Ask the Scholar
Document scope · 1 page
Scholar
Ask about this object, its catalog metadata, its source description, or the page inventory.
For page-specific OCR and visual context, open one of the page chats.
Scholar Source Context
Document identity
localId
352350585
label
"Personal Computers and Special Needs" [1984]
core
doc
dtoType
document
citationUrl
pageCount
1
Source metadata
id
352350585
contentType
document
title
"Personal Computers and Special Needs" [1984]
citationUrl
collections
Lex Frieden Collection: Records on Disability Rights
Printed Materials
imageCount
1
hasImages
yes
source
import
hasTranscription
no
Source extras
naId
352350585
levelOfDescription
fileUnit
recordType
description
ocrSource
nara-archive
Single page context
seq
1
pageIndex
0
type
document
mediaId
9c993e50936df8be
ocrText
Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
Donated Historical Materials
Collection/Office of Origin: Frieden, Lex, Collection
Series:
Printed Materials
Subseries:
Papers/Books
OA/ID Number:
52122
Folder ID Number:
52122-007
Folder Title:
"Personal Computers and Special Needs" [1984]
Stack:
Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
SYBEXCOMPUTERBOOKS
Personal Computers
&
SPECIAL NEEDS
Frank G. Bowe
Personal Computers
and Special Needs
& a Let American
Personal Computers
and Special Needs
FRANK G. BOWE
R
SYBEX
Berkeley Paris Düsseldorf
Cover art by Sato Yamamoto
Book design by Lisa Amon
AbilityPhone is a trademark of Basic Telecommunications Corp. Apple, Apple II, Apple lle, Apple II+
(II Plus), Apple III and LISA are registered trademarks of Apple Computer, Inc. Atari, AtariTel, Brain
Game and Hangman are registered trademarks of Atari, Inc. Bank Street Writer is a trademark of Bro-
derbund Software, Inc. BSR and BSR Command Module are trademarks of BSR America. CalcStar and
WordStar are trademarks of MicroPro International Corp. Color Computer, Plug 'n Power, Radio
Shack, TRS-80, TRS-80 Model I, II, III, 16 and 100; and Vox Box are trademarks of Tandy Corp. Com-
modore, Commodore 64 and VIC 20 are trademarks of Commodore Business Machines. Compaq is a
trademark of Compaq Computer Corp. Compliance Aid for Pharmaceuticals (CAP) is a trademark of
Lederle Lacoratories. Compu-Home is a trademark of Compu-Home Systems, Inc. CompuServe is a
trademark of CompuServe Information Service. CP/M is a registered trademark of Digital Research,
Inc. Data General and Nova 3 are trademarks of Data General. DEC, DECtalk, MicroVax and VT 100
are trademarks of Digital Equipment Corp. Dest and Dest Workless Station are trademarks of Dest
Corp. Dictronics and Grammitik are trademarks of Dictronics Corp. Dolphin and ActiVision are
trademarks of ActiVision Inc. Duxbury Braille Translator is a trademark of Duxbury Systems. Eagle is a
trademark of Eagle Computer Inc. Easywriter is a registered trademark of Information Unlimited Soft-
ware. Echo, Echo II, Echo GP and Echo PC are trademarks of Street Electronics Inc. Emergency Call
System (ECS), Genesis, Sceptre and UNIX are trademarks of American Telephone and Telegraph Com-
pany (AT&T). Epson and Epson QX-10 are registered trademarks of Epson America. E-tran and Zygo
are trademarks of Zygo.Industries Inc. Fox Fone is a trademark of Fox Fone Inc. Franklin, Franklin Ace
and Franklin 1000 are trademarks of Franklin Computer Corp. Heath-89 is a trademark of Heath Co.
Hewlett Packard, HP-125 and HP-9000 are registered trademarks of Hewlett Packard. Home Banking
is a trademark of Bank of America. Home Base is a trademark of Citibank, which in turn is a trademark
of Citicorp. Homework and Plato are trademarks of Control Data Corp. IBM, IBM 3033, IBM PC and
IBM PC Jr are registered trademarks of International Business Machines, Inc. Information Through
Speech and Cranmer Modified Perkins Brailler are trademarks of Maryland Computer Services.
Instant Zoo and Children's Television Workshop are trademarks of Children's Television Workshop.
Interstate Electronics, Voice Data Entry System, VRC008 and VRT300 are trademarks of Interstate
Electronics, a division of Figgie International. Keynote is a trademark of Advanced Software Interface.
Keyswapper is a trademark of Vertex Systems. Kurzweil Reading Machine is a trademark of Kurzweil
Computer Products, a Xerox Company. LED-20 is a trademark of Lotus Development Corp. MCI Mail
is a trademark of MCI Communications Corp. MS-DOS is a trademark of Microsoft, Inc. NCR 9300 is a
trademark of National Cash Register. Omni is a trademark of Omni Publications Inc. Prestel is a trade-
mark of British Telecom. PFS: File is a trademark of Software Publishing Company. Phone Care is a
trademark of Newart Electronic Sciences. ProKey and RoseSoft are trademarks of RoseSoft Inc.
Pronto is a trademark of Chemical Bank. Quick Tax is a trademark of Quick Tax, Inc. Shadow/VET,
VET and VBLS are trademarks of Scott Instruments. Smartkey is a trademark of Heritage Software. The
Source is a trademark of Source Telecomputing Corp. Style and Punctuation is a trademark of Oasis
Systems. Superphone is a trademark of Ultratec, Inc. Type-N-Talk and Votrax are trademarks of
Votrax, Inc. TI, TI Speech Command, Texas Instruments 99/4A and Texas Instruments Professional
Computer are trademarks of Texas Instruments. Ufonic Voice System and Ufonic are trademarks of
Borg Warner Educational Systems. Versabräille is a trademark of Telesensory Systems Inc., which also
distributes the Autocom and the Optacon. Viewtron is a trademark of Knight-Ridder and AT&T.
Visualtek and Voyager are trademarks of Visualtek Inc. Voice Input Module is a trademark of Voice
Machine Communications. Wang and Wang Electronic Publishing are trademarks of Wang Laborato-
ries. Xerox is a trademark of Xerox Corp.
SYBEX is not affiliated with any manufacturer.
Every effort has been made to supply complete and accurate information. However, SYBEX assumes
no responsibility for its use, nor for any infringements of patents or other rights of third parties which
would result
Copyright©1984 SYBEX, Inc., 2344 Sixth Street, Berkeley, CA 94710. World rights reserved. No part
of this publication may be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or reproduced in any way, includ-
ing but not limited to photocopy, photograph, magnetic or other record, without the prior agreement
and written permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Card Number: 84-51240
ISBN 0-89588-193-4
Printed in the United States of America
10987654321
For Russell Baxter: friend, colleague and teacher.
If
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
//
I acknowledge, with thanks, the work of several friends who
helped bring this book into being: Madeleine Will, who took an early
interest in the work and assisted in arranging the White House Con-
ference on Computers and Disabled Persons; L. D. Kerr and Lisa D.
Williams, who took the pictures in this book; Jim Compton, who read
the entire manuscript several times, making numerous helpful sug-
gestions, most of which I adopted; Gregg Vanderheiden, inventor of
special-needs keyboard emulators, who read the emulator sections;
Jay Rochlin and John Williams, both of whom provided important
leads to me. The individuals interviewed for this book gave of their
time and knowledge selflessly; their stories contributed a much-
needed "high touch" feeling to the book. Most of all, I want to thank
"my three girls," my wife Phyllis and daughters Doran and Whitney
for putting up with the extensive travel and long hours of writing
required to produce this book.
4.
of
TABLE OF CONTENTS
//
I SPECIAL NEEDS
CHAPTER 1 THIS BOOK IS FOR YOU
1
CHAPTER 2 ABOUT SPECIAL NEEDS 14
II
MICROCOMPUTERS AND
CHAPTER 3 EMPLOYMENT 32
CHAPTER 4 EDUCATION 60
CHAPTER 5 INDEPENDENT LIVING 94
III TODAY AND TOMORROW
CHAPTER 6 VISION IMPAIRMENTS 112
CHAPTER 7 HEARING LOSSES 120
CHAPTER 8 MOBILITY LIMITATIONS 128
CHAPTER 9 LEARNING DISABILITIES 138
IV WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE?
CHAPTER 10 RESOURCES AND BUYERS' GUIDE 146
END NOTES 160
INDEX 166
as
PART
SPECIAL NEEDS
/
CHAPTER
THIS BOOK IS FOR YOU
.1 wrote this book for people with special needs, as well as for
members of their families and for their friends, co-workers, neigh-
bors, teachers and counselors. If you have a special need, or know
someone who does, this book is for you.
Who are people with special needs? The United Nations (UN)
estimates that about 10 percent of the world's population is disabled;
that is, there are 500 million (one-half billion) persons with special
needs. Disabilities, or handicaps, are much more common among
people over 65 years of age than among younger people. About one
in every eleven under-65 persons is disabled, but the proportion
among over-65 individuals is almost one in three. Regardless of
when it occurs, disability limits what a person can do. For that rea-
son special needs affect not only the individual but also the family,
the class, the office, the organization and the community in which
the disabled individual participates. To help attract attention to
special needs, the UN has designated the years 1983-1992 as the
"Decade of Disabled Persons." National observances are planned
in the U.S., the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, and many
other nations.
2
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
This book is for you
if you have a special need. You may
not see, hear, move, or learn as well as the others around you. If
so, the information in Personal Computers and Special Needs will
help you to understand how microcomputers can help you over-
come your limitations.
This book is for you
if you are an adult child beginning to
worry about your disabled parents' safety and security. In the U.S.,
there are more people over 65 (27.4 million) than teenagers (26.5
million), according to the U.S. Bureau of the Census. With medical
and nursing-home costs rising so fast, many grown children are anx-
ious to find solutions to their parents' special needs. In this book, I
will talk about how to help older persons with special needs live at
home much more easily, safely, and enjoyably with the help of per-
sonal computers than was possible in the past. Microcomputers can
save senior citizens and their grown children considerable amounts
of money and time while they reduce worries about accidents, fires
and burglaries. Of course, if you are an older person yourself, the
same information will help you.
This book is for you
if one of your children is handicapped.
Education for students with vision, hearing, learning, and mobility
restrictions is harder and more demanding emotionally than is
schooling for other children. In this book, I will discuss what parents
are doing, what kinds of computer programs and games seem to
help handicapped children, and how a microcomputer can do
things the child cannot do alone. If you are a teacher or a counselor
working with handicapped children, the same suggestions may
assist you.
And this book is for you
if a friend, relative, or co-worker has a
special need. You may want to tell him or her about some of the
exciting new products now available to meet special needs. If you
know something about computers, perhaps you can help this per-
son live and work more easily and effectively.
Finally, this book is for you
if you know little or nothing about
computers. Until just a few years ago, I was a genuine computer
illiterate. I keenly remember how nervous I was when I first sat
down at a keyboard. Today, with computers more common and
more "user friendly," I figure that most readers of this book are fur-
ther along the road to computer literacy than I was. But to put to
good use the ideas you find here, you don't need to know how a
THIS BOOK IS FOR YOU
3
computer's insides work, or how to program a computer. At most,
you'll need to call in someone from the store where you bought
your machine (such after-purchase support is part of what you get
when you buy locally; take advantage of it). Or a friend or neighbor
who is more comfortable around electronics can help you. This
book will tell you what you need to buy, where to get it, and approxi-
mately how much it will cost. This book contains the names and
addresses of the organizations and companies that have the specific
knowledge and products you will need.
Today, I believe, personal computers are the most remarkable
"reasonable accommodation" devices ever invented. Now, there's a
term that needs defining. (As we move along, I'll define new terms
so you can follow the argument without getting lost.) Several Euro-
pean countries, notably Sweden, the Netherlands, and Germany,
have "handicap aids" programs that provide special devices at no
charge to eligible individuals. In the U.S., federal laws require
schools, hospitals, and employers to provide aids and devices for
handicapped students, patients, and workers; the laws call these
pieces of equipment "reasonable accommodations" because they
provide help at realistic prices. No reasonable accommodation I've
encountered, and I've seen almost all of them, is as meaningful to as
many people as is the personal computer. A laser cane might help a
blind person cross the street, but it does nothing for a deaf individ-
ual. A motorized wheelchair helps a quadriplegic office worker to
get to and from work, but it offers nothing for someone who is
learning-disabled. A microcomputer, on the other hand, helps all of
these people.
The concept of reasonable accommodation is one you should
remember: if you are a student, client, or employee, some of what's
described in this book may be available to you at little or no cost. I
will discuss that in considerable detail in the sections of this book
that deal with education and employment.
Six years ago, when I first encountered the then-novel notion that
microcomputers could help older, handicapped, and chronically ill
people, I didn't expect much to happen with these machines. They
simply cost too much. Then, you might have to pay $40,000 to
$50,000 for a microcomputer-based special-need device. And there
were only a few to be had in the entire country. Today, while some
aids remain expensive, many devices cost less than $300; some are
4
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
even priced below $50. Attached to or used with your personal
computer, they can do as much as the much more expensive
machines once did-or even more.
Six years ago, even three years ago, you were unlikely to hear
about these special aids unless you were a regular reader of highly
specialized journals or a member of a special-interest group consist-
ing of disabled people. Today you can find many of the aids
described in this book in your local hardware store. And, three
years ago, you probably had to connect a lot of wires and write
complex programs to get the results you wanted. Today often all
that's needed is to plug in a device-and away you go.
Despite all of this progress-and it's hard to believe we've come
so far so quickly-the majority of people with special needs aren't
using personal computers to do the things these machines can be
made to do. That's true in the U.S., in Europe, in Japan, and in other
regions of the world. Few people with special needs know what
microcomputers can do for them. Even fewer know that in some
cases they can get what they need at an affordable price or, if
they qualify under certain government programs, absolutely free.
Others have heard of products they want, but don't know where
to get them.
People with special needs must get the information they require
in order to free themselves from the shackles of physical, sensory,
and learning limitations. That's why I wrote this book: to put in the
hands of handicapped people the knowledge that can revolutionize
their lives.
And "revolutionize" is not too strong a word to use.
People with limited mobility often need as much as three hours
just to get started each morning; reaching light switches, controlling
radio dials or television channel switches, and moving about the
house or apartment to turn things on and off is time-consuming and
difficult for them. A personal computer, with a few add-ons (often
called "peripherals," a term that just means devices that are con-
nected to a computer), can save them hours every day. People with
chronic health conditions often worry about what might happen in a
medical or safety emergency; again, a computer with a few special
devices can eliminate much of the worry. Deaf people frequently
have to drive miles to reach someone who can help them make a
simple phone call; with a computer connected to their phone lines,
THIS BOOK IS FOR YOU
5
they can save time and money by making the call themselves.
Microcomputers adapted to meet special needs literally can allow
blind people to read. People paralyzed from the neck down can "go
to school" and "go to work" without even leaving the home. The
difference a personal computer makes can transform a life of passiv-
ity, boredom, and fear into one of creativity, productivity, and safety.
The general public often thinks that handicapped people are
persons who can't help themselves. That's wrong. With the aid
of devices described in this book, even the most severely disabled
person can do almost anything he or she did before becoming
handicapped.
Equally important, an adapted personal computer can make a
person feel much more independent. That means a lot. Instead of
having to rely on a grown son or daughter, a nurse, or a personal-
care attendant throughout the day, many people can take care of
their own needs with minimal assistance from others.
Physically disabled people, especially older people, often spend
long hours alone, bored and restless. Computers can provide com-
panionship, entertainment, and personal enrichment. They can help
isolated people keep in touch with the world around them.
A dramatic implication of adapted microcomputers is the poten-
tial these machines have for helping disabled people to work. If you
don't appreciate how much work means to you, try spending six
months at home with nothing productive to do. We find challenge,
satisfaction, pride of achievement, prestige, and social interaction
in work; many disabled people, in fact most such persons, are
deprived of all this. In this book, we will "visit" with special-needs
persons who use computers to work and learn just how much the
new technology means to them.
In fact, the use of adapted personal computers in the employment
of disabled people can help countries improve their troubled econo-
mies. Particularly in the Scandinavian nations, the United Kingdom,
and, to a large extent, the U.S., the costs to support older and dis-
abled persons who do not work are astronomical. Governments
often spend more than $10,000 per person per year on aid pro-
grams. It would be much less costly to government to provide many
disabled persons with adapted microcomputers and to train them
for jobs.
As far-reaching as current technologies are proving to be, there
6
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
are even more exciting developments to come. Within the next
five to ten years, personal computers will be able to "hear"
conversation-and print out what they hear as they hear it. All of a
sudden, telephones, television, radio, and even kitchen-table con-
versation will become accessible to deaf people. As someone who
has not heard a word in three decades, this prospect fills me with a
wonderful sense of anticipation. I broke up a congressional hearing
last year when I testified that computer speech-recognition would
change my life: "Someday soon I'll be able to go to a political rally
and hear a politician lie to me."
Also coming is affordable technology that allows a blind person to
read virtually anything in print. In fact, such a device exists today:
the Kurzweil Reading Machineᵀ At about $29,000, however, its
cost is prohibitive for personal use. Within the next several years,
though, the price will drop. You'll place a book, newspaper, or tele-
phone directory on a screen that resembles the glass plate on a cop-
ier. A few moments later, you'll hear the text coming out of a speech
synthesizer attached to your personal computer. What this will
mean for the education and employment of blind and dyslexic indi-
viduals is extraordinary.
Today it is often necessary to add components to your microcom-
puter in order to get done what you need. Within a few years,
though, less of that will be necessary. Personal computers will come
equipped with built-in speech synthesis and speech recognition
capabilities, for example.
What has caused this fast, recent, revolutionary growth in micro-
computer technology to help people with special needs? Why, that
is, do we now have so remarkably broad a spectrum of personal
computer capabilities to meet special needs?
One reason is that personal computers have become amazingly
capable, surprisingly inexpensive, and unbelievably popular in a
very short time. The capabilities of the microcomputer enable it to
do things previously thought to be impossible, and the low cost of
personal computers makes these capabilities widely available. And
the popularity of the devices makes them the chosen medium for
people who want to do something to help handicapped persons.
Let's take an example. Helping people who cannot speak has long
been a concern of parents and educators. In years past, they con-
centrated upon "lapboard and pointer" technologies. The individual
THIS BOOK IS FOR YOU
7
used a finger or a wooden pointer to indicate which of an array of
printed messages on the board he wanted to communicate (e.g.,
"drink"). Today, instead of trying to invent a better message board,
parents, teachers and interested technicians are working on com-
puter programs and peripherals. A computer with a speech synthe-
sizer, for example, lets a nonvocal individual "speak" more
satisfyingly complete sentences much faster and with more ease
than is possible with a message board.
Ten years ago, even five years ago, inventors wanting to help deaf
people use the telephone worked with the decades-old teleprinter
technologies. The resulting devices, called, at first, teletypewriters
(TTYs) and later, telecommunications devices for the deaf (TDDs),
enabled deaf people to call others who had similar equipment, but
no one else. Figure 1.1 shows a TDD. Today microcomputers
SIGNAL
HAVE R 6001 DAY
MINICOMII
BY CLIRATE
POWER
1
Q
W
3
5T
&
7
8
R
U
8
g
A
S
D
G
H
J
K
RC.
TURN
SHIFT
=N
Z
C
<=
3
BACK
N
M
SPACE
)
PHOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF ULTRATEC, INC.
Figure 1.1: The Minicom 11ᵀM, a popular telecommunications device for the deaf
(TDD), costs about $150.
8
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
are used so that deaf people who own personal computers can call
others who own such machines as well as people still using TDDs.
Three years ago, education for learning-disabled children and
youth focused on the demanding process of breaking through the
limitation: dyslexic students, for example, were taught how to read.
Today, educators realize that the ability of computers to produce
spoken versions of words and data frequently makes it possible for
such children to hear what they do not understand through vision.
When such devices become more widely available, they will make a
remarkable difference in the quality of education the children
receive. In the past, the teaching of other subjects had to be delayed
for several years while educators concentrated on the arduous task
of instruction in reading; in the future, academic teaching may be
concurrent with instruction in reading.
It is only recently that the personal computer has become a staple
in everyday life. But, as quickly as this happened, disabled persons
and scientists moved, just as quickly, to tap the emerging potential.
The personal computer, they realized, was more versatile, less
costly, and more beneficial a technology to work with than anything
previously available.
There's another reason for so many special-needs devices. Fifteen
or twenty years ago, many parents and educators were resigned to
the inevitability of a limited life for a handicapped child or youth.
Beginning in the late 1960s, however, parents in particular began to
become much more assertive and demanding. They took educators
to court-and won victories assuring their children of the right to
attend public schools. They went to Washington-and got Congress
to pass the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975
(P.L. 94-142). And many parents, particularly those with engineering
and mechanical skills, refused to accede to a child's limitations; rather,
on their own or with friends and colleagues, they invented first
crude, and then more sophisticated aids and devices. By the time
the 1980s rolled around, these parents were using microcomputers
to do their experimenting with, because they were comfortable
with personal computers and knew what these machines could
do for their children.
However, much of the progress is due to none of these factors.
Speech recognition, for example, began not because someone
wanted to help deaf people understand the spoken word but
THIS BOOK IS FOR YOU
9
because business executives, who control the purchase of most
business-use computers, do not like to type. They would much
rather talk to a secretary, who would then do the typing. Computer
companies quickly realized that the key to big sales lay in enabling
the executive to dictate to a computer as he or she does to a secre-
tary. As the work began, the implications of speech-recognition tech-
nology for deaf people became evident. But it was always, and still
is, a secondary consideration. Much the same happened with
speech synthesis. Today, your car talks to you ("Close the door") and
so do many soda machines. The remarkable omnipresence of talk-
ing devices is due not to a desire to help blind people so much as to
the need to make machines "user friendly."
The motivations of the inventors and manufacturers are irrelevant
to most of us. The important thing is that the machines we need are
here or on the way. In fact, it is probably fortunate for people with
special needs that their particular requirements converge so neatly
with the desires of the general public, because there were some
special problems with the "special devices" designed and manu-
factured only for handicapped people.
Because the market was relatively small, mass production of such
devices was impossible. Hence, the price per unit was high. I
remember, six years ago, talking with Dr. Howard Rusk, then direc-
tor of the New York University (NYU) Institute of Rehabilitation Med-
icine in Manhattan, about an "NYU wheelchair" invented by
members of his staff. This electronic wheelchair was truly remark-
able. It could "hear" and "understand" about 80 two-word com-
mands. Rusk's staff had designed the chair for people who had been
paralyzed by automobile, diving, or sports accidents, but who could
talk. The NYU wheelchair would turn on the television, for example,
in response to the command: "TV on." As impressive as the device
was, and as needed as it surely still is, it could not be mass produced
because of the small market for it and its cost, for each chair, of
$35,000. At that price, I was not surprised to learn that there were
only two such wheelchairs in the country.
Now, let's contrast this situation with what's known as "BSR tech-
nology." You can get a BSR home-control console in your local hard-
ware store. It operates, by remote control, more than a dozen
devices in the home and costs $40. There are millions of them
around today. And the reason for the low cost, widespread availability,
10
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
and convenience of purchase is that the BSR console was designed
for, and is sold to, the general public, not the special-needs popula-
tion. My point: who cares? The device allows someone with a spe-
cial need to do more, much more, than he or she could possibly do
with a special device just a few years ago-and at a dramatically
lower price.
Special devices had another problem-they were difficult to get
repaired. Because most were made by small firms, a malfunctioning
device had to be returned to the manufacturer for repair. Sometimes
these firms went bankrupt before the device you bought needed
repair. There was no one else around who knew how to fix the
thing. General-use devices that are accessible to people with special
needs, however, share few, if any, of these difficulties. Usually, you
can get it repaired in your own hometown. In some cases, the cost
to repair the aid would exceed the price of a new one, so you'll just
buy another.
Today, what once was "special" rapidly is becoming "general."
ComputerLand™ stores, for example, now carry touch pads, speech
synthesizers and speech-recognition devices, all of which were once
"special needs" aids. The computer-store chain has found that many
nondisabled individuals feel more comfortable with computers
when they can avoid the keyboard and interact directly with the
machine. Koalaᵀ pads that let users draw with a stylus or finger on
a special surface once were marketed by Koala Technologies Corp.
primarily to special-education programs; today, the growing com-
pany sells the $150 touch pads to nondisabled children and adults
who feel they are more "user friendly" than keyboards. One year
ago, speech recognition products primarily were sold to people
who could not use keyboards at all, including individuals with
severe physical disabilities as well as manufacturing-plant inspectors
whose jobs required them to walk rapidly through plant floors.
Now, however, products that "hear" are being marketed by such
companies as Texas Instruments and Voice Machine Communica-
tions to local computer stores for the general market. Some observ-
ers predict that within three years, one out of every four computers
sold will be equipped with some kind of "special" aid or device. For
people with special needs, that is welcome news because it means
the products will be more easily repaired, more readily available,
and much less expensive than they were just one or two years ago.
THIS BOOK IS FOR YOU
11
I'll introduce you to these aids and devices in this book. You will
learn what people in the U.S. and Europe are doing with microcom-
puters, how they are doing these things, and how you can do them
too. I'll tell you where to buy the aids you want. You'll see what you
can expect to pay to get the functions you need. And you'll find out
where to turn for more information. Usually, I'll give you an address
immediately after I discuss a product or service, so you'll have the
resources available when you want them.
This is not a book on theory; I'll leave that to the academicians.
Rather, my focus is on concrete facts: what you can do and how you
can do it.
It is not a book on engineering or computer programming; you
don't have to be an electronics engineer or a programmer to benefit
from the information in these pages. In some cases, you might want
to call in someone in your town who can help you attach the various
components, but knowing who to ask is about all you'll have to
bring to the ideas you'll find in this book.
And it is not a book endorsing any particular manufacturer's
products. It is true that many of the special programs now available
were written originally for use with Apple computers. This is primar-
ily because Apples were so popular during the first several years
of the so-called personal computer revolution. But you'll see that
TRS 80, Commodore 64ᵀM, IBM PCᵀM, Osborne I and other
computers now can do a lot for you. And it is true that some firms,
such as Ohio's Prentke Romich, have dominated the peripheral mar-
ket for special-needs devices in recent years. Since then, however,
many other companies have entered the field. I'll tell you what's
available and show you how individual people use these devices,
but please bear in mind that none of the machines mentioned in this
book is endorsed or recommended over others by the author or by
the publisher.
Rather, this is a book that responds to the real needs many people
have for help with problems that can overwhelm them and their
families, by offering objective information they can use to solve
practical, everyday problems.
When I start on a long trip, I like to look over a road map to get
some idea of what I'll be encountering along the journey. When I
read a book, too, I like to know, quickly, what is and is not between
the covers.
12
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Chapter 2 talks briefly about different kinds of special needs.
Some readers won't have to read this chapter; they already know all
they need to know about their own needs. But parents, educators,
counselors, friends, and relatives might want to know more about
special needs in order to understand how the devices described in
this book can meet those needs.
The next section, Part II, takes up specific problems: employment,
education, and independent living. Here I'll consider what com-
puters can and cannot do. Interviews with disabled people who use
microcomputers will illustrate these capabilities and show how the
technologies work in actual practice.
In Part III, I'll review the ways that microcomputers can help
people with different kinds of special needs: blindness, deafness,
mobility limitations, and learning limitations. I'll share with you
information about international and domestic organizations that
specialize in assisting persons with these limitations, so you'll know
where to turn for help.
The final section of this book, Part IV, offers product and service
information. You'll find a discussion of resources, such as users'
groups, information and referral organizations, and special-interest
publications. Then I've provided a detailed table that summarizes
hardware, software, and resources information in handy form. The
table brings together much of the information that's offered in narra-
tive form in earlier parts of the book.
Now, a note about myself. l've used many of the computers dis-
cussed in this book. Those I haven't personally used, I've seen in
operation by people with special needs. For several years now, as a
consultant to the U.S. Congress and to various other international
and domestic organizations, l've watched the emergence of special-
needs capabilities in microcomputers. And while executive director
of the so-called "handicapped lobby," the American Coalition of Citi-
zens with Disabilities (ACCD), I came to know thousands of people
with special needs. Many became my friends. l've kept in touch with
them and have shared their sense of excitement as they began using
personal computers to make their lives easier, more productive, and
more fun. When I decided to write this book, they helped me
understand what microcomputers could do-for you.
Perhaps few things illustrate more vividly how much personal
computers are changing the lives of disabled people than the
THIS BOOK IS FOR YOU
13
careers of my staff members after I left ACCD. My director of
research is now a manager in a major computer corporation. The
man who ran my public relations department now heads Technical
Communications Inc., where he publishes a monthly paper, Special
Needs Computing, which monitors access to "The Information Age"
much as the ACCD newsletter used to track access to transportation.
Another staff member became vice president for planning at a major
forestry trade association, where he uses computers for creating
"what if?" scenarios. And my sign-language interpreter took an MBA
at Columbia University and is now a banking executive who uses
spreadsheet programs on her personal computer.
If what I've described sounds interesting, this book is for you.
CHAPTER
ABOUT SPECIAL NEEDS
In the United States today, approximately 27 million to 36 million
people are disabled. A little more than 4 million are under the age of
16. More than 13 million are aged 16 to 64, and 8 million are
over the age of 65. And another 2 million of all ages reside in institu-
tions. These figures reflect only those persons the U.S. Bureau of the
Census and other federal agencies have counted or projected. It
is reasonable to expect that some people who have disabilities do
not report them to census takers; so the true figure may be as high
as 36 million.
The rate of disability in a body of people varies greatly depending
upon how old these persons are. Only one in every twenty-seven
individuals aged 16 to 24, for example, reports a disability; among
persons aged 65 to 74, however, nearly three in every ten declare
that they have a disability. Most people with disabilities were once
able-bodied; most, in fact, worked before an illness or accident
disabled them.
If you talk to these people, as I have, you learn quickly that most
are healthy. Someone may have been blinded in an accident ten
years ago, for example, but aside from that is in excellent health.
ABOUT SPECIAL NEEDS
15
And most want to work and to remain active in the community.
Yet the facts are inescapable: the vast majority of people with spe-
cial. needs do not work. Take American working-age (16-64) women
who have disabilities, for example: the proportion at work is just one
in five. About one-third of disabled men of the same age range work.
Fewer than one in ten disabled men and one in fifteen disabled
women over 65 years of age work. In Europe, the proportion of per-
sons with disabilities at work is even lower than it is in the U.S.
Most disabled people are not working for several reasons. The
major cause is probably employer bias: people with special needs
often face discrimination in the workplace. Employment interview-
ers just do not believe that these persons can and will work as well
as do persons without any special needs. The tragedy is that they are
so wrong. As DuPont, IBM, AT&T, Control Data, and other corpora-
tions have shown in the U.S., with some basic "reasonable accom-
modation" aids and devices, such as those described in this book,
people can handle their special problems well enough to unleash
their abilities for productive work. In Great Britain, Remploy Ltd. has
demonstrated the same thing, with 9,000 disabled workers at 94 fac-
tories throughout the country.
Another reason more do not work is that their personal lives are
difficult and demanding. Physical impairments, for example, make
doing the simplest chores around the house exhausting; the same
restrictions make commuting to and from work problematic. With
the kinds of aids described in these pages, many such people can
gain enough control over their personal lives to be free to work.
That it can be done is demonstrated by the hundreds of thou-
sands of disabled men and women who work full-time and lead
active personal lives as well. They are, by and large, not "super-
achievers." Rather, they've learned how to use aids and devices to
compensate for their limitations-and they've been able to convince
employers to hire them. The relatively few who get year-round full-
time jobs earn nearly as much as do their able-bodied colleagues. It
can be done-and often is. With the devices described in this book,
it can be done by many more people.
On an average day, about 1,200,000 people are in American
nursing homes. Thousands more enter such homes each year
because they can no longer live independently. For many, it is very
traumatic. Several times as many older persons move from their
16
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
home into another home, often to live with their grown children.
Again, such a move is difficult for many elderly people to make.
Some of the devices described in this book can delay for several
years the necessity for such wrenching relocations. We cannot put a
dollar value on what it means to many older persons to be able to
remain at home, comfortable, safe, and secure.
Let's look at some of the restrictions or limitations that disabled
people face.
Vision Impairment
Stephen Rogers is a professor of liberal studies at the University
of Notre Dame, where he has taught for 20 years. He earned his
Ph.D. in comparative literature at Harvard and has written exten-
sively on modern mythologies, romantic poetry, and Shakespeare.
He is also legally blind. Dr. Rogers uses an Apple II Plus® equipped
with an Echo 11ᵀM speech synthesizer to do his voluminous writing
and editing work. The Echo lets him listen to words he can't read: it
converts print to sound. In effect, Rogers uses the Echo as a "moni-
tor" (hearing rather than seeing what he's writing) and the Apple as a
word processor. "More than once, I've stayed up until 4:00 A.M. with
the computer," he says. Rogers' 11-year old daughter uses the
speech synthesizer to make computer games more enjoyable, but
only when her father isn't at the machine. Rogers says:
For years, writing has been one of my professional duties; it is a
task I sometimes love and sometimes hate. Although I have had
lots of good help from readers [sighted persons who read aloud
for him] and especially from my wife, I have been frustrated, at
times almost intellectually paralyzed, by the numerous gaps
between my thoughts and the pages I wrote.
Now all that is changed: "It is the freedom of composition that
makes the real difference. Never have I had such control over what
I write."
Rogers is one of about 1.7 million blind persons in America. Legal
blindness is 20/200 vision after correction; that is, a blind individual
can see at 20 feet what a sighted individual can see at ten times that
ABOUT SPECIAL NEEDS
17
distance. Vision impairment is common among older Americans, as
sight is one of the capacities that deteriorate with age. A total of
about 11 million people of all ages in the U.S. have impaired vision;
most, however, can see fairly well with glasses or other aids. In some
cases, surgery can restore usable vision.
A popular misconception is that most blind people read Braille. In
fact, only about one in every ten does. The reason is basic: loss of
vision usually occurs later in life. Rather than attempt to learn a diffi-
cult skill that would be of limited help, most blinded individuals rely
on tape recorders and human readers to keep up with paperwork.
Today they can use speech synthesizers, such as Rogers' Echo.
A speech synthesizer helps a blind person in a number of ways.
One of the most important is in the acquisition of information.
Words and data stored on a computer, entered by the blind person
or by others, may be retrieved and "read" almost as easily and
quickly by a blind person as by a sighted one. Rogers points out,
though, that "it is still faster for sighted people to read a screen than
it is for me to listen to the synthesizer." Devices like the Echo are
particularly helpful for students and workers who must keep up with
large quantities of information. But they help enrich the lives of
others as well, simply by greatly expanding the person's ability to
maintain contact with the community.
A second way synthesizers can help is illustrated by Rogers' use of
his Apple: using special software, Echo can read out entire words.
For writing and editing, a word processing program especially writ-
ten to be used with the Echo II can spell out those words and even
indicate punctuation. Such capabilities are invaluable.
Blind people encounter prejudice in the labor market. I wish I
had five cents for every time a blind person has told me about los-
ing out on a job opportunity because the interviewer said: "You
can't keep up with the paperwork." With a microcomputer and a
speech synthesizer, blind individuals can, in fact, handle large doses
of information quickly and efficiently; they need no longer restrict
themselves to stereotyped jobs, such as piano tuners, musicians,
and the like.
But what blind individuals tell me over and again about speech
synthesizers is how these devices make them feel independent. To
appreciate the depth of feeling they bring to those statements, con-
sider the imposition of having to rely upon a human reader to get
18
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
through your business and personal papers; in addition to the fre-
quent invasion of privacy, there is the not inconsiderable matter of
dependency on another person. Rogers, for example, is an enthusi-
astic proponent of microcomputers equipped with speech synthe-
sizers: "I have an extravagant hunch that every print-handicapped
person in school or the professions would benefit from having
access to a talking computer."
Hearing Loss
Karen Maliszewski is a slender 13-year-old who likes swimming,
mathematics, and art. A student at Lewis and Clark Junior High
School in Omaha, Nebraska, Karen struggles to keep up with her
1,100 fellow students, although she has an I.Q. of 140. Karen is deaf.
Deafness occurring early in life interferes with the natural and effort-
less task most children perform, almost without thinking about it:
acquiring a mastery of the English language.
Karen found computers helpful when she spent a recent summer
as one of 27 deaf campers at Boys Town in Nebraska. The ability of a
microcomputer equipped with a spelling-checker program to help
her with her writing made the difficult job of learning language eas-
ier and more enjoyable for her.
Two million Americans of all ages are deaf. Deafness is the inabil-
ity to hear and understand conversational speech through the ear
alone. Most deaf people rely on lipreading or sign language for inter-
personal communication, and upon reading for information acquisi-
tion. A total of 400,000 deaf people lost their hearing before they
reached employment age. For most of these individuals, learning to
read and write well was very difficult. Today's computer "dictio-
naries" help by automatically identifying the misspelled words in a
text, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. Some software just now coming on
the market allows them to improve their prose by substituting less
familiar synonyms for words they know well but use too often for
their writing to read smoothly. We are even beginning to see com-
puter software that corrects grammar and syntax. These products
are useful to the general public as well as to people who are deaf: for
this reason, most are much more affordable than they would be if
designed only for use by deaf individuals. Spelling and grammar
ABOUT SPECIAL NEEDS
19
programs are of enormous benefit to people like Karen, who often
are embarrassed to show others what they've written.
That's not all computers can do for people who are deaf. With
a modem (modulator-demodulator; basically, an interface, or
go-between, for connecting a computer with a telephone wire),
a computer becomes a machine that a deaf individual can use to
communicate by phone with others who have computers. And
with information services such as The Sourceᵀ and CompuServeᵀM,
they can hook into electronic mail. Another attachment, which
permits the machine to function both as an "eight-level" (ASCII;
American Standard Code for Information Interchange) device-
that is, like a computer-and as a "five-level" (Baudot) machine-that
is, like a traditional TDD-allows deaf people to telephone friends
who have TDDs as well as others who use microcomputers.
