru-
Never did I hear President Truman or
his advisers felt that Japan would not
man reported to the nation on his trip
any of his colleagues discuss the use of
appreciate the uniqueness and the full
and on the atomic bomb. Five days
the bomb against Japan in terms of
destructive power of the bomb unless it
later, the Japanese surrendered.
Soviet-American relations. In the sum-
was used against an actual target. The
August 14th was an unforgettable
mer of 1945, when a weary nation and
fact that the President was at Potsdam
day, with excitement building as the
THE NEW YORKER
47
nation waited for formal word that the
war was over. A huge crowd gathered
TAKE YOUR FAMILY BACK TO SUMMER THE WAY IT USED TO BE.
around the White House, creating the
most joyous mood I have ever seen in
Washington. Finally, in the late after-
noon, word came, through the Swiss:
the Japanese had surrendered uncondi-
tionally. At 7 P.M., I went outside to
walk through the streets of the capital
-in uniform, as always. Everywhere,
people were dancing, celebrating wild-
1y. Everybody was everybody's friend
that night. It was a sweet time to be
In this fast-lane,
alive.
frantic,
future shocked world
It's nice to know
T
HE formal responsibilities of the
some things
never change:
assistant naval aide to the Presi-
Summertime
and
dent were fairly limited even when the
Basin Harbor.
President was in the White House. We
used to refer to the job as being similar
to a potted palm, because one of its most
important requirements was then, as it
is now, to stand quietly in the back-
Basin Harbor Club. 700 acres on a secluded
American plan. Our season is May through
ground at social and ceremonial events,
cove on Lake Champlain. Private country
October. For reservations, more informa-
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our own airfield. Golf, tennis and water
call 1-800-622-4000. (Within Vermont,
an who might need to be helped to her
sports, and a daily children's program.
call (802) 475-2311).
seat, or to assist some lost guest in
VERMONT'S
search of the White House washrooms.
BASIN HARBOR CLUB
This aspect of the job was central to its
justification, but it was boring. Howev-
on Lake Champlain Box NY, Vergennes, VT 05491
Owned and run by the Beach family since 1886
er, in the nineteen-forties, before the
development of the modern National
Security Council structure and of the
elaborate system of communications
that now exists between the President
and the Pentagon, the naval aide had
another, more important function,
OUTDOOR GEAR
which was to act as the liaison between
the Navy Department and the Presi-
dent on naval matters. That brought
me into contact with that remarkable
AND CLOTHING
and ultimately tragic man James V.
Forrestal.
REI has the best for your muscle-
Forrestal was fifty-three years old.
powered activities including hiking,
He had gone to Princeton and had then
camping, bicycling, climbing and
worked his way rapidly up to the presi-
water sports. Satisfaction guaranteed
dency of the New York investment firm
of Dillon, Read & Company. Unlike
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tary of the Navy.
Given the strains between Vardaman
and Forrestal, I was initially concerned
that I would be caught between the two
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mutual antipathy was that both of them
decided to deal with each other through
me rather than directly. Thus, almost
48
MARCH 25, 1991
from my earliest days at the White
sions were very rare, Rosenman, with
Truman called me into his office for
House I was thrust into a close rela-
Vardaman's approval, kept me busy on
our first private meeting. He gave me
tionship with this fascinating man.
a growing number of projects, only a
an assignment: because of my knowl-
My first courtesy call on Forrestal
few of which had anything to do with
edge of Vardaman himself and also of
did not last long. I approached it with
military affairs. While most people in
details of his St. Louis business career,
uncertainty; I was a newly promoted
the government allowed events to set
he wanted me to take on responsibility
lieutenant commander working for a
their agenda, Rosenman worked stead-
for coördinating the confirmation of
man Forrestal did not like or respect,
ily toward clear objectives, minimizing
Vardaman. It was personally important
and Forrestal was one of Washington's
diversions. I helped him draft messages
to him that Vardaman be confirmed, he
most powerful men. But, to my relief,
for the President, organized research
said. I had no experience in congres-
he was cordial and did not make any
for him, and, always, learned from him
sional relations, and did not yet know
references to his annoyance with Var-
about the government. In the closing
any members of Congress well, but in
daman or to the Navy's original oppo-
months of 1945, he took me into the
those more informal days my assign-
sition to my new assignment.
Oval Office for several meetings with
ment was not as unusual as it might
He had a wiry, coiled frame, and I
President Truman. The issues under
seem today, when every President has a
couldn't help noticing his nose, which
discussion were not as important as the
large office devoted entirely to working
was flattened-the result of a boxing
fact that Rosenman wanted the Presi-
with the legislative branch. The fight
match in his youth. I was struck imme-
dent to start to view me as more than a
for Vardaman gave me my first lessons
diately, and again in all our subsequent
junior naval aide.
in the care and feeding of Congress.
meetings, by the extraordinary intensi-
In those months, the nation began
For six weeks in February and March
ty and nervous energy of the man.
the adjustment to peacetime conditions.
of 1946, I worked on the Vardaman
Although we later became good friends
For most people, that meant getting
nomination, conferring regularly with
and worked closely together, I always
back to their prewar lives or moving on
senators in both parties. In the process,
felt a bit uncomfortable in the presence
to something new. The White House
we were able to demonstrate to the
of that intensity: it never let up. Over
was no exception, and at the beginning
satisfaction of most senators that
time, another aspect of Forrestal's per-
of 1946 Rosenman left the White
Vardaman's opponents were venting
sonality came to disturb me: he seemed
House to return to practicing law in
personal animosities, which had no
virtually devoid of a sense of humor. I
New York. On January 14th, Presi-
bearing on his qualifications for the
have always thought a sense of humor
dent Truman told his morning staff
Federal Reserve Board, and he was
indispensable for people in high-pres-
meeting that he intended to nominate
confirmed.
sure jobs. Jim Forrestal not only lacked
Vardaman as a governor of the Federal
With the departure of Rosenman
it but increasingly, we all came to
Reserve Board. He did not name a
and Vardaman, obvious questions arose
learn, found humor in others irritating.
successor, and I became that odd
concerning my own future. Although
He was the opposite of Rosenman, who
Washington half person, an "acting"
I had been at the White House only
maintained an easy and relaxed de-
naval aide. As it happened, Vardaman's
seven months, there were rumors that I
meanor even when he was dealing with
nomination caused a minor controversy
was being considered not only as
affairs of great moment; Forrestal con-
and brought me into close contact with
Vardaman's replacement but as a possi-
veyed agitation and tension even when
the President for the first time. The
ble successor to Judge Rosenman. Pres-
he was dealing with minor matters.
press went after Vardaman for several
ident Truman had made many efforts
That was true as early as 1945-long
abuses of his position as naval aide,
to get Rosenman to stay, arguing that
before he began to destroy himself.
including the use of personnel from the
there was no one available to replace
Presidential yacht as occasional person-
him. Later, I learned that Rosenman
MY work in the late summer and
gave me growing satis-
al servants and of a Navy painter to
had immediately replied, "Mr. Presi-
repaint his back porch and gate. Those
dent, you have a fine replacement sit-
the fall of 1945. I. was spending less
acts had undoubtedly been leaked by
ting right here in the White House,
than a quarter of my time on my formal
Navy officers seeking revenge against
and he even happens to be from Mis-
duties as assistant naval aide. Once in a
Vardaman. At the same time, some
souri. His name is Clifford." Accord-
while, when Vardaman was away, I
former business and banking associates
ing to Rosenman, President Truman
would fill in for him at functions that
of Vardaman's from St. Louis, primar-
replied that I was too young and inex-
required the naval aide's presence. The
ily Republicans, indicated that they
perienced to assume the authority and
first time such a situation caused me to
were prepared to testify against his
status that came with the title of special
sit in on high-level discussions was in
appointment.
counsel, but that he would assign me
November of 1945, and the occasion
As the battle intensified, President
many of the tasks previously carried out
was the first postwar summit-the
under Rosenman's direction. So, while
meeting, in Washington, of President
newspapers had speculated that I would
Truman, Prime Minister Clement
replace Rosenman, the President an-
Attlee of Great Britain, and Prime
PAPERBACKS.S
BOOKS
CHROREN-ETC
nounced on January 24th that he
Minister Mackenzie King of Canada.
would simply not fill the position; it
Mine was the last name on the guest
BOOKS
was a "wartime emergency post," cre-
list, but the purpose of the meeting was
ated for one man, the President said,
nothing less than to develop a postwar
and did not need to be filled "now that
policy for the international aspects of
our enemies have surrendered."
atomic energy. Although such occa-
STUART LEEDS
This decision was greeted with relief
THE NEW YORKER
49
and pleasure by several members of the
and others pointed out that I had never
White House staff who were part of
had any seagoing assignments. I was,
the original Missouri team-especially
one of my friends said, the ultimate
the President's military aide, Harry
"dry-land sailor." Reading about my
Vaughan, who did not wish to see any
lack of seagoing experience, the hu-
threat to his intimate relationship with
morist Robert Benchley, whom I had
the President. They had been comrades
met during one of his visits to Wash-
since 1918, when, as young first lieu-
ington, sent me a photograph of him-
tenants, they trained together. More
self in an admiral's uniform with six
than anyone else, Harry Vaughan
stars and eleven rows of decorations on
could relax and amuse his friend. Pri-
his chest; the photograph was inscribed
Discover the beauty of glass
marily to have Vaughan around, Harry
to "Clark Clifford, without whose
PAPERWEIGHTS
Truman had created a new position,
moral support I could not have
military aide to the Vice-President, at
achieved my old-age-security pen-
David Salazar pink heart with gold
hearts and vines (above). $65
the beginning of 1945, and Vaughan
sion." Time suggested parallels be-
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had been with him from the first min-
tween my career and that of Sir Joseph
Guide and Catalogue. 192 pages,
utes after Roosevelt's death. Unfortu-
Porter, the character in the operetta
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of the David Salazar paperweight.)
nately, Vaughan, like many other Pres-
"H.M.S. Pinafore" who had "served a
Our latest color brochures. $2
idential cronies over the years, did not
term as office boy to an Attorney's
understand that a personal friendship
firm" and gone on to become "Ruler of
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between two people has to be different
the Queen's Navee."
761 Chestnut Street, Suite 19
from a relationship, no matter how
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close, with a President. Neither I nor
any other White House aide ever
As
naval aide to the President, I
found that my most enjoyable
Name
threatened Vaughan's personal associ-
function was arranging the President's
Address
ation with Harry Truman; none of us
cherished poker games, most of which
wanted to interfere with an old and
were held on the Williamsburg, the
City
State
Zip
treasured fellowship of the very sort
Presidential yacht.
Check enclosed
MC
VISA
that every President needs in order to
The change that has come over the
California residents add appropriate sales tax
relax. But Vaughan thought that his
perception of the Presidency in the last
Card number
Exp. date
old ties to Harry Truman gave him
half century is illustrated by the casual
special authority in areas of substance
candor with which the public, the
and personnel. Vaughan compounded
press, and the White House itself treat-
EXCLUSIVE REPLICAS OF
his growing problems by a unilateral
ed the President's favorite way of un-
act of office imperialism. On his own
winding. There was none of the public
CLASSICAL
authority, he took over Rosenman's
sanctimony that exists today about such
SCULPTURE
spacious office. Washington has always
matters as a little gambling with the
been a city that pays special attention to
boys. When journalists asked what we
FROM MAJOR
such perquisites, and Vaughan's new
were doing on the river, President
EUROPEAN
office, with its proximity to the Oval
Truman, instead of presenting a false
MUSEUMS
Office, seemed to convey an increase in
picture of a President hard at work,
power. From it Vaughan attempted to
complete with rigged photo opportuni-
ZEUS
An excellent and striking example of the
"Supreme God" of Hellenistic period. From
spread his influence still further, there-
ties showing him behind a stack of
the Louvre Museum, Paris.
by causing both Forrestal and Judge
briefing books, would simply say,
101/2" $130.00 P.P. in green
GIUST
bronze or sandstone
Robert Patterson, who had just suc-
"Some of the boys and I were playing a
finish.
GALLERY
ceeded Stimson as Secretary of War, to
little poker." If asked what we drank,
1920 Washington St., Boston, MA 02118
complain to President Truman.
the President would answer, "Ken-
PLEASE SEND $2.00 FOR CATALOGUE
On April 4th, President Truman
tucky bourbon."
announced my appointment as naval
The Williamsburg was a lovely
aide, succeeding Vardaman. My work
two-hundred-and-forty-foot vessel,
Are you
was bringing me into ever-closer con-
built in 1930 and reconfigured in 1945.
in search of
tact with the President, and I under-
It was said, even by my friends-or
a part-time
stood his reluctance to promote me over
perhaps especially by my friends-that
career?
the heads of many older White House
my seafaring career in the Navy was
aides who were closer to him. I had also
Do you have four weeks a year you can
limited entirely to the Williamsburg.
set aside to work out of your home?
received two rapid promotions in Navy
That may not have been entirely true,
If you would enjoy the opportunity to work
rank-the first, in November, to the
but it was close enough to amuse every-
with classic, traditional women's clothing,
rank of commander, and the second, in
one, including President Truman, at
then being a Sales Representative for
January of 1946, to the rank of captain.
my expense. I was also ill prepared for
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one of the main duties of the naval aide:
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lieutenant, junior grade, to full captain
THE APPLE BASKET
to oversee the menus when the vessel
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unusual by any standard. My friends
On one of the earliest cruises for which
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50
MARCH 25, 1991
I was chief menu-maker, I absent-
enjoyed most the long, leisurely meals
Truman not only a love of poker but a
mindedly approved shrimp as an appe-
-they often lasted two hours-when
similar sense of humor. In 1947, I
tizer before both lunch and dinner for
the President reminisced or talked poli-
suggested to the President that we com-
three straight days. The President
tics.
bine a poker evening with a party on
found this oversight at once appalling
The game itself was for real money
Vinson's birthday, and this became an
and amusing, and after two days he
-enough to make it interesting, and
annual event, which usually took place
turned to me and said, "I can't bear the
sometimes dangerous, for someone try-
at my house, in Chevy Chase. After a
sight of any more shrimp. I don't like
ing to live on a naval officer's salary.
festive dinner, we would adjourn to a
shrimp. In fact, I've never liked
President Truman's theory on the
big round table for our poker game.
shrimp." From then on, President
stakes was simple: "I want to play for
Late at night one year, when my
Truman often referred to the Wil-
enough so that it is a good game with a
mother happened to be visiting, we
liamsburg as Clifford's Floating
lot of skill involved, but I don't want
played a hand in which the pot in the
Shrimp Palace.
anyone to get hurt." I bought a book
middle of the table grew to about three
The poker games developed into one
on poker and studied it assiduously. I
thousand dollars. Neither my hand nor
of the earliest important
found that if I played rath-
my nerve was strong enough to keep
links between President Tru-
er conservatively I could;
me in, so, seated between the President
man and me. The first few
over time, actually gen-
and the Chief Justice, I dropped out to
times I was on board the
erate a small but useful
watch the action. As the tension built,
Williamsburg, the President
amount of additional income.
Vinson studied his cards. I could see
did not include me in the
As for President Truman,
that if he got any card from a jack down
game, but on about the third
he enjoyed himself thor-
-this was a game of high-low, with
weekend he called on me to
oughly, whether he won
most of the cards showing on the table
fill a vacant place at the table,
or lost. It was the fellow-
-he would win at least half the pot.
and afterward, although I
Unive Suoh
ship and the release from
With the odds heavily in his favor, he
was not a particularly good
White House pressure that
turned to President Truman, who was
poker player, he asked me to continue
made those trips so important to him.
dealing the cards, and said, "O.K.,
to participate. Before long, President
The President asked me to be the
Mr. President, hit me." The President
Truman asked me to assume responsi-
banker of the poker game. As we start-
flipped the next card over. It was the
bility for setting up the game. He loved
ed out on Friday evening, I would
queen of spades. Without thinking,
an eight-handed poker game, and
distribute a five-hundred-dollar stack
Vinson looked straight at the President
played with a core group of regulars,
of chips to each player. If he lost this
and burst out, "You son of a bitch!"
including my close friend from St.
stack he would receive a second five-
There was a moment of shocked si-
Louis, Stuart Symington (later a sena-
hundred-dollar stack. In my capacity as
lence; no one had ever called President
tor), and Secretary of Agriculture
banker, I would extract approximately
Truman anything other than Mr.
Clinton Anderson (also later a sena-
ten per cent of each pot and put the
President, even in the informal setting
tor), and-his favorite poker compan-
chips in a silver bowl, called the poverty
of the poker table. The hush was bro-
ion-Fred Vinson, the Secretary of the
bowl. As the weekend went on, the
ken by the Chief Justice, stammering
Treasury (later Chief Justice of the
chips would add up to a rather substan-
apologetically, "Oh, Mr. President,
United States). To this group he added
tial sum. If a player had lost his full
Mr. President-" Never did President
other players on a rotating basis. It was
thousand dollars, I would supply him,
Truman, or the rest of us, laugh harder
through the poker games that I first
free of charge, with an additional stake
or louder than we did at that moment;
met Averell Harriman, then Secretary
of a hundred dollars from the poverty
my mother, asleep upstairs, was awak-
of Commerce. Harriman, one of the
bowl. If he lost that hundred-dollar
ened by the racket and said she had
wealthiest men in the country, guarded
stake, he would be supplied with an-
never heard a group of men laughing
his chips as though he were the poor-
other one, and he could continue to dip
so loud in her entire life. (Years later,
est man at the table. A rising young
into the silver bowl until he made his
the Chief Justice defended himself on
protégé of Speaker Sam Rayburn, Rep-
way back into the game. The system
the ground that his outburst was "ejac-
resentative and later Senator Lyndon
kept everyone in the game, and limited
ulatory only and not addressed to the
Johnson, also joined the game from
the amount a player could lose to nine
President.")
time to time. Johnson was extremely
hundred dollars.
pleased to be included, but he was not
Many hours of poker lead, of course,
As
I came to know President Tru-
much of a poker player.
to many stories, and, like fishing sto-
man as a boss and a friend, I also
The Williamsburg would usually
ries, they tend to get exaggerated over
came to know his mother, and I real-
depart late Friday afternoon and return
time. But one incident with Fred
ized that this remarkable woman, born
Sunday afternoon. The poker week-
Vinson remained vivid for years.
eight years before the start of the Civil
ends were stag affairs (President Tru-
Vinson was named Chief Justice of the
War, had been central in shaping her
man, while always courteous to wom-
United States by President Truman in
son's values. She took pride in him, not
en, was rarely relaxed and comfortable
1946, but his status as the President's
for being President but for having
in their presence), and, with the excep-
favorite poker companion did not
character. Once, in 1946, he gave a
tion of the President, everyone had to
change. A large and gentle man with a
small dinner for her in the family
share a stateroom. The poker game
long, rather sad face (Time once lik-
quarters of the White House. He want-
could be fun, especially when I was
ened it to that of a "a tired sheep with a
ed her to meet his staff, and he wanted
winning, but, like Lyndon Johnson, I
hangover"), he shared with President
us to meet his mother. We chatted
THE NEW YORKER
51
casually for a while, and then someone
Sometimes he would then ask me to
asked her, teasingly, if she would like
read the speech aloud, too, so he could
to share with us any secrets about her
hear how it sounded. Afterward, he
son. She lit up with pride, and said, in
would review it paragraph by para-
an utterly serious tone, that she would
graph, asking for comments and sug-
share with us a secret about Harry that
gestions after each paragraph. He pre-
the world did not know. We all leaned
ferred short, basic sentences, and his
forward; I was literally on the edge of
own changes were always in the direc-
my seat. "When he was a boy," she
tion of making the speech simpler,
said, "Harry could plow the straightest
more understandable, more direct.
furrow in Jackson County." I looked
at the President, who was beaming
C
ALLING me into his office in
with pleasure.
early June of 1946, the President
said, without any drama or ceremony,
M
most frequent assignment in
that it was about time for me to get out
those early days was speech-
of uniform and become special counsel
writing. Rosenman was gone, his tal-
in name as well as fact. Not long after,
ent with words gone with him. Unbe-
he took me aside again and added,
lievably, there was no professionally
"You should also get out of the East
qualified speechwriter around the
Wing and be closer to my office. I want
Children's Photographs from $75.00
White House to fill the vacuum. But
you and Vaughan to switch offices."
Gift Certificates Available MC/VISA
Rosenman had deliberately strength-
(Harry Vaughan took offense at this
ened my position by bringing me into
change, and held me accountable for
direct contact with the President at
his removal to a far more modest office,
Bachrach
every opportunity, and assignments be-
in the East Wing.) To the inevitable
gan to come my way. My association
question "What does a special counsel
Photographers since 1868
with the President at the poker table
do?" the answer was "Whatever the
We're Now in Greenwich
undoubtedly helped increase the flow of
President wants." The title "special
those assignments.
counsel" was grand, but the job had no
Boston 617-536-4730 Chicago 312-642-5500
Greenwich 203-869-6922 Morristown 201-267-2006
Notwithstanding a love of language
power or authority other than that
New York 212-755-6233 Philadelphia 215-563-0551
instilled in me by my mother, I did not
conferred on it by the President. In a
Washington, D.C. 703-548-2111
consider myself to have any particular
pattern that continued throughout my
gift as a writer. Even though he had
career, my value was as an adviser or
suggested me as his successor, Rosen-
counsellor, and not as an administra-
man himself understood my limitations
tive or bureaucratic chief.
in this area. He later commented, accu-
Polar
Over time, a working routine devel-
Join our
rately, that I was "quite a pedestrian
oped in the Truman White House. For
1991 Polar
writer."
me, the key events in each Presidential
Bear Tours
Bears
No one would ever rank Harry Tru-
day were the first and the last-the
in Churchill,
man with Presidents like Lincoln, the
morning staff meeting and, even more
Manitoba, Canada and experience the
two Roosevelts, and Kennedy as an
important, a private meeting that usu-
bears at close range from specially
outstanding orator, or place his inex-
designed Tundra Buggies.
ally ended the working day. The
Departures in mid-Oct
perienced speechwriter in a class with
morning staff meetings had a casual air
to mid-Nov, $1855-$2695
speechwriters like Roosevelt's Robert
to them; today much of what took place
JOSEPH VAN
Sherwood and Kennedy's Theodore
in them would be handled by the White
NATURE TOURS
Sorensen. But I felt strongly that Pres-
House chief of staff, without the par-
P.O. BOX 655P. VASHON ISLAND
WASHINGTON 98070
ident Truman must find his own style,
1-800-368-0077
ticipation of the President. But Presi-
and worked diligently toward this goal.
dent Truman did all the work himself,
Over time, President Truman did
sometimes in a haphazard manner. He
The Adams Family's
develop a short, punchy style-one
began each meeting by going through
that came to reflect his own homespun
the papers on his desk, handing them
Cartwright Hotel
Missouri personality and values, in
out to various members of the staff for
San Francisco
contrast to the very different phrasing
action. Charlie Ross, his press secre-
We've transformed our
and style of the aristocratic squire
tary, would raise any press or public-
little hotel into a
of Hyde Park. Harvard accents and
relations problems. After that, the
home. Antiques and
oratory gave way to Missouri "com-
rest of the staff would bring up any-
mon sense."
fresh flowers in every
thing they felt needed Presidential at-
room. Complimentary
To review major speeches, President
tention. I tended to wait until late in
afternoon tea. One block
Truman would call a conference of
the meeting before speaking, and to
from Union Square.
advisers in the Cabinet Room. He fol-
bring up only those items that need-
$90 to $160
lowed a procedure that was probably
ed immediate approval. I knew I
(800) 227-3844
unique to him. First, he would read the
would have a more important oppor-
entire draft aloud to get a feeling for it.
tunity to talk to the President at our
524 Sutter at Powell, San Francisco, CA 94102
MARCH 25, 1991
private meeting at the end of the day.
alness and frequent superficiality ran
I normally saved for it a number of
counter to my training.
matters that, though not necessarily
urgent, required considered discussion.
Nothing was off limits during our pri-
D
ESPITE the President's prefer-
ence for harmony, an important
vate discussions. It was the perfect time
struggle took place in his Administra-
to reflect on the day and to look ahead,
tion between liberal and conservative
and the President, who often had a
factions. My values pulled me decisive-
bourbon-and-branch-water as we
ly toward the liberals in that struggle.
talked, seemed to enjoy the interval
The President himself combined some
between the working day and the
contradictory attitudes: he usually sup-
evening.
ported specific New Deal or liberal
There are many ways to organize
policies when he was given a clear
the White House staff, and no single
choice, but often appointed conserva-
structure is "right" for every Presi-
tives to high Cabinet positions. A
dent. But the organization of the
farmer by background, he had populist
White House must start with the rec-
values, and they usually translated into
ognition that the President is, first of
liberal positions. At the same time, his
all, a person like the rest of us, with his
DISCOVER HAWAII
simple style contrasted sharply with
peculiarities, preferences, strengths,
that of many of the powerful intellec-
AS IT WAS MEANT TO BE.
and weaknesses. Whatever system a
tuals and ideologues of the New Deal,
To learn more about Hawaii's legendary
President uses should reflect his indi-
and he never felt comfortable with
resort, see your travel agent or call us
vidual character as well as the nature
them. As he replaced them in the first
toll-free at 800-367-5290.
of the job. President Truman liked
two years of his Administration, the
Seasonal rates apply.
harmony among his staff. He did not
conservative voice became stronger in
deliberately set one staff member
the Cabinet. And Rosenman's depar-
against another, as Franklin Roosevelt
ture robbed the liberals of their stron-
Kona RESORT
had done, and as Lyndon Johnson
gest voice inside the White House.
would do later. Talking to Sam Ro-
The leader of the conservative fac-
The Most Dreamed-of Spot on Earth
senman about the contrast between
P.O. Box 1299, Dept. II, Kaupulehu-Kona, Hawaii 96745
tion was John Snyder, a St. Louis
Roosevelt and Truman, I concluded
banker, who became Secretary of the
that the enjoyment Roosevelt took in
Treasury in 1946, after Fred Vinson
watching members of his staff compete
became Chief Justice. With Rosenman
with each other probably derived, in
gone, Snyder became the dominant in-
part, from his having been unable to
fluence on domestic policy. He resented
engage in sports since he contracted
the fact that my rise had placed another
polio-that he liked to play with peo-
liberal close to the President. We had
NUMBER SIXTEEN
ple instead, as a kind of indoor sport.
known each other in St. Louis, and at
Four Victorian Town Houses form this
But President Truman did not play
first, from offices close to each other in
exquisite hotel with the unique
this game.
the East Wing, we worked together as
atmosphere of the home in the heart of
The manner in which President
colleagues. I did not anticipate that we
South Kensington.
Truman ran the White House evolved
would soon become adversaries.
16 SUMNER PLACE, LONDON SW7 3EG
as the months passed, but at all times it
In the early days of the Truman
TEL: 071-589 5232 TELEX: 266638
FAX: 071-584 8615
reflected his informality, his accessibil-
Administration, Snyder and Vaughan,
ity and openness, and his preference for
who was also conservative, were prob-
rapid, intuitive decision-making rather
ably his two closest friends. That
DOLPHIN BRACELET
than careful, analytical staff work. His
meant that in almost every domestic-
#E-17, sterling: $68 ppd.
White House could best be visualized
14K: $330 ppd.
policy discussion President Truman
8 gracefully
7" long
as a wheel with spokes. Each spoke was
would hear a conservative position ag-
sculptured dolphins
one of his key aides, with different (but
gressively advanced. In one Cabinet
are linked together to form
this beautiful bracelet.
sometimes overlapping) areas of re-
meeting in late 1946, Snyder, annoyed
Gift boxed, satisfaction guar.
sponsibility. Harry Truman would
MC, VISA, AMEX, ck or M.O.
at those who believed that wages had to
1-800-67-TORYS
never have felt comfortable if access to
be allowed to rise after the war to
TORYS
M-F, 9-5, EST.
him had been. controlled by a single
stimulate growth, even at the risk of
Catalog upon request.
106 Washington St., Dept. N, Marblehead, MA 01945
person. No organization chart of the
inflation, burst out, "These people
Truman White House. ever existed,
have enough. They wouldn't even
and no one except the President himself
know how to spend the money if they
Austin Harlow
gave any of the senior staff a direct
got any more." That was typical of
Perfumes
order. I was a major beneficiary of this
Snyder, who was openly pro-business
To the woman who does not need a fashionable label to know
what is beautiful, / offer a selection of fine fragrances. Per-
unstructured system, but I must admit
and anti-New Deal on every issue.
fumes at $2800 per quarter ounce. Please write or call for a
free sample of five essences.
that the process of decision-making
Snyder and I never argued in front of
Austin Harlow. 210 5th Ave., Suite 1102. NYC. NY 10010
sometimes dismayed me. Given my be-
the President, but as our differences
(800) 722-9952
lief in exhaustive preparation, its casu-
sharpened, our relationship became
THE NEW YORKER
53
highly formal and antagonistic. At
times, the situation resembled sub-
marine warfare, conducted out of
sight of the President but almost
constant.
By this time, most of the rest of
the Cabinet was also conservative.
Two Roosevelt holdovers, Harold
Ickes, at Interior, and Henry Wal-
lace, at Commerce, had remained
in the first Truman Cabinet as
advocates of liberal positions, but
both were personally difficult and
were closely identified with Roose-
velt. President Truman justifiably
distrusted them and rarely listened
to them, and within a year, af-
ter much bitterness, both were
gone.
By virtue of both his position
and his wealth, Wallace's succes-
sor as Secretary of Commerce,
Averell Harriman, should have
Whither
also been a stalwart conservative.
But Harriman, the son of the
"Hey! Forget your troubles. Come on, get happy!"
Union Pacific magnate, had left
the Republican Party in 1928.
A disciple of Harry Hopkins,
Roosevelt's crusading adviser, Harri-
gy and tactics from a highly pragmatic
ing expressions of voter sentiment in
man had a highly developed sense of
point of view.
this century. As New Dealers fell from
obligation toward the disadvantaged,
The turning point in the battle be-
power across the country, a new gener-
which, he told me, had been instilled in
tween the liberals and the conservatives
ation of Republicans, including Rich-
him by his parents and his sister. To
for President Truman's heart and
ard Nixon and Joseph McCarthy, en-
my surprise and pleasure, I found him
mind came unexpectedly. As often oc-
tered Congress.
a frequent ally in the battles of 1946-
curs in politics, a major disaster led to
The President focussed intently on
1948, generally supporting liberal po-
the turnaround. In this case, it was the
his cards, and showed little emotion
sitions, although he sometimes felt we
first postwar, post-Roosevelt election-
and made few comments as the bad
liberals were going too far. This asso-
the congressional elections of 1946. I
news continued to roll in. Our poker
ciation was, for me, the beginning of a
accompanied President Truman to In-
game went on until 2 A.M., and his
long and productive friendship, which
dependence, Missouri, where he and
principal comment was that he re-
reached its climax when we stood to-
his wife voted. After voting, we began
gretted the result mainly because it
gether in the great debate over Vietnam
the trip back to Washington by train,
would weaken his efforts internation-
in 1968.
playing poker with a group that in-
ally. I was amazed at how calm he
In those less complicated times, the
cluded Charlie Ross and the two se-
seemed in the face of such a political
difference between liberals and con-
nior wire-service reporters, Merriman
disaster. We returned to Washington,
servatives seemed relatively clear-cut to
Smith, of the United Press, and Tony
to find Under-Secretary of State Dean
me. Battles ranged over many issues,
Vaccaro, of the Associated Press. The
Acheson waiting alone on the plat-
but the fundamental difference usually
returns trickled in as we rode East.
form at Union Station, an elegant
stayed the same: the difference between
About the time the train passed Cin-
symbol of loyalty at President Tru-
the welfare of the many and the privi-
cinnati, we realized that the impossible
man's political low point which he
leges of the few. The conservatives
had happened: President Truman
would long remember.
believed the country had had enough of
would face a Republican Congress for
The conventional political wisdom
New Deal experimentation and re-
the next two years. Furious at a nation-
at that moment was simple: Harry
quired retrenchment before anything
al beef shortage, scornful of many of
Truman was a caretaker President. In
else. Liberals like me thought the post-
the same homespun characteristics that
a proposal symptomatic of the Presi-
war world required us to address many
later immortalized Harry Truman, and
dent's weakened position, a promising
long-deferred problems, including
swept up in a simple and brilliant Re-
young Democratic senator from Ar-
race, education, housing, and better
publican slogan ("Had Enough?"),
kansas named J. William Fulbright,
working conditions. In retrospect, it
the voters had wiped out the large
who had been deeply influenced by the
may seem simple, and, in fact, it seemed
Democratic majorities in both cham-
British parliamentary system during
fairly straightforward to me at the
bers, turning Congress over to the Re-
his experience as a Rhodes Scholar,
time. I was committed to the liberal
publicans for the first time since 1931.
proposed that President Truman ap-
agenda, although I approached strate-
It was one of the most decisive, sweep-
point the senior Republican senator,
54
MARCH 25, 1991
Arthur Vandenberg, his Secretary of
known publicly for years. The Monday
jective, but I am not one of them. For
State, for then, with the Vice-Presiden-
Night Group met for four years, and
me, the question has always been:
cy vacant, Vandenberg would be next
was a vital part of my political educa-
What is the most that can be achieved
in line for the Presidency. (This was in
tion.
