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Department of War--Fort Myers, Virginia 8/7/89 [OA 6267]
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Department of War--Fort Myers, Virginia 8/7/89 [OA 6267]
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Speech Backup Chronological Files
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administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
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Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
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Speech File Backup Files
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Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
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13679-008
Folder Title:
Department of War--Fort Myers, Virginia 8/7/89 [OA 6267]
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G
26
19
2
6
Dept. of war
8-7-89
Davis/Simen Davis / Simon
new SecArmy Michael P.W. Stone
Photocopy-Preservation
Davis/Wallace
Aug. 4, 1989
Title: DOD
Draft: Two
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: DEPARTMENT OF WAR/FORT MYERS
Aug. 7, 1989/ (Time to come) )
9:35 am
Secretary Cheney -- Dick -- I want to thank you for the
splendid job you are doing at DOD. ( (And by the way, Dick, I
hope you are learning how to use the color-coded halls to find
Matt
Frank
your way from the E-ring to your car without getting lost
Bob
Perhaps now you know why they made a movie about the Pentagon and
Simon
called it "No Way Out. ) )
And Secretary Marsh -- Jack -- I want to thank you for your
splendid performance in your service to the U.S. Army, and to
your country.
I am pleased to join with you all in celebrating the 200th
see
file
anniversary of an historic department, now part of the Department
of Defense. In honoring the bicentennial of this Department, we
are also honoring the heroes of America's past and present.
The Department of War
The very name sounds antiquated,
even bellicose. Certainly, today the title Department of Defense
is more appropriate, since the purpose of our armed forces is to
deter war, not to seek it.
And yet, the title was undeniably forthright, for the War
Department fought X and won five wars in its 158-year history. It
was the War Department that waged the most tragic conflict in
American history, a Civil War in which one secretary, Edwin
war of 1812
almanue p. 756
Civil war
Mexico 1846
Spuin 1898
WWI
one of 2
DEC
Stanton, was pitted against his predecessor, Jefferson Davis. It
file
was also the War Department that trained and dispatched vast
armies of Doughboys to France. And it was the War Department
that served as America's nerve center in the struggle against the
Axis powers, leading to the greatest military and moral victory
in the history of Man. kind
Winston Churchill gave much of the credit for this to Army
Chief of Staff George Marshall, calling him the "true organizer
enclydo of victory. " We all remember George Marshall as a great
pedia
see
Secretary of State. He deserves no less credit for his service
file
to the Army, and later as Secretary of Defense.
None of us who served in the Second World War will ever
forget the great leaders of the War Department. Nor we will
forget the great lesson of those years -- only the strong can
keep the peace.
It is to no discredit to the War Department that at the
outbreak of the Second World War our armed forces were still
drilling with wooden rifles, hauling massive, but useless radios,
and planning to wage land warfare with horse cavalry.
Today, of course, it is not a shortage of rifles that
threatens to undermine America's ability to keep the peace. To
preserve the peace today, we must be strong in other ways. This
means we must rely on advanced technology, not the strategic
equivalent of horse calvary.
The United States today requires a closely integrated
strategic program designed to enhance our strength, bolster
3
deterrence and facilitate arms control. It demands that we
modernize our ICBM force, redeploying the Peacekeeper missile in
rail-garrison now. ( (PAUSE) ) And it means completing the
development to deploy the new small ICBM. These mobile systems
will bring improved survivability and stability to the land-based
leg of our strategic triad.
A strong defense also means something else --
sufficient
funding for the Stealth Bomber. ( (PAUSE))
And it means one thing more -- support for the Strategic
Defense Initiative. ( (PAUSE) ) SDI offers the promise of a
stable nuclear balance that relies increasingly on defense. It
will make any START treaty more effective. And it represents our
best step toward stability -- the same goal we seek through
offensive modernization and arms control. This is the program
the country needs, and I will work to see that this is the
program that the country gets.
Just as critical to our nation's defense are the men and
women of the Department of Defense. You are called upon to do a
difficult, often dangerous, job. And you perform your duty with
distinction.
The history of this department is nothing less than the
history of American bravery. Whether we call it the Department
of War or the Department of Defense, this tradition of service to
country lives on in each of you.
So, today, in commemorating the Department of War, we also
salute you and every brave American who served in the two great
4
conflicts of this century, and those who served in Korea and
Vietnam. And, whatever his fate may be, we salute a certain
courageous ichard U.S. Marine Lieutenant Colonel by the name of William
R. Higgins. ((PAUSE))
It is an inspiration to be among America's finest. And to
honor a great department and it's great traditions. God bless
you, and God bless the United States of America.
#
#
#
ARLINGTON 447
Room are the decorations conferred
Allied nations, and in the same room
FORT MYER
igure of Victory by Augustus Saint-
The neat brick barracks and quarters of Fort Myer (open, in
Mortuary Chapel, is a simple shrine
normal times, 9 a. m. to sundown), standing at attention among well-
rom this chapel a long circular hall
trimmed and tree-planted lawns, represent a typical post of the United
ade, with 48 crypts spaced along its
States Army. In addition to quarters for troops, the military estab-
nterment of one man from each State
lishment has a post office, chapel, hospital, post exchange, and fire
n the service of the Nation; this
house. A red-brick mansion within the cantonment is occupied by
and the 48 crypts are empty.
the Army's chief of staff. On Grant Avenue are the houses of fort
phitheater from the colonnade at the
officers, and opposite them is a broad lawn with a flagstaff and salute
narble benches enclosed by the colon-
gun, where daily ceremonies are held at the raising and lowering of
r against the sky. At the far end is
the flag.
a Latin inscription, which in trans-
The FORT MYER PARADE GROUND has an important place in avi-
mly to die for one's country." On
ation history. After their private experiments at Kitty Hawk, North
the names of 44 battles in American
Carolina, and at Dayton, Ohio, the Wright brothers held their first
western pavilion the semicircular,
public demonstration on this parade ground in 1909. Using facilities
phitheater. The rostral platform is
offered by the Army, they carried out a number of test flights, during
the center of the lower level is the
one of which Lieutenant T. E. Selfridge was killed while flying with
y the President at official ceremonies.
Orville Wright; a small monument on the spot commemorates this
ng sculptured urns, and above them
early martyr to aviation, for whom Selfridge Field, Michigan, is named.
Navy. The stage is framed by a
The first planes owned by the United States were accepted after dem-
if the arch bearing a passage from
onstration here.
A quotation from Washington is
Fort Myer provides guards of honor, escorts, and squads for firing
volleys at military funerals in Arlington National Cemetery. Negro
in a paved formal terrace, is the
soldiers, with other Fort Myer units, before the outbreak of World
i, rising above a green lawn bordered
War II participated in most of the great parades in Washington. An
mps of boxwood and groves of cedar
annual horse show and occasional polo games are held at the post.
V and repose surrounding the Tomb,
Visible from Fort Myer, and a landmark on the skyline south of
and paces his beat across the terrace.
Washington from the time they were built in 1912 until the summer
ctangular block of white marble, 16
of 1941, stood three orange-painted steel towers of the Naval Radio
et wide. Erected in 1931 over an
Station, the tallest 600 feet high and the flanking structures 450 feet
tood for ten years, it is the work of
high. A pioneer in high-frequency broadcasting, it was in its time the
nd Lorimer Rich, architect. Carved
world's most powerful sending station. In 1941 the Navy awarded a
essen the austerity of the tomb, and
contract to a New York firm to demolish the towers for and in con-
three figures symbolic of Victory
sideration of a contract price of $1. Removal of the towers improved
The rear panel bears the inscription,
the safety of air navigation to and from the Washington National
merican Soldier known but to God."
Airport.
th the tomb is the body of an un-
FEDERAL OFFICE BUILDING NO. 2
ance. The body lay in state in the
vas interred with an Armistice Day
As part of a program for the decentralization of Government office
arren G. Harding officiated. The
structures, Federal Office Building No. 2 (office hours 8-4:30 week-
with the Congressional Medal of
days) was completed in 1941 and occupied by some offices and divisions
owed upon him their highest military
of the Navy Department. Standing on a suburban 17-acre tract at the
own memorials in the Nation, the
intersection of N. Arlington Ridge Road and Columbia Pike, south of
stands today as a memorial to all
Arlington National Cemetery, the four-story buff-brick structure, with
lost their lives in the First World
an office capacity of 7,000 employees, was designed by the Public Build-
ings Administration for general office use as needed by governmental
agencies. The extended north façade, 781 feet long, has three entrances
F199
F38
1938
WH
THE WPA GUIDE
TO WASHINGTON, D.C.:
THE FEDERAL WRITERS' PROJECT
GUIDE TO 1930S WASHINGTON
WITH A NEW INTRODUCTION
BY ROGER G. KENNEDY
Written and compiled
by the Federal Writers' Project
of the Works Progress Administration
for the District of Columbia
PANTHEON BOOKS NEW YORK
364
MARSHAL-MARSHALL
MARSHAL, a title of authority derived from
medieval European courts, given to administra-
58.15
tors of a royal household, military commanders,
Gua!
and other executive officers. In England the title
man
dates to the late 12th century. It has survived
from
to the present day in the title of earl marshal,
I
hereditary with the dukes of Norfolk. In other
serve
European countries the title has survived in the
dept
military sense as the highest ranking army officer:
Fran
English, field marshal; French, maréchal; Ger-
Gen.
man, Generalfeld-marschall; Italian, maresciallo;
was
and Russian, marshal.
full
In the United States, a marshal in the federal
in E
government is an officer of the executive depart-
six y
ment appointed to execute the orders of the fed-
A
eral courts in each judicial district and to open
(wh
and close court sessions. In some states, par-
8 str
ticularly in the South and West, marshals are
He "
police officers of municipal districts and bor-
war,
oughs, with powers generally corresponding to
sumr
those of constable or sheriff. In New York City,
1945
marshals execute the orders of the municipal
chan
courts.
forts
Marshal, as a title of authority, appears in
Allie
calle
various compounds. These include: provost mar-
S
shal, a chief of military police; fire marshal, chief
went
of a fire department; marshal (of the day), one
the fi
who is responsible for ceremonial occasions; and
Com
earl marshal, a British officer of state who man-
effort
ages state ceremonies.
U.
5.
ARMT
appo
General of the Army George C. Marshall was the chief
T
MARSHALL, Alfred (1842-1924), influential En-
glish economist, one of the founders of the "neo-
strategist for the Allied powers in World War II,
sion
Unio
classical" school. He was born in London on
tiatio
July 26, 1842, and spent most of his life at Cam-
MARSHALL, George Catlett (1880-1959), Amer-
its p
bridge University. From early interests in mathe-
matics and philosophy, he moved to economics.
ican general of the army, chief of staff, secretary
conti
of state, and secretary of defense. His career
in a
Marshall took over many of John Stuart Mill's
roughly paralleled the first 50 years of the 20th
1947
ideas, but substantially altered his basic frame
century. He saw his country grow from an iso-
plan
of reference. Instead of analyzing how goods
lated position to one of world leadership. As
work
were produced, and how distribution of income
a global soldier-statesman, he was a leader in the
meet
among different social classes shaped economic
victory over the Axis powers in World War II.
the
welfare, Marshall examined price setting in a
Marshall was the only professional soldier ever
stren
static context. He asserted that consumers' wants,
awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace.
sion.
tastes, and incomes (which he took as given)
He was born in Uniontown, Pa., on Dec. 31,
devel
guided the system as a whole. He emphasized
1880, and graduated from the Virginia Military
ica a
small, gradual changes and the complex inter-
Institute in 1902, where he was first captain.
resig:
connections by which market balance or "equi-
librium" was achieved.
Commissioned a lieutenant of infantry, Marshall
A
served in the Philippines from 1902 to 1903. In
1950
Marshall, like other neoclassical economists,
1907 he was first in his class at the School of the
task
believed he had shown that the economy would
Line, Fort Leavenworth, Kans. After completing
In tl
run most efficiently if left to itself, but he did not
a more advanced course, he served as an instruc-
push
examine closely the problems of growth, devel-
tor there from 1908 to 1910. From 1913 to 1916
help
opment, or instability. Whereas earlier political
he served a second tour in the Philippines, and
nizat
economists such as Adam Smith and David Ri-
then had brief tours in San Francisco and Gov-
the e
cardo had identified labor as the source of the
ernors Island, N.Y. In World War I he went
ing a
exchange value of goods, Marshall stressed the
with 1st Division units to France in 1917. As
peace
satisfaction of consumers' desires, or utility.
chief of operations, he helped plan the first U.S.
work
At a time when socialists and trade unions
campaigns in France. Later, at general head-
the
were challenging the status quo, Marshall as-
quarters, he helped plan the attack in the St.
A
serted that property owners were entitled to their
Mihiel salient and the Meuse-Argonne offensive,
burie
incomes because they had postponed consump-
serving as chief of operations, First Army, in the
he W
tion, or "waited" for satisfaction, of their wants.
final weeks of the war.
C. M
Similarly, wages compensated workers for the
From 1919 to 1924, Marshall was senior aide
in CC
"disutility" of labor. Each person chose among
to Gen. John J. Pershing. From 1924 to 1927 he
dent
alternatives whatever maximized his satisfaction.
was executive officer of the 15th Infantry Regi-
Dwic
This orderly picture, reflecting Victorian indi-
ment in Tientsin, China. As chief of instruction
vidualism, still influences orthodox economics,
at the Infantry School, Fort Benning, Ga., from
but its relevance to the present is questionable.
1927 to 1932, he trained many who later became
Marshall's most influential work was his Prin-
key officers in World War II.
F
ciples of Economics, first published in 1890 and
As a battalion commander in Georgia and
Geor:
shall
periodically revised up to 1920. He died in
regimental commander in South Carolina, in
1917-
Cambridge on July 13, 1924.
1932-1933, Marshall helped build and develop
Hero
H. JOHN THORKELSON, University of Connecticut
camps for the Civilian Conservation Corps. He
Geor;
MARSHALL
365
senior instructor with the Illinois National
MARSHALL, John (1755-1835), chief justice of
was from 1933 to 1936, and, as a brigade com-
the United States from 1801 to 1835, who had a
Vancouver Barracks, Wash.,
profound influence on the formation of American
constitutional law and the establishment of judi-
from
In Washington, D. C., in 1938, Marshall
cial review. He was born in Prince William
briefly as chief of war plans and then as
(now Fauquier) county, Va., on Sept. 24, 1755.
served deputy chief of staff. Nominated by President
Like so many men of action and thought who
Franklin D. Roosevelt in the spring to succeed
participated in the founding of the nation, Mar-
Gen. Malin Craig as head of the Army, Marshall
shall was a Virginian, born in a log cabin. He
acting chief for two months and then took
was a third cousin of Thomas Jefferson.
full was control on Sept. 1, 1939, the day war began
Unlike the other leading Virginians-Jefferson,
in Europe. He held the position for more than
James Madison, and James Monroe-Marshall was
six years, retiring in late November 1945.
early and lastingly committed to the need for a
As chief of staff, Marshall increased the Army
strong central government. Although he was not
(which then included the Army Air Corps) from
a Republican (Democratic-Republican, the pre-
strength of some 200,000 to almost 8.5 million.
decessor of today's Democratic party), neither
He was present at all the great conferences of the
was he totally committed to the Federalists, as
war, from Argentia, Newfoundland, in the late
his vigorous condemnation of the Alien and
summer of 1941 to Potsdam in the summer of
Sedition Laws adequately demonstrated.
1945. He was the chief protagonist of the cross-
Like Civil War veteran and Supreme Court
channel invasion of Europe strategy. For his ef-
justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, his only rival for
forts in training, planning, and supplying the
the accolade of greatest American judge, Mar-
us
Allies, Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill
shall served with distinction in a war in which
called him the "true organizer of victory."
the existence of the United States was at stake.
Shortly after retiring as Army chief, Marshall
He took an active part as a Revolutionary officer
went to China in 1946 with the mission of ending
in the critical battles of Brandywine, Valley Forge,
the fighting between the Chinese Nationalists and
Monmouth, and Stony Point. After the war he
Communists. After initial success, he saw his
soon became one of the leaders of the Virginia
efforts end in failure. In late 1946 he accepted
legal profession, a bar of an intellectual quality
S.
appointment to the office of secretary of state.
hardly if ever matched in American history.
George C. Marshall was the chief
The years 1947 to 1950 saw increasing ten-
Marshall served in the Virginia House of
lied powers in World War II,
sion between the United States and the Soviet
Delegates intermittently from 1782 to 1790, and
Union. Marshall concluded after lengthy nego-
from 1795 to 1796. In 1795 he was compelled
tiations in Moscow that the Soviet Union believed
by personal financial problems to refuse President
Catlett (1880-1959), Amer-
its plans for controlling Europe were helped by
George Washington's request that he serve as at-
army, chief of staff, secretary
continuing economic chaos. Marshall, therefore,
torney general of the United States, and a year
:ary of defense. His career
in a speech at Harvard University on June 5,
later he rejected the appointment as American
ne first 50 years of the 20th
1947, outlined a plan for economic recovery-a
ambassador to France for the same reason. In
S country grow from an iso-
plan that bears his name. In addition, Marshall
1797, however, he went to France as one of the
ne of world leadership. As
worked diligently at the United Nations and in
special envoys to negotiate the X Y Z claims.
sman, he was a leader in the
meetings in London and Paris for treaties with
This role earned him not only great popularity
is powers in World War II.
the defeated powers and for action that would
but a monetary reward from Congress large
nly professional soldier ever
strengthen western Europe against Soviet expan-
enough to ameliorate what had been a chronic
Prize for Peace.
sion. At Rio de Janeiro and Bogotá, he sought to
economic problem, caused largely by his joint
Uniontown, Pa., on Dec. 31,
develop greater cooperation between Latin Amer-
purchase of a Virginia estate. Nevertheless, in
1 from the Virginia Military
ica and the United States. Ill health led to his
1798 he refused an appointment as associate jus-
where he was first captain.
resignation early in 1949.
tice of the Supreme Court.
tenant of infantry, Marshall
After the outbreak of the Korean War in
A year later he bowed to Washington's en-
ines from 1902 to 1903. In
1950, General Marshall was asked to take up the
treaties and was elected, thanks in part to the
his class at the School of the
task of heading the U.S. Department of Defense.
efforts of Patrick Henry, to the U.S. House of
rth, Kans. After completing
In the year he served, he enlarged the Army,
Representatives, where he soon assumed the bur-
irse, he served as an instruc-
pushed a plan for universal military training, and
dens of spokesman for the Federalist bloc. His
O 1910. From 1913 to 1916
helped develop the North Atlantic Treaty Orga-
experience in Congress was a short one, however,
tour in the Philippines, and
nization (NATO). In Asia he helped to contain
for in 1800, after first refusing an appointment
in San Francisco and Gov.
the expansion of the Korean War. While favor-
as secretary of war, he assumed the post of sec-
In World War I he went
ing a strong United States, he nevertheless sought
retary of state in John Adams' cabinet.
its to France in 1917. As
peaceful solutions to the conflicts that threatened
One of Adams' last important acts as presi-
e helped plan the first U.S.
world order. In December 1953 he was awarded
dent, and perhaps his most important contribu-
: Later, at general head-
the Nobel Prize for Peace.
tion to the welfare of the country, was the ap-
plan the attack in the St.
Marshall died on Oct. 16, 1959, and was
pointment of Marshall as chief justice on January
e Meuse-Argonne offensive,
buried in Arlington National Cemetery. In 1964
20, 1801. Jefferson's earlier expressed belief that
erations, First Army, in the
he was honored by the dedication of the George
the appointment of Marshall to a judicial post
C. Marshall Research Library, in Lexington, Va.,
would remove him from the political scene and
r. 4, Marshall was senior aide
in ceremonies that included speeches by Presi-
eliminate a thom in the side of Republicanism
ing. From 1924 to 1927 he
dent Lyndon B. Johnson and former President
of the 15th Infantry Regi-
Dwight D. Eisenhower.
underestimated both Marshall's capacities and
the potentialities of the judiciary as a vital
na. As chief of instruction
FORREST C. POGUE
force in American government. If it is true,
I, Fort Benning, Ga., from
Director, Dwight D. Eisenhower
as Oliver Wendell Holmes once said, that "there
ed many who later became
Institute for Historical Research
fell to Marshall perhaps the greatest place that
War II.
mmander in Georgia and
Larry I., ed., The Papers of
ever was filled by a judge," it is no less true
Hopkins Press 1981); Mar-
that Marshall proved able to take full advan-
er in South Carolina, in
Services in the World War,
tage of the opportunity afforded him by history.
helped build and develop He
Mosley, Leonard, Marshall,
Times (Hearst Bks. 1982); Pogue, Forrest C.,
To quote Supreme Court Justice Felix Frank-
n Conservation Corps.
Marshall, 3 vols. (Viking 1963, 1966, 1973).
furter: "When Marshall came to the Supreme
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY
MEMORANDUM
4 Arug
mark-
Peram discussion
MAtu
THE WAR DEPARTMENT, 1789-1947
In August 1789, one of the first acts of the new Congress
under the Constitution was to establish the Department of War.
The basic principle underlying the department was civilian
control of the military -- a concept well rooted by the time of
the American Revolution (1775-1783). During the Revolution, the
Continental Congress exercised its authority over the Continental
Army first through a Board of War and Ordnance and, beginning in
1781, through a War Department headed by a Secretary of War. With
the ratification of the Constitution in 1789, the Secretary
became responsible to the President, who was the Commander-in-
Chief of the armed forces. Congress retained the power to declare
war and to raise and support an army.
The Department of War in 1789 was tasked with multiple
responsibilities. Besides land and sea defense, the department
had jurisdiction over Indian affairs and over government lands
granted as bounties to veterans and others. This span of control
was reduced in 1798 when the Department of the Navy was created,
and in 1849 when the War Department transferred to the
Department of the Interior its functions involving Indian affairs
and lands.
The War of 1812 (1812-1815) provided the impetus for a
departmental reorganization under Secretary of War John C.