By the time Karen enters the labor market, personal computers
may be able to understand continuous speech. If so, she could use
a microcomputer to function fully independently on the job and
at home.
Ernie Hairston is a deaf professional who uses a Tandy Radio
Shack 4PTM personal computer at work and at home. An educa-
tional media specialist with the U.S. Department of Education in
Washington, he wrote Black and Deaf in America with the late
Linwood Smith, another man who was both deaf and black. Figure
2.2 shows Ernie with his portable computer.
Personal Computers and Special Needs is
written to help people with disabilities to
overcome theor limitations so that they
can lead fuller, happier, and more
rewarding lives.
Figure 2.1: A spelling checker program helps the user locate all the misspelled words in
a document.
20
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Mobility Limitation
John Collins is an entrepreneur in northern Virginia. Owner of
Van Go, a privately held corporation, John uses an Osborne I por-
table computer to maintain the books for his company and perform
mailing-list services for his clients. John has myositis ossificans pro-
gressiva, a rare calcium disease that immobilizes most of his limbs.
From a motorized wheelchair, he uses his Osborne to store,
retrieve, and manipulate words and data far, faster and much easier
than he was able to with conventional typewriters and paper. "My
computer has made it possible for me to increase my business and
have fun while doing it," he says.
John made some adaptations to the Osborne I he bought two
years ago. He uses a four-foot extension cord to permit him to place
PHOTOGRAPH BY LISA D. WILLIAMS.
Figure 2.2: Ernie Hairston with Tandy Radio Shack 4Pᵀ portable computer in his
office.
ABOUT SPECIAL NEEDS
21
the keyboard on his wheelchair lapboard. And because he sits too
far away from the computer to read its small display, he added a
larger, separate monitor that hangs at eye level on the wall next to
his computer.
John Collins is one of approximately ten million Americans who
have mobility limitations, usually in the upper or lower limbs.
Almost all of these people, unlike John, can walk with simple aids
and devices, such as canes, crutches and braces. About 500 thou-
sand use wheelchairs.
Safety and health considerations are important to people with
mobility restrictions. Microcomputers can help them in a number of
ways. With a modem and an automatic telephone dialer (a device
that obviates the necessity of dialing; it enables the computer to call
up a telephone number from its memory and dial the number itself),
emergency medical, fire, or burglar alarm signals may be issued
directly to the approprate persons or organizations.
Using The Source, CompuServe, or similar information services,
a person with a severe mobility limitation may eliminate many trips
out of the home. Coming soon are "videotex" services which will
allow shopping from the home; in Florida and a few other states,
such services already are commercially available. Some banks, such
as Citibank in Manhattan, offer home banking services to customers
for a modest monthly fee. (Videotex and home-banking services are
not, of course, specifically designed for disabled people; they are
attractive time-savers for millions of able-bodied individuals.) Taken
together, these microcomputer capabilities can dramatically reduce
the number of "errand" trips a person has to make. For disabled
people, they will conserve time and strength while alleviating con-
cerns about safety.
And, as John Collins demonstrates, personal computers can help
many previously "unemployable" people find and perform well-
paying work.
Learning Disability
Kevin Myers, a 14-year-old who lives in Scottsdale, Arizona, expe-
rienced difficulty in school because of a learning disability.
"He was more capable of retaining auditory stimuli than visual
22
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
stimuli," says his father, Dr. Gerald Myers. Myers equipped the fam-
ily Heath H-89ᵀM computer with a Votraxᵀ speech synthesizer,
so Kevin could listen to lessons instead of trying to read them. Then
Dr. Myers went further, writing an interactive program he called
"Nivek" (for Kevin, spelled backwards) that helps Kevin practice his
mathematics skills.
Dyslexic individuals have difficulty comprehending what they
see, particularly printed words. Other, less common, learning dis-
abilities interfere with the ability to understand what is heard.
Learning-disabled people almost always have normal intelligence,
vision, and hearing.
Education for children with learning disabilities is demanding-
and expensive. Pine Woods School in Williston, Vermont, for
example, offers individual instruction and small classes, stressing
alternative ways of using brain cells to acquire functions, such as
reading, that are impaired by the disability. Enrollment costs, in
1983, averaged nearly $15,000 a year.
For people like Kevin Myers, the personal computer opens up a
whole new world: almost effortless learning. And it provides a way
of working effectively and quickly despite a learning disability.
Mental retardation is different from such impairments. Retarda-
tion is a general reduction in intellectual functioning. People who
are retarded usually respond better to what they hear than to what
they read; some do not learn to read at all. Many can acquire an
impressive number of skills, but usually only after long hours of
repetitive practice.
For persons who are retarded, the computer provides a patient,
uncritical tutor; equipped with a speech synthesizer, it can talk to the
student. And, with appropriate programming, the computer can be
used to remind a retarded person what to do and how to do it, thus
enhancing the ability to live independently.
A Dissenting View
Not all people with special needs welcome the advent of
personal computers adapted to meeting these needs. This is hardly
surprising, given the fact that many Americans and Europeans still
fear or even loathe computers.
ABOUT SPECIAL NEEDS
23
Irving K. Zola, a professor of sociology at Brandeis University and
physically disabled himself, is distrustful of the concept of "doing too
much technically." He observes, for example, that his leg brace has a
tendency to cause pressure sores. Zola solves the problem by plac-
ing a small patch over the spot every day. He notes with a sense of
pride that his orthopedist, who would prefer to design a custom
brace, views the adaptation dubiously. "I have solved something
they could not," he says. "But I have also done something else. I've
made the brace more a part of me because I have given it my own
unique stamp."
Dr. Zola does not advocate the elimination of mechanical and
electronic aids; far from it. But he does inject a needed dose of psy-
chology into the realm of aids for people with special needs. "My
point is a simple one, that care, as in the terms 'medical care' or
'personal care', is not merely a technical task," Zola says. "To objec-
tify this care into a technical service, to replace the human element
with a mechanical or animal one, can only lead to further objectifi-
cation of the individual receiving that service."
As I move on to consider the ways in which personal computers
can be used to help people with special needs, Dr. Zola's observa-
tions should not be forgotten. Whether helping an elderly parent
remain at home, a handicapped child learn in school, or a disabled
adult perform work, the objective is always to help people help
themselves.
There is an old Chinese proverb that illustrates this point nicely:
"Give a man a fish, and he will eat for a day. Teach him how to fish,
and he will eat for the rest of his life." What Dr. Zola is saying is that
he needs to do something to retain his sense of self-worth. Were a
machine to do everything for him, leaving no room for him to
express his individuality and creativity, he would feel devalued.
Thus, something as small as placing a patch on a sore spot becomes
important because it permits exactly this assertiveness. John Naisbitt
makes a similar point in his book, Megatrends. Nasibitt argues that
high technology almost always fails to win popular approval unless
"high touch" features also are offered. When banks tried to convert
customers to electronic funds transfer, for example, people resisted
the change; they wanted to do something themselves. Naisbitt says
he feels virtuous writing out checks but "now the banks want to take
that away from me."
24
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
The tremendous potential of microcomputers should not obscure
from our view the desires of people to maintain their dignity and
independence.
The Limits of the Possible
The personal computer field is bedeviled by a rash of compatibil-
ity problems. When two things work together, they are said to be
"compatible." The Echo II speech synthesizer that Dr. Rogers uses,
for example, is compatible with an Apple II Plus computer. Similarly,
the software John Collins uses with his Osborne is compatible with
that machine. Just as people must use leaded or unleaded gasoline,
depending on the make and model car they drive, so too must
people who have a computer use software and hardware that work
with that computer. The usual advice to people interested in buying
their first computer is to first select the software that meets their
needs and then pick a computer that runs that software. It is good
advice. For most people, a personal computer is actually just a me-
dium for running software. It is the software, the computer program,
that really does the work: the word processing, the calculating,
the graphic imaging. that you want done. If, to illustrate, your needs
are best met by the Lotus 1-2-3ᵀM program, you are well advised to
shop for a computer that is compatible with this program.
People with special needs who use peripherals face still more
compatibility problems. The Echo II speech synthesizer, for
example, is not compatible with "protected" software, such
as WordStar™ by MicroPro. Dr. Rogers could not use the Word-
Star word-processing program designed to run on Apple II Plus
computers because the speech synthesizer won't vocalize the text
created with the WordStar program. That's why he had to use
a software program written specifically for use with the Echo II
synthesizer.
The problem is not unique to speech synthesizers. Severely dis-
abled children with cerebral palsy, for example, sometimes use
a specially designed message board to enter words and data into a
personal computer. Message boards are easier for these children to
manipulate than are standard computer keyboards; for example, the
individual keys are much larger and more widely spaced. Some
ABOUT SPECIAL NEEDS
25
boards allow the user to enter entire words or strings of words with
just one command. I watched as one child played a computer game
with a message board. When she tried to play a second game, how-
ever, nothing happened: the new game was not compatible with her
message board.
People who need peripherals should consider these compatibility
problems carefully. Disabled individuals I've talked to tell me that
first they decided what they wanted to do with personal computers.
They asked themselves such questions as: Is my major interest word
processing or is it calculating? Then they looked for peripherals that
would meet their special needs. Some blind people like to listen to
information, so speech synthesizers were the aids they investigated;
other blind individuals prefer to read Braille, so machines that pro-
duce Braille output attracted their interest. Only then did they look
at software programs on the market to find those they could use
with the peripherals they had selected. The question of which com-
puter to purchase was then answered by asking: What computer
is compatible with both the peripherals I need and the software pro-
grams I want? The special-needs device became the starting point,
the core around which they built their system.
These problems may be resolved in the years to come. In Febru-
ary 1984, representatives of AT&T Bell Laboratories, International
Business Machines, Apple Computer, Tandy Radio Shack, and
Honeywell met at a White House Conference on Computers and
Handicapped Persons to discuss how to make hardware and soft-
ware more accessible to people with disabilities. If these manufac-
turers can eliminate some of the compatibility problems now
frustrating disabled persons, people like Stephen Rogers will have a
much broader selection of products from which to choose. That
would be a major step forward. Of the more than one hundred
word-processing programs on the market today, Rogers can use only
one or two. Someday soon, he may be able to use dozens.
A different set of concerns arises from the limited memory of
many computers. Personal computers do not have as much mem-
ory as do larger, mainframe computers; they can't "remember" as
much and they don't have as much "room" to explore. Computer
memory comes in two basic kinds: "read-only memory" (ROM) and
"random-access memory" (RAM). ROM represents a computer's
permanent memory: it contains basic instructions, sets of data, and
26
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
other information the computer needs to do its work. RAM, on the
other hand, is temporary memory. When you do word processing
on a computer, for example, the commands you use trigger the
computer's ROM, which in turn tells the computer what to do to
implement your commands. The words you type, however, go into
the RAM.
Suppose, for example, you wanted to use speech recognition
with your computer. Perhaps you have a severe physical disability
that makes typing extremely difficult. Talking to the computer is
much easier for you. There are speech-recognition products on the
market today that function very well. But, because of the sharply
limited memory of most personal computers, it is only possible to
say a few words to the computer. It does not have enough memory
to store instructions for translating more than a handful of spoken
words. Similarly, most speech-recognition products available today
have enough memory only to store the way one person pronounces
those words. If another individual speaks to the computer, nothing
will happen.
The emergence of more powerful small computers may help
resolve memory problems, because such computers have many
more times as much memory as do most personal computers. Even-
tually, small computers will be capable of recognizing continuous
speech. Today the new 32-bit computers, such as Apple's Lisa™ and
MacintoshT computers, are more powerful (have more memory)
than smaller, 16-bit or 8-bit microcomputers. AT&T's new 3B™ com-
puters, similarly, are 32-bit machines.
As an example of the progress being made, consider the needs of
many people with physical disabilities who use personal computers
to perform many important tasks. With the first popular machines,
such as the Apple II, these people had to spend five to ten minutes
changing disks every time they wanted to do something different.
Today's operating systems, the programs that tell the computer what
to do, are much easier for physically disabled people to manipulate.
AT&T's UNIX™ operating system, for example, allows the user to
perform several different tasks without changing disks. Digital
Research, the company that gave us the CP/M® operating system,
now sells an advanced program, called Concurrent DOSTM, that
permits multi-tasking; you can, for example, calculate some figures
in one "window" and then, without changing disks, transfer those
ABOUT SPECIAL NEEDS
27
numbers to a report you are writing in another window. Microsoft,
maker of MS-DOSᵀM, is adding to its popular operating system a new
program, called WindowsᵀM, that lets users view up to four different
tasks at once. One critical advantage these new operating systems
offer to physically disabled individuals: it is no longer necessary
to re-enter information when you switch tasks. Today's operating
systems allow data to be shared between, say, a word-processing
program and a spreadsheet.
To illustrate how the powerful new personal computers and oper-
ating systems can help many persons with special needs, consider
the problems facing an individual with severe cerebral palsy who
uses a microcomputer to talk to others in the room as well as to
write and to calculate. Cerebral palsy not only makes typing on a
keyboard difficult, it also restricts speech. I walked into the office of
a young professional with cerebral palsy last year. He was working
on a spreadsheet program as I entered. To answer my question, he
had to signal me to wait, conclude what he was doing, remove the
disk from his computer, install a second disk, wait until it was ready
for use, and then (a full five minutes later) type his answer to me.
Many of today's machines, including Apple's Macintosh and Lisa
computers, AT&T's new 3B desktop computers, and other products
using advanced operating systems, would let this man answer me
with just two or three commands on the keyboard. Once we had
finished our conversation, another two or three strikes on the key-
board would bring him back to where he was before we talked.
These capabilities were impossible for microcomputers to per-
form just a few years ago. Today, they're not only available but afford-
able. Apple's Macintosh, for example, sells for about the same
price as does the 16-bit IBM PC. And the advanced operating sys-
tems often come with the computer or may be purchased separately
at little extra cost.
Computer capabilities that cost $1 million in 1955 could be pur-
chased in 1982 for around one 1955 dollar. This one fact helps to
explain why such remarkable features in computers are so quickly
becoming affordable to individuals and not just to businesses. By
1990 it probably will be possible to purchase circuitry one hundred
times as powerful as the 1955 machines-for just one 1955 penny. It
seems likely, then, that 32-bit machines will sell for what we are now
accustomed to paying for less powerful machines. Indeed, InfoCorp,
28
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
a Cupertino, California company specializing in computer market
research, predicts that 32-bit computers will comprise 80 percent of
all desktop models sold by 1990.
That does not mean, however, that the powerful new machines
will do all they probably are capable of doing. Now, the frustrating
compatibility problems are restricting such important. functions as
synthesized speech to a fraction of their actual potential. To resolve
these difficulties and to forestall more problems in the near future,
it is of vital importance that people with special needs communi-
cate with hardware and software manufacturers to explain what
they want to do and why existing products are inadequate to meet
their needs.
America is now entering a new era, often called "The Information
Age." In this country, as in many European nations, the ability to use
microcomputers will soon be necessary for education, employment,
shopping, banking, and many other aspects of daily living.
We entered an "Industrial Age" earlier in our history. It was not
until almost the end of that era that it was possible for people with
special needs to participate fully in our societies. In the U.S., accessi-
bility in buildings and transportation systems did not command
attention until the mid-1970s, when we discovered that we had
erected government and private-sector buildings that many people
with wheelchairs could not get into, transportation systems that
many disabled people could not use, and telecommunications capa-
bilities that were all but closed to millions of deaf people. Through-
out Europe today, and in many American cities as well, accessibility
remains more a goal than a reality. It has taken many laws, regula-
tions, and civil-rights protests to get us to this point.
As we enter "The Information Age," we should realize that tens of
millions of people will again be left behind if we do not act soon to
ensure that they can gain access to information technologies. As
other parts of the world, too, enter the computer era, which is hap-
pening quickly, as many as one-half billion people will be affected by
the accessibility of information systems.
ill
PART
MICROCOMPUTERS AND
/
CHAPTER
EMPLOYMENT
"Do I like my work? I love it!"
In a small white house in the Fairfax Farms area of nothern Vir-
ginia, a man named Rick Pilgrim is doing things that, from a medical
viewpoint, would be considered impossible for him to do. Ten years
ago, when he was still a teenager, Rick was shot in a gun accident:
"A friend of mine was sitting behind me, playing with this gun. I
turned toward him. That's when the gun went off." The bullet
entered Rick's spinal cord at nearly the base of his skull, causing an
extremely severe spinal-cord injury that left him unable to move
anything except his eyes and mouth. As he himself acknowledged:
"C-1 quads [a medical term] don't usually survive."
Rick's arms, torso, and legs are still paralyzed, and he spends
virtually all of his time in bed at home. As we talked, I noticed that
he could not even move his neck.
The accident paralyzed his body, but it didn't hurt his mind or
his sense of determination. He spent ten weeks in intensive care
at a local hospital, followed by eleven months at a spinal-cord
injury center. Returning home, Rick didn't waste any time getting his
EMPLOYMENT
33
high-school equivalency diploma. And then he started working with
computers.
In January 1976, with help from the state vocational rehabilitation
agency and George Washington University's Job Development Labo-
ratory, Rick learned about the Voice Data Entry Systemᵀ produced
by small Scope Electronics. He spent two years in training, some of it
conducted by Scope, learning how to use the technology to write
programs in the FORTRAN and COBOL languages. By early 1978,
he had written and documented his own inventory control system,
all by voice.
The U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) hired Rick as a com-
puter assistant in July of that year. Starting at four hours daily, he now
works five hours each day, five days a week, and is shooting for a
full 40-hour week. As his eyes meet yours, you know he intends to
get there.
Scope Electronics, meanwhile, was purchased by Interstate
Electronics Corporation. Interstate, based in Anaheim, California,
sells about one hundred voice-entry systems a month. Most are
bought by corporations and hospitals. The company claims that pro-
ductivity by factory inspectors, who can use its products to make
notes during inspections while keeping both hands free, may rise as
much as 60 percent over that of inspectors using more traditional
note-taking techniques. In hospitals, Interstate says, patients may
order as many as 10,000 services by using an 80-word voice input
vocabulary.
However, it is difficult to imagine applications of the technology
more dramatic than those that occur every working day in the white
house in Fairfax Farms. Rick's mother Inez turns on the Data Gen-
eral Nova 3ᵀᵐ terminal ("That's all I do," she says). The minicompu-
ter, which readers may recall from Tracy Kidder's excellent book,
The Soul of a New Machine, retains in memory "templates" which
store imprints of Rick's voice pronouncing frequently used words.
When he sees "system ready" appear on the screen, Rick starts
his work. Relying now on complete words ("random," "sequential,"
"space," and the like) and then on spelled-out words ("dear", for
example, might be spelled: "Delta. Easy. Alpha. Romeo."), Rick
performs his programming, as shown in Figure 3.1. The system
understands, Rick says, some 90 to 95 percent of what he says.
"Outside noise throws it off," he acknowledges.
34
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Although co-workers at NIH describe his work as "outstanding,"
Rick remains convinced he can do more. A documentation and
systems analysis specialist, he is determined to master yet more
complex computer functions.
Even as I ask it, I know the question's answer. "Do I like my
work?" Rick repeats. "I love it!"
The technology that makes it possible for Rick to use his mind to
support himself in fulfilling employment is still at a fairly primitive
stage of development. The Voice Data Entry System Rick uses is, he
says, "a dinosaur." Today, Interstate Electronics offers a range of voice
recognition products far superior to the "old" one Rick uses. Some
of the Interstate components recognize eight different words, some as
many as 200, with up to 99 percent accuracy.
The VRC008, for example, recognizes speech by detecting signifi-
cant parameters in the spoken word or phrase, compares these
PHOTOGRAPHS BY LISA D. WILLIAMS.
Figure 3.1: Rick Pilgrim documenting a computer program by voice. The Voice Data
Entry System is on top of a Telray terminal. Inset, Rick wearing the Shure SM-10 head-
set, which contains the microphone he uses to talk to his computers.
EMPLOYMENT
35
features with the stored sequences in its templates, and discards
irrelevant information. The system then translates the recognized
word into computer-understandable binary code, so that the
machine "thinks" the word was entered by someone typing on its key-
board. The VRC is speaker-independent, meaning that it recognizes
not only its primary user but other people as well. Designed for low-
cost consumer products such as appliances, toys, games and other
devices, it recognizes eight words or two-word commands (e.g.,
"channel four," "stop," etc.). The unit, which is actually a chip, is
surprisingly inexpensive. A computer game manufacturer, for
example, might purchase the units by the thousands at less than
$10 each.
The more sophisticated VRT300, usable with DEC VT100 ter-
minals and some CIT-101 models, recognizes a 100-word vocabu-
lary with, the company says, 99 percent accuracy. It lists for
about $1300.
Rick is aware of other new products-and these have him very
excited. NIH has offered to provide him with an IBM PC. With this
personal computer, Rick could use the PC-Mate Voice Recognition
BoardTM made by Tecmar, Inc. The $995 board uses 8K of memory
to store up to 100 words; it can be upgraded to 200 words, for
which it would require 16K of memory.
As I left Rick's house, I reflected on the remarkable difference
between his attitude and that of so many quadriplegic and other
severely disabled persons I've met in the U.S., Europe, and the
Middle East. Rick, for one thing, is truly independent in the fullest
sense of the word. He earns a salary that pays for his daily needs.
On that salary, he pays federal, state, and local taxes. The investment
made by the Virginia rehabilitation agency clearly has returned
healthy dividends for the government. NIH's offer to install an IBM PC
with voice-recognition capabilities illustrates that his employer,
too, realizes that it gets more from Rick than it gives him.
Pure economics aside, what is most impressive about Rick Pilgrim is
how satisfied the 29-year old is. His work gives his life purpose: "I'm
fulfilled," he says.
I was reminded of the observations made by another quadriplegic
man, Houston's Lex Frieden, on a recent trip to Europe. Lex's
comments mirrored my own impressions. In Sweden and the Nether-
lands, Lex says, he and his wife Joyce met with several dozen
36
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
severely disabled people, almost none of whom were employed:
We discovered that there are more services and benefits for dis-
abled people in both Sweden and the Netherlands than there
are in the United States. In particular, income benefits and cash
subsidies for disabled people are comparatively high in those
countries. Both countries have a program for the centralized
provision of and payment for technical aids and devices. These
comprehensive systems not only provide aids, they prescribe,
repair, evaluate, and replace those aids and devices as well.
The aids are usually supplied free of charge by the govern-
ment. They may include wheelchairs, elevators, remote
control devices, automobiles, and so forth. Being poor is not a
requirement for receiving assistance. We saw people using
government-purchased wheelchairs which cost as much as
$7,000 or $8,000. Additionally, the fewest number of wheel-
chairs that we found anyone having in Sweden was 7. We don't
know what they did with them, but some people had as many
as 20 wheelchairs that had been purchased for them by the
government.
Yet, in spite of these liberal benefits and extensive service net-
works, many of the disabled people we talked to were dissatis-
fied. They pointed out that many of the benefits they received
discouraged independence and threatened motivation. Some
of the people we talked to said they would like to go to work,
but they couldn't afford to risk losing their benefits. Others said
they had applied for jobs and been turned down because
employers wanted to hire nondisabled people who needed the
work because they did not have high pensions.
Rick Pilgrim received much less from government in America,
and, through his taxes, he's already paid all of it back. More im-
portant, as he has discovered, work lends to life a sense of purpose
and a degree of satisfaction no amount of government handouts
can offer.
"I'm not feeling challenged enough"
Equally fulfilled is Kevin Riley. I talked with Kevin at his Silver
Spring, Maryland, home while he was recovering from an illness.
EMPLOYMENT
37
The blue, aluminum-siding house features ramps he uses for his
motorized wheelchair. At 31, Kevin is a programmer/analyst with
IBM's Business Center in Bethesda, Maryland. He's worked for the
company for six years, since completing his bachelor's degree at
the University of Maryland in Russian and Chinese. ("Languages al-
ways have fascinated me," he says. "They're my first love.") Now
he works with a different kind of language. Speaking about his work, he
says: "We do all the business programming for IBM worldwide."
Kevin, like Rick, is a quadriplegic. In Kevin's case, the spinal-cord
injury occurred in a motorcycle accident two years after he started
working at IBM in a technical-support capacity. The company, which
recognized his ability, retrained him in a more sedentary job in pro-
gramming analysis. The adjustments were hard for Kevin to make.
His life prior to the accident had been an active one, with frequent
sporting activities, weight lifting, and other strenuous pursuits. With
a serious spinal-cord injury, none of these remained possible
for him.
Today, he uses a mouthstick to type on the IBM 3033 he uses at
work and on the Apple microcomputer he has at home. His home
unit is also equipped with Prentke Romich Environmental Control
Unit (ECUᵀM) peripherals that make it easier for him to control appli-
ances and other devices in the house. For example, he can turn off
all the lights in the house by pressing one switch. What excites him
most, though, is the voice-controlled IBM PC he just got.
The Intel Electronics speech recognition unit equipped with a
custom-made interface designed by George Markovsky, a White
Plains IBM programmer assigned to the T.J. Watson Research Cen-
ter, is capable of understanding 100 words in each of a theoretically
unlimited number of data sets. Kevin could train each unit to recog-
nize its full complement of words, using one unit for word process-
ing, another for data processing, and the like. "It can go on forever,"
he says with a smile.
Kevin is also completing his law degree studies at Georgetown Uni-
versity: "I'm not feeling challenged enough," he explains. And he's
started three small companies. One provides transportation for dis-
abled people in the Maryland suburbs of Washington, D.C., a second
does construction work, particularly additions to private homes, and
a third handles a nursing registry. Kevin's rationale for these ventures
is simple enough: in trying to meet his own needs, he's found a
38
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
dearth of appropriate services in his geographical area. Besides, he
adds, as long as he has to purchase vans, supervise alterations in his
home to make it accessible, and arrange for his own medical care, he
might as well turn these activities into profitable businesses.
The Prentke Romich Environmental Control Unit (ECU) technol-
ogy is a diversified set of aids and devices designed to help people
like Kevin maintain control over their environments. The pneumatic
"puff-and-sip" mouthpiece he uses at his Bethesda office, for
example, is distributed by Prentke Romich, which also supplies
switches for control of intercoms, telephones, televisions, fans, and
call signals. A BSR Command Module, which is commercially avail-
able through local hardware and computer stores, transmits the sig-
nals to telephone auto-dialers, radios, televisions, and other devices.
As a result of these and similar peripherals, Kevin can juggle his
many activities with minimal assistance from others. Without them,
he could not work on one job, let alone fill his days as completely as
he now does.
As Kevin's experience indicates, regaining control over one's per-
sonal life is vital for successful job seeking and working when one
has a severe disability. The difference between working at home, as
Rick Pilgrim does, and commuting to work and to school is a major
one, involving difficult and time-consuming tasks. Kevin has to dress,
eat, and transport himself to IBM's Bethesda offices as well as
Georgetown's classrooms. The Prentke Romich and BSR devices
make those tasks easier.
As important as the equipment is, the determination Kevin shares
with Rick is much more critical to success in employment. Kevin
shrugs off any comments on his remarkable sense of purpose. About
his law-school studies, start-up companies, and work at IBM, he says
merely: "They make life more interesting."
"This job would be impossible"
In Little Rock, Arkansas, Dennis Holzhauser, 35, works as a com-
puter specialist at the Cooperative Extension Service of the Graduate
Institute of Technology. Dennis uses a TRS-80 Model II computer
EMPLOYMENT
39
equipped with four disk drives to write programs documenting how
pesticides are used by Arkansas farmers.
Holzhauser, who is legally blind, has never been a farmer. His
vision started deteriorating at 19: "It's either retinitis pigmentosa
or something very much like it," he explains. Above the Model II
screen is a mirror that reflects the image to a Visualtek™ camera.
The camera, in turn, is attached to a second monitor, this one cap-
able of displaying characters as high as four inches and as wide as
three inches. Dennis can see those enlarged characters through his
thick-lensed glasses.
To read books and other documents, Dennis uses a Voyager¹
closed-circuit television monitor that also enlarges images. The Voy-
ager is also made by Visualtek, a Santa Monica, California, company
specializing in aids for blind individuals.
Dennis describes his job by talking about pesticides. "Let's say
you're a farmer. You want to know what a given pesticide will do for
you, what plants to use it with, and what insects to use it against. If
something happens with the pesticide that you didn't expect, you
need someone to call. That's me." He's had the job for almost two
years now. "Before we wrote this program, you needed to spend
hours researching a given pesticide's side effects. Now I can do that
work in a minute." He writes his own programs and keys them into
the computer. He likes the equipment so much he got a $2,000 Voy-
ager to use at home to read his mail. It also helps him in the courses
he is taking at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock.
Most of the equipment he uses at work was purchased by the
state rehabilitation agency, the Office for the Blind and Visually
Impaired. The Cooperative Extension Service, however, bought the
Radio Shack Model II. The two Visualtek machines Dennis uses are
quite expensive compared to the cost of the computer itself. Not
many severely disabled individuals will be able to afford to spend as
much as $2,000 just for one peripheral, especially on top of the
$2,500 often needed to buy a microcomputer. This illustrates why it
is so important that government agencies and private employers
purchase the necessary special aids. But the cost associated with the
Visualtek equipment is interesting for another reason. I've said ear-
lier that aids marketed to the general public often are inexpensive
because mass-production techniques can be used to drive down
costs. The BSR Command Module that Kevin Riley uses, for
40
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
example, costs just $40. Visualtek's products, by contrast, are made
with the special needs of blind and low-vision people in mind.
Accordingly, costs are much higher because there are relatively few
blind individuals in this country. Are those high costs worth paying?
For government and for industry, the answer is undoubtedly yes.
Blind individuals capable of doing productive work contribute both
to their employers and to government; denying these people the
aids they need to work deprives both the employer and the govern-
ment of their contributions.
Could he do his work without the computer and its peripherals?
"This job would be impossible, Frank, without these aids. It would
be extremely difficult and someone else would have to key in the
programs I wrote, assuming I could write them."
Dennis, who doesn't know Braille, is enthusiastic about the
potential of programming jobs for other individuals who are blind.
"You need a logical mind," he says, adding: "If you can handle the
frustration involved in this kind of work, your vision won't hurt you.
It's important, though, to get the proper training and to have the
right equipment." He himself came to Arkansas from Pennsylvania
to take advantage of the computer-programming course offered by
the Little Rock-based Arkansas Enterprises for the Blind. The nine-
month program is a demanding one, requiring up to 60 hours of
study each week; graduates learn as much as others do in a more
leisurely two-year curriculum. An added advantage of attendance at
the Arkansas Enterprises for the Blind program was unexpected: it
was there that he met his wife, Diana, who is also blind.
The next day, I visited the 32-year old, brown-haired Diana in her
office at the State Employment Security Division. When I saw her
computer programming equipment, I asked the obvious question.
"Well, when Dennis got interested, I did, too. I guess that explains
it," she said with a laugh.
Diana was born blind in Pearland, Texas, a small (pop. 10,000)
town near Houston. She went to the University of Texas in Austin for
a bachelor's degree in music and a master's in voice pedagogy, hop-
ing to teach singing. "It was hard to get a job, though. The most I
could manage in Austin was a part-time position. So I decided to
come to Little Rock, hoping for a job in communication services
work, perhaps with blind people." When she learned that most jobs
in human-services fields require an educational background different
EMPLOYMENT
41
from her own, however, she became more amenable to considering
a different line of work.
When I expressed surprise that a music lover would like pro-
gramming, she told me: "You'd be surprised! Music is closer to
programming than you think. There's sequencing, detail work. A lot of
music majors are going into programming these days, and liking it."
Unlike her husband, Diana has no usable vision. So she relies in
her work as a computer programmer on an Optaconᵀ reading sys-
tem manufactured by Telesensory Systems of Palo Alto, California.
The Optacon is equipped with a lens for reading cathode-ray tubes
(CRTs), such as computer monitor screens. The $2,275 device (the
lens is an additonal $375) produces a tactile output of raised images
on a small (1" by 11/2") array. Diana uses her index finger to sense
the vibrating signal instead of trying to read the computer terminal
screen. She types information on the keyboard and then uses the
Optacon to read it back; her behavior is exactly the same as that of
any other computer programmer, except that she uses a different
sense to verify what she has done. In this way, she uses the device
much as Stephen Rogers uses his speech synthesizer: to translate
information from a medium that is not helpful to one that is. Diana
likes the Optacon: "It's worked out surprisingly well." With it, she's
produced seventeen programs in six months. "I did one program in
just three days. My supervisor said it would have taken most pro-
grammers a week or more to do the same job."
The Optacon requires considerable training; interpreting the tac-
tile signals is something that takes time, just as synthesized speech
usually requires some getting used to, as Dr. Rogers discovered.
Equally helpful on the job, but easier to learn, is VersabrailleᵀM, a
portable Braille and audio information system marketed by Telesen-
sory Systems. The $7,000 device (including cable) can store on tape
as many as 400 pages of material in Braille. And, unlike many
Braille-based devices, it is small and easily portable. As illustrated
in Figure 3.2, Diana uses the Versabraille for note taking and other
programming work.
I asked her about her job-seeking experiences. Did the availability
of the equipment make a difference for her? "Oh, yes, I'm quite sure
it did," she answered:
Unfortunately, most people still think blind persons are beggars.
And most, sadly, have absolutely no idea what we can do with
42
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
today's machines. I took samples of my work at Arkansas Enter-
prises for the Blind with me on job interviews, together with
brochures about the equipment that I was trained to use. A lot
of people were truly impressed. It's just amazing. When I got
the job offer, the state rehabilitation agency purchased the spe-
cial equipment I needed. There's no question that my employ-
ment interviewer had a better appreciation of my potential after
he learned of the equipment I would bring with me to this job.
{\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
PHOTOGRAPH BY L.D. KERR.
Figure 3.2: Diana Holzhauser takes notes using her Versabraille machine.
EMPLOYMENT
43
"It becomes very gratifying"
Michael Dickman, of Brooklyn, New York, whose legs were para-
lyzed by polio, didn't need a computer to show anybody how he
could do his work. He needed it to keep up with a mushrooming
work load. The tax law practice he had founded ten years ago was
growing so fast he couldn't keep up, even with two full-time assist-
ants. So Dickman, who got his two degrees in law from New York
University, bought a Vector Graphics small computer in 1980. "I
chose the Vector because it ran the software I wanted," Dickman
said, giving advice anyone would be wise to follow. Quick Tax, Inc.,
a small Staten Island, New York, firm, produced Quick Tax, a pro-
gram for tax preparers.
Soon, he added another computer. WordStar, a word-processing
package he needed to correspond with his ever-growing list of cli-
ents, was the next addition. In 1983, he picked up an accounting
package to help with his work for business clients.
Dickman is an example of a disabled person who uses computers
but who does not require special adaptations to benefit from them.
He is sole proprietor of a tax law practice that works with many dis-
abled people as well as many low-income people: "I want to help
others, Frank, I get satisfaction knowing that I'm doing something
helpful. It becomes very gratifying."
Would he recommend tax law to other ambitious disabled
people? "The law is a very great asset, but it is also very demanding.
If you're willing to study, very hard and for a very long time, it's
worth it. But you can do taxes without a law degree. Tax preparation
might be a good career for someone who is good with numbers."
Mike uses crutches to walk up one flight of steep stairs to reach
his office. There he settles into a wheelchair for the day. When I ask
him why he doesn't take some of the profits from his proprietorship
and get a ground-floor office, his answer reveals the businessman in
the man: "This is convenient for my clients, Frank. Besides, the rent
is low!"
But the computers he wouldn't give up for mere money. "I
couldn't possibly do without these machines. There's absolutely no
question that they've helped me keep up with the work load."
44
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
"When the system is up, I'm up!"
Also using two computers, but for different reasons, is Michael
Ward, a program specialist with Special Education Programs, a
division of the U.S. Department of Education in Washington, D.C.
Mike's system features one Apple lle that runs his programs and a
second Apple that serves as his input station (Figure 3.3). The two
are connected by cable; hard disks provide storage. Mike, whose
cerebral palsy makes his speech difficult to understand, uses an
Apple computer to communicate with people as well as to write
reports. He speaks slowly in a voice that is readily intelligible to
PHOTOGRAPH BY LISA D. WILLIAMS.
Figure 3.3: Mike Ward hits the keys of one Apple computer, which runs his "menu"
program. Once Mike is satisfied with his text, he sends the information to the second
Apple, which contains his word-processing program. Notice the unused keyboard at
the rear. The system makes the second Apple "think" the commands are coming from
that keyboard.
EMPLOYMENT
45
people who know him well but hard to follow for others. Mike uses
a "menu" of words and phrases he can call up to the computer screen
with one or a few keystrokes. Because one question he's often asked
by visitors is, "How do you use these machines?" Mike has prepared
an elaborate answer that he can display with two quick keystrokes.
Cerebral palsy also makes his finger movements erratic. To keep
from striking the wrong keys, Mike has a keyboard guard that fits
over the Apple lle computer's keyboard. The guard helps him
restrain his finger movements, so that only the correct keys (and not
neighboring keys) are hit. The same disability makes Mike a slower-
than-average typist. To overcome the speed problem, Mike uses a
special routine that allows him to type one or two letters instead of
an entire word; it is the same menu he uses for personal communi-
cation with visitors. Once Mike has selected the words and phrases
he wants, he can send them to the second Apple computer on his
desk, which holds his word-processing program.
