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Global Warming (2 of 2) - 1990 [3]
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Global Warming (2 of 2) - 1990 [3]
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Records of the White House Office of the Chief of Staff to the President (George H. W. Bush Administration)
John Sununu Issues Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
foia Number:
1998-0004-F[1]
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin: Chief of Staff, White House Office of
Series:
Sununu, John, Files
Subseries:
Issues Files
OA/ID Number:
29158
Folder ID Number:
29158-003
Folder Title:
Global Warming (2 of 2) - 1990 [3]
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15
25
2
3
SENT BY:Xerox Telecopier 7021 ; 5-25-90 ; 9:52AM ;
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60/00 " 10:40
ГЛА VIDA 200000
AMOUNTAN AVIDLO
****
Anugraha
WHERE
THE WORLD
MEETS
FACSIMILE MESSAGE
........
TO: NANCY MAYNARD USA (202) 395-3719
COMPANY: OFFICE OF SCIENCE TECHNOL POLICY
FROM: BOB WATSON & DAN ALBRITTON, Room 201
DEPARTMENT: IPCC WG1, WINDSOR, U.K.
DATE: 25 MAY 90
TOTAL PAGES: Cover and 6
pager.
OUR FAX NUMBER: 0784 - 430596
OUR TEL NUMBER: 0784 - 434355
MESSAGE:
We are told that this second that is
much closer to what she actually said.
The consistency with the Report is better.
you action. will also note more commitment to
Dane Bob
(IF YOU HAVE ANY TROUBLE WITH THIS TRANSMISSION PLEASE DO
NOT HESITATE TO CONTACT US FOR RE-TRANSMISSION OF FAX)
ANUGRAHA HOTELS LTD.
AND
SENT BY:Xerox Telecopier 7021 : 5-25-90 ; 9:53AM ;
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PAGE. @@@
25 MAY '90 12:04 FROM IPCC GROUP BRACKNELL
PRIME MINISTER'S SPEECH AT THE OPENING OF THE
HADLEY CENTRE FOR CLIMATE PREDICTION AND RESEARCH
ON FRIDAY 25 MAY
MANY OF US HAVE BEEN WORRIED FOR SOME TIME NOW ABOUT THE
ACCUMULATING EVIDENCE OF DAMAGE TO THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT AND THE
CONSEQUENCES FOR LIFE ON EARTH AND FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS. I
SPOKE ABOUT THIS TO THE ROYAL SOCIETY IN 1988 AND TO THE UNITED
NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY IN NOVEMBER LAST YEAR.
TODAY, WITH THE PUBLICATION OF THE REPORT OF THE INTER-
GOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE, WE HAVE AN AUTHORITATIVE
EARLY WARNING SYSTEM: AN AGREED ASSESSMENT FROM SOME THREE
HUNDRED OF THE WORLD'S LEADING SCIENTISTS OF WHAT IS HAPPENING TO
THE WORLD'S CLIMATE. CONGRATS R DR HOUGHTON
THEY CONFIRM THAT GREENHOUSE GASES ARE INCREASING SUBSTANTIALLY
AS A RESULT OF MAN'S ACTIVITIES: THAT THIS WILL WARM THE EARTH'S
SURFACE WITH SERIOUS CONSEQUENCES FOR US ALL: AND THAT THESE
CONSEQUENCES ARE CAPABLE OF PREDICTION. WE WANT TO PREDICT THEM
MORE ACCURATELY. THAT'S WHY WE ARE OPENING THIS CENTRE TODAY.
WE HAVE, THEREFORE, A REPORT OF HISTORIC SIGNIFICANCE. IT'S NOT
SOMETHING ARCANE OR REMOTE FROM EVERYDAY CONCERNS: WHAT IT
PREDICTS WILL AFFECT OUR DAILY LIVES. GOVERNMENTS AND
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS IN EVERY PART OF THE WORLD ARE GOING
TO HAVE TO SIT UP AND TAKE NOTICE AND RESPOND.
OF COURSE THERE IS A LOT MORE THAT WE STILL NEED TO FIND OUT.
BUT IF THE PANEL'S PREDICTIONS ARE BROADLY RIGHT, THEN THE WORLD
COULD SECOME HOTTER THAN AT ANY TIME IN THE LAST 100,000 YEARS.
WE KNOW THAT THERE HAVE BEEN MAJOR CHANGES IN THE WORLD'S
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE PAST. FOR INSTANCE, IN THIS
COUNTRY YOU COULD GROW VINES AS FAR NORTH AS EDINBURGH IN ROMAN
TIMES, AND FOSSILS OF SERPENTS HAVE BEEN FOUND FROM EVEN MORE
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BUT THE CHANGES WHICH WE ARE TALKING ABOUT NOW WILL OCCUR AT A
FASTER RATE THAN ANYTHING OUR NATURAL WORLD HAS KNOWN IN THE
PAST. ONE OF THE EFFECTS COULD == A GREAT MIGRATION OF ANIMAL
AND PLANT LIFE, AND POSSIBLY THE LOSS OF SOME OF THEN ALTOGETHER.
THE CALCULATION HAS BEEN MADE THAT A ONE DEGREE RISE IN
TEMPERATURE WOULD OVER TIME LEAD FORESTS TO MOVE 100 KILOMETRES
FURTHER NORTH AND SOME ORDINARY FARMING CROPS MAY MOVE AS MUCH AS
200-300 KILOMETRES.
COMMON AB POLICY
JUST IMAGINE THE EFFECTS ON FARMING, ON THE CAP, ON THE SORT OF
CROPS YOU CAN GROW IN PARTICULAR AREAS - AND ON NATURE RESERVES.
THEY MIGHT FIND THEMSELVES IN THE WRONG PLACES, IF THE FLORA AND
FAUNA WHICH THEY ARE MEANT TO PROTECT MIGRATE.
CHANGES IN THE SEA LEVEL AS THE SEA EXPANDS COULD ALSO AFFECT OUR
LIVES CONSIDERABLY. AT A COMMONWEALTH HEADS OF GOVERNMENT
MEETING A YEAR OR TWO AGO, THE PRESIDENT OF THE MALDIVES REMINDED
US THAT NONE OF HIS COUNTRY was MORE THAN SIX FEET ABOVE SEA-
LEVEL, AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF A SIGNIFICANT OVERALL RISE IN THE
SEA-LEVEL COULD BE ONE LESS MEMBER OF THE COMMONWEALTH.
OTHER LOW-LYING COUNTRIES LIKE BANGLADESH WOULD BE BADLY
AFFECTED, AND THERE WOULD SURELY BE A GREAT MIGRATION OF
POPULATION AWAY FROM AREAS OF THE WORLD LIABLE TO FLOODING, AND
FROM AREAS OF DECLINING RAINFALL AND THEREFORE OF SPREADING
DESERT. THOSE FEOPLE WILL BE CRYING OUT NOT FOR OIL WELLS BUT
FOR WATER.
OF COURSE EVERY DETAIL OF THE FORECASTS MAY NOT BE QUITE RIGHT.
IT VERY RARELY IS WHEN YOU ARE TRYING TO PREDICT THE FUTURE.
THERE IS STILL A GREAT DEAL OF WORK FOR THE SCIENTISTS TO DO,
PARTICULARLY IN TRYING TO ESTIMATE THE DETAILED DISTRIBUTION OF
THE EFFECTS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE WHICH I HAVE DESCRIBED.
AS THE PANEL'S REPORT ITSELF MAKES CLEAR, WE SHOULD HAVE A
BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF MANY OF THESE THINGS IN TEN OR FIFTEEN
YEARS' TIME, SAY BY ABOUT THE YEAR 2005. BY THEN WE SHALL HAVE
BENEFITED FROM NEW MEASUREMENTS FROM SATELLITES, FROM NEW AND
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MORE POWERFUL COMPUTERS AND THE RESULTS OF THE WORK BEING DONE ON
OCEAN CIRCULATION.
BUT WE CAN ALREADY DRAW SOME BROAD CONCLUSIONS FROM THE WORK
WHICH HAS BEEN DONE.
FIRST, THE CLIMATE CHANGES WHICH WE HAVE WITNESSED IN THE PAST
HAVE MAINLY BEEN THE RESULT OF NATURAL FACTORS - CHANGES IN THE
EARTH'S ORBIT OR IN THE AMOUNT OF RADIATION GIVEN OFF BY THE SUN
FOR INSTANCE. MAN'S ACTIVITIES HAD ONLY A SMALL PART TO PLAY.
IN THE FUTURE, THIS CAN NO LONGER BE ASSUMED. HAN'S ACTIVITIES
ARE ALREADY ADDING GREENHOUSE GASES TO THE AIR AT AN
UNDERCEDENTED RATE, WITH INEVITABLE CONSEQUENCES FOR OUR FUTURE
CLIMATE.
THE ANNUAL ACCUMULATION IN CARBON DIOXIDE REACHING THE
ATMOSPHERE IS OF THE ORDER or 3 BILLION TONNES, AND HALF OF ALL
THE CARBON DIOXIDE EMITTED SINCE THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IS
STILL IN THE ATMOSPHERE -AND ALL THIS WHILE WE ARE AT THE SAME
TIME DESTROYING TROPICAL FORESTS WHICH ARE A VITAL WAY OF TAKING
CARBON DIOXIDE OUT OF THE AIR AND STORING IT.
IT STANDS TO COMMON SENSE THAT THESE FIGURES ARE GOING TO GO UP
AS THE WORLD'S POPULATION INCREASES, WITH GREATER INTENSITY OF
AGRICULTURE, MORE DESTRUCTION OF FORESTS AND WOODLANDS, AND MORE
USE OF FOSSIL FUELS.
WHEN I WAS BORN, THE WORLD'S POPULATION WAS SOME 2 BILLION
PEOPLE. MY GRANDSON IS GOING TO GROW UP IN A WORLD OF MORE THAN
6 BILLION PEOPLE, AND THE PREDICTIONS ARE THAT WE SHALL HAVE 10
BILLION PEOPLE BY THE MIDDLE OF THE NEXT CENTURY.
WHICHEVER WAY YOU LOOK AT IT, PROBLEMS ARE BOUND TO ARISE AS A
RESULT OF GOING FROM 2 BILLION TO 10 BILLION IN SUCH A SHORT
TIME. PUTTING THEM RIGHT WILL BE ALL THE HARDER UNTIL WE SUCCEED
IN CURBING THAT RATE OF POPULATION GROWTH.
THE SECOND CONCLUSION THAT CAN ALREADY BE DRAWN IS THAT MORE THAN
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ATMOSPHERE INTO SEGMENTS AND SAY: ALL RIGHT, WE'LL LOOK AFTER OUR
BIT AND YOU LOOK AFTER YOURS. WE SMALL ONLY BE ABLE TO DEAL WITH
THE PROBLEMS BY A GIANT INTERNATIONAL EFFORT, IM WHICH WE ALL CO-
OPERATE.
AND THAT LEADS ON TO THE THIRD CONCLUSION: WE WOULD BE TAKING A
GREAT RISK WITH FUTURE GENERATIONS IF, HAVING RECEIVED THIS EARLY
WARNING, WE DID NOTHING ABOUT IT: OR JUST TOOK THE ATTITUDE
"WELL, IT'LL SEE ME CUT".
I REMEMBER SAYING IN MY ROYAL SOCIETY SPEECH THAT WE HAD A FULL
REPAIRING LEASE ON THIS EARTH. WITH THE WORK DONE BY THE
INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE, WE CAN NOW SAY THAT WE
HAVE THE SURVEYOR'S REPORT: AND IT SHOWS THERE ARE FAULTS AND
THAT THE REPAIR WORK NEEDS TO START WITHOUT DELAY. THE PROBLEMS
DON'T LIE IN THE FUTURE, THEY ARE HERE AND NOW: AND IT IS OUR
CHILDREN AND GRANDCHILDREN, WHO ARE ALREADY GROWING UP, WHO WILL
BE AFFECTED.
IN SOME AREAS WE HAVE ALREADY STARTED, BRITAIN WAS AMONG THE
FIRST TO CALL FOR AN INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON CLIMATE.
WE ARE GIVING GENEROUS HELP FOR FORESTRY IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES.
WE HAVE UNDERTAKEN TO PHASE OUT CPOS AND OTHER OZONE-DEPLETING
SUBSTANCES BY THE END OF THE CENTURY. BUT THAT WILL ONLY an
EFFECTIVE IF IT EXTENDS TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES TOO, AND THEY
WILL NEED HELP. WE SHALL HAVE TO ADDRESS THIS ISSUE URGENTLY AT
THE LONDON OZONE CONFERENCE NEXT MONTH.
WE MUST ALSO TAKE ACTION ON CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS. THAT WILL
MEAN SIGNIFICENT ADJUSTMENTS TO OUR ECONOMIES - MORE EFFICIENT
POWER STATIONS, CARS WHICH USE LESS FUEL, BETTER INSULATED HOUSES
AND BETTER MANAGEMENT OF ENERGY IN GENERAL. ALL THIS IS BOUND TO
TAKE TIME. IT IS NO GOOD SETTING 'FOLITICAL' TARGETS FOR ACTION.
WHICH ARE JUST NOT REALISTIC IN PRACTICE.
ANY TARGET WOULD HAVE TO BE PART OF A WIDE INTERNATIONAL EFFORT,
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ANUGKABA MUTELS
guve
25 MAY '90 12:06 FROM IPCC GROUP BRACKNELL
PAGE. 008
- 5 -
IN IMPROVING OUR PERFORMANCE, IF OTHERS JUST GO ON AS BEFORE.
BUT PROVIDED OTHERS ARE READY TO TAKE THEIR FULL SHARE, BRITAIN
IS PREPARED TO SET ITSELF THE VERY DEMANDING TARGET or A
REDUCTION OF UP TO 30 PER CENT IN PRESENTLY PROJECTED LEVELS OF
CARBON DIOXIDE ENISSIONS BY THE YEAR 2005. THIS WOULD MEAN
RETURNING EMISSIONS TO THEIR 1990 LEVELS BY THAT DATE. ALL OF
THIS WILL BE SPELLED OUT IN OUR WHITE PAPER ON THE ENVIRONMENT
WHICH WILL BE PUBLISHED IN THE AUTONN.
AND MAY I SAY THAT THE PRIVATE SECTOR IS CONSTANTLY SHOWING THE
WAY WITH ITS INGENUITY AND INVENTIVENESS. FOR INSTANCE, ICI HAVE
DEVELOPED A NEW WAY OF PRODUCING AMMONIA WHICH REDUCES NITROGEN
OXIDE EMISSIONS BY 87 PER CENT, SULPHUR DIOXIDE BY 95 PER CENT
AND CARBON DIOXIDE BY 60 PER CENT - AND IT USES LESS RESOURCES.
THE NET RESULT IS SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER PRODUCTION COSTS AND VERY
SUBSTANTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS. INDEED, IF THIS PARTICULAR
PROCESS OF PRODUCING ANMONIA WERE ADOPTED WORLD-WIDE, THE
SAVINGS IN TERMS OF POLLUTION WOULD BE EQUIVALENT TO TAKING 5
MILLION CARS OFF THE ROAD. IT SHOWS WHAT CAN BE DONE.
THIS IS WHERE THE WORK OF THIS CENTRE WHICH WE ARE OPENING TODAY
COMES IN. WITH ITS ADVANCED COMPUTING FACILITIES AND THE SUPERB
SKILLS OF ITS SCIENTISTS IT WILL HELP US LOOK INTO THE FUTURE AND
PREDICT MORE PRECISELY THE CHANGES IN OUR CLIMATE.
PREVIOUSLY WE COULD GET SOME IDEA OF FUTURE CLIMATES BY
OBSERVING AND ANALYSING THE PATTERNS OF THE PAST. BUT THE
CHANGES WE CAN EXPECT IN THE FUTURE WILL BE so MUCH GREATER THAN
ANYTHING WE HAVE HITHERTO EXPERIENCED, THAT THESE METHODS WILL
NOT BE ADEQUATE AND WB SHALL NEED TO RELY MUCH MORE ON COMPUTER
MODELS, WHICH TAKE IN THE FULL COMPLEXITY OF THE CLIMATE SYSTEM.
IT WILL BE ON THE BASIS OF THIS WORK THAT WE SHALL BE ABLE TO
ESTABLISH A REALISTIC INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME OF ACTION AND AN
EQUALLY REALISTIC TIME-TABLE. DISCHARGES OF CARBON DIOXIDE AND
CFCS, IF UNABATED, WILL GO ON ACCUMULATING IN THE ATMOSPHERE AND
CANNOT BASILY BE REVERSED. EVEN THE MOST URGENT MEASURES NOW
CANNOT
FILLY
AS
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ANDURANA BUILLS
THE
FAA 0704 400080
PAGE. 607
25 MAY '82 12:07 FROM IPCC GROUP BRACKNELL
- 6 -
BUT ACTION NOW WILL PREVENT THE PROBLEM FROM RECOMING ACUTE AND
GIVE US TIME TO IMPROVE OUR PREDICTIONS AND ENLARGE OUR
UNDERSTANDING. THE PANEL'S REPORT WILL PRESENT US WITH A VERY
FULL AGENDA FOR THE NEXT FIFTEEN YEARS UP TO 2005 AND WE SHOULD
START ON IT WITHOUT DELAY.
MAY I WISH THIS HADLEY CENTRE AND ALL WHO WORK HERE EVERY
SUCCESS. YOUR TASK IS NO LESS A ONE THAN TO HELP US SAFEGUARD
THE FUTURE OF OUR PLANET. MAY WE ALL BE EQUAL TO THAT TASK.
(Thu, Apr 26. 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
SECTION 1
11
12
Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols
13
14
15
16
17
3rd Draft
18
April 25 1990
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
LEAD AUTHORS: R. WATSON
27
H. RODHE
28
H. OESCHGER,
29
U. SIEGENTHALER
30
31
32
CONTRIBUTORS:
33
34
M. Andreae; R. Charlson; R. Cicerone; J. Coakley; R. Derwent;
35
J. Elkins; F. Fehsenfeld; P. Fraser; R. Gammon; H. Grassl;
36
R. Harriss; M. Heimann; R. Houghton; V. Kirchoff; G. Kohlmaier;
37
S. Lal; P. Liss; J. Logan; L. Merlivat; K. Minami; G. Pearman;
38
S. Penkett; D. Raynaud; E. Sanhueza; P. Simon; W. Su;
39
A. Thompson; A. Watson; M. Whitfield; P. Winkler; S. Wofsy.
40
1
1 Greenhouse Gases and Aerosol, (The Apr:26, 1990)
1
SECTION 1: GREENHOUSE GASES AND AEROSOLS
2
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
4
5
Executive Summary
4
6
1.1 Introduction
6
7
8
1.2 Carbon Dioxide
7
9
1.2.1 The Cycle of Carbon in Nature
7
10
1.2.1.1 The role of the atmosphere
8
11
1.2.1.2 The role of the ocean
8
12
1.2.1.3 The role of terrestrial vegetation and soils
8
13
1.2.2 Anthropogenic Perturbations
9
14
1.2.2.1 Historical fossil fuel input
9
15
1.2.2.2 Historical land use changes
9
16
1.2.3 Long-Term Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Variations
9
17
1.2.4 The Contemporary Record of Carbon Dioxide - Observations and
18
Interpretation
10
19
1.2.4.1 The carbon dioxide increase from pre-industrial period
10
20
1.2.4.2 Uptake by the ocean
10
21
1.2.4.3 Redistribution of anthropogenic carbon dioxide
12
22
1.2.4.4 Seasonal variations
13
23
1.2.4.5 Interannual variations
13
24
1.2.4.6 Temporal variations of carbon isotopes
13
25
1.2.5 Evidence that the Contemporary Carbon Dioxide Increase is
26
Anthropogenic
13
27
1.2.6 Sensitivity Analyses for Future Carbon Dioxide Concentrations
14
28
1.2.7 Feedbacks from Climate Change into the Carbon Dioxide Cycle
15
29
1.2.7.1 Oceanic feedback effects
15
30
1.2.7.1.1 Ocean temperature
15
31
1.2.7.1.2 Ocean circulation
15
32
1.2.7.1.3 Gas exchange rates
15
33
1.2.7.1.4 Modification of oceanic biogeochemical cycling
15
34
1.2.7.1.5 UV-B radiation
16
35
1.2.7.2 Terrestrial biospheric feedbacks
16
36
1.2.7.2.1 Carbon dioxide fertilization
16
37
1.2.7.2.2 Eutrophication and toxification
16
38
1.2.7.2.3 Temperature
16
39
1.2.7.2.4 Water
16
40
1.2.7.2.5 Change in geographical distribution of vegetation
41
types
17
42
1.2.7.2.6 UV-B radiation
17
43
1.2.8 Conclusions
17
44
45
1.3 Methane
18
46
1.3.1 Atmospheric Distribution of Methane
18
47
1.3.1.1 Paleo atmospheric record of methane
18
48
1.3.1.2 Contemporary record of methane
18
49
1.3.1.3 Isotopic composition of methane
19
50
1.3.2 Sinks of Methane
19
51
1.3.3 Sources of Methane
19
52
1.3.3.1 Natural wetlands
20
53
1.3.3.2 Rice paddies
20
54
1.3.3.3 Biomass burning
21
55
1.3.3.4 Enteric fermentation (animals)
21
56
1.3.3.5 Termites
21
57
1.3.3.6 Landfills
21
58
1.3.3.7 Oceans and freshwaters
21
59
1.3.3.8 Coal mining
21
60
1.3.3.9 Gas drilling, venting and transmission
21
2
(Thu, Anr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols
1
1
2
1.3.4 Feedbacks from Climate Change into the Methane Cycle
22
3
1.3.4.1 Tropical methane sources
22
4
1.3.4.2 High latitude methane sources
22
5
1.3.5 Conclusions
22
6
7
1.4 Halocarbons
23
8
1.4.1 Atmospheric Distribution of Halocarbons
23
9
1.4.2 Sinks for Halocarbons
23
10
1.4.3 Sources of Halocarbons
24
11
1.4.4 Future Atmospheric Concentration of Halocarbons
24
12
1.4.5 Conclusions
25
13
14
1.5 Nitrous Oxide
25
15
1.5.1 Atmospheric Distribution of Nitrous Oxide
25
16
1.5.2 Sinks for Nitrous Oxide
26
17
1.5.3 Sources of Nitrous Oxide
26
18
1.5.3.1 Oceans
26
19
1.5.3.2 Soils
26
20
1.5.3.3 Combustion
27
21
1.5.3.4 Biomass Burning
27
22
1.5.3.5 Fertilizer / Ground-Water
27
23
1.5.4 Conclusions
27
24
25
1.6 Stratospheric Ozone
28
26
1.6.1.1 Total column ozone trends
28
27
1.6.1.2 Changes in the vertical distribution of ozone
29
28
1.6.2 Future Changes
29
29
30
1.7 Tropospheric Ozone and Related Trace Gases (Carbon Monoxide,
31
Non-Methane Hydrocarbons, and Reactive Nitrogen Oxides)
29
32
1.7.1 Tropospheric Ozone
30
33
1.7.1.1 Atmospheric distribution
30
34
1.7.1.2 Trends
30
35
1.7.1.3 Relationships between ozone and its precursors
31
36
1.7.2 Carbon Monoxide
31
37
1.7.2.1 Atmospheric distribution of carbon monoxide
31
38
1.7.2.2 Sources and sinks for carbon monoxide
31
39
1.7.3 Reactive Nitrogen Oxides
32
40
1.7.3.1 Atmospheric distribution of nitrogen oxides
32
41
1.7.3.2 Sources and sinks of nitrogen oxides
32
42
1.7.4 Non-Methane Hydrocarbons
33
43
1.7.4.1 Atmospheric distribution of non-methane hydrocarbons
33
44
1.7.4.2 Sources and sinks for non-methane hydrocarbons
33
45
1.7.5 Feedbacks Between Climate and the Methane / Non-Methane
46
Hydrocarbon / Carbon Monoxide / Oxides of Nitrogen / Tropospheric
47
Ozone System
33
48
1.7.6 Conclusions
33
49
50
1.8 Aerosol Particles
34
51
1.8.1 Concentrations and Trends of Aerosol Particles in the Troposphere
34
52
1.8.2 The Atmospheric Sulphur Budget
35
53
1.8.3 Aerosol Particles in the Stratosphere
36
54
1.8.4 Conclusions
36
55
56
References
37
3
1 Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
1
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
3
4
5
The Earth's climate is dependent upon the radiative balance of the atmosphere, which in turn
6
depends upon the input of solar radiation and the atmospheric abundances of radiatively active
7
trace gases (i.e., greenhouse gases), clouds and aerosols.
8
9
Since the industrial revolution the atmospheric concentrations of several greenhouse gases,
10
i.e., carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide
11
(N₂O), and tropospheric ozone (O₃), have been increasing, primarily due to human activities.
12
Several of these greenhouse gases have long atmospheric lifetimes, decades to centuries, which
13
means that their atmospheric concentrations respond slowly to changes in emission rates. In
14
addition, there is evidence that the concentrations of tropospheric aerosols have increased at
15
least regionally.
16
17
Carbon Dioxide: The atmospheric CO₂ concentration, at 353 ppmv in 1990, is now about
18
25% greater than the pre-industrial (1750-1800) value of about 280 ppmv, and higher than at
19
any time in at least the last 160,000-years. Carbon dioxide is currently rising at about 1.8
20
ppmv (0.5%) per year due to anthropogenic èmissions. Anthropogenic emissions of CO₂ are
21
estimated to be 5.7±0.5 Gt (in 1987)-due to fossil fuel burning, plus 0.6 - 2.5 Gt C (in
22
1980) due to deforestation. The atmospheric increase during the past decade corresponds to
23
(48±8)% of the total emissions during the same period with the remainder being taken up by
24
the oceans and land. Indirect evidence suggests that the land and oceans sequester CO₂ in
25
roughly equal proportions, though the mechanisms are not all well understood. The time taken
26
for atmospheric CO₂ to adjust to changes in sources or sinks is of order 50-200 years,
27
determined mainly by the slow exchange of carbon between surface waters and deeper layers.
28
of the ocean. Consequently, CO₂ emitted into the atmosphere today will influence the
29
atmospheric concentration of CO₂ for centuries into the future. Three models have been used
30
to estimate that even if anthropogenic emissions of CO₂ could be kept constant at present day
31
rates, atmospheric CO₂ would increase to 415 - 480 ppmv by the year 2050, and to 460 - 560
32
ppmv by the year 2100. In order to stabilize concentrations at present day levels, an immediate
33
reduction in global anthropogenic emissions by 60-80 percent would be necessary.
34
35
Methane: Current atmospheric CH4 concentration, at 1.72 ppmv, is now more than double
36
the pre-industrial (1750-1800) value of about 0.8 ppmv, and is increasing at a rate of about
37
0.015 ppmv (0.9%) per year. The major sink for CH4, reaction with hydroxyl (OH) radicals
38
in the troposphere, results in a relatively short atmospheric lifetime of about 10 years Human
39
activities such as rice cultivation, domestic ruminant rearing, biomass burning; coal mining,
40
and natural gas venting have increased the input of CH₄ into the atmosphere, which combined
41
with an possible decrease in the concentration of tropospheric OH, yields the observed rise in
42
global CH4. However, the quantitative importance of each of the factors contributing to the
43
observed increase is not well known at present. In order to stabilize concentrations at present
44
day levels, an immediate reduction in global anthropogenic emissions by 15-20 percent would
45
be necessary.
46
47
Chlorofluorocarbons: The current atmospheric concentrations of the anthropogenically
48
produced halocarbons, CCl₃F (CFC-11), CCl₂F₂ (CFC-12), C₂Cl₃F₃ (CFC-113) and CCl4
49
(carbon tetrachloride) are about 280 pptv, 484 pptv, 60 pptv, and 146 pptv, respectively. Over
50
the past few decades their concentrations, except for CCL4, have increased more rapidly (on a
51
percentage basis) than the other greenhouse gases, currently at rates of at least 4% per year.
52
The fully halogenated CFCs and CCl4 are primarily removed by photolysis in the stratosphere,
53
and have atmospheric lifetimes in excess of 50 years. Future emissions will, most likely, be
54
eliminated or significantly lower than today's because of current international negotiations to
55
strengthen regulations on chlorofluorocarbons. However, the atmospheric concentrations of
56
CFCs 11, 12 and 113 will still be significant (30 40% of current) for at least the next century
57
because of their long atmospheric lifetimes.
58
4
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
Nitrous Oxide: The current atmospheric N2O concentration, at 310 ppbv, is now about 8%
2
greater than in the pre-industrial era, and is increasing at a rate of about 0.8 ppbv (0.25%) per
3
year. The major sink for N₂O, photolysis in the stratosphere, results in a relatively long
4
atmospheric lifetime of about 150 years. It is difficult to quantitatively account for the source
5
of the current increase in the atmospheric concentration of N2O but it is thought to be due to
6
human activities. Recent data suggest that the total annual flux of N₂O from combustion and
7
biomass burning is much less than previously believed. Agricultural practices may stimulate
8
emissions of N₂O from soils and play a major role. In order to stabilize concentrations at
9
present day levels, an immediate reduction of 70 - 80% of the additional flux of N₂O that has
10
occurred since the pre-industrial era would be necessary.
11
12
Ozone: Ozone is an effective greenhouse gas especially in the middle and upper troposphere
13
and lower stratosphere. Its concentration in the troposphere is highly variable because of its
14
short lifetime. It is photochemically produced in-situ through a series of complex reactions
15
involving carbon monoxide (CO), CH₄, non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), and nitrogen
16
oxide radicals (NOx), and also transported downward from the stratosphere. The limited
17
observational data support positive trends of about 1% per year for O₃ below 8 km in the
18
northern hemisphere (consistent with positive trends in several of the precursor gases,
19
especially NOₓ, CH₄, and CO) but probably close to zero trend in the southern hemisphere.
20
There is also evidence that O₃ has decreased by a few percent globally in the lower stratosphere
21
(below 25 km) within the last decade. Unfortunately, there are no reliable long-term data near
22
the tropopause.
23
24
Aerosol particles: Aerosol particles have a lifetime of at most a few weeks in the
25
troposphere and occur in highly variable concentrations. A large proportion of the particles that
26
influence cloud processes and the radiative balance is derived from gaseous sulphur emissions.
27
Due to fossil fuel combustion, these emissions have more than doubled globally, causing a
28
large increase in the concentration of aerosol sulphate especially over and around the
29
industrialized regions of Europe and North America. Future concentrations of aerosol sulphate
30
will vary in proportion to changes in anthropogenic emissions. Aerosol particles derived from
31
natural (biological) emissions may contribute to climate feedback processes. During a few
32
years following major volcanic eruptions the concentrations of natural aerosol particles in the
33
stratosphere can be greatly enhanced.
34
5
1
Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION
2
3
The Earth's climate is dependent upon the radiative balance of the atmosphere, which in turn
4
depends upon the input of solar radiation and the atmospheric abundances of radiatively active
5
trace gases (i.e., greenhouse gases), clouds and aerosols. Consequently, it is essential to gain
6
an understanding of how each of these climate "forcing agents" varies naturally, and how some
7
of them might be influenced by human activities.
8
9
The chemical composition of the Earth's atmosphere is changing, largely due to human
10
activities (Table 1). Air trapped in Antarctic and Greenland ice shows that there have been
11
major increases in the concentrations of radiatively active gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂),
12
methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) since the beginning of the industrial revolution. In
13
addition, industrially produced chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are now present in the atmosphere
14
in significant concentrations, and there is evidence that the concentrations of tropospheric O₃
15
and aerosols have increased at least regionally. Atmospheric measurements indicate that in
16
many cases the rates of change have increased in recent decades. Many of the greenhouse,
17
gases have long atmospheric life-times, decades to centuries, which implies that their
18
atmospheric concentrations respond slowly to changes in emission rates.
19
20
TABLE 1
Summary of Key Greenhouse Gases Influenced by Human Activities 1
Parameter
CO₂
CH4
CFC-11
CFC-12
N2O
Pre-industrial atmospheric
280 ppmv²
0.8 ppmv
0
0
288 ppbv²
concentration (1750-1800)
Current atmospheric
353 ppmv
1.72 ppmv
280 pptv²
484 pptv
310 ppbv
concentration (1990)³
Current rate of annual
1.8 ppmv
0.015 ppmv
9.5 pptv
17 pptv
0.8 ppbv
atmospheric accumulation
(0.5%)
(0.9%)
(4%)
(4%)
(0.25%)
Atmospheric lifetime⁴
(50-200)
10
65
130
150
(years)
21
22
23
1
Ozone has not been included in the table because of lack of precise data.
24
2
ppmv = parts per million by volume;
25
ppbv = parts per billion by volume;
26
pptv = parts per trillion by volume.
27
3
The current (1990) concentrations have been estimated based upon an extrapolation of measurements
28
reported for earlier years, assuming that the recent trends remained approximately constant.
29
4
For each gas in the table, except CO₂, the "lifetime" is defined here as the ratio of the atmospheric
30
content to the total rate of removal. This time scale also characterizes the rate of adjustment of the
31
atmospheric concentrations if the emission rates are changed abruptly. CO₂ is a special case since it
32
has no real sinks, but is merely circulated between various reservoirs (atmosphere, ocean, biota).
33
The "lifetime" of CO₂ given in the table is a rough indication of the time it would take for the CO₂
34
concentration to adjust to changes in the emissions (see section 1.2.1 for further details).
35
36
6
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
The effectiveness of a greenhouse gas in influencing the Earth's radiative budget is dependent
2
upon its atmospheric concentration and its ability to absorb outgoing long-wave terrestrial
3
radiation. Tropospheric water vapour is the single most important greenhouse gas, but its
4
atmospheric concentration is not significantly influenced by direct anthropogenic emissions.
5
Of the greenhouse gases that are affected by human activities, CO₂ has the largest radiative
6
effect, followed by the CFCs, CH₄, tropospheric O₃, and N₂O. Although the present rate of
7
increase in the atmospheric concentration of CO2 is about a factor of 70,000 times greater than
8
that of CCl₃F (CFC-11) and CCl₂F₂(CFC-12) combined, and a factor of about 120 times
9
greater than that of CH₄, its contribution to changes in the radiative forcing during the decade
10
of the 1980s was about 55%, compared to -17%-for CFCs (11 and 12), and 15% for CH4 (see
11
Section 2). Other CFCs and N2O accounted for about 8%, and 5%, respectively, of the
12
changes in the radiative forcing. While the contribution from tropospheric O₃ may be
13
important, it has not been quantified because the observational data is inadequate to determine
14
its trend. This pattern arises because of differences in the efficiencies of the gases to absorb
15
terrestrial radiation.
16
17
Aerosol particles play an important role in the climate system because of their direct interaction
18
(absorption and scattering) with solar and terrestrial radiation, as well as through their influence
19
on cloud processes and thereby, indirectly, on radiative fluxes.
20
21
There is a clear need to document the historical record of the atmospheric concentrations of
22
greenhouse gases and aerosols, as well as to understand the physical, chemical, geological,
23
biological and social processes responsible for the observed changes. A quantitative
24
understanding of the atmospheric concentrations of these gases requires knowledge of: the
25
cycling and distribution of carbon, nitrogen and other key nutrients within and between the
26
atmosphere, terrestrial ecosystems, oceans and sediments; and the influence of human actions
27
on these cycles. Without knowledge of the processes responsible for the observed past and
28
present changes in the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols it will not
29
be possible to predict with confidence future changes in atmospheric composition, nor
30
therefore the resulting changes in the radiative forcing of the atmosphere.
31
32
33
1.2
CARBON DIOXIDE
34
35
1.2.1 The Cycle of Carbon in Nature
36
37
Carbon in the form of CO₂, carbonates, organic compounds, etc. is cycled between various
38
reservoirs, atmosphere, oceans, land biota and marine biota, and on geological time scales,
39
also sediments and rocks (Figure 1.1; for more detailed reviews see Sundquist, 1985: Bolin,
40
1981, 1986; Trabalka, 1985; Siegenthaler, 1986). The largest natural exchange fluxes occur
41
between the atmosphere and the terrestrial biota and between the atmosphere and the surface
42
water of the oceans. By comparison, the net inputs into the atmosphere from fossil fuel
43
combustion and deforestation are much smaller, but are large enough to modify the natural
44
balance.
45
46
The turnover time of CO2 in the atmosphere, measured as the ratio of the content to the fluxes
47
through it, is about 4 years This means that on average it takes only a few years before a CO₂
48
molecule in the atmosphere is taken up by plants or dissolved in the ocean. This short time
49
scale must not be confused with the time it takes for the atmospheric CO₂ level to adjust to a
50
new equilibrium if sources or sinks change. This adjustment time, corresponding to the lifetime
51
in Table 1, is of the order of 50 200 years, determined mainly by the slow exchange of
52
carbon between surface waters and the deep ocean.The adjustment time is important for the
53
discussions on global warming potential, cf. Section 2.2.7.
54
55
Because of its complex cycle, the decay of excess CO₂ in the atmosphere does not follow a
56
simple exponential curve, and therefore a single time scale cannot be given to characterize the
57
whole adjustment process toward a new equilibrium. The two curves in Figure 1.2, which
58
represent simulations of a pulsed input of CO₂ into the atmosphere using atmosphere-ocean
59
models (one box model and one General Circulation Model (GCM)), clearly show that the
7
1
Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
1
initial response (governed mainly by the uptake of CO₂ by ocean surface waters) is much more
2
rapid than the later response (influenced by the slow exchange between surface waters and
3
deeper layers of the oceans). For example, the first reduction by 50 percent occurs within
4
some 50 years, whereas the reduction by another 50 percent (to 25 percent of the initial value)
5
requires approximately another 200 years. The concentration will actually never return to its
6
original value, but reach a new equilibrium level; about 15 percent of the total amount of CO₂
7
emitted will remain in the atmosphere.
8
9
1.2.1.1 The role of the atmosphere
10
The mean annual concentration of CO₂ is relatively homogeneous throughout the troposphere
11
because the troposphere is mixed on a time scale of about 1 year. The pre-industrial
12
atmospheric CO₂ concentration was about 280 ppmv, as reconstructed from ice core analyses
13
(c.f. Section 1.2.4.1), corresponding to an atmospheric amount of 594 Gigatonnes of carbon
14
(GtC: 1 Gt = 10⁹ₜ = 10¹⁵g; 1 ppmv CO2 of the global atmosphere equals 2.12 GtC and 7.8 Gt
15
CO₂); today, the level is about 353 ppmv (Figures 1.3 and 1.4). The atmospheric increase has
16
been monitored since 1958 at a growing number of stations (Keeling and Heimann, 1986;
17
Keeling et al., 1989a; Beardsmore and Pearman, 1987; Conway et al., 1988).
18
19
1.2.1.2 The role of the ocean
20
On time scales of decades or more, the CO₂ concentration of the unperturbed atmosphere is
21
mainly controlled by the exchange with the oceans, since this is the largest of the carbon
22
reservoirs. There is a continuous exchange of CO2 in both directions between the atmosphere
ATM
23
and oceans. The net flux into (or out of) the ocean is driven by the difference between the
VING
24
atmospheric partial pressure of CO2 and the equilibrium partial pressure of CO2 (pCO₂) in
N
25
surface waters.
26
FO RUKS
27
The exchange of carbon between the surface and deeper layers is accomplished mainly through
28
transport by water motions. Ventilation of the thermocline (approximately the uppermost km
29
of the ocean) is particularly important for the downward transport of anthropogenic CO₂. The
30
deep circulation is effective on time scales of 100-1000 years.
31
32
The natural carbon cycle in the ocean and in particular pCO₂ in surface ocean water are strongly
33
influenced also by biological processes. The marine biota serve as a "biological pump",
34
transporting organic carbon from surface waters to deeper layers as a rain of detritus at a rate
35
of about 4 GtC per year (Eppley and Peterson, 1979), which is balanced by an equal upward
36
transport of carbon by deeper water richer in CO₂ than surface water. This "biological pump"
37
has the effect of reducing surface pCO₂ very substantially: without the biological pump ("dead
38
ocean") the pre-industrial CO₂ level would have been higher than the observed value of 280
wm
39
ppmv, at perhaps 450 ppmv (Wenk, 1985; Bacastow and Maier-Reimer, 1990). Alterations in
40
41
in the future. Note, however, that the "biological pump" does not help to sequester
the marine biota due to climatic change could therefore have a substantial effect on CO₂ WHT levels
42
anthropogenic CO2 (see Section 1.2.4.2).
43
44
1.2.1.3 The role of terrestrial vegetation and soils
45
The most important processes in the exchange of carbon are those of photosynthesis,
46
autotrophic respiration (i.e., CO2 production by the plants) and heterotrophic (i.e., essentially
47
microbial) respiration converting the organic material back into CO₂ mainly in soils (c.f.
48
Section 10 for a detailed discussion). Net primary production (NPP) is the net annual uptake
49
of CO₂ by the vegetation; NPP is equal to the gross uptake (gross primary production, GPP)
50
minus autotrophic respiration. In an unperturbed world, NPP and decomposition by
51
heterotrophic respiration are approximately balanced on an annual basis; formation of soils and
52
peat corresponds to a (relatively small) excess of NPP.
53
54
The carbon balance can be changed considerably by the direct impact of man (land use
55
changes, particularly deforestation), by climate changes, and by other changes in the
56
environment, e.g., atmospheric composition. Since the pools and fluxes are large (NPP 50-60
57
GtC per year, GPP 90-120 GtC per year; Houghton et al, 1985b), any perturbations can have a
58
significant effect on the atmospheric concentration of CO₂.
59
8
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols
:-
1
1.2.2
Anthropogenic Perturbations
2
3
The concentrations of CO₂ in the atmosphere are primarily affected by two anthropogenic
4
processes: release of CO₂ from fossil fuel combustion, and changes in land use such as
5
deforestation.
6
7
1.2.2.1 Historical fossil fuel input
8
The global input of CO₂ to the atmosphere from fossil fuel combustion, plus minor industrial
9
sources like cement production, has shown an exponential increase since 1860 (about 4% per
10
year), with major interruptions during the two world wars and the economic crisis in the
11
thirties (Figure 1.5). Following the "oil crisis" of 1973, the rate of increase of the CO₂
12
emissions first decreased to approximately 2% per year, and after 1979 the global emissions
13
remained almost constant at a level of 5.3 GtC per year until 1985, when they started to rise
14
again, reaching 5.7 GtC per year in 1987 (Figure 1.5). The cumulative release of CO2 from
15
fossil fuel use and cement manufacturing from 1850 to 1987 is estimated at 200 GtC ± 10%
16
(Marland, 1989).
17
18
Ninety five percent of the industrial CO₂ emissions are from the northern hemisphere,
19
dominated by industrial countries, where annual releases reach up to about 5 tC per capita
20
(Rotty and Marland, 1986). In contrast, CO₂ emission rates in most developing countries lie
21
between 0.2 and 0.6 tC per capita per year. However, the relative rate of increase of the CO₂
22
emissions is much larger in the developing countries (ca 6% per year), showing almost no
23
slowing down after 1973 in contrast to Western Europe and North America where the rate of
24
increase decreased from about 3% per year (1945-72) to less than 1% per year (1973-84).
25
26
1.2.2.2 Historical land use changes
27
The vegetation and soils of unmanaged forests hold 20 to 100 times more carbon per unit area
28
than agricultural systems. The amount of carbon released to the atmosphere compared to that
29
accumulated on land as a result of land use change depends on the amounts of carbon held in
30
biomass and soils, rates of oxidation of wood products (either rapidly through burning or more
31
slowly through decay), rates of decay of organic matter in soils, and rates of regrowth of
32
forests following harvest or abandonment of agricultural land. The heterogeneity of terrestrial
33
ecosystems makes estimation of global inventories and fluxes difficult.