Calhoun (1817-1825). Calhoun developed a system of functional
bureaus as mandated by Congress. He also created the position of
Commanding General of the Army. The bureaus, located in
Washington, developed close ties to Congress. The Commanding
General had charge of the field army, although his powers and
authority were not well defined in relation to the Secretary of
War. Nonetheless the Army's credible performance in the Mexican
War was attributable partly to Calhoun's administrative reforms.
Continuous experimentation to create a working relationship
between the War Department and the armies in the field marked the
Civil War and characterized the remainder of the nineteenth
century. Problems encountered during the conduct of the Spanish-
American War highlighted the need for resolution of a means of
internal Army control. Secretary of War Elihu Root (1899-1904)
addressed these areas when he established a General Staff as a
central planning organ under a Chief of Staff who would command
and control the entire Army. Although the National Defense Act
of 1916 limited the size of the General Staff, Secretary of War
Newton D. Baker (1916-1921) implemented the act with minimum
reduction of the General Staff's authority.
The great demands of World War I on the nation's resources
made effective central control in the War Department an absolute
necessity. As a result Secretary Baker appointed General Peyton
C. March as Chief of Staff (1981-1921) and instituted reforms
designed to increase the General Staff's authority. By war's end,
Baker's measures had enlarged the power of the staff by gradually
absorbing the bureau apparatus.
Peace saw a resurgence of the bureaus and a reorganization
of the General Staff under General of the Armies John J.
Pershing. As Chief of Staff (1921-1924), Pershing realigned the
staff according to the system he used in France during the war:
G-1 (Personnel); G-2 (Military Intelligence); G-3 (Operations and
Training); G-4 (Supply); and a War Plans Division. This structure
remained basically the same ever since.
To meet the unprecedented needs of global conflict in
World War II, greater centralization of authority was the key.
The Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall (1939-1945),
realized that he had to decentralize operations or risk being
overwhelmed by the increased workload. The resulting
reorganization of the War Department witnessed the creation of
three new major functionalized commands: Army Ground Forces, to
train troops; Army Service Forces, to oversee the technical
services; and Army Air Forces, to deal with the specialized needs
of the air arms. An Operations Division replaced the War Plans
Division and became the powerful nerve center of the General
Staff. President Franklin D. Roosevelt sought military advice
directly from General Marshall who enjoyed a friendly division of
labor with Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson (1940-1945). The
Secretary dealt primarily with matters of manpower, science,
civil affairs, and atomic energy while Marshall oversaw the
conduct of the war effort.
After victory in America's greatest war, the War
Department reverted to a structure similar to its prewar
organization. The nation's vastly increased international
responsibilities demanded a comprehensive restructuring of the
defense and security organization. Thus the National Security Act
of 1947, as amended in 1949, established the Department of
Defense. Within the new cabinet element were subcabinet
Departments of the Army (replacing War), the Navy, and the Air
Force (based on the former Army Air Forces), whose heads all
reported to the Secretary of Defense. This structure remains in
place today, with the Secretary of the Army being the lineal
descendent of the Secretary of War.
PENTAGRAM
Thursday, August 3, 1989
War dept celebrates bicentennial
2.25 million soldiers and civilians stationed
by MSgt. Mary A. Peterson, USA
a brief period when the secretary could
American Forces Information Service
around the globe.
execute contracts for clothing and food, the
Heading the new executive department of
new government retained the civilian-
When the War Department was created on
the young federal government under George
controlled supply system formed by the
August 7, 1789, the first secretary, Gen. Henry
Washington in 1789, Knox, who succeeded
previous government under the Articles of
Knox, oversaw an Army of a mere 800 officers
Washington as the commander of the Army,
Confederation. The leadership considered an
and enlisted men - all stationed along the
handled the military affairs without change in
overseer of supplies - a quartermaster
Ohio River except for one artillery company
policy or personnel from the way Washington
general - necessary only in time of war and
guarding West Point and another guarding a
handled them In the original War Office
discharged the quartermaster general and his
created in 1781.
assistants In 1783.
munition arsenal in Springfield, Mass.
Two hundred years and some important
Knox's War Department was concerned
As the War Department evolved, so did its
reorganizations later, Its descendant, the
mostly with the storage, transport and
responsibilities. The department took on new
Department of the Army, manages more than
distribution of military supplies. Except during
seeWAR DEPT page 12
war dept
(continued from page 8)
staff exercised discipline and
responsibilities in 1813, when
control over the troops. The chief
President James Madison
also served as the adviser and
appointed John Armstrong the
executive agent of the president
seventh department secretary.
through the secretary of war.
Armstrong replaced the aging
The United States was at war
Revolutionary War veterans with
with Germany and Japan when the
younger, more aggressive field
military and civilian leaders again
commanders. He also expanded
attempted to reorganize the War
the Army staff to help manage the
Department. The pace and
War of 1812 by recreating the
urgency of the country's
Adjutant General, Inspector
involvement in World War II
General and Apothecary General
prevented full implementation of
offices - all which were dissolved
then-Chief of Staff Gen. George C.
after the Revolutionary War. A
Marshall's plan.
strategy needed to change the
course of the war was the
The National Security Act of
assignment of eight topographical
1947 put in place many of
engineers to the staff.
Marshall's Ideas conceived in
1942 by establishing the National
A massive reform in 1903
Military Establishment. The act
molded a War Department
created a position for the secretary
structure that laid the foundation
of defense and positions for
for today's Defense Department.
various military assistants to the
Following the Spanish American
secretary, a civilian personnel
War, Elihu Root, the 43rd
component, the Departments of
secretary of war, Initiated
the Army, Navy and Air Force, the
fundamental changes in the
U.S. Air Force, the War Council
department's organization, Its
and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
administration and troop training.
He established a general staff
The act also created the
dedicated to military planning and
National Security Council, the
redesignated the commanding
Central Intelligence Agency and
general of the Army as the Army's
the National Security Resources
chief of staff. Root felt this would
Board.
isolve the division of authority
The National Security Act then
between the two positions. Along
redesignated the War Department
with the title change was the
as the Department of the Army.
separation of responsibilities. The
On August 10, 1949 the
secretary was responsible for
National Military Establishment
department administration and
became the Department of
fiscal matters, while the chief of
Defense.
THE DEPARTMENTS OF WAR AND ARMY
Following the inauguration of George Washington and the establishment of the
First Congress principal efforts focused on the tasks to "provide for the common
defence." Although the Continental Congress established the American Army on
June 14, 1755, by 1789 it was necessary to adapt the Army charter to the new
Constitution. For this purpose a Department of War was created by an act of
Congress. This act reaffirmed the functions of the War Department created under
Articles of the Confederation. However, unlike the first act, it vested final authority
over the Department's functions with the President rather than the Congress.
In 1947, our national defense structure was again altered in an attempt to
achieve "optimum efficiency of military operations" and aid in the integration on
military and non-military branches of the government. The National Security Act of
1947 created the Department of Defense and mandated that it be headed by a
Secretary of Defense. In addition, it established that the Departments of Army,
Navy, and Air Force would comprise the Department of Defense.
Our national military establishment has gone through many structural changes
since 1789, but the constitutional principles of Presidential and civilian control
remain the keystones of our country's defense structure.
CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF WAR
An Act of August 7, 1789 Chapter VII, I Statute, p. 49
SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be an executive
department to be denominated the Department of War, (a) and that there shall be a
principal officer therein, to be called the Secretary for the Department of War, who
shall perform and execute such duties as shall from time to time be enjoined on, or
entrusted to him by the President of the United States, agreeably to the
Constitution, relative to military commissions, or to the land or naval forces ships,
or warlike stores of the United States, or to such other matters respecting military or
naval affairs, as the President of the United States shall assign to the said
department, or relative to the granting of lands to persons entitled thereto, for
military services rendered to the United States, or relative to Indian affairs; and
furthermore, that the said principal officer shall conduct the business of the said
department in such manner, as the President of the United States shall from time to
time order or instruct.
SECTION 2. And be it further enacted, That there shall be in the said department
an inferior officer, to be appointed by the said principal officer, to be employed
therein as he shall deem proper, and to be called the chief clerk in the Department of
War, and who, whenever the said principal officer shall be removed from office by
the President of the United States, or in any other case of vacancy, shall, during
such vacancy, have the charge and custody of all records, books and papers,
appertaining to the said department.
SECTION 3. And be it further enacted, That the said principal officer, and every
other person to be appointed or employed in the said department, shall, before he
enters on the execution of his office or employment, take an oath or affirmation well
and faithfully to execute the trust committed to him.
12
SECTION 4. And be it further enacted, That the Secretary for the Department of
War, to be appointed in consequence of this act, shall forthwith after his
appointment, be entitled to have the custody and charge of all records, books and
papers in the officer of Secretary for the Department of War heretofore established
by the United States in Congress assembled.
CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS FOR THE ARMY
An Act of September 29, 1789, Chapter XXV, I Statute, p. 95
An Act to recognize and adapt to the Constitution of the United States the
establishment of the Troops raised under the Resolves of the United States in
Congress assembled, and for other purposes therein mentioned.
SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, That the establishment contained
in the resolve of the late Congress of the third day of October, one thousand seven
hundred and eighty-seven, except as to the mode of appointing the officers, and
also as in herein after provided, be, and the same is hereby recognized to be the
establishment for the troops in the service of the United States.
SECTION 2. And be it further enacted, That the pay and allowances of the said
troops be the same as have been established by the United States in Congress
assembled, by their resolution of the twelfth of April, one thousand seven hundred
and eighty-five.
SECTION 3. And be it further enacted, That all commissioned and
noncommissioned officers and privates, who are or shall be in the service of the
United States, shall take the following oaths or affirmations, to wit: "I, A.B. do
solemnly swear or affirm (as the case may be) that I will support the constitution of
the United States." "I, A.B. do solemnly swear or affirm (as the case may be) to
bear true allegiance to the United States of America, and to serve them honestly and
faithfully against all their enemies or opposers what-soever, and to observe and
obey the orders of the President of the United States of America, and the orders of
the officers appointed over me."
SECTION 4. And be it further enacted, That the said troops shall be governed
by the rules and articles of war which have been established by the United States in
Congress assembled, or by such rules and articles of war as may hereafter by law
be established.
SECTION 5. And be it further enacted, That for the purpose of protecting the
inhabitants of the frontiers of the United States from the hostile incursions of the
Indians, the President is hereby authorized to call into service from time to time,
such part of the militia of the states respectively, as he may judge necessary for the
purpose aforesaid; and that their pay and subsistence while in service, be the same
as the pay and subsistence of the troops above mentioned.
SECTION 6. And be it further enacted, That this act shall continue and be in
force until the end of the next session of Congress, and no longer.
13
awn mine on
Davis/Wallace
Aug. 3, 1989
Title: DOD
Draft: One
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: DEPARTMENT OF WAR/FORT MYERS
Aug. 7, 1989/ ( (Time to come))
Thank you Secretary Cheney -- Dick; Secretary Marsh -- Jack.
( (Dick, I hope you are learning how to use the color-coded
halls to find your way from the E-ring to your car without
getting lost
Perhaps now you know why they made a movie
about the Pentagon and called it "No Way Out.") )
I am pleased to join you in celebrating the 200th
anniversary of an historic department, now part of the Department
of Defense. In honoring the bicentennial of this Department, we
are also honoring the heroes of America's past and present.
The Department of War
The very name sounds antiquated,
even
bellicose. Its grates on modern ears. Certainly, the title
Department of Defense is more appropriate, since the purpose of
our armed forces is to deter war, not to seek it.
And yet, the title was undeniably forthright, for the War
Department fought and won five wars in its 158-year history. It
was the War Department that waged the most tragic and bloodiest
conflict in American history, a Civil War in which one secretary morney
EDwin Stanton,
was pitted against his predecessor, Jefferson Davis. It was also
the War Department that trained and dispatched vast armies of
Doughboys to France. And it was the War Department that served
as America's nerve center in the struggle against the Axis
2
powers, leading to the greatest military and moral victory in the
history of Man.
Winston Churchill gave much of the credit for this to Army
Chief of Staff George Marshall, calling him the "true organizer
of victory." We all remember George Marshall as a great
Secretary of State. He deserves no less credit for his service
to the Army, and later as Secretary of Defense.
We should also note the department's failures. John
Armstrong, Secretary of War under President Madison, neglected
the defenses of the capital, allowing Washington to fall into
perce
enemy hands. He was replaced with another secretary, James
Monroe, who reorganized and restored the strength of the
imm
indon
orr
Department. It was on the basis of this accomplishment that
Monroe was able to run for, and win, the Presidency. He also won
by promising an "Era of Good Feelings"
(
(And I thought my
"kinder, gentler nation" idea was original. ))
In modern times, all the services have been a part of the
Department of Defense. Our military might has also been deployed
for a single purpose -- to keep the peace. Will we be able to
ensure the peace in the future?
The United States today has a closely integrated strategic
program designed to enhance our strength, bolster deterrence and
facilitate arms control. It demands that we modernize our ICBM
force, redeploying the Peacekeeper missile in rail-garrison now.
((PAUSE)) And it means completing the development to deploy the
new small ICBM. These mobile systems will bring improved
3
survivability and stability to the land-based leg of our
strategic triad.
A strong defense also means something else -- sufficient
funding for the Stealth Bomber. ( (PAUSE))
And it means one thing more -- support for the Strategic
Defense Initiative. ((PAUSE)) SDI offers the promise of a
stable nuclear balance that relies increasingly on defense. It
will make any START treaty more effective. And it represents our
best step toward stability -- the same goal we seek through
offensive modernization and arms control. This is the program
the country needs, and I will work to see that this is the
program that the country gets.
Let me make one final point. I can't help but note that the
history of the Department of War is the history of American
Lmonl mou dog
bravery. It is in the memory of heroes that Fort Myer provides
honor guards, escorts and squads for firing volleys in Arlington
nn
National Cemetery. It was here that military aviation suffered
its first casualty -- Lieutenant T.E. Selfridge, who was killed
COME TRADI IAST
here in a test flight with Orville Wright.
Dow
We will never fail to honor the veterans of the two great
conflicts of this century, and those who served in the Korean War
and Vietnam. And, whatever his fate may be, we will never forget
a certain courageous U.S. Marine Lieutenant Colonel by the name
of William R. Higgins. ((PAUSE))
4
It is an inspiration to be among so many patriotic
Americans. And it is a delight to celebrate the bicentennial of
the Department of War.
God bless you, and God bless the United States of America.
#
#
#
Cabinet Succession
41
Public Office Index, 1
40
Secretary of Labor
Secretary of Housing
and Urban Development
W. Willard Wirtz 1962-1969
William B. Wilson 1913-1921
George P. Shultz 1969-1970
James J. Davis 1921-1930
William N. Doak 1930-1933
James D. Hodgson 1970-1973
Robert C. Weaver 1966-1969
Carla A. Hills 1975-1977
Peter J. Brennan 1973-1975
Robert C. Wood 1969
Patricia R. Harris 1977-1979
Frances Perkins 1933-1945
John T. Dunlop 1975-1976
George W. Romney 1969-1973
Moon Landrieu 1979-1981
Lewis B. Schwellenbach 1945-1948
Maurice J. Tobin 1948-1953
W.J. Usery, Jr. 1976-1977
James T. Lynn 1973-1975
Samuel R. Pierce, Jr. 1981-
F. Ray Marshall 1977-1981
Martin P. Durkin 1953
Raymond J. Donovan 1981-
James P. Mitchell 1953-1961
Arthur J. Goldberg 1961-1962
Secretary of Transportation
Secretary of Defense
Alan S. Boyd 1967-1969
Brock Adams 1977-1979
John A. Volpe 1969-1973
Neil E. Goldschmidt 1979-1981
Claude S. Brinegar 1973-1975
Andrew L. Lewis, Jr. 1981-1982
Clark M. Clifford 1968-1969
William T. Coleman, Jr. 1975-1977
Elizabeth H. Dole 1982- 1987
James V. Forrestal 1947-1949
Melvin R. Laird 1969-1973
Nom 1/5/83
Louis A. Johnson 1949-1950
Elliot L. Richardson 1973
George C. Marshall 1950-1951
Robert A. Lovett 1951-1953
James R. Schlesinger 1973-1975
Donald H. Rumsfeld 1975-1977
Charles E. Wilson 1953-1957
Harold Brown 1977-1981
Neil H. McElroy 1957-1961
Robert S. McNamara 1961-1968
Caspar W. Weinberger 1981-
Secretary of Energy
James R. Schlesinger 1977-1979
Donald P. Hodel 1982-1985
Robert W. Duncan, Jr. 1979-1981
John S. Herrington 1985-
James B. Edwards 1981-1982
Secretary of Health,
Education and Welfare
Robert H. Finch 1969-1970
Secretary of Health
Oveta C. Hobby 1953-1955
Elliot L. Richardson 1970-1973
and Human Services
Marion B. Folsom 1955-1958
Arthur S. Flemming 1958-1961
Caspar W. Weinberger 1973-1975
Forrest D. Mathews 1975-1977
Abraham A. Ribicoff 1961-1962
Anthony J. Celebrezze 1962-1965
Joseph A. Califano, Jr. 1977-1979
Patricia R. Harris 1979
Patricia R. Harris 1979-1981
Margaret M. Heckler 1983-
John W. Gardner 1965-1968
Richard S. Schweiker 1981-1983
Wilbur J. Cohen 1968-1969
DAVIS
555
1949), a novel of the in-
936). His other works
DAVIS, Jefferson (1808-1889), American politi-
set ve of in the the Civil War; Winds West.
States of America during the four years of its
cal leader, who was president of the Confederate
Northwest in
(1861-1865). A senator and for a time
Music (1957), a family
THE THE spokesman for the
in the United
Voke Me and Other Stories the
abandoned the Union
ig, though uneven, is
umbia River region in the
movement. As president of
the South in the Civil
on Oct. 31, 1960.
and realistic. He died gen- in
War blamed for its failures.
After the Confederate defeat, however, he was
vay (1823-1916), American
widely admired in the South for his unrelenting
n Nov. 16, 1823. For
tical leader. He was born
devotion to the Southern cause.
Over six feet tall, strong-jawed and hollow-
1843, he worked for the 14
cheeked, his body worn thin by work, worry, and
Railroad. He then launched
disease, Davis was blind in one eye, had an
ning ventures in Piedmont,
acutely sensitive nervous system, and suffered
ilroad building.
from neuralgia. In contrast to Abraham Lincoln,
st during the Civil War
he was graceful and highly educated, but, though
ed the movement that made
he pushed himself unmercifully, he could not ap-
rate state. He served in the
proach Lincoln's simplicity, sincere eloquence,
5-1870) and, as a Demo-
humanity, and insight into fundamental problems.
hate (1871-1883). Moving
Criticism stung Davis deeply, and lacking Lin-
resumed banking and be-
coln's singleness of purpose, he was unable to
the West Virginia Central
dismiss detractors and concentrate on his goals.
Davis Coal and Coke Co.
Early Life. Davis was born in Christian (now
essful Democratic candidate
Todd) county, Ky., on June 3, 1808, the youngest
U.S.
SIGNAL
CORPS PHOTO (BRADY COLLECTION), NATIONAL ARCHIVES
of 10 children of Samuel and Jane Cook Davis,
Jefferson
Davis
1904. He died in Washing-
(daguerreotype by Mathew Brady)
11, 1916.
who were respectively of Welsh and Scotch-
DAVID LINDSEY
Irish heritage. A few years after his birth the
te College at Los Angeles
family settled in the new but prosperous cotton
and the relative contentment of his slaves sup-
region of Wilkinson county, Miss.
ported his convictions.
er (1817-1865), American
Because the frontier schools were inadequate,
Political Beginnings. By 1843, Davis' reputa-
favored a harsh Recon-
young Jefferson studied for a few years at a
tion as a scholar together with the tradition of
post-Civil War South. He
Dominican school in Kentucky and then returned
planter participation in politics, won him a last-
is, Md., on Aug. 16, 1817,
home and attended nearby private academies. At
minute Democratic nomination for the Mississippi
the University of Virginia.
the age of 13 he entered Transylvania College in
legislature. His brief but intensive campaign
e served in the U.S. House
Kentucky, and he had completed his junior year
gained an impressive, though not victorious, vote
om 1855 to 1861 and from
there when his already prominent oldest brother,
in a strong Whig county. He broke with his
last term he was the chair-
Joseph, secured his appointment to West Point in
party's stand on repudiation of the Union Bank
on foreign relations.
1824. Jefferson's record at the Military Academy
bonds, but political enemies later repeatedly and
orter of Abraham Lincoln,
was not distinguished; he was graduated 23d in
falsely accused him of being a repudiator.
of the President's wartime
a class of 33, and his drinking in a public tavern
Campaigning for James Polk in 1844 and ad-
he helped write and pass
and other escapades brought more than the
vocating territorial expansion, he canvassed the
which sought to contravene
average number of demerits. However, he de-
state and proved himself a popular orator.
program by giving Congress
veloped an abiding interest in military affairs,
The following year Davis married Varina
onstruction. When Lincoln
philosophy, and history.
Howell, a member of the local Mississippi aris-
vis published the "Wade-
After graduation in 1828, Davis served as a
tocracy. He received the Democratic nomination
hich charged the President
lieutenant on the northwestern frontier. There he
for the House of Representatives and won elec-
onstitutional powers. Davis
met and fell in love with Sarah Knox, daughter
tion by advocating sound currency, a low tariff,
ne presidency himself, but
of his commander, Col. Zachary Taylor. But. Jef-
and territorial expansion. In Congress he joined
Md., on Dec. 30, 1865.
ferson's attentions to an Indian girl at a dance
forces on the question of expansion with South-
and his opposition to Taylor's policies angered
erners who urged moderation and compromise
1 (1873-1947), American
the colonel, and the marriage was delayed. The
rather than war with Britain. But his stay in the
He was born in Tredegar,
Black Hawk War (1832) gave Davis some mili-
House was short, for he resigned in 1846 to com-
873. He went to Pennsyl-
tary experience, but in 1835, having secured
mand the Mississippi Rifles in the Mexican War.