In effect, the system makes the other Apple "think" that the infor-
mation is being typed on its keyboard. At first, the use of two full-
feature computers seems needlessly extravagant, until you realize
that Mike could not run his menu program and the word-processing
program on the same machine. If he were restricted to just one
Apple, Mike would spend inordinate amounts of time entering one
letter at a time; with the two computers, he increases his output by a
factor of three or more.
Mike is very pleased with his system. "I love it!" he exclaims,
pointing out that it makes him more productive than he has been in
three decades: "When the system is 'up,' I'm 'up'; when it's 'down,'
I'm 'down'!" He has learned BASIC, a programming language, and
is now using it to write his own programs.
Gregg Vanderheiden, the University of Wisconsin computer-aids
specialist who designed Mike's system, heads the Trace Research and
Development Center, an important site of activity in the special-
communication aids fields. Vanderheiden points out that the major
problem Mike Ward faced was one of communication speed: "It turns
out that rate is much more important than form for conversation,
that is, whether it is visual or vocal. Normal conversation takes place
at the rate of about 180 words per minute. Conversation can be held
at slower rates, but it is extremely difficult to carry on a conversation
in the usual sense of the word if the communication rate is limited to
46
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Mike's 20 or so words per minute." The same is true in writing. For
Mike Ward, working as he does in a federal bureaucracy, handling
large amounts of paperwork and generating timely reports are
essential to his job. The two computers, together with the message-
option display, let him keep up with the demanding pace of his col-
leagues in his work.
Mike obviously is sometimes frustrated by the fact that his mind
works much faster than do his communication capabilities. It is pos-
sible, some day, notes Paul Anderek, a computer-instruction special-
ist with the Department of Education, that Mike might want to use a
speech synthesizer to speed up his conversation. Today's artificial
voices are not yet clear enough for this purpose; some wags say the
synthesizers speak with an "American computer accent." But, for
Mike and many other persons with severe cerebral palsy, an im-
proved unit may someday speak quickly and clearly.
It is not something Mike Ward feels he needs right now. The
system he has offers him so dramatically great an enhancement in
communication that he is more than delighted with what he can
do now. It is easy for the observer to understand why. Only in his
office, with his system, can he approach in volume of work anything
resembling his potential; more primitive tools are extremely slow,
sometimes maddeningly SO. Perhaps that's one of the greatest po-
tential benefits of microcomputers: to let people do more of what
they' capable of doing.
"It's a natural for deaf people"
Tommy Walker, who is deaf, has been a printer with the Arkansas
Gazette in Little Rock for 12 years. By preference, he works the night
shift. During the day, with the help of his Franklin 1000¹ personal
computer, Tommy handles a small printing business of his own. The
computer, which he bought because it was "Apple-compatible" yet
less expensive than an Apple, is equipped with word- and data-
processing software he uses to keep the books on his business, pre-
pare his tax returns, and handle business correspondence. He also
uses the machine to keep mailing lists for several organizations of
deaf people in the central Arkansas area. "A computer is good for
the deaf," he points out. "You don't have to be able to hear to use it."
EMPLOYMENT
47
It is clearly a machine he enjoys. "Sometimes I'll sit down here at
10:30 in the morning. The next time I look up, the sun is setting." His
daughters Connie, 15, and Carrie, 10, use it for games and instruc-
tional purposes. "Connie learned how to type by working with this
computer. In her first year, she's already up to 40 words per minute,"
Walker says, with a father's understandable pride.
Tommy, a long-time leader in the Arkansas deaf community, is
concerned that deaf people may not be joining the "computer revo-
lution" fast enough. He sees others around him using personal com-
puters, but so far as he knows he's the only deaf person in the area to
have one. "You don't have to be an expert to use this, Frank. And it's
a natural for deaf people. By using a modem, you can communicate
with hearing people who have computers as well as with deaf
people who have TDDs [Telecommunications Devices for the Deaf,
portable machines that allow deaf people to type instead of talk when
using the telephone]. It's clearly the coming thing these days."
With the exception of some auditory signals and other sounds
computer hardware and software sometimes make, Walker is right
about computers being accessible to deaf people for employment,
educational, and recreational uses. Writing about computer games
in High Technology, Herb Brody observes: "Most video games could
be played by a deaf person." He means the comment to be disparag-
ing; he wants games designers to make better use of the computer's
sound-generation capabilities: "The sound effects-mostly compu-
terish beep-boop music and amplified static 'explosions'-convey
no information needed to play the game."
With word-processing, accounting, and other general interest
programs all available to him, Walker doesn't have to worry about
expensive peripherals and their compatibility problems. Ultimately,
it should be possible for people with other kinds of disabilities to use
personal computers "off the shelf" with few, if any special adapta-
tions. Reaching that stage will propel many thousands more disabled
adults into productive and satisfying employment.
The Impact of Employment
Perhaps the single most remarkable thing about the people we've
seen using microcomputers at work is how dynamic, how active,
48
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
and how determined they seem to be. Indeed, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to reconcile these profiles with the stereotypical image
that Diana Holzhauser refers to when she says that "most people
think blind persons are beggars." Recalling what Lex Frieden said
about the pervasive sense of unhappiness among many European
individuals who received large governmental handouts but had to
take, along with these benefits, restrictions on their activities, particu-
larly with respect to work, it is clear that there is something about
challenging work that brings out the best in most of us, that trans-
forms our lives into ever-greater assaults on preconceived notions of
what is possible.
It may be that one of the magical aspects of microcomputers
is that they free people from the shackles of disability, enabling them
to live their lives based, not on what they cannot do, but on what
they can do. Look, for example, at Mike Ward. The frustration
of struggling daily against a disability that slows his communica-
tion to a snail's pace is so great that he could hardly be faulted for
despairing of ever reaching his potential. The personal computer
offers Mike the chance to do three times as much work as he used
to do without it. Suddenly, Mike feels much more alive-and
tremendously excited.
Or consider Rick Pilgrim. Until he was in his late teens, Rick
found little challenging about his life; in fact, he dropped out of high
school. That he was intelligent was evident from early childhood,
but it seemed that something was missing. The gun accident
happened, then, to someone that few people would refer to as a
compulsive overachiever. Yet, when offered the chance to do
competitive work using microcomputers, Rick was able to surmount
even his severe spinal cord injury and to drive himself to heights his
doctors never expected him to reach.
I would argue that Rick is immeasurably more alive, more self-
actualized (to use Abraham Maslow's term), and yes, more fulfilled
as a quadriplegic than he was as an able-bodied teen-or than many
people with less severe disabilities are today. The major difference, it
seems, is not so much the computer itself as what it allowed Rick to
do. It released him from bondage, from dependence on others, and
from the mind-bending boredom of empty days.
Like Rick, Kevin Riley probably works much more now than he
did prior to his accident; certainly, it was only after the motorcycle
EMPLOYMENT
49
severed his spinal cord that he started law school, set up three small
companies, and also worked full time. Again, it is not so much that
the computer does something for him as that it allows him to
do something. These activities, in turn, become rewarding in them-
selves, far more in fact than the activites pursued by many of the
disabled beneficiaries Lex Frieden met in Sweden.
These brief portraits also show some of the ways that severely dis-
abled people have been able to obtain the aids they now use. In
Rick's case, the state rehabilitation agency supplied him with much
of the equipment he needed in order to be trained as a programmer.
That, as I've mentioned several times already, is a good investment
for government to make, because, by working, Rick will be paying
taxes, not receiving benefits supported by the taxes of others.
Federal and state legislation enable state vocational rehabilitation
agencies to purchase for severely disabled persons those aids and
devices that appear needed in order for the individual to be trained
for, or to accept, gainful employment. Although criteria vary some-
what from state to state, in general, an individual must have a medi-
cal condition that is expected to last at least six months and that
prohibits or limits employment. When such a device could make the
difference between working and not working, state rehabilitation
agencies öften will pick up at least part of the costs of the aid. At
times, as when the disabled individual has substantial personal
resources, the state and the individual may split the expense; at
other times, the person's employer may share in the costs with the
state agency.
For the address of your state agency, contact the Council of State
Administrators of Vocational Rehabilitation (1055 Thomas Jefferson
St., NW, Washington, DC 20007).
For disabled individuals whose limitations are service-connected,
the Veterans Administration (VA) may purchase needed aids and
devices. Indeed, the VA is somewhat more generous on behalf of
veterans than state rehabilitation agenices are with civilians, primar-
ily because of more liberal legislation and relatively more available
funds. An excellent source of information about the programs is the
VA itself (write: Veterans Administration, Washington, DC 20420).
And don't forget the outstanding service organization, the Disabled
American Veterans (DAV). The DAV can help you cut through "red
tape" and get appropriate action from the VA quickly. DAV
50
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
maintains a Washington, DC office for exactly this reason, among
others. (Write: Disabled American Veterans, National Service and
Legislative Headquarters, 807 Maine Ave., SW, Washington, DC
20024.)
Both state rehabilitation agencies and the VA have the authority to
pay all or part of the costs of aids and devices needed by a disabled
individual who desires to move to a better, higher-paying job. Thus,
it is not necessary for the individual to be unemployed in order to
qualify for assistance with the cost of microcomputers or other
accommodation aids. However, in recent years, budgetary con-
straints have limited support for those already employed. As Kevin's
story illustrates, doing good work for an employer may result in the
company providing needed equipment. We saw this, too, with Rick,
when NIH secured for him an IBM PC.
Some private employers, particularly larger ones, are subject to
two little-known federal laws: section 402 of the 1974 Vietnam era
Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act and section 503 of the 1973
Rehabilitation Act. Section 402 contains provisions ensuring dis-
abled veterans and veterans of the Vietnam era of certain civil rights
in employment. Private firms doing business with the federal
government are subject to the requirements of section 402 to the
extent that their contracts in any given year exceed the rather nomi-
nal sum of $10,000. The language appearing in the regulations imple-
menting section 402 also appears, almost word for word,
in regulations written to put into effect section 503 of the 1973 Reha-
bilitation Act. Section 503 applies to businesses holding more
than $2,500 in federal contacts. Both sections are administered by
the U.S. Department of Labor.
Both sections contain provisions forbidding overt discrimination
on the basis of disability and the requirement that the contractor
provide, on behalf of disabled applicants and employees, what are
called "reasonable accommodations." The term is not defined in
either set of rules, but examples are given to illustrate what is meant;
helpful too, is a long series of judicial interpretations. Today, we
understand a "reasonable" accommodation to be one that is
needed by a disabled person to perform a job for which the individual
is qualified and that does not impose an "undue hardship" upon the
contractor. That is, when an applicant or employee is qualified for a
particular job (meets the criteria for employment) but needs some aid
EMPLOYMENT
51
or other kind of assistance in order to do that job, the contractor is
obligated by federal law to consider the purchase or lease of such an
accommodation. The company has the option of declining to obtain
the aid on the grounds that to do so would impose an undue hardship
on the business (usually: would cost too much or would subject
employees to unnecessary danger), but the regulations for sections
402 and 503 allow the individual to appeal an adverse decision.
The importance of the requirement that large businesses doing
contract work for federal agencies provide "reasonable" accommo-
dations is that, as I have shown, such aids may indeed make the
difference between working well and working poorly. Suppose, for
purposes of illustration, Company A advertises for an accounting
position. Were a fully qualified and trained accountant to apply for
that job, the company (if it is a federal contractor) could not refuse to
hire the individual merely because she or he had a disability. Nor
could Company A reject the applicant on the grounds that an
accommodation would be necessary. Rather, the firm must grant to
this person fair and objective consideration for employment. If it
finds the individual to be the best qualified applicant, it must con-
sider ways to provide "reasonable accommodations" to meet the
candidate's particular disability-related needs.
Company B, to continue with our illustration, has an opening for
a chemical engineer. Were a disabled person not qualified to do that
work to apply for the job, could the company refuse to employ the
applicant? Of course, the answer is yes: the applicant did not qualify
for the job. Sections 402 and 503 protect only qualified disabled job
applicants and employees.
One other major piece of legislation provides for employers to
pay for accommodation aids and other kinds of help that qualified
disabled persons need. This is section 504, following section 503
in the 1973 Rehabilitation Act. Section 504 offers similar accommo-
dation privileges to disabled persons. A series of judicial interpreta-
tions has established that section 504 does apply to employment.
However, the statute does not apply to federal contractors, but
instead to recipients of federal grants. Colleges, universities,
vocational-technical schools, libraries, social service agencies, hos-
pitals, and the like are required to make their programs accessible to
and usable by persons with disabilities.
Section 504 is a powerful ally for handicapped individuals seeking
52
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
job training and employment. To learn more about this statute,
which is often called "the bill of rights for handicapped people," con-
tact the offices for civil rights in the federal Department of Education,
Department of Health and Human Services, and the Department of
Labor (Office for Civil Rights, USED, Washington, DC 20202; Office for
Civil Rights, USHHS, Washington, DC 20201; and Office of Federal
Contract Compliance Programs, USDOL, Washington, DC 20201).
Other good sources of information are listed in this book, including
Project HEATH (Higher Education and the Handicapped), the Disabled
American Veterans, and the National Center for a Barrier Free Environ-
ment.
Not all private employers are covered by sections 402, 503,
and 504. The first two (sections 402 and 503) apply only to federal
contractors and subcontractors, of which there are a few hundred
thousand in the U.S. Few private businesses are subject to section
504, but most education, health, and social service agencies at the
federal and state levels of governments are required to comply with
its provisions. The vast bulk of employers in the nation, however,
are small or medium-sized firms that do no grant or contract work
for any unit of government; they may be required by state or local
laws to practice nondiscrimination toward disabled persons who
have special needs. Thirty-nine states have such laws. To find out
what laws affect employers in your area, contact the President's
Committee on Employment of the Handicapped (1111 Twentieth St.,
NW, Washington, DC 20036), who will probably refer you to a
governor's committee or perhaps to a mayor's committee that
can answer your questions with up-to-date information.
Employer Awareness
Persons who are disabled often know from long experience that
few employers are sophisticated enough to recognize their abilities
behind the smokescreen presented by obvious and severe disabili-
ties. Indeed, tens of millions of handicapped individuals have given
up hope of finding gainful employment commensurate with their
abilities and training. There are signs, however, that important pro-
gress is being made.
Not surprisingly, much of the leadership in the private sector is
EMPLOYMENT
53
being assumed by financial services, electronics, and telecommuni-
cations companies. These firms not only are among the fastest grow-
ing in the country but also offer employment that in many cases
requires less in the way of "Greek god" physical perfection than do
most jobs in traditional industries. Contrast, for example, the work of
an assembly-line employee at General Motors with that of a com-
puter programmer. The GM worker stands for hours on end, react-
ing quickly to the ever-moving line, using both hearing and vision to
coordinate movements to the requirements of the assembly process.
A programmer need not stand at all. Speed of hand-eye coordina-
tion is much less critical than is trained judgment. And the program-
mer has available sophisticated equipment, including the computer
itself, to help with the work. Little hearing or lifting is required.
To illustrate, consider some innovations at American Express, the
financial services company headquartered in lower Manhattan.
According to James Raney, the firm's senior vice president for bank-
ing operations, American Express began to employ severely dis-
abled persons as word-processing staff members in 1982. These new
employees worked in their homes, not in company offices. Ameri-
can Express installed Wang and Lanier word-processing equipment
in their homes, contracted for the installation of three to four tele-
phone lines connecting the worker with the company's central
offices, and placed safety and health equipment, such as fire extin-
guishers, in work locations to satisfy Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) requirements. In doing all of this, American
Express was exceeding the requirements of federal law for "reason-
able accommodations." Not every company could afford to make
the investments American Express made, but perhaps that's the
point: financial services corporations, much like electronics and
telecommunications businesses, can offer employment opportuni-
ties for people whose severe disabilities present problems that other
kinds of companies cannot resolve.
By early 1984 the "electronic cottage" approach to the employ-
ment of home-based individuals at American Express was ready to
expand from the initial group of ten employees. Raney comments
that it was actually less expensive for the company to install the
equipment in the workers' homes than to rent office space in Man-
hattan. The employees' work is monitored by supervisors who
review the work they produce and transmit over telephone lines to
54
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
the office word-processing equipment. The firm is able to supervise
the workers without having to see them, and the employees' work
hours are tracked electronically. They work 35-hour weeks, select-
ing their own hours.
New York Telephone has several workers who use the same
electronic-cottage approach for different reasons. In one instance,
both husband and wife work for the company. To take care of their
preschool child, they stagger their work hours so that at least one of
them is always with the child. Because their computer. equipment is
connected with the company's office terminals, they only need to
commute from Long Island to Manhattan one or two days a week.
In Little Rock, Arkansas, Jack McSpadden is using computer
equipment to keep up with the huge amounts of paperwork
required by his job and by his civic activities. A recruiter for South-
western Bell, Jack also serves as a member of a federal agency
board. His board position requires that he read some eight hundred
pages of technical material each year. Jack is blind. In years past, he
would have asked his assistant to read the voluminous material to
him. But Jack's employer has provided him with sophisticated "talk-
ing" computer equipment and has installed computer peripherals
that enable Jack to read in Braille whatever is typed into word pro-
cessors in the agency's Washington office.
In Murray Hill, New Jersey, AT&T Bell Laboratories has pro-
vided several blind research scientists with equipment similar to
McSpadden's. And, as mentioned, for Kevin Riley IBM has sup-
plied advanced technology to allow a valued employee to transfer
to a new job after a motorcycle accident. Manufacturers Hanover
Trust considers speech-output computers to be an "ordinary and
necessary" part of its employment program, according to
human resources analyst John Reid.
Sometimes the employment of disabled persons occurs from dire
necessity. Equitable Life's national benefits section employs 4,000
persons in ten work locations nationwide to pay more than $2.5 mil-
lion in claims each year. The work involves processing as many as
twenty million pieces of paper annually. Once a backlog develops,
says Edward Corton, division vice president, it has a "snowball"
effect: "You receive a lot of inquiries from claimants, and this in turn
slows the processing of claims even more." Such a backlog de-
veloped in 1982. Searching for help, Equitable hit on the idea of
EMPLOYMENT
55
"farming out" some of the claims-processing work to nontraditional
workers. In California, the company turned to housewives and
retired individuals, supplying them with computer terminals and the
necessary training. The program worked well. When a similar back-
log appeared in the Northeast, Equitable was confident about its
farming-out concept and turned to a group of eight severely handi-
capped persons who did the work at a Long Island-based rehabilita-
tion facility. Seven of the eight are still in the program, producing
quality work quickly, and the company has eliminated the backlog.
Sometimes the move to employ disabled persons arises from a
long-established corporate commitment to hiring persons with spe-
cial needs. DuPont is one company that has been a national leader
for almost two decades in employing handicapped individuals. The
Delaware firm is particularly interested in keeping older workers
who become disabled through illness or accident. As far back as
1972, DuPont encouraged a computer programmer who became
blind because of a tumor to return to work after just three months of
medical rehabilitation. The company helped him learn Braille,
bought an Optacon for him to use, and kept him on the job. Much
as Diana Holzhauser does in Little Rock, he uses Braille and the
Optacon to program on his computer. In 1978 a second DuPont
worker developed multiple sclerosis, a severe and often progressive
disorder that weakened his arm and leg muscles. The company got
him a special "light-touch" computer to make it easier for him to
type his reports. A short time later, DuPont was puzzled when an
applicant with a strong work history repeatedly failed simple written
tests. Exploring the situation with the help of outside consultants,
DuPont discovered that the individual had dyslexia. The test was
administered again, this time orally. The individual passed and now
has been at work successfully for more than six years.
To appreciate what happened at DuPont, consider that in 1972
there were no federal laws requiring affirmative action on behalf of
disabled persons. To use computer equipment to make accommo-
dations for disabled employees was, at the time, revolutionary: it
demolished the myth of a "barrier." DuPont demonstrated that
severely disabled persons could return to productive employment
using computer technology. The company's success in this area was
one of the critical events that eventually convinced the U.S. Con-
gress that affirmative action on behalf of disabled individuals was a
56
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
realistic goal. And DuPont hasn't stopped there. As of 1983, the
number of disabled employees at DuPont had increased more than
50 percent over the already high level it had achieved in 1972.
The European Experience
The use of microcomputers in Europe, particularly in Germany, is
rapidly increasing. France has produced some of the best training
programs for introducing novices to the wonders of the personal
computer, and Sweden has demonstrated the power of the com-
puter in managing a complex welfare state. However, the virtual
absence of applications of the personal computer to enable disabled
persons to work is striking. Even more disconcerting, to me at least,
is a more fundamental difference between the American and Euro-
pean attitudes. While at least some governmental and private pro-
grams in the U.S. are based on the concept that many persons with
special. needs can and should work, in England, the Scandinavian
countries, and many other European nations, I sometimes found
sheer incomprehension when I began talking about putting special-
needs persons to work in plants and offices.
This problem seems to have little to do with computers. Rather,
the tradition of governmental care for persons who have disabilities
is so powerful in most of Europe that it overwhelms advances in
technology. Earlier in this chapter, my friend Lex Frieden demon-
strated the pervasive "we will take care of you because you cannot
care for yourself" mentality in Europe-and showed how devastat-
ing such paternalism can be for people who seek to show that they
are more able than disabled. Before much of Europe awakens to the
potential of the microcomputer in employment of persons with spe-
cial needs, the more prosaic idea that these people can work at all
must surface.
Ironically, economics may prove to be the key that turns this
ancient lock. In the United Kingdom, the social bureaucracy dis-
pensing governmental benefits for disabled and older persons has
become so obfuscated and complex that not even the "experts"
know for sure who is entitled to what under which circumstances.
The welfare machinery seems to work more smoothly in Sweden,
yet there, as in England, the cost of maintaining huge numbers of
EMPLOYMENT
57
older and disabled individuals on public aid rolls is menacing the
integrity of the state economy. As we have seen most clearly with
Rick Pilgrim, helping someone to support himself is much less costly
to government than is maintaining that person on public assistance
programs for life.
As the costs of microcomputer technologies fall, and they soon
will, such people as England's George Wilson and France's Anders
Arnor, both experts on the employment of persons with special
needs, will be able to penetrate the social-welfare mentality so per-
vasive throughout Europe today. International companies, such
as ITT, IBM, and AT&T International, will transport their knowledge
and technologies to Europe to keep on the job employees who
become disabled. These innovations may have as dramatic an
effect in Europe as DuPont's experimental approaches had in the
U.S. in 1972.
Another effect I anticipate is a decentralization of the employ-
ment of persons with special needs. In Japan, particularly, but in
England as well, the disabled persons who do work tend to be
employed in "special" firms rather than in the general workplace.
The United Kingdom's Remploy, for example, does contract work
for governmental and private clients, operating much as do "shel-
tered workshops" in the U.S. Nine of every ten Remploy workers
are disabled. Microcomputer technology permits much greater
employment of persons with special needs in the same offices,
plants, and stores where nondisabled persons work. This idea,
which I confess sounds elementary, is more a dream than a reality
in most of the world, and, lest I sound too chauvinistic, I must add
that the U.S. also has a whole host of sheltered workshops. Here, as
elsewhere, the notion that people with disabilities are people with
abilities has yet to take firm hold in the public mind.
It Can Be Done
Perhaps nothing is more important, with respect to the employ-
ment of older and disabled persons, than to demonstrate that it
can be done. AT&T is an example of a major corporation that has
shown that employment of qualified disabled individuals helps both
those people and the company. The, communications giant is one of
58
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
America's leading employers in the area of affirmative action for
handicapped individuals and disabled veterans. AT&T's experi-
ence is mirrored by that of DuPont, IBM, and American Express.
Perhaps that's the best ally disabled persons seeking work could
ask for: armed with the knowledge that popular myths about their
inability to be productive employees are often false, together with
information about computer-based aids and devices that are avail-
able to help them, these jobseekers can approach employers with
confidence.
As Diana Holzhauser's success reminds us, disabled applicants
are well advised not to assume that prospective employers under-
stand that modern technology can provide inexpensive and reasonable
accommodation. Taking a leaf from her book, job seekers could
bring with them to the employment interview brochures and other
brief explanations of how specific devices could be used on the job.
Such materials can help the applicant answer the interviewer's ques-
tions about how he or she could perform the work.
Information about precedents in the employment of handicapped
persons may be obtained by writing to the President's Committee on
Employment of the Handicapped (address given earlier). For addi-
tional information about job-related accommodation aids and
devices, two publications are particularly helpful: my own Reason-
able Accommodation Handbook, originally published by AT&T and
now distributed by the National Center for a Barrier Free Environ-
ment (1015 Fifteenth St., NW, Washington, DC 20005), and Direc-
tory of Living Aids for the Disabled Person, published by the Veterans
Administration, and available from the U.S. Government Printing
Office (Washington, DC 20402).
Job applicants can also tell employers about the Job Accommoda-
tion Network (JAN), which is jointly sponsored by the President's
Committee on Employment of the Handicapped and the University
of West Virginia. Employers interested in learning more about avail-
able aids and devices may call the committee on the toll-free
number 1-800-JAN-PCEH to receive up-to-date computerized
information on the features, prices, and availability of many hun-
dreds of accommodations.
However, the dominant impression I received from talking with
Rick Pilgrim, Kevin Riley, Dennis and Diana Holzhauser, Tommy
Walker, Mike Dickman, Mike Ward, Jack McSpadden, and others
EMPLOYMENT
59
has nothing to do with microcomputers or other aids and devices.
These people got jobs and kept them because they had something
to offer. Some knew tax law, printing, employment processes, or
special education programming, and some knew computers.
Their employers hired them to take advantage of their special skills
and knowledge.
CHAPTER
EDUCATION
In a resource room in Fairbanks, Alaska, learning-disabled stu-
dents are doing some things long-time teacher Nancy Sopp thought
she'd never see. They're coming to school early and leaving late.
They're teaching each other. And they're teaching gifted children
who also use the resource room how to program computers. Sopp
reports that some students, whose handwritten compositions
seemed to demonstrate near illiteracy, "suddenly possessed the ability
to write complete sentences. They care about spelling. They stomp up
to me (we wear big boots here) as the snow forms a puddle and the
tardy bell rings to announce that they've been thinking about some
changes they want to make in their LOGO procedures."
Sopp's junior high school students use Broderbund's Bank Street
Writerᵀ word-processing program on an Apple II Plus personal
computer to write class reports, creative-writing assignments, and
notes to pen pals. "Many of my students are poor readers and can't
begin to read the instructions in the manual or tutorial," Sopp
reports. They can, however, learn to read the menu lists and other
function words on the computer screen. One student, Sopp says,
displays some autistic behavior and is classified as educable mentally
EDUCATION
61
retarded. "He possesses a phenomenal amount of information
about airlines," she reports. Tapping this interest, through the PFS:
FILE program published by Software Publishing Corporation, she
was able to help him set up his own information storage and
retrieval system containing information about which airlines fly
which routes.
As Sopp's experience in Fairbanks illustrates, special educators
need not restrict themselves to "special" equipment and software.
Often, off-the-shelf machines and programs will serve to unlock the
hidden potential in severely disabled students. That's good news,
because it means that as many as 50 different manufacturers and
some 500 software producers can be used as sources of classroom
materials.
Sometimes, though, specialized devices are needed. This hap-
pened, for example, at the Easter Seals school in Little Rock, Arkan-
sas. Bob Taylor, who is responsible for the school's computer-related
functions, is becoming very frustrated as he sees how limited some
of the available equipment is when used in special education. Taylor
and a team of classroom teachers and therapists work with severely
disabled children whose handicaps range from cerebral palsy to
retardation.
I watched as 12 year-old Carrie had a "speech therapy" session. It
was a painful experience. Carrie, who has cerebral palsy, communi-
cated with her therapist, Rachel, by hitting her head on a securely
mounted lever switch placed on the lapboard of her wheelchair.
Each bang of the head produced a different light signal. Rachel knew
what each signal meant. Rachel then placed a Zygo Industries
E-tranᵀ communicator on Carrie's lapboard. The E-tran is a trans-
parent stand-up screen with one- and two-word messages hand-
written at different points on the screen. In response to Rachel's
questions, Carrie would look at first one message and then another;
Rachel could see the identical messages on her side of the screen.
Both communication systems required a skilled therapist, such as
Rachel, who knew Carrie very well and who posed specific ques-
tions so as to frame a context in which to interpret the child's short
responses. Even so, Rachel often has to guess what Carrie is trying to
say. And Carrie seldom can use these systems except with family
members, teachers, or close friends.
Taylor then took me to a different room, where I met 13-year-old
62
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Chris, a bright, alert boy who has cerebral palsy. Taylor explained
that Chris had learned to use an Apple computer by moving a small
magnet over the top of a special interface (go-between) device
called an Autocom. The $6,000 Autocom, marketed by Prentke
Romich, and a similar machine, the Tetrascanᵀ sold by Zygo Indus-
tries, contain keyboard "emulators." As illustrated in Figure 4.1, the
combination of devices, in this case the Tetrascan working with a
Franklin Ace 1000 computer, allows someone like Chris to compose
a message of his own by selecting words on the emulator, which
then transmits the text to the computer.
Chris was watching us, understanding everything we were saying.
I walked over to his chair. "How do you like the Autocom, Chris?" I
asked. His eyes gleaming, he turned immediately to his lapboard, on
which was displayed an array of words, letters, and numbers. Mov-
ing his hand slowly, he took almost three minutes to answer me: "I
think it takes two percent as long as a typewriter." The clarity and
precision of his reply made me intensely conscious of the difference
between Chris's intellectual functioning and his ability to communi-
cate quickly.
Until you see children such as Chris and Carrie, you may not real-
ize how much of a "hands on" experience education really is. We
learn, not just by listening to teachers and reading books, but by
doing things with our hands, bodies, and objects in our environ-
ments. We interact with our world and thereby master it. Chris and
Carrie have the intelligence, hearing, and vision they need to engage
in productive education in the passive sense. What's holding them
back is their inability to manipulate objects, numbers, and words
quickly and easily in a creative manner.
The gift of the microcomputer in special education for such chil-
dren is its capacity to facilitate creative learning. As long as Carrie is
restricted to noncomputer communication technologies, she faces
barriers in the simplest tasks. Suppose you were Carrie. You'd be
able to request a drink, indicate that you wished to visit the
restroom, convey the desire to take a rest, and answer questions
with "Yes," "No," or similar one- and two-word responses. You'd be
able to do this only with a few people. And you'd have to endure,
even with these close friends, endless misinterpretations of your
meaning until they finally understood what you wanted to say.
Or think of Nancy Sopp's students, unable to read grade-level
EDUCATION
63
books and manuals. They may be in junior high school, but, without
some means of interacting more easily and directly with informa-
tion, they will not be able to work at the junior high school level.
EPSON
HEMISTRY
PHOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF ZYGO INDUSTRIES.
Figure 4.1: The Tetrascan TM by Zygo Industries, shown with a Franklin Ace 1000, a
monitor, two disk drives, and a printer.
64
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
The need for creative and expressive ways to communicate is an
important reason for the popularity of the LOGO computer lan-
guage with learning-disabled children and youth. Reports James
Muller, a Richardson, Texas, father of a learning-disabled 16-year-old
son: "I became fascinated with Larry's approach to the computer. He
saw it for what it really is-a tool. And that is exactly how he used it."
Muller's son was once diagnosed as retarded. It's a common
mistake, one physicians frequently make, because both learning dis-
abilities and general retardation produce symptoms of a seeming
inability to learn, lack of interest in the environment, and the like.
But the two are very different. In learning disabilities, a specific intel-
lectual function is disrupted; usually, as in dyslexia, it is the serial
processing of words that is impaired. At other times the processing
of sounds or other symbols may be dysfunctional. Retardation, by
contrast, is a general limitation in functioning. Most learning-
disabled persons display normal intelligence in doing all but the
affected activities, while retarded individuals demonstrate less-than-
average capabilities across a range of functions.
That Larry is not retarded is evident today. A high school student,
he earns good grades. And one reason, his father believes, is that he
now has a tool that lets him create.
That tool is a personal computer equipped with LOGO. And what
is LOGO? It is a programming language, much as BASIC, COBOL,
and PILOT are languages. LOGO uses a "turtle" (a triangular-shaped
"pen") to produce graphic images on a computer screen. Unlike
most other computer programming languages, LOGO uses few
letters and words. BASIC, for example, uses such commands
as LIN$(1+D)=T$. A dyslexic child would have problems with
these commands, although, as Nancy Sopp demonstrates, the child
would eventually learn some of them. LOGO bypasses the difficult
BASIC-type commands to allow a child to create with images formed
by the "turtle," which the child moves around the screen. As the
turtle moves, it leaves a trail. By manipulating the shape on the
screen, the child creates an image.
Programming is equally simple. LOGO's commands use only a
few words. TO SQUARE, for example, might be used. The child
would tell the computer to move the turtle forward ten spaces by
typing FD 10. To have the turtle to make a right turn at a 90-degree
angle, all that is necessary is to type RT 90. A few more commands
EDUCATION
65
telling the computer to move the turtle forward and to turn right two
more times completes the program. Then, when the child wishes to
produce a square, he merely types SQUARE and hits ENTER. The
computer does the rest.
Is this merely glorified drawing? To the child, it probably is. But
the teacher knows that the exercise is tapping skills in arithmetic,
geometry, and, yes, English. Perhaps most important, the child is cre-
ating in a way as easy for him as writing a short story might be for
another child. LOGO commands are executed as soon as the child
presses ENTER. It's that easy-and fast. For children with short atten-
tion spans or low frustration tolerances, such quick and competent
reactions produce intense satisfaction. The child is succeeding at
doing something by himself; for many disabled children, that is a
rare experience. They are doing things that are, in psychological jar-
gon, positively reinforced. For children using LOGO, they are also
doing more of something their parents and teachers greatly value:
they are learning.
In Pennsylvania, Eldred Township Elementary School teacher
Margaret Smith knows the value of pride in achievement. Last year,
she won a statewide competition for a grant enabling her to pur-
chase a microcomputer and printer to use with her 38 mentally
retarded and learning disabled students. "We had only $250 to
order supplies this year," she says, referring to Eldred Township's
budget for school equipment. That's why the $3,700 award was
so important. She competed with 2,500 other teachers to get one of
the 253 awards granted by the state education department. Mrs.
Smith believes the computer has already made a difference for her
students: "A computer can be programmed to make positive
responses, no matter how many mistakes the student makes." And
her students have something special to show off: "They can say,
'Look, we have a computer and the other students don't.' Let's face
it: there's not a whole lot our kids can do that others can't."
Sue Prince, a speech pathologist working with retarded children
at the Cerebral Palsy Center in Belleville, New Jersey, adds: "Large
amounts of time and patience, which we can't always provide, are
required for some students to learn even basic concepts. But the com-
puter will sit there very patiently going over and over those concepts."
The microcomputer can do something else that is vital to educa-
tion: it can help expand a child's horizons. Special education literature
66
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
is filled with references to "experiential deprivation" in handicapped
children and youth. The forbidding term merely means that the chil-
dren have not had the same range of opportunities to explore
the world as have other children their age. But with a computer,
even severely disabled children can experience things they need to
learn about.
Computer simulation is being used today to train airline pilots.
Before the pilot steps into the cockpit of a 767, for example, he or
she has spent hundreds of hours in front of a simulator that presents
for study and immediate reaction a whole range of possible prob-
lems and disasters. As a result, the new pilot has already "been
there" when, for example, an electrical storm interferes with naviga-
tion. For the deaf students at Mill Neck Manor School on Long
Island, New York, the microcomputer plays a similar role. By using
school-written programs such as Our Town and Supermarket Craze,
says curriculum director Lou Frillman, students can learn how
to locate the community services they need. When they go to
local stores on supervised excursions, they're already familiar
with the area.
But perhaps the most dramatic use of microcomputers in special
education is to do what handicapped children are unable to do
by themselves. Today's personal computers can be adapted to read
for blind students, write for paralyzed or mobility-limited stu-
dents, speak for children unable to talk, and, at least to some extent,
hear for deaf students. Let's look for a moment at some of
these capabilities.
Speech Synthesis
How can a computer "talk"?
People who use speech sythesizers are so accustomed to hearing
artificial speech (as when a Chrysler enunciates "Fasten seat belt" or
"Thank you") that they seldom stop to think about how the com-
puter accomplishes this task. The ways in which it is done become
important because the technologies carry with them, together with
remarkable promise, some unexpected pitfalls.
EDUCATION
67
The Echo II and Votrax Type-N-Talk™ speech synthesizers are
quite inexpensive, both selling for under $250. They represent the
"low end" of the market. I asked Larry Skutchan, a graduate student
at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock, to demonstrate the Echo
Il for me in his trailer home. As Larry started typing, 1 watched my
interpreter to see how clear the speech was. One look at the con-
sternation on her face was enough to give me my answer. Larry
laughed. "It takes a while, Frank. I spent ten hours at the machine
before the speech became easily comprehensible." I asked him if
the Votrax sounded like the Echo. "Yeah, it's about the same. With
speech synthesizers, you get what you pay for. The more expensive
units sound a lot better."
There are basically three ways a computer talks.
Votrax's Type-'N-Talk, illustrated in Figure 4.2, uses what is called
"phoneme coding." The system stores basic speech sounds and
rules for stringing them together into words. The sounds and rules
are stored in computer memory chips. Type-N-Talk uses only a little
of the computer's memory to produce an almost unlimited number
of sound combinations. For all intents and purposes, then, the
Votrax's vocabulary is unlimited.
Why not store complete words, properly pronounced? The
answer is simple. To do so would take up so much of the computer's
memory that it would not be possible to run any programs on
the machine.
The Type-N-Talk unit is produced by Votrax, a division in the
Michigan-based Federal Screw Works. For more information, write
Votrax Consumer Products Group (500 Stephenson Highway, Troy,
MI 48084).