-in short, what is the best possible
the days before the Twenty-fifth
Starting early in 1947, we met Mon-
outcome?
Amendment created a formal proce-
day evenings at the Wardman Park.
I brought my own ideas to the
dure for filling the Vice-Presidency
The meetings followed a fairly set
Wardman Park to test them against the
whenever it is vacant.) Then, Ful-
pattern. We would gather at six 'clock
collective wisdom of the others. The
bright suggested, President Truman
in Ewing's apartment for a drink. By
Monday Night Group helped shape my
should resign the Presidency in favor
six-thirty, we were seated at the din-
views and recommendations for a
of Vandenberg. In response to this
ing-room table, eating a fine steak din-
strong Civil Rights Act, desegregation
strange proposal, President Truman
ner. After dinner, we moved into
of the armed forces, a special session of
referred to Fulbright forever after as
Ewing's spacious living room to con-
Congress in 1948, unification of the
Senator Halfbright.
tinue the conversation. We did not
armed services and creation of the Na-
On the afternoon of his return from
keep records or notes.
tional Security Council, the veto of the
Independence, President Truman
In the absence of a regular forum
Taft-Hartley Act (for which we in-
called a staff meeting and told us that
such as the one provided by Ewing,
vented the phrase, used repeatedly by
the election debacle had filled him with
most of us would have seen each other
President Truman, "the Slave Labor
a new sense of freedom. Although no
only in chance meetings, and would
Act"), and much of the strategy for the
one realized it at the time, the 1946
have never had an opportunity to
1948 campaign.
election shifted the equation within the
develop and advance common posi-
Administration in favor of the liberals.
tions. It was clear from the outset that
I
N 1946, two of the most important
The conservatives had pushed a set of
the Monday Night Group's effective-
sectors of the American economy-
domestic policies that left the American
ness depended entirely on our ability to
coal and the railroads-were almost
public uncertain about the sort of Pres-
influence the President. Because I saw
simultaneously crippled by nationwide
ident that Harry Truman was. Until
more of the President than anyone else
strikes. Those strikes brought me into
the 1946 election, he had seemed to be
in the group, it was agreed that I would
extensive direct contact with the Presi-
moving away from the New Deal. To
be the conduit for our ideas. It was also
dent, and led to a sharp disagreement
me, the message of the election was
agreed that each of us would individu-
between me and some of my White
clear, then and now: a Democrat must
ally promote those ideas which repre-
House colleagues. In the end, the Pres-
run as a Democrat, not as a warmed-
sented a consensus of the group. We
ident sided with me, with far-ranging
over Republican.
felt outnumbered by the conservatives
results for my subsequent career.
within the Administration and misun-
The crisis began with coal. Worker
ALTHOUGH the conservatives
derstood by most of the old New Deal-
demands that had been deferred during
the Cabinet, at the
ers and ideological liberals on the out-
the war could be contained no longer.
sub-Cabinet level there were still a
side. In consensus we saw strength, and
On March 31, 1946, four hundred
large number of liberals, either com-
we tried to work toward unified posi-
thousand miners went on strike. Then,
mitted New Dealers or a generation of
tions on key issues.
in May, two stubborn railroad-union
post-Roosevelt officials who felt that
We did not include in the group
leaders defied the President. The result
new circumstances required new solu-
"professional liberals," whose ardor
was a period of nine months in which
tions. They believed that the basic ten-
and search for ideological purity, we
Presidential leadership was tested as it
ets of the New Deal should be adapted
felt, outweighed their discretion and
had not been in the domestic arena
to the postwar environment, not aban-
their judgment. That decision reflected
since before the war.
doned. One of these men, Oscar R.
the perennial struggle in government
Coal and the railroads dominated the
Ewing, who was the acting chairman
between the ideal and the possible, be-
economy in 1946. They were then
of the Democratic National Commit-
tween the perfect and the practical.
what airplanes and oil are today, only
tee, had an idea. At the end of 1946, he
There is no simple answer to this
more so. Coal was still king, providing
decided that the liberals within the
conflict; a government that represents
the fuel for ninety-five per cent of all
Administration needed some sort of
all the people must balance many pres-
locomotives, fifty-five per cent of all
informal network to discuss issues and
sures. I have always respected the sin-
industrial energy, and sixty-two per
influence policy, and he invited a half-
cerity of those who commit themselves
cent of all electrical power. As for the
dozen liberal sub-Cabinet officials to
to the single-minded pursuit of an ob-
railroads, in 1946 they still played a
dinner at his apartment, in the Ward-
central role in American life-far
man Park Hotel, one Monday night
more than it is possible to imagine
and suggested they all meet on a regu-
today. Most Americans travelled by
lar basis to further the liberal agenda.
train rather than by car or airplane,
Thus, at the very time I was looking
and, with interstate trucking still in its
for ways to encourage more liberal
infancy, the rails carried most of the
policies, circumstances and personali-
nation's freight. A railroad strike, es-
ties combined to bring me into the most
pecially if it should be combined with a
effective group of political activists
coal strike, could paralyze the nation.
with whom I have ever been associated:
JudithShahn
The results of the coal workers'
a secret band whose existence was not
walkout were immediate: steel and au-
THE NEW YORKER
55
tomobile production dropped; railroad
with the darkening world situation, so
service was curtailed, and, to save en-
graphically. outlined by Churchill in
Lay Down Your Arms
ergy, wartime dimouts were reinsti-
his "Iron Curtain" speech at Fulton,
tuted in twenty-two states.
Missouri, only ten weeks earlier?
In April of 1946, wage negotiations
The President called a Cabinet
between the railroads and the rail
meeting on Friday, May 24th, to dis-
unions collapsed. Eighteen of the
cuss the situation. Still in my naval
twenty unions involved in the complex
uniform, I felt oddly out of place as I
negotiations agreed to continue talking
sat behind the Cabinet table in a chair
to management, but the two most pow-
along the wall, and witnessed a Presi-
erful-the Brotherhood of Locomotive
dential anger I could not have previ-
Engineers and the Brotherhood of
ously imagined. He said he wanted to
Railroad Trainmen-flatly refused.
speak to a special Saturday session of
The leaders of these two
Congress the next day, and
unions, Alvanley Johnston
demand the toughest labor
and A. F. Whitney, had been
law in history. He would ask
close political allies of Presi-
for the authority to draft
Ah, to read without aching arms and
dent Truman. Now, howev-
strikers into the armed forces
dented elbows. Now you can with our
er, they refused his personal
if the national security was
Reader's Table from Denmark. It adjusts
easily to hold your book at just the right
request to avert a national
threatened. He said he want-
height and angle. Reading becomes sur-
emergency. Instead, on April
ed to speak over a national
prisingly comfortable in a chair, in bed,
18th, they called a general
radio hookup at ten o'clock
or beside a desk. An intelligent design
strike, to start in thirty days.
and a handsome piece of furniture in
that evening to prepare the
mahogany, teak, cherry, or black ash.
During the first twenty-
American public for his ac-
five days of the thirty-day period, the
$195 + $9.75 shipping via UPS ground.
tion. Then he pulled out of his jacket
Assembly required.
President left the problem in the hands
pocket a handwritten statement. "Here
MC/VISA/AMEX/Check
Florida add 6%
of his chief labor adviser in the White
is what I want to say," he said, handing
Money-Back Guarantee
Catalog on Request
House, John Steelman. Steelman met
it to Charlie Ross.
800-544-0880 or 407-276-4141
continually with all concerned parties,
Reading the President's draft mes-
LEVENGER™
but made no progress. Johnston and
sage, Ross was horrified. It was surely
Tools for Serious Readers
Whitney were openly defying the gov-
one of the most intemperate documents
975 S. Congress Ave., Code NYRT19, Delray, FL 33445
ernment.
ever written by a President. His oppo-
In mid-May, President Truman
nents had "flouted, vilified, and misrep-
called Johnston and Whitney to the
resented" his positions, the President
SONICE
White House and, in their presence,
wrote. Congress was "weak-kneed,"
TO COME
signed an executive order for govern-
lacked "intestinal fortitude," and was
HOMETO®
ment seizure of the railroads in the
filled with "Russian Senators and Rep-
event of a strike. At the same time, with
resentatives." For his closing com-
the nation running low on coal, Presi-
ment, the President had written an
dent Truman made his first move in the
astonishing sentence: "Let's put trans-
coal strike, ordering the Secretary of
portation and production back to work,
the Interior to seize the coal mines and
"SANTA FE'S ENCHANTING SMALL HOTEL"
hang a few traitors, and make our own
USA WEEKEND calls it "one of Ameri-
force the miners back to work under
country safe for democracy." It was
ca's 10 best hideaways." European
federal supervision, and not long after-
style, unique rooms & suites,
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Continental breakfasts. Bro-
IIII
ward the two sides reached an agree-
chure: 1-800-289-2122; or
ON-THE
guage for which he later became fa-
write Box W, 303 East Ala-
meda, Santa Fe, New Mexico
ALAMEDA
ment that we thought gave us peace
mous, but if the President were to
87501.
with the coal miners. On May 23rd,
speak in this manner to the nation he
Johnston and Whitney, after delaying
would do himself immense damage,
the railroad strike for five days, sent
creating the impression that he was
President Truman a note brusquely
losing control of both himself and the
SIBERIAN
rejecting any compromise. They or-
government.
RIVER CRUISE
dered their men off the rail lines at
As soon as the Cabinet meeting end-
See 19th century Russian and Siberian
4 P.M. The greatest transportation tie-
ed, Ross went to the Oval Office to see
villages, towns and virgin forest aboard
up in the nation's history had begun.
the President alone. A gentle, unas-
the new "M.V. Tchekhov", and cruise to
President Truman now faced a fun-
suming man who had been a friend of
the Kara Sea. Travel on the trans Man-
damental test of his Presidency. About
Harry Truman's since high school,
churia railway from Peking to Siberia.
a million workers were out on strike,
Ross could speak to the President as no
Visit Mongolia's ruined city Kara Korum.
including a hundred and sixty-four
one else could. He told the President
Limited departures, accompanied by
thousand coal miners who were still
expert tour directors. For information,
that this message would backfire. The
please contact:
defying his seizure of the mines. Did
President, feeling better after having
TILLER INTERNATIONAL TOURS
he have the personal strength and the
let off some steam, recognized that Ross
209 Post Street, Suite 1015
political power to deal with American
was correct, and told him to ask me to
San Francisco, CA 94108
labor? If he did not, how could he deal
(415) 397-1966 Fax 415 3971967
draft a message more moderate in tone
56
MARCH 25, 1991
but still tough enough to make the
action by a foreign enemy, whereas the
point.
crisis tonight is caused by a group. of
At the time, the President's hand-
men within our own country who place
written message struck me as perilously
their private interests above the welfare
out of control. I thought he had been
of the nation."
saved from disaster only by the wise and
The speech was put into final form
firm intervention of Charlie Ross.
only fifteen minutes before airtime. I
Later, when I came to know the Presi-
walked downstairs with the President
dent better, I discovered that it was not
to the room on the ground floor of the
unusual for him to work off some of his
White House from which it would be
frustration by putting his innermost
broadcast, and watched him deliver it
thoughts on paper. We all have mo-
-rather atypically standing, instead of
ments when we allow the deeper recess-
sitting, in front of the microphones. As
I wrote 'Five Metamorphoses
es of our minds to entertain delicious
soon as the speech was over, the Presi-
for Piano' on a Baldwin. To
private thoughts about the vicious
dent, Ross, and I walked over to the
me, there are few things as
things we would like to do to our
East Wing, and he posed for the news-
gratifying as composing and
adversaries. Harry Truman had the
reel cameras there. Then he met with
performing on a Baldwin
habit of writing some of those private
members of the Cabinet to review the
grand."
thoughts down. They were either not
next steps. It had been a long and
Philip Glass
shared with anyone or shown to only a
dramatic day, but the railroads were
few intimates, and if he had not been
still not running, and the nation was
President they would have had little
heading for paralysis.
importance. He expected his trusted
inner staff to prevent him from going
O
N Saturday, the twenty-fifth,
public with his fury. The fail-safe sys-
while Steelman was closeted with
tem to protect him faltered once in a
Johnston and Whitney at the Statler
while-most notably when, enraged at
Hotel, Rosenman and I spent the
Baldwin®
a bad review of his daughter's singing,
morning working on the President's
the President fired off his famous letter
speech scheduled for the highly unusu-
For more information write: Baldwin, P.O. Box 310
to the Washington Post music critic
Dept. NY 325, Loveland, OH 45140-0310
al Saturday joint session of Congress.
Paul Hume, mailing it himself in order
Pleased with the previous night's
to prevent his staff from trying to stop
speech, the President had asked me to
CHAPEL HILL, NC
it. But that was generally accepted as
coordinate this one.
years ago, we began the pleasant
the act of a devoted father, and actually
About an hour before it was due to
17
task of transforming a 200 year-old
ended up enhancing his reputation.
be given, Steelman called me. He said
farm into a vibrant country village-where
When Ross told me to draft this new
that Johnston and Whitney were
active retirees
can be neigh-
message, only five hours were left until
feeling the mounting public pressure,
bors with blue-
birds, holly-
the President was scheduled to speak to
and there was still a small chance for
hocks, belties, and fascinating people of
the nation. This was the first time I
a settlement before the President
all ages. I'd be glad to send you our scrap-
had ever worked in the White House
addressed Congress. Rosenman and I
book. 1-800-277-0130.
R.B. Fith
under the time pressures that are both
wrote an alternative draft of portions
the glory and the burden of service to a
of the speech, employing softer lan-
President. Ideas and advice came in
guage, to be used if the strike was
from my old mentor, Sam Rosenman,
settled before the speech was delivered,
FEARRINGTON
who arrived late in the day, at the
and rushed both versions to the Presi-
A COUNTRY VILLAGE
President's request, to lend a hand. In
dent.
2000N Fearrington Village Center, Pittsboro, NC 27312
the early evening, Steelman, Ross, and
The situation had reached fever
John Snyder joined Rosenman and me
pitch. The President delayed his depar-
in the Cabinet Room to review the
CANADA BY RAFT!
ture for Capitol Hill while I tracked
draft. Skipping dinner, we produced a
Steelman down again at the Statler;
Down virgin rivers in mountains of British Columbia. Untouched
draft around 8 P.M. and I took each
there was nothing new to report, al-
wilderness. Sparkling Chilcotin & mighty Fraser. Yacht cruise up
coastal fjord, flight over glaciers of Coast Range plus 240 exciting
page in to the President as we finished
though he thought he was making
yet very safe miles by raft through cleanest, most magnificent
scenery in Canada! $2175, 11 days Vancouver to Vancouver.
reviewing it.
progress. Then, running out of the
CANADIAN RIVER EXPEDITIONS (604) 738-4449
I tried to reflect the President's an-
office so fast that I left my cap behind,
Suite 402, 845 Chilco St. Vancouver, BC, Canada V6G 2R2
ger, but not his exact words, with an
even though I was in uniform, I joined
opening sentence calling the strikes
the departing Presidential motorcade,
"the greatest crisis in this country since
The only national sourcebook of fine country and
handing President Truman the final
city inns hosting business conferences and retreats.
Pearl Harbor." His anger of the night
pages of his speech as I climbed into his
THE
before had worked itself out, and the
car.
INNCONFERENCE
President, calm and focussed, took that
The President went directly to the
CATALOG
bit of hyperbole out, but he left in the
House chamber, where he received a
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crisis of Pearl Harbor was the result of
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THE NEW YORKER
57
union sentiment raging in Congress. I
This was one of the greatest conflicts
peeled off from the rest of the Presi-
in American labor history-the cele-
dential party and went to an anteroom
brated showdown between President
near the House floor to await a call that
Truman and John L. Lewis.
I hoped would come from Steelman.
A good crisis needs a colorful central
SUN VALLEY
Meanwhile, the President began his
character, and the coal strikes of 1946
speech, attacking Johnston and Whit-
WHAT CAN YOU DO
certainly had one in the person of John
ney for their "obstinate arrogance,"
Llewellyn Lewis. For. almost thirty
AT A SKI RESORT
and asking for emergency legislation
years, Lewis had been the undisputed
IN THE SUMMER?
that would give him broad authority to
boss of his huge and powerful union. A
GOLF
deal with the crisis. The legislation
former miner himself, Lewis had
TENNIS
would permit the President not only to
earned the unwavering loyalty of his
HORSEBACK RIDING
seize industries but to subject any labor
rank and file over many years by fight-
BICYCLING
leader to an injunction and contempt
ing for much-needed reforms in work-
proceedings, and would provide for
ing conditions and pay. Everything
WHITE WATER
criminal penalties for violators.
RAFTING
about him was dramatic; his personality
The telephone in the anteroom in
and his speaking style could not be
HIKING
which I was waiting rang. It was
duplicated in today's homogenized tele-
FISHING
Steelman. "We have an agreement,"
vision era. I cannot improve on the
ICE SKATING
he said. "The men are going back, on
portrait of him by Cabell Phillips, of
(YES, ICE SKATING)
the President's terms." As Steelman
the Times: "A figure of almost unbe-
CELEBRITIES
talked, I wrote out a brief note:
lievable power and picturesqueness
ELEGANT DINING
Word has just been received that the
a man of ponderous and majestic bear-
BACK PACKING
railroad strike has been settled on the
ing with a billowing crown of gray
terms proposed by the President.
SWIMMING
hair and dark, baleful eyes peering
I ran into the House and handed my
TRAP AND SKEET
from under immense eyebrows. His
note to Les Biffle, the Secretary of the
scowl had an Olympian ferocity, and
THIS SUMMER.
Senate, who was sitting just below the
his speech the cavernous tone and the
SUN VALLEY.
dais. As I entered, President Truman
measured cadence of a nineteenth-
1-800-786-8259
was reaching the climax of his speech,
century Thespian."
(SUN-VALY)
a request for authority to draft "into the
On the eve of the 1946 elections,
Armed Forces of the United States all
Lewis's monumental ego and ambition
workers who are on strike against their
led him to demand the reopening of the
government." As the members of Con-
entire May accords on the basis of a
gress thunderously applauded this pro-
minor provision. Lewis made an ex-
BaRWA
posal, Biffle handed the President my
plicit threat: if we did not renegotiate
The Complete chair
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note. He smiled slightly, waited for the
the entire contract, he would bring the
The world renown 2-position
leisure chair that has given con
noise to die down, and then read it to
nation to a standstill.
toured comfort to millions indoors
as well as outside. Feet up, head
Congress. The House chamber erupted
For the first time, I took an active
back ah-h-h: tensions pass and the
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in cheering-longer, louder, and more
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felt that President Truman had reached
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a turning point. In my view, Lewis's
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The railroad crisis had ended with a
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man. The scene was so dramatic that
yielded to Lewis, I felt, he would have
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charged publicly, only to apologize af-
Franklin Roosevelt, and would surely
ter a talk with the President. For the
be unable to get elected on his own in
first time since the end of the war,
1948. I was heavily outnumbered in the
President Truman had shown strength
discussions that raged at the White
Portraits by
and resolve under pressure. He had
House in the first two weeks of Novem-
YOUSUF
enraged big labor, but he calculated—
ber, 1946. Interior Secretary Julius A.
correctly-that the rage would pass
Krug and Attorney General Tom
in time.
Clark sided with me in advocating a
KARSH
tough line, but, fearing Lewis's power,
of Ottawa
LATE fully in 1946, the President success-
they were considerably more cautious
in New York by appointment
faced another challenge to
than I was. On the other side of the
(212) 838-4565
his authority which changed his politi-
debate were John Steelman and his
or Ottawa
cal fortunes, revived his own spirits,
supporters. They advocated a policy of
and dramatically affected my standing
conciliation and compromise, arguing
and visibility within the White House.
that President Truman could not win
(613) & arsh 236-7181
58
MARCH 25, 1991
against the formidable John L. Lewis.
ground Lewis would be beaten in the
"strikebreaker coal" ran short. But the
The battle lines on this issue later
court of public opinion. No one union
President agreed not to speak to Lewis
gave rise to the erroneous view in some
or person could be bigger than the
or any of his representatives while the
quarters in Washington that I was a
country. Somewhat dramatically, I
U.M.W. was still out on strike. For
conservative. While it was true that I
said, "Mr. President, you have to take
the rest of the crisis, we rebuffed every
had advocated a tough line against
him on."
one of Lewis's increasingly frantic at-
Lewis and, in May, had drafted the
As our long and exhausting night of
tempts to send negotiators to the White
tough railroad speech, in policy debates
debate came to an end, the President
House.
within the White House I almost al-
made his decision: we would seek a.
Late in November, I had set up a
ways favored labor's positions and ob-
court injunction against Lewis and,
miniature command center in the Cab-
jectives. In argument after argument
if necessary, file civil and criminal
inet Room to coördinate the next steps.
with Snyder, Steelman, Clinton An-
charges for violation of contract and
After careful consideration, the Presi-
derson, and others, I was on labor's
for striking against the government. It
dent instructed me to write a tough
side, favoring positions that I felt
would be, the President told us, "a fight
speech for delivery to the nation on
would reduce inequality in American
to the finish with John L. Lewis."
Sunday, December 8th. Our plan was
life. However, as special counsel to the
Steelman was openly furious at losing
to create unbearable public pressure on
President I was a firm advocate in
the President's support.
Lewis to capitulate.
behalf of the powers and the position of
On Monday, November 18th, At-
December 7th, like the Saturday of
the President. It was my responsibility,
torney General Clark took Lewis to
the railroad crisis six months earlier,
as I saw it, to protect both the office
court and obtained from a federal judge
was a day charged with the excitement
and the man. In the coal-strike issue, I
in the United States District Court an
that surrounds a major confrontation.
decided to weigh in heavily against the
order directing Lewis to cancel his
Because it involved the theatrical Lew-
advocates of compromise and retreat.
plans for a strike on November 20th.
is, it had a special drama that the
Lewis's threats were directed at both
Lewis thumbed his nose at the court
railroad crisis had lacked. We made
the Presidency and Harry Truman per-
order and, on the November 20th dead-
sure during the day that rumors of the
sonally. If Lewis succeeded in breaking
line, once more ordered his workers out
tough measures we were planning to
the agreement he had reached with the
on strike. After talking to the Presi-
announce reached the U.M.W. In the
Administration only five months earli-
dent, I asked Clark to request the court
Cabinet Room, I drafted a speech be-
er, I saw no end to the erosion of
to cite Lewis for contempt. In the first
ginning with these words:
Presidential authority.
week of December, the federal judge
The stage was thus set for my first
found the United Mine Workers guilty
I bring to you tonight a report on a
major American disaster. By coincidence,
open collision with Steelman, which
of contempt, slapping a three-and-a-
it was just five years ago
that my prede-
took place late on the night of Saturday,
half-million-dollar fine on the union,
cessor spoke of another American disaster
November 16th, after the annual
and an additional ten thousand dollars
-Pearl Harbor. This present crisis has
White House News Photographers As-
elements which make it just as ominous.
on Lewis personally. At our request,
The attention of every American-and,
sociation dinner. The President knew
criminal charges were dropped. We did
in fact, of cold and hungry people in coun-
that events were coming to a head, and
not want Lewis in jail; we wanted the
tries all over the world-is centered on the
he asked Krug, Clark, Steelman, Char-
strike settled.
coal strike which is paralyzing our entire
nation.
lie Ross, and me to meet him in the
Lewis was now in a quandary. The
study of the family quarters around
President and the courts were united
The speech was never given. By
midnight. Still in our dinner jackets,
against him, he faced an enormous fine,
Saturday, Lewis knew that his dilemma
we debated our next moves until
and jail remained a distinct possibility.
would only get worse if he continued to
the early morning. The lateness of the
He knew that, for the first time in his
defy the President. At four o'clock that
hour, the intensity of the situation, the
celebrated career, he had to back down.
afternoon, he suddenly called a press
recent Democratic defeat in the con-
To ease the pressure, he tried to call
conference. As we listened over the
gressional elections, and perhaps a
President Truman directly. I recom-
radio in the Oval Office, Lewis spoke
slight amount of alcohol consumed by
mended that the President not take
in wearied but measured cadences, or-
some people during the dinner all lent
Lewis's calls, because a conversation
dering all his workers "to return to
an odd air to the meeting. A combina-
might reduce the pressure on Lewis.
work immediately under the wages and
tion of fatigue and tension made the
That was a risky decision. The nation
conditions of employment in existence
meeting far more candid, and hence
was running out of coal in early De-
on and before November 20, 1946."
contentious, than would normally have
cember, and people were quite literal-
The Lord of Labor had capitulated.
been the case.
ly feeling cold as coal supplies and
President Truman had succeeded
Steelman wanted to make a new deal
where so many others, including
with Lewis. He argued that a strike
F.D.R., had failed: he had trimmed the
could be averted with relatively minor
invincible Lewis down to size. He per-
concessions. I argued strongly with
mitted himself a brief celebration in the
Steelman that night, urging President
Oval Office right after Lewis's surren-
Truman to stand firm and resist pres-
der. As we celebrated, the President
sure for any further accommodation. I
recalled what he felt had been his
said that the majority of the people
toughest decision-to rebuff all at-
were opposed to Lewis's grandstand-
cds
tempts by Lewis over the previous two
ing, and that if the President held his
weeks to open up a dialogue. "The
THE NEW YORKER
59
White House is open to anybody with
hero whom President Truman revered
legitimate business, but not to that son
but it did so over an issue of fundamen-
No. 10
of a bitch," he said. We toasted him.
tal and enduring national-security im-
The new J. Peterman
It was, journalists and labor experts
portance-Israel and the Middle East,
agreed, the end of an era in American
Catalogue.
an issue that remains as relevant in the
industrial relations. And the beginning
nineteen-nineties, in the wake of the
of a new era for Harry Truman. He
Persian Gulf War, as it was then. The
was suddenly praised effusively by the
President regarded the Secretary of
P.4
same journalists and commentators
State, General George C. Marshall, as
who had dismissed him a few weeks
"the greatest living American." Yet
earlier (and would write him off again
the two men were on a collision course
in 1948). Arthur Krock, the Washing-
over Middle East policy, and it threat-
P. 13
ton bureau chief of the Times, wrote,
ened, if it was not resolved, to split and
"The President has greatly regained
wreck the Administration. British con-
71
stature as a national leader. The col-
trol of Palestine would run out in two
umnists Joseph and Stewart Alsop
days, and, as it did, the Jewish Agency
called it "the first break he has had in
intended to announce the creation of a
considerably more than a year.'
new state, still unnamed, in part of
The coal strike was also a significant
Palestine.
P. 54
development for me. The press became
Marshall firmly opposed American
aware that I had played an important
recognition of the new Jewish state; I
P.6
role in the showdown with Lewis. On
did not. Marshall's opposition was
one occasion, Charlie Ross joked to
shared by almost every member of the
reporters, "All I do around here is
brilliant and now legendary group of
answer questions about Clark Clif-
Presidential advisers, later referred to
ford."
as the Wise Men, who were then in the
A most embarrassing event took
process of creating a postwar foreign
place early in the new year, at the
policy that would endure for more than
Gridiron Dinner, an annual event dur-
forty years. The opposition included
ing which members of the Gridiron
the respected Under-Secretary of State,
Club, all senior Washington journal-
Robert Lovett; his predecessor, Dean
ists, entertain high government officials
Acheson; the No. 3 man in the State
and other guests with irreverent skits.
Department, Charles Bohlen; the bril-
I have attended forty-five consecutive
liant chief of the Policy Planning
Gridiron dinners, including my first
Staff, George Kennan; Forrestal; and a
one, in 1946, and have observed some
man with whom I would disagree
memorable events at them. But only
again, twenty years later, when we
once, in 1947, did I wish deeply, and
served together in Lyndon Johnson's
© 1991 The J. Peterman Company
with all my heart, that I could have
Cabinet-Dean Rusk, then the direc-
been somewhere else. On that night,
tor of the Office of United Nations
Catalogue to
with President Truman watching, one
Affairs.
name
of the skits showed him as a ventrilo-
Forrestal's attitude was typical of the
address
quist's dummy sitting on the lap of a
attitudes of the advisers opposed to
city
state
zip
smug, heavily made-up Clark Clifford.
helping the Zionists, as those support-
The J. Peterman Company
I was profoundly upset, and spent a
ing the creation of a Jewish state were
2444 Palumbo Drive
restless night wondering if the Presi-
Lexington, Kentucky 40509
called. Some months earlier, during a
(800) 231-7341
dent had been offended. On Monday
breakfast at his elegant Georgetown
NY3/25
morning, I went into his office alone
home, Forrestal had spoken emotional-
and said, "Mr. President, I just want
ly about the issue. "You fellows over at
to express to you my deep embarrass-
the White House are just not facing up
ment at the skit at the Gridiron. I wish
to the realities in the Middle East.
neither of us had been there." He
There are thirty million Arabs on one
Meet in Santa Fe!
smiled for an instant, and said, "Clark,
side and about six hundred thousand
Our elegant new ballroom offers modern
pay it no attention. That is what
Jews on the other. It is clear to me that
conveniences & old world charm for up to
Washington is all about. Anyway, I am
600 people. Perfect for "meet, eat & show"
in any contest the Arabs are going to
events. On Santa Fe's historic Plaza, we offer
the target, not you, and they will al-
overwhelm the Jews. Why don't you
colorful rooms & suites, some with balconies
ways find something to use against
face up to the realities? Just look at the
& fireplaces. Excellent restaurant.
me."
numbers!"
Nightly entertainment.
"Jim, the President knows just as
Fonda
O
F all the meetings I have ever had
well as you do what the numbers are,
On the Plaza
with Presidents, the one on
but he doesn't consider this to be a
100 East San Francisco
Santa Fe, New Mexico
May 12, 1948, remains the most vivid.
question of numbers," I replied. "He
(800) 523-5002
Not only did it pit me against a war
has always supported the right of the
(505) 982-5511
60
Jews to have their own homeland, from.
SHE THINKS OF HIM ON HER BIRTHDAY
the moment he became President. He
considers this to be a question about the
It's still winter,
moral and ethical considerations that
and still I don't know you
are present in that part of the world.
For that reason, he supports the foun-
anymore, and you don't know
dation of a Jewish state. He is sympa-
thetic to their needs and their desires,
me. But this morning I stand
in the kitchen with the illusion,
and I assure you he is going to continue
to lend our country's support to the
peeling a clementine. Each piece
creation of a Jewish state."
Forrestal replied bluntly, "Well, if
snaps like the nickname for a girl,
the tinny bite it was
he does that, then he's absolutely dead
to be one once. Again I count
wrong." His attitude was typical of the
foreign-policy establishment-espe-
cially the pro-Arab professionals at the
your daughters and find myself in the middle,
State Department, who were deeply
the waist of the hourglass,
influenced by the huge oil reserves in
endlessly passed through and passed through
the Middle East and by a desire to be
on the side of the likely winner in the
but holding nothing, dismayed
struggle between the Arabs and the
at the grubby February sun
Jews. Officials in the State Department
I was born under and the cheap pleasure
had done everything in their power to
it gives the window. Yet I raise the shade
prevent, thwart, or delay the Presi-
dent's Palestine policy in 1947 and
for it, and try not to feel it is wrong
1948, while I had fought for assistance
to want spring, to be a season
to the Jewish Agency. Watching those
officials find various ways to avoid car-
further from you-not wrong to wish
for a hard rain, a hard wind
rying out White House instructions, I
sometimes felt that they preferred to
like one we sat out in together
follow the views of the British Foreign
or came in from together.