S, and began an apprentice-
Taylor's reluctant consent, he resigned his com-
At the Battle of Monterrey, Colonel Davis
the steel industry at the age
mission to marry Sarah Knox. The young couple
won respect for his personal bravery; at Buena
e Loyal Order of Moose in
settled on a 1,000-acre (400-hectare) cotton
Vista, he demonstrated both courage and ability,
ed as its director general.
plantation in the Mississippi delta given them by
but was wounded and returned home. Now a
t Harding appointed Davis
Joseph, but less than three months after the
hero, his political career was advanced.
nd he was retained in that
wedding Sarah Knox was dead of malaria.
Service as Senator. In 1847, Davis was ap-
olidge and Hoover. As sec-
Davis found release in developing the planta-
pointed by the governor of Mississippi to a
t and enforce restrictive im-
tion, which was known as Brierfield. A beneficent
vacancy in the U.S. Senate, and the next year the
proposed a "saving wage
master to his own slaves, he always saw slavery
state legislature elected him for the remainder of
wage," which gained him
in its most ideal light, holding himself account-
the unexpired term. As a member of the Com-
signed in 1930 on his elec-
able both for the well-being of his slaves and
mittee on Military Affairs he supported expansion
n from Pennsylvania to a
for their training in responsibility. Yet he believed
and enlarging the army. Already the young Mis-
Senate. Reelected in 1932
that God created Negroes inferior to whites,
sissippi senator foresaw a transcontinental rail-
some of the early New Deal
and that neither education nor environment could
road and a Panama railway to promote commerce
forceful advocate of social
counteract the divine intent. Rather than seeing
and secure Pacific coast defenses.
ed his early experiences in
the conflict between Christianity and human
Yet, little by little, Davis became more a
22). Davis died in Takoma
bondage, Davis found justification in the Old
sectionalist and less a nationalist. The Wilmot
22, 1947.
Testament for slavery. The profits from Brierfield
Proviso and the Compromise of 1850 (qq.v.)
536
DAVIS
turned his energies toward the defense of slavery.
He envisioned no relief in Calhoun's discredited
supporting its extension. At the same time
life
doctrine of nullification, but held that the Union
evidenced a sincere love of the Union and he
milit
ern or Southern action.
unwillingness to see it broken by radical North- an
who
was composed of sovereign independent states,
I
voluntarily confederated and free to resume their
but a legal remedy. Davis favored preservation
cratic party, on Feb.' 2, 1860, Davis introduced Demo-
Representing the Southern wing of the
sovereignty. Thus secession was not revolution
plan
war.
resolutions that became the platform of
the
of the Union, if the Constitution remained "in
Southern men. In them he reiterated his position most
bon
the form and with the meaning it had when it
left the hands of its authors." The federal gov-
that the federal Constitution was adopted by free
ernment should respect the right of property in
and independent sovereign states and protested
tuni
slaves; any interference with it was unconsti-
that Negro slavery was recognized as legitimate
tutional and a threat to state sovereignty. Davis
and that attacks on it were manifest breaches of
used
voiced his convictions well and was an excellent
good faith. He further declared that neither Con-
900,
debater, but in his constitutional theories he
gress nor a territorial legislature could impair the
the
closed his eyes to custom and practice that had
right of a citizen to move freely with his property
cons
in the terrritories and that therefore it was the
reall
already brought a changed interpretation of the
duty of Congress to provide adequate protection
tran:
Constitution to a majority of Americans. He op-
for slave property. This doctrine of congressional
iron
posed the Compromise of 1850, contending that
protection of slavery in territories was accepted
into
a strict fugitive slave law could not be enforced
as the minority platform at the Charleston Demo-
torp
in face of adverse public opinion, that the states
cratic Convention; upon adoption of the majority
em
alone could exclude slavery from the territories,
report supported by Stephen A. Douglas, eight
obta
and that the Missouri Compromise line should be
Southern states left the convention.
fron
extended to the Pacific.
Davis eventually favored John C. Breckinridge
seas
After passage of the Compromise of 1850,
in the presidential campaign of 1860, and after
trad
Davis signed a vigorous protest and, notwith-
the election of Abraham Lincoln, he was no more
standing his recent election to a six-year term in
than a cooperative secessionist. He held that the
Frai
the Senate, resigned (1851) to accept the Demo-
Southern states should meet to determine a new
crea
cratic nomination for governor of Mississippi. He
policy and repeatedly warned that there could be
cott
waged a strong campaign, but lost to Henry S.
no peaceful secession. Davis served on the Senate
and
Foote. Discredited and dismayed, Davis returned
Committee of Thirteen and favored the Critten-
fina:
to his plantation until his interest in Franklin
den Compromise (q.v.), but, seeing no prospects
mec
Pierce's presidential candidacy brought him back
for effective compromise, he voted against it. On
bloc
to politics. After his election, Pierce urged Davis
Jan. 5, 1861, he joined other Southern senators
to accept a cabinet position.
in urging each state to secede as soon as possible
geth
Secretary of War. Davis reached the apex of
and to provide the means of organizing a South-
fina:
his national career as secretary of war. In his
ern Confederacy. Yet even at this late date he
dep
direction of the War Department he was more a
realized the danger in leaving the Union and saw
prol
nationalist than a sectionalist. He revised military
advantage to the South in keeping Southern sen-
imp
regulations, replaced wood gun carriages with
ators and representatives in Congress.
iron, adopted a better system of infantry tactics,
After Mississippi seceded, Davis resigned and
eve:
provided rifles, pistols, and the Minié ball, used
returned home, where he accepted the rank of
son:
large-grain powder, and created the medical
major general and the command of his state's
whe
service. The Military Academy was enlarged,
military forces before he was informed of his
fear
four regiments were added to the army, and
selection by the Provisional Congress as president
coastal and frontier defenses were strengthened.
of the Confederacy. Reluctantly he left for Mont-
Dav
These reforms, plus increased pay, endeared
gomery, Ala., and the impossible task ahead, for
cies
Davis to the military, but he failed in the attempt
he would have preferred an army command.
dict
to make merit rather than seniority the basis for
President of the Confederacy. Davis took office
mili
promotion. His introduction of camels for trans-
as president of the Confederacy on Feb. 18,
and
portation in the West was interesting but
1861. He selected his cabinet with due regard to
fen:
ineffectual.
geography, personality, political connection, and
As secretary he had charge of enlarging the
ability. In Judah P. Benjamin, first attorney
fait
Capitol building and constructing a viaduct that
general, then secretary of war, and finally sec-
E.
provided a better water system for Washington.
retary of state; Stephen R. Mallory, secretary of
gen
Undoubtedly his greatest contribution was the
the navy; and John H. Reagan, postmaster gen-
visi
survey of routes for western railways and the re-
eral, he found men of outstanding ability who
had
sulting detailed reports, which not only laid the
remained with him throughout the Confederacy.
gre
basis for future railroads but also emphasized
Christopher G. Memminger and George A. Tren-
fen:
the importance of the great West. Though a
holm as secretaries of the treasury directed the
the
strict constructionist, Davis advocated federal
department well-considering the financial defi-
tive
land grants and bonds to encourage railroad con-
ciencies of the South. Eleven other men served in
tua
struction, on the ground that transcontinental
the cabinet, and most of them resigned because
tha
routes were necessary for national defense and
of personal ambition or congressional opposition.
thus within the war powers of the president.
Though confident that law and right were on
ind
Davis favored the Southern route to the West and
his side, President Davis was equally convinced
the
was instrumental in securing the Gadsden Pur-
that the major force was on the other. Behind him
vet
chase from Mexico. He favored the acquisition of
he had little more than 9 million people, in-
Cuba and territorial rights in Nicaragua.
cluding slaves, and woefully inadequate industrial
Ge
Return to the Senate. On the expiration of his
facilities in contrast to the North's population of
term as secretary in 1857, Davis was elected
22 million, extensive industry, and almost un-
to the Senate. He returned to that body as the
limited possibilities for men and matériel. The
recognized spokesman of the South, proclaiming
South did, however, have certain advantages,
slavery an economic and moral good and openly
including a citizenry accustomed to outdoor
DAVIS
537
ision. At the same time
life and trained in the use of firearms, excellent
ville, Va., and Greensboro, N.C.) and at Char-
love of the Union and he
military officers, a defensive position, and slaves
lotte, N.C., operated as a government for the last
on. it broken by radical North- an
who remained loyal and economically productive.
time. Davis sped through South Carolina and into
Davis pressed military preparation, but
Georgia. Ostensibly headed for the trans-Missis-
Southern
1. 2, 1860, wing of the Demoduced
planned no overt act to give the North cause for
sippi region and continued resistance, he actually
war. Though anxious to avoid a test of strength,
loitered in Georgia awaiting capture, knowing
:ame the most
the course of events forced him to consent to the
that the Confederacy was at an end.
em he reiterated his position
bombardment of Fort Sumter, S. C. (April
On May 10 he was taken at Irwinville, Ga.
stitution was adopted by free
12-13, 1861), which gave Lincoln the oppor-
Accused of treason and of participation in plan-
vereign states and protested
tunity to accuse the South of aggression.
ning the assassination of Lincoln, he was im-
vas recognized as legitimate
Fighting the Civil War. Davis and his cabinet
prisoned at Fortress Monroe, Va. For a time he
it were manifest breaches
used Southern resources well. Approximately
wore leg shackles and this, with other harsh
er declared that neither Con- of
900,000 men volunteered or were conscripted for
treatment, restored his popularity in the South
legislature could impair the
the army; ordnance and munition works were
and made him, second to Lee, a symbol of the
nove freely with his property
constructed so rapidly that no Southern army
Confederacy. Though twice indicted, he was
d that therefore it was the
really suffered a lack of these supplies; a poor
never brought to trial, and in two years (on May
provide adequate protection
transportation system was improved; and scrap
13, 1867) he was released. That only Capt.
his doctrine of congressional
iron and captured steam engines were converted
Henry Wirz, commandant of Andersonville prison,
in territories was accepted
into a modern navy, whose ironclad ships and
was executed as a result of so long and bloody a
rm at the Charleston Demo-
torpedoes lessened the effectiveness of the North-
war is remarkable in the annals of history.
on adoption of the majority
em blockade, thereby enabling the South to
The Remaining Years. For the rest of his long
Stephen A. Douglas, eight
obtain essential supplies by blockade runners
life, Davis was a defender and apologist of the
e convention.
from abroad. Confederate cruisers roamed the
South. Failure of several business ventures left
avored John C. Breckinridge
seas, effectively destroying the Union's carrying
him in straitened financial circumstances, which
ampaign of 1860, and after
trade.
the gift of the Beauvoir plantation at Biloxi,
am Lincoln, he was no more
Excess cotton and the failure of England and
Miss., partially eased. There he collected material
cessionist. He held that the
France to demand it at the possible cost of war
for his The Rise and Fall of the Confederate
d meet to determine a new
created a problem, because the blockade limited
Government (1881) and wrote an excellent ex-
warned that there could be
cotton's expected value as a source of exchange
position of the Southern point of view and a
Davis served on the Senate
and made it impossible for the debtor South to
justification of secession. Yet, much of his writing
in and favored the Critten-
finance an extended war. Yet cotton became the
was special pleading rather than history and was
.), but, seeing no prospects
medium of exchange for matériel secured by
disappointing in its meager revelations of intimate
lise, he voted against it. On
blockade-running.
associations during the war years. Davis accepted
ed other Southern senators
Southern opposition to heavy taxation, to-
few of the numerous invitations for speeches;
) secede as soon as possible
gether with an inability to buy bonds, forced the
but, whenever he spoke, he stressed the right of
eans of organizing a South-
financing of war with fiat money. The resulting
secession, the justice of the Confederate cause,
even at this late date he
depreciation of the currency created a morale
and on occasion disparaged the federal govern-
leaving the Union and saw
problem and made necessary taxation in kind and
ment. Acrimonious controversies with former Con-
h in keeping Southern sen-
impressment of commodities at fixed prices.
federates such as Gen. Joseph E. Johnston and
ves in Congress.
In foreign affairs Davis and Benjamin pushed
Northerners such as Gen. William T. Sherman
eceded, Davis resigned and
every conceivable advantage, but for many rea-
clouded his declining years, but in 1886
, he accepted the rank of
sons, including its critical need of Northern
he received triumphal ovations after appear-
le command of his state's
wheat, Britain refused recognition, and France
ances in Montgomery, Ala., Atlanta, Ga., and
he was informed of his
feared to act alone.
Savannah, Ga.
ional Congress as president
From first to last, severe criticism fell on
Although he remained the sharp-tongued de-
eluctantly he left for Mont-
Davis. His accusers blamed him for the inadequa-
fender of the Confederacy, Davis apparently had
impossible task ahead, for
cies of the South, charged him with being a
mellowed by his 80th year. He never requested
ed an army command.
dictator, condemned him for interfering with
or received a pardon, yet stated in a speech at
ifederacy. Davis took office
military commanders, criticized his appointments,
Mississippi City, Miss.: "The past is dead; let it
Confederacy on Feb. 18,
and demanded an offensive rather than a de-
bury its dead, its hopes, and its aspirations; be-
cabinet with due regard to
fensive military policy.
fore you lies the future-a future full of golden
,
political connection, and
With few exceptions, including his blind
promise, a future of expanding national glory,
Benjamin, first attorney
faith in Braxton Bragg and the removal of Joseph
before which all the world shall stand amazed.
of war, and finally sec-
E. Johnston, Davis selected his officers intelli-
In November 1889, while visiting Brierfield, he
n R. Mallory, secretary of
gently; and the army of Robert E. Lee, which he
became ill and returned as far as New Orleans,
Reagan, postmaster gen-
visited and with which he interfered most often,
La., where he died on December 6.
f outstanding ability who
had more successes than any other. Perhaps his
See also CIVIL WAR; CONFEDERATE STATES
roughout the Confederacy.
greatest mistake lay in overemphasis on the de-
OF AMERICA.
inger and George A. Tren-
fense of Richmond, Va., and failure to recognize
REMBERT W. PATRICK
the treasury directed the
the importance of the West. He probed the rela-
Author of "Icfferson Davis and His Cabinet"
idering the financial defi-
tive merits of East and West in 1863 and even-
Eleven other men served in
Bibliography
tually supported Lee's planned invasion rather
Arsenault, Raymond, The Wild Ass of the Ozarks: Jeff
of them resigned because
than the reinforcement of Vicksburg, Miss.
Davis and the Social Bases of Southern Politics (Temple
r congressional opposition.
The degree of congressional opposition was
Univ.
Press 1984).
hat law and right were on
indicated by Davis' 39 veto messages, and, al-
Ballard, Michael B., Long Shadow: Jefferson Davis and the
vis was equally convinced
Final Days of the Confederacy (Univ. Press of Miss.
though the Congress could not override these
1986).
S on the other. Behind him
vetoes, by 1865 the President had lost the confi-
Catton, William, and Catton, Bruce, Two Roads to Sumter
an 9 million people, in-
dence of Congress and the public. Opposition of
(McGraw 1971).
fully inadequate industrial
Georgia's and North Carolina's governors, wide-
Davis, Jefferson, Papers of Jefferson Davis, vols. 1-4 (La.
State Univ. Press 1971-1985).
the North's population of
spread desertions, and capture of the last port of
Eaton, Clement, Jefferson Davis (Free Press 1979).
industry, and almost un-
entry, forced approval of arming Negroes. But
Escott, Paul D., After Secession: Jefferson Davis and the
men and matériel. The
before this became reality, the Confederacy fell.
Failure of Confederate Nationalism (La. State Univ.
Press (1978).
have certain advantages,
In Defeat. On April 3, 1865, Davis and his
Patrick, Rembert W., Jefferson Davis and His Cabinet (La.
accustomed to outdoor
cabinet fled Richmond (stopping briefly in Dan-
State Univ. Press 1944).
Wiley, Bell, Road to Appomattox (Atheneum Pub. 1968).
McNAMARA-McPHERSON
577
1 Sept. 18,
Institute of
BICNAMARA,
mak'na-mar-s, Robert Strange
McNary was elected five times successively to
American business executive and
the Senate, where he was known for his efforts
Illan in 1932 received hand
(1916- official. He was born in San Francisco,
to aid farmers. Between 1926 and 1928, bills
e University of California ap
he remained for his entire careez &
public Calif., on June 9, 1916. A brilliant student, he
he sponsored with Rep. Gilbert Haugen of Wis-
ears of war work.
graduated with honors from the University of
consin, designed to meet the problem of surplus
nost noteworthy
California at Berkeley in 1937 and from Harvard
crops, were vetoed by President Coolidge.
stration 1939. During World War II he de-
University's graduate school of business admin-
After 1933, McNary was minority leader of
the Nobel Prize
the Senate. A skillful negotiator with a pleasing
org in 1951, was the discovery
reloped and conducted a course at Harvard for
manner, he was regarded as a liberal and was
the elements
Air Force on statistical systems to control the
generally moderate in his opposition to President
st known transuranium elements.
harnessing nuclear energy the
were important in laying
How the of matériel, men, and money.
Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal measures, al-
Ford Motor Company. After the war, McNamara
though he directed the vigorous strategy that
hired by the Ford Motor Company. As con-
defeated the plan to enlarge the Supreme Court
ribution to nuclear physics
nding of nuclear physics. and His
troller was and later as vice president, he induced the
of the United States. In 1940, he was Wendell
company to compete in the middle- and higher-
Willkie's vice-presidential running mate. McNary
developed simultaneously with was
income auto market, developed a compact car,
served in the Senate until his death on Feb. 25,
y of, the Russian Vladimir Veks
and promoted seat belts. Chosen president of
1944, in Fort Lauderdale, Fla.
nuch higher energies than were
otron was capable of giving
Ford in 1960, McNamara served only a month,
rs. During World War II, Mc.
until President-elect John F. Kennedy invited
McNAUGHTON, mak-nô'ten, Andrew George
1 radar and sonar projects, and
him to become secretary of defense.
Latta (1887-1966), Canadian army officer and sci-
Secretary of Defense. Serving seven years in
entist. He was born in Moosomin, Saskatchewan,
ent of the atomic bomb.
the post, McNamara consolidated and centralized
on Feb. 25, 1887, and educated at McGill Uni-
ELIZABETH BARNABY KEENEY
the Pentagon's structures and processes, applied
versity. He served with the Canadian Army in
niversity of Wisconsin-Madison
systems-analysis techniques to decision making,
World War I, was wounded twice, and was pro-
established elaborate controls over the use of de-
moted to brigadier general in 1918. In 1929 he
ND, mak-mûr'dō, an inlet of the
partmental resources, and (angering many con-
was named major general and chief of the Cana-
etica, due south of New Zea.
gressmen) closed down uneconomical military
dian general staff.
miles (145 km) long and up
bases, and refused to spend money appropriated
A distinguished scientist, he was joint in-
km) wide, it extends between
for weapons systems of which he did not approve.
ventor in 1926 of the cathode-ray direction
Victoria Land and ends at the
His probing intelligence and broad back-
finder. From 1935 to 1939 he was president of
ground made McNamara a favorite, wide-ranging
the Canadian National Research Council.
able in late summer, McMurdo
adviser to Presidents Kennedy and Lyndon B.
At the beginning of World War II, McNaugh-
the best sea approach to the
Johnson. His influence extended into domestic
ton went overseas as commander of the 1st Ca-
retica. Since its discovery in
questions. For example, he reduced racial dis-
nadian Division and he was commander of the
itish explorer Sir James Clark
crimination in the armed forces.
1st Canadian Army in 1942-1943. He was pro-
n the starting point for many
Vietnam commanded much of McNamara's at-
moted to general in September 1944 and retired
scientific investigations, notably
tention. He was the president's chief deputy in
from the army in November because of poor
Zealanders, and Americans.
overseeing the war. In 1964 the conflict was
health. He then served as minister of national
spoken of as "McNamara's War," but by 1967
defense until August 1945. McNaughton was
ULE, mak-nô'ten, in Anglo-
he had become increasingly aware of opposition
the Canadian representative on the UN Atomic
tandard by which an accused is
to the war and was known to doubt the efficacy
Energy Commission (1946) and president of the
e fit or unfit for trial on the
of continued bombing of North Vietnam. Ex-
Atomic Energy Board of Canada (1946-1948).
Promulgated in Britain in 1843,
pressions of hope for an early peace gave way
In 1948-1949 he was Canada's permanent dele-
1 accused is responsible so long
to a restlessness that by 1967 had led him to view
gate to the United Nations and its representa-
the nature and quality of his
the economic development of nations as more
tive on the Security Council. He died on July
the act is wrong.
promising for peace and security than arms.
11, 1966, in Montebello, Quebec.