The Echo II speech synthesizer uses technology developed by
Texas Instruments (TI) called "linear predictive coding." The TI chip
stores an electronic model of the human vocal tract together with
digital versions of pitch and energy level. A text-to-speech software
program contains hundreds of language and pronunciation rules;
for this reason, there is no fixed vocabulary. The phonemes gener-
ated by the text-to-speech program are converted to sound by the TI
chip, and the sound is amplified by a speaker. The Echo II is priced
below the Type-'N-Talk, retailing for under $200. For more infor-
mation, contact Street Electronics Corporation (1140 Mark Ave.,
Carpenteria, CA 93013).
68
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
A third technology, National Semiconductor's "wave-form digiti-
zation," produces good quality speech but uses a lot of computer
memory to do so. The pitch, or frequency, of speech is broken down
into digital pulses (computers can read only digital messages, basi-
cally a series of "0" and "1" strings) and stored. When text is read,
the pulses are brought together again to form words. Because the
system uses considerable computer memory (more than most 8-bit
machines have available), and because of the high cost of the tech-
nology (as much as $4,000), this approach is one not often used
in education.
VOLUME FREQUENCY-
TYPE TEXT Totrax® TO SYNTHESIZER
+
PHOTOGRAPH BY EYE-TO-EYE IMAGES.
Figure 4.2: Votrax Type-'N-TalkTM, a speech synthesizer.
EDUCATION
69
Three limitations characterize the speech-synthesizer technologies.
First, the systems use software. This means they are not compatible
with protected software, such as Wordstar or Visicalc. They may be
used with user-written software or with unprotected software. They
may also be used with software specifically written to be run with
speech synthesizers.
A second limitation is characteristic of the industry as a whole:
hardware and software are often incompatible. So it is with some
speech synthesizers. The Echo II, for example, will work only with
Apple computers; if you have an IBM, you can use the Echo PC, or
if you have some other microcomputer, the Echo GP may be what
you want.
The third major limitation relates to the first. Whether user-
developed or specially written for use with a synthesizer, software
must restrict itself to readable information. No speech synthesizer
available today, to my knowledge, can read computer graphics or
other images. Were the students to try, the speech synthesizer simply
would read each character and each line one by one.
The industry is responding to the problems and limitations associ-
ated with speech-output technology in some interesting ways. The
need for high-quality speech conflicts, as I have shown, with
the memory requirements of much educational and other software.
At Borg Warner Educational Systems, an elegant solution has been
found to this problem, at least with respect to Apple II and lle
computers. The company's Ufonicᵀ Voice System has its own self-
contained memory. The interface card containing the synthesizer
also has a microprocessor and sufficient memory to run the syn-
thesizer; it is, in effect, a computer within a computer. By using its
own memory, the Ufonic system can generate good speech without
robbing the computer of the memory it needs to run complex edu-
cational programs.
Eydie Sloane, a computer-training specialist with the Dade
County, Florida, public schools, reports that the Ufonic system pro-
duces speech much clearer than that available with most other sys-
tem. Says Sloane, a natural enthusiast: "I'm wildly impressed with
the Ufonic voice programs from Borg Warner. They came out with a
product I think is super. Definitely look for it. About $500, but what a
great sound! No mechanical voice. Just nice and easy, good quality
and in English or Spanish (in Miami, that's a real necessity)." For
70
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
more information about Ufonic, contact Borg Warner Educational
Systems (600 W. University Drive, Arlington Heights, IL 60004).
Late in 1983 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) announced
another intriguing approach to the problems characterizing synthe-
sized speech. DECtalkᵀM, a $4,000 unit, will plug into virtually any
computer. And the speech quality is excellent; so good is it, in fact,
that MCI Communications Corporation is using it with its MCI Mail
electronic mail service. The DEC system adds inflections to speech
and can vary its speed from 120 to 350 words per minute. For blind
persons who need to do a great deal of reading of computer-stored
information, the combination of clarity and speed is a godsend. Con-
versational speech usually runs at about 180 words per minute, but
psychological research has established that the brain can absorb and
interpret information spoken much faster than that; in fact, one rea-
son some students become bored in class is that their minds are left
free to roam in irrelevant (to the teacher!) ways during a typical lec-
ture. At 300 words per minute, though, near-total attention is
required. Blind individuals who have made their way through
law school, with its voluminous reading requirements, tell me that
their use of tape recorders with double-conversational-speed play-
back capabilities increased their retention of information and saved
enormous amounts of time. At $4,000, however, DECtalk is more
likely to be used in resource rooms at schools and universities
than at home.
Both DECtalk and Ufonic have speech quality sufficiently good for
another educational purpose: giving voice to nonvocal students.
Carrie and Chris at the Little Rock, Arkansas, Easter Seals school, for
instance, could use such technologies to communicate with persons
unskilled in interpreting their speech. They could, for example,
compose a message on a computer (using a special device like the
Autocom) and send it via telephone to others, without the need
to ask a teacher or parent to make the call for them. Boston's Chil-
dren's Hospital uses DECtalk with speech-impaired children; when
the children touch the screen, the computer says the word
being touched.
Educators may find, too, as Dr. Sloane does in Miami, that such
high-quality speech synthesizers can be used to add voice to teacher-
written instructional programs. Such talking software would be a
boon for dyslexic and blind students.
EDUCATION
71
Maryland Computer Services is taking a third approach to the
problems of the speech synthesizers. The company markets a com-
plete system consisting of a Hewlett-Packard 125 computer espe-
cially equipped with high-quality speech capabilities. The model,
called Information Through Speechᵀ (ITS), shown in Figure 4.3, can
read punctuation, upper- and lower-case letters, and numbers; it
can read words as units or spell them out. Speed is controlled by the
user and can range as high as 700 words per minute. The machine
runs popular programs with no incompatibility problems due to the
speech-synthesis unit; this opens the way to the use of thousands of
pieces of software. Also available from the company is its own
software, for example, a form writer. Prices for the ITS range from
about $8,000 to about $12,000; the latter price includes a hard disk
drive capability.
In Butler, New Jersey, the National Institute for Rehabilitation Engi-
neering (NIRE) makes available a specially modified TRS-80 Radio
PHOTOGRAPH © 1982 TADDER/BALTIMORE, COURTESY OF MARYLAND COMPUTER SERVICES, INC.
Figure 4.3: Information Through Speechᵀ (ITS), a talking computer marketed by
Maryland Computer Services, with a printer.
72
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Shack Model III that NIRE calls the "Talking Typewriter." In addition
to speech synthesis, the machine displays words and numbers in
extra-large type for the benefit of people who have some usable
vision. NIRE's version of the Model III also requires two-key, rather
than one-key, operation of the ESC (escape) and BREAK keys, so that
blind users will not lose material by striking these keys by mistake.
The system, including the Model III, a printer, and a cassette drive (a
disk drive also is available), costs $1,895. For more information, con-
tact NIRE (97 Decker Rd., Butler, NJ 07405).
The work of Indiana's Bill Grimm, shown in Figure 4.4, represents
another approach to the problems facing speech-synthesizer users.
Grimm, founder of Computer Aids Corporation, is something of a
legend among blind computer users. Of the several dozen blind
individuals using Apple computers and Echo II speech synthesizers I
talked with while preparing this book, all but one mentioned
Grimm. Bob Taylor, the Easter Seals educator in Little Rock, explains
the basic reason: "At least, Grimm's got the software." What Grimm
has done is to assemble a package of an Apple II computer
mun
PHOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF COMPUTER AIDS CORPORATION.
Figure 4.4: Computer Aids head Bill Grimm, shown using an Apple computer, the
Echo II speech synthesizer, and a tape recorder.
EDUCATION
73
(usually the lle), an Echo II, and his own word-processing and other
software programs specifically written for use with both pieces of
hardware. He also has software that enables blind persons using the
Echo II to tap into The Source and CompuServe, two popular data-
base and bulletin-board services: such services broaden the
"library" available to a child several thousandfold, because these
services (with the Echo II and Grimm's programs) let blind and dys-
lexic individuals "read" the New York Times, the Associated Press or
United Press International wire sevices, and the information stored
on dozens of computerized data bases. Contact Grimm at Com-
puter Aids (4929 South Lafayette St., Fort Wayne, IN 46806).
Is it possible to link the inexpensive Votrax or Echo II speech syn-
thesizer technology to "protected" software? By doing so, we would
be helping many individuals obtain an affordable at-home system
they could use for schoolwork. The need for such a development is
obvious. First, the high-quality speech systems, such as those mar-
keted by Maryland Computer Services, DEC, and others, while
good, are probably too expensive for many families to purchase.
And second, schools are increasingly using protected software pro-
grams in the classroom-and expecting students to use them at
home as well. Locking blind and dyslexic students out of this rich
lode of programs defeats the concept of integration in education that
is at the heart of today's special education programming.
One person who recognizes the need and is doing something
about it is University of Illinois law professor Peter Maggs. I asked
Maggs to explain the issues involved: "The software for the Echo II
and for systems using the Votrax rely upon the Apple or other
computer's operating system functioning in its normal manner. 'Pro-
tected software' often alters or disables the operating system so that
the user cannot use the operating system to copy the software."
What's he doing about it? "I am now looking into possibilities of pro-
viding a hardware solution to this problem. The hardware solution
would physically intercept signals from the keyboard to the screen
and so would not have to interface directly with the operating
system." It is an ingenious approach. Maggs' work, conducted with
his colleagues at Visek and Maggs, a small company that has done
considerable work on speech technology for major computer com-
panies, received funds from the U.S. Department of Education to
develop a prototype speech-synthesis chip that one of the dozen
74
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
synthesizer manufacturers could produce in quantity at a manu-
facturing cost of under $50. Maggs hopes to provide units that
will work with the IBM PC, the Apple lle, and the TRS-80 Model
100 computers.
A different set of issues emerges when speech synthesizer tech-
nologies are applied to meet the special education needs of retarded
students.
Before getting into these problems, I need to make the point that
educable mentally retarded children and youth can use personal
computers-and use them well. This is evident to many parents, but,
because of the "high tech" image of computers, you might not
expect that such sophisticated devices could be used independently
by persons with severe retardation. However, not only can retarded
persons use computers, but mounting evidence indicates that many
retarded students learn better with computers than with almost any
other educational technology. This is primarily because of the com-
puter's "patience," but also because of the interactive nature of good
computer instruction, the rapid feedback to the user, and the appli-
cability of interesting sights and sounds to reach the student's mind.
Research conducted by the late Marc Gold, an expert on teach-
ing retarded individuals, demonstrates that when information is
broken down into small units and each unit is taught separately,
retarded individuals can learn things previously thought to be beyond
their ken. This knowledge is now being tapped to use microcom-
puters as tools for teaching retarded children and youth. At
Indianhead Enterprises, a center for developmentally disabled stu-
dents in Menomonie, Wisconsin, Sam Jenkins and his colleagues con-
ducted a study to see if severely retarded students, whose measured
I.Q.'s ranged from 30 to 88, could be taught the location and use of
the keys on a computer keyboard. A Texas Instruments 99/4A home
computer displayed an image of the keyboard on its screen, ran-
domly flashing individual keys on and off. A synthesized voice told
the student which key to press. Meanwhile, the computer automati-
cally tallied the right/wrong responses and with the speech synthe-
sizer told the student the results: "Right!" or "No, try again." Jenkins
and his team found, perhaps surprisingly, that performance by the
students was not related in any statistically significant way to their
I.Q.'s. Most students, though, did learn the location of most keys,
even in the five-minute test period. Speech synthesis and nonverbal
EDUCATION
75
cues appear particularly well suited to helping retarded children,
many of whom have extremely limited reading abilities.
Jenkins' favorable experiences with retarded and learning-
disabled students led him to form a small company designed to
develop educational materials for these populations. One such pro-
gram, called Keyboard Trainer, teaches children to use the computer
keyboard by telling them, via the synthesizer, what each key does
and where it is located. Early Counting Fun and Fish and Count,
two counting programs, also use the synthesizer. Jenkins sells the
programs at prices ranging from $15 to $30. For more information,
contact The Upper Room (907 6th Avenue East, Menomonie,
WI 54751).
Speech Recognition
A "sister technology" to speech synthesis is voice or speech rec-
ognition. How does a computer "hear"? So far, not very well. But
important progress is being made. Speech recognition is of most use
now to physically disabled students who are not able to manipulate
the keyboard with authority. It is also helpful as a relatively easy way
to get the computer to perform certain functions, regardless of the
user's disability. Computers today are capable of recognizing and
responding to a few hundred words, usually words spoken by a
single person.
Speech recognition is accomplished by microcomputers in sev-
eral fairly complicated fashions. Most popular by far, at this early
stage in development, is the technology that creates a "template"
(computer-readable version) of individual words. Each template
essentially is a sequence of numbers; remember, computers can
only read bits (series of "0" and "1" numerals). The user speaks the
words, one by one, into a microphone or other input mechanism;
some systems require that each word be entered several times. The
computer then translates these sounds into number-based templates
and stores them. Later, when the user is running a program and
enunciates a word, the computer searches among all its templates to
find one that matches what it has just heard. That word will be dis-
played and, if appropriate, the command will be executed. What
76
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
happens if the person speaks a word not recognized by the com-
puter? The answer is a simple one: nothing.
The template-based speech recognition systems can handle only
a few words because storing each one requires an enormous
amount of computer memory. The speech-recognition system that
Texas Instruments recently announced for use with its Professional
Computer samples speech sounds an astounding 8,000 times
per second in order to construct a reliable template. Says Robert
Schadewald, who has studied speech-recognition technologies:
"Trying to apply methods that work for limited vocabularies to
average speaking vocabularies of 3,000 to 8,000 words may be like
trying to build a long-bow with a 50-mile range." Clearly, template-
based technologies are limited to small vocabularies.
A different approach, being researched at Carnegie-Mellon Uni-
versity, is called "feature extraction." In this system, the computer
attempts to recognize the numerical patterns of sound and to use
these to identify the individual words being used. And what are
these patterns? Anyone who recalls seeing spectrograms knows that
speech can be displayed in two dimensions, those of frequency
(pitch) and time. What a feature extractor does, in effect, is to com-
pare the spectrogram (reduced to numbers, of course) of a word to
a number sequence in its memory. If it finds a match, it displays the
word (by sending a digital version of the word to a dictionary, which
converts the digits into an English word). If appropriate, the com-
puter also executes the command.
Speech recognition now is being used in a number of interesting
ways. For example, AT&T Bell Laboratories got into the business of
speech-recognition research for a simple reason. The company
wanted telephone users to be able to speak commands to a phone,
have it understand the instructions, search its memory, and automati-
cally dial the call. Two sets of research studies were conducted for
many years before yielding results: one explored number recogni-
tion while the other examined letter recognition. AT&T expects that
by 1986, if not earlier, affordable units will be on the market that will
allow a user to speak either the telephone number or the called
party's name; the phone would do the rest. The company's products
will likely be speaker-dependent, which means that the telephone
will recognize only one voice; speaker-independent versions also
are planned but probably will recognize fewer words. Just two
EDUCATION
77
weeks after AT&T's pending products were revealed, ITT announced
a speaker-independent telephone, also slated for the market within a
few years. And then, in early summer 1984, small Entrex Electronics
introduced a $325 telephone that understands a few words. The
machine, first announced in March and expected to be in stores by
the time you read this, responds first to the word "Phone." In effect,
saying "Phone" while standing in the room gets the device's atten-
tion. If you then say "Mom," for example, it will automatically
search its memory for your mother's telephone number and then
dial that number. For more information, contact Entrex Electronics
(839 S. Beacon St., San Pedro, CA 90731). What this development
means for severely physically disabled individuals who have diffi-
culty moving quickly is that they can initiate and answer telephone
calls without even touching the phone.
At Scott Instruments, a Texas company specializing in speech-
recognition products, a fairly inexpensive ($595) system capable of
handling as many as 1,000 words per disk, Shadow/VETTM, is now
available. Used with an Apple II Plus computer, the system makes
the Apple "think" that the information is being put into the com-
puter by means of the keyboard. The Shadow/VET terminal (VET
stands for "voice entry terminal") holds up to 40 words in memory
at any given time; a simple command calls up additional 40-word
vocabularies, as many as 25 on each disk, as needed.
To understand how important something like the Shadow/VET
terminal can be for a physically disabled student, consider the use of
The Source, the popular information data bank. To call up The
Source using the keyboard requires as many as 80 different key-
strokes; for someone with severe arthritis or other physical disability,
that would be difficult, if not impossible. Using the Shadow/VET ter-
minal, however, requires just four spoken commands: "Source,"
"log on," "sign on," and then the function such as "UPI" to get the
United Press International wire service data.
As 1 noted earlier, high-quality speech-synthesis systems require a
lot of memory. Wouldn't something like the Shadow/VET terminal
also need a great deal of memory? Yes, of course. But Scott Instru-
ments has taken the approach Borg Warner adopted for the Ufonic
synthesizer: Scott placed the 16K memory that the Shadow/VET sys-
tem needs on its own board, so the Apple doesn't need to lend any
of its memory for the digital signal and recognition capabilities. For
78
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
more information, contact Scott Instruments (1111 Willow Springs
Drive, Denton, TX 76205).
To date, it has been particularly difficult to do spreadsheet analysis
by voice. Now, Supersoft Inc. offers ScratchPad with VoiceDriveᵀM,
a product designed to provide an interface, or go-between, that
works with the spreadsheet software program and the voice-
recognition module. The $495 program is compatible with Tecmar's
PC-Mate Voice Recognition Boardᵀ and with Texas Instruments'
Speech Command System. Supersoft offers a complete package of
PC-Mate and ScratchPad with VoiceDrive for $995. For more infor-
mation, contact Supersoft (PO Box 1628, Champaign, IL 61820).
The Texas Instruments speech-recognition board is actually two
cards placed on one slot within the Professional Computer. One
card handles the sending and receiving of the signal; the other takes
care of processing the information. The linear predictive-coding pat-
tern used to recognize words may also be used to regenerate the
speech signal itself. The quality of the system, which add some
$3,000 to the Professional Computer's price, is excellent. Says Robb
Aley Allan, who reviewed the computer for Popular Computing's
October 1983 issue: "The reproduction is like that of a good con-
nection on a long-distance telephone call." For more information,
contact Texas Instruments (P.O. Box 402430, Dallas, TX 75240).
Interstate Electronics, a unit of Figgie International, markets
speech-recognition chips primarily to original equipment manufac-
turers (OEMs) rather than to retail customers. If you are sophisti-
cated about the workings of your personal computer, however, you
might want to contact the company about its products (Interstate
Electronics Corporation, P.O. Box 3117, Anaheim, CA 92803).
A number of speech-recognition programs are marketed specifi-
cally for use in education. One of these is Scott Instruments' Voice
Based Learning Systemᵀ (VBLS), which is designed for teachers and
parents who wish to write their own instructional programs. Retail-
ing at $100, VBLS can be used with the Shadow/VET to add voice to
teacher-written software. The instructional packages would recog-
nize and respond to what the student is able to generate. Say, for
example, that a cerebral palsy student typically says "staw" for
"stop." The program can be set to respond to "staw"; if, however, the
objective is to train the person to speak more clearly, the teacher,
therapist, or parent can set the system to respond only to the version
EDUCATION
79
of the word that represents the student's best pronunciation.
John Williams would have found such a system ideal for his pur-
poses. Williams, who lives in Sterling, Virginia, has spent enough
money over the past three decades for speech therapy to enable
him to purchase a hundred VBLS systems. With typical good humor,
though, Williams accepts my suggestion that he use the program for
self-therapy to control his stuttering. Right now, Williams uses an
Epson QX-10ᵀ computer for his extensive freelance writing, fund
raising, and consultation duties as head of Technical Communica-
tions, Inc., the Virginia-based communications company that pub-
lishes the monthly Special Needs Computing. The VBLS would not
work with an Epson, but it would work with an Apple or an Apple-
compatible machine, such as the Franklin 1000. Is he willing to con-
vert? "I'll give it a try, Frank. l've stuttered all my life. I have never
enjoyed it. I have damned it, detested it, slept with it, carried it like a
shield for everyone to see, been ridiculed for it more times than
I want to remember. One thing is for sure. My wife will appreciate
my practicing on a machine so she doesn't have to listen to all my
starts and stops."
Williams is one of the most determined people I know-and his
wife Lisa one of the most patient. Their experiences illustrate some-
thing few people understand about speech-related disabilities:
speech is a motor activity. As such, it involves fine coordination of an
entire phalanx of muscles. Those muscles respond to only one thing:
habit. Most are not even under voluntary control. Despite his intelli-
gence, John still has difficulty controlling his stuttering even after a
successful career in public relations and journalism. The personal
computer can help John by responding only to correctly
pronounced words and phrases. If he uses the system enough; he
will be forced to speak clearly if he wants to get anything done. By
tying his speech quality directly to his work output, the program
would reinforce John for good speech while disregarding, in a
nonjudgmental way, his mistakes.
Because John does so much writing, I suggested he look, as well,
at Serota Engineering's C2E2 system. Designed for use by physically
disabled individuals, the $400 package features what Serota calls
Textwriter, a program that handles word processing entirely by
voice. Textwriter combines a modification of a commercial word-
processing program with the Shadow/VET system, available as an
80
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
extra-cost option from Serota or from Scott. A severely disabled indi-
vidual unable to use a keyboard would be able to write class assign-
ments, notes, and other materials entirely by speaking, although
frequent changing of the limited vocabulary recognized by the
Shadow/VET would be required. C2E2 (Communications, environ-
mental Control, Education, and Entertainment) is available from
Serota Engineering Consultants (3730 Alta Crest Drive, P.O. Box
43286, Birmingham, AL 35243).
MCE, Inc. and The Conover Company both distribute Voice
Machine Communications' Voice Input Moduleᵀ (VIM), which
works with Apple II-type computers, including the Franklin 1000. VIM
is shown in Figures 4.5 and 4.6. What makes the under-$1,000
VIM interesting is that an unlimited number of 80-word subsets may
be used, giving the operator a virtually unlimited vocabulary. Like
other commerically available speech-recognition systems, VIM
Volce
Commu
Machine
PHOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF VOICE MACHINE COMMUNICATIONS.
Figure 4.5: Voice Machine Communications' Voice Input Module for the Intro Voice
System TM
EDUCATION
81
recognizes only the user who trains it. Duane Phillips of MCE claims
that the VIM can perform at more than a 98 percent level of accuracy
in recognizing words. He notes that, for students unable to use
a keyboard, speech-limited individuals, and others, VIM offers
the ability to bypass complex keyboard-entry commands: "Since
voice input virtually eliminates the need to learn specific keyboard
commands, students may be introduced at an earlier age or at a
more conceptual level to such complex software applications
as computer-aided design (CAD), database and word processing." For
more information, contact Voice Machine Communications (1000 S.
Grand, Santa Ana, CA 92705); MCE, Inc. (157 S. Kalamazoo Mall,
Kalamazoo, MI 49007); or The Conover Company (P.O. Box 155,
Omro, WI 54963).
Such products as VIM and Shadow/VET presumably could also
be used by dyslexic and retarded individuals to control computer
PHOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF VOICE MACHINE COMMUNICATIONS.
Figure 4.6: The Intro Voice System TM with an Apple computer.
82
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
programs. These students often find it much more difficult to use
words and letters in writing than to speak them. Sam Jenkins of The
Upper Room is one person who might be contacted for information
about such applications.
But what about deaf students? Ultimately, the ability of the com-
puter to "hear" is going to revolutionize education, and just about
everything else, for deaf persons. But that day is at least five to ten
years away.
As we have seen, most commercially available systems are
speaker-dependent. The cost seems out of line for an application in
which the deaf person would use VIM or Shadow/VET to under-
stand just one other individual. Speaker-independent systems
remain limited in vocabulary, making their application to education
for deaf students of little value. However, to the extent that a pro-
gram such as Scott Instruments' VBLS is used to help deaf students
learn to speak more clearly, speech recognition already has a place
in education for deaf children.
This is not to imply that the role of personal computers in the edu-
cation of deaf students is restricted; in fact, quite the opposite is true.
Of all severely handicapped people, deaf individuals are probably
the most likely to benefit from computer-aided instruction. How-
ever, for the next few years at least, speech recognition will not be
one of the reasons deaf students take so well to microcomputers.
Keyboard Emulators
As we have seen, many severely disabled children have difficulty
manipulating the standard computer keyboard. For these students,
"emulators" are available to offer alternative ways of entering infor-
mation into, and controlling the action of, a computer. The term
simply means that the device makes the computer "think" that its
own keyboard is being used; in effect, the peripheral product "emu-
lates" the keyboard.
Speech-input systems, such as VIM, contain emulators. So, too,
can joysticks, familiar to most readers as the means by which many
computer games are played, be used with emulators. Severely dis-
abled persons may also use the Autocom, as does Little Rock's Chris,
to operate an Apple or similar computer; the $6,000 device is
EDUCATION
83
distributed by Prentke Romich, a company that is prominent in any
discussion of keyboard emulators. It is also available from The Trace
R&D Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, a major center
of activity in the area of emulators.
What is the Autocom? It is a large, magnet-sensitive electronic
board for communication by nonvocal individuals. The Autocom
has its own screen, across which words and phrases scroll much as
they do on a computer screen, except that the Autocom displays
large characters and only one line at a time. Cerebral palsy, quadri-
plegia, severe arthritis, and other fine-motor-control related disabili-
ties often interfere with computer-keyboard operation, but, with the
Autocom, all that is required is to grasp a magnet about the size of a
joint on your finger and move it onto the square containing the
word, number, or phrase one wishes to communicate. As Chris in
Little Rock showed us, the Autocom can be used with a keyboard
emulator by individuals who lack the manual dexterity to manipu-
late a keyboard.
Why does such a fairly simple communicator cost twice as much
as a fully equipped Apple II? The reason goes back to the nature of
"special" equipment. Only a few Autocoms are sold each year, which
means that the entire cost of development, manufacturing, marketing,
and distribution must be spread across a few units of sales. Fortu-
nately, Prentke Romich, which distributes the communicator, pro-
vides excellent after-purchase support through approved vendors.
The Autocom is an example of a "direct-select" aid that will drive
a keyboard emulator. The individual points directly to the letter,
number, word, or phrase desired. Whenever it is possible, such a
mechanism should be used. Both Prentke Romich and Trace R&D
Center distribute a rather dazzling range of pointer technologies that
are usable with direct-select emulators: a joystick, a light pen, a
mouthstick, a tongue switch, and a pneumatic puff-and-sip switch.
Figure 4.7 shows Mike Ward using a light pen. Which switch or set
of switches is used depends on the user's limitations. Severely
impaired children can use tongue or puff-and-sip controls if they
have little or no upper-limb mobility; less disabled students can
manipulate joysticks or the Autocom's magnet by hand.
Some children, however, are so severely disabled that they can-
not easily use direct-select technologies. Gregg Vanderheiden, direc-
tor of the Trace Center, and others have devised ingenious two-step
84
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
PHOTOGRAPH BY LISA D. WILLIAMS.
Figure 4.7: Mike Ward uses a light pen attached to his hat to run a "menu" program.
When the light remains on a letter or number for five seconds, the character is
entered into the progam.
or even multi-step scanning technologies these children can use.
Such approaches often use menu-driven software. The child needs
to select the first letter of a word or string of words. Immediately
following that selection, the screen displays a set of pre-entered
words beginning with that letter. In some programs, these words (or
phrases, if desired) are numbered, and the child selects the appro-
priate number.
With so many different hardware and software approaches avail-
able from some two dozen vendors, teachers and parents are well
advised to ask such experts as Prentke Romich's Barry Romich or
Trace's Gregg Vanderheiden to assemble a system for a particular
child. Contact Prentke Romich (8769 Township Rd. 513, Shreve, OH
44676-9421) or Trace R&D Center (University of Wisconsin-Madison,
314 Waisman Center, 1500 Highland Ave., Madison, WI 53706).
Also available from Trace is an "International Software/Hardware
EDUCATION
85
Directory," a loose-leaf binder collection of brief descriptions of differ-
ent approaches.
Gregg Vanderheiden is interested in finding ways to speed up
computer input by severely disabled, nonvocal children and adults.
As we saw in Little Rock with Chris, pointing to individual letters and
words consumes an inordinate amount of time. But there is another
problem that Vanderheiden is now tackling, with support from
the U.S. Department of Education. To illustrate the problem, and
Vanderheiden's approach, imagine for a moment that you are
Chris in Little Rock. In our hypothetical illustration, you are writing a
report using the Autocom as your keyboard emulator with the Apple
computer. Suppose you need to calculate some numbers to put
into the report. Can you use your personal computer to do that?
Yes, but it would take time. First, you'd have to give the word-
processing program some "end session" commands and remove
the disk from the computer. Then you would insert another disk,
this one having a program that runs calculations. After doing the arith-
metic, you'd remove that disk and substitute your original word-
processing disk on the computer. All of this takes a great deal of
time-and you've lost your place in the word-processing program.
This is a serious matter for many thousands of children with cere-
bral palsy and other severe disabilities that interfere with speech. It is
particularly troublesome because the personal computer is used to
perform so many basic functions for these children in the classroom;
the students use it not only to do schoolwork, but also to communi-
cate with others in the room.
Fortunately, this problem is rapidly being solved by some of the
newer personal computers. With Apple's new Macintosh, for example,
you can interrupt a word-processing program, "mark your place," shift
to a calculation or graphics program, complete that task, and then
bring the results of your work (the numbers or the images) into the
report you are writing. This capability is, of course, useful for people
who are not disabled. For severely impaired individuals, however, it is
more than useful: it comes close to being essential.
Keyboard Modifications
For some disabled children, modifications in the computer itself
may be preferable to the use of an emulator. The most obvious
86
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
example is to place a keyguard over the keyboard. IBM, for example,
makes keyguards for its Selectric typewriters and sells them for about
$10 each. The plastic boards contain holes over the keys; striking the
wrong key becomes much more difficult. With computer keyboards,
a second issue emerges. Some of the most commonly used com-
mands require that two keys be pressed at once. With an Apple, for
example, you can make the cursor (the small, flashing light that tells
you where you are on the screen) move in one direction by pressing
CONTROL and A simultaneously. Many mobility-restricted students
have great difficulty with such commands.
Prentke Romich markets a keyguard for Apple computers that
does everything the IBM keyguard does with Selectrics and also
automatically depresses the CONTROL and SHIFT keys as needed.
The plastic keyguard costs $110. The price seems inflated until you
realize that we are back with the unique diseconomies of scale of
"special" equipment, just as with the Autocom.
Vertex Systems has an interesting approach to the keyboard prob-
lem. It markets an inexpensive ($45) program called Keyswapper
1.4ᵀM, applicable with IBM PC and XT computers. What the pro-
gram does is enable you to substitute the use of a function key on
the keyboard for a string of individual keystrokes. In fact, you can
reconfigure the entire keyboard if you wish. Keyswapper 1.4 works
with protected and unprotected software suitable for the IBM
machines. For more information, contact Vertex Systems (7920 W.
4th St., Los Angeles, CA 90048).
One intriguing application of Keyswapper 1.4 is to change your
keyboard to a Dvorak layout. To understand the rationale for doing
this, consider the reasons behind the current popularity of QWERTY
keyboards (which virtually all typewriters and computers use).
The first typewriters (readers old enough to remember the Under-
wood will know what I'm talking about) were mechanical (manual)
rather than electronic. They used a close-packed set of keys, each
of which was individually attached to its own striker. To prevent
often-used key strikers from interfering with each other on the way
to the ribbon, typewriter manufacturers deliberately designed the
keyboard so that the most-used keys were widely separated on
the keyboard. This brief history lesson explains why the QWERTY
keyboard (named after the first six keys on its second row)
is so awkward to use. But today's electric typewriters and computers
EDUCATION
87
do not face the jamming problem that so worried Milwaukee type-
writer inventor Christopher Sholes back in 1873.
According to Virginia Russell, head of Simplified Keyboard Asso-
ciates of Brandon, Vermont, a typist's fingers travel as many as 16
miles in one day with a QWERTY keyboard. If that is taxing for an
able-bodied typist, imagine the problems posed by this archaic setup
for students with severely limited mobility.
The Dvorak keyboard, by contrast, requires just one mile's worth
of finger travel in the average typist's day, because the most-used
keys are placed in the home row of the keyboard. Apple is con-
vinced that the Dvorak layout is worth offering as an option; Digital
Equipment Corporation is considering it, according to DEC key-
board design specialist Paul Nelson.
Some keyboard-arrangement programs will combine lengthy
strings of commands into one- or two-key functions; others will recon-
figure the entire keyboard, even allowing you to custom-design your
own. In addition to Vertex Systems, vendors include Advanced
Software Interface (2655 Campus Drive, Suite 260, San Mateo,
CA 94403), which markets the Keynoteᵀ program; RoseSoft (4710
University Way, NE, Suite 601, Seattle, WA 98105), which offers the
ProKey™ program; and Heritage Software (2130 S. Vermont Ave.,
Los Angeles, CA 90007), which supplies the Smartkey™ program.
Robert Tinker and his associates at Technical Education Research
Centers, Inc., are developing an interface to provide access to soft-
ware designed to run on Atari, Commodore, Apple, and IBM PC
computers. Tinker recognizes that students and adults with physical
disabilities vary greatly in their capacities. For that reason, his pro-
ject is concerned primarily with users who cannot key into standard
computer keyboards: "Everything special about the user will be con-
tained in the interface itself." The approach, which involves both
hardware and software, is expected to be available in mid-1985. For
more information, contact Technical Education Research Centers,
Inc. (8 Eliot St., Cambridge, MA 02138).
The State of the Art
Two observations may be made about the use of microcomputers
in special education today. First, the quality of available software
88
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
designed to meet the special needs of children, youth, adults, and
senior citizens with disabilities is abysmal. Alan Hofmeister, dean of
graduate studies and associate vice president for research at Utah
State University, who has written extensively on the subject, says: "In
general, the quality of presently available educational software is
very disappointing." Charles Stallard, associate professor of educa-
tion at Old Dominion University, adds: "While [computer] experts
may understand the technology, they do not understand the needs
of teachers and special children. In short, they do not understand
the nature of education."
Rather than review the currently available software (which would
make dreary reading), I suggest that you contact several organi-
zations that specialize in evaluating commercial and teacher-
developed software for use in special-education settings. But keep
your expectations modest: you're not likely to find really good
special-education software for at least another two or three years.
A good place to start is the National Association of State Directors
of Special Education (NASDSE), the organization representing state
agency heads. NASDSE is developing training materials for educa-
tors, compiling evaluations of hardware and software products, and
disseminating information about computer use in special education
to professionals in the field. Contact NASDSE (1201 16th St., NW,
Washington, DC 20036).
Technical assistance to educators trying to locate software and
hardware to meet a particular student's special needs is available
from The Network, Inc., an organization that works closely with
Educational Products Information Exchange (EPIE) to demonstrate
courseware and devices so that local officials (and parents) can
make informed decisions. The work of The Network, like that of
NASDSE, is supported by a grant from the U.S. Department of Edu-
cation. Contact The Network, Inc. (290 South Main St., Andover,
MA 01810).
Also receiving federal support from the Department of Education
is JWK International, a consulting firm. JWK is preparing fact sheets,
resource guides, reports, journal articles, and audiovisual materials,
together with a data base that supports these products. Parents and
educators may tap into this source of information by contacting
JWK International, Inc. (7617 Little River Turnpike, Annandale,
VA 22003).
EDUCATION
89
LINC Resources, Inc., is facilitating the assessment and distribu-
tion of teacher-developed educational software. LINC receives
special-education programs, evaluates them for distribution poten-
tial, prepares marketing plans for them, and assists their developers
to license the programs to commercial and nonprofit distributors
and publishers. The importance of this effort is obvious when one
considers that the work of Sam Jenkins, of The Upper Room, in
developing software for use with retarded and learning-disabled
children began as the efforts of an interested parent; it did not start
with work by a commercial software publisher. Similar examples
could be cited in many other areas of special education. For infor-
mation about LINC's offerings, contact LINC Resources, Inc. (1875
Morse Rd., Columbus, OH 43229).
Another good source of information is the Council for Exceptional
Children (CEC). This remarkable organization has taken a leadership
role for many years in bringing special education to its present stage
of development. Among many other things available to teachers and
parents from CEC are a host of well-written publications and a data
base called "ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted Chil-
dren." Contact CEC (1920 Association Drive, Reston, VA 22091).
I said I had two observations to make. The second is that the field
is clearly ripe for sustained growth. According to Project Tech Mark,
conducted by Education Turnkey, Inc., of Falls Church, Virginia,
the use of microcomputers will explode in the next three to five
years in the special-education field. In a paper entitled, "Market
Profile Report: Technology and Special Education," the project
staff observed that some 25,000 microcomputers were in use in
special education in 1983; by 1986, the number is expected to grow
to 150,000. That's a sixfold growth in just three years. The report is
available from Education Turnkey (256 N. Washington St., Falls Church,
VA 22046-4549).
The U.S. Department of Education National Center for Educa-
tional Statistics (NCES), says that 42 percent of the nation's schools
had access to one or more microcomputers in 1981. Two years
later, NCES reported, their use in elementary schools alone had
tripled, from 20 to 60 percent of the surveyed schools. That kind of
explosive growth is likely to characterize special education, accor-
ding to Education Turnkey's Charles Blaschke. He observes that
about $10 billion was spent on special education in the 1982-1983
90
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
school year. Equally important, he says, is the fact that per-pupil
expenditures are 50 percent greater in special education than in reg-
ular education.
I mention these data to counter a widespread belief in the com-
mercial software industry: the special-needs market is "too small" to
merit serious interest.
Parents have been responsible for much of the growth in the
United States and in Europe of special education. Pressure from par-
ents will be needed once again to stimulate the development of
appropriate computer-based instruction for students with special
needs. P.L. 94-142 provides that American children with disabilities
are entitled to a free, appropriate, public education in the least
restrictive environment. For children who need or would benefit
from personal computers in school, it is possible for parents to suggest
that the use of a microcomputer be written into an Individualized
Educational Program (IEP) for the child. (The IEP is required by P.L.
