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Visit of Thai Prime Minister Chatchi 6/14/90 [OA 8313]
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Visit of Thai Prime Minister Chatchi 6/14/90 [OA 8313]
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George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
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Speechwriting, White House Office of
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Speech File Backup Files
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Visit of Thai Prime Minister Chatchi 6/14/90 [OA 8313]
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26
20
6
3
THE WHITE HOUSE
Office of the Press Secretary
For Immediate Release
June 14, 1990
REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT
AND PRIME MINISTER CHATCHAI OF THAILAND
UPON DEPARTURE
The South Portico
1:23 P.M. EDT
Minister Sitthi -- Foreign Minister, and all the honorable members of
THE PRESIDENT: To our visitors, Prime Minister Chatchai,
the delegation. It has been a pleasure to host this delegation from
Thailand, one of America's oldest friends and closest allies.
Prime Minister Chatchai is a distinguished emissary from
a noble land. From the temples and palaces of Bangkok to the teak
forests and fertile rice paddies of the provinces, the Kingdom of
Thailand is a land proud in its independent history, rich in its
resources, and steadfast in its culture and faith.
But in this era of breathtaking change -- in Asia and
around the world -- what is most remarkable about Thailand is that it
has combined a double-digit economic growth with the emergence of
parliamentary democracy. As His Royal Majesty King Bhumiphol
reminded a joint session of Congress 30 years ago this month, the
word "Thai" actually means "free." Thailand is the only country in
Southeast Asia that maintained its independence throughout the
colonial era. So even though our peoples live on opposite sides of
the globe, our countries are joined by a common vision. And we have
made freedom our common cause. And in freedom, our nations have
found an abiding friendship.
In our discussions, the Prime Minister and I agreed on
the importance of maintaining a U.S. -Thai security relationship. I
told him that while regional circumstances and world conditions have
changed, America's commitment under the Manila Pact to Thailand's
security and integrity remain firm.
America is proud of her role in the Pacific -- a
commitment that has fostered peace and freedom and economic
development among democratic friends like Thailand. But the Prime
Minister and I agreed that much work remains, and I expressed our
profound appreciation for Thailand's long cooperation in providing
asylum to Indochinese refugees and assured him that we will continue
to welcome to America our share of Vietnamese refugees presently
residing in Thailand.
And we also talked about resolving the tragic conflict in
Cambodia. And we agreed that both our countries should continue our
diplomatic efforts to end the violence, to achieve a comprehensive
solution that meets the aspirations of the Cambodian people by
assuring genuine self-determination through free and fair elections
under U.N. auspices and in the presence of an international
peacekeeping force.
The Prime Minister's visit comes shortly before a meeting
in Singapore on greater economic cooperation among the Pacific Basin
countries. And Thailand and the five other ASEAN nations are key to
the success of this promising initiative.
I assured the Prime Minister of America's commitment to
closer cooperation, to a successful conclusion to the Uruguay round
of trade negotiations this year, and to mutually beneficial economic
growth.
MORE
- 2 -
In the spirit of collective effort that extends back to
our first economic treaty back in 1833, the Prime Minister and I
agreed to establish a joint U.S.-Thai Committee for Commercial
Cooperation, chaired by the Secretary of Commerce for the United
States and by Thailand's Minister of Commerce. This committee will
develop opportunities for bilateral cooperation in trade and
investment while promoting greater commercial activity between the
United States and Thailand.
Thailand is now enjoying a diversified and rapidly
expanding economy, a stable government and a business community
attractive to foreign investors. We are working closely with the
Thai people to assure that the mutual benefits of economic growth as
well as -- that, as well as environmental protection in joint science
and technology efforts.
But there's one kind of business we agree we will not
tolerate, and that is narcotics. It's a challenge of global
proportions. And we look forward to expanding cooperation with
Thailand in suppressing the production and trafficking of these
poisons. And I assured the Prime Minister we were going to continue
our battle on the demand side of the narcotics equation.
Mr. Prime Minister, relations between our countries now
span some 150 years, and we share many goals in common. But what
unites us in our commitment to peace, prosperity, and to the freedom
that makes peace and prosperity possible. So as you and your
delegation depart after what we feel were very productive meetings
and cordial discussions, we wish you the very best. Good luck and
Godspeed, sir. (Applause.)
PRIME MINISTER CHATCHAI: Mr. President, it is a great
honor for me to be here at the White House on this auspicious day
when the Americans throughout the United States are celebrating Flag
Day, a day of great pride for all Americans. It is also with a sense
nation. of pride that we Thai look upon our relationship with this great
I have expressed to President Bush my hope that we would
be able to build upon our 157 years of friendship and cooperation,
and together forge a closer and active partnership into the future.
With the more favorable trends of international
relations, our two countries are committed more than ever to work
together in bringing peace to Cambodia and to end the suffering of
the Cambodian people. We will do all we can to accelerate the
ongoing peace process. In this regard we are prepared to work with
the United States and the other permanent members of the United
Nations Security Council to obtain our common objective of
comprehensive peace in Cambodia through a free and fair election.
We look upon the United States' active participation in
the Cambodian peace process and a United States presence as a
stabilizing role in the region as being vital to peace and stability
of South East Asia.
In our economic relations we have agreed to set up
consultative mechanism on all aspects of our economic relation, which
I hope could lead to a new framework for economic cooperation and
partnership between our two countries. Such a mechanism would allow
us to regularly discuss any potential trade issues before they become
trade disputes. It would also serve as a vehicle to promote the
constructive areas of economic cooperation especially in Thai
investment, which is bound to assume greater significance in our
economic relation in the future. United States technology is second
to none, and SO United States investment should be second to none.
Mr. President, I share with you your concern on the need
to rid our societies of the menace of drugs. It is tearing apart the
very fabrics of our societies. Our efforts must be directed at both
the supply and demand side of this problem. On our part, His Majesty
MORE
- 3 -
the King is particularly concerned about the problem and has urged
the government to take serious steps to tackle it. I pledge to you
trafficking. the full support of the Thai government in the war against drug
These are the important issues which President Bush and I
discussed. These are the issues that our two governments will be
working on in the days and months ahead. Lastly, I would like to
thank President Bush and the United States government for the warm
and cordial reception accorded to us.
Thank you, sir. Mr. President, thank you.
THE PRESIDENT: Mr. Prime Minister, thank you. Glad you
were here. (Applause.)
END
1:32 P.M. EDT
06/13/90
13:23
STATE-EAP
001
U.S. Department of State
EAP
FAX
Date: 6/13
TO: Carolyn Cawley
FAX Phone Number: 456-6218
Addressee's Phone:
-
FROM: EAP/ TB: Becky Van Doven. Shulker
FAX Phone Number: 647-7350
Sender's Phone:
647-7108
NUMBER of PAGES INCLUDING COVER SHEET
5
Remarks:
From Nancy Boslover-
re date of 1st
treaty m/ Thai
UNCLASSIFIED ONLY
06/