34
35
The total release of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use, primarily deforestation,
36
between 1850 and 1985 has been estimated to be about 115 GtC (Houghton and Skole, 1990),
37
with an error limit of about ±35 GtC. The components of the flux to the atmosphere are: (1)
38
burning associated with land use change; (2) decay of biomass on site (roots, stumps, slash,
39
twigs etc.); (3) oxidation of wood products removed from site (paper, lumber, waste etc.); (4)
40
oxidation of soil carbon; minus (5) regrowth of trees and redevelopment of soil organic matter
41
following harvest. Although the greatest releases of carbon in the nineteenth and early
42
twentieth centuries were from lands in the temperate zone (maximum 0.5 GtC per year), the
43
major source of carbon during the past several decades has been from deforestation in the
44
tropics, with a significant increase occurring since 1950. Over the entire 135 yr period, the
45
release from tropical regions is estimated to have been 2-3 times greater than the release from
46
middle and high latitudes. Estimates of the flux in 1980 range from 0.6 to 2.5 GtC (Houghton
47
et al. 1985a, 1987, 1988; Detwiler and Hall, 1988): virtually all of this flux is from the tropics.
48
The few regions for which data exist suggest that the annual flux is higher now than it was in
49
1980.
50
51
52
1.2.3
Long-Term Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Variations
53
54
The most reliable information on past atmospheric CO₂ concentrations is obtained by the
55
analysis of polar ice cores. The process of air occlusion lasts from about 10 up to 1000 years,
56
depending on local conditions (e.g., precipitation rate), so that an air sample in old ice reflects
57
the atmospheric composition averaged over a corresponding time interval.
58
9
1
Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
1
Measurements on samples representing the last glacial maximum (18,000 yT before present)
2
from ice cores from Greenland and Antarctica (Neftel et al, 1982, 1988; Delmas et al., 1980)
3
showed CO₂ concentrations of 180-200 ppmv, i.e., about 70 percent of the pre-industrial
4
value. Analyses on the ice cores from Vostok, Antarctica, have provided new data on natural
5
variations of CO₂, covering a full glacial-interglacial cycle (Figure 1.6; Barnola et al., 1987).
6
Over the whole period there is a remarkable correlation between polar temperature, as deduced
7
from deuterium data, and the CO₂ profile. The glacial-interglacial shifts of CO₂ concentrations
8
must have been linked to large-scale changes in the circulation of the ocean, and in the whole
9
interplay of biological, chemical and physical processes, but the detailed mechanisms are not
10
yet very clear. The CO₂ variations were large enough to potentially contribute, via the
11
greenhouse effect, to a substantial (although not the major) part of the glacial-interglacial
12
climate change (Hansen et al., 1984; Broccoli and Manabe, 1987).
13
14
Ice core studies on Greenland ice indicate that during the last glaciation, CO₂ concentration
15
shifts of the order of 50 ppmv may have occurred within less than 100 years (Stauffer et al.,
16
1984), parallel to abrupt, drastic climatic events (temperature changes of the order of 5°C).
17
These rapid CO₂ changes have not yet been identified in ice cores from Antarctica (possibly
18
due to long occlusion times; Neftel et al., 1988), therefore, it is not yet clear if they are real or
19
represent artefacts in the ice record.
20
21
22
1.2.4 The Contemporary Record of Carbon Dioxide - Observations and
23
Interpretation
24
25
1.2.4.1 The carbon dioxide increase from pre-industrial period
26
Relatively detailed CO2 data have been obtained for the last millennium from Antarctic ice cores
27
(Neftel et al, 1985a; Friedli et al, 1986; Siegenthaler et al., 1988; Raynaud and Barnola, 1985,
28
Pearman et al., 1986). They indicate that during the period 1000 to 1800, the atmospheric
29
concentration was between 270 and 290 ppmv. The relative constancy seems surprising in
30
view of the fact that the atmosphere exchanges about 30 percent of its CO₂ with the oceans and
31
biota each year This indicates that the sensitivity of atmospheric CO₂ levels to minor climatic
32
changes such as the Little Ice Age (lasting from the end of the 16th to the middle of the 19th
33
century), where global mean temperatures probably decreased by about 1°C, is small.
34
35
A precise reconstruction of the CO₂ increase during the past two centuries has been obtained
36
from an ice core from Siple Station, Antarctica (Figure 1.3; Neftel et al., 1985a, Friedli et al.,
37
1986). These results indicate that CO₂ started to rise around 1800 and had already increased
38
by about 15 ppmv by 1900. Precise direct atmospheric measurements started in 1958, when
39
the level was about 315 ppmv and the rate of increase 0.6 ppmv per year. The present
40
atmospheric CO₂ level has reached 353 ppmv, and the mean growth rate has now reached
41
about 1.8 ppmv per year (Figure 1.4; Keeling et al, 1989a).
42
43
1.2.4.2 Uptake by the ocean
44
The ocean is an important reservoir for taking up anthropogenic CO₂. The relative increase of
45
dissolved inorganic carbon (total CO₂) in ocean water is smaller than in the atmosphere (only
46
2-3 percent until now, see below). Precise measurements of dissolved inorganic carbon can be
47
made with present analytical tools. However, an accurate determination of the trend in
48
dissolved inorganic carbon is difficult because of its variability in time and space. Hence,
49
repeated transects and time series will be required to assess the total oceanic CO₂ uptake with
50
good precision.
51
52
The net flux of CO₂ into (or out of) the ocean is given by the product of a gas transfer
53
coefficient and ДрСО2 (the CO₂ partial pressure difference between ocean and atmosphere).
54
The gas transfer coefficient increases with increasing wind speed and also depends on water
55
temperature. Therefore, the net flux into the ocean can be estimated from a knowledge of the
56
atmospheric CO₂ concentration, pCO₂ in surface water (for which the data are still sparse), the
57
global distribution of wind speeds over the ocean as well as the relation between wind speed
58
and gas transfer coefficient (which is known to ±30% only). There have been several
10
(Thn, Apr 26, !99.)) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
estimates of the global net uptake of CO₂ by the oceans using observations (e.g., Enting and
2
Pearman, 1982, 1987). The most recent estimate yields 1.6 GtC per year (Tans et al., 1990);
3
the error of this estimate is, according to the authors, not easy to estimate.
4
5
Estimates of oceanic CO₂ uptake, in the past and in the future, require models of the global
6
carbon cycle that take into account air-sea gas exchange, aqueous carbonate chemistry and the
7
transport from the surface to deep ocean layers. The aqueous carbonate chemistry in sea water
8
operates in a mode that if the atmospheric CO₂ concentration increases by e.g., 10%, then the
9
concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water increases by only about 1% at
10
equilibrium. Therefore, the ocean is not such a powerful sink for anthropogenic CO₂ as might
11
seem first when comparing the relative sizes of the reservoirs (Figure 1.1).
12
13
The rate at which anthropogenic CO₂ is transported from the surface to deeper ocean layers is
14
determined by the rate of water exchange in the vertical. It is known from measurements of the
15
radioactive isotope 14C that on average it takes hundreds to about one thousand years for water
16
at the surface to penetrate to well below the mixed layer of the major oceans (e.g., Broecker
17
and Peng, 1982). Thus, in most oceanic regions only the top several hundred metres of the
18
oceans have at present taken up significant amounts of anthropogenic CO₂. An exception is the
19
North Atlantic Ocean where bomb-produced tritium has been observed even near the bottom of
20
the sea, indicating the active formation of new deep water.
21
22
The rain of biogenic detrital particles, which is important for the natural carbon cycle, does not
23
significantly contribute to a sequestering of excess CO₂, since the marine biota do not directly
24
respond to the CO₂ increase. Their activity is controlled by other factors, such as light,
25
temperature and limiting nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon). Thus, only the input
26
of fertilizers (phosphate, nitrate) into the ocean through human activities may lead to an
27
additional sedimentation of organic carbon in the ocean; different authors have estimated the
28
size of this additional sink between 0.04 and 0.3 GtC per year (see Baes, 1985). It seems
29
thus justified to estimate the fossil fuel CO₂ uptake to date considering the biological flux to be
30
constant, as long as climatic changes due to increasing greenhouse gases, or natural causes, do
31
not modify the marine biotic processes. Although this appears a reasonable assumption for the
32
past and present situation, it may well not be so in the future.
33
34
The carbon cycle models used to date to simulate the atmosphere-ocean system have often been
35
highly simplified, consisting of a few well-mixed or diffusive reservoirs (boxes) (e.g.,
36
Oeschger et al. 1975: Broecker et al., 1980, Bolin, 1981, Enting and Pearman, 1987;
37
Siegenthaler, 1983). Even though these box models are highly simplified they are a powerful
38
means for identifying the importance of the different processes that determine the flux of CO2
39
into the ocean (e.g., Broecker and Peng, 1982; Peng and Broecker, 1985). The results of
40
these models are considered to be reasonable because, as long as the ocean circulation is not
41
changing, the models need only simulate the transport of excess CO2 from the atmosphere into
42
the ocean, but not the actual dynamics of the ocean. In the simple models, the oceanic
43
transport mechanisms, eg., formation of deep water, are parameterized. The transport
44
parameters (e.g., eddy diffusivity) are determined from observations of transient tracers that
45
are analogs to the flux of anthropogenic CO₂ into the ocean. If a model reproduces correctly
46
the observed distribution of, e.g., bomb-produced 14C, then it might be expected to simulate
47
reasonably the flux of CO₂ into the ocean. A 1-D box-diffusion model yields an oceanic
48
uptake of 2.4 GtC per year on average for the decade 1980 - 1989, and an outcrop-diffusion
49
model (both described by Siegenthaler, 1983) 3.6 GtC per year. The latter model most
50
probably overpredicts the flux into the ocean, because it includes an infinitely fast exchange
51
between high-latitude surface waters and the deep ocean.
52
53
However, it is obviously desirable to use 3-dimensional (3-D) general circulation models of the
54
oceans for this purpose. At this time, only a few modeling groups have started to do this. One
55
3-D model (Maier-Reimer and Hasselmann, 1987) gives a similar CO2 uptake as a 1-D box-
56
diffusion model of Siegenthaler (1983), as illustrated by the model response to a pulse input of
57
CO₂ (Figure 1.2). In a recent revised version of this model (Maier-Reimer et al., personal
58
communication) the ocean takes up less CO₂, about 1.2 GtC per year on average for the decade
59
1980 - 1989. The GFDL 3-D ocean model (Sarmiento et al, 1990) has an oceanic uptake of
11
1 Greenhouse Gases and Aerosels (hu, Ap; 2C, 1990)
1
1.9 GtC per year for the same period. 3-D ocean modeis and especially coupled atmosphere-
2
ocean models are the only means to study in a realistic way the feedback effects that climate
3
change may have on atmospheric CO2 via alteration of the ocean circulation (cf. Section
4
1.2.7.1). However, models need to be constrained by more data than are presently available.
5
6
The oceanic uptake of CO₂ for the decade 1980 1989, as estimated based on carbon models
7
(e.g., Siegenthaler and Oeschger, 1987; Maier-Reimer et al., personal communication, 1990;
8
Goudriaan, 1989; Sarmiento et al., 1990) is in the range 2.0±0.8 GtC per year.
9
10
1.2.4.3 Redistribution of anthropogenic carbon dioxide
11
During the period 1850 to 1986, 195±20 GtC were released by fossil fuel burning and 117±35
12
GtC by deforestation and changes in land use, adding up to a cumulative input of 312±40 GtC.
13
14
Atmospheric CO2 increased from about 288 ppmv to 348 ppmv during this period,
15
corresponding to (41±6)% of the cumulative input. This percentage is sometimes called the
16
"airborne fraction", but that term should not be misunderstood: all CO2, anthropogenic and
17
non-anthropogenic, is continuously being exchanged between atmosphere, ocean and
18
biosphere. Conventionally, an "airborne fraction" referring to the fossil input only has often
19
been quoted, because only the emissions due to fossil fuel burning are known with good
20
precision. However, this may be misleading, since the atmospheric increase is a response to
21
the total emissions. We therefore prefer the definition based on the latter. The airborne
22
fraction for the period 1980 1989 (see calculation below) corresponds to (48±8)% of the
23
cumulative input.
24
25
In model simulations of the past CO2 increase, using estimated emissions from fossil fuels and
26
deforestation, it has generally been found that the simulated increase is larger than that actually
27
observed. An estimate for the decade 1980-1989 is:
28
29
Emissions from fossil fuels into the atmosphere (Figure 1.5)
5.4±0.5 GtC per yr
30
Emissions from deforestation and land use
1.6±1.0
31
Accumulation in the atmosphere
3.4±0.2
32
Uptake by the ocean
2.0±0.8
33
34
Net imbalance
1.6±1.4
35
36
The result from this budget and from other studies is that the estimated emissions exceed the
37
sum of atmospheric increase plus model-calculated oceanic uptake by a significant amount.
38
The question therefore arises whether an important mechanism has been overlooked. All
39
attempts to identify such a "missing sink" in the ocean have, however, failed so far. A
40
possible exception is that a natural fluctuation in the oceanic carbon system could have caused a
41
decreasing atmospheric baseline concentration in the past few decades; this does not appear
42
likely in view of the relative constancy of the pre-industrial CO2 concentration. There are
43
possible processes on land, which could account for the missing CO2 (but it has not been
44
possible to verify them). They include the stimulation of vegetative growth by increasing CO2
45
levels (the CO2 fertilization effect), the possible enhanced productivity of vegetation under
46
warmer conditions, and the direct effect of fertilization from agricultural fertilizers and from
47
nitrogenous releases into the atmosphere. It has been estimated that increased fertilization by
48
nitrogenous releases could account for a sequestering of up to a maximum of 1 GtC per year in
49
terrestrial ecosystems (Melillo, private communication, 1990). In addition, changed forest
50
management practices may also result in an increase in the amount of carbon stored in northern
51
mid-latitude forests. The extent to which mid-latitude terrestrial systems can sequester carbon
52
before becoming saturated and ineffective is unknown. As mid-latitude terrestrial systems
53
become close to becoming saturated, and hence ineffective in sequestering carbon, this would
54
allow more of the CO2 to remain in the atmosphere.
55
56
A technique for establishing the global distribution of surface sources and sinks has been to
57
take global observations of atmospheric CO2 concentration and isotopic composition and to
58
invert these by means of atmospheric transport models to deduce spatial and temporal patterns
59
of surface fluxes (Pearman et al., 1983; Pearman and Hyson, 1986; Keeling and Heimann,
12
(The, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
1986). The observed interhemispheric CO2 concentration difference (currently about 3 ppmv)
2
is smaller than one would expect given that nearly all fossil releases occur in the northern
3
hemisphere. The results of this approach suggest that there is an unexpectedly large sink in the
4
northern hemisphere, equivalent to more than half of the fossil fuel CO₂ release (Enting and
5
Mansbridge, 1989; Tans et al., 1990; Keeling et al., 1989b). Furthermore, it has been
6
concluded that the oceanic uptake compatible with oceanic and atmospheric CO₂ data and with
7
a 3-dimensional atmospheric transport model is at most 1 GtC per year (Tans et al., 1990).
8
Thus, a significant terrestrial sink, possibly larger than the oceanic uptake, is suggested by
9
these model analyses.
10
11
1.2.4.4
Seasonal variations
12
Atmospheric CO₂ exhibits a seasonal cycle, dominated by the seasonal uptake and release of
13
atmospheric CO₂ by land plants. Its amplitude is small (1.2 ppmv peak-to-peak) in the
14
southern hemisphere and increases northward to a maximum of order 15 ppmv peak-to-peak in
15
the boreal forest zone (55-65° N).
16
17
The amplitude of the seasonal cycle has been observed to be increasing (e.g., Pearman and
18
Hyson, 1981: Bacastow et al., 1985; Thompson et al., 1986). For example, at Mauna Loa,
19
Hawaii, the seasonal amplitude has increased by nearly 20% since 1958. The increase has
20
however, not been monotonic, and different evaluation methods yield somewhat different
21
values; still, it is statistically significant. This increasing amplitude could point to a growing
22
productivity (NPP) of the terrestrial ecosystems, and to a sequestering of carbon by a growing
23
biomass, provided the increase in biomass is not fully compensated by respiration. It is
24
important to note that such a change does not necessarily indicate increased productivity or
25
increased storage of carbon (Pearman and Hyson, 1981; Kohlmaier et al., 1989; Houghton,
26
1987); it could also be due to, e.g., accelerated soil respiration in winter.
27
28
1.2.4.5
Interannual variations
29
Small imbalances in natural exchange fluxes are reflected in interannual CO₂ concentration
30
fluctuations (±1 ppmv over 1-2 years). They are correlated with the El Niño-Southern
31
Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon (Thompson et al., 1986; Keeling et al., 1989a), which
32
suggests a relation to changes in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, where normally the upwelling
33
causes a high pCO₂ peak and outgassing of CO₂ into the atmosphere. However, a closer
34
inspection shows that this cannot be the dominating mechanism, since during El Niño, the
35
equatorial pCO₂ peak disappears (Feely et al., 1987), while atmospheric CO₂ grows more
36
strongly than normally. Alternatively, processes in the land biosphere, perhaps in response to
37
climatic events connected with ENSO events, may be responsible. This explanation is
38
supported by one set of stable carbon isotope data on atmospheric CO₂ (Keeling et al., 1989a);
39
but not supported by a second set (Goodman and Francey, 1988).
40
41
1.2.4.6
Temporal variations of carbon isotopes
42
The release of CO₂ from biospheric carbon and fossil fuels, both having lower 13C/12C ratios
43
than atmospheric CO₂, has led to a decrease of the isotope ratio 13C/12C in the atmosphere by
44
about 1%. The man-made emissions of ¹⁴C-free fossil fuel CO₂ have likewise caused a
45
decrease of the atmospheric 14C concentration (measured on tree-rings) of the order of 2%
46
from 1800 to 1950. Both isotopic perturbations can be used to constrain the history of the
47
anthropogenic release of CO₂. The observed decreases of ¹³C, as observed in air trapped in
48
ice cores (Friedli et al., 1986) and 14C, observed in tree rings, agree, within experimental
49
uncertainty, with those expected from model calculations with the same carbon cycle models as
50
used for studying the CO₂ increase (Stuiver and Quay, 1981; Siegenthaler and Oeschger,
51
1987). The interpretation of ¹³C trends in tree rings has proven to be difficult because of plant
52
physiological effects on isotope fractionation (Francey and Farquhar, 1982).
53
54
55
1.2.5 Evidence that the Contemporary Carbon Dioxide Increase is
56
Anthropogenic
57
12
1 Greenhouse Gases and Aerosos (The: Apr 26. 1990)
1
How do we know that in fact human activity has been responsible for the well documented
2
25% increase in atmospheric CO₂ since the early 19th century? Couldn't this rise instead be
3
the result of some long-term natural fluctuation in the natural carbon cycle? Simple arguments
4
allow us to dismiss this possibility.
5
6
First, the observational CO₂ records from ice cores with good time resolution clearly show that
7
the maximum range of natural variability about the mean of 280 ppmv during the past 1000
8
years was small (10 ppmv over a 100 year timescale), that is an order of magnitude less than
9
the observed rise over the last 150 years. A value as high as the current level of 353 ppmv is
10
not observed anywhere in the measured ice core record for the atmospheric history during the
11
past 160,000 years; the maximum value is 300 ppmv during the previous interglacial, 120,000
12
years ago.
13
14
Second, the observed rate of CO₂ increase closely parallels the accumulated emission trends
15
from fossil fuel combustion and from land use changes (c.f. Section 1.2.2). Since the start of
16
atmospheric monitoring in 1958, the annual atmospheric increase has been smaller each year
17
than the fossil CO₂ input. Thus, oceans and biota together must have been a global sink rather
18
than a source during all these years. Further evidence is provided by the fact that the north-to-
19
south CO₂ concentration difference has been observed to increase from 1 ppmv in 1960 to 3
20
ppmv in 1985, parallel to the growth of the (northern hemisphere) fossil fuel combustion
21
sources (Keeling et al., 1989a).
22
23
Third, the observed isotopic trends of ¹³C and 14C agree qualitatively with those expected due
24
to the CO₂ emissions from fossil fuels and the biosphere, and they are quantitatively consistent
25
with results from carbon cycle modelling.
26
27
28
1.2.6
Sensitivity Analyses for Future Carbon Dioxide Concentrations
29
30
Future atmospheric CO₂ concentrations depend primarily on emission rates from energy use
31
and deforestation, and on the effectiveness of the ocean and land biota as CO₂ sinks. For the
32
sake of illustration, several schematic scenarios are shown in Figures 1.7 and 1.8. Those of
33
Figure 1.7 are based on prescribed total CO₂ emission rates after 1990, for those in Figure 1.8
34
atmospheric concentrations after 1990 were prescribed and the corresponding emission rates
35
were calculated to fit these concentrations. A box-diffusion model of the global cycle was used
36
for these simulations (Enting and Pearman, 1982, 1987), with an oceanic eddy diffusivity of
37
5350 m2year1 and an air-sea gas exchange rate corresponding to an exchange coefficient of
38
0.12 year-1. The calculations assume no biospheric-climate feedbacks, and also assume that
39
after 1990 the net biospheric input of CO₂ is zero, i.e., the input of CO₂ from tropical
40
deforestation is balanced by uptake of CO₂ by terrestrial ecosystems.
41
42
In case a (all emissions stopped; Figure 1.7), the atmospheric concentration declines, but only
43
slowly (from 351 ppmv in 1990 to 331 ppmv in 2050 and 324 ppmv in 2100), because the
44
penetration of man-made CO₂ to deeper ocean layers takes a long time. Even if the emissions
45
were reduced by 2% per year from 1990 on (case b), atmospheric CO₂ would continue to
46
increase for several decades. Case c (constant emission rate after 1990) gives CO₂ levels of
47
about 450 ppmv in 2050 and 520 ppmv in 2100. A constant relative growth rate of 2% per
48
year (case d) would yield 575 ppmv in 2050 and 1330 ppmv in 2100. Comparison of cases b,
49
c and d clearly shows that measures to reduce emissions will result in slowing down the rate of
50
atmospheric CO₂ growth.
51
52
Cases b' and c', in comparison to b and c, schematically illustrate the effect of reducing
53
emissions in 2010 instead of in 1990.
54
55
If an (arbitrary) threshold of 420 ppmv. i.e., 50% above pre-industrial, is not to be exceeded
56
(case e, Figure 1.8), then CO₂ production rates should slowly decline, reaching about 50% of
57
their present value by 2050 and 30% by 2100. In order to keep the concentration at the present
14
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
level (case f), emissions would have to be reduced drastically to 30% of present immediately
2
and to less than 20% by 2050.
3
4
The results of scenario calculations with a 3-D ocean-atmosphere model (Maier-Reimer and
5
Hasselmann, 1987; Maier-Reimer et al., personal communication, 1990--revised model) give
6
higher concentrations than those obtained with a box-diffusion model shown in Figure 1.7.
7
For instance, about 480 ppmv in the year 2050 and about 560 ppmv in the year 2100 for
8
scenario c, compared to about 450 ppmv and 520 ppmv in Figure 1.7. On the other hand,
9
calculations with a box model that includes a biospheric CO₂ sink (Goudriaan, 1989) yields
10
somewhat lower concentrations than shown in Figure 1.7, for instance about 415 ppmv in the
11
year 2050 and 460 ppmv in the year 2100 for scenario c.
12
13
14
1.2.7
Feedbacks from Climate Change into the Carbon Dioxide Cycle
15
16
As increasing greenhouse gas concentrations alter the Earth's climate, changing climate and
17
environmental conditions in their turn act back on the carbon cycle and atmospheric CO₂. The
18
climate change Earth has experienced in the recent past is still within the range of natural short-
19
term variability, and so are probably, therefore, the feedback effects of anthropogenic climate
20
change. However, as the changes in the climate become larger than natural climatic variation
21
the magnitude of the feedback effects should begin to have a significant effect. These
22
feedbacks could in general be either positive (amplifying the initial changes) or negative
23
(attenuating them).
24
25
1.2.7.1
Oceanic feedback effects
26
The following are possible feedback effects on the ocean-atmosphere carbon system:
27
28
1.2.7.1.1 Ocean temperature: Ocean temperature changes can affect sea water CO₂ chemistry.
29
Surface-water pCO₂ will increase with increasing temperature, tending to decrease the net
30
uptake by the oceans. The future atmospheric CO₂ increase may be amplified by something
31
like 5 percent due to this effect (Lashof, 1989).
32
33
1.2.7.1.2 Ocean circulation: The ocean circulation may change in response to climatic
34
change. As a consequence of increasing surface water temperatures, the thermocline may
35
become more resistant to vertical mixing and slow down the uptake of anthropogenic CO₂.
36
Modified wind stress may affect ocean circulation. However, the overall change in ocean
37
dynamics, and consequently in CO₂ uptake, due to a climatic change cannot be estimated from
38
simple considerations; a proper evaluation of such an effect can only be done using dynamical
39
ocean models. Studies on Greenland ice cores indicates that during the last glaciation,
40
significant CO₂ concentration shifts may have occurred within less than 100 years (c.f. Section
41
1.2.3), probably caused by strong changes of large-scale ocean circulation. Therefore, the
42
possibility that, due to climatic changes, unexpected abrupt events may take place in the natural
43
carbon system cannot be excluded.
44
45
1.2.7.1.3 Gas exchange rates: A change in the global wind pattern could influence the gas
46
transfer from the atmosphere to the sea surface. Carbon cycle models show that the net CO₂
47
uptake by the global ocean is not sensitive to the gas transfer coefficients (because it is
48
controlled mainly by vertical mixing, not by gas exchange; Oeschger et al., 1975; Broecker et
49
al., 1980; Sarmiento et al., 1990), so this effect would probably be of minor influence.
50
51
1.2.7.1.4 Modification of oceanic biogeochemical cycling: The rain of dead organic particles
52
corresponds to a continuous export flux of carbon (and nutrients) out of the ocean surface,
53
which under non-perturbed conditions is balanced by an equal upward transport of dissolved
54
carbon (and dissolved nutrients) by water motion. In polar regions and strong upwelling
55
zones, where productivity is not limited by nitrogen or phosphorus, the balance could become
56
disturbed consequent on variations in ocean dynamics (c.f. Section 1.2.7.1.2), so as to
57
influence atmospheric CO₂. As a result of climate change, the distribution of marine
58
ecosystems and species composition could change, which could affect pCO₂ in surface
59
waters. It is not possible at present to predict the direction and magnitude of such effects.
15
1
Grecnhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
1
2
Warming of the oceans might lead to accelerated decomposition of dissolved organic carbon,
3
converting it into CO₂, and thus amplify the atmospheric increase (Brewer, personal
4
communication, 1990).
5
6
1.2.7.1.5 UV-B radiation: A reduction in stratospheric O₃ would increase the intensity of
7
UV-B radiation at the Earth's surface. This might have negative effects on the marine biota due
8
to a decrease of marine productivity and thus on the biological carbon pump. This could lead to
9
an increase in the concentration of CO₂ in surface waters and consequently in the atmosphere.
10
11
1.2.7.2
Terrestrial biospheric feedbacks
12
The following are probable feedback effects on the terrestrial biosphere-atmospheric carbon
13
system:
14
15
1.2.7.2.1 Carbon dioxide fertilization: Short-term experiments under controlled conditions
16
with crops and other annuals, as well as with few perennials, show an increase in the rates of
17
photosynthesis and growth in most plants under elevated levels of CO₂ (Strain and Cure,
18
1985). If elevated levels of CO₂ increase the productivity of natural ecosystems, more carbon
19
may be stored in woody tissue or soil organic matter. Such a storage of carbon will withdraw
20
carbon from the atmosphere and serve as a negative feedback on the CO₂ increase. Of
21
particular importance is the response of forests (Luxmoore et al., 1986), given that forests
22
conduct about 2/3 of global photosynthesis (50% of this cycles annually through leaves, while
23
50% is stored in woody tissue). However, it is not clear whether the increases in
24
photosynthesis and growth will persist for more than a few growing seasons, whether they
25
will occur at all in natural ecosystems and to what degree they will result in an increased
26
storage of carbon in terrestrial ecosystems.
27
28
1.2.7.2.2 Eutrophication and toxification: The increased availability of nutrients such as
29
nitrate and phosphate from agricultural fertilizers and from combustion of fossil fuel may
30
stimulate the growth of plants. It has been estimated that the effect of eutrophication, both on
31
land and in the oceans, could be as large as 1 GtC per year (Melillo, private communication,
32
1990). However, it should be noted that the greater availability of nutrients has often been
33
associated with increasing levels of acid precipitation and air pollution, which have been
34
associated with a reduction in the growth of terrestrial biota.
35
36
1.2.7.2.3 Temperature: Under non-tropical conditions, photosynthesis and respiration by
37
plants and by microbes both tend to increase with increasing temperature; but respiration is the
38
more sensitive process, so that a warming of global air temperature is likely to result in an
39
initially increased release of carbon to the atmosphere. Estimates indicate that the additional
40
flux might be significant, perhaps as large as one or a few GtC per year (Woodwell, 1983;
41
Kohlmaier, 1988; Lashof, 1989; Houghton and Woodwell, 1989). This temperature-enhanced
42
respiration would be a positive feedback on global warming.
43
44
1.2.7.2.4 Water: Changes in soil water may affect carbon fixation and storage. Increased
45
moisture can be expected to stimulate plant growth in dry ecosystems and to increase the
46
storage of carbon in tundra peat. There is a possibility that stresses brought about by climatic
47
change may be alleviated by increased levels of atmospheric CO₂. At present however, it is not
48
possible to predict reliably either the geographical distribution of changes in soil water or the
49
net effect of these changes on carbon fluxes and storage in different ecosystems. Changes in
50
climate are generally believed to be more important than changes in the atmospheric
51
concentration of CO₂ in affecting ecosystem processes (c.f. Section 10.)
52
53
54
55
1.2.7.2.5 Change in geographical distribution of vegetation types: In response to
56
environmental change, structure and location of vegetation types may change. If the rate of
57
change is slow, plant distributions may adjust. If, however, the rate of change is fast, large
58
areas of forests might not be able to adapt rapidly enough, hence be negatively affected with a
59
subsequent release of CO₂ to the atmosphere.
16
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
2
1.2.7.2.6 UV-B radiation: A reduction in stratospheric O₃ would increase the intensity of
3
UV-B radiation at the Earth's surface. Increased UV-B may have a detrimental effect on many
4
land biota, including crops (Teramura, 1983), thus affecting the strength of the biospheric sink
5
of CO₂ over land.
6
7
8
1.2.8
Conclusions
9
10
The atmospheric CO₂ concentration is now about 353ppmv, 25% higher than the pre-industrial
11
(1750-1800) value and higher than at any time in at least the last 160,000 years. This rise,
12
currently amounting to about 1.8 ppmv per year, is beyond any doubt due to human activities.
13
Anthropogenic emissions of CO₂ were 5.7±0.5 GtC due to fossil fuel burning in 1987, plus
14
0.6 to 2.5 GtC due to deforestation (estimate for 1980). During the last decade (1980 - 1989)
15
about 48% of the anthropogenic emissions have stayed in the atmosphere, the remainder has
16
been taken up by the oceans and possibly by land ecosystems. Our qualitative knowledge of
17
the global carbon cycle is, in view of the complexity of this cycle, relatively good. However,
18
the current quantitative estimates of sources and of sinks of CO₂ do not balance; the
19
atmospheric increase is less rapid than expected from carbon cycle models (in which CO2
20
fertilization or environmental responses of the biosphere are not included). This, and model
21
analyses of the interhemispheric CO₂ gradient, indicate that the northern hemisphere terrestrial
22
ecosystems may act as a significant sink of carbon. Such a sink has, however, not been
23
directly identified. To summarize: the total annual input of anthropogenic CO₂ is currently
24
(1980-1989) about 7.0±1.1 GtC, assuming a central value for the input of CO₂ from tropical
25
deforestation; the annual uptake by the oceans is estimated (based on the box models, GCMs
26
and Tans et al, 1990) to be about 2.0±1.0 GtC; and the annual atmospheric accumulation is
27
about 3.4±0.2 GtC. Thus, the annual sequestering by the terrestrial biosphere should be about
28
1.6±1.5 GtC. While several mechanisms have been suggested that could sequester carbon in
29
terrestrial ecosystems, it is difficult to account for the total required sink. Therefore, it appears
30
likely that, (i) the uptake of CO₂ by the oceans is underestimated, (ii) there are important
31
unidentified processes in terrestrial ecosystems that can sequester CO₂, and/or (iii) the amount
32
of CO₂ released from tropical deforestation is at the low end of current estimates.
33
34
If the land biota presently act as a sink of carbon due to a fertilization effect, then they might get
35
saturated with respect to this fertilization some time in the future. This means that we cannot
36
assume, that the terrestrial sink, which may be active currently, will continue to exist
37
unchanged through the next century.
38
39
In order to avoid a continued rapid growth of CO₂ in the atmosphere, severe reductions on
40
emissions will be necessary. The time taken for atmospheric CO₂ to adjust to changes in
41
sources or sinks is of the order of 50-200 years, determined mainly by the slow exchange of
42
carbon between surface waters and deeper layers of the ocean. Even if all anthropogenic
43
emissions of CO₂ were halted, the atmospheric concentration would decline only slowly, and it
44
would not approach its pre-industrial level for many hundreds of years. Thus, any reductions
45
in emissions will only become fully effective after a time of the order of a century or more.
46
Based on some model estimates, which neglect the feedbacks discussed earlier, the
47
atmospheric concentration in the year 2050 would be between 530 - 600 ppmv for a constant
48
relative growth of the annual anthropogenic emissions by 2% per year, and between 415 - 480
49
ppmv (increasing to 460 - 560 ppmv by the year 2100) for a constant anthropogenic emission
50
rate at the 1990 level. In order not to exceed 420 ppmv (50% above pre-industrial), annual
51
anthropogenic emissions would have to be reduced continuously to about 50% of their present
52
value by the year 2050. In order to stabilize concentrations at present day concentrations (353
53
ppmv), an immediate reduction in global anthropogenic emissions by 60-80 percent would be
54
necessary. The size of the estimated reduction depends on the carbon cycle model used.
55
56
During the millennium preceding the anthropogenic CO₂ growth, the concentration was
57
relatively constant near 280 ppmv, with a variability of less than ± 10 ppmv. This indicates
58
that the sensitivity of atmospheric CO₂ levels to minor climatic changes such as the Little Ice
59
Age, where global mean temperatures probably decreased by about 1°C, is within this range.
17
1
Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
1
However, the anticipated climatic and environmental changes may soon become large enough
2
to act back on the oceanic and terrestrial carbon cycle in a more substantial way. A close
3
interaction between climate variations and the carbon cycle is evidenced by the glacial-
4
interglacial CO₂ variations. The ice-core record shows that CO₂ concentrations during the
5
coldest part of the last glaciation were about 30% lower than during the past 10,000 years. The
6
glacial-interglacial CO₂ variations were probably due to changes in ocean circulation and
7
marine biological activity, and were correlated to variations in global climate. There is some
8
(not fully clear) evidence from ice cores that rapid changes of CO₂, ca. 50 ppmv within about a
9
century, occurred during and at the end of the ice age.
10
11
If global temperatures increase, this could change the natural fluxes of carbon, thus having
12
feedback effects on atmospheric CO₂. Some of the identified feedbacks are potentially large
13
and could significantly influence future CO₂ levels. They are difficult to quantify, but it seems
14
likely that there would be a net positive feedback, i.e., they will enhance the man-made
15
increase. On the longer term, the possibility of unexpected large changes in the mechanisms of
16
the carbon cycle due to a human-induced change in climate cannot be excluded.
17
18
19
1.3
METHANE
20
21
Methane is a chemically and radiatively active trace gas that is produced from a wide variety of
22
anaerobic (i.e., oxygen deficient) processes and is primarily removed by reaction with
23
hydroxyl radicals (OH) in the troposphere. Oxidation of CH₄ by OH in the stratosphere is a
24
significant source of stratospheric water (H₂O) where it is an important greenhouse gas.
25
26
1.3.1
Atmospheric Distribution of Methane
27
28
1.3.1.1
Paleo atmospheric record of methane
29
There are good data on the atmospheric concentration of CH₄ (Figure 9) from Antarctic and
30
Greenland ice cores for the period between 10,000 and 160,000 years ago (Raynaud et al.
31
1988; Stauffer et al. 1988; Craig and Chou, 1982; Chappellaz et al. 1989). The minimum
32
concentration during the last glacial periods (about 20,000 and 150,000 years ago) was around
33
0.35 ppmv, and rose rapidly, in phase with the observed temperature increases, to about 0.65
34
ppmv during the glacial-interglacial transitions (about 15,000 and 130,000 years ago). The
35
atmospheric concentrations of CH₄ decreased rapidly, prior to, and during the last deglaciation
36
period about 10,000 - 11,000 years ago (the Younger Dryas period when there were abrupt
37
temperature decreases in Greenland and northern Europe), and increased rapidly thereafter.
38
39
Because of the brittle nature of the ice cores, data on the atmospheric concentrations of CH₄
40
are reliable only during the last 2,000years of the Holocene period (last 10,000 years)
41
42
1.3.1.2 Contemporary record of methane
43
Ice core data (Figure 1.10) indicate that the atmospheric concentrations of CH₄ averaged
44
around 0.8 ppmv between two hundred and two thousand years ago, increasing to 0.9 ppmv
45
one hundred years ago (Craig and Chou, 1982; Rasmussen and Khalil, 1984; Stauffer et al.
46
1985; Pearman and Fraser, 1988; Pearman et al., 1986; Etheridge et al., 1988). Since then,
47
the atmospheric concentration of CH₄ has increased smoothly to present levels, highly
48
correlated with global human population. Analysis of infrared solar spectra has shown that the
49
atmospheric concentration of CH₄ has increased by about 30% over the last 40 years (Rinsland
50
et al. 1985; Zander et al. 1990).
51
52
Atmospheric concentrations of CH₄ have been measured directly since 1978 when the globally
53
averaged value was 1.51 ppmv (e.g., Rasmussen and Khalil, 1981; Blake and Rowland,
54
1988). Currently the value is 1.72 ppmv, corresponding to an atmospheric reservoir of about
55
4900 Tg (1 Tg = 10¹² g) and it is increasing at a rate of 14 to 17 ppbv per year (40 to 48 Tg per
56
year), i.e., 0.8 to 1.0% per year (Blake and Rowland, 1988; Steele et al. 1987). The
57
atmospheric concentration of CH₄ in the Northern Hemisphere is 1.76 ppmv, compared to
58
1.68 ppmv in the Southern Hemisphere (Figure 1.11). The magnitude of the seasonal
18
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosois 1
1
variability varies with latitude (Steele et al. 1987; Fraser et al. 1984), being controlled by the
2
temporal variability in source strengths and atmospheric concentration of OH radicals,
3
4
1.3.1.3 Isotopic composition of methane
5
Methane is produced from different sources with distinctive proportions of carbon 12C, ¹³C,
6
and ¹⁴C, and hydrogen isotopes H, D (2H), and T (3H). Similarly, the rates of processes that
7
destroy CH₄ depend upon its isotopic composition. Consequently, the CH₄ budget can be
8
constrained by knowledge of the isotopic composition of atmospheric CH₄, the extent of
9
isotopic fractionation during removal, and the isotopic signatures of CH4 from different
10
sources. Recent work to elucidate the sources of CH₄ has proceeded through an analysis of
11
carbon isotopic signatures (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988; Wahlen et al., 1989; Lowe et al.,
12
1988; and references therein). One example of this is an analysis of 14C data which suggests
13
that about 100 Tg CH₄ per year may arise from fossil sources (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988;
14
Wahlen et al., 1989). Such a distinction is possible because CH₄ from fossil sources is 14C-
15
free, while that from other sources has essentially the ¹⁴C concentration of modern carbon.
16
17
18
1.3.2
Sinks of Methane
19
20
The major sink for atmospheric CH4 is reaction with OH in the troposphere, the OH
21
concentration being controlled by a complex set of reactions involving CH4, CO, NMHC,
22
NOₓ, and tropospheric O₃ (discussed in Section 1.7; Sze, 1977; Crutzen, 1987). Based on the
23
reaction rate coefficient between CH4 and OH, and the estimated tropospheric distribution of
24
OH, an atmospheric life-time for CH4 of between 8 and 11.8 years has been estimated (Prinn
25
et al. 1987). This estimate is supported by the fact that models of global OH are tested by
26
analyses of the budgets for CH₃CCl₃ (Logan et al., 1981; Fraser et al., 1986a; Prinn et al.,
27
1987) and ¹⁴CO (Appendix to WMO, 1989b). The reaction between CH₄ and OH currently
28
represents a sink of 400 to 600 Tg of CH4 per year. The efficiency of this sink may, however,
29
have decreased during the last century because the atmospheric concentration of OH in the
30
troposphere may have decreased, hence the lifetime of CH₄ would have increased, in response
31
to increasing concentrations of CO, NMHC, and CH₄ (Sze, 1977).
32
33
Soils may represent a removal mechanism for CH4. The magnitude of this sink has been
34
estimated (this assessment) to be 30±15 Tg CH₄ per year from the work of Harris et al., 1982
35
and Seiler and Conrad, 1987.
36
37
38
1.3.3
Sources of Methane
39
40
Methane is produced from a wide variety of anaerobic sources (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988).
41
Two main pathways for CH₄ production have been identified: (i) reduction of CO₂ with-
42
hydrogen, fatty acids or alcohols as hydrogen donors, or (ii) transmethylation of acetic acid or
43
methyl alcohol by CH₄-producing bacteria. Table 2 summarizes identified sources of CH₄
44
with ranges of likely annual emissions. The total annual CH4 source must equal the
45
atmospheric sink of about 500 (400 to 600) Tg CH4 per year, the possible soil sink of about 30
46
(15 to 45) Tg CH4 per year, and the annual growth of 40 to 48 Tg CH4 in the atmosphere.
47
The sum of the present best estimates of the sizes of the individual sources identified in Table 2
48
equal 525 Tg CH₄ per year. It should be noted that the newest data for rice paddies, biomass
49
burning, and coal mining sources suggest that the values may be even less than those of Table
50
2, possibly indicating a missing source of CH₄, or an overestimate of the sink for CH4.
51
52
53
19
1
Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
Table 2
ESTIMATED SOURCES AND SINKS OF METHANE
Annual Release (Tg CH4)
Range (Tg CH4)
Source
Natural Wetlands (bogs, swamps, tundra, etc)
115
100 - 200
Rice Paddies
110
25 170
Enteric Fermentation (animals)
80
65 - 100
Gas Drilling, venting, transmission
45
25 - 50
Biomass Burning
40
20 - 80
Termites
40
10 100
Landfills
40
20 - 70
Coal Mining
35
17 50
Oceans
10
5 20
Freshwaters
5
1 25
CH₄ Hydrate Destabilization
5
0 100
Sink
Removal by soils
30
15-45
Reaction with OH in the atmosphere
500
400 - 600
Atmospheric Increase
44
40 - 48
1
2
3
1.3.3.1 Natural wetlands
4
Significant progress has been made in quantifying the magnitude of the source of CH4 from
5
natural wetlands (Svensson and Rosswall, 1984; Sebacher et al. 1986; Whalen and Reeburgh,
6
1988; Moore and Knowles, 1987; Mathews and Fung, 1987; Harris et al. 1985; Crill et al.