94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act; basically, it
is a one-year plan that explains how the child will be taught.) In
Berkeley, California, for example, Marilyn Head was able to do pre-
cisely that for her 16-year-old daughter.
For students in college, university, graduate school, and continuing
education programs, section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (P.L.
93-112) provides a means by which needed microcomputers might
be made available. Section 504 requires that educational programs
benefiting from Federal financial assistance make their offerings
"program-accessible," which can mean access to personal computers
for individual students. For more information about P.L. 94-142 and
section 504, contact Project HEATH (Higher Education and the Hand-
icapped; One Dupont Circle, Washington, DC 20036), and the Pro-
ject on Science and the Handicapped (American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 1776 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washing-
ton, DC 20036).
Growth is particularly needed in software for postsecondary edu-
cation and continuing education. The software available today in the
area of special needs tends to emphasize basic, getting-around-
in-stores kinds of skills. There is an urgent need for programs that
special-needs individuals can use to acquire more advanced academic
and vocational skills-and for hardware accessible to them.
According to a recent survey of the members of the American
EDUCATION
91
Chemistry Society, only one-tenth of one percent of the respondents
were visually impaired. David Lunney of East Carolina University
attributes the small number primarily to the difficulty blind persons
have had in laboratories. He observes, however, that today's chemis-
try lab courses stress not the visual observation of chemical reac-
tions, but the instrumental measurement of such processes. Why
not, then, produce portable laboratory instruments that blind
students could use independently to conduct their own experi-
ments? With support from the U.S. Department of Education, that's
exactly what Lunney and his colleagues are now trying to do. To find
out how well the research is proceeding, contact Lunney at
East Carolina University (Greenville, NC 27834).
In Menlo Park, California, Matt Lehmann, who happens to be 75,
wrote more than a dozen programs for older students at the Penin-
sula Volunteers Little House senior center. His students, who range
in age from 65 to 86, study languages, politics, and computers them-
selves. Lehmann found that older people learn better with ordinary
instructional techniques than they do with strategies designed for
use with children.
That's obvious when you think about it for a few minutes. Sure,
the knee-jerk reaction is: "Older people, being conservative and set
in their ways, are going to be the last ones to enter the 'computer
revolution,' so why study their special needs?" Like many knee-jerk
reactions, this one is just plain wrong. Research at the National Insti-
tute on Aging, part of the federal National Institutes of Health, has
demonstrated that people continue learning well into their eighties
and nineties. Lehmann's experiences show that even very old people
adapt quite quickly to new technologies.
If anyone in the world knows the intellectual capacities of senior
citizens, that person is Mt. Sinai Medical Center's Robert N. Butler,
M.D., author of Why Survive? Being Old in America, the classic
indictment of America's treatment of its mushrooming population of
over-65 citizens. A former director of the National Institute on
Aging, Butler is unequivocal in his contention that senior citizens
can benefit enormously from computer-assisted instruction.
And what are the needs of over-65 persons for accessible hardware
and software? Remember that as many as one-third of all senior citi-
zens in the U.S. and probably a similar proportion of over-65 indi-
viduals in other countries are disabled. With the remaining
92
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
two-thirds of the elderly population, hearing and vision may not be
severely impaired but they are frequently limited at least to some
extent. For example, arthritis and other common age-related condi-
tions may interfere with fine motor control. For all of these reasons,
many older people share with younger, disabled individuals what I
am calling "special needs."
And-the market is there! The population of people over 65 is
growing so fast in the Western world that seniors comprise the single
most rapidly expanding group of people in the U.S. and Europe.
Given the attractions of The Source, CompuServe, and other data
banks, together with the stimulation of learning available through
good educational software, and adding into our thinking the fact that
millions of older people have large amounts of uncommitted time
on their hands, I'm quite willing to predict that the over-65 popula-
tion will become a major consumer of microcomputer products
before ten years have elapsed. I'd make it five years, but personal
computers and the software they run are still, despite all the hype,
far from "user friendly." I like the analogy made by several Apple
executives. Noting that the automobile certainly is complex technol-
ogy, they sometimes ask visitors to their headquarters if they read the
owner's manual when renting a car at the airport. Almost without
exception the answer is no.
As the personal computer field becomes more mature, micro-
computers, too, will become usable without the need for minute-by-
minute reference to bulky "documentation." I don't want to
overemphasize the point. While many people who own and rent
cars can and do drive them without even looking at owners' man-
uals, there are problems with such carelessness; it is quite possible
to damage a car by using it improperly. Similarly, while I believe
strongly that computers need to become more like cars in being
interchangeable and in performing similar functions in similar ways,
I also recognize that there always will be a need for some documen-
tation. And people drive cars easily because they've grown up with
them, seen many others drive them, and feel comfortable with the
technologies in them. Perhaps we need to "grow up" with computers
in much the same way before they will become as easy for us to use¹
as are cars. Despite these reservations, I do see a trend toward more
truly user-friendly computers and I do believe that such machines
will attract many more users than do today's products.
EDUCATION
93
People, and especially people with special needs, will use, indeed
already are beginning to use, computers not only for education, but
for many other tasks as well: doing errands without leaving home,
ensuring security in the home, and getting rapid medical assistance
in an emergency. These issues form the basis of the next chapter.
CHAPTER
INDEPENDENT LIVING
Ever since the word robot first appeared (the Czech novelist Karel
Capek coined it in 1921), people with special needs have waited
longingly for the day when technology would help them live more
safely, more securely, more easily, and more conveniently. Physically
disabled persons, particularly older people, spend enormous
amounts of time, each and every day, handling routine, mundane,
maddeningly simple tasks such as turning lights and devices on and
off, checking to be sure the home or apartment is secure, handling
the shopping, doing the banking, tracking down this piece of infor-
mation or that. The work takes so long, and consumes so much
energy, that precious little time and strength remain to enjoy the day.
As the years pass, their worlds become smaller, not larger; concerns
about crime, accidents, medical emergencies, and the sheer ex-
penditure of energy required to get through the day make it more
and more difficult to live independently. Even so, 90 percent of
all Americans over 65 live independently or with family members;
only 1.2 million of the 28 million senior citizens live in nursing
homes today.
The mushrooming costs of public services for disabled people,
INDEPENDENT LIVING
95
older and younger, are forcing difficult choices, particularly in the
Scandinavian countries, the United Kingdom, and the U.S. For
example, Idaho is now testing a state law that mandates, for the first
time, that adult children pay part of their over-65 parents' medical
and other care expenses. Idaho's law also says that Medicaid bills for
services provided to disabled individuals over the age of 21 are par-
tially the responsibility of their parents. The way was cleared for this
law in 1983, when the Reagan Administration issued an interpreta-
tion of relevant federal laws, deciding that (if a state had in place a
piece of legislation that required families to assume some of the
financial obligations of its members) it was lawful for that state to
assess adult children of older persons and parents of disabled indi-
viduals for some expenses previously assumed by Medicaid. Finan-
cial planning expert Jane Bryant Quinn predicts that Idaho's law, if
upheld in the courts, will be adopted quickly by the other 49 states.
In Sweden and in the United Kingdom, signs are pointing to
a pullback by the state from all-encompassing social programs
and a step-up in the state's expectations about family contributions.
These trends can only continue and gather momentum because
of the ever-larger size of the special-needs population.
Does all of this mean that three-generation households are inevi-
table? No. Particularly in the U.S., few disabled people want to be an
everyday burden on their families. Most, in fact, desire few things more
passionately than the ability to live independently, whether that
means living with parents or grown children or apart from them:
the aim is to direct their own lives without depending on others.
The microcomputer potentially can perform many tasks neces-
sary to permit independent living. With adapted personal com-
puters, many disabled persons can live by themselves and care
for themselves much longer than might be possible without these
technologies. And in part because the cost of such equipment is
decreasing dramatically, there is real hope that the necessary
devices will be affordable for individual purchase. For disabled
people, many of whom live on restricted incomes, and for adult
children (sometimes called "the sandwich generation," because
they are caught on one side by the financial and other burdens
of their aging parents and on the other side by the pressures of
high costs involved in raising children, particularly children
with special needs), personal computers may offer a measure of
96
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
independence and freedom, as well as degree of security once only
dreamed about.
Of course, any of these devices will be helpful to people without
special needs who want to take advantage of their time-saving,
energy-conserving features. In fact, experts predict that by the year
2030, some 80 percent of all households in the U.S. and Europe will
handle most of their routine shopping, banking and other financial
transactions from the home. As early as 1990, the proportion may
be 7 percent or even 10 percent. That's important because, as I have
noted earlier, the more people who value products important to dis-
abled individuals, the more likely it is that these devices will be read-
ily available in local stores, easily repaired, and low in cost.
I will start by examining how microcomputers can help special-
needs people to handle everyday tasks such as banking, shopping
and finding needed information. Then we will turn our attention to
the ways in which personal computers can assist in personal security
and safety.
Home Banking
In the late 1970s, the Social Security Administration began offering
a real service to its tens of millions of American beneficiaries, most of
them older or disabled individuals: direct deposit of their monthly
checks into their bank checking accounts. Personal computers
can take this sensible idea a step further: with a microcomputer,
you can handle your bill-paying, check-writing, and other financial
transactions from the security of your home. The idea is not as
revolutionary as it seems. Banks have offered similar services to
business customers for years.
New York's Chemical Bank offers what it calls Pronto. For a
monthly fee of $12, you can use your IBM, Apple II or Atari personal
computer to do any of the following: balance your checkbook, write
checks to about 400 participating merchants if you owe them
money, send and receive electronic mail with your bank, and move
funds from one account to another. Chemical is demonstrating the
Pronto system in participating ComputerLand stores and is offering it
to other banks nationwide. To use Pronto, you dial a touch-tone
phone to reach a local Tymnet number via your modem. The
INDEPENDENT LIVING
97
system then uses special software to help you log on quickly.
Citibank's $10/month Home Base program allows you to use your
IBM, Atari, Radio Shack or Commodore computer to pay bills to
stores, balance your checkbook, and transfer funds between
accounts. As is the case with Chemical's Pronto service, however,
you may not make cash deposits or withdrawals. Home Base is
expected to be available nationwide late in 1984.
San Francisco's Bank of America provides what it calls Home-
Banking for $8 per month. The program accepts input from any per-
sonal computer equipped with a modem and a communications
package (more about those peripherals in a moment). You can pay
bills to some 300 companies and any retail stores to whom you owe
money, balance your checkbook, and transfer funds from one
account to another, and exchange electronic mail with the bank.
HomeBanking uses no special software, an advantage for customers
because they need not worry about compatibility between their per-
sonal computers and the bank's programs. As with Chemical's
Pronto, users call a local Tymnet number to log on with the service.
Bank of America has more than 4000 HomeBanking customers
in California and plans to expand the service statewide by the
summer of 1984.
Other banks planning or already offering home banking include
Chase Manhattan, Manufacturers Hanover, and Banc One of
Columbus, Ohio. Automatic Data Processing (ADP) in New Jersey, is
testing home banking with 20 large and small banks around the
country, each of which has between 25 and 200 participating fami-
lies. Taking part in the ADP project are Chicago's Continental Illinois
National Bank and Trust Company, Connecticut's Colonial Bank,
Florida's Barnett Banks and New York's Marine Midland Bank.
A large-scale experimental effort is being mounted by Video
Financial Services (VFS) that will link Los Angeles' Security Pacific
Bank, North Carolina's Wachovia Bank and Florida's Southeast
Banking Corporation. These banks are cooperating, through VFS,
with the AT&T/Knight-Ridder Viewtron™ experiment, which goes
beyond banking to encompass a host of other at-home services. I
will talk about Viewtron in the next section of this chapter.
There are a number of advantages and disadvantages to home
banking that should be considered. The banks themselves admit that
the monthly fees, which range from $5 to $15, are high; your annual
98
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
investment in fees alone could run as high as $180. Telephone usage
fees from your local exchange company and long-distance service
are extra. Before making such hefty investments, consider your costs
for banking today. If you spend a lot of time getting to and from your
bank for routine needs, particularly if you use a cab for these trips, if
your mobility is limited, or if your fears for your safety are important
concerns, the costs may be worth it.
Two other considerations are privacy and security. There's been a
lot of publicity lately about computer freaks breaking into large
mainframe computers. With banks, such risks are higher than they
are with universities or other institutions because, in Willie Sutton's
memorable phrase, "that's where the money is." Most home bank-
ing services available today do not "scramble" your communica-
tions over the telephone lines with the bank, so the possibility that
someone will tap into these messages does exist. If you're an older
person, an adult child or another person who knows you well could
use the home-banking service to find out about your financial status.
Bankers say they take these issues seriously and will implement
security procedures before offering the services on a wide scale.
Computers communicate over the telephone by means of what
are called "modems" (modulator-demodulators) These come in
two kinds: direct-connect, which, as the name implies, you connect
directly to your telephone outlet; and acoustic, which have cradles
into which you place your telephone handset. Modem costs range
from $50 to $450. The higher-cost modems have automatic dialing
and other sophisticated features you probably won't need unless
you use the equipment a lot. But a modem is not enough. You also
need what's called communications software. Such programs allow
your computer to send and receive information through the
modem. Ask the dealer who sold you the computer for information
about compatible programs and modems.
Shopping
A project called Viewtron offers a peek at what's in store for use in
years to come. It's an experimental effort offered in Miami, but by
the end of 1984 it may be available in other parts of the country at
least on a test basis. Viewtron subscribers can handle most of the
INDEPENDENT LIVING
99
banking services described above, but they can also do a lot more.
Viewtron is a cooperative venture between AT&T, which pro-
vides the terminals (called Sceptre) and Knight-Ridder, which sup-
plies the information (Knight-Ridder is a chain of newspapers and
other news media). First, you purchase the $600 Sceptre terminal;
you can't use your own home or personal computer with this ser-
vice, at least not yet. You also pay a $12 monthly fee, plus $1 per hour
of use. Viewtron is asking you to make quite an investment. But it's
delivering quite a product.
First, let me explain how Viewtron differs from such data base
services as The Source and CompuServe. The latter two services are
nationwide. Viewtron, by contrast, is local. You receive local news,
not just nationwide news. You find out about local stores, local prod-
ucts, local prices. And you can do something with the information
you see on Viewtron. You can order goods and services; in the
Miami test location, you can purchase from more than 100 retailers.
E.F. Hutton offers brokerage services, and J.C. Penney provides
shopping service for Viewtron customers. Video Financial Services
provides banking through Southeast Banking Corp. Not only can
you find out what air, rail, bus, and car routes you can take from one
place to another, but you can also order tickets for these trips.
CompuServe and The Source let you do some of these things, but
not with local stores. And Viewtron differs from these services in one
other aspect: it gives you, 24 hours a day, full-color depictions of the
products, services, and information it describes.
If the project is successful in Florida, Knight-Ridder and AT&T plan
to take it nationwide, at least in the locations, such as Detroit, Phila-
delphia, St. Paul, Charlotte (NC), and San Jose, where Knight-Ridder
owns newspapers.
Experiments in the United Kingdom and in France appear to be
further along than those in the U.S. In England, British Telecom
offers what it calls Prestel to some 20,000 subscribers. Travel infor-
mation coverage is excellent, offering data on hotels, airlines, restau-
rants, and other travel-related services. (About one-fourth of Prestel's
subscribers are travel agents.) An electronic newspaper is provided,
which gives short pieces but not detailed analyses. In France, the
federal government distributes, free of charge, Minitel terminals to
telephone users throughout the country. All of France is expected
to be hooked into the system, which links users to data banks such
100
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
as telephone number directories, by 1990. One reason for the
ambitious plans; the government, which owns the telephone net-
work, thinks it will save a lot of money by providing telephone direc-
tories electronically rather than in print. At $175 per terminal, the
400,000 terminals already distributed represent quite an investment
by the French government, reflecting its determination to help
France commit itself fully to the computer age.
Information
The Source and CompuServe offer one-way communication
of information on just about any imaginable topic, drawing on
some 1,800 data bases. You can get anything in the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, any item in the AP or UPI wire services, information
from Books in Print, data about food and nutrition, and a host of
other facts and figures. If these data bases interest you, Omni Online
Database Directory (Macmillan, 1983) and the quarterly publi-
cation Directory of Online Databases (Caudra Associates, Santa
Monica, CA) may be helpful; both are available in bookstores and
in many libraries.
But the most popular services of The Source and CompuServe are
their electronic. message offerings. If you're an older person with
working children, electronic mail would be a convenient way to
leave instructions and requests with your peripatetic sons and
daughters. No more telephone tag: you type your message on your
computer, send it to the service, and check to find your answer a
few hours or even a few minutes later.
The Source will be with you for a $100 one-time fee and a $10
monthly minimum usage fee. CompuServe is available for $5 to $23
per hour of use (the higher costs during business hours).
Physically disabled, arthritic, and blind individuals may find the
voice-controlled Shadow/VET equipment useful in tapping data
bases. Instead of typing as many as 75 or 80 keys in order to tie into
the service and locate the information you want, you merely enunci-
ate four or five commands by talking to your computer. For more
information, contact Scott Instruments (1111 Willow Drive, Denton,
TX 76201). For individuals using an Echo II speech synthesizer from
Street Electronics, which permits your computer to talk to you, Bill
INDEPENDENT LIVING
101
Grimm of Computer Aids (4929 South Lafayette St., Fort Wayne, IN
46906) offers software permitting you to hear the information you
receive from the data bases. As to the services themselves, you can
visit your local computer store for information or write to The
Source (P.O. Box 1305, McLean, VA 22101) or CompuServe (5000
Arlington Centre Blvd., Columbus, OH 43220).
Security
Reducing the number of errand trips out of the house will
help you feel more secure. Just now coming on the market, though,
are some microprocessor-based products that offer rather dazzling
services.
Fire is a major concern of older and physically disabled persons;
many deaf individuals worry, too, that they will not hear fire alarms.
Local phone stores now carry AT&T's Emergency Call System (ECS),
consisting of a console ($300) and one or more $30 transmitters acti-
vated by your smoke detector. Whether you're home and fail to
hear the detector's signal or away from home, the ECS will automati-
cally dial up to two telephone numbers to report the fire, give your
address, and request assistance. Before it does all this, however, the
unit calls out "Fire" for 30 seconds, during which time you can can-
cel the transmission (if, for example, you have only burned the
toast). AT&T introduced in 1984 an ECS for use in emergency medi-
cal signalling ($200): it calls doctors and family members automati-
cally. Coming from Atari, a division of Warner Communications, is
an AtariTel home communications system that, company spokes-
men claim, will do everything the ECS does plus control appliances
and other devices throughout the home.
Basic Telecommunications Corporation offers a remarkable
product it calls the AbilityPhone (one word). This unit, which re-
places your basic telephone, does all of the following: it serves as
a telephone, complete with automatic dialing, directory dialing,
automatic redial, and automatic, answer; it is a TDD (Telecommunica-
tions Device for the Deaf) allowing deaf people to use the telephone
by typing rather than talking and listening; it offers environmental
control functions, automatically turning on and off up to 16 pieces of
equipment (locks, lights, doors, coffeemakers, etc.); it provides the
102
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
automatic fire-alerting functions offered by AT&T's ECS, calling up to
three numbers and announcing (in a synthesized voice) the emer-
gency, your address, and your need for help; it serves as a reminder
(saying, in its synthesized voice: "It's time to take your medication");
and, get ready for this feature which I've seen in only one other
product: it asks you, at timed intervals (which you set), "Are you
OK?" If you fail to respond within five minutes, it automatically dials
up to three numbers requesting assistance.
Quite a machine, isn't it? It comes with quite a price, though:
$2,735 for the basic equipment, as much as $3,335 fully equipped. A
two-year warranty comes with the device. For more information,
contact Basic Telecommunications Corporation (4414 East Harmony
Rd., Fort Collins, CO 80525).
If you're not quite ready to pay that much for a piece of equip-
ment, consider Phone Care. For just under $500, it will dial up to
five numbers automatically if you touch a transmitter worn around
your neck or carried in a pocket. Like AbilityPhone, Phone Care will
ask if you're all right at predetermined times and automatically issue
emergency calls if you fail to respond. For information, contact
Newart Electronic Sciences (Twelve Oaks Center, Suite 620, P.O.
Box 129, Wayzata, MN 55391).
Or you can use one of the cordless telephones now available to
perform a similar service. Some of these are light enough to carry
with you in a housecoat or light jacket. Many come, too, with mem-
ories you can use to program emergency numbers. If you fall and
need help, or feel an attack coming on, just press one button and
the phone will do the rest. For details, see your local phone or hard-
ware store.
I've saved Sensaphone for the last, because it's attractively priced
($250) and does things nothing else can do for you. Sensaphone has
the capability of monitoring the heat in your apartment or home, the
sounds such devices as fire alarms make, electricity use (in case the
power goes off), and even such things as a door or window opening.
If one of the signals it senses is beyond the level you've determined is
acceptable (say, if heat rises above a certain point, one indication of
possible fire), Sensaphone automatically calls you or some number
you designate, reporting the emergency in a synthesized voice; the
system can call as many as four numbers, repeating them in rotation
until one answers and acknowledges receiving the message.
INDEPENDENT LIVING
103
With Sensaphone, people can call home to check on temperature,
water level in the basement, and a host of other things while being
alerted by the machine to any emergency it senses. But older people
and physically disabled individuals likely will find it very helpful.
Take an example. If your elderly father is susceptible to periodic
unconsciousness or periods of inattention to his environment at
home, having a Sensaphone call you immediately to report any sus-
picious sounds or other events would be reassuring. Contact New
Horizons (5-31 Fiftieth Ave., Long Island City, NY 11101).
I've mentioned that AbilityPhone will remind you to take your
medicine. There's a fascinating, but much less costly, way to handle
forgotten dosage requirements. One frequent reason given by fami-
lies for enrolling an older individual in a nursing home is that the
elderly person forgets to take medicine or forgets when he or she
last took some pills; the result is either that a condition is not con-
trolled (too few pills are taken) or that an overdose occurs (pills are
taken at too-short intervals). Lederle Laboratories offers what it calls
a Compliance Aid for Pharmaceuticals (CAP). It's a bottle cap that fits
several standard-sized containers. CAP has a digital time readout
that displays the day and the time that the cap was last replaced on
the container. Each time the patient reopens the container to
remove a pill, both date and time reset automatically. By taking the
CAP to your pharmacy, you can have your medication placed in a
suitably sized container. For more information, contact B.J. Zoltan
(Medical Research Division, Lederle Laboratories, Pearl River, NY
10965).
And what about the bugaboo of live-alones, the obscene tele-
phone call? At a local phone store, you can pick up a Fox Fone
($129), which includes a synthesized voice capability. When some-
one calls you, the ring does not sound until the calling party
responds to the artificial voice's request: "Please send my Fox
Code." Only if the appropriate three-digit code is given does your
phone ring. This means that Fox Fone has to be used by touch-tone
callers, because the device does not have speech recognition. If you
have a lot of friends who use rotary-dial telephones, you're probably
well advised to await introduction of AT&T's Genesis second-
generation telephone, which is now in development. There is
a Genesis on the market now, but it won't do what we're
about to describe. The coming Genesis, observers report, will have
104
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
speech-recognition capabilities. It will display the caller's phone
number on your telephone so you know who is calling. This might
discourage obscene callers.
Home Control
Physically disabled people spend many hours each day perform-
ing what are for most of us routine tasks. To the extent that these
things can be performed automatically, you (or someone close to
you) could save an enormous amount of time and energy.
Prentke Romich offers a slew of environmental control units.
These ECUs, as they're called, use computer chips to start your cof-
fee in the morning, raise the lights and lower them (gradually or
abruptly, at times you choose), answer your telephone, and control
just about any other electric or electronic device you designate.
Prices vary considerably, depending on what equipment you
already have and which functions you desire. You're well advised to
ask the company to tell you which individual pieces of equipment
you need; one of its consultant vendors may install. the system
for you. Contact Prentke Romich (8769 Township Rd., 513, Shreve,
OH 44676-9421).
If you're adventurous, and if you know something about electron-
ics and about programming in BASIC (the computer language that
comes with almost every home and personal computer on the mar-
ket today), you can do yourself pretty proud with a home control
and security system. But be warned: this is not, repeat not, a plug-in-
and-go capability.
Unless you're the next Steve Jobs, who founded Apple, or David
Packard, cofounder of Hewlett-Packard, you're probably best off
purchasing a book to find out what to do and how to do it. SYBEX
offers two of the best. Doug Mosher's Your Color Computer
describes the home-control BASIC program Mosher wrote and the
functions of the various devices required. You'll probably spend
about $600 or more on the system, which works with the TRS-80
Radio Shack Color Computerᵀ. Apple addicts should read James
Coffron's The Apple Connection for details on using an Apple com-
puter to control your home. SYBEX also publishes similar books
about the VIC 20, IBM PC, and Commodore 64. These books are
INDEPENDENT LIVING
105
available in computer stores, bookstores, or direct from the
publisher. A third possibility is to contact Jance Associates (P. O. Box
234, East Texas, PA 18046) for information on how to use a VIC 20 or
Commodore 64 for home control purposes. Jance, in fact, will sell
you a complete system consisting of the home-control package, soft-
ware you'll need, a written copy of the program, and instructions on
how to modify the system to fit your particular needs. The price
(exclusive of the computer) is $195: figure on adding another $300
for the home computer (the VIC 20 and Commodore 64 are low in
price) and associated peripherals. For Apple II Plus owners, a similar
system is available from Compu-Home Systems, Inc. (3333 East Flor-
ida Ave., Denver, CO 80210)
What's this all about? Well, author Doug Mosher uses his home-
control system to turn lights on and off when he's away to discour-
age burglars. It automatically controls his outdoor sprinkler and
water systems so as to give each plant in his garden exactly
the amount of water it needs to grow; his system even checks the
amount of water already in the ground around the plants to be
sure the soil is not too dry or too wet. It controls the heat in his
home, balancing it despite the fact that before he installed his system,
some rooms tended to be much cooler and other much hotter
than the temperature set on his thermostat. And it starts his coffee
in the morning.
Aside from the personal computer, the main elements of Mosher's
system are BSR modules and the BASIC program that runs the whole
thing. You can pick up a BSR home-control console, a Radio Shack
Plug 'n Power (which serves as an interface between the computer
and the console), and as many BSR modules (switches that plug into
house wiring) as you wish from Radio Shack stores. If you have a
Color Computer, the BASIC program you need is in Mosher's book.
You'll also need a clock your computer can read, some interface
devices, and a lot of patience. Even if you get the books by Mosher
and Coffron, or the complete systems from Jance or Compu-Home,
you're probably well advised to ask a friend or consultant to help
you set up the system.
Another two pieces of advice.
First, you cannot use the system when you're doing something
else with your computer. So give serious thought, if you want to com-
puterize your home, to purchasing an inexpensive home computer
106
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
rather than a sophisticated multipurpose personal, computer for this
function. Any of the many home computers described in Mosher's
Family Computers Under $200 (SYBEX, 1984) probably would be
suitable. Then, for all your other computing needs (word process-
ing, data processing, banking, etc.), use another computer.
Second, if you deviate from your usual routine; going away for a
vacation or a business trip, for example; don't forget that your
home-control system won't do anything different while you're away
than when you're home-unless you tell. it to. This is important to
remember, because, to take just one example, you don't want coffee
starting if no one is home to drink it. Ruined coffee would be the
least of your losses. It might help, then, to put an attention-getting
sign just inside your front door: "Going Out? Don't forget the Com-
puter Home-Control System!"
Despite all the pitfalls, a personally designed home-control system
has a lot going for it. You can set it up to serve you, not some hypo-
thetical "average" individual who may be nothing whatsoever like
you. You can program your own selections of people to be called if a
fire occurs, numbers to be called if a burglary takes place, lights to
be turned on or off in what sequence and to what degree of candle-
power, what music or other sounds you want to be greeted with in
the morning, and what you want a would-be burglar to hear when
he or she opens a window or a door. With competent advice, the
right equipment, and a good dose of patience, you can design an
environment that's fun for you to live in. If you tire of one setup, you
can change it.
To get ideas about how to custom-design your own security
system, go to your local library and read two interesting articles in
Personal Computing magazine: "How a Computer Can Control Your
Home," by David Gabel, March 1983; and "Loading the Computer
for Home Security," by Craig Zarley, October 1983.
Stimulation
Loneliness is a real problem for many older and disabled individ-
uals. I know elderly people who talk to themselves, not because
they're senile, but because they want the illusion of human interac-
tion. A personal computer can provide such an illusion. And it can
INDEPENDENT LIVING
107
go further: it offers you a gateway to the world, access to thousands
of sources of fascinating information you can print out on your com-
puter's printer, connections at reasonable prices to people all over
the place for a fraction of direct-connection telephone charges, par-
ticipation in "party line" chess games and other kinds of conversa-
tion about any imaginable topic, and challenge in the form of all
kinds of games and software programs.
The personal computer is nonjudgmental; it won't get upset with
you if you're in a foul mood. It won't jump at you if you make
a mistake (although it most definitely will refuse to function prop-
erly until you correct that mistake). It can remember the many bits
and pieces of information you need to keep track of but so often
forget: people's birthdays, telephone numbers, your old drafts of the
"Great American Novel," your nutrition guidelines, and just about
anything else.
There's a flip side to all this. Some writers have written dour
pieces on the isolation that personal computers are sure to create.
By making daily trips to the grocer's or pharmacy unnecessary, these
writers say, computers will make older and disabled people even
more alone than they are today. I don't believe it. In fact, I think the
opposite will occur: you'll be freed from the mundane to interact
more often, more enjoyably, and more extensively with people you
choose to be friends with, while reducing your exposure to people
you'd rather avoid as well as to the dangers of robberies or street
accidents. And you'll have more energy for your social contacts pre-
cisely because you'll spend less time on routine tasks.
As computers develop further and as prices continue to drop, in a
few years you'll find your computer capable of listening to you and
responding to what you tell it. It will, in turn, talk to you. Some day,
your personal computer will have the capabilities a Sensaphone has
today, so the computer will be able to tell how you feel and ask you
about it. That's not as fanciful as it might sound; speech recognition
is already here. It's a short step to programming a computer with
such capabilities so it will recognize the sound of a cough, a sneeze,
or a hoarse throat. Speech synthesis, too, already is with us, and at
affordable prices, so your computer could ask you when you arrive
at your desk in the morning: "Got a cold? I suggest you take
two aspirin and see me later." In fact, you may even be able to pro-
gram your computer to have its own personality: comforting and
108
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
agreeable, grouchy and touchy, sarcastic and sardonic.
The microcomputer can make you feel more safe and secure, for
the very good reason that you will be more safe and secure. It can
bring far-flung family and friends and needed information closer
than ever. It can stimulate your mind, permitting you to continue
your education virtually to the day you die. It can free your mind
from remembering thousands of details, letting you concentrate on
patterns. You will become more creative.
Most important, you'll live independently much longer-and with
much more fun.
/
PART
TODAY AND TOMORROW
/
11
CHAPTER
VISION IMPAIRMENTS
When people ask me what microcomputers can do for individ-
uals who are blind, I tell them to get in touch with Judge Leonard
Suchanek, a judge with the Board of Contract Appeals in the Gen-
eral Services Administration (GSA) in Washington, D.C. Suchanek is
shown in Figure 6.1. A software specialist named Dan Maday set up
for Judge Suchanek the single most advanced computer system I've
ever seen for persons who are blind.
For starters, Suchanek has a Kurzweil Reading Machine
($29,000, from Kurzweil Computer Products, 185 Albany St., Cam-
bridge, MA 02139). This amazing product reads out loud, in a syn-
thesized voice, virtually any book, memorandum, newspaper,
magazine or letter, in any type style or type size imaginable. The
user can control the speed of the artificial speech, whether upper-
case and lowercase letters should be differentiated vocally, and
whether words should be read in toto or spelled out. The price
includes training for the user and one year's warranty. The system is
not perfect: it pronounces the Judge's name "Such a neck" rather
than "Sou hon eck." Such idiosyncrasies are insignificant, though,
when you realize that the KRM can not only read anything you want
VISION IMPAIRMENT
113
to hear but can also send it into your computer, obviating the need
to have someone key in all the information. True, there will be many
misspellings; Suchanek is not satisfied with the KRM's 80 percent
accuracy rate when used as an automatic entry terminal, preferring
to contract out to services that do it with a 98 percent accuracy, but
accuracy should improve in the years to come.
PHOTOGRAPH BY LISA D. WILLIAMS.
Figure 6.1: Judge Leonard Suchanek operates the Kurzweil Reading Machine in his
office. With his right hand he manipulates the controls of the machine; his left hand
rests on the book the KRM is reading.
114
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Judge Suchanek reads Braille. Not all blind people do; most esti-
mates place the proportion reading Braille at under 10 percent of
the blind population. Suchanek has an LED-120 Braille printer that
takes information from his computer and produces a Braille printout
at a staggering 120 characters per second. And this is in top-quality
Grade 2 Braille, translated from the English by the system's Dux-
bury Braille Translator software. The Triformation Systems LED-120,
including the Duxbury software, costs about $14,000, but it's falling
(the software alone plunged 50 percent in price in 1983).
Next, Maday got for Suchanek and for the GSA a $3,000 Perkins
Brailler from Maryland Computer Services. The microcomputer-
based machine even looks like the electromechanical original made
by the Perkins School for the Blind in Watertown, Massachusetts. It's
nice to have around as a portable Brailler. I know blind individuals
who arrange with their offices to send information from office word
processing machines over the phone lines to the MCS Perkins
Brailler so that they can read it themselves rather than have to hire
sighted readers to plow through voluminous reports.
Suchanek and Maday weren't done. An Apple work station, com-
plete with modem and various other peripherals, was purchased for
$15,000. And, for the office secretarial staff, a DEC minicomputer
was added; the Duxbury Braille Translator works with Apple and
DEC computers as well as with the LED-120 printer.
Judge Suchanek is the highest-ranking multiple disabled
employee in the federal government. He's blind with a partial hear-
ing loss. His work in the Board of Contract Appeals involves an over-
whelming reading load. Maday points out that the judge's workload
has been reduced by one-third, a considerable savings in the time
he needs to review cases and direct the work of the board's lawyers.
The equipment was not purchased for Suchanek's use alone.
Maday plans an experimental work station at GSA that will demon-
strate microcomputer technology for use by handicapped federal
employees in Washington. One person he wants to help: a writer/
editor who was left by the effects of Thalidomide with no use of her
arms. Maday explained how he was advertising in Commerce
Business Daily for a special keyboard she could use to write
with her feet.
The prices are daunting right now, but they're falling. The LED-
120 (illustrated in Figure 6.2) is available from Triformation Systems,
VISION IMPAIRMENT
115
Inc. (3132 S.E. Jay St., Stuart, FL 33494). Maryland Computer Serv-
ices' Perkins Brailler is available from MCS (2010 Rock Spring Rd.,
Forest Hill, MD 21050). Apple computers, including a raft of periph-
erals, may be secured at local computer stores; for the name of the
dealer nearest you, contact the company (20525 Mariani Ave.,
Cupertino, CA 94014).
If your reading requirements run to documents and letters rather
than to books and magazine articles, Dest Corporation sells, through
local vendors, a $7,000 Dest Workless Stationᵀ, which is an elec-
tronic document scanner that can read such typefaces as Courier 10
(an IBM Selectric typeface) and seven others. You place a stack of up
to 75 pages face up into the machine. Dest's optical character reader
"reads" each page, sends the information in digital form ("0" and
"1") to your computer, and returns the page, this time face down.
PHOTOGRAPH BY LISA D. WILLIAMS.
Figure 6.2: Judge Suchanek reads the output of his LED-120 printer, by Triformation
Systems, by placing his hand on the paper feed.
116
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
The company claims the machine makes a spelling error once in
every 300,000 characters, despite the 25-seconds per page speed.
For more information, contact Dest Corporation (2380 Bering
Drive, San Jose, CA 95131).
At Vitro Laboratories, a division of Automation Industries, Inc.,
John Merz, a blind programmer, uses Vitro's special software to do
something I thought was impossible: it makes the LED-120 produce
three-page-wide graphics that blind people can read. Not every-
body wants to emboss missile trajectories and detailed maps like
Merz does, but access to graphics is something no other computer
system I've seen can provide for blind people. Contact Merz at Vitro
Laboratories (1400 Georgia Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20910).
You can get graphics, after a fashion, by using the Optacon
device, which reproduces images read by a small camera as tactile
impressions you feel with a finger. It's a good machine, popular
among blind individuals because it's small, light, and portable. The
only problem with the Optacon's graphics capabilities is that you get
each small portion of the image, portion by portion, with no overall
"picture" of the image. That brings to mind, of course, the prover-
bial three-blind-men-and-an-elephant joke, but some blind individ-
uals, such as Little Rock, Arkansas, programmer Diana Holzhauser,
tell me they can read graphics quite well with the $4,300 Optacon.
The device comes with a CRT camera that can be used with "active"
computer display terminals. However, the Optacon does not func-
tion well with LCD (liquid crystal display) "passive" terminals, such
as are now found on computers like the TRS-80 Radio Shack Model
100 portable computer; some experts say that LCD screens are bet-
ter because they emit no radiation. For information about the Opta-
con, contact Telesensory Systems; Inc. (3408 Hillview Ave., P.O. Box
10099, Palo Alto, CA 94304).
If you have some residual vision, the extra-large print screens
from Visualtek will interest you. Prices range from $2,000 to $4,500
and include the cameras used to read information on another
computer if you already have one; if not, Visualtek will provide you
with one of its own. Contact Visualtek (1610 26th St., Santa Monica,
CA 90404).