The World Bank. This conviction led McNa-
r', Lesley James (1883-1944),
mara to resign as secretary and in 1968 to assume
McPHERSON,
mak-fûr'san, Aimee Semple
fficer, who was responsible for
the presidency of the International Bank for Re-
(1890-1944),
American evangelist, whose the-
ing of U.S. troops in World
construction and Development (the World Bank).
atrical style, reputation as a faith healer, and
born in Verndale, Minn., on
In this post McNamara advocated continuing and
masterly use of public relations brought her fame
after graduating from the U.S.
increased aid to the poor, particularly in the
and wealth. Aimee Elizabeth Kennedy was born
in 1904, he was commissioned
Third World, and was instrumental in gaining
near Ingersoll, Ontario, on Oct. 9, 1890. Her
1 the artillery. He served with
admission of China to World Bank membership.
father was a Methodist farmer, and her mother,
shing's punitive expedition into
In 1980 he announced his retirement effective
known as "Ma" Kennedy, was a Salvation Army
and with the U.S. Army in
in mid-1981.
worker. Aimee left high school before finishing
orld War I, when he was pro-
McNamara published The Essence of Secur-
and in 1908 married a traveling Pentecostal evan-
ier general and received the
tty: Reflections in Office in 1968 and One Hun-
gelist, Robert Semple. In 1910 they went as
vice Medal.
dred Countries, Two Billion People in 1973.
missionaries to Hong Kong, where Robert died
McNair was given the respon-
LOUIS W. KOENIG°, New York University
of typhoid fever. With their daughter Roberta,
ombat training of U.S. troops
Aimee joined her mother in New York and con-
general headquarters. In 1942
McNARY, mak-nâr'ē, Charles Linza (1874-1944),
amanding general, army ground
tinued her revival work. In February 1912 she
American lawyer, legislator, and vice-presiden-
ank of lieutenant general. The
married Harold McPherson, a grocery salesman.
tial candidate. He was born near Salem, Oreg.,
Their son Rolf later became Aimee's successor.
that he imposed was rigorous,
on June 12, 1874. He was educated at Stanford
With her mother and children, Aimee moved
exercises with live ammunition
volving armies under simulated
University and by private tutors and was ad-
to Los Angeles in 1918, and from there went on
mitted to the Oregon bar in 1898. He practiced
ns. In 1943, McNair was
law in his brother's office until 1913, when he
extensive revival tours through the United States,
sia while observing artillery fire
Canada, and Australia. She was divorced from
n July 1944 he requested field
was named to complete an unexpired term on the
Oregon supreme court. Defeated for election to
McPherson in 1921. Meanwhile, her "Foursquare
the English Channel to observe
the bench in 1914, he was chairman of the Re-
Gospel" movement was attracting both audiences
ents near St.-Lô, in Normandy.
and donations, and her Angelus Temple, seating
publican state central committee for a year and
July 25, 1944, when American
over 5,000 persons, was opened in Los Angeles on
on June 1, 1917, was appointed to the U.S. Sen-
Jan. 1, 1923. Later that year a Bible school-
of their targets.
ate for two years of an unexpired term.
the Lighthouse of International Foursquare Evan-
604
FORREST CITY-FORSSMANN
where his father died, leaving him to support his
mother and 9 younger children. He became
in In 1923, and become the
June 1940 he became 1937.
wealthy as a trader and cotton planter.
FORSTER, I
When the Civil War began Forrest enlisted as
ant to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and assist-
a private, then raised and equipped a cavalry
August was appointed undersecretary of in
(1924), pl
ing up the Navy prior to World War II. He be
navy. In that post he was instrumental in build- the
writers of Ec h
unit at his own expense. At Fort Donelson,
Life.
Tenn., in February 1862, Colonel Forrest re-
came secretary of the Navy in May 1944.
London on
fused to surrender with the garrison and escaped,
leading his entire command and other troops who
Although Forrestal had strongly opposed
following ye
boy were hi
followed him, to safety without losing a man. At
Army-Navy merger, he loyally supported unifica- an
anne Thori
Shiloh (April 6-7, 1862) he fought with vigor
Appointed the first secretary of defense in
tion after President Truman decided in its favor,
School in K
and gallantry. Promoted to brigadier general,
to his temp
he established a reputation as the most resource-
among the three armed services.
tember 1947, he strove to bring a
in his later
ful and brilliant cavalry leader in the Confederate
terialism of
Army.
strong line toward the Soviet Union and pushed a
for strengthening the armed forces. But he
1897 he e
In December 1862 he undertook an incredibly
long raid into Union territory, which played a
under increasing attack because of his alleged came
where he f
a spiritual 1
significant part in halting Maj. Gen. U.S. Grant's
failure to halt what many regarded as air force
After rec
first attempt to reach Vicksburg, Miss. One of
insubordination over questions of combat strength
traveled to
his most remarkable feats occurred in May 1863,
and appropriations, and because of his reputed
Italy. He r
when he pursued and captured, near Rome, Ga.,
pro-Arab, anti-Israel views. In March 1949 he
a master's (
a force three times the size of his own. After the
resigned as secretary of defense. Depressed by
1912 and It
battle of Chickamauga (Sept. 19-20, 1863),
what he regarded as unfair attacks, Forrestal en-
most of Wo
he was dissatisfied with Gen. Braxton Bragg's
tered the Navy hospital at Bethesda, Md., in
national Re
leadership. Forrest strode into Bragg's tent and
April to be treated for nervous exhaustion. He
in World \
told him what he thought of him, in explosive
appeared to be recovering but suffered a relapse
radio speake
terms. He then accepted a command in northern
and leaped to his death from a high window in
Order of M
the hospital on May 22, 1949.
Mississippi and western Tennessee and was pro-
He died in
JOHN BRAEMAN, University of Nebraska
Works.
moted to major general.
Where Ang
For the third time, Forrest raised a new com-
Further Reading: Forrestal, James V., Diaries, ed.
mand and equipped it (largely with captured
by Walter Millis (New York 1951); Rogow, Arnold A.,
est Journey
weapons). Expeditions outnumbering his army
James Forrestal: A Study of Personality, Politics, and
(1908). In
Policy (New York 1963).
he uses Ital
were repeatedly sent against him; all failed, al-
though one became famous because of Forrest's
feelings and
FORSSMANN, fôrs'män, Werner (1904-1979),
of the public
victory at the Battle of Brice's Cross Roads,
German physician, who shared the 1956 Nobel
an institutic
Miss., in June 1864, regarded as one of the best
Prize in physiology or medicine with the Ameri-
and conven
examples in history of a perfectly fought battle.
can physicians André Cournand and Dickinson
the dramati
After the disastrous Battle of Nashville (Dec.
W. Richards, Jr., "for their discoveries concern-
falseness or
15-16, 1864), Forrest saved the remnants of the
ing heart catheterization and pathological
truth" on t]
army by his heroic rearguard action. In February
changes in the circulatory system." These dis-
the heroine
1865 he was promoted to lieutenant general. But
coveries made possible the diagnosis of complex
"between th
the war was almost at an end; he finally surren-
heart diseases and paved the way for modern
In Fors
dered in May 1865.
surgical treatment.
(1910), the
When some of his command were involved in
Contributions to Science. In 1929, Forssmann
represented
the Fort Pillow massacre of Negro troops (April
began searching for a method of administering
life" represe
12, 1864), Forrest was accused of being person-
medicine directly into the heart. After working
however, is
ally responsible. Later investigation proved this
on cadavers and finding that a tube could be
mode over
to be untrue and the accounts to have been exag-
passed into the heart from a vein at the elbow,
conflict and
gerated. Forrest died at Memphis, Tenn., on Oct.
he experimented on himself. He opened a vein
29, 1877.
intimate per
in one of his arms, introduced a catheter, pushed
In Forst
JOSEPH B. MITCHELL
it a distance of 2 feet (60 cm), and then had an
India, the C
Author, "Decisive Battles of the Civil War"
X-ray taken that showed the tip of the catheter
lishing pers
lying in his heart.
Englishman
FORREST CITY, in eastern Arkansas, the seat of
Forssmann showed that the introduction of
dian Dr. Az
St. Francis county, is about 80 miles (128 km)
a catheter into the heart was painless and did
litical and C'
east of Little Rock. It is in a hardwood forest
not damage the blood vessels or cause clots to
surface but
and diversified farming area that raises corn,
form. He also realized the potential use of such
to "connect"
peaches, rice, and sweet potatoes. The city man-
a procedure in measuring intracardiac pressures
ten 1913-19
ufactures television equipment, materials-han-
and in injecting opaque material for X-ray studies
because of it
dling equipment, electric motors, farm machin-
inside the heart. Many physicians regarded his
ery, and textiles. It has timber-planing mills.
Among
work as a stunt and unethical for patient use,
stories, coll
Forrest City was settled about 1868 and in-
but 12 years later Cournand and Richards put
(1911) and
corporated in 1871. Government is by mayor and
the technique into practice.
anne Thorn
council. Population: 13,803.
Life. Forssmann was born in Berlin on Aug.
andria: A
29, 1904. He completed his medical studies at
several coll
FORRESTAL, for'as-tal, James Vincent (1892-
the University of Berlin in 1928. After a surgical
Harvest (19
1949), American public official. He was born in
residency and further training in urology, he be-
(1951). F
Beacon, N. Y., on Feb. 15, 1892, and attended
came chief of the city hospital in Dresden-
is Aspects 0
Dartmouth and Princeton. In 1916 he joined the
Friedrichstadt. After World War II he practiced
Wall Street firm later known as Dillon, Read and
urology in Bad Kreuznach. In 1958 he became
Company as a bond salesman. He enlisted in
chief of the Surgical Division of the Evangelical
thetics and th
R
the Navy after U.S. entry into World War I.
Hospital at Düsseldorf. He died in Schopfheim,
M
Forrestal returned to Dillon, Read as head of
West Germany, on June 1, 1979.
its department of bond sales, was made a partner
JOHN T. SHEPHERD, M. D., Mayo Clinic
reprint.
72
PICKEREL-PICKETING
PICKEREL, pik'ar-al, any of three small, slender
of celestial photography in 1882 and initiated a
species of North American freshwater fishes
spectroscopic study of the stars in 1885.
valued as sport and game fishes. The pickerels
Aware of the importance of adequate obser-
are classified in the genus Esox of the family
vations in the Southern Hemisphere, Pickering
Esocidae.
established a Harvard observatory station at Are-
The most important species is the chain pick-
quipa, Peru, in 1891. Extensive classification of
erel (E. niger), which attains a length of about 2
the spectra of stars observed in the Northern and
feet (60 cm) and has chainlike markings on its
Southern hemispheres resulted in the publication
sides. A valued sport fish, it is found in the At-
of the nine-volume Henry Draper Catalogue
lantic coastal drainage system from the St. Law-
(1924). It gave the positions, magnitudes, and
rence River southward and in the lower Missis-
spectral types of 225,300 stars. Pickering died
sippi Valley and Texas. The barred, or redfin,
in Cambridge, Mass., on Feb. 3, 1919.
pickerel (E. americanus), also of the Atlantic
SIMONE DARO GOSSNER
coastal drainage, and the little, mud, or grass,
Formerly, "Natural History Magazine"
pickerel (E. vermiculatus) of the Mississippi
Valley and Gulf Coast drainage systems are both
PICKERING, pik'er-ing, Timothy (1745-1829),
somewhat smaller fishes, with most adults being
American political leader. He was born in Salem,
less than 1 foot (30 cm) long. The grass pick-
Mass., on July 17, 1745. He graduated from
erel is sometimes considered a subspecies of the
Harvard College in 1763 and was admitted to the
barred pickerel.
bar in 1768. An avid student of military history
All pickerels resemble the northern pike and
and tactics, Pickering was commissioned a lieu-
are often mistaken by anglers for the young of
tenant, later a colonel, in the militia. In 1775 he
that species. Like the pike, pickerels have duck-
wrote An Easy Plan of Discipline for a Militia,
like shovel bills and sharp teeth. They all prefer
adopted by Massachusetts and used for a time by
quiet, mud-bottom pools, where they hide in the
the U.S. Army. Pickering actively supported the
weeds or near submerged logs to ambush their
revolutionary movement in Massachusetts. He
prey. All are efficient predators, feeding chiefly
commanded a regiment during the winter cam-
on other small fishes and crayfish and occasion-
paign of 1776-1777 in New York and New
ally on other small animals. Females lay their
Jersey, served as adjutant general of the Conti-
eggs in the weeds in shallow waters.
nental Army (1777-1778), as a member of the
JOHN D. BLACK
Board of War and Ordnance (1777-1780), and
Northeast Missouri State University
as U.S. quartermaster general (1780-1783).
In 1785 he established residence in Philadel-
phia but moved two years later to the Wyoming
Valley in Luzerne county. He represented the
county in the convention that ratified the U.S.
Constitution in 1787 and in the Pennsylvania
constitutional convention of 1789-1790.
A staunch Federalist, Pickering served in
George Washington's cabinet from 1791 to 1797
as postmaster general, secretary of war, and sec-
retary of state. Continuing as secretary of state
under John Adams, Pickering played an impor-
tant role in diplomatic negotiations with France.
His effort, with Alexander Hamilton, to thwart
Adams' peace efforts with France led to his dis-
missal from the cabinet in May 1800.
He subsequently returned to Massachusetts
and served in the U.S. Senate (1803-1811) and
in the House of Representatives (1813-1817).
He vigorously opposed Jeffersonian republican-
ism, the Louisiana purchase, and American par-
ticipation in the War of 1812. At one time he
TREAT DAVIDSON, FROM NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY
favored the peaceful separation of New England,
The grass pickerel is a popular freshwater sport fish.
New York, and New Jersey from the Union. He
died in Salem, Mass., on Jan. 29, 1829.
EDWIN A. MILES
PICKERING, pik'er-ing, Edward Charles (1846-
University of Houston
1919), American astronomer, who pioneered in
using photometric and spectroscopic techniques
PICKETING is the act of marching at the entrance
in the field of astronomy. Pickering was born in
to a business establishment or other place of
Boston, Mass., on July 19, 1846. He graduated
employment by striking employees. One or more
from Harvard University in 1865, became a pro-
of the pickets usually carry signs stating their
fessor of physics at Massachusetts Institute of
grievances. By picketing, strikers hope to per-
Technology in 1867, and while there established
suade other employees to join their action against
the first physics laboratory in the United States
management, to discourage suppliers and others
designed for teaching. In 1876, he was named
from servicing their employer, and to gain pub-
director of the Harvard College Observatory,
licity for their demands. Picketing also is widely
where he started some of the most ambitious and
used in nonlabor situations by demonstrators
fruitful projects of his time. He introduced new
seeking to promote a cause or to air a grievance.
equipment and methods for accurately measuring
In general, picketing is protected by the First
stellar brightness, thereby starting the extensive
Amendment's guarantee of freedom of speech.
series of photometric studies for which Harvard
However, the U.S. Supreme Court has not handed
Observatory became noted. He revived the use
down any clear-cut guidelines on the issue. In
wingtheirsupport.on.ectio the their syort on electi
larity throughout most of the 19th century, and
at they "knew nothing" about can-
although Knowlton was prosecuted three times
nativists wreaked havoc with
for obscenity, his medical practice flourished,
I in the existing party system.
he became a respected member of the Mas-
In the 1870's his
ng victories at the state and
circulation after its
els. They attracted many
their point of view along with
ber of Democrats. Southern
a unsuccessfully prose-
well-publicized trial.
Mass., on Feb.
because of growing sectional
the reintroduction of the slav-
20, 1850.
CHARLOTTE G. BORST
ional politics in 1854. For
University of Wisconsin
the Know-Nothe main Cialy
nited States. Publicly backing
opposi-
KNOX, noks, Frank (1874-1944), American jour
as a presidential candidate in
nalist, vice-presidential candidate, and cabinet
ore than 21% of the popular
officer. William Franklin Knox was born in Bos-
ctoral votes.
ton, Mass., on Jan. 1, 1874. Graduated from
hings wanted to use govern-
Alma College in Michigan in 1898, he enlisted in
serve their vision of a particu-
the army and became one of Theodore Roose-
:lo-Saxon Protestant society.
velt's Rough Riders in the Spanish-American
ional platforms demanded that
War. In 1901 he bought a half interest in the
mited, that politics be puri-
Sault Sainte Marie (Mich.) News, which he pub-
officeholding to native-born
lished until 1912. A Republican, he was Theo-
at a 21-year wait be imposed
dore Roosevelt's preconvention campaign man-
nt could become a citizen and
ager in the Midwest in 1911 and supported the
ught to limit the sale of liquor,
former president in his Bull Moose campaign.
BROWN BROTHERS
In 1912 he moved to Manchester N.H., where he
Gen. Henry Knox participated in nearly all of the major
chool teaching to Protestants,
became half owner of the Leader.
military engagements of the American Revolution.
rotestant version of the Bible
Soon after the United States entered World
rooms.
trength and appeal, the Know.
War I in April 1917, Knox enlisted as a private at
eady in decline as a national
age 43. He went overseas with the 78th Divi-
Washington, he went to Fort Ticonderoga, near
Beset by differences over the
sion and eventually reached the rank of major.
the Canadian frontier, to transport to Boston a
y members joined the Repub-
After the war Knox continued to publish the
large store of cannon captured by Ethan Allen
Manchester paper. In 1927 he joined the news-
from the British. The fortification of Dorchester
seemed sympathetic to much
paper system of William Randolph Hearst as
Heights with these 55 captured guns compelled
and offered additional appeals
t issues. Know-Nothing par-
publisher of the Boston American and Advertiser
the British evacuation of Boston on March 17,
ong in a number of Northern
and the following year became general manager
1776.
850's, but the party was spent
of all the Hearst new spapers. Resigning in 1931,
Knox became Washington's trusted adviser
before the election of 1860.
he bought a controlling interest in the Chicago
and friend. He organized the American artillery
hing movement illustrated two
Daily News. His editorial policy was firmly
and fought in the battles in and around New York
nt ethnoreligious hostility in
against the New Deal. He objected to govern-
in 1776. It was under his supervision that Wash-
ment economic intervention as exemplified in
ington's troops crossed the Delaware River on
t often intruded into politics
y for political disruption when
the Wagner Act and the Social Security Act. His
Christmas night, 1776, to attack the Hessian sol-
1 to deal adequately with vola-
prominence in the battle against the Franklin
diers in Trenton. For this he was rewarded with
Roosevelt dministration led to his nomination
itical tensions. Although the
a commission as brigadier general. Under his
by the Republicans for vice president in 1936.
direction the artillery was effective in the battles
lost out to the Republicans,
and they formed one aspect of
As World War II began to threaten, Knox
of Princeton (Jan. 3, 1777), Brandywine (Sept. 11,
emphasized the need for U.S. naval supremacy.
1777), Germantown (Oct. 4, 1777), and Mon-
opeal for more than a genera-
In the summer of 1940, Knox was named secre-
mouth (June 28, 1778), and in the siege of York-
tary of the navy, as one of two Republicans
town (October 1781). Knox had been with
JOEL H. SILBEY
Cornell University
appointed by President Roosevelt in an effort to
Washington during the cruel winter of 1777 in
forma coalition cabinet. Charged with creating
Valley Forge, and, while in winter quarters in
a strong two-ocean navy, he was instrumental in
New Jersey in 1779, he organized a temporary
)ry of. See EPISTEMOLOGY.
making the U.S. fleet the most powerful in his-
military academy. Knox served on the court-
n, Charles (1800-1850), Ameri-
tory. He died while in office in Washington,
martial that condemned Maj. John André as a spy
0 published the first popular
D.C. on April 28, 1944.
in 1780.
an on birth control. Born in
After the British surrender at Yorktown, Knox
on May 10, 1800, Knowlton
KNOX, noks, Henry (1750-1806), American Revo-
was made a major general. In 1782 he was
ine by apprenticeship and by
lutionary general and Washington's first secre-
placed in command of West Point. At his urging
lectures at the Medical De-
tary of war. He was born in Boston, Mass., on
a group of Revolutionary officers founded the
nouth College, where he re-
July 25, 1750. He was employed by a Boston
Society of the Cincinnati in 1783 to perpetuate
1 1824. While practicing med-
bookseller at the age of 12 and in 1771 opened
their mutual friendships and to assist needy offi-
Massachusetts after graduation,
his own shop, the London Bookstore, which be-
cers and their families.
it freethinking led him to pub-
came a gathering place for British officers. Knox
Knox was appointed secretary of war in 1785
S of Modern Materialism in
spent much of his spare time studying military
under the Articles of Confederation. A firm be-
ng Robert Dale Owen's tract on
science. He had joined a local military company
liever in a strong federal government, he wel-
control, Knowlton decided that
when he was 18, and in 1772 he became second
comed the new Constitution and was retained as
a more natural those discussed
in command of the newly formed Boston Grena-
secretary of war (Aug. 7, 1789) in the cabinet of
dier Corps.
President Washington. A plan for a national mi-
1 couples than
Iton advocated his method in
Knox joined the American colonial army in
litia, advanced by Knox in 1790, failed to win
its of Philosophy; or the Pri-
1775 and participated in nearly every important
congressional approval. He retired from public
of Young Married People
military engagement throughout the Revolution.
life in 1794 and in 1796 settled on his estate,
ual enjoyed widespread popu-
In November 1775 he was commissioned colonel
Montpelier, in Thomaston, Me., where he died,
of artillery. With the sanction of Gen. George
on Oct. 25, 1806.
521
406 / BIOGRAPHICAL DIRECTORY
INDEXES / 407
Name
Dates
President
Name
Dates
President
Humphrey, George M.
1953-57
Eisenhower
Bell, John
1841
W.H. Harrison
Ingham, Samuel D.
1829-31
Jackson
Butler, Benjamin F.
ad int., 1836-37
Jackson
Jones, William
ad int., 1814
Madison
Calhoun, John C.
1817-25
Monroe
Kennedy, David M.
1969-70
Nixon
Cameron, James D.
1876-77
Grant
McAdoo, William G.
1913-18
Wilson
Cameron, Simon
1861-62
Lincoln
McCulloch, Hugh
1865
Lincoln
Cass, Lewis
1831-36
Jackson
McCulloch, Hugh
1865-69
A. Johnson
Conrad, Charles M.
1850-53
Fillmore
McCulloch, Hugh
1884-85
Arthur
Crawford, George W.
1849-50
Taylor
McLane, Louis
1831-33
Jackson
Crawford, William H.
1815-16
Madison
MacVeagh, Franklin
1909-13
Taft
Dallas, Alexander
ad int., 1815
Madison
Manning, Daniel
1885-87
Cleveland
Davis, Dwight F.
1925-29
Coolidge
Mellon, Andrew W.
1921-23
Harding
Davis, Jefferson
1853-57
Pierce
Mellon, Andrew W.
1923-29
Coolidge
Dearborn, Henry
1801-09
Jefferson
Meredith, William M.
1849-50
Taylor
Dern, George H.
1933-36
F.D. Roosevelt
Mills, Ogden L.
1932-33
Hoover
Dexter, Samuel
1800-01
Adams
Morgenthau, Henry, Jr.
1934-45
F.D. Roosevelt
Dickinson, Jacob M.
1909-11
Taft
Morrill, Lot M.
1876-77
Grant
Eaton, John H.
1829-31
Jackson
Richardson, William A.