Office rather than the views of their
-DEBORAH GOTTLIEB GARRISON
President.
At midnight on May 14, 1948
the British. He had no use for White
(6 P.M. in Washington), the British
House interference in what he saw as
shall objected strongly to the proposed
would relinquish control of Palestine,
statement. The President listened po-
his personal domain-American policy
which they had been administering un-
litely, then told Marshall he wanted to
in the Middle East. A number of Mid-
der a mandate from the old League of
have a meeting on the subject.
dle East experts in the State Depart-
Nations since the First World War.
I was sitting, as usual, in a straight-
ment were widely regarded as anti-
One minute later, the Jewish Agency,
backed chair to the left of the Presi-
Semitic.
under the leadership of David Ben-
dent's desk. On ending the conversa-
On May 7th, a week before the end
Gurion, would proclaim the new state.
tion with Marshall, the President
of the British mandate, I met with
(We assumed that the new nation
swivelled his chair toward me. "Clark,
President Truman for our customary
would be called Judaea.) The neigh-
I am impressed with General Mar-
private day-end chat in the Oval Office.
boring Arabs made it clear that as soon
shall's argument that we should not
In these informal sessions, which were
as the British left, the fighting that had
recognize the new state so fast," he
never listed on his official schedule, he
already begun would erupt into a full-
said. "He does not want to recognize it
was often very blunt. No one else knew
scale war against the new state.
at all-at least, not now. I've asked
what passed between us in those ses-
In response, the British and the State
him and Lovett to come in next week
sions unless he wanted them to. In this
Department wanted to turn Palestine
to discuss this business. I think Mar-
case, he didn't.
over to the trusteeship of the United
I handed the President a draft of a
shall is going to continue to take a very
Nations-a position I strongly opposed
strong position. When he does, I would
public statement I had prepared, and
as dangerous to the survival of the
like you to make the case in favor of
proposed that at-his next press confer-
beleaguered Jews of Palestine. I had
recognition of the new state." He
already had several serious disagree-
ence, scheduled for May 13th, the day
paused, and looked at me intently for a
before the British mandate would end,
ments with General Marshall's pro-
moment. "You know how I feel," he
he announce that it was his intention to
tégé, Dean Rusk, and with Loy Hen-
said. "I want you to present it just as
recognize the Jewish state. The Presi-
derson, the director of Near Eastern
though you were making an argument
dent was sympathetic to the proposal,
and African Affairs, over State's posi-
before the Supreme Court of the United
but, being keenly aware of Marshall's
tion. Henderson, a mustachioed, partly
States"-something that I had not yet
bald, tightly controlled, and somewhat
strong feelings, he picked up the tele-
done. "Consider it carefully, Clark,
phone to get the Secretary's views. As I
pompous career diplomat, was strongly
organize it logically. I want you to be
sat listening to the President's end of
pro-Arab and was heavily influenced by
the conversation, I could tell that Mar-
as persuasive as you possibly can be."
President Truman had asked me to
61
debate the man he most admired, a man
been deeply moved by the plight of the
whose participation in the Administra-
millions of displaced people of the Sec-
Introducing
tion was essential to its success. I was
ond World War, and felt that, alone
forty-one years old, in my third year at
among the homeless, the Jews had no
Ladybug
the White House as a Presidential aide.
homeland of their own to which they
Virtually every American regarded
could return. He was, of course, horri-
Ladybug
the new
General Marshall, then sixty-seven,
fied by the Holocaust, and he de-
magazine
with a respect bordering on awe. He
nounced it vehemently as, in the after-
for children
had capped his central contribution to
math of the war, its full dimensions
ages 2 to 7
victory in the Second World War with
became clear. Also, he believed that the
from
his speech at Harvard a year earlier
Balfour Declaration, issued by the
CRICKET
proposing what became known as the
British Foreign Secretary Arthur Bal-
magazine
Marshall Plan. Alone among soldiers,
four in 1917, committed Great Britain
he was now associated in the public
and, by implication, the United States,
Discover the pleasure of quiet moments with
mind with a peaceful purpose-the
which now shared a certain global
your child, in a world of ideas, adventures,
reconstruction of Europe. Alone
responsibility with the British, to
and activities. "It's a delight to the eye, an
among statesmen, he carried the
the creation of the Jewish state in
adventure for the mind."
credentials of a great soldier.
Palestine. (I recognize that histo-
Lloyd Alexander, author/Newbery medalist
Without his towering presence,
rians have long disagreed over
the Administration would be much
whether or not Balfour committed
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for an EIGHT-ISSUE TRIAL
diminished, perhaps even mortally
anyone to anything, but President
subscription. Send no
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Truman's view on this point was
money. We will bill you later. Save over $10.00
extremely difficult time. The Soviet-
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clear.) And, finally, he had been a
inspired coup in Czechoslovakia had
by calling toll free or by sending us this
student of and a believer in the Bible
coupon.
taken place only ten weeks earlier, and
since his youth. From the Old Testa-
Name
the Soviet effort to cut Berlin off from
ment, he felt, the Jews derived a legiti-
Address
the West was heading toward a full-
mate historical right to Palestine. He
blown crisis, the worst since the end of
City, State, Zip
sometimes cited such Biblical verses as
the war. The Republicans controlled
those from Deuteronomy 1:8: "Behold,
LADYBUG, Box 58344, Boulder, CO 80322
both Houses of Congress. How firmly
I have given up the land before you; go
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in and take possession of the land which
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something that the President wanted?
the Lord hath sworn unto your fathers,
Could we in the Administration find a
to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob."
way out of the bind we were in? From
From the beginning, I, too, had
Fresh
a combination of respect for Marshall
supported the desire of the Zionists to
Roasted Coffee
and a keen sense of his own political
create a nation, even though this stand
interests, the President knew he should
at
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put me in opposition to an entire gener-
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not overrule Marshall directly. Rather,
ation of senior foreign-policy makers
he would see if I could convince the
whom I admired and numbered among
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Marshall did not like me. He regard-
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saged the present system. In a sense,
parts-one Jewish, one Arab. On its
Marshall's attitude toward me fore-
surface, the joint British-State Depart-
shadowed the conflicts between the Sec-
ment position favoring trusteeship may
retary of State and the national-securi-
have seemed a reasonable way to avoid
Save $4.00
Theodore's
on
ALMONDS
ty assistant which later-especially in
conflict, but the President feared that if
California Almonds
the Nixon, Carter, and Reagan Ad-
Palestine were turned over to the Unit-
That's right. For a limited time
ministrations-became part of the
ed Nations the Arabs would combine
you can save $4.00 on farm-
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military action and diplomatic foot-
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4 lb. Can
As I prepared for the showdown
Almonds from Theodore's
$15.95 del'd.*
dragging in an effort to throttle the
Almonds. Available In three
(Reg. $19.95)
with Marshall, I felt that I knew what
Jewish state at its birth. I fully agreed.
flavors: Dry-Roasted Hickory, Whole Natural,
the President wanted and, more impor-
I knew that Marshall and his deputy,
or Dry-Roasted Lightly Salted. Send check or
tant, how he felt. From our many talks
Robert Lovett, would argue that we
money order, Visa, MC or AE* with Exp. Date to:
over the past year I knew that five
should continue to support trusteeship,
Theodore's California Almonds
factors dominated his thinking about
and delay recognition of the new state.
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the proposed Jewish state. For as long
And by "delay," I believed, State really
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as he could remember, he had detested
meant "deny."
*del'd. In cont. U.S. For AK & HI add $7.50
intolerance and discrimination. He had
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62
MARCH 25, 1991
had crystallized after a bitter incident
presentation to turn Marshall around.
position before showing his own hand.
in March, when, without informing
George Catlett Marshall was a man
Lovett began by criticizing what he
the President, the State Department
of the strictest rectitude. Not even
termed signs of growing "assertive-
permitted the American delegation to
President Truman called him by his
ness" by the Jewish Agency. "On the
the United Nations to reverse its sup-
first name; that privilege was reserved
basis of some recent military successes
port for partition, and switch to trust-
for his wife and a handful of early
and the prospect of a 'behind the barn'
eeship for Palestine-a contradiction
military contemporaries. And he called
deal with King Abdullah," Lovett
of a personal commitment that the
even his closest associates only by their
said, "the Jews seem confident that they
President had given the previous day to
last names. He had little noticeable
can establish their sovereign state with-
Chaim Weizmann, the Zionist leader
sense of humor. He had planned to
out any necessity for a truce with the
who later became the first President of
spend his time in quiet retirement with
Arabs of Palestine." King Abdullah of
Israel. Furious and depressed when he
his wife at their home in Virginia, but
Transjordan, who was assassinated in
learned what had happened, President
when at the beginning of 1947, just as
Truman wrote on his calendar for
1951, was the grandfather of King
the Cold War was beginning its most
Hussein of Jordan. Lovett was refer-
March 19, 1948:
dangerous phase, President Truman
ring to highly secret talks between the
The State Dept. pulled the rug from
asked him to return from a thankless
Jews and the Jordanians. Some of the
under me today.
The first I know about
and unsuccessful mission as special en-
it is what I see in the papers! Isn't that
talks involved Golda Meir and King
hell? I am now in the position of a liar and
voy to China and to become Secretary
Abdullah himself, but that was not
a double-crosser. I've never felt so low in
of State he responded once again with-
known at the time.
my life. There are people on the third and
out complaint. It was this devotion to
Marshall interrupted Lovett. He was
fourth level of the State Dept. who have
always wanted to cut my throat. They've
the President-or, more accurately, to
strongly opposed to the behavior of the
succeeded in doing it.
the Presidency-that so impressed
Jewish Agency, he said. He had met on
Truman, and everyone else as well,
May 8th with Moshe Shertok, its po-
That afternoon, the President angri-
including me.
litical representative, and had told
ly instructed me to "read the riot act"
Shertok that it was "dangerous to base
to those "third and fourth level" people
AT
4 P.M. on Wednesday, May 12th,
long-range policy on temporary mili-
at the State Department. A few hours
a cloudless, sweltering day, seven
tary success." Moreover, Marshall
later, I held an angry meeting with
of us joined President Truman in the
said, he had told Shertok that if the
Rusk, Henderson, and Charles Bohlen,
Oval Office. The President sat at his
Jews got into trouble and "came run-
the State Department Counsellor,
desk, his back to the bay window over-
ning to us for help
there was no
which left us barely on speaking terms.
looking the lawns; his famous "THE
But the President, despite his anger,
warrant to expect help from the United
BUCK STOPS HERE" plaque stood on
States, which had warned them of the
had not ordered the State Department
the front of his desk. In the seat to the
to reëndorse partition, lest he create a
grave risk which they were running."
President's left sat General Marshall,
I was surprised to hear, from Marshall
crisis with Marshall. Thus, with the
austere and grim, and next to Marshall
himself, how bluntly he had dealt with
May 14th deadline fast approaching,
sat Lovett. Behind Lovett were two
the United States was in the awkward
Shertok. He had laid down a tough
State Department officials, Robert Mc-
opening position.
position of having its United Nations
Clintock and Fraser Wilkins. I won-
delegation still rounding up votes for
As Marshall was speaking, he was
dered why Rusk and Henderson, who
trusteeship while the President favored
interrupted by an urgent message from
had been centrally involved in every
his special assistant. The United Press
partition and prompt recognition of the
phase of the policy debate for months,
had reported that Shertok had returned
about-to-be-proclaimed new Jewish
were not present. Not until forty years
to Tel Aviv carrying a personal warn-
state.
later did I learn why: Wilkins told me
ing from Marshall to David Ben-
Sixteen years as a trial lawyer in
then that just before the meeting Lovett
St. Louis before the Second
Gurion. Marshall, clearly displeased,
had decided that the presence of
World War had shaped my
told us that not only had he not sent
Rusk and Henderson in the
Ben-Gurion a message but he had nev-
approach to the May 12th
room with me would be too
er even heard of Ben-Gurion-a sur-
confrontation with Marshall.
inflammatory, so he had substi-
prising statement about the man who
For me the key to successful
tuted their two deputies. An-
advocacy is preparation-care-
APPLES
was the leader of the Jewish Agency
other Presidential aide, David
and was about to become the new na-
ful preparation. Even now,
Niles, the appointments secre-
tion's first Prime Minister. Marshall
on a day when I'm going into court I
tary Matthew Connelly, and I sat to-
rise very early, and rehearse my presen-
directed the State Department to refuse
gether in chairs to the right of the
tation as I shave, then sometimes go
to comment on the U.P. news story,
President. As the meeting began, ex-
over it for several hours alone in my
and then concluded his presentation.
actly fifty hours remained before the
bedroom or my office. I have seen many
The United States, he said, should
new nation would be born.
continue to support those resolutions in
good cases lost simply because they were
The meeting opened in a deceptively
the United Nations which would turn
badly presented. But this was the only
calm manner. President Truman did
Palestine over to the U.N. as a trust-
time I would ever argue a case against
not raise the issue of recognition; his
General Marshall. Knowing that the
eeship, and defer any decision on
desire was that I be the first to raise it,
President was privately on my side
recognition.
but only after Marshall and Lovett had
did nothing to reduce the difficulty of
It was now my turn. Even though I
spoken, so that he would be able to
the task, since he was counting on my
disagreed with many of Lovett's open-
ascertain the degree of Marshall's op-
ing statements, I had waited without
THE NEW YORKER
63
saying a word until the President called
relates to the Balfour Declaration.
on me, in order to establish that I was
Jewish people the world over have been
speaking at the request of the President,
waiting for thirty years for the promise
and not on my own initiative.
of a homeland to be fulfilled. There is
I began by objecting strongly to the
no reason to wait one day longer.
State Department's position paper reaf-
Trusteeship will postpone that promise
firming American support of Security
indefinitely.
Council efforts to secure a truce in
"Sixth, the United States has a great
Palestine. "There has been no truce in
moral obligation to oppose discrimina-
Palestine, and there almost certainly
tion such as that inflicted on the Jewish
will not be one," I said. I reminded
people. Alarmingly, it is reappearing in
everyone that in a meeting chaired by
Communist-controlled Eastern Eu-
the President on March 24th "Dean
rope. There must be a safe haven for
Rusk stated that a truce could be nego-
these people. Here is an opportunity to
tiated within two weeks," but that
Step into Spring.
try to bring these ancient injustices to
"this goal is still not in sight."
You'll treasure Spring at The Cloister.
an end. The Jews could have their own
For glorious beach walks and fresh
I went on to say, "Second, trustee-
homeland. They could be lifted to the
Atlantic breezes. For garden splendors.
ship, which State supports, presupposes
status of other peoples who have their
family gatherings. sports love affairs.
a single Palestine. That is also unreal-
Choose your pace. Relax to spa
own country. And perhaps these steps
and beach club pleasures. Join in for
istic. Partition into Jewish and Arab
would help atone, in some small way,
golf. tennis, skeet,
sectors has already happened. Jews and
for the bestial actions, for the atrocities
horseback outings.
Arabs are already fighting each other
so vast as to stupefy the human mind,
Or renew your golf
game like never
from territory each side presently con-
that took place during the Holocaust.
before at our all-new
trols."
"Finally, I fully understand and
Golf Learning Center.
The time had now come to join the
agree that vital national interests are
Spring at The
issue. "Third, Mr. President,' I said,
Cloister. Calling now-just a call away.
involved. In an area as unstable as the
The Cloister. Sea Island, GA 31561.
"I strongly urge you to give prompt
Middle East, where there is not now
Five-Star. Five-Diamond. Call
recognition to the Jewish state imme-
and never has been any tradition of
800-SEA-ISLAND.
diately after the termination of the
democratic government, it is important
British mandate on May 14th. This
for the long-range security of our
Sea Hand THE CLOISTER
would have the distinct value of restor-
country-and, indeed, the world-
ing the President's firm position in
that a nation committed to the demo-
support of the partition of Palestine.
cratic system be established there, one
Such a move should be taken quickly,
on which we can rely. The new Jewish
A
course in historical
before the Soviet Union or any other
state can be such a place. We should
documentary filmmaking
History
led by Emmy and
nation recognizes the Jewish state."
strengthen it in its infancy by prompt
Academy Award winning
I knew that my comments would not
recognition."
director Paul Wagner.
please Marshall and Lovett, since I was
I had noticed Marshall's face red-
Sponsored by GW's Center
in the
for History in the Media.
implying that State had embarrassed
dening with suppressed anger as I
Office of Summer Sessions
the President by reversing the Ameri-
talked. When I finished, he exploded.
2121 I Street, N.W., Suite 503
can position in the United Nations two
Washington, DC 20052
"Mr. President, I thought this meeting
Media
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months earlier. But I strongly believed
was called to consider an important and
that to be the case, and I saw no reason
complicated problem in foreign policy.
The
not to bring it up.
I don't even know why Clifford is here.
George
Summer
"My fourth point," I continued, "is
He is a domestic adviser, and this is a
Washington
that the President should make a state-
foreign-policy matter."
ment at his press conference tomorrow
I will never forget President Tru-
University WASHINGTON
Institute
which announces his intention to rec-
man's characteristically simple reply:
ognize the Jewish state, once it has
"Well, General, he's here because I
complied with the provision for demo-
asked him to be here."
Come to
cratic government outlined in the U.N.
Marshall, scarcely concealing his
Scotland
resolution of November 29th. I under-
ire, shot back, "These considerations
Come to
stand this is in fact the case, and there-
have nothing to do with the issue. I fear
Ardsheal
fore presents no problem." I handed a
Historic manor house on
that the only reason Clifford is here is
House
Loch Linnhe in the Western Highlands, now a
proposed press statement around the
that he is pressing a political consider-
small country hotel with superb food and fine
wines. Write the Taylors for a brochure: Kentallen by Appin,
room, and read aloud its conclusion:
Argyll PA38 4BX Scotland. Tel: 44 63174 227. Fax: 44 63174 342.
ation with regard to this issue. I don't
I have asked the Secretary of State to
think politics should play any part in
have the Representatives of the United
this."
!! CASHMERES !!
States in the United Nations take up this
Lovett joined the attack. "It would
subject
with a view toward obtaining
And Lots Of Other Goodies ! Free Brochure, Map!
be highly injurious to the United Na-
WHEN IN SCOTLAND, COME ON IN !
early recognition of a Jewish State by the
other members of the United Nations.
tions to announce the recognition of
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the Jewish state even before it had come
Phone: 011-44-334-72366 (24hrs) Fax: 76416
ST. ANDREWS WOOLLEN MILL, ST. ANDREWS, SCOTLAND
Then I went on, "My fifth point
into existence and while the General
(Yes, we're right here on the 18th Green!)
64
MARCH 25, 1991
left. In fact, he not only
WORKING MARRIAGE
never spoke to me again
after that meeting but,
according to his official
biographer, never men-
tioned my name again.
At the end of that day,
still steaming, he did
something quite unusu-
al, which the President
and I were unaware of at
the time. Certain that
history would prove him
right, he wanted his per-
sonal comments includ-
ed in the official State
Department record of
the meeting. It is normal
for the records of such
meetings kept by the
State Department to
MANKOFF
water down or leave
out personal comments;
Marshall did precisely
Assembly is still considering the ques-
Here was the indispensable symbol of
the opposite. His record, exactly as he
tion. Furthermore, such a move would
continuity, whom President Truman
wanted historians to find it when it was
be injurious to the prestige of the Presi-
revered and needed, making a threat
declassified, almost three decades later,
dent. It is obviously designed to win the
that, if it became public, could virtually
reads as follows:
Jewish vote, but in my opinion it would
seal the dissolution of the Truman
I remarked to the President that, speak-
lose more votes than it would gain."
Administration and send the Western
ing objectively, I could not help but think
Lovett had finally brought to the sur-
Alliance, then in the process of cre-
that the suggestions made by Mr. Clifford
face the root cause of Marshall's fury:
ation, into disarray before it had been
were wrong. I thought that to adopt these
suggestions would have precisely the oppo-
his view that the position I presented
fully structured. Marshall's statement
site effect from that intended by Mr. Clif-
was dictated by domestic political con-
fell short of an explicit threat to resign,
ford. The transparent dodge to win a few
siderations-specifically, a quest for
but it came very close.
votes would not in fact achieve this pur-
Jewish votes in the upcoming Presiden-
Lovett and I both tried to step into
pose. The great dignity of the office of the
President would be seriously diminished.
tial election.
the ensuing silence with words of con-
The counsel offered by Mr. Clifford was
"Mr. President, to recognize the
ciliation. We both knew how impor-
based on domestic political considerations,
Jewish state prematurely would be buy-
tant it was to get this dreadful meeting
while the problem which confronted us
was international. I said bluntly that if the
ing a pig in a poke," Lovett continued.
over with quickly, before Marshall said
President were to follow Mr. Clifford's
"How do we know what kind of Jewish
something even more irretrievable. My
advice and if in the elections I were to
state will be set up? We have many
suggested Presidential press statement
vote, I would vote against the President.
reports from British and American
was clearly out of the question, and I
General Marshall's position was un-
intelligence agents that Soviets are
withdrew it. Lovett said that State's
fair. He had no proof to sustain the
sending Jews and Communist agents
legal adviser, Ernest Gross, had pre-
charge of a political motive on my part,
into Palestine from the Black Sea
pared a paper on the legal aspects of
nor did he offer any. My growing
area." Lovett read some of these intel-
recognition, and he would send it to us
involvement in foreign policy was at
ligence reports to the group. I found
immediately.
the President's direction. I had not
them ridiculous, and no evidence ever
President Truman also knew that
mentioned politics in my presentation.
turned up to support them; in fact, Jews
the meeting had to be ended. He said
I believed then, as I do now, that the
were fleeing Communism throughout
that he was fully aware of the dangers
President's position was based on the
Eastern Europe at that very moment.
in the situation, to say nothing of the
national interest, not on domestic po-
When Lovett concluded his attack,
political factors involved on both sides
litical considerations.
Marshall spoke again. Speaking with
of the problem, and that those were his
The view of Marshall and Lovett
great and barely contained anger and
responsibility, and he would deal with
was based on the assumption that the
with more than a hint of self-righ-
them himself. Seeing that Marshall
Palestine issue would decide how Jew-
teousness, he made the most remarkable
was still highly agitated, he rose and
ish Americans voted. In my opinion,
threat I have ever heard anyone make
turned to him and said, "I understand
their assumption was incorrect, and, in
directly to a President. He said, "If you
your position, General, and I'm in-
fact, a significant number of Jewish
follow Clifford's advice and if I were
clined to side with you in this matter."
Americans opposed Zionism. Some
to vote in the election, I would vote
We rose with the President and
feared that the effort to create a Jewish
against you."
gathered up our papers. Marshall did
state under the conditions that existed
Everyone in the room was stunned.
not even glance at me as he and Lovett
then was so controversial that the plan
THE NEW YORKER
65
would fail. In 1942, a number of prom-
Seeing my face, President Truman
inent dissident Reform rabbis had
apparently felt that I needed to be
Pleasures few
founded the American Council for Ju-
cheered up. "Well, that was rough as a
daism to oppose the establishment of a
cob," he said, using one of his favorite
will know.
Jewish state in Palestine. It grew into
Missouri farm phrases. "That was
an organization of over fourteen thou-
about as tough as it gets. But you did
sand members, which collaborated
your best."
closely with State Department officials,
"Well, Boss, this isn't the first case
including Dean Acheson and Loy
I've lost," I replied. "I've never ex-
Henderson. Its leaders believed that the
pected to win them all." Then, to see if
establishment of an exclusively Jewish
the President wanted to try again, I
state was "undemocratic and a retreat
said, "Maybe it is not over yet. I would
from the universal vision of Judaism,"
like approval to test the waters one
and would lead to "ghettoizing Jews
more time."
by segregating them from their compa-
The President's reply was ambigu-
triots and turning them into aliens."
ous. "You may be right. I don't know.
Other individuals, including Arthur H.
I never saw the General so furious.
A private white-sand beach.
Sulzberger, the publisher of the Times
Suppose we let the dust settle a little.
Marina. Tennis, diving and
(he supported the American Council
Then you can get into it again and see
watersports. Beachfront dining.
for Judaism), and Eugene Meyer, the
if we can get this thing turned around.
All in an exquisite resort that
publisher of the Washington Post, op-
equals the beauty of our
I still want to do it. But be careful. I
incredible reefs. With only 67
posed Zionism. Sulzberger's wife, the
can't afford to lose General Marshall."
luxurious rooms, our number of
redoubtable Iphigene Ochs Sulzberger,
It might be argued that a Presiden-
guests are limited. And all our
who disagreed strongly with her hus-
tial telephone call to Marshall or
guests enjoy unlimited pleasures.
band, later recalled that "Zionism was
Lovett would have resolved the issue.
a heavily debated issue among Ameri-
But that view, while normally correct
can Jews." Many Jews opposed Amer-
in regard to relationships between the
HARBOUR VILLAGE
ican backing for any Jewish state in
President and anyone in his Cabinet,
BEACH
RESORT
BONAIRE
DUTCH CARIBBEAN
Palestine.
did not fit this unique situation. Harry
In any event, neither the President
Truman, then an unelected President,
For more information, see your
nor I believed that Palestine was the
travel agent or call 1-800-424-0004.
was viewed by most people as a tempo-
key to the Jewish vote. As I had written
rary custodian of the giant legacy of
in 1947, in a lengthy memorandum to
Franklin Roosevelt. Facing the central
the President proposing a strategy for
political fact of 1948-Republican
the 1948 election campaign, I believed
Martinellis
control of both Houses of Congress-
GOLD MEDAL
Since 1868
that the key to the Jewish vote in 1948
he could not afford an open break with
would be not the Palestine issue but a
Marshall. Besides, he genuinely liked
continued commitment to liberal polit-
Sparkling
and respected Marshall, and on every
ical and economic policies. Noting the
other important issue they were in
Cider
sharp divisions over Zionism within
agreement.
the Jewish community, I had conclud-
Thus, when I left the Oval Office I
ed, "In the long run, there is likely to
understood that the chances for salvag-
be greater gain if the Palestine problem
ing the situation were very small-but
is approached on the basis of reaching a
not quite zero. As I was in my office
DELIGHTFULLY
decision founded upon intrinsic merit."
going over the day's events with
NON-ALCOHOLIC
Quite simply, I fully shared the
George Elsey, the telephone rang. It
President's conviction that it was prop-
was Bob Lovett. "I have been deeply
There's Nothing like it!
er for the Jews to have a homeland, and
Dept. N. Box 549, Watsonville CA 95077
disturbed ever since the meeting in the
for our country to recognize the new
President's office this afternoon," he
state on its creation. I also believed that
said, and then he paused. I felt like
this was the decent, the compassionate,
saying, "You didn't help much," but,
THE POKE BOAT®
and the honorable course to follow.
barely resisting the temptation, wait-
ITS EVERYTHING
A CANOE ISN'T.
ed to see what was coming next. "It
It weighs only 28
Call toll-free
pounds. For less
IN the course of the meeting in the
1-800-
would be a great tragedy if these two
than $800 you can
buy more than
354-
Office, I had left the proposed
men were to break over this issue," he
canoe.
0190.
press statement and some other papers
went on.
on the front of the President's desk. I
I certainly agreed. "It would be
lingered a moment to pick them up.
about the worst thing that could hap-
Marshall had deeply disappointed me.
Family Vacations
pen to the President and to the coun-
I thought his implied threat had
Relax on a sand beach
try," I said. I was thinking of how
Swim in pure lake water
crossed the bounds of what was permis-
Enjoy great meals
difficult it would be to conduct our
Cottages, lobster+ clam bakes.
sible and proper in a meeting with the
tennis. watersking, Fishing.
foreign policy if we lost Marshall, or
Send for folder NY.
President. I also thought I had lost.
even if his opposition and threat to
Alden Camps
OAKLAND. MAINE 04963
207-465-7703
66
MARCH 25, 1991
President Truman on this issue became
represented the President's position.
GIVE YOUR
publicly known.
"Do you think," Lovett said, "that
"Could you drop by my house for a
if you were to present some modifica-
CHILD THE
drink on your way home tonight?"
tion of State's views to the President as
Lovett asked. "I would like to talk to
something he could live with he might
EDUCATION
you more about this."
be persuaded to moderate his position
I was delighted. I knew Lovett to be
and work something out with General
a sensible and thoughtful man. In in-
Marshall that would get us past this
YOU WISH
formal settings, he was witty and
crisis-at least, past the next two
charming, with a fine sense of detach-
days?"
YOU HAD.
ment and irony, and he was one of the
Lovett's question presented me with
best raconteurs I have ever met. These
an immediate decision. I could have
qualities might have been of interest
said I needed to check with the Presi-
C
hoose from the three dozen
only to hostesses had they not also
dent and reply the next day. But, with
private schools of Maine, New
skillfully covered an immensely
time running out, I replied,
Hampshire and Vermont - from
tough interior. All in all, he was
"Bob, there is no chance what-
prestigious college prep day and
close to the model of a perfect
soever that the President will
boarding schools to specialized
public servant. If anyone could
change his mind on the basic
schools - nestled in coastal cities
turn Marshall around, it might
issue. My presentation today was
and mountain towns. At a
be the man whose appointment as Un-
made at his instruction and represented
surprisingly affordable price.
der-Secretary of State the General had
his views. He wants to recognize the
For a free directory, call us
demanded almost immediately upon be-
new state. So all I can say is that if
toll-free at 1-800-654-EXCEL.
coming Secretary, calling him, with a
anyone is going to give, it is going to
The Private Schools of Northern
rare display of personal affection, "my
have to be General Marshall, because I
New England, P.O. Box 1871,
old co-pilot." But was Lovett willing
can tell you now the President is not
Wolfeboro, NH 03894.
to try?
going to give an inch." Because I saw
The Lovetts had rented a house in
no value in even hinting that compro-
Private School -
the Kalorama area, a quiet, tree-lined
mise was possible, I had stated Presi-
section of Washington off Connecticut
dent Truman's views much more
Can You Afford Not To?
Avenue, about ten minutes from the
strongly than he would have stated
White House. When I arrived, Lovett
them himself. It was essential to focus
and I went into his library. In those
the pressure back on Marshall, and
THE GREAT CANADIAN
days, bourbon-and-branch-water was
Lovett was the only channel through
CAT SWEATSHIRT
virtually the official drink of the Ad-
which to do it.
(PLUS PANTS)
ministration; I had one, and Lovett,
"Well, then," Lovett said thought-
Dumb-looking felines frolic on
snowy white supersoft sweat-
always concerned about his health,
fully, "let's see what can be done at
shirt. Matching black or white
drank a sherry.
State."
pants also available. Canada
loves 'em year 'round. Bet
Lovett opened on a positive note. A
On that slightly encouraging note I
you do, too. Range of sizes
break between the President and Gen-
left, hoping that Lovett could somehow
for men or women.
Shirt: $49.50 Pants: $49.50.
eral Marshall, he said, would have
bring his co-pilot around.
Shipping Incl.
unacceptable consequences. We were in
The next morning, Thursday the
Call toll free:
the midst of the most difficult months
U.S. 1-800-882-8370
thirteenth, I began by reporting to the
Can. 1-800-268-9323
of the Cold War. We had to avert a
President on my meeting with Lovett.
MC VISA AMEX
Dick Shapiro Enterprises
split in our ranks. Any leak of the
"O.K., this is part of the process of
Unit 14, 20 Wertheim Court,
Richmond Hill, Ont.
astonishing events of that afternoon
letting the dust settle," the President
Canada L4B 3A8
would be catastrophic. Lovett stressed
said. "Keep encouraging Lovett to
the reasonableness of his own views.
work on the General."
"Let's get through this crisis, then sit
In the middle of a day of tense
down and review the issue again in a
waiting, Lovett called with a new sug-
GALÁPAGOS
more thorough manner," he suggested.
gestion-to make a formal decision to
You, 9 other adventurers and our licensed
Gentle and conciliatory though
recognize the new state, but delay an-
naturalist will sail by yacht to explore more islands
Lovett's style was, this seemed to be
nouncing it or carrying it out for an
than any other Galápagos expedition. 60 trip
dates. Machu Picchu option. Free brochure.
more of the same from State-delay
unspecified period.
and circumvention of the President's
Inca Floats 415-420-1550
I saw no value in this suggestion,
1311-Y 63rd St., Emeryville CA 94608
policy objectives. In order not to re-
and told Lovett so without checking
turn to the contentious tone of the
with the President. "That's a nothing
Oval Office meeting, I observed that
approach, Bob," I said. "I've talked to
NEW ORLEANS FRENCH QUARTER
the "very persuasive critique" by Lov-
Two Blocks From Bouroon St.
the President, and I want to tell you
Carriage House Suites,
ett and Marshall had caused the Presi-
Balcony Rooms
that he is not going to budge an inch in
Romantic Court Yard
dent to set aside any thought of an-
his basic view. He is rock solid."