7
1988; Andronova, 1989; Harris and Sebacher, 1981; Burke et al, 1988; Harris et al, 1988;
8
Aselmann and Crutzen, 1989). Recent data support earlier estimates of a global flux of 110 -
9
115 Tg CH4 per year, but reverses the relative importance of tropical and high latitude systems.
10
The data base, which is still quite limited (no data from Asia), suggests 55 Tg CH4 per year
11
(previously 32 Tg CH₄ per year) from tropical wetlands, and 39 Tg CH4 per year (previously
12
63 Tg CH4 per year) from high latitude wetlands. Since CH4 is produced through biological
13
processes under anaerobic conditions, any factors affecting the physical, chemical or biological
14
characteristics of soils could affect CH₄ emission rates.
15
16
1.3.3.2
Rice paddies
17
Rice paddies are an important source of CH4 with estimates of the globally averaged flux
18
ranging from 25 - 170 Tg CH4 per year (Neue and Scharpenseel, 1988; Yagi and Minami,
19
1989; Holzapfel-Pschorn and Seiler, 1986; Cicerone and Shetter, 1981; Cicerone et al. 1983).
20
The flux of CH4 from rice paddies is critically dependent upon several factors including: (i)
21
agricultural practices (e.g., fertilization, water management, density of rice plants, double
22
cropping systems, application of manure or rice straw), (ii) soil / paddy characteristics (soil
23
type, acidity, redox potential, temperature, nutrient availability, substrate, profile of anaerobic
24
environment), and (iii) time of season. One difficulty in obtaining accurate estimates is that
25
almost 90% of the world's harvested area of rice paddies is in Asia, and of this about 60% are
26
in China and India from which no detailed data is available. The annual production of rice
27
since 1940 has approximately doubled as a result of double cropping practices and an increased
28
area of cultivation. It is likely that CH₄ emissions have increased proportionally as well.
29
30
20
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greennouse Gases and Aeroscis 1
1
1.3.3.3
Biomass burning
2
Biomass burning in tropical and sub-tropical regions is thought to be a significant source of
3
atmospheric CH₄, with estimates of global emission rates ranging from 20 to 80 Tg CH₄ per
4
year (Andreae et al. 1988; Bingemer and Crutzen, 1987; Crutzen et al. 1979; Crutzen et al.
5
1985; Crutzen, 1989; Greenberg et al. 1984; Stevens et al. 1990; Quay et al. 1990). Improved
6
estimates require an enhanced understanding of: (i) CH₄ emission factors, (ii) the amount, by
7
type, of vegetation burnt each year on an area basis, and (iii) type of burning (smouldering vs
8
flaming). Current estimates indicate that over the last century the rate of forest clearing by
9
burning has increased (cf. Section 1.2.2.2).
10
11
1.3.3.4 Enteric fermentation (animals)
12
Methane emissions from enteric fermentation in ruminant animals, including all cattle, sheep
13
and wild animals, is estimated to provide an atmospheric source of 65 - 100 Tg CH₄ per year
14
(Crutzen et al. 1986; Lerner et al., 1988). Methane emissions depend upon animal
15
populations, as well as the amount and type of food. It is difficult to accurately estimate the
16
change in this source over the last century because the significant increase in the number of
17
cattle and sheep has been partially offset by decreases in the populations of elephants and North
18
American bison. One estimate suggests that the magnitude of this source has increased from
19
21 Tg CH₄ per year in 1890 to 78 Tg CH₄ per year in 1983 (Crutzen et al. 1986).
20
21
1.3.3.5
Termites
22
There is a large range in the magnitude of the estimated fluxes of CH₄ from termites; 10 - 100
23
Tg CH₄ per year (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988; Zimmerman et al. 1982; Rasmussen and
24
Khalil, 1983; Seiler et al. 1984; Fraser et al. 1986b). The values are based on the results of
25
laboratory experiments, applied to estimates of global termite populations and the amount of
26
biomass consumed by termites, both of which are uncertain, and field experiments. It is
27
important to determine whether the global termite population is currently increasing, and
28
whether it is likely to respond to changes in climate.
29
30
1.3.3.6
Landfills
31
The anaerobic decay of organic wastes in landfills may be a significant anthropogenic source of
32
atmospheric CH₄, 20 - 70 Tg CH₄ per year. However, several factors need to be studied in
33
order to quantify the magnitude of this source more precisely, including amounts, trends, and
34
types of waste materials, and landfill practices (Bingemer and Crutzen, 1987).
35
36
1.3.3.7
Oceans and freshwaters
37
Oceans and freshwaters are thought to be a minor source of atmospheric CH4. The estimated
38
flux of CH4 from the oceans is based on a limited data set, taken in the late 1960's / early
39
1970's when the atmospheric concentration of CH₄ was about 20% lower. They showed that
40
the open oceans were only slightly supersaturated in CH₄ with respect to its partial pressure in
41
the atmosphere. There are inadequate recent data from either the open oceans or coastal waters
42
to reduce the uncertainty in these estimates (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988).
43
44
1.3.3.8
Coal mining
45
Methane is released to the atmosphere from coal mine ventilation, and degassing from coal
46
during transport to an end-use site. A recent unpublished study estimated the flux of CH₄ from
47
coal mining, on a country basis, for the ten major coal producing countries, and deduced a
48
global minimum emission of 17 Tg CH₄ per year. Global CH₄ fluxes from coal mining have
49
been estimated to range from 10 - 50 Tg CH₄ per year (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988, and
50
recent unpublished studies by others).
51
52
1.3.3.9 Gas drilling, venting and transmission
53
CH₄ is the major component of natural gas, hence leakage from pipelines and venting from oil
54
and gas wells could represent a significant source of atmospheric CH4 (Cicerone and
55
Oremland, 1988). The global flux from these sources is estimated, based on limited data of
56
questionable reliability, to range from 25 - 50 Tg CH₄ per year.
57
58
59
21
1 Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
1
1.3.4
Feedbacks from Climate Change into the Methane Cycle
2
3
Future atmospheric concentrations of CH₄ will depend on changes in the strengths of either the
4
sources or sinks, which are dependent upon social, economic, and political, and also
5
environmental factors and in particular changes in climate. Methane emissions from wetlands
6
are particularly sensitive to temperature and soil moisture, and hence future climatic changes
7
could significantly change the fluxes of CH₄ from both natural wetlands and rice paddies.
8
Tropospheric OH, which provides the atmospheric sink for CH₄, is dependent upon a number
9
of factors, including the intensity of UV-B radiation, and the ambient concentrations of H₂O,
10
CO, CH₄, reactive nitrogen oxides, and tropospheric O₃ (See Section 1.7) (Crutzen, 1987;
11
Isaksen and Hov, 1987; Thompson and Cicerone, 1986).
12
13
1.3.4.1 Tropical methane sources
14
The major sources of CH₄ in tropical regions (natural wetlands and rice paddies) are quite
15
sensitive to variations in soil moisture. Consequently, changes in soil moisture, which would
16
result from changes in temperature and precipitation, could significantly alter the magnitude of
17
these large sources of atmospheric CH4. Increased soil moisture would result in larger fluxes,
18
whereas a decrease in soil moisture would result in smaller fluxes.
19
20
1.3.4.2
High latitude methane sources
21
Methane fluxes from the relatively flat tundra regions would be sensitive to changes of only a
22
few centimetres in the level of the water table, with flooded soils producing a factor of 100
23
more CH₄ than dry soils (Whalen and Reeburgh, 1988; Crill et al. 1988). Similarly, emissions
24
of CH₄ are significantly larger at warmer temperatures, due to accelerated microbiological
25
decomposition of organic material in the near-surface soils. Consequently, an increase in soil
26
moisture and temperatures in high latitude wetlands would result in enhanced CH₄ emissions,
27
whereas warmer dryer soils might have decreased CH₄ emissions.
28
29
Higher temperatures could also increase the fluxes of CH₄ at high northern latitudes from; (i)
30
CH₄ trapped in permafrost, (ii) decomposable organic matter frozen in the permafrost, and (iii)
31
decomposition of CH₄ hydrates (Cicerone and Oremland, 1988; Kvenvolden, 1988).
32
Quantifying the magnitudes of these positive feedbacks is difficult. Timescales for thawing the
33
permafrost, located between a few centimetres to metres below the surface, could be decades to
34
centuries, while the time for warming the CH₄ hydrates could be even longer, although one
35
study (Kvenvolden, 1988) estimated that the flux of CH₄ from hydrate decomposition could
36
reach 100 Tg CH₄ per year within a century.
37
38
39
1.3.5
Conclusions
40
41
Current atmospheric CH₄ concentrations, at 1.72 ppmv, are now more than double the pre-
42
industrial value (1750-1800) of about 0.8 ppmv, and are increasing at a rate of 0.9% per year.
43
The ice core record shows that CH4 concentrations were about 0.35 ppmv during glacial
44
periods, and increased in phase with temperature during glacial-interglacial transitions. The
45
current atmospheric concentration of CH₄ is greater than at any time during the last 160,000
46
years.
47
48
Reaction with OH in the troposphere, the major sink for CH₄, results in a relatively short
49
atmospheric lifetime of 10±2 years. The short lifetime of CH4 implies that atmospheric
50
concentrations will respond quite rapidly, in comparison to the longer lived gases such as CO₂,
51
N₂O, and CFCs, to changes in emissions. In order to stabilize concentrations at present day
52
levels, an immediate reduction in global man-made emissions by 15-20 percent would be
53
necessary (this and other scientific sensitivity analyses are discussed in the Annex). Global
54
concentrations of OH are dependent upon the intensity of UV-B radiation, and the
55
concentrations of gases such as H2O, CO, CH4, NOₓ, NMHC, and O₃, and may have
56
declined during the 20th century due to changes in the atmospheric concentrations of these
57
gases.
58
22
(Thu, Apr 2σ, 999) Greenhouse Guses and Aerosols
1
1
The individual sources of atmospheric CH₄ hav been qualitatively identified, but there are
2
significant uncertainties in the magnitude of their strengths. Human activities such as rice
3
cultivation, rearing of domestic ruminants, biomass burning, coal mining, and natural gas
4
venting have increased the input of CH₄ into the atmosphere, and these combined with an
5
apparent decrease in the concentration of tropospheric OH, yields the observed rise in global
6
CH4. However, the quantitative importance of each of the factors contributing to the observed
7
increase is not well known at present.
8
9
Several potential feedbacks exist between climate change and CH₄ emissions, in both tropical
10
and high latitude wetland sources. In particular, an increase in high latitude temperatures could
11
result in a significant release of CH₄ from the melting of permafrost and decomposition of CH₄
12
hydrates.
13
14
15
1.4
HALOCARBONS
16
17
Chlorine and bromine containing halocarbons have been shown to deplete O₃ in the
18
stratosphere. In addition, it has been recognized that they are important greenhouse gases.
19
Their sources, sinks, atmospheric distributions, and role in perturbing stratospheric O₃ and the
20
Earth's radiative balance have been reviewed in detail (WMO 1985, 1989a, 1989b). Many
21
governments, recognizing the harmful effects of halocarbons on the environment, signed the
22
"Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer" (UNEP, 1987) in 1987 to
23
limit the production and consumption of a number of fully halogenated CFCs and halons. The
24
control measures of the Montreal Protocol freeze the production and consumption of CFCs 11,
25
12, 113, 114, and 115 in developed countries at their 1986 levels from the year 1990, a
26
reduction to 80% of their 1986 levels from the year 1993, with a further reduction to 50% of
27
their 1986 levels from the year 1998. Developing countries, with a per capita use of CFCs of
28
less than 0.3 kg per capita, are allowed to increase their per capita use up to this limit and can
29
delay compliance with the control measures by 10 years. All major producing and consuming
30
developed countries, and many developing countries, have signed and ratified the Montreal
31
Protocol.
32
33
34
1.4.1
Atmospheric Distribution of Halocarbons
35
36
The mean atmospheric concentrations of the most abundant radiatively active halocarbons are
37
shown in Table 3. The atmospheric concentrations of the halocarbons are currently increasing
38
more rapidly on a global scale (on a percentage basis) than the other greenhouse gases (Figure
39
1.12). The concentrations of the fully halogenated chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), slightly
40
greater in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere, are consistent with the
41
geographical distribution of releases (>90% from the industrialized nations), a 45 °N - 45 os
42
mixing time of about 1 year, and their very long atmospheric lifetimes.
43
44
45
1.4.2
Sinks for Halocarbons
46
47
There is no significant tropospheric removal mechanism for the fully halogenated halocarbons
48
such as CCl₃F (CFC-11), CCl₂F₂ (CFC-12), C₂Cl₃F₃ (CFC-113), C₂Cl₂F₄ (CFC-114),
49
C₂ClF₅ (CFC-115), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), and halon 1301 (CBrF₃). They have long
50
atmospheric lifetimes, decades to centuries, and are primarily removed by photodissociation in
51
the mid - upper stratosphere. There is currently a significant imbalance between the sources
52
and sinks giving rise to a rapid growth in atmospheric concentrations. To stabilize the
53
atmospheric concentrations of CFCs 11, 12 and 113 at current levels would require reductions
54
in emissions of approximately 70-75%, 75-85%, and 85-95%, respectively (see Annex).
55
56
Non-fully halogenated halocarbons containing a hydrogen atom such as methyl chloride
57
(CH₃Cl), methylchloroform (CH₃CCl₃), CHCIF₂ (HCFC-22), and a number of other HCFCs
58
and HFCs being considered as substitutes for the current CFCs (c.f. Section 1.4.4) are
59
primarily removed in the troposphere by reaction with OH. These-hydrogen containing species
23
1
Greenhouse Gases and Aemols (Thu, Ay. 26, 1900)
1
have atmospheric lifetimes ranging from about one to forty years, much shorter on average
2
than the fully halogenated CFCs. To stabilize the atmospheric concentrations of HCFC-22 at
3
current levels would require reductions in emissions of approximately 40-50%.
4
5
TABLE 3
Halocarbon Concentrations and Trends (1990) +
Mixing Ratio
Annual Rate of Increase
Lifetime
Halocarbon
pptv
pptv
%
Years
CCl₃F
(CFC-11)
280
9.5
4
65
CCl₂F₂
(CFC-12)
484
16.5
4
130
CCIF₃
(CFC-13)
5
400
C₂Cl₃F₃
(CFC-113)
60
4-5
10
90
C₂Cl₂F₄
(CFC-114)
15
200
C₂CIF₅
(CFC-115)
5
400
CCl4
146
2.0
1.5
50
CHCIF₂
(HCFC-22)
122
7
7
15
CH₃Cl
600
1.5
CH₃CCl₃
158
6.0
4
7
CBrClF2
(halon 1211)
1.7
0.2
12
25
CBrF₃
(halon 1301)
2.0
0.3
15
110
CH₃Br
10-15
1.5
6
7
t
There are a few minor differences between the lifetimes reported in this table and the equivalent table in
8
WMO 1989b. These differences are well within the uncertainty limits. The 1990 mixing ratios have
9
been estimated based upon an extrapolation of measurements reported in 1987 or 1988, assuming that
10
the recent trends remained approximately constant.
11
12
13
1.4.3
Sources of Halocarbons
14
15
Most halocarbons, with the notable exception of CH₃Cl, are exclusively of industrial origin.
16
Halocarbons are used as aerosol propellants (CFCs 11, 12, and 114), refrigerants (CFCs 12
17
and 114, and HCFC-22), foam blowing agents (CFCs 11 and 12), solvents (CFC-113,
18
CH₃CCl₃, and CCl₄), and fire retardants (halons 1211 and 1301). The atmospheric
19
concentration of methyl chloride is about 0.6 ppbv, and is primarily released from the oceans
20
and during biomass burning. There is no evidence that the atmospheric concentration of
21
CH₃Cl is increasing. Methyl bromide (CH₃Br) is produced by oceanic algae, and there is
22
evidence that its atmospheric concentration has been increasing in recent times due to a
23
significant anthropogenic source (Penkett et al., 1985; Wofsy et al., 1975).
24
25
26
1.4.4
Future Atmospheric Concentration of Halocarbons
27
28
Future emissions of CFCs 11, 12, 113, 114, and 115 will be governed by the Montreal
29
Protocol on "Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer " as discussed in Section 1.4. In
30
addition, international negotiations are currently in progress that will likely (i) result in a
31
complete global phase-out of production of these chemicals by the year 2000, and (ii) enact
32
limitations on the emissions (via production and consumption controls) of CCl₄, and
33
CH₃CCl₃. However, even with a complete cessation of production of CFCs 11, 12 and 113 in
34
the year 2000 their atmospheric concentrations will still be significant for at least the next
24
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990, Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
century because of their long atmospheric litetimes. It should be noted that emissions of these
2
gases into the atmosphere will continue for a period of time after production has ceased because
3
of their uses as refrigerants, foam blowing agents, fire retardants, etc.
4
5
A number of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are being
6
considered as potential replacements for the long-lived CFCs (11, 12, 113, 114, and 115) that
7
are regulated under the terms of the Montreal Protocol. The HFCs and HCFCs primarily being
8
considered include: HCFC-22, HCFC-123 (CHCl₂CF₃), HCFC-124 (CHCIFCF₃), HFC-125
9
(CHF₂CF₃), HFC-134a (CH₂FCF₃), HCFC-141b (CH₃CCl₂F), HCFC-142b (CH₃CCIF₂),
10
HFC-143a (CH₃CF₃), and HFC-152a (CH₃CHF₂). The calculated atmospheric lifetimes of
11
these chemicals are controlled primarily by reaction with tropospheric OH and range between
12
about 1 and 40 years. It has been estimated (UNEP, 1989) that a mix of HFCs and HCFCs
13
will replace the CFCs currently in use at a rate of about 0.4 kg of substitute for every kg of
14
CFCs currently produced, with an annual growth rate of about 3%. Because of their shorter
15
lifetimes, and expected rates of substitution and emissions growth rates, the atmospheric
16
concentrations of HFCs and HCFCs will be much lower for the next several decades than if
17
CFCs had continued to be used, even at current rates. However, continued use, accompanied
18
by growth in the emission rates, of HFCs and HCFCs for more than several decades would
19
result in atmospheric concentrations that would be radiatively important.
20
21
22
1.4.5
Conclusions
23
24
The atmospheric concentrations of the industrially produced halocarbons, primarily CCl₃F,
25
CCl₂F₂, C2Cl₃F₃, and CCl4 are about 280 pptv, 484 pptv, 60 pptv, and 146 pptv,
26
respectively. Over the past few decades their concentrations (except CCI4) have increased
27
more rapidly (on a percentage basis) than the other greenhouse gases, currently at rates of at
28
least 4% per year. The fully halogenated CFCs and CCl4 are primarily removed by photolysis
29
in the stratosphere, and have atmospheric lifetimes in excess of 50 years.
30
31
Most halocarbons, with the notable exception of methyl chloride, are exclusively anthropogenic
32
and their sources (solvents, refrigerants, foam blowing agents, and aerosol propellants) are
33
well understood.
34
35
To stabilize, and then reduce, the current atmospheric concentrations of the fully halogenated
36
CFCs (e.g., 11, 12 and 113) would require approximate reductions in emissions of 70-75%,
37
75-85%, and 85-95%, respectively. Future emissions of CFCs and CCI4 will, most likely, be
38
eliminated or be significantly lower than today's because the stringency, scope, and timing of
39
international regulations on chlorine and bromine containing chemicals, i.e., the Montreal
40
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, are currently being renegotiated.
41
However, the atmospheric concentrations of CFCs 11, 12 and 113 will still be significant (30 -
42
40% of current) for at least the next century because of their long atmospheric lifetimes.
43
44
45
46
1.5
NITROUS OXIDE
47
48
Nitrous oxide is a chemically and radiatively active trace gas that is produced from a wide
49
variety of biological sources in soils and water and is primarily removed in the stratosphere by
50
photolysis and reaction with electronically excited oxygen atoms.
51
52
53
1.5.1
Atmospheric Distribution of Nitrous Oxide
54
55
The mean atmospheric concentration of N2O in 1990 is about 310 ppbv, corresponding to a
56
reservoir of about 1500 Tg N, and increasing at a rate of 0.2 - 0.3% per year (Figure 1.13;
57
Weiss, 1981; Prinn et al. 1990; Robinson et al. 1988; Elkins and Rossen, 1989; Rasmussen
58
and Khalil, 1986). This observed rate of increase represents an atmospheric growth rate of
59
about 3 to 4.5 Tg N per year. The atmospheric concentration of N2O is higher in the northern
25
1
Greenhouse Gases and Aerosoli (Thu. Apr 26, 1990)
1
hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere by about 1 ppbv. Ice core measurements show
2
that the pre-industrial value of N2O was relatively stable at about 285 ppbv for most of the past
3
2000 years, and started to increase around the year 1700 (Figure 1.14; Pearman et al., 1986;
4
Khalil and Rasmussen, 1988a; Etheridge et al. 1988; Zardini et al. 1989). Figure 1.14 shows
5
that the atmospheric concentrations of N2O may have decreased by a few ppbv during the
6
period of the mini ice-age.
7
8
9
1.5.2
Sinks for Nitrous Oxide
10
11
The major atmospheric loss process for N2O is photochemical decomposition in the
12
stratosphere, and is calculated to be 10± 3 Tg N per year (Table 4). Nitrous oxide has an
13
atmospheric lifetime of about 150 years. The observed rate of growth represents a 30%
14
imbalance between the sources and sinks (Hao et al. 1987). Tropospheric sinks such as
15
surface loss in aquatic and soil systems are considered to be small (Elkins et al. 1978,
16
Blackmer and Bremner, 1976).
17
18
19
1.5.3
Sources of Nitrous Oxide
20
21
1.5.3.1
Oceans
22
The oceans are a significant, but not dominant source of N2O (McElroy and Wofsy, 1986).
23
Based on measurements of the concentration gradients between the atmosphere and surface
24
waters (Butler et al. 1989, and NOAA GMCC unpublished data), and on estimates of the gas
25
exchange coefficient, the current estimate of the magnitude of the ocean source ranges from 1.4
26
- 2.6 Tg N per year, significantly lower than earlier estimates (Elkins et al. 1978; Cohen and
27
Gordon, 1979; Cline et al. 1987). An accurate determination of the global annual ocean flux is
28
difficult because of uncertainties associated with quantifying the gas exchange coefficient and
29
because the partial pressure of N2O in the surface waters is highly variable, both spatially and
30
temporally. The partial pressure of N2O in surface waters varies considerably, ranging from
31
being supersaturated by up to 40% in upwelling regions to being undersaturated by a few
32
percent in areas around Antarctica and within gyres. Data suggest that during El Niño events,
33
where upwelling in the Pacific ocean is suppressed, the ocean fluxes of N₂O are significantly
34
lower (Cline et al. 1987; Butler et al. 1989). It is still unclear whether N2O is primarily
35
produced from nitrification in near surface waters, or denitrification in oxygen deficient deep
36
waters. Based on vertical profile measurements of oceanic N2O (NOAA GMCC, unpublished)
37
the oceanic reservoir has been estimated to be between 900 and 1100 Tg N, comparable to the
38
atmosphere. Consequently, changes in the exchange fluxes of N2O between the ocean and the
39
atmosphere could significantly impact its atmospheric concentration.
40
41
1.5.3.2
Soils
42
Denitrification in aerobic soils is thought to be a dominant source of atmospheric N₂O (Keller
43
et al. 1986; Matson and Vitousek, 1987; Matson and Vitousek, 1989; Slemr et al. 1984).
44
Nitrification under anaerobic conditions could, however, produce higher yields of N₂O per unit
45
of transformed nitrogen. Quantification of global N2O emissions from soils is difficult because
46
of the heterogeneity of terrestrial ecosystems and the variability in environmental conditions
47
that control the fluxes of N₂O.
48
49
Estimates of global fluxes of N2O from tropical forests range from 2.2 - 3.7 Tg N per year.
50
The impact of deforestation on the emissions of N2O from tropical soils is unclear, with some
51
studies suggesting that the emissions of N2O from deforested land are enhanced by as much as
52
a factor of three (Luizao et al. 1989), whereas other studies concluded that N2O fluxes
53
decreased if vegetation did not return (Robertson and Tiedje, 1988).
54
55
Quantifying the roles of temperate forest soils and grasslands in the N2O budget is difficult
56
because of the paucity of data, and conflicting results. Estimates of N2O fluxes from temperate
57
forest soils range from 0.7 - 1.5 Tg N per year in one study (Schmidt et al. 1988), to almost
58
none in another study (Bowden et al. 1989). One study also reported that deforestation in
59
temperate forests would lead to enhanced emissions of N2O (Bowden and Bormann, 1986).
26
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
Reliable global N2O fluxes from grasslands are impossible to derive from the fragmented data
2
available. One study (Ryden, 1981) concluded that English grassland soils, with no
3
fertilization, are a sink for N₂O, whereas limited studies of tropical grasslands and pastures
4
suggest that they may be a moderate to significant source of N₂O (Luizao et al. 1989;
5
Robertson and Tiedje, 1988).
6
7
1.5.3.3
Combustion
8
Until recently, the combustion of fossil fuels was thought to be an important source of
9
atmospheric N₂O (Pierotti and Rasmussen, 1976; Weiss and Craig, 1976; Hao et al. 1987).
10
However, a recent study has shown that the earlier results are incorrect because N2O was being
11
artificially produced in the flasks being used to collect N2O from combustion sources (Muzio
12
and Kramlich, 1988). The latest estimate of the global flux of N2O from combustion sources
13
is between 0.1 and 0.3 Tg N per year, compared to earlier values which were as high as 3.2 Tg
14
N per year.
15
16
1.5.3.4
Biomass Burning
17
Biomass burning is now thought to be a minor source of atmospheric N₂O with a global flux
18
of less than 0.2 Tg N per year (Muzio and Kramlich, 1988; Crutzen 1989; Elkins et al. 1990;
19
Winstead et al. 1990; Griffith et al. 1990). This value is 1-2 orders of magnitude less than
20
previous estimates (Crutzen et al. 1979, 1985) which were influenced by artifacts involving
21
N₂O analysis (Crutzen et al., 1985) and N₂O production in sampling flasks (Muzio and
22
Kramlich, 1988).
23
24
1.5.3.5
Fertilizer / Ground-Water
25
Nitrous oxide production from the use of nitrate and ammonium fertilizers is difficult to
26
quantify because the N2O fluxes are dependent upon numerous factors including type of
27
fertilizer, soil type, soil temperature, weather, and farming practices (e.g., ploughing, sowing,
28
irrigating). Conversion of fertilizer N to N2O ranges from 0.01 - 2.0% (Conrad et al. 1983;
29
Bremner et al. 1981). This range, coupled with a global fertilizer production of 55 Tg N per
30
year in 1980, results in a total N2O emission of between 0.01 - 1.1 Tg N per year (Conrad et
31
al. 1983). Leaching of nitrogen fertilizers from soils into groundwater may result in additional
32
fluxes of N2O up to 1.1 Tg N per year (Conrad et al. 1983; Ronen et al. 1988). Consequently,
33
a range of 0.01 - 2.2 Tg N per year can be derived for the flux of N2O from fertilizer use.
34
35
36
1.5.4
Conclusions
37
38
Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas whose atmospheric concentration, at 310 ppbv, is now
39
about 8% greater than in the pre-industrial era, and is increasing at a rate of about 0.2 - 0.3%
40
per year, corresponding to about 3 - 4.5 Tg N per year. This represents an excess of 30% of
41
current global emissions over current sinks. The major sink for N₂O is photolysis in the
42
stratosphere, resulting in a relatively long atmospheric lifetime of about 150 years. The
43
magnitude of the sink for N2O is relatively well known (± 30%). In order to stabilize
44
concentrations at present day levels, an immediate reduction of 70 - 80% of the additional flux
45
of N2O that has occurred since the pre-industrial era would be necessary.
46
47
Quantification of the various natural and anthropogenic sources is uncertain. Since the latest
48
studies indicate that the total combined flux of N2O from combustion and biomass burning is
49
between 0.1 to 0.5 Tg N per year, in contrast to earlier estimates of about 5 Tg N per year, and
50
production of N2O from fertilizer (including groundwater) is believed to be less than or equal
51
to 2.2 Tg N per year, it is difficult to account for the annual increase based on known sources.
52
Stimulation of biological production due to agricultural development may account for the
53
missing anthropogenic emissions. Estimates of the removal rate of N2O by photodissociation
54
in the stratosphere range from 7 - 13 Tg N per year. Therefore, the total source needed to
55
account for the observed annual atmospheric growth is 10 - 17.5 Tg N per year against a flux
56
of N2O from known sources of 4.4 - 10.5 Tg N per year. These data suggest that there are
57
missing sources of N2O, or the strengths of some of the identified sources have been
58
underestimated. Despite these uncertainties, it is believed that the observed increase in N2O
59
concentrations is caused by human activities.
27
I**
Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
1
TABLE 4
Estimated Sources and Sinks of Nitrous Oxide
Range (TgN per year)
Source
Oceans
1.4 2.6
Soils (tropical forests)
2.2 3.7
(temperate forests)
0.7 1.5
Combustion
0.1 - 0.3
Biomass burning
0.02 0.2
Fertilizer (including ground-water)
0.01 - 2.2
TOTAL:
4.4 - 10.5
Sink
Removal by soils
?
Photolysis in the stratosphere
7 13
Atmospheric Increase
3 4.5
2
3
4
1.6 STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
5
6
Stratospheric O₃ is an important constituent of the Earth's atmosphere. It protects the Earth's
7
surface from harmful solar ultraviolet radiation and it plays an important role in controlling the
8
temperature structure of the stratosphere by absorbing both incoming solar ultraviolet radiation
9
and outgoing terrestrial (longwave) radiation. Part of the absorbed outgoing longwave
10
radiation is then re-radiated back to the surface-troposphere system. Reductions in
11
stratospheric O₃ can modify the surface temperature via two competing processes: more solar
12
radiation is transmitted to the surface-troposphere system, thereby contributing to a surface
13
warming; on the other hand, the cooler stratosphere (due to decreased solar and long-wave
14
absorption) emits less to the troposphere which would tend to cool the surface. The solar
15
warming (a function of total column amount of O₃) and longwave cooling (a function of the
16
vertical distribution of O₃) are similar in magnitude. Therefore, the magnitude as well as the
17
sign of the change in surface temperature depends critically on the magnitude of the O₃ change,
18
which in turn is depends strongly on altitude, latitude and season.
19
20
The concentration and distribution of stratospheric O₃ is controlled by dynamical, radiative and
21
photochemical processes. Stratospheric O₃ is photochemically controlled by chemically active
22
species in the (i) oxygen, (ii) hydrogen, (iii) nitrogen, (iv) chlorine, and (v) bromine families.
23
The precursors for the photochemically active species are (i) O₂, (ii) H2O and CH4; (iii) N₂O;
24
(iv) CFCs, CCl4, CH₃CCl₃, CH₃Cl, and (v) halons and CH₃Br, respectively.
25
26
27
1.6.1
Stratospheric Ozone Trends
28
29
1.6.1.1 Total column ozone trends
30
The Antarctic ozone hole, which formed during the mid to late 1970s recurs every springtime.
31
To determine O₃ trends more widely, data from the ground-based Dobson network have been
32
re-evaluated, station by station, and used to determine changes in total column O₃ over the past
33
two decades. Unfortunately, the network and data are adequate for only a limited geographical
28
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
region, i.e., 30 - 64°N. They are inadequate to determine total column O₃ changes in the
2
Arctic, tropics, subtropics, or southern hemisphere apart from Antarctica. Satellite data can
3
provide the desired global coverage, but the current record is too short ( about one solar cycle,
4
1978 to present), to differentiate the effects of natural and human-influenced processes on O₃.
5
The re-evaluated data was analysed for the effects of known natural geophysical processes
6
[seasonal variation, the approximately 26-month quasi-biennial-oscillation, and the 11-year
7
solar cycle] and possible human perturbations. After allowing for natural variability, the
8
analyses, using a variety of statistical models and assumptions, showed measurable zonal mean
9
O₃ decreases in the range 3.4% to 5.1% between 30 and 64°N latitude for the winter months
10
(December - March) between 1969 and 1988, with the larger decreases at the higher latitudes
11
(WMO, 1989a,b). No statistically significant zonal trends were found for the summer period
12
(May - August). Lastly, within longitudinal sectors, regional differences in the O₃ trends were
13
indicated, with the largest values over North America and Europe and the smallest over Japan.
14
15
1.6.1.2 Changes in the vertical distribution of ozone
16
Substantial uncertainties remain in defining changes in the vertical distribution of O₃. Analysis
17
of SAGE I and II satellite data, averaged over 20 to 50°N and S latitudes, indicates that near 40
18
km O₃ decreased by 3 ± 2 % between February 1979 - November 1981 and October 1984 -
19
December 1988 (WMO, 1989b). Because the SAGE record is so short (i.e., less than one
20
solar cycle), no attempt has been made to distinguish between solar-induced and human-
21
influenced contributions to these changes. A thorough analysis of data from 10 ground-based
22
Umkehr stations in the Northern Hemisphere for the period 1977 to 1987 indicates a
23
statistically significant decrease in O₃ between 30 and 43 km. The decrease near 40 km of 4.8
24
±3.1 %, after allowing for seasonal and solar-cycle effects and correcting the data for aerosol
25
interferences, is broadly consistent with theoretical predictions. Based on satellite, ground-
26
based, and ozonesonde data, there are indications of a continuing stratospheric O₃ decrease
27
since the late 1970s of a few percent at 25 km and below. Photochemical models, which do
28
not take into account heterogeneous processes) do not predict these changes, but the
29
measurements are qualitatively consistent with those required for compatibility with the total
30
column measurements.
31
32
33
1.6.2
Future Changes
34
35
Future changes in stratospheric O₃ are critically dependent upon future emissions of CFCs,
36
other halocarbons, CH₄, N2O, and CO₂. Assuming that the current regulatory measures
37
agreed under the Montreal Protocol are not strengthened, then the chlorine loading of the
38
atmosphere is predicted to reach about 9 ppbv by the year 2060, about three times today's
39
level, and a bromine loading of about 30 pptv, about twice today's level Models predict
40
column O₃ reductions of 0 to 4% in the tropics, and from 4 to 12% at high latitudes in late
41
winter. These predictions do not include the effects of heterogeneous processes, which play a
42
critical role in the formation of the Antarctic ozone hole. Consequently, models that include the
43
effects of heterogeneous processes would predict larger O₃ depletions, at least in polar regions.
44
Ozone is predicted to decrease by 25 - 50% at 40 km and result in stratospheric temperature
45
decreases of 10 to 20 K. If, as expected, the Montreal Protocol is modified to eliminate the
46
emissions of CFCs 11, 12, 113, 114, 115, halons 1211 and 1301, and restrict the emissions
47
of CCl4 and CH₃CCl₃, by the year 2000, then the chlorine loading of the atmosphere by the
48
year 2060 will probably lie between 2.5 and 4 ppbv (depending upon the emissions of CCI4
49
and CH₃CCl₃, and HCFCs). Models that do not include heterogeneous processes predict that
50
global O₃ levels would be similar to today. However, if the atmospheric chlorine loading
51
approaches 4 ppbv the implications for polar O₃, and its subsequent impacts on O₃ at mid-
52
latitudes, are unknown.
53
54
55
1.7
TROPOSPHERIC OZONE AND RELATED TRACE GASES (CARBON
56
MONOXIDE, NON-METHANE HYDROCARBONS, AND REACTIVE
57
NITROGEN OXIDES).
58
29
1 Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
1
2
1.7.1
Tropospheric Ozone
3
dolle and
and be laws,
stabeges
4
Tropospheric O₃ is a greenhouse gas, of particular importance in the Lipper troposphere/in the
x
5
tropics and sub-tropics Its distribution is controlled by a complex interplay between chemical,
6
radiative, and dynamical processes. Ozone is: (i) transported down into the troposphere from
7
the stratosphere; (ii) destroyed by vegetative surfaces; (iii) produced by the photo-oxidation of
8
CO, CH₄, and NMHC in the presence of reactive nitrogen oxides (NOx), and (iv) destroyed
9
by uv-photolysis and by reaction with hydrogen oxide radicals (HO₂) (Danielsen, 1968;
10
Mahlman and Moxim, 1978; Galbally and Roy, 1980; Crutzen, 1974; Isaksen et al., 1978).
11
Chemical processes in clouds could have a strong influence on O₃ production and destruction
12
rates (Lelieveld and Crutzen, 1990).
13
14
Consequently, while CO, NMHC, and NOₓ are not important greenhouse gases in
15
themselves, they are important precursors of tropospheric O₃ and they are therefore treated in
16
some detail in this subsection.
17
18
1.7.1.1
Atmospheric distribution
19
Ozone in the troposphere has a lifetime of at most several weeks, hence its concentration varies
20
with latitude, longitude, altitude and season (Chatfield and Harrison, 1977; Logan, 1985).
21
Near the surface monthly mean concentrations (30 - 50 ppbv) are highest in spring and summer
22
at northern mid-latitudes (Figure 1.15). In the middle troposphere at northern mid-latitudes
23
values are highest also in spring and summer, 60 - 65 ppbv. The summer maximum results
24
from photo-oxidation of O₃ precursors from fossil fuel combustion and industrial activity
25
(Isaksen et al., 1978; Fishman et al., 1985; Logan 1985). Ozone values are highest in winter
26
and spring at other latitudes, in part because the stratospheric source is largest then (Levy et al.,
27
1985). There is 35% more O₃ at 40°N than at 40°S, in the middle troposphere (Logan, 1985).
28
29
Concentrations of O₃ tend to be smaller in the tropics than in mid-latitudes, except in the dry
30
season, when emissions of O₃ precursors from biomass burning provide a photochemical
31
source (Delany et al., 1985; Crutzen et al., 1985; Logan and Kirchoff, 1986; Fishman et al.,
32
1990). Ozone values during the southern spring over South America can reach almost as high
33
values as found over the industrialized mid-latitudes in summer. Large regions of the tropical
34
troposphere appear to be influenced by sources of O₃ from biomass burning (Fishman et al.,
35
1990). Remote marine air and continental air during the wet season may provide a
36
photochemical sink for O₃ in the tropics; mean surface concentrations as low as 4 - 12 ppbv
37
have been measured (Liu et al., 1980; Oltsmans and Komhyr, 1986; Kirchoff, 1990).
38
39
1.7.1.2 Trends
40
Most long-term measurements of O₃ have been made at northern mid-latitudes, from surface
41
sites and from balloons. Only sporadic data are available before the 1970s. A comparison of
42
data obtained in Paris from 1876-1910 (Volz and Kley, 1988) with rural data from the present
43
day from Europe and North America (Logan, 1985, 1989) suggests that surface O₃ has
44
increased by a factor of 2-3 on average; the increase is largest in summer, the factor then being
45
4 -6 (Figure 1.15). Ozone values in Europe in the 1970s appear to be about twice those found
46
between 1930 and 1950 (Crutzen, 1988). Data from Europe suggest an increase of 1 - 2% per
47
year from the mid 1950s to the early 1980s, with increases in winter and summer (Feister and
48
Warmbt, 1987; Bojkov, 1988). Since the mid-1970s O₃ has increased by 0.8% per year at
49
remote sites in Alaska and Hawaii; shown no annual trend at Samoa, but has decreased by
50
0.5% per year at the South Pole (Oltmans et al., 1988). Decreases of 1.8% per year are found
51
at both Samoa and South Pole in summer. Trend data are lacking for tropical continental sites.
52
53
Ozonesonde data for northern mid-latitudes between 1965 and 1986 suggest that O₃ has
54
increased by about 1% per year below 8 km, primarily over N. Europe and Japan (Angell and
55
Korshover, 1983; Logan 1985; Tiao et al., 1986; WMO, 1989a,b), but there are no clear
56
trends in the upper troposphere. By contrast, O₃ has decreased in the lower stratosphere (below
57
25 km), the crossover in the trend being near the tropopause. There is no trend in O₃ at the
58
single sonde station at southern mid-latitudes, and long term sonde data are lacking in the
59
tropics.
30
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
2
1.7.1.3
Relationships between ozone and its precursors
3
The concentration of tropospheric O₃ is dependent in a very non-linear manner on the
4
atmospheric concentrations of its precursor gases, i.e., CO, CH₄, NMHC, and, in particular
5
NOx (NOx = NO + NO₂). Nitrogen oxide concentrations and trends control changes in the
6
concentration of O₃ (Dignon and Hameed, 1985). At low NOx concentrations (where NOx is
7
less than 5 - 30 pptv; this threshold depends on the concentrations of O₃ and hydrocarbons)
8
increases in CO, CH₄, and NMHC lead to a decrease in O₃, whereas at high NOₓ
9
concentrations increases in CO, CH4, and NMHC lead to significant enhancements in O₃.
10
Therefore, no simple relationship exists between increases in the precursor gases and changes
11
in tropospheric O₃. Several model calculations have been performed to investigate the
12
sensitivity of O₃ changes to changes in the precursor gases, both individually and collectively.
13
All models that have attempted to simulate changes in O₃ during the past century have
14
calculated increases in Northern Hemisphere O₃ by up to a factor of two, broadly consistent
15
with observations, depending upon the assumptions made regarding the initial concentration,
16
distribution, and changes in precursor gas concentrations, particularly NOₓ.
17
18
Understanding the feedbacks among O₃ and its precursor gases is essential to understand
19
tropospheric OH, which controls the atmospheric lifetimes of CH₄ and the NMHCs. The
20
global concentration of OH, which determines the oxidizing capacity of the troposphere, can be
21
either enhanced because of elevated levels of tropospheric O₃, NOx or water vapour (associated
22
with a global warming) or suppressed because of increases in CH4, CO, and NMHC (Crutzen,
23
1987; Thompson et al., 1989). Prediction of regional and global trends in OH concentrations
24
requires an understanding of regional emissions of CH₄, CO, NMHC and NOₓ, as well as
25
transport of O₃ between its source regions and the remote troposphere. One key point is that a
26
continued increase in levels of CO would reduce the global concentration of OH because NOx
27
is too short-lived to counteract that effect over much of the globe. This would increase the
28
atmospheric lifetime of CH4.
29
30
31
1.7.2
Carbon Monoxide
32
33
1.7.2.1
Atmospheric distribution of carbon monoxide
34
The atmospheric concentration of CO exhibits significant spatial and temporal variability
35
because of its short atmospheric lifetime (2 - 3 months). The short atmospheric lifetime,
36
coupled with an inadequate monitoring network, means that the global spatial variability and
37
long-term trends in CO are not well documented. The limited observational data base (Heidt et
38
al. 1980; Dianov-Klokov and Yurganov, 1981; Seiler and Fishman, 1981; Seiler et al. 1984;
39
Khalil and Rasmussen, 1984, 1988a; Fraser et al. 1986 a, c; Newell et al. 1989; Zander et al.,
40
1989; Kirchoff and Marimho, 1989; Kirchoff et al., 1989) has demonstrated that the
41
concentration of CO, (i) is about a factor of two greater in the Northern than in the Southern
42
Hemisphere where the annual average is about 50 - 60 ppbv, (ii) increases with latitude in the
43
northern hemisphere, (iii) exhibits strong seasonal variations in both hemispheres at mid to
44
high latitudes, and (iv) decreases with altitude. CO appears to be increasing at about 1% per
45
year in the northern hemisphere, but the evidence for increases in the southern hemisphere is
46
ambiguous.