1873-74
Grant
Elkins, Stephen B.
1891-95
B. Harrison
Rush, Richard
1825-29
J. Q. Adams
Endicott, William C.
1885-89
Cleveland
Shaw, Leslie M.
1902-07
T. Roosevelt
Eustis, William
1809-12
Madison
Sherman, John
1877-81
Hayes
Floyd, John B.
1857-61
Buchanan
Shultz, George P.
1972-74
Nixon
Garrison, Lindley M.
1913-16
Wilson
Simon, William E.
1974
Nixon
Good, James W.
1929
Hoover
Simon, William E.
1974-77
Ford
Grant, Ulysses S.
ad int., 1867-68
A. Johnson
Snyder, John W.
1946-53
Truman
Holt, Joseph
ad int., 1861
Buchanan
Spencer, John C.
1825
Tyler
Hurley, Patrick J.
1929-33
Hoover
Taney, Roger B.
1833-34
Jackson
Johnson, Reverdy
ad int., 1849
Taylor
Thomas, Philip F.
1860-61
Buchanan
Knox, Henry
1785-94
Washington
Vinson, Frederick M.
1945-46
Truman
Lamont, Daniel S.
1893-97
Cleveland
Walker, Robert J.
1845-49
Polk
Lincoln, Robert T.
1881
Garfield
Windom, William
1881
Garfield
Lincoln, Robert T.
1881-85
Arthur
Windom, William
1889-91
B. Harrison
McCrary, George W.
1877-79
Hayes
Wolcott, Oliver, Jr.
1795-1800
Washington
McHenry, James
1796-1800
Washington
Woodbury, Levi
1834-37
Jackson
Marcy, William L.
1845-49
Polk
Woodbury, Levi
1837-41
Van Buren
Monroe, James
1813-14; ad int.,
Madison
Woodin, William H.
1933-34
F. D. Roosevelt
Monroe, James
1814-15
Patterson, Robert P.
1945-47
Truman
SECRETARIES OF WAR* CHRON
Pickering, Timothy
ad int., 1795-96
Washington
Poinsett, Joel R.
1837-41
Van Buren
Name
Dates
President
Porter, James M.
1843-44
Tyler
Porter, Peter B.
1828-29
J.Q.Adams
Alger, Russell A.
1897-99
McKinley
Proctor, Redfield
1889-91
B. Harrison
Armstrong, John
1813-14
Madison
Ramsey, Alexander
1879-81
Hayes
Baker, Newton D.
1916-21
Wilson
Rawlins, John A.
1869
Grant
Bancroft, George
(acting) 1845
Polk
Root, Elihu
1899-1904
McKinley
Barbour, James
1825-28
J. Q. Adams
Royall, Kenneth C.
1947
Truman
Belknap, William W.
1869-76
Grant
Schofield, John M.
1868-69
A. Johnson
Sherman, William T.
1869
Grant
Position merged with that of Secretary of the Navy into the National Military
Southard, Samuel L.
ad int., 1828
J. Q. Adams
Establishment under Department of Defense by the National Security Act of 1947.
Spencer, John C.
1841-43
Tyler
408 / BIOGRAPHICAL DIRECTORY
INDEXES / 409
Name
Dates
President
Name
Dates
President
Stanton, Edwin M.
1862-65
Lincoln
Mason, John Y.
1846-49
Polk
Stanton, Edwin M.
1865-67; 1868
A. Johnson
Metcalf, Victor H.
1906-08
T. Roosevelt
Stimson, Henry L.
1940-45
F.D. Roosevelt
Meyer, George Von L.
1909-13
Taft
Stimson, Henry L.
1945
Truman
Moody, William H.
1902-04
T. Roosevelt
Stoddert, Benjamin
ad int., 1800
J. Adams
Morton, Paul
1904-05
T. Roosevelt
Taft, Alphonso
1876
Grant
Newberry, Truman H.
1908-09
T. Roosevelt
Taft, William H.
1904-08
T. Roosevelt
Paulding, James K.
1838-41
Van Buren
Taney, Roger B.
ad int., 1831
Jackson
Preston, William B.
1849-50
Taylor
Weeks, John W.
1921-23
Harding
Ramsey, Alexander
ad int., 1880-81
Hayes
Weeks, John W.
1923-25
Coolidge
Robeson, George M.
1869-77
Grant
Wilkins, William
1844-45
Tyler
Smith, Robert
1801-09
Jefferson
Woodring, Henry H.
1936-40
F.D. Roosevelt
Southard, Samuel L.
1823-25
Monroe
Wright, Luke E.
1908-09
T. Roosevelt
Southard, Samuel L.
1825-29
J. Q. Adams
Stoddert, Benjamin
1798-1801
J. Adams
Swanson, Claude
1933-39
F.D. Roosevelt
SECRETARIES OF THE NAVY*
Thompson, Richard W.
1877-80
Hayes
Thompson, Smith
1819-23
Monroe
Name
Dates
President
Toucey, Isaac
1857-61
Buchanan
Adams, Charles F.
Hoover
Tracy, Benjamin F.
1889-93
B. Harrison
1929-33
Badger, George E.
1841
W.H. Harrison
Upshur, Abel P.
1841-43
Tyler
Welles, Gideon
1861-65
Lincoln
Bancroft, George
1845-46
Polk
Bonaparte, Charles J.
1905-06
Welles, Gideon
1865-69
A. Johnson
T. Roosevelt
Borie, Adolph
Grant
Whitney, William C.
1885-89
Cleveland
1869
Coolidge
Branch, John
1829-31
Wilbur, Curtis D.
1924-29
Jackson
Monroe
Woodbury, Levi
1831-34
Jackson
Calhoun, John C.
ad int., 1818-19
Chandler, William E.
1882-85
Arthur
Crowninshield, Benjamin W.
1815-17
Madison
Crowninshield, Benjamin W.
1817-18
Monroe
SECRETARIES OF DEFENSE*
Daniels, Josephus
1913-21
Wilson
Dearborn, Henry
ad int., 1801
Jefferson
Name
Dates
President
Denby, Edwin
1921-24
Harding
1977-1981
Dickerson, Mahlon
1834-38
Jackson
Brown, Harold
Carter
Dobbin, James C.
Clifford, Clark M.
1968-69
L.B. Johnson
1853-57
Pierce
Edison, Charles
1939-40
Forrestal, James V.
1947-49
Truman
F.D. Roosevelt
Forrestal, James V.
Gates, Thomas S., Jr.
1959-61
Eisenhower
1944-47
F.D. Roosevelt
Gilmer, Thomas W.
1844
Tyler
Johnson, Louis M.
1949-50
Truman
1881
Laird, Melvin R.
1969-73
Nixon
Goff, Nathan, Jr.
Hayes
Graham, William A.
1850-52
Fillmore
Lovett, Robert A.
1951-53
Truman
Hamilton, Paul
1809-12
Madison
McElroy, Neil H.
1957-59
Eisenhower
Henshaw, David
Tyler
McNamara, Robert S.
1961-63
1843-44
Kennedy
Herbert, Hilary A.
1893-97
Cleveland
McNamara, Robert S.
1963-68
L.B. Johnson
Hunt, William H.
1881-82
Garfield
Marshall, George C.
1950-51
Truman
Richardson, Elliot L.
1973-74
Nixon
Jones, William
1813-14
Madison
Kennedy, John P.
Fillmore
Schlesinger, James R.
1974
Nixon
1852-53
Knox, W. Frank
1940-44
F.D. Roosevelt
Schlesinger, James R.
1974-76
Ford
1897-1902
Wilson, Charles E.
1953-57
Eisenhower
Long, John D.
McKinley
Mason, John Y.
1844-45
Tyler
Wemberger, Casper
1981-86(?)
Reason
Carlucci, Frank
1986-1989
*Positions merged with that of Secretary of War into the National Military Establish-
*Position created by the National Security Act of 1947, merging Departments of War
ment under Department of Defense by the National Security Act of 1947.
and Navy into the National Military Establishment under Department of Defense.
34
Public Office Index, 1
Cabinet Succession
35
Secretary of the Treasury
Henry Dearborn 1801-1809
Alphonso Taft 1876
William Eustis 1809-1812
James D. Cameron 1876-1877
John Armstrong 1813-1814
George W. McCrary 1877-1879
Alexander Hamilton 1789-1795
Walter Q. Gresham 1884
James Monroe 1814-1815
Alexander Ramsey 1879-1881
Oliver Wolcott, Jr. 1795-1800
Hugh McCulloch 1884-1885
William H. Crawford 1815-1816
Robert T. Lincoln 1881-1885
Samuel Dexter 1801
Daniel Manning 1885-1887
John C. Calhoun 1817-1825
William C. Endicott 1885-1889
Albert Gallatin 1801-1814
Charles S. Fairchild 1887-1889
James Barbour 1825-1828
Redfield Proctor 1889-1891
George W. Campbell 1814
William Windom 1889-1891
Peter B. Porter 1828-1829
Stephen B. Elkins 1891-1893
Alexander J. Dallas 1814-1816
Charles Foster 1891-1893
John H. Eaton 1829-1831
Daniel S. Lamont 1893-1897
William H. Crawford 1816-1825
John G. Carlisle 1893-1897
Lewis Cass 1831-1836
Russell A. Alger 1897-1899
Richard Rush 1825-1829
Lyman J. Gage 1897-1902
Joel R. Poinsett 1837-1841
Elihu Root 1899-1904
Samuel D. Ingham 1829-1831
Leslie M. Shaw 1902-1907
John Bell 1841
William H. Taft 1904-1908
Louis McLane 1831-1833
George B. Cortelyou 1907-1909
John C. Spencer 1841-1843
Luke E. Wright 1908-1909
William J. Duane 1833
Franklin McVeagh 1909-1913
James M. Porter 1843-1844
Jacob G. Dickinson 1909-1911
Roger B. Taney 1833-1834
William G. McAdoo 1913-1918
William Wilkins 1844-1845
Henry L. Stimson 1911-1913
Levi Woodbury 1834-1841
Carter Glass 1918-1920
William L. Marcy 1845-1849
Lindley M. Garrison 1913-1916
Thomas Ewing 1841
David F. Houston 1920-1921
George W. Crawford 1844-1850
Newton D. Baker 1916-1921
Walter Forward 1841-1843
Andrew W. Mellon 1921-1932
Charles M. Conrad 1850-1853
John W. Weeks 1921-1925
John C. Spencer 1843-1844
Ogden L. Mills 1932-1933
Jefferson Davis 1853-1857
Dwight F. Davis 1925-1929
George M. Bibb 1844-1845
William H. Woodin 1933
John B. Floyd 1857-1861
James W. Good 1929
Robert J. Walker 1845-1849
Henry Morgenthau, Jr. 1934-1945
Simon Cameron 1861-1862
Patrick J. Hurley 1929-1933
William M. Meredith 1849-1850
Frederick M. Vinson 1945-1946
Edwin M. Stanton 1862, 1867
George H. Dern 1933-1936
Thomas Corwin 1850-1853
John W. Snyder 1946-1953
Edwin M. Stanton 1868
Harry H. Woodring 1937-1940
James Guthrie 1853-1857
George M. Humphrey 1953-1957
John M. Schofield 1868-1869
Henry L. Stimson 1940-1945
Howell Cobb 1857-1860
Robert B. Anderson 1957-1961
John A. Rawlins 1869
Robert P. Patterson 1945-1947
Phillip F. Thomas 1860-1861
C. Douglas Dillon 1961-1965
William T. Sherman 1869
Kenneth C. Royall 1947
John A. Dix 1861
Henry H. Fowler 1965-1968
William W. Belknap 1869-1876
Salmon P. Chase 1861-1864
Joseph W. Barr 1968-1969
William P. Fessenden 1864-1865
David M. Kennedy 1969-1971
Hugh McCulloch 1865-1869
John B. Connally 1971-1973
George S. Boutwell 1869-1873
George P. Shultz 1972-1974
William A. Richardson 1873-1874
William E. Simon 1974-1977
Benjamin H. Bristow 1874-1876
W. Michael Blumenthal 1977-1979
Attorney General
Lot M. Morrill 1876-1877
G. William Miller 1979-1981
John Sherman 1877-1881
Donald T. Regan 1981-1985
William Windom 1881
James A. Baker, III 1985-
Edmund Randolph 1789-1794
Benjamin F. Butler 1833-1837
Charles J. Folger 1881-1884
William Bradford 1794-1795
Felix Grundy 1838-1840
Charles Lee 1795-1801
Henry D. Gilpin 1840-1841
Levi Lincoln 1801-1804
John J. Crittenden 1841
John Breckenridge 1805-1806
Hugh S. Legare 1841-1843
Caesar A. Rodney 1807-1811
John Nelson 1843-1845
Secretary of War ALPHABETICAL
William Pinkney 1811-1814
John Y. Mason 1845-1846
Richard Rush 1814-1817
Nathan Clifford 1846-1848
William Wirt 1817-1829
Isaac Toucey 1848-1849
Henry Knox 1789-1795
James McHenry 1796-1800
John M. Berrien 1829-1831
Reverdy Johnson 1849-1850
Timothy Pickering 1795
Samuel Dexter 1800
Roger B. Taney 1831-1833
Iohn I. Crittenden 1850-1853
326
WAR, ARTICLES OF - WAR, LAWS OF
WAR, Articles of. See ARTICLES OF WAR.
submarine mines, bombardment by naval
and projectiles from balloons. Earlier
WAR, Department of, a former executive de-
partment of the United States government with
tions, while still effective, are largely superse
by these conventions. The written rules
supervision over the military establishment. Until
the organization of the federal government in
unwritten laws of war.
general a formal application of principles
1789, military affairs were managed by a War
The bases of the laws of war are
Office (created in 1781). The act of Aug. 7,
1789, which in effect continued the activities
necessity, humanity, and chivalry. It has
of the War Office unchanged, established a De-
said that the unwritten rules are binding
civilized nations, and it is recognized that
partment of War headed by a civilian secretary
of cabinet ranking. Originally, the department's
tories to the conventions are bound by
jurisdiction included the navy, but in 1798 that
terms, possibly subject to certain exceptions,
when the enemy is not a signatory.
function was taken over by the new Department
In early days, the customs of armies depe
of the Navy. Numerous changes in organization
on might, rather than right. There were no
and responsibilities occurred during the War De-
partment's 158 years of existence, notably during
of war as we know them today. Prisoners
war were slain or made slaves. Captured
the periods of World Wars I and II.
The move toward unification of the armed
were sacked and ravished. The conqué
will was supreme. However, over the
services was climaxed by the National Security
the influences of civilization, and especia
Act of 1947 (as amended in 1949), which com-
Christianity, brought ameliorating changes.
bined the nation's defense organizations into the
proper and decent treatment of prisoners
National Military Establishment, later redesig-
war, the sick and wounded, and the civil
nated the Department of Defense. The War
lation became increasingly recognized,
Department thus became the Department of the
times by special agreement or conven
Army (within the Defense Department), headed
between belligerents or local commanders,
by a civilian secretary who is subordinate to the
times because of a more civilized influence
secretary of defense and who does not hold
the victor.
cabinet rank. The reorganization also transferred
While certain rules have been the subject
certain of the War Department's functions and
different interpretations by signatory nati
property, including the Army Air Forces, to the
and although some of them have been viola
new Department of the Air Force. See also DE-
by some belligerents recently, the laws of
FENSE, DEPARTMENT OF.
generally have been followed, more espects
on land. They are well known to
WAR, Laws of. Operations of war by civilized
officers and have been set forth in a
countries are governed by rules known as the
of military and naval manuals of the del
laws of war. Some of these, like the British or
forces of civilized countries.
American common law, are unwritten, although
Armed Forces.-The laws of war, and
generally recognized. Others are set forth in
rights and duties, apply to regular ann
treaties and conventions to which many nations
navies, and air forces. They also apply
are parties. This article deals with the principal
militia and volunteer corps which are prop
subjects of both written and unwritten laws of
commanded, have distinctive emblems,
war. Many of the important written laws are
carry arms openly. Even a levée en masse
contained in the Geneva conventions of 1929
uprising) in unoccupied territory, if carr
relating to the treatment of prisoners of war,
arms openly but without time to organize,
and to the care of the wounded and sick, and
resist invasion, and are recognized as having
the Hague conventions of 1899 and 1907. The
rights of belligerents if they respect the laws
latter deal specifically with such questions as the
customs of war. However, those who rise
opening of hostilities, the laws and customs of
an occupying army are not entitled to the
war on land, the duties and rights of neutrals,
tion of the laws of war.
Hostilities.-The Hague conventions
previous and explicit warning, either in the
of a reasoned declaration of war or of an
According to an early visitor, Indians in Florida declared
matum before the commencement of hostil
war by planting arrows to which hair had been attached.
This provision was complied with by
The Bettmann Archive
Britain in the famous ultimatum to German
Aug. 4, 1914, and again at the start of
hostilities with Germany in September
The provision was disregarded by Japan
her carrier planes attacked Pearl Harbor
December 1941. In view of the inventi
atomic bombs and guided missiles, there
well be a need for more specific provis
but conventions unfortunately do not
prevent nations from violations.
While military necessity is held to justify
destruction of life or limb of armed enemies Nell
enemy property, it never justifies cruelty. nor
imposition of unnecessary permit
torture, wounding (except in combat),
For this reason the
hibits the use of poison or poisoned who
laid down his arms and surrendered, the
the killing or wounding of an enemy
628
DEFENSE, DEPARTMENT OF
DEFENSE, Department of, an executive depart-
Corps are being discussed. The JCS is presided
ment of the U.S. government directed, and
over by a chairman, an additional member
represented in the president's cabinet, by the
pointed by the president; during his tenure ap- the
secretary of defense. It was created in 1949 by
chairman ranks above all other officers of the
amendments to the National Security Act of 1947,
armed forces. The JCS is served by the Joint
from which the basic structure of U.S. defense
Staff, which is composed of not more than 400
agencies derives. This act had already created
officers selected in approximately equal numbers
the office of secretary of defense to head a
from the Army, the Navy (including the Marine
"National Military Establishment."
Corps), and the Air Force.
By the 1949 amendments the Army, Navy,
The JCS is the principal military advisory
and Air Force became military departments with-
body to the president, the National Security
in the Department of Defense instead of execu-
Council, and the secretary of defense. It also di-
tive departments as they had been formerly.
rects the operations conducted by the com-
Congress at the same time stated that its inten-
manders of the unified and specified commands.
tion was to provide for the authoritative coordina-
The term "unified command" is used to desig-
tion of the military departments under civilian
nate a force under a single commander operating
control, but not to merge them.
under a broad continuing mission and with as-
By amendments in 1953 and 1958 the secre-
signed personnel from two or more services. The
tary's authority was extended so that, both in
unified commands include: Alaskan, Atlantic,
theory and in practice, he exercises nearly un-
Continental Air Defense, European, Pacific,
limited power. By statute he is still forbidden to
Southern, and Strike commands. A "specified
merge the departments or to appoint a super
command" has a broad continuing mission but
chief of staff, but otherwise his hands are prac-
normally represents but one service. The only
tically free in supervising one of the largest
example is the Strategic Air Command.
administrative units in the world. Each of the
Centralization and Unification. The highly cen-
three component military departments-Army,
tralized structure of defense arrangements
Navy, or Air Force-has a larger number of per-
evolved after World War II in response to rapid
sonnel than any other single government depart-
developments in weapons technology and to the
ment. In the late 1960's, during the Vietnam
worldwide commitments of the United States.
War, the secretary of defense spent about half
During the 19th century the shoreline divided
the total annual budget of the government, con-
the functions of the Army, which fought on land,
trolled more than 600 major installations con-
from those of the Navy, which fought on the
taining more than $150 billion in real property
water. The acquisition of overseas territories and
and equipment, and directed supply and com-
the gradual breakdown of American isolation
munications systems employing millions of people.
early in the 1900's, however, suggested the need
Organization and Functions. The agencies of
for better coordination between the services.
the Department of Defense may be grouped into
The advent of air power and the operational
four main categories: the office of the secretary,
and organizational problems posed by it brought
the military departments, the Joint Chiefs of
the question of unification to a head. Between
Staff, and the unified and specified commands.
World Wars I and II the Air Corps struggled
The secretary's line of authority is direct to
unsuccessfully to attain equal status with the
both staff and fighting forces.
Army and Navy. With the outbreak of World
In the office of the secretary there are the
War II the Air Force continued nominally to be
deputy secretary, seven assistant secretaries, the
a part of the Army but was practically inde-
director of defense research and engineering, and
pendent. Operationally, the three services were,
the general counsel of the department. The heads
with certain exceptions, under one commander.
of these offices perform such functions as are as-
Between 1921 and 1945 no fewer than 50
signed by the secretary of defense in accord
legislative measures pertaining to the unification
with existing laws.
of the armed forces were introduced in Congress.
Each military department has its own secre-
High-ranking military and civilian officials of
tary. As the powers of the secretary of defense
each service held varying opinions. In general,
increased during the 1960's, the powers of the
the Navy felt that its problems were unique and
service secretaries correspondingly decreased. By
that it had little to gain and possibly much to
the Reorganization Act of 1958 the military de-
lose by unification. However, James V. Forrestal,
partments were removed from the operational
the secretary of the navy from 1944 to 1947, felt
chain of command. The chain of command now
that it was tactically better to support a posi-
runs from the president to the secretary of de-
tive plan than simply to oppose ideas advanced
fense, and through the Joint Chiefs of Staff to
by others. Accordingly, he advocated a con-
the commanders of forces in the field. Despite
federation of the Army and Navy departments,
these centralizing tendencies the military depart-
tied together by interlocking boards and com-
ments retain considerable responsibilities. They
mittees. Forrestal informed Congress that he was
still organize, train, and equip personnel for the
not yet willing to accept the Air Force as a sep-
various commands, and they administer and sup-
arate and equal service. The Army advocated a
port the forces so assigned. By statute the service
single department of armed forces and a super
secretaries retain their right of direct access to
chief of staff, who would have all the armed
Congress and the president.
forces under his command. Air Force views,
The chief of staff of the Army, the chief of
while not identical, were like the Army's.
naval operations, and the chief of staff of the
President Harry S Truman and Congress
Air Force serve in dual roles as heads of their
mediated between these opposing views and pro-
respective services and as members of the Joint
duced the National Security Act of 1947, which
Chiefs of Staff (JCS). The commandant of the
represented a compromise. The Navy had to ac-
Marine Corps attends meetings of the JCS regu-
cept the idea of a single secretary of defense and
larly, and he participates as an equal member
a separate and equal Air Force, but the Army
when matters directly concerning the Marine
had to forgo a super chief of staff.
