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[Arrival Ceremony and State Dinner for Prime Minister Andreotti of Italy] 3/6/90 [OA 6894]
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[Arrival Ceremony and State Dinner for Prime Minister Andreotti of Italy] 3/6/90 [OA 6894]
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[Arrival Ceremony and State Dinner for Prime Minister Andreotti of Italy] 3/6/90 [OA 6854]
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26
19
6
7
REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT
ARRIVAL CEREMONY FOR PRIME MINISTER ANDREOTTI OF ITALY
THE WHITE HOUSE
to
MARCH 6. 1990
true
01
Mr. Prime Minister, Mrs. Androotti, friends of Italy:
Andreo
leadershi
Barbara and I are very pleased to welcome on an Official Visit
to Washington the President of the Council of Ministers of the
Republic of Italy, Giulio Andreotti and his wife, Livia.
Prime Minister Andreotti's rich public career of forty-five
years is unrivaled in modern Europe. He has served his nation with
distinction in parliament, in many important cabinet positions,
including foreign affairs and defense and as Prime Minister six
times, beginning in 1972.
sed All $ ance is assential
to
diologue
In addition to his unparalleled career as a statesman, our
honored guest is a renowned author and commentator, an intellectual
and a man known for his humor and integrity. Giulio Andreotti is
also one of America's closest friends. We are proud and honored to
welcome him to the White House today.
-2-
This week's visit by Prime Minister and Mrs. Andreotti
bears witness to Italy's important role in the fast-evolving
European scene, and to America's commitment to its continuing
partnership with Italy and Europe at this time of dynamic
change. Giulio Andreotti always brings insight and wisdom to
bear on any situation. I look forward to exchanging views with
him on the dramatic new realities in Europe and how to deal
with them. For under Giulio Andreotti's leadership, both as
Foreign Minister and Prime Minister, Italy's role in world
affairs has grown considerably over the past two decades.
creasingly
The United States and Italy are the firmest of allies. Our
dialogue is constant, substantive and productive. We are
partners in the Atlantic Alliance, where continued allied
solidarity in the face of change is increasingly important. We
both recognize that NATO needs to adapt constructively to new
challenges, and that a revitalized Alliance is essential to
maintain a vigorous transatlantic dialogue on issues of prime
importance to all of us.
was
will
-3-
Italy is an important partner in moving towards success in
arms control, a goal we can reach as we remain strong,
determined and united. I want to express my personal
appreciation for the Prime Minister's continuing support on
issues so vital to our two nations, and to our Alliance.
Beginning in July - when Italy presides over the European
Community - our two governments will enhance coordination of
our transatlantic partnership so that we can deal with the new,
evolving global situation in creative and productive ways. Our
cooperation will become increasingly important as the European
Community moves closer toward the 1992 unified market.
As EC president in the second half of 1990, Italy will have
the opportunity to demonstrate leadership in the battle against
organized crime and narcotics trafficking, a fight in which our
nations cooperate closely. Europe and the United States can
further enhance
cooperation in this field. I believe
Italy's leadership in the narcotics war will encourage other
nations to work collectively on effective narcotics control
initiatives.
-4-
Ladies and gentlemen, Americans have enormous respect for
Italy, a creative nation with which we share so many goals and
interests. Today's visit will strengthen the already strong
bonds between our two countries. Those links - economic,
cultural and familial, just to name a few - are forged by
citizens in both lands bonded by a common purpose, a sense of
cooperation and a commitment to shared values.
Let me in closing express my hope that you, Mrs. Andreotti
and your colleagues have a most successful visit, and that you
will again feel the strength of the ties between our two
nations, symbolized by the millions of Americans proud of their
Italian heritage. Mr. Prime Minister, welcome to Washington.
Italy,
Glutte
DRAFT
REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT
STATE DINNER IN HONOR OF PRIME MINISTER ANDREOTTI OF ITALY
THE WHITE HOUSE
MARCH 6. 1990
Mr. Prime Minister, Mrs. Andreotti, distinguished guests,
friends of Italy:
oldest
Barbara and I are very pleased to welcome to the White
Houses tonight so many good friends, including many who have
had the privilege of knowing over the past half century our
distinguished guest of honor, the President of the Council of
Ministers of the Republic of Italy, Giulio Andreotti.
Giulio, you have been in the upper circles of Italian
government since 1946 when you were elected to the assembly
which formed Italy's constitution. I was returning from
wartime duty in the Pacific, and was yet to get my feet wet in
the world of politics. While you and I are proud of our 45
years of marriage to our partners Livia and Barbara, I cannot
compete with your unparalleled professional resume which spans
five event-filled decades.
-2-
Your rich public career is unrivaled in modern European
history. Ladies and gentlemen, our honored guest has been
Prime Minister six times, cabinet minister many times over
since 1954, and has had a distinguished parliamentary career.
He is a renowned and prolific author and a man of integrity.
And, I should note for the benefit of many in the room, as
Prime Minister in 1976, he brought into government Italy's
first woman cabinet minister, Tina Anselmi.
Giulio, you are one of America's oldest and closest
friends. You know our country well. You have a deep reservoir
of admirers in government, business, the church and many other
facets of American life. We are proud and honored to be with
you today. And tomorrow, when you address a rare joint sitting
of the United States Congress, I know you will again sense the
deep admiration America holds for you and the proud nation you
so ably represent.
Last October, Barbara and I were pleased to welcome to the
White House the distinguished President of Italy, my friend
Francesco Cossiga. In the time we spent together, I was able
to appreciate the important role Italy plays in the
fast-evolving European scene. Needless to say, much has
happened around the world in the last six months. Perhaps
never has so much positive change happened so fast and affected
so many people.
3-200005 will
Giulio, I can think of no time in modern history when
wisdom and perspective like yours could be more valuable. In
our discussions today, and over the past months, we have shared
the excitement of today's remarkable changes, and together
grappled with the dramatic new realities in Europe and
elsewhere in the world. Freedom is finding new life, and we
applaud the vibrant human spirit which is making it happen.
love of BOCCE
We discussed the ramifications of a unified Germany, and
how to accommodate the needs of nations in Eastern Europe,
opening their doors to new opportunities. We agree that the
United States must be closely involved in this exciting process
unfolding on the European continent, where our roots run deep.
I made Italy the first stop on my first visit to Europe as
President, en route to Brussels ten months ago for the
important NATO summit, which set the tone for important arms
reduction proposals now even closer to fruition. The Prime
Minister and I also agree that a vigorous and adaptable NATO is
vital to continue to guarantee our collective security in new,
challenging times.
Beginning in July - when Italy takes over the chair of the
European Community - our two governments will enhance the
coora of a trans-Atlantic partnership that can deal with
the evolving situation in creative and productive ways. As
Prime Minister Andreotti points Italy towards the economically
unified Europe of 1992, I can think of no one better qualified
to lead the EC in the second half of this year, a time which
promises to be full of dramatic events.
Giulio, in listing some of your many accomplishments, I
neglected to mention your lifetime love of soccer, or football,
as it is known to all the world outside America's borders.
Later this spring, as we look towards our next scheduled
meeting - at the Houston Economic Summit - your attention may
be tested by the 1990 World Cup, which Italy is hosting at the
same time. For the first time, the U.S. soccer team has
survived the tough elimination rounds. I am confident that
US-Italian competition on the playing field will be as vigorous
- and positive - as our long and strong trans-atlantic
relationship.
Mr. Prime Minister, our discussions today reinforce my deep
admiration for you, and for your nation. The American people
and I wish you well, and I ask our guests to join me in
saluting you and the citizens of the Republic of Italy.
Grant/Nappo
Draft one
February 27, 1990
A:Italy
REMARKS: ARRIVAL CEREMONY
PRIME MINISTER ANDREOTTI OF ITALY
THE WHITE HOUSE
MARCH 6, 1990
( (Mr. Prime Minister, Mrs. Andreotti, friends of Italy.))
Barbara and I welcome the President of the Council of
Ministers of the Republic of Italy, Giulio Andreotti and his
wife, Livia, to our home and to the United States.
Prime Minister Andreotti's rich public career is unrivaled
in modern Europe. He has served his nation with distinction as a
statesman and a diplomat, and has been named Prime Minister six
times. Our honored guest is an intellectual, a man known for his
humor and integrity, as well as a renowned author. Giulio
Andreotti is one of America's closest friends, the leader of a
strong nation and a strong people. We are proud and honored to
welcome him to the White House today.
Nearly 45 years ago, the giants of modern history --
Churchill, Eisenhower, Adenauer and de Gaulle were in the midst
of rebuilding Europe, working on what would be the Marshall Plan.
And another giant, a man whose accomplishments outweighed the
fame he won for them, was a man who helped build the strong
Atlantic community we have today -- Prime Minister Alcide De
Gasperi of Italy.
I mentioned that Giulio Andreotti is a renowned author.
Well, he wrote a book about De Gasperi, and many in the world
2
believe that Prime Minister Andreotti leads Italy in the
tradition of De Gasperi. Like his predecessor, Guilio is a
robust, strong man -- a leader fighting for freedom, peace and
democracy in an evolving Europe.
This week's visit by the Prime Minister bears witness to
Italy's continued leadership amidst the swift-moving stream of
events in Europe, and to America's steadfast partnership with
Italy and Europe through it all.
Giulio Andreotti is a man of wisdom and insight. Like
Presidents Nixon and Ford did before me, I look forward to
exchanging views with the Prime Minister -- this time, on the
dramatic new realities in Europe. Over the past two decades, we
have seen Italy's role in world affairs grow under Giulio
Andreotti's leadership, both as Foreign Minister and Prime
Minister.
The United States and Italy are the firmest of allies. Our
dialogue is constant, substantive and productive. We are true
partners in the Atlantic Alliance, which serves as the foundation
for stability and solidarity among our nations. We both
recognize that NATO needs to adapt constructively to new
challenges, and that a revitalized Alliance is the key to
maintaining a vigorous transatlantic dialogue on the important
issues -- like arms control, free trade, and fighting the war on
drugs.
Beginning in July -- when Italy presides over the European
Community -- our two governments will work even more closely as
3
we deal with the new, evolving global situation in creative and
productive ways. Our cooperation will become even more vital as
the European Community moves closer toward the single market of
1992. And Italy will have the opportunity to lead other nations
in the battle against organized crime and narcotics trafficking,
a fight in which our two nations remain strong, determined and
united.
Americans have enormous respect for Italy. The American
novelist Henry James once wrote, "We to to Italy, to gaze upon
certain of the highest achievements of human power," representing
"to the imagination the maximum of man's creative force."
Together, we can achieve even more -- and today's visit will
strengthen the deep bonds between us. We share between us 12
million Americans who proudly call Italy their ancestral home.
And because of them, America is a richer place -- for their
commitment to family and faith, for their zest for life, and for
their flair at great cooking.
Let me in closing express my hope that you have a most
successful visit, a safe journey, and a delightful time here.
Mr. Prime Minister, welcome to Washington.
###
Grant/Nappo
Draft two
March 1, 1990
A:Italy
REMARKS: ARRIVAL CEREMONY
PRIME MINISTER ANDREOTTI OF ITALY
THE WHITE HOUSE
MARCH 6, 1990
( (Mr. Prime Minister, Mrs. Andreotti, friends of Italy.))
Barbara and I are pleased to welcome the President of the
Council of Ministers of the Republic of Italy, Giulio Andreotti
and his wife, Livia, to the United States and to our home.
Prime Minister Andrectti's public career is rich in
achievement, unrivaled in modern Europe. He has served his
nation with distinction as statesman and diplomat, and of course,
as Prime Minister. But Giulio is also renowned in Europe as a
man of letters, humor and integrity. And he's renowned in
America as a good and close friend. We are proud and honored to
have him as our guest today.
45 years ago, the giants of modern history -- Churchill,
Truman, Adenauer and de Gaulle were embarking on the great task
of rebuilding Europe, what would later be known as the Marshall
Plan. But they had the help of the dedication and vision of
another giant, a man who helped forge the strong Atlantic
community we have today -- Prime Minister Alcide De Gasperi of
Italy.
I mentioned that Giulio Andreotti is a renowned author.
Well, he wrote a book about De Gasperi, and it is in the
tradition of his subject that Prime Minister Andreotti leads
2
Italy today. Like his predecessor, Guilio is a leader who fights
for freedom, peace and democracy in an evolving Europe.
This week's visit by the Prime Minister bears witness to
Italy's continued leadership amidst the swift-moving stream of
events in Europe; and to America's steadfast partnership with
Italy and Europe through it all.
Like Presidents Nixon and Ford did before me, I look forward
to exchanging views with the Prime Minister -- this time, on the
dramatic developments in Europe --- East and West. Over the past
two decades, we've seen Italy's role in world affairs grow under
Giulio Andreotti's leadership, both as Foreign Minister and Prime
Minister.
And during that time, the United States and Italy have been
the firmest of allies. Our dialogue is constant, substantive and
productive. We are true partners in the Atlantic Alliance, which
serves as the foundation for stability and solidarity among our
nations. We both recognize that NATO needs to adapt
constructively to new challenges, and that a revitalized Alliance
is the key to maintaining a vigorous trans-Atlantic dialogue on
important issues like arms control, free trade, and fighting the
war on drugs.
Beginning in July -- when Italy presides over the European
Community -- our two governments will work even more closely as
we deal with the new, evolving global situation in creative and
productive ways. Our cooperation will become even more vital as
the European Community moves closer toward the single market of
3
1992. And Italy will have the opportunity to lead other nations
in the battle against organized crime and narcotics trafficking,
a fight in which our two nations remain strong, determined and
united.
Americans have always held a special place in their hearts
for Italy. It was the American novelist Henry James who once
wrote: "We go to Italy, to gaze upon certain of the highest
achievements of human power," representing "to the imagination
the maximum of man's creative force." Together, we can achieve
even more and today's visit will strengthen the deep bonds
between us. We share between us 12 million Americans who look
back with pride to Italy as their ancestral home. And because of
them, America is a richer place -- because of their commitment to
family and faith, for their zest for life.
Let me, in closing, express my hope that you have a most
successful visit, a safe journey, and a delightful time here.
Mr. Prime Minister, welcome to Washington.
###
Grant/Nappo
Draft one
February 27, 1990
A:italydin
REMARKS: STATE DINNER IN HONOR OF
PRIME MINISTER ANDREOTTI OF ITALY
THE WHITE HOUSE
MARCH 6, 1990
( (Mr. Prime Minister, Mrs. Andreotti, distinguished guests,
friends of Italy.) )
Barbara and I are very pleased to welcome you to the White
House tonight to honor the President of the Council of Ministers
of the Republic of Italy, Giulio Andreotti.
We'd also like to thank Miss Roberta Peters, who is
approaching the 40th anniversary of her career debut -- which
took place at the Metropolitan Opera. After performing with the
Met for 35 years as a leading soprano, she continues to thrill
audiences today as an internationally acclaimed artist, traveling
the world as one of America's greatest divas.
Having such a world-famous opera star here reminds me of the
time the great Italian tenor, Enrico Caruso, was asked by a group
of American reporters what he thought of Babe Ruth. Caruso, ever
polite, replied that he didn't know because unfortunately, he had
never heard her sing.
One American writer called Italy the "land of the immortal
gods. " I doubt he literally meant Apollo, Venus, and Minerva --
but rather that Italy is the home of such eternal ideals as art,
love and wisdom; the immortal genius of DaVinci, Michelangelo,
and Raphael; the timeless architecture of Piazza San Marco in
2
Venice; the classic strains heard in the air at La Scala in
Milan; and the spiritual home of millions on Earth -- St. Peter's
in Rome. Truly, Italy is a land of immortals.
Giulio, you have served Italy well. Your rich career of
public service is unrivaled in modern European history.
Beginning nearly 45 years ago, when you were elected the assembly
which formed Italy's constitution, your people have now elected
you Prime Minister six times.
Giulio, you are one of America's oldest and closest friends.
You know our country well. We are proud and honored to be with
you, and you have the deep respect of every here tonight. And
tomorrow, when you address a joint session of the United States
Congress, I know you will again sense the deep admiration America
holds for you and the proud nation of Italy.
Last October, Barbara and I were pleased to welcome to the
White House the distinguished President of Italy, my friend
Francesco Cossiga. In the time we spent together, we agreed on
the key role Italy plays in the new emerging Europe. Freedom is
finding new life among millions of people the world over, and
together our two nations applaud the vibrant human spirit of the
men and women seeking peaceful change from Eastern Europe to
Central America.
In my discussions with Prime Minister Andreotti today, and
over the past months, we have shared the excitement of these
remarkable changes. Giulio, you are a man of integrity and
3
foresight, and I can think of no time in modern history when
wisdom and perspective like yours could be more valuable.
We discussed the ramifications of a unified Germany, and how
to accommodate the needs of nations in Eastern Europe, opening
their doors to new opportunities. We agree that the United
States must be closely involved in this exciting process
unfolding on the European continent, where our roots run deep.
They say that "all roads lead to Rome," and so Italy was my
first stop on my first visit to Europe as President, en route ten
months ago to the important NATO summit, which set the tone for
important arms reduction proposals now even closer to fruition.
The Prime Minister and I also agree that a vigorous and adaptable
NATO is vital to guarantee our collective security in new,
challenging times.
We have much to look forward to: This summer, we will meet
again at the Houston Economic Summit. Then, beginning in July,
Italy becomes chairman of the European Community -- and our two
governments will work together to deal with an evolving Europe in
creative and productive ways. Further down the road, we approach
the single market of 1992 together. But most important of all,
there is perhaps toughest issue between our two nations, a
meeting which will take place this summer in Italy. Our side has
already made bold advances against other nations involved, but we
must be allowed to compete on a level playing field. That's
right, I'm talking about the 1990 World Cup in Soccer.
4
Mr. Prime Minister, our discussions today reinforce my deep
admiration for you, and for your nation. The great Roman
statesman Cicero, once wrote, "When good men of like character
are joined in friendship, there we find the noblest and the
strongest union. " To our noble and strong union, and to you and
the citizens of the Republic of Italy, I ask our guests to join
me in a salute.
# # #
Grant/Nappo
Draft two
March 1, 1990
A:italydin
REMARKS: STATE DINNER IN HONOR OF
PRIME MINISTER ANDREOTTI OF ITALY
THE WHITE HOUSE
MARCH 6, 1990
( (Mr. Prime Minister, Mrs. Andreotti, distinguished guests,
friends of Italy.) )
Barbara and I are very pleased to welcome you to the White
House tonight to honor the President of the Council of Ministare
of the Republic of Italy, Giulio Andreotti.
We'd also like to thank Miss Roberta Peters, who is
approaching the 40th anniversary of her career debut at the
Metropolitan Opera. After performing with the Met for 35 years
as a leading soprano, she continues to thrill audiences today as
an internationally acclaimed artist, traveling the world as one
of America's greatest divas.
(( Having such a world-famous opera star here reminds me of
the time the great Italian tenor, Enrico Caruso, was asked by a
group of American reporters what he thought of Babe Ruth.
Caruso, ever polite, replied that he didn't know because
unfortunately, he had never heard her sing. "
One American writer called Italy the "land of the immortal
gods." Not just the land of mythology, but the home of such
eternal ideals as beauty, love and wisdom; the immortal genius of
DaVinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael; the timeless architecture of
Piazza San Marco in Venice; the classic strains heard in the air
2
at La Scala in Milan; and the spiritual home of millions on Earth
-- St. Peter's in Rome. As American historian Will Durant said,
Rome is the mother of us all.
And it is in this great national tradition that Giulio has
served with such distinction. Your career of public service is
unrivaled in modern European history. It began nearly 45 years
ago, when you were elected to the assembly that drafted the
Italian constitution. And now your people have now elected you
Prime Minister six times.
Giulio, you are one of America closest friends You know
our country well. We are proud and honored to be with you. And
tomorrow, when you address a Joint Session of the United States
Congress, I know you will again sense the deep admiration America
holds for you and the great nation of Italy.
Last October, Barbara and I were pleased to welcome to the
White House the distinguished President of Italy, my friend
Francesco Cossiga. We certainly agree on the key role Italy
plays in the new emerging Europe. Freedom is finding new life
among millions of people the world over, and together our two
nations applaud the vibrant human spirit of the men and women
seeking peaceful change from Central Europe to Central America.
In my discussions with Prime Minister Andreotti today, and
over the past months, we have shared the excitement of these
remarkable changes. Giulio, I can think of no time in modern
history when wisdom and perspective like yours was needed more.
3
We discussed the ramifications of a unified Germany, and how
to accommodate the needs of nations in Eastern Europe and to open
their doors to new opportunities. We agreed that the United
States must be closely involved in this exciting process
unfolding on the European continent, where our roots run deep.
They say that "all roads lead to Rome,' and so Italy was my
first stop on my first visit to Europe as President, en route ten
months ago to the important NATO summit. Together, we set the
tone for critical arms reduction proposals, now even closer to
fulfillment. The Prime Minister and I also agree that a
and adaptable NATO is vital to guarantee our collective security
in new, challenging times.
We have much to look forward to: This summer, we will meet
again at the Houston Economic Summit. Then, beginning in July,
Italy becomes chairman of the European Community -- and our two
governments will work together to deal with an evolving Europe in
creative and productive ways. Further down the road, we approach
the single market of 1992 together. But most important of all,
there is perhaps toughest issue between our two nations, a
meeting which will take place this summer in Italy. Our side has
already made bold advances against other nations involved, but we
must be allowed to compete on a level playing field. That's
right, I'm talking about the 1990 World Cup in Soccer.
Mr. Prime Minister, our discussions today reinforce my deep
admiration for you and your nation. The great Roman statesman
Cicero, once wrote: "When good men of like character are joined
4
in friendship, there we find the noblest and the strongest
union." To our noble and strong union, and to you and the
citizens of the Republic of Italy, I ask our guests to join me in
a salute.
###
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
-GIULIO [JEW-LEE-0]
- ANDREOTTI [AHN-ORAY-OHT-EE]
ALCIDE [AL-CHEE-DA]
DE [DE]
GASPARI [GAW-SPARE-REE]
9.9. Duty
625
6 If any set of priorities were established to decide
ing will stand in the way of thy acting justly and
where we owe most of our moral duty, country
soberly and considerately.-But perhaps some
and parents would be listed first. It is they that
other active power will be hindered.-Well, but
have laid us under the heaviest obligations. Next
by acquiescing in the hindrance and by being
in line would be our children and the rest of the
content to transfer thy efforts to that which is al-
family, because they look to us alone for support
lowed, another opportunity of action is immedi-
and do not have any other protection. Lastly we
ately put before thee in place of that which was
must list our kinsmen. We live with them on good
hindered, and one which will adapt itself to this
terms and their lot is pretty much cast with ours.
ordering of which we are speaking.