47
48
1.7.2.2 Sources and sinks for carbon monoxide
49
The total annual source of CO is about 2400 Tg CO, being about equally divided between
50
direct anthropogenic (incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass) and atmospheric
51
(oxidation of natural and anthropogenic CH₄ and NMHC) sources (Logan et al. 1981;
52
Cicerone, 1988). Atmospheric concentrations of CO may have increased in the northern
31
1
Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26, 1990)
1
hemisphere because of the fossil fuel source, and because of changes in the rate of oxidation of
2
CH₄, whose atmospheric concentration has increased since pre-industrial times. Fossil fuel
3
sources of CO are presently decreasing in North America (EPA, 1989) and possibly in Europe,
4
but may be increasing elsewhere.
5
6
The major removal process for atmospheric CO is reaction with OH (Logan et al. 1981). The
7
observed seasonal variability in the southern hemisphere, distant from seasonally varying
8
sources, can be explained by the seasonal variability in the concentration of tropospheric OH.
9
Soils may provide a minor sink for CO (Conrad and Seiler, 1985).
10
space
11
1.7.3 Reactive Nitrogen Oxides
12
13
The key constituents of tropospheric NOy, defined as the sum of all nitrogen oxide species
14
except for N₂O, are NOₓ, nitric acid (HNO₃), peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN: CH₃CO₃NO₂), and
15
organic nitrates. Most primary sources of nitrogen oxides release NOx (mainly NO); the other
16
species are produced by photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. While the atmospheric
17
lifetime of NOₓ is short (about 1 day), the atmospheric lifetime of NOy can range up to several
18
weeks. Thus NOy can transport nitrogen compounds away from source regions to more remote
19
locations, where photolysis of HNO3 and PAN, and thermal decomposition of PAN, can
20
regenerate NOₓ.
21
22
1.7.3.1 Atmospheric distribution of nitrogen oxides
23
The atmospheric concentrations of NOx exhibit significant spatial and temporal variability,
24
reflecting the complex distribution of sources and the short atmospheric lifetime. The near
25
surface and free tropospheric concentrations of NOx each vary by several orders of magnitude,
26
highly influenced by the proximity of source regions. Near surface concentrations of NOₓ
27
range from as low as 0.001 ppbv in remote maritime air to as high as 10 ppbv in Europe and
28
Eastern N. America (excluding urban areas), while free tropospheric concentrations range from
29
0.02 ppbv in remote regions to more than 5 ppbv over populated areas (Fehsenfeld et al.,
30
1988).
31
32
The spatial inhomogeneity, coupled with a sparsity of measurements, means that the spatial and
33
temporal distribution and long-term trends in NOₓ and NOy are not adequately documented,
34
although reconstructed emissions inventories of NOₓ suggest large increases throughout this
35
century (Dignon and Hameed, 1989). Data from a Greenland ice core have shown that the
36
concentration of nitrate ions (dissolved nitrate from HNO3) remained constant from 10,000
37
years ago to about 1950, then doubled by the late 1970's, consistent with the increase in
38
industrial emissions (Neftel et al. 1985b). Data from glacier ice in Switzerland indicates that
39
nitrate ions increased by a factor of 4-5 between 1900 and the 1970's in Western Europe
40
(Wagenbach et al. 1988).
41
42
1.7.3.2 Sources and sinks of nitrogen oxides
43
The sources of atmospheric NOx are about equally divided between anthropogenic (combustion
44
of fossil fuels: 21 Tg N per year, and biomass burning: 2 - 5 Tg N per year), and natural
45
(microbial processes in soils: 20 Tg N per year; lightning: 2 - 8 Tg N per year, and transport
46
from the stratosphere: 1 Tg N per year) (Galbally, 1989). Emissions of NOx (6.3 Tg N per
47
year) from the combustion of fossil fuels have not increased in N. America since 1970 (EPA,
48
1989). Soil emissions of NO are stimulated by agricultural activity (e.g., addition of fertilizer,
49
manure, etc.), hence, agricultural soil emissions may provide significant sources of NOₓ in
50
many areas.
51
52
The dominant removal processes for NOₓ are (i) conversion to HNO3, PAN, and organic
53
nitrates by photochemical mechanisms, (ii) reactions involving NO₃ radicals, and possibly (iii)
54
deposition of NO₂ on vegetation. The resulting NOy species are then removed from the
55
atmosphere by wet and dry deposition, or by conversion back to NOₓ.
56
57
58
59
32
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols
1
1
1.7.4
Non-Methane Hydrocarbons
2
3
1.7.4.1
Atmospheric distribution of non-methane hydrocarbons
4
The NMHC can be classified by atmospheric lifetime: (i) relatively long-lived (lifetimes >
5
week) where the highest concentrations (up to 3 ppbv for ethane) are observed at middle to
6
high northern latitudes; (ii) more reactive (lifetimes between half a day and one week) such as
7
C₂ - C₅ alkenes whose concentrations exhibit significant temporal and latitudinal variability
8
from <0. 1ppbv in remote areas to a few ppbv close to source regions, and (iii) extremely short
9
lived (lifetimes of hours) such as terpenes or isoprene whose local concentrations may reach
10
about 10 ppbv very close to their sources. Trends in the atmospheric concentrations of NMHC
11
have not been established due to a lack of measurements.
12
13
1.7.4.2 Sources and sinks for non-methane hydrocarbons
14
The oceans are a major source of NMHC, mainly alkenes. Estimates of the source strength of
15
ethene and propene range from 26 Tg C per year (Bonsang et al., 1988) to as high as 100 Tg C
16
per year (Penkett, 1982). Emissions of NMHC from terrestrial vegetation are dependent upon
17
environmental factors as well as the type of vegetation. Isoprene is primarily emitted from
18
deciduous plants, whereas conifer trees are primarily a source of terpenes. Isoprene and
19
terpene emission rates are very large, about 500 Tg per year for each (Rasmussen and Khalil,
20
1988). The source strength of NMHC from anthropogenic activities such as biomass burning,
21
solvents and fossil fuel combustion has been estimated to be about 100 Tg per year.
22
23
The dominant loss mechanism for most NMHC is rapid (much faster than CH₄) reaction with
24
OH. The products of these reactions are capable of forming O₃ in the presence of NOₓ.
25
26
27
1.7.5
Feedbacks Between Climate and the Methane / Non-Methane
28
Hydrocarbon / Carbon Monoxide / Oxides of Nitrogen / Tropospheric
29
Ozone System
30
31
There are numerous potentially important feedbacks between climate change and tropospheric
32
O₃ and OH. Changes in cloud cover, precipitation, and circulation patterns, as well as changes
33
in the biospheric source strengths of CH₄, CO, NMHC and NOₓ, will induce changes in
34
homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions controlling O₃ and OH. In addition, changes in
35
stratospheric O₃ may induce changes in tropospheric processes, through changes in ultraviolet
36
radiation. Stratospheric O₃ depletion is likely to increase tropospheric O₃ when the levels of
37
CO, NOₓ, and NMHC are high, but reduce it in regions of very low NOₓ. The importance of
38
these feedback processes remains to be determined.
39
40
41
1.7.6
Conclusions
42
43
Tropospheric O₃ is a greenhouse gas that is produced photochemically though a series of
44
complex reactions involving CO, CH4, NMHC and NOₓ. Hence, the distribution and trends
45
of tropospheric O₃ depend upon the distribution and trends of these gases whose atmospheric
46
concentrations are changing.
47
48
The short atmospheric lifetimes of O₃ (several weeks), and many of its precursor gases,
49
coupled with inadequate observational networks, leave their distributions and trends
50
inadequately documented. Most data support positive trends of about 1% per year for O₃
51
below 8 km altitude in the Northern Hemisphere (consistent with positive trends in several of
52
the precursor gases, especially NOₓ, CH₄, and CO), and a similar trend for CO in the Northern
53
Hemisphere, but not in the Southern Hemisphere. While there is no systematic series of data
54
that allow quantitative estimates of trends in NMHC and NOₓ to be made, their atmospheric
55
concentrations are likely to have increased during the past few decades because of increased
56
anthropogenic sources. The ice core records of nitrate levels provide indirect evidence for a
57
Northern Hemisphere increase in atmospheric NOₓ.
58
59
33
1 Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols (Thu, Apr 26. 1990)
1
1.8
AEROSOL PARTICLES
2
3
4
1.8.1
Concentrations and Trends of Aerosol Particles in the Troposphere
5
6
Aerosol particles play an important role in the climate system because of their direct interaction
7
(absorption and scattering) with solar and terrestrial radiation, as well as through their influence
8
on cloud processes and thereby, indirectly, on radiative fluxes. These processes are discussed
9
in more detail in Sections 2.3.2 and 2.3.3. Two separate issues should be identified. The first
10
is the effect of increasing or decreasing anthropogenic emissions of aerosol particles and their
11
precursors in regions impacted by these emissions. The second is the role of feedback
12
processes linking climate change and natural (biological) production of particles in unpolluted
13
regions, especially over the oceans (cf. Section 10.8.3).
14
15
Total suspended particulate matter in air varies from less than 1 µg m-3 over polar ice caps or in
16
the free mid ocean troposphere to 1 mg m-3 in desert dust outbreaks or in dense plumes from
17
e.g., forest fires. In a typical sample of continental air mineral dust, sulphuric acid,
18
ammonium sulphate as well as organic material and elemental carbon (soot) may be found both
19
as pure or mixed particles. Most of the soluble particles become solution droplets at relative
20
humidities above 80%; thus the radiative properties of aerosol particles even vary with relative
21
humidity at constant dry aerosol mass.
22
23
A large part of the aerosol mass in submicron size particles is derived from gas-to-particle
24
conversion through photochemical processes involving gaseous sulphur and hydrocarbon
25
compounds. Such conversion may take place through photochemical processes involving the
26
oxidation of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and other sulphur gases to sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) by
27
reaction with OH. The H₂SO₄ so formed, having a low equilibrium vapour pressure,
28
immediately condenses onto existing aerosol particles or forms new ones. Transformation to
29
sulphuric acid and sulphate also takes place in cloud droplets, the majority of which eventually
30
evaporate leaving the sulphate in the aerosol phase. Trends in the emission of these gaseous
31
precursors, especially the sulphur gases, are therefore of great importance for the regional
32
aerosol burden and thereby potentially for climate.
33
34
Large quantities of aerosol particles are also emitted from the burning of savannas and forests
35
in tropical regions. The directly emitted particles consist largely of carbonaceous materials
36
including black carbon (soot) (Andreae et al., 1988). In addition, particles are formed from
37
precursor gases like SO₂ and hydrocarbons emitted by fires.
38
39
The average tropospheric life time of aerosol particles, and of their precursor gases, is of the
40
order of only days or weeks. This is much shorter than the lifetime of most greenhouse gases.
41
It implies that the atmospheric loading at any one time reflects the emissions that have taken
42
place during the past few weeks only. No long-term accumulation in the troposphere is thus
43
possible and any reduction in anthropogenic emissions will immediately result in a
44
corresponding reduction in tropospheric concentrations. The short lifetime also implies large
45
spatial and temporal variability in the concentrations of aerosol particles.
46
47
It has been established from analyses of Greenland ice cores that the amounts of sulphate,
48
nitrate and trace metals, derived mainly from atmospheric aerosols, have been increasing since
49
industrialisation began (Neftel et al., 1985 b; Mayewsky et al., 1986). However, there are
50
almost no long-term, continuous direct observations of aerosol parameters in the atmosphere
51
outside urban and industrial areas (Charlson, 1988). Indirect evidence from visibility
52
observations indicates that the concentration of submicron aerosols over much of the eastern
53
part of the U.S. has increased during the period 1948-1978 (Husar et al., 1981).
54
55
Another example of a trend analysis of atmospheric aerosols is due to Winkler and Kaminski
56
(1988), who concluded that submicrometer aerosol mass outside Hamburg has increased by a
57
factor of nearly two between 1976 and 1988 due to long range transport from industrialized
58
centres in the region.
59
34
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
The hypothesis by Charlson et al. (1987) of a connection between climate and phytoplankton
2
activity in ocean surface waters is based on the role played by soluble aerosol particles in
3
determining the microphysical properties of clouds. The proposed climate-phytoplankton
4
feedback rests on the facts that cloud condensation nucleus (CCN) concentrations in air are low
5
over oceans far from land, that the CCN available in clean maritime air are composed almost
6
totally of sulphate particles, and that this sulphur originates almost entirely from emissions of
7
reduced sulphur gases (principally dimethylsulphide (DMS)) from the ocean surface. There is a
8
significant non-linearity in the effect on cloud microphysics of given changes in CCN
9
concentration, depending on the starting CCN concentration characteristics of clean oceanic air.
10
11
There is abundant evidence in the literature to confirm the role played by CCN concentration in
12
determining cloud droplet size distribution. However, at this stage neither the sign nor
13
magnitude of the proposed climate feedback can be quantitatively estimated, though preliminary
14
calculations based on plausible scenarios indicate that this hypothesis merits careful
15
consideration. Preliminary attempts to test this hypothesis using existing historical data of
16
various types have been inadequate and have yielded only equivocal conclusions.
17
18
19
1.8.2
The Atmospheric Sulphur Budget
20
21
Current estimates of the global sulphur cycle show that anthropogenic emissions of SO₂ are
22
likely to be at least as large as natural emissions of volatile sulphur species, cf. Table 5 (based
23
essentially on Andreae, 1989). Within the industrialized regions of Europe and North
24
America, anthropogenic emissions dominate over natural emissions by about a factor of ten or
25
even more (Galloway et al., 1984; Rodhe, 1976). The anthropogenic SO₂ emissions have
26
increased from less than 3 TgS per year globally in 1860, 15 in 1900, 40 in 1940 and about 80
27
in 1980 (Ryaboshapko, 1983). It is evident from these numbers that the sulphur fluxes
28
through the atmosphere have increased very substantially during the last century, especially in
29
the Northern Hemisphere. During the past decade the anthropogenic sulphur emissions in
30
North America and parts of Europe have started to decline.
31
32
TABLE 5
Estimates of global emission to the atmosphere of gaseous sulphur compounds t
Source
Annual Flux (TgS)
Anthropogenic (mainly SO₂ from fossil fuel combustion)
80
Biomass burning (SO₂)
7
Oceans (DMS)
40
Soils and plants (H₂S, DMS)
10
Volcanoes (H₂S, SO₂)
10
Total
147
33
34
The uncertainty ranges are estimated to be about 30% for the anthropogenic flux and a factor
35
of two for the natural fluxes.
36
37
38
Small amounts of carbonyl sulphide (COS) are also emitted into the atmosphere. They do not
39
significantly affect the sulphur balance of the troposphere but they are important in maintaining
40
an aerosol layer in the stratosphere.
41
35
1
Greenhouse Cases and Aerosols (:hu, Apr 20, 1990)
1
Because of the limited atmospheric lifetime of most sulphur compounds, the augmentation of
2
the sulphur concentrations brought about by industrialization is not evenly distributed around
3
the globe. This is illustrated by Figure 1.16, which shows an estimate of how much more
4
aerosol sulphate there is at present in the lower atmosphere (900 hPa level) than in the pre-
5
industrial situation (Langner and Rodhe, 1990). Over the most polluted regions of Europe and
6
North America the sulphate levels have gone up by more than a factor of 10. Smaller increases
7
have occurred over large parts of the oceans.
8
9
10
1.8.3
Aerosol Particles in the Stratosphere
11
12
The vertical profile of aerosol particle concentration normally exhibits a marked decline up
13
through the troposphere followed by a secondary maximum in the lower stratosphere at around
14
20 km. The stratospheric aerosol layer is maintained by an upward flux of gaseous precursors,
15
mainly carbonyl sulphide (COS). Concentrations may be greatly enhanced over large areas for
16
a few years following large volcanic eruptions, such as El Chichon in 1982. No significant
17
trends have been detected in the global background aerosol layer in the stratosphere during
18
periods of low volcanic activity (WMO, 1989a). The potential impact on climate of
19
stratospheric aerosols is discussed in Section 2.3.2.
20
21
22
1.8.4
Conclusions
23
24
Aerosol particles have a lifetime of at most a few weeks in the troposphere and occur in highly
25
variable concentrations. A large proportion of the particles which influence cloud processes
26
and for the radiative balance, are derived from gaseous sulphur emissions. These emissions
27
have more than doubled globally, causing a large increase in the concentration of aerosol
28
sulphate especially over and around the industrialized regions in Europe and North America. If
29
anthropogenic sulphur emissions are indeed a major contributor to cloud condensation nuclei
30
concentrations on a global scale, then any climate prediction must take account of future trends
31
in regional and global anthropogenic sulphur emission, which may be quite different from
32
those of the greenhouse gases.
33
34
Aerosol particles derived from natural (biological) emissions may contribute in important ways
35
to climate feedback processes. During a few years following major volcanic eruptions the
36
concentration of aerosol particles can be greatly enhanced.
37
36
(Thu, Apr 26, 1990) Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols 1
1
Section 1
2
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44
1.1
Deforestation
Atmosphere 750 + 3/ year
1.0
Stegenthaler & Oeschger
Maier-Reimer & Hasselmann
0.9
2
6
102
50
50
93
Land Biots
550
50
Rivers
Surface Ocean 1000
36 +1 / year
Atmospheric CO2 Concentration Excess
0.8
90
0.7
0.6
Soil and Detritus
Fossil Fuel
1500
0.8
Biota 3
0.5
40
4
35
37
0.4
0.3
Intermediate and Deep Waters
38000 +2/ year
0.2
0.2
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Sedimentation
Year
Figure 1: Global carbon reservoirs and fluxes. The numbers apply for the present-day
Figure 2: Atmospheric CO₂ concentration excess after a pulse input at time 0 (initially
situation and represent typical literature values. Fluxes, e.g. between atmosphere and surface
doubling the atmospheric CO₂ concentration), as calculated with two ocean-atmosphere
ocean, are gross annual exchanges. Numbers underlined indicate net annual CO₂ accumulation
models. Solid line: 3-dimensional ocean-circulation model of Maier-Reimer and Hasselmann
due to human action. Units are gigatons of carbon (GtC; 1Gt = 109 metric tons = 10¹²ₖᵍ) for
(1987), dashed line: 1-dimensional box-diffusion model of Siegenthaler and Oeschger, 1987).
reservoir sizes and GtC yr⁻¹ for fluxes. More details and discussions are found in several
The adjustment towards a new equilibrium does not follow an exponential curve; it is very fast
during the first decade, then slows down more and more. The concentration excess does not go
reviews (Sundquist, 1985; Trabalka, 1985; Bolin, 1986; Siegenthaler, 1986).
to zero; after a long time, a new equilibrium partitioning between atmosphere and ocean will be
reached, with about 15 percent of the input residing in the atmosphere.
360
355
350
350
340
345
CO2 concentration (ppmv)
330
320
CO2 concentration (ppmv)
340
335
310
330
325
300
:-
320
290
-
8000°°
315
280
310
270
58 60 62 64 66. 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88
1700
1800
1900
2000
Year
Year
Figure 3: Atmospheric CO₂ increase in the past 250 years, as indicated by measurements on
Figure 4: Monthly average CO₂ concentration in parts per million of dry air, observed
air trapped in ice from Siple Station, Antarctica (squares; Neftel et al., 1985a; Friedli et al.,
continuously at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (Keeling et al., 1989a). The seasonal variations are due
1986) and by direct atmospheric measurements at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (crosses; Keeling et al.,
primarily to the withdrawal and production of CO₂ by the terrestrial biota.
1989a).
Depth (m)
AT
10.0
500
1000
1500
2000
°C
2
0
-2
Fossil CO2 Production Rate (Gt yr⁻¹)
-4
-6
1.0
-8
-10
CO2
ppmv
300
280
260
0.1
240
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
Year
220
200
Figure 5: Global annual emissions of CO₂ from fossil fuel combustion and cement
180
manufacturing, expressed in GtC yr⁻¹ (Rotty and Marland, 1986; Marland, 1989). The average
rate of increase in emissions between 1860 and 1910 and between 1950 and 1970 is about 4%
0
40
80
120
160
per year.
Age (Kyr BP)
Figure 6: CO₂ concentrations (bottom) and estimated temperature changes (top) during the
600
past 160,000 years, as determined on the ice core from Vostok. Antarctica (Bamola et al.,
1987). Temperature changes were estimated based on the measured deuterium concentrations.
d
c'
C
Atmospheric CO2 (ppmv)
500
e
b'
400
b
Atmospheric CO2 (ppmv)
400
300
8
6
a
300
4
1950
2000
2050
2100
e
Production Rate (GtC yr⁻¹)
Year
f
2
0
Figure 7: Future atmospheric CO₂ concentrations as simulated by means of a box-diffusion
1950
2000
2050
2100
carbon cycle model (Enting and Pearman, 1982, 1987) for the following scenarios: a) - d):
Year
anthropogenic CO₂ production rate P prescribed after 1990 as follows: a) P = 0; b) P
decreasing by 2% per year; c) p = constant; d) P increasing at 2% per year. Scenarios b') and c'):
Figure 8: Future CO₂ production rates calculated by means of a box-diffusion carbon cycie
p grows by 2% per year from 1990-2010, then decreases by 2% per year (b') or is constant (c').
model (Enting and Pearman, 1982, 1987) so as to yield the prescribed atmospheric CO₂
Before 1990, the concentrations are those observed (cf. Figure 3), and the production rate was
concentrations after 1990. e) concentration increasing steadily (logistic function of time) to
calculated by to fit the observed concentrations.
420 ppmv. f) concentration constant after 1990.
Depth (m)
AT
500
1000
1500
2000
°C
2
1600
-
0
-2
-4
-6
CH.
-8
(ppbv)
CH4 concentration (ppby)
1200
700
-10
800
600
1600
1700
1800
1900
500
Year
400
Figure 10: Atmospheric methane variations in the past few centuries measured from air in
dated ice cores (Etheridge et al., 1988; Pearman and Fraser, 1989).
300
0
40
80
120
160
Age (Kyr BP)
(ppt)
Figure 9: Methane concentrations (bottom) and estimated temperature changes (top) during
Cape Grim
the past 160,000 years as determined on the ice core from Vostok, Antarctica (Chappelaz et al.,
1990). Temperature changes were estimated based on the measured deuterium concentrations.
CFC12
---------
400
300
1800
Metl ane concentration (ppbv)
Concentration (pptv)
CFC11
1700
200
1800
CCI,
100
CH3CCI,
1500
as
1984
CFC113
1983
1986
YEAR
1987
03
'78
'80
'82
'84
'86
'88
1908
B
Year
Figure 11: The global distribution, seasonality, and trend of methane from the GMCC
Figure 12: Halocarbon concentrations measured at Cape Grim, Tasmania during the period
network (Steele et al., 1987, and unpublished data)
1978-1989 (Fraser and Derek, 1989, and unpublished data).
320
350
310
Barrow, Alaska
O Kholli & Rosinussen (1980b)
300
0 Elheridge, Pearman, & de Silvo (1988).
310
Niwot Ridge, USA
325
Zordini, Roynoud, Scharfle, & Seiler (1989).
300
o
N2O concentration (ppb)
310
Mauna Loa, Hawaii
300
US Samoa
N2O concentration (ppb)
300
310
D
H.80
=
D
a
B
300
DO
o
o
:
of
275
00
310
South Pole
300
250
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
0
500
1000
1500
Time (year)
2000
Date of sample (Year AD)
Figure 13: Atmospheric measurements of nitrous oxide from the NOAA/GMCC network
(Elking and Rossen, 1989).
Figure 14: Nitrous oxide measurements from ice-core samples.
50
HP., W. Germany
15.0
48°N
50
10.08.22
LO'OF
40
Ozone concentration (ppbv)
N.E. U.S
40°N
30
LATITUDE
o
20
Arkons, 55°N
Alberta, 53°N
Paris, 49°N, 1880
10
-50
0
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
0
N
D
Month
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
Figure 15: The seasonal variation of surface ozone. The solid line shows data from
LONGITUDE
Montsouris, France, for 1876-86 (Volz and Kley, 1988). All other data are from the 1970s and
1980s: dashed line, Arkona, GDR (Feister and Warmbt, 1987); dotted line, Ellerslie, Alberta,
Canada (Angle and Sandhu, 1986); dot-dash line, average of eight rural sites in the northeastern
Figure 16: Simulated concentration of sulphate at 900 hPa: Ratio of concentrations based
U.S., the SURE sites (Logan, 1988); long dashed line, Hohenpeissenberg, FRG (Logan, 1985).
on total emissions (natural plus anthropogenic) divided by concentrations based on natural
All the recent data are shown as monthly means of daily average values.
emissions, in July (Langner and Rodhe, 1990).
80
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
Global
warming
May 1, 1990
MEMORANDUM FOR JAMES A. BAKER III
NICHOLAS F. BRADY
JOHN H. SUNUNU
BRENT SCOWCROFT
RICHARD G. DARMAN
ROGER B. PORTER
FROM:
WILLIAM DAVID Q. K. BATES, REILLY JR work
SUBJECT:
Meeting on Financial Assistance for the Montreal
Protocol
The final rounds of negotiations on the Montreal Protocol
will occur in May and June. Decisions regarding U.S. positions,
particularly with respect to financial mechanisms, are needed
before the Geneva preparatory meeting, which begins May 9.
A meeting will be held in Governor Sununu's office at 10:00
A.M., on Wednesday, May 2, to consider financial mechanisms for
the Montreal Protocol. The attached paper provides background
and identifies options for discussion at that meeting.
Protocol signed in '87.
Withdrawal/Redaction Sheet
(George Bush Library)
Document No.
Subject/Title of Document
Date
Restriction
Class.
and Type
01. Paper
Financial Assistance for the Montreal Protocol (6 pp.)
5/1/90
P/S
Collection:
Record Group:
Bush Presidential Records
Open on Expiration of PRA
Office:
Chief of Staff, White House Office of
(Document Follows)
Series:
Sununu, John, Files
Subseries:
Issues Files
By H (NLGB) on 10/28/05
WHORM Cat.:
File Location:
1990 Global Warming (2 of 2) [3]
Date Closed:
12/17/2004
OA/ID Number:
29158-003
FOIA/SYS Case #:
1998-0004-F[1]
Appeal Case #:
Re-review Case #:
2005-0426-S
Appeal Disposition:
P-2/P-5 Review Case #:
Disposition Date:
AR Case #:
MR Case #:
AR Disposition:
MR Disposition:
AR Disposition Date:
MR Disposition Date:
RESTRICTION CODES
Presidential Records Act - [44 U.S.C. 2204(a)]
Freedom of Information Act - [5 U.S.C. 552(b)]
P-1 National Security Classified Information [(a)(1) of the PRA]
(b)(1) National security classified information [(b)(1) of the FOIA]
P-2 Relating to the appointment to Federal office [(a)(2) of the PRA]
(b)(2) Release would disclose internal personnel rules and practices of an
P-3 Release would violate a Federal statute [(a)(3) of the PRA]
agency [(b)(2) of the FOIA]
P-4 Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential commercial or
(b)(3) Release would violate a Federal statute [(b)(3) of the FOIA]
financial information [(a)(4) of the PRA]
(b)(4) Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential or financial
P-5 Release would disclose confidential advice between the President
information [(b)(4) of the FOIA]
and his advisors, or between such advisors [a)(5) of the PRA]
(b)(6) Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
P-6 Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
personal privacy [(b)(6) of the FOIA]
personal privacy [(a)(6) of the PRA]
(b)(7) Release would disclose information compiled for law enforcement
purposes [(b)(7) of the FOIA]
C. Closed in accordance with restrictions contained in donor's deed of
(b)(8) Release would disclose information concerning the regulation of
gift.
financial institutions [(b)(8) of the FOIA]
(b)(9) Release would disclose geological or geophysical information
PRM. Removed as a personal record misfile
$20B. 10845 BASIS
May 1, 1990
FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL
ISSUE
Should the United States support the establishment of a new
financial assistance mechanism to aid developing countries in
phasing out chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) production?
DISCUSSION
The issue is important both because of its specific application
to commitments made within the framework of the Montreal Protocol
and because of its precedential nature. What is done here will
likely become a template for expectations in other environmental
conventions and protocols like the Basel Convention on Waste
Export and a Global Climate Change Convention.
1.
The 1987 Montreal Protocol requires that signatory
nations reduce their CFC production 50% by 1998.
A June 20-30 meeting of the Parties to the Protocol will
consider amendments to cover certain outstanding issues,
including the financing question, newly controlled substances,
and whether to agree to a phase-out of CFCs by the year 2000.
A preparatory meeting on May 9-11 will focus on financial
assistance.
2.
There is general agreement among the Parties that a
financial assistance mechanism is needed to encourage
developing nations to sign and adhere to the Protocol.
Twenty-three of the fifty-two nations that have ratified the
Protocol are developing countries. Developing countries together
account for only about 10% of worldwide CFC production, but
without controls their production could, in the future, offset
the CFC reductions achieved in the industrialized countries.
Three countries that have not yet signed -- India, China, and
Brazil -- account for about 90% of all CFC produced by the
developing world.
Developing countries argue that industrialized countries
should subsidize their net additional cost of phasing out CFC
production because:
Industrialized nations created the problem by allowing
their economies to prosper using cheap but harmful
CFCs;
-2-
O The cost to developing countries of phasing out CFCs is
much larger than the benefit to them; and
Developing countries have more immediate problems to
worry about.
3. U.S. support has been limited.
To date, the United States has agreed only to support a
clearinghouse to: 1) foster technology transfer between donor
and recipient nations, and 2) conduct nation-specific needs
assessments. The clearinghouse would be funded through voluntary
contributions. We have also agreed to explore the need for a
financial mechanism to aid developing nations in implementing the
CFC phaseout.
4. The long-term costs to developing nations of phasing
out CFCs are largely unknown.
A study conducted by the McKinsey Co. for the United Nations
Environmental Programme concluded that these costs would be $400
million per year over ten years. Because of the many
uncertainties, EPA suggests planning on the basis of $100 million
over a three-year timeframe.
5. There is general agreement among Parties that, if a new
financial mechanism is created, it should be placed
within the World Bank.
The World Bank is already active on environmental issues.
The Bank estimates that about a third of its $5.7 billion in
projects approved in 1989 contained a significant environmental
component. Two main types of financing mechanisms have been
proposed.
The Green Fund. The World Bank (supported by France
and Germany) has proposed a $400-800 million fund to
provide concessional resources for a broad range of
environmental problems besides ozone depletion,
including global climate change. The U.S. has thus far
opposed the Green Fund as inadequately justified and
possibly premature.
A Fund Limited to CFCs. The EPA recommends a mechanism
that would be managed by the World Bank, but remain
under the authority of the Montreal Parties. A
nation's in-kind contributions and bilateral aid could be ear
substitute for other contributions. Assuming a fund of
$100 million and contributions based on the UN scale,
the U.S. share would be $25 million.
-3-
6.
The voting process for the June meeting makes it
difficult for the U.S. to avoid taking a position.
At the June meeting, all amendments to the Protocol will be
considered as a single decision. This is because the amendments
are interdependent. As a consequence, should the U.S. decline to
accept a negotiated proposal on any part of the comprehensive
amendment (such as financial measures), we would not be able to
become party to the amended Protocol. This could expose the U.S.
mmm
to international criticism and possibly trade sanctions.
OPTIONS
Option 1: Retain current U.S. position.
O
Provide financial assistance on a strictly voluntary
bilateral basis; do not commit to an increase in
financial aid.
Continue to study the need for a new financial
mechanism.
Establish a clearinghouse to provide technical
assistance to Parties and to conduct studies.
Advantages
Provides the U.S. maximum flexibility in deciding on
the level of expenditures, the identity of aid
recipients, and how our money would be spent.
Avoids a bad precedent for international agreements.
The U.S. will be signalling that cooperation in
implementing the Montreal Protocol or any future
agreements will not be conditioned on whether or to
what extent others pay.
Retains leverage over the developing nations. They
will have no incentive to accommodate us on other
issues if their costs are automatically covered.
Does not preclude the U.S. from implementing a CFC
phaseout through the EPA regulatory process. This
would blunt any criticism of the U.S. for not ratifying
the amended Protocol and also avoid Protocol trade
sanctions.
Still gives us some opportunity to shape the parameters
of a new financial mechanism if the Parties agree in
June to establish one. At the June meeting, the
-4-
Parties will only be expected to agree to principles
for a new financial mechanism.
Disadvantages
O
Without a financial assistance mechanism, key
developing nations, such as China, India, and Brazil,
may not sign the Protocol. Unless these nations join,
their increasing CFC production will eventually
overwhelm reductions made by signatory countries.
O
If this is a bottom-line position, and the Parties
agree in June to support a new financial mechanism, the
U.S. cannot become a Party to the amended Montreal
Protocol.
Option 2: Agree that financial assistance is desirable, but use
existing mechanisms to provide it.
O
Agree to pressure multilateral development banks to
assign a higher priority to projects for reducing CFC
production, and to assign a higher priority to CFC-
related projects in U.S. bilateral aid.
O
Do not commit to an increase in financial assistance
and do not earmark funds specifically for CFC-related
projects.
Advantages
Avoids establishing earmarked environmental funding in
each international aid institution and avoids the
commitment of additional funds.
O
Would encourage prioritization of environmental
projects and the integration of environmental and other
considerations in lending decisions.
Disadvantages
O
Would require the concurrence of lending institutions.
They would likely oppose this position without
additional funding.
Option 3: New financial mechanism within the World Bank to pay
"agreed to" incremental costs to developing nations. As proposed
by EPA, would include:
Voluntary contributions, but on UN scale of assessment,
meaning that the expected U.S. contribution will be 25
percent.
-5-
Three-year funding period, with total of $100M in
additional funds suggested for first three years.
Allow substitution of bilateral for multilateral aid.
Advantages
If accepted by the Parties in June, would allow the
U.S. to ratify the amended Protocol, fulfilling the
President's commitment to make the Protocol work.
Provides greater assurance that developing nations will
participate in the CFC phaseout, thus reducing
atmospheric chlorine levels.
While more costly than Options 1 or 2, the costs will
be low, especially in comparison to the $5 billion in
expected revenues the U.S. government will collect from
the CFC production tax included in last year's budget
reconciliation legislation.
Such a financial mechanism would not necessarily set a
precedent for future international negotiations,
especially a climate change agreement. There is
currently little aid for CFC reductions, whereas there
are already aid programs that act to reduce carbon
dioxide emissions.
Disadvantages
Compared to Options 1 and 2, limits U.S. flexibility in
deciding on the level of expenditures, the identify of
aid recipients, and how our funds would be spent.
Does not include a provision to assure that voting on
overall assistance levels is controlled by the
industrialized nations.
Whether or not a precedent is intended, establishing a
financial aid mechanism here would start the U.S. down
a slippery slope of providing similar aid under other
agreements. The cost to the U.S. of a financial
mechanism to cover carbon dioxide reductions under a
climate change protocol would be enormous.
"Agreed to" incremental costs have not been defined and
Option
may be difficult to limit in future years.
Option 4: Endorse the "green fund" concept of integrating all
existing and future environmental aid programs into a single
multilateral fund.
h@Prospectins
- 6 -
Makes no immediate commitment to increase
funding.
Would be coordinated closely with
developmental aid programs.
Would likely be established within existing
institutions such as the World Bank.
Advantages
Avoids seriatim creation of new funds and
funding mechanisms for each international
environmental agreement.
Encourages prioritization of environmental
projects and coordination with economic
development.
Utilizes existing institutions, thus avoiding
a proliferation of funding mechanisms
Disadvantages
Other Parties may eventually vote to add
objectionable amendments, thus placing the
U.S. in the position of opposing its own
proposal.
Has potential to be the highest cost option
and longest term commitment.
Since the fund would cover many projects and
international agreements, could result in
dilution of resources and weakening of U.S.
environmental policy priorities.
CONSORTiUM of SociAl SCiENCE Associations
1522 K STREET, NW, SUiTE 836, WASHINGTON, D.C. 20005
[202] 842-3525
FAX [202] 842-2788
April 20, 1990
file
Dr. Michael Boskin
Chairman
Council of Economic Advisers
Old Executive Office Building
Washington, DC 20500
Dear Dr. Boskin:
Just a short note to express our deep appreciation for your
calling attention to the importance of economic research to the
problems of global environmental change.
Your recent speech to the White Conference on Science and
Econmics Research Related to Global Change will go a long way to
convincing skeptics about the importance of social science
contributions to the difficult problems this nation and the rest
of the world face in this arena.
We also appreciate your efforts to improve the quality of
economic statistics.
Thank you again for your words of support. I look forward
to seeing you soon.
Sincerely,
Howard J. Silver, Ph. D.
Executive Director
American Anthropological Association
American Economic Association
American Historical Association
American Political Science Association
American Psychological Association
American Sociological Association
American Statistical Association
Association of American Geographers
Association of American Law Schools
Linguistic Society of America
GENERAL MOTORS CORPORATION
GENERAL MOTORS BUILDING
DETROIT, MICHIGAN 48202
ROGER B. SMITH
CHAIRMAN
May 23, 1989
The Honorable John Sununu
Chief of Staff
The White House
Washington, D.C. 20500
Dear John:
As we discussed, the very complex issue of global warming
is receiving increasing attention. The knowledge we now have
about this issue is sufficiently disturbing to warrant a
concerted national and international effort to get the facts
necessary to enable governments to make sound judgments about
the public policies that should be adopted.
The greenhouse effect is well understood. However, there
are many important uncertainties about global warming including
the ways oceans, clouds and other conditions affect the impact
of carbon dioxide.
Whether actions should be taken now, before the important
uncertainties are resolved, is not a question of science but a
matter of judgment. To make sound judgments, it is essential to
have an adequate appreciation of the costs and benefits of
actions being proposed and the relationship of those actions to
the international nature of this issue.
Some costs are unquantifiable such as impact on freedom of
mobility, relief from heavy labor or protection from harsh
climates. Others, such as job loss are quite quantifiable.
People who might lose their jobs as a result of some regulatory
program no doubt would like to have the uncertainties of the
global warming issue addressed before they make that sacrifice.
Proper perspective is essential to assure regulatory
programs are soundly based. Not to raise the question of costs
is a disservice to those adversely affected.
The Honorable John Sununu
May 23, 1989
Page 2
Carbon dioxide accounts for about 50 percent of any
forecast global warming. U.S. motor vehicles account for about
5.5 percent of world-wide man-produced carbon dioxide. Any
increase in vehicle fuel efficiency, which would not have full
impact for 10 or so years while the existing fleet is replaced,
would have only a small fraction of an impact on the greenhouse
effect.
This underscores the need for perspective in regulatory
programs. One of those, the CAFE program, does not save fuel,
but does disadvantage full line-U.S. manufacturers.
We support a significant increase in research; an
international approach to the issue and the discussion of a
possible "greenhouse" or carbon fee. We also support new
solutions such as alternative fuels and safe nuclear energy.
We are carrying this message to Congress and would
appreciate the efforts of the Administration to lead in this
positive approach to this issue. We would welcome the
opportunity to discuss this matter at greater length.
Sincerely,
Roger
Roger B. Smith
IX
101ST CONGRESS
1ST SESSION
S.324
To establish a national energy policy to reduce global warming, and for other
purposes.
IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES
FEBRUARY 2 (legislative day, JANUARY 3), 1989
Mr. WIRTH (for himself, Mr. BUMPERS, Mr. GORE, Mr. CRANSTON, Mr. HEINZ,
Mr. FOWLER, Mr. PELL, Mr. BINGAMAN, Mr. LEAHY, Mr. MATSUNAGA,
Mr. HOLLINGS, Mr. INOUYE, Mr. ADAMS, Mr. BREAUX, Mr. SANFORD, Mr.
DASCHLE, Mr. JEFFORDS, Mr. D'AMATO, Mr. DODD, Ms. MIKULSKI, Mr.
GORTON, Mr. SARBANES, Mr. MOYNIHAN, Mr. LIEBERMAN, Mr. SIMON,
Mrs. KASSEBAUM, Mr. DECONCINI, Mr. SPECTER, Mr. BRYAN, Mr. BOSCH-
WITZ, and Mr. RIEGLE) introduced the following bill; which was read twice
and referred to the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources
A
BILL
To establish a national energy policy to reduce global warming,
and for other purposes.
1
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa-
2 tives of the United States of America in Congress assembled,
3
SHORT TITLE AND TABLE OF CONTENTS
4
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE.-(a) This Act may be re-
5 ferred to as the "National Energy Policy Act of 1989".
6
(b) TABLE OF CONTENTS.-
TITLE I-NATIONAL ENERGY PLAN
2
TITLE II--OFFICE OF CLIMATE PROTECTION
TITLE III-ENERGY EFFICIENCY
TITLE IV-ENERGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PRIORITIES
TITLE V-STATE ENERGY CONSERVATION PROGRAMS
TITLE VI-RENEWABLE ENERGY
TITLE VII-ADVANCED CIVILIAN REACTOR PROGRAMS
TITLE VIII-FUSION
TITLE IX-COAL
TITLE X-NATURAL GAS
TITLE XI-NATURAL RESOURCE POLICY
TITLE XII-BASIC SCIENCE INITIATIVES
TITLE XII-DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE
TITLE XIV-INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES
TITLE XV-MODERATING WORLD POPULATION GROWTH
1
FINDINGS AND PURPOSES
2
SEC. 2. (a) FINDINGS.-The Congress finds that-
3
(1) the Earth's atmosphere is being altered by the
4
generation of carbon dioxide and other trace gases
5
(methane, tropospheric ozone, chlorofluorocarbons, and
6
nitrous oxide);
7
(2) these gases are, in large part, the result of
8
human activities including the widespread use of fossil
9
fuels, population growth, deforestation, agricultural
10
practices, and use of chlorofluorocarbons;
11
(3) current scientific understanding predicts that
12
continued alteration of the global atmosphere will
13
cause widespread temperature extremes and sea level
14
rise which will, in turn, have serious implications for
S 324 IS
3
1
the Earth's ecosystems, agricultural production, water
2
supply, human health, wetlands, and climate;
3
(4) shifts in regional precipitation, growing sea-
4
sons, sea level, and possible increases in the severity
5
and frequency of storms and hurricanes will cause
6
major disruptions in the economic, political, social, and
7
ecological systems of all nations;
8
(5) energy and natural resources policies must be
9
designed to reduce carbon dioxide and trace gas gen-
10
eration including reduction in the combustion of fossil
11
fuels through energy efficiency, fuel switching, and
12
conservation; use of safe nuclear, innovative clean coal
13
and renewable energy technologies; and reforestation
14
policies;
15
(6) in the near-term, increasing the Nation's
16
energy efficiency can make the largest and least costly
17
contribution to reducing carbon dioxide and trace gas
18
production and reliance on imported oil;
19
(7) development of affordable solar energy tech-
20
nologies, particularly solar photovoltaics, promises to
21
provide major new means of energy production and use
22
that can reduce dependence on fossil fuels;
23
(8) policies are urgently needed for reducing de-
24
forestation and increasing reforestation; and for pro-
25
moting economic growth and development through sus-
S 324 IS
4
1
tainable development at the national and international
2
levels;
3
(9) in SO, far as some degree of further atmospher-
4
ic change is inevitable, the Federal Government must
5
take immediate steps to devise and implement adaptive
6
strategies for coping with the environmental and eco-
7
nomic impacts of climate change; and
8
(10) adoption and implementation of these energy
9
and natural resources policies will help promote nation-
10
al. and international economic growth and development,
11
achieve a secure energy supply, and protect the nation-
12
al and global environment.