DEFENSE, DEPARTMENT OF-DEFENSE MECHANISMS
629
SECRETARIES OF DEFENSE OF THE UNITED STATES
DEFENSE MECHANISMS are unconscious men-
ssed. The JCS is presided
tal reactions that protect the individual's ego, or
Term
Presidents under
an additional member ap-
Name
of service
whom served
self, from damaging conflict, guilt, or anxiety.
ent; during his tenure the
These mechanisms modify unconscious impulses
e all other officers of the
James V. Forrestal
1947-1949
Truman
that, usually because of social conventions, can-
Louis A. Johnson
1949-1950
Truman
CS is served by the Joint
George C. Marshall
1950-1951
Truman
not be expressed directly. Although psycholo-
sed of not more than 400
Robert A. Lovett
1951-1953
Truman
gists disagree about the number and precise
proximately equal numbers
Charles E. Wilson
1953-1957
Eisenhower
nature of the defense mechanisms, several com-
Neil H. McElroy
1957-1959
Eisenhower
avy (including the Marine
Thomas S. Gates
Jr.
1959-1961
Eisenhower
mon ones are generally recognized, and their im-
orce.
Robert S. McNamara
1961-1968
Kennedy, Johnson
portance is well established.
principal military advisory
Clark M. Clifford
1968-1969
Johnson
The concept of the defense mechanism was
Melvin R. Laird
1969-1973
Nixon
nt, the National Security
Elliot Richardson
1973
Nixon
introduced by Sigmund Freud in his earliest
tary of defense. It also di-
James R. Schlesinger
1973-1975
Nixon, Ford
writings on psychoanalysis, and especially in a
conducted by the com-
Donald H. Rumsfeld
1975-1977
Ford
Harold Brown
1977-1981
Carter
paper, "The Defense Neuro-Psychoses," published
d and specified commands.
Caspar W. Weinberger
1981-1987
Reagan
in 1894. One of the reactions he considered was
command" is used to desig-
Frank C. Carlucci
1987-
Reagan
repression, the most general defense mechanism,
ingle commander operating
which occurs when a disturbing impulse or real-
uing mission and with as-
The aim of the National Security Act of 1947
ization is rejected by the conscious mind and
two or more services. The
was not merely to reform the military organiza-
relegated to the unconscious, SO that the indi-
iclude: Alaskan, Atlantic,
tion in order to eliminate waste, duplication, and
vidual is no longer aware of the conflict engen-
fense, European, Pacific,
undesirable interservice rivalry. Congress also
dered by it. After 1894, Freud concentrated his
commands. A 'specified
sought to create machinery that would coordi-
attention on the role of repression in mental con-
ad continuing mission but
nate the country's diplomacy, economic strength,
flicts and rejected the notion of numerous defense
out one service. The only
and scientific knowledge. Hence several inter-
mechanisms; for some 30 years he maintained
gic Air Command.
locking boards and agencies were created, among
that the theory of repression could account for
Jnification. The highly cen-
them the National Security Council, which was
all mental defenses. Finally, in The Problem of
of defense arrangements
to advise the president on all aspects of foreign
Anxiety (1926), he explained that he had found
War II in response to rapid
and military policy, and the Central Intelligence
it necessary to return to the theory of several
ons technology and to the
Agency, under the NSC, which was to coordi-
different mechanisms of defense. He had also
ents of the United States.
nate all intelligence functions.
come to recognize that the major function of such
tury the shoreline divided
The Secretaries. The Department of Defense
mechanisms was to deal with anxiety and guilt,
rmy, which fought on land,
has been transformed from the original confed-
usually rising from sexual or aggressive impulses.
avy, which fought on the
eration to a more unified structure not merely by
According to Freudian psychologists, all neu-
n of overseas territories and
amendments to the original legislation but also
rotic mechanisms have a repressive factor in
wn of American isolation
by the ideas and methods employed by succes-
that they protect the individual from awareness
owever, suggested the need
sive secretaries. Although they varied widely in
of unacceptable impulses or insights. Any of the
n between the services.
their backgrounds and personalities, these secre-
other defense mechanisms may substitute for
power and the operational
taries were all men of strong character who
repression in excluding unacceptable materials
oblems posed by it brought
added to or maintained the powers of the office.
from consciousness; a few attempt to integrate
cation to a head. Between
Secretary Wilson, who before his appoint-
such materials, in some transmuted form, with
[I the Air Corps struggled
ment had been president of General Motors Cor-
the rest of the personality. Some of these other
ain equal status with the
poration, attempted to carry out President Eisen-
major defense mechanisms are the following:
ith the outbreak of World
hower's campaign promise of a "new book" by
Rationalization guards against awareness of
continued nominally to be
reducing defense expenditures and strengthening
unacceptable impulses by inventing explanations
but was practically inde-
civilian control. He did this by building up the
of the resulting behavior that are superficially
lly, the three services were,
forces of massive retaliation to the neglect-so
plausible and convincing to the individual.
ns, under one commander.
critics of the administration alleged-of conven-
A reaction formation is a pattern of behavior
d 1945 no fewer than 50
tional forces capable of a flexible response. Ci-
that is opposed to an anxiety- or guilt-producing
pertaining to the unification
vilian control was strengthened mainly through
impulse. Thus a mother who feels hostile to her
ere introduced in Congress.
budgetary controls, which were further refined
child may spoil the child and make a display of
y and civilian officials of
by secretaries McElroy and Gates.
sweet and tender affection, as if to convince her-
rying opinions. In general,
The secretary who carried out the most thor-
self of her lack of hostility. Such patterns of
problems were unique and
oughgoing reforms was Robert S. McNamara. He
behavior are seldom perfectly consistent.
gain and possibly much to
produced a revolution in defense department
Projection assigns the unacceptable impulse
[owever, James V. Forrestal,
management and military strategy, as well as in
to another person or persons. In Freud's classic
avy from 1944 to 1947, felt
upholding the principle of civilian control. In the
example, a patient, anxious and guilty because
better to support a posi-
field of management, he introduced a planning-
of homosexual impulses, came to feel uncon-
y to oppose ideas advanced
programing-budgeting process that attempted to
sciously that he was not fit to live. By projecting
agly, he advocated a con-
tie together in terms of national objectives the
this concern, he succeeded in consciously feeling
my and Navy departments,
requirements and projected activities of all the
comfortable about himself but began to suspect
erlocking boards and com-
military agencies and commands. In the field
others of plotting to destroy him.
ormed Congress that he was
of strategy, McNamara, with the full backing of
Other mechanisms include regression, in which
cept the Air Force as a sep-
presidents Kennedy and Johnson, strengthened
the individual retreats from stressful situations
ice. The Army advocated a
the deterrent forces but at the same time built
by reverting to childish behavior patterns; dis-
armed forces and a super
up conventional forces.
placement, in which an impulse that is dangerous
would have all the armed
HARRY L. COLES, Ohio State University
in one situation is later released in a different and
mmand. Air Force views,
safer situation; sublimation, in which the energy
were like the Army's.
of an unconscious impulse is rechanneled to some
S Truman and Congress
Further Reading: Coles, Harry L., ed., Total War and
creative activity; isolation, in which behavior is
Cold War: Problems in the Civilian Control of the Military
ese opposing views and pro-
(Ohio State Univ. Press 1962); Kanter, Arnold, Defense Pol-
dissociated from the impulse causing it and is
Security Act of 1947, which
itics: A Budgetary Perspective (1979; reprint, Univ. of Chi-
thus made acceptable; and intellectualization, in
omise. The Navy had to ac-
cago Press 1983); Korb, Lawrence J., The Fall and Rise of
which a conflict is stripped of its personal mean-
gle secretary of defense and
the Pentagon (Greenwood 1979); Pursell, Carroll W., ed.,
The Military-Industrial Complex (Harper 1972); Rosi, Eu-
ing and dealt with abstractly.
1 Air Force, but the Army
gene J., ed., American Defense and Détente (Dodd 1973).
AUSTIN E. GRIGG, University of Richmond
chief of staff.
Encyclopedia AMERICAN
U.S. CONSTITUTION BICENTENNAL
COMMEMORATIVE EDITION
DELUXE EBRARCEDITION
380
MONROE
his government. Dissatisfaction with his conduct
of State Timothy Pickering. Monroe defended
led to his recall in 1796, engineered by Secretary
himself by publishing a harsh attack on Wash-
ington's foreign policy.
From 1799 to 1802, Monroe served as
nor of Virginia, demonstrating great administra-
tive ability and winning praise for his decisive
action to suppress a slave uprising (Gabriel's In-
surrection) in 1800.
Diplomat for Jefferson. President Jefferson sent
Monroe to France in 1803 as a special envoy
to assist Minister Robert R. Livingston in pur-
chasing a port of deposit on the lower Mississippi
River, because Spain was closing the river to
American navigation in preparation for the re-
cently negotiated retrocession of Louisiana to
France. On his arrival Napoleon presented Liv.
ingston and Monroe with the choice of buying all
of Louisiana or nothing. Although not authorized
by their instructions they promptly accepted,
decision approved by Jefferson in spite of his a
doubts about the constitutionality of such an ex-
tensive territorial acquisition. Popular approval
of the Louisiana Purchase established Monroe
securely as a national figure, whose elevation to
JAMES MONROE MUSEUM AND MEMORIAL LIBRARY
the presidency was but a matter of time.
Mrs. James Monroe, by Benjamin West
From 1803 to 1807, Monroe served as minis-
ter to Britain. In 1805 he went to Madrid in a
fruitless attempt to persuade Spain to acknowl.
of the Mississippi River. He also helped lay the
edge the American claim that West Florida should
groundwork for territorial government embodied
be included in the Louisiana Purchase. In 1806
in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. While in
he and William Pinkney (sent as a special envoy)
Congress, Monroe joined the advocates of a
negotiated a treaty providing for some relaxation
stronger government, continuing the work of his
of Britain's commercial restrictions. Because the
friend James Madison. Yet as a member of the
treaty lacked provisions for ending the impress-
Virginia ratifying convention he joined Patrick
ment of American seamen, Jefferson did not sub-
Henry and George Mason in opposing the ratifi-
mit it to the Senate for ratification. Monroe,
cation of the U.S. Constitution. He considered
convinced that the treaty contained the best
it defective in the excessive power granted the
obtainable terms, was deeply offended.
Senate and in authorizing direct taxes.
In 1808, Monroe ran against Madison, whom
In 1789, now a married man, he settled in
he blamed for the rejection of the treaty, for
Albemarle county to be close to Jefferson. Mon-
the presidency in Virginia, more as a protest
roe's wife, the former Elizabeth Kortright of New
than as a serious candidate. He received little
York, was regarded as one of the great beauties
support, and Madison was elected president.
of the day. Reserved and rather cold in her
Member of the War Cabinet. Monroe served in
manner, she was to bring to the White House a
the Virginia assembly in 1810 and 1811 and as
formality not always relished by Washingtonians.
governor again in 1811. In the latter year Presi-
Here in Albemarle their two daughters, Eliza
dent Madison, facing a Federalist resürgence and
and Maria Hester, were born. A son died in
divisions in the Republican party, appointed
infancy.
Monroe secretary of state. The appointment re-
Opponent of the Federalists. Elected to the
stored Monroe's friendship with Madison and
United States Senate in 1790, Monroe joined
Jefferson.
Madison (then in the House) in combating
Admired as a practical man by younger con-
Hamilton's domestic measures, which emphasized
gressmen, Monroe formed excellent working rela-
centralization of powers in the federal govern-
tions with Congress and obtained the cooperation
ment. He also opposed Washington's seemingly
of the so-called War Hawks in advancing ad-
pro-British foreign policy. Monroe worked with
ministration programs. After the outbreak of the
Jefferson and Madison in organizing the Repub-
War of 1812 with Britain, Monroe's desire for a
lican party. His contribution lay in the realm of
military command was frustrated by Secretary of
political strategy and in establishing liaison with
War John Armstrong. The latter believed that
anti-Hamilton forces in other states. He also ably
Monroe had deprived Robert R. Livingston, Arm-
assisted Madison in defending the Republican
strong's brother-in-law, of his rightful claim to
position in the press.
be the negotiator of the Louisiana Purchase.
In 1794, when Washington dispatched Fed-
In 1814, after the British invasion of Wash-
eralist John Jay on a mission to Britain, Monroe
ington, which was widely laid to Armstrong's
was named minister to France in the hope that
failure to mount a proper defense of the city,
this would appease Republican critics of the ad-
President Madison replaced the disgraced secre-
ministration who feared a diplomatic rupture
tary of war with Monroe, who thus held two
with France. Because Monroe conceived the pur-
cabinet posts. A capable and active administra-
pose of his mission as the preservation of Franco-
tor, Monroe restored the morale of Washing-
American amity in the face of Washington's pro-
tonians. The war ended, however, before De- the
British stance, he acted more as a Republican
full effect of his reorganization of the War
party spokesman than as the representative of
partment could be felt.
MONROE
381
nent. Dissatisfaction with his conduct
PRESIDENCY
and served until 1825. The secretary of the
ecall in 1796, engineered by Secretary
treasury, William H. Crawford, had been Mon-
imothy Pickering. Monroe
publishing a harsh attack defended
His service in the cabinet had made Monroe
roe's rival in 1816 and was regarded as his most
obvious choice for president in 1816. The Re-
logical successor. The secretary of state was the
eign policy.
caucus chose him as the
experienced diplomat John Quincy Adams. The
799 to 1802, Monroe served as
over William H. Crawford, who
secretary of war, John C. Calhoun, had been a
ginia, demonstrating great administra-
Monroe as secretary of war. The
notable War Hawk. Attorney General William
and winning
had been badly damaged-
Wirt was a popular figure, famed as a lawyer
ippress a slave
fatally, as it turned out-by its opposition to the
and writer.
in 1800.
for Jefferson. President Jefferson
War of 1812. Monroe easily defeated Sen. Rufus
The Navy Department was headed by men of
France in 1803 as a special envoy sent
King (N. Y.), the Federalist candidate for presi-
sectional rather than national influence: Benja-
inister Robert R. Livingston in
dent, by 183 to 34 in the voting of the Electoral
min Crowninshield of Massachusetts (1817-1818),
ort of deposit on lower Missiversippi
College. The new president adopted a conciliatory
Smith Thompson of New York (1818-1823), and
Samuel Southard of New Jersey (1823-1825).
use Spain was
avigation in preparation for the
policy toward the Federalist critics of the war.
Acquisition of Florida. Monroe's greatest
tiated retrocession of Louisiana re- to
Immediately after his inauguration, Monroe
achievements as president lay in foreign affairs.
toured the New England states, where there had
Ably supported by Adams, he made substantial
I his arrival Napoleon presented Liv.
been talk of secession during the war. The Fed-
territorial additions and gave American policy a
Monroe with the choice of buying all
eralists rushed to welcome him and demonstrate
distinctly national orientation. Monroe welcomed
1 or nothing. Although not authorized
their loyalty Monroe did everything he could
an opportunity to press Spain to cede Florida and
structions they promptly accepted,
to promote the "Era of Good Feelings' a term
define the boundaries of Louisiana. His chance
proved by Jefferson in spite of his a
first used in a Boston newspaper to refer to the
came when Gen. Andrew Jackson invaded Flor-
it the constitutionality of such an ex-
mood created by his New England trip. Monroe
ida in 1818. In pursuit of hostile Indians, Jack-
itorial acquisition. Popular approval
believed that this new "era" would place free
son seized the posts of St. Marks and Pensacola,
isiana Purchase established Monroe
government on a solid footing by eliminating
acts that many persons regarded as violations of
a national figure, whose elevation to
party rivalry. The experiment, however, did not
congressional war powers. In the cabinet, Adams,
icy was but a matter of time.
outlast his second term, because sectional hos-
an expansionist, urged Jackson's complete vindi-
03 to 1807, Monroe served as minis-
tility and individual political rivalries shattered
cation, while Crawford and Calhoun demanded
n. In 1805 he went to Madrid in a
the brief unity.
that he be reprimanded for exceeding his in-
empt to persuade Spain to acknowl-
Once he rejected the two-party system, Mon-
structions.
erican claim that West Florida should
roe could not use party loyalty as a means of ad-
Monroe chose a middle course-the posts were
in the Louisiana Purchase. In 1806
vancing administration measures. Instead he had
restored to Spain, but the administration accepted
iam Pinkney (sent as a special envoy)
to rely on his own considerable personal contacts
Jackson's explanation that his action had been
treaty providing for some relaxation
with congressmen and on the support of cabinet
justified by conditions in Florida. The incident
commercial restrictions. Because the
members with substantial congressional follow-
led Spain to cede Florida and define, favorably
di provisions for ending the impress-
ings. He drew into his cabinet some of the
to American claims, the boundary of the Louisi-
erican seamen, Jefferson did not sub-
most influential men of the day. The four most
ana Purchase in the Adams-Onís Treaty nego-
he Senate for ratification. Monroe,
important were all in their posts by late 1817
tiated in 1819.
that the treaty contained the best
terms, was deeply offended.
Monroe ran against Madison, whom
Election day in Philadelphia in 1816. Monroe's election led to the "Era of Good Feelings."
for the rejection of the treaty, for
HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA
ncy in Virginia, more as a protest
erious candidate. He received little
I Madison was elected president.
of the War Cabinet. Monroe served in
assembly in 1810 and 1811 and as
ain in 1811. In the latter year Presi-
n, facing a Federalist resúrgence and
the Republican party, appointed
etary of state. The appointment re-
roe's friendship with Madison and
as a practical man by younger con-
onroe formed excellent working rela-
ongress and obtained the cooperation
lled War Hawks in advancing ad-
programs. After the outbreak of the
? with Britain, Monroe's desire for a
mand was frustrated by Secretary of
armstrong. The latter believed that
deprived Robert R. Livingston, Arm-
her-in-law, of his rightful claim to
iator of the Louisiana Purchase.
after the British invasion of Wash-
:h was widely laid to Armstrong's
ount a proper defense of the city,
adison replaced the disgraced secre-
with Monroe, who thus held two
i. A capable and active administra-
restored the morale of Washing-
e war ended, however, before the
his reorganization of the War De-
ild be felt.
M.A.Com
18th President of the United States
(1869-1877)
Born-April 27, 1822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio.
Higher Education-U. S. Military Academy (1839-
1843).
Religion-Methodist.
Occupation-Soldier.
Marriage-Aug. 22, 1848, to Julia Boggs Dent
(1826-1902), in St. Louis, Mo.
Children-Frederick Dent Grant (1850-1912); Ulysses
Simpson Grant (1852-1929); Ellen Wrenshall
Grant (1855-1922); Jesse Root Grant (1858-
1934).
Political Party-Republican.
Legal Residence when Elected-Illinois.
Principal Writings-Personal Memoirs (2 vols., 1885-
1886).
Died-July 23, 1885, at Mount McGregor, N.Y.
Burial Place-Grant's Tomb, New York City.
GAF CORPORATION, HISTORICAL COLLECTION
GRANT, Ulysses Simpson (1822-1885), Ameri-
a permanent position as professor at some respect-
can general and 18th president of the United
able college. Understandably, his West Point
States. Grant, the most capable of the Union
record was not spectacular. In 1843 he graduated
generals during the Civil War, was a master strat-
in the middle of his class (21st in a class of 39),
egist. He won the first major Union victories.
was commissioned brevet 2d lieutenant, assigned
President Abraham Lincoln staunchly defended
to the 4th U.S. Infantry, and sent to Jefferson
him against critics and promoted him to command
Barracks, near St. Louis, Mo. There he began to
all Union forces. Grant accepted Gen. Robert E.
learn his army duties and, even more important,
Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House.
met his future wife, Julia Dent, sister of a West
However, Grant had no disposition for politi-
Point classmate. The orders that sent Grant's
cal leadership, and as president (1869-1877) he
regiment to the Southwest frontier in May 1844
scarcely attempted to control events. He made
temporarily interrupted his romance.
injudicious appointments to public office, and
Mexican War to 1860. Grant served with dis-
official corruption tainted his administration, al-
tinction in the Mexican War (1846-1848), a con-
though Grant himself was not involved in the
flict that he privately deplored as an unjust war
peculations.
to extend slavery. Promoted on Sept. 20, 1845,
Early Years. Grant was born in Point Pleasant,
to full 2d lieutenant, he took part in the battles
Ohio, on April 27, 1822, and baptized Hiram
of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Monter-
Ulysses. The eldest son of Jesse Root Grant
rey. Grant's commanding general in all these
and Hannah Simpson Grant, he came from a
engagements was "Old Rough and Ready," Gen.
family that, he proudly declared, had been Amer-
Zachary Taylor, whose informal dress and lack
ican "for generations, in all its branches, direct
of military pretension he was to copy in later
and collateral." In 1823 his father moved his
years. In 1847, Grant's regiment was trans-
tanning business to Georgetown, Ohio, where
ferred to the army of Gen. Winfield Scott, and
"Lyss" spent his boyhood. His education at a
he participated in all the battles that led to the
grammar school in Georgetown, at Maysville
capitulation of Mexico City-Veracruz, Cerro
Seminary in Maysville, Ky., and at the Presby-
Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey,
terian Academy of Ripley, Ohio, was superficial
where he was made 1st lieutenant for his bravery,
and repetitious, and the boy showed no scholarly
and Chapultepec, where he was brevetted cap-
bent. He became noted, however, for his sturdy
tain. Besides teaching Grant the practical les-
self-reliance and for his ability to ride and con-
sons of warfare, the Mexican conflict gave him
trol even the wildest horses.
a personal acquaintance with most of the men
In 1839, Jesse Grant secured for his son an
who were later to command the Confederate
appointment to the U.S. Military Academy.
armies.