Cicero, De Officiis, I, 17
Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, VIII, 32
h as Kant and
ch English writ-
7 We are obligated to respect, defend, and maintain
12 No man has a right to lead such a life of contem-
S. Mill.
the common bonds of union and fellowship that
plation as to forget in his own ease the service due
exist among all members of the human race.
to his neighbour; nor has any man a right to be so
his difference in
Cicero, De Officiis, I, 41
immersed in active life as to neglect the contem-
ce accorded to
plation of God.
ne-in the con-
8 Arriving there, he [Mercury] found the Trojan
Augustine, City of God, XIX, 19
prince
g in human con-
New ramparts raising for the town's defense.
13 Since you cannot do good to all, you are to pay
tress on law and
A purple scarf, with gold embroider'd o'er,
special regard to those who, by the accidents of
conceive acting
(Queen Dido's gift,) about his waist he wore;
time, or place, or circumstance, are brought into
or fulfilling one's
A sword, with glitt'ring gems diversified,
closer connection with you.
For ornament, not use, hung idly by his side.
Augustine, Christian Doctrine, I, 28
ferentiate duties
Then thus, with winged words, the god began,
religious accord-
Resuming his own shape: "Degenerate man,
14 A precept implies the notion of duty. But it is easy
ne is under obli-
Thou woman's property, what mak'st thou here,
for a man, especially for a believer, to understand
These foreign walls and Tyrian tow'rs to rear,
that, of necessity, he owes certain duties to God
of their concern
Forgetful of thy own? All-pow'rful Jove,
and to his neighbour. But that in matters which
moral
Who
swa
egard himself and not
Has sen:
with
this
alvation or beat-
sity certain duties to
What means thy ling'ring in the Libyan land?
at first glance, it seems that everyone is free in
and theologians
If glory cannot move a mind so mean,
matters that concern himself. And therefore the
terms of duty as
Nor future praise from flitting pleasure wean,
precepts which prohibit disorders of a man with
Regard the fortunes of thy rising heir:
d happiness. For
The promis'd crown let young Ascanius wear,
regard to himself reach the people through the
instruction of men who are versed in such matters.
the reader is re-
To whom th' Ausonian scepter, and the state
RAL LAW and Sec-
Of Rome's imperial name is ow'd by fate."
Aquinas, Summa Theologica, I-II, 100, 5
Virgil, Aeneid, IV
RS.
15 It is our duty to hate, in the sinner, his being a
sinner, and to love in him, his being a man capa-
9 Remember that you are an actor in a drama of
ble of bliss. And this is to love him truly, out of
such sort as the Author chooses-if short, then in
charity, for God's sake.
a short one; if long, then in a long one. If it be his
or, by their chariot
Aquinas, Summa Theologica, II-II, 25, 6
pleasure that you should enact a poor man, or a
cripple, or a ruler, or a private citizen, see that
nds or thirsty heat the
you act it well. For this is your business-to act
16 We cannot be bound beyond our powers and
well the given part, but to choose it belongs to
means. For this reason-that we have no power to
without
another.
effect and accomplish, that there is nothing really
eneath the covers.
Epictetus, Encheiridion, XVII
in our power but will-all man's rules of duty are
Euripides, Rhesus, 411
necessarily founded and established in our will.
Montaigne, Essays, I, 7,
10 I do my duty: other things trouble me not; for
private, in business or
That Intention Is Judge
they are either things without life, or things with-
matters or in dealing
out reason, or things that have rambled and know
moral duty. To dis-
not the way.
17 The knowledge of his duty should not be left to
that is morally right.
Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, VI, 22
each man's judgment; it should be prescribed to
norally wrong.
him, not left to the choice of his reason. Other-
Cicero, De Officiis, I, 2
wise, judging by the imbecility and infinite varie-
11 It is thy duty to order thy life well in every single
ty of our reasons and opinions, we would finally
wn sake. Our country
act; and if every act does its duty, as far as is
forge for ourselves duties that would set us to eat-
possible, be content; and no one is able to hinder
nd our friends claim a
ing one another.
thee so that each act shall not do its duty.-But
Montaigne, Essays, II, 12,
Cicero, De Officiis, I, 7
something external will stand in the way.-Noth-
Apology for Raymond Sebond
Marcus Tullius Cicero-Tom C. Clark
suspicion and anxiety and where friendship
A happy life consists in tranquility of
therefore all slaves of the
has no place.
Ibid.
mind.
ay enjoy freedom. Ibid.
Can anyone love either the man whom
Let the soldier yield to the civilian.
e no basis for an argument,
he fears, or the man by whom he believes
Orationes Philippicae, V, c. 60 B.C.
ff.
Pro Flacco.
himself to be feared? Yet tyrants are courted
of war are infinite money.
ition for wealth; for there
Dut
only
for
Ibid.
a season. For when by chance they have
soul as the love of riches;
fallen from power, as they generally do,
Only in states in which the power of the
thing more honorable or
then It is known how poor they were in
people is supreme has liberty any abode.
erence to money.
friends.
Ibid.
De republica, 1, c. 50 B.C.
De Officiis, bk. 1.
Wise men are instructed by reason; men
(Freedom is) the power to live as you
e highest character and
will. Who then lives as he wills?
of less understanding, by experience; the
here generally exists in-
most ignorant, by necessity; the beasts by
Paradoxa Stoicorum, quoted by Adler,
honor, command, power
nature.
The Idea of Freedom, p. 253.
Ibid.
All wicked men are slaves.
Ibid.
Taxes are the sinews of the State.
re corrupted by our wor-
Ibid., bk. 2.
Freedom is participation in power.
Superstition is a senseless fear of God.
De natura deorum, 45 B.C.
I prefer the most unfail peace to the most
regained
We were Sorn to unite with our fellow-
righteous war. (Also translated: I prefer the
fangs than freedom never
most unjust peace to the justest war that
men, and to join in community with the
Ibid.
human
race. De finibus, IV, c. 50 B.C.
was ever waged.)
Letters to Atticus.
ress so strong that money
The consensus of opinion among all na-
Tom C. Clark
In Verrem.
tions, on whatever matter, may be taken
(b. 1899)
for the law of nature.
ches, some good health,
U.S. Supreme Court justice
Tusculanae disputationes.
public honors, and many
al pleasures.
Again,
I would rather be wrong with Plato than
That books, newspapers, and magazines
10 place the "chief good"
right with such men as these.
Ibid.
are published and sold for profit does not
t is really a noble view;
prevent them from being a form of expres-
Reason is the mistress and queen of all
e is the parent and pre-
sion whose liberty is safeguarded by the
things.
Ibid.
First Amendment. We fail to see why
hip and without virtue,
Vivere est cogitare. (To think is to live.)
operation for profit should have any differ-
exist at all.
Copyright, Loeb Class-
Ibid.
ent effect in the case of motion pictures.
Majority opinion, Burstyn v. Wilson,
In the common people there is no wis-
343 U.S. 495 (1952). "The Miracle"
is there, in the name of
dom, no penetration, no power of judgment.
Case.
O would wish to be sur-
Pro Planchio.
from the standpoint of freedom of
mited wealth and to
Our minds possess by nature an insatiable
speech and the press, it is enough to point
aterial blessing, on con-
desire to know the truth.
out that the state has no legitimate interest
no one and that no one
leed is the life of tyrants
Extreme justice is extreme injustice.
in protecting any or all religions from views
distasteful to them which is sufficient to
which there can be no
Malice is pleasure derived from another's
justify prior restraints upon the expression
no trust in the continu-
evil which brings no advantage to oneself.
of those views. It is not the business of gov-
where every act arouses
[159]
03/02/90 12:45
8 202 462 3605 ITALPRESS WASH.
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Giulio Andreotti was born in Rome on 14 January 1919. He has always lived in
the capital, and graduated in Law at the University of Rome in 1941, specializing in
canon law.
At a very early age he began a career as a journalist. He started to make a na-
me for himself in the Federation of Catholic University Students (FUCI), whose as-
sistant priest was Mons. Montini, the future Pope Paul VI, and was appointed as
editor of « Azione Fucina» by Aldo Moro. When Moro resigned as Chairman of
FUCI, Andreotti was chosen by Pope Pius XII to take over the position. During this
time he also took part, together with Alcide De Gasperi and Guido Gonnella, in the
foundation of the Christian Democratic Party.
After the liberation of Rome he became a national delegate of the youth sec-
tions of the Christian Democratic Party, and in 1945 was a member of the National
Council.
He was a Deputy in the Constituent Assembly in 1946, and since that time has
always re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies in the constituency of Rome-
Latina-Viterbo-Frosinone, where he was elected for the twelth time in 1987 with
329,599 preferential votes.
He was Under-Secretary of State at the Presidency of the Council of Ministers
in the fourth to the eighth De Gasperi governments from 1947 to 1953, and held the
same position until January 1954 in the Pella government.
He has subsequently held many governmental offices: he was Minister of the
Interior in the first Fanfani cabinet (1954); Finance Minister in the Segni (1955-
57) and Zoli (1957-58) governments; Minister of the Treasury in the second Fanfa-
ni government (1958-59); Minister of Defence in the second Segni cabinet (1959-
60), in the Tambroni government (1960), in the third and fourth Fanfani gover-
nment (1960-62 and 1962-63), in the first Leone government (1963), in the first
and second Moro governments (1963-64 and 1964-66), and in the fifth Rumor go-
vernment (1974-76); Minister of Industry in the third Moro government (1966-68)
and in the second Leone government (1968); Minister of the Budget in the fourth
and fifth Moro governments (1974-76); he was Minister of Foreign Affairs in the
first and second Craxi governments (14 August 1983 to 3 March 1987), and main-
tained the office in the sixth Fanfani government (18 April 1987), in the Goria go-
vernment (29 July 1987), and in the De Mita government (13 April 1988).
He was President of the Council of Ministers from February 1972 to June 1973
and from July 1976 to March 1979, and in this capacity he attended the Summits of
the Industrialized Countries in London (1977), Bonn (1978), and Tokyo (1979).
On 30 July 1989, Parliament passed a vote of confidence for the sixth Andreot-
ti government, which is still in office.
Andreotti was Leader of the Christian Democratic Deputies from December
1968 to February 1972 (when he was called to lead his first government). For the
eighth legislature he chaired the Foreign Affairs Committee of the Chamber of De-
puties, and since then has been Chairman of the Italian Group in the Interparliamen-
tary Union.
Andreotti has also written numerous books, including a biography of De Ga-
speri (1965) followed by « De Gasperi visto da vicino» [« De Gasperi Seen From
Close Range»] (1986) « La sciarada di Papa Mastai» [« The Charade of Pope
Mastai>] (1967), « Ore 13: il ministro deve morire» 13.00 hours: the Minister
03/02/90 12:46
8 202 462 3605 ITALPRESS WASH.
03
Must Die»] (1975), "Ad ogni morte di papa» [«Once in a Blue Moon», literally
«At Every Death of a Pope»] (1980), «Il diario 1976-79» [«Diary from 1976-
79»] (1981), three volumes of profiles entitled « Visti da vicino» [«Seen From Clo-
se Range»], Onorevole, stia zitto» [«Shut Up, Right Honourable...») (1987),
and <L'URSS visto da vicino» [«The URSS From Close Range»] (1988). «Gli
USA visti da vicino» [The USA Seen From Close Range»] is forthcoming. He won
the Premio Bancarella in 1985.
Andreotti has many cultural interests: he was Chairman of the Organizing
Committee of the 1964 Rome Olympic Games, and from 1960 he has been President
of the Centro di Studi Ciceroniani.
He founded and edited the political journal « Concretezza» (1955-1976).
He has received honorary degrees (honoris causa) from the Paris Sorbonne,
the Loyola University of Chicago, the Copernican University of Torun (Poland),
Notre Dame University of South Bend (Indiana), the University of La Plata (Ar-
gentina), the University of Salamanca (Spain), Saint John's University of New
York, and the University of Warsaw.
He has been married since 1945 to Livia Danese, and has four children.
de gaulla resigned Jan 1946
President 1958-1969
Churchill Prime Minister 1940- July 1945
1951-55
adename 1949-63
Marshall Plan June 5,1947
may Turkey 1947)
Marshall Plan
468
United States and Balance of World Power
(1948)
ment" of the Communists in Greece and
over $11 billion in the form of UNRRA
"close cooperation between Turkey and
aid, loans, etc. Opposition to UNRRA
the Western world."
arose from the fact that the bulk of its
18 JULY. President Truman signed an
relief supplies were distributed in East-
agreement naming the U.S. administer-
ern Europe (ex-enemy countries were
ing authority, within the UN Trustee-
outside its functions; liberated countries
ship System, of the Trust Territory of
in Western Europe had refused UNRRA
the Pacific Islands (p. 629).
assistance). A post-UNRRA Relief Bill
JULY. CONTAINMENT policy con-
(31 May 1947) appropriated $350 mil-
cept articulated in "The Sources of
lion relief for Austria, Greece, Italy,
Soviet Conduct," an article by "X"
Hungary, and Poland.
(George F. Kennan, 1904- ) in the
On 8 May 1947, Under Secretary of
quarterly Foreign Affairs. Representing
State Dean Acheson speaking at Cleve-
the newly formulated position of the
land, Miss., revealed a "prologue to the
U.S. government, the article stated: "It
Marshall Plan," outlining the rationale
is clear that the main element of any
for U.S. participation in a European re-
United States policy towards the Soviet
covery program. The Marshall Plan was
Union must be that of a long-term, pa-
launched when, in an address at Harvard
tient but firm and vigilant containment
on 5 June, Secretary of State George E.
of Russian expansive tendencies.
Marshall proposed that the Europeans
Soviet pressure against the free institu-
take the initiative in jointly drawing up
tions of the Western world is something
a comprehensive recovery program for
that can be contained by the adroit and
which U.S. support would then be pro-
vigilant application of counter-force at a
vided. Marshall declared that U.S. policy
series of constantly shifting geographical
was directed "not against any country or
and political points."
doctrine but against hunger, poverty,
2 SEPT. THE INTER-AMERICAN
desperation, and chaos. Its purpose
TREATY OF RECIPROCAL ASSIST-
would be the revival of a working econ-
ANCE, signed in Rio de Janeiro by rep-
omy in the world SO as to permit the
resentatives of the U.S. and the states of
emergence of political and social condi-
Latin America, was the realization of a
tions in which free institutions can exist."
recommendation included in the Act of
Key participants in the formulation of
Chapultepec (p. 449). The first postwar
the basic proposal included, in addition
defense system entered into by the
to Marshall and Acheson, Will L. Clay-
U.S., it provides that "an armed attack
ton, Under Secretary of State for Eco-
by any State shall be considered as an
nomic Affairs; Charles E. Bohlen, Spe-
attack against all American states." The
cial Assistant to the Secretary of State;
treaty set up no machinery to implement
George F. Kennan, director of the
its obligations but is complementary to
Department of State Policy Planning
the Charter of Bogotá (30 Apr. 1948),
Staff.
creating an organization of 21 American
The foreign ministers of Great Britain,
republics (p. 470).
France, and the Soviet Union met at
Paris (27 June-2 July 1947) to consider
1948
Marshall's proposal of U.S. economic
aid. On 2 July Soviet Foreign Minister
EUROPEAN RECOVERY PRO-
Molotov walked out of the preliminary
GRAM. From V-E Day to the spring of
meeting, charging that the Marshall
1947 the U.S. provided Europe with
Plan was an "imperialist" plot for the
ance of World Power
(1948)
(1948)
The Cold War: Opening Phases
469
billion in the form of UNRRA
enslavement of Europe. Great Britain
(7 Nov.), a special session of Congress
5, etc. Opposition to UNRRA
and France invited 22 nations to join a
convened 17 Dec. to deal with aid to
n the fact that the bulk of its
Committee for European Economic Co-
Europe as well as inflation, and enacted
plies were distributed in East-
operation to draft plans for reconstruc-
the Foreign Aid Act of 1947 providing
pe (ex-enemy countries were
tion.
interim relief for France, Italy, and Aus-
; functions; liberated countries
The U.S.S.R. and its satellites did not
tria ($540 million), part to go to China.
a Europe had refused UNRRA
attend the Marshall Plan Conference,
On 19 Dec. President Truman submitted
). A post-UNRRA Relief Bill
which convened 12 July in Paris. Repre-
to Congress a European Recovery Pro-
1947) appropriated $350 mil-
sentatives of the 16 European nations
gram which called for $17 billion in U.S.
for Austria, Greece, Italy,
which participated set up a Committee
grants and loans over a 4-year period.
and Poland.
for European Economic Cooperation,
Congress authorized the program 2 Apr.
fay 1947, Under Secretary of
which drew up a master plan for Euro-
1948 and Paul G. Hoffman (1891-1974)
1 Acheson speaking at Cleve-
pean reconstruction based on massive
was confirmed (7 Apr.) as administrator
revealed a "prologue to the
U.S. financial assistance. Its report (22
of the Economic Cooperation Adminis-
Plan," outlining the rationale
Sept.) estimated dollar aid needed for
tration (ECA) which, independent of
articipation in a European re-
the next 4 years between $16.4 and
the State Department, ran the program.
gram. The Marshall Plan was
$22.4 billion.
Inaugurated in mid-1948 with a virtually
/hen, in an address at Harvard
On basis of reports of the Krug Com-
unmatched degree of bipartisan public
Secretary of State George E.
mittee (9 Oct.), the House Select
support, the European Recovery Pro-
proposed that the Europeans
Committee on Foreign Aid (Herter Com-
gram, unlike earlier and subsequent aid
itiative in jointly drawing up
mittee, 10 Oct.), the Nourse Committee
programs, achieved its objectives at less
ensive recovery program for
(28 Oct.), and the Harriman Committee
cost and in less time than anticipated.
support would then be pro-
shall declared that U.S. policy
d "not against any country or
FOREIGN ECONOMIC AND MILITARY AID PROGRAMS: 1946-1973
ut against hunger, poverty,
[In millions of dollars. For years ending June 30]
(Source: Statistical Abstract, 1974)
and chaos. Its purpose
Total
he revival of a working econ-
ECONOMIC AID
MILITARY AID
Year
Economic and
world so as to permit the
Military Aid'
Total
Loans
Grants
Total
Loans
Grants
of political and social condi-
1946-1973, total
163,694
101,520
34,313
67,207
62,175
3,698
58,477
ch free institutions can exist."
1946-1952
34,670
31,186
8,519
22,668
3,483
-
3,483
1953-1961
47,411
24,054
5,850
18,203
23,358
165
23,193
pants in the formulation of
1962
7,157
4,469
2,128
2,341
2,688
151
2,537
roposal included, in addition
1963
7,234
4,372
2,124
2,248
2,862
123
2,739
1964
5,253
4,076
2,036
2,040
1,177
75
1,102
and Acheson, Will L. Clay-
1965
5,373
4,121
2,059
2,063
1,251
110
1,141
Secretary of State for Eco-
1966
7,074
4,784
2,238
2,546
2,290
317
1,973
1967
6,883
3,942
1,662
2,281
2,941
323
2,618
rs; Charles E. Bohlen, Spe-
1968
6,920
4,103
1,835
2,267
2,817
263
2,554
t to the Secretary of State;
1969
6,772
3,524
1,340
2,185
3,248
281
2,968
1970
6,647
3,676
1,389
2,288
2,971
70
2,901
Kennan, director of the
1971
7,705
3,442
1,299
2,143
4,263
743
3,520
of State Policy Planning
1972
8,538
3,941
1,639
2,301
4,597
550
4,047
1973
8,363
4,118
1,391
2,726
4,245
550
3,695
n ministers of Great Britain,
- Represents zero.
1 The figures for Economic Aid shown in this table represents total U.S. Economic Aid-not Just the Aid under
the Soviet Union met at
the Foreign Assistance Act.
ne-2 July 1947) to consider
roposal of U.S. economic
17 MAR. BRUSSELS TREATY of col-
Europe the other parties would come to
ily Soviet Foreign Minister
lective self-defense signed by Britain,
its aid with "all military and other aid
ked out of the preliminary
France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the
and assistance in their power." The sig-
arging that the Marshall
Netherlands. The treaty provided that if
natories of the Brussels Pact hoped that
"imperialist" plot for the
one of the signatories were attacked in
their alliance would attract U.S. back-
EMERGING AS A WORLD POWER 1946-
7 APRIL 1947
Paris to plan the United States-proposed Marshall Plan
ter
National Striking telephone workers achieve wage
for economic aid to Europe. The Soviet Union and
that
hikes after a strike of only several weeks, an increase
Communist-bloc nations decline to be involved.
are
of $4.79 per week.
18 JULY 1947
29
12 APRIL 1947
National The Presidential Succession Act passes
Na
International The United Nations allows the United
Congress, revising the law of 1886 and making the
sic
States trusteeship of Pacific Islands previously under
Speaker of the House next in line of succession after
mandate to Japan.
the president and vice-president.
25
In
18 APRIL 1947
26 JULY 1947
m
Regional The death toll reaches 500 as a result of a
National The National Security Act designates a
È
ship explosion at Texas City, Texas. Much of the city
National Military Establishment of all military serv-
lies in ruins.
ices, administered by a secretary of defense, who re-
3
ceives Cabinet level status.
A
15 MAY 1947
ne
National The Truman Doctrine aid program ap-
2 SEPTEMBER 1947
D
proved by Congress assures U.S. support for Greece
International President Truman flies to Petropolis,
and Turkey, and promises to prevent the spread of
Brazil, and signs a hemispheric mutual defense pact at
IS
Communism.
the Inter-American Defense Conference.
It
th
22 MAY 1947
17 SEPTEMBER 1947
fc
International President Truman signs a bill to aid
National James V. Forrestal, Secretary of the Navy,
bb
Greece and Turkey.
is sworn in as the first secretary of defense.
I
International The United States refers the issue of
th
31 MAY 1947
Korean independence to the United Nations, which
S
International President Truman allocates $350 mil-
passes a resolution to seek free elections in Korea.
S
lion in relief for foreign countries devastated by recent
war.
19 SEPTEMBER 1947
5 JUNE 1947
International After a trip to China, General Albert
International At the Harvard commencement Secre-
C. Wedemeyer submits a report to President Truman
concerning the possibility of a five-year United States
I
tary of State Marshall proposes a plan for European
economic aid.
military aid program.