Outdoor Swimming Pool
Covered Valet Parking
nouncing recognition the following
Lovett raised with me the idea of
H
FOR FREE BROCHURE & RESERVATIONS
CALL: (800) 448-4927
day. Lovett probed to see to what ex-
DE
LA
POSTE
recognizing the new state de facto in-
316 Rue Chartres, New Orieans, Louisiana 70130
tent my comments in the meeting
stead of de jure. Here was an issue on
THE NEW YORKER
67
which I felt we could yield to State, and
decision was made. At 10 A.M., I made
I did so, again without checking with
a different call-one that I looked on
the President. The difference, while
The Elegance Of
later with great pleasure. "Mr. Ep-
extremely important to governments in
stein," I told the Jewish Agency repre-
BROWN JORDAN
defining and justifying international
sentative, "we would like you to send
leisure furniture
boundaries, was not something I felt
an official letter to President Truman
was critical at this moment, since we
before twelve o'clock today formally
could upgrade the nature of our recog-
requesting the United States to recog-
nition to de jure later.
nize the new Jewish state. I would also
Thursday ended with no resolution
request that you send a copy of the letter
of the crisis. Amazingly, there had been
directly to Secretary Marshall."
no leaks. When the President was
Epstein was ecstatic. He did not re-
asked at his press conference what he
alize that the President had still not
planned to do when the Jewish state
decided how to respond to the request I
was proclaimed, he replied curtly, "I
had just solicited. Epstein and I went
OFF SEASON RATES!
will cross that bridge when I get to it."
over some important details of the let-
As I listened, I thought, We get to that
TAKE A TRIP THROUGH OUR CATALOG
ter. It was particularly important, I
THIS WINTER AND SAVE 20%.
bridge tomorrow.
said, that the new state claim nothing
beyond the boundaries outlined in the
Free Delivery Anywhere Continental U.S.A.
F
RIDAY morning was the beginning
U.N. resolution of November 29,
Worldwide Orders Prepaid to
Nearest Continental U.S. Port
of a historic day in Palestine, but the
1947, because those boundaries were
Send $6.00 to Dept. N for 1991
United States government had still not
120 page Catalog, Price List and Color Chart
the only ones that had been agreed to
Name
decided what it would do at 6 P.M. The
by everyone, including the Arabs, in
Address
weather in Washington, which had
any international forum.
been unseasonably hot and muggy,
City
A few minutes later, Epstein called
finally showed signs of breaking. I
State
me. "We've never done this before, and
Zip
reached the office earlier than usual and
we're not quite sure how to go about
called Lovett. He was looking for ways
it," he said. "Could you give us some
Roberts our 71st year
to calm things down, but he and Mar-
advice?" I told him that I would check
115 East Putnam Avenue/P.O. Box 433
shall were still opposed to recognition
with the experts and get back to him.
Greenwich, CT 06836 1-800-899-4610
of the Jewish state.
One of America's largest retailers of Brown Jordan furniture.
With my knowledge and encourage-
I was also in close contact, directly
ment, Epstein then turned for addition-
and through David Niles, with Eliahu
al advice to two of the wisest lawyers in
Epstein, the Jewish Agency represen-
Washington, David Ginsburg and
Any Recording By
tative in Washington. From Epstein, I
Benjamin Cohen, both of whom were
had been able to learn much about the
great New Dealers and strong support-
Phone or Mail
situation in the Middle East and about
ers of the Zionist cause. Working to-
the position of the Jewish Agency
gether during the rest of the morning,
Now you can order any CD or Tape in print
which went beyond the information
from our 240-page catalog. Send $6.00 (re-
he and they drafted the recognition
fundable on your first order)
that the State Department, with its pro-
request, and Epstein called back and
Arab bias, had allowed to filter across
read it to me.
EXPRESS
for our 50,000 title catalog
with $50 in merchandise
the street to the White House through
It was short. "My dear Mr. Presi-
official channels.
dent," it began. "I have the honor to
MUSIC
credits. Subscribers get our
Annual Catalog + 1 FREE
In our conversations, Lovett probed
notify you that the state of-" Here
CATALOG
year of updates covering
for the minimum that would satisfy the
Epstein and I had a problem. We did
new releases. Absolutely no
President. Finally, I had an idea.
obligation or unrequested shipments.
not know the name of the new state.
Call
"Look, Bob, the President understands
1-800-233-6357
or
send
to
After some discussion, Epstein said he
Bose Express Music, NYER, 50 W. 17th St NYC, NY 10011
that General Marshall is not going to
would simply type in the words "the
support him on this," I said. "Let's
Jewish State," and he finished reading
forget Wednesday. We're not seeking
the draft. I asked him to be sure the
WOODBUILT
a formal retraction of what the General
letter explicitly referred to the Novem-
Hardware kits to build your own
said. The President doesn't care
ber 29th U.N. resolution. The docu-
swing and slide sets. For a free
catalog call or write:
whether he supports this now or never.
ment ended with a. minor rhetorical
WoodBuilt
One Parker Place
If you can get him simply to say that he
flourish, which we worked out over the
P.O. Box 92 JJ1
will not oppose this, that's all the Pres-
telephone together: "With full knowl-
Janesville. WI 53547-0092
(800) 475-5051 Ext. JJ1
ident would need."
edge of the deep bond of sympathy
There was a brief pause at the other
which has existed and has been
end of the line. "Let me see what I can
strengthened over the past thirty years
PAUL REST
FINE ART
do" was all that Lovett said in reply.
between the Government of the United
Even without a clear signal from
Russell Chatham
States and the Jewish people of Pales-
Lovett and Marshall, I felt, we had to
tine, I have been authorized by the
Landscape Art
707-823-1823
800-333-9ART
set in motion the machinery for recog-
Fax: 707-823-9338
provisional government of the new.
8463 Peachland Avenue
Sebastopol, California 95472
nition, in the event that a favorable
state to tender this message and to
By Appointment Only
68
express the hope that your govern-
statement. I wanted to increase the
will probably put our diplomatic mis-
ment will recognize and will welcome
pressure on State. In a friendly but firm
sions and consular representatives in
the new state into the community of
manner, Lovett continued to argue
personal jeopardy."
nations."
against recognition. Delay, he said,
"Speed is essential to preëmpt the
Epstein handed the letter to his press
was essential. Delay, I said, was the
Russians," I replied. I reminded him
aide, Harry Zinder, and told him to
equivalent of non-recognition in the
that he and Marshall had been express-
take it to my office immediately. As I
explosive conditions that existed at that
ing great concern lest the Soviet Union
was anxiously waiting for it, Epstein
moment in the Middle East.
take advantage of indecision on our
got word on his shortwave radio that
Less than four hours remained be-
part to gain a toehold in the area. "And
the new state would be called Israel.
fore the new nation would be pro-
a one-day delay will become two days,
He immediately sent a second aide after
claimed. I picked my way carefully
three days, and so on," I said.
Zinder to change the letter. Two
through the conversation, so as not to
Lovett could see that our position
blocks from the White House, Zinder,
provoke State into seeking any further
was absolutely firm. If the State De-
sitting in an automobile, crossed out
delay. "The President was impressed,
partment did not change its attitude,
with a pen the words "the Jewish
as I was, by your argument, but at six
the feared explosion between the Presi-
State," and replaced them with "the
o'clock tonight, without action by us,
dent and Marshall could not be avert-
State of Israel.' Zinder then brought it
there will be no internationally recog-
ed. Marshall simply had to back down.
to my office. That was how I learned
nized government or authority in Pal-
"It is impossible to time our messages
the name of the new state.
estine," I said. "A number of people
to arrive in so many distant capitals
With Epstein's letter in hand, Niles
have advised the President that this
when we still don't know when the
and I began drafting the reply, check-
should not be permitted. The President
final decision will be made," Lovett
ing with State on technical details.
wishes to take action on recognition."
said, somewhat weakly. He again sug-
Niles also checked with, of all people,
Lovett had still not given up. "Inde-
gested a one-day delay.
Ben Cohen, who thus found himself on
cent haste in recognizing the new state
I replied, "We have the formal re-
both sides of the first official exchange
would be unfortunate for the very rea-
quest from the Jewish Agency, and the
between the United States and Israel.
sons that I mentioned on Wednesday,"
President will make the final decision
However, there was still no word from
he said. "Please get the President to
this afternoon." On this ambiguous
either Lovett or Marshall. In the late
delay for a day or so." He went on to
note, our lunch-friendly in tone, ad-
morning, unable to contain my concern
question the urgency I attached to the
versarial in content-ended, and I re-
and tension, I called Lovett again and
issue. "It is hard for me to believe that
turned to the White House still uncer-
said we should move to resolve the mat-
one day could make so much differ-
tain whether Lovett could "deliver"
ter. In response, Lovett suggested that
ence," he said. "There will be a tre-
Marshall.
we meet for lunch at a small, pri-
mendous reaction. in the Arab world.
The President viewed my lunch as a
vate club he belonged to-the F Street
We might lose the effects of many years
sign that Lovett was trying to lead
Club, not far from the White House.
of hard work with the Arabs. We will
Marshall and his colleagues out of
The lunch with Lovett was a remark-
lose our position with Arab leaders. It
their bunker a step at a time by al-
able example of the
lowing me to reject
way we were operat-
their arguments one
ing. With time liter-
by one, partly in the
ally slipping away,
name of the Presi-
Lovett and I func-
dent. If Lovett want-
tioned in a sort of
ed me to play the
never-never land:
heavy in this minuet,
while we calmly and
I was more than will-
professionally dis-
ing. If Lovett was
cussed technical as-
trying to get himself
pects of the decision,
and the State Depart-
we continued to dis-
ment off the hook by
agree profoundly
saying that the deci-
over whether or not
sion was dictated by
the recognition
domestic politics, I
should be offered at
thought that not dis-
all. Lovett's ability to
puting the point was
function effectively
an acceptable price
on such murky ter-
for us at the White
rain was one of the
House to pay to get
reasons that I re-
the job done. The on-
spected him so much.
ly important thing,
I had brought with
with time running
me Epstein's request
out, was to get it done
for recognition, our
Victoria
proposed reply, and
Roberts
quickly.
Around 4 P.M.,
a draft Presidential
"Cactus leaves, chayote squash, or tomatillos?"
Lovett made the tele-
70
MARCH 25, 1991
phone call I had waited so long to
the floor of the General Assembly and
recognize Israel, as the President had
receive. "Clark," he said, "I think we
told him what was about to happen.
hoped and wanted. (The Soviet Union
have something we can work with. I
Stunned by the news, Austin decided
followed suit three days later.) The
have talked to the General. He cannot
not to return to the General Assembly
struggle with Marshall, Lovett, For-
support the President's position, but he
floor, in order to signal that he had not
restal, and the entire foreign-policy
has agreed that he will not oppose it."
known in advance of the President's
establishment had been contained-but
"God, that's good news," I replied.
decision. Instead, he got into his car
only barely.
I was truly thrilled. I thanked Lovett
and went home. His colleagues in the
Lovett never told me exactly what
for his efforts, and asked if he could get
American delegation, thinking that
had passed between him and Marshall
Marshall to call the President directly
Austin had simply gone to the wash-
in those last two days. From what he
with the news. Lovett said he would
room, continued to round up votes for
did tell me, I concluded that he had
try. Marshall never did make the call
trusteeship.
finally sat down alone with Marshall
himself-I assume that doing so would
Just after 6 P.M., I walked hurriedly
on Friday and said, in effect, that,
have been too painful for him-but
past the White House press corps,
having argued their position, they had
Lovett confirmed Marshall's position
lounging on the worn sofas in the lobby
an obligation to accept the President's
directly with the President a few min-
of the West Wing, to the office of the
policy or resign, and that this issue did
utes later. As Lovett called the Presi-
President's press secretary, Charlie
not merit resignation. Although Mar-
dent, I called Epstein and told him, in
Ross. Impatient to be told that there
shall never forgave me, these events did
strict confidence, the good news.
would be no more news that day, the
nothing to impair my personal relations
Only thirty minutes remained before
reporters wondered what story they
with Lovett. In fact, the curious com-
the announcement would be made in
were waiting for at such a late hour.
bination of disagreement over sub-
Tel Aviv. The American segment of
Handing Ross a piece of paper, I asked
stance and collaboration to resolve the
the drama was now coming to its cli-
him to gather the press as quickly as
crisis had forged stronger and closer
max in three places simultaneously:
possible. At 6:11 P.M., Ross read aloud
bonds between us. Lovett remained ad-
the mini-command center in my office;
to them the following message:
amant for the rest of his life, however,
the State Department; and the floor of
Statement by the President. This Gov-
in his view that the President and I had
the United Nations General Assembly,
ernment has been informed that a Jewish
been wrong. So did most of his col-
then at Flushing Meadow, New York.
state has been proclaimed in Palestine
leagues. Nothing could ever convince
I thought the issue was finally
The United States recognizes the provi-
him, Marshall, Acheson, Forrestal, or
behind us. But then, to my astonish-
sional government as the de-facto authority
Rusk that President Truman had made
ment, Lovett called to suggest another
of the new State of Israel.
the right decision. But never once, in
delay. Would the President agree to
Back at the United Nations, the
these forty-plus years, have I wavered
defer any action until after the General
situation unravelled. Totally unaware
in the conviction that what Harry Tru-
Assembly adjourned, around ten that
of the White House announcement, the
man did was correct. Under our system,
night?
delegates continued to debate trustee-
political considerations are present in
Saying I would check with the Pres-
ship status for Palestine. Suddenly, a
every important decision a President
ident, I waited approximately three
rumor swept the floor: the United
makes, but in this case they were not
minutes, and then I called Lovett back
States had recognized the Jewish state.
the central or driving factor. The
to say that delay was out of the ques-
The New York Times reported the
charge that domestic politics deter-
tion. It was about five-forty, and the
next morning, "The first reaction was
mined our policy on Palestine angered
State Department had run out of time
that someone was making a terrible
President Truman for the rest of his
and ideas. I was not about to see the
joke, and some diplomats broke into
life. I shared his feeling; it implied that
United States delay recognition for
skeptical laughs." In the ensuing cha-
the President and those Americans who
technical reasons.
os, American delegates had to physical-
supported the Zionists were somehow
But one last, suitably bizarre scene
ly restrain the enraged Cuban delegate
acting in opposition to our nation's
was still to be played out. At five-forty-
when he tried to march to the dais to
interests.
five, I called Dean Rusk to ask him to
withdraw his nation from the world
What would have happened if Presi-
inform Ambassador Warren Austin,
assembly.
dent Truman had not acted as he did?
the head of our delegation at the U.N.,
History does not allow us to test alter-
that the White House would announce
T
HOUGH it had been a near-run
natives, but in my view American rec-
recognition of Israel right after 6 P.M.
thing, the deed had been done.
ognition and the American support
I realized as I talked to Rusk that
The United States had been the first to
that followed were vital in helping
Lovett had not yet told him that the
Israel survive. Had the United States
decision had been made. He reacted as
continued to support trusteeship status
if he had been stung. "This cuts di-
for Palestine, Israel's condition at birth
rectly across what our delegation has
would have been infinitely more pre-
been trying to accomplish in the Gen-
carious. In the war that ensued, the
eral Assembly, and we have a large
Israelis would have been at an addi-
majority for it," he said testily.
tional disadvantage if we had contin-
"Nevertheless, Dean," I replied,
ued to support trusteeship, as the State
"this is what the President wishes you
Department had wanted. Emboldened
to do."
by weaker American support for Israel,
Reluctantly, Rusk called Austin off
ERNST
the Arabs might have been more suc-
THE NEW Y.ORKER
71
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36
ANNALS OF GOVERNMENT
SERVING THE PRESIDENT
THE TRUMAN YEARS-II
I'
N October of 1945, Dr. Franc Mc-
that way ever since about water, but I
with which he conveyed it. Churchill
Cluer, the president of Westmin-
have learned that it can be made pal-
did not know if he would ever be
ster College, in Fulton, Missouri,
atable by the addition of some whis-
returned to office, but he wanted to
read that Winston Churchill, who had
key." Like everyone, I had heard of
warn the world, and especially the
been out of office since July, was plan-
Churchill's reputation as a drinker, but
United States, about the dangers of
ning to visit the United States early in
it was my impression that he drank
Stalinism, just as he had warned the
1946. McCluer, whose odd-shaped
very slowly, nursing a single drink for
world in the nineteen-thirties about
head had earned him the nickname
hours.
Hitler. He knew that his only influence
Bullet, asked his old Westminster
As we relaxed on the sofas and easy
lay in the power of his words, and he
classmate Harry Vaughan, who had
chairs in the President's private car,
intended this speech to take its place
become President Harry Truman's
President Truman turned to his guest
alongside the wartime speeches with
military aide, to get the President to
and said, "Now, Mr. Churchill, we are
which he had rallied Britain in its
endorse an invitation to Churchill to
going to be together on this train for
moments of supreme peril.
speak at Westminster College.
some time. I don't want to rest on
President Truman had been in office
The President considered Churchill
formality, so I would ask you to call me
less than a year. He was torn between a
"the first citizen of the world." But he
Harry."
growing anger at and distrust of the
hardly knew him, having spent only
Bowing his head slightly and grace-
Soviet Union and a residual hope that
nine days with him at the Potsdam
fully, Churchill replied, "I would be
he could still work with Stalin. Just
Conference, in the summer of 1945,
delighted to call you Harry. But you
days before we boarded the train for
before Churchill, defeated in the Brit-
must call me Winston."
Fulton, Secretary of the Navy James
ish elections, left the conference.
The President said, "I just don't
Forrestal had circulated to senior offi-
Wanting to get to know him better,
know if I can do that. I have such
cials and military officers a lengthy
President Truman wrote, "This is a
admiration for you and what you mean,
telegram from the American Embassy
wonderful school in my home state.
not only to your people but to this
in Moscow warning that the Soviet
Hope you can do it. I'll introduce you."
country and the world."
Union, out of a combination of insecu-
Although those of us on the Presi-
Churchill, smiling broadly, settled
rity and age-old ambitions, would be a
dent's staff-I had just begun service
the matter: "Yes, you can. You must,
dangerous and destabilizing element in
as the President's acting naval aide-
or else I will not be able to call you
the postwar world. The message,
did not know it, Churchill harbored
Harry."
which was to become known as the
deep reservations about President Tru-
And President Truman, clearly
Long Telegram, was probably the most
man, and, in his own later words,
pleased, agreed, saying, "Well, if you
important, and most influential, mes-
"loathed the idea of [Truman] taking
put it that way, Winston, I will call
sage ever sent to Washington by an Am-
the place of Franklin Roosevelt." But
you Winston."
erican diplomat. Its author, George F.
for some time he had wanted to make a
Churchill soon asked to be excused
Kennan, was soon to become famous.
major speech summing up his view of
in order to work on his speech. His
Forrestal circulated the Long Tele-
the world, and especially of the grow-
approach to speechwriting was in di-
gram widely among his friends in
ing Soviet threat. What better auspices
rect contrast to that of almost every
Washington, and sent it to several
for such a dramatic statement than a
American politician I have known. For
hundred senior American military of-
speech introduced by the President of
one thing, he wrote each speech himself
ficers around the world.
the United States? He accepted at once,
-something increasingly rare even
Secretary of State James Byrnes had
and President Truman invited him
then in American politics. He attached
read a draft of Churchill's speech the
to travel between Washington and
the greatest importance not only to his
day before the train left Washington
Fulton on the Presidential train-a
general theme but to the exact words
and had briefed President Truman on
journey that would allow them several
its contents. The President had said he
days of close contact.
would not read the final text, in order
As soon as the train pulled out of
to be able to say later that he had not
Union Station, on March 4, 1946, the
endorsed or approved it in advance.
President had drinks served to his
Yet when Churchill's press aide handed
guests. Churchill, as was his wont,
out the final version of the speech to
drank Scotch with water but no ice, for
reporters on the train the night be-
he viewed adding ice as a barbaric
fore it was delivered the White House
American custom. Holding his drink,
staff also got copies. Reading it, I was
he leaned back and said, "When I was
deeply impressed by its sweep and its
in South Africa as a young man, the
sense of history. As for President Tru-
water was not fit to drink. I have felt
J.Capa
man, despite his earlier decision he
37
found he could not resist reading it.
It was a brilliant and admirable
statement, he told Churchill, and
would "create quite a stir." But it
presented the President with a dilem-
ma. He was not yet ready to endorse
Churchill's view that we were entering
an era of relentless confrontation with
Moscow, even though his presence on
the platform with Churchill certainly
appeared to imply an endorsement. Still
hoping to keep channels of communi-
cation open with Stalin, the President
instructed me to put into his introduc-
tion of Churchill some positive words
about Stalin which might have that
effect.
After working on his speech that
first evening on the train, Churchill
rejoined us for drinks and dinner. Dur-
ing dinner, he turned to President
Truman and said the magic words:
"Harry, I understand from the press
Shanaha
that you like to play poker."
"That's correct, Winston. I have
played a great deal of poker in my life."
"I am delighted to hear it. You
know, I played my first poker game
during the Boer War. I like poker-a
Churchill was enthusiastic, and proud
what you want. You want us to play
fine game. Do you think there is any
of his poker skills, but he was not very
customer poker, O.K., we can carry
possibility that we might play it during
good at the game. I learned later that
him along all evening. If you want us
this trip?"
when he played his own card games in
to give it our best, we'll have his un-
"Winston, the fellows around you
England, such as gin rummy and be-
derwear."
are all poker players, serious poker
zique, he was excellent. But in poker,
President Truman smiled. "I don't
players, and we would be delighted to
with its bluffs, and the value of decep-
want him to think we are pushovers,
provide you with a game."
tion, and a certain code with which we
but, at the same time, let's not treat him
A few minutes later, with dinner
were all familiar, he was, so to speak, a
badly."
over, Churchill excused himself for a
lamb among wolves. In addition, his
Those were our ground rules for the
moment. As soon as he left, the Presi-
terminology for the cards was foreign
rest of the trip. Churchill "won" some
dent turned to us and said, in total
to us, and required constant clarifica-
splendid pots, lost some others. At one
seriousness, "Men, we have an impor-
tion, which only increased our advan-
point, I dropped out of a hand of stud
tant task ahead of us. This man has
tage. He called a straight a "sequence"
poker, and noticed that Charlie Ross,
been playing poker for more than forty
and a jack a "knave"-a bit of British
who was sitting next to me, had an ace
years. He is cagey, he loves cards, and
terminology that amused Harry
showing and an ace in the hole. I
is probably an excellent player. The
Vaughan so much that he could hardly
watched Ross raise Churchill and raise
reputation of American poker is at
keep from laughing aloud.
him again. Churchill, with only a jack
stake, and I expect every man to do his
After about an hour, Churchill ex-
showing, stayed right with him. Then,
duty."
cused himself briefly. The moment the
at the end, Churchill bet a substantial
Churchill returned to the dining
door closed, President Truman turned
amount of money, perhaps a hundred
room dressed in his famous Second
to us with a grave expression and said,
dollars, right into this ace. Charlie
World War zippered blue siren suit,
"Now, look here, men-you are not
studied what he knew had to be a
which I thought looked a bit like a
treating our guest very well." He
winning hand, looked over at the Pres-
bunny suit. The stewards had put
looked at Churchill's dwindling stack
ident, gave what I thought sounded
green baize over the dining-room table,
of chips. "I fear that he may have
like a sigh, and folded.
and six of us-the President; Chur-
already lost close to three hundred dol-
Finally, however, as the evening was
chill; Charlie Ross, the President's
lars."
drawing to a close, we moved in a little
press secretary; Harry Vaughan; Gen-
Vaughan looked at his friend of thir-
on our guest. When the dust had settled
eral Wallace Graham, the President's
ty years and laughed. "But, Boss, this
and we tallied up, Churchill had lost
physician; and I-sat down for the
guy's a pigeon! If you want us to play
about two hundred and fifty dollars. He
most memorable poker game I have
our best poker for the nation's honor,
had enjoyed himself thoroughly, but he
ever played in.
we'll have this guy's pants before the
had dropped just enough money so that
The truth emerged quickly.
evening is over. Now, you just tell us
he could not go back to London and, as
38
Vaughan put it, "brag to his Limey
HOUSE
friends that he had beaten the Ameri-
cans at poker."
Where it should have been there were only memories.
At Fulton we were greeted by Bullet
They liked it anyhow and lived there. For them
McCluer, all puffed up for his big day.
The moment it fell down was the moment it lifted up:
I found the entire scene at Fulton
Livable-in at last.
immensely exciting. In a small town in
A pantry full of regrets. A garden
my home state, the greatest statesman
Planned out in the shape of a plan, lush
of our age was about to make a historic
With What-might-have-been and O-if-only;
speech. We filed into the gymnasium
A folly where
on fine afternoons
and onto its stage in academic proces-
And the parties they threw there then, or rather
sion, Churchill dramatic in scarlet
Imagined themselves throwing, who had never been
robes, President Truman less impos-
Much for parties, but "Better late than
" and the rest
ing, robed in black. In front of us lay a
Of the phrase lost in laughter. Love bloomed
remarkable scene-a small-town con-
In the nonexistent parlor; the piano
vocation in a gymnasium decked out
That never was was closed, suddenly,
with bunting, waiting with polite an-
By the woman who looked at her hands so as not to see
ticipation to hear a speech that many of
The face of the young man who knelt at her side,
us fully expected to be of historic im-
Enrapt. Impossible ever to know
portance. The big windows of the
If it was the sunlight which had faded those curtains
gymnasium were open to let the warm
So slowly that no one had seen, or whether
spring air circulate. Professors in their
They had been wrong about the color from the start.
academic robes, young clean-cut stu-
-LAURA MULLEN
dents, and well-dressed townspeople
were all squeezed together on wooden
bleachers. Thrilled by the worldwide
central and eastern Europe-Warsaw,
lar understanding of the Russian
attention, the entire population of
Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Bucha-
threat. But the initial reaction to the
Fulton, as well as thousands of people
rest, and Sofia. All these famous cities and
the populations around them lie in what I
speech was divided, and editorial and
from the surrounding area, turned out,
might call the Soviet sphere, and are all
public comment was, in his biographer
filling all twenty-seven hundred seats
subject, in one form or another, not only to
Martin Gilbert's phrase, "almost uni-
in the gymnasium and spreading onto
Soviet influence but to a very high and in
versally hostile."
the green outside to listen to the speech,
some cases increasing measure of control
from Moscow.
President Truman gave considerable
which was broadcast nationwide on the
attention to the distinction between his
radio.
As I heard Churchill proclaim those
relationship with Churchill and his
I was seated almost directly behind
words, in his peculiar, rumbling ca-
reaction to the speech, which he ad-
the rostrum. After the President deliv-
dence, I felt their force much more
mired, but whose message he was not
ered a warm introduction, Churchill
strongly than I had when I read the
yet ready to embrace. The President
rose, put on his heavy glasses, and
text the day before. But none of us
recognized the power and the insight
began to speak. He spoke for forty-five
realized then that a new phrase had
of Churchill's speech and also of
minutes-a long speech by present-day
entered the English language. Indeed,
Kennan's Long Telegram, but he still
standards-but the audience was mes-
the next day's newspaper coverage fo-
hoped that the Cold War-a phrase
merized. Churchill's grand theme was
cussed more on Churchill's call for clos-
not yet in vogue-could be avoided.
that the United States now stood at
er Anglo-American coöperation than
"the pinnacle of world power." It was
on his description of the Soviet Union.
D
URING a staff meeting on July 12,
a "solemn moment" for the nation,
There is a natural tendency to sim-
1946, the President began discuss-
"for with this primacy in power is also
plify history-to give it a more coher-
ing his growing frustration with Soviet
joined an awe-inspiring accountability
ent pattern than a detailed examination
behavior. "The Russians are trying to
to the future." He turned to the ques-
of the facts warrants. The Fulton
chisel away a little here, a little there,"
tion of tyranny: "A shadow has fallen
speech is now treated as revelation and
he said, and, referring to a twenty-one-
upon the scenes so lately lighted by the
prophecy by Churchill, a turning point
nation peace conference in Paris at the
Allied victory. Nobody knows what
in the evolution of policy and of popu-
end of the month which was supposed to
Soviet Russia and its Communist inter-
forge a unified position on a peace treaty
national organization intend to do in
with Germany, he went on: "If the Paris
the immediate future, or what are the
conference busts up, I want to be ready to
limits, if any, to their expansive and
reveal to the whole world the full truth
proselytizing tendencies." Then came
about the Russian failure to honor agree-
the words that became part of the his-
ments." Then, turning to me-I had by
tory of our times:
now been named special counsel-the
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in
President asked that I produce a record
the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended
of Soviet violations of international
across the Continent. Behind that line lie
agreements.
all the capitals of the ancient states of
From the outset, I was aware of the
39
importance of this assignment, yet I
knew I couldn't complete it and also
carry out my other duties without as-
sistance. Fortunately, the perfect per-
MATE
son to help me was already in place. As
always, I turned with confidence to
George M. Elsey, my only aide, who
had spent four years observing the re-
lationship among the wartime Allies
from the secret confines of the Roose-
velt Map Room.
The President had asked only for a
review of those agreements which the
Soviet Union had broken, but as I
discussed the assignment with Elsey we
decided to suggest a different process.
We agreed that Kennan's Long Tele-
gram was brilliant, but Kennan had
confined himself to analysis. Elsey sug-
gested that we try to fill the gap be-
tween Kennan's analysis and policy
recommendations by assembling the
views of the senior officials most con-
cerned with American policy toward
the Soviet Union, to see what consen-
sus, if any, existed. On July 16th, I
proposed this procedure to the Presi-
Clark Clifford submitted his monumen-
gested a new foreign policy for the
dent, and he immediately authorized
tal top-secret report on our relations with
United States:
me to expand the scope of the project,
Russia. This should be an extremely valu-
able source book. Only twenty copies have
asking only that its completion not be
The primary objective of United States
been prepared.
policy is to convince Soviet leaders that it
delayed.
At about seven o'clock the next
is in the Soviet interest to participate in a
I did not realize it at the time, but I
morning, my telephone rang at home.
system of world cooperation.
had received permission to begin what
I was surprised to hear President Tru-
Until Soviet leaders abandon their ag-
turned out to be the first peacetime
gressive policies
the United States must
man on the other end of the line. "I
assume that the U.S.S.R. may at any time
interagency foreign-policy review of
stayed up very late last night reading
embark on a course of expansion effected
U.S.-Soviet relations. Within two
your report," he began. "Powerful
by open warfare and therefore must main-
years, a formal National Security
stuff."
tain sufficient military strength to restrain
the Soviet Union.
Council system and a national-security
"Thank you, Mr. President."
The United States should seek, by cul-
assistant would coördinate such studies.
"Clark, how many copies of this
tural, intellectual, and economic inter-
But in 1946 the National Security
memorandum do you have?"
change, to demonstrate to the Soviet Union
Council did not exist and the President
"Twenty," I replied.
that we have no aggressive intentions and
turned to his special counsel.
that peaceable coexistence of Capitalism
"Have any been distributed yet?"
and Communism is possible.
Elsey and I drew up a short list of
"No, sir. They are all in my safe at
people whose views we would solicit:
the office."
Today, these sentences may seem a
Admiral William D. Leahy, who spoke
"Well, please come down to your
self-evident summation of the policy
for the Joint Chiefs of Staff; James
office now, and get all twenty copies. I
followed by the nine Presidents from
Byrnes and Dean Acheson at State;
want them delivered to me at once."
Harry Truman to George Bush. But
Secretary of War Robert Patterson;
The President offered no explanation
in 1946 they were new. Others had
Forrestal; Attorney General Tom
for his surprising instructions, but I set
warned of the Soviet threat, but no
Clark; and the former Central Intelli-
out for the White House immediately,
one had previously proposed a compre-
gence Group director Sidney Souers.
got all twenty copies out of my safe, and
hensive American response to the
We made special use of George
took them to the President. "I read
Soviet challenge. Our summation in-
Kennan, who had returned to Wash-
your report with care last night," he
dicated where we felt American policy
ington, and, finally, we consulted
said. "It is very valuable to me. But if it
should go:
Charles Bohlen, Kennan's close friend
leaked it would blow the roof off the
In conclusion, as long as the Soviet
and colleague in the Soviet field.