13
(b) PURPOSES.-The overall purpose of this Act is to
14 establish a national energy policy that will reduce generation
15 of carbon dioxide and trace gases as quickly as is feasible in
16 order to reduce to the maximum extent practicable, risks as-
17 sociated with an atmospheric warming and global climate
18 change. The specific purposes are-
19
(1) to require the Secretary of Energy, hereinafter
20
referred to as the "Secretary", to prepare a least-cost
21
National Energy Plan;
22
(2) to establish an Office of Climate Protection in
23
the Department of Energy;
24
(3) to provide for the establishment and financing
25
of energy efficiency research and development projects;
S 324 IS
5
1
(4) to establish criteria to be used by the Secre-
2
tary to determine priorities in energy research and de-
3
velopment and, to consider global climate change in all
4
research and development policies;
5
(5) to require States to update their energy con-
6
servation plans and establish new targets for conser-
7
vation;
8
(6) to commercially develop solar, fuel cell, hydro-
9
gen, and other renewable energy technologies;
10
(7) to provide for the establishment and financing
11
of an advanced passively safe nuclear reactor research
12
program;
13
(8) to provide for the preparation of a comprehen-
14
sive report on research, development, and demonstra-
15
tion technology for the production of electricity from
16
thermonuclear fusion;
17
(9) to provide for the preparation of a comprehen-
18
sive report on the clean coal program's implications for
19
global climate change;
20
(10) to provide financial assistance for demonstra-
21
tion projects for natural gas-powered vehicles;
22
(11) to study the natural resources that would be
23
affected by global climate change;
S 324 IS
6
1
(12) to expand financial support for ongoing and
2
new research initiatives at NOAA, NASA, NSF,
3
USGS, and NIST;
4
(13) to require an interagency study of the contri-
5
bution international deforestation and reforestation play
6
in global climate change;
7
(14) to call for the convening of international con-
8
ferences on nuclear power, a strengthening of the Mon-
9
treal Protocol, and a special office at UNEP and WMO
10
to monitor global carbon dioxide production; and
11
(15) to address world population growth by estab-
12
lishing a policy and providing financial assistance for
13
international family planning and information services.
14
SEC. 3. NATIONAL GOAL.-The Congress hereby es-
15 tablishes as national goals-
16
(a) that the introduction into the atmosphere of
17
CO₂ from the United States of America shall be re-
18
duced from 1988 levels by at least 20 percent by the
19
year 2000 through a mix of Federal and State energy
20
policies that are designed to mitigate the costs and
21
risks, both economic and environmental, associated
22
with meeting national energy needs while reducing the
23
generation of carbon dioxide and trace gases and sus-
24
taining economic growth and development; and
S 324 IS
7
1
(b) the establishment of an international global
2
agreement on the atmosphere by 1992.
3
TITLE I-NATIONAL ENERGY PLAN
4
(a) Not later than 18 months after the enactment of this
5 Act, the Secretary, and the Administrator of the Environ-
6 mental Protection Agency, in consultation with the Secretary
7 of the Interior, the National Academy of Sciences and other
8 agencies, shall prepare and after public review and comment,
9 transmit to Congress a "least-cost national energy plan" for
10 meeting the national goal set out in section 3 of this Act.
11
For purposes of the plan, (1) "energy resources" shall
12 be defined as those sources of additional energy supply in-
13 volving either the production of additional energy or addition-
14 al improvements in the efficiency of energy processing and
15 end use.
16
(2) "Cost-effective" shall be defined as those resources
17 projected to be reliable and available within a needed time
18 frame, and that could be used to meet anticipated energy
19 needs at an estimated incremental system cost no greater
20 than that of the least-cost similarly reliable and available al-
21 ternative measure of resource, or any combination thereof.
22
(3) System costs' shall be defined as all direct costs of
23 a resource over its effective life, including, if applicable, the
24 cost of distribution and transmission to the consumer and,
25 also including among other factors, waste disposal costs and
S 324 IS
8
1 fuel costs (including projected increase), and such quantifiable
2 environmental and national security costs and benefits as the
3 Secretary and the Administrator determine are directly at-
4 tributable to such resources
5
(4) "Estimated incremental system cost" of any conser-
6 vation resource shall not be treated as greater than that of
7. any other resource unless the incremental system cost of such
8 conservation resources is in excess of at least 110 percent of
9 the incremental system cost of the other resource
10
(b) The plan shall include-
11
(1) an assignment of the priorities among energy
12
resources that the Secretary determines, to be cost-
13
effective, according to their impact on the global
14
climate;
15
(2) a range of national energy demand forecasts
16
for the short-, medium-, and long-term (at least 50
17
years), reflecting plausible high and low economic
18
growth scenarios, and assuming no improvements in
19
current average efficiencies of energy use in new build-
20
ings, machines, and vehicles;
21
(3) a comprehensive inventory of resources avail-
22
ability and system cost, taking into account all sectors
23
of energy use and production which shall include but
24
not be limited to-
S 324 IS
9
1
(i) coal, including clean coal technologies and
2
underground coal gasification;
3
(ii) energy efficiency, including existing tech-
4
nologies for increased efficiency and end use, as
5
well as the potential of further research and de-
6
velopment;
7
(iii) efficiency improvements and technologi-
8
cal gains in electrical energy generation and
9
transmission and energy extraction;
10
(iv) other alternative energy sources such as
11
renewable resources, solar, nuclear fission,
12
nuclear fusion geothermal, fuel cells, and hydro-
13
electric power; and
14
(v) improvements in the fuel efficiency of
15
automobiles and light trucks.
16
(4) targets for the cost-effective resource acquisi-
17
tions that will be needed to ensure that the Nation can
18
meet short-, medium-, and long-term energy needs
19
without exceeding the national goal for carbon dioxide
20
generation;
21
(5) a 2-year action plan for meeting the plan's re-
22
source acquisition targets, including, but not limited to,
23
all practicable actions within the Secretary's and other
24
Federal agencies' current legislative authority;
S 324 IS
10
1
(6) a research and development plan for investi-
2
gating promising but unproven technologies identified
3.
in the planning process as potentially significant future
4
contributors to meeting the plan's goals;
5
(7) recommendations for any new Federal legisla-
6
tion that may be needed to meet the plan's goals, in-
7
cluding estimates of accompanying carbon dioxide and
8
trace gases generation; and
9
(8) recommendations for any new State agency or
10
legislative actions that are needed to meet the plan's
11
goals, and for any new Federal policies that are needed
12
to encourage such actions, including estimates of ac-
13
companying carbon dioxide and costs impacts of such
14
actions.
15
(c) Immediately following submission to Congress of the
16 least-cost national energy plan, the Department of Energy
17 shall implement the provisions of its action plan to the maxi-
18 mum extent practicable.
19
(d) The plan, its action plan, and its research and devel-
20 opment plan shall be revised and resubmitted to the Congress
21 every 2 years.
22
TITLE II-OFFICE OF CLIMATE PROTECTION
23
SEC. 201. In order to elevate the priority attached to
24 climate change considerations within the Department of
25 Energy, there is hereby established the Office of Climate
S 324 IS
11
1 Protection. The Director of the Office shall be appointed by
2 the President, by and with the consent of the Senate, and
3 shall report directly to the Deputy Secretary. This Office
4 shall be responsible for-
5
(a) the Department of Energy's participation in
6
studies, environmental assessments and other work
7
being conducted by the various domestic and interna-
8
tional agencies involved in global climate change anal-
9
ysis; and
10
(b) monitoring United States' energy policies for
11
atmospheric and global warming effects and providing
12
an annual report on these effects to Congress.
13
TITLE III-ENERGY EFFICIENCY
14
Subtitle A
15
SEC. 301 The Secretary in conjunction with appropri-
16 ate Federal agencies shall
17
(a) give a high priority to improvements in energy
18
efficiency in departmental planning, research and de-
19
velopment programs, private assistance programs, and
20
to improvements in buildings and equipment of the
21
Department;
22
(b) submit to Congress within 1 year after the en-
23
actment of this title, and every 3 years thereafter, a
24
report evaluating the policy options that would be nec-
25
essary to produce a decrease of 2 through 4 percent
S 324 IS
12
1
per year in the energy use per unit of gross national
2
product in the United States through the year 2005.
3
These policy options and programs shall be ranked ac-
4
cording to their cost effectiveness.
5
SEC. 302. (a) The President's budget request for fiscal
6 years 1991 through 1993 shall include the Secretary's rec-
7 ommendations of amounts to be set aside for new initiatives
8 in energy efficiency research, development, and demonstra-
9 tion. Funds made available for new initiatives shall supple-
10 ment and not supplant funds available to complete on-going
11 energy efficiency research and development projects support-
12 ed in whole or in part by the Secretary during the fiscal year
13 1990. Funds made available for new initiative shall be used
14 by the Secretary to support the most promising and deserving
15 new ideas in energy efficiency research and development
16 brought to the attention of the Secretary during the previous
17 fiscal year.
18
(b)(1) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated to
19 the Secretary for the energy efficiency research, develop-
20 ment, and demonstration programs of the Secretary, an
21 amount not to exceed $209,181,000 in fiscal year 1991, of
22 which $6,000,000 shall be available for new initiatives, as
23 set forth below-
24
(A) for transportation energy efficiency research,
25
development, and demonstration there is authorized to
S 324 IS
13
1
be appropriated to the Secretary an amount not to
2
exceed $65,460,000 of which $2,000,000 shall be
3
made available for new initiatives;
4
(B) for industrial energy efficiency research, devel-
5
opment, and demonstration there is authorized to be
6
appropriated to the Secretary an amount not to exceed
7
$46,740,000, of which $1,000,000 shall be available
8
for new initiatives;
9
(C) for buildings and community systems energy
10
efficiency research, development, and demonstration
11
there is authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary
12
an amount not to exceed $58,100,000 of which
13
$2,000,000 shall be available for new initiatives;
14
(D) for multisector energy efficiency research, de-
15
velopment, and demonstration there is authorized to be
16
appropriated to the Secretary an amount not to exceed
17
$37,050,000, of which $1,000,000 shall be available
18
for new initiatives; and
19
(E) for energy efficiency research, development,
20
and demonstration policy and management, there is au-
21
thorized to be appropriated to the Secretary an amount
22
not to exceed $1,797,000.
23
(2) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated to the
24 Secretary for the energy efficiency research, development,
25 and demonstration programs of the Secretary, an amount not
S 324 IS
14
1 to exceed $253,000,000 in fiscal year 1992, of which
2 $7,000,000 shall be available for new initiatives as set forth
3 below-
4
(A) for transportation energy efficiency research,
5
development, and demonstration there is authorized to
6
be appropriated to the Secretary an amount not to
7
exceed $84,000,000, of which $3,000,000 shall be
8
made available for new initiatives;
9
(B) for industrial energy efficiency research, devel-
10
opment, and demonstration there is authorized to be
11
appropriated to the Secretary an amount not to exceed
12
$45,000,000 of which $1,000,000 shall be available
13
for new initiatives;
14
(C) for buildings and community systems energy
15
efficiency research, development, and demonstration
16
there is authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary
17
an amount not to exceed $55,000,000 of which
18
$2,000,000 shall be available for new initiatives;
19
(D) for multisector energy efficiency research, de-
20
velopment, and demonstration there is authorized to be
21
appropriated to the Secretary an amount not to exceed
22
$64,000,000, of which $1,000,000 shall be available
23
for new initiatives; and
24
(E) for energy efficiency research, development,
25
and demonstration policy and management, there is au-
S 324 IS
15
1
thorized to be appropriated to the Secretary an amount
2
not to exceed $5,000,000.
3
(3) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated to the
4 Secretary for the energy efficiency research, development,
5 and demonstration programs of the Secretary, an amount not
6 to exceed $301,000,000 in fiscal year 1993, of which
7 $8,000,000 shall be available for new initiatives, as set forth
8 below-
9
(A) for transportation energy efficiency research,
10
development, and demonstration there is authorized to
11
be appropriated to the Secretary an amount not to
12
exceed $98,000,000 of which $3,000,000 shall be
13
made available for new initiatives;
14
(B) for industrial energy efficiency research, devel-
15
opment, and demonstration there is authorized to be
16
appropriated to the Secretary an amount not to exceed
17
$50,000,000 of which $2,000,000 shall be available
18
for new initiatives;
19
(C) for buildings and community systems energy
20
efficiency research, development, and demonstration
21
there is authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary
22
an amount not to exceed $65,000,000 of which
23
$2,000,000 shall be available for new initiatives;
24
(D) for multisector energy efficiency research, de-
25
velopment, and demonstration there is authorized to be
S 324 IS
16
1
appropriated to the Secretary an amount not to exceed
2
$83,000,000, of which $1,000,000 shall be available
3
for new initiatives; and
4
(E) for energy efficiency research, development,
5
and demonstration policy and management, there is au-
6
thorized to be appropriated to the Secretary an amount
7
not to exceed $5,000,000.
8
SEC. 303. (a) As used in this section and in section 304
9 the term "joint research and development venture" has the
10 meaning given such term in the National Cooperative Re-
11 search Act of 1984 (98 Stat. 1815).
12
(b)(1) The Secretary shall solicit proposals in accordance
13 with the provisions of this section for joint research and de-
14 velopment ventures for the commercial demonstration of
15 energy efficiency technologies that show significant promise
16 for cost-effective commercial application and that can con-
17 tribute significantly to reducing the rate and scope of carbon
18 dioxide and trace gas generation. Each joint research and
19 development venture under this section shall include manu-
20 facturing firms, investors, and such other participation as the
21 Secretary deems appropriate to achieve the purposes of this
22 section.
23
(2) Not later than 120 days after the date of the enact-
24 ment of this section the Secretary shall publish plans to im-
S 324 IS
17
1 plement this section, provide opportunity for public comment
2- on such plans, and report to Congress on the plans.
3
(3)(A) Not later than 1 year after the date of the enact-
4 ment of this subsection the Secretary shall issue a general
5 request for proposals under this subsection. Such general re-
6 quest shall contain a description of the criteria the Secretary
7 will use in awarding financial assistance under this subsec-
8 tion. The primary such criterion shall be the probability of
9 significant near-term impact of the proposal on the rate of
10 carbon dioxide and trace gas generation. The secondary cri-
11 terion shall be the probability of significant near-term impact
12 of the proposal on reduction of oil imports. The Secretary
13 may include such other criteria as the Secretary finds appro-
14 priate, including the net cost under the proposal in Federal
15 financial assistance and the likelihood of early commercial
16 application of technology demonstrated under the proposal.
17
(B) Proposals shall be submitted to the Secretary within
18 120 days after such general solicitation is published in the
19 Federal Register.
20
(C) The Secretary shall not provide Federal financial
21 assistance for more than 50 percent of the costs. of any pro-
22 posal under this subsection as estimated by the Secretary at
23 the time of acceptance of such proposal. For purposes of this
24 subsection, other Federal funds, existing facilities, equipment
S 324 ISR 2 --- 2
18
1 and supplies, and previously expended research and develop-
2 ment funds are not cost sharing.
3
(4) The Secretary shall issue general requests for pro-
4 posals under this subsection on the first and second anniver-
5 saries of the issuance under paragraph (3).
6
(5)(A) The Secretary may provide technical assistance
7 to persons developing proposals under this subsection.
8
(B) The Secretary may provide technical and financial
9 assistance in accordance with this subsection to proposals
10 that have been accepted by the Secretary under this sub-
11 section.
12
(C) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
13 tary for purposes of this subsection not more than
14 $50,000,000 for each of the fiscal years 1991, 1992, and
15 1993, such amounts to remain available until expended.
16
SEC. 304. (a) The Secretary shall establish and provide
17 financial assistance to joint research and development ven-
18 tures with such specialized private firms and investors as the
19 Secretary deems appropriate in order to establish at least 5
20 regional centers for energy-intensive industries. The centers
21 shall conduct basic and applied research and development on
22 common industrial processes. The centers shall focus their
23 efforts on changes to industrial processes that may result in
24 improved energy efficiency. The centers may also conduct
25 research on other improvements of benefit to industry SO long
S 324 IS
19
1 as energy efficiency improvements are an integral part of that
2 research. In locating the regional centers under this section,
3 the Secretary shall consider the regional distribution of
4 energy-intensive industries. The research centers shall be es-
5 tablished in the region in which the Secretary determines
6 each energy-intensive industry is located.
7
(b) The regional centers under this paragraph shall carry
8 out research and development efforts to reduce the produc-
9 tion of CO₂ and trace gases into the atmosphere by improv-
10 ing the quality and energy efficiency of industrial processes.
11
(c) The research and development strategy under this
12 paragraph shall be guided by-
13
(1) a detailed characterization of the needs of do-
14
mestic manufacturing industries;
15
(2) a close working relationship with all sectors of
16
the domestic manufacturing industry; and
17
(3) coordination among the centers to pool and
18
conserve resources.
19
(d) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
20 tary $5,000,000 for fiscal year 1991, $15,000,000 for fiscal
21 year 1992, and $25,000,000 for fiscal year 1993. Industries
22 for which the centers are established shall contribute match-
23 ing funds starting in 1992.
24
SEC. 305. (a) As used in this section, the term "Federal
25 building" has the meaning given such term in section 521 of
S 324 IS
20
1 the National Energy Conservation Policy Act and includes
2 facilities used in connection with such Federal building.
3
(b)(1) The Secretary shall establish a Federal energy
4 analysis team to analyze, and make recommendations with
5 respect to energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy
6 in, specific Federal buildings selected by the Secretary under
7. this section. The team shall be made up of individuals—
8
(A) engaged in research on energy efficiency or
9
the use of renewable energy in buildings at the Nation-
10
al Laboratories of the Department of Energy; and
11
(B) nominated by the Secretary of Defense, the
12
Administrator of the General Services Administration
13
and the Director of the National Institute of Standards
14
and Technology, respectively, on the basis of their ex-
15
pertise in energy efficiency and the use of renewable
16
forms of energy in buildings. Persons who serve on the
17
team shall be transferred to the team for purposes of
18
this section without loss of salary or benefits.
19
(2) The team shall conduct an analysis of energy use in
20 Federal buildings designated by the Secretary under para-
21 graph (3) to determine the potential for the use of renewable
22 forms of energy and for improved energy efficiency in such
23 buildings and make recommendations for cost-effective re-
24 newable energy and energy efficiency improvements in such
25 buildings. For purposes of this section an improvement shall
S 324 IS
21
1 be considered cost effective if the cost of the energy saved or
2 displaced by the improvement exceeds the cost of the im-
3 provement over the life or remaining term of lease of the
4 building.
5
(3) The Secretary shall designate buildings to be ana-
6 lyzed by the team SO as to obtain a sample of buildings of the
7 types and in the climates that is representative of the Federal
8 buildings owned or leased by Federal agencies in the United
9 States that consume the major fraction of the energy con-
10 sumed in Federal buildings.
11
(4) The Secretary shall submit a plan for implementing
12 this subsection to Congress within 6 months after the date of
13 the enactment of this section.
14
(5) The team shall report its findings and recommenda-
15 tions based on the analyses carried out under paragraph (2)
16 to the Secretary and to the head of the agency owning or
17 leasting each building analyzed within 18 months after the
18 date of the enactment of this section.
19
(b)(1) The Secretary shall use the results of the analyses
20 under subsection (a) to develop goals for 1995 for energy
21 efficiency and the use of renewable energy in Federal build-
22 ings generally and in the categories identified by the Secre-
23 tary under subsection (a)(3). Goals developed under this sub-
24 section shall be submitted to Congress within 24 months after
25 the date of the enactment of this section.
S 324 IS
22
1
(2) Any agency that chooses not to implement promptly
2 the recommendations of the team with respect to a Federal
3 building analyzed under subsection (a)(2) shall provide Con-
4 gress with a written explanation of the reasons for such
5 choice.
6
(3) Any agency that implements the recommendations of
7 the team with respect to a Federal building analyzed under
8 subsection (a)(2) may retain for purposes of furthering the
9 objectives of the agency one-half of the dollar savings real-
10 ized as a result of such recommendations. The Secretary
11 shall consult with the heads of the appropriate Federal agen-
12 cies to insure that the maximum dollar savings under this
13 section are realized.
14
(c) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated to the
15 Secretary for purposes of carrying out this section
16 $2,500,000.
17
SEC. 306. REPEAL OF PROHIBITIONS ON SUPPLY AND
18 INSTALLATION OF RESIDENTIAL ENERGY CONSERVATION
19 MEASURES BY UTILITIES.-Section 216 of the National
20 Energy Conservation Policy Act (42 U.S.C. 8217) is re-
21 pealed and subsequent sections are renumbered accordingly.
22
SEC. 307. HOME ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATINGS.-
23 Title II of the National Energy Conservation Policy Act is
24 amended by adding a new part 6 as follows:
S 324 IS
23
1
"PART 6-RESIDENTIAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY
2
RATINGS
3
"SEC. 271. (a) Within 12 months after the date of the
4 enactment of this section the Secretary in consultation with
5 the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development and State
6 governments shall by rule promulgate guidelines for regula-
7 tions to be formulated and implemented by State govern-
8 ments that would require the assignment of an energy effi-
9 ciency rating to residential buildings.
10
"(b) The rule under subsection (a) shall-
11
"(1) provide for a numerical rating of the efficien-
12
cy with which any residential building may be supplied
13
with heating and cooling energy on an annual basis,
14
and evaluate the practicality of including major energy
15
consuming appliances in such rating;
16
"(2) provide that all residential buildings receive a
17
rating at time of sale;
18
"(3) ensure that the rating is prominently commu-
19
nicated to potential buyers and renters; and
20
"(4) ensure that the rating system is designed to
21
facilitate its use by the secondary mortgate markets to
22
promote energy efficiency.
23
"(c) Within 12 months of the date of enactment of this
24 Act, the Secretary shall establish a program to provide tech-
25 nical and managerial support for State and local governments
26 adopting energy efficiency rating systems or building codes.
S 324 IS
24
1 The program shall utilize the Federal Government's experi-
2 ence in developing Federal building energy performance
3 standards and shall provide compliance methods, educational
4 materials for builders and code officials, and other technical
5 support.
6
"(d) For purposes of the rule under subsection (a) supply
7 of energy to any residential building from the level of the
8 contribution of renewable sources shall not result in a reduc-
9 tion in the energy efficiency rating of such building.".
10
SEC. 308. ENERGY EFFICIENCY LABELS FOR MAJOR
11 APPLICATIONS OF INCANDESCENT AND FLUORESCENT
12 LAMPS.-Part B of title III of the Energy Policy and Con-
13 servation Act, as amended, is further amended—
14
(a) in section 322(a) by striking paragraph (14)
15
and inserting in lieu thereof new paragraphs (14), (15)
16
and (16) as follows:
17
"(14) Incandescent lamps which are the predomi-
18
nant consumers of energy used for lighting in the com-
19
mercial, industrial, and residential sectors.
20
"(15) Fluorescent lamps which are the predom-
21
inant consumers of energy used for lighting in the com-
22
mercial, industrial, and residential sectors.
23
"(16) Any other type of consumer product that
24
the Secretary classifies as a covered product under
25
subsection (b)."
S 324 IS
25
1
(b)(1) in section 324(a)(1) by inserting after the
2
phrase "through (12)", "(14) and (15)"; and
3
(2) in the remaining provisions of section 324 by
4
striking the phrase "paragraph (14)" everywhere it ap-
5
pears and inserting in lieu thereof the phrase "para-
6
graph (16)";
7
(c)(1) in section 325(i) by striking the phrase
8
"paragraph (14)" everywhere it appears and inserting
9
in lieu thereof the phrase "paragraph (16)"; and
10
(2) by adding at the end of subsection 325(i) a
11
new paragraph (4) as follows:
12
"(4) The Secretary, before January 1, 1990, shall
13
prescribe an energy conservation standard for each of
14
the covered products specified in paragraphs (13) and
15
(14) of section 322(a). Concurrent with the Secretary's
16
prescription of such standards the Secretary shall also
17
prescribe test procedures."
18
SEC. 309. ENERGY EFFICIENCY LABELS FOR WIN-
19 Dows.-Within 18 months of the date of enactment of this
20 Act, the Secretary, after consultation with the National Insti-
21 tute of Standards and Technology, shall establish labels for
22 thermal and optical properties and performance for windows
23 and window systems.
24
SEC. 310. REVIEW.-The Secretary shall periodically
25 review standards and labels established under sections 308
S 324 IS
26
1 and 309 at least every 3 years and strengthen the standards
2 for the products or any other energy-consuming device that
3 the Secretary deems justified.
4
Subtitle B
5 AMENDMENTS TO PUBLIC UTILITY REGULATORY POLICIES
6
ACT OF 1978
7
SEC. 311. ENCOURAGEMENT OF LEAST COST INVEST-
8. MENT.-The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978,
9 Public Law 95-617 (November 9, 1978), as amended, is fur-
10 ther amended by inserting the following new section after
11 section 113 and renumbering the sections accordingly:
12 "SEC 114. LEAST COST INVESTMENT.
13
"(a) ADOPTION OF STANDARDS.-Not later than 2
14 years after the date of enactment of this section, each State
15 regulatory authority (with respect to each gas utility and
16 electric utility for which it has ratemaking authority) shall
17 provide public notice and conduct a hearing respecting the
18 standard established by subsection (b) and, on the basis of
19 such hearing, shall adopt and implement the standard estab-
20 lished by subsection (b) if, and to the extent, such authority
21 determines that such adoption and implementation is appro-
22 priate and consistent with otherwise applicable State law.
23 For purposes of any determination made on the basis of such
24 hearing and any review of such determination in any court in
S 324 IS
27
1 accordance with section 125, the purposes of this title supple-
2 ment otherwise applicable State law.
3
"(b) ESTABLISHMENT.-The following Federal stand-
4 ard is hereby established:
5
"The rates permitted to be charged by a gas utili-
6
ty or electric utility shall be such that the implementa-
7
tion of least cost supply measures permits the utility to
8
realize higher earnings than would be realized from the
9
implementation of other supply measures. For purposes
10
of this standard, the term implementation of least cost
11
supply measures' shall mean actions (including, but not
12
limited to, conservation and other means of demand re-
13
duction) taken to provide adequate and reliable service
14
to consumers with the incurrence of lowest total costs
15
to society, such costs to include costs incurred by the
16
utility and its customers, and environmental costs.
17
"(c) PROCEDURAL REQUIREMENTS.- Each State regu-
18 latory authority (with respect to each gas utility and electric
19 utility for which it has ratemaking authority) within the 2-
20 year period specified in subsection (a), shall (1) adopt and
21 implement, pursuant to subsection (a), the standard estab-
22 lished by subsection (b) or, (2) if the standard is not adopted
23 and implemented, such authority shall state in writing that it
24 has determined not to adopt and implement such standard,
S 324 IS
28
1 together with the reasons for such determination. Such state-
2 ment of reasons shall be available to the public.
3
"(d) DEFINITIONS.-(1) For purposes of this section,
4 the term 'gas utility' means any person who is engaged in the
5 local distribution and sale of natural gas to any ultimate con-
6 sumer and over whom a State regulatory authority has rate-
7 making authority.
8
"(2) for purposes of this section, the term 'electric utili-
9 ty' means any person who is engaged in the local distribution
10 and sale of electricity to any ultimate consumer and over
11 whom a State regulatory authority has ratemaking authority.
12 "SEC. 115. LEAST COST INVESTMENT FOR NONREGULATED
13
UTILITIES.
14
"(a) ADOPTION OF STANDARDS.-Not later than two.
15 years after the date of enactment of this section, each non-
16 regulated electric utility and nonregulated gas utility shall
17 provide public notice and conduct a hearing respecting the
18 standard established by subsection (b) and, on the basis of
19 such hearing, shall adopt and implement the standard estab-
20 lished by subsection (b) if, and to the extent, such utility de-
21 termines that such adoption and implementation is appropri-
22 ate and consistent with otherwise applicable State law. For
23 purposes of any determination made on the basis of such
24 hearing and any review of such determination in any court in
S 324 IS
29
1 accordance with section 125, the purposes of this title supple-
2 ment otherwise applicable State law.
3
"(b) ESTABLISHMENT.-Thé following Federal stand-
4 ard is hereby established:
5
"Each nonregulated gas utility and nonregulated
6
electric utility shall implement least cost supply meas-
7
ures. For purposes of this standard, the phrase 'imple-
8
ment least cost supply measures' shall mean actions
9
(including, but not limited to, conservation and other
10
means of demand reduction) taken to provide adequate
11
and reliable service to consumers with the incurrence
12
of lowest total costs to society, such costs to include
13
costs incurred by the utility and its customers, and en-
14
vironmental costs.
15
"(c) PROCEDURAL REQUIREMENTS.-Each nonregu-
16 lated electric utility and nonregulated gas utility shall, within
17 the 2-year period specified in subsection (a), (1) adopt and
18 implement, pursuant to subsection (a), the standard estab-
19 lished by subsection (b) or, (2) if the standard is not adopted
20 and implemented, such utility shall state in writing that it has
21 determined not to adopt and implement such standard, to-
22 gether with the reasons for such determination. Such state-
23 ment of reasons shall be available to the public.
24
"(d) DEFINITIONS.-(1) For purposes of this section,
25 the term 'nonregulated gas utility' means any person who is
S 324 IS
30
1 engaged in the local distribution and sale of natural gas to
2 any ultimate consumer and over whom a State regulatory
3 authority does not have ratemaking authority.
4
"(2) For purposes of this section the term 'nonregulated
5 electric utility' means any person who is engaged in the local
6 distribution and sale of electricity to any ultimate consumer
7 and over whom a State regulatory authority does not have
8 ratemaking authority."
9
SEC. 312. DEFINITIONS.-Section 3 of the Federal
10 Power Act, as amended (16 U.S.C. 796 et seq.), is further
11 amended by inserting the following definitions after the defi-
12 nition of "qualifying cogenerator" and renumbering the defin-
13 tions accordingly:
14
"(19)(A) 'qualifying conservation' means any re-
15
duction at any time in the demand for electric energy
16
by the customers of a utility, which reduction-
17
"(i) would not occur but for payments re-
18
ceived by a qualifying conservation entity; and
19
"(ii) the Commission determines, by rule,
20
meets such requirements as the Commission may,
21
by rule, prescribe;
22
"(B) qualifying conservation entity' means a
23
person who-
S 324 IS
31
1
"(i) the Commission determines, by rule
2
meets such requirements as the Commission may,
3
by rule, prescribe;
4
(ii) is not primarily engaged in the genera-
5
tion or sale of electric power (other than electric
6
power from cogeneration facilities or small power
7
production facilities);"
8
SEC. 313. PURCHASES OF QUALIFYING CONSERVA-
9 TION BY UTILITIES.-Section 210 of the Public Utility Reg-
10 ulatory Policies Act of 1978 (16 U.S.C. 824a-3), as amend-
11 ed, is further amended by-
12
(a) inserting the following new subsection after
13
subsection (a) and relettering the remaining subsections
14
accordingly:
15
(b) CONSERVATION RULES.-Not later than one year
16 after the date of enactment of this subsection, the Commis-
17 sion shall prescribe, and from time to time thereafter revise,
18 such rules as it determines necessary to encourage the
19 achievement of qualifying conservation. Such rules shall re-
20 quire electric utilities to offer to purchase qualifying conser-
21 vation from qualifying conservation entities under such terms
22 as the Commission may prescribe and shall include provisions
23 concerning verification of the achievement of qualifying con-
24 servation. Such rules shall be prescribed, after consultation
25 with representatives of Federal and State regulatory agencies
S 324 IS
32
1 having ratemaking authority for electric utilities, and after
2 public notice and a reasonable opportunity for interested per-
3 sons (including State and Federal agencies) to submit oral as
4 well as written data, views, and arguments.";
5
(b) striking subsection (b) and inserting the follow-
6
ing in lieu thereof:
7
"(c) RATES FOR PURCHASES BY ELECTRIC UTILI-
8 TIES.-The rules prescribed under subsections (a) and (b)
9 shall insure that, in requiring any electric utility to offer to
10 purchase electric energy from any qualifying cogeneration fa-
11 cility or qualifying small power production facility, or to pur-
12 chase qualifying conservation from a qualifying conservation
13 entity, the rates for such purchase-
14
"(1) shall, in the case of purchases from qualifying
15
cogeneration facilities and qualifying small power pro-
16
duction facilities, be just and reasonable to the electric
17
consumers of the electric utility;
18
"(2) shall be in the public interest;
19
"(3) shall not discriminate against qualifying co-
20
generators, qualifying small power producers, or quali-
21
fying conservation entities. No such rule prescribed
22
under subsection (a) shall provide for a rate which ex-
23
ceeds the incremental cost to the electric utility of al-
24
ternative electric energy. Rules prescribed under sub-
25
section (b) shall give State regulatory authorities and
S 324 IS
33
1
nonregulated electric utilities the option of restricting
2
the rate paid for qualifying conservation to an amount
3
no greater than-
4
(A) the incremental cost of alternative elec-
5
tric energy; or
6
(B) the amount by which the incremental
7
cost of alternative electric energy exceeds the
8
price for the generation of electric energy paid by
9
the customers whose demand for electric energy is
10
reduced as a result of qualifying conservation.";
11
and
12
(c) adding the following at the end of sub-
13
section (d):
14 "The term incremental cost of alternative electric energy'
15 means, with respect to purchases of qualifying conservation
16 from qualifying conservation entities, the cost to the purchas-
17 ing electric utility of the electric energy which, but for the
18 purchase from such conservation entity, such utility would
19 generate or purchase from another source.".
20
SEC. 314. CONFORMING CHANGES.-Section 210 of
21 the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (16
22 U.S. C. 824a-3), as amended, is further amended-
23
(a) in subsection (f) by striking "subsection (a) of
24
this section or revised under such subsection" in each
25
place it appears and substituting subsections (a) or (b)
S 324 ISR 2 -- 3
34
1
of this section or revised under such subsections" in
2
lieu thereof;
3
(b) in subsection (g) by striking "subsection (a)"
4
and substituting "subsections (a) or (b)" in lieu thereof;
5
(c) in subsection (g) by striking "or qualifying co-
6
generator" and inserting "qualifying cogenerator, or
7
qualifying conservation entity" in lieu thereof;
8
(d) in paragraph (2) of subsection (h) by striking
9
"or qualifying small power producer" and substituting
10
"qualifying small power producer, or qualifying conser-
11
vation entity" in lieu thereof;
12
(e) in subsection (j) by striking "and 'qualifying
13
cogenerator'' and substituting "qualifying cogenera-
14
tor', 'qualifying conservation', and 'qualifying conserva-
15
tion entity' in lieu thereof; and
16
(f) in subsection (j) by striking "3(17) and 3(18)"
17
and substituting "3(17), 3(18) and 3(19)" in lieu
18
thereof.
19
TITLE IV-ENERGY RESEARCH AND
20
DEVELOPMENT PRIORITIES
21
SEC. 401.-The Secretary of Energy shall establish pri-
22 orities, using the following criteria in order of importance, for
23 research and development programs:
24
(1) potential to reduce generation of carbon diox-
25
ide and trace gases sooner than alternative projects;
S 324 IS
35
1
(2) the projected cost effectiveness of the energy
2
ultimately to be produced or saved, including an eval-
3
uation of the likelihood of success of the research;
4
(3) the environmental and public health impacts of
5
the energy ultimately to be produced or saved by the
6
specific research;
7
(4) the national security impact of the energy pro-
8
duced or saved, including its projected reduction of oil
9
imports and contribution to the diversity of the fuel
10
mix;
11
(5) the obstacles inherent in private industry's de-
12
velopment of new energy technologies and steps neces-
13
sary for establishing or restoring technical leadership in
14
the area of renewable energy technologies, including,
15
but not limited to, solar, fuel cells, and hydrogen;
16
(6) the impact of given research in the area of
17
fundamental scientific inquiry; and
18
(7) the impact of the research on special or tar-
19
geted populations, including low-income or aged
20
persons.
S 324 IS
36
1
TITLE V-STATE ENERGY CONSERVATION
2
PROGRAM
3
STATE ENERGY CONSERVATION GOALS
4
SEC. 501. Section 364 of the Energy Policy and Con-
5 servation Act (42 U.S.C. 6324) is amended to read as
6 follows:
7
"ENERGY CONSERVATION GOALS
8
SEC. 364. Each State energy conservation plan with
9 respect to which assistance is made available under this part
10 on or after October 1, 1990, shall contain a goal consisting of
11. a reduction, as a result of the implementation of such plan, of
12 10 percent or more in the amount of energy consumed in
13 such State in the year 2000 from the projected energy con-
14 sumption, as of October 1, 1990, for such State in the year
15 2000.
16 REQUIRED STATE ENERGY CONSERVATION PLAN ELE-
17
MENTS AND CONSOLIDATION OF ENERGY EXTENSION
18
SERVICE
19
SEC. 502. (a) IN GENERAL.-Section 362(c) of the
20 Energy Policy and Conservation Act (42 U.S.C. 6322(c)) is
21 amended-
22
(1) by striking "and" at the end of paragraph (4);
23
(2) by striking the period at the end of paragraph
24
(5) and inserting in lieu thereof a semicolon; and
25
(3) by adding at the end thereof the following new
26
paragraphs:
S 324 IS
37
1
"(6) and energy emergency planning program for
2
an energy supply disruption which shall include a spe-
3
cific implementation strategy regional coordination and
4
may include planning for petroleum, electricity, natural
5
gas, coal, and nuclear power supply and delivery dis-
6
ruptions;
7
"(7) procedures for ensuring that effective coordi-
8
nation exists among various local, State, and Federal
9
energy conservation programs within the State, includ-
10
ing any program administered within the Office of
11
State and Local Assistance Programs of the Depart-
12
ment of Energy as of December 31, 1987, and the
13
Low Income Energy Assistance Program administered
14
by the Department of Health and Human Services;
15
and
16
"(8) programs to implement all the functions of
17
the Energy Extension Service, as provided by law on
18
the day before the date of enactment of the State
19
Energy Conservation Programs Improvement Act of
20
1989, which shall
21
'(A) include programs for identification, de-
22
velopment, and demonstration of energy efficiency
23
opportunities, techniques, methods, materials, and
24
equipment (including those that are responsive to
25
local needs or resources) and alternative energy
S 324 IS
38
1
technologies such as solar heating and cooling for
2
agricultural, commercial, and small business oper-
3
ations, individual energy consumers, and new ex-
4
isting residential, commercial, and agricultural
5
buildings or structures;
6
"(B) provide for technical assistance, instruc-
7
tions, information dissemination, and practical
8
demonstrations with respect to energy efficiency
9
opportunities;
10
"(C) provide, to the maximum extent practi-
11
cable within personnel and funding limitations,
12
active outreach energy extension assistance (in-
13
cluding information on end-user technoloy require-
14
ments) at the local level through appropriate of-
15
fices (Including metropolitan offices ) and through
16
county agents and technical staff assistants;
17
"(D) make maximum use of existing outreach
18
or delivery mechanisms or programs and include,
19
to the maximum extent practicable, any State,
20
local, university, college, or other organization's
21
programs for energy information, education, or
22
technology transfer which have activities or pur-
23
poses similar to those of this part; and
24
"(E) establish and implement policies and
25
procedures designed to assure that assistance pro-
S 324 IS
39
1
vided under this part does not replace or supplant
2
the expenditure of other Federal or State or local
3
funds for the same purposes, but instead supple-
4
ments such funds and increases the expenditure of
5
such State or local funds to the maximum extent
6
practicable."
7
(b) ELIMINATION OF EES.-The National
8
Energy Extension Services Act (title V of Public Law
9
95-39) is repealed.
10 OPTIONAL STATE ENERGY CONSERVATION PLAN ELE-
11
MENTS AND CONSOLIDATION OF SUPPLEMENTAL
12
STATE ENERGY CONSERVATION PLAN
13
SEC. 503. IN GENERAL.-Section 362(d) of the Energy
14 Policy and Conservation Act (42 U.S.C. 6322(d)) is
15 amended-
16
(1) by striking "and" at the end of paragraph (4);
17
(2) by striking the period at the end of paragraph
18
(5) and inserting in lieu thereof a semicolon; and
19
(3) by adding at the end thereof the following new
20
paragraphs:
21
"(6) programs for financing energy efficiency and
22
renewable energy capital investments, projects, and
23
programs-
24
"(A) which may include loan programs and
25
performance contracting programs for leveraging
26
of additional public and private sector funds, and
S 324 IS
40
1
programs which allow rebates, grants, or other in-
2
centives for the purchase and installation of
3
energy efficiency and renewable energy measures;
4
or
5
"(B) in addition to or in lieu of programs de-
6
scribed in subparagraph (A), which may be used
7
in connection with public or nonprofit buildings
8
owned and operated by a State, a political subdi-
9
vision of a State or an agency or instrumentality
10
of a State, or an organization exempt from tax-
11
ation under section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Reve-
12
nue Code of 1986;
13
"(7) programs to increase transportation energy
14
efficiency, including programs to accelerate the use of
15
alternative transportation fuels for State government
16
vehicles, fleet vehicles, taxis, mass transit, and pri-
17
vately owned vehicles;
18
"(8) programs for encouraging and for carrying
19
out energy audits with respect to buildings and indus-
20
trial plants within the State;
21
"(9) programs to promote the adoption of inte-
22
grated energy plans which provide for
23
"(A) periodic evaluation of a State's energy
24
needs, available energy resources (including great-
25
er energy efficiency), and energy costs; and
S 324 IS
41
1
"(B) utilization for reliable energy supplies,
2
including greater energy efficiency, that meet ap-
3
plicablé safety, environmental, and policy require-
4
ments at the lowest cost;
5
"(10) programs to promote energy efficiency in
6
residential housing, such as-
7
"(A) programs for development and promo-
8
tion of energy efficiency rating systems for newly
9
constructed housing and existing housing SO that
10
consumers can compare the energy efficiency of
11
different housing; and
12
(B) programs for the adoption of incentives
13
for builders, utilities, and mortgage lenders to
14
build, service, or finance energy efficient housing;
15
and
16
"(11). programs to protect consumers from any
17
unfair or deceptive acts or practices which relate to the
18
implementation of energy efficiency measures and re-
19
newable resources energy measures.".
20
(b) ELIMINATION OF SSECP.-Section 367 of the
21 energy policy and conservation act (42 U.S.C. 6327) is
22 repealed.
23
AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS
24
SEC. 504 (a) STATE PLAN PROGRAM.-Section 365(F)
25 of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (42 U.S.C.
26 6325(F) is amended to read as follows:
S 324 IS
42
1
"(f) For the purpose of carrying out this part, there are
2 authorized to be appropriated $25,000,000 for fiscal year
3 1991, $35,000,000 for fiscal year 1992, and $45,000,000 for
4 fiscal year 1993
5
(b) ENERGY CONSERVATION PROGRAM FOR SCHOOLS
6 AND HOSPITALS.-Section 397 of the Energy Policy and
7 Conservation Act (42 U.S.C. 6371f(a)) is amended to read as
8 follows:
9
"AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS
10
SEC. 397. For the purpose of carrying out this part,
11 there are authorized to be appropriated $40,000,000 for
12 fiscal year 1991, $50,000,000 for fiscal year 1992, and
13 $60,000,000 for fiscal year 1993.
14
(c) WEATHERIZATION ASSISTANCE.-Section 422 of
15 the Energy Conservation Production Act (42 U.S.C. 6872) is
16 amended to read as follows):
17
"AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS
18
"SEC. 422. There are authorized to be appropriated for
19 purposes of carrying out the weatherization program under
20 this part $200,000,000 for fiscal year 1991 and such sums as
21 may be necessary for 1992 and 1993.'