I
11 JUNE 1947
5 OCTOBER 1947
National In an action that elicits a sigh of relief
Life/Customs Television is used for the first time by
from homemakers across the nation, sugar rationing
a president as a medium with which to communicate
ends after some five years.
with the nation; Truman speaks on the world food
crisis.
17 JUNE 1947
International The first airline to offer a round-the-
9 OCTOBER 1947
world service to its passengers, Pan American Air-
International President Truman supports a United
ways, offers a flight fare of $1700.
Nations proposal for autonomous Jewish and Arab
states in Palestine.
23 JUNE 1947
18 OCTOBER 1947
National The Taft-Hartley Act is passed by the
National The House Un-American Activities Com-
United States Congress despite a veto by President
mittee opens an investigation into Communist influ-
Truman three days earlier. This act bans the closed
ence in the American movie industry.
shop, permits employer lawsuits against unions for
broken contracts or damages incurred during strikes,
19 OCTOBER 1947
and establishes a Federal Mediation and Conciliation
Aviation Supersonic speed is achieved for the first
Service.
time by United States Air Force Captain Charles
Yeager in an X-1 research plane built by Bell Aircraft.
7 JULY 1947
National The Hoover Commission to study the or-
24 OCTOBER 1947
ganization of the executive branch of the Federal gov-
National Senator Robert A. Taft announces he is a
ernment is established with former President Herbert
candidate for the GOP Presidential nomination in
Hoover as chairman.
1948.
12 JULY-22 SEPTEMBER 1947
25 OCTOBER 1947
International A 16-nation conference is held in
Regional President Truman declares Maine a disas-
516
Truman M: Marshall Plan
[191] Sept. 25
Public Papers of the Presidents
action on our part will do two things. We
Dr. William I. Myers, Dean of Agricul-
will save on our family budget and we will
ture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
help others who are in desperate need. I am
Edward A. O'Neal, President, American
confident that the American people, real-
Farm Bureau Federation, Chicago.
izing the extreme seriousness of the situation,
James G. Patton, President, Farmers
will fully cooperate."
Union, Denver.
Here is a list of the committee:
T. S. Repplier, President, Advertising
Charles Luckman, President of Lever
Council, Washington.
Brothers, Cambridge, Mass., is chairman.
Quentin Reynolds, President, National
These other people have been asked to serve.
Council of Farmer Cooperatives, West
Mr. Luckman has accepted, and the others,
Springfield, Mass.
I am sure, will accept as soon as the word
Spyros Skouras, President, 20th Century
reaches them.
Fox Film Corporation, New York.
Mrs. J. L. Blair-Buck, President, General
A. E. Staley, Jr., President, A. E. Staley
Federation of Women's Clubs, Richmond,
Manufacturing Co., Decatur, Ill.
Va.
Miss Anna Lord Strauss, President,
Harry A. Bullis, President, General Mills,
League of Women Voters, Washington.
Inc., Minneapolis, Minn.
Paul S. Willis, Executive Secretary, Gro-
Chester C. Davis, President, Federal Re-
cery Manufacturers of America, Inc., New
serve Bank of St. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.
York.
Albert S. Goss, Master of the National
And Harry W. Zinsmaster, Chairman,
Grange, Washington, D.C.
American Bakers Association, Duluth,
Lester B. Granger, Executive Secretary,
Minn.
National Urban League of New York City.
[4.] [Reading]. "The Secretary of
William Green, President, American
State has transmitted to me the official report
Federation of Labor.
of the Committee of European Economic
James S. Knowlson, Chairman of the
Cooperation"-that's it right there [indi-
Board and President, Stewart-Warner Cor-
cating on his desk] for anybody who wants
poration of Chicago.
to read it-"prepared by the representatives
Herbert H. Lehman, Lehman Brothers,
of the 16 nations who have been meeting
New York.
in Paris since early July.1 At my request,
G. R. LeSauvage, National Restaurant
Secretary Marshall is sending a message to
Advisory Committee of New York City.
the Chairman of the Committee, Foreign
John A. Logan, President, National As-
Minister Bevin, acknowledging receipt of
sociation of Food Chains, Washington.
the report by the United States Government.
John Holmes, President of Swift and
"As the document itself states, it is an
Company, Chicago.
'initial report,' and is subject to review and
James H. McGraw, Jr., McGraw-Hill
revision. Nonetheless, it reflects an un-
Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
precedented effort at economic cooperation
Eugene Meyer, Washington Post, Wash-
by the I6 countries participating in the Paris
ington, D.C.
Conference. In the light of the political
Justin Miller, President, National Associa-
tion of Broadcasters, Pacific Palisades, Calif.
¹The report dated September 21, 1947, is printed
Philip Murray, President, Congress of In-
in two volumes "General Report," 138 pp., and
"Technical Reports," 552 pp. (Government Printing
dustrial Organizations.
Office).
438
Harry S. Truman, 1947
Sept. 25 [191]
yers, Dean of Agricul
and the economic instability in
committee of distinguished citizens under
sity, Ithaca, N.Y.
Enroye
H is an important and encouraging
the chairmanship of the Secretary of Com-
1, President, America
that these nations had the initiative
merce, was requested to determine the
tion, Chicago.
, President, Farmers
8
the
determination to meet together and
character and quantities of United States
this report.
resources available for assistance to foreign
The
problem to which this report is
countries and to advise the President on the
President, Advertision
not only underlies the political
limits within which the United States may
President, Nation
and
economic well-being of Europe but is
safely and wisely plan to extend such
is
É key importance to a stable peace in
assistance."
Cooperatives, We
world
The people of the United States
Each one of these agencies will receive a
as do the people of the European
copy of the European Report.
resident, 20th Century
1, New York.
seriens,
that the earliest practicable achieve-
"Other agencies of the executive branch
ai economic health, and consequent
of the Government have also been consider-
resident, A. E. Staley
Decatur, III.
police
stability in Europe, is of utmost im-
ing the role which should be played by the
for the peace and well-being of the
United States in European recovery.
I Strauss, Presiden
work
"The great interest of the Congress in this
oters, Washington.
more that the program presented in the
subject has been demonstrated by the num-
:cutive Secretary, Gro-
f America, Inc., New
report
in based on the 4 following lines of
ber of its Members whom it has sent abroad
action by the 16 European nations: (I) a
to study prevailing conditions at first hand.
STORE moductive effort on their part; (2)
"We shall need to consult with representa-
insmaster, Chairman,
creation of internal financial stability; (3)
tives of the European Committee to obtain
Association, Duluth,
cooperation among the participat-
clarification and amplification of the initial
ing countries; and (4) a solution to the trad-
report and to obtain further information, as
"The Secretary of
ing
delicit with the American Continent,
it becomes available, as to the specific meas-
0 me the official report
particularly by exports. These are sound
ures to be adopted by the participating coun-
European Economic
provinles and will appeal to the common-
tries in carrying out the principles set forth
it right there [indi
sense a the American people. Their effec-
in the report.
r anybody who want
tive translation into practice is vital both to
"I am requesting the special committees
by the representatives
Eurousan recovery and to worldwide eco-
which I appointed and other Government
0 have been meetin
health.
agencies to appraise the information received
uly.1 At my reques
the 16-nation committee has been
from the European Committee in the light
sending a message
meeting in Paris, the United States Govern-
of the studies they have conducted. The
Committee, Foreign
ment has been proceeding with comple-
results of this appraisal will be made avail-
owledging receipt of
mentary studies on this side of the Atlantic.
d States Government
able to the appropriate congressional com-
Tast June I appointed three committees
mittees.
itself states, it is
to stally the relationship between aid which
"On the basis of these studies, which will
subject to review and
may be extended to foreign countries and
go forward without delay, the facts will be
it reflects an ug:
the interests of our domestic economy. One
presented and recommendations will be for-
economic cooperation
of
these headed by the Secretary of the In-
mulated so that the American people
ticipating in the Paris
terior, has been making a study of the state
through their representatives in Congress can
ight of the political
of ODN matural resources. Another of these
determine to what extent and in what man-
mber 21, 1947, is printe
studies, relating to the impact on our na-
ner the resources of the United States may
Report," 138 PP-
tional economy of aid to other countries, is
be brought to the support of the renewed
p. (Government Printis
being conducted by the Council of Economic
European efforts to achieve sustained eco-
Advisers.
The third group, a nonpartisan
nomic recovery. When the American people
439
[191] Sept. 25
Public Papers of the Presidents
are satisfied as to the scope of the necessary
THE PRESIDENT. We expect to get it. They
program and the sufficiency of measures of
have promised it.
self-help and mutual help being taken by
Q. Mr. President, is there any prospect
the European countries, and when we can
of a return to so-called gray bread?
determine what resources we should and can
THE PRESIDENT. I don't know. That is
wisely make available, I am sure that we
what I have called this committee in for, to
shall respond as quickly as possible.
find out just how we stand to meet the
"Meanwhile, certain problems have arisen
situation.
in connection with the economic situation
Q. Is there any prospect of a return to
in Europe that are of such an urgent nature
rationing or price control?
that their solution cannot await the careful
THE PRESIDENT. Well now, you had better
study required for the overall decisions
ask the Congress that. I can't answer that
which will be based on the reports. These
question.
problems are of an emergency nature which
[6.] Q. Does this plan of yours-what
demand immediate attention.
you said there-does that throw out the win-
"It is for this reason that I have re-
dow a special or extra session of Congress,
quested a group of congressional leaders to
or reconvening of Congress?
meet with me on Monday, September 29th,
THE PRESIDENT. The question was whether
to discuss plans for determining the action
this threw out the possibility of an extra
to be taken by the United States to aid in
session of Congress. The meeting with the
preserving the stability and promoting the
congressional leaders on Monday morning
recovery of the nations which participated
is to discuss the situation. Then I will make
in the Paris Conference."
the announcement after we have had the
I am sorry that those things have to be so
conversations with them.
long, and that they had to be read, too, but
[7.] Q. Mr. President, you said one slice
they had to be specifically-state specifically
of bread would lick the wheat problem. Do
what is meant. Those statements tell ex-
you mean if everyone in the country would
actly what they mean, and the copies I have
eat one slice less?
got show.
THE PRESIDENT. If they would save the
Now if you want to ask any questions, I
bread that they throw away-this is what
will try to answer them.
this restaurant man told me-we would
[5-] Q. Mr. President, on your food
have, I think, 7° million more bushels
statement, do we understand it correctly
of wheat available for food.
that you are asking the American people
Q. 70 million, did you say?
to eat less for the time being?
THE PRESIDENT. That's what the head of
THE PRESIDENT. I am asking the American
the packing mill industry told me, also.
people to waste less for the time being. I
Q. 17 or 70?
was informed by one of the biggest restau-
THE PRESIDENT. 70.
rant men in the United States, just the other
[8.] Q. Mr. President, does this stop-
night, that one slice of bread would meet
gap relief you are talking about fall in
this wheat shortage.
the same category as more permanent
Q. Mr. President, have you had any
relief?
special offer of cooperation from the baking
THE PRESIDENT. No it does not.
industry?
Q. In other words, you might conceivably
440
Churchill
Churchill
Churchill
307
Chu Teh
er, b. Hartford, Conn.;
rerican Falls,
(1689), in Ireland (1690); imprisoned on
prominent in New Hampshire politics (from 1906). Esp.
D.C.) and
plotting (1692); carried on negotiations
known for his historical novels, including Richard Carvel
ederick Stuart. 1842-1924.
King James II; restored to command (1698).
(1899), The Crisis (1901), The Crossing (1904), Coniston
animal ainter, studies. b. Grand Rapids, Mich.;
in chief over armies
(1906), Mr. Crewe's Career (1908), A Modern Chronicle
of Spanish Succession;
(1910), The Inside of the Cup (1913), A Far Country
Richard. 1784-1873. British
exploits at Kaiserswerth, Venlo, and Liége,
jealousy among allies and difference of aims;
(1915), The Dwelling Place of Light (1917).
nder in the Greek service; b.
Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer. 1874-
ntage; disowned by Society of
out of Spanish Gelderland (1702); created
British statesman and author; elder son of Lord Ran-
as soldier at age of
Ionian Islands, in 16; advocated
Marlborough (for later dukes, see SPENCER
dolph Churchill. Educ. Harrow and Sandhurst; served
1); fought in service of King
Codelphin, as his wife (see below) controlled
Virtually regent in England, controlling prime
in Cuba with Spanish forces (1895), in India (1897), in
Sudan (1898), present at Khartoum (1898); as war cor-
-20); commander in chief of
Had to abandon attack on Antwerp (1703)
respondent, captured by Boers but escaped (1899), and
827) engaged in expelling Turks;
Datch incapacity; thwarted French in at-
engaged in battles up to capture of Pretoria. M.P.
iam Church (1815-1890), His
843); Greek general (1854).
Bavarians by bloody victory of Blenheim
(1901); joined free traders in opposition to Chamberlain's
wwwarded with manor of Woodstock; held in
tariff proposals; undersecretary (1905-08) for colonies
Oxon. (1836); fellow of Clergy
inslousies (1705); routed French at Ramillies
under Campbell-Bannerman, whose policy of self-gov-
vman; one of originators of
Brussels, Antwerp, Ostend; deserted by
ernment for Transvaal and Orange River Colony he
46);
Men
diffeated French at Oudenarde (1708), keeping
and
involved in quarrel of Whigs and Tories
advanced with skill and vigor. Entered cabinet as presi-
dent of Board of Trade (1908-10); as home secretary
allegiance to French; captured Lille and
(1910-11), carried Trade Boards Act providing organiza-
ard. 1893- English writer,
met Villars in protracted, rather indecisive
tion of unorganized trades; first lord of admiralty (1911-
ks of verse include Flood of Life
Malplaquet (1709); took Mons and other
15); advocate of accelerated naval program; given task
rks, Mary Shelley (1928), The
19), Philip (1923), Twelve Noom
obtaining Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Un-
of creating naval war staff for co-ordination of strategy
by political intrigue at home and dismissal of
with war office; as leader of minority in strategy, directed
The Porch (1937), The Stronghold
and Sunderland, and by duchess of Marl-
Antwerp expedition and Dardanelles campaign, after
'pade (1939).
alienation of Queen Anne and defection to
failure of which he was succeeded by Balfour (1915).
am. American inventor of an
following dismissal of duchess, dismissed
Served in France as colonel (1916); minister of munitions
le (casting and composing automent early
on charge of embezzlement of public money
(1917); secretary for war and air minister (1918-21); in
y hand), which he patented in
1711); on accession of George I returned to his
colonial office (1921-22); as chancellor of exchequer
post
(1714); died of apoplexy.
(1924-29) accomplished adjustment of war-debt ques-
im Conant. 1836-1917. American
1678), Sarah, nee Jennings (1660-1744),
tions, duties on industry, and national finance. First lord
N.Y.; served in Civil War; founder
of Marlborough; often alluded to as Atos'sa
of admiralty in Neville Chamberlain's government (Sept.
ancis P., of the Army and Navy
Became (before 1676) trusted friend of Princess
3, 1939) upon entry into war against Germany. Prime
the
two companions adopting, soon after Anne's
minister (May 10, 1940) after debacle in Norway. Met
îrch'(h)il), Charles. 1731-1764.
the nicknames Mrs. Morley (Anne) and Mrs.
at sea with President Roosevelt (Aug., 1941) to draw up
t; son of a Westminster curate.
helped Anne to escape (1688); gained ascend-
the joint statement of American-British international
von fame with his Rosciad (anon
her on her accession as queen; as mistress of
policy known as the Atlantic Charter. Visited U.S.
atire on London actors and actress
keeper of privy purse, controlled Whig minis-
(Dec., 1941); addressed a joint session of Congress. Con-
761), a ruthless attack upon his
Receased offices at will, deducted pension for her-
ferred on war strategy and international affairs with
ipation, defended his way of life in
by imperious and tactless behavior alienated
President Roosevelt at Washington (June, 1942 and
id gave up church offices (1763);
Anne; succeeded (1711) by her cousin Abigail Hill
May, 1943), Casablanca, Morocco (Jan., 1943), and Que-
kes, and assistant editor of North
Masham); lived in retirement and left large for-
bec (Aug., 1943 and Sept., 1944), with Roosevelt and
t for invective in contributions to
Chiang Kai-shek at Cairo (Nov., 1943), with Roosevelt
f rhymed satires on authors and
Randolph Henry Spencer. Known as Lord
and Stalin at Tehran (Dec., 1943) and again at Yalta,
fever on visit to Wilkes in
Churchill. 1849-1895. British statesman.
Crimea (Feb., 1945), with Truman and Stalin at Pots-
hor of The Ghost (1763), ridiculing
of 7th duke of Marlborough (see under
dam (July, 1945). Resigned as prime minister (July,
S account of the Cock Lane ghost,
family); m. (1874) Jennie Jerome of New York;
1945) after Labor victory in elections; again prime minis-
nine (1763), attacking Lord Bute
of
Winston L. S. Churchill (q.v.). B.A., Охоп.
ter (from Oct. 1951). Author of Lord Randolph Churchill
uellist (1763), assailing an unsucon
As M.P. (from 1874) led a group (nicknamed the
(1906), My African Journey (1908), Liberalism and the
kes, The Candidate (1764),
Party") in fearless, aggressive Toryism; as-
Social Problem (1909), The World Crisis (4 vols., 1923-
er" (Lord Sandwich, an archenem
both Gladstone and Conservative front bench;
29; rev. ed. in 1 vol., 1942), Marlborough, his Life and
government in Egyptian imbroglio; favored
Times (6 vols., 1933-38), selected speeches, as in While
1st Duke of Marl'bor.ough
ass/flation in Irish affairs; developed a progressive con-
England Slept (1938), Step by Step (1939), Into Battle
). 1650-1722. English military
called Tory democracy, in challenge to Lib-
(1941), The Unrelenting Struggle (1942), The End of the
Corporal John." Son of Sir
for part in reform; promoter and first member of
Beginning (1943).
poverished Royalist. Studied at
League; secretary of state for India (1885-86);
Church'yard (chûrch'ērd), Thomas. 1520?-1604. Eng-
; page to duke of York (1665)
John Bright's seat (1885); chancellor of ex-
lish soldier of fortune and writer. Fought in Scotland,
SS of Cleveland; assisted in advances
and leader of House of Commons (1886); re-
Ireland, Low Countries, in service of England, the em-
r Arabella (1648-1730), mistress
(Dec., 1886) in resistance to demands of army and
peror, and the prince of Orange. Gave offense to Queen
er James II). Attracted attention
upon exchequer; traveled for health and described
Elizabeth in Churchyarde's Choise (1579) and fled to
saved life of duke of Monmouth
in Men, Mines, and Animals in South Africa
Scotland for three years. Author of poems Shore's Wife
; as reward for successful execution
returned to parliament (1892) and attacked
(1563; in Mirror for Magistrates) and The Worthines of
KIV, created (1685) Baron Church
second Irish home-rule bill.
Wales (1587), and of autobiographical pieces.
ăn'drij); second in command in cruft
Charchill, William. 1859-1920. American ethnologist,
Chur'ri-gue'ra (choor'ré-ga'rä), José. 1650-1723.
Monmouth's rebellion in western
Broklyn, N.Y.; studied and wrote on Polynesian cus-
Spanish architect; created baroquelike style, now called
f first to send overtures to William
and languages.
churrigueresque, long dominant in Spain.
it over to William of Orange with SGE
Churchill, Winston. 1871-1947. American novelist,
Chu Teh (joo' dů). 1886-
Chinese Communist
y councilor and earl of Marlboro
Louis. Grad. U.S.N.A., Annapolis (1894); on edi-
leader, b. in Szechwan of a wealthy family; studied at
illiam, somewhat in distrust, to
staff, Army and Navy Journal (1894) and Cosmo-
Göttingen and (1925) Moscow; joined Communists
Magazine (1895); resident in Cornish, N.H.;
(1927); elected (1931) commander in chief of Chinese
end, silent, maker; ice, ill, chart
ûrn, up, circus, ü in Fr. mest
effeir; to: sing; then, thin; verdure (16), nature (54); K =ch in Ger. ich, ach; Fr. boN; yet; zh in azure.
For explanation of abbreviations, etc., see the page immediately preceding the main vocabulary.
WER 1946-
MARCH 18, 1952
S that the United States expand the war against
munist China.
tary forces in Japanese territory.
sive, nature of the alliance, and rejects the idea of
preventive warfare.
10 OCTOBER 1951
PRIL 1951
National President Truman signs the Mutual Secur-
2 MARCH 1952
nal The Office of Price Stabilization fixes
Act, $7,000,000,000 in aid to foreign countries.
National The United States Supreme Court rules
on beef.
ity At Englewood, New Jersey, the first transcontinental
that persons termed subversives may be barred from
Y 1951
dial telephone service goes into effect.
teaching in public schools.
nal The Senate Armed Services and Foreign
20 DECEMBER 1951
18 MARCH 1952
ons Committees meet to consider General Mac-
Science In Idaho, at the United States Reactor Test-
National Senator William Benton of Connecticut at-
's address to Congress.
ing Station, researchers generate electricity from nu-
clear fuel.
LILLIAN HELLMAN, 1905-
Y 1951
al American Telephone and Telegraph an-
24 DECEMBER 1951
By the time her third play, The Little Foxes, appeared
S that it has over 1,000,000 stockholders, a
Arts/Culture Gian-Carlo Menotti's opera Amahl and
in 1939, Lillian Hellman had been hailed as one of Amer-
any United States corporation.
Night Visitors is broadcast by National Broadcast-
ica's foremost playwrights and by far its leading female
ing Corporation, having been commissioned by the
dramatist. A writer of biting social commentary, Hellman
: 1951
network.
expressed her emotions, which were often explosive, and
il The United States Supreme Court rules, in
her political views with burning conviction.
V. United States, that the Smith Act (passed in
OTHER EVENTS OF 1951
Raised in New Orleans, Louisiana, Hellman experi-
d dealing with Communists in government) is
Science For their discovery of plutonium, Edwin
enced the flavor of both wealth and poverty. Traveling
McMillan and Glenn Seaborg win the Nobel Prize for
north to school, she attended New York University and
ional. In another ruling, Garner V. Los An-
Columbia University. Hellman worked for publishers in
e justices uphold a state's right to require job
Chemistry.
New York City between 1924 and 1934 when her first
S to sign non-Communist affadavits.
5 JANUARY 1952
play, The Children's Hour, was produced. It was during
this time that she became associated with Dashiell Ham-
:
1951
International Prime Minister Winston Churchill of
mett, the author with whom she had a close personal rela-
Great Britain, back in office since 1951, and United
The military draft is extended to July 1,
tionship for over 30 years.