White House, it would blow the roof
Union adheres to its present policy, the
On September 24th, I handed the
off the Kremlin. We'd have the most
United States should maintain military
President a printed and hardbound
forces powerful enough to restrain the So-
serious situation on our hands that has
viet Union and to confine Soviet influence
copy of our top-secret report, entitled
yet occurred in my Administration."
to its present area. All nations not now
simply "American Relations with the
What was in this report that caused
within the Soviet sphere should be given
Soviet Union." Ross noted in his jour-
it to disappear after a day? In three
generous economic assistance and political
support in their opposition to Soviet pene-
nal the next day:
sentences near the beginning we sug-
tration. Economic aid may also be given to
40
be undertaken un-
less the President
was ready to exert
strong leadership. I
knew that the Presi-
dent understood the
danger posed by the
Soviet Union, and
that in the near fu-
ture he would step
up to the challenge.
However, the last
few months of 1946
was not the time to
begin the process of,
in the words of our
report, insuring that
"the American peo-
ple
be fully in-
formed about the
difficulties in get-
ting along with the
Soviet Union.' I
urged Forrestal to
be more patient, but
patience was not one
of his strong suits,
AFTER A FIERCE STRUGGLE, ROBIN
and he continued to
press his case.
AGREED TO RELINQUISH POSSESSION
The electoral di-
OF THE REMOTE CONTROL.
saster of 1946, in
which the Republi-
cans gained control
of both the House
the Soviet Government and private trade
men who contributed to our report and
and the Senate, changed the situation
with the U.S.S.R. permitted
Even
fashioned policy in the late nineteen-
dramatically. Although we did not re-
though Soviet leaders profess to believe
that the conflict between Capitalism and
forties, I believe, we would have been
alize it at the time, it turned out to be
Communism is irreconcilable and must
unprepared for the Soviet thrust into
easier to fashion a bipartisan foreign
eventually be resolved by the triumph of
Eastern Europe, and our lack of pre-
policy with a coalition of Republicans
the latter, it is our hope that they will
paredness would have encouraged Sta-
and conservative Democrats than with
change their minds and work out with us a
fair and equitable settlement when they
lin to press further.
just the Democrats, for the Democrats
realize that we are too strong to be beaten
It was a short step from the report to
were still divided between liberals and
and too determined to be frightened.
the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall
conservatives, neither of whom trusted
The report gave President Truman
Plan, and George Kennan's famous
President Truman. To a surprising ex-
a precise picture of what the Adminis-
"X" article the following year. Anyone
tent, these foreign-policy alliances across
tration's senior officials were thinking
who played a role, even a small one, in
party lines continued for forty years.
in that critical year, when our nation
the formulation of those policies, which
On February 21, 1947, I was alone
was suspended between the end of the
represented the triumph of internation-
with President Truman for our usual
Second World War and the beginning
alism in America, has a right to say
end-of-the-day discussion when Dean
of the Cold War. For the most part,
proudly, in Dean Acheson's grand
Acheson called from the State Depart-
they were far ahead of the American
phrase, that he was "present at the
ment to inform him that the British
public in recognizing the dangers posed
creation."
government could no longer afford to
by the Soviet Union. Most of them
supply assistance to Greece and Tur-
supported a comprehensive policy of
I
HAD breakfast regularly with
key, both of which were threatened by
resistance to Soviet expansionism long
James Forrestal, the Secretary of
Communist expansion and revolution
before the formulation of the Truman
the Navy, at his beautiful house in
in the region. It was clear to me from
Doctrine. Although the President felt
Georgetown. At almost every break-
listening to the President's end of the
that it was too early to tell the public
fast, he urged me to encourage the
conversation that he was prepared for
how serious the Soviet threat was, the
President to take a more active stand
suggestions from Acheson to offer
report helped prepare him for the chal-
against the Soviet Union. I agreed with
Greece and Turkey substantial aid-as
lenge of the following year. If it had
Forrestal's strategic assessment, but I
much as four hundred million dollars,
not been for the farsightedness of the
told him such an effort could not
a staggering sum then, totalling about
42
one per cent of a federal budget of about
in an era in which we committed our-
and die. Let me think about it a little."
forty billion dollars.
selves in peacetime to continuous and
A day or so later we returned to the
Acheson's first set of recommenda-
active leadership in international af-
subject. "I've decided to give the whole
tions arrived at the White House early
fairs:
thing to General Marshall," the Presi-
the following week. He saw an oppor-
dent said. "The worst Republican on
tunity to create a policy that went far
I believe that it must be the policy of the
United States to support free peoples who
the Hill can vote for it if we name it
beyond Greece and Turkey. But, wise
are resisting attempted subjugation by
after the General." This exchange
in the ways of Washington, he did not
armed minorities or by outside pressures.
taught me a great lesson. Whatever my
unveil his long-range objective until he
I believe that we must assist free people
to work out their own destinies in their
intention, I had been wrong, I realized,
could get a clear picture of the degree
own way.
to propose that the program be named
of Presidential commitment and of
I believe that our help should be primar-
after President Truman. It would have
congressional sentiment.
ily through economic and financial aid
weakened a program of immense his-
The answers to both questions began
which is essential to economic stability and
orderly political processes.
torical importance. I was reminded of
to emerge later in the week. In a crucial
the old aphorism "There is no limit to
meeting with congressional leaders on
The Truman Doctrine, as it came to
what a man can accomplish if he
February 27th, the President, General
be called, took more than forty years to
doesn't care who gets the credit."
George C. Marshall, who had replaced
succeed, was often controversial and
Marshall gave the speech at the Har-
Byrnes as Secretary of State, and Ache-
expensive, and was at times misapplied
vard commencement on June 5, 1947.
son outlined the need to give large-
-most notably in Vietnam. But a ma-
Today, the phrase "Marshall Plan"
scale assistance to Greece and Turkey.
jor war with the Soviet Union was
has become synonymous with a massive
I did not attend this meeting, which
avoided during a dangerous half centu-
aid program to deal with a crisis. Time
has been described by many of its par-
ry, and by 1989 it was clear that the
and again, "a new Marshall Plan" is
ticipants, but afterward President Tru-
Cold War, as we knew it, was over.
suggested to deal with some critical
man told me that the Republicans, led
This was the direct, if long-delayed,
area of the world, or with some perva-
by Senator Arthur Vandenberg, of
result of the policies laid out in 1947 by
sive problem, such as drugs. But there
Michigan, had shown willingness to
President Truman and followed, de-
will never be another Marshall Plan.
support a request for such aid if, and
spite all the political controversies at
The conditions that led up to it and
only if, President Truman personally
home, by every one of his successors.
made it successful cannot be re-created,
argued the case for such aid, and linked
No President could wish for a grander
and the scope of it defies modern bud-
it explicitly to the survival of the West-
legacy.
gets. It was sixteen per cent of the
ern world.
Later that spring, another important
federal budget-an inconceivable pro-
Watching President Truman tackle
document was being drafted in the
portion today, when defense spending
this challenge, I felt he had come a
State Department, outlining a program
and interest on the national debt alone
long way since the loss of Congress to
for massive economic assistance to war-
take up nearly forty per cent.
the Republicans barely four months
torn Europe. Watching this speech
The most wonderful part of the story
earlier. Now he seemed ready for what
take shape in mid-May, I knew that it
of the Marshall Plan is that it worked.
Senator Vandenberg told him was his
would be one of the most important
Winston Churchill called it "a turning
"date with destiny." He was willing,
programs ever undertaken by an Amer-
point in the history of the world."
he told me, to "lay it on the line" with
ican government in peacetime. I sug-
Arnold Toynbee wrote, "It was not the
the American people. He did not spend
gested to the President that he deliver
discovery of atomic energy, but the
time, as most Presidents would have,
the speech himself, and that we name
solicitude of the world's most privi-
studying "options papers." He simply
his proposal the Truman Formula, or
leged people for its less privileged
wanted to see a speech draft before
the Truman Concept, or the Truman
[that] will be remembered as the signal
making a final decision.
Plan.
achievement of our age."
Despite the historic importance of
President Truman smiled wryly at
the speech, it was prepared in much the
my suggestion and shook his head.
same way as routine Presidential
"No," he said. "We have a Republican
GIVEN the way the American gov-
was organized, Presi-
speeches. The State Department pre-
majority in both Houses. Anything go-
dent Truman liked to say, the United
pared the first draft, and the rewriting
ing up there bearing my name will
States was lucky"-to
and "Trumanizing" of it were done
quiver a couple of times, turn belly up,
have won the Second World War.
under my supervision at the White
"We must never fight another war the
House. By the time the final draft was
way we fought the last two," he said to
ready, so many hands had touched it
me in a moment of frustration. "I have
that, despite some claims to the con-
the feeling that if the Army and the
trary, no single person could assert
Navy had fought our enemies as hard
paternity.
as they fought each other the war
The speech was delivered to Con-
would have ended much earlier."
gress on March 12, 1947. Its three
Soon after Truman became Presi-
most memorable sentences ended a
dent, he decided to reorganize not only
century and a half in which American
the armed forces but the entire national-
foreign policy had been, in essence,
security structure. His reforms changed
reactive to specific events, and ushered
forever the way the United States gov-
46
APRIL I, 1991
ernment worked. Consider his achieve-
forces." It also proposed the establish-
troubled woman, was drinking heavily.
ment: in little more than three years,
ment of a single chief of staff, who
Forrestal had left the Catholic Church,
President Truman established the De-
would oversee the commander of "each
and was deeply guilt-ridden. Possess-
partment of Defense, the United States
of the three component branches." The
ing great energy but limited vision, he
Air Force, the Central Intelligence
position of chief of staff would rotate
feared that the creation of a separate
Agency, the National Security Coun-
among the three branches, and possess
Air Force would make the Navy the
cil, the position of chairman of the
genuine command authority. The
odd man out in interservice fights,
Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the first
President's proposal allowed the Navy
overwhelmed by the combination of
foreign-aid agencies. It was as if the
to retain its own aviation. The Presi-
the Air Force and the Army. "We
nation had suddenly made the transi-
dent also agreed, reluctantly, to main-
are fighting for the very life of the
tion from horse-drawn carriages to the
tain the Marine Corps as a separate
Navy," he often told me in those
era of the automobile. When this sur-
military branch within the Navy, in-
early days, when he considered me a
prisingly short period of explosive in-
stead of abolishing it, as both he and
staunch ally.
stitutional creativity came to an end, it
the Army desired. In his heart the
A Senate committee, assisted by two
became almost impossible for the Unit-
President always felt that there was no
senior military officers-Lieutenant
ed States to turn away from global
need for a separate Marine Corps; over
General Lauris Norstad and Vice-
responsibilities, as it had done, with
time, I reached the same conclusion.
Admiral Arthur W. Radford-tried,
such disastrous results, following the
But the political power of the Marine
and failed, to resolve the disagreement
First World War.
Corps was overwhelming, as we both
between the two branches, and between
It was no accident that governmental
learned later. "They have a propagan-
their supporters. The debate dragged
reorganization coincided with the de-
da machine that is almost equal to
on into the spring of 1946. On May
velopment of the Truman Doctrine,
Stalin's," Truman once said.
12th, I told President Truman I had
the Marshall Plan, the North Atlantic
In terms of true integration, the
concluded that the Army's position
Treaty Organization, the technical-
President's proposal went beyond what
might be correct on its merits but was
assistance program known as Point
exists in today's Pentagon. Had his
politically out of reach. Our real
Four, and the policy of containment.
plan been approved in 1945, with some
choice, I said, was either concessions to
These new policies required new ma-
modifications, the Pentagon would
the Navy or no bill at all. To achieve
chinery. Yet it was much easier for
have been a much more efficient and
progress, I urged the President to order
government officials to agree on major
less wasteful organization than it is
Forrestal and Patterson to reach an
policy changes than on governmental
today. But because the Navy and its
agreement as quickly as possible. The
reorganization. Even minor changes
most powerful supporter in the House,
next day, the President called the two
could cause major bureaucratic battles.
"Admiral" Carl Vinson, of Georgia,
men to the Oval Office and told them
Today's national-security structure
were dead set against them, the Presi-
he was tired of their inability to recon-
was not a divinely inspired concept but
dent's December 19th recommenda-
cile their differences. He asked them to
the result of compromises that had to
tions never had a chance.
reach agreement promptly on a "mutu-
be made by President Truman as he
Of all the President's proposals,
ally acceptable plan of unification."
waged a bitter bureaucratic struggle
Forrestal feared most the one recom-
Yet even this Presidential order was
with Congress and many of his own
mending a single chief of staff as com-
inadequate. Two weeks later, the two
civilian and military subor-
mander of all our land, sea,
Secretaries sent the President a joint
dinates. That struggle in-
and air forces. He regard-
letter listing four areas of continuing
volved numerous friends and
ed it as an Army plot,
disagreement. "We regret our inability
close colleagues of mine, and
spearheaded by General Ei-
to bridge completely the gap between
ended tragically for one of
senhower, and he set out to
us," they said-a huge understatement.
the men to whom I was then
fight it. He called the Presi-
When I presented this letter to the
closest, James Forrestal.
dent's proposal "completely
President, he all but snorted in annoy-
President Truman began
unworkable," and told me
ance and contempt. The four disagree-
the struggle by proposing
that it would be impossible
ments, the President observed, were
nothing less than the most
for him and senior Navy of-
over "the basic issues": whether to
radical reorganization of our
ficers to testify in favor of it.
establish a separate Air Force; whether
armed forces in the nation's history.
The revolt of the Navy officers
to allow the Navy to retain land-based
On December 19, 1945, he sent to
against the Army plan was understand-
aircraft to support certain naval opera-
Congress a plan drawn up by Secretary
able, but what was driving Jim Forres-
tions; what the role and mission of the
of War Robert Patterson, a request for
tal, who fought even harder than the
Marine Corps should be; and, above
legislation "combining the War and
uniformed Navy to retain its special
all, whether to unify the services under
Navy Departments into one single De-
status? This question came to be asked
a single secretary.
partment of National Defense."
often, by friend and adversary alike, as
Two weeks later, after further dis-
The plan called for the creation of a
the puzzle of this extraordinary figure
cussions with Leahy and me, President
Secretary of National Defense, a senior
grew. Even though he and I were
Truman attempted once more to force
deputy, and three assistant secretaries,
friends, I felt I never understood him,
the issue. I drafted letters, to Patterson,
who would head "coördinated branches
but I could see that by 1946 the Navy
Forrestal, and the congressional lead-
of the Department of National De-
had become almost his entire life. His
ership, in which the President offered
fense: one for the land forces, one for
personal life was unhappy. His wife,
his views on the four points still in
the naval forces, and one for the air
Josephine, a beautiful, difficult, and
dispute. First, he reaffirmed his support
THE NEW YORKER
47
for a single military department and a
During this period, I remained clos-
single Cabinet-level secretary. That
er to Forrestal than to any other official
N
ew, limited-issue
remained his primary goal. But, he
except my old Missouri friend Stuart
coins from the Royal
said, he would agree to allow the civil-
Symington, who had just been appoint-
Canadian Mint
ian chief of each service to retain the
ed Assistant Secretary of War for Air.
title of Secretary, although the chiefs
But a bitterly adversarial relationship
would no longer be full members of the
developed between Symington and
Cabinet. Second, the President reluc-
Forrestal as they defended their respec-
tantly agreed to three services-an Ar-
tive services, and the friction between
them sometimes tested my friendship
100
VOLLAKS
my, a Navy, and an Air Force-and he
dropped the idea of a single chief of
with Forrestal, which was built on
staff. Third, he gave the Navy the
relationships established in government
CANADA
1391
right to retain land-based aircraft. Fi-
service rather than on the sort of deep
The 1991 Commemorative Dollar
nally, recognizing political
personal fellowship that
celebrates the launching of the
reality, he put aside his own
bound me for life to Syming-
SS Frontenac in 1816, the first paddle-
doubts about the need for a
ton. Furthermore, while my
wheel steamboat on the Great Lakes. In
Proof or Brilliant Uncirculated finish.
separate Marine Corps and
original sympathies had been
accepted its retention as a
strongly pro-Navy, and I re-
The 1991 $100 Gold Proof Coin
commemorates the arrival of the Empress
separate entity within the
tained respect and affection
of India at Vancouver in 1891. She was the
Navy, with its own air com-
for Forrestal, I gradually be-
fastest and largest passenger ship on the
ponents.
gan to feel he was showing
Pacific at that time. In Proof finish. Mintage
S
is restricted to 55,000 coins, the lowest
In his letters the President
excessive rigidity.
$100 Gold Coin mintage ever set by the
also called for the creation of a Nation-
Looking back, one can surmise that
Government of Canada for this series.
al Security Council, a Central Intelli-
his extremely emotional behavior, his
Collectors, nautical enthusiasts and his-
gence Agency, an agency for military
rigidity, and his intensity were all signs
tory buffs will appreciate the 1991 Com-
memorative Coins - and they make great
procurement, a national-security-
of mental illness, but at the time this
gifts, too. Available only until 12/31/91.
resources board, a research-and-devel-
possibility was not apparent to me or to
For information and a full-color brochure,
opment agency, and a military-educa-
anyone else. Later, I recalled little
Call 1-800-267-1871, Ext. 192.
tion-and-training agency. This far-
occurrences that I had dismissed at the
Royal Canadian Monnaie royale
sighted set of proposals bears a clear
time as quirks but that appeared omi-
Mint
canadienne
resemblance to the organizations that
nous in retrospect. When Forrestal and
were ultimately created. But at the time
I played golf, for example, he did not
the President's letters did not produce
engage in casual conversation. Instead,
Are you
results-only further argument be-
he practically ran from shot to shot,
in search of
tween Forrestal and Patterson.
pausing only a moment to line up the
In a private talk with me, Forrestal
next effort. On the tennis court, where
a part-time
referred to the Army in bitter and
he was a scrappy competitor, we also
career?
emotional terms. I set up a private
rarely spoke. When he learned of the
Do you have four weeks a year you can
meeting for us with the President.
poker games on the Presidential yacht
set aside to work out of your home?
With tight-lipped grimness, Forrestal
Williamsburg, he asked me to invite
If you would enjoy the opportunity to work
accused the Army of "steamroller tac-
him into the game, and I did, but,
with classic, traditional women's clothing,
then being a Sales Representative for
tics," and said he was totally opposed
because he was unable to relax, like the
THE APPLE BASKET is for you!
to the idea of a single Department of
others around the green table, the Pres-
For further information, please contact
National Defense. Then, for the first
ident never let him become a regular.
THE APPLE BASKET
time, he suggested that he might resign
It wasn't until January 16, 1947,
1382 Old Freeport Road
Pittsburgh, PA 15238
rather than support unification.
that Patterson and Forrestal sent the
(412) 967-0160
Threats to resign often present Pres-
President a joint letter offering the
idents with genuine dilemmas. Letting
first real break in the logjam. The
Forrestal go may have tempted the
Patterson-Forrestal Agreement, as it
President, but it would have enraged
came to be known, was possible only
In San Francisco
the Navy's powerful supporters in
because the Army, at Eisenhower's in-
Just 2 blocks west of
Congress, would have further en-
stigation, dropped its insistence for a
Union Square.
trenched the rest of the Navy, would
single department, and accepted the
Complimentary
have turned Forrestal into a martyr,
creation of a loose organization under
Continental
and would have doomed hope for mili-
the over-all direction of a "Secretary of
Breakfast.
98
tary unification on any basis. The Pres-
California wine
National Defense." The Departments
ident knew this, and began a slow,
each evening.
of the Army, the Navy, and the Air
Home of Fino
patient, and skillful strategy designed
Force would function independently,
Bar & Ristorante.
to move Forrestal as far as possible
and each service secretary would have
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without losing him. The way to deal
the right of direct access to the Presi-
THE ANDREWS HOTEL
with the Navy, he felt, was to nego-
dent. The flaws in this proposal were
624 Post Street, San Francisco, CA 94109
- Call for Brochure -
tiate with Forrestal. It was the right
evident. It left real power in the hands
(800) 227-4742
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50
see the President and dis-
cuss with him what might
be done to improve the
situation."
But before Forrestal
was ready to see the Presi-
dent he convened a series
of evening meetings in his
Pentagon office with
high-level officers. For
the first time, Forrestal
told me, he was finding
that he trusted some se-
nior Army generals more
than his former Navy col-
leagues; Eisenhower and
General Omar Bradley,
in particular, had risen in
"This year I thought I'd go with a cowl neck, for a change."
his estimation. After these
meetings, Forrestal said
he was ready to see the
President.
of National Defense almost no real
creation of the position, Forrestal ac-
The meeting, delayed because of a
authority. But this was the best the
cepted the appointment immediately.
long campaign trip by President Tru-
President could get at the time, and he
He was sworn in as the first Secretary
man, took place on October 5, 1948. It
decided to accept it.
of Defense on September 17, 1947,
was a remarkable moment: Forrestal
The National Security Act of 1947
in an atmosphere of rising Cold
told President Truman that he had
had serious flaws. There was no chair-
War tensions. I think he sensed his di-
been wrong in 1946 and 1947, and that
man of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, so the
lemma as soon as he was offered the
neither he nor anyone else could make
chiefs were left to quarrel among them-
position: he now had to deal with
the existing National Security Act
selves without anyone except the Presi-
the problems he had done so much to
work. He was ready to support its
dent to settle their differences. The
create.
revision. His mood struck me as a
Secretary of Defense had no deputy and
In more than forty-five years in
strange combination of suppressed
almost no staff. Nevertheless, the Pres-
Washington, I know of no more dra-
emotion, courage, and a sense of defeat.
ident felt, and I agreed, that this con-
matic metamorphosis than the one
President Truman accepted For-
stituted an improvement over the sys-
James Forrestal underwent in 1948.
restal's change of heart in a matter-of-
tem with which we had fought the
The process began almost immediately
fact manner, with no gloating. With
Second World War. "Maybe we can
upon his moving to the Pentagon. For-
the election only a month away, For-
strengthen it as time goes by," he said.
restal had to operate under the con-
restal, who had told me he believed
In this hope President Truman was
straints that he himself had insisted on
Thomas E. Dewey's victory in the
prescient. Despite its flaws, the Nation-
-a tiny staff, no deputies, and a very
upcoming election was certain, may
al Security Act of 1947 was by far the
limited mandate. Understaffed and
have regarded his discussions as aca-
biggest single step taken in the creation
overworked, he had to do everything
demic. But the President asked him to
of the present-day national-security
himself, relying on a few talented but
head up a new legislative drafting team,
structure.
also overworked personal aides. As ear-
and ten months later, on August 10,
ly as March, 1948, after a four-day
1949, with Truman reëlected and
I Defense, the the first Secretary of
meeting with the Joint Chiefs of Staff
after another round of arguments be-
President decided to
in Key West, Forrestal asked the Pres-
tween the White House and Congress
name the man who had been most
ident to issue an executive order modi-
and, as usual, the Navy, the present
opposed to the creation of the position,
fying his original instructions.
Department of Defense came into ex-
and had succeeded in weakening it-
In our regular private breakfasts,
istence.
James Forrestal. It was a brilliant tac-
Forrestal began to express increasing
tical decision, and one that had a pro-
frustration at his inability to do his job.
J
AMES FORRESTAL'S legacy to the
found effect on the future of the Penta-
Then, in the summer of 1948, less than
nation also included the creation of
gon. The President's motive in
ten months after taking office, he made
the National Security Council, al-
choosing Forrestal was simple: if For-
a startling statement to me. "Clark,"
though not in the form he originally
restal remained Secretary of the Navy,
he said, "I was wrong. I cannot make
wanted. He had long advocated an
he would make life unbearable for
this work. No one can make it work."
interagency group to coördinate for-
whoever was Secretary of Defense; if,
I knew how difficult it must have been
eign and defense policy, and he quickly
on the other hand, he was the Secretary
for him to say that, even alone and to a
converted me to the idea. We worked
of Defense, he would have to try to
friend. "You have done the very best
together to insure its inclusion in the
make the system work.
you could, the best that anyone could
final version of the revised bill on uni-
Despite his original opposition to the
have done," I replied. "You should go
fication. But Forrestal wanted the Na-
52
APRIL I, 1991
tional Security Council to be part of the
security structure personally from the
strongly to the creation of a permanent
Pentagon. After examining the issue, I
White House, and the personal ambi-
rival to the F.B.I. Donovan replied
came to favor a National Security
tions of several men.
that no existing organizations pos-
Council staffed primarily by civilians
sessed the talent or the mandate to meet
and responsible directly to the Presi-
AN
aura of mystery and controversy
the needs that would arise after the
dent. This meant another disagree-
has surrounded the Central In-
war. Even though he was correct, his
ment with Forrestal, which I regret-
telligence Agency for most of the last
enemies won the first round, when
ted, but the stakes were high, and it was
forty years, but because its creation was
Hoover leaked a copy of Donovan's
impossible to avoid choosing sides.
a small part of the National Security
plan to two of the leading conservative
A meeting held on September 17,
Act of 1947 the struggle over the struc-
newspapers in the nation, the Chicago
1947-the day Forrestal was sworn in
ture and mandate of the C.I.A. was-
Tribune and the New York Daily
as Secretary of Defense-to discuss this
obscured in the public eye by the noisy
News, which called it the "Spy Direc-
matter was a star-studded affair, with
battles over the unification of the ser-
tor's Secret Plan" to create a "U.S.
all three service secretaries and the
vices and the creation of the N.S.C.
Gestapo. Amid the controversy,
Chiefs of Staff, including General Ei-
Not that the C.I.A. came into being
Donovan's plan foundered.
senhower. As we had expected, Forres-
without fierce disagreement: for four
For reasons I never fully understood,
tal insisted that the N.S.C. report to
months, between September, 1945, and
President Truman didn't like Dono-
him, and said that his decisions should
January, 1946, a battle raged in Wash-
van. Perhaps he regarded Donovan as
be final and binding on the executive
ington within the tightly knit but high-
a self-promoter. On September 20,
secretary. Forrestal also wanted the
ly competitive intelligence community.
1945, just weeks after the Japanese
N.S.C. to be headquartered in the Pen-
This battle drew me into my first in-
surrender, President Truman prema-
tagon and be staffed almost entirely by
volvement with the world of intelli-
turely, abruptly, and unwisely disband-
military officers.
gence-an involvement that was to
ed the O.S.S., and directed Secretary
At the meeting, I had no choice but
resume later in my career.
of State Byrnes to develop a "cöordi-
to disagree with my friend. I said that
President Roosevelt had given Gen-
nated foreign-intelligence program."
the new N.S.C. system should not be
eral William Donovan authority dur-
Months of bitter argument within the
used to circumvent the State Depart-
ing the war to create the most romantic
intelligence community about how to
ment or diminish the President's role.
of all wartime organizations, the Office
replace the O.S.S. thereupon began.
The State Department had to be cen-
of Strategic Services, or O.S.S. But
By the end of the year, President
trally involved in decision-making, and
Wild Bill Donovan went beyond the
Truman was becoming increasingly
the process had to be placed directly
legends he did so much to originate.
annoyed by the flood of conflicting and
under the control of the President. I
His role in the creation of the modern
uncoördinated intelligence reports
also opposed locating the N.S.C. staff
American intelligence system cannot be
flowing haphazardly across his desk.
in the Pentagon; the N.S.C. staff
overstated. In person, Donovan was
Greater coördination of intelligence
should be situated near the White
not the dashing daredevil of legend, at
was essential. President Truman al-
House, I said, and not within the con-
least not when I came to know him.
ready had on his desk a revision of the
fines of any existing department. After
What he possessed in great measure
Donovan plan that the wartime Chiefs
the meeting, I asked Charles Murphy,
was charm and effectiveness in bureau-
of Staff had submitted to Franklin Roo-
a White House assistant who worked
cratic warfare. Even before the end of
sevelt in late 1944, for a coördinating
closely with me, to find space for the
the war, he proposed the creation of a
organization called the Central Intelli-
N.S.C. staff in what is now the Old
permanent new intelligence agency, in-
gence Agency. The military plan vest-
Executive Office Building. He did, and
dependent of both State and the mili-
ed joint supervisory authority in the
the N.S.C. staff is still housed there
tary, and answerable only to the Presi-
Secretaries of State, War, and Navy.
today.
dent.
At the President's request, I urged the
Thus was the National Security
Predictably, Donovan's plan enraged
State Department to complete its own
Council born, almost as an after-
the State, War, and Navy Depart-
plan and to submit it with a copy of the
thought to military reorganization.
ments, all of which felt that it threat-
Joint Chiefs' proposal and a detailed
President Truman wanted a small
ened their existing intelligence units.
comparison of the two. The State De-
N.S.C. staff under his direct control,
J. Edgar Hoover, who had feuded with
partment responded, on December
with its role restricted to coordination.
Donovan throughout the war, objected
27th, by proposing a National Intelli-
When the Korean War began, this role
gence Authority, or N.I.A. It recom-
expanded, but he still resisted a large
mended that State be designated the
staff, preferring to deal directly with
sole conduit of intelligence reports to
his senior Cabinet officials. Over the
the President.
next forty years, I watched the execu-
The President listened to these con-
tive secretary of the National Security
14
flicting views and rejected both. He
Council evolve into the national-secu-
agreed only to set up a loose coördinat-
rity "adviser" and become a rival for
ing group. He was not ready to create a
power to the Secretary of State. That
new intelligence agency. Following his
was clearly not our original intention,
guidance, I prepared a directive estab-
but it was an inevitable consequence of
lishing a National Intelligence Au-
the growth of government, the desire
thority and a director of Central Intel-
of some Presidents to run the national-
ligence. The President signed this ex-
THE NEW YORKER
53
ecutive order on January 22, 1946. It
any involvement in domestic affairs;
was the first postwar Presidential direc-
second, to keep the C.I.A. and the
No. 10
tive on intelligence. Time called it the
F.B.I. completely separate; third, to
The new J. Peterman
end of our "historical innocence" in
keep the F.B.I. outside the control of
Catalogue.
international intelligence.
the director of Central Intelligence;
Under this executive order, a direc-
and, finally, to preclude the C.I.A.
tor of Central Intelligence (D.C.I.)
from activities directed against Ameri-
would coördinate a Central Intelli-
cans.
P.4
gence Group (C.I.G.). We defined the
President Truman accepted my rec-
C.I.G.'s functions so as to minimize
ommendations. He felt that he had
friction with any of the other depart-
given the C.I.G. concept a fair test and
ments: the functions were "correlation
it had failed. As a result, Section 102
P. 13
and evaluation of intelligence relating
was now added to the National Security
to the national security," and
Act of 1947. It abolished
P.71
the protection of foreign-
both the National Intelli-
intelligence "sources and
gence Authority and the
methods."
Central Intelligence Group,
We addressed directly
and established a Central In-
what would become the
telligence Agency. The di-
P.54
longest-standing and most
rector of the C.I.A. would-
T.D.
important controversy in
continue to hold the title of
P.6
American intelligence: operations
director of Central Intelligence. In
within the United States. The directive
that capacity he would not only oversee
that I drafted stated flatly, "No police,
the C.I.A. but also have authority over
law enforcement or internal security
the rest of the foreign-intelligence
functions shall be exercised under this
community within the United States
directive.