22
SEC. 505. STATE ENERGY ADVISORY BOARD.-Sec-
23 tion 365 of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (42
24 U.S.C. 6325) is amended by adding at the end the following:
25
"(g)(1) There is hereby established within the Depart-
26 ment of Energy a State Energy Advisory Board (hereafter in
S 324 IS
43
1 this subsection referred to as the 'Board') which shall consist
2 of not less than 10 nor more than 15 members appointed by
3 the Secretary. Not less than one-half of the members of the
4 Board shall be persons who serve as directors for the State
5 agency, or a division of such agency, responsible for develop-
6 ing State energy conservation plans pursuant to section 362.
7 At least 1 member of the Board shall be a director of a
8 State weatherization assistance program. Other members
9 shall be appointed from other persons, including those who
10 have experience in energy efficiency or renewable energy
11 programs for the private sector, consumer interest groups,
12 utilities, public utility commissions, educational institutions,
13 or research institutions.
14
"(2) The Board shall-
15
"(A) make recommendations with respect to the
16
energy efficiency objectives of the programs carried out
17
under this part, part G of this title, and under part A
18
of title IV of the Energy Conservation and Production
19
Act to the Assistant Secretary for Conservation and
20
Renewable Energy, the Director of the Office of State
21
and Local Assistance Programs, and the Director of
22
the Building and Community Systems Office within the
23
Department of Energy;
S 324 IS
44
1
'(B) serve as a liaison between the States and
2
such Department on energy efficiency and renewable
3
energy resource programs;
4
"(C) recommend changes to State and Federal
5
energy policies; and
6
"(D) encourage technology transfer of the results
7
of research and development activities carried out by
8
the Federal Government with respect to energy effi-
9
ciency and renewable energy resources.
10
"(3) The Secretary shall designate 1 of the members of
11 the Board to serve as its chairman and 1 to serve as its vice
12 chairman. The chairman and vice chairman shall serve in
13 those offices no longer than 2 years.
14
"(4) The Secretary shall provide the Board with such
15 services and facilities as may be necessary for the perform-
16 ance of its functions.
17
"(5) The Board shall be nonpartisan.
18
"(6) The Board may adopt administrative rules and pro-
19 cedures and may elect one of its members Secretary of the
20 Board.
21
"(7) The Secretary shall reimburse members of the
22 Board for expenses (including travel expenses) necessarily in-
23 curred by them in the performance of their duties.
24
"(8) The Board shall meet at least annually and shall
25 submit an annual report to the Secretary and the Congress
S 324 IS
45
1 on the activities carried out by the Board in the previous
2 fiscal year, including any récommendations it may have for
3. administrative or legislative changes."
4
UPDATE OF ENERGY CONSERVATION PROGRAM FOR
5
SCHOOLS AND HOSPITALS
6
SEC. 506. (a) NON-FEDERAL SHARE OF A PROJECT.-
7 Section 396(b)(1) of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act
8 (42 U.S.C. 6371e(b)(1)) is amended by adding at the end
9 thereof the following: "The non-Federal share of the costs of
10 any such energy conservation project may be provided by
11 using programs of innovative financing for energy conserva-
12 tion projects, including loan programs and performance con-
13 tracting."
14
(b) DEFINITION.-Section 391(1) of such Act (42
15 U.S.C. 6371(1)) is amended by striking "April 20, 1977"
16 and inserting in lieu thereof December 31, 1984"
17
WEATHERIZATION ASSISTANCE FOR LOW-INCOME
18
PERSONS
19
SEC 507. (a) WAIVER OF 40-PERCENT REQUIRE-
20 MENT.-Section 415(a) of the Energy Conservation and Pro-
21 duction Act (42 U.S.C. 6865(a)) is amended-
22
(1) in the first sentence, by striking An average'
23
and inserting in lieu thereof "(1) Except as provided in
24
paragraph (2), and average"; and
25
(2) by adding at the end the following:
S 324 IS
46
1
"(2)(A) The Secretary may approve a State appli-
2
cation to waive the 40-percent requirement established
3
in paragraph (1) if the State includes in the State's
4
plan-
5
"(i) an energy evaluation which establishes
6
priorities for selection of weatherization measures
7
bases on their contribution to energy efficiency;
8
and
9
"(ii) a standard for determining whether to
10
invest in individual measures based on a rate of
11
return that will ensure that investment in each
12
measure is an appropriate use of funds.
13
"(B) For States applying for a waiver under this
14
paragraph, the Secretary shall establish standards for
15
determining whether the energy audit techniques of
16
each such State measure-
17
"(i) the energy requirement of individual
18
dwellings;
19
"(ii) the rate of return of each conservation
20
investment; and
21
"(iii) the interaction between conservation
22
measures. State applications for waivers shall be
23
judged on these standards.
24
"(c) The Secretary shall make information on energy
25 evaluation instruments available to States applying for a
S 324 IS
47
1 waiver under this paragraph and shall provide training for
2 State and local agencies in the implementation for such in-
3 struments.".
4
(b) DWELLING UNIT LIMITATION.-Section 415(c) of
5 such Act (42 U.S.C. 6865(c)) is amended-
6
(1) in paragraph (1), by striking "The expendi-
7
ture" and inserting in lieu thereof "except as provided
8
in paragraphs (3) and (4), the expenditure"; and
9
(2) by adding at the end thereof the following new
10
paragraphs:
11
"(3) Beginning with fiscal year 1991, the $1,600
12
per dwelling unit limitation provided in paragraph (1)
13
shall be adjusted annually by increasing the limitation
14
amount by an amount equal to the percentage increase
15
in the Consumer Price Index for the previous fiscal
16
year multiplied by the limitation amount for such previ-
17
ous fiscal year The increase under the preceding sen-
18
tence for any fiscal year shall not exceed 3 percent.
19
"(4)(A) In addition to the average per dwelling
20
unit limitation applicable in a State under paragraphs
21
(1) and (3), the Secretary may, upon application by a
22
State, establish an average per dwelling unit limitation
23
for dwelling units in such State-
24
"(i) which conform to program requirements;
S 324 IS
48
1
"(ii) which, in addition to any other weatheriza-
2
tion modifications, have furnace efficiency modifications
3
made under this part; and
4
"(iii) for which a determination is made pursuant
5
to regulations prescribed by the Secretary that such
6
furnace efficiency modifications are a cost-effective use
7
of funds.
8
"(B) The average per dwelling unit limitation applicable
9. in a State to units described in subparagraph (A) shall not
10 exceed an amount equal to-
11
"(i) the amount permitted for the expenditure of
12
financial assistance for labor, weatherization materials,
13
and related matters for dwelling units in such State
14
under paragraphs (1) and (3), plus
15
"(ii) an amount determined by the Secretary to be
16
the average amount that is appropriate for furnace effi-
17
ciency modifications of dwelling units of the type as-
18
sisted under this part in such State."
19
TITLE VI-RENEWABLE ENERGY
20
Subtitle A
21
SEC. 601. SHORT TITLE.-This subtitle may be cited
22 as the Solar Development Initiative Act of 1989.
23
SEC. 602. FINDINGS AND PURPOSE.-(a) The Congress
24 finds that-
S 324 IS
49
1
(1) a diversified and balanced energy resource
2
base is important for the Nation's economic growth;
3
(2) renewable energy sources, including solar
4
energy, can make a significant contribution toward
5
minimizing the potential for undue dependence on any
6
single energy source;
7
(3) recent energy trends, including increased im-
8
ports of foreign oil, increased consumption of petroleum
9
and declining domestic production of petroleum, have
10
reaffirmed the importance of continued Federal support
11
for, and encouragement of, solar energy technologies;
12
and
13
(4) the international competitiveness of domestic
14
solar thermal and photovoltaics industries depends
15
upon maintaining our technological lead and providing
16
development and marketing assistance to exporters of
17
solar technologies.
18
(b) PURPOSE.-The purpose of this subtitle is to-
19
(1) establish multiyear funding levels for a Federal
20
solar research and development program that will
21
maintain current efforts and provide funding stability;
22
and
23
(2) reaffirm existing Federal policies and establish
24
new policies which promote and encourage investments
S 324 ISR 2 --- 4
50
1
in solar energy technologies by the private and public
2
sectors.
3
SEC. 603. SOLAR AND RENEWABLE ENERGY RE-
4 SEARCH PROGRAM.-(a) The Secretary of Energy is direct-
5 ed to consult with the solar energy industry to develop a
6 complimentary program of solar and renewable research, de-
7 velopment, and demonstration project which-
8
(1) have near-term commercial applications; and
9
(2) will enhance the international competitiveness
10
of the solar and renewable energy industries.
11
(b) The Secretary shall include the funding necessary to
12 implement this program in the fiscal year 1991 budget.
13
FEDERAL SOLAR BUILDINGS DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM
14
SEC. 604. (a) PROGRAM SUCCESSFULLY IMPLEMENT-
15 ED.-Congress finds that the Secretary of Energy, in consul-
16 tation with the Administrator of the General Services Admin-
17 istration, has successfully implemented a program to demon-
18 strate in Federal buildings the application of solar heating
19 and solar heating and cooling technology pursuant to part 2
20 of title V of the National Energy Conservation Policy Act
21 (Public Law 95-619).
22
(b) INFORMATION ABOUT FEDERAL SOLAR BUILDINGS
23 PROGRAM.-In order to more widely disseminate informa-
24 tion about the Federal solar buildings program and the bene-
25 fits of solar heating and solar heating and cooling technology,
26 the Secretary of Energy shall establish a program to dissemi-
S 324 IS
51
1 nate such information for Federal procurement officers and
2 Federal loan officers which shall include site visits and tech-
3 nical briefings. The Secretary shall utilize existing funds for
4 this program.
5
INTERNATIONAL MARKET ENHANCEMENT
6
SEC. 605. (a) CONTINUATION OF ACTIVITIES BY THE
7 COMMITTEE ON RENEWABLE ENERGY, COMMERCE, AND
8 TRADE.-The Committee on Renewable Energy, Com-
9 merce, and Trade established by section 256(d) of the Energy
10 Policy and Conservation Act (42 U.S.C. 6271 et seq.) shall
11 continue its activities to coordinate the actions and programs
12 of the Federal Government affecting commerce in renewable
13 energy products and services.
14
(b) COMMERCE PROGRAMS.-It is the sense of the
15 Congress that the programs established by the Secretary of
16 Commerce under section 256(c)(1) of the Energy Policy and
17 Conservation Act should be funded through the Department
18 of Energy at a minimum of $1,500,000 in fiscal years 1991,
19 1992, and 1993.
20
(c) AMENDMENT TO CARIBBEAN BASIN ECONOMIC
21 RECOVERY ACT.-Section 212(c)(7) of the Caribbean Basin
22 Economic Recovery Act (97 Stat. 387; 19 U.S.C. 2703(c)(7))
23 is amended to read as follows-
24
"(7) the degree to which such country is under-
25
taking self-help measures to promote its own economic
S 324 IS
52
1
development and energy self-sufficiency using locally
2
available renewable resources;"
3
FEDERAL PROCUREMENT
4
SEC. 606. (a) SECRETARY OF DEFENSE.-Section
5 2857(b)(1) of title 10, United States Code, is amended by
6 inserting after "has the potential for" the following: "reduced
7 energy costs".
8
(b) UTILIZATION OF SOLAR ENERGY BY OTHER FED-
9 ERAL AGENCIES.-The Secretary of State, the Secretary of
10 Energy, the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development,
11 the Director of the General Services Administration, and the
12 Commissioner of the United States Postal Service shall re-
13 quire that the design of all new Federal facilities built under
14 their respective jurisdictions shall include consideration of
15 energy systems using solar energy or other renewable forms
16 of energy in those cases in which use of such form of energy
17 has the potential for significant savings of fossil-fuel-derived
18 energy.
19
SEC. 607. AMENDMENT TO THE EXPORT-IMPORT
20 BANK ACT OF 1945.-Section 7 of the Export-Import Bank
21 Act of 1945 (12 U.S.C. 635e) is amended by adding at the
22 end thereof the following:
23
"(c) Not less than 025 percent of the loan au-
24
thority of the Bank shall be available only for solar and
25
renewable energy loans."
S 324 IS
53
1
SEC. 608. SPECIAL ACTIVITIES OF THE OVERSEAS
2 PRIVATE INVESTMENT CORPORATION.-Section 234(e) of
3 the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 is amended-
4
(1) in the first sentence, by inserting after "coop-
5
eratives" the following: "and including the initiation of
6
incentives, grants, and studies for renewable energy
7
and other small business activities"; and
8
(2) by adding at the end thereof the following new
9
sentence: "Administrative funds may not be made
10
available for incentives, grants, and studies for renew-
11
able energy and other small business activities.".
12
SEC. 609. Amendment to the Small Business Act.-(a)
13 Section 7(1) of the Small Business Act (15 U.S.C. 636(1) is
14 repealed.
15
(b) Section 7(a)(12) of such Act (15 U.S.C. 636(a)(12) is
16. amended to read as follows:
17
"(12) The Administrator may provide loans under this
18 subsection to assist any small business concern, including
19 startup, to enable such concern to design architecturally or
20 engineer, manufacture, distribute, market, install, or service
21 energy measures. Proceeds of loans under this paragraph
22 shall not be used for research and development. Not less than
23 .025 percent of the loan authority provided under this subsec-
24 tion shall be available only for loans under this paragraph.
S 324 IS
54
1 The Administrator shall include a list of solar and renewable
2 energy loans in an annual report to the Congress.".
3
(c) Section 7(a)(14) of such Act (15 U.S.C. 636(a)(14)) is
4 amended to read as follows:
5.
"(14) The Administrator under this subsection may pro-
6 vide extentions and revolving lines of credit for export pur-
7 poses to enable small business concerns to develop foreign
8 markets and for preexport financing. No such extention or
9 revolving line of credit may be made for a period or periods
10 exceeding 18 months. A bank or participating lending institu-
11 tion may establish the rate of interest in extensions and re-
12 volving lines of credit as may be legal and reasonable. The
13 Administrator shall give due consideration to the export po-
14 tential of solar and renewable energy products in implement-
15 ing his authorities under this subsection and shall include a
16 list of solar and renewable energy loan guarantees in an
17 annual report to the Congress."
18
Subtitle B
19
This subtitle may be cited as the "Renewable Energy
20 and Energy Efficiency Technology Competitiveness Act of
21 1989"
22
SEC. 610. PURPOSE.-It is the purpose of this title to
23 direct the Secretary of Energy, acting in accordance with
24 authority contained in the Federal Non-Nuclear Energy Re-
25 search and Development Policy Act of 1974 (42 U.S.C.
S 324 IS
55
1 5901-5920) and other law applicable to the Secretary, to
2 pursue an aggressive national program of research, develop-
3 ment, and demonstration of renewable energy technologies in
4 order to ensure a stable and secure future energy supply
5 by-
6
(1) providing a long-term stable environment for
7
renewable energy technology research and develop-
8
ment activities through the establishment of long-term
9
goals and multiyear funding levels;
10
(2) directing the Secretary to undertake initiatives
11
to hasten the commercialization in the near term of re-
12
newable energy technologies; and
13
(3) fostering collaborative research and develop-
14
ment efforts involving the private sector through gov-
15
ernment support of a vigorous program of innovative
16
joint research and development venture projects.
17
SEC. 611. DEFINITIONS.-As used in this title the
18 term-
19
(a) "Secretary" means the Secretary of energy;
20
and
21.
(b) "joint research and development venture"
22
means a joint research and development venture under
23
the National Cooperative Research Act of 1984 (98
24
Stat. 1815).
S 324 IS
56
1 NATIONAL GOALS AND MULTIYEAR FUNDING FOR FEDER-
2
AL WIND, PHOTOVOLTAICS AND SOLAR THERMAL
3
PROGRAMS
4
SEC. 612. (a) NATIONAL GOALS.-The following are
5 declared to be the national goals for the wind, photovoltaics
6 and solar thermal energy programs currently being carried
7 out by the Secretary under existing law:
8
(1) WIND.-(A) In general, the goals for the
9
Wind Energy Research Program include improving
10
design methodologies and developing more reliable and
11
efficient wind turbines to increase the cost competitive-
12
ness of wind energy. Research efforts shall empha-
13
size-
14
(i) activities that address near-term technical
15
problems and permit exploitation of current
16
market opportunities of the wind energy industry;
17
(ii) developing advanced airfoils and variable
18
speed generators to increase wind and turbine
19
output and reduce maintenance costs by decreas-
20
ing structural stress and fatigue;
21
(iii) increasing the basic knowledge of aero-
22
dynamics, structural dynamics, fatigue and electri-
23
cal systems interactions as applied to current
24
wind energy technology; and
S 324 IS
57
1
(iv) improving the compatibility of electricity
2
produced from windfarms with conventional utility
3
needs.
4
(B) Specific goals for the Wind Energy Research
5
Program shall be to-
6
(i) reduce average wind energy costs to 3 to
7
5 cents per kilowatt hour by 1995;
8
(ii) reduce capital costs of new wind energy
9
systems to $500 to $750 per kilowatt of installed
10
capacity by 1995;
11
(iii) increase installed wind generating capac-
12
ity to 4000 to 8000 megawatts by 1995;
13
(iv) reduce operation and maintenance costs
14
for wind energy systems to less than 1 cent per
15
kilowatt hour by 2000; and
16
(v) increase capacity factors for new wind
17
energy systems to 25 to 30 percent by 1995.
18
(2) PHOTOVOLTAICS.-(A) In general, the goals
19
of the Photovoltaic Energy Systems Program shall in-
20
clude improving the reliability and conversion efficien-
21
cies and lowering the costs of photovoltaic conversion.
22
Research efforts shall emphasize advancements in the
23
performance, stability and durability of photovoltaic
24
materials.
S 324 IS
58
1
(B) Specific goals of the Photovoltaic Energy Sys-
2
tems Program shall be to-
3
(i) improve operational reliability of photovol-
4
taic modules to 30 years by 1995;
5
(ii) increase photovoltaic conversion efficiency
6
of new photovoltaic amorphous silicon modules to
7
15 percent by 1995;
8
(iii) decrease new photovoltaic module direct
9
manufacturing costs to $800 per kilowatt by
10
1995; and
11
(iv) increase installed capacity of photovoltaic
12
electric power production capacity to 100 to 200
13
megawatts by 1991.
14
(3) SOLAR THERMAL.-(A) In general, the goal
15
of the Solar Thermal Energy Systems Program shall
16
be to advance research and development to a point
17
where solar thermal technology is cost-competitive
18
with conventional energy sources and to promote the
19
integration of this technology into the production of in-
20
dustrial process heat and the conventional utility net-
21
work. Research and development shall emphasize de-
22
velopment of a thermal storage technology to provide
23
capacity for shifting power to periods of demand when
24
full insulation is not available; improvement in receiv-
25
ers, energy conversion devices, and innovative concen-
S 324 IS
59
1
trators using stretch membranes, lenses, and other ma-
2
terials; and exploration of advanced manufacturing
3
techniques.
4
(B) Specific goals of the Solar Thermal Energy
5
Systems Program shall be to-
6
(i) reduce solar thermal costs for industrial
7
process heat to $9 per million British thermal
8
units; and
9
(ii) reduce average solar thermal costs for
10
electricity to 4 to 5 cents per kilowatt hour.
11
(C) The President's budget request for fiscal year
12
1991 shall contain the Secretary's recommendations
13
for specific cost, installed capacity, and other pertinent
14
goals for 1995 for Department of Energy research, de-
15
velopment, and demonstration programs in Biofuels
16
Energy Systems, Solar Buildings Energy Systems,
17
Ocean Energy Systems, and Geothermal Energy.
18
(b) AMENDED Goals.-Whenever the Secretary deter-
19 mines that any of the goals established under this section are
20 no longer appropriate, he shall notify Congress of the reason
21 for the determination and provide an amended goal that is
22 consistent with the purposes of this title
23
(c) AUTHORIZATIONS.-There is authorized to be ap-
24 propriated to the Secretary-
S 324 IS
60
1
(1) for the Wind Energy Research Program, an
2
amount not to exceed $19,000,000 in fiscal year 1991;
3
$22,000,000 in fiscal year 1992; and $26,000,000 in
4
fiscal year 1993;
5
(2) for the Photovoltaic Energy Systems Program,
6
an amount not to exceed $43,100,000 in fiscal year
7
1991; $45,000,000 in fiscal year 1992; and
8
$50,000,000 in fiscal year 1993;
9
(3) for the Solar Thermal Energy Systems Pro-
10
gram, an amount not to exceed $28,700,000 in fiscal
11
year 1991; $32,000,000 in fiscal year 1992; and
12
$35,000,000 in fiscal year 1993;
13
(4) for the Biofuels Energy Systems Program, an
14
amount not to exceed $32,100,000 in fiscal year 1991;
15
$35,100,000 in fiscal year 1992; and $40,000,000 in
16
fiscal year 1993;
17
(5) for the Solar Buildings Energy Systems Pro-
18
gram, an amount not to exceed $8,000,000 in fiscal
19
year 1991; $9,000,000 in fiscal year 1992; and
20
$10,000,000 in fiscal year 1993;
21
(6) for the Ocean Energy Systems Program, an
22
amount not to exceed $5,000,000 in fiscal year 1991;
23
$5,000,000 in fiscal year 1992; and $5,000,000 in
24
fiscal year 1993; and
S 324 IS
61
1
(7) for the Geothermal Program, an amount not
2
to exceed $34,900,000 in fiscal year 1991;
3
$35,700,000 in fiscal year 1992; and $38,700,000 in
4
fiscal year 1993.
5
(d) REPORT ON OPTIONS.-On or before May 1, 1991,
6 the Secretary shall submit to Congress a report analyzing
7 options available to the Secretary under existing law to ac-
8 celerate the timely commercialization of wind, photovoltaic,
9 solar thermal, biofuels, biomass, solar buildings, ocean and
10 goethermal renewable energy technologies through emphasis
11 on development and demonstration assistance to specific
12 technologies in the research, development, and demonstration
13 programs of the Department of Energy that are near com-
14 mercial application
15
JOINT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT VENTURES
16
SEC. 614. (a) FINDINGS.-For purposes of this section,
17 Congress finds that joint research and development ventures
18 can-
19
(1) improve coordination in technology develop-
20
ment among firms in industries attempting to commer-
21
cialize renewable energy technologies;
22
(2) assist in setting national standards to improve
23
the operation of markets for these technologies; and
24
(3) enhance the ability of domestic firms to com-
25
pete with foreign enterprises in sales of renewable
26
energy technologies.
S 324 IS
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1
(b) PURPOSE.-The purpose of this section is to direct
2 the Secretary of Energy to make use of joint research and
3 development ventures to further commercialization of renew-
4 able energy technologies.
5
(c) ESTABLISHMENT.-(1) The Secretary shall establish
6 seven joint research and development ventures in accordance
7 with the provisions of this section. Each joint research and
8 development venture under this section shall include manu-
9 facturing firms, investors, an advisory committee appointed in
10 accordance with this section, and such other participation as
11 the Secretary deems appropriate to achieve the purposes of
12 this section. Any facilities constructed under this section shall
13 be located in the United States, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Is-
14 lands, or the territories and possessions of the United States.
15
(2) The Secretary shall require that at least 30 percent
16 of all costs of any joint research and development venture
17 under this section be provided from non-Federal sources.
18
(3) Before establishing the joint research and develop-
19 ment ventures under paragraph (1), the Secretary shall con-
20 sult with, and take into consideration the recommendations
21 of, the Advisory Committee on Renewable Energy and
22 Energy Efficiency Technology under paragraph (4).
23
(4)(A) The Secretary shall appoint members to an Advi-
24 sory Committee on Renewable Energy and Energy Efficien-
25 cy Technology (hereafter referred to as the "Advisory Com-
S 324 IS
63
1 mittee") to assist the Secretary in carrying out his responsi-
2 bilities under this section. The Advisory Committee shall
3 include at least one member representing each of the
4 following-
5
(i) the Secretary of Commerce;
6
(ii) the Secretary of Housing and Urban Develop-
7
ment;
8
(iii) the Solar Energy Research Institute;
9
(iv) the Electric Power Research Institute;
10
((v) the National Institute of Building Sciences;
11
(vi) associations of firms in each of the major re-
12
newable energy manufacturing industries; and
13
(vii) associations of firms in each of the major
14
energy efficiency manufacturing industries.
15
(B) The Advisory Committee, within 120 days after its
16 formation, provide the Secretary with recommendations for
17 the establishment of joint ventures under paragraph (1) and
18 shall advise the Secretary from time to time about the imple-
19 mentation of such ventures Recommendations of the Ad-
20 visory Committee shall be available to the public.
21
(5) The Secretary shall establish at least one joint re-
22 search and development venture in accordance with subsec-
23 tion (d) to develop technology and expertise in each of the
24 following areas-
25
(A) photovoltaics technology;
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64
1
(B) wind energy technology;
2
(C) solar thermal technology;
3
(D) factory-made housing;
4
(E) advanced district cooling technology;
5
(F) renewable energy and energy efficiency tech-
6
nology exports; and
7
(G) fuel cell energy systems.
8
(6) Not later than 180 days after the date of the enact-
9 ment of this section the Secretary shall publish plans to im-
10 plement this section and report to Congress on such plans.
11
(d) VENTURE.-(1) PHOTOVOLTAICS TECHNOLOGY.-
12
(A) The Secretary shall establish and provide fi-
13
nancial assistance to a joint research and development
14
venture for the demonstration of photovoltaic conver-
15
sion of solar energy in accordance with the provisions
16
of this paragraph.
17
(B) The purpose of the venture under subpara-
18
graph (A) shall be to design, test and demonstrate sys-
19
tems employing critical enabling technologies for pho-
20
tovoltaic conversion of solar energy SO as to achieve, to
21
the maximum extent practicable, the goals of the Pho-
22
tovoltaic Energy Systems Program set forth in section
23
613(a)(2), as those goals may be amended under sec-
24
tion 613(b). The venture under this paragraph may em-
25
phasize production, distribution, storage, or end use of
S 324 IS
65
1
electricity from photovoltaic conversion of solar energy
2
or any combination thereof.
3
(C) In soliciting proposals for the joint research
4
and development venture under this paragraph, the
5
Secretary shall consider the recommendations of the
6
Advisory Subcommittee on Photovoltaic Energy Tech-
7
nology under subparagraph (D).
8
(D) The Secretary shall appoint members to an
9
Advisory Subcommittee on Photovoltaic Energy Tech-
10
nology to assist the Secretary in carrying out his re-
11
sponsibilities with respect to the joint venture under
12
this paragraph. Such subcommittee shall include such
13
members of the Advisory Committee as the Secretary
14
deems appropriate and, in addition, at least one
15
member representing each of the following-
16
(i) firms in the photovoltaic manufacturing in-
17
dustry;
18
(ii) the Director of the Agency for Interna-
19
tional Development; and
20
(iii) the Director of the Export-Import Bank.
21
(E) There is authorized to be appropriated to the
22
Secretary a total of not more than $1,200,000 for each
23
of the fiscal years 1991, 1992, and 1993 to carry out
24
the purposes of this paragraph.
S 324 ISR 2 --- 5
66
1
(2) WIND ENERGY TECHNOLOGY.-(A) The Secretary
2 shall establish and provide financial assistance to a joint re-
3 search and development venture for the demonstration of the
4 conversion of wind energy in accordance with the provisions
5 of this paragraph
6
(B) The purpose of the venture under subparagraph (A)
7 shall be to design, test and demonstrate systems employing
8 critical enabling technologies for the conversion of wind
9 energy SO as to achieve, to the maximum extent practicable,
10 the goals of the Wind Energy Research Program set forth in
11 section 613(a)(1), as those goals may be amended under sec-
12 tion 613(e) The venture under this paragraph may empha-
13 size production, distribution, storage, or end use of wind
14 energy or any combination thereof and may include systems
15 employing other sources of energy in addition to wind
16 energy
17
(C) In soliciting proposals for the joint research and de-
18 velopment venture under this paragraph, the Secretary shall
19 consider the recommendations of the Advisory Subcommittee
20 on Wind Energy Technology under subparagraph (D).
21
(D) The Secretary shall appoint members to an Adviso-
22 ry Subcommittee on Wind Energy Technology to assist the
23 Secretary in carrying out his responsibilities with respect to
24 the joint venture under this paragraph. Such subcommittee
25 shall include such members of the Advisory Committee as the
S 324 IS
67
1 Secretary deems appropriate and, in addition, at least one
2 member representing each of the following-
vyriens
3
(i) firms in the wind energy equipment manufac-
4
turing industry;
5
(ii) the Director of the Agency for International
6
Development; and
7
(iii) the Director of the Export-Import Bank.
8
(E) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
9 tary a total of not more than $1,200,000 for each of the fiscal
10 years 1991, 1992, and 1993 to carry out the purposes of this
11 paragraph
12
(3) SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGY (A) The Secre
13 tary shall establish and provide financial assistance to a joint
14 research and development venture for the demonstration of
15 the use of solar thermal energy in accordance with the provi-
16 sions of this paragraph.
17
(B) The purpose of the venture under subparagraph (A)
18 shall be to design, test and demonstrate critical enabling
19 technologies for the use of solar thermal energy SO as to
20 achieve, to the maximum extent practicable, the goals of the
21 Solar Thermal Energy Systems Program set forth in section
22 613(a)(3), as those goals may be amended under section
23 613(b) The venture under this paragraph may emphasize
24 production, distribution, storage, or end use of solar thermal
25 energy or any combination thereof and may include systems
S 324 IS
68
1 employing other sources of energy in addition to solar ther-
2 mal energy.
3
(C) In soliciting proposals for the joint research and de-
4 velopment venture under this paragraph, the Secretary shall
5 consider the recommendations of the Advisory Subcommittee
6 on Solar Thermal Energy Technology under subparagraph
7 (D).
8
(D) The Secretary shall appoint members to an Ad-
9 visory Subcommittee on Wind Energy Technology to assist
10 the Secretary in carrying out his responsibilities with respect
11 to the joint venture under this paragraph. Such subcommittee
12 shall include such members of the Advisory Committee as the
13 Secretary deems appropriate and, in addition, at least one
14 member representing each of the following-
15
(i) firms in the solar thermal manufacturing in-
16
dustry;
17
(ii) the Director of the Agency for International
18
Development;
19
(iii) the Director of the Export-Export Bank; and
20
(iv) the Gas Research Institute.
21
(E) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
22 tary a total of not more than $900,000 for each of the fiscal
23 years 1991 through 1993 to carry out the purposes of this
24 paragraph.
S 324 IS
69
1
(4) FACTORY MADE HOUSING.-(A) The Secretary
2 shall establish and provide financial assistance to a joint re-
3 search and development venture with such specialized private
4 firms and investors as the Secretary deems appropriate in
5 order to establish at last 3 regional projects to demonstrate
6 techniques to improve the energy performance of factory-
7 made housing offered by United States firms. In locating the
8 projects under this paragraph, the Secretary shall consider
9 regional differences in housing needs, housing design, con-
10 struction technique, marketing practices, and construction
11 materials.
12
(B) The projects under this paragraph shall be designed
13 to demonstrate state-of-the-art product quality, energy effi-
14 ciency, and adaptability to renewable forms of energy of fac-
15 tory-made housing offered for sale in the United States. The
16 projects shall be structured to demonstrate improvements in
17 housing design, fabrication, delivery systems, construction
18 processes, marketing, and product export techniques.
19
(C) The demonstration strategy under this paragraph
20 shall be guided by
21
(i) a detailed characterization of the needs of the
22
home building industry;
23
(ii) a close working relationship with all sectors of
24
the home building industry; and
S 324 IS
70
1
(iii) coordination among the projects to pool and
2
conserve resources
3
(D) In selecting projects under this section, the Secre-
4 tary shall consider the recommendations of the Advisory Sub-
5 committee on Energy Performance in Factory-Made Housing
6 established under subparagraph (E)
7
(E) The Secretary shall appoint members to an Ad-
8 visory Subcommittee on Energy Performance in Factory-
9 Made Housing to assist the Secretary in carrying out his re-
10 sponsibilities with respect to the joint research and develop-
11 ment venture established under this paragraph. Such subcom-
12 mittee shall include such members of the Advisory Commit-
13 tee as the Secretary deems appropriate and in addition, at
14 least one member representing each of the following-
15
(i) the National Association of Home Builders;
16
(ii) the National Laboratories of the Department
17
of Energy; and
18
(iii) the National Institute of Standards and Tech-
19
nology
20
(F) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
21 tary a total of not more than than $5,000,000 for each of the
22 fiscal years 1991 through 1993 to carry out the purposes of
23 this paragraph
24
(5) ADVANCED DISTRICT COOLING TECHNOLOGY.
25 (A)(i) The Secretary shall establish and provide financial as-
S 324 IS
71
1 sistance to a joint research and development venture with
2 such specialized private firms and investors as the Secretary
3 deems appropriate in order to develop advanced district cool-
4 ing technologies that are applicable in cities with high cooling
5 loads.
6
(ii) The purpose of the joint venture under this para-
7 graph is to develop technical strategies for decreasing the
8 capital cost and increasing the energy efficiency of major dis-
9 trict heating and cooling system components and to assist in
10 making district heating and cooling available to local govern-
11 ments.
12
(B) The Secretary shall select 3 cities for application of
13 advanced district cooling technologies developed by the joint
14 venture under this paragraph The activities to be carried out
15 in such application shall include district cooling assessment,
16 feasibility, and engineering design studies.
17
(C) In selecting the cities under subparagraph (B), the
18 Secretary shall consider the recommendations of the Adviso-
19 ry Subcommittee on Advanced District Cooling Technology
20 established under subparagraph (D).
21
(D) The Secretary shall appoint members to an Adviso-
22 ry Subcommittee on Advanced District Cooling Technology
23 to assist the Secretary in carrying out his responsibilities
24 with respect to the joint research and development venture
25 under this paragraph. Such subcommittee shall include such
S 324 IS
72
1 members of the Advisory Committee as the Secretary deems
2 appropriate and, in addition, at least one member represent-
3 ing each of the following
4
(i) firms manufacturing district cooling equipment;
5
and
6
(ii) the National League of Cities
7
(E) There is authorized to be appropriated for each of
8 the fiscal years 1991 through 1993 not more than
9 $1,000,000 per year to carry out the purposes of this para-
10 graph
11
(6) EXPORT TECHNOLOGY PROJECTS.-(A) For pur-
12 poses of this paragraph Congress finds that-
13
(i) the United States has several advanced energy
14
efficiency and renewable energy technologies that lack
15
only sufficient coordination, support, and emphasis to
16
become important export items capable of reducing the
17
United States' trade deficit;
18
(ii) a major barrier to export of energy efficiency
19
and renewable energy technology is the lack of infor-
20
mation on overseas markets and technology develop-
21
ment by foreign competitors;
22
(iii) the industry that markets energy efficiency
23
technology is highly fragmented, and the renewable
24
energy industry is comprised of small firms that lack
S 324 IS
73
1
the necessary resources to identify and target overseas
2
markets; and
3
(iv) a joint research and development venture is
4
needed to bring together a broad array of manufactur-
5
ing firms, financial institutions, and Federal agencies to
6
identify and develop promising technologies and export
7
markets for energy efficiency and renewable energy
8
technologies
9
(B) The Secretary shall establish and provide financial
10 assistance to a joint research and development venture with
11 such specialized private firms and investors as the Secretary
12 determines appropriate for the purpose of commercializing
13 and marketing domestically-developed energy efficiency and
14 renewable energy technologies in order to enhance sales of
15 products developed from such technologies relative to for-
16 eign-made products
17
(C) In designing the joint venture under subparagraph
18 (B), the Secretary shall consider the recommendations of the
19 Advisory Subcommittee on Renewable Energy and Energy
20 Efficiency Technology Exports established under subpara-
21 graph (D)
22
(D) The Secretary shall appoint members to an Adviso-
23 ry Subcommittee on Renewable Energy and Energy Efficien-
24 cy Technology Exports to assist the Secretary in carrying
25 out his responsibilities with respect to the joint research and
S 324 IS
74
1 development venture under this paragraph. Such subcommit-
2 tee shall include such members of the Advisory Committee as
3 the Secretary deems appropriate and, in addition, at least one
4 member representing each of the following-
5
(i) the Director of the Agency for International
6
Development;
7
(ii) the Director of the Export-Import Bank;
8
(iii) the United States Export Council for Renew-
9
able Energy;
10
(iv) the National Laboratories of the Department
11
of Energy.
12
(E) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
13 tary to carry out the purposes of this paragraph a total
14 amount for each of the fiscal years 1991 through 1993 not to
15 exceed $5,000,000 with respect to renewable energy activi-
16 ties under this paragraph and $5,000,000 with respect to
17 energy efficiency activities under this paragraph.
18
(e) SECRETARIAL DISCRETION. (1) If the Secretary,
19 based on the recommendations of the Advisory Committee
20 under subsection (c)(4)(B) with respect to a joint research and
21 development venture described under subsection (d), deter-
22 mines, in consultation with the Advisory Committee, that
23
(A) there is insufficient private sector interest in
24
such venture to satisfy the requirement of subsection
25
(c)(2);
S 324 IS
75
1
(B) carrying out the venture will not further the
2
purposes of this title; or 80 bodine R
3
(C) timely commercialization of the technology to
4
be demonstrated will not be advanced by the venture,
5
Heds then the Secretary shall not be subject to the require-
6
5/10 ments of subsection (d) with respect to the technology
7
to be demonstrated by the joint research and develop-
8 noisoment venture. edit to Asse of vestorq 8
9
hosting (2) The Secretary shall notify Congress of any determi-
10 nation under paragraph (1) and provide a written explanation
11 of the reasons for the determination. Immediately thereafter,
12 the Secretary shall consult with the Advisory Committee,
13 and, based on the recommendations, of such Committee, shall
14 promptly transmit to Congress a plan for the establishment of
15 a substitute joint research and development venture to dem-
16 onstrate, consistent with this section, an alternative renew-
17 able energy or energy efficiency technology SO as to accom-
18 plish the purposes of this title Any unexpended funds author-
19 ized to be appropriated under subsection (d) for the joint re-
20 search and development venture with respect to which a de-
21 termination is made under paragraph (1) may be used for a
22 substitute joint research and development venture established
23 under this subsection. of bothin! to 88
24
(3) When 30 calendar days have elapsed after transmit-
25 tal of the plan under paragraph (2), the Secretary shall pro-
S 324 IS
ei 488
76
1 ceed with the joint research and development venture de-
2 scribed in his plan as is such venture were required under
3 subsection: (d).
4
(f) ADDITIONAL COMMERCIALIZATION PROJECTS.-(1)
5 The President's budget request for fiscal year 1992 shall in-
6 clude the Secretary's recommendations for at least one pro-
7 posed proof-of-concept on near-commercial demonstration
8 project in each of the categories represented by section 3(a)
9 (1), (2), and (3) Each proposed project shall be described in
10 sufficient detail to support congressional authorization and
11 solicitation of bids for construction of necessary facilities.
12
(2) A list and description of alternative project plans
13 under this subsection shall be submitted in President's fiscal
14 year 1991 budget request. Such plans shall require funding
15 or in kind contributions from private sources in support of at
16 least 30 percent of total project costs.
17
(3) In selecting proposed projects under this subsection,
18 the Secretary shall take into account the extent to which
19 such projects will contribute to earlier commercialization of
20 key technologies within such categories that might occur
21 without Federal support under this subsection and the extent
22 to which such projects will contribute to the competitiveness
23 of United States firms engaged in international trade in re-
24 newable energy technologies.
S 324 IS
77
1
RENEWABLE ENERGY EXPORTS
2
SEC 615 (a) FINDINGS AND PURPOSES.-(1 for pur-
3 poses of this section, Congress finds that
4
(A) among the major problems in promoting ex-
5
ports of renewable energy technology are the lack of
6
available information on overseas markets and the ab-
7
sence of financing for the purchase of the technologies;
8
and
9
(B) the Committee on Renewable Energy, Com-
10
merce, and Trade ("CORECT") established under the
11
Renewable Energy Industry Development Act (Public
12
Law 98-370) currently coordinates Federal Govern-
13
ment activities to promote renewable energy exports.
14
(2) The purpose of this section is to evaluate current
15 efforts to promote exports of renewable energy technology, to
16 establish a joint government-industry plan to identify promis-
17 ing technologies and increase the financing available for ex-
18 ports of renewable energy technologies, to target potential
19 markets for these technologies, and to authorize funding of
20 these activities.
21
(b) ANNUAL REPORT.-The Committee on Renewable
22 Energy, Commerce, and trade shall annually report to Con-
23 gress.
24
(c) AGENCY ACTIONS.-Each report submitted under
25 subsection (b) shall describe the actions of each agency repre-
S 324 IS
78
1 sented by a member of the Committee on Renewable Energy,
2 Commerce, and Trade taken during the previous fiscal year
3 to achieve the purposes of such committee and of this section.
4 Such report shall describe the exports of renewable energy
5 technology that have occurred as a result of such agency
6 actions.
7
(d) PLAN.-The Committee on Renewable Energy,
8 Commerce, and Trade shall-
9
(1) establish a joint government-industry plan to
10
maintain or increase the market share of the United
11
States in international trade in renewable energy tech-
12
nologies, including technologies for production of alco-
13
hol fuels, biomass energy, geothermal energy, wood
14
energy, and in technologies for fuel cell energy conver-
15
sion, passive solar energy conversion, photovoltaics,
16
solar thermal energy conversion, and wind energy con-
17
version. Such plan shall include guidelines for agencies
18
that are members of the committee with respect to
19
the financing of exports of such renewable energy
20
technologies;
21
(2) develop, in consultation with representatives of
22
affected industries, administrative guidelines for Feder-
23
al export loan programs to simplify application by firms
24
seeking export assistance for renewable energy tech-
S 324 IS
79
1
nologies from agencies implementing such programs;
2
and
3
(3) target renewable energy technology markets
4
for primary emphasis by: Federal export loan programs,
5
development programs, and private sector assistance
6
programs.
7
(e) The Committee on Renewable Energy, Commerce,
8 and Trade shall include a description of the plan under para-
9 graph (1) in no later than the second report submitted under
10 subsection (b), and shall includé in subsequent reports a de-
11 scription of any modifications to such plan and of the progress
12 in implementing the plan.
13
(f) AUTHORIZATIONS.-There is hereby authorized to
14 be appropriated to the Secretary for activities of the Commit-
15 tee on Renewable Energy, Commerce, and Trade an amount
16 not to exceed-
17
(1) $1,200,000 in fiscal year 1991;
18
(2) $1,500,000 in fiscal year 1992; and
19
(3) $1,800,000 in fiscal year 1993.
20
RENEWABLE ENERGY
21
SEC. 616. (a) DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION.-
22 Section 523 of the National Energy Conservation Policy Act
23 (42 U.S.C. 8243) is amended by adding a new subsection (d)
24 as follows:
25
"(d) In order to more widely disseminate information
26 about the program under this part and under part 3 and the
S 324 IS
80
1 benefits of solar heating and solar heating and cooling tech-
2 nology, the Secretary shall establish a program to dissemi-
3 nate such information for Federal procurement officers and
4 Federal loan officers that shall include site visits and techni-
5 cal briefings. The Secretary shall utilize available funds for
6 the program under this subsection.".
7
(b) DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE HOUSING.-Section
8 2857(b)(1) of title 10, United States Code, is amended by
9 inserting after 'has the potential for' the following: "reduced
10 energy costs".