States President Harry S. Truman begin several days
ngress lengthens military service to 2 full
Lillian Hellman, outspoken and often obstinate, aligned
I
of meetings in the nation's capital. Churchill hopes to
herself early with left-wing politics. In the 1930s she
lowers the draft age to 18½.
"re-establish the close and intimate relationship that
went to Spain during the Civil War, relishing her experi-
1951
he had with President Roosevelt in wartime and to
ences as a radical while candidly admitting her deficien-
cies as a revolutionary. Nevertheless, Hellman's contacts
nal The United States takes part in truce
seek a common policy and approach on the grave
aesang between the United Nations and the
problems facing the Western Alliance."
with leftist politics and her association with those more
strongly committed to the Left were to bring her a great
Communists.
deal of hardship in later years. In 1944 she travelled to
7 JANUARY 1952
the Soviet Union to produce her plays, writing later of
951
National General Dwight D. Eisenhower makes
her gut-level fear and her exhilaration in viewing the war
A flood covers more than 1,000,000 acres in
known his willingness to accept a draft for the Re-
from the Russian front.
Lillian Hellman's fame as a dramatist receded in the
klahoma, Missouri and Illinois when the
publican Presidential nomination.
early 1950s to be replaced by notoriety when she testified
River overflows. Flood waters rise over a pe-
before the House Un-American Activities Committee con-
arly 2 weeks, causing over $1,000,000,000
8 JANUARY 1952
cerning her possible connection to Communism in Hol-
International President Truman and Britain's
lywood screenwriting circles. Her adamant refusal to
Churchill wind up their conference in Washington.
comply with the Committee's requests nearly cost her her
1951
They issue a statement concerning the United States
personal freedom. Unlike many others, Hellman was not
President Truman cancels tariff conces-
airbases in Britain. The United States agrees not to
convicted nor was she imprisoned; her close friend and
viet-bloc nations.
launch an atomic attack on Communist Europe with-
mentor, Dashiell Hammett, spent several years in jail for
out the consent of Britain.
his refusal to answer questions put before him by HUAC.
Γ 1951
During this most painful period, Hellman's strength of
il The United States and the Philippines
24 JANUARY 1952
character gained her the respect of many; it also reduced
International United Nations negotiators in Tokyo
her fortune, causing her to sell the farm in upstate New
agreement between the two nations until
York that she and Hammett had shared together, a sale to
announce that Korean truce talks have stalled.
which she later referred with a poignant yet resigned
wistfulness.
ER 1951
18 FEBRUARY 1952
Writing during a time when many women encountered
1 The Tripartite Agreement by the
Regional Storms off the coast of Cape Cod, Massa-
gender discrimination, Lillian Hellman attained accep-
, Australia and New Zealand provides
chusetts, wreck two tankers, the Fort Mercer and the
tance for her work by the public and critics alike. That
fense, in anticipation of signing of the
Pendleton, resulting in the deaths of 14 men.
she seized the opportunity to defend free speech during a
e treaty.
time of grotesque political inquiry-and that many re-
20 FEBRUARY 1952
spected and accepted her after she did so-further en-
ER 1951
International In a statement at the opening of the
abled Lillian Hellman to prove that she was resilient yet
In San Francisco, California, 49 na-
North Atlantic Council meeting in Lisbon, United
unbending, sensitive but tough. This was perhaps the se-
cret of her success, and this was confirmed by the wide
e Japanese Peace Treaty recognizing
States Secretary of State Dean Acheson points out the
public she reached with her autobiographical writings in
sovereignty." The United States and
focus and function of the organization. He reminds
her later years.
at the United States can maintain mili-
NATO members of the defensive, rather than offen-
529
CHRONOLOGY
9 JANUARY 1946
his address he cautions that "from Stettin in the Bal
Labor Demanding an hourly wage increase of 5-7
tic, to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has
cents, some 7700 Western Electric telephone mechan-
descended across the Continent allowing 'police gov.
ics go out on strike in 44 states.
ernments' to rule Eastern Europe."
10 JANUARY 1946
13 MARCH 1946
International The first General Assembly of the
National 175,000 United Auto Workers strikers end
United Nations meets in London, England, with the
their successful 113-day walkout against General
United States delegation headed by Secretary of State
Motors Corporation.
James F. Byrnes and including Mrs. Eleanor Roose-
velt.
1 APRIL 1946
15 JANUARY 1946
National United Mine Workers, some 400,000
Labor Demanding an increase in daily pay of $2,
strong, go out on strike demanding wage increases
and a health and welfare plan.
United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers go out
on strike in 16 states.
25 APRIL 1946
International Big Four foreign ministers begin to
20 JANUARY 1946
National By executive order, President Truman es-
draw up peace treaties for Italy, Bulgaria, Romania,
Hungary and Finland.
tablishes the Central Intelligence Group, the precursor
of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
29 APRIL 1946
21 JANUARY 1946
National In a report from the Department of Agri-
culture, Americans learn that farm prices are at record
Labor The United Steelworkers Union closes down
highs. Farmers are receiving more money for their
the country's steel mills over a wage disagreement. A
goods than they have since July 1920.
pattern is clear: American labor, having held back de-
mands because of the war, wants its share of the new
23 MAY 1946
prosperity.
National The Railroad Trainmen and Locomotive
Engineers Brotherhoods strike, causing national trans-
24 JANUARY 1946
portation to grind to a halt.
International In view of the effect of the atomic
bombs dropped on Japan and the potential for destruc-
30 MAY 1946
tion in atomic research, the United Nations establishes
National United Mine Workers end their strike after
the international Atomic Energy Commission with the
59 days with a negotiated agreement providing wage
goal of restricting atomic energy to peaceful uses.
increases and a welfare-retirement fund paid by the
companies.
25 JANUARY 1946
National The Executive Council of the American
3 JUNE 1946
Federation of Labor elects John L. Lewis as vice
National The United States Supreme Court, in Mor-
president as a sign that Lewis's United Mine Workers
gan V. Commonwealth, rules that buses must allow
are returning to the A.F. of L. control.
seating without regard to race on vehicles in interstate
commerce.
20 FEBRUARY 1946
National The Employment Act of 1946 creates a
14 JUNE 1946
Council of Economic Advisors and provides for an
International Bernard Baruch submits a proposed
annual national economic report.
United States plan at the United Nations for control of
atomic energy.
21 FEBRUARY 1946
National President Truman establishes the Office of
21 JUNE 1946
Economic Stabilization to deal with conversion to a
National President Truman names Frederick Moore
peacetime economy. Chester Bowles is named director.
Vinson Chief Justice of the United States Supreme
Court.
5 MARCH 1946
International Former Prime Minister Churchill
30 JUNE 1946
speaks at Fulton, Missouri, at Westminster College. In
International The United States joins the United
514
172
DEBYE
Deganlle
with Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, controversy in
growth in the fields of electronics and communications
zier (
1902 with the dreamlike opera Pelléas et Mélisande, and
because of its potential for generating. detecting. and
(1983
sensuous beauty in 1905 with the tone poem La Mer.
amplifying radio waves. Selling his rights to the audion.
Moving away from impressionism, he wrote Jeux (1912)
he later designed a movie-sound system and contributed
DE HA
for the Ballet Russe and Etudes (1915), which explored
to the development of the phonograph, telephone, tele.
aircra
fresh pianistic harmonies and colors. See biography by
vision, radar, and diathermy. See his autobiography.
plane
Edward Lockspeiser (2 vols., 1962-65), and studies by
Father of Radio (1950), and Israel E. Levine, Electronics
he flev
Maurice Dumesnil (1979) and Robert Orledge (1983).
Pioneer (1964).
fighter
Havill:
DEBYE, PETER JOSEPH WILHELM (1884-1966), Dutch-
DE GASPERI, ALCIDE (1881-1954), Italian political
biplan
born physical chemist. Trained in Munich (Ph.D. 1910),
leader. A leader of the Italian irredentist movement in
quito,
Debye taught at the universities of Zurich, Utrecht, Göt-
his native Trentino, then part of Austria, de Gasperi served
(1941
tingen, and Leipzig before moving to Berlin as professor
in the Austrian parliament (1911-16) and later in the
early ]
of theoretical physics and head of the new Kaiser Wilhelm
Italian parliament (1921-24) after Trentino was united
1944,
Institute for Physics (1934-40), which he named the
with Italy. A founder of the Italian Popular party, a Roman
receive
Max Planck Institute. He won the 1936 Nobel Prize for
Catholic political organization. he was arrested by the
three
Chemistry for his work on X-ray diffraction and his inves-
fascists (1926) and served 16 months in prison. After his
tigations of dipole movements-the measurement of pos-
release he served as Vatican librarian, and during World
DE K(
itive and negative electric charges within molecules.
War II he was a leader of the underground resis-
tance and helped organize the center-right Christian
painte
Refusing to assume German citizenship after the out-
that C
break of World War II, Debye emigrated to the United
Democratic party, which became the dominant party in
Kooni
States, where he taught chemistry at Cornell University
postwar Italy. De Gasperi served as premier from 1945
to em
(1940-50).
to 1953, during which time he instituted land reforms
Althou
and promoted economic growth. He ousted the com-
the m
DE DUVE, CHRISTIAN RENE (1917-
), British-born
munists and left-socialists from the central government.
empha
Belgian biologist. A pioneer in the field of cell biology, de
sought close ties with the United States. led Italy into the
humai
Duve headed research laboratories at the University of
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and championed
in his
Louvain, the Nobel Institute (Stockholm). Washington
European integration.
series
University (St. Louis), and the Rockefeller University (New
sionis
York; from 1962). He utilized the electron microscope in
DE GAULLE, CHARLES ANDRE JOSEPH MARIE (1890-
Kooni
his research and discovered lysosomes, the cell compo-
1970), French military and political leader. De Gaulle's
ning (
nents that, he said, act like "stomachs of the cell" by
father, a Lille schoolteacher who raised his sons to work
breaking down food particles for cellular digestion. He
for the restoration of French glory, sent Charles to the
DE LA
shared the 1974 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
national military academy of St. Cyr; he graduated in
a care
with Albert Claude and George Palade. In 1975 he was
1912. He served in the infantry during World War I and
devote
named president of the International Institute of Cellular
was captured by the Gemans during the battle of Verdun.
and Molecular Pathology in Brussels.
A lecturer at the Staff College during the interwar period.
or groi
and pc
he lobbied for a mobile defense strategy based on the tank
to evol
DEE, RUBY (Ruby Ann Wallace; 1924-
),U.S. actress.
and became unpopular with the military establishment
A black raised in New York City's Harlem, Ruby Dee stud-
writing
for his criticism of France's existing reliance on static
his bes
ied French and Spanish at Hunter College, then during
fortifications. Promoted to brigadier general and under-
(1921)
World War II trained with other "apprentices" including
secretary of war just before the fall of France (1940), he
The L
Harry Belafonte and Sidney Poitier at the American Negro
refused to capitulate to the Germans and fled to London.
and Do
Theater. She received favorable reviews for her first
There, he announced the loss of a battle, not the war.
Broadway role in Jeb (1946), which also featured Ossie
and constituted himself leader of the Free French Resis-
DE LA
Davis (the play closed after a week). Dee won recognition
tance. In 1944 he was chosen to head the provisional
in Davis' Purlie Victorious (1961), establishing herself as
De la I
government of liberated France, but he resigned in 1946
Toront
one of the few black character actresses performing on
out of autocratic disdain for parliamentary politics. The
the American stage. Her 1970 performance with James
1958 coup d'état in Algeria and the threat of civil war
during
Earl Jones in Boesman and Lena-a commentary on
won a
brought the general out of retirement to create a Fifth
apartheid in South Africa-stunned critics. Dee also per-
French Republic with himself as a strong president. Dur-
the gri
formed in television, winning a 1968 Emmy Award for
ing the next 11 years Pres. de Gaulle supported inde-
petuat
the documentary Now Is the Time, and in motion pic-
cycle-
pendence for Algeria and other French African colonies.
tures. She and husband Ossie Davis (married in 1948)
than it
pulled the French military out of the North Atlantic Treaty
were active in civil-rights and other political movements.
rural (
Organization command, developed a French nuclear strike
De la F
capacity, and opposed British entry into the Common
DE FOREST, LEE (1873-1961), U.S. inventor. A Yale
Market. Although economic conditions generally improved.
(1930).
graduate (Ph.D. 1899), De Forest was a solitary and indi-
education and social welfare programs were neglected
biograj
by Ron
vidualistic inventor who held more than 300 patents and
and widespread student and worker protests took place
made and lost four fortunes. He developed (1906) the
in 1968. De Gaulle resigned in 1969 over the failure of
triode electron tube, the precursor of the modern radio
a referendum on constitutional reform.
See his War
DELAI
tube and one of the most influential inventions of the
Memoirs (5 vols., Eng. trans. 1955-60) and Memoirs of
Delaur
century. The audion, as he called the device, spurred
Hope (Eng. trans. 1971), and biographies by Brian Cro-
a deco
Gaulle, Charles de 963
preference to the static theories of the time, exemplified
Committee of National Liberation-the central organi-
in reliance on the Maginot Line, which, running along
zation guiding the Free French war effort-at first jointly
the German and part of the Belgian frontier, was in-
with Gen. Henri Giraud. De Gaulle's successful cam-
tended to protect France against German attack. He
paign to edge Giraud out gave the world proof of his skill
also wrote a memorandum in which he tried, even as
in political manoeuvre. On Sept 9, 1944, he and his
late as January 1940, to convert politicians to his way of
shadow government-the Committee of National Libera-
thinking. His views made him unpopular with his mili-
tion-returned from Algiers to Paris. He headed two
tary superiors, and, in 1938, the question of his right to
successive provisional governments but, on January 20,
publish under his own signature a historical study of
1946, abruptly resigned apparently owing to irritation
the French Army, La France et son armée (France and
with the political parties forming the left-wing tripartite
Her Army, 1945) led to a dispute with Marshal Pétain.
coalition government.
World War II. At the outbreak of World War II
From then until 1958 he remained an opponent of what
he was in command of a brigade of tanks attached to the
became, in November 1946, the Fourth French Repub-
French 5th Army. In May 1940, having been made a
lic. He campaigned against the new constitution, which
temporary brigadier general in the 4th Armoured Di-
he disapproved of as being likely to lead to a repetition of
vision-the rank that he retained for the rest of his life
the political and governmental inadequacies of the Third
-he was twice given the opportunity to apply his theories
Republic, which in part had led to France's capitulation
on tank warfare, as far as that was possible with the in-
to Germany in 1940. In April 1947, he formed the Ras-
adequate material available at the time. As a result, he
semblement du Peuple Français (RPF), a mass movement
was mentioned by Gen. Maxime Weygand, the command-
that grew rapidly in strength and that to all intents and
er-in-chief, in a dispatch of June 2, as "an admirable, en-
purposes became a political party in 1951, when it ob-
ergetic, and courageous leader." On June 6, he entered
tained 120 seats in the National Assembly in the elections
the government of Paul Reynaud as undersecretary of
of that year. The movement expressed de Gaulle's hos-
state for defense and war, and undertook several missions
tility to the constitution, to the party system, and, in par-
to England to explore the possibilities of continuing the
ticular, to the French Communists, whom he described
war. When the Reynaud government was replaced by
as les séparatistes because of their unswerving loyalty to
that of Marshal Pétain, who intended to seek an armistice
Moscow directives. He became dissatisfied with the par-
with the Germans, de Gaulle left for England. On June
liamentary group, however, and in 1953 severed his con-
18, he broadcast from London his first appeal to his com-
nection with the parliamentary organization. In 1955 the
patriots to continue the war under his leadership.
RPF organization in the country was disbanded.
Contrary to popular legend, this appeal did not include
From 1955 to 1958, the General himself made no pub-
Memoirs
the famous phrase: "France has lost a battle; she has not
lic appearances but retired to his home in Colombey-les-
lost the war." That phrase appeared on posters in En-
deux-Eglises, where he continued to write his memoirs.
gland. But the emphasis was the same: the war could be
Between 1954 and 1969, three volumes were published,
won, France was not alone, General de Gaulle would
dealing with the years from 1940 to 1946 (L'Appel, 1940-
lead French resistance from London. On August 2, 1940,
42; L'Unité, 1942-44; and Le Salut, 1944-46; English
a French military court tried him and sentenced him in
translations: The Call to Honour, 1955; Unity, 1959;
absentia to death, deprivation of military rank, and con-
Salvation, 1960). The last was completed only after his
fiscation of property.
return to power in 1958, and it is possible, therefore, that
De Gaulle entered on his wartime career as a political
the reasons there given for his retirement in 1946 owe
leader with tremendous liabilities. He had only a handful
something to hindsight. "In the prevailing state of affairs,
Free
of haphazardly recruited political supporters and volun-
I decided to go, because the disease was too advanced to
French
teers for what were to become the Free French Forces.
be cured before the inevitable upheaval." At what pre-
Forces
He had no political status and was virtually unknown
cise point of time he began to feel that he might be called
both in England and in France. What assets he had were
on to take up his mission again is a question on which
wholly personal: his absolute belief in his own mission,
accounts differ. The concluding words of the third vol-
his conviction that he possessed the qualities of leader-
ume of the memoirs describe his feelings during this
ship he had described in his writings, his total devotion
period in the political wilderness but give no hint:
S early
to France, and the strength of character (or obstinacy, as
An old man, worn out by all that he has gone through, re-
litary
it often appeared to the British) to fight for French inter-
mote from events, feeling the cold approach of eternity,
ests as he saw them with all the resources at his disposal,
but never tired of looking for the gleam of hope among the
reer
however puny they might be. His impact on his hosts was
shadows.
unforgettably described by Sir Winston Churchill in
Postwar return to public life. His compatriots were
Their Finest Hour:
deeply divided on the question of his return. The reasons
He had to be rude to the British to prove to French eyes that
for their hesitations belong to the political history of the
he was not a British puppet. He certainly carried out this
period. But, to those who know them, these reasons help
policy with perseverance. He even one day explained this
to justify the view that the opportunity that presented it-
technique to me, and I fully comprehended the extraordinary
self in May 1958 (when the insurrection that had broken
difficulties of his problem. I have always admired his massive
strength.
out in Algiers threatened to bring civil war to France)
must have entailed for de Gaulle the most carefully
His liabilities in the eyes of his own countrymen were
balanced calculation of a life that had had its share of
increased by the fact that, to the politicians of the left, a
political gambles. He was cautious, for it was by no
career officer who was a practicing Catholic was not an
means certain that the French Parliament would accept
immediately acceptable political leader, while to those on
his return on any conditions that he could accept. He
the right he was a rebel against Philippe Pétain, a na-
affirmed his determination not to come to power by
tional hero and then France's only field marshal. Grad-
other than legal means, and there was never any evidence
ually, however, the course of the war, the broadcasts
of his association with insurgent plans to bring him back.
from London, the action of the Free French Forces, and
It was in any case inconsistent with his conception of
the contacts of resistance groups in France either with
leadership either to risk becoming an instrument of se-
his own organization or with those of the British secret
dition or to risk political failure. On the other hand, his
services brought national recognition of his leadership.
carefully worded statements (on May 15, 19, and 27)
But full recognition by his allies came only after the
certainly helped the insurgents. On June 1, three days
liberation of Paris and the demonstration beyond all
after President René Coty threatened to resign unless de
doubt of the French nation's acceptance of him.
Gaulle's return to power was accepted, he presented him-
Meanwhile, in London, de Gaulle's relations with the
self before the National Assembly as a prime minister
British government were never easy and de Gaulle often
designate and on the following day attended the session
added to the strain, at times through his own misjudg-
(having been duly "invested" as prime minister) and was
ment or touchiness. In 1943 he moved his headquarters
authorized to reform the constitution and accorded the
to Algiers, where he became president of the French
special powers that he demanded.
Harry S. Truman, 1948
Apr. 22 [84]
by those we honor today,
in the wake of hostilities.
succeed. I know that you will bear your
n and their institutions of
Largely because of these considerations I
part.
1 moment of history also
am consenting to your release from the duties
courage, for strength, and
Very sincerely yours,
dfast resolution that, come
of Secretary of Commerce. The superb di-
HARRY S. TRUMAN
d for the right.
rection which you have given to the affairs
e memory of a noble few
of that office during a year and a half is
[Honorable W. Averell Harriman, Secretary of
eroes who have fought to
sufficient guarantee of the results which you
Commerce, Washington, D.C.]
uman freedom through the
would achieve if it were possible for you to
NOTE: Mr. Harriman served as Secretary of Com-
es of this occasion to re-
continue in the Cabinet.
merce from September 28, 1946, through April 22,
om and to rededicate this
1948. His letter of resignation, dated April 22,
) the principles of liberty,
The European Recovery Program must
was released with the President's reply.
84 The President's News Conference of
April 22, 1948
u became familiar as
THE PRESIDENT. Well, ladies and gentlemen,
ment here on the Italian election which I
Affairs, and to assure
you have had all the announcements up to
will read to you.
esire that the govern-
date. I haven't any announcements to make
"Free peoples everywhere will be encour-
ntries will continue to
to you, so if you have any questions I will try
aged by the outcome of the recent Italian
seeking solutions for
to answer them.
election. The results demonstrate once
[1.] Q. Mr. President, U.S. Steel today
again the vitality of Italian democracy and
HARRY S. TRUMAN
denied a wage increase to its employees, and
the determination of the Italian people to
at the same time announced a decrease in
maintain their freedom and their liberties."
Quirino, President of the
consumer goods approximating 25 million,
That's all I have to say.
Mr. Fairless stating that both acts would
Q. Has that been mimeographed?
work against inflation. Do you have any
THE PRESIDENT. No, it hasn't.
comment?
1948
[4.] Q. Mr. President, on the same day
nination as
THE PRESIDENT. I have no comment, for I
of the Italian elections, General de Gaulle
1948
learned it just about the same time you did.
issued a statement at Marseilles as a rallying
[2.] Q. Mr. President, out in Ohio there
call for de Gaulleists. Any comment to
dds to the equipment
is a hot primary fight for Governor, Ray
make upon that?
exceptional qualifica-
Miller against Frank Lausche. Charles
THE PRESIDENT. No comment.
Special Representative
Sawyer is honorary chairman of the Miller
[5.] Q. Mr. President, about your trip
nk of Ambassador.
forces. The Lausche people claim that this
to California, is that going to be part of a
fe today know Europe
puts you on the side of Miller. Is that right?
larger trip, will you make a swing across
perplexities as you do.