When he arrived at West Point he learned that
After the Mexicans surrendered, the Ameri-
he was on the muster roll as Ulysses Simpson
can military establishment was drastically cur-
Grant, through an error of the congressman who
tailed, and Grant was assigned to routine gar-
had nominated him. Finding it impossible to
rison duty. His four years at Sackets Harbor,
change this official listing, Grant accepted the in-
N.Y., and Detroit, Mich., were pleasant, because
evitable and dropped Hiram from his name.
Julia, whom he had married on Aug. 22, 1848,
was with him. But in 1852, when the regiment
MILITARY CAREER
was transferred to Fort Vancouver on the Colum-
"A military life had no charms for me," Grant
bia River, his wife and young family had to be
said later, and his only purpose at the academy
left at home. Grant's next two years, spent in
was "to get through the course, secure a detail
barracks life on the West Coast, were the most
for a few years as assistant professor of mathe-
miserable in his career. His duties were dull
matics at the Academy, and afterwards obtain
and routine; his superior officer, Col. Robert
174
GRANT
175
Buchanan, rode him hard; his income was inade-
Grant's next important battle was at Shiloh,
quate, efforts to increase it by farming and
or Pittsburg Landing, Tenn., on April 6-7, 1862.
cattle raising were unsuccessful. Most of all, he
Early in the morning of April 6, Gen. Albert S.
t of the United States
missed Julia, the one woman in his life. Like so
Johnston's Confederate army burst through the
369-1877)
many other peacetime officers of the period,
unfortified Union lines near Shiloh meeting-
Grant began drinking. Though he was promoted
house and threatened to drive Grant's men back
in Point Pleasant, Ohio.
to a captaincy, he continued forlorn and un-
into the Tennessee River. Historians differ on
S. Military Academy (1839-
happy, and a quarrel with Colonel Buchanan
almost every aspect of the battle: whether Grant
helped to precipitate his decision, on April 11,
was at fault in being at Savannah, 9 miles (14
1854, to resign his commission.
km) from Pittsburg Landing, at the beginning of
Returning to Missouri, Grant settled his fam-
the battle; whether Grant was surprised by John-
ily on 80 acres of land given him by his father-
ston; whether Union troops should have been en-
1848, to Julia Boggs Dent
Louis, Mo.
in-law and tried to farm. With grim humor he
trenched; whether Grant was personally respon-
called the place "Hard Scrabble," for he had to
sible for checking the Confederate advance; and
ent Grant (1850-1912); Ulysses
bear all the work of clearing the land, hauling
whether the arrival of Maj. Gen. Don Carlos
1852-1929); Ellen Wrenshall
wood, plowing, and cultivating his crop. After
Buell's army saved the day for the Union cause.
!); Jesse Root Grant (1858-
four years he abandoned farming and set up an
At any rate, on April 7 the Union forces re-
unsuccessful real-estate business in St. Louis. In
captured the initiative and drove the Confed-
lican.
1860 he moved to Galena, Ill., where he worked
erates back in great disorder. When the news
Elected-Illinois.
in his father's leather shop.
reached the North, a storm of abuse broke out
rsonal Memoirs (2 vols., 1885-
Secession and Civil War. Not particularly in-
against Grant, who was blamed for this bloodiest
terested in politics, Grant was nominally a
battle yet to occur on the American continent,
at Mount McGregor, N. Y.
Democrat at this time; but when the South se-
and it was falsely whispered that he had been
Tomb, New York City.
ceded, he had no trouble in making up his mind
drunk and negligent of his duty. But Grant also
to support the Union cause. He helped organize
had defenders, among them Lincoln, who said
the first company of Union volunteers in Galena
simply, I can't spare this man-he fights."
and accompanied the men to Springfield. At the
as professor at some respect-
request of the Illinois governor, Richard Yates, he
rstandably, his West Point
remained to muster in the new volunteer regi-
cular. In 1843 he graduated
ments, for his experience as quartermaster, com-
class (21st in a class of 39),
missary, and adjutant in the field made him in-
evet 2d lieutenant, assigned
valuable. Grant longed for active duty, however,
antry, and sent to Jefferson
and on May 24, 1861, tendered his services to
ouis, Mo. There he began to
the U.S. government, suggesting modestly that
and, even more important,
he was "competent to command a regiment."
Julia Dent, sister of a West
Failing to secure such an appointment, he ac-
e orders that sent Grant's
cepted from Governor Yates the command of
Julia Dent Grant
thwest frontier in May 1844
the 21st Illinois Regiment, quickly brought it
(from a photo
ed his romance.
under excellent discipline, and did good service
by Mathew Brady)
360. Grant served with dis-
against guerrillas in Missouri.
in War (1846-1848), a con-
On Aug. 7, 1861, President Lincoln appointed
deplored as an unjust war
Grant brigadier general of volunteers, and he
romoted on Sept. 20, 1845,
took up headquarters at Cairo, Ill. Only a
he took part in the battles
few days after he assumed his new command,
de la Palma, and Monter-
he occupied Paducah, Ky., at the strategic junc-
nding general in all these
tion of the Ohio and Tennessee rivers. On No-
ld Rough and Ready," Gen.
vember 7 he attacked the Confederates at Bel-
se informal dress and lack
mont, Mo., in an assault that was not well
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
n he was to copy in later
planned or executed. The arrival of Confederate
rant's regiment was trans-
reinforcements compelled him to retreat. The
On April 11, General Halleck arrived at
f Gen. Winfield Scott, and
general was still learning his trade.
Pittsburg Landing and took personal command
I the battles that led to the
Rise to National Prominence. In February 1862,
of the army. In the ensuing campaign against
tico City-Veracruz, Cerro
after much persuasion by Grant, Gen. Henry W.
Halleck, Grant's superior officer, authorized him
Corinth, Miss., Grant occupied an ambiguous
nurubusco, Molino del Rey,
and humiliating position. Nominally second in
st lieutenant for his bravery,
to move against Forts Donelson and Henry, the
Confederate positions guarding the Cumberland
command of the army, he was in fact ignored
ere he was brevetted cap-
during the slow advance that occupied the Union
ng Grant the practical les-
and Tennessee rivers. With 17,000 men and a
Mexican conflict gave him
flotilla of gunboats under the command of Com-
troops until the end of May. When Halleck was
called to Washington in July, Grant was left in
nce with most of the men
modore Andrew Hull Foote, Grant captured Fort
command the Confederate
Henry on February 6 and promptly moved
command of the District of West Tennessee,
holding a wide territory with few troops. He
against Donelson 12 miles (19 km) away. When
the Confederate commander there, Brig. Gen.
was, nevertheless, able to drive Maj. Gen. Ster-
ns surrendered, the Ameri-
nment was drastically cur-
Simon B. Buckner, asked for terms of capitula-
ling Price's Confederates from Iuka, Miss., on
tion, Grant replied tersely: "No terms except an
September 19-20, and a part of his army, under
as assigned to routine gar-
unconditional and immediate surrender can be
Brig. Gen. William S. Rosecrans, defeated Price
r years at Sackets Harbor,
and Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn at Corinth on
ich., were pleasant, because
accepted. I propose to move immediately upon
October 3-4.
married on Aug. 22, 1848,
dered with over 14,000 men. The capture of
your works." On February 16, Buckner surren-
Vicksburg Campaign. On Oct. 25, 1862, Grant
in 1852, when the regiment
Forts Henry and Donelson, the first major Union
was made commander of the Department of Ten-
rt Vancouver on the Colum-
victories in the war, opened up Tennessee to the
nessee and was charged with taking Vicksburg,
nd young family had to be
S next two years, spent in
West Coast, were the most
Surrendermies Fort the Gr Surrender Crant became prominent on the na-
Federal time "Unconditional
Miss., the principal Confederate stronghold on
the Mississippi River. He first followed a rather
conventional strategy, advancing with 30,000
eer. His duties were dull
made him major general of volunteers.
scene. Despite Halleck's jealousy, Lincoln
men overland through Mississippi while sending
perior officer, Col. Robert
Brig. Gen. William T. Sherman's troops down the
176
GRANT
river from Memphis. On December 20, Van
tenant general commanding all the armies of the
Dom destroyed Grant's principal supply base at
United States. Grant looked anything but a hero
Holly Springs; nine days later Sherman was
He was, as Richard Henry Dana observed,
bloodily repulsed at Chickasaw Bayou.
short, round-shouldered man, in a very tarnished
Grant now faced the most important decision
uniform
There was nothing marked in his
of his career. To pull back to Memphis and
appearance. He -had no gait, no station, no
mount a new expedition would be an admission
manner, rough, light-brown whiskers, a blue
of defeat and a severe blow to Union morale. To
eye, and rather a scrubby look withal." But
any retreat Grant had an instinctive aversion:
behind the unprepossessing exterior and the
"One of my superstitions," he wrote, "had always
modesty of manner lay a powerful strategic
been when I started to go anywhere, or to do
genius.
anything, not to turn back, or stop until the thing
Grant now gave to the Union armies some
intended was accomplished." He decided, there-
thing they had never had before, a concerted
fore, "There was nothing left to be done but to
plan of action. He ordered simultaneous move-
go forward to a decisive victory." That is pre-
ments (commencing May 4, 1864) of all the
cisely what he did, in a plan as brilliant in con-
Union armies-Maj. Gen. George G. Meade's
ception as in execution.
Army of the Potomac, which he personally ac-
Abandoning the overland approach, Grant
companied; Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Butler's
moved his army to the position Sherman had oc-
Army of the James; Sherman's Army of the
cupied across the Mississippi from Vicksburg and
Tennessee; and Banks' troops in Louisiana
ostensibly busied his troops during the rainy
Throwing enormous concentrated force against
winter months in constructing a canal bypassing
the enemy, Grant planned to batter the Confed-
Vicksburg, while beginning to gather supplies for
erates constantly and, if only through attrition, to
a daring experiment. By April 1863 he was
compel their surrender. The advance of Meade's
ready. He ran his provisions down the river
army into the Virginia Wilderness was skillfully
under the guns of Vicksburg, marched his men
parried by Gen. Robert E. Lee's strategy, but
through the backcountry, reached a position on
undeterred by the appalling loss of 17,666 men,
the west bank of the Mississippi below Vicks-
Grant gave the enemy no rest. At Spotsylvania
burg, crossed over to high ground on the eastern
Court House and on the North Anna, Lee again
side, and commenced operations behind the Con-
fended off Grant's sledge-hammer blows. At
federate lines. Grant had cut himself off from
Cold Harbor, Grant ordered a direct assault on
communications and supplies from the North; his
the Confederate lines, only to lose 6,000 men in
troops had to subsist on the country until victory.
an hour's fighting. Though he was wearing down
He drove inland to Jackson, Miss., held off a
the Confederates, he had failed to defeat Lee
threatened attack from Gen. Joseph E. Johnston's
in a single engagement. His prestige plummeted,
army to the north, and pushed Lieut. Gen. John
and enemies in the North began to call him
C. Pemberton's troops on the west into the de-
"Grant the Butcher," careless of his men's
fenses of Vicksburg. After a regular siege, on
lives.
July 4, 1863, Pemberton was obliged to surrender
Grant continued to hammer away. On June
his 30,000 men.
12 he shifted his base, adroitly withdrew from
The victory was one of the most decisive in
Lee's front, and crossed the James River. Fail-
the war. It eliminated a major Confederate army
ing to capture Petersburg by surprise, he set-
from the conflict; it cut off the trans-Mississippi
tled down to a regular siege. From June 18,
states from the rest of the Confederacy (the cap-
1864, to April 2, 1865, the Army of the Potomac
ture of Port Hudson, La., by Maj. Gen. Nathaniel
was engaged chiefly in mining, sapping, assault-
P. Banks promptly followed); and it brought to
ing, cutting Lee's transportation lines, and
the attention of the Northern government and
sending out flanking expeditions. But while
people the ablest Union general of the war.
Grant was starving Lee in Richmond, Maj. Gen
President Lincoln wrote Grant a personal letter
Philip H. Sheridan was devastating the val-
of congratulations and nominated him major
ley of Virginia, and Sherman's army, far to the
general in the Regular Army.
south, was burning a trail of desolation through
Grant's next major engagements saw him in
Georgia.
a different field of operations. In September the
In the spring of 1865, Grant was ready for
Confederate general, Braxton Bragg, defeated
the final push. Sheridan's victory at Five Forks
Rosecrans at Chickamauga and placed the Union
(April 1, 1865) was the beginning of the end
army in Chattanooga under virtual siege. Grant
The next day when Grant assaulted the Con-
was summoned to the rescue. He acted prompt-
federate right, Lee was obliged to abandon
ly: Rosecrans was replaced by Maj. Gen. George
Richmond and Petersburg and march west, hop-
Henry Thomas; Sherman's troops were ordered
ing to join the army of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston
to march east; a "cracker line" was opened to
Grant cut off his retreat, and a series of running
bring in desperately needed food for the garri-
battles made it clear that further resistance was
son; and reinforcements from the Army of the
useless. On April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court
Potomac were speedily moved west by rail. By
House, Lee capitulated. Grant's terms were
the end of November, Grant was prepared to
magnanimous, and Lee accepted them without
take the offensive. On November 24, Brig. Gen.
question. Seventeen davs later Johnston sur:
Joseph Hooker cleared Lookout Mountain of
rendered his army to Sherman, and the Civil
Confederates, and on the following day Thomas'
War was over.
men stormed Missionary Ridge. Bragg retired,
demoralized, to Dalton, Ga.
PRESIDENCY
Commander of the U.S. Armies. Grant's new
Given the grade of full general (newly
victory made him the man of the hour, and he
created) in 1866, Grant oversaw the sale of war-
was brought to Washington to receive the per-
time surpluses, had the Indian frontier policed,
sonal thanks of the President, a gold. medal voted
by Congress, and the newly created rank of lieu-
and protected the gangs constructing the trans- of
continental railroad. The most ticklish part
GRANT
177
anding all the armies of the
looked anything but a hero.
Henry Dana observed, "a
ed man, in a very tarnished
e was nothing marked in his
d no gait, no station, no
t-brown whiskers, a blue
scrubby look withal." But
ossessing exterior and the
lay a powerful strategic
to the Union armies some-
er had before, a concerted
ordered simultaneous move-
May 4, 1864) of all the
Gen. George G. Meade's
ac, which he personally ac-
Gen. Benjamin F. Butler's
s; Sherman's Army of the
GENERAL GRANT sat for this
anks' troops in Louisiana.
photograph with his family about
concentrated force against
1868. In that year he became the
anned to batter the Confed-
Republican presidential nominee.
I, if only through attrition, to
ler. The advance of Meade's
nia Wilderness was skillfully
bert E. Lee's strategy, but
ppalling loss of 17,666 men,
my no rest. At Spotsylvania
1 the North Anna, Lee again
sledge-hammer blows. At
ordered a direct assault on
BROWN BROTHERS
es, only to lose 6,000 men in
Though he was wearing down
his postwar duties related to the reconstruction
eight years that he occupied the White House,
e had failed to defeat Lee
of the Southern states. At first he was inclined
therefore, one is obliged to speak of the events
ent. His prestige plummeted,
to be easygoing with the ex-Confederates; and
of Grant's administration, not of the actions of
e North began to call him
when President Andrew Johnson, Lincoln's suc-
the president.
er," careless of his men's
cessor, sent him on a fact-finding tour of the
Domestic Policy. On questions of Southern
South in 1865, he reported that the "mass of
reconstruction, Grant acquiesced in the plans of
to hammer away. On June
thinking men of the south" were willing to ac-
the Radicals to enfranchise the Negro. Half-
ase, adroitly withdrew from
cept their defeat. But Johnson's pro-Southern
hearted efforts to enforce the 14th and 15th
ossed the James River. Fail-
policy and the outbreak of renewed violence and
amendments proved futile, and not even the
ersburg by surprise, he set-
rioting in the former Confederacy disturbed the
Force Acts (q.v.) of 1870-1871 put down Ku
gular siege. From June 18,
peace-loving general.
Klux Klan violence in the South. By 1876 most
65, the Army of the Potomac
Despite growing doubts, Grant accompanied
Negroes had been driven from the polls, and the
/ in mining, sapping, assault-
Johnson on his "swing round the circle" in 1866,
former Confederate states were becoming the
$ transportation lines, and
an attempt to publicize presidential reconstruc-
solidly Democratic South.
ng expeditions. But while
tion plans. On Aug. 12, 1867, when Johnson sus-
In financial matters Grant followed conserva-
Lee in Richmond, Maj. Gen.
pended Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton,
tive Republican economic theorists who deplored
n was devastating the val-
Grant agreed to act as secretary ad interim. Dur-
the inflated paper money issued during the war.
1 Sherman's army, far to the
ing the next five months he served rather un-
One of the first important measures to receive his
a trail of desolation through
comfortably in the cabinet; but when the Senate
signature was an act declaring the government's
refused to concur in the suspension of Stanton,
ultimate intention to redeem these greenbacks
f 1865, Grant was ready for
he resigned.
in coin. Grant's financial ignorance led him to
eridan's victory at Five Forks
While the President publicly accused him of
serve as a dupe of the unscrupulous Jay Gould
as the beginning of the end.
bad faith, Grant drifted into the Radical Republi-
and James Fisk in their attempt to corner the
en Grant assaulted the Con-
can camp, supported the impeachment of John-
gold market in 1869. But when he discovered
e was obliged to abandon
son, and became the obvious Republican candi-
their scheme, he ousted the lesser officials whom
ersburg and march west, hop-
date for the presidency in 1868. He easily
they had bribed, ordered prompt sale of govern-
y of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston.
defeated the Democratic candidate, Horatio Sey-
ment gold, and on Black Friday (September 24)
treat, and a series of running
mour, and won 214 out of the 294 electoral votes.
broke the corner. Later, not even the panic of
ar that further resistance was
First Administration. Grant was not a politician,
1873 shook Grant's distrust of inflation, and in
9. 1865, at Appomattox Court
and he entered the presidency with no real
1875 he signed a bill pledging the resumption of
ulated. Grant's terms were
comprehension of the powers and duties of his
specie payments in January 1879.
Lee accepted them without
office. For his cabinet he picked not the strong
en days later Johnston sur-
leaders of his party but personal friends, such
Foreign Policy. On foreign policy, Grant gen-
erally followed the advice of his cultivated, aris-
to Sherman, and the Civil
as Secretary of War John Aaron Rawlins, or
tocratic secretary of state, Hamilton Fish.
wealthy men who had contributed to his cam-
Through Fish's caution, Grant's desire to recog-
paign chest, such as Secretary of the Navy
nize the belligerence of Cuban insurgents (who
PRESIDENCY
Adolph Edward Borie. His famous motto, "Let
had set up a republic in 1869) was curbed. His
de of full general (newly
us have peace," was a slogan, not a program of
one independent effort at making foreign policy,
Grant oversaw the sale of war-
executive action. Grant explicitly denied any
his plan to annex Santo Domingo (Dominican
1 the Indian frontier policed,
his intent to exert leadership over Congress and
Republic), led to a rupture with Charles Sumner,
gangs constructing the trans- of
the will of the people," he declared. For the
party; he had no policy "to enforce against
powerful chairman of the Senate Foreign Rela-
1. The most ticklish part
tions Committee and annexation was defeated in
178
GRANT
the Senate (1870). In a treaty with Great Brit-
He became a partner in the brokerage firm
ain in May 1871, Fish settled the Alabama and
Grant & Ward, but like all his previous business of
GRA
other claims arising from British aid to the Con-
ventures, it failed (May 6, 1884) and he went
by 0
federacy during the Civil War. Later, he also se-
into bankruptcy. A move to have him restored
lowe
cured a peaceful adjustment of the Virginius
to the rank of general, which he had resigned to
It
crisis with Spain in 1873.
run for the presidency,' met political opposition
smal
Second Administration. Grant's Southern policy
and was not approved until the last day of
such
alienated the former Confederates; his financial
Chester A. Arthur's administration (March 3.
The
policy discouraged debt-ridden Western farmers
1885). Grant had only a few months to enjoy
foun
who desired inflation; and his foreign policy
the salary that Congress thus voted him.
for
outraged Sumner and some other Republican
Afflicted with a cancer of the throat, the gen.
leaders. Nevertheless, his popularity with the
eral was heroically trying to provide for his fam-
often
masses was unimpaired in 1872, and the regular
ily during these last years. The success of an
ampl
party bosses enthusiastically urged his renomina-
article on the Battle of Shiloh, which he wrote
grant
tion. Dissident Liberal Republicans and Demo-
for the Century Magazine in 1884, led him to
or
crats joined in nominating Horace Greeley as his
plan writing his own account of the war in which
obtai
opponent, but Grant was triumphantly elected
he had played so large a part. In his sickroom
ernm
for a second term, receiving 286 of the 349 elec-
at Mount McGregor near Saratoga, N. Y., he
such
toral votes.
composed the two volumes of personal recollec-
qualit
Grant's second four years in the White House
tions that remain one of the great war com-
accep
were not happy ones. A storm of scandal, which
mentaries of all times. Published by Mark
stand
had started while the campaign was still under
tions
Twain, the Personal Memoirs ultimately brought
way, broke about his head. Leading Republican
C
the Grant family nearly $450,000 in royalties.
congressmen and officials were involved in rail-
start
Grant himself did not live to reap the reward.
road scandals; his whole party was implicated
Exhausted from his heroic battle, he died quietly
perin
in the "salary grab" act (February-March 1873),
feder:
at Mount McGregor on July 23, 1885, and his
which retroactively increased the pay of congress-
in 19
body eventually found its last resting place in
men and the executive; and his secretary of war,
assist:
the great mausoleum (dedicated 1897) in New
William Worth Belknap, shared in Indian agency
in the
York City overlooking the Hudson River (see
frauds. The president's private secretary, Orville
Social
GRANT'S TOMB).