Or, if you prefer to listen to information, Maryland Computer
Services' Information Through Speech (ITS), at $8,000 (one disk) to
$12,000 (Winchester hard disk), is worth looking at. Bill Grimm of
VISION IMPAIRMENT
117
Computer Aids will supply you with a complete hardware-and-
software talking system using an Apple lle and an Echo II speech
synthesizer. Grimm's software lets you do word processing, data
processing, data base management (including access to The Source
and CompuServe data. banks), and a lot of other things. Con-
tact Computer Aids, Inc. (4929 South Lafayette St., Fort Wayne,
IN 46806).
AVOS offers some interesting software that takes advantage of
an Echo GP speech synthesizer to let you do word process-
ing, document formatting, information management, checkbook
management, directory filing, and, in your spare time, games.
Included in the package are WordStar and CalcStar from MicroPro,
programs from Microsoft and AVOS's own voice module and soft-
ware, and a 64K Z-80 based computer. AVOS lets you use the pro-
tected software from MicroPro because it has placed on a board of
its own a microprocessor with 512K bytes of buffering. All that tech-
nical jargon basically means that the speech synthesizer does not
need to use the host computer's operating system, so the problem
of interacting with protected software does not arise. The entire
package, hardware and software, costs just under $3,000. Contact
AVOS, Inc. (1485 Energy Park Drive, St. Paul, MN 55108).
Visually impaired people all over America are getting into com-
puters in a big way. Jeff Weiss and his wife, who live in Little Rock,
Arkansas, used Bill Grimm's package of an Apple lle, Echo II speech
synthesizer, and word processing software to write a book on teach-
ing Braille to adults. (American Printing House for the Blind, March
1984.) Larry Scadden, in Washington, DC, uses his computer to
manage a private consulting company that specializes in technology
for handicapped individuals, and Joe Moore, in New York City, uses
his computer to do programming for Manufacturers Hanover Trust.
I also met a young man I'll call Mike. He grew up in Minnesota
and moved to Arizona for college. In Tempe, Mike was attending
an Arizona State University fraternity party when someone hit him
on the head with a heavy wooden board. He spent three months
in a coma and, when he awoke, found that he was blind. Mike also
has brain damage: his speech is slow and slurred, and he has diffi-
culty remembering some things. Mike is now using an Apple lle com-
puter and a Model III from Radio Shack to prepare himself to
return to work.
118
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
For More Information
The American Council of the Blind (1211 Connecticut Ave., NW,
Washington, DC 20036) is a consumer organization with chapters in
many states. The council is primarily interested in national legisla-
tive, judicial, and executive branch decisions affecting blind individ-
uals. It sponsors a number of publications in large print and in
Braille; some feature technology applications for blind persons.
The American Foundation for the Blind (15 West 16th St., New
York, NY 10011) is a major center of information about blindness. It
distributes Sensory Aids for Employment of Blind and Visually
Impaired Persons: A Resource Guide and other directories of aids.
The Blinded Veterans Association (1735 DeSales St., NW, Washing-
ton, DC 20036) is a membership organization primarily consisting of
blinded veterans. It publishes newsletters in print and on tape that
often discuss the new technologies available for blind persons. Field
representatives, themselves blind, are asked to explain to newly
blinded individuals, particularly veterans, about new technologies
and programs.
The Carroll Center for the Blind (770 Centre St., Newton, MA
02158) conducts research on aids and appliances for blind and visu-
ally impaired persons and publishes Aids and Appliances Review, a
journal designed for American and foreign professionals and con-
sumers concerned with blindness and low vision, which concen-
trates on U.S. and European resources that perform specific tasks for
visually impaired individuals.
Helen Keller International, Inc. (22 West 17th St., New York, NY
10011) works to advance programs for blind individuals worldwide.
Its former name is the American Foundation for Overseas Blind, Inc.
The International Association for the Prevention of Blindness (1013
Bishop St., Suite 280, Honolulu, HI 96813) is, despite the name, con-
cerned as much with aids and devices to help blind persons
live independently as it is with medical research on preventing
the disability.
The Mississippi State University (P.O. Drawer LQ, Mississippi State,
MS 39762) conducts research and training on blindness and low
vision, seeking ways to help persons live more independently. The
program is particularly interested in employment and independent
living aids and devices.
VISION IMPAIRMENT
119
The National Association for the Visually Handicapped (305 East
24th St., 17-C, New York, NY 10010) is an information, referral,
and service organization primarily interested in persons whose
vision impairments are severe, but not total. It publishes newsletters
covering topics, including new developments in technology, that
affect persons with low vision.
The National Federation of the Blind (1800 Johnson St., Baltimore,
MD 21230) is an organization of blind individuals themselves. It pub-
lishes The Braille Monitor, which looks critically at American pro-
grams and organizations serving blind people. The organization
helped field-test the Kurzweil Reading Machine in the mid-1970s.
The Pennsylvania College of Optometry (1200 West Godfrey Ave.,
Philadelphia, PA 19141) conducts research on orientation and
mobility for persons with low vision. The project produces a com-
puterized information system of data of interest to researchers, prac-
titioners, and persons who are blind, particularly with respect to
mobility aids, hazards, training in the use of aids, and illumination
factors in mobility.
The Sensory Aids Foundation (399 Sherman Ave., Suite 4, Palo
Alto, CA 94306) publishes a quarterly report documenting advances
in the Optacon, a print-to-touch reading system, and other devices.
It also distributes, as does the American Foundation for the Blind,
Sensory Aids for Employment of Blind and Visually Impaired Persons:
A Resource Guide.
The Smith-Kettlewell Institute of Visual Sciences (2232 Webster St.,
San Francisco, CA 94115) is a major rehabilitation engineering
center specializing in aids and devices, such as "paperless Braille,"
for blind individuals.
The Western Pennsylvania School for Blind Children (201 North
Bellefield St., Pittsburgh, PA 15213) conducts a project on assess-
ment and treatment with families having visually handicapped chil-
dren. The work concentrates on counseling and problem-solving
strategies as well as referral of appropriate aids and devices.
The World Council for the Welfare of the Blind (58 Avenue Bosquet,
75007 Paris, France) is a major international information source on
programs, statistics, and technologies relating to blindness.
CHAPTER
HEARING LOSSES
Steve Rhodes uses his personal computer to study grain shapes in
the ocean. The 28-year-old wants to learn the origin of the rocks.
"The computer has been a wonderful technological advance for me
and my work, because it has helped break down the communica-
tion barrier. Working with a computer doesn't require much com-
munication between me and a hearing person." The Columbia,
South Carolina, resident is a graduate of Gallaudet College, the lib-
eral arts college for deaf people in Washington, D.C. He lost his
hearing when he was 5. His biggest hope? "A company in Atlanta is
developing a telephone device which will take what I type and
change it to a voice, and then change the other person's voice to
printed words." That microcomputer equipment would allow him
to use the telephone with people who do not have telecommunica-
tions devices for the deaf (TDDs).
Steve is just one of hundreds of thousands of deaf and hearing-
impaired people in the U.S. and Europe who use personal computers
at work and at home. Of America's 500 school programs serving chil-
dren and youth with impaired hearing, more than 175 have micro-
computers in the classroom. A dozen different companies market
HEARING LOSS
121
TDDs. One of the latest is Minnesota's Audiobionics, a company
founded by the father of a deaf teenager. It does some of the things
Steve wants. The device, called a Personal Communicator, includes its
own speech synthesizer that translates what a deaf person types into
speech, then transmits that spoken message over the telephone wires
to, for example, tell parents of a child's whereabouts. The hearing
party can respond, using the touchtone buttons on a telephone,
"Yes," "No," and the like. The Personal Communicator is small and
portable; you can even use it to call your computer at the office. For
more information about the $895 device, contact Audiobionics (9913
Valley View Rd., Eden Prairie, MN 55344).
If you want a modem (modulator/demodulator) to use with your
TDD so you can call people who own computers, you can get one
from Weitbrecht Communications, Inc. The California company was
founded by the man generally credited with inventing the original
Baudot modem that permits deaf people to use old Teletype
machines on the telephone. Robert Weitbrecht is himself deaf. For
more information about the Phonetype 1000, contact him (655 Sky-
way, #230, San Carlos, CA 94070). Intra Computers (101 West 31st
St., New York, NY 10001) offers a $200 board to make an Apple
computer capable of communicating with a TDD device.
Some of the newer TDDs, like Audiobionics' Personal Communi-
cator, contain the communications capabilities to transmit both
ASCII (used by computers) and Baudot (used by TDDs) so you can
use your device to talk to anybody who has a TDD or a personal
computer. Superphone, from Ultratec, is an example. The light-
weight $500 machine, shown in Figure 7.1, has a voice-output
option, which adds $400 to the price, making its cost comparable to
that of the Personal Communicator. You can also add a printer, an
auto-answer feature, and additional memory. For information, con-
tact Ultratec, Inc. (P.O. Box 4062, Madison, WI 53711).
At Rochester Institute of Technology's National Technical Institute
for the Deaf (NTID), computers are being used to provide real-time
captioning for classroom lectures. When I heard about that, I imme-
diately thought they must have some kind of experimental,
continuous-speech-recognition system unavailable anywhere else.
After reaching the campus, I learned that the truth was more prosaic.
What NTID was doing was to display in the classroom computer-
generated printouts of lectures as transcribed by a certified court
122
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
reporter. As the reporter keyed on a stenotype machine, a computer
translated the signals into words, which then appeared on a class-
room CRT terminal, one word at a time. The system was experimen-
tal. In one test, the words appeared almost simultaneously with the
teacher's speech: it is truly a "real-time" system.
I did enjoy, though, listening to the Beatles' song "Yesterday" on
a computer at NTID's audio labs. As each word was sung, a
small cursor-like indicator bounced over the printed version of the
word; through the earphones, I could hear the amplified music as
well. Computers are used, too, to provide deaf students with a
video image of correct pronunciations against which they can com-
pare similar images of their own speech; this immediate feedback
helps deaf students learn to pronounce words and sentence pat-
terns correctly.
In Richmond, Virginia, Ken Macurik has developed a computer-
based auditory training unit that works with Apple II+ and lle
HAVE R SUPER BAY
3
ux
or
7
B
9
I
2
E
R
T
Y
U
I
o
P
W
A S D F G H J K L
Z
X
C
V
B
N
M
Vi.
?
3,
SHIPT
Superphone
PHOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF ULTRATEC, INC.
Figure 7.1: Superphone, a TDD device.
HEARING LOSS
123
computers as well as with the TRS-80 Radio Shack Model I. In effect,
Macurik's vocalization trainer does the job of a speech therapist.
With the Model I, Macurik combines the computer with a Vox Box
Radio Shack voice input (speech-recognition) unit and software he
wrote. Costs run under $600 for the complete system, including the
computer. With the Apple computers, Macurik is using the cassette
input port to translate vocalizations. He says that the Apple version
offers a higher resolution voice plot, or representation, than does
the Model I version. Hearing-impaired persons can compare the
visual speech representation they produce against an "ideal" voice
plot, gradually making a more exact sound. Contact Macurik (1314
West Main St., Richmond, VA 23284).
The difficulty of mastering the baffling intricacies of the English
language is another problem for deaf and hearing-impaired people.
I have sometimes compared deafness to being in Tokyo in a sound-
proofed glass box. All around you in the bustling streets, people are
speaking Japanese, which you do not know but have to learn to sur-
vive. Under the circumstances, it is a miracle if you pick up some
Japanese words. Mastering the grammar just takes a few years
longer! So it is not surprising that many deaf people are somewhat
embarrassed about their writing. With so many spelling checkers on
the market now, can grammar programs be far behind? A story in
High Technology, July 1983, shows why there's still quite a way to
go. The title tells the story: "Software Tackles Grammar-So Far,
Grammar Wins."
The breakthrough for persons with hearing loss (and anyone else
who wants help with grammar) may emerge as the AT&T Bell Labo-
ratories UNIX operating system comes into widespread use with 32-
bit computers. Dictronics introduced a microcomputer version of
one of the Bell Labs Writer's Workbench™ grammar programs late
in 1983; it doesn't actually correct your grammar but if you stop
typing after hitting the semicolon key, for example, the screen will
display the punctuation rules for semicolons.
Wang Electronic Publishing, a division of the Massachusetts com-
pany, has a program that will review a letter or chapter you write on
your microcomputer, comparing your spelling, punctuation, and
use of synonyms and other words against the assembled wisdom of
the Random House Dictionary, Roget's Thesaurus, the Chicago Man-
ual of Style, and The Elements of Style by Strunk and White. If you're
124
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
interested in this electronic English teacher, check it out with Wang
Electronic Publishing, Wang Laboratories (1 Industrial Ave., Lowell,
MA 08151).
Also worth a look is the Style and Punctuation program from
Oasis Systems (3692 Midway Drive, San Diego, CA 92210). Like Dic-
tronics' Grammatik program, it will run on popular personal com-
puters; you don't have to await the 32-bit machines.
But what really gets deaf people excited is speech recognition. It's
coming, it's coming. Speech recognition (at least continuous speech,
spoken by different people, as opposed to single words by a single
speaker, which is available now) may be delayed but it isn't for a
lack of effort. All the heavyweights are hard at work on it. AT&T's
biggest brains in Murray Hill and Holmdel, IBM's blue-suited
geniuses at Yorktown Heights, Control Data Corporation's Minne-
apolis supercomputer experts, Cray Research's top scientists, and a
raft of Japanese specialists are trying to crack the barrier. Edward
Fiegenbaum, a top artificial-intelligence expert and coauthor of The
Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence and Japan's Computer Chal-
lenge to the World, thinks continuous speech recognition is no more
than five to ten years away, given the gigantic commitment of Japa-
nese companies and government to the task. But he hopes Ameri-
can firms can beat Japan to the punch.
Why all the fuss? Several reasons, none of which have anything
even remotely to do with helping deaf people. First, continuous
speech recognition will let us talk to robots as well as to word-
processing machines and data processors, making computers truly
"user friendly," if that term has any meaning any more. Second,
executives in business are much more likely to take to machines
they can talk to than devices they can't understand how to use; the
executives sign the checks to multimillion-dollar purchase contracts
in business, and that's where the future is for computer companies.
General Dynamics and other firms expect that pilots will be able to
control aircraft simply by speaking; Unimation thinks "hearing"
robots will sell to plants that won't accept "deaf" robots. Perhaps
most important in the long run is that speech recognition is a key
component of the "fifth-generation" computer, the computer that
is supposed to actually learn from its experiences and perhaps
even think.
But continuous speech recognition requires enormous amounts
HEARING LOSS
125
of computer memory. Are we ever going to see it on microcom-
puters? IBM found, during its initial research on the subject about six
years ago, that one hour of time on its largest mainframe was
required just to understand one second of speech. Janet Baker, who
was with IBM at the time and now heads Dragon Systems, Inc.,
which specializes in speech recognition, believes that the rapid pace
of research since that time has brought continuous speech recogni-
tion within sight but that important problems remain. Victor Zue, an
expert on speech recognition and one of the few people in the coun-
try capable of taking one look at a spectrogram and translating it into
the English word that produced it, concedes that researchers have a
long way to go before they will solve the riddles of continuous
speech recognition.
I'm willing to bet, though, that the complexities of this subject
won't defeat one man who moved into the field only three years ago
but who may beat them all to the finish line. Up in Waltham, Massa-
chusetts, Raymond Kurzweil is hard at work on a "voice typewriter"
with funding support from Xerox and other sources. Kurzweil plans
a machine that will take dictation as rapid as 150 words-per-minute
and translate it into print. Working with a 10,000-word vocabulary,
the machine will accept discrete words after a brief training session.
This is the closest anyone has come to date to real continuous
speech recognition. While the product is not yet available commer-
cially, indications are that it will be priced for business and educa-
tional use, with an initial cost expected to be about $5,000.
Kurzweil is the man who gave us the Kurzweil Reading Machine
in 1975. Nine years later, nobody has come close to the KRM's abil-
ity to read any typeface or typestyle out loud for blind people. If
Kurzweil is successful at his latest venture, he will produce a coun-
terpart for deaf people: a machine that prints what it hears. Write to
him at Kurzweil Speech Systems (411 Waverly Oak Rd., Waltham,
MA 02154).
For More Information
The Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf (3417 Volta
Place, NW, Washington, DC 20007) is an organization primarily
comprising parents of deaf and hearing-impaired children and
126
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
youth, special educators, and speech and language pathologists.
AGBAD publishes The Volta Review, a journal that reports on tech-
nology for special education with hearing impaired persons, devel-
opments in hearing aids, and other issues of interest to persons
concerned with hearing loss. It also maintains an extensive library of
information on devices for persons who are deaf, including TDDs
and adapted microcomputers.
The American Association for the Advancement of Science (1776
Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20036) sponsors a Project
on the Handicapped in Science and has prepared, for the U.S.
Office of Technology Assessment, a recent analysis of communica-
tion technologies for deaf persons. AAAS also published Technology
for Independent Living, a 1982 collection of papers including several
on devices for persons with hearing loss.
The American Speech Language and Hearing Association (10801
Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852) is a professional society of
speech pathologists and clinicians, language therapists, and audiolo-
gists who are particularly interested in special education for children
who have speech, learning and language limitations as well as those
who have hearing losses. The association publishes a number of
professional journals and newsletters and hosts regular professional
conventions.
The Clarke School for the Deaf (Round Hill Road, Northampton,
MA 01060) conducts research on the use of technology with deaf
children, particularly with respect to speech therapy.
Disabled American Veterans (807 Maine Ave., SW, Washington,
DC 20024) is an 850,000-member service organization of disabled
veterans, which has established, as a key priority, work on behalf
of veterans with hearing impairment. DAV publishes a monthly maga-
zine, DAV, and hosts national conventions as well as other meetings
throughout the year. The organization is in close, continuous touch
with the Veterans Administration to advocate for the needs of
hearing-impaired and other disabled veterans.
Gallaudet College (Florida Ave. and 7th St., NE, Washington, DC
20002) is the world's only liberal arts college exclusively for deaf
people. It maintains an extensive library of information on deafness
and sponsors a wide-ranging program of research on technology
applicable to meeting the needs of deaf individuals.
The Helen Keller National Center for Deaf-Blind Youths and Adults
HEARING LOSS
127
(111 Middle Neck Road, Sands Point, NY 11050) is a residential and
rehabilitation facility specializing in education, job training, and care
for persons who are both deaf and blind. It publishes NatCent News,
a periodical newsletter, and sponsors research on communication
technologies for alerting deaf-blind persons to emergencies and
for facilitating interpersonal communication by people who are
deaf-blind.
The National Association of the Deaf (814 Thayer Ave., Silver
Spring, MD 20910) is one of the oldest consumer organizations
formed by disabled individuals themselves. It publishes The Deaf
American, a magazine, and The Broadcaster, a newsletter, both
monthly. It also publishes a number of books and audiovisual materi-
als, many of them on sign language. The NAD has chapters in many
of America's 50 states.
The National Technical Institute for the Deaf (One Lomb Memo-
rial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623) is located on the campus of the
Rochester Institute of Technology. It serves deaf persons interested in
a technical education, much as Gallaudet serves those more inter-
ested in the liberal arts. NTID also sponsors research on technology,
including computers, for instructional use with deaf individuals of
college age.
The University of Arkansas (RT-31, 4601 West Markham St., Little
Rock, AR 72205) conducts research on postsecondary education
and rehabilitation with persons who are deaf or hearing-impaired.
The World Federation of the Deaf (120 via Gregorio VII, 00165
Rome, Italy) is an association of national organizations of persons
who are deaf, such as America's NAD. WFD sponsors international
conventions every four years.
CHAPTER
MOBILITY LIMITATIONS
When Gerry Goldberg first went to work for the General
Accounting Office (GAO) in Washington, DC twenty-one years
ago, his muscular dystrophy was a minor impediment, but today, he
needs a powered wheelchair. Even such light exercise as writing or
typing can exhaust him. Another disability retirement case, right?
Wrong. In 1979, Gerry met Gregg Vanderheiden in Atlanta. As a
result of that meeting, Gerry's still at work for GAO.
Vanderheiden showed him how to use an Apple computer and a
light pen he wears on his head. If the pen stays on the image of
a letter for five seconds, the Apple sends that image through a key-
board emulator, and the appropriate letter appears on the office
DEC VT-100 minicomputer. It works-but it's slow. The emulator
makes the DEC "think" the letter was typed into its own keyboard.
Gerry prefers working with a large computer, because he need
not handle floppy disks or other sensitive materials. The modem he
uses to communicate from one computer to another has an auto-
dialer feature, so he need not dial telephone numbers. He is con-
stantly "talking" to IBM computers at the National Institutes of
MOBILITY LIMITATIONS
129
Health, with the DEC computers at the Brookings Institution, and
the MICOM systems at other GAO offices in Washington. Gerry
reports that he's able to input and manipulate data, run statistical
programs, and manipulate text to produce written reports.
Vanderheiden's Trace R&D Center at the University of Wisconsin-
Madison maintains a comprehensive data bank on aids and devices
such as the light pen Gerry uses. Dr. Vanderheiden also edits the
International Software/Hardware Registry Trace publishes. And with
support from the National Institute of Handicapped Research and
Special Education Programs, both of the U.S. Department of Educa-
tion, he administers several large-scale research and development
efforts to improve on existing aids. For more information, contact
Vanderheiden (314 Waisman Center, 1500 Highland Ave., Madison,
WI 53706).
You can operate an Apple II+ or lle with just one switch. Adap-
tive Peripherals markets an Adaptive Firmware Card, which also
works with the Franklin Ace computer. With the card in place, users
can run off-the-shelf software by manipulating one switch, two
switches, or a headwand. Up to 16 different kinds of input may be
used, including scanning to locate the desired character or word,
Morse Code, direct-selection, "expanded-keyboard" approaches, or
assisting features for use with headwands. The card also allows
arcade-type games to be played with a game-paddle emulation and
a slowdown mode. Installation of the card into an Apple or Franklin
computer does not interfere with the use of the computer by some-
one not taking advantage of the special input features. For more
information on the card, which costs about $300, contact Adaptive
Peripherals (4529 Bagley Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98103).
A remarkable range of switches can be secured from Prentke
Romich (8769 Township Road 513, Shreve, OH 44676-9421).
In Norfolk, Virginia, John Chappell is impressed by the potential
of personal computers to help people with severe disabilities. Execu-
tive director of Handicaps Unlimited of Virginia, the organization
that sponsors Norfolk's Endependence Center, Chappell is an engi-
neer by training and a consumer advocate by preference. He's
working with vocal and nonvocal individuals who have severe cere-
bral palsy to help them learn business skills using TRS-80 Model II
and 16 computers. Endependence is one of about a hundred
"independent living centers" located in the United States, most of
130
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
which work with disabled persons in their twenties and thirties.
The major problems, Chappell told me, are those of training
people with special needs to use computers and educating employ-
ers about what these people can do once they are trained. It's not
enough, John stressed, for the equipment to be "out there." Equally
important is for persons with special needs to know that such things
are available; without such knowledge, they too often will think that
they are unemployable. Businessmen, too, usually have no idea
what can be done with adapted computers-and why it's important
to do these things. "We've got to mount a major awareness cam-
paign, coast to coast, to tell people, consumers and employers alike,
what's possible with today's technologies," Chappell concluded.
One company that's learned what can be done and is doing its
part in spreading the word is Control Data Corporation (CDC). The
Minneapolis-based firm, whose chairman Bill Norris is widely
regarded as one of the most socially conscious chief executives in
the nation, got into the business of adapted computers when several
of its key employees became severely disabled. Rather than retire
them early, the company looked around to see what it could do to
bring them back to work.
The result of years of exploration at CDC is the HOMEWORK™
program. When an employee becomes disabled by an accident or
severe illness, a company representative visits with him or her at
home or at the hospital. The message: "We're bringing you back."
The employee is not permitted to become despondent or to talk
himself or herself into believing that return to work is impossible.
The next step is assessment of the individual needs presented. Ken
Anderson, one of the managers responsible for developing the
HOMEWORK program, stresses that each case is different. Once
CDC is satisfied it knows what the problems are, two things hap-
pen. First, the decision is made about which job the person will
perform when returned to work; it may be the previous job, or it
may be a different job on the same salary level. Second, the appro-
priate equipment is assembled and the necessary training begun.
Anderson says the usual case takes eight months. More than 50
people, most of them physically disabled, have been returned to
work. Of course, PLATO programs, the company's pride and joy,
are used to perform the training.
But CDC didn't stop with its own employees. Knowing that many
MOBILITY LIMITATIONS
131
other companies faced similar problems, it set out to market HOME-
WORK much as it markets PLATO or its minicomputers. For about
$25,000, HOMEWORK staff will perform the entire return-to-work
program for another corporation; easier cases cost less, harder
ones, more. Corporate executives I've talked to say the program is
worth the cost. Not only does the company get a valued employee
back on the job, fully trained and ready to go, but such costs as pay
for a replacement worker, insurance claim expenses, nonproductive
sick pay and other "hidden" expenses are reduced.
Southwestern Bell has taken a different approach. With research
support from AT&T Bell Laboratories, California's Telesensory Sys-
tems, and other units of what was then the Bell System, Southwest-
ern placed into service new long-distance operator equipment that
severely disabled individuals could use. Ann Robson and Tina Heath
are two examples of people who wouldn't be employed in their jobs
were it not for the investment in new technology. Ann, who's blind,
uses Braille and auditory output to keep track of information that
other operators monitor by vision. Tina, who is a quadriplegic indi-
vidual with limited control of her hands and legs, uses a pencil to
key information other operators key with their fingers, as shown in
Figure 8.1. In both cases, the women were hired, accommodated,
and retained in employment because they had something to offer
the company: they were good at their jobs. (Note: both women are
now with AT&T.)
Trace R&D Center's Gregg Vanderheiden worries, though, that such
special equipment might not be so readily available from employers
less sensitive to the abilities of special-needs people than are CDC
and Southwestern Bell. Vanderheiden concedes that adaptations are
possible. A severely disabled person can do just about anything with
some computer, particularly if that computer is an Apple or an IBM
PC, on which most of the "special-peripherals" work to date has
been performed. Physically disabled individuals probably present
the greatest challenge, because so many need more than one extra
device or add-on to be able to use the computer.
Take the case of someone with severe cerebral palsy who cannot
use the standard computer equipment without special adaptations.
For this person, an Adaptive Firmware Card, which is compatible
with Apple II computers, offers a variety of input options. The card
does not interfere with the operation of the computer, so this
132
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
PHOTOGRAPH BY L.D. KERR.
Figure 8.1: A reasonable accommodation in action. Tina Heath, an operator with
AT&T, keys her sophisticated computer-based switching console using a pencil. Quadri-
plegia limits Tina's fine-motor control, yet she has demonstrated that with a pencil she
can match the performance of the company's top operators.
individual could run standard software on the Apple. Or perhaps an
Autocom or Express 3 (both distributed by Prentke Romich) could
be used with keyboard emulators that make these special input
devices "look" to the Apple like the standard computer keyboard;
the Apple can't tell the difference between signals it gets from an
Autocom and those it gets from its own keyboard. In some cases, as
with Mike Ward, two computers might be used.
The display of sophisticated equipment is impressive. The individ-
ual can say: "I can use a computer to do my schoolwork or the work
of this job." But, cautions Vanderheiden, what assurance do we
have that the school district or employer involved has these com-
puters as well? Or that the teacher or office uses these software pro-
grams? And because of the omnipresent compatibility problems
bedeviling the personal computer field, it is fortuitous if the special-
ized hardware and software are usable in a particular school district
MOBILITY LIMITATIONS
133
or local business. Chances are that one or the other, or quite pos-
sibly both, will be incompatible. As Vanderheiden says:
It is not enough for the handicapped individual to be able to use
his own computer and its specially prepared programs. The
employer needs workers who can operate the company's com-
puters and its programs. If a disabled person can't do that, then
he can't carry out the job. The issue is to equip disabled people
to use standard hardware and standard software that is in place,
at the office or at the school or wherever it is that the disabled
individual is expected to perform. If we can't do this, then com-
puters will become a new "barrier" for disabled people.
For all of these reasons, Vanderheiden argues, it is not enough to
educate people with special needs, on the one hand, and employer
and educators on the other, to the capabilities of personal com-
puters in meeting special needs. We must teach, as well, the manu-
facturers of hardware and software how to make their products
accessible to disabled persons. Individuals with mobility limitations
are particularly at risk because of their difficulties dealing with the
standard keyboards and their need to use the computer for many
different purposes, including casual conversation. But blind individ-
uals perhaps are most at risk because of the visual nature of com-
puter terminals. If computer manufacturers can offer these disabled
persons ways to use the standard computer, the major problems will
be resolved.
Just as buildings had to be made accessible before physically dis-
abled and older people could use them, so too will computers have
to become accessible before special-needs persons can become full
partners in the computer revolution.
The man I associate most closely with these issues is mathematical
statistician Richard Heddinger. In 1972, Dick, then with the U.S.
Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, filed a lawsuit
against the Washington, DC, METRO transportation authority
because it was constructing the subway as a system inaccessible to
special-needs people. It was a personal issue with Dick, who had
polio in the 1954 epidemic. For ten years, he continued the fight.
Today, the METRO system is fully accessible.
Dick is now turning to computers. Founder of Janek Computer
134
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Associates, of Bowie, Maryland, Dick is providing technical assis-
tance to corporations that want to purchase computer hardware and
software systems. In the pursuit of perfect support services, Janek
links its own computer to those purchased by its clients. "We can do
the diagnostics after a breakdown, and sometimes fix the problem,
without leaving our office," Heddinger says.
What about the accessibility issue? Dick points out that, when he
filed his lawsuit, there was a federal law, in fact several of them, spe-
cifically requiring that the subway, which was being underwritten by
the federal government, be designed to be accessible. It's hard to
imagine a more watertight case. Yet several years of heated argu-
ment and extended court fights were required before accessibility
became a reality.
The key, he believes, is to begin the discussion early in the game.
With personal computers still in the Model-T stage, individuals with
mobility, hearing, vision, and other special needs should make their
desires known to hardware and software manufacturers as quickly
as possible. Once investments in equipment and programs become
too high, there is massive resistance to going back to "retrofit" so as
to meet special needs.
There were many times, Dick says, when it looked as if the
METRO subway would not be accessible, even though the law
clearly said it had to be. It's something that's worth remembering
now that we are facing an accessibility issue of another kind.
For More Information
AbleData (National Rehabilitation Information Center, Catholic
University, Eighth and Varnum Streets, N.E, Washington, DC 20064)
is a computerized information and retrieval service featuring off-line
bibliographies and brief descriptions of such aids as signal systems,
wheelchairs, and dressing and eating aids for persons with all kind of
disabilities. Most of the entries concern persons with different kinds
of mobility restrictions.
Accent on Information (Box 700, Bloomington, IL 61701) is
another computerized information system, this one operating in
response to specific questions posed by users. Coordinated
by Cheever Publications, Inc., it maintains an extensive library of
MOBILITY LIMITATIONS
135
information on aids for physically disabled persons and less numer-
ous citations of devices intended for persons with other kinds of
impairments. Cheever Publications also issues Accent on Living, a
consumer publication, and an annual Buyer's Guide.
The Baylor College of Medicine (Rehabilitation Medicine Dept.,
1200 Moursund Ave., Houston, TX 77030) specializes in research,
training, and product development for persons with spinal cord inju-
ries. Lex Frieden, a key figure in independent living, and William
Spencer, a leader in technology in medicine, are associated with
the program.
Case Western Reserve University (School of Medicine, 2119
Abington Road, Cleveland, OH 44106) works on research to
improve the sense of touch in persons with quadriplegia and on
other projects in the area of electrical stimulation.
The Cerebral Palsy Research Foundation of Kansas, Inc. (2021
North Old Manor, Wichita, KS 67028) conducts research on work-
site modifications that help physically disabled persons to work and
investigates robotics, design interfaces with computers, communica-
tion devices, and word processors to determine feasibility for use by
persons with neurological disorders.
The Electronic Industries Foundation (2001 Eye Street, NW, Wash-
ington, DC 20006) works to foster more and better assistive devices
for handicapped individuals. It is particularly interested in stimulat-
ing private industry to develop and market such aids.
Goodwill Industries of America (9200 Wisconsin Ave., NW, Wash-
ington, DC 20814) sponsors sheltered workshops that employ se-
verely disabled individuals and works to enhance their employment
in private business.
Human Resources Center (Willets Road, Albertson, NY 11507)
conducts research, training, and rehabilitation for severely physi-
cally disabled persons and sponsors a sheltered workshop.
International Diabetes Federation (3/6 Alfred Place, London WCIE
7EE, England) offers exchange of information about diabetes and
research on ameliorating its effects.
International Federation of Disabled Workers and Civilian Handi-
capped (Froburgstrasse 4, 4600 Olten, Switzerland) is directed by
disabled persons seeking to advance employment for persons with
handicaps. It publishes a quarterly, Bulletin, and an information
sheet, Nouvelles, as well as proceedings of its conventions. It is
136
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
particularly concerned with architectural barriers in the workplace.
International Federation of Multiple Sclerosis Societies (Stubenring
6, A-1010 Vienna, Austria) disseminates information on the condi-
tion and research on ameliorating its effects. It publishes (in English,
French, and German) The MS Newsletter.
Muscular Dystrophy Association of America (810 Seventh Ave.,
New York, NY 10019) sponsors research on the condition and on
ways of helping people with MD live independently.
National Center for a Barrier Free Environment (1015 15th St.,
NW, Suite 700, Washington, DC 20005) provides information on
ways to remove barriers from the built environment. It distributes
Reasonable Accommodation Handbook and publishes Report, a
periodical detailing progress toward a barrier-free environment.
National Easter Seals Society (2023 West Ogden Ave., Chicago, IL
60612) coordinates numerous state and local chapters and pro-
motes the use of technologies in employment. It also publishes
Rehabilitation Literature, a professional journal.
National Multiple Sclerosis Society (205 East 42nd St., New York,
NY 10010) advocates on behalf of persons with MS and promotes
research into the nature of the condition.
New York University Medical Center (School of Medicine, 500
First Ave., New York, NY 10016) conducts research on neuromuscu-
lar diseases including multiple sclerosis.
Tufts University (Dept. of Rehabilitation Medicine, 171 Harrison
Ave., Boston, MA 02111) researches nonvocal communication tech-
nologies, including visual line-of-sight communication and other
corneal-reflection techniques that allow severely disabled persons to
use computers and other devices.
University of Pennsylvania (School of Medicine, Dept. of Physical
Medicine and Rehabilitation, 3451 Walnut St., Philadelphia, PA
19104) conducts research and training on psychosocial and medical
rehabilitation of elderly handicapped individuals, including investi-
gations on early labor-force withdrawal and its effects.
University of Wisconsin (314 Waisman Center, 1500 Highland
Ave., Madison, WI 53706) conducts research on access to commun-
ication, control, and information processing systems, particularly for
nonvocal physically disabled persons. Gregg Vanderheiden is asso-
ciated with this program.
Yeshiva University/Albert Einstein College of Medicine (1300 Morris
MOBILITY LIMITATIONS
137
Park, New York, NY 10461) sponsors a Multiple Sclerosis Compre-
hensive Care Center and a medical rehabilitation research and train-
ing center that work on ways to maintain independent functioning in
persons with MS.
CHAPTER
LEARNING DISABILITIES
Some of the most dramatic applications of microcomputers occur
with children, youth, adults, and older individuals with various kinds
of mental limitations.
At the Robert E. Lee High School in San Antonio, Texas, Sandra
Jackson, Judy Simmons, and Tony Wedig developed a remedial and
diagnostic program for use with a TRS-80 microcomputer. Specifi-
cally designed for learning-disabled students, the program helps
high school students develop memory, concentration, reading, spell-
ing, and vocabulary skills. They report that because of the program's
game-like formats, structured contents, and immediate reinforce-
ment for correct responses, learning-disabled students with atten-
tion spans as short as three minutes were able to demonstrate
academic growth comparable to that of their able-bodied peers
while using the program.
Atari computer games are being used at the Brain Injury Rehabili-
tation Unit of the Veterans Administration Medical Center in Palo
Alto, California. The unit serves veterans with brain conditions due
to accidents, strokes, brain tumors, and degenerative diseases. The
Atari Hangman game, for example, helps teach spelling by stressing
LEARNING DISABILITIES
139
verbal reasoning and logical analysis skills. Brain Game, too, has
been found helpful in training patients in memory skills and numeri-
cal calculations.
Rosemary Gianutsos and Carol Klitzner, respectively of Adelphi
University and Computer Software (Forest Hills, NY), have devel-
oped a series of programs designed to run on TRS-80 Model I or III
computers. The nine programs help stroke or head-injury patients to
recover visual perception and memory skills. Speeded Reading of
Word Lists, for example, presents some words left to right, some
right to left, and some in the middle of the screen. Reaction Time
Measure of Visual Field, another program, displays "runaway num-
bers" at some point on the computer screen. The patient presses
any key to stop the numbers from proliferating. How quickly
the user responds, as numbers appear in different positions on the
screen, helps therapists diagnose slowed reactions to visual stimuli
and design appropriate therapeutic procedures.
I have observed such use in Tel Aviv, where researchers were
working with brain-injured veterans and with civilians who had
been in severe automobile accidents (both groups are unfortunately
large in Israel because of almost continuous warfare in the Middle
East and because Israelis tend to be very fast drivers). The idea, I
learned, was to force the brain to begin using undamaged cells to
conduct the work once performed by the brain cells that no longer
functioned properly. Unless information is presented quickly and a
response demanded instantly, it is difficult for people to learn to
process information in different ways. One of the striking advantages
of the microcomputer is that it can offer to the therapists both the
required speeded-up images and the immediate measurement of
response needed to assess the site of the lesion and to provide
appropriate therapy.