Nothing herein shall be
government. But in practice the mili-
construed to authorize the making of
tary intelligence services resisted tak-
investigations inside the continental
ing directions from the director of Cen-
limits of the United States." This pro-
tral Intelligence rather than from their
hibition made temporary allies of Pres-
own chain of command, and to this day
ident Truman and J. Edgar Hoover,
oversight of the intelligence committee
since Hoover wanted to keep any and
by the director of Central Intelligence
all domestic-intelligence activities
falls far short of our original intent.
completely under the control of his
Covert operations were placed under
F.B.I.
the new National Security Council
In June of 1946, Army Air Force
through a carefully phrased "catchall"
Major General Hoyt S. Vandenberg,
clause-Section 102(d)(5)-which
© 1991 The J. Peterman Company
one of the most glamorous of a number
provided that the C.I.A. shall "per-
of young aviators who had emerged
form such other functions and duties
Catalogue to
from the Second World War, assumed
name
related to intelligence affecting the na-
the post of director of Central Intelli-
tional security as the National Security
address
gence. Less than a month after taking
Council may from time to time direct."
city
state
zip
over, he sent me a far-ranging recom-
I reviewed this critical sentence care-
The J. Peterman Company
mendation that the President ask for
fully at the time, but could never have
2444 Palumbo Drive
legislation creating a separate Central
imagined that forty years later I would
Lexington, Kentucky 40509
(800) 231-7341
Intelligence Agency. Four days later,
be asked to testify before Congress on
NY4/1
Elsey and I met with two members of
its meaning and intent. The "other
Vandenberg's staff, James Lay and
functions" the C.I.A. was to perform
Lawrence Houston, who had drafted
were deliberately not specified, but we
the proposed legislation. I found their
expected that they would include covert
description of the limitations of the
activities. We did not mention these by
GALAPAGOS
C.I.G. and the N.I.A. quite persuasive.
name because we felt that it would be
You, nine others and our naturalist will explore
It was clear to me that the brief era
injurious to our national interest to
by yacht more islands than any other Galapagos
of the Central Intelligence Group
advertise the possibility of our engag-
expedition. From simple adventures to splendid
had run its course and something new
ing in such activities. We intended
yacht charters, from scuba diving to serious
was needed. To their pleasure, I told
these activities to be separate and dis-
hiking and even college credit, no one else offers
Lay and Houston that I would rec-
tinct from the normal activities of the
as many ways to experience the Galapagos be-
ommend the creation of a new, per-
C.I.A., and expected them to be limited
cause no one else specializes exclusively in the
manent intelligence agency, but only
in scope and purpose-hence the im-
Galapagos. 60 trip dates. Machu Picchu option.
if they agreed to make four changes
portant limiting phrase "affecting the
FREE BROCHURE
in the proposed legislation: first, to ex-
national security."
Inca Floats 415-420-1550
clude the new intelligence agency from
The National Security Act of 1947
1311- YL 63rd. St., Emeryville CA 94608
54
APRIL 1, 1991
remains to this day the statutory autho-
requirements for the President to con-
some powerful journalists. For months,
rization for covert activity. In the light
sult and inform the congressional in-
Drew Pearson and Walter Winchell,
of the continuing controversy over the
telligence committees. I urged that
the two most widely read columnists of
role and the activities of the C.I.A., it
teeth be put into the law in a way that
the time, attacked him as a tool of Wall
bears emphasizing that it was by act of
everyone could understand: criminal
Street, and, after his opposition to Isra-
Congress that the C.I.A. was estab-
penalties for "knowing and willful"
el became known, he was deeply upset
lished and exists today: it was by act of
violation of the law.
by the charge that he "cared more for
Congress that covert operations were
oil than he did for the Jews." He was
authorized.
T
HE strain on Forrestal had in-
not a man who could put a quarrel
During the seven years in the nine-
creased steadily during 1948.
behind him and move on, an important
teen-sixties when I sat as a member and
The debris of his personal life added to
attribute for longevity in Washington.
then as the chairman of the President's
the pressures building up in him. The
He told me that the attack that had
Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board,
Forrestals seemed to live separate lives.
upset him the most was an accusation
I often reflected on the complexities of
His wife's behavior was an increasing
by Pearson that he had fled in fear
this problem. A great nation must have
mortification to Forrestal. At one din-
when his wife was held up outside their
the capability to defend its own inter-
ner they gave, in honor of Randolph
Manhattan town house in 1937; the
ests, and that capability includes a first-
Churchill, Mrs. Forrestal did not come
truth was that he had been asleep up-
rate intelligence service.
downstairs for over an hour after the
stairs and unaware of the incident until
I believed that a limited number of
first guests had arrived. Finally, she
after it was over. He expressed bitter-
covert programs, tightly controlled by
appeared, after too much to drink, at
ness at this assault on his honor and
the President and the National Security
the top of their magnificent staircase,
personal courage. Finally, there were
Council, would be a necessary part of
and, looking down at the guests, said
rumors in Washington that Forrestal,
our foreign policy. But over the years
loudly, "Good Lord, what in the world
assuming a Republican victory in 1948,
covert activities became so numerous
do all these people have to say to each
had been in secret contact with Dewey
and widespread that they became in
other?" Randolph Churchill, who en-
in the hope of staying on as Secretary
effect a self-sustaining part of Ameri-
joyed drinking as much as anyone,
of Defense. (I never knew whether
can foreign operations. The C.I.A.
found this remark amusing, but For-
these stories were true.)
became a government within a govern-
restal felt humiliated by it.
Work had become Forrestal's life, or
ment, which could evade oversight of
On another occasion, I asked For-
perhaps the sanctuary from the rest of
its activities by drawing the cloak of
restal if he would act as host on short
his life, but by the end of 1948 he had
secrecy around itself.
notice for the President's poker game-
begun to deteriorate. He was worn out
My concern over this trend reached
something he felt greatly honored to
from trying to make the 1947 act func-
its height during the Iran-Contra
do. Throughout that day, I learned
tion. Often unable to sleep, he began
scandal of the Reagan years. I came to
later, Forrestal, worried that his wife
calling his friends in the middle of the
the conclusion that we must reassess the
might appear during the evening and
night just to talk. When he called me,
very idea of conducting covert opera-
create an incident, tried to persuade her
I listened carefully, but with increasing
tions. Testifying before the House and
to go to New York, on the ground that
puzzlement. Like most people in the
Senate in 1987 and 1988, I expressed
the Presidential poker evenings were
nineteen-forties, my understanding of
my concern:
stag affairs. When she refused, Forres-
emotional disorders was quite limited,
If we are to continue with [covert oper-
tal became nearly frantic with appre-
and I had no idea how serious an illness
ations] and gain any benefit from them, we
hension over what she might do. Fi-
depression can be. I remember only one
must find a way to keep them consistent
nally, just before the guests arrived, he
glimpse into the bottomless darkness of
with the principles and institutions of the
persuaded her to go upstairs and not
Constitution and our foreign policy. If we
his internal crisis. Sitting directly be-
determine that this cannot be done, then
greet the guests. He was afraid
hind him during a Cabinet meeting
again I say we are better off without covert
throughout the evening, though, that
near the end of 1948, I noticed that he
activities entirely than with them out of
she would emerge without warning
had scratched raw a spot on the top of
control.
and repeat her performance of the
his head with his fingernails. As the
Some people mistook my statement
Churchill dinner. As time went on, her
meeting progressed, he continued to
for opposition to covert operations, but
condition came to be an open secret
scratch until it was the size of a half-
the fact is that I was simply supporting
around Washington.
dollar. I watched in silent horror as
legislation (opposed by the Reagan and
Forrestal also became a target for
blood slowly oozed from this spot.
Bush Administrations) designed to
Symington and Forrestal, in the
prevent the recurrence of the outra-
course of working together in 1947 and
geous-and, I believe, unlawful-
1948, had argued bitterly over the size
activities of the C.I.A. in the Iran-
of the Air Force budget. In those days,
Contra affair. On the advice of the
Symington was a tenacious defender of
C.I.A. and the Justice Department,
air power, and he had given Forrestal a
President Reagan, ignoring existing
difficult time, adding to Forrestal's dis-
laws, did not keep Congress informed
tress. In 1949, Symington, too, caught
of the C.I.A.'s covert activities in Iran
a glimpse of Forrestal's anguish. For-
and Central America. To avoid a repe-
restal called to ask for the name of a
tition of this lamentable event, I sup-
good lawyer, because, he said, he need-
ported legislation that tightened the
are
Burgeos
ed to change his will right away.
THE NEW YORKER
55
Though puzzled at the urgency of the
request, Symington recommended Paul
THERE'S FINE LINE BETWEENYOU
Porter, one of Washington's most
prominent lawyers. A few days later,
Porter called Symington and said,
Name
"This man is crazy. He is raving. He
AND FINE FLOORCOVERING IN YOUR HOME.
doesn't know what he wants." Despite
our friendship, Symington did not tell
me about this incident until it was too
Street, City, State, Zip
late. Something in our backgrounds,
Send us this coupon and
some combination of respect for
Forrestal's privacy and inability to rec-
OFANHEIRLOOM
$3. And we'll send you a colorful
ognize the danger signals, kept us-
24-page book showing how we
and, it turned out, everyone else-from
comparing notes and coming to his aid.
make the rugs and carpet that
Forrestal apparently confided the ex-
put your furniture on a pedestal.
tent of his distress to no one. Had the
Plus names of dealers
roots of his suffering been understood,
his departure from office would, of
to help make it happen. Do it
course, have been handled differently,
soon. When one of the finest
but at the time even his closest friends
thought that he was simply exhausted.
names in floorcovering tells
In the second half of 1948, because
all, copies don't last long.
the Presidential election had become
my overwhelming preoccupation, I saw
Karastan
less of Forrestal than usual. Our pri-
vate breakfasts were no longer as fre-
Karastan
quent. Forrestal, in contrast to Sy-
mington, was not the sort of person
Write: Karastan, RSVP Communications, Box 49439, Greensboro NC 27499-2626.
with whom one could disagree on is-
120
sues without straining a friendship, and
we had disagreed frequently over the
N.S.C. and the role of the Navy.
The President respected the courage
it took for Forrestal to admit that he
had been wrong on military unifica-
A NEW
tion, but he was increasingly disturbed
by Forrestal's indecisiveness. "Jim has
TRAVEL
trouble making up his mind," the Pres-
ident said to me in 1948. Treasury
SENSATION.
Secretary John Snyder, a friend of
Forrestal's, told the President that
A MUST FOR '91.
Forrestal was behaving strangely.
Vaughan succeeded in raising doubts in
the President's mind about Forrestal's
loyalty during the 1948 campaign. For
all these reasons, and also out of a sense
"A level of luxury perhaps never known in the United States."
that it was time for a post-election
Travel & Leisure
reorganization of the Administration,
Gourmet meals in an elegant dining car. The intimacy of a private
President Truman, in March, 1949,
Pullman cabin. Live entertainment in an art deco club car.
asked Forrestal to resign.
Meticulous service on a mountain route across half a continent.
On the day Forrestal left office, the
North America's only privately operated Train Deluxe. An in-
President presented him with the Dis-
credible travel experience. Call today for reservations.
tinguished Service Medal. Unable to
respond to the President's generous
words of praise, Forrestal was led,
TM
speechless, from the room. It was sud-
AMERICAN EUROPEAN EXPRESS
denly clear to everyone that something
RAILWAY TRAIN DELUXE
was very wrong.
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call our Reservations Office at
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1-800-677-4233
Sound, Florida, to rest. But demons
or your travel professional.
were inside him, and. rest could not
56
APRIL 1, 1991
quiet them. As Robert Lovett, the for-
tion to it, and by the time the full
advisers. This is an explanation, how-
mer Under-Secretary of State, told Sy-
dangers of the program were evident it
ever, not an excuse for what happened.
mington and me later, he met Forrestal
was too late: the Korean War had
The need for the nation to protect
at the airport, prepared to take his mind
started, McCarthyism had begun to
itself against Soviet espionage was
off Washington with golf and swim-
flower in America, and the Adminis-
made clear by the frequent exposure of
ming, but Forrestal quickly pulled him
tration had lost its chance to control the
Soviet spies within the American, Ca-
aside. "I must talk to you," he whis-
issue.
nadian, and British governments. Pres-
pered. "The Russians are after me, the
The program had its beginnings at a
ident Truman supported F.B.I. and
F.B.I. is watching me, the Zionists are
time when the Soviet challenge was
C.I.A. efforts to that end. But Hoover
after me." Lovett was stunned. At
moving to center stage. As the Admin-
believed that the national security was
Lovett's house, Forrestal searched the
istration proclaimed the dangers of
threatened not only by Soviet agents but
closets and looked under beds for hid-
Communism abroad, conservative poli-
by anyone who expressed views that
den microphones.
ticians, encouraged by J. Edgar Hoo-
might be characterized as "pro-Com-
The famous psychiatrist Dr. Wil-
ver, claimed to have found evidence of
munist" or "socialist," or even "left-
liam Menninger was flown to Hobe
a subversive Communist threat on the
ist." He sought authority to dismiss
Sound to examine Forrestal. He saw at
domestic front. The search for "the
from public service anyone whose views
once that the man was desperately ill,
enemy within" was not confined, as it
were politically suspect. The Truman
and advised immediate professional at-
should have been, to the search for
Administration resisted Hoover's ef-
tention. Too ill to make decisions for
Soviet spies, a legitimate and important
forts to control the process throughout
himself, Forrestal was flown back to
function of the F.B.I. and American
the federal government, but, in 1947,
Washington on a military plane. In a
counter-intelligence; it spread into a
in the course of resisting them, it creat-
tragic error of judgment, the Navy,
twentieth-century witch-hunt for "dis-
ed a different structure, loosely called
concerned that he might blurt out na-
loyal" Americans. On the crest of this
the federal loyalty-security boards.
tional-security secrets to the wrong
issue, a new generation of right-wing
The intention was to prevent a concen-
people, vetoed suggestions that he be
politicians, dominated at first by Sena-
tration of power in the hands of the
sent to the Menninger Clinic or anoth-
tor Joe McCarthy, began its rise to
F.B.I. and its political allies, but the
er private facility specializing in men-
national prominence; two future Re-
result was an unhappy one. The Ad-
tal disorders. With Mrs. Forrestal's
publican Presidents, both from Califor-
ministration, by compromising with its
assent, they insisted that he enter
nia, used the issue as their launching
critics, created a poorly conceived and
Bethesda Naval Hospital, a military
pad into national politics (Nixon as
poorly executed program that satisfied
facility whose staff lacked both the
senator, Reagan as president of the
neither the conservatives, who wanted
experience and the understanding to
Screen Actors Guild). At first, we in
a far more aggressive hunt for subver-
deal with his illness. Once there, he
the White House paid insufficient at-
sives, nor the liberals, who believed
was assigned to the V.I.P. suite of
tention to the politics of the issue,
that any loyalty program was an in-
rooms, on the sixteenth floor.
because more urgent and more serious
fringement of the First Amendment.
After he had been at Bethesda a
matters constantly demanded the atten-
J. Edgar Hoover was fifty-two years
month, his friends were told that he
tion of the President and his senior
old in 1947. He had served in the
appeared more relaxed and was
Department of Justice since 1917,
recovering. But on May 22,
and had been the nation's chief
1949, in the middle of the night,
domestic-intelligence officer since
Jim Forrestal jumped out of an
1924. His hatred of Communism
unguarded hospital window. On
was genuine, and he felt that ev-
the desk in his room he left a
eryone in the Truman Adminis-
handwritten copy of the Chorus
tration was a novice compared
from "Ajax," by Sophocles, in
with him, especially on this issue.
which the suicide of Ajax, a man
Thus began the attack of "the
gripped by insanity, is explained
primitives," as Dean Acheson apt-
and lamented:
ly called Hoover and his allies in
Better to die, and sleep
Congress, who included a young
The never waking sleep, than
linger on
first-term congressman from Cali-
And dare to live, when the soul's
fornia named Richard M. Nixon.
life is gone.
President Truman, a great opti-
mist about his nation and its re-
P
RESIDENT TRUMAN'S loyalty
silience, paid little attention to a
program got under way in
possible threat from internal Com-
1946-47, and as I look back on
munist subversion. He concen-
my career in government my
trated on what could be done
greatest regret is that I did not
to defeat Communism in those
make more of an effort to try to
kill at its inception this misguided
P.Sterner
areas overseas where it might take
root unless America acted to pre-
and pernicious effort to eliminate
vent such a thing. His attitude,
"subversives" from the govern-
BORN IN CAPTIVITY
and mine, could be summed up
ment. I did not pay enough atten-
in a saying that became common
THE NEW YORKER
57
around the White House as the
Although Executive Order 9835
primitives grew louder in the next two
was subsequently criticized by liberals
TRY LITTLE
years: Communism was a threat to
for failing to protect the civil rights of
America, but not a threat in America.
government employees, the first assault
The Republican sweep in the 1946
on it came from the right, which raged
congressional elections emboldened
at its "weakness." Hoover was infuri-
Hoover and his allies. From that point
ated, and concluded that the President
on, they treated the Administration as
was not serious about domestic subver-
a group of very lame ducks. Just days
sion. He was particularly angry at what
after the election, Hoover began press-
he regarded as two deliberate insults
ing for a tough line on the issue of
to the F.B.I.: assigning responsibility
loyalty in the government, and shame-
for examining new government employ-
rya
lessly leaked information to his favorite
package
ees to the Civil Service Commission,
of thick, juicy, world-
columnists, most notably
and leaving each agency in
famous Omaha Steaks®. Luscious FILET MIGNONS,
Walter Winchell. President
charge of its own loyalty
aged to tender perfection. Closely trimmed by band.
Truman was in a trap. He
review of its employees. Al-
Delivered to your door, frozen under dry ice, in a
did not like Hoover, but in
reusable cooler. A FREE COOKBOOK inside. Your
most immediately, he public-
1947 the F.B.I. director was
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To a certain extent, those feats were
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From that point on, Hoover continual-
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tions myths, but they prevented the
ly sought full control of the program.
President from even thinking about
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getting rid of Hoover. Meanwhile, At-
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torney General Tom Clark, who
the real defects of Executive Order
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shared Hoover's views, constantly
9835. The first was inherent in the
urged the President to expand the in-
Omaha Steaks
word "loyalty." The word was vague
vestigative authority of the F.B.I.
International
and suggested the wrong intent. Since
Dept. AD1041
4400
So.
96th
Street
Omaha,
NE
68127
On November 25, 1946, the Presi-
Communist espionage and subversion
dent, yielding to pressure from Hoover
were the stated objectives of the pro-
and Clark, moved to take the initiative
gram, it should have been called a
from the Republican Congress and es-
"security program." Security can be
tablished a Temporary Commission on
defined; loyalty, however, is an intan-
MISSING A PIECE
Employee Loyalty. The commission,
gible quality, defined differently by dif-
OF YOUR PATTERN?
chaired by an assistant attorney general
ferent people. The second defect in the
Now you can replace
who was Hoover's stooge, was told to
pieces or add to your
program was more specific. An official
sterling silver collec-
come up with recommendations for a
charged with disloyalty was granted
tion at up to 75% off
permanent program. The result was
the right to an "administrative hearing
retail prices. We special-
ize in new and used
Executive Order 9835, which was is-
before a loyalty board in the employing
flatware and holloware,
sued on March 21, 1947-only nine
department," but the executive order
with over 850 patterns
in stock. Call or write
days after the Truman Doctrine speech
allowed a loyalty board to keep details
for a free inventory of
-and established the loyalty program.
of the charges against the individual
your pattern. (We also
It authorized the Civil Service Com-
buy sterling, with a
secret if it wished to do so for security
careful appraisal for
mission to conduct a loyalty investiga-
reasons. Furthermore, no specific find-
maximum value.) Pat-
tion of every new federal employee, and
ing that the individual was a security
tern shown: Chantilly
by Gorham.
set up in every department or agency a
risk was necessary for dismissal; all that
Beverly Bremer
loyalty board empowered to recom-
was required was the government's
mend "the removal of any officer or
view that "reasonable grounds exist for
SILVER SHOP
employee
on grounds relating to
belief that the person involved is dis-
3164 Peachtree Rd., Dept. NY,
Atlanta, GA 30305
Phone (404) 261-4009
Hours 10-5, Mon.-Sat.
loyalty." This executive order was
loyal to the Government of the United
drafted by the F.B.I. and the Justice
States."
Department, and went through my of-
In late April and early May of 1947,
fice before it was approved by the Presi-
as the Marshall Plan was being drafted
DOLPHIN BRACELET
dent. Hoover had wanted both investi-
#E-17, sterling: $68 ppd.
and we fought to salvage the National
14K: $330 ppd.
gatory and review power vested in the
Security Act from Congressman
8 gracefully
7" long
F.B.I., but the order put the Civil
Vinson and the Navy, the backstage
sculptured dolphins
Service Commission, rather than the
are linked together to form
struggle between the Civil Service
this beautiful bracelet.
F.B.I., in charge of the investigations.
Commission and the F.B.I. over con-
Gift boxed, satisfaction guar.
As for the review process, the order left
MC, VISA, AMEX, ck or M.O.
trol of the loyalty program burst into
1-800-67-TORYS
it up to the separate departments or
open warfare-a struggle eventually
TORYS
M-F, 9-5, EST.
agencies.
Catalog upon-request.
won by Hoover, through intense lobby-
106 Washington St., Dept. N; Marblehead, MA 01945
58
ing and public-relations efforts. On
the atmosphere that had been created.
jet travel, political consultants, modern
August 17th, the F.B.I. began finger-
But never once did he indicate that he
polling and communications changed
printing incumbent government em-
thought the loyalty program had con-
politics forever.
ployees, and on October 1, 1947, the
tributed to that atmosphere, or even
Many Democrats did not want or
loyalty program was officially
that it was a mistake; in his eyes, the
expect President Truman to run: they
launched.
program had been originally designed
considered him an unelected usurper of
Thus began an era in which every
to prevent only the excesses that were
F.D.R.'s mantle, with no chance
aspect of a person's private opinions on
taking place, and would not have be-
against the Republicans. But I and
political issues suddenly seemed open
come a problem if Hoover had not
many of my friends expected Harry
to public scrutiny. The loyalty pro-
perverted it. He felt that without the
Truman to run, and wanted him to
gram gave rise to myriad similar pro-
loyalty program the political pressures
run, even though his national cam-
grams in the private sector, which were
from the right wing would have been
paigning thus far had been limited to
often run with even less justice or
much greater, and more difficult to
an unremarkable run for the Vice-
justification. One of the
resist. At the time, I agreed
Presidency in 1944. Like everyone else,
most famous, in Hollywood,
with him; later, I came to a
however, we were not sure he could
led to the blacklisting of
different conclusion.
win.
many prominent members of
There has probably been
He was apparently not so sure him-
the film community, and
no one, in my years in Wash-
self, for in 1947 he secretly sent word
brought Ronald Reagan into
ington, who amassed and
to General Eisenhower that he would
his first important involve-
abused power more shame-
step aside if Eisenhower wanted the
ment in politics. Even peo-
fully than J. Edgar Hoover.
Democratic nomination. Neither Pres-
ple's reading habits could
As the disclosures of recent
ident Truman nor anyone else had the
cause their dismissal, and
years have shown, his agenda
slightest-idea of Eisenhower's political
even an unproved accusation
for the F.B.I. was highly
views, and in the luminous aura that
of attendance at a meeting
personal, and included ven-
surrounded the war hero no one both-
sponsored by a leftist group
DAddetta
dettas against Robert F.
ered to ask. Although Eisenhower de-
could destroy a person's ca-
Kennedy, Martin Luther
clined President Truman's suggestion,
reer. The State Department witnessed
King, Jr., and a host of other people
the "Ike factor" was to cast a continu-
many of the most dramatic and most
whose views or behavior had somehow
ing shadow over the campaign until the
memorable battles of the era, including
offended him.
very eve of the Democratic Conven-
the tragic destruction of the Foreign
In the nineteen-forties, we could on-
tion. (Many liberal Democrats, includ-
Service Office careers of John Stewart
ly suspect the dimensions of his mega-
ing Hubert Humphrey, preferred Ei-
Service, John Carter Vincent, and
lomania. By the nineteen-seventies, ev-
senhower to Truman.)
John Paton Davies. Not one of these
idence was beginning to emerge about
Of the President's secret offer to
men was a Communist, but each had
some of his activities. But even today, I
Eisenhower I knew nothing at the
made the mistake of frankly report-
think, there is a great deal we do not
time. I am sure President Truman
ing why Communism was gaining
know about the uses to which J. Edgar
realized that I would have tried to
strength, especially in China.
Hoover put his vast array of agents,
dissuade him from such an action, so
President Truman abhorred what
networks, and resources. He was very
he simply did not tell me. The only
was happening. But events took the
close to being an American Fascist. It
occasion on which I heard the two men
issue out of his hands. The defection of
is unfortunate that the new F.B.I.
even touch on politics was during a
a code clerk, Igor Gouzenko, from the
headquarters on Pennsylvania Avenue
luncheon that Eisenhower, then the
Soviet Embassy in Canada generated
in Washington still bears his name.
Army Chief of Staff, gave President
enormous interest in the United States,
Truman at the Pentagon in early 1946.
and his testimony about Soviet espio-
H
ISTORY will always treat Harry
In a lighthearted manner, President
nage in the United States fuelled the
Truman's "whistle-stop" cam-
Truman turned to Eisenhower and
right wing. The Alger Hiss affair be-
paign by train across America as the
said, "General, if you ever want to go
gan its long voyage through American
dramatic highlight of his stunning up-
into politics, come to me and I'll sure
history. In October, 1949, China fell
set victory over Thomas E. Dewey, but
endorse you." Ike just smiled his fa-
to Mao. Four months later, Senator Joe
it did not seem so at the time. I remem-
mous smile, and the conversation
McCarthy made his infamous speech in
ber it as a miserable, ceaseless, exhaust-
moved on. In any case, the possibility
Wheeling, West Virginia, charging
ing treadmill. Months after the 1948
of Eisenhower's accepting the 1948
that the State Department was harbor-
campaign was over, I still woke occa-
Democratic nomination (it was his for
ing Communists. Four months after
sionally in the middle of the night from
the asking) worried Truman for many
that, the Korean War began. All the
a nightmare that I was trapped on that
months.
conditions for the right-wing assault
train. Only later did any of us aboard
The obstacles to President Tru-
on American civil liberties which we
realize that riding the rails with Harry
man's reëlection were staggering. Roo-
now call McCarthyism were in place.
Truman in 1948 had conferred on us
sevelt's coalition was fragile and in
The trend had begun to alarm Pres-
the status that goes with participation
danger of breaking up. Both Houses of
ident Truman well before the start of
in a mythic event-the centerpiece of
Congress were in Republican hands.
the Korean War. After the 1948 elec-
the greatest political upset in American
Part of the South followed Strom
tion, he indicated to me his growing
history, and one of the last Presidential
Thurmond, then the Democratic gov-
dissatisfaction with both Hoover and
elections conducted before television,
ernor of South Carolina, in a regional
60
APRIL 1, 1991
revolt, and Thurmond would run for
less there are new and real efforts
of the 1948 election, we predicted,
President on the States' Rights, or
the Negro bloc, which, certainly in
would be the high cost of living,
Dixiecrat, ticket. And Henry Wallace,
Illinois and probably in New York and
heightened by a continuing housing
still smarting from being fired from his
Ohio, does hold the balance of power,
shortage. This prediction led to the
position as Secretary of Commerce in
will go Republican." What a sense of
most important recommendation of the
1946, was running as a left-wing
the passage of time these words evoke!
memorandum:
third-party candidate.
In recent years, it has been the black
The Administration should select the
By the summer of 1947, we knew we
vote that the Democrats have taken for
issues upon which there will be conflict
were heading into uncharted and diffi-
granted, while white voters in the
with the majority in Congress. It can as-
sume it will get no major part of its own
cult waters. We lacked any plan or
South have usually voted overwhelm-
program approved. Its tactics must, there-
over-all strategy for the campaign. As
ingly Republican in Presidential cam-
fore, be entirely different than if there were
I talked over our strategy with my
paigns. We did not realize how quickly
any real point to bargaining and compro-
mise. Its recommendations-in the State of
friends, I felt the need for a compre-
Southern whites would abandon the
the Union Message and elsewhere-must
hensive approach to the election, and in
President if he supported equal civil
be tailored for the voter, not the Congress-
November of 1947, after consultations
rights for all Americans.
man; they must display a label which reads
with political experts in Washington
With that important exception, the
"no compromises."
who agreed with me that President
memorandum was surprisingly accu-
It was in this brief and blunt passage
Truman should run as a liberal and
rate. We called "the Winning of the
that the glimmerings of a strategy for
reassemble the key elements of Frank-
West" our "Number One Priority,"
the campaign first emerged. The Pres-
lin Roosevelt's New Deal coalition, I
and planned a special campaign
ident would run not against his oppo-
submitted to the President a forty-three
targeted at farmers. That turned out to
nent but against the Republican Party's
page memorandum offering seven ma-
be a critical decision: it was President
record in Congress.
jor predictions about the coming cam-
Truman's success in the Farm Belt
Style is always a vital part of cam-
paign and suggesting a strategy for
that provided him with the cushion he
paigning. Harry Truman was never
victory. (The memorandum was an
needed to withstand the shock of the
comfortable with actions that seemed
extensive revision of a draft originally
loss of the South.
self-serving or phony. He had a ten-
prepared by James Rowe, one of the
The memorandum identified several
dency to let members of his Cabinet
most brilliant political thinkers of the
groups besides farmers which would
claim the limelight when some major
New Deal era. Unfortunately, Presi-
require special appeals. They included
announcement was made. I felt that
dent Truman disliked Rowe, and had
independents, progressives, labor-
this tendency, while admirable, was not
refused to read the draft, suggesting
union leaders and members, Catholics,
politically effective. We urged the
that it be given to me. Since President
Italians, Jews, and "liberals." This
President to adjust his style to reflect a
Truman would have refused my mem-
last group was up for grabs between
stronger sense of personal leadership.
orandum, too, if he had known that it
Wallace and the President. While the
At the end of the memorandum I
was associated with Rowe, I did not
liberals were numerically small, they
wrote, "The campaign of 1948 will be
refer to his role in its drafting.)
were "far more influential than mere
a tough, bitterly fought struggle." I
In the light of history, I am struck
numbers entitle them to be," we wrote.
had no doubt about that. Things did
now by both what we got right and
"The businessman has influence be-
not seem as bleak in November of 1947,
what we got wrong. Our predictions
cause he contributes his money. The
however, as they became by the middle
were, as these things go, surprisingly
liberal exerts unusual influence because
of 1948, and as I gave the President
accurate: six out of seven right-
he is articulate. The 'right' may have
the memorandum I had no idea of how
enough on which to base a winning
the money, but the 'left' has always had
tough and bitter the campaign would
strategy.
the pen."
in fact become. He liked the memoran-
Our most serious error was taking
I assumed that the key foreign-policy
dum, and kept it in his desk drawer
the South for granted. We did not
issue would be United States relations
throughout the campaign for handy
anticipate the Southern revolt that
with the Soviet Union. Relations
reference. It received no further distri-
would lead to Strom Thurmond's
would get worse, we predicted, and the
bution.
fourth-party candidacy. I can only
worsening would strengthen the Presi-
smile ruefully when I reread my assess-
dent, who was "comparatively invul-
nerable to attack because of his brilliant
O
NE of the problems we faced in
ment of the South: "As always, the
1948 was the President's speak-
South can be considered safely Demo-
appointment of General Marshall" as
ing style. He generally read poorly
cratic. And in formulating national
Secretary of State. But the major issue
from written texts, his head down and
policy, it can be safely ignored."
his words coming forth in what the
Since Reconstruction, black Ameri-
press liked to call a "drone." He waved
cans had favored the "party of Lin-
his right hand up and down as if he
coln." F.D.R. had broken the Republi-
were chopping wood. The contrast
can lock on the black vote, and it could
with the brilliant and compelling style
go either way in 1948. Anticipating a
of his predecessor made the problem all
major effort by Dewey to win black
the more serious.
votes, we recommended "a determined
We had tried various devices to im-
campaign to help the Negro (and ev-
prove the President's speaking style,
erybody else) on the problems of high
which even he realized was uninspir-
prices and housing," explaining, "Un-
ing. One, in late 1947, I found partic-
THE NEW YORKER
61
ularly memorable. I thought that per-
into a small makeshift office, which in
haps the President's style would im-
THE GO EVERYWHERE SKIRT
my memory resembled the Black Hole
prove if he read from large cue cards,
of Calcutta. There we waited for al-
The incredible chic of dry,
pebbly unbleached
placed just out of sight of the cameras.
most four hours in sweltering heat as
cotton muslin in a
I brought several large cards, about
the delegate voting process inched
swirling. pullon.
three by four feet, to a staff meeting in
along. I worried about the President's
one-size country
skirt and 3/4
October. With a few staff members
energy level, and feared for his white
sleeve T-shirt.
looking on, the President cheerfully
linen suit, wilting in the humidity.