C:
E. Babcock, had a hand in the Whiskey Ring
peculations, and Grant, refusing to doubt his
DAVID DONALD, Johns Hopkins University
Comi
integrity, supported him to the last. Grant him-
Bibliography
Germ
self was not involved in the corruption, but when
Grant, Ulysses S., The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, ed. by
in wl
John Y. $imon and others, 12 vols. (Southern III. Univ.
alloca
his close advisers proved faithless, the popular
Press 1967-1984).
Grant, Ulysses S., Personal Memoirs (1885-1886; reprint,
be us
conviction grew that he was a failure as presi-
Da Capo 1982).
This
dent.
Wilson, David L., and Simon, John Y., eds., Ulysses S.
local
The more completely the Republican party
Grant: Essays and Documents (Southern III. Univ. Press
nation
was discredited, however, the more firmly did
1981).
party stalwarts like Roscoe Conkling, Zachariah
Biographies and Reminiscences
a mit
Chandler, and Oliver P. Morton cling to Grant
Badeau, Adam, Grant in Peace: From Appomattox to
as the one man who could bring victory at the
Mount McGregor (1887; reprint, Ayer 1972).
Barber, James G., U. S. Grant: The Man and the Image
polls. Their attempt to run him for a third term
(Southern Ill. Univ. Press 1986).
GRAI
had Grant's assent and Mrs. Grant's enthusiastic
Cadwallader, Sylvanus, Three Years with Grant, ed. by Ben-
approbation, but the Republican National Con-
jamin P. Thomas (1955; reprint, Greenwood Press
litera.
1980).
tion
vention of 1876 refused to break with precedent
Catton, Bruce, Grant Moves South (Little 1960).
found
and nominated Rutherford B. Hayes. In the dis-
Catton, Bruce, Grant Takes Command (Little 1969).
Catton, Bruce, U. S. Grant and the American Military Tra-
Sikh
puted election that followed, Grant's presence
dition (1954; reprint, Little 1972).
Gran
in the White House had a steadying effect and
Coolidge, Louis A., Ulysses S. Grant (1917; reprint, AMS
di lai
discouraged hotheaded supporters of both Hayes
Press 1975).
and the Democratic candidate, Samuel J.
Goldhurst, R., Many are the Hearts: The Angony and Tri-
Mara
umph of Ulysses S. Grant (Reader's Digest Press 1975).
Gran
Tilden.
Lewis, Lloyd, Captain Sam Grant (Little 1950).
at th,
McFreely, William S., Grant: A Biography (Norton 1982).
LAST YEARS
Moran, P., Ulysses S. Grant, 1822-1885: Chronology, Doc-
expai
uments, Bibliographical Aids (Oceana Pub. 1968).
Sahil
Upon leaving office, Grant made a tour of
Smith, Gene, Lee and Grant: A Dual Biography (McGraw
the world with his wife and youngest son, dur-
1984).
GRAN
ing which he was treated not as a discredited
For Specialized Study
the S
president of the United States but as the tri-
Catton, Bruce, A Stillness at Appomattox (1953; reprint,
River
Washington Sq. Press 1970).
umphant victor of the Civil War. After two
Catton, Bruce, This Hallowed Ground: The Story of the
fornia
years of travel, he returned more than ever in-
Union Side of the Civil War (1956; reprint, Washington
wood
terested in a third term, which now seemed
Sq. Press 1969).
berin
possible because Hayes did not seek reelection.
Conger, Arthur L.,
The Rise of U. S, Grant (1931; reprint,
Ayer 1974).
other
At the Republican National Convention in 1880
Frassanito, William
A., Grant and Lee (Scribner 1983).
meat
in Chicago he had 306 supporters, organized by
Fuller, John F. C., The Generalship of Ulysses S. Grant
hortic
Conkling; but a coalition of his opponents gave
(1929; reprint, Arden Library 1979).
Macartney, Clarence E., Grant and His Generals (1953;
visito
the nomination to James A. Garfield on the
reprint, Aver 1975).
Cave
36th ballot, and Grant's political career was
Mantell, Martin E., Johnson, Grant and the Politics of
a ton
ended.
Reconstruction (Columbia Univ. Press 1973).
Miers, Earl S., The Web of Victory: Grant at Vicksburg
of th
The last years of Grant's life were sad ones.
(1955; reprint, Greenwood Press 1978).
lent
Admirers collected a fund of $250,000, which
Nevins, Allan, Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the
Gran
they placed in trust for him; when the securities
Grant Administration, 2 vols. (1936; reprint, Ungar
1957).
C
in which the fund was invested became worth-
Pitkins, Thomas M., The Captain Departs: Ulysses S.
found
less, however, he was so hard up for money that
Grant's Last Campaign (Southern Ill. Univ. Press 1973).
open
he had to sell his wartime swords and souvenirs.
Williams, Thomas H., McClellan, Sherman and Grant
Gove
(1962; reprint, Greenwood Press 1976).
ALGEBRAIC GEOMETRY-ALGER
563
mber by j shall be noncommutating
ji; bi)
ALGEBRAICY GEOMETRY, al-ja-brã'ik jē-om'a-trē,
born in Revere, Mass., on Jan. 13, 1832, the son
of algebraic sets and their classi-
of a Unitarian minister. His father wanted him
action. In plane analytic geometry, the main
to become a minister and, for this purpose, sent
d b are real, and if we set
is to set up a coordinate system and then
him to Harvard and to Harvard Divinity school,
the following multiplication table ij
associate with an equation f(x,y) = 0 the set
from which he graduated in 1860. Illness and
all points (a,b) such that f(a,b) = 0. If
a twide-broken arm kept Alger from joining the
j
k
sey) called an algebraic curve. These points
is a polynomial, the resulting set of
Union Army during the Civil War. He finally
was ordained in 1864 and became minister of a
1
i
generalizations to higher dimensions
Unitarian church in Brewster, Mass.
the concern of algebraic geometry. At first
In 1866, Alger resigned from his church and
1
1
i
j
k
points with real-number coordinates were
moved to New York City, where he became
Flowed may in algebraic geometry. Later it became
associated with the Newsboys' Lodging House.
i
i
-1
k
-j
pressary to allow points with complex-number
The homeless waifs who lived there became the
coordinates. Once the transfer to complex num-
Ragged Dicks and Tattered Toms of his stories.
j
j
-k
-1
i
ters was made, the visual realization of geometric
He died in Natick, Mass., on July 18, 1899.
effects became little more than an aid in find-
Alger was one of the New England moralizers
k
k
-1
08 or understanding theorems.
who, though not necessarily rich or virtuous
j
-i
The fundamental objects of study in modern
themselves, told others how to translate virtue
algebraic geometry are algebraic sets. For any
into fortune in the rising commercial cities. He
seld K, we define an affine n-space An (K) over
wrote about 135 books, with such titles as Fame
ber in the set of quaternions can be
I to be the set of n-tuples (x₁, Xₙ) with
and Fortune, Struggling Upward, and Strive and
the form
Xn belonging to K. Such an n-tuple is
Succeed. The "Horatio Alger hero" became a
x₂j
(x,
called a point. An algebraic hypersurface is the
symbol of success in an age when the legend
real),
of all such points satisfying a polynomial
was established that any poor boy could become
ch numbers can be multiplied, by con-
multiplication table, to obtain a new
quation in n variables with coefficients in K.
president or a millionaire if he was intelligent,
the same form. Scalar multiplication
An algebraic set (often called an algebraic
hard-working, and honest. Boys of the period
addition, and multiplication are dr
(carlety) is the intersection, or common locus,
delighted in Alger's tales of young men who won
2 finite collection of algebraic hypersurfaces.
fortune's favor by leading virtuous lives and
e usual way; addition and multiplies
The modern period in algebraic geometry
performing heroic deeds.
stributive. Thus, quaternions form &
Harts with the work of R.L. van der Waerden,
Cotton Mather, Benjamin Franklin, Freeman
ora. If we make
Chow, Oscar Zariski, and André Weil. The pub-
Hunt, and others had extolled the rewards of
Seation of Weil's Foundations of Algebraic
industry, frugality, and sobriety before Alger.
Geometry in 1947 was particularly important.
He differed from his predecessors mainly in
The modern theory of algebraic groups starts
aiming at an audience of boys, in using the
k
with C.C. Chevalley and Weil; the works of
fictional form, and in setting his stories in New
Rosenlicht, A. Borel, and J.P. Serre on this sub-
York City, the great mecca of success. His novels
2 = k² - 1, and these elements are
kct are of basic importance. See ALGEBRA.
contain flimsy plots, wooden characters, and
dependent. Quaternions can thus be
stilted conversations, which betray their hasty
I as an algebra of two-rowed matrices
ALGECIRAS, äl-hä-thē'räs, is a city in Spain, in
composition and expose the lack of imagination
can be proved that every linear alse
Cadiz province, on the western side of Algeciras
that made it impossible for Alger to fulfill his
er n with a unit element is isomorphic
Bay, 6 miles west of Gibraltar. Its name in
desire to write adult fiction.
bra of n X n matrices.
Arabic is al-Jazirah al-Khadra. The city is a
IRVIN G. WYLLIE, University of Wisconsin
terial that has been presented is intro-
port, used primarily by vessels trading with
Modern algebra has been undergoing
North Africa, and a railway terminus. A mild
ALGER, al'jar, Russell Alexander (1836-1907),
changes in scope and character as 1
climate, bathing beaches, and the Fuente Santa
American public official. He was born in La-
igorous research in a number of fields
mineral springs have made it a winter resort.
fayette Township, Medina County, Ohio, on Feb.
: is referred particularly to the boods
Tourism and fishing are the principal industries.
27, 1836, and was admitted to the Ohio bar in
ne bibliography that deal with repre-
There are also fish- and cork-processing in-
1859. He moved in the following year to Michi-
heory, homological algebras, Lie also
dustries and shipyards. Grain, tobacco, oranges,
gan, where he eventually amassed a large for-
ssociative algebras, and commutative
and livestock are raised in the surrounding area.
tune in the lumber industry. Serving in the
The city is reputedly on the site of the an-
Civil War, he rose from private to colonel, and
MINA REES, Hunter College
cient Roman town of Portus Albus. The region
in 1865 was breveted major general of volun-
was occupied by the Moors in 711 and ruled by
teers for gallantry. After the war he was active
drian, Fundamental Bibliography Concepts of Higher No
them until 1344, when Alfonso XI of Castile cap-
in Republican politics, serving as governor of
tured the city. It subsequently was destroyed
Michigan from 1885 to 1887.
gonal Pub. 1981).
Elementary Algebra
and later was colonized by Spanish refugees
In March 1897, Alger was appointed secre-
Edwin F., and others,
from Gibraltar in 1704. The modern city was
tary of war by President William McKinley. The
nometry, 5th ed.
built by Charles III in 1760. During the Na-
War Department, as he inherited it, was poorly
and others, Essential Skills
arrett, and MacLane, Saunders, A Surony of
poleonic Wars a British fleet defeated the French
organized and grossly inefficient, and the new
lgebra, B., and 4th ed. others, (Macmillan eds., Computer 1977). Algrbes
city and Spanish off Algeciras in 1801. In 1906 the
secretary did nothing to improve it. This situa-
called to settle the Moroccan crisis. Population:
was the scene of the Algeciras Conference,
tion, which might have been tolerated in peace-
Categories Verlag 1983). of Boolean Sheaves of Simple No
(1981) 86,042.
time, became a matter of grave concern after the
outbreak of the Spanish-American War in 1898.
inger-Verlag arry L., and 1986). Hohn, Franz E., Applied Mades
ALGECIRAS international
Poor food, inappropriate clothing, and inade-
quate medical services aroused widespread
Macmillan da and Jimmie, 1978). Elements of Modern
Spain. Pres-
criticism. Finally, in July 1899, McKinley re-
D. creda 1983). A., and others, Success with Algrba (Dd-
intervened on behalf
quested the secretary's resignation. A presi-
to initiate discussion about the
dential commission failed to establish the extent
-Hall rvin, ed., 1985). Introduction to Modern Algebra Not
was Spain and France, which
hard, An Introduction to Non-Association s'
delay Moroccc 1912.
of Alger's responsibility for the maladministra-
tion, and in 1901 he published The Spanish-
demic Margaret Press F., 1966). Modern Intermediate Algebra
ALGER, al'jer, Horatio (1832-1899), American
American War, defending his conduct in office.
ar, reprint, and Samuel, Krieger Pierre, 1982). Commutative Alsots
and for who wrote a series of successful novels
He served as United States senator from Michi-
print, Springer-Verlag 1975).
boys on the rags-to-riches theme. He was
gan from 1902 until his death in Washington,
D.C., on Jan. 24, 1907.
WORK
THE DEFENSE ESTABLISHMENT
85
eized control of Washington in 1814. It
h the yard no longer builds ships, visitors
military officers and an important training ground for top-ranking
ed destroyer U.S.S. Barry, which saw
military leaders.
More than a century ago, Fort McNair housed a prison where, on
now been moored to Pier 2 in the Navy
July 7, 1865, four inmates were hanged for conspiracy in the assas-
sination of President Abraham Lincoln. The body of John Wilkes
corner of the yard is the Navy Museum
Booth lay secretly buried nearby until 1867. The prison remains have
Id Naval Gun Factory. Exhibits include
been remodeled into living quarters for junior officers and their
om the frigate Constitution, a submarine
families.
pes, and naval guns which visitors can
On the other side of the Potomac in Arlington, Virginia, is the
). For the less aggressive visitor, there
U.S. Army's Fort Myer, Arlington Boulevard and Pershing Drive
1 on Old Ironsides in 1854, and a bottle
et of John Paul Jones.
(696-3510), once the Civil War home of Confederate General Robert
E. Lee. It was seized by Union forces in 1864. Fort Myer is now the
ne Museum (433-4882), with displays
home of the Third U.S. Infantry, more commonly known as the "Old
War-era submarines to a modern-day Po-
Guard," the military's preeminent ceremonial unit and the Army's
building is the 1898 model basin where
oldest active infantry outfit. The Old Guard Museum (696-3633) is
; of its new ships.
ne to the Marine Corps Historical Center,
just inside the main gates.
High on a bluff overlooking the Potomac River, opposite Mount
S Museum (433-3840 or 433-3534) at
Vernon on the Maryland side of the river, sits Fort Washington
ilding, which issued new canvas, twine,
Park at Potomac River and Fort Washington Road, off Indian
paint to naval crews before it was de-
Head Highway (301-763-4600*). Although the fort was intended to
ors can take a trip through the museum's
protect the river route into the capital, it was not finished in time to
display cases chronicling 200 years of
stave off the 1814 British attack. Its steep ramparts, walls, and moat
volutionary War to today's high-technol-
remain preserved, however.
A much more modest site, a tiny one-block park at Piney Branch
Naval Yard is the Marine Corps Bar-
Road and Quackenbos Street in northwest Washington, marks the
E.E. (433-4073), the service's oldest post
site of Fort Stevens, where youngsters can climb over old cannons
ng, manicured lawn is the historic stone
and picnickers can relax under huge trees. It was here in 1864 that
: corps commandant. President Thomas
Lieutenant Colonel Oliver Wendell Holmes barked at a tall civilian
ve around the swampy capital city, hand-
towering atop the ramparts, "Get down, you fool!'. It was none other
; within marching distance of the Capitol
than President Lincoln, who, oblivious to the bullets whizzing over-
tection was needed.
head, had been watching the Confederates advance on the city.
) has a branch 35 miles to the south in
:
Quantico Marine Base. Three hangars
Modern Times
Ground Museum's (433-3840 or 433-
aircraft, armor, and artillery.
Just as much a part of the Washington military as the official govern-
post in America-Fort Lesley J. McNair,
ment bureaucracy are the hundreds of defense contractors, who have
; a stately setting for the National War
brought their glass high-rise offices to the suburbs of Washington.
st prestigious of the schools for senior
*Area code not needed when dialing from within Washington,
D.C.
SECOND .. EDITION
Guide to Washington
BY THE PEOPLE WHO KNOW IT BEST
AV GUIDE TO THE NATION' Si CAPITAL
PILED AND EDITED BY ROBERTI PRICE
HM
soct
886T
W35
F199
Ref.
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aperbacks
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6TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1989 Chicago Tribune Company;
Chicago Tribune
June 18, 1989, Sunday, FINAL EDITION
SECTION: TRIBUNE BOOKS; Pg. 3; ZONE: C; Nonfiction
LENGTH: 1002 words
HEADLINE: The Wrights' stuff
Why Wilbur and Orville were men made to fly
BYLINE: Reviewed by F. Clifton Berry, Jr., a pilot and aviation writer
BODY:
The Bishop's Boys: A Life of Wilbur and Orville Wright
By Tom D. Crouch
Norton, 586 pages, $22.50
Eighty years ago, in August, 1909, the United States Army bought its first
airplane. The price: $25,000, plus a $5,000 performance
bonus. To win the
business, the manufacturers - Wilbur and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio - spent
their own money to prove by flight demonstrations that the airplane would meet
all of the Army's specifications.
The Wright Model-B exceeded what the Army thought was possible - in
endurance, carrying capacity and speed. It was the speed that brought the bonus.
Army specifications required an average speed of 40 miles per hour over a
10-mile course, with $2,500 to be paid for each mile-per-hour above that. Flying
from Fort Myer, near Arlington Cemetery, to Alexandria, Va., and back, Orville
Wright achieved an average speed of 42.583 miles per hour, as clocked with two
stopwatches by his passenger, Lieutenant Benny Foulois.
At the moment of the sale of their Model-B to the Army, the Wright Brothers
were undisputed kings of the air. Where others had failed, they had shown that
man could fly - having flown powered, heavier-than-air flying machines for
nearly six years. Beginning from scratch and conducting much original research,
they had overcome centuries of ignorance and decades of flawed experimentation
by others. But when the United States entered the great World War eight years
later, its combat aviators had to fly French and British machines. Not only did
the Army and Navy have no Wright aircraft to fly to war, but they also had no U.
S.-built combat aircraft at all.
The Wrights had been the first to fly, and once they had led the pack. But
after only a few years, their designs were obsolete. Even the manufacturing
company they founded to exploit their patents was forced to merge with another.
So as aviation developed and expanded, both at home and abroad, it did so
largely without Wright airplanes. But if Curtiss, Douglas, Lockheed, Cessna,
Piper, and Martin were the companies that built airplanes by the hundreds of
thousands, it was the Wrights who made the dream of flight come true.
Earlier biographers have admirably sketched the lives of Wilbur and Orville
Wright. But in his fascinating multiple biography, "The Bishop's Boys," Tom
Crouch has delved more deeply than ever before into the Wrights' ancestry and
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(c) 1989 Chicago Tribune, June 18, 1989
the nature of the immediate family, clarifying their motivations and the
underlying bonds that made them such a successful team.
Crouch leads us through their research, which truly was original. Not only
did they invent a machine that would fly, but they also built the engine that
provided the motive power and invented the propellers that turned the engine's
power into the thrust that moved the whole machine through the air. Finally, in
the essential intellectual breakthrough that literally lifted their work off the
ground, they achieved true control of their flying machine in three axes: roll,
pitch and yaw.
Those were truly original achievements, a testimony to the Wright Brothers'
determination, character and intellectual curiosity. And those qualities were
instilled in them by their parents, Milton and Susan Wright.
A power in the United Brethren church, Bishop Milton Wright traveled widely,
always making sure to bring back souvenirs. And in the fall of 1878, he returned
with a souvenir that would change history.
It was one of the world's most popular mechanical toys, a rudimentary
helicopter that consisted of a stick with a four-bladed rotor on the top. The
stick was inserted into a spindle and spun by means of a string. When the string
was pulled, the rotors spun, and the tiny craft lifted out of the spindle into
the air.
"The toy," Crouch writes, "is a perfect illustration of play as the
inspiration for technological innovation. From the time of Leonardo, when
portrait painters used the little helicopter to quiet fidgety young sitters, to
that day in 1878 when Milton Wright presented the gadget to his sons, rotary
wing toys were to intrigue and inspire generations of children, a few of whom
would, as adults, attempt to realize the dream of flight for themselves."
Soon after receiving the toy from their father, Orville and Wilbur built and
flew copies of it. When Orville's school teacher caught him fiddling with the
wood pieces of one of those copies, Orville explained that he was "assembling
parts of a flying machine." Crouch reports that "to her credit, Miss Palmer
reprimanded Orville but did not confiscate the craft."
"The Bishop's Boys" contains many such anecdotes that illuminate the Wrights'
motivations and characters. It also includes the technical details of their
quest for powered flight, explains them clearly to the lay reader and goes
beyond technology to explore Wrights' relationships (and disputes) with Octave
Chanute, Samuel P. Langley, Glenn Curtiss and other experimenters in the U. S.
and Europe. The courts eventually upheld the Wrights' patents, but because the
legal battles diverted their inventive energies, others were able to make the
improvements and build the production lines that advanced aeronautics.
Crouch says that Bishop Wright once told a reporter that his sons were as
inseparable as twins. They certainly remain so, in the public memory and in
history. One always thinks of them as the Wright Brothers, not as Orville
Wright and Wilbur Wright; and while they were different men, their essential
inseparability was, says Crouch, "one of the secrets of their success. Each of
them was prepared to rely on the other's strengths and to compensate for his
weaknesses."
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(c) 1989 Chicago Tribune, June 18, 1989
Bishop Wright, born in 1828, flew with his son Orville on May 25, 1910. The
Wright Brothers flew together only one time, for 14 minutes on that same day.
But because they unlocked the secrets of flight for mankind, in our minds they
will always soar together. Theirs is a fascinating tale, and Tom Crouch does a
splendid job of telling it.
GRAPHIC: PHOTO: Wilbur Wright practices in a glider at Kitty Hawk, N. J. in
1901. Photo from the National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institition.
TERMS: AVIATION; BIOGRAPHY; BOOK; REVIEW
LEXIS® ® NEXIS® LEXIS® ® NEXIS R