THE PRESIDENT. That has nothing to do
the country?
which you gained as
with Ohio politics. I appointed Mr. Sawyer
THE PRESIDENT. Not that I know of. The
and to Great Britain
because I thought he was the man best fitted
University of California some time back
Irs, you have acquired
for the place. Cabinet appointments are my
invited me to make their address at com-
n through extensive
individual business.
mencement, and I told them I didn't know
S in most of the coun-
[3.] Q. Mr. President, could you com-
whether I could or not, they could invite me
think of no one with
ment on the results of the Italian election?
if they chose and I would come if I could.
roblems presented by
THE PRESIDENT. Well, I have a short state-
That is the only way I make engagements,
n which has followed
227
Harry S. Truman, 1950
July 27 [203]
1 a seasonally adjusted basis,
I was very fond of Jack Cochran. He was
further delay in the transition to civil gov-
4.5 billion below the level
very great friend of the veterans.³
ernment on Guam?
the first half of 1949. This
Q. Mr. President, there are two ways it
THE PRESIDENT. There has been a 30-day
iefly lags in expenditures for
might be done, by legislative action or by
delay on account of the fact that the Interior
d defense programs, and
your action. My question is directed to
Department was not ready to assume control.
:ed outlays for farm price
yours?
We are going to try to get civil government
e developments in the con-
THE PRESIDENT. I will consult General
on Guam as promptly as we possibly can.
statement of Federal fiscal
Gray on the subject, and then I will answer
[8.] Q. Mr. President, there is some leg-
= been paralleled by develop-
your question.⁴
islation on the Hill to deal with aliens and
iventional budget.
[4.] Q. Mr. President, can you com-
subversives. I wonder if you would discuss
HARRY S. TRUMAN
ment on recent statements by Churchill and
your ideas of legislation in relation to your
De Gaulle to the effect that Europe is in
warning about sabotage and espionage last
e and the complete report are
mortal peril of aggression?
week?
Midyear Economic Report of the
ted to the Congress July 26, 1950"
Q. Can't hear you!
THE PRESIDENT. Well, we want to be very
ting Office, 1950, 160 pp.). As
THE PRESIDENT. He wanted to know if I
careful in times like these that we don't get
charts have been omitted.
would comment on statements by Mr.
in the alien and sedition mood of 1798. The
Churchill and General de Gaulle that Eu-
Bill of Rights is still a part of the Constitu-
rope is in mortal fear of aggression. I have
tion of the United States, and a most impor-
no comment.
tant part. That doesn't mean that we are
[5.] Q. Mr. President, I hate to pursue
going to overlook any operation to see that
this Baruch thing further, but I take it by
traitors and saboteurs are properly taken
your answer that you made, that you have
care of.
T. My comment is my mes-
outlined your proposals to meet the Korean
[9.] Q. Mr. President, your message to
gress.
situation as of now?
Congress and your Economic Message yes-
President, may I ask a cou-
THE PRESIDENT. I have, and I think they
terday mention the possibility of price con-
about Missouri?
are the right ones, or I wouldn't have done it.
trol. At what phase in the mobilization
Γ. Sure.
Q. Yes, sir.
efforts, sir, would you consider wage controls
going to the Allison rally
[6.] Q. Mr. President, there are rumors
might be necessary?
urday?
all around town, including the Capitol, that
THE PRESIDENT. Whenever it is necessary
T. No.
you are going to ask for price and wage
for price controls and wage controls, and
r!
control by Labor Day, and that the ration
manpower allocations, why the step will be
IT. He wanted to know if I
books are already being printed?
taken altogether.
he Allison rally in St. Louis
THE PRESIDENT. They know more about it
Q. Do you think that it will be necessary?
I am not.
than I do. I have never heard of that.
THE PRESIDENT. I do not.
d the other one has to do
Q. It was asked of Mr. Symington, and
Q. Mr. President, if you should ask for
eterans hospital in St. Louis.
he said it was news to him.
price controls and rationing, will that be
ou have been asked to desig-
THE PRESIDENT. That's right, and he is in
along with an excess profits tax?
memorial to Jack Cochran.
control of the matter.⁵
THE PRESIDENT. The tax situation is one
o do so?
[7.] Q. Mr. President, do you expect any
that should be worked out on a basis of
NT. I hope that can be done.
equity for all concerned. It is a very con-
8 John J. Cochran, former Representative from
troversial subject, particularly what you call
Emery W. Allison of Missouri,
Missouri.
excess profits taxes. The reason I asked for
Democratic nomination for the
Carl R. Gray, Jr., Administrator of Veterans
a direct levy on incomes and corporations, I
ate.
Affairs.
W. Stuart Symington, Chairman of the National
think that can be done promptly. And then
Security Resources Board.
after the election is over this fall, it will give
561
86
Aden, Gulf of
shelf beyond the Kuria Muria Islands to the north and
up the bulk of the annual catches. Crayfish and sharks
the island of Socotra to the south, covering an area of
are also fished locally, while survey ships have occa-
some 205,000 square miles (530,000 square kilometres).
sionally pulled in exceptional catches of fish.
Its total length, measured from east-northeast to west-
Prospects for the future. Future development of the
southwest, is 920 miles, and its mean width, measured
gulf is difficult to predict because it has been little studied.
from north-northeast to south-southwest is 300 miles.
Except for the fisheries, little is known of its resources.
Submarine relief. The dominant relief feature is the
Full development of the fishing industry is contingent
The Sheba
Sheba Ridge, an extension of the ridge system of the In-
upon a better understanding of the considerable seasonal,
Ridge
dian Ocean, which extends along the middle of the gulf.
annual, and regional variations in the movements of fish
The rough topography of the ridge includes a well-de-
populations.
fined median valley that is continually offset by faults
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The morphology, geology, and geophysics
running approximately northeast to southwest. The larg-
of the gulf and its surrounding areas are comprehensively
est of these faults forms the Alula-Fartak Trench, in
covered in various articles in the Phil. Trans. R. Soc., Series
which is found the gulf's maximum recorded depth of
A, vol. 267, no. 1181 (1970), which also contains up-to-date
17,586 feet (5,360 metres). The Sheba Ridge is flanked on
bathymetric and magnetic charts of the gulf itself. The
both sides by sediment-filled basins that reach depths of
hydrological structure of the water mass is described by V.A.
13,000 feet at the mouth of the gulf. To the west, the
KHIMITSA in Oceanology, 8:318-322 (1968); while its physical
ridge gives way to a relatively shallow east-west-trending
and chemical properties are covered in the University of
valley known as the Tadjoura Trench.
California, Institute of Marine Resources Report, I.M.R.
Reference 67-12 (1967). Biology is not covered by any
Geology. The main factor in the gulf's geologic forma-
standard text but fishery data is reported in the Commercial
tion is the spreading of the sea floor away from the Sheba
Fisheries Review (monthly).
Ridge axis. The African and Arabian continents split
(M.T.J.)
initially along the present continental margins either in
the late Eocene Epoch (38,000,000 to 54,000,000 years
Adenauer, Konrad
ago) or else in the Oligocene Epoch (26,000,000 to 38,-
First chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany,
000,000 years ago). They have since drifted apart in a
Konrad Adenauer presided over the reconstruction of the
direction parallel to the gulf's faults.
western part of Germany after World War II. During his
The gulf is underlain by an oceanic crust, and the Sheba
tenure of office (1949-63), West Germany regained its
Ridge is characterized by shallow earthquake activity,
sovereignty, re-armed, and won a respected place in the
high heat flow, fresh lavas, and a thin or absent sedi-
affairs of Europe.
mentary cover. The evolution of the gulf is also linked
with the geological evolution of the East African Rift
©Karsh-Rapho Guillumette
Valley and of the Red Sea.
Bottom deposits. Sediment thicknesses increase away
from the Sheba Ridge toward the continental shelf,
especially in the region south of the Wãdi Hadramawt (a
seasonal river that drains into the gulf from the Arabian
Peninsula), where a thickness of about one mile is found.
Brown, green, and gray muds-characteristic of materi-
als originating on land-predominate near the coasts.
The basins are filled mainly with material from the coast-
al margins, eroded by turbid water currents, while sedi-
ments formed in deep water far from land predominate
on the Sheba Ridge. A slight amount of wind-blown ma-
terial is also present.
Currents, temperature, and salinity. The intensive ex-
change of water between the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden,
and the Arabian Sea, as well as strong evaporation and
monsoon (rain-bearing) winds that constitute part of the
air flow, all assist in the formation of a complex water
structure. The surface layer is highly saline, and eddies
complicate its flow pattern. During the northeast mon-
soon from November to March, the surface temperature
is fairly uniform-between 77° and 82° F (25° and
28° C). During the stronger southwest monsoon from
Adenauer.
May to September, however, horizontal temperature gra-
dients develop, with temperatures ranging from 77° to
Konrad Adenauer was born on January 5, 1876, the son
88° F (25° to 31° C). In the subsurface layer, at depths of
of a Cologne civil servant. He grew up in a Roman
from 300 to 2,000 feet, slightly less saline water flows
Catholic family of simple means in which frugality, ful-
from the Arabian Sea and passes into the Red Sea
fillment of duty, and religious dedication were stressed.
through the straits of Bab el-Mandeb. This flow is re-
He studied jurisprudence and political science at the Uni-
versed below 2,500 feet in a highly saline layer that origi-
versities of Freiburg, Munich, and Bonn. In 1906 he was
nates in the Red Sea. A low temperature and salinity layer
elected to the Cologne City Council and, in 1917, during
occurs at depths of from 3,000 to 6,000 feet down to the
World War I, was chosen Oberbürgermeister, or lord
M:
bottom in the east but only in the depressions to the west.
mayor, of the city. From 1920 he served as a member of
Co
Marine life. Marine life is rich in both the quantity
the Staatsrat (the central organ representing the diets of
and the variety of its species. Seasonally variable upwell-
the Prussian provinces) and in 1928 was elected its
ing of waters in the coastal zone provides the surface
speaker. Politically, he belonged to the Centre Party,
layer with a considerable supply of nutrient elements,
which in Cologne was long the leading political force.
which produce an abundant growth of plankton. Sardines
The largest part of German Catholicism became politi-
Species of
and mackerel abound in these areas of upwelling. The
cally entrenched in it. The conflict between Bismarck and
fish
main open-sea fish are dolphin, tuna, billfish, and sharks.
the Vatican had caused the state and German Catholi-
Whales are frequently sighted. The gulf provides a
cism to become critically and widely separated. In the
breeding ground for sea turtles, and rock lobster are
Rhineland at that time, Catholicism was submerged in
abundant.
the reservations of the German states, which had come
Fisheries. Despite a lack of large-scale commercial
under Prussian rule only in the 19th century.
fishing facilities, the coastline supports many isolated
Such influences and moods were shared with Adenauer,
fishing towns and villages. Local fishing takes place close
but they do not explain why he never seized on the op-
to the shore; sardines, tuna, kingfish, and mackerel make
portunities offered by the Central Party to play a forma-
Adenauer, Konrad 87
tive role in German politics in the Weimar Republic be-
cumstances, he felt that a policy of appeasement was ut-
tween 1919 and 1933. Nevertheless, under the Weimar
terly illusory, if not traitorous. Except for the period dur-
Republic Adenauer's career remained confined to local
ing which Nikita S. Khrushchev was in power in the So-
politics; his inner aloofness and his alienation from the
viet Union, Adenauer believed the Communist bloc to be
leading men of his own party might have contributed to
a direct military threat that could only be held in check
this. During the Nazi regime he was twice imprisoned.
by superior deterrent forces. As a result, he energetically
At the end of World War II, Adenauer returned to his
supported German contributions to the North Atlantic
birthplace. The Allied military authorities called him
Treaty Organization (NATO) and its nuclear arsenal, and
back to his old office, but, before he could begin his task
he would have preferred the development of a European
of rebuilding the beautiful, old, bomb-shattered city,
defense community. He saw in its creation one of the
Adenauer was dismissed by Sir John Barraclough, British
most promising instruments for imparting to Europe a
military governor of the North Rhine area, who found
new order and character. A prerequisite for this defense
him politically incompetent. This second fall from power
community was the reconciliation of Germany with its
did not cause Adenauer to withdraw from public life.
neighbours, especially France, and Adenauer worked for
On the contrary, it released him for his real mission.
this with all his strength.
Even before the end of the war, a new political party
During Adenauer's chancellorship his opponents de-
was being formed—the German Christian Democratic
manded that Germany be neutralized and placed in a po-
Union (CDU)-in which Catholics and Protestants buried
sition of non-alignment between the Eastern and Western
their long-standing differences to present a common front
blocs. But Adenauer and his party won all major elec-
against Nazism and to promote Christian principles in
tions because they declared that the risks to security in
government. This movement sprang from the insights of
such a policy would be intolerable. Behind this position
many that the old parties of the civil camp were obsolete
was a decision made by the CDU and its party leaders to
and were in their death throes and that the Catholics and
guide Germany out of its historically vulnerable position
the Protestants must unite. This was something new for
between East and West by making the nation an intrinsic
Germany, which for centuries following the Reforma-
part of a united Europe.
tion had created a climate in which the two communities
To the end of his life, Adenauer was reproached, un-
encountered each other often polemically or at a respect-
fairly, for not having seriously desired the reunification
ful distance. Adenauer was now able to play an impor-
of Germany, but he believed that it was impossible to
tant role in the formation of the new party, and in 1946
come to terms with the Soviet Union. In addition, he had
he became its chairman. He had always had a sharp eye
made his decision to bring German policies into close
for the possibilities and necessities of political tactics.
alignment with those of the West.
The CDU began expanding in the four zones of the Allied
In 1963 Adenauer turned over the chancellorship to
occupation. As the Soviet Union began increasingly to
Ludwig Erhard, who claimed much credit for the "mir-
obstruct the Allied Control Council, the Western Allies
acle" of Germany's economic recovery after the war.
decided to give their three occupation zones a federal-
There were no political reasons for his decision to step
state organization. Adenauer became president of the
down from office; rather, it was his belief that at age 88
Parlamentarischer Rat (Parliamentary Council), the task
-after 14 years in national government-he had grown
of which was to work out a provisional constitution for
too old to lead the nation. Thereafter, he began to write
the intended Federal Republic. The first Bundestag elec-
his memoirs. Nevertheless, he continued as chairman of
Chancellor
tions took place in August 1949. The CDU won with a nar-
the CDU until March 1966.
row majority over the opposition Social Democratic Par-
That Adenauer was able to hold his demanding office
Personal
ty (SPD), and Adenauer was appointed chancellor.
into the ninth decade of his life bespeaks his excellent
character-
As a result of his upbringing and education, Adenauer
physical, mental, and spiritual constitution, his first class
istics
was always opposed to Socialist ideas. He rejected the
staff, and loyal party. Equally important-and in many
notion of an egalitarian mass society, arguing that it
instances even more important-were the congenial re-
would not allow legitimate leadership to emerge. His
lations he enjoyed with the American and European
leading political theme was individualism under the rule
statesmen, particularly U.S. secretary of state John Fos-
of law. He was imbued with the conviction that the state
ter Dulles and French president Charles de Gaulle. Ade-
must guarantee its citizens optimal room for independent
nauer's open and undisguised warmth toward these
intellectual and economic development, as well as abso-
statesmen belies the charge that he was a cold and suspi-
lute protection under the law. In these views Adenauer
cious individual. He was merely a sober man of great
reflected the Roman Catholic social teachings of Pope
sensibility who despised wishful thinking, which he held
Leo XIII.
to be especially dangerous for Germany. His use of lan-
The political platform of the CDU, however, went be-
guage served him in his political goals, for it was sharp-
yond Adenauer's ideas; it advocated some programs of a
ened to be intelligible and convincing to the common
Socialist nature. In the controversies that resulted from
man; and its simplicity emphasized his authority.
his party's social program, Adenauer restrained himself
In his personal life, Adenauer was unpretentious and
son
-both as chairman of the party and as a government of-
extremely disciplined. His family was gathered around
nan
ful-
ficial-from interference. Such restraint was not entirely
him, and he was its patriarch. He was married twice and
in keeping with his nature and position.
sed.
was twice widowed. He ate little, detested smoking, and
Uni-
But Konrad Adenauer was not a politician with merely
loved to work in his large garden. He cultivated a deep-
private interests; he was quite pragmatic in his approach.
ened appreciation for painting, and several works of old
was
ring
He was willing to compromise on domestic programs
masters adorned the walls of his own home as well as his
lord
with which he philosophically disagreed so that he could
Mayor
official residence-the Schaumburg Palace. As a rule, his
er of
promote the unity of the country and give West Germany
day began early and ended late, for he required little
an important place in the European community.
sleep.
ts of
olicy
d its
Indeed, the focus of his interest throughout his career
Konrad Adenauer died on April 19, 1967. Among the
lay in foreign affairs. He viewed the expansion of Com-
friends and opponents of the past who visited West Ger-
'arty,
orce.
munist rule into the heart of Europe as a direct threat to
many to pay a last farewell were the leaders of the United
ooliti-
the West and its values. He had no faith in the possibility
States and France, as well as many other heads of state,
k and
of peaceful coexistence with the Communist world and
including David Ben-Gurion of Israel.
tholi-
felt the need for tough opposition to any aggressive mili-
in the
tary threats from the Communist bloc. He considered as
bibliography. KONRAD ADENAUER, Erinnerungen, 4 vol.
(1965-68), his autobiography encompassing the years 1945
irreconcilable the principal differences between individ-
ged in
to 1963; RUDOLF MORSEY and KONRAD REPGEN (eds.), Adenauer-
ualistic rule of law and totalitarian dictatorship and be-
Studien, vol. 1 (1971), contributions by four German histo-
come
tween humanistic-Christian teachings and Communist
rians and political scientists on the politics and personality of
social regimentation. He therefore became a strong advo-
Adenauer; PAUL WEYMAR, Konrad Adenauer (1955), an au-
nauer,
cate of the politics of containment. He was not, however,
thorized popular biography that provides the best description
he op-
of his life.
an opponent of the relaxation of tensions. Under the cir-
forma-
(Eu.G.)
US
6
ADAMS
(1905-07; 1913; 1918), in which she appeared more
of his hometown (1917-33). He was removed from office
than 1,500 times. She left the theater in 1918 but came
by the Nazis and lived in retirement during the Nazi era
out of retirement to appear in Shakespeare's The Mer-
(1933-45). After World War II, as head of the centrist
chant of Venice (1931) and Twelfth Night (1934).
See
Christian Democratic Union (CDU), which dominated West
biography by Phyllis Robbins (1956).
Germany's first elections in 1949, he maneuvered skill-
fully to become chancellor. During his 14-year reign, West
ADAMS, WALTER SYDNEY (1876-1956), U.S. astron-
Germany regained its sovereignty, joined the Common
omer. Associated with Mt. Wilson Observatory in Cali-
Market, and recovered economic prosperity. A willful,
fornia from its inception in 1904 (director, 1923-46).
sometimes autocratic leader, "Der Alte" was finally forced
Adams was known for his spectroscopic analyses. Through
into retirement by his own party (1963). See his Mem-
these, he ascertained the velocities and distances of thou-
oirs: 1945-53 (Eng. trans. 1966) and biographies by
sands of stars, investigated sunspots and interstellar
Paul Weymar (Eng. trans. 1957), Charles Wighton (1964),
gases, studied the atmospheres of the planets, and con-
and Terrence Prittie (1971).
tributed to the confirmation of Albert Einstein's general
theory of relativity (1925). He helped design and develop
ADLER, ALFRED (1870-1937), Austrian psychiatrist.
the 200-inch telescope that was installed (1947-48) at
Trained at the University of Vienna (M.D. 1895), Adler
California's Mt. Palomar Observatory.
was associated with psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud early
in his career, but disagreed with his emphasis on sex
ADDAMS, CHARLES SAMUEL (1912-
), U.S. car-
and broke away (1911) to form a comprehensive theory
toonist. Addams began his career as a free-lance car-
that stressed the uniqueness of the individual and the
toonist in 1935 when he sold a cartoon to the New Yorker,
vital importance of society in shaping personality. Adler
where his work continued to appear regularly. He was
postulated an inherent striving for perfection that may
known for his macabre humor, which invoked super-
take the form of a striving for superiority to compensate
natural characters and events. His endearing group of
for feelings of inferiority. Adlerian methods of treatment,
ghouls, vampires, and goblins inhabiting a dilapidated
while including interpretation of early memories and
Victorian mansion later became the subject of a television
dreams, are flexible and attempt to effect behavioral change
series popular in the 1960s called "The Addams Family."
by fostering social interaction and positive human rela-
Addams exhibited in several gallery shows, and his work
tionships. He moved to the United States in 1932. His
was brought out in a number of albums, among them
books included Neurotic Constitution (Eng. trans. 1917),
Monster Rally (1950), Nightcrawlers (1957), and Crea-
The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology (Eng.
ture Comforts (1981).
trans. 1923), Understanding Human Nature (Eng. trans.
1927). and What Life Should Mean to You (in English,
ADDISON, CHRISTOPHER, 1st VISCOUNT ADDISON OF
1931).
See studies by Phyllis Bottome (rev. ed. 1957),
STALLINGBOROUGH (1869-1951), British physician and
Manes Sperber (1974), and Josef Rattner (Eng. trans.
political leader. Addison was a professor of anatomy at
1983).
Sheffield University who was so appalled by social con-
ditions that he ran (successfully) for Parliament as a Lib-
ADLER, CYRUS (1863-1940), U.S. educator. Adler earned
eral in 1910. As minister of reconstruction (1917) and
the first U.S. doctorate in Semitics (Johns Hopkins Uni-
health (1919-21), he helped establish the principle of
versity, 1887) and was for 20 years curator of the Smith-
state responsibility for working-class housing. He joined
sonian Institution's Eastern and religious collections
the Labour party (1922) and held a succession of cabinet
(1889-1908). He was an important Jewish lay leader, a
positions (after 1929) before taking a seat in the House
founder (1906) and later (1929) president of the Ameri-
of Lords (1937; leader, 1945-51), where he was a rare
can Jewish Committee, and an editor of numerous Jew-
liberal.