In Wisconsin, Sam Jenkins is surprised by the fact that, after
nearly two years of work in the application of microcomputers in
educating retarded individuals, he still encounters skepticism from
parents and teachers that retarded persons can even learn to use a
computer, let alone benefit from doing so. Jenkins observes that one
of the advantages of personal computers for retarded individuals is
the increased attention span that the color animations and speech
synthesizers foster. Another is the sense of accomplishment and
pride that success in using the computer develops. And learning
140
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
takes place because feedback is both immediate and nonjudg-
mental. Often, improved social interaction results when others
around the retarded individual praise good work. For more infor-
mation, contact Jenkins (The Upper Room, 907 6th Avenue East,
Menomonie, WI 54751).
In Richardson, Texas, James Muller got so excited about the
potential of LOGO, the turtle-based programming language, for
learning-disabled and retarded persons that he helped found the
Young Peoples' LOGO Association (YPLA), an international group
of young people and their parents. YPLA publishes Turtle News, as
well as a monthly newsletter, LOGO Newsletter, aimed at adults,
and runs the YPLA Software Exchange, which helps newcomers
benefit from the experiences of the "old pros" who still remember
the work of Seymour Papert, the MIT mathematician who invented
the language.
LOGO is a success with many special-needs individuals because it
requires very little language. Manipulation of a "turtle," (triangular-
shaped cursor) permits users to draw shapes and conduct "experi-
ments" in geometry. Originally conceived as a way to help children
learn to program computers before they were able to read, the
language has proven to be effective with people whose mastery of lan-
guage is restricted. Research at Texas Tech University, for example,
demonstrates that LOGO stimulates persistence in children and
youth who are "turned off" to many other educational interven-
tions. The children are rewarded immediately for correct actions
and gently shown mistakes when these occur. And LOGO offers a
unique way to teach abstract concepts to learning-disabled and
retarded individuals who have difficulty grasping nonconcrete ideas.
To find out more about this intriguing language, contact the YPLA
(1208 Hillsdale Drive, Richardson, TX 75081).
For More Information
The Association for Children and Adults with Learning Disabilities
(4156 Library Road, Pittsburgh, PA 15234) is a major organization of
state and local chapters consisting largely of parents of children and
youth with learning disabilities.
The Autism Services Association (Field School Building, 99 School
LEARNING DISABILITIES
141
St., Weston, MA 02193) conducts research and training in the area
of family adjustment and coping strategies for parents and siblings of
persons with autism and related disorders.
The Brain Information Service (Center for the Health Sciences,
UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90024) is an excellent data bank of articles
and other publications on brain disorders.
The Council for Exceptional Children (1920 Association Drive,
Reston, VA 22091) is a major parent and professional organization
interested in all aspects of special eduation. CEC publishes Excep-
tional Children, a professional journal that often carries articles on
educating children with mental limitations. The organization spon-
sors national and international conventions, some of which concen-
trate specifically on the use of microcomputers in special education.
Emory University School of Medicine (1441 Clifton Road, NE,
Atlanta, GA 30322) conducts research and assesses technologies in
the area of brain injuries.
Epilepsy Foundation of America (1828 L St., NW, Washington, DC
20036) is a national organization of more than one hundred state
and local chapters that advocates on behalf of persons with epilepsy,
particularly with respect to employment.
The International Association of Workers for Maladjusted Children
(66 chausee d'Antin, 75009 Paris, France) sponsors conventions
every four years for social workers concerned with enhancing their
knowledge about ways to help children who face adjustment prob-
lems because of mental, emotional, or other conditions.
The International League of Societies for the Mentally Handi-
capped (12, rue Forestiere, B-1050 Bruxelles, Belgium) is a major
information source and sponsor of international congresses in the
area of mental retardation and mental health. It publishes a news-
letter in English, French, German, and Spanish.
The National Association for Retarded Citizens (2709 Avenue E
East, P.O. Box 6109, Arlington, TX 76011) supports research, train-
ing, clinical practice, and education for mentally retarded children,
youth, and adults. It is a major international source of information
about retardation.
New York University Medical Center (School of Medicine, 550
First Ave., New York, NY 10016) conducts research and training on
analysis and treatment of brain trauma, including methods that facili-
tate the recovery of language use and motor functions.
142
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Northwestern University (Department of Rehabilitation Medicine,
633 Clark St., Evanston, IL 60201) conducts research and training on
brain trauma and stroke, particularly on ways to improve educa-
tional and vocational performance.
The University of Wisconsin (750 University Ave., Madison, WI
53706) conducts research and training on community integration of
mentally retarded individuals, including programs and strategies to
help these individuals gain access to postsecondary education and
to employment.
The Virginia Department of Rehabilitation Services (Woodrow
Wilson Rehabilitation Center, 4901 Fitzhugh Ave., Richmond, VA
11045) works to improve the vocational rehabilitation of learning-
disabled adults, particularly with respect to employment.
The World Federation for Mental Health (2255 Wesbrook
Crecent, University of British Columbia, Vancover, BC, V6T 1W5,
Canada) publishes World Mental Health Bulletin, a quarterly, and
many other publications. It serves as a clearinghouse for informa-
tion and promotes the concept that physical and mental health are
intimately related.
/
" 10
H
/
/
/
/
PART
WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE?
/
I
/ / / []
/
} /
/ / 111
CHAPTER
RESOURCES AND BUYERS' GUIDE
A good way to get started in the area of microcomputer applica-
tions for persons with special needs is to meet some disabled individ-
uals in your area who are using personal computers. Special-needs
people using computers are, in my experience at least, more than
willing to tell you everything they know-and to show you how to
do everything you want to do with a computer.
How do you find these people? One good way is to join a local
users' group. For example, several disabled children, adults, and
older individuals in the central Arkansas area are members of a local
"Apple Addicts" users' group. These organizations usually meet
monthly, sometimes in someone's home, more often in a local
school or university. Annual fees are modest: $3 for the more rural
locations, as much as $15 or $20 in some cities (the New York IBM
Personal Computer Users' Group charges $15). Your fees entitle you
to attend all meetings and to a newsletter.
Users' groups usually feature a speaker at gatherings, but the
emphasis is on what some call "random access" sessions, in which
people talk individually about their own interests and the problems
they're having with hardware or software. You'll find at least one
RESOURCES AND BUYERS' GUIDE
147
person in any group who knows how to solve your particular prob-
lem, because he or she has run into that problem before. Such "on-
the-spot" help can save you a lot of time and aggravation. Many of
the larger users' groups have their own subgroups. In New York, for
example, the IBM PC users' group has about twenty-five "special
interest groups" that meet to talk about topics as diverse as the Pas-
cal programming language and computer graphics, investments and
medical applications, word processing and mainframe emulation.
To locate users' groups in your area, contact local computer
stores. In fact, when you decide to purchase a computer or some
equipment or software to use with a computer, take a few minutes
while you're in the store to ask about local users' groups whose
members use that hardware or software.
Another good approach is to write to or call your regional or state
special-education or vocational-rehabilitation agencies, as well as
area programs serving people who are disabled. Area Agencies on
Aging (AAAs), too, are an excellent resource. If you are not sure
how to find these organizations and agencies, write to one of the
national organizations listed in each of the chapters in Part Three. If
your child is deaf, for example, a letter to the National Association of
the Deaf should bring a quick and helpful response.
Two excellent organizations to contact are the associations
representing state directors of special education and vocational
rehabilitation.
The National Association of State Directors of Special Education
(1201 16th St., NW, Suite 404E, Washington, DC 20036) can direct
you to state and local special-education programs. It also sponsors
SpecialNet, a computerized information network primarily of inter-
est to special educators, parents, and vocational educators.
The Council of State Administrators of Vocational Rehabilitation
(1055 Thomas Jefferson St., NW, Suite 401, Washington, DC 20007)
can direct you to state agencies and voluntary associations that can,
in turn, help you locate local resources.
State special education and vocational rehabilitation agencies
may also provide assistance in the purchase of microcomputers and
related aids and software if the student or client qualifies. For infor-
mation, contact your state agency.
The Veterans Administration (Washington, DC 20420) can direct you
to state and area veterans' agencies, hospitals, and organizations. The
148
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
VA also can help in purchasing aids for eligible veterans.
If you are interested in postsecondary education, the Association
on Handicapped Student Service Programs in Postsecondary Educa-
tion (P.O. Box 21192 Columbus, OH 43221) can direct you to the
colleges and universities in your area that offer special support ser-
vices, including access to computers.
If you're over 55 or know someone who is, the National Council
on the Aging (600 Maryland Ave., SW, Washington, DC 20024), the
American Association of Retired Persons (1909 K St., NW, Washing-
ton, DC 20049), and the National Council of Senior Citizens (925
15th St., NW, Washington, DC 20005) are excellent sources of infor-
mation about local organizations, agencies, and programs.
If your child is handicapped, you can find out about state and
local resources, special programs, and the like by writing to Special
Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education (Washington,
DC 20201) or to the Council for Exceptional Children (1920 Associa-
tion Drive, Reston, VA 22091). Ask for the names, addresses, and
phone numbers of the resources nearest you.
If you are a disabled individual, contact an organization called
COPH-2, sponsored by the Illinois council, Congress of Organiza-
tions of the Physically Handicapped. COPH-2 is a geographically dis-
persed users' group of disabled persons and others interested in
special applications with microcomputers (The Committee on
Personal Computers and the Handicapped [COPH-2], 2030 Irving
Park Rd., Chicago, IL 60618). Request their membership list or ask
them to tell you the names, addresses, and phone numbers of
persons living near you who are using the kinds of computers you
are interested in.
Another way is to go to your local library and leaf through the
pages of some of the personal computer magazines. Some, like Per-
sonal Computing (P.O. Box 2942, Boulder, CO 80322; $18/year),
Family Computing (P.O. Box 2511, Boulder, CO 80322); and Popular
Computing (P.O. Box 307, Martinsville, NJ 08836; $15/year) may
interest you enough that you will want to become a subscriber. One
aspect of these magazines that is often overlooked: their advertising
pages often are as informative as are their articles. You can learn
about new developments by scanning new-product announce-
ments, then learn more about them by reading critical reviews of the
products that interest you.
RESOURCES AND BUYERS' GUIDE
149
If you're sophisticated enough to use computer data banks, you
may find HEX and EIES/Handicapped helpful.
HEX stands for Handicapped Educational Exchange (11523
Charlton Drive, Silver Spring, MD 20902). It is a clearinghouse for
information on the use of technology to help disabled people and to
assist in special education. Sources of hardware and software are
listed. And, from time to time, conferences take place through HEX
by means of which dozens of people from all over the country
"talk" to each other via a computerized conference call. As I write,
HEX is a free service due in large part to a federal grant, but you
must pay your long-distance connection charges.
EIES/Handicapped is a service of the New Jersey Institute of Tech-
nology's Computerized Conferencing and Communications Center
(323 High St., Newark, NJ 07102). It offers conference calls, elec-
tronic mail, report preparation and distribution, and custom-
designed communication strategies to let a group come together to
discuss a topic electronically. Research on technology for the handi-
capped is one of the topics on which EIES maintains information.
People like Sue Prince, the speech pathologist at the Cerebral Palsy
Center in Belleville, New Jersey, pass on to EIES results of the work
they do with handicapped children and microcomputers. Costs to
use EIES/Handicapped, in addition to your long-distance connection
charges, range from $10 to $75 per month plus hourly usage rates.
If you're not sure precisely what you're looking for, a good way
to get started is to subscribe to one of several special-interest
periodicals. These vary considerably, so I'll describe them in
some detail here.
Special Needs Computing (Technical Communications, Inc., 19
Crescent Court, Sterling, VA 22170) is a new monthly publication
that covers all aspects of computers and people with special needs.
It reviews new products (both specialized and general-market hard-
ware and software); tracks sources of funding, such as special edu-
cation and rehabilitation agencies that serve disabled individuals
and veterans; monitors legislation that affects handicapped indi-
viduals; and interviews people who are finding new ways to make
computers helpful for people with special needs. This publica-
tion is much broader in scope than those that follow; it is also
published more frequently. One year's subscription is $48 (U.S.)
and $70 (foreign).
150
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
The Catalyst (Western Center for Microcomputers in Special Edu-
cation, 1259 El Camino Real, Suite 275, Menlo Park, CA 94025) is a
bimonthly newsletter that carries user-written and other contributed
stories about how teachers use computers in special education.
Annual subscriptions are $12 (individuals), $20 (agencies, organiza-
tions), and $30 (foreign).
Closing the Gap (P.O. Box 68, Henderson, MN 56004) is a tabloid-
style newspaper published bimonthly that carries contributed and
editor-written pieces' on various aspects of using microcomputer
technology in special education and rehabilitation with disabled per-
sons. The editor has a special interest in deafness. Annual subscrip-
tions are $15 (U.S.), $22 (Mexico, Canada), and $33 (other foreign).
Communication Outlook (Artificial Language Laboratory, Com-
puter Science Department, Michigan State University, East Lansing,
MI 48824) is a quarterly publication reporting on communication
aids, assistive devices, and research in the area of work with non-
oral, nonverbal, nonvocal, and nonspeech individuals. An annual
subsciption is $12.
Bulletin of Science and Technology for the Handicapped (Ameri-
can Association for the Advancement of Science, 1776 Massachu-
setts Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20036) is a quarterly publication
distributed free (for the duration of the federal grant that supports
its preparation and distribution) that often includes items dealing
with computers.
Other publications that may help you include the International
Software/Hardware Registry, a loose-leaf binder collection of brief
descriptions of computer-related aids and software programs ($15);
Nonvocal Communication Resource Book, a loose-leaf collection of
descriptions of about ninety aids ($20); and The Rehabilitation Aids
Resource Book: Telecommunication, Monitoring, and Environmental
Controls, which includes more than one hundred entries of aids and
devices (no price announced), all available from the Trace R&D Cen-
ter (314 Waisman Center, 1500 Highland Ave., Madison, WI 53706).
They are fairly technical, and you may find their entries too brief to
be fully understood.
BUYERS' GUIDE TO COMPUTERS AND ADAPTIVE DEVICES
PRODUCT NAME
VENDOR
PRICE (APPROX.)
COMMENTS
152
Control Units
AbilityPhone
Basic Telecommunications
$2,735-$3,335
Self-contained,
Corporation
multipurpose
4414 East Harmony Rd.
control and
Fort Collins, CO 80525
signalling system.
Emergency
AT&T phone centers
$200 for medical
Signals to doctors, fire
Call System
emergency
departments, or others
signalling,
designated in advance.
$300 for fire
signalling,
(plus $30 per
transmitter)
Environmental
Prentke Romich
$600-$1,600
Query vendor regarding
Control Units
8769 Township Rd.
personal needs.
Shreve, OH 44676-9421
Phone Care
Newart Electronic Sciences
$500
Signals medical
Twelve Oaks Center, #620
emergencies.
P.O. Box 129
Wayzata, MN 55391
Sensaphone
New Horizons
$250
Reports heat, sounds,
5-31 Fiftieth Ave.
and electricity use
Long Island City, NY 11101
via phone.
Manufactured
by Gulf & Western.
Keyboard-related
Adaptive
Adaptive Peripherals
$300-$350
Emulates keyboard
Firmware Card
4529 Bagley Ave. N.
so switches and head-
Seattle, WA 98103
wands may be used;
Apple II, II+, lle
compatible.
Autocom
Prentke Romich
$6,000
Apple compatible;
(address above)
query vendor about
other uses.
Keyguard
Prentke Romich
$110
Fits Apple keyboards.
(address above)
Keyswapper 1.4
Vertex Systems
$50
Lets user "redesign"
7950 W. 4th St.
keyboard or convert to
Los Angeles, CA 90048
Dvorak layout; IBM PC
and XT compatible.
ProKey
RoseSoft
$130
IBM PC and such
4710 University Way NE
"IBM PC compatible"
Suite 610
microcomputers as
Seattle, WA 98105
Compaq and Eagle.
153
BUYERS' GUIDE TO COMPUTERS AND ADAPTIVE DEVICES (CONT.)
154
PRODUCT NAME VENDOR
PRICE (APPROX.) COMMENTS
Print Readers
Dest Workless
Dest Corportation
$7,000-$8,000
Reads Courier 10
Station
2380 Bering Drive
typeface and up to seven
San Jose, CA 95131
others and transfers
information to a
microcomputer.
Kurzweil Reading
Kurzweil Computer
$29,000
Reads virtually any
Machine
Products
typeface; synthesized
185 Albany St.
speech.
Cambridge, MA 02139
Optacon
Telesensory Systems
$2,275
Produces tactile images of
3408 Hillview Ave.
print and CRT display.
P.O. Box 10099
Palo Alto, CA 94304
Voyager
Visualtek
$2,000
Enlarges print.
1610 26th St.
Santa Monica, CA 90404
Selected Special Education Software
CHPI Apple Tool
Computers to Help
$15
Interfacing software for
Kit
People, Inc.
Apple II.
1221 W. Johnson St.
Madison, WI 53715
Trace Math-Aid
CHPI
$15
Electronic "scratchpad"
for Apple II.
Early Counting
The Upper Room
$15
Use with TI 99/4A.
Fun
907 6th Ave. East
Menomonie, WI 54751
Keyboard Trainer
The Upper Room
$15
Use with TI 99/4A.
Talking
The Upper Room
$30
Use with TI 99/4A.
Typewriter
Speech-Recognition Hardware
PC-Mate Voice
Tecmar, Inc.
$995
Use with IBM PC; handles
Recognition
6225 Cochran Rd.
100 words, expandable to
Board
Solon, OH 44139
200 words.
155
BUYERS' GUIDE TO COMPUTERS AND ADAPTIVE DEVICES (CONT.)
156
PRODUCT NAME
VENDOR
PRICE (APPROX.) COMMENTS
Shadow/VET
Scott Instruments
$600
Can recognize 1,000
Terminal
1111 Willow Springs Dr.
words in 40-word subsets.
Denton, TX 76205
TI Speech
Texas Instruments
$2,200 (plus $600
Use with TI Professional
Command System
dealers
in additional
Computer; recognizes up
memory)
to 50 words/time.
Voice Input
Voice Machines
$850-$1025
Use with Apple II,
Module
Communications, Inc.
80-word subsets.
1000 S. Grand
Santa Ana, CA 92705
Voice typewriter
Kurzweil Speech
To be announced
Query vendor regarding
(generic name)
Systems
final specifications
411 Waverly Oak Rd.
Waltham, MA 02154
Speech-Recognition Software
C2E2
Serota Engineering
$400
Uses Shadow/VET
Consultants
terminal; Apple II
3730 Alta Crest Dr.
compatible.
PO Box 43286
Birmingham, AL 35243
VBLS
Scott Instruments
$100
Authoring system from
or
Swift; uses Shadow/VET.
Swift Publishing
Apple compatible.
7901 South IH-35
Austin, TX 78744
Speech-Synthesizer Peripherals
DECTalk
Digital Equipment Corp.
$4,000
Use with most
146 Main St.
microcomputers.
Maynard, MA 01754
Echo II
Street Electronics
$150
Use with Apple Il
1140 Mark Ave.
computers.
Carpinteria, CA 93013
Echo GP
Street Electronics
$200
Use with most
microcomputers.
Echo PC
Street Electronics
$200
Use with IBM PC.
Ufonic Voice
Borg Warner Educational
$500
Apple compatible.
System
Systems
600 West University Drive
Arlington Heights, IL
60004
157
BUYERS' GUIDE TO COMPUTERS AND ADAPTIVE DEVICES (CONT.)
PRODUCT NAME
VENDOR
PRICE (APPROX.)
158
COMMENTS
Type-'N-Talk
Votrax Consumer Products
$230
Use with most
500 Stephenson Highway
microcomputers.
Troy, MI 48084
Speech-Synthesizer Systems
AVOS System
AVOS
$3,000
Hardware/software
1485 Energy Park Drive
system.
St. Paul, MN 55108
Information
Maryland Computer
$8,000-$12,000
CP/M software
Through Speech
Services
compatible talking
2010 Rock Spring Rd.
Hewlett-Packard
Forest Hill, MD 21050
computer.
Talking Apple
Computer Aids
$1,200-$2,000
Complete system
Corporation
including Apple lle
4929 S. Lafayette St.
computer, speech
Fort Wayne, IN 46806
synthesizer, and software.
TDD-related
Minicom II
Ultratec
$150
Inexpensive TDD device
P.O. Box 4062
that is not computer-
Madison, WI 53711
compatible.
Programmable
Intra Computer
$200
Permits Apple computers
I/O board
101 W. 31st St.
to communicate with
New York, NY 10001
TDDs.
Personal
Audiobionics
$900
Computer-compatible
Communicator
9913 Valley View Rd.
TDD that includes speech-
Eden Prairie, MN 55344
synthesizer capabilities.
Superphone
Ultratec
$500
Computer-compatible
TDD; speech-synthesizer
capabilities are $400
more.
159
/
ENDNOTES
/
/
I have documented most sources in the text when readability
would not be impaired. Following are additional citations by chapter.
Chapter 1
For United Nations data, the demographics are from The New
Internationalist, "10% of The World's Population is Disabled" (Special
Publication, DESI/DEPI, United Nations, New York, NY 10017); for
disability by age figures, Labor Force Status and Other Characteristics
of Persons With a Work Disability (U.S. Bureau of the Census, July
1983, Government Printing Office [GPO], Washington, DC 20402);
and for the seniors vs. teens comparison, Time (July 11, 1983, pp. 55-
56). The reference to governmental costs to keep disabled persons
out of the labor force is from 1978 Survey of Disability and Work Data
Book (Social Security Administration, Nov. 1982, GPO, Washington,
DC 20402); costs are even higher in most of Europe.
ENDNOTES
161
Chapter 2
Demographics are from the U.S. Bureau of the Census publica-
tion cited above; from Handicapping America (Harper & Row,
1978); and from four publications by the President's Committee
on Employment of the Handicapped (all 1984): Disabled Adults in
America, Disabled Women in America, Black Adults with Disabilities,
and Disabled Adults of Hispanic Origin (President's Committee
on Employment of the Handicapped, 1111 20th St. NW, Washing-
ton, DC 20036). See also America in Transition: An Aging Society
(U.S. Bureau of the Census, Sept. 1983, GPO). Nursing home resi-
dence figures are from Health and Vital Statistics (National
Center for Health Statistics, ser. 14, no. 24, 1981, U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC 20202). Figures
on prevalence by type of disability are from 1978 Survey, op. cit.
Joy Schaleben Lewis, a Milwaukee freelance writer, writes about
Karen Maliszewski and other youth in "Program Brings Out the Best
in Gifted Deaf Teen-Agers" (New York Times Education Supple-
ment, Jan. 1983). The work of Dr. Gerald Myers is mentioned in
Personal Computing (May 1983, pp. 37, 39). Irving Zola writes about
his prostheses in "Involving the Consumer in the Rehabilitation
Process: Easier Said Than Done," in V. Stern and M. Redden, eds.,
Technology for Independent Living (American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 1776 Massachusetts Ave, NW, Washington,
DC 20036). On single-task vs. multi-task capabilities, see Gregg
Vanderheiden, "Computers Can Play a Dual Role for Disabled Indi-
viduals" (Byte, Sept: 1982, pp. 136-144). InfoCorp's predictions
appear in. "Is 'The Real Revolution' in Personal Computers Just
Beginning?" (Business Week, Oct. 31, 1983, pp. 95-100).
Chapter 3
Lex Frieden discusses his European impressions in "Delivery
Systems Abroad" in Stern and Redden, eds. (op. cit., pp. 50-52).
Vanderheiden's comments on communication rate appear in "Com-
puters Can Play
"
(op. cit.). Herb Brody's piece on computer
games appears in High Technology, June 1983 (pp. 36-46). For more
information about attitudes toward disabled people, see my Handi-
capping America (Harper & Row, 1978). My book, Reasonable
162
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Accommodation Handbook, discusses federal legislation and
employment-related devices; originally published by AT&T, the
book is available from the National Center for a Barrier Free Envi-
ronment (1015 15th St., NW, Washington, DC 20005). James Raney
(American Express), John Reid (Manufacturers Hanover Trust),
Edward Corton (Equitable), Richard Drach (DuPont) spoke at the
Fifth Annual National Conference on the Industry-Labor Council,
Oct. 17-18, 1983, in New York; proceedings from Human
Resources Center (Willets Rd., Albertson, NY 11507).
Chapter 4
Nancy Sopp discusses her experiences in a story she sent to The
Catalyst, a newsletter printed by the Western Center for Microcom-
puters in Special Education (1259 El Camino Real, Suite 275, Menlo
Park, CA 94025). James Muller writes about his son's use of LOGO
in "The Birth of the Turtles" (Closing the Gap, April/May 1983, p. 5).
Margaret Smith is quoted in an AP wire story datelined Harrisburg,
PA, June 9, 1983. Andrew L. Ragan cites Sue Prince's beliefs in "The
Miracle Worker: How Computers Help Handicapped Students"
(Electronic Learning, Jan./Feb. 1983, pp. 57-58, 83). Lou Frillman's
work at Mill Neck Manor is discussed in Personal Computing (Oct.
1983, pp. 253, 256). Eydie Sloane's comments on the Ufonic appear
in a mimeographed sheet she sent to fellow "Computer Enthusiasts."
Peter Maggs' observations appear in personal communication with
me. Sam Jenkins discusses his work in "Research Shows EMR Stu-
dents Benefit from Computer Use" (Closing the Gap, Feb./March
1983, pp. 9, 19). Robert Schadewald offers an excellent overview of
speech recognition in "The Speech Gap" (Technology Illustrated,
June 1983, pp. 55-59). Robb Aley Allen's Popular Computing story
appears in Oct. 1983 and is entitled: "The Texas Instruments Profes-
sional Computer." On the Dvorak keyboard, see "A Keyboard
Whose Time Has Come" (Inc., June 1983, pp. 43, 45); the story
quotes Virginia Russell. The comments on educational software by
Alan Hofmeister appear in Exceptional Children, Oct. 1982 (special
issue on microcomputers in special education), as do the observa-
tions of Charles Stallard. Marilyn Head's success in getting a micro-
computer for her daugher in school is mentioned in Mildred
Messinger's article, "CP=Computer Proficient" (The Exceptional
ENDNOTES
163
Parent, Aug. 1983, pp. 57-60). Matt Lehmann's work in Menlo Park
is discussed in "The Future is Computer Literacy-At Any Age"
(Personal Computing, Aug. 1983, pp. 214, 218).
Chapter 5
For an excellent discussion of the safety, security, and health con-
cerns of older disabled persons, see Robert Butler's Why Survive?
Being Old in America (Harper & Row, 1975). Jane Bryant Quinn
writes about the Idaho legistation in "Family Obligations"
(Newsweek, Aug. 29, 1983, p. 56). U.S. News & World Report (Oct.
3, 1983) contains an interview with Stanley Cath that deals with
some of the topics raised in this chapter; the title is "If You Have to
Care For Your Aging Parents." On home banking, see "Banking
Goes Into the Home" (New York Times, Dec. 7, 1983, pp. D1, D5);
Jane Bryant Quinn, "Banking by Computer" (Newsweek, Nov. 21,
1983, p. 85); and Money magazine's Money Guide/Computers
(1983, pp. 56, 58). On shopping, see "A Surprising Eagerness to Sign
Up for Videotex" (Business Week, April 25, 1983, p. 108); "A One-
Stop Shopping Center in Your Home" (U.S. News & World Report,
May 9, 1983); "Information Services Search for Identity," by Jeff
Hecht (High Technology, May 1983, pp. 58-65); and "Coming Fast:
Services Through the TV Set," by Martin Meyer (Fortune, Nov. 14,
1983, pp. 50-56).
Chapter 6
For more information about Judge Suchanek, see John Williams,
"Despite Forbidding Handicaps, Justice Triumphs in the Case of
Leonard Suchanek" (People, Aug. 1983, pp. 50-55). Williams has
written many other articles about blind persons using computers (19
Crescent Court, Sterling, VA 22170).
Chapter 7
Kathleen Reid writes about Steve Rhodes in "Independence for
Disabled People Through Technology" (DAV Magazine, June 1983,
p. 12). In addition to Robert Schadewald's "The Speech Gap" (Tech-
nology Illustrated, June 1983, pp. 55-59), see "Machines That
164
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Think" (U.S. News & World Report, Dec. 5, 1983, pp. 59-62); "The
Battle of the Supercomputers: Japan's All-Out Challenge to the U.S."
(Business Week, Oct. 17, 1983, pp. 156-63); "Computers Mastering
Speech Recognition," by Andrew Pollack (New York Times, Sept. 6,
1983, pp. C1, C7); and "Is 'The Real Revolution' in Personal Com-
puters Just Beginning?" (Business Week, Oct. 31, 1983, pp. 95, 99-
100). All are excellent sources on various aspects of the work to
develop computers capable of recognizing continuous speech.
Chapter 8
An unpublished paper by Gregg Vanderheiden, "Curbcuts and
Computers: Providing Access to Computers and Information Sys-
tems for Disabled Individuals," discusses some of the ideas pre-
sented in this chapter. Persons interested in Control Data
Corporation's HOMEWORK program may learn more by writing to
the company (8100 34th Ave. South, Box O, Minneapolis, MN
55440). Tina Heath's work is discussed in "Everyone Deserves a
Chance" (Southwestern Bell Scene, Feb. 1982). For more informa-
tion on the work for an accessible environment, see my Handicap-
ping America and Rehabilitating America, both previously cited.
Chapter 9
Texas Tech educators Cleborne Maddux and Dee Johnson discuss
"LOGO for the Learning Disabled" (Closing the Gap, April-May
1983, pp. 2, 16). Sam Jenkins talks about computers and retarded
persons in "Providing CAI for Mentally Retarded" (op. cit., p. 10).
Seymour Papert's Mindstorms (New York: Basic Books, 1980) is a
good introduction to the theory behind the programming language
LOGO, written by the authors of the language.
INDEX
AbilityPhone, 101-2, 152
American Telephone and
Baker, Janet, 125
AbleData, 134
Telegraph Company (AT&T),
Banc One, 97
Accent on Information, 134
15, 27, 54, 57-58, 76, 99,
Bank of America, 97
Adaptive Firmware Card, 129,
101, 103, 123, 124, 131, 132,
Bank Street Writer, 60
131, 153
152
Barnett Banks, 97
Adaptive Peripherals, 129, 131,
153
Anderek, Paul, 46
BASIC, 45, 64, 104-5
Advanced Software Interface,
Anderson, Ken, 130
Basic Telecommunications
Apple, 11, 26, 27, 61, 69, 72,
Corporation, 101-2, 151
87
79-80, 83-85, 87, 92, 96,
Baylor College of Medicine,
Aids and Appliances Review,
113, 129, 131
135
117
Alexander Graham Bell Asso-
Apple lle, 24, 44, 69, 72, 73,
Blaschke, Charles, 89
ciation for the Deaf, 125
115, 117, 122, 129
Blinded Veterans Association,
Allan, Robb Aley, 78, 162
Apple II+, 16, 24, 60, 69, 77,
117
105, 122, 129
America in Transition: An Aging
Blindness, 16, 38-39, 40, 48,
Society, 161
Apple Connection, The, 104
70, 111-18, 132
American Association for the
Arnor, Anders, 57
Borg-Warner, 69, 77, 154
Association for Children and
Advancement of Science, 90,
Braille, 17, 40, 41, 54, 55, 114,
126, 150
Adults with Learning Disabili-
117-18, 130
ties, 140
American Association of
Brain Game, 136
Retired Persons, 148
Association on Handicapped
Brain Information Service, 141
American Council of the Blind,
Student Service Programs in
Braille Monitor, The, 118
118
Postsecondary Education, 149
British Telecom, 99
American Express, 53-54, 58,
Atari, 87, 97, 101, 138
Broadcaster, The, 126
160
Audiobionics, 121-22, 159
Brody, Herb, 47, 161
American Foundation for the
Autism Services Association,
BSR, 9, 38, 105
Blind, 117
140
Bulletin of Science and Technol-
American Printing House for
Autocom, 62, 63, 70, 82-85,
ogy for the Handicapped, 150
the Blind, 116
132, 153
Business Week, 161
American Speech Language
Automatic Data Processing, 97
Butler, Robert, 91, 162
and Hearing Association, 126
AVOS, 116, 157
Byte, 161
INDEX
167
CalcStar, 116
Cray Research, 124
Electronic Learning, 162
Capek, Karel, 94
Emergency Call System, 101-2,
Carnegie-Mellon University, 76
157. See also American Tele-
Carroll Center for the Blind,
Data General, 33
phone and Telegraph Com-
117
DAV Magazine, 163. See also
pany
Case Western Reserve Univer-
Disabled American Veterans
Emory University School of
sity, 135
Deaf American, 127. See also
Medicine, 141
Catalyst, The, 150, 159
National Association for the
Entrex Electronics, 76-77
Cerebral Palsy, 24, 65, 130
Deaf
Environmental Control Unit,
Cerebral Palsy Research Foun-
Deafness, 18-19, 46-47, 66,
104, 152. See also Prentke
dation of Kansas, 135
82, 120-27
Romich
Chappell, John, 129-30
DECtalk, 69-70, 157. See also
Epilepsy Foundation of
Chase Manhattan Bank, 97
Digital Equipment Corpora-
America, 141
Cheever Publications, 135
tion
Epson, 79
Chemical Bank, 96
Dest Corporation, 115, 154
Equitable Life, 54, 161
Clarke School for the Deaf, 126
Dest Workless Station, 115, 154
E-tran, 61
Closing the Gap, 150, 159, 164
Dickman, Michael, 43
Exceptional Children, 140, 162.