11
(c) OVERSEAS PRIVATE INVESTMENT CORPORATION
12 LOANS.-Section 234(e) of the Foreign Assistance Act of
13 1961 is amended-
14
(1) in the first sentence, by inserting after 'coop-
15
eratives' the following: "and including the initiation of
16
incentives, grants, and studies for renewable energy
17
and other small business activities"; and
18
(2) by adding at the end thereof the following new
19
sentence: "Administrative funds may not be made
20
available for incentives, grants, and studies for renew-
21
able energy and other small business activities.".
22
REPORTS
23
SEC. 617. (a) REPORT BY THE SECRETARY.-One year
24 after the date of the enactment of this title and annually
25 thereafter, the Secretary shall report to Congress on the pro-
26 grams, projects, and joint research and development ventures
S 324 IS
81
1 conducted under this title and the progress being made to-
2 wards accomplishing the goals and purposes set forth in this
3 title, including the national goals set forth in section 613(a).
4
(b) NATIONAL ENERGY POLICY PLAN REPORT.-Each
5 annual submission of the National Energy Policy Plan under
6 title VIII of Public Law 95-91 shall be accompanied by a 3-
7 year strategic plan for energy technology research, develop-
8 ment, and demonstration. Such plan shall address the role of
9 federally assisted research, development, and demonstration
10 projects in the achievement of the national policy goals of the
11 National Energy Policy Plan and shall assess both the level
12 of support for energy research, development, and demonstra-
13 tion reasonably necessary to achieve these goals and the
14 basis for allocating the support recommended by the Presi-
15 dent among the available alternatives. At a minimum, these
16 alternatives shall include energy efficiency and renewable
17 energy technologies.
18
Subtitle C
19 RENEWABLE ENERGY/FUEL CELL SYSTEMS INTEGRATION
20
AND UTILIZATION
21
SEC. 618. FINDINGS.-The Congress finds that-(a)
22 while the Federal Government has invested substantially in
23 fuel cell technology through research and development during
24 the past 10 years, additional research on technologies that
25 enable fuel cells to use alternative fuel sources needs to be
S 324 ISR 2 --- 6
82
1 undertaken in order to fulfill the conservation promise of fuel
2 cells as an energy source;
3
(b) there is no national policy for acting upon the findings
4 of this research and development; and
5
(c) if such a national policy were developed, the public
6 investment in fuel cell technology would be realized through
7 reduced dependency on imported oil and the subsequent
8 improvement in the international trade accounts of the United
9 States.
10
RESEARCH PROGRAMS
11
SEC. 619. (a) PROGRAM AUTHORIZATION.-The Sec-
12 retary shall implement and carry out a research program for
13 the purposes of-
14
(1) exploring the operation of fuel cells employing
15
methane gas generated from various forms of biomass;
16
(2) developing technologies to use renewable
17
energy sources, including wind and solar energy, to
18
produce hydrogen for use in fuel cells; and
19
(3) determining the technical requirements for em-
20
ploying fuel cells for electric power production as
21
backup spinning reserve components to renewable
22
power systems in rural and isolated areas.
23
(b) GRANTS.-In carrying out the research program au-
24 thorized in subsection (a), the Secretary may make grants to,
25 or enter into contracts, private research laboratories.
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1
(c) REPORT TO CONGRESS.-The Secretary shall trans-
2 mit to the Congress on or before September 30, 1991, a com-
3: prehensive report on research carried out pursuant to this
4 Act.
5
(d) AUTHORIZATION.-There are hereby authorized to
6 be appropriated $5,000,000 for fiscal year 1991 to the Secre-
7 tary to be used to conduct research as provided in this Act.
8
SEC. 620. INCLUSION OF FUEL CELLS AS A FUEL
9 CONSERVATION TECHNOLOGY UNDER REIDA.-Section
10 256 of the Energy Policy and Conservation Act is amended
11 by inserting at the end thereof the following:
12
"(e) For purposes of this section, the term 'domestic re-
13 newable energy industry' shall include industries using fuel
14 cell technology."
15
SEC 621. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
16 GUIDELINES FOR THE USE OF FUEL CELL TECHNOL-
17 OGIES.-Within 180 days of the date of enactment of this
18 Act, the Administrator of the Environmental Protection
19 Agency shall prepare Federal guidelines for cities and mu-
20 nicipalities specifying environmental and safety standards for
21 the use of fuel cell technology. In the preparation of the
22 guidelines, the Administrator shall utilize the successful ex-
23 perience of the New York City Fire Department in the use of
24 fuel cell technologies.
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1
SEC. 622. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE INVESTIGA-
2 TION OF EXPORT MARKET POTENTIAL FOR INTEGRATED
3 FUEL CELL SYSTEMS.-Within 180 days of the date of en-
4. actment of this Act, the Secretary of Commerce shall assess
5 and report to Congress concerning the export market poten-
6 tial for integrated systems of fuel cells with renewable power
7 technologies.
8
Subtitle D
9
HYDROGEN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACT
10
SEC. 623. FINDINGS AND PURPOSE.-(a) The Congress
11 finds that-
12
(1) due to the limited quantities of naturally oc-
13
curing petroleum-based fuels, viable alternative fuels
14
and feedstocks must be developed;
15
(2) priority should be given to the development of
16
alternative fuels with universal availability;
17
(3) hydrogen is one of the most abundant elements
18
in the universe, with water, a primary source of hydro-
19
gen, covering three-fourths of the Earth;
20
(4) hydrogen appears promising as an alternative
21
to environmentally damaging fossil fuels;
22
(5) hydrogen can be transported more efficiently
23
and at less cost then electricity over long distances;
24
(6) renewable energy resources are potential
25
energy sources that can be converted to hydrogen from
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1
its naturally occurring states into high quality fuel,
2
feedstock and energy storage media; and
3
(7) it is in the national interest to accelerate ef-
4
forts to develop a domestic capability to economically
5
produce hydrogen in quantities which will make a sig-
6
nificant contribution toward reducing the Nation's de-
7
pendence on conventional fuels
8
(b) The purpose of this title is to
9
(1) direct the Secretary of Energy to prepare. and
10
implement a comprehensive 5 year plan and program
11
to accelerate research and development activities lead-
12
ing to the realization of a domestic capability to
13
produce, distribute and use hydrogen economically
14
within the shortest time practicable; and
15
(2) develop renewable energy resources as pri-
16
mary energy sources to be used in the production of
17
hydrogen
18
COMPREHENSIVE MANAGEMENT PLAN
19
SEC 624. (a) The Secretary shall prepare a comprehen-
20 sive 5-year program management plan for research and de
21 velopment activities which shall be conducted over a period
22 of no less than 5 years and shall be consistent with the provi-
23 sions of sections 625 and 626 In the preparation of such
24 plan, the Secretary shall consult with the Administrator of
25 the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Sec-
26 retary of Transportation, the Hydrogen Technical Advisory
S. 324 IS
86
1 Panel established under section 628, and the heads of such
2 other Federal agencies and such public and private organiza-
3 tions as he deems appropriate. Such plan shall be structured
4 to permit the realization of a domestic hydrogen production
5 capability within the shortest time practicable.
6
(b) The Secretary shall transmit the comprehensive pro-
7 gram management plan to the Committee on Science, Space,
8 and Technology of the House of Representatives and the
9 Committee on Energy and Natural Resources of the Senate
10 within 6 months after the date of the enactment of this Act
11
(1) the research and development priorities and
12.
goals to be achieved by the program;
13
(2) the program elements, management structure,
14
and activities, including program responsibilities of in-
15
dividual agencies and individual institutional elements;
16
(3) the program strategies including technical
17
milestones to be achieved toward specific goals during
18
each fiscal year for all major activities and projects;
19
(4) the estimated costs of individual program
20
items, including current as well as proposed funding
21
levels for each of the 5 years of the plan for each of
22
the participating agencies;
23
(5) a description of the methodology of coordina-
24
tion and technology transfer; and
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1
(6) the proposed participation by industry and aca-
2
demia in the planning and implementation of the
3
program.
4
(c) Concurrently with the submission of the President's
5 annual budget to the Congress for each year after the year in
6 which the comprehensive 5-year plan is initially transmitted
7 under subsection (b), the Secretary shall transmit to the Con-
8 gress a detailed description of the current comprehensive
9 plan, setting forth appropriate modifications which may be
10 necessary to revise the plan as well as comments on, and
11 recommendations for, improvements in the comprehensive
12 program management plan made by the Hydrogen Technical
13 Advisory Panel established under section 628.
14
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
15
SEC. 625. (a) The Secretary shall establish, within the
16 Department of Energy, a research and development program,
17 consistent with the comprehensive 5-year management plan
18 under section 624, to ensure the development of a domestic
19 hydrogen fuel production capability within the shortest time
20 practicable.
21
(b)(1) The Secretary shall initiate research or accelerate
22 existing research in areas which may contribute to the devel-
23 opment of hydrogen production and use.
24
(2) Areas researched shall include production, liquefac-
25 tion transmission, distribution, storage, and use. Particular
26 attention shall be given to developing an understanding and
S 324 IS
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1. resolution of all potential problems of introducing hydrogen
2 production and use into the marketplace.
3
(c) The Secretary shall give priority to those production
4 techniques that use renewable energy resources as their pri-
5 mary energy source.
6
(d) The Secretary shall, for the purpose of performing
7 his responsibilities pursuant to this title, solicit proposals for
8: and evaluate any reasonable new or improved technology, a
9 description of which is submitted to the Secretary in writing,
10 which could lead or contribute to the development of hydro-
11 gen production technology
12
(e) The Secretary shall conduct evaluations, arrange for
13 tests and demonstrations, and disseminate to developers in-
14 formation, data, and materials necessary to support efforts
15 undertaken pursuant to this section.
16
DEMONSTRATIONS AND PLAN
17
SEC. 626. (a)(1) The Secretary shall conduct demonstra-
18 tions of hydrogen technology, preferably in self-contained lo-
19 cations, SO that technical and nontechnical parameters can be
20 evaluated to best determine commercial applicability of the
21 technology.
22
(2) Concurrently with activities conducted pursuant to
23 section 624, the Secretary shall conduct small-scale demon-
24 strations of hydrogen technology at self-contained sites.
25
(b) The Secretary shall, in consultation with the Secre-
26 tary of Transportation, the Administrator of the National
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1 Aeronautics and Space Administration, and Hydrogen Tech-
2 nical Advisory Panel established under section 628, prepare
3 a comprehensive large-scale hydrogen demonstration plan
4 with respect to demonstrations carried out pursuant to sub-
5 section (a)(1). Such plan shall include-
6
(1) a description of the necessary research and de-
7
velopment activities that must be completed before ini-
8
tiation of a large-scale hydrogen production demonstra-
9
tion program;
10
(2) an assessment of the appropriateness of a
11
large-scale demonstration immediately upon completion
12
of the necessary research and development activities;
13
and
14
(3) an implementation schedule with associated
15
budget and program management resource require-
16
ments
17
COORDINATION AND CONSULTATION
18
SEC. 627. (a) The Secretary shall have overall manage-
19 ment responsibility for carrying out the program under this
20 title. In carrying out such program, the Secretary, consistent
21 with such overall management responsibility-
22
(1) shall use the expertise of the National Aero-
23
nautics and Space Administration and the Department
24
of Transportation; and
25
(2) may use the expertise of any other Federal
26
agency in accordance with subsection (b) in carrying
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1
out any activities under this title, to the extent that the
2
Secretary determines that any such agency has capa-
3
bilities which would allow such agency to contribute to
4
the purpose of this title.
5
(b) The Secretary may, in accordance with subsection
6 (a), obtain the assistance of any department, agency or in-
7 strumentality of the executive branch of the Federal Govern-
8 ment upon written request, on a reimbursable basis or other-
9 wise and with the consent of such department, agency, or
10 instrumentality. Each such request shall identify the assist-
11 ance the Secretary deems necessary to carry out any duty
12 under this title.
13
(c) The Secretary shall consult with the Administrator
14 of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the
15 Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, the
16 Secretary of Transportation, and the Hydrogen Technical
17 Advisory Panel established under section 628 in carrying out
18 his authorities pursuant to this title.
19
TECHNICAL PANEL
20
SEC. 628. (a) There is hereby established a technical
21 panel of the Energy Research Advisory Board, to be known
22 as the Hydrogen Technical Advisory Panel, to advise the
23 Secretary on the program under this title.
24
(b)(1) The technical panel shall be appointed by the Sec-
25 retary and shall be comprised of such representatives from
26 domestic industry, universities, professional societies, Gov-
S. 324 IS
91
1 ernment laboratories, financial, environmental, and other or-
2 ganizations as the Secretary, in consultation with the Chair-
3 man of the Energy Research Advisory Board, deems appro-
4 priate based on his assessment of the technical and qualifica-
5 tions of such representatives. Appointments to the technical
6 panel shall be made within 90 days after the enactment of
7 this Act. The technical panel shall have a chairman, who
8 shall be elected by the members from among their number.
9
(2) Members of the technical panel need not be members
10 of the full Energy Research Advisory Board.
11
(c) The activities of the technical panel shall be in com-
12 pliance with any laws and regulations guiding the activities
13 of technical and factfinding groups reporting to the Energy
14 Research Advisory Board.
15
(d) The heads of the departments, agencies, and instru-
16 mentalities of the executive branch of the Federal Govern-
17 ment shall cooperate with the technical panel in carrying out
18 the requirements of this section and shall furnish to the tech-
19 nical panel such information as the technical panel deems
20 necessary to carry out this section.
21
(e) The technical panel shall review and make any nec-
22 essary recommendations to the following items, among
23 others—
24
(1) the implementation and conduct of the pro-
25
gram under this title; and
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1
(2) the economic, technological, and environmen-
2
tal consequences of the deployment of hydrogen pro-
3
duction and use systems
4
(f) The technical panel shall prepare and submit annu-
5 ally to the Energy Research Advisory Board a written report
6 of its findings and recommendations with regard to the pro-
7 gram under this title The report shall include
8
(1) a summary of the technical panel's activities
9
for the preceding year;
10
(2) an assessment and evaluation of the status of
11
the program; and
12
(3) comments on and recommendations for im-
13
provements in the comprehensive 5-year program man-
14
agement plan required under section 624.
15
(g) After consideration of the technical panel report and
16 within 30 days after its receipt, the Energy Research Ad-
17 visory Board shall submit the report, together with any com-
18 ments which the Board deems appropriate, to the Secretary.
19
(h) The Secretary shall provide such staff, funds, and
20 other support as may be necessary to enable the technical
21 panel to carry out the functions described in this section.
22
DEFINITIONS
23
SEC. 629. As used in this title-
24
(a) the term "Secretary" means the Secretary of
25
Energy; and
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1
(b) the term 'capability" means proven technical
2
ability.
3
AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS
4
SEC. 630 There is hereby authorized to be appropriated
5 to carry out the purpose of this title (in addition to any
6 amounts made available for such purpose pursuant to other
7 Acts)
8
(a) $10,000,000 for the fiscal year beginning Oc-
9
tober 1, 1991;
10
(b) $15,000,000 for the fiscal year beginning
11
October 1, 1992;
12
(c) $20,000,000 for the fiscal year beginning Oc-
13
tober 1, 1993;
14
(d) $25,000,000 for the fiscal year beginning
15
October 1, 1994;
16
(e) $30,000,000 for the fiscal year beginning Oc-
17
tober 1, 1995;
18
HYDROGEN-FUELED AIRCRAFT RESEARCH AND
19
DEVELOPMENT
20
SEC. 631. FINDINGS AND PURPOSE.-(a) The Congress
21 finds that
22
(1) long-term future decreases in petroleum-based
23
fuel availability will seriously impair the operation of
24
the world's air transport fleets;
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1
(2) hydrogen appears to be an attractive alterna-
2
tive to petroleum in the long-term to fuel commercial
3
aircraft;
4
(3) it is therefore in the national interest to accel-
5
erate efforts to develop a domestic hydrogen-fueled su-
6
personic; and subsonic aircraft capability; and
7
(4) the use of liquid hydrogen as a commercial air
8
transport fuel has sufficient long-term promise to justify
9
a substantial research, development demonstration pro-
10
gram.
11
(b) The purpose of this title is to-
12
(1) direct the Administrator of the National Aero-
13
nautics and Space Administration to prepare and im-
14
plement a comprehensive 5-year plan and program for
15
the conduct of research, development, and demonstra-
16
tion activities leading to the realization of a domestic
17
hydrogen-fueled aircraft capability, within the shortest
18
time practicable.
19
(2) establish as a goal broad multinational partici-
20
pation in the program; and
21
(3) provide a basis for public, industry, and certi-
22
fying agency acceptance of hydrogen-fueled aircraft as
23
a mode of commercial air transport.
24
COMPREHENSIVE MANAGEMENT PLAN
25
SEC. 632. (a) The Administrator shall prepare a com-
26 prehensive 5-year program management plan for research,
S 324 IS
95
1 development, and demonstration activities consistent with the
2 provisions of sections 633, 634, and 635. In the preparation
3 of such plan, the Administrator shall consult with the Secre-
4 tary of Energy, the Secretary of Transportation, and the
5 heads of such other Federal agencies and such public and
6 private organizations as he deems appropriate. Such plan
7 shall be structured to permit the realization of a domestic
8 hydrogen-fueled aircraft capability within the shortest time
9 practicable.
10
(b) The Administrator shall transmit the comprehensive
11 5-year program management plan to the Committee on Sci-
12 ence, Space, and Technology of the House of Representa-
13 tives and the Committees on Commerce, Science, and Trans-
14 portation and Energy and Natural Resources of the Senate
15 within 6 months after the date of the enactment of this Act.
16 The plan shall include, but not necessarily be limited to-
17
(1) the research and development priorities and
18
goals to be achieved by the program;
19
(2) the program elements, management structure,
20
and activities, including program responsibilities of in-
21
dividual agencies and individual institutional elements;
22
(3) the program strategies including detailed tech-
23
nical milestones to be achieved toward specific goals
24
during each fiscal year for all major activities and
25
projects;
S 324 IS
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1
(4) the estimated costs of individual program
2
items, including current as well as proposed funding
3
levels for each of the 5 years of the plan for each of
4
the participating agencies;
5
(5) a description of the methodology of coordina-
6
tion and technology transfer; and
7
(6) the proposed participation by industry and aca-
8
demia in the planning and implementation for the pro-
9
gram.
10
(c) Concurrently the submission of the President's
11 annual budget to the Congress for each year after the year in
12 which the comprehensive 5-year plan is initially transmitted
13 under subsection (b), the Administrator shall transmit to the
14 Congress a detailed description of the current comprehensive
15 plan, setting forth appropriate modifications which may be
16 necessary to revise the plan as well as comments on and
17 recommendations for improvements in the comprehensive
18 program management plan made by the Hydrogen-Fueled
19 Aircraft Advisory Committee established under section 637.
20
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
21
SEC. 633. (a) The Administrator shall establish, within
22 the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, a re-
23 search and development program consistent with the compre-
24 hensive 5-year program management plan under section 632
25 to ensure the development of a domestic hydrogen-fueled air-
26 craft capability within the shortest time practicable.
S 324 IS
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1
(b) The Administrator shall initiate research or acceler-
2 ate existing research in areas which may contribute to the
3 development of a hydrogen-fueled aircraft capability
4
(c) In conducting the program pursuant to this section,
5 the Administrator shall encourage the establishment of do-
6 mestic industrial capabilities to supply hydrogen-fueled air-
7 craft systems or subsystems to the commercial marketplace.
8
(d) The Administrator shall, for the purpose of perform-
9 ing his responsibilities pursuant to this Act, solicit proposals
10 for and evaluate any reasonable new or improved technology,
11 a description of which could lead or contribute to the devel-
12 opment of hydrogen-fueled aircraft technology
13
(e) The Administrator shall conduct evaluations, arrange
14 for tests and demonstrations and disseminate to developers
15 information, data, and materials necessary to support efforts
16 undertaken pursuant to this section.
17
FLIGHT DEMONSTRATION
18
SEC. 634. (a) Concurrent with the activities carried out
19 pursuant to section 633, the Administrator shall, in consulta-
20 tion with the Secretary of Transportation, the Secretary of
21 Energy, and the Hydrogen-Fueled Aircraft Advisory Com-
22 mittee established under section 637, prepare a comprehen-
23 sive flight demonstration plan, the implementation of which
24 shall provide confirmation of the technical feasibility, eco-
25 nomic viability, and safety of liquid hydrogen as a fuel for
S 324 ISR 2 --- 7
98
1 commercial transport aircraft. The comprehensive flight plan
2 shall include-
3
(1) a description of the necessary research and de-
4
velopment activities that must be completed before ini-
5
tiation of a flight demonstration program;
6
(2) the selection of a domestic site where demon-
7
stration activities can lead to early commercialization
8
of the concept;
9
(3) an assessment of a preliminary flight demon-
10
stration to occur concurrently with the later states of
11
research and development activities; and
12
(4) an implementation schedule with associated
13
budget and program management resource require-
14
ments.
15
(b) The Administration shall transmit such comprehen-
16 sive flight demonstration plan to the Congress within 2 years
17 after the date of the enactment of this Act.
18
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION AND GROUND FACILITIES
19
SEC. 635. (a) The Administrator, in consultation with
20 the Secretary of Transportation and the Secretary of Energy,
21 shall define the systems, subsystems, or components associat-
22 ed with the production, transportation, storage, and handling
23 of liquid hydrogen that are specifically required for and
24 unique to the use of such fuel for commercial aircraft applica-
25 tion.
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1
(b) The Administrator shall structure the research and
2 development program pursuant to section 633 to allow the
3 development of the systems, subsystems, or components de-
4 fined pursuant to subsection (a) of this section.
5
(c) The research and development program for hydrogen
6 production, transportation, and storage systems, subsystems,
7 and components which are suitable for inclusion as part of
8 fully integrated hydrogen-fueled aircraft system, but which
9 are not being specifically developed for such application shall
10 be the responsibility of the Secretary of Energy. Such activi-
11 ties shall be included as part of the program established pur-
12 suant to title I of this Act, and shall be SO conducted as to
13 ensure compliance with hydrogen-fueled aircraft system con-
14 straints.
15
COORDINATION AND CONSULTATION
16
SEC. 636. (a) The Administrator shall have overall
17 management responsibility for carrying out the program
18 under this title. In carrying out such program, the Adminis-
19 trator, consistent with such overall management responsi-
20 bility-
21
(1) shall utilize the expertise of the Departments
22
of Transportation and Energy to the extent deemed
23
appropriate by the Administrator, and
24
(2) may utilize the expertise of any other Federal
25
agency in accordance with subsection (b) in carrying
26
out any activities under this title, to the extent that the
S 324 IS
100
1
Administrator determines that any such agency has ca-
2.
pabilities which would allow such agency to contribute
3
to the purpose of this title.
4
(b) The Administrator may, in accordance with subsec-
5 tion (a), obtain the assistance of any department, agency, or
6 instrumentality of the executive branch of the Federal Gov-
7 ernment upon written request, on a reimbursable basis or
8 otherwise and with the consent of such department, agency,
9 or instrumentality. Each such request shall identify the as-
10 sistance the Administrator deems necessary to carry out any
11 duty under this title.
12
(c) The Administrator shall consult with the Secretary
13 of Energy the Administrator of the Environmental Protec-
14 tion Agency, the Secretary of Transportation, and the Hy-
15 drogen-Fueled Aircraft Advisory Committee established
16 under section 207 in carrying out his authorities pursuant to
17 this title.
18
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
19
SEC. 637. (a) There is hereby established a Hydrogen
20 Fueled Aircraft Advisory Committee, which shall advise the
21 Administrator on the program under this title.
22
(b) The committee shall be appointed by the Administra-
23 tor and shall be composed of at least seven members from
24 industrial, academic, financial, environmental, and legal orga-
25 nizations and such other entities as the Administrator deems
26 appropriate. Appointments to the committee shall be made
S 324 IS
101
1 within 90 days after the enactment of this Act. The commit-
2 tee shall have a chairman, who shall be elected by the mem-
3: bers from among their number
4
(c) the heads of the departments, agencies, and instru-
5 mentalities of the executive branch of the Federal Govern-
6 ment shall cooperate with the committee in carrying out the
7 requirements of this section and shall furnish to the commit-
8 tee such information as the committee deems necessary to
9 carry out this section.
10
(d) The committee shall meet at least 4 times annually,
11 notwithstanding subsections (e) and (f) of section 10 of Public
12 Law 92-463
13
(e) The committee shall review and make any necessary
14 recommendations on the following items, among others—
15
(1) the implementation and conduct of the pro-
16
gram under this title; and
17
(2) the economic, technological, and environmen-
18
tal consequences of developing a hydrogen-fueled air-
19
craft capability.
20
(f) The committee shall prepare and submit annually to
21 the Administrator a written report of its findings and recom-
22 mendations with regard to the program under this title. The
23 report shall include-
24
(1) a summary of the committee activities for the
25
preceding year;
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102
1
(2) an assessment and evaluation of the status of
2
the program; and
3
(3) comments on and recommendations for im-
4
provements in the comprehensive 5-year program man-
5
agement plan required under section 632.
6
(g) The Administrator shall provide such staff, funds,
7 and other support as may be necessary to enable the commit-
8 tee to carry out the functions described in this section.
9
DEFINITIONS
10
SEC. 638. As used in this title
11
(a) the term "Administrator" means the Adminis-
12
trator of the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
13
tration;
14
(b) the term "capability" means proven technical
15
ability; and
16
(c) the term "certifying agency" means any Gov.
17
ernment entity with direct responsibility for assuring
18
public safety in the operation of the air transport
19
system.
20
AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS
21
SEC 639 AUTHORIZATIONS.-There is hereby author-
22 ized to be appropriated to carry out, the purpose of this
23 title-
24
(1) $10,000,000 for the fiscal year beginning Oc-
25
tober 1, 1991;
S 324 IS
103
1
(2) $15,000,000 for the fiscal year beginning Oc-
2
tober 1, 1992;
3
(3) $20,000,000 for the fiscal year beginning
4
October 1, 1993;
5
(4) $25,000,000 for the fiscal year beginning Oc-
6
tober 1, 1994; and
7
(5) $30,000,000 for the fiscal year beginning
8
October 1, 1995
9
TITLE VII-ADVANCED CIVILIAN REACTOR
10
PROGRAMS
11
SEC 701. FINDINGS AND PURPOSES.-Congress finds
12 that-
13
(a) the use of energy generated from nuclear fis-
14
sion could potentially supplant economically the burn-
15
ing of fossil fuels and thereby contribute substantially
16
to reducing the rate and scope of global climate
17
change;
18
(b) the purpose of this title is to redirect programs
19
in existence on the date of the enactment of this title
20
for research, development, and demonstration of tech-
21
nologies for the generation of commercial electric
22
power from nuclear fission. Notwithstanding any other
23
provision of law, this title shall be the exclusive source
24
of authority for appropriations for such programs; and
S 324 IS
104
1
(c) for purposes of this section, programs for re-
2
search, development, and demonstration of technologies
3
for the generation of commercial electric power from
4
nuclear fission include programs of the Secretary desig-
5
nated in appropriations acts for the fiscal year begin-
6
ning on October 1, 1988, as Advanced Reactor Re-
7
search and Development, Advanced Nuclear Systems,
8
Facilities, and Program Direction.
9
SEC 702 RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, AND DEMON-
10 STRATION PROGRAM.- (a) The Secretary shall carry out a
11 comprehensive program of research and development of tech-
12 nologies for the generation of commercial electric power from
13 nuclear fission that to the maximum extent practicable-
14
(1) permit modular design;
15
(2) exhibit passive safety;
16
(3) are adaptable to standardized construction and
17
licensing;
18
(4) are cost effective in comparison to alternative
19
sources of electricity of comparable availability, reli-
20
ability, and impact on the rate and scope of global cli-
21
mate change;
22
(5) minimize the volume of nuclear waste pro-
23
duced and the cost of nuclear waste disposal;
24
(6) prevent diversions of radioactive material for
25
use in nuclear weapons; and
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1
(7) minimize the cost of power plant decommis-
2
sioning.
3
SEC. 703. APPROPRIATIONS.-(a) There is authorized
4 to be appropriated to carry out the purposes of this title for
5 the fiscal year beginning on October 1, 1991, not more than
6 $100,000,000; for the fiscal year beginning October 1, 1992,
7. not more than $200,000,000, and for the fiscal year begin-
8 ning October 1, 1993, not more than $200,000,000.
9
SEC. 704. REPORTS.-The Secretary shall submit to
10 the Congress by October 1, 1991, and every year thereafter,
11 a comprehensive report on progress made toward the devel-
12 opment of reactor designs which meet the criteria set out in
13 section 702(a) of this Act. The report shall rank each design
14 or technology in terms of its ability to meet these criteria,
15 and shall show how the Secretary will focus his research ef
16 forts to most expeditiously achieve the development of a re-
17 actor design which meets these criteria In addition, the
18 report shall include the Secretary's recommendations for
19 whatever steps he deems are needed to successfully achieve
20 the purposes of this title.
21
TITLE VIII FUSION
22
SEC 801.-(a) Within 1 year after the date of the en-
23 actment of this section, the Secretary shall report to Con-
24 gress on the status of research. development, and demonstra-
25 tion in technology for the production of electricity from both
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1 magnetic and inertial confinement fusion, including interna-
2 tional collaboration.
3
(b) The report under subsection (a) shall present a pro-
4 gram of research, development, and demonstration of mag-
5 netic confinement and inertial confinement fusion for energy
6 that would insure by 2010-
7
(1) a demonstration of the achievement of ignition
8
conditions in both magnetic and inertial fusion test
9
facilities;
10
(2) a demonstration of the technological feasibility
11
of magnetic and inertial fusion as a source of electric
12
power; and
13
(3) in the event that such feasibility is determined,
14
the development of a design of a prototype commercial
15
fusion reactor, accompanied by cost estimates and
16
specifications sufficient to permit bids for construction
17
of the reactor.
18
(c) The report shall include-
19
(i) an assessment of the actions needed and
20
the funds that would be necessary to achieve the
21
goals of the program under subsection (b);
22
(ii) an assessment of funds that would be pro-
23
vided by the United States under appropriate sce-
24
narios for international collaboration in a program
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1
of fusion research, development, and demonstra-
2
tion that would achieve such goals;
3
(iii) a review and analysis of the major obsta-
4
cles to international collaboration in such a pro-
5
gram; and
6
(iv) the Secretary's recommendations for ad-
7
ditional legal and budgetary authority required to
8
implement the preferred scenario among those
9
considered under paragraph (2).
10
TITLE IX COAL
11
SEC. 901. REPORT. (a) Within 9 months after the
12 date of the enactment of this title the Secretary shall provide
13 Congress with a comprehensive report reviewing the clean
14 coal technologies to be developed in projects that have re-
15 ceived Federal funds under the Department of Energy's
16 Clean Coal Technology Program. This report shall analyze
17 each such project to determine the change in the production
18 of CO2 that is likely to result from the project specifically and
19 in total were the technology being developed widely imple-
20 mented relative to alternative coal use technologies.
21
(b) Before submitting the report under subsection (a),
22 the Secretary shall make a draft report available to the public
23 and provide an opportunity for comment on such draft report.
24 The Secretary shall provide appropriate responses to com-
25 ments received in the final report.
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1
(c) The Secretary shall include in the report his recom-
2 mendations as to the most promising clean coal technologies
3 that also would reduce the production of CO₂ per unit of
4 energy delivered relative to alternative coal use technologies.
5
SEC. 902. PROGRAM.-(a) The Secretary shall establish
6 and carry out a program of research, development and dem-
7 onstration of techniques for recovery and disposal of CO₂
8 from automobiles, trucks, and buses electric utility power
9 operations, and industrial manufacturing processes.
10
(b) Within 6 months after the date of the enactment of
11 this section the Secretary shall submit a report to Congress
12 on his plans to implement subsection (a) Such report shall
13 include the Secretary's recommendations of priority in re-
14 search, development, and demonstration opportunities under
15 this section The report shall also include the Secretary's 5-
16 year budget for the program under this section.
17
SEC 903. COAL STUDY.-(a) The Secretary, through 1
18 or more of the Department's National Laboratories, shall es-
19 tablish and carry out a comprehensive program in the funda-
20 mental physics and chemistry of coal combustion. The pro-
21. gram under this section shall examine the breakup of repre-
22 sentative types of coal under combustion into final products
23 at the molecular level
24
(b) In designing the program under this section, the Sec-
25 retary shall give priority to research that will clarify the fun-
S 324 IS
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1 damental mechanisms for the production of oxides of sulphur
2 and nitrogen during the combustion process, with the ulti-
3 mate goal of using information gained thereby to limit or con-
4 trol the introduction of these gases into the atmosphere.
5
(c) Within 6 months after the date of the enactment of
6 this section the Secretary shall submit a report to Congress
7 on his plans to implement subsection (a), including a 5-year
8 budget for the program under this section.
9
SEC. 904. IMPROVED EFFICIENCY.-The Secretary
10 shall support research that will improve the efficiency of coal
11 generated electricity and industrial processes with priority
12 given to those projects which have the greatest potential for
13 reducing the generation of carbon dioxide.
14
SEC 905. AUTHORIZATION.-There is authorized to be
15 appropriated to the Secretary for purposes of this title not
16 more than $5,000,000 for fiscal year 1991 and not more than
17 $15,000,000 for fiscal year 1992, and not more than
18. $25,000,000 for fiscal year 1993.
19
TITLE X-NATURAL GAS
20
SEC. 1001. NATURAL GAS FOR MASS TRANSIT PRO-
21 GRAM.-(a) The Secretary shall, consistent with the Alterna-
22 tive Motor Fuels Act of 1988, Public Law 100-494, enter
23 into cooperative agreements with, and provide financial as-
24 sistance under this section to any municipal, county, or re-
25 gional transit authority (hereinafter "authority") to demon-
S. 324 IS
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1 strate the feasibility of using natural gas as a fuel for mass
2 transit in urban areas.
3
(b) The program of the Secretary to implement the
4 agreements under subsection (a) may include interested or
5 affected private firms willing to provide assistance in cash or
6 in kind for any such demonstration.
7
(c) The Secretary shall not enter into any agreement
8 under subsection (a) with any municipal, county or regional
9 transit authority unless such government body agrees to pro-
10 vide at least 25 percent of the costs of such demonstration.
11
(d) An authority may petition the Secretary for priority
12 in allocating financial assistance under this section.
13
(e) The Secretary, at his discretion, may grant such pri-
14 ority under this section to any authority that demonstrates
15 that the use of natural gas as a transportation fuel would
16 have a significant effect on the ability of an air quality region
17 to comply with applicable regulations governing air quality.
18
(f) Within 6 months after the date of the enactment of
19 this section the Secretary shall report to Congress on his
20 plans to implement this section.
21
(g) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
22 tary not more than $30,000,000 for each of fiscal years
23 1991, 1992, and 1993 for purposes of this section.
24
SEC. 1002. REPORT.-Within 18 months after the date
25 of the enactment of this title the Secretary, in consultation
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1 with the Administrator of the Environmental Protection
2 Agency and the President of the Gas Research Institute,
3 shall submit to Congress a report on the feasibility of using
4 natural gas in gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles to facili-
5 tate compliance by such vehicles with applicable emissions
6 requirements for such vehicles.
7
SEC. 1003. NATURAL GAS USE IN FLEETS.-(a) The
8 Secretary, consistent with the Alternative Motor Fuels Act of
9 1988, and after consultation with the president of the Gas
10 Research Institute, shall establish and carry out a program,
11 and provide financial assistance, to encourage the develop-
12 ment and commercialization of natural gas use in passenger
13 fleets, light duty trucks, and heavy duty trucks by providing
14 for the purchase and construction of alternative fuel vehicles
15 and associated refueling equipment.
16
(b) Both Federal and private fleets may be eligible for
17 private assistance under this section. A public or private op-
18 erator of a fleet may petition the Secretary for priority in
19 allocating financial assistance under this section.
20
(c) The Secretary, at his discretion, may grant such pri-
21 ority to those fleets where the use of natural gas as a trans-
22 portation fuel would have a significant effect on the ability of
23 an air quality region to comply with applicable regulations
24 governing air quality.
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"1
(d) To facilitate the use of natural gas fueled vehicles,
2 the existing Federal vehicle anti-tampering regulations shall
3 be amended by adding the following:
4
"The conversion of a vehicle from gasoline only to natu-
5 ral gas or natural gas and gasoline shall not be considered a
6 violation of any anti-tampering provisions of the Federal law
7 and implementing regulations provided that the conversion
8 complies with emissions standards which shall be issued by
9 the EPA administrator not later than October 31, 1989.
10
(e) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
11 tary not more than $30,000,000 for each of fiscal years
12 1991, 1992, and 1993, for purposes of this section.
13
SEC. 1004. TRAINING PROGRAM.-(a) The Secretary
14 shall establish and carry out a training program for techni-
15 cians who are responsible for vehicle installations of equip-
16 ment that converts gasoline or diesel-fueled vehicles to the
17 capability to run on natural gas alone, or on natural gas and
18 either diesel or gasoline. Such training program shall provide
19 these technicians with instruction on the correct installation
20 procedures and techniques, adherence to specifications, vehi-
21 cle operating procedures, and other appropriate mechanical
22 concerns applicable to these vehicle conversions.
23
(b) The Secretary, at his discretion, shall enter into co-
24 operative agreements with, and provide financial assistance,
25 under this section, to appropriate parties to provide training
S 324 IS
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1 programs that will ensure the proper operation and perform-
2 ance of conversion equipment.
3
(c) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
4 tary, consistent with the Alternative Motor Fuels Act of
5 1988, and after consultation with the president of the Gas
6 Research Institute, not more than $5,000,000 for each of the
7 fiscal years 1991, 1992, and 1993 for purposes of this sec-
8 tion.
9
SEC. 1005. VEHICLE RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT,
10 AND DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM.-(a) The Secretary, in
11 consultation with the president of the Gas Research Insti-
12 tute, shall establish and carry out a program of research,
13 development, and demonstration on techniques related to im-
14 proving natural gas vehicle technology including, but not lim-
15 ited to, the following areas-
16
(1) gaseous fuel injection;
17
(2) carburetion;
18
(3) manifolding;
19
(4) combustion;
20
(5) power optimization;
21
(6) emissions control;
22
(7) novel gas compression concepts;
23
(8) advanced storage systems; and
24
(9) advanced gaseous fueling technologies.
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114
1
(b) The Secretary, consistent with the Alternative Motor
2 Fuels Act of 1988, after consultation with the president of
3 the Gas Research Institute, shall enter into cooperative
4 agreements with, and provide financial assistance, under this
5 section, to the Gas Research Institute to perform the re-
6 search and development to improve natural gas vehicle tech-
7 nology.
8
(c) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
9 tary not more than $10,000,000 for each of the fiscal years
10 1991, 1992, and 1993 for purposes of this section.
11
SEC. 1006. NATURAL GAS RECOVERY, RESEARCH,
12 DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM.-(a) The
13 Secretary, in consultation with the president of the Gas Re-
14 search Institute, shall expand and continue a program of re-
15 search, development, and demonstration on techniques to in-
16 crease the availability of natural gas from-
17
(1) intensive recovery of natural gas in place in
18
discovered reservoirs or formations; and
19
(2) more economic recovery of unconventional
20
natural gas, including gas from tight sands, eastern
21
shales gas from less permeable formations, coal-bed
22
methane, and geopressured reservoirs.
23
(b) The Secretary shall seek to enter into joint research
24 and development ventures with persons engaged in the pro-
25 duction, transportation or major use of natural gas to imple-
S 324 IS
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1 ment the program under subsection (a). For purposes of this
2 section a joint research and development venture" means a
3 joint research and development venture under the National
4 Cooperative Research Act of 1984
5
(c) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
6 tary not more than $25,000,000 for each of the fiscal years
7 1991, 1992, and 1993 for purposes of this section
8
SEC. 1007. ENGINE RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND
9 DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM.-(a) The Secretary, in consul-
10 tation with the President of the Gas Research Institute, shall
11 establish and carry out a program of research, development,
12 and demonstration on high efficiency heat engines including,
13 but not limited to, advanced gas turbine cycles for high effi-
14 ciency electric power generation, such as-
15
(1) advanced combined cycle turbines;
16
(2) steam-injected gas turbines (STIG); and
17
(3) intercooled steam-injected gas turbines
18
(ISTIG);
19
(b) The Secretary, after consultation with the president
20 of the Gas Research Institute, shall enter into cooperative
21; agreements with, and provide financial assistance, under this
22. section, to appropriate parties, including, but not limited to
23 the Gas Research Institute, to construct and demonstrate the
24 high efficiency heat engines.
S 324 IS
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1
(c) There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secre-
2 tary not more than $25,000,000 for each of the fiscal years
3 1991, 1992, and 1993 for purposes of this section.
4
SEC. 1008. The Secretary, after consultation with the
5 president of the Gas Research Institute, shall establish prior-
6 ities for research, development, and demonstration programs,
7 and transmit a list of priorities to the Senate Committee on
8 Energy and Natural Resources and the House Committee on
9 Energy and Commerce for guidance in its use of research,
10 development, and demonstration funds. The Secretary shall
11 update the list every 2 years and submit the updated version
12 to the aforementioned Congressional Committees.
13
TITLE XI-NATURAL RESOURCE POLICY
14
Subtitle A-General
15
SEC 1101. ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL RE-
16 SOURCE STUDY.-(a) The Secretary of the Interior shall
17 conduct a study of the ecological and environmental re-
18 sources that would be affected by a global climate change.
19 The study should include effects in wildlife habitat preserva-
20 tion, coastal protection, inland rivers and lakes, irrigation and
21 reclamation, ground water protection, and national wildlife
22 refuges and parks, national forests, and other Federal lands.
23
(b) The study should-
S 324 IS
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1
(1) include specific regional climatic and resource
2
base information useful in anticipatory and mitigatory
3
planning;
4
(2) identify actions that, if taken, could help miti-
5
gate the effects of global climate change; and
6
(3) evaluate the cost-effectiveness, including envi-
7
ronmental externalities of possible action.
8
(c) The Secretary of the Interior shall consider the rela-
9 tive impact on global warming of all mineral leasing pro-
10 grams
11
(d) The Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of
12 Agriculture shall consider the relative impact on global
13 warming of all Federal forest land management programs,
14 including timber sales and reforestation.
15
SEC 1102. NATIONAL FORESTATION INITIATIVE
16 The Secretary of Agriculture, in cooperation with the Secre-
17 tary of Interior, shall report to the President and the Con-
18 gress on the feasibility of a national forestation initiative:
19 Such report shall include
20
(a) an inventory of public, State and private for-
21
ested lands;
22
(b) an evaluation of the status of timber harvest-
23
ing on those lands, including the extent to which those
24
lands are being reforestated;
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1
(c) an assessment of the extent to which Federal,
2
State, and private lands can be reforested and afforest-
3
ed, including lands not necessarily suitable for timber
4
harvesting such as urban areas;
5
(d) an evaluation of (1) the potential of a national
6
forestation initiative reducing, mitigating, or preventing
7
climate change, and (2) the measures needed to
8
achieve that potential; and
9
(e) an assessment of the potential economic and
10
environmental benefits and costs of such an initiative,
11
the measures available to mitigate such costs, and an
12
evaluation of the effectiveness of such measures
13
SEC. 1103. URBAN FORESTRY AND ENERGY Sav-
14 INGS.-The Secretary of Energy, in consultation with the
15 Secretary of Agriculture, and other relevant Government
16 agencies, shall conduct a study of the potential for reducing
17 carbon dioxide emissions by undertaking targeted urban tree
18 plantings designed to reduce the air-conditioning needs of
19 buildings. The study shall provide estimates of the cost-effec-
20 tiveness of such a program and shall outline a range of Fed-
21 eral, State, and local public policies and incentives that
22 would encourage public and private efforts to undertake such
23 plantings.