See his Betrayal of the Slums (1922), Practical
ish reference works. An anti-Zionist, he attended the 1919
Socialism (2 vols., 1926), and biography by R. J. Minney
Versailles Peace Conference as a spokesman for minority
(1958).
rights. He was president of Dropsie College for Hebrew
and Cognate Learning (Philadelphia, 1908-40) and he
ADE, GEORGE (1866-1944), U.S. humorist and dram-
headed the Jewish Theological Seminary (1916-40).
atist. Born in Indiana, Ade graduated from Purdue Uni-
See his autobiography, I Have Considered the Days
versity (1887). His clever sketches and colloquial dialogue,
(1941), and the biography by Abraham Neuman (1942).
which grew out of his column in the Chicago Record,
poked fun at midwesterners. He wrote many popular
ADLER, JACOB (1855-1926), Russian-born Yiddish-
books, including Fables in Slang (1889), People You
language actor and theatrical manager. Adler left Russia
Knew (1903), Hand-made Fables (1920) and The Old
after theatrical performances in Yiddish were banned
Time Saloon (1931). He was also the author of several
(1883). He toured Eastern Europe and performed in Lon-
successful Broadway shows such as The County Chair-
don and Chicago before settling in New York City (1890)
man (1903) and The College Widow (1904). Ade's selected
where he was an idol of Yiddish-speaking theater audi-
writings are in The America of George Ade (1960).
See
ences for more than 30 years. A flamboyant personality
biography by Fred C. Kelly (1947).
and forceful actor, he helped inaugurate the "golden age"
of Yiddish theater and was a cultural hero of New York's
ADENAUER, KONRAD (1876-1967), West German
immigrant Jews. His great successes were in Der Yid-
chancellor. A lawyer from Cologne, Adenauer became active
isher King Lear, The Great Socialist, and The Merchant
in Catholic Center party politics and served as lord mayor
of Venice. His wife Sara (1858-1953) was one of the most
Truman- De gasperi 1948
[191] Sept 17
Public Papers of the Presidents
I have fought to keep the subject of atomic
list your help in order that this objective
energy out of partisan politics, to preserve it
may be achieved.
as a trust for the American people. I shall
Very sincerely yours,
continue to do so to the full extent of my
HARRY S. TRUMAN
powers as head of the Executive Branch of
our Government despite the opposing efforts
NOTE: This is the text of identical letters addressed
to Dr. Harrison S. Brown, University of Chicago
of persons, however highly placed, who un-
Dr. Philip M. Morse, Massachusetts Institute
derstand neither the significance of atomic
Technology, Dr. Karl T. Compton, President
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dr. T.
energy nor the meaning of genuine national
Hogness, University of Chicago, Dr. J. C. Warner,
security in a democratic nation. As always,
Carnegie Institute of Technology, Dr. Harold
public opinion will decide the merits of this
Urey, University of Chicago, Dr. George Pegram,
controversy. It is your responsibility as well
Columbia University, and Dr. Charles C. Lauritsen,
California Institute of Technology.
as mine to see that public opinion is in-
For the President's address before the American
formed as to the real issues and the merits
Association for the Advancement of Science,
Item 186.
or demerits of the opposing views. I en-
192 Letter to Premier de Gasperi on Italian Participation in the
European Recovery Program.
September 17, 1948
Released September 17, 1948.
Dated September 16, 1948
Dear Mr. President:
I express my admiration for the will
Thank you for the letter you wrote to me
work shown by the Italian people in their
after signing the Economic Cooperation
most difficult moments. I admire also the
Agreement.
sense of moderation and political maturiti
Men everywhere participate in and con-
shown by your people who have regained
tribute more effectively to an undertaking
recently the privileges and responsibilitie
when the terms and purposes are clearly
inherent in a liberal democracy.
understood and the commitments are freely
I am certain that with the broad particip
undertaken. The great amount of discus-
tion in the Recovery Program of all elemen
sion in our respective countries and the large
in the Italian nation, with your demonstrate
consensus in favor of the Agreement augurs
will to work, and with your political
well for its success.
turity, Italy will play a significant constru
The American people support this pro-
tive part in the European Recovery Program
gram wholeheartedly both for humanitarian
With cordial greetings, I am
and for practical reasons. In a world grow-
Very sincerely yours,
ing smaller day by day, no nation can profit
HARRY S. TRUMAN
by isolating itself. Mutual dependence
means that your welfare affects our welfare
[Honorable Alcide de Gasperi, President, Council
and vice versa. Therefore, for our sake, for
Ministers, Rome]
your sake, and for the sake of all other
NOTE: Premier de Gasperi's letter, dated July 6,
like-minded countries, it is our hope that
released with the President's reply.
The agreement was signed in Rome on June
the program in Italy and elsewhere will be
The text is printed in the Department of
crowned with success.
Bulletin (vol. 19, p. 38).
490
[230] Sept. 23
Public Papers of the Presidents
Wallace's letter available to you for use in
NOTE: Mr. Wallace's letter to the President of Sep-
such ways as you deem appropriate.
tember 19, 1951, was released by the White House
on September 23 together with the related docu-
Very sincerely yours,
ments referred to. His report to President Roose-
HARRY S. TRUMAN
velt on his visit to the Far East, dated July 10, 1944,
[The Honorable, The Vice President of the
is summarized in the Congressional Record (voL 96,
p. 598).
United States, Washington, D.C.]
231 Remarks of Welcome at Union Station Plaza to Prime Minister
De Gasperi of Italy. September 24, I951
Mr. Prime Minister:
do that.
It is a very great pleasure to welcome you
NOTE: The President spoke at 9:15 a.m. Prime
to the United States of America. I hope
Minister Alcide De Gasperi responded as follows:
you will have a most pleasant visit while you
"I thank you, Mr. President, for your cordial wel-
come. I am certain we will discuss matters for
are here, and I know there are a great many
common defense, for peace, and regarding the in-
things of importance about which we want
terests of both our countries-America and Italy."
to talk. You have plenty of opportunity to
See also Items 232, 235.
232 Joint Statement Following Discussions With the
Prime Minister of Italy. September 25, 1951
PRESIDENT TRUMAN and Prime Min-
United States, as in the past, will continue
ister De Gasperi met at the White House on
to assist Italy and the other Allies in achiev-
Tuesday, September 25. The meeting was
ing economic and social stability and in in
devoted to an exchange of views on the pres-
creasing their capacity for defense. He
ent international situation and on matters of
agreed with Mr. De Gasperi that the defense
mutual concern to Italy and the United
of Europe is vital to the preservation of the
States.
free world.
The President and the Prime Minister
Mr. De Gasperi referred to the contradic-
agreed on the importance of continuing the
tions between the spirit of the Italian Peace
joint effort of the free nations united in the
Treaty and Italy's present position as an
North Atlantic Treaty Organization to the
equal member of the community of free
preservation of world peace. Each reaf-
nations. He informed the President of the
firmed the conviction of his Government
legitimate desire of the Italian people that
that the free nations must be strong in order
these contradictions be removed. The
to make the world safe from aggression.
Prime Minister also expressed satisfaction at
Prime Minister De Gasperi reaffirmed that
the opportunity he has had to exchange
the Italian people are fully determined to
views on the question with the Secretary of
continue their efforts for the common cause.
State, as well as with the British and French
He described Italy's particular need to
Foreign Ministers. The President assured
strengthen its economic position as part of
the Prime Minister that the United State
its general defense effort. President Tru-
Government is determined that the situal
man assured the Prime Minister that the
tion he had described be corrected in a spirit
534
its
Harry S. Truman, 1951
Sept. 25 [233]
ace's letter to the President of Sep.
of equity and friendship. He expressed
the Prime Minister that the United States
was released by the White House
3 together with the related docu-
confidence that the consideration now being
fully recognizes the urgency of reaching in-
O. His report to President Roose-
given to this matter would be satisfactorily
ternational agreements which will help
o the Far East, dated July 10, 1944,
concluded.
alleviate distress in over-populated countries
1 the Congressional Record (vol. 96,
The Prime Minister stressed and the Pres-
such as Italy and contribute to the develop-
ident recognized the importance to the
ment of other areas.
Italian people of the Trieste question, in
The President and the Prime Minister
regard to which the policies of both govern-
each expressed gratification at the opportu-
za to Prime Minister
ments are well known. The question was
nity given by the latter's visit to reaffirm the
fully taken into consideration.
friendship and identity of views of the two
Mr. De Gasperi emphasized to the Presi-
nations. They stated the determination of
dent the seriousness of the problem of over-
their respective governments to continue to
sident spoke at 9:15 a.m. Prime
population in Italy and informed him of the
work for a peace based on the principles of
)e Gasperi responded as follows:
Italian Government's efforts toward finding
the United Nations Charter, to which each
Mr. President, for your cordial wel-
tain we will discuss matters for
international solutions to the related prob-
is dedicated.
for peace, and regarding the in-
lem of resettlement. The President assured
NOTE: See also Items 231, 235.
IF countries-America and Italy."
232, 235.
233
Statement by the President Upon Signing Executive Order
h the
Prescribing Regulations for Classifying and Protecting
Security Information. September 25, 1951
5I
I HAVE today signed an Executive order to
defense agencies which have traditional clas-
as in the past, will continue
strengthen our safeguards against divulging
sification systems. On the other hand, the
id the other Allies in achiev-
to potential enemies information harmful to
order prohibits any agency from classifying
nd social stability and in in-
the security of the United States.
nonsecurity matters.
capacity for defense. He
This order provides, for the first time, uni-
The American people have a fundamental
De Gasperi that the defense
form standards for classifying and protecting
right to information about their Govern-
al to the preservation of the
security information throughout the execu-
ment, and there is no element of censorship,
tive branch of the Government. At the
either direct or implied, in this order. The
eri referred to the contradic-
same time, the order prohibits the classifica-
order applies only to officials and employees
e spirit of the Italian Peace
tion of any information by any agency unless
of the executive branch of the Government.
ly's present position as an
it can show affirmatively that disclosure of
The public is requested to cooperate, but is
of the community of free
the information would harm the national
under no compulsion or threat of penalty to
formed the President of the
security. Therefore, some agencies will
do so as a result of this order. Furthermore,
: of the Italian people that
never have occasion to institute classification
I have directed every agency to keep constant
tions be removed. The
and many of the others will have only infre-
watch over its classification activities for the
also expressed satisfaction at
quent need to do so.
purpose of reducing or eliminating classifi-
he has had to exchange
The necessity for this order arises from
cations wherever and whenever conditions
estion with the Secretary of
the fact that security information occasion-
permit. I expect each department head or
with the British and French
ally involves, and must be handled by, agen-
his designated subordinate to investigate
rs. The President assured
cies which normally do not handle security
promptly and carefully any alleged instance
ter that the United States
matters. The order requires them to pro-
of unjustified use of security classifications.
determined that the situa-
tect security matters in the same manner as
As the result of these policies, and as the
ibed be corrected in a spirit
they would be protected in one of the key
result of the clear segregation of security
535
Harry S. Truman, 1951
Sept. 26 [235]
as is carried
issued I ha
information. To put the matter
classification to purely security matters, of
24- Security C
these regulations are designed to
using the lowest appropriate classification,
evatul Commit
security information away from poten-
and of downgrading UI declassifying infor-
stiacin a conti
toemies and must not be used to with-
mation as rapidly 2 conditions permit, I
activities in
pon security information or to cover
have directed the National Security Council
Arring uniform
reakes made by any official or employee
through its Interderazimental Committee on
Sech as to safe
Government. In order to prevent any
Internal Security to Eurnish advice and as-
the and to preve
erstanding about this, these regula-
sistance to the Departments and agencies
from being
prohibit the use of security classifica-
in connection with these regulations and to
with can be
3 non-security information even when
maintain a continuing review of the dessifi-
tional security.
dosure of such non-security informa-
cation activities i- every department or
forbidden by law (as in the case of
agency to insure uniform and proper appli-
and to Executive
and income tax information). This
cation of these regulations, including de-
N 1951, and
Neablishing
is spelled out in paragraph 3 of Part
classification where possible.
rive, Transmits
Regulation.
I wish to urge - every Department
and Agencies
attention is directed specifically to
M Information
and agency head conscientious adherence to
2 Interest of
that paragraph 25(b) of Part IV
the spirit and letter is these regulations in
6 CFR, 18949
that security information "shall be
the interest of carding the national
is 248, 302.
the lowest security classification
security on the one Hand, and the protection
rent with its proper protection" and
of the public's right = information on the
paragraph 28(c) of Part IV directs that
other hand. In the latter connection, I CX-
Regulations
all be the responsibility and obligation
pect each Department head or his designated
n.
every Government official to keep clas-
subordinate to investigate promptly and
security information in his custody
carefully any allege instance of unjustified
ently under review, and to initiate ac-
use of security classifications. In consider-
however, with
toward downgrading or declassification
ing such instances and indeed in original
ur national
as conditions warrant." Strict ad-
determinations on Hassification, it should
gencies are
to these provisions is absolutely es-
be borne in mind E= improper application
curity inform
1 for, otherwise, overclassification or
of the classification powers is repulsive to
it necessary
# to downgrade or declassify in timely
our democratic for of Government and
tandards for
too CO will defeat the very purpose of these
burdens Government procedures with un-
secutive Bra
ations.
necessary and expensive restrictions.
order to further the above objectives of
HARRY S. TRUMAN
arty understo
ting that information upon which the
city of the Nation depends, of limiting
NOTE: See also Items 247 [I], 248, 302.
I defens
x used exclus
of the Nation
any circumi
35
Address at the Dedication of Equestrian Statues, ≡ Gift
it is my hope
of the People of Italy. September 26, I95I
se regulations
than less, Info
Secretary of the Interior, Mr. Prime
ful statues from the people of Italy. These
at available to
litter, Mr. Secretary of State, ladies and
statues were designe by American artists
it from the
emen:
and made by ItaCan craftsmen. Italian
nation from
Oo behalf of the American people, I am
foundries and Italian workmen, using the
ill
to accept the gift of these four beauti-
secrets of their craft at go back to the days
66
537
[235] Sept. 26
Public Papers of the Presidents
of Michelangelo, cast these heroic figures in
We in the United States regard steps like
bronze and covered them with gold.
these as vitally important. We earnestly
These statues bear witness to the artistic
believe that the benefits of economic progress
traditions and the fine workmanship of the
and increased production should be made
Italian people.
available to all the people.
Four of the craftsmen who made these
That is why we are so glad to see the new
bronze groups have come to this country for
developments that are taking place in Italy
the ceremony, and we are delighted to have
today. Italy is making progress by evolu-
them with us. We are also fortunate to
tion and not by revolution. And it is prog-
have with us a representative of the trade
ress that benefits the ordinary citizen. We
union leaders of Italy who are striving for a
are confident that the firm devotion to free-
free, democratic labor movement in Italy.
dom and democratic principles that has
These leaders are fighting in the cause of
guided you, Mr. Prime Minister, and your
free trade unions and free people every-
colleagues in office, will result in further
where. The presence here of these Italian
advances for the Italian people.
citizens testifies to the friendship and trust
Through these difficult years since the
between the people of Italy and the people
war, the Italian people have proved their
of the United States in the struggle for
right to participate fully-and as equal part-
human freedom.
ners-in the great constructive tasks of the
Ever since the war our two countries have
free world.
been working together to preserve world
During your conferences here, Mr. Prime
peace. We have been seeking to create eco-
Minister, we have discovered ways in which
nomic conditions that will make it possible
our two countries can continue to work to-
for all men to do useful work and live their
gether in the effort of the free nations for
lives in freedom at the same time. The
peace and human advancement.
Italian people have made great progress, Mr.
It is clear that Italy cannot do its full share
Prime Minister, since your last visit to Wash-
in this effort under the existing restrictions
ington in 1947.
of the Italian peace treaty. As it stands, the
Your people have made progress in agri-
treaty does not give Italy the position of
culture and industry. Industrial production
equality among the free nations to which
in Italy is now 45 percent higher than it was
it is entitled. Among other things, the
in 1947. Electric power production is al-
treaty places unnecessary shackles on Italian
most double what it was before the war.
efforts for the common defense of the com-
You have been moving forward in land
munity of free nations. We intend to do
reclamation and flood control.
everything we can to see that these unfair
But this is not all. Italy is engaged in a
restrictions and discriminations are removed.
program of economic and social reforms.
We also intend to keep on working for
Low-cost housing developments have been
the admission of Italy into the United Na-
created. Land reform is giving thousands
tions. If the Soviet Union keeps on vetoing
of farmers a new stake in the land they work.
Italy's membership, other ways must be
The whole island of Sardinia has been freed
found to enable Italy to play a full and equal
from the scourge of malaria and as a result
part in upholding the principles of the
offers new and greater opportunities for
United Nations.
economic development.
In the economic field, we realize that one
538
Harry S. Truman, 1951
Sept. 26 [236]
tates regard steps
Inly's biggest problems is surplus man-
a greater sense of European unity, based on
rtant. We care
that jobs and homes must be
moral and cultural values. We expect Italy,
; of economic pro-
seed Ee mployed in Italy. The history
.B
the lands for many of those who
with its great religious and cultural heritage,
ion should be
to take a leading part in that effort.
ple.
send the United States shows that a nation is
Greater unity in defense, greater unity in
so glad to see the
fortunate
if it can obtain the energies
economic effort, the removal of obsolete na-
&
taking place in
states a Italian immigrants. I hope we
tional barriers from the North Sea to the
g progress by
up
20
effective international program
Mediterranean-these are the things that
tion. And it is
help saive Italy's problem of surplus man-
are needed to provide not only security but
rdinary citizen.
Inete are many places in the world
social and economic advancement for the
firm devotion to
yourer. people from Italy are needed and
peoples of Europe.
principles that
where they can lay the foundations for a
Only by such changes can we preserve the
e Minister, and
prosperous future for themselves and their
fundamental values of the past. Only by
ill result in fund your
such combined efforts can we counter the
1 people.
In addition to idle manpower, Italy has
menace of Soviet aggression. Only through
cult years since
bearies which could be used for defense
such cooperation by all can we raise the
e have proved the
production if they were not hampered by
living standards and increase the opportu-
y-and as equal
Abortages of materials and lack of foreign
nities of any single nation.
structive tasks of
exchange. When factories and workers in
In these great tasks, Mr. Prime Minister,
11 stand idle, that is a needless loss to the
we wish the Italian people good fortune and
nces here, Mr. Price
strength of the free world. Acting together,
speedy success. Rest assured that we are
vered ways in which
our governments must take steps to use the
with you, and will do all we can to help you.
continue to work
rejources of Italy's manpower and industrial
NOTE: The President spoke at I:22 p.m. at the
the free nations for
production as fully as possible in the great
Memorial Bridge in Washington. His opening
exbilization effort of the free nations for
words referred to Secretary of the Interior Oscar L.
incement.
Chapman, Prime Minister Alcide De Gasperi of
annot do its full shate:
Italy, and Secretary of State Dean Acheson.
existing restriction
The future of Italy lies not only in domes-
The four statues were a gift from the people of
ty. As it stands,
progress but also in closer ties and greater
Italy to the people of the United States in recogni-
tion of the economic assistance given by the United
taly the position
unity with the free nations that are its neigh-
States to Italy following World War II. The de-
ee nations to which
boes.
We have followed with great interest
signs and plaster models were created by two Amer-
the efforts of Italian statesmen to bring about
ican sculptors, Leo Friedlander and James E. Fraser.
hn other things,
the
See also Items 231, 232.
y shackles on Itali
defense of the com
We intend to do)
236 Remarks to a Group of Korean Soldiers.
see that these unf.
September 26, 1951
nations are removed
eep on working for
WE ARE glad to welcome you. I hope you
It is a pleasure to have you here.
into the United N
have an enjoyable visit, and that you will go
NOTE: The President spoke at 3:05 p.m. in the Rose
ion keeps on vetoing
back with information that will be helpful
Garden at the White House. The six officers of the
ther ways must be
to you and to your country, to make a con-
Korean army were part of a group of 250 Korean
soldiers who were brought to the United States to
play a full and equal
tribution to the victory that we expect to
attend U.S. Army training schools.
e principles of the
win in Korea.
we realize that one
539
Bush - Italian Pres Cossiga Oct 1989
Oct. 10 / Administration of George Bush, 1989
"USA! USA!," there at Williamsport, and of
versary stamp to honor Lou Gehrig for his
the spirit which says that nothing is impossi-
decency, integrity, and bravery, qualities
ble, in Little League or in the bigger fields
that, as Bart Giamatti showed, are as time-
of life. You know, we lost a man recently
less as today. This inscribed picture of Lou
who embodied that spirit: the former presi-
that we have here somewhere-{laugh-
dent of Yale and then commissioner of base-
ter]-commemorates that stamp, and I'd
ball. He lived a few miles from where you
like to give it to Howard Talbott, Director
do. He was a great friend of many of ours,
of the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, also
certainly a friend of mine: Bart Giamatti-
marking its golden anniversary. Howard, let
poet and scholar, gentle and sensitive. And
me just say that I hope this picture will
his life was a metaphor for honesty, and he
inspire the kids of every age and show how,
ennobled public service. He knew and
by building courage, character, baseball
loved the fact that this marks the 50th anni-
Little League can belt the grand-slam home
versary of Little League.
run. Tom Galla, as Trumbull coach, please
But it's also another 50th anniversary,
help me in presenting it. And to all of you,
and I'd like to close by noting it as Bart
thank you so much for coming to the White
himself did earlier this summer. It concerns,
House to salute this team and to honor a
if you will, a hero of mine. And also they
legend.
come to know his story, I hope, of you
Trumbull kids as well. His name was Lou
Note: The President spoke at 1:34 p.m. in
Gehrig. He was a Hall of Fame first base-
the Rose Garden at the White House. In his
man in the twenties and thirties. But more
opening remarks, he referred to Morag
than that, he was a good and decent man
Vance, first selectman of Trumbull, CT;
about whom a teammate said, "Every day,
Creighton Hale, president of the U.S. Little
any day, he just went out and did his job."
League Foundation; Howard Talbott, direc-
Fifty years ago, Lou Gehrig was stricken by
tor of the Hall of Fame; John DelVecchio,
a form of paralysis which now bears his
president of Trumbull Little League; and
name. And the disease ended Lou's record-
Tom Galla, coach of the Trumbull Nation-
consecutive-games-played streak and caused
als.
his retirement from baseball. And even so,
he told that July 4th, 1939, crowd at Yankee
Stadium: "I consider myself the luckiest
man on the face of the Earth."