COBOL, 33, 64
Dictronics, 123-24
See also Council for Excep-
Coffron, James, 104
Digital Equipment Corporation,
tional Children
Collins, John, 24
26, 35, 70, 72, 87, 113, 128,
Exceptional Parent, The, 162
Colonial Bank, 97
157
Express 3, 132. See also Prentke
Color Computer, 105
Digital Research, 26
Romich
Commodore, 11, 85, 97
Disabled American Veterans,
Communication Outlook, 150
49, 52, 126
Compatibility, 24, 25, 70, 131
Directory of Living Aids for the
Family Computers Under $200,
Compliance Aid for Pharma-
Disabled Person, 58
106
ceuticals, 103
Directory of Online Data Bases,
Family Computing, 148
Compu-Home Systems, 105
100
Fiegenbaum, Edward, 124
CompuServe, 19, 21, 73, 92,
Drach, Richard, 161
Fifth Generation, The, 124
99-100, 117
Dragon Systems, 125
Fish and Count, 75
Computer Aids Corporation,
DuPont, 15, 55-56, 57, 58, 161
Fortune, 163
72, 100, 115, 158
Duxbury Braille Translator, 114
Fox Fone, 103
Computers to Help People,
Dvorak keyboard, 87, 150, 162
France, 57, 99-100, 141
Inc., 155
Dyslexia, 8, 22, 55, 64, 70, 73,
Franklin, 46, 62, 79-80, 129
Concurrent DOS, 26
138-42
Frieden, Lex, 35, 48, 49, 56,
Conover Company, 80
135, 161
Continental Illinois National
Frillman, Lou, 66, 162
Bank, 97
Early Counting Fun, 75, 155
Control Data Corporation, 123,
Easter Seals Society, 61-63
130-31, 164
Echo, 16, 24, 66-67, 69, 72,
COPH-2 (Committee on Per-
100, 117, 157
Gabel, David, 106
sonal Computers and the
Education for All Handicapped
Gallaudet College, 120, 126
Handicapped), 148
Children Act, 8, 90
General Dynamics, 124
Corton, Edward, 54, 161
Education Turnkey, 89
Genesis, 103. See also Ameri-
Council for Exceptional Chil-
Educational Products Informa-
can Telephone and Telegraph
dren, 89, 141, 148
tion Exchange, 88
Company
Council of State Administrators
E. F. Hutton, 99
Germany, 1, 3, 56
of Vocational Rehabilitation,
EIES/Handicapped, 148-49
Gianutsos, Rosemary, 139
49, 147
Electronic Industries Founda-
Gold, Marc, 74
CP/M, 26
tion, 135
Goldberg, Gerry, 128
168
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Goodwill Industries of America,
International Association for
Keynote, 87
135
the Prevention of Blindness,
Keyswapper, 86, 153. See also
Grammatix, 123. See also
117
Vertex Systems
Dictronics
International Association of
Kidder, Tracy, 33
Grimm, William (Bill), 72, 101,
Workers for Maladjusted
Klitzner, Carol, 139
115-16. See also Computer
Children, 141
Knight-Ridder, 99
Aids Corporation
International Business
Koala Technologies, 10
Machines Corporation (IBM),
Kurzweil, Raymond, 124
15, 25, 36-38, 54, 57, 58, 86,
Kurzweil Computer Products,
124-25, 128
Hairston, Ernie, 19
154, 156
International Diabetes Federa-
Handicapped Educational
Kurzweil Reading Machine, 6,
tion, 135
Exchange, 148-49
111-13, 125, 154, 156
International Federation of
Handicapping America, 160,
Kurzweil Speech Systems, 125,
Disabled Workers and Civil-
156
161, 164
ian Handicapped, 135
Hangman, 138
International Federation of
Head, Marilyn, 90
Multiple Sclerosis Societies,
Heath H-89, 22
135
Labor Force Characteristics
Heath, Tina, 131, 164
Hecht, Jeff, 163
International League of Soci-
of Persons With a Work Dis-
Heddinger, Richard, 132
eties for the Mentally Handi-
ability, 160
capped, 141
Learning disability, 8, 21-22,
Helen Keller International, 117
International Software/
60, 64, 75, 89, 136-40. See
Helen Keller National Center
Hardware Registry, 84, 129,
also Dyslexia
for Deaf Blind Youths and
151. See also Trace RA Center
LED-120, 112, 114, 116
Adults, 126
Interstate Electronics, 33-34, 78
Lederle Laboratories, 103
Heritage Software, 87
Intra Computers, 120, 159
Lehmann, Matt, 91, 162
High Technology, 47, 123, 163
Intro Voice System, 81-82. See
Lewis, Joy, 158
Hofmeister, Alan, 88, 162
also Voice Machine Commu-
Light pen, 83-84, 129
Holzhauser, Dennis, 38-40
nications
LINC Resources, 89
Holzhauser, Diana, 40-42, 48,
ITT, 57, 76
Lisa, 26-27. See also Apple
55, 58, 115
LOGO, 60, 64-65, 140, 164
HomeBanking, 97. See also
Lotus 1-2-3, 24
Bank of America
Lunney, David, 91
Home Base, 97
Jackson, Sandra, 138
HOMEWORK, 130. See also
Jance Associates, Inc., 105
Control Data Corporation
Japan, 57, 124
Honeywell, 25
J. C. Penney, 99
Macintosh, 27-28, 85. See also
Human Resources Center, 135
Jenkins, Sam, 74-75, 82, 89,
Apple
137, 162, 164. See also The
Macurik, Ken, 121
Upper Room
Maday, Dan, 111-13
Job Accommodation Network
Maddux, Cleborne, 164
IBM PC, 11, 27, 35, 50, 69, 73,
(JAN), 58
Maggs, Peter, 73, 162
86, 87, 97, 104, 131. See also
Johnson, Dee, 164
Maliszewski, Karen, 18-19
International Business
JWK International, 88
Manufacturers Hanover, 54, 97,
Machines
116, 161
Inc., 162
Marine Midland Bank, 97
Infocorp, 27-28, 161
Keyboard emulators, 24, 82-
Maryland Computer Services,
Information Through Speech,
85, 132, 153
71, 73, 113, 115, 158
71, 115. See also Maryland
Keyboard modifications, 85-88
Mayer, Martin, 163
Computer Services
Keyboard Trainer, 75. See also
MCE, 80
Intel Electronics, 37
The Upper Room
McSpadden, Jack, 54
INDEX
169
Medicaid, 94
National Council of Senior
Personal Computing, 106, 148,
Mental retardation, 21-22, 61,
Citizens, 148
161, 162
64-65, 74-75, 81, 89, 138-42
National Council on the Aging,
PFS: File, 61
Merz, John, 114
148
Phillips, Duane, 81. See also
Messinger, Mildred, 162
National Easter Seals Society,
MCE, Voice Input Module,
Meyer, Martin, 163
137
Voice Machine Communi-
MicroPro, 24, 116. See also
National Federation of the
cations
CalcStar, WordStar
Blind, 118
Phone Care, 102, 152
Microsoft, 27, 116
National Institute for Rehabilita-
Pilgrim, Rick, 32-35, 48-49, 57,
Mill Neck Manor School for the
tion Engineering, 71
59
Deaf, 66
National Institute on Aging, 91
PILOT, 64
Mindstorms, 164. See also
National Multiple Sclerosis
PLATO, 130
Papert, Seymour
Society, 137
Plug 'n Power, 105
Minicom II, 7, 158
National Technical Institute for
Pollack, Andrew, 155
MiniTel, 99. See also France
the Deaf, 121-22, 127
Popular Computing, 146, 160
Mississippi State University, 117
Nelson, Paul, 87. See also
Prentke Romich, 11, 37-38,
Mobility, 20-21, 128-136
Digital Equipment Corpora-
83-84, 86, 104, 132, 152-55
Modem, 19, 21, 47, 97-98,
tion
President's Committee on
121, 128
Network, The, 88
Employment of the Handi-
Moore, Joe, 116
Newart Electronic Sciences,
capped, 52, 58
Mosher, Doug, 104-106
102, 157
Prestel, 99
MS-DOS, 27
New Horizons, 103, 157
Prince, Sue, 65, 149, 162
Muller, James, 64, 139-141,
Newsweek, 163
Project HEATH, 52, 90
161
New York Times, 155
Project Tech Mark, 89
Muller, Larry, 64
New York University Medical
ProKey, 87, 153
Multitasking, 26, 85
Center, 136, 141
Pronto, 97. See also Chemical
Muscular Dystrophy Associa-
Nonvocal Communication
Bank
tions of America, 136
Resource Book, 151
Myers, Gerald, 21-22, 161
Northwestern University, 142
Myers, Kevin, 21-22
Quick Tax, 43
Quinn, Jane Bryant, 95, 160
Oasis Systems, 123
NatCent News, 127. See also
Omni Online Database Direc-
Helen Keller National Center
Radio Shack. See TRS-80
tory, 100
for Deaf Blind Youths and
Operating systems, 26-27
Ragan, Andrew, 159
Adults
Optacon, 41, 55, 115
Raney, James, 53, 158. See also
National Association for
Osborne I, 11, 20-21
American Express
Retarded Citizens, 141
Reasonable accommodation, 3,
National Association for the
50-51, 53, 56, 58-59, 132
Visually Handicapped, 119
Papert, Seymour, 164. See also
Reasonable Accommodation
National Association of State
LOGO
Handbook, 58, 136, 161
Directors of Special Educa-
PC Mate Voice Recognition
Redden, Martha, 161
tion, 88, 147
Board, 35, 155
Rehabilitating America, 164
National Association of the
Pennsylvania College of
Rehabilitation Act of 1973,
Deaf, 127, 147
Optometry, 118
50, 51
National Center for a Barrier
People, 163
Rehabilitation Aids Resource
Free Environment, 52, 58,
Perkins Brailler, Cranmer
Book, 151
137, 161
Modified, 115
Reid, John, 54, 161. See also
National Center for Educational
Personal Communicator, 122.
Manufacturers Hanover
Statistics, 89
See also Audiobionics
Reid, Kathleen, 163
170
PERSONAL COMPUTERS AND SPECIAL NEEDS
Remploy, Ltd., 15, 57
Southwestern Bell, 54, 131
Ufonic Voice System, 69-70,
Rhodes, Steve, 120
Special Needs Computing, 13,
157, 162. See also Borg-
Riley, Kevin, 36-38, 48
147, 159
Warner
Robson, Ann, 131
Speech recognition, 6, 8-9, 26,
Ultratec, 121, 158. See also
Rogers, Stephen, 16-18, 25, 26,
33-34, 35, 37, 75-81, 103,
Superphone
41
120, 124
Unimation, 124
Romich, Barry, 84. See also
Speech synthesis, 7, 9-10, 16-
United Kingdom, 1, 5, 15, 56,
Prentke Romich
18, 22, 24, 25, 28, 46, 66-75,
94-95, 99
RoseSoft, 87, 153. See also
120, 139, 157
United Nations, 1, 28, 160
ProKey
Spencer, William, 135
University of Arkansas, 127
Rusk, Howard, 9
Spinal-cord injury, 32-38, 48-
University of Pennsylvania, 137
Russell, Virginia, 87, 162
49, 135
University of Wisconsin-
Stallard, Charles, 88, 162
Madison, 45, 83-85, 136,
Stern, Virginia, 161
142. See also Trace RA Center,
Street Electronics, 68, 100, 157
Vanderheiden, Gregg
Scadden, Larry, 116
Style and Punctuation, 124. See
UNIX, 26, 123. See also Ameri-
Sceptre, 99. See also Viewtron,
also Oasis Systems
can Telephone and Telegraph
Knight-Ridder, American
Suchanek, Leonard, 111-13,
Company
Telephone and Telegraph
163
Upper Room, The, 75, 82, 89,
Schadewald, Robert, 76, 159,
Superphone, 121
140, 155. See also Jenkins,
163. See also Technology
SuperSoft, 78
Sam
Illustrated
Sweden, 3, 35-36, 56-57, 95
Users' groups, 144-45
Scott Instruments, 80-82, 100,
Switzerland, 136
157. See also Shadow/VET,
VBLS
ScratchPad, 78
Vanderheiden, Gregg, 45, 84-
Security Pacific Bank, 97
Talking Typewriter, 71. See also
85, 127, 131-33, 161, 164
Sensaphone, 102-3, 152
National Institute for Rehabili-
VBLS, 78-79, 81, 157. See also
Sensory Aids for Employment of
tation Engineering
Scott Instruments
Blind and Visually Impaired
Taylor, Bob, 61, 72
Vector Graphics, 43
Persons, 117, 118
TDD, 7, 19, 47, 119-120, 156
Versabraille, 41
Sensory Aids Foundation, 118
Technology for Independent
Vertex Systems, 87, 153. See
Serota Engineering Consultants,
Living, 125, 158
also Keyswapper
79-80, 156
Technology Illustrated, 159, 160
Veterans Administration,
Shadow/VET, 77-80, 100, 156
Texas Instruments, 67, 74, 76,
49-50, 58, 148
Simmons, Judy, 138
78, 153
VIC-20, 104. See also Commo-
Simplified Keyboard Associates,
Time, 157
dore
87
Tinker, Robert, 87-88
Video Financial Services, 97
Skutchan, Larry, 66
Trace R&D Center, 45, 83-85,
Videotex, 21
Sloane, Eydie, 69-71, 162
129, 148. See also Van-
Vietnam Era Veterans Readjust-
Smartkey, 87
derheiden, Gregg
ment Assistance Act, 50
Smith, Margaret, 65, 162
Triformation Systems, 112, 113.
Viewtron, 97, 98-99. See also
Smith-Kettlewell Institute, 118
See also LED-120
American Telephone and
Software Publishing Corpora-
TRS-80 (Radio Shack), 11, 38-
Telegraph Company, Knight-
tion, 61
39, 71, 73, 97, 104-105, 116,
Ridder, Sceptre
Sopp, Nancy, 60, 62, 64, 162
123, 128, 139
Virginia Department of Reha-
Source, The, 19, 21, 73, 77, 92,
TSI (Telesensory Systems, Inc.,)
bilitation Services, 142
99-100, 117
41, 115, 131
VisiCalc, 69
Southeast Banking Corporation,
Tufts University, 136
Visek and Maggs, 73. See also
97, 99
Type-'N-Talk, 158
Maggs, Peter
INDEX
171
Visualtek, 40, 115
Weitbrecht, Communications,
Xerox, 125
Vitro Laboratories, 116
121
Voice Data Entry System, 33, 34
Weitbrecht, Robert, 121
Voice Input Module, 80, 156
Western Pennsylvania School
Yeshiva University/Albert
Voice Machine Communica-
for Blind Children, 118
Einstein College of Medicine,
tions, 10, 80-82, 156
Why Survive?, 91. See also
136
Voice typewriter, 125. See also
Butler, Robert
Young People's LOGO Associa-
Kurzweil Computer Products
Williams, John, 79, 163
tion, 140. See also LOGO,
Volta Review, 126
Wilson, George, 57
Muller, James
Voyager, 39
WordStar, 24, 43, 69, 116
Your Color Computer, 105. See
World Council for the Welfare
also Mosher, Doug
of the Blind, 118
Wachovia Bank, 97
World Federation for Mental
Wang, 53, 124
Health, 142
Walker, Tommy, 46-47
World Federation of the Deaf,
Zarley, Craig, 106
Ward, Mike, 44-46, 48, 83-84,
127
Zola, Irving, 23, 140
132
Writer's Workbench, 123. See
Zue, Victor, 125
Wedig, Tony, 138
also American Telephone and
Zygo Industries, 61. See also
Weiss, Jeff, 116
Telegraph Company
E-tran
Selections from
The SYBEX Library
Buyer's Guides
SELECTING THE RIGHT DATA
BASE SOFTWARE
SELECTING THE RIGHT WORD
THE BEST OF TI 99/4ATM
PROCESSING SOFTWARE
CARTRIDGES
SELECTING THE RIGHT
by Thomas Blackadar
SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE
150 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-137
by Kathy McHugh and
Save yourself time and frustration when
Veronica Corchado
buying TI 99/4A software. This buyer's
80 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-174, 0-177, 0-178
guide gives an/overview of the best avail-
This series on selecting the right business
able programs, with information on how
software offers the busy professional con-
to set up the computer to run them.
cise, informative reviews of the best avail-
able software packages.
FAMILY COMPUTERS
UNDER $200
Introduction to
by Doug Mosher
160 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-149
Computers
Find out what these inexpensive machines
can do for you and your family. "If you're
just getting started
this is the book to
OVERCOMING COMPUTER FEAR
read before you buy."-Richard O'Reilly,
by Jeff Berner
Los Angeles newspaper columnist
112 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-145
This easy-going introduction to com-
puters helps you separate the facts from
PORTABLE COMPUTERS
the myths.
by Sheldon Crop and Doug Mosher
128 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-144
COMPUTER ABC'S
"This book provides a clear and con-
by Daniel Le Noury and
cise introduction to the expanding new
Rodnay Zaks
world of personal computers."-
64 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-167
Powelson, Editor, San Francisco Focus
This beautifully illustrated, colorful book
Magazine
for parents and children takes you alpha-
betically through the world of computers,
explaining each concept in simple
THE BEST OF VIC-20™
language.
SOFTWARE
by Thomas Blackadar
PARENTS, KIDS, AND
150 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-139
COMPUTERS
Save yourself time and frustration with this
by Lynne Alper and Meg Holmberg
buyer's guide to VIC-20 software. Find
208 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-151
the best game, music, education, and
This book`answers your questions about
home management programs on the
the educational possibilities of home
market today.
computers.
THE COLLEGE STUDENT'S
Personal
COMPUTER HANDBOOK
Computers
by Bryan Pfaffenberger
350 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-170
This friendly guide will aid students in
ATARI
selecting a computer system for college
study, managing information in a college
YOUR FIRST ATARI® PROGRAM
course, and writing research papers.
by Rodnay Zaks
150 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-130
COMPUTER CRAZY
A fully illustrated, easy-to-use introduction
to ATARI BASIC programming. Will have
by Daniel Le Noury
the reader programming in a matter of
100 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-173
hours.
No matter how you feel about computers,
these cartoons will have you laughing
BASIC EXERCISES FOR THE
about them.
ATARI®
by J.P. Lamoitier
PROTECTING YOUR COMPUTER
251 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-101
by Rodnay Zaks
Teaches ATARI BASIC through actual
214pp., 100 illustr., Ref. 0-239
practice using graduated exercises
The correct way to handle and care for all
drawn from everyday applications.
elements of a computer system, including
THE EASY GUIDE TO YOUR
what to do when something doesn't work.
ATARI® 600XL/800XL
by Thomas Blackadar
YOUR FIRST COMPUTER
175 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-125
by Rodnay Zaks
This jargon-free companion will help you
258 pp., 150 illustr., Ref. 0-045
get started on the right foot with your new
The most popular introduction to small
600XL or 800XL ATARI computer.
computers and their peripherals: what
they do and how to buy one.
ATARI® BASIC PROGRAMS IN
MINUTES
SYBEX PERSONAL COMPUTER
by Stanley R. Trost
DICTIONARY
170 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-143
You can use this practical set of programs
120 pp., Ref. 0-067
without any prior knowledge of BASIC!
All the definitions and acronyms of micro-
Application examples are taken from a
computer jargon defined in a handy
wide variety of fields, including business,
pocket-sized edition. Includes translations
home management, and real estate.
of the most popular terms into ten
languages.
Commodore 64/VIC-20
FROM CHIPS TO SYSTEMS:
AN INTRODUCTION TO
THE COMMODORE 64TM/VIC-20TM
MICROPROCESSORS
BASIC HANDBOOK
by Rodnay Zaks
by Douglas Hergert
552 pp., 400 illustr., Ref. 0-063
144 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-116
A simple and comprehensive introduction
A complete listing with descriptions and
to microprocessors from both a hardware
instructive examples of each of the Com-
and software standpoint: what they are,
modore 64 BASIC keywords and func-
how they operate, how to assemble them
tions. A handy reference guide, organ-
into a complete system.
ized like a dictionary.
THE EASY GUIDE TO YOUR
COMMODORE 64ᵀM BASIC
COMMODORE 64ᵀM
PROGRAMS IN MINUTES
by Joseph Kascmer
by Stanley R. Trost
160 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-129
170 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-154
A friendly introduction to using the Com-
Here is a practical set of programs for
modore 64.
business, finance, real estate, data an-
alysis, record keeping and educational
THE BEST OF COMMODORE 64ᵀM
applications.
SOFTWARE
by Thomas Blackadar
GRAPHICS GUIDE TO THE
150pp., illustr., Ref. 0-194
COMMODORE 64ᵀM
Save yourself time and frustration with this
by Charles Platt
buyer's guide to Commodore 64 soft-
192 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-138
ware. Find the best game, music, educa-
This easy-to-understand book will appeal
tion, and home management programs
to anyone who wants to master the Com-
on the market today.
modore 64's powerful graphics features.
YOUR FIRST VIC-20TM
IBM
PROGRAM
by Rodnay Zaks
THE ABC'S OF THE IBM® PC
150 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-129
by Joan Lasselle and Carol Ramsay
A fully illustrated, easy-to-use introduction
100 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-102
to VIC-20 BASIC programming. Will have
This is the book that will take you through
the reader programming in a matter of
the first crucial steps in learning to use the
hours.
IBM PC.
THE VIC-20TM CONNECTION
THE BEST OF IBM® PC
by James W. Coffron
SOFTWARE
260 pp., 120 illustr., Ref. 0-128
by Stanley R. Trost
Teaches elementary interfacing and
144 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-104
BASIC programming of the VIC-20 for
Separates the wheat from the chaff in the
connection to external devices and
world of IBM PC software. Tells you what
household appliances.
to expect from the best available IBM PC
programs.
YOUR FIRST COMMODORE 64ᵀM
PROGRAM
THE IBM® PC-DOS HANDBOOK
by Rodnay Zaks
by Richard Allen King
182 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-172
144 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-103
You can learn to write simple programs
Explains the PC disk operating system,
without any prior knowledge of mathe-
giving the user better control over the sys-
matics or computers! Guided by colorful
tem. Get the most out of your PC by
illustrations and step-by-step instructions,
adapting its capabilities to your specific
you'll be constructing programs within an
needs.
hour or two.
BUSINESS GRAPHICS FOR THE
YOUR SECOND
IBM® PC
COMMODORE 64ᵀM PROGRAM
by Nelson Ford
by Gary Lippman
200 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-124
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-152
Ready-to-run programs for creating line
A sequel to Your First Commodore 64 Pro-
graphs, complex illustrative multiple bar
gram, this book follows the same patient,
graphs, picture graphs, and more. An
detailed approach and brings you to the
ideal way to use your PC's business
next level of programming skill.
capabilities!
THE IBM® PC CONNECTION
Apple
by James W. Coffron
THE EASY GUIDE TO YOUR
200 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-127
APPLE 11°
Teaches elementary interfacing and
BASIC programming of the IBM PC for
by Joseph Kascmer
connection to external devices and
160 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-122
household appliances.
A friendly introduction to using the Apple
II, II plus and the new lle.
BASIC EXERCISES FOR THE
IBM® PERSONAL COMPUTER
BASIC EXERCISES FOR THE
APPLE®
by J.P. Lamoitier
252 pp., 90 illustr., Ref. 0-088
by J.P. Lamoitier
Teaches IBM BASIC through actual prac-
250 pp., 90 illustr., Ref. 0-084
tice, using graduated exercises drawn
Teaches Apple BASIC through actual
from everyday applications.
practice, using graduated exercises
drawn from everyday applications.
USEFUL BASIC PROGRAMS
FOR THE IBM® PC
APPLE II® BASIC HANDBOOK
by Stanley R. Trost
by Douglas Hergert
144 pp., Ref. 0-111
144 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-155
This collection of programs takes full
A complete listing with descriptions and
advantage of the interactive capabilities of
instructive examples of each of the Apple
your IBM Personal Computer. Financial
II BASIC keywords and functions. A
calculations, investment analysis, record
handy reference guide, organized like a
keeping, and math practice-made eas-
dictionary.
ier on your IBM PC.
APPLE ll® BASIC PROGRAMS
YOUR FIRST IBM® PC
IN MINUTES
PROGRAM
by Stanley R. Trost
by Rodnay Zaks
150 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-121
182 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-171
A collection of ready-to-run programs for
financial calculations, investment analysis,
This well-illustrated book makes program-
record keeping, and many more home
ming easy for children and adults.
and office applications. These programs
can be entered on your Apple II plus or lle
THE COMPLETE GUIDE TO
in minutes!
YOUR IBM® PC JUNIOR
by Douglas Hergert
YOUR FIRST APPLE II®
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-179
PROGRAM
This comprehensive reference guide to
by Rodnay Zaks
IBM's most economical microcomputer
150 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-136
offers many practical applications and all
A fully illustrated, easy-to-use introduction
the helpful information you'll need to get
to APPLE BASIC programming. Will have
started with your IBM PC Junior.
the reader programming in a matter of
hours.
DATA FILE PROGRAMMING ON
YOUR IBM® PC
THE APPLE® CONNECTION
by Alan Simpson
by James W. Coffron
275 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-146
264 pp., 120 illustr., Ref. 0-085
This book provides instructions and
Teaches elementary interfacing and
examples of managing data files in
BASIC programming of the Apple for con-
BASIC. Programming designs and devel-
nection to external devices and house-
opments are extensively discussed.
hold appliances.
TRS-80
and office applications. These programs
can be entered on your T/S 1000 in
YOUR COLOR COMPUTER
minutes!
by Doug Mosher
MORE USES FOR YOUR
350 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-097
TIMEX/SINCLAIR 1000TM
Patience and humor guide the reader
through purchasing, setting up, program-
Astronomy on Your Computer
ming, and using the Radio Shack TRS-80/
by Eric Burgess
TDP Series 100 Color Computer. A
176 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-112
complete introduction.
Ready-to-run programs that turn your TV
into a planetarium.
THE FOOLPROOF GUIDE TO
SCRIPSIT™ WORD
Other Popular
PROCESSING
Computers
by Jeff Berner
225 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-098
YOUR FIRST TI 99/4ATM
Everything you need to know about
PROGRAM
SCRIPSIT-from starting out, to mastering
by Rodnay Zaks
document editing. This user-friendly
182 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-157
guide is written in plain English, with a
Colorfully illustrated, this book concen-
touch of wit.
trates on the essentials of programming in
a clear, entertaining fashion.
Timex/Sinclair
THE RADIO SHACK®
1000/ZX81
NOTEBOOK COMPUTER
by Orson Kellogg
YOUR TIMEX/SINCLAIR 1000
128 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-150
AND ZX81ᵀ
Whether you already have the Radio
by Douglas Hergert
Shack Model 100 notebook computer, or
159 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-099
are interested in buying one, this book will
This book explains the set-up, operation,
clearly explain what it can do for you.
and capabilities of the Timex/Sinclair
1000 and ZX81. Includes how to interface
THE EASY GUIDE TO YOUR
peripheral devices, and introduces
COLECO ADAM™
BASIC programming.
by Thomas Blackadar
175 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-181
THE TIMEX/SINCLAIR 1000TM
This quick reference guide shows you
BASIC HANDBOOK
how to get started on your Coleco Adam
by Douglas Hergert
with a minimum of technical jargon.
170 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-113
A complete alphabetical listing with expla-
Software and
nations and examples of each word in the
T/S 1000 BASIC vocabulary; will allow
Applications
you quick, error-free programming of
your T/S 1000.
Operating Systems
TIMEX/SINCLAIR 1000TM BASIC
PROGRAMS IN MINUTES
THE CP/M® HANDBOOK
by Stanley R. Trost
by Rodnay Zaks
150 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-119
320 pp., 100 illustr., Ref 0-048
A collection of ready-to-run programs for
An indispensable reference and guide to
financial calculations, investment analysis,
CP/M-the most widely-used operating
record keeping, and many more home
system for small computers.
MASTERING CP/M®
MASTERING VISICALC®
by Alan R. Miller
by Douglas Hergert
398 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-068
217 pp., 140 illustr., Ref. 0-090
For advanced CP/M users or systems
Explains how to use the VisiCalc "elec-
programmers who want maximum use of
tronic spreadsheet" functions and pro-
the CP/M operating system
takes up
vides examples of each. Makes using this
where our CP/M Handbook leaves off.
powerful program simple.
DOING BUSINESS WITH
THE BEST OF
VISICALC®
CP/M® SOFTWARE
by Stanley R. Trost
by John D. Halamka
260 pp., Ref. 0-086
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-100
Presents accounting and management
This book reviews tried-and-tested, com-
planning applications-from financial
mercially available software for your
statements to master budgets; from pric-
CP/M system.
ing models to investment strategies.
DOING BUSINESS WITH
REAL WORLD UNIX™
SUPERCALCᵀ
by John D. Halamka
by Stanley R. Trost
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-093
248 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-095
This book is written for the beginning and
Presents accounting and management
intermediate UNIX user in a practical,
planning applications-from financial
straightforward manner, with specific
statements to master budgets; from pric-
instructions given for many special
ing models to investment strategies.
applications.
VISICALC® FOR SCIENCE AND
THE CP/M PLUS™ HANDBOOK
ENGINEERING
by Alan R. Miller
by Stanley R. Trost and
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-158
Charles Pomernacki
This guide is easy for the beginner to
225 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-096
understand, yet contains valuable infor-
More than 50 programs for solving techni-
mation for advanced users of CP/M Plus
cal problems in the science and engineer-
(Version 3).
ing fields. Applications range from math
and statistics to electrical and electronic
engineering.
Business Software
DOING BUSINESS WITH 1-2-3ᵀM
INTRODUCTION TO
by Stanley R. Trost
WORDSTAR™
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-159
by Arthur Naiman
If you are a business professional using
202 pp., 30 illustr., Ref. 0-077
the 1-2-3 software package, you will find
Makes it easy to learn how to use Word-
the spreadsheet and graphics models
Star, a powerful word processing pro-
provided in this book easy to use "as is"
gram for personal computers.
in everyday business situations.
THE ABC'S OF 1-2-3ᵀM
PRACTICAL WORDSTAR™ USES
by Chris Gilbert
by Julie Anne Arca
225 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-168
200 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-107
For those new to the LOTUS 1-2-3 pro-
Pick your most time-consuming office
gram, this book offers step-by-step
tasks and this book will show you how to
instructions in mastering its spreadsheet,
streamline them with WordStar.
data base, and graphing capabilities.
UNDERSTANDING dBASE IITM
to learn the EasyWriter Il word processing
by Alan Simpson
system.
220 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-147
Learn programming techniques for mail-
Business Applications
ing label systems, bookkeeping and data
base management, as well as ways to
INTRODUCTION TO WORD
interface dBASE II with other software
PROCESSING
systems.
by Hal Glatzer
205 pp., 140 illustr., Ref. 0-076
DOING BUSINESS WITH
Explains in plain language what a word
dBASE II™
processor can do, how it improves pro-
by Stanley R. Trost
ductivity, how to use a word processor
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-160
and how to buy one wisely.
Learn to use dBASE Il for accounts
receivable, recording business income
COMPUTER POWER FOR YOUR
and expenses, keeping personal records
LAW OFFICE
and mailing lists, and much more.
by Daniel Remer
225 pp., Ref. 0-109
DOING BUSINESS WITH
How to use computers to reach peak pro-
MULTIPLAN™
ductivity in your law office, simply and
by Richard Allen King and
inexpensively.
Stanley R. Trost
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-148
OFFICE EFFICIENCY WITH
This book will show you how using Multi-
PERSONAL COMPUTERS
plan can be nearly as easy as learning to
by Sheldon Crop
use a pocket calculator. It presents a col-
175 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-165
lection of templates that can be applied
"as is" to business situations.
Planning for computerization of your
office? This book provides a simplified
DOING BUSINESS WITH PFS®
discussion of the challenges involved for
everyone from business owner to clerical
by Stanley R. Trost
worker.
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-161
This practical guide describes specific
COMPUTER POWER FOR YOUR
business and personal applications in
ACCOUNTING OFFICE
detail. Learn to use PFS for accounting,
by James Morgan
data analysis, mailing lists and more.
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-164
INFOPOWER: PRACTICAL
This book is a convenient source of infor-
INFOSTAR™ USES
mation about computerizing you account-
ing office, with an emphasis on hardware
by Jule Anne Arca and
and software options.
Charles F. Pirro
275 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-108
This book gives you an overview of Info-
Languages
Star, including DataStar and ReportStar,
WordStar, MailMerge, and SuperSort.
Hands on exercises take you step-by-step
C
through real life business applications.
UNDERSTANDING c
WRITING WITH EASYWRITER IITM
by Bruce Hunter
by Douglas W. Topham
200 pp., Ref 0-123
250 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-141
Explains how to use the powerful C lan-
Friendly style, handy illustrations, and
guage for a variety of applications. Some
numerous sample exercises make it easy
programming experience assumed.
FIFTY c PROGRAMS
BASIC PROGRAMS FOR
by Bruce Hunter
SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS
200 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-155
by Alan R. Miller
Beginning as well as intermediate C pro-
318 pp., 120 illustr., Ref. 0-073
grammers will find this a useful guide to
This book from the "Programs for Scien-
programming techniques and specific
tists and Engineers" series provides a
applications.
library of problem-solving programs while
developing proficiency in BASIC.
BASIC
CELESTIAL BASIC
by Eric Burgess
YOUR FIRST BASIC PROGRAM
300 pp., 65 illustr., Ref. 0-087
by Rodnay Zaks
A collection of BASIC programs that rap-
150pp. illustr. in color, Ref. 0-129
idly complete the chores of typical astro-
A "how-to-program" book for the first time
nomical computations. It's like having a
computer user, aged 8 to 88.
planetarium in your own home! Displays
apparent movement of stars, planets and
FIFTY BASIC EXERCISES
meteor showers.
by J. P. Lamoitier
Pascal
232 pp., 90 illustr., Ref. 0-056
Teaches BASIC by actual practice, using
INTRODUCTION TO PASCAL
graduated exercises drawn from every-
(Including UCSD Pascalᵀ
day applications. All programs written in
by Rodnay Zaks
Microsoft BASIC.
420 pp., 130 illustr., Ref. 0-066
A step-by-step introduction for anyone
INSIDE BASIC GAMES
wanting to learn the Pascal language.
by Richard Mateosian
Describes UCSD and Standard Pascals.
348 pp., 120 illustr., Ref. 0-055
No technical background is assumed.
Teaches interactive BASIC programming
THE PASCAL HANDBOOK
through games. Games are written in
Microsoft BASIC and can run on the TRS-
by Jacques Tiberghien
80, Apple II and PET/CBM.
486 pp., 270 illustr., Ref. 0-053
A dictionary of the Pascal language,
BASIC FOR BUSINESS
defining every reserved word, operator,
by Douglas Hergert
procedure and function found in all major
versions of Pascal.
224 pp., 15 illustr., Ref. 0-080
A logically organized, no-nonsense intro-
APPLE® PASCAL GAMES
duction to BASIC programming for busi-
by Douglas Hergert and
ness applications. Includes many
Joseph T. Kalash
fully-explained accounting programs, and
372 pp., 40 illustr., Ref. 0-074
shows you how to write them.
A collection of the most popular computer
games in Pascal, challenging the reader
EXECUTIVE PLANNING
not only to play but to investigate how
WITH BASIC
games are implemented on the computer.
by X. T. Bul
196 pp., 19 illustr., Ref. 0-083
INTRODUCTION TO THE UCSD
An important collection of business man-
p-system™
agement decision models in BASIC,
by Charles W. Grant and Jon Butah
including Inventory Management (EOQ),
300 pp., 10 illustr., Ref. 0-061
Critical Path Analysis and PERT, Financial
A simple, clear introduction to the UCSD
Ratio Analysis, Portfolio Management,
Pascal Operating System; for beginners
and much more.
through experienced programmers.
PASCAL PROGRAMS FOR
Z80 APPLICATIONS
SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS
by James W. Coffron
by Alan R. Miller
288 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-094
374 pp., 120 illustr., Ref. 0-058
Covers techniques and applications for
A comprehensive collection of frequently
using peripheral devices with a Z80
used algorithms for scientific and techni-
based system.
cal applications, programmed in Pascal.
Includes such programs as curve-fitting,
integrals and statistical techniques.
PROGRAMMING THE 6809
by Rodnay Zaks and William Labiak
DOING BUSINESS WITH
362 pp., 150 illustr., Ref. 0-078
PASCAL
This book explains how to program the
6809 in assembly language. No prior pro-
by Richard Hergert and
gramming knowledge required.
Douglas Hergert
371 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-091
Practical tips for using Pascal in business
PROGRAMMING THE Z8000
programming. Includes design consider-
by Richard Mateosian
ations, language extensions, and applica-
298 pp., 124 illustr., Ref. 0-032
tions examples.
How to program the Z8000 16-bit micro-
processor. Includes a description of the
Assembly Language
architecture and function of the Z8000
and its family of support chips.
Programming
PROGRAMMING THE 6502
PROGRAMMING THE 8086/8088
by Rodnay Zaks
by James W. Coffron
386 pp., 160 illustr., Ref. 0-046
300 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-120
Assembly language programming for the
This book explains how to program the
6502, from basic concepts to advanced
8086 and 8088 in assembly language. No
data structures.
prior programming knowledge required.
6502 APPLICATIONS
by Rodnay Zaks
Other Languages
278 pp., 200 illustr., Ref. 0-015
Real-life application techniques: the input/
FORTRAN PROGRAMS FOR
output book for the 6502.
SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS
by Alan R. Miller
ADVANCED 6502
280 pp., 120 illustr., Ref. 0-082
PROGRAMMING
In the "Programs for Scientists and Engi-
by Rodnay Zaks
neers" series, this book provides specific
scientific and engineering application pro-
292 pp., 140 illustr., Ref. 0-089
grams written in FORTRAN.
Third in the 6502 series. Teaches more
advanced programming techniques,
using games as a framework for learning.
A MICROPROGRAMMED APL
IMPLEMENTATION
PROGRAMMING THE Z80
by Rodnay Zaks
by Rodnay Zaks
350 pp., Ref. 0-005
624 pp., 200 illustr., Ref. 0-069
An expert-level text presenting the com-
A complete course in programming the
plete conceptual analysis and design of
Z80 microprocessor and a thorough intro-
an APL interpreter, and actual listing of
duction to assembly language.
the microcode.
Hardware and
THE RS-232 SOLUTION
by Joe Campbell
Peripherals
225 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-140
Finally, a book that will show you how to
correctly interface your computer to any
RS-232-C peripheral.
MICROPROCESSOR
INTERFACING TECHNIQUES
USING CASSETTE RECORDERS
by Rodnay Zaks and Austin Lesea
WITH COMPUTERS
456 pp., 400 illustr., Ref. 0-029
by James Richard Cook
Complete hardware and software inter-
175 pp., illustr., Ref. 0-169
connect techniques, including D to A con-
Whatever your computer or application,
version, peripherals, standard buses and
you will find this book helpful in explaining
troubleshooting.
details of cassette care and maintenance.
SYBEXCOMPUTERBOOKS
are different.
Here is why
...
At SYBEX, each book is designed with you in mind. Every manuscript is
carefully selected and supervised by our editors, who are themselves
computer experts. We publish the best authors, whose technical expertise
is matched by an ability to write clearly and to communicate effectively.
Programs are thoroughly tested for accuracy by our technical staff. Our
computerized production department goes to great lengths to make
sure that each book is well-designed.
In the pursuit of timeliness, SYBEX has achieved many publishing firsts.
SYBEX was among the first to integrate personal computers used by
authors and staff into the publishing process. SYBEX was the first to
publish books on the CP/M operating system, microprocessor interfacing
techniques, word processing, and many more topics.
Expertise in computers and dedication to the highest quality product
have made SYBEX a world leader in computer book publishing. Trans-
lated into fourteen languages, SYBEX books have helped millions of
people around the world to get the most from their computers. We hope
we have helped you, too.
For a complete catalog of our publications
please contact:
U.S.A.
FRANCE
GERMANY
SYBEX, Inc.
SYBEX
SYBEX-Verlag GmbH
2344 Sixth Street
6-8 Impasse du Curé
Vogelsanger Weg 111
Berkeley,
75018 Paris
4000 Düsseldorf 30
California 94710
France
West Germany
Tel: (800) 227-2346
Tel: 01/203-9595
Tel: (0211) 626411
(415) 848-8233 Telex: 211801
Telex: 8588163
Telex: 336311
Personal Computers
SPECIAL NEEDS
Are personal computers the answer to more independent
living for the disabled?
Personal Computers and Special Needs shows you the many practical wonders these
marvelous machines can work for those who are confined to a bed or wheelchair, or
have difficulties with vision, hearing, or learning. Today's personal computers can
"hear" for deaf people, "see" for blind people, "move" for people with mobility
restraints, and simply make life easier, safer, and more rewarding for the elderly and
handicapped. Written in plain English, this informative guide explains how com-
puters can be used to:
monitor home security
produce synthesized speech
summon emergency medical assistance
do banking and shopping
perform as an educational aid for dyslexic children
make more productive employment possible
and much more!
Find out about the new adaptive devices that are making it possible for the handi-
capped to access computers for the first time. You'll be amazed at the many ways in
which the personal computer revolution is beginning to transform the lives of the
more than one-half billion elderly and disabled people in the world today. Also
included in this book is an up-to-the-minute buyer's guide designed to assist the
novice in selecting the right hardware and software for his or her needs.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Frank G. Bowe, Ph.D., is a nationally recognized author-
ity on the use of microcomputers for the disabled, and a consultant for the U.S. Con-
gress Office of Technology Assessment. He is the president of a management
consulting firm and the author of many publications, including The Reasonable
Accomodation Handbook, Employment Trends, Handicapping America, Rehabilitat-
ing America, and Disabled Adults in America. Disabled himself, he has a special inter-
est in the problems faced by people with handicaps of all kinds.
00193
0
25211"00995
ISBN 0-89588-193-4