The foreverness
agreed to try out the idea. He read the
Unknown to all but a tiny handful of
of the impeccable
construction and
cards with interest when I placed them
the people around him, the President
simple design
on his desk, but as soon as I moved
had been suffering for some hours from
award it "best
them just three feet away he told us that
a gastrointestinal upset, and that added
friend" status.
he could not read them, despite their
Pre-washed.
greatly to his discomfort. Finally, the
dryer-dried.
huge lettering. "My eyes have been like
heat became unbearable, and he went
and not to be
this since I was a boy," he
outside and sat on a ramp
ironed.
explained, and that was the
Skirt $150.
near the stage entrance over-
Top $100.
end of that experiment.
ZOO
looking the railroad yards.
Also available
Ross, Charles Murphy,
Almost an hour after mid-
in hand-dyed
and I finally hit upon a suc-
colours and
night, Harry Truman was
other
cessful approach: having the
finally nominated by the
fabrications.
President speak extempora-
Democratic Convention,
Brochure
neously. He agreed to try it, and with
with 947½ votes. In a final insult to
and
swatches
this new approach Harry Truman's
President Truman, those Southerners
available
natural, down-to-earth style emerged,
who had not walked out mounted a
complete with an informal ease that his
last-minute effort to nominate
Call Margo
prepared texts could not capture. For
1-800-343-3062.
Georgia's Richard Russell, and gar-
his Convention acceptance speech, in
nered 263 votes, another indication of
Philadelphia, we urged him to continue
the crisis we now faced in the South.
RUTH KISHLINE'S
the experiment of speaking from just an
And no one moved that the nomination
outline. Many politicians would have
be made unanimous-the first time that
COUNTRY CLOTHES SHOP
considered that too risky, but he agreed,
traditional courtesy had ever been de-
Evansville, Indiana
Naples. Florida
and asked me to pull the materials
nied to an incumbent Democratic Pres-
together.
ident.
Our train arrived in Philadelphia
It was about one-thirty in the morn-
shortly before ten in the evening. Some
ing when Alben Barkley was formally
Save $4.00
Theodore's
on
ALMONBS
Southern delegates had already bolted
nominated for Vice-President. Ray-
California Almonds
the Party, because they considered
burn suggested that the Convention
Truman too liberal. "I'm just mild
That's right. For a limited time
adjourn for the night and hear the
you can save $4.00 on farm-
about Harry" and "To err is Truman"
President's acceptance speech the next
fresh, shelled California
4 lb. Can
were common slogans even at the Con-
day, but some instinct in Harry Tru-
Almonds from Theodore's
$15.95 del'd.'
vention. Unlike most subsequent na-
Almonds. Available In three
man told him that he should seize the
(Reg. $19.95)
flavors: Dry-Roasted Hickory, Whole Natural,
tional political conventions, where
moment, despite the lateness of the
or Dry-Roasted Lightly Salted. Send check or
events have been carefully scheduled to
hour, to deliver some fighting words to
money order, Visa, MC or AE* with Exp. Date to:
attract the largest possible television
the deeply wounded Convention and
Theodore's California Almonds
audience, the 1948 Democratic Con-
Party. He told Rayburn he wanted to
P.O. Box 150, Dept. 3
vention was a chaotic affair, run not by
Ripon, CA 95366
go on immediately.
the White House but by Sam Rayburn,
Credit Card Orders Call 1-800-829-6887
I was gravely worried. The evening
'del'd. In cont. U.S. For AK & HI add $7.50
the House Democratic leader, and var-
had been truly draining. At one-forty-
Money Back Guarantee
(offer expires 9/1/91)
ious Party officials. President Truman
five in the morning, Harry Truman
had expected to go directly to the con-
and Alben Barkley, the Vice-Presiden-
vention hall to deliver his speech, in
tial nominee, came out on the stage. I
what would today be referred to as
followed them out into the vast crowd,
prime time. But the Southern walkout
taking a seat just below the speakers'
that evening delayed the President's
platform.
speech. As the fractious Convention
Then occurred the incident I have
kept him waiting and the hour grew
often looked back on as the low point of
THE COBURG HOTEL
late, the national radio and television
the year. Just as Rayburn was begin-
overlooking Hyde Park
audience dwindled. President Truman
ning his remarks, a rather large nation-
now exquisitely refurbished with every modern convenience
had been offered a room at a nearby
al committeewoman from Pennsylva-
SPECIAL RE-OPENING OFFER
hotel in which to wait, but, underesti-
nia named Emma Guffey Miller-she
single
£72.50 + VAT
double twin
£95.00 + VAT
mating the length of the delay, he had
was described as "matronly" by re-
(inclusive of full English breakfast)
said he preferred to wait at the Con-
porters the next day-bustled over to
129 BAYSWATER ROAD, LONDON W2 4RJ
vention. As a result, we were ushered
the microphone and interrupted Ray-
TEL: 221 2217. FAX: 229 0557. TELEX: 268 235.
62
burn. With an air of great importance,
LATE NIGHT ODE
she said she had the honor to present
(HORACE IV. i)
the President with a surprise tribute
from the host city, a huge Liberty Bell
It's over, love. Look at me pushing fifty now,
made out of flowers.
Hair like grave-grass growing in both ears,
It was a surprise all right. Inside the
The piles and boggy prostate, the hanged man's penis,
floral arrangement was a flock of forty-
The sour taste of each day's first lie,
eight white pigeons, which Emma
Guffey Miller referred to as "doves of
And that recurrent dream of years ago pulling
peace." As she presented the Liberty
A swaying bead chain of moonlight,
Bell to the President, the birds-or, at
Of slipping between the cool sheets of dark
least, those still alive-were suddenly
Along a body like my own, but blameless.
liberated from the stifling quarters in
which they had been cooped up all
What good's my cut-glass conversation now,
evening. At that point, they did exactly
Now I'm so effortlessly vulgar and sad?
what one would expect birds confined
You get from life what you can shake from it?
to a tiny space for a long time to do:
For me, it's g.-and-t.s all day and CNN.
they went wild, flying into the rafters,
getting caught in the bunting, swoop-
Try the blond boychick lawyer, entry level
ing and dive-bombing the President
At eighty grand, who pouts about the overtime,
and others on the platform. Worst of
Keeps Evian and a beeper in his locker at the gym,
all, although the press delicately did
And hash in tinfoil under the office fern.
not mention it the next morning, Em-
ma Guffey Miller's doves of peace be-
There's your hound from heaven, with buccaneer
gan, not surprisingly, to drop the inev-
Curls and perfumed war paint on his nipples.
itable product of their hours of impris-
His answering machine always has room for one more
onment on any delegates who had the
Slurred, embarrassed call from you-know-who.
bad luck to be underneath them. Farm-
ers in the crowd shouted "Watch your
Some nights I've laughed so hard the tears
clothes!" and after the long hours of
Won't stop. Look at me now. Why now?
tension and animosity the hall seemed
I long ago gave up pretending to believe
united in the childish glee brought on
Anyone's memory will give as good as it gets.
by the absurdity of the moment. Stand-
ing on the floor just below the speakers'
So why these stubborn tears? And why do I dream
platform, I saw one pigeon land on a
Almost every night of holding you again,
large fan, where it looked as if it were
Or at least of diving after you, my long-gone,
about to be minced. To gasps and
Through the bruised unbalanced waves?
cheers, Rayburn snared it and threw it
-J.D.McCLATCHY
back out toward the crowd. Directly in
front of me I saw my wife, Marny,
struggling to calm one of the birds,
usual drone, President Truman roused
out of our defensive position. I think it
which had landed in her lap. She even-
the sluggish audience, and to my
was the disastrous events of the day that
tually fashioned what she later de-
amazement and pleasure it roared its
finally convinced him that he somehow
scribed as "a dove diaper" to protect
approval and gave him a prolonged
had to seize the initiative, and that this
herself. Even as President Truman
standing ovation at the end.
was the best available idea.
accepted his party's nomination for the
In President Truman's tone and
He added a highly personal touch to
Presidency of the United States a few
manner that night I thought I saw the
his surprise announcement, a home-
moments later, after most of the birds
beginning of a new and different sort
spun phrase that took him back to his
were recaptured, I could see several of
of leader, a man who, finally nominated
Jackson County farm-country origins:
them still circling above us in the harsh
in his own right to head the party of
"On the 26th day of July, which out in
spotlights. Marny held on to the one
Franklin Roosevelt, was ready to come
Missouri we call "Turnip Day,' I am
that had landed in her lap.
into his own, win or lose. Never once
going to call that Congress back, and I
After Mrs. Miller's ludicrous pi-
referring to his opponent, he focussed
am going to ask them to pass laws
geons of peace, I thought I was ready
his fire entirely on the Republican Con-
halting rising prices, and to meet the
for almost anything. But I was not
gress, as the November memorandum
housing crisis." President Truman lat-
ready for the effectiveness of President
had proposed.
er took pleasure in explaining that he
Truman's speech. Facing an exhausted
In the middle of the speech, Presi-
had in mind an old Missouri saying,
audience at 2 A.M., an exhausted Harry
dent Truman revealed his secret punch
"On the twenty-fifth of July, sow your
Truman unveiled a new and dynamic
-a special session of Congress for
turnips wet or dry." Since July 25th
speaking style. Using some of the notes
which I had been lobbying. In urging
fell on a Sunday in 1948, he simply
we had given him but ad-libbing more
the President to proceed, I had said we
moved the date for the special session
than half of his speech, his voice a
were on our own one-yard line and
to the following day.
high-pitched staccato instead of its
needed some "razzle-dazzle" to break
The Turnip Session, as it inevitably
63
came to be called, turned out exactly
man ran as the underdog and outsider,
was to make history had sixteen cars,
the way we had hoped. On July 27th,
and he eroded the image of inevitability
including a dining car that had been
the President went up to the Hill to tell
that the press had woven around Dew-
converted into staff office space, and a
Congress that his highest priority was
ey. A visitor from another planet might
second that would serve as a travelling
to stop inflation and solve the housing
have reasonably concluded that Thom-
newsroom. The President's car, the
shortage. The Republicans were not
as Dewey was the incumbent, Harry
Ferdinand Magellan, had been built
about to do anything on either issue,
Truman the challenger.
for President Roosevelt by the Associa-
and they attacked virtually every pro-
As I directed the preparation of
tion of American Railroads. It was a
posal that President Truman sent up.
drafts of the President's speeches, we
heavy, bulletproof, armor-plated affair,
When the session was over, I prepared
focussed on four groups: labor, farmers,
which contained luxurious sleeping
a detailed list of all the proposals Con-
blacks, and veterans-which in today's
quarters for the President and his fami-
gress had not enacted. We released the
terms would mean, to a considerable
ly, and also a bath, a dining room, and
list in conjunction with a press confer-
extent, consumers. (Because of Strom
a wood-panelled sitting room. As for
ence, on August 12th, in which Presi-
Thurmond's Dixiecrat candidacy, we
the rest of us, we slept in cramped
dent Truman used for the first time an
assumed that the Deep South was lost.)
quarters, and, as time went on, the
expression that we thought had punch
A memorandum submitted to the Pres-
question of how and when to get our
and staying power, and it did indeed
ident in August stated that our primary
laundry done became something of an
become part of the American political
objective was "to win a large majority
obsession.
language. The Turnip Session, the
of the 15,000,000 independent voters
What was whistle-stopping like?
President said, had been a "do-noth-
who overwhelmingly followed the lib-
September 30th was a fairly typical day.
ing" session-part of a "do-nothing
eral leadership of the Democratic Party
We had already been on the train for
Congress."
in the last four elections." In regard to
thirteen straight days, sleeping in far
the black vote, the memorandum urged
from stately staterooms-except for the
AT
the time of the campaign, I had
the President to "speak out fully on his
rare and treasured night that we slept
never met Tom Dewey. Later,
Civil Rights record," and noted, "His
in a hotel in a major city. On this
when I came to know him personally-
record proves that he acts as well as
particular day, we stopped, and the
I even once spent a pleasant golfing
talks Civil Rights. The Negro votes in
President spoke, in Mount Vernon,
weekend with him in California-I
the crucial states will more than cancel
West Frankfort, Herrin, Carbondale,
found him a decent and moderate man,
out any votes the President may lose in
Marion, E1 Dorado, and Carmi, all in
though without much of a sense of
the South."
Illinois; Mount Vernon and Evans-
humor. But in 1948 he ran an amaz-
The memorandum recommended
ville, Indiana; and Henderson, Owens-
ingly poor campaign, behaving as if its
several long train tours of the nation,
boro, Hawesville, Irvington, and Lou-
purpose were merely to ratify an out-
targeting specifically the states that had
isville, Kentucky-fifteen speeches in
come that was not in doubt. That was
been most closely contested in 1944-
all, twelve from the back of the train
exactly the sort of arrogance the Amer-
especially California. It also reviewed
and three on quick visits into larg-
ican electorate does not like, and it gave
the main lessons we had learned during
er towns. Every stop required some-
us an easy chance to poke fun at the
a "nonpolitical" June train tour. We
thing new, something local, some-
stately procession toward the White
needed advance men at every stop at
thing to satisfy the politicians who
House which Dewey thought he was
least a day ahead of the President; this
usually boarded the train a stop ahead
leading.
was a technique that became a routine
of their home town. And without tele-
The President almost never attacked
part of all campaigning but until then
phones on board, almost every stop,
his opponent directly. Dewey had been
had been used only for major occasions.
no matter how short, meant a frantic
a decent governor, with an outstanding
We did not want empty halls or any
race to call Washington to see if
reputation as a prosecutor in cases of
confusion. Spring training is over, I
there was any business requiring Presi-
organized crime. But since he did not
thought. This is the big leagues now.
dential attention. And so it went,
emphasize that record the President
The first full-scale whistle-stop trip
for well over two hundred and fifty
was also able to ignore it. At the same
got under way on the morning of Fri-
speeches.
time, Dewey chose not to counter Pres-
day, September 17th. George Marshall
As time went on, we developed a
ident Truman's highly effective attacks
and Alben Barkley saw us off at Union
pattern for the typical stop. The Presi-
on the "do-nothing" Eightieth Con-
Station. As we pulled out, Barkley
dent would emerge at the back of his
gress.
yelled out, "Mow 'em down, Harry!"
car, make a few nice remarks about the
Dewey's speaking style was soporific,
The President smiled and yelled back,
town he was in, and then launch into
and his speeches, carefully prepared
"I'm going to give ?em hell!"
an attack on the "do-nothing Eightieth
through a cumbersome staff process
The train on which Harry Truman
Congress." He would ask the crowd
structured more for an incumbent Pres-
"How would you like to meet my fami-
ident than for a candidate, were bland.
ly?" and wait, with his head cocked,
By contrast, President Truman's
for the response. Then he would intro-
speeches became steadily more animat-
duce Bess Truman, always referring to
ed and aggressive as the campaign pro-
her as "the Boss." After that, he would
ceeded. Dewey opted for fewer days on
present his daughter, Margaret (in the
the campaign trail than President Tru-
border states, "Miss Margaret"),
man, because he wanted to spend time
"who bosses the Boss." Then, as the
in Albany as governor. President Tru-
train started to pull away, Margaret
64
APRIL I, 1991
would toss a red rose to someone in the
"What have you got under your
crowd.
coat, Clark?"
My role during these short stops
"Nothing, Mr. President."
varied. Sometimes I worked feverishly
"Clark, I saw you get off the train
to communicate with Washington
just now, and I think that you went in
about a breaking news event. But I
there to see if they had a newsstand
often left this job to Elsey and wan-
with a copy of Newsweek. And I think
WHALE WATCHING
dered through the crowd to overhear
that maybe you have it under your
what was being said about the Presi-
coat."
dent. We were not organized well
Reluctantly, I handed it over. I hated
enough to have a claque positioned at
to be the one who broke the bad news
every stop, so the subtle assignment of
to the President.
CANADIAN RIVERS
stirring up crowd enthusiasm some-
He looked at the article for a
times fell to the President's physician,
while, and then handed the magazine
ST. LAWRENCE
Brigadier General Wallace Graham,
back to me, seemingly unperturbed.
& SAGUENAY
and me. The show we put on
"Don't worry about that poll,
so amused one journalist-
Clark," he said. "I know
Richard Rovere, of this mag-
every one of those fifty fel-
The Famous International Seaway
azine-that he described the
lows, and not one of them
Spectacular Scenery
Historic Sites
two of us as "shills" in a
has enough sense to pound
political version of the car-
sand into a rathole."
PRIVATE STATEROOMS
nivals that used to wander
Did I think that Harry
ABOARD BEAUTIFUL
J.Oliver
through small American
Truman could win? I have
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towns. Of all the things I ever did in
been asked that question so often in the
government, this may have been the
years since then that I am no longer
Visit your Travel Professional or contact
least dignified, but, after all, we were
sure exactly what I did think, and
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behind in the polls-and, to tell the
hopes went up and down. At times, I
truth, I enjoyed it.
thought the President was either fool-
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Most of the major public-opinion
ing himself or putting up a brave front
surveys stopped polling long before the
to keep our spirits up. But our job was
election, because, in the light of
to stay at it, no matter how hopeless
Dewey's large lead, further surveys
things seemed. We did not have time to
Union Square San Francisco
seemed unnecessary. Elmo Roper
sit around and analyze our chances.
stopped his sampling in early Septem-
This is how campaigns are: while the
Service Service Service
ber-one of the classic errors in polling
rest of the world argues over who is
We Give IT. You 'll Love IT.
history. The Democrats did not have
leading, at the center of the enterprise
enough funds to conduct polls of their
the staff staggers on, worrying only
800-428-4748
own, and the Republicans saw no need
about the next event, counting down
for any more. Instead of an expensive
the days until, win or lose, it is finally
national poll, Newsweek decided in
over.
September to query fifty of the leading
On Election Night, almost everyone
political journalists in America, and
thought the result would be settled
run the results in their October 11th
early. The Democratic National Com-
CHANCELLOR HOTEL
issue. We awaited this article anxious-
mittee was so pessimistic that it had not
ly, since it included some of journal-
even bothered to reserve a ballroom at
433 Powell by the Cable Cars.
AAA
ism's brightest names.
the Mayflower Hotel, the traditional
Early in the morning on the day the
site for such affairs. By eleven, when
issue of Newsweek was due on news-
it was clear the election would be
APRIL IN PARIS
stands, I slipped off the train at the first
much closer than anyone had expect-
Or Any. Time Of The Year Enjoy Our Eiffel Tower
stop and found it. I opened the issue
ed, I went to the home of a friend
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neighborhood to own a television
JEFF DEEGAN DESIGNS
22 NERH ROAD
Dewey would win.
set, and together we settled down to
PROVIDENCE. RL O2906
6-8-4-6
I had to pass through the President's
watch.
car to get back to my stateroom. The
I planned to stay only about an hour.
President was sitting on a sofa reading
But as the election hung in the balance
For the discriminating
a newspaper, so I tucked Newsweek
none of us watching could tear our-
vacationer
a commitment to excellence
under my jacket and tried to slip by.
selves away from my friend's new toy.
Kiawah Island
But the President stopped me.
On chalkboards behind the commenta-
Rentals and Sales
"What does it say, Clark?" he asked.
tors on the screen, the numbers indi-
Pam Harrington Exclusives
"What does what say?" I said, try-
cated an incredibly tight race. Twice
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800-845-6966
ing to look innocent.
during the night, Herbert Brownell,
THE NE YORKER
65
Dewey's campaign manager, came
supporters going through the bleak and
poker sessions on the Williamsburg or
down to the ballroom in New York's
seemingly hopeless campaign, and his
at private homes.
Roosevelt Hotel to claim victory for his
unwillingness to give up. As he fought
By sheer chance, the timing of my
candidate, but the race was not over; it
overwhelming odds, he gained Ameri-
departure turned out to be crucial.
was going down to the wire in four
ca's respect. That respect turned into
Barely nineteen weeks after I left the
states that held the key to the outcome
affection, and the affection turned into
White House, the North Koreans at-
-Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, and Cali-
votes. Now he was no longer the man
tacked South Korea-a fundamental
fornia. From Truman headquarters, at
sitting in Franklin Roosevelt's chair.
test of the Truman Doctrine, the Unit-
the Muehlebach Hotel, in Kansas City,
He was the elected President of the
ed Nations, and the depth of America's
no claims were made. At the nearby
United States.
commitment to its friends and allies.
Excelsior Springs, the President, in one
Had I still been in the Administration
of the most remarkable examples of
W
HILE the surprise outcome of
on June 24, 1950, it would have been
inner serenity that I've ever heard of,
the 1948 election was, without
impossible for me to leave before the
ate a sandwich, drank a glass of milk,
question, the most satisfying political
end of President Truman's term.
and went to bed early. He woke around
event of my life, even as we celebrated
midnight, and, as he was to recount
it, I was beginning to wonder how
I
F President Truman could have
many times, heard over the radio the
much longer I should stay in the gov-
picked his successor, he would have
gravelly voice of the famous commen-
ernment. Nearly five years had elapsed
chosen Chief Justice Fred Vinson. On
tator H. V. Kaltenborn saying that,
since I made the trek to the top floor of
October 11, 1951, the President invited
although the President was a million
the Missouri Pacific Building, in St.
me to dine with him and Vinson at
two hundred thousand votes ahead,
Louis, to join the Navy. The price my
Blair House, where he was living while
Dewey would win when the farm vote
family had paid was high. My three
the White House was being refur-
came in. President Truman went back
daughters were growing up without
bished. At the dinner, he promised
to sleep, and woke up again at about
me. I was also facing growing financial
Vinson his full support if he would
4 A.M., to hear radio commentators still
pressures. (The annual salary of the
run. Flattered by the offer, Vinson
predicting a Dewey victory.
special counsel to the President was
listened, but three days later he in-
Shortly after 9 A.M., I got the most
twelve thousand dollars a year.) There
formed the President that he was not
gratifying telephone call of my life. It
was a third factor as well-less tangi-
much interested in becoming a candi-
was Harry Truman, just arrived at the
ble but equally important. I was reach-
date. I was relieved, for Vinson-a
Muehlebach. With jubilation, the
ing the point of diminishing returns in
decent and amusing person, whose
President told me that Illinois and
my government service. I was worn
friendship I valued-had hardly
Ohio were going into the Democratic
out: I felt not the simple weariness that
shown special leadership qualities ei-
column. The victory was his.
a week or two in Key West or some
ther as Secretary of the Treasury or as
What can explain an outcome SO
other vacation spot could cure but that
Chief Justice.
unexpected and so stunning? Certainly
penetrating fatigue which comes when
What about Ike? The President still
Dewey's arid personality and his pas-
one's intellectual resources have been
had a warm spot for General Ei-
sive, overconfident campaign gave
depleted. I had always
senhower. Had Ike
President Truman an easier target
liked fresh challenges,
run as a Democrat,
than anyone had anticipated. And the
but I could feel the ex-
President Truman
defections of both Wallace and Thur-
citement oozing out of
would have been de-
mond gave President Truman an un-
the job. It seemed to me
lighted. Neither the
expected opportunity to present himself
that my speech drafts
President nor I real-
as the true heir to F.D.R.-but at a
for the President had
ized at the time that
cost. Good weather and a grain-
all begun to sound
Eisenhower had no
storage-bin shortage helped in the
alike.
intention of running
Farm Belt. Organized labor, after
What I felt intui-
as a Democrat, be-
some initial ambivalence and internal
tively. in 1948 I now
cause he privately dis-
bickering, had helped organize a vast
believe to be a basic
agreed with much of
effort on Election Day to get out the
rule. After four or five
a.whiting
both the New Deal and
vote. Black Americans rallied to the
years of service in the
Truman's Fair Deal.
Democrats in record numbers, and may
same position at one of the higher levels
When Ike finally made clear his party
actually have provided the margin of
of government, one begins to lose ef-
preference, and his availability for a
victory for the President in several key
fectiveness. The time comes to either
draft, in January, 1952, President
states. In short, the pieces of the puzzle
move on or move out.
Truman felt tricked by Eisenhower's
for the most- part fell into place in
After I left the White House, in
skillful evasions over the years, and he
November of 1948 much as we had
January of 1950, and began practicing
told many of us that he now felt a
hoped when we prepared the strategy
law in Washington, President Tru-
strong, new distaste for the General.
memorandum, a year earlier.
man and I kept in close touch. He
Thus began a deterioration of relations
But one factor clearly transcended
invited me to join him on some of his
between President Truman and Gen-
all others-Harry Truman himself.
Key West vacations. He relied heavily
eral Eisenhower, which was never re-
Without question, what rallied the na-
on his staff for day-to-day assistance,
paired, and which caused all of us
tion was his tenacity, his indomitable
and I was no longer part of it, but, at
around the President much anguish.
spirit, his ability to keep himself and his
his request, I continued to arrange the
Before the end of the 1952 campaign,
66
APRIL 1, 1991
it exploded in a particularly ugly manner.
Any chance for a post-election rec-
issues, he and Mrs. Eisenhower had
The strongest Democrat now avail-
onciliation between Presidents Tru-
come to my house a few times for
able seemed to be the governor of Illi-
man and Eisenhower was doomed for-
dinner. On at least one occasion, they
nois, Adlai Stevenson. President Tru-
ever by the second incident-a dreadful
joined a group of friends around our
man spent some time in the early
mistake that Eisenhower made in early
piano, singing old songs, and once or
months of 1952 trying to persuade
October. For the rest of his life, when-
twice, when Ike was travelling over-
Stevenson to run, but after each meet-
ever Ike's name came up in conversa-
seas and my wife was at our summer
ing the President's opinion of the Gov-
tion it was to this incident that Presi-
house in Nantucket, I had escorted
ernor declined. President Truman was
dent Truman turned.
Mamie Eisenhower to Saturday-after-
plainspoken and direct, a nineteenth-
Senator Joe McCarthy had attacked
noon parties our mutual friend George
century man of strong and simple val-
General Marshall several times in the
Allen gave at Pimlico Race Track, in
ues. Stevenson was almost his exact
previous year, charging him with,
Maryland.
opposite: wealthy, divorced, cosmopol-
among other things, responsibility for
During our work together on the
itan, elegant, even eloquent. The more
the fall of China to the Communists.
unification of the armed services, I had
the President pressed Stevenson, the
On October 4th, while campaigning by
found Eisenhower a reasonable and
more frustrated he became with
train with the Senator in McCarthy's
thoughtful man. When he was nomi-
Stevenson's elusiveness. I thought I
home state of Wisconsin, Eisenhower,
nated by the Republicans in 1952, I felt
saw in the Governor's style a deliberate
in deference to McCarthy, deleted from
that, of all the possible Republican
pattern; he enjoyed the chase, and took
a prepared speech a paragraph praising
candidates, he was undoubtedly the
on a leisurely, self-indulgent, slightly
General Marshall. During the rest of
best. His opponents in the Republican
self-satisfied attitude as others told him
the campaign, in the face of continued
Party-most notably. Senator Robert
what a fine President he would make.
attacks by McCarthy on Marshall, Ei-
Taft-were much more isolationist
For President Truman, however, this
senhower remained silent.
than he was, and further removed from
act wore thin rather quickly, and it led
President Truman's fury at Eisen-
the great policymaking period of the
to a lifelong feeling on his part that
hower for what he regarded as an act
late nineteen-forties. If the Democratic
Stevenson was simply too weak and
of political cowardice was unre-
era was going to come to an end, it
indecisive to be President. I had more
strained. He felt that Eisenhower owed
seemed to me better that it end with
respect for Stevenson's intellect than
Marshall, who had chosen him as Su-
Eisenhower than with anyone else.
President Truman did, but, like my old
preme Allied Commander in Europe in
Looking back today on the nineteen-
boss, I became frustrated with a man
the Second World War over many
fifties, I still feel that way. Eisenhower
who insisted on playing Hamlet in the
more senior generals, a special loyalty.
had the stature for the Presidency, both
face of such great issues. In normal
When Eisenhower failed to stand up
at home and abroad. He was what the
circumstances, Stevenson's ambiva-
for his old boss, the President's reaction
nation wanted, and perhaps needed, at
lence would have denied him the nomi-
was immediate. "I never thought," he
that time. He left behind some solid
nation, but 1952 did not thrust up a
said, "the man who is now the Repub-
accomplishments, and did not create
natural candidate, and it went to Ste-
lican candidate would stoop so low" as
any major international crises. Yet I
venson almost by default. Nevertheless,
to abandon his "great friend and bene-
was disappointed in his tenure. I do not
after Stevenson won the nomination
factor." Furthermore, had Eisenhower
think he ever understood either the
Truman gave him public support-
stood up to McCarthy it might have
potential or the dynamics of the Presi-
stimulated in part by several incidents
resulted in McCarthy's defeat in the
dency. To be fair, it was unlikely that
that helped to destroy relations between
Wisconsin Senate race, which McCar-
he could have. He had spent his entire
President Truman and General Eisen-
thy won by far less than Eisenhower's
life in the military, and taken little
hower forever.
margin in Wisconsin.
interest in politics. I felt that he al-
The first of those incidents occurred
lowed the nation to drift, and that,
in August, when President Truman
THE YEARS AFTER TRUMAN
given his enormous popularity and the
offered both candidates a White House
capacity it gave him for positive leader-
briefing from the C.I.A. director, Wal-
I
HAD liked Eisenhower. During
ship, he took far too passive a stand on
ter Bedell Smith, who had been
the years in which we worked to-
several key issues-especially civil
Eisenhower's chief of staff during the
gether on military unification and other
rights and McCarthyism.
Second World War. Eisenhower re-
In any case, Eisenhower and I saw
fused the offer. President Truman,
relatively little of each other during
deeply offended, wrote Eisenhower a
his Presidency. I shared President
bitter personal note, saying that in sug-
Truman's feeling that he had behaved
gesting the meeting he had merely
badly during the campaign and after-
sought to insure "a continuing foreign
ward, not only toward General Mar-
policy," and adding, "You know that
shall but also toward President Tru-
is a fact, because you had a part in
man. I made no effort to maintain
outlining it." Rather regretfully, the
contact with him. He asked me to serve
President closed, "I am extremely sorry
on one Presidential commission-the
that you have allowed a bunch of
Franklin D. Roosevelt Memorial
screwballs to come between us.
Commission, which was established to
From a man who has always been your
consider what permanent memorial
friend and who always intended to be!"
LB
should be established in Washington in
THE NEW YORKER
67
honor of F.D.R.-but that was my
neously, and Lyndon Johnson, Richard
only official involvement with the Ei-
Nixon, and Jimmy Carter personalized
Introducing
senhower White House.
almost every situation, John F. Kenne-
dy approached people and decisions
Ladybug
T
HE first observation I would add
with cool detachment and calculation.
to the enormous amount written
Where both President Johnson and
Ladybug
the new
about John F. Kennedy is that while
President Nixon took North Vietnam-
magazine
he was alive no one imagined that he
ese attacks on Americans as personal
for children
would, after his death, become a myth-
challenges, for example, President
ages 2 to 7
ical figure in American culture and
Kennedy saw such events as part of the
from
American history. When we first met,
CRICKET
dangerous game of international power
he was a young man of immense charm
politics: something to respond to, but
magazine
and political promise, the son of an
not to take personally.
overbearing and, to my mind, highly
Kennedy was unusually successful in
Discover the pleasure of quiet moments with
unattractive father. First, we were ac-
maintaining objectivity under pressure.
your child, in a world of lideas, adventures,
quaintances; then I was his lawyer;
I felt on occasion that as he dealt with
and activities. "It's a delight to the eye, an
and, finally, as a result of all we went
adventure for the mind."
personal or professional crises he was
through together, John Kennedy and I
able to step away from himself and look
- Lloyd Alexander, author/Newbery medalist
became friends.
at a problem as though it involved
someone else. Sometimes, watching
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As our relationship developed, Ken-
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nedy called on me for advice on a broad
him during a discussion of some con-
money. We will bill you later. Save over $10.00
range of political, governmental, and
tentious issue, I felt as if Kennedy's
off the regular twelve-issue price! Order now
personal matters. I knew Kennedy
mind had left his body to observe the
by calling toll free or by sending us this
well, and I think I understood his
proceedings with a detached, almost
coupon.
character. As his lawyer, I saw him in
amused air. Something within him
Name
situations of extraordinary professional
seemed to be saying, "This may seem
Address
and personal stress, and nothing that I
supremely-even transcendently-
City, State, Zip
ever encountered or learned made me
important right now, but will it matter
question his fitness or his ability to be a
in fifty years? In one year? I must not
LADYBUG, Box 58344, Boulder, CO 80322
superb President. (In some of the mat-
permit myself to become involved to the
1-800-BUG PALS (1-800-284-7257, Ext. 5L)
ters I handled for him, the constraints
point where my judgment is suspect."