That story has become an American para-
Remarks at the Welcoming Ceremony
ble. What an example for these kids. And
for President Francesco Cossiga of Italy
how right that we recall it on the 50th anni-
October 11, 1989
versary of his unforgettable farewell. Less
known is what Lou Gehrig did after he left
President Bush. Mr. President and distin-
the Yankees. Dying, weaker day by day, he
guished members of the Italian delegation,
could barely move his body, yet he loved
good morning, and a warm, hearty wel-
and wanted to counsel the kids, the chil-
come to the White House.
dren. And so, he spent much of the last 2
Mr. President, when your visit was being
years of his life as parole commissioner for
planned, I suggested we invite a few friends
the city of New York. And they called him
of Italy to greet you. Well, we discovered
"The Iron Horse," the "Pride of the Yan-
that finding friends of Italy here in America
kees." And certainly I think we would all
is like finding fine art in Florence or canals
agree, he was a hero. He showed, like Little
in Venice; they're all around us. And Bar-
League, that what matters is how we con-
bara and I are just delighted to have this
duct ourselves off as well as on the field.
opportunity to return the warm hospitality
You kids here are proof of that. So, let me
that we received in Rome earlier this year.
again congratulate Trumbull, Connecticut:
Italy was my first stop on my first visit to
You truly are number one.
Europe as President, en route to a critical
And now let me conclude with a presen-
and ultimately highly successful NATO
tation. Earlier this summer, the United
[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]
States Post Office issued a special 50th anni-
summit. And I'll always remember that the
1524
Administration of George Bush, 1989 / Oct. 11
ou Gehrig for his
road to continued alliance unity began in
talk about developments within the Soviet
bravery, qualities
Rome.
Union and our determination to continue
wed, are as time-
Mr. President, our two countries are
pushing forward with NATO's call for the
ed picture of Lou
linked in many ways, by ties of friendship
early conclusion of a conventional arms re-
newhere-[laugh-
and the bonds of family. And on this past
duction agreement with the Warsaw Pact.
stamp, and I'd
Memorial Day weekend, I paid a visit to the
And we will also discuss other issues of
Talbott, Director
cemetery at Nettuno, on the coast south of
mutual concern: the war on drugs that
Cooperstown, also
Rome, to honor the thousands of American
we're waging here in the United States, and
rsary. Howard, let
soldiers, many of Italian ancestry, who gave
Italy's crackdown on organized crime, nar-
this picture will
their lives to help liberate Italy.
cotics trafficking, and drug abuse.
ge and show how,
For more than 40 years Italy and Amer-
We'll discuss alliance issues and the need
haracter, baseball
ica have been friends and allies, fellow
for unity that is critical today when tensions
grand-slam home
members of the family of free nations. And
are easing, but the threat to peace and free-
bull coach, please
President Cossiga is himself a symbol of
dom still exists. And I look forward to a
And to all of you,
Italy's democratic renaissance, a man of su-
productive meeting, a meeting of the mind
ning to the White
preme ability and integrity who has served
and heart that takes place between friends,
1 and to honor a
his nation in more positions of public trust
takes place between allies.
than we have time to name. And I am par-
President Cossiga, welcome, sir. I wish
ticularly pleased that the President has hon-
2 at 1:34 p.m. in
ored us with a visit to America on the eve
you and your distinguished colleagues a
hite House. In his
of our Columbus Day. The son of Genoa,
pleasant and productive visit to our coun-
discoverer of the New World that became
try. There are few nations where the ties
ferred to Morag
America, is celebrated here in our country,
are so strong, the affection so genuine and
f Trumbull, CT;
and through the tradition of Columbus and
mutual, than between our two countries.
of the U.S. Little
And I know that here and on the rest of
rd Talbott, direc-
the great explorers live on.
John DelVecchio,
Soon, aboard the space shuttle Atlantis, a
your travels, you will find America wel-
ittle League; and
space probe begins its 6-year voyage to the
comes you with open arms. And thank you,
Trumbull Nation-
planet Jupiter. Galileo-a mission across the
and God bless you. And God bless the
millions of miles of space to the moons the
United States of America and the Republic
famed astronomer discovered over three
of Italy. Welcome to the White House.
centuries ago-Galileo is just one element
President Cossiga. Mr. President, I am
in a very exciting, very ambitious space pro-
most grateful to you for your warm words
gram. And I know that the Vice President,
of welcome. It is a great pleasure for me to
ing Ceremony
Dan Quayle, who is doing a tremendous job
be in this great country with which Italy
Cossiga of Italy
as Chairman of our National Space Council,
has ancient and solid ties of friendship and
agrees with me that every voyage into
alliance, as the result of a choice that is
space is a voyage into our future.
shared by the whole of the Italian people,
sident and distin-
And Italy, too, is active in the new world
as the expression of a common desire for
talian delegation,
of space exploration. After his meetings
peace and of common values of freedom
irm, hearty wel-
here, President Cossiga will visit my home-
1 and democracy.
town of Houston and the Johnson Space
After 40 years of history marked by con-
IT visit was being
Center. And he's going to hear firsthand
frontation between the East and the West,
vite a few friends
how much the U.S. values its partnership
we are witnessing great changes occurring
II, we discovered
with the Italian Space Agency, a partner-
worldwide, events that are full of promise
here in America
ship that's going to be built to result in the
and that strike the imagination of our peo-
lorence or canals
flight of the first Italian astronaut aboard
ples. The changes in the direction of de-
ınd us. And Bar-
one of our space shuttle missions in 1991.
mocracy which are taking place in the
ted to have this
In just a few minutes, the President and I
Soviet Union, Poland, and Hungary are de-
warm hospitality
will move inside to begin our discussions.
velopments that would have been unthink-
earlier this year.
Both of us have been to Poland this year.
able even a very short time ago. In this new
my first visit to
And we'll discuss the momentous changes
climate, it is becoming possible to act with
oute to a critical
taking place in Eastern Europe and the
realism but with well-grounded confidence
uccessful NATO
progress we've made in developing concert-
to restore that whole and free Europe of
Organization]
ed Western action to support movement to-
which you, Mr. President, have spoken with
member that the
wards democracy there. And of course we'll
such vision and insight.
1525
Oct. 11 / Administration of George Bush, 1989
The West has the historic duty to contrib-
fice of the alliance between the free nations
ute to us making this difficult process suc-
of the West.
cessful, giving generously of its farsighted
In Italy we listen with great interest to
support and its financial assistance. I'm
the reference you made last May to the
thinking in particular of the great Polish
common values which constitute the very
nation that is currently in the throes of seri-
mortar that binds the United States to
ous difficulties in its courageous attempt to
Europe and the basis of our defense alli-
work its renewal and which needs more
ance, which for over 40 years has helped to
substantial aid from us.
keep peace. At a time when it is precisely
Italy, Mr. President, identifies a specific
these values that are winning through, even
role at home and is ready to take on direct
outside the alliance, we must confirm with
responsibilities in creating a new relation-
even great forcefulness and conviction our
ship with Eastern Europe, in particular with
commitment to fostering them. Together
the countries of the opposite shores of the
we must continue to close ranks on the side
Adriatic and over the Alps, which do not
of freedom and justice, human rights and
divide but unite the peoples in the Danube
the peaceful progress of all peoples, particu-
Basin. This is a demanding mission which
larly by bridging the gap between North
Italy intends to pursue with the aim of con-
and South. Together, we must extend a
tributing towards overcoming the political
hand of friendship to the peoples who are
tensions and the economic difficulties in the
still deprived of the benefits of economic
southern part of central Europe, which if
development. The more closely united
not kept at bay might lead to upheavals and
Europe of tomorrow is ready to take up
dangerous tendencies towards disgregation.
these challenges in a spirit of open coopera-
For both geographical and historical rea-
tion with the United States and the convic-
sons, Italy's policy towards the Middle East
tion that entrenchment is incompatible
and the Mediterranean area is imbued with
the same concern. In these areas, we should
with progress; entrenchment is incompati-
work not only to settle the grievous con-
ble with prosperity.
flicts which are still being waged but also to
Scientific progress and economic growth
prevent the economic and demographic im-
are the indispensable preconditions for ex-
balances from worsening and threatening
tending development to all sections of soci-
the stability of the whole area.
ety and to all the regions of the world.
In relation to the friendly sister nations of
Moreover, we are convinced that techno-
Latin America, too, Italy views her aid
logical and industrial development, which is
policy as a means not only of assisting their
the expression of the irreversible progress
economic development but also of restoring
of mankind, is not incompatible with envi-
or consolidating free and democratic sys-
ronmental protection and respect for
tems.
nature. However, we must do all we can to
Mr. President, we are the witnesses of a
seek to strike a just balance which will
new and major turning point in history. A
demand imagination, political courage, and
decade which opened under the cloud of
above all the cooperation of everyone.
confusion and uncertainty is about to end
Mr. President, I am particularly happy to
under the sign of hope-a decade whose
make this visit because I'm certain that we
beginning was marked by difficult and pain-
will be able to further strengthen our two
ful decisions on the part of those vested
countries' bilateral relations, that already
with the responsibilities of government. But
constitute a tightly interwoven network in
those decisions have contributed, as indeed
the areas of the economy, culture, science,
they were designed to, towards strengthen-
and combating the scourge of crime and
ing peace and opening up encouraging
drug trafficking. It is only by continuing to
prospects for reconciliation and dialog. It is
closely coordinate our efforts that we shall
our duty today to look ahead to the future,
be in a position to defeat the tremendous
indeed, to build up that future by taking
threat looming over our societies because of
the initiative with determination and, at the
drugs.
same time, to consolidate the foundations of
Common values, common interests,
what we had already constructed: the edi-
common duties-these form the solid and
1526
Administration of George Bush, 1989 / Oct. 11
rity Affairs], and
marks at the Department of Commerce. He
Appointment of Josephine Mora
y Adviser Robert
would succeed Donald James Quigg.
Velazquez as a Member of the National
Since 1970 Mr. Manbeck has served as
Commission on Children
general patent counsel of the General Elec-
tric Co. in Fairfield, CT. Prior to this he
October 11, 1989
etary Fitzwater
served in several positions with the General
The President today announced his inten-
ing With NATO
Electric Co., including various patent man-
fred Woerner
tion to appoint Josephine Mora Velazquez
agement positions, 1957-1969; patent agent
as a member of the National Commission
and patent attorney in Louisville, KY, 1953-
1957; and engineer, 1949-1953.
on Children for a term expiring September
Mr. Manbeck graduated from Lehigh
30, 1990. She will serve as a Parent Repre-
is afternoon with
University (B.S., 1949) and the University of
sentative. This is a new position.
eneral Manfred
discussed a varie-
Louisville (LL.B., 1954). He was born June
Currently Mrs. Velazquez serves as a
member of the board of directors of the
developments in
26, 1926, in Honesdale, PA. Mr. Manbeck
resident compli-
served in the U.S. Army, 1944-1947. Cur-
Children's Home Society and vice president
neral on his lead-
rently he resides in Fairfield, CT.
and founding member of Hands in Action
in Florida. Prior to this she served as vice
summit and noted
president of the Big Travel Club in Miami,
tion was designed
FL, 1979-1983.
NATO in a period
Mrs. Velazquez received a bachelor's
it relations, giving
Nomination of Jacqueline Jones-Smith
degree from the University of Madrid in
working to over-
To Be a Member and Chairman of the
1976. She was born November 15, 1943, in
pe. The President
Consumer Product Safety Commission
Havana, Cuba. Mrs. Velazquez is married,
mitment to sup-
October 11, 1989
has four children, and resides in Miami, FL.
nomic and politi-
Hungary.
The President today announced his inten-
Secretary General
tion to nominate Jacqueline Jones-Smith to
ig CFE [conven-
be a Commissioner of the Consumer Prod-
Toasts at the State Dinner for President
negotiations and
uct Safety Commission for a term of 7 years
from October 27, 1989. She will also be
Francesco Cossiga of Italy
ing the momen-
nominated to be the Chairman. She would
October 11, 1989
cent tabling of its
succeed Terrence M. Scanlon.
I the commitment
Since 1987 Mrs. Smith has served as a
President Bush. Mr. President, welcome.
le for reaching a
staff attorney in the Office of the General
Barbara and I are delighted to have this
o 12 months.
Counsel at the Federal Election Commis-
opportunity to renew our friendship and to
2 p.m. and lasted
sion in Washington, DC. Prior to this she
return the hospitality that we've felt on
were Secretary of
served as an assistant county attorney in the
every one of our visits to your country. And
ef of Staff John
office of the county attorney for Montgom-
it's a great honor to host a man who has
y Adviser Brent
ery County, MD, 1985-1987. She has also
held almost every high office that Italy has
ermanent Repre-
served in several positions at the MAXIMA
to offer.
d Deputy Assist-
Corp., including division manager, 1984-
If I took the time to list every single job
ert Pearson. Fol-
1985; senior library systems consultant,
you've held, the dinner would be cold and
he President, the
1981-1984; director of library/clearing-
but of date. [Laughter] But let me mention
:h Vice President
house operations, 1980-1981; and systems
three: your service as a navy man, a former
librarian, 1979-1980.
legislator, and president of the Senate. I've
Mrs. Smith graduated from Swarthmore
always thought that those experiences alone
College (B.A., 1974), Syracuse University
would be enough to prepare anyone for the
Manbeck, Jr.,
(M.L.S., 1978), and American University
Presidency. [Laughter]
Patents and
(J.D., 1984). She was born November 5,
And Mr. President, when I asked my ad-
1952, in Bronx, NY. Mrs. Smith is married,
visers about the secret of your success, they
has one stepson, and resides in Rockville,
told me that you have an especially inter-
MD.
esting method to keep in touch with Italian
ounced his inten-
Manbeck, Jr., to
ents and Trade-
1529
Oct. 11 / Administration of George Bush, 1989
public opinion. I wonder how many Italian
Mr. President, your kind words through
ham radio operators know that the fellow
my person are addressed to my country and
who signs off as Andy Capp is really the
to the Italian people, thus confirming the
President of Italy. And sure enough-
deep-rooted friendship between Italy and
[laughter].
the United States of America. Indeed, Ital-
But, sir, on a serious vein, I do place
ians and Americans share the fundamental
great importance on the meetings that we
values which inspire our common activity:
had this morning, speaking with candor and
the values of freedom, of peaceful develop-
from the heart, as friends, just the way it
ment and progress, and of cooperation with
ought to be. And all of us here tonight
all nations in full mutual respect. As your
know that relations between Italy and the
history as a nation was dawning, you placed
United States have never been stronger.
the ideals of freedom, democracy, and
They really never have been.
social justice as the foundation stones of
And for millions of Americans, Italy is the
your Revolution. These same values which
old country-home of a proud heritage, a
were enshrined for the first time in the
heritage written into every page of the his-
American Constitution were subsequently
tory of Western civilization. The greatness
taken up and reaffirmed in the fundamen-
of Rome was known, of course, throughout
tal charters of all democratic countries. And
the world, more than a thousand years
like your Revolution, the two great move-
before our country or this continent was
ments that brought about Italy's unification
even known to exist. And America has
and national redemption, the Risorgimento
always been the New World, discovered by
and the Resistance, were based on the con-
your great adventurer, Columbus, a land of
cept of the indissoluble and intimate rela-
possibilities, a place where a new history
tionship between the independence of the
could be written. And that history, our his-
nation and the freedom of the individual.
tory, is one that the sons and daughters of
During our conversations a few months
Italy helped to write.
ago in Rome at the Quirinal Palace, what I
And so, tonight I offer this toast to old
noticed most particularly, Mr. President,
friends and also to the new Italy: a great
was the emphasis with which you reaf-
and growing economic power, one of the
firmed the continued importance of these
world's foremost democracies, a strong and
values in view of the forceful, auspicious,
valued ally and a partner in the community
but also at time perilous changes that are
of free nations.
taking place on the international stage.
And so, let us raise our glasses to Presi-
Today we can safely state that those princi-
dent Francesco Cossiga, to the Republic of
ples which underlie our political system and
Italy, and to the lasting friendship and love
our joint endeavors have won through. We
between the people of Italy and America.
can rely on the knowledge that the values
President Cossiga. Mr. President, Mrs.
of freedom are not only secure, but endur-
Bush, ladies and gentlemen, I wish to thank
ing. As the great Italian scholar Benedetto
you again also on behalf of Foreign Minister
Croce emphasized when he wrote, "When
De Michelis and the delegation accompany-
the question is heard whether liberty will
ing me for the warm welcome extended to
enjoy what is known as the future, the
us in Washington. Mr. President, you wish
answer must be that it has something better
to address to me very kind words to recall
still; it has eternity."
also the times when I was a young man and
Faced with the momentous events we are
I was known as Andy Capp. [Laughter] I
witnessing-first and foremost, the evolu-
think that this name has helped me to over-
tionary process taking place in the Soviet
come my handicaps. [Laughter]
Union-those who have traditionally fought
Mr. President, I know fairly well that in
for the principles of democracy, as we have,
the United States the political struggle is
must actively endeavor to encourage the
quite hard, but I ask you to believe me if I
full deployment of the potentialities now
say that in Italy it is not easier. [Laughter]
emerging. This is a common duty incum-
1530
Administration of George Bush, 1989 / Oct. 12
nd words through
bent on the whole of the West and its
am certain that it is in this great undertak-
to my country and
import and significance are certainly not
ing which we might well describe in the
US confirming the
lost on the members of the European com-
words of Lincoln as the triumphal march of
etween Italy and
munity. They intend to redouble their ef-
civilization, the United States and Italy can
erica. Indeed, Ital-
forts to establish a climate of ever-greater
work together to make a strong and signifi-
the fundamental
mutual confidence and to restore increas-
cant contribution towards its realization.
common activity:
ingly close economic, cultural, and human
And it is with these sentiments, Mr. Presi-
peaceful develop-
relations throughout the European conti-
dent, and renewing to you and to Mrs. Bush
cooperation with
nent.
my thanks, I would like all those present
respect. As your
Mr. President, it was also thanks to your
wning, you placed
contribution that the Atlantic summit last
here to raise their glasses with me in a toast
democracy, and
May confirmed the vitality of the alliance
to the prosperity of the United States of
idation stones of
which binds us and made it possible to lay
America, to the success of the work of your
me values which
the foundations for that great improvement
administration, to your personal well-being,
in East-West relations hoped for by us all.
to that of Mrs. Bush, and to the friendship
first time in the
ere subsequently
But the values and principles which our
between our two peoples. To the President
countries share should not be limited to cre-
of the United States of America.
in the fundamen-
tic countries. And
ating common ground with regard to the
great issues of relations between America
two great move-
and Europe and between East and West.
Note: President Bush spoke at 10:13 p.m. in
Italy's unification
We must work in harmony in many other
the State Dining Room at the White House.
the Risorgimento
fundamental fields, guaranteeing the sus-
ased on the con-
tained economic growth of developed coun-
id intimate rela-
tries and providing the aid which less-devel-
pendence of the
oped countries need in order to liberate
f the individual.
themselves from the slavery of hunger, solv-
Executive Order 12694-Amending
IS a few months
ing the regional conflicts that are still being
Executive Order No. 12345
al Palace, what I
waged, and overcoming the major problems
October 11, 1989
Mr. President,
afflicting mankind, regardless of national
which you reaf-
borders and irrespective of political and
By the authority vested in me as Presi-
ortance of these
economic distinctions. I am referring in par-
dent by the Constitution and laws of the
:eful, auspicious,
ticular to the pollution of our planet, orga-
United States of America, including the
hanges that are
nized crime, terrorism, and to the dramatic
Federal Advisory Committee Act, as
rnational stage.
scourge of the spread of drugs.
amended (5 U.S.C. App.), and in order to
hat those princi-
Mr. President, Italy is proud to have
amend Executive Order No. 12345, as
itical system and
made its contribution of culture and person-
amended, to provide for the option of se-
on through. We
al sacrifice to the birth of a nation whose
lecting one or more Chairmen and Vice
that the values
greatness and strength also stem from its
Chairmen from among the members of the
cure, but endur-
diversity and its ability to absorb and assimi-
President's Council on Physical Fitness and
holar Benedetto
late contributions from the whole world
= wrote, "When
Sports, it is hereby ordered that Executive
into its lifeblood-a nation whose great des-
her liberty will
Order No. 12345, as amended, is amended
tiny was from the very beginning of your
as follows:
the future, the
Revolution foreseen by Daniele Dolfin, the
mething better
Section 1. The second sentence of Section
Ambassador of the Venetian Republic to
Paris and a friend of Benjamin Franklin,
2(b) shall read "The President may, as he
IS events we are
when, in a dispatch sent in 1783, he wrote,
deems appropriate, designate one or more
ost, the evolu-
"We may well expect that with the aid of
members to be Chairmen and to be Vice
e in the Soviet
time and of European arts and knowledge,
Chairmen."
litionally fought
this nation will become the most formidable
Sec. 2. This order is effective immedi-
cy, as we have,
power in the universe."
ately.
encourage the
Mr. President, the few years that separate
us from the end 6f the second millenium
George Bush
entialities now
n duty incum-
offer of UX historic opportunity to steer
the
of mankind along the
The White House,
medom, and prosperity. I
October 11, 1989.
1531
Italy
April 1987
OFFICIAL NAME: Italian Republic
PROFILE
Subdivisions: 94 provinces, 20 regions.
AUSTRIA
SWITZ
Political parties: Christian Democratic,
Geography
Communist, Socialist, Italian Social Move-
ment, Social Democratic, Republican, Liberal.
FRANCE
Area: 301,225 sq. km. (116,303 sq. mi.); about
Suffrage: Universal over 18.
YUGOSLAVIA
the size of Georgia and Florida combined.
Defense (1986*): 2.5% of GNP.
ITALY
Cities: Capital-Rome (pop. 2.8 million).
Flag: Three vertical bands-green, white,
Other cities-Milan, Naples, Turin. Terrain:
and red.
Rome
Mostly rugged and mountainous. Climate:
ALBANIA
Sardiala
Generally mild Mediterranean; cold northern
Tyrrhenian
winters.
Economy
Sea
GREECE
lonisn
GDP (1986*): $368.7 billion. Per capita
Sicily
See
People
income (1986*): $6,447. Avg. inflation rate
(last 4 yrs.): 10%.
TUNISIA
MALTA
Nationality: Noun and adjective-Italian(s).
Natural resources: Fish, natural gas.
Population (mid-1986): 57.3 million. Annual
Agriculture: Products-wheat, rice,
growth rate (1986): 2.3%. Ethnic groups:
grapes, olives, citrus fruits.
Primarily Italian, but small groups of
Industry: Types-automobiles,
German-, French-, Slovene-, and Albanian-
machinery, chemicals, textiles, shoes.
Italians. Religion: Roman Catholic.
Trade (1986*): Exports (f.o.b.)-$80.7
Language: Italian. Education: Years
billion: machinery and transport equipment,
compulsory-8. Literacy-98%. Health:
textiles, foodstuffs, chemicals, footwear.