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1
The Secretary shall complete the study and submit it to
2 the Congress within 18 months after the date of enactment of
3 this Act.
4
Subtitle B-Tongass Timber Reform Act
5
TONGASS TIMBER REFORM ACT
6
SEC. 1103. DEFINITIONS.-As used in this title-
7
(a) The term "The Secretary" means the Secre-
8
tary of Agriculture.
9
(b) Unless otherwise specified, any other term has
10
the same meaning as used in the Alaska National In-
11
terest Lands Conservation Act as amended (Public
12
Law 96-487), hereinafter referred to as ANILCA.
13
AMENDMENTS TO THE ALASKA NATIONAL INTEREST
14
LANDS CONSERVATION ACT
15
SEC. 1104 ANNUAL APPROPRIATIONS FOR TIMBER
16 MANAGEMENT AND RESOURCE CONSERVATION ON THE
17 TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST.-Section 705(a) of ANILCA
18 (16 U.S.C 539d(a)) is hereby repealed effective Septem-
19 ber 30, 1989, and subsections (b) and (c) of section 705 are
20 redesignated as subsections (a) and (b), respectively.
21
SEC. 1105. IDENTIFICATION OF LANDS UNSUITABLE
22 FOR TIMBER PRODUCTION Section 705(d) of ANILCA
23 (916 U.S.C. 539d(d)) is hereby repealed.
24
REPORTS ON THE TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST
25
SEC. 1106. (a) MONITORING.-Section 706(a) of
26 ANILCA (16 U.S.C. 539e(a)) is hereby repealed.
S 324 IS
120
1
(b) STATUS.-Section 706(b) of ANILCA (16 U.S.C.
2 539e(b)) is amended as follows:
3
(1) Strike out "(b)" and insert in lieu thereof
4
"(a)"
5
(2) Strike out and (4) and insert in lieu thereof
6
(4)
7
(3) Strike out the period at the end of the section
8
and insert in lieu thereof "; (5) the impact of timber
9
harvest on subsistence resources, wildlife and fisheries
10
resources, commercial fisheries, recreation resources
11
and tourism; (6) effects of timber harvest on biological
12
diversity; (7) effects of timber harvest on the old
13
growth rain forest ecosystem, especially in areas of
14
high volume, and measures to conserve the old growth
15
ecosystem, especially in areas of high volume, and
16
measures to conserve the old growth ecosystem; (8)
17
timber supply and demand in southeastern Alaska; and
18
(9) costs and revenues of the timber sale program.".
19
(c) CONSULTATION.-Section 706(c) of ANILCA (916
20 U.S.C. 539e(e)) is amended as follows:
21
(1) strike out (c) and insert in lieu thereof "(b)"
22
(2) strike out and the Alaska Land Use Council'
23
and insert in lieu thereof the southeast Alaska com-
24
mercial fishing industry, and the Alaska Land Use
25
Council'
МЛНИА
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1
SEC. 1107. TERMINATION OF LONG-TERM TIMBER
2 SALE CONTRACTS IN ALASKA.-Title V of ANILCA is
3 amended by adding at the end thereof the following new
4 section:
5 "SEC. 508. TERMINATION OF LONG-TERM TIMBER SALE CON-
6
TRACTS IN ALASKA
7
"Not later than 90 days after the date of enactment of
8 this section, the Secretary shall terminate the long-term
9 timber sale contracts numbered 12-11-010-1545 and
10 A10fs-1042 between the United States and Alaska Pulp
11 Corporation, and between the United States and Ketchikan
12 Pulp Company, respectively."
13
MANAGEMENT OF THE TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST
14
SEC. 1108. (a) FINDINGS.- The Congress finds that-
15
(1) natural resources of the Tongass National
16
Forest possess outstanding national characteristics of
17
high value and benefit to the American people, and
18
these resources are essential for subsistence activities
19
and for the commercial fishing recreation and tourism
20
industries which contribute significantly to the economy
21
of southeast Alaska;
22
(2) the Tongass National Forest contains one of
23
the last largely intact rain forests in the world's tem-
24
perate latitudes, and must serve as an example of the
25
type of protection, preservation and management that
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1
will be required to stop the destruction of rain forest
2
resources in other nations;
3
(3) current Forest Service management of the
4
Tongass National Forest, in particular the amount of
5
high volume old growth timber offered for sale and
6
harvested, gives priority to timber harvest over other
7
uses of the forest and thus is not consistent with the
8
principle of multiple use or with requirements of the
9
Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning
10
Act of 1974 and the National Forest Management Act
11
of 1976, and cannot be sustained without jeopardizing
12
natural resources that are of national significance and
13
upon which the commercial fishing, recreation, and
14
tourism industries and subsistence users of southeast
15
Alaska depend;
16
(4) current Forest Service management practices
17
are based on the Tongass National Forest Land Man-
18
agement Plan of 1979, as amended, which should be
19
revised consistent with the provisions of this Act and
20
with other laws applicable to the National Forest
21
System, to significantly increase protection and en-
22
hancement of fish, wildlife, watershed, recreation, cul-
23
tural, biological diversity, and old growth forest ecosys-
24
tem resources, and to support the long-term best inter-
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123
1
est of all natural resource dependent industries and
2
subsistence communities in southeast Alaska.
3
(b) PURPOSE.-The purpose of this title is to require
4 revision of the Tongass National Forest Land Management
5 Plan of 1979, as amended, in conformance with this Act and
6 other laws applicable to the National Forest System, to sig-
70 nificantly increase protection of resources that are critical to
8 the long-term best interests of the commercial fishing, recrea-
9 tion, and tourism industries, and the subsistence users in
10 southeast Alaska, and which are of high value and benefit to
11 the people of the United States. These include the fish, wild-
12 life, watershed, recreation, cultural, biological diversity and
13 old growth ecosystem resources and subsistence values of the
14 Tongass National Forest.
15
SEC. 1109. DIRECTIVE AND REPORTS.-(a) In further-
16 ance of the purpose of this title, the Secretary is hereby au-
17 thorized and directed to fully revise the Tongass National
18 Forest Land Management Plan of 1979, as amended, to con-
19 form with provisions of this Act and other laws applicable to
20 the National Forest System. This revision shall replace any
21 efforts to revise the Forest Plan that are predicated on sec-
22 tions of ANILCA that are repealed or amended by this Act.
23
(b) In revising the Forest Plan, the Secretary shall sig-
24 nificantly increase the protection of fish, wildlife, watershed,
25 recreation, cultural, biological diversity and old growth eco-
S 324 IS
124
1 system resources and subsistence values of the Tongass Na-
2 tional Forest. Planning and management of old growth re-
3 sources shall give specific attention to areas of high volume
4 old growth ecosystem as a whole
5
(c) In revising the Forest Plan, the Secretary shall
6 ensure that priority is given to the protection of fish, wildlife,
7 watershed, recreation, cultural, biological diversity, and old
8 growth ecosystem resources, and subsistence values of the
9 areas listed in section 302(b) of this Act
10
(d) Within 30 days after this Act takes effect, the Secre-
11 tary shall provide the Committee on Energy and Natural Re-
12 sources of the Senate and the Committee on Interior and
13 Insular Affairs of the House of Representatives with a report
14 on the schedule for revision of the Tongass Land Manage-
15 ment Plan, including the expected dates of publication of the
16 draft and final plans.
17
(e) Within 1 year after this Act takes effect, and each
18 year thereafter until the revised Tongass National Forest
19 Land Management Plan is complete and ready for implemen-
20 tation, the Secretary shall provide the Senate Committee on
21 Energy and Natural Resources and the Committee on Interi-
22 or and Insular Affairs of the House of Representatives with a
23 report describing the steps taken in furtherance of section
24 201(b) of this Act. is in
ble
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125
1
MORATORIUM ON TIMBER SALES AND HARVEST
2
SEC. 1100. (a) PURPOSE.-The purpose of this title is
3 to impose a moratorium on the sale or commercial harvest of
4 timber in certain areas having special values for fish and
5 wildlife, subsistence, recreation, old growth, and other re-
6 sources, pending revision of the Tongass National Forest
7 Land Management Plan to conform with the new manage-
8 ment directives provided in this Act.
9
(b) MORATORIUM.-Until such time as the Tongass Na-
10 tional Forest Land Management Plan is completely revised
11 and ready for implementation, there shall be no sale or har-
12 vest of timber, nor any associated development (including
13 timber sale preparation or road construction) within any area
14 specified in subsection (b) of this section. The moratorium
15 shall apply to lands administered by the Forest Service, as
16 generally depicted on appropriately referenced maps, as
17 follows:
Approximate
Area:
Acreage
Anan Creek
37,331
Berners Bay
35,379
Calder-Holbrook
62,335
Chichagof
353,540
Chuck River
125,574
Kadashan
33,641
Karta River
38,671
Kegan Lake
23,858
Naha River
31,926
Nutkwa
53,635
Outside Islands
95,524
Pleasant Island-Lemesurier Islands
15,527
Pt. Adolphus-Mud Bay
72,091
Port Houghton-Sanborn Canal
59,712
Rocky Pass
74,423
Sarkar Lakes
23,500
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126
South Etolin Island
81,939
South Kuiu
190,301
Sullivan Island
3,985
Trap Bay
6,446
West Duncan Canal
118,812
Yakutat Forelands
232,962
Young Lake
18,173
1
Copies of maps depicting these areas shall be on file and
2 available for public inspection in the offices of the Chief of the
3 Forest Service in Washington, District of Columbia, and the
4 Regional Forester in Juneau, Alaska.
5
TITLE XII-BASIC SCIENCE INITIATIVES
6
SEC. 1201. (a) PURPOSES.-The overall purpose of this
7 title is to expand support for ongoing and new scientific re-
8 search initiatives regarding the causes, mechanisms, and im-
9 plications of the greenhouse effect and global climate change,
10 on the part of the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
11 tration (NASA), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the
12 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
13 the United States Geological Survey (USGS) ("the Agen-
14 cies"), and the National Institute of Standards and Technolo-
15 gy (NIST) for research on the development of safe, non-
16 ozone depleting substitutes for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
17 The specific purposes of this title shall include-
18
(1) support for NASA, NSF, NOAA, and USGS
19
in their research in such major climate-related process-
20
es as interactive atmospheric dynamics and chemistry;
21
natural emissions of greenhouse gases; ocean-atmos-
22
phere-ice interactions; carbon cycle links to ocean and
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1
terrestrial nutrients; cloud formation, dynamics, and ra-
2
diative properties; precipitation processes; tropical
3
global-ocean atmosphere interaction; global ocean cir-
4
culation and heat capacity; sea-ice dynamics; global
5
tropospheric chemistry; and stratospheric ozone chem-
6
istry; solar irradiance variations; paleoclimate; biosys-
7
tem-climate interactions; and sea level-climate interac-
8
tions; monitoring of river and coastal levels;
9
(2) support for the agencies in providing research
10
to address scientific issues such as: detection of the
11
greenhouse warming signal through land and ocean
12
measurements of temperature and other climate-sensi-
13
tive variables; research in past climate change; im-
14
provement of models to assess the rate and scope of
15
climate change; understanding the role of clouds in re-
16
flecting solar radiation and in trapping terrestrial radi-
17
ation; identifying sources and sinks of carbon dioxide
18
and trace gases, especially methane; understanding the
19
relationship between stratospheric ozone depletion and
20
global climate change; the role of oceans in the global
21
carbon cycle; modeling regional climate changes and
22
hydrology; understanding the effects of climate change
23
on ecosystems and climate biota feedbacks; understand-
24
ing the role of changes in the polar ice packs on cli-
25
mate (e.g. reflection of solar radiation, influence on the
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1
heat budget, and contribution to sea level rise); assess-
2
ing the validity of climate models by testing them
3
against the past climate record; and predicting the pos-
4
sible range of future climatic conditions that could arise
5
from natural processes and selected scenarios of human
6
perturbations;
7
(3) support for the completion or continuation of
8
the Agencies' space missions and experiments to study
9
the composition and dynamics of the atmosphere;
10
measure the Earth's energy balance; observe ocean
11
and ice surfaces; collect data on the Earth's radiation
12
budget; measure sea surface temperature and monitor
13
ocean biological activity and land vegetation; measure
14
volcanic activity; and
15
(4) support for the National Institute of Standards
16
and Technology's efforts to find alternative refrigerants
17
or other technologies that meet stringent requirements
18
with respect to health, stability, thermophysical proper-
19
ties, and cost, and do not result in decreased energy
20
efficiency; develop effective replacements for harmful
21
CFCs in time to be of value to CFC dependent indus-
22
tries in meeting their product line changes for the
23
Montreal Protocol schedule; develop models to corre-
24
late and extend the available measured property data;
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1
and assist industry in evaluating the full potential of al-
2
ternative fluids.
3
(b) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated
4 $275,000,000 in additional funding to the following agencies
5 over the fiscal years 1991, 1992, and 1993, to support each
6 agency's efforts in carrying out the purposes of this title:
7
(1) $100,000,000 to NASA;
8
(2) $60,000,000 to NOAA;
9
(3) $75,000,000 to NSF;
10
(4) $30,000,000 to USGS; and
11
(5) $10,000,000 to NIST.
12
TITLE XIII-DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE
13
SEC. 1301. BILATERAL TROPICAL FORESTRY PRO-
14 GRAM.-(a) Not later than 1 year after the enactment of this
15 title, the Secretary of State, in conjunction with the Secre-
16 tary of the Treasury, Administrator of the Agency for Inter-
17 national Development, the Secretary of Interior, and the
18 Secretary of Agriculture shall transmit to Congress a report
19 containing-
20
(1) a description and inventory of the existing
21
forest resources in all tropical countries of the world;
22
(2) an evaluation of the potential in each tropical
23
nation for reforestation, afforestation, and conservation
24
of existing forest resources;
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130
1
(3) a description of appropriate mechanisms in
2
each country for preserving forest resources and creat-
3
ing new forested area, including, but not limited to,
4
choice of mixed species to encourage a diverse forest
5
and discourage monoculture estates, and involvement
6
of local groups in the design, implementation, and
7
monitoring of projects; and
8
(4) the potential for reducing, mitigating, or pre-
9
venting climate disruption by providing bilateral devel-
10
opment assistance and other forms of assistance and in-
11
centives to tropical countries for reforestation, afforest-
12
ation, and conservation of existing forest resources.
13
The report referred to in this subsection shall be pre-
14
pared in consultation with the government and the
15
public in each tropical country and shall be updated
16
and transmitted to Congress every 3 years
17
(b) Within 1 year after the completion of the report re-
18 quired under subsection (a) and every 3 years thereafter, the
19 same agencies, in consultation with the government and
20 public in each tropical country and interested members of the
21 public in the United States, shall establish and transmit to
22 Congress a forest plan with goals for each tropical country.
23 These goals shall include maximum feasible conservation of
24 existing forest areas and reforestation and afforestation in
25 areas not covered by forests.
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1
(c) The Administrator of the Agency for International
2 Development shall make development assistance moneys,
3 export credits, and other forms of financial support available
4 for projects and programs to implement the plan required by
5 subsection (b). The Administrator shall ensure that all activi-
6 ties supported by the United States bilateral foreign assist-
7 ance are consistent with the plan. Beginning 2 years after the
8 approval of the first plan, the Administrator, in allocating
9 development assistance moneys to countries identified in the
10 plan, shall take account of the success or lack of success of
11 each country in meeting the goals established in the plan.
12
(d) The Administrator shall promote support by other
13 bilateral donors for activities necessary to implement the
14 plan.
15
(e) Not later than 1 year after the date of enactment of
16 this title, and annually thereafter, the Department of State,
17 in cooperation with the Department of Interior, and the De-
18 partment of the Treasury, the Department of Agriculture,
19 and the Agency for International Development shall submit
20 to Congress a report describing actions taken pursuant to this
21 section, the extent to which other donors have supported ac-
22 tions necessary to implement the forest plan, the extent to
23 which each tropical country has succeeded in achieving the
24 goals set out in the plan, and how the success or lack of
25 success of each country in meeting the goals established in
S 324 IS
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1 the plan have been taken into account in allocating develop-
2 ment assistance moneys to each country.
3
SEC. 1302. MULTILATERAL TROPICAL FORESTRY
4 PROGRAM.-(a) The Secretary of the Treasury shall instruct
5 the United States' Executive Director of the multilateral de-
6 velopment banks to promote the adoption by each such bank
7 of a forestry program substantially equivalent to the program
8 set out in section 1301 and containing the following
9 components:
10
(1) identification of each borrowing country's po-
11
tential for afforestation;
12
(2) establishment of goals for afforestation for
13
each borrowing country, in consultation with the gov-
14
ernment and the public in that country;
15
(3) creation of incentives to encourage afforesta-
16
tion and disincentives to discourage deforestation; and
17
(4) allocation of the resources of each such bank
18
to each borrowing country in proportion to the degree
19
with which such country has created new forested
20
areas and protected existing forested areas.
21
(b) Beginning 2 years after the enactment of this title,
22 the Secretary of the Treasury shall instruct the United
23 States' Executive Director to each of the multilateral devel-
24 opment banks to oppose loans and other financial or technical
25 assistance to any borrowing country that has not successfully
S 324 IS
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1 established and successfully implemented a program setting
2 reasonable goals for that country for preserving existing
3 forest resources and creating new forested areas, except
4 where the Secretary determines that such goals are advanced
5 more effectively by actions other than voting against such
6 assistance
7
The Secretary of State shall instruct the United States
8. representative to the United Nations Food and Agriculture
9 Program to promote the establishment and coordinate the im-
10 plementation of forestry plans for tropical countries substan-
11 tially equivalent to those set out in section 1301 and subsec-
12 tion (a) of this section that contains incentives to encourage
13 afforestation and disincentives to discourage deforestation.
14
(d) The Secretary of State shall instruct the United
15. States Ambassador to the United Nations Development Pro-
16 gram to adopt and implement forestry programs for recipient
17 countries substantially equivalent to those set out in section
18 1301 and subsection (a) of this section that contain incentives
19 to encourage afforestation and disincentives to encourage de-
20 forestation. Beginning two years after the enactment of this
21 title, the Secretary of State shall instruct the United States
22 Ambassador, to the United Nations to oppose the adoption of
23 any country programs for any recipient country that has not
24 established and successfully implemented a program setting
25 reasonable goals for that country for preserving existing
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1 forest resources and creating new forested areas, except
2 where the Secretary determines that such goals are advanced
3 more effectively by actions other than opposing the adoption
4 of such a plan.
5
(e) The Secretary of State shall instruct the United
6 States representative to the International Tropical Timber
7 Organization to promote:
8
(1) a major emphasis by the organization on con-
9
servation activities and financing of forest conservation
10
projects; and
11
(2) the adoption of codes of conduct for commer-
12
cial logging and private sector timber operations.
13
(f) Not later than 1 year after the date of enactment of
14 this title, and annually thereafter, the Secretary of the Treas-
15 ury and the Secretary of State shall submit to Congress a
16 report describing progress by each of the multilateral devel-
17 opment banks, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Pro-
18 gram, the United Nations Development Program, and the
19 International Tropical Timber Organization in adopting and
20 implementing programs meeting the standards set out in this
21 section, including in particular:
22
(1) efforts by the Department of the Treasury, the
23
Department of State, and other Federal agencies to
24
assure implementation of multilateral development pro-
25
grams substantially equivalent to that set forth in sec-
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1
tion 1302 and subsection (a) of this section, and the
2
result of such efforts;
3
(2) progress by the United Nations Food and Ag-
4
riculture Organization in promoting the establishment
5
and coordinating the implementation of forestry plans
6
for tropical countries meeting the criteria set forth in
7
section 1301 and subsection (a) of this section;
8
(3) progress in the identification of each multilat-
9
eral development bank, the United Nations Food and
10
Agriculture Program, the United Nations Development
11
Program of the potential for afforestation by recipient
12
countries;
13
(4) progress in the establishment of goals by each
14
multilateral development bank, the United States Food
15
and Agriculture Program, and the United States De-
16
velopment Program for afforestation by each recipient
17
country;
18
(5) the nature of incentives and disincentives cre-
19
ated by each multilateral development bank and the
20
United Nations Development Program to encourage
21
afforestation and to discourage deforestation, respec-
22
tively;
23
(6) the extent to which the allocation of the re-
24
sources of each multilateral development bank and the
25
United Nations Development Program to recipient
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1
countries is proportional to the success or lack of suc-
2
cess of such country in creating new forest areas and
3
protecting existing forest areas; and
4
(7) a description of proposed loans, country pro-
5
grams, and other financial and technical assistance to
6
which subsections (b) and (d) apply, and votes and
7
other actions on proposal by United States Executive
8
Director to the relevant multilateral development bank
9
and the United States Ambassador to the United
10
Nations.
11
SEC. 1303. TRADE IN WOOD AND WOOD PROD-
12 UCTS.-(a) Not later than 1 year after the enactment of this
13 title, the Secretary of Commerce, in consultation with inter-
14 ested members of the public, shall promulgate regulations re-
15 quiring wood and products containing wood imported into the
16 United States to bear a label containing the following
17 information:
18
(1) the country or countries in which wood or
19
woods were harvested; and
20
(2) the scientific and common names of such wood
21
or woods.
22
(b) Not later than 4 years after the enactment of this
23 title, the Secretary of Commerce, in consultation with the
24 Secretary of State, the Administrator of the Agency for
25 International Development, the Secretary of the Treasury,
S 324 IS
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1 and interested members of the public, shall by regulation pro-
2 hibit the importation into the United States of wood and
3 products containing wood from-
4
(1) those tropical countries that have not success-
5
fully achieved the goals established under sections
6
1301 and 1302 of this title;
7
(2) those countries that import wood or products
8
containing wood harvested in the countries identified in
9
paragraph (1); and
10
(3) those countries that permit transit of wood or
11
products containing wood harvested in those countries
12
identified in paragraph (1).
13
(c) Not later than 2 years after the publication of the
14 regulation referred to in subsection (a) and no less frequently
15 than biennially thereafter, the Secretary of Commerce, in
16 consultation with the Administrator of the Agency for Inter-
17 national Development, the Secretary of the Treasury, and
18 interested members of the public, shall review and, as neces-
19 sary, revise the regulation referred to in subsection (a).
20
(d) The President shall encourage those countries which
21 import or consume wood or wood products from countries
22 identified in sections 1301 and 1302 to adopt laws and regu-
23 lations substantially equivalent to the regulation referred to
24 in subsection (a).
S 324 IS
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1
(e) The Secretary of Commerce, not later than 1 year
2 after the initial publication of the regulation referred to in
3 subsection (a) and annually thereafter, shall submit a report
4 to the Congress describing-
5
(1) progress in controlling imports into the United
6
States of wood and wood products from countries that
7
have not successfully achieved the goals established
8
under sections 1301 and 1302; and
9
(2) progress by those countries which import or
10
consume wood or wood products from countries identi-
11
fied in paragraph (1) in controlling imports of such
12
wood and wood products.
13
SEC. 1304. BILATERAL ENERGY PROGRAM.-Section
14 106 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (22 U.S.C.
15 2151d) is amended by-
16
(a) changing the title of the section to read: "Sus-
17
tainable Energy Development, Private Voluntary Or-
18
ganizations, and Selected Development Activities.";
19
(b) striking out all subsection (a)(1) except the first
20
2 sentences and striking out all of subsection (a)(2);
21
(c) inserting the following new subsection (a)(2):
22
"(2) The Congress finds that energy conservation, im-
23 provements in end use energy efficiency, and energy produc-
24 tion from renewable, decentralized sources have great poten-
25 tial for meeting energy needs in developing nations, especial-
S 324 IS
139
1 ly the needs of the rural poor. These techniques can enable
2 developing countries to make efficient use of scarce re-
3 sources; minimize environmental harm (including warming of
4 the earth's atmosphere due to the greenhouse effect");
5 lessen the danger of nuclear weapons proliferation; and
6 reduce dependence on dwindling oil reserves and expensive
7 imported energy. Often, energy needs can be met more
8 cheaply and more employment can be generated by these
9 methods than by production of energy from conventional
10 sources.".
11
(d) striking out the last sentence of subsection
12
(b)(2), redesignating that subsection as subsection
13
(a)(3), and inserting at the end of that subsection the
14
following:
15 Such programs also may include any type of assistance
16 aimed at energy efficiency, improvements in end use energy
17 efficiency, and assistance for transmission facilities to in-
18 crease the availability of energy in rural areas. No assistance
19 shall be furnished under this Act for large-scale production of
20 energy from fossil fuels.".
21
(e) inserting the following new subsection (a)(4):
22
(4) In providing assistance to developing countries as
23 authorized in subsection (3), the President shall-
24
"(A) prepare for each aid-receiving country, in co-
25
operation with the government and the public in each
S 324 IS
140
1
country and interested members of the public in the
2
United States, an analysis-
3
"(i) describing feasible actions that can
4
reduce emissions of 'greenhouse gases', while at
5
the same time meeting development needs,
6
through actions which improve end use energy ef-
7
ficiency, promote reliance on renewable energy
8
sources, or encourage energy efficiency or use of
9
alternative fuels;
10
"(ii) comparing the economic and environ-
11
mental costs of the actions described in subpara-
12
graph (i) with the economic and environmental
13
costs of the actions described in subparagraph (i)
14
with the economic and environmental costs of in-
15
vestments to provide additional supplies of energy;
16
and
17
"(iii) analyzing the need for foreign assist-
18
ance, and especially United States bilateral assist-
19
ance, to make possible the actions described in
20
subparagraph (i).
21
"(B) provide technical assistance and support
22
projects to improve energy efficiency, with emphasis on
23
training, information and institution-building in all sec-
24
tors; improvement of indigenous capabilities to develop
25
and implement least cost planning strategies and pro-
S 324 IS
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1
grams of energy efficiency; developing indigenous capa-
2
bilities to adapt technologies of energy conservation
3
and end use energy efficiency; and, in transportation,
4
energy-saving methods of mass transit (such as light
5
rail, buses, and van pools), energy-efficient motor vehi-
6
cles and railroads, traffic management techniques (such
7
as computerization of traffic signals and fuel savings at
8
airports), and transfer of appropriate United States
9
technologies;
10
"(C) support projects to develop and demonstrate
11
energy conservation, improvements in end use energy
12
efficiency, and small-scale, decentralized, renewable
13
energy sources for rural areas. Such projects shall use
14
appropriate technologies and methods suited to the
15
local environment, shall feature close consultation with
16
and involvement of local people at all stages of project
17
design and implementation, and shall be directed
18
toward the earliest possible widespread application.
19
Appropriate technologies include but are not limited to
20
biomass, biogas, wind energy, passive solar, solar elec-
21
tricity, fuel cells, and low-head hydroelectric genera-
22
tion;
23
"(D) whenever appropriate, accomplish the objec-
24
tives of this subsection through projects managed by
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1
private and voluntary organizations or international or
2
regional or national nongovernmental organizations;
3
"(E) direct the Administrator of the Agency for
4
International Development, in consultation with the
5
President of the Export-Import Bank and the Presi-
6
dent of the Overseas Private Investment Corporation,
7
to encourage private sector investment in energy effi-
8
cient technologies in developing countries;
9
"(F) make the analyses referred to in subsection
10
(A) available to the public and transmit them to the
11
Congress at least annually;
12
"(G) beginning one year after the enactment of
13
this title, refuse to approve any project or program au-
14
thorized by this subsection involving the obligation of
15
more than $100,000 unless such an analysis has been
16
prepared, transmitted to the Congress, and made avail-
17
able to the public;
18
"(H) promote vigorously the adoption by other bi-
19
lateral donors of energy efficient programs for countries
20
that receive development assistance that emphasize
21
least-cost energy planning, energy conservation, and
22
end use energy efficiency; and
23
"(I) not later than< 1 year after the date of enact-
24
ment of this title, and annually thereafter, submit to
25
the Congress a report describing progress under the
S 324 IS
143
1
program established by this section, including in par-
2
ticular, the nature of all projects supported; their costs
3
and results; progress in reducing emissions of green-
4
house gases; and progress by other bilateral donors in
5
implementing programs of least cost energy planning,
6
energy conservation, and end use energy efficiency for
7
aid-receiving countries."
8
(f) striking out subsection (b), redesignating sub-
9
section (c) as subsection (a)(5), and redesignating sub-
10
sections (d) and (e) as subsections (b) and (c)
11
respectively.
12
SEC. 1305. MULTILATERAL ENERGY CONSERVATION
13 AND EFFICIENCY PROGRAM.-(a) The Secretary of the
14 Treasury shall instruct the United States Executive Director
15 to each of the multilateral development banks vigorously to
16 promote the adoption by each such bank of an energy conser-
17 vation and efficiency and containing the following
18 components:
19
(1) least cost energy planning for each borrowing
20
country that—
21
(A) gives priority to projects and programs to
22
support energy conservation, end use energy effi-
23
ciency, and renewable energy sources in major
24
economic sectors; and
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1
(B) compares the economic and environmen-
2
tal costs of the actions described in subparagraphs
3
(A) with the economic and environmental costs of
4
investments to provide additional supplies of
5
energy;
6
(2) analysis for each proposed loan to support ad-
7
ditional power generating capacity comparing the eco-
8
nomic and environmental costs of investments in reduc-
9
tion of demand for energy, including energy conserva-
10
tion and end use energy efficiency, with the economic
11
and environmental costs of the proposal;
12
(3) an implementation strategy, including technical
13
assistance grants as appropriate, for implementing the
14
plan referred to in paragraph (1);
15
(4) strict standards requiring consistency of each
16
proposed loan with the relevant least cost energy plan
17
for each borrowing country; and
18
(5) measures to encourage reform of macroeco-
19
nomic policies, such as energy prices, to facilitate
20
energy conservation and end use energy efficiency.
21
(b) Beginning 2 years after the enactment of this title,
22 the Secretary of the Treasury shall instruct the United States
23 Executive Director to each of the multilateral development
24 banks to oppose loans and other financial or technical assist-
25 ance to any borrowing country for which a least cost energy
S 324 IS
145
1 plan giving priority to energy conservation, end use energy
2 efficiency, and renewable energy sources is not in place,
3 except where the Secretary determines that such goals are
4 advanced more effectively by actions other than voting
5 against such assistance.
6
(c) The Secretary of State shall instruct the United
7 States Ambassador to the United Nations vigorously to en-
8 courage the United Nations Development Program to adopt
9 and implement energy conservation and efficiency programs
10 for recipient countries substantially equivalent to those set
11 out in subsection (a) that require least cost energy planning
12 to give priority to energy conservation, end use energy effi-
13 ciency, and renewable energy sources. Beginning 2 years
14 after the enactment of this title, the Secretary of State shall
15 instruct the United States Ambassador to the United Nations
16 to oppose the adoption of any country programs for any coun-
17 try for which a program of least cost energy planning giving
18 priority to energy conservation, end use energy efficiency,
19 and renewable energy sources is not in place, except where
20 the Secretary determines that such goals are advanced more
21 effectively by actions other than opposing the adoption of
22 such plan.
23 &
(d) Not later than 1 year after the date of enactment of
24 this title, and annually thereafter, the Secretary of the Treas-
25 ury and the Secretary of State shall submit to the Congress a
S 324 ISR 2 --- 10
146
1 report describing progress by each of the multilateral devel-
2 opment banks and the United Nations Development Program
3 in adopting and implementing programs meeting the stand-
4 ards set out in subsections (a) and (c), including in
5 particular-
6
(1) efforts by the Department of the Treasury, the
7
Department of State, and other Federal agencies to
8
assure implementation by each of the multilateral de-
9
velopment banks and the United Nations Development
10
Program of programs substantially equivalent to those
11
set out in this section, and the results of such efforts;
12
(2) progress by each multilateral development
13
bank and the United Nations Development Program in
14
drafting and adopting least cost energy plans for each
15
recipient country;
16
(3) the absolute dollar amounts, and proportion of
17
total lending in the energy sector, of loans, portions of
18
loans, or projects approved by each multilateral devel-
19
opment bank and the United Nations Development
20
Program in the previous year for projects or programs
21
of energy conservation and end use energy efficiency;
22
and
23
(4) a description of proposed loans, country pro-
24
grams, and other financial and technical assistance to
25
which subsections (b) and (c) apply, and votes and
S 324 IS
147
1
other actions on proposals by the United States Execu-
2
tive Director to the relevant multilateral development
3
bank and the United States Ambassador to the United
4
Nations.
5
SEC. 1306. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION AND
6 DEBT REDUCTION.-(a) It is the policy of the United States
7 that the Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation with inter-
8 ested members of the public including commercial banks,
9 shall enter into negotiations with selected developing country
10 governments to obtain improvements in policies in the foresty
11, and energy sectors by those countries as a condition of reduc-
12 ing or converting sovereign and private debt owned to credi-
13 tors in the United States. As a condition of the adoption of
14 policies or programs to preserve existing forested areas, en-
15 courage the creation of new forested areas, or promote
16 energy conservation or end use energy efficiency, the Secre-
17 tary may reduce the principal of, extend payments on, or
18 reduce the rate of interest on up to one-half of the total sov-
19 ereign debt owed to the United States by developing country
20 governments.
21
(b) Not later than 1 year after the enactment of this
22 title, the Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation with in-
23 terested members of the public including commercial banks,
24 shall promulgate regulations to implement the program es-
25 tablished in subsection (a). Such regulations shall-
S 324 IS
148
1
(1) identify those developing countries that are
2
promising candidates for participation in such a pro-
3
gram from the point of view of their contribution to
4
global climate disruption and the total amount of debt
5
owed to official and private creditors in the United
6
States;
7
(2) establish a timetable of the initiation of negoti-
8
ations with each such country; and
9
(3) establish criteria and standards for the adop-
10
tion, implementation, and monitoring or programs and
11
policies in the forest and energy sectors by developing
12
country governments that wish to participate in the
13
program established by subsection (a).
14
(c) The Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation with
15 interested members of the public including commercial banks,
16 shall encouarge the adoption of joint initiatives of debt reduc-
17 tion and conversion by the public and private sectors in other
18 member countries of the Organization for Economic Coopera-
19 tion and Development. (a) Not later than 1 year after the
20 enactment of this title, the Administrator of the Agency for
21 International Development shall transmit to the Congress a
22 report for each country that receives development assistance
23 monies from the United States containing-
24
(1) a least cost energy plan that provides for eco-
25
nomic development;
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149
1
(2) a comparison of the economic and environmen-
2
tal costs of alternative investments in the energy
3
sector, such as conservation and end use efficiency,
4
with the economic and environmental costs of invest-
5
ments to provide additional power generating capacity;
6
(3) an implementation strategy, including technical
7
assistance grants as appropriate, for implementing the
8
plan referred to in paragraph (1); and
9
(4) the potential for reducing, mitigating, or pre-
10
venting the climate disruption by providing bilateral
11
development assistance for least cost energy planning,
12
energy efficiency, and end use efficiency.
13
(b) The report referred to in subsection (a) shall be up-
14 dated and transmitted to the Congress every 2 years. The
15 first report and all subsequent reports shall be prepared in
16 consultation with the government and the public in each re-
17 cipient country and interested members of the public in the
18 United States. The Administrator shall assure that all devel-
19 opment assistance moneys expended in each recipient coun-
20 try are consistent with the least cost plan applicable to that
21 country;
22
(c) The Administrator shall promote the adoption by
23 other bilateral donors of energy efficiency programs for coun-
24 tries that receive development assistance that emphasize
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150
1 least cost energy planning, energy efficiency, and end use
2 efficiency;
3
(d) Not later than 1 year after the date of enactment of
4 this title, and annually thereafter, the Administrator shall
5 submit to the Congress a report describing progress under
6 the program established by this section, including in
7 particular-
8
(1) the nature of energy projects supported in
9
each recipient country and the dollar amount of each;
10
(2) improvements in energy conservation and end
11
use efficiency resulting from projects financed in each
12
recipient country;
13
(3) progress in reducing, mitigating, or preventing
14
climate disruption by providing bilateral development
15
assistance to recipient countries through support of
16
projects to encourage energy conservation and end use
17
efficiency; and
18
(4) progress by other bilateral donors in imple-
19
menting least cost energy programs for recipient
20
countries.
21
SEC. 1307. MULTILATERAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY
22 PROGRAM.-(a) The Secretary of the Treasury shall instruct
23 the United States Executive Director to each of the multilat-
24 eral development banks to promote the adoption by each such
25 bank of an energy efficiency program substantially equivalent
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1 to the program set out in section 1304 and containing the
2 following components:
3
(1) least cost energy planning for each borrowing
4
country;
5
(2) analysis for each proposed loan to support ad-
6
ditional power generating capacity comparing the eco-
7
nomic and environmental costs of alternative invest-
8
ments in the energy sector, including energy conserva-
9
tion and end use efficiency, with the economic and
10
environmental costs of the proposal;
11
(3) an implementation strategy, including technical
12
assistance grants as appropriate, for implementing the
13
plan referred to in paragraph (1); and
14
(4) strict standards requiring consistency of each
15
proposed loan with the relevant least cost energy plan
16
for each borrowing country.
17
(b) The Secretary of the Treasury shall instruct the
18 United States Executive Director to each of the multilateral
19 development banks to notify the staff of each bank that all
20 future contributions to such bank from the United States shall
21 be conditioned upon adoption and successful implementation
22 of a program meeting the standards set out in subsection (a).
23
(c) Not later than 1 year after the date of enactment of
24 this title, and annually thereafter, the Secretary of the Treas-
25 ury shall submit to the Congress a report describing progress
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1 by each of the multilateral development banks in adopting
2 and implementing programs meeting the standards set out in
3 subsection (a), including in particular-
4
(1) efforts by the Department of the Treasury and
5
other executive branch agencies to assure implementa-
6
tion by each of the multilateral development banks of a
7
program substantially equivalent to that set out in this
8
section, and the results of such efforts;
9
(2) progress by each multilateral development
10
bank in drafting and adopting least cost energy plans
11
for each borrowing country; and
12
(3) the absolute dollar amounts, and proportion as
13
total lending in the energy sector, of loans or portions
14
of loans approved by each multilateral development
15
bank in the previous year for products or programs of
16
energy efficiency and end use efficiency.
17
SEC. 1308. REPORT BY THE ADMINISTRATOR OF THE
18 AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT.-Not later
19 than 1 year after the enactment of this title, the Administra-
20 tor of the Agency for International Development, in consulta-
21 tion with the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of
22 State, shall submit to the Congress a report describing op-
23 tions and strategies for the use of bilateral and multilateral
24 development assistance programs sponsored by the United
25 States to control emissions into the atmosphere of carbon di-
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1 oxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases.
2 Interalia, this report shall analyze mechanisms by which
3 strategies to encourage afforestation, reforestation, energy
4 conservation, end use energy efficiency, and renewable
5 energy sources can be incorporated into the programs of the
6 International Monetary Fund.
7
TITLE XIV-INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES
8
Subtitle A
9
SEC. 1401. MULTILATERAL GLOBAL CLIMATE PRO-
10 TECTION CONVENTION. (a) It is the policy of the United
11 States that the Secretary of State, in consultation with the
12 Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency and
13 the Secretary of Energy, and science agencies (e.g., NASA,
14 NOAA, and NSF) shall convene an international meeting to
15 be held in the United States with invitations to representa-
16 tives of all countries of the world, the purpose of which shall
17 be to actively encourage the adoption of a binding multilater-
18 al global climate protection convention containing measures
19 at least as stringent as those in this Act.
20
(b) The Secretary of State shall sponsor such other
21 meetings as may be necessary to assure that the convention
22 is opened for signature no later than the end of 1992.
23
(c) The Secretary of State shall seek to assure that the
24 convention, through least cost energy planning, energy effi-
25 ciency, and end use efficiency, requires a reduction of not less
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1 than 20 percent in global generation of carbon dioxide over
2 1988 levels by the year 2000, a reduction not less than 50
3 percent in global generation of carbon dioxide over 1988
4 levels by the year 2015, and appropriate reductions in emis-
5 sions of nitrous oxide, methane and other greenhouse gases.
6
SEC. 1402. MULTILATERAL AGREEMENT To REDUCE
7 EMISSIONS OF OXIDES OF NITROGEN.-Not later than 1
8 year after the enactment of this title, the Secretary of State,
9 in consultation with the Administrator of the Environmental
10 Protection Agency, the Secretary of Energy, and the admin-
11 istrators of NIST, NOAA, and NASA shall initiate negotia-
12 tions on behalf of the United States and actively encourage
13 the adoption by the end of 1991 of a binding multilateral
14 agreement requiring reductions of not less than 30 percent in
15 emissions of oxides of nitrogen over 1987 levels by the year
16 1998.
17
SEC. 1403. REASSESSMENT OF MONTREAL PROTOCOL
18 ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE THE OZONE LAYER.-(a)
19 Not later than 1 year after the enactment of this title, the
20 Secretary of State, in consultation with the Administrator of
21 the Environmental Protection Agency, shall request and, if
22 necessary, convene in the United States such meetings of the
23 parties to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
24 the Ozone Layer as may be necessary for the reassessment of
25 the control measures contained therein.
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1
(b) The Secretary of State shall actively encourage the
2 adoption of additional control measures requiring the virtual
3 elimination of emissions of all substances identified in the
4 Montreal Protocol within 5 to 7 years from the date of enact-
5 ment of this title and appropriate control measures for other
6 ozone-depleting chemicals not identified in the Montreal
7 Protocol.
8
SEC. 1404. INTERNATIONAL NUCLEAR CONFER-
9 ENCE.-The Secretary of State, in consultation with the Sec-
10 retary of Energy, shall convene an international meeting to
11 be held in the United States with invitations to representa-
12 tives of all countries of the world, the purpose of which shall
13 be to encourage the exchange of information concerning pas-
14 sively safe nuclear reactors, nuclear safety, and disposal of
15 nuclear waste.
16
SEC. 1405. SPECIAL PROGRAMS.-The Secretary of
17 State should encourage the establishment of a special office
18 of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and
19 the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to monitor
20 annual generation of CO₂ and estimated trace gases on a
21 country-by-country basis. That office shall also be responsible
22 for assisting global negations and ultimately administering a
23 global protocol.
24
SEC. 1406. (a) It is the policy of the United States that
25 sustainable economic growth must be predicated on sustain-
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1
(2) increase funds available for applied research
2
and development of new contraceptive technologies
3
with a particular focus on methods adaptable for use in
4
developing countries.
5
(c) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated to the
6 President $500,000,000 for fiscal year 1991 and
7 $540,000,000 for fiscal year 1992 and $580,000,000 for
8 fiscal year 1993 for international population and family plan-
9 ning assistance Of the funds appropriated, not less than 16
10 percent or $60,000,000, whichever amount is less, shall be
11 solely available for the United Nations Population Fund.
12 None of the funds made available for international population
13 and family planning assistance may be used to pay for the
14 performance of involuntary sterilization or abortion or to
15 coerce any person to accept family planning services. Re-
16 strictions may be applied by the President to information,
17 counseling, or services that may be provided by family plan-
18 ning entities abroad only to the extent that the same restric-
19 tions are applied by the President to information, counseling,
20 and services that may be provided by family planning entities
21 receiving funds under grants and contracts made under title
22 X of the Public Health Service Act (42 U.S.C. 300 and
23 following)
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