5LCW3
created by the lawyer-client relation-
This attitude may have run through
ship still exist today.) When I think of
his personal relationships as well. I
Kennedy now, I remember first his
believe that between him and the large
MAINE. MUSIC.
incomparable grace. This rare quality,
number of men and women who were
AND OTHER SECRETS OF
hard to define but easy to recognize,
devoted to him and considered them-
UNWINDING THIS SUMMER.
was undoubtedly innate, but Kennedy
selves his special friends there was a
Quisisana is a unique music resort on the shores
enhanced it through his superb political
of beautiful Lake Kezar in Maine. It's cottages
deeply impersonal factor at work. Per-
in the pines, superb food, sand beaches, all water
skills. He knew how to win friends and
haps this was no more than a protective
sports, 3 clay tennis courts, etc. And, best of all,
a staff of talented musicians from America's leading
charm people as well as anyone who has
layer, accumulated in response to unu-
conservatories who perform everything from
Broadway shows to classics and opera in the evening.
ever practiced the art. But behind his
sual difficulties in his early life-his
appeal and elegance lay a highly reten-
older brother's death in the Second
QUISISANA
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tive mind, a quick intellect, and a useful
World War, his own near-death in the
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pragmatic cynicism toward events and
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people. Unlike most politicians, he did
medical problems, the death of one
not respond well to the excessive or
sister in an airplane crash and the
empty flattery that is such a large part
mental retardation of another, the in-
of normal political intercourse, and he
fluence of his cynical and power-
looked for deft ways to deflate or deflect
hungry father-but I felt that (aside
it. His wit, much of it highly sardonic,
from his unique relationship with his
was justly celebrated.
brother Bobby) he kept a very tight rein
Another quality, equally important,
on his personal emotions, enjoying im-
DISTINCTIVE AMERICAN INDIAN
has been less remarked upon: it was his
mensely the company of many people,
ART AND JEWELRY X OLD NAVAJO
ability to approach events, even those
from all walks of life, but never al-
TEXTILES R CONTEMPORARY ART
directly involving him, with both an
lowing intimacies to go beyond a cer-
SPANISH COLONIAL FURNISHINGS
uncommon objectivity and something
tain point, and never losing control of
rare and valuable in politicians-a
his own emotions.
DEWEY GALLERIES, LTD.
sense of irony. He brought more genu-
ine intellectual curiosity into decision-
the House
ALL IN AN HISTORIC SETTING
making than any other President I have
1946, I met
ON THE PLAZA IN SANTA FE
known, and perhaps more than any
him socially on many occasions. But,
CALL 1.800.327-7721
other President in this century. Where
while we were friendly, we were not
FOR OUR INFORMATIVE VIDEO
Harry Truman usually reacted sponta-
close. This was probably my fault; in
68
APRIL 1, 1991
the nineteen-forties and fifties, I asso-
preparing at this moment to go to New
he invite Pearson to his office for a
ciated him with his father, whose pub-
York and sit down with the people at
private chat, to see if he could take the
lic opposition to the Marshall Plan had
ABC."
venom out of Pearson's dangerous and
offended me, striking me as particularly
"Sit down with them, hell! Sue them,
influential sting, and Kennedy agreed
inappropriate for a former Ambassador
that is what you have to do-sue
to do so. Pearson's diary entry for the
to the United Kingdom.
them!" he shouted in my ear. His son
meeting, which took place January 14,
On the morning of Monday, De-
watched me with a faint air of amuse-
1958, gave a fine picture of the effect of
cember 9, 1957, Kennedy came to see
ment.
Kennedy's dazzling personality and
me. He was very unhappy, and wanted
"Well," I said, "we may have to do
charm on even a cynical journalist:
immediate assistance. "Did you see
that, but first we want to try to see if
Talked to [Kennedy] for about an hour.
"The Mike Wallace Interview' Satur-
there isn't some other solution."
He showed me his original notes, and un-
day night?" he asked. When I told him
This did not soothe Joe Kennedy.
questionably he did conceive the idea of his
that I had not, he described to me an
He continued to demand that we sue
book Profiles in Courage.
Sometimes
I'm a sucker for a nice guy who presents an
exchange between Wallace,
ABC, Pearson, Wallace, and
appealing story.
He didn't ask for a
whose weekly program,
anyone else in sight. But,
retraction, but I think I shall give him one.
broadcast nationally on
watching Jack Kennedy's
He got a whale of a lot of help on his book.
ABC, had already estab-
calm countenance, I could
I'm still dubious as to whether he wrote too
much of it in the final draft himself.
lished him as America's
see that he understood the de-
But he also showed enough knowledge of
leading television interview-
sirability of a more restrained
the book, had lived with the book, made the
er, and Drew Pearson, the
course of action. When I got
book so much a part of him, that basically it
most widely read political
off the telephone, he said to
is
his
book.
"Ted [Sorensen] did an
me, "Well, that's just Dad.
awful lot of work," he said.
columnist of his time.
Pearson had charged that
Let's deal with this thing."
Pearson's final judgment on where the
Kennedy's Pulitzer Prize-winning
I asked Jack to assemble everything
credit lies for the book was, in my
"Profiles in Courage" had been
that he could find concerning the
opinion, pretty close to the mark. Ken-
ghostwritten for him. Kennedy said he
writing of "Profiles in Courage"-
nedy had help, and plenty of it, but the
had come to me with the full knowl-
handwritten notes, notebooks, records,
book was his.
edge and concurrence of his father,
comments by anyone who had seen him
True to his word, Pearson inserted a
who was even angrier than he was. "I
working on the book. After he left, I
small item in his column about a month
cannot let this stand," he said. "It is a
set up a meeting with Leonard
later crediting Kennedy with author-
direct attack on my integrity and my
Goldenson, the president of ABC, for
ship of the book. Kennedy was delight-
honesty." If Pearson's charge was not
Thursday, December 12th, in New
ed. Even his father indicated eventually
dealt with, Kennedy explained, he
York.
that we had followed the right course
could see further consequences, includ-
The materials we needed in order to
-an acknowledgment that was as
ing a possible withdrawal of the Pulit-
deal with ABC were assembled by a
close as the old man ever came to an
zer Prize.
young man I had not met before-
admission of error.
I said he could sue Wallace, Pearson,
Kennedy's closest aide and adviser,
My success on his behalf had
and ABC for libel or slander, but that
Theodore C. Sorensen. One of the
changed my relationship with Kenne-
would be a lengthy process, with court
most thorough and precise men I have
dy, and I began handling his personal
proceedings and substantial publicity,
ever met, he did a splendid job of
legal affairs. He told me privately why
which in itself could be damaging to
collecting every scrap of paper that
he and his father had pursued ABC
him. The best solution, I said, would
could be located on such short notice,
with such unusual vigor. He had defi-
be to obtain a quick retraction from
plus a list of possible witnesses who had
nitely decided to seek the 1960 Demo-
everyone involved, before the story
observed Kennedy working on the
cratic nomination, he said, and he felt
grew and developed a life of its own.
manuscript.
that if the question of authorship of his
Kennedy asked me to represent him
The next day, I took a train to New
book was not laid to rest immediately
with ABC. As we were discussing how
York, and Kennedy and I plunged into
he would have to deal with it continu-
to proceed, the telephone rang. It was
a long and difficult day of meetings at
ally during the campaign. "It could
Ambassador Kennedy, who, either by
ABC. We had agreed that we would
have destroyed my candidacy," he said.
prearrangement or by coincidence, had
stay at ABC as long as was necessary to
In the summer of 1960, Kennedy
found his son in my office. I could hear
get what we needed. The network
asked me to breakfast with him at his
the old man yelling at Jack. Very calm-
executives called Pearson, who now
home, on N Street. He was not much
ly, Kennedy said, "I will let you talk to
identified the ghostwriter as one Theo-
interested in the losing Democratic
Clark, Father."
dore C. Sorensen. Kennedy and I pro-
campaigns of 1952 and 1956. "Tell me
I got on the telephone. Before I
duced Sorensen-he rushed over from
about the last one we won," he said,
could even say hello, Joe Kennedy said,
a nearby hotel-and ABC finally
and we had a long and detailed discus-
"I want you to sue the bastards for fifty
agreed that a network vice-president
sion of the 1948 election. We then
million dollars. Get it started right
would read a retraction of the charge
discussed the forthcoming campaign.
away. It's dishonest and they know it.
at the beginning of the following
Kennedy said he wanted to use me in
My boy wrote the book. This is a plot
week's "Mike Wallace Interview."
various ways during the campaign.
to poison the well."
Afterward, I suggested to Kennedy
Near the end of our conversation, he
"Mr. Ambassador," I said, "I am
that when things had cooled down a bit
made a request that had no precedent in
THE NEW.YORKER
69
American politics. "Clark, I've been
man. Ribicoff, an unusually gentle and
stiff covers. Within hours, a. Secret
thinking about one matter where you
subtle politician, visited Independence
Service courier came to my office to pick
could be of special help to me," he said.
as Kennedy's personal emissary. After
up the copies and take them to Hyannis
"If I win, I don't want to wake up on
some grumbling, the former President
Port. The arrival of the Secret Service
the morning of November 9th and say
agreed to see the Democratic nominee,
reminded me instantly of the enormous
to myself, 'What do I do now?" I want
and the meeting was finally arranged
changes that come over a man the
to have a plan. I want someone to be
for August 20th, at the Truman Li-
moment he is elected President. Soon it
thinking about that between now and
brary, in Independence. Leaving Stuart
would be "Jack" no longer but, rather,
November 8th." Would I, Kennedy
Symington, who had accompanied
"Mr. President," even to his closest
asked, undertake the additional task of
Kennedy, on the steps of the Truman
friends, and, no matter how informal a
preparing a memorandum-"a plan of
Library, the former President pulled
relationship he tried to maintain, a
takeover," to be ready on Election Day
Senator Kennedy. into his office with
curtain would descend between him
-that would outline the main tasks for
the words "Come right on in here,
and everyone else. The following day,
the new Administration, if he won?
young man. I want to talk to you."
November 10th, Senator Kennedy met
Kennedy also asked my assistance
Forty minutes later, they emerged with
with his advisers at Hyannis Port to
with regard to former President Tru-
the announcement that President Tru-
discuss what to do with the seventy-one
man, who disliked him because of his
man would campaign for the ticket.
days remaining before the Inauguration.
youth and his religion, and whose hos-
Truman was immediately badgered by
Most historians view the 1960 tran-
tility toward him was well known and
journalists about his earlier statements
sition as a dramatic change from all
very damaging-especially insofar as it
that Kennedy was too young to be
previous transfers of the Presidency.
touched on the extremely delicate issue
President, and the former President
While they are right, the transition is
of Kennedy's Catholicism. On July 1st,
dismissed them with characteristic
also often described as setting the pat-
just before the Convention, President
bluntness. He said the Convention had
tern for subsequent transitions. This
Truman had lashed out at Senator
nominated Kennedy "and I am going
statement is incorrect. Current transi-
Kennedy in a remarkable and unfortu-
to support him-and what are you
tion practice is quite different from ours
nate manner. "Senator, are you certain
going to do about it?"
in 1960. In 1960, no public funds were
you are quite ready for the country, or
available either for the transition or for
that the country is ready for you in the
O
N November 9th, the transition
members of the new Administration.
role of President in January, 1961?,"
memorandum that President-
Many of the future members who came
he asked, in a televised statement that
elect-or, as he preferred to be called
to Washington early to prepare them-
rocked the Kennedy camp. "May I
until Inauguration Day, Senator-
selves, at Kennedy's request, could ill
urge you to be patient?" Now Kennedy
Kennedy wanted from me was ready,
afford the out-of-pocket expense. Lat-
asked me to obtain public support from
twenty-one pages long and bound in
er, when President Kennedy became
the former President.
aware of the problem,
In a handwritten post-
he asked Congress for
script scrawled across a
a small appropriation
letter to me on another
for future transitions.
subject he wrote,
Thus was born the
"Lyndon said the Pres-
Presidential Transi-
ident [Truman] is in a
tion Act of 1963.
difficult mood. Perhaps
I strongly supported
you could intervene as
this act, but I never
I should like to see
had in mind the vastly
him." He felt that Tru-
oversized "transition
man's support would be
teams" that have be-
particularly helpful
come a periodic, but
with Baptists and
permanent, part of the
Freemasons (President
Washington scene and
Truman was a Thirty-
a sorry example of the
third Degree Mason)
government's pen-
-two of the groups
chant for self-indul-
that seemed most dis-
gence at the taxpayers'
turbed by the idea of a
expense. The Presi-
Catholic President.
dential Transition Act
Accordingly, Lyn-
unintentionally created
don Johnson, Acheson,
a form of life that could
Governor Abraham A.
Ribicoff, of Connecti-
originate only in Wash-
ington-a seventy-day
cut, and I all pleaded
Richter
Kennedy's cause-and
monster that springs
up overnight once ev-
the cause of Party unity
"Damn it, Gwendolyn, you knew when you married me
ery four years, has no
-with President Tru-
I only moved one square at a time."
purpose except its own
70
APRIL 1, 1991
existence, feuds with itself, and then on
in competition in any manner whatso-
fense Department as the No. 2 man,
January 20th suddenly disappears,
ever."
and then let him succeed to the top after
leaving nothing behind except empty
Kennedy was silent for a moment.
a while. Or keep him around the White
cardboard boxes.
Then he said, "Well, that makes a
House to help me out. I have told my
In 1960, my memorandum to the
good deal of sense. I will pass the word
father that Bobby would create a real
next President was based on a very
on to my staff."
problem as Attorney General." As I
simple premise: never again should a
It was clear that Bobby Kennedy
listened in amazement, he continued, in
transition be handled as poorly as the
would receive a major job. He had
a grave, low, intense voice, "My father
transitions of 1932-33 and 1952-53. I
performed brilliantly during the elec-
said, "That doesn't make any differ-
foresaw a far easier transition than in
tion campaign, and he was, of course,
ence. I want Bobby to be Attorney
1952. "Much of the 1952-53 experi-
the person closest to the new President.
General. He's a lawyer, he's savvy, he
ence is irrelevant," I wrote, because
At the same time, there were suspicions
knows all the political ins and outs, and
"the Kennedy Administration will not
about him in many quarters. Some peo-
can protect you.' I agree with what you
be suspicious of or hostile to the Federal
ple, having felt his wrath, saw him as
have said about the job. So does Bobby.
bureaucracy." Nonetheless, I stressed
ruthless and difficult. Others worried
I think my father might listen to you.
that "the President-elect should con-
about his early association with Joe
He speaks highly of your contribution
solidate the reins of power and leader-
McCarthy. The question of nepotism
to the campaign and the family, and
ship in his own hands as soon as possi-
also came into play: many people, in-
you have good standing with him. I'd
ble, and not merely rely on good will
cluding me, simply did not like the idea
like you to go to New York and talk to
and experience." The new President
of concentrating so much power in the
him about this."
would inevitably encounter "pockets of
hands of members of a single family.
"Of course," I said. But I thought,
resistance" in Washington, and I
I had heard rumors from staff mem-
This is truly a strange assignment-
urged him, as his top priority, "to get
bers that Bobby might be offered the
the President-elect asking a third party
off the mark quickly with [the] New
post of Attorney General. At first, I
to try to talk to his father about his
Frontier program."
could not believe it, since the idea
brother. Only the Kennedys!
A key question was whether a White
seemed so farfetched. In a session with
A few days later, I called on Ambas-
House chief of staff was desirable for
the President-elect in Palm Beach, be-
sador Kennedy in New York. The
an activist, hands-on man like John F.
side a swimming pool, I made a little
meeting started pleasantly, with a dis-
Kennedy. Such a system had fitted the
speech about the special role of the
cussion of the splendid occurrences of
military style of Dwight D. Eisenhow-
Attorney General, without mentioning
recent months. I steeled myself for the
er, but, I concluded, "a vigorous Presi-
Bobby Kennedy. I said that in several
main event. "Mr. Ambassador, there is
dent in the Democratic tradition of the
earlier Administrations, including
an important matter that the President-
Presidency will probably find it best to
those of Ulysses S. Grant and War-
elect has asked me to raise with you,' I
act as his own chief of staff, and to have
ren G. Harding, politically selected
said, finally. "That is the question of
no highly visible majordomo standing
Attorneys General had rendered a ter-
the appointment of Bobby to be Attor-
between him and his staff (and, inci-
rible disservice to their Presidents and
ney General." Joe Kennedy said noth-
dentally, between him and the public)."
left lasting stains on the history of those
ing, and looked at me with total con-
Just before noon on Thursday, No-
Administrations.
centration. I made a carefully prepared
vember 10th, the President-elect called
Later that day, Senator Kennedy
presentation of why it was not in the
me from Hyannis Port. President Ei-
took me into the house for another
interests of the new President, the Ken-
senhower had just phoned him and
private meeting. "Let me tell you about
nedy family, the entire Administration,
urged the appointment of a liaison with
the Attorney Generalship," he said.
or Bobby Kennedy himself to become
the White House on the question of
"My father wants me to appoint Bobby.
Attorney General. "Bobby is very valu-
transition. "Clark, I feel that you are
My concern is that Bobby has never
able," I said. "He is young. He has
qualified to handle this," he said.
practiced law. Bobby says he does not
time. Start him somewhere else, per-
"Would you accept?"
want the job. He thinks it will hurt me.
haps No. 2 at Defense. Give him the
I said that I would be happy and
I would rather put him into the De-
chance to grow. He will be outstand-
honored to do so, but that I had one
ing." I was pleased with my presenta-
condition. "I want you and your entire
tion; it was, I thought, persuasive.
staff to know that my only function will
When I had finished, Kennedy said,
be to assist you in the takeover of the
"Thank you very much, Clark. I am so
government. After that, I will fade
glad to have heard your views." Then,
from the picture.
after pausing a moment, he said, "I do
"Why is that?" Kennedy asked. He
want to leave you with one thought,
seemed genuinely surprised.
however-one firm thought." He
I said, "There will be a lot of tug-
paused again, and looked me straight
ging and pulling around you for jobs. I
in the eye. "Bobby is going to be
think I can be of more service to you if
Attorney General. All of us have
everyone around you knows I am not
worked our tails off for Jack, and now
their competitor or enemy. It will be
that we have succeeded I am going to
easier for the members of your staff to
see to it that Bobby gets the same
work with me if they know we are not
chance that we gave to Jack."
THE NEW YORKER
I will always remember the pleasant
and matter-of-fact tone with which he
spoke. There was no rancor, no anger,
no challenge. He did not resent my
presentation, or my opposition to the
appointment. He was simply telling me
the facts. For a moment, I glimpsed the
inner workings of that remarkable
family, and, despite my admiration and
affection for John F. Kennedy, I could
not say that I liked what I had seen.
E
ISENHOWER'S chief of staff, General
Wilton Persons, and I prepared
carefully for the first Eisenhower-Ken-
nedy meeting, laying out an agenda
composed of items suggested by each
side. We knew that this was an impor-
tant moment; we did not want a repeti-
tion of the memorable sourness that
EVERY FACET OF OUR HOTEL REFLECTS
marked the Hoover-Roosevelt and
THE SOPHISTICATION OF SAN FRANCISCO.
,
Truman-Eisenhower encounters.
STOUFFER STANFORD COURT HOTEL
I gave Persons a list of the subjects
S
that Kennedy wanted to discuss. At the
When you're in the mood for the romance and elegance of San Francisco,
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ly China; and Cuba. Kennedy also
of the prestigious Mobil Five-Star Award for the 17th consecutive year.
wanted Eisenhower's views on the Na-
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tional Security Council and on White
House machinery, and advice on three
STOUFFER HOTELS
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important world figures with whom
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Minister Harold Macmillan, French
President Charles de Gaulle, and
West German Chancellor Konrad
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Robert Anderson-waited, with Per-
GREEK
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Spanish
Italian
French
German
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Then they joined us in the Cabinet
Hebrew
Russian
Greek
Spanish II
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e
Room, and we continued the discussion
RUSSIAN
Name
e
until after noon.
Address
N
Watching them carefully, I felt that
City
State
Zip
)
Kennedy had made a good impression
Daytime Phone # (
)
e
on the old General. The conversation
Evening Phone # (
)
was easy and relaxed. Kennedy asked
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72
APRIL 1, 1991
Eisenhower if he could be available,
statement. As though he had years left
Vice-President Nixon, Secretary of
from time to time, to serve the nation
in office rather than only one day, he
State John Foster Dulles, and the
in some special capacity. Pleased by the
said that the United States was deter-
chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
request, Eisenhower replied that he
mined to preserve the independence of
(who had also advocated the use of
would try to do so, but added that he
Laos. If Laos were to fall, he said, it
nuclear weapons): But on his last day
thought he had earned the right, after
would be "a great tragedy," and "just
in office Eisenhower was taking a far
many long years of service and "in view
a question of time" before South Viet-
tougher stand than at any time during
of my age," to limit the requests. He
nam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Burma
his previous eight years in office.
especially did not want to be asked to
collapsed. This was the grand design
The tone of the old soldier-on his
travel-"run errands," as he put it.
the Communists had for all of South-
last day of public service, half a century
Later that day, Persons called to tell
east Asia, and it must be stopped in
after entering the United States Mili-
me that President Eisenhower, who
Laos. We could not let the Commu-
tary Academy-had a powerful effect
had previously referred to Kennedy as
nists participate in any sort of coalition
on Kennedy, Rusk, McNamara, and
a "young whippersnapper," had been
government in Laos-it would be fatal
me. None of us had been prepared for
"overwhelmed" by him.
to American interests in
the seriousness that Eisenhower now
"What impressed the
all of Asia if that was
attached to Southeast Asia. I did not
President most," Persons
permitted to happen.
then have enough knowledge of South-
said, "was your man's
We knew, of course,
east Asia to challenge Eisenhower's
understanding of world
from intelligence brief-
assessment of the situation, even if I
problems, the depth of his
ings that a Laotian gen-
had had the inclination to do so.
questions, his grasp of the
eral named Kong Le had
Before that January 19th meeting
issues, and the keenness of
just staged a coup, creat-
broke up, Eisenhower turned briefly to
his mind."
ing a political crisis, but I
Cuba. He said we must support "to the
I passed Persons' com-
was surprised to hear
utmost" anyone who opposed Fidel
ments on to Kennedy. He
President Eisenhower link
Castro. Without going into details, he
was pleased, but he had
America's national secu-
added that the United States was help-
not been similarly im-
rity directly to the fate of
ing to train anti-Castro guerrilla forces
pressed by Eisenhower.
Laos.
in Guatemala. It was the new Admin-
He still felt that Eisenhower was a
The mood in the room had turned
istration's responsibility, he said, "to do
"non-President," with only limited
from businesslike to grim. Herter made
whatever is necessary" to make their
understanding of the powers available
it even grimmer: if our efforts to
efforts succeed. This understated pre-
to him, but he had been struck by the
achieve a political settlement failed,
sentation of the C.I.A.'s efforts to over-
strength of Eisenhower's personality,
"then the United States must intervene
throw Castro was the first inkling I had
and said that he understood Ike's suc-
in concert with our allies," he said. "If
had of the preparations for what was
cess and popularity better now.
we are unable to persuade our allies,
later to grow into the Bay of Pigs
There was one last meeting between
then we must go it alone."
disaster.
the two men before the Inauguration,
Eisenhower concurred with Herter's
In retrospect, I believe that President
and it had important historical conse-
astonishing remark. "If we permit
Eisenhower, while sincere, did a dis-
quences. It took place, at Kennedy's
Laos to fall, then we will have to write
service to the incoming Administra-
request, on Eisenhower's last full day
off the entire area," he said, with emo-
tion. This new line in Southeast Asia
in office-January 19, 1961. Herter,
tion. "We must not permit a Com-
-far tougher than he had taken on his
Gates, and Anderson were present once
munist takeover. Unilateral interven-
own watch-cast a shadow over the
again, and this time the President-elect
tion would be our last, desperate hope
early decisions of the next Administra-
was able to bring their successors-
if we cannot get others to go along
tion, not only on Laos but, more
Dean Rusk, Robert McNamara, and
with us."
important, on Vietnam and Cuba. In
Douglas Dillon. We met in the Cabi-
I watched Senator Kennedy. Calmly,
the first two months of his Administra-
net Room. More than we could have
he asked how long it would take to put
tion, President Kennedy, as Arthur
realized, the agenda reflected crises to
an American combat division into
Schlesinger, Jr., later noted, "probably
come.
Laos.
spent more time on Laos than on any-
At the top of Eisenhower's agenda
From twelve to seventeen days,
thing else." Sixty days after he became
was the situation in Laos. It may seem
Gates replied.
President, the Laos obsession reached
incredible today, but the outgoing
This discussion was a real turning
its height with a remarkable nationally
President considered the fate of that
point, I thought. This was the handing
televised press conference. Standing be-
tiny, landlocked Southeast Asian king-
over of the baton; in a few hours, Laos
fore three maps of Laos designed to
dom the most important problem facing
-and everything else-would become
illustrate the advance of the Commu-
the United States. The way Eisenhow-
the new President's problem. With no
nist guerrillas, President Kennedy con-
er discussed the issue that day made an
warning, his predecessor was raising
sciously echoed the theme we had heard
important, and unfortunate, contribu-
the possibility of deploying American
from Eisenhower in the Cabinet Room
tion to the development of American
troops overseas. In April, 1954, Eisen-
on January 19th: "Laos is far away
policy toward Indo-China, and espe-
hower had refused to intervene to save
from America, but the world is
cially Vietnam.
the French position at Dien Bien Phu
small.
Its own safety runs with the
Eisenhower began with a dramatic
in Indo-China, despite pressure from
safety of us all." Eisenhower himself
THE NE W YORKER
73
had never said anything so strong in
rallied in support of the invasion force;
ment of Defense, the rest to those in
public about Laos.
that air cover. for the invasion had not
the Department of State, the C.I.A.,
Finally, the outgoing President of-
been planned properly; that Castro's
and other departments. The President
fered Kennedy best wishes. He wanted
agents had infiltrated the invasion force
approved a hundred and twenty-five of
us to know he would support-or, at
in advance; that the C.I.A.'s role in the
our recommendations, disapproved
least, not criticize-the new Adminis-
invasion was going to be fully revealed;
two, and deferred action on the rest. At
tration in the area of foreign policy.
and that the whole operation had been
the time of his death, eighty-five of the
There was only one issue on which he
ill conceived from the outset.
hundred and twenty-five approved rec-
was taking an absolutely clear position
The President analyzed his predica-
ommendations had been carried out.
in advance: China. If Kennedy recog-
ment in precise, biting, angry words I
The rest were completed under Presi-
nized the People's Republic of China,
will long remember: "I made a bad
dent Johnson, and we continued to
as some liberal Democrats were urging
decision. The decision I made was
make recommendations at about the
him to, Eisenhower said, he would
faulty because it was based upon the
same pace throughout Johnson's ten-
attack the decision and try to rally
wrong advice. The advice was wrong
ure. We felt that the era of cloak-and-
public opinion against it. Kennedy did
because it was based upon incorrect
dagger operations had more or less run
not comment, but I had no doubt that
facts. And the incorrect facts were due
its course. To be sure, there was still a
Eisenhower's warning had its desired
to a failure of intelligence." He contin-
role in the world for the daring agent
effect.
ued, "You were one of the main draft-
operating inside another government,
ers of the legislation that created the
or in a closed society such as the Soviet
U
NDOUBTEDLY the worst disaster of
C.I.A., and watched it develop since its
Union. We did not advocate any cur-
the Kennedy Administration was
birth. I want you to join a Presidential
tailment of such activities, but we felt
the invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs.
board to oversee the operations of the
that Allen Dulles, the director of the
Launched on the morning of April 17,
intelligence community." Referring to
C.I.A., was insufficiently alert to the
1961, it was poorly planned, poorly
the condition I had set when I went to
importance and the possibilities of col-
executed, and heavily infiltrated by
work on the transition, he said, "This
lecting intelligence by utilizing new
agents of Fidel Castro. Almost the
is not a full-time job, and I consider it
technologies. Under the tutelage of two
entire invasion force was either killed
important that you participate as a
brilliant scientists who served on the
or captured.
member of this board."
committee-Edwin Land, the inventor
The Bay of Pigs changed the course
Thus began almost seven years of
of the Polaroid Land Camera, and
of the Kennedy Administration. Presi-
service on one of the least-known and
William Baker, vice-president of re-
dent Kennedy would never again
most sensitive organizations in the
search for Bell Labs-I became a
accept anything that resembled conven-
United States, the President's Foreign
strong advocate of "collection by tech-
tional wisdom or bureaucratic momen-
Intelligence Advisory Board, or
nical means." These two men were our
tum without intense questioning. He
P.F.I.A.B.-first as a member and
teachers, turning all of us on the com-
might make mistakes in the future, but
then, for almost five years, beginning
mittee into missionaries for the view
they would be his mistakes, not some-
in April, 1963, as its chairman. I found
that the United States should vastly
one else's. It had taken a catastrophe to
the P.F.I.A.B., which still exists,
increase its commitment to the finest
turn the rhetoric about a new begin-
though in greatly weakened form, to be
state-of-the-art technologies in the
ning into a harsh reality, but that had
one of the most rewarding governmen-
field of electronic, photographic, and
now happened.
tal activities in which I had ever been
satellite espionage.
The moment I entered the Oval
involved. We met regularly, and re-
From time to time, President Ken-
Office for the first time after the Bay of
viewed hundreds of issues, ranging
nedy called on the P.F.I.A.B. to inves-
Pigs, I could see a change in the Presi-
from satellite reconnaissance to every
tigate the performance of the intelli-
dent. His mood was sombre, his normal
form of scientific and human intelli-
gence community. He wanted case
grace concealed in a hell of regret,
gence. We made a hundred and seventy
studies by the P.F.I.A.B. of major in-
anger, and distress. I had never seen
recommendations to President Kenne-
telligence failures, and he hoped that
him so depressed. As he had already
dy in the space of only twenty-nine
such studies would reduce the number
publicly stated, he accepted the ultimate
months, most of them relating to intel-
of times we were surprised by events.
responsibility as his own. But he was
ligence activities within the Depart-
In this last hope Kennedy, and the
angry. He wanted to prevent such a
nation, were sorely disappointed, but he
tragedy from ever recurring.
deserves praise for his intentions.
"Let me tell you something," he
said. "I have had two full days of hell.
OME questions, even though they
I haven't slept. This has been the most
can never be answered, constantly
excruciating period of my life. I doubt
recur, and deserve attention. That is
my Presidency could survive another
true of a question I have been asked
castastrophe like this."
repeatedly since Dallas: Would Ken-
He did not dwell on the details of the
nedy have handled Vietnam the same
disaster. He knew that, like the rest of
way Johnson did? Obviously, history
the country, I was well aware of what
does not allow us to test such alterna-
had happened: that, contrary to C.I.A.
Judith
tives; one must rely on one's instincts.
predictions, the people of Cuba had not
The two Presidents had the same
74
advisers and would have confronted the
questions, and reached a different con-
same situation. It is safe to assume they
clusion. After the Bay of Pigs, Presi-
Canada,
would have been given more or less the
dent Kennedy was far more skeptical of
same advice. One can argue that, for
official predictions, and after the Cuban
for $3.
these reasons, Kennedy would have
missile crisis he was increasingly confi-
followed the same policies that Johnson
dent of his own instincts. I believe that
did in Vietnam. That is my conclusion
his questioning of the military buildup
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would have been more intense than
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paign. After I was elected, he handled the
I often saw President Johnson per-
transition. He picked the Cabinet, set up
the command posts in the old Administra-
sonalize the actions of the Vietcong,
tion, and even rode a buffalo in the Inau-
interpreting them as somehow aimed
gural parade. But after the election, when
at him. He reacted by thinking, They
everyone else was seeking a reward for
their contributions to the Democratic vic-
can't do this to Lyndon Johnson! They
tory, he didn't ask me for anything. So I
can't push me around this way!
said to him, "Now, Clark, you've done so
President Kennedy, on the other
much for me. What can I do for you?" And
hand, would, I believe, have treated the
Clark said, "Nothing, Mr. President. You
attacks as a problem in international
can't do anything for me. But if you insist,
the only thing I would ask is to have the
affairs-a very serious problem, of
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see what happens. I'm not going to get
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(This is the second part of a two-part
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that detached eye of his, asked different
nam, will appear in future issues.)