Infant mortality rate (1986)-14.3/1,000 live
Imports (f.o.b.)-$83.0 billion: machinery and
births. Life expectancy-73 yrs. Work force
transport equipment, foodstuffs, ferrous and
(1986, 23 million; employed 20.7 million):
nonferrous metals, wool, cotton, petroleum.
Agriculture-10%. Industry and
Major trade partners (1986*)-FRG 16%,
commerce-30%. Services-60%.
France 13%, UK 6%, US 9%, USSR 2%,
OPEC 12%.
Government
Exchange rate (fluctuates): (Jan. 1987)
1,320 lire=US$1.
Type: Republic since June 2, 1946. Constitu-
tion: January 1, 1948. Kingdom of Italy pro-
claimed March 17, 1861.
Membership in International
Branches: Executive-president (chief of
Organizations
state), Council of Ministers (Cabinet), headed
UN and some of its specialized and related
by the president of the council (prime
agencies, NATO, Organization for Economic
minister). Legislative-bicameral Parliament;
Cooperation and Development (OECD), Euro-
630-member Chamber of Deputies,
pean Community (EC), Western European
322-member Senate. Judicial-independent
Union, Council of Europe, INTELSAT.
constitutional court and lower magistracy.
*1986 figures are estimates.
ITALY
GEOGRAPHY
Italy is a 127-kilometer-long peninsula
(700 mi.) extending into the Mediterra-
nean Sea. On the west and south it
includes the large islands of Sardinia and
Sicily, Pantelleria, and the Eolian
(Lipari) group. Throughout history,
Italy's position on the main routes
between Europe, Africa, and the Near
and Far East has given it great political,
economic, and strategic importance. The
peninsula is 69 kilometers (43 mi.) from
Albania, and Sicily is 145 kilometers (90
mi.) from the African mainland.
Except for the Po Valley area in the
north, the heel of "the boot" in the
south, and small coastal areas, Italy is
rugged and mountainous. The climate is
generally mild and Mediterranean, but
there are wide variations. Sicily and the
south are comparable to southern
California, though usually warmer. The
Alps and northern Dolomites have a
climate similar to Colorado, but more
humid.
Venice-The Accademia Bridge.
PEOPLE
Italy is linguistically and religiously
Allies against Germany. A noteworthy
homogeneous but culturally, economi-
Gioacchino Rossini, Giuseppe Verdi, and
popular resistance movement was con
cally, and politically diverse. Political
Giacomo Puccini, and their tradition con-
ducted against the remaining German
power is divided among eight or more
tinued well into the 20th century. Opera
who were driven out in April 1945. Th
political parties, ranging from neo-
is still a national passion. Contemporary
monarchy was ended by a 1946
Fascist to communist.
Italian artists, writers, filmmakers,
plebiscite, and a constituent assembly
Italy has the fifth highest population
architects, composers, and designers
was elected to draw up plans for the
density in Europe-about 200 persons
contribute much to Western culture.
republic.
per square kilometer (490/sq. mi.).
Under the 1947 peace treaty, mino.
Minority groups are small, the largest
adjustments were made in Italy's fron-
being the German-speaking people of
HISTORY
tier with France; the eastern border
Bolanzo Province and the Slovenes
area was transferred to Yugoslavia; an
around Trieste. Other groups are the
Modern Italian history dates from 1870
the area around the city of Trieste was
ancient communities of Albanian, Greek,
with the unification of the entire penin-
designated as a free territory. In 1954,
Ladino, and French origin. Although
sula under King Victor Emmanuel II of
the free territory, which had remained
Roman Catholicism is the official
the House of Savoy. From 1870 until
under the administration of U.S.-U.K.
religion-99% of the people are nomi-
1922, Italy was a constitutional monar-
forces (Zone A, including the city of
nally Catholic-all religious faiths are
chy with a parliament elected under
Trieste) and Yugoslav forces (Zone B),
provided equal freedom before the law
limited suffrage.
was divided between Italy and
by the constitution.
During World War I, Italy
Yugoslavia, principally along the zonal
Italian culture flowered in the
denounced its standing alliance with Ger-
boundary. This arrangement was made
Renaissance during the 14th and 15th
many and Austria-Hungary and in 1915
permanent by the Italian-Yugoslav
century. The achievements in literature,
entered the war on the side of the Allies.
Treaty of Osimo, ratified in 1977. Under
such as Dante's Divine Comedy and
Under the postwar settlement, Italy
the 1947 peace treaty, Italy also gave up
Petrarch's sonnets; in philosophy, such
received some former Austrian territory
its overseas territories and certain
as the ideas of St. Thomas Aquinas and
along the northeast frontier In 1922,
Mediterranean islands.
Galileo Galilei; and painting, sculpture,
Benito Mussolini came to power and,
The Roman Catholic Church's posi-
and other fine arts, such as the works of
over the next few years, eliminated the
tion in Italy, since its temporal powers
Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Botticelli,
old political parties, curtailed personal
ended in 1870, has been governed by a
Fra Angelico, and Michelangelo, exerted
liberties, and installed a Fascist dictator-
series of accords with the Italian
a tremendous and lasting influence on
ship called the Corporate State. The
Government. Under the Lateran Pacts
the development of Western civilization.
King, with little or no power, remained
of 1929, which were confirmed by the
In the 19th century, Italian romantic
titular head of state.
present constitution, the Vatican City
opera flourished through composers
World War II found Italy allied with
State is recognized by Italy as an inde-
Germany. Italy declared war on the
pendent, sovereign state. While preserv-
United Kingdom and France in 1940.
ing that recognition, in 1984 Italy and
Following the allied invasion of Sicily in
1943, Italy became a cobelligerent of the
708
ITALY
not vote for their first regional "coun-
cils" (parliaments) until 1970. The
establishment of regional governments
throughout Italy is bringing about
greater decentralization of the national
governmental machinery.
Principal Government Officials *
The Rape of the Sabines by Gianbologna, in Florence.
President-Francesco Cossiga
Prime Minister-Bettino Craxi
Ambassador to the United States-
Rinaldo Petrignani
Italy maintains an embassy in the
United States at 1601 Fuller Street
NW., Washington, D.C. 20009 (tel.
202-328-5500).
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Italy has about a dozen political parties,
some extremely small. The following are
the most important, in order of their
approximate strength in the Chamber of
Deputies deriving from the last general
elections (1983).
The Christian Democratic Party
(DC), descendant of the Popular Party of
the pre-Fascist era, has been the core of
all postwar governments. It represents a
wide range of interests and views, which
the Vatican updated several provisions
elected members, the Senate includes
sometimes make it difficult to reach
of the 1929 accords. Included was the
ex-presidents and several other persons
agreement on specific issues. The DC
end of Roman Catholicism as Italy's for-
appointed for life according to special
polled 32.9% of the popular vote in 1983.
mal state religion.
constitutional provisions. Both houses
Party Secretary: Ciriaco De Mita.
are elected for a maximum of 5 years,
Official newspaper: Il Popolo.
but either may be dissolved before the
The Italian Communist Party
GOVERNMENT
expiration of its normal term and early
(PCI), the largest communist party in
elections called. Legislative bills may
Western Europe, once supported almost
Italy has been a democratic republic
originate in either house and must be
regularly the policies of the Soviet Union
since June 2, 1946, when the monarchy
passed by a majority in both:
in foreign affairs and has taken pro-
was abolished by popular referendum.
The Italian judicial system is based
labor, reformist stances in domestic
The constitution, promulgated Jan-
on Roman law, modified in the Napo-
affairs. The PCI won 29.9% of the
uary 1, 1948, established a bicameral
leonic code and subsequent statutes.
popular vote in 1983. Secretary General:
Parliament, a separate judiciary, and an
There is only partial judicial review of
Alessandro Natta. Newspaper: L'Unita.
executive branch composed of a Council
legislation in the American sense. A con-
The Italian Socialist Party (PSI)
of Ministers (Cabinet) and headed by the
stitutional court, which passes on the
has moved toward the center of the
president of the council (prime minister).
constitutionality of laws, is a post-World
Italian political spectrum under the
The Council of Ministers, in practice
War II innovation. Its powers, volume,
leadership of Party Secretary Bettino
composed mostly of members of Parlia-
and frequency of decisions are not as
Craxi. The party polled 11.4% of the
ment, must retain the confidence of both
extensive as those of the U.S. Supreme
vote in 1983. After these elections, Craxi
houses. The president of the republic is
Court.
became the first socialist prime minister
elected for 7 years by Parliament sitting
The Italian state is highly centralized
in Italy's history, heading a government
jointly with a small number of regional
in form. The prefect of each of the 94
composed of Christian Democrats,
delegates. He or she nominates the
provinces is appointed by, and is
Republicans, Liberals, and Social
prime minister, who chooses the other
answerable to, the central government.
Democrats. Party Secretary: Benedetto
ministers.
In addition to the provinces, the con-
(Bettino) Craxi. Newspaper: Avanti!
Except for a few senators, both
stitution provides for 20 regions with
The Italian Social Movement
houses of Parliament are popularly and
limited governing powers. Five regions
(MSI), on the right, has older members
directly elected by proportional
with special statutes-Sardinia, Sicily,
imbued with the traditions of fascism.
representation. In addition to 315
Trentino-Alto Adige, Valle Aosta, and
The MSI polled 6.8% of the popular vote
Friuli-Venezia Giulia-have long been
in 1983. Political Secretary: Giorgio
functioning. The other 15 regions,
Almirante. Newspaper: Il Secolo.
however, were not established and did
UPDATE NOTE: Leadership changes may have
occurred here since the date of this entry. Check
the directory of officials beginning on page 1 for
-00
most recent information.
ITALY
The small Italian Republican Party
(PRI) traditionally has supported
republican institutions. The PRI polled
5.1% of the vote in 1983. Party
Secretary: Giovanni Spadolini, who
became the first non-DC prime minister
of the postwar era in June 1981.
Newspaper: La Voce Repubblicana.
The Italian Social Democratic
Party (PSDI) polled 4.1% of the vote in
1983. It is best known for its staunch
support of NATO. Party Secretary:
Franco Nicolazzi. A number of Italian
observers believe the PSI and PSDI may
again merge at some point. Newspaper:
Umanita.
The Italian Liberal Party (PLI)
reflects classical European liberalism in
the sense of an orientation toward
capitalism, individualism, and free enter-
prise in contrast to statism. The PLI has
evolved into a small but widely respected
party of conscience occupying a center-
right niche in the Italian political spec-
trum. They received 2.9% of the popular
vote in 1983. Secretary: Renato
Altissimo.
The small but feisty Radical Party
(PR) garnered 2.2% of the 1983 vote.
The PR has helped influence social
change in Italy by sponsoring referenda
such as divorce and abortion.
Postwar Conditions
Despite frequent government turnovers,
the Italian political situation has been
relatively stable, principally because of
the continuity of the DC as Italy's party
of relative majority. Italian governments
have consistently been oriented around
the DC, which since 1945 has governed
in coalition with other parties or alone.
Three DC leaders-the late Premier
Alcide De Gasperi, former Premier
Amintore Fanfani, and the late Premier
Business
Aldo Moro-dominated the Italian
the
Spanish Steps, Ro
political scene for most of that time.
From 1947 to the late 1950s, Chris-
tian Democrats led a series of "center"
DC. No other solution being acceptable,
remained the largest party in the
coalition alignments with the Social
Premier Andreotti formed the first of
governing coalition. In August 1983, P
Democrats, Republicans, and Liberals.
two DC minority governments that led
leader Bettino Craxi became Prime
During the 1960s, in an effort to expand
Italy for 2½ years, first with passive and
Minister.
the "democratic area" and promote
later with active support by other par-
reform legislation, the Christian
ties, including the PCI. By late 1978, the
Democrats pursued a "center-left"
ambivalence in this arrangement
The Italian Communist Party
policy that included the Socialists in the
impelled the PCI to end its support. In
The Italian Communist Party is the
national government and excluded the
ensuing early elections in 1979, the PCI
largest nonruling party in the world ai
Liberals. Political and policy divisions
lost a full four points and saw its 5-year-
the second largest party in Italy after
with the center-left alignment
old "historic compromise" strategy-the
the Christian Democrats. Communist
culminated in 1976 in the dissolution of
goal of coming to power in coalition with
electoral strength had steadily increas-
Parliament and early elections, ending
the DC-slip further from its grasp.
in each succeeding national election to
the center-left period.
Governments since 1979 have returned
high of 34.4% of the vote in 1976. Not
After the elections, which saw a
to the earlier center-left pattern. In June
until the four-point loss in 1979 did th
dramatic gain by the PCI, the PSI
1981, the DC relinquished the prime
communists drop back in national elec
refused to return to coalition with the
ministry (to Republican Giovanni
tions. Except for the immediate post-
Spadolini) for the first time in the
postwar period, although the DC
710
ITALY
al View of San Remo (Imperia) on the Italian Riviera.
rld War II period, the communists
part in this development. The nature of
faster than domestic output. This often
e been kept from participating in the
the economy has undergone another
leads to a deficit in the current account
tional government, although they
transition beginning with the sharp oil
of the balance of payments, forcing
are power in many local administra-
price increases in 1973. The average rate
economic authorities to brake domestic
Uns. Nevertheless, lively debate per-
of economic growth over this period has
demand. The reversal of and improve-
its on the degree of "democratization"
been considerably below the earlier
ment in Italy's terms of trade from 1985
de communists may be undergoing and,
period for various reasons.
to 1986 means this external constraint
fence, on the possibility of their eventual
At the beginning of the 1970s,
should not be a factor until 1988 or later,
eceptability as government partners.
strong trade unions and social pressures
should the current expansion be
[lthough the Communist Party has per-
led to the beginning of a long period of
prolonged.
uaded many Italians that if it came to
sharp increases in wages, far in excess
The economy is largely in private
ower it would not seek to emulate
of productivity. Rising labor costs con-
ownership, but the state runs many
Soviet-style communism, a majority of
tributed to price increases. Business
large enterprises and services, including
Romitalian political opinion remains skeptical
profit margins were squeezed, leading to
the railroads, airlines, electricity,
of the PCI's true commitment to
declining investment. Rapid inflation
telephones, and large portions of the
pluralist, democratic, pro-Western
helped by higher oil prices also put
telecommunications network. In 1986,
PSI
values.
pressure on the balance of payments.
services accounted for 53% of GDP,
Italy went through a severe balance-
industry 38.9%, and agriculture 5%.
of-payments crisis and recession in 1975;
The country has few natural
ECONOMY
however, the economy recovered
resources. Much of the land is unsuited
quickly, and economic growth resumed
for farming, and many foodstuffs are
The Italian economy has changed
until 1980, when further increases in oil
imported. There are no substantial
dramatically since World War II. This
prices contributed to another downturn
deposits of iron, coal, or oil. Natural gas
change has been accompanied by
in economic activity. The recession
reserves, mainly in the Po Valley and
generally high growth rates, averaging
lasted until the second half of 1983,
offshore Adriatic, have grown in recent
almost 6% in the period 1951-71 and
when economic activity once more began
years and constitute the country's most
about 2.5% in the period 1972-86. The
to pick up. The recovery is expected to
important mineral resource. Most raw
Italian economy experienced a dramatic
last through 1987, thanks to the decline
materials needed for manufacturing and
change in the first several decades
in oil prices and the drop in the dollar's
over 80% of the country's energy
following World War II. From an
value. This has led to a sharp reversal in
sources are imported. Italy's economic
agricultural-based economy, it has
the balance of trade. In recent years,
strength is in the processing and the
developed into one of the largest indus-
domestic demand has tended to grow
manufacturing of goods, primarily in
trial economies. Investment in state-
small, family-owned firms. Its major
owned heavy industries played a major
industries are precision machinery,
motor vehicles, chemicals. pharmaceu-
ITALY
eign
Trade
FOREIGN RELATIONS
major factor in Italy's economic
Italy has achieved its basic postwar
growth has been the sharply increasing
objective of equality and partnership in
volume of its foreign trade. Italy tradi-
the community of democratic nations. It
tionally imports more than it exports.
was admitted to the United Nations in
Deficient in certain foodstuffs and in
1955. It is a member and strong sup-
most raw materials, it has been forced to
porter of the North Atlantic Treaty
increase its imports of these com-
Organization (NATO), the Organization
modities as demand has expanded along
for Economic Cooperation and Develop-
with rising living standards, changing
ment (OECD), General Agreement on
consumption patterns (e.g., increasing
Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and the EC.
meat consumption), and rising industrial
Italy also is active in the Western Euro-
production. This trade deficit in
foodstuffs and raw materials normally is
pean Union and the Council of Europe.
offset by large receipts from invisibles-
mainly tourism.
U.S.-ITALIAN RELATIONS
Italy's closest trade ties are with the
other countries of the enlarged Euro-
The United States enjoys warm and
pean Community (EC). In the last few
friendly relations with Italy. The two are
years, with the help of lower oil prices,
NATO allies and cooperate in the United
Italy has narrowed its trade with OPEC
Nations, in various regional organiza-
(Organization of Petroleum Exporting
tions, and, bilaterally, for peace, pros-
Countries) nations from a peak of 17% of
perity, and defense. Italy has recently
total imports in 1981 to 9% in 1986.
shown a willingness to work closely with
However, Middle East and North
the United States and others on issues
African oil producers provide an impor-
beyond NATO's traditional area of
tant market for Italian construction,
responsibility, such as participating in
engineering, and oil services companies.
Middle East peacekeeping and in com-
bating terrorism.
Labor
A rigid labor market and protective
A glimpse of the Spanish Steps from Via
legislation for employed workers exacer-
Travel Notes
Condoffi, a pedestrian street in Rome.
bate unemployment in Italy, which
remains its major problem-particularly
among younger workers. Although
Clothing: Woolens and sweaters are practical
most of the year; cottons are recommended
Principal U.S. Officials
skilled labor is in short supply in some
for the hot summers.
Ambassador-Maxwell M. Rabb
categories, inefficient use of labor, struc-
tural unemployment, and underemploy-
Currency: The amount of dollars that may be
Deputy Chief of Mission-John Holmes
ment persist, as does labor unreported
brought into Italy is unlimited, but a sizable
Counselor for Economic Affairs-
amount should be declared at the border.
William B. Whitman, Jr.
for tax purposes.
About 28% of the labor force is
Italian currency restrictions prohibit the
Counselor for Political Affairs-Robert
import or export of more than 400,000 lire.
D. Collins
unionized. The communist-dominated
GCIL (Italian General Confederation of
Health: Medical facilities are available in
Counselor for Public Affairs-Leonard
cities. No special immunizations are
Baldyga
Labor) controls 46.9% of organized
labor; the Christian Democratic-oriented
necessary. Tapwater is safe. Meat, fruit,
Counselor for Commercial Affairs-
vegetables, and shellfish should be well
Joseph Christiano
CISL (Italian Confederation of Workers'
prepared.
Agricultural Attache-Debra Henke
Unions) about 34.8%, and the socialist-
Telecommunications: Telephone and
Treasury Attache-Llewellyn Pascoe
oriented UIL (Italian Union of Labor)
telegraph connections within Italy and to
Defense Attache-Capt. Richard N.
about 18%.
international points are good. Rome is six
Charles, USN
standard time zones ahead of eastern stand-
Consular Posts
ard time.
DEFENSE
Transportation: Many major international
Consul General, Florence-Diane Dillard
A staunch NATO ally, Italy occupies an
airlines have service to Rome and Milan. Jet
Consul General, Genoa-Richard Higgins
service to the US is daily.
Consul General, Milan-John Boyle
important strategic position in the
Public transportation is modern, efficient,
Consul General, Naples-Louis P. Goelz
Mediterranean, guarding the southern
and reasonably priced. Metered taxis are
Consul General, Palermo-Katherine
flank of Europe and serving as a bridge
inexpensive and usually available at stands.
to North Africa and the Middle East.
Shirley
Avoid unmetered taxis.
Principal Officer, Turin-Carl Bastiani
Recent Italian governments have taken
No Italian visa is required of American
a leading role among the Allies on such
citizens visiting Italy temporarily for tourism
The U.S. Embassy in Italy is at Via
important defense initiatives as the
or business trips. Persons planning to sojourn
Veneto 119, Rome (tel. (6) 46741). The
deployment of intermediate-range
in Italy for work or other purposes should
consulate general in Turin is expected to
nuclear forces on its territory. They also
inquire about their visa status in advance at
close during 1987.
have recognized the need to enhance
an Italian Embassy or consulate before
traveling to Italy.
Italy's military posture and have taken
UPDATE NOTE: Some personnel listed above may
significant steps in that direction.
have been shifted since the date of this entry.
Check personnel listings under the heading, U.S.
713
Embassies, Consulates, and Foreign Service Posts.
See CONTENTS for page number.
Herbert H. Breelin INC.
119 West 57th Street, Room 1505
N.Y., N.Y. 10019 0 (212) 246-5480
Fax (212) 586-7785
February 21, 1990
VIA FAX
Ms. Kathy Fenton
Deputy Social Secretary
MISS ROBERTA PETERS
The White House
ACCOMPANIST/PIANIST/WARREN JONES
Dear Kathy,
ITALY
Miss Peters has changed her program for March 6th, not very
much, in order to make it not too operatic. It is now
0 mio babbino caro
Giacomo Puccini
(from "Gianni Schicchi")
Una voce poco fa
Gioacchino Rossini
(from "Il Barbiere di Siviglia")
Core "ngrato
S. Cardillo
Italian Street SONG
VICTOR Redgers HERBERT
How Deep Is the Ocean
play a simplemelody
FRVING BERLIN
Irving Berlin
Play a Simple Melody
Irving Berlin
Medley from "Top Hat"
Irving Berlin
Torna a Sorrento
Ernesto de Curtis
The friend of Warren Jones who, if possible, should be invited
to the concert is
David Henry Heise
SS# 121 - 44 - 9599
born May 3, 1954
Warren forgot to give me his address: I'll have it on the
weekend. Also, Warren will arrive on March 5th from Boston so he
and Roberta can work together that day as well as on the 6th. They
are looking for a room to do this work. - will arrange at Madison.
All best wishes,
Sincerely,
CC: Judy Lawie
John-Aropan Haus Boon
February 26, 1990
PLANNING MEETING
OFFICIAL VISIT OF PRIME MINISTER ANDREOTTI (ITALY)
4 p.m., Situation Room
February 26, 1990
G. Philip Hughes
Bob Hutchings
Social Office - Cathy Fenton
Social Office - Laurie Firestone
Press - Bill Harlow
Military Office - Sean Byrne
Communications - Jeannie Nappo
State -
Protocol: Agnes Warfield
Desk: Ray Snider
Intern: Kimberly Coffman
SS: Marilyn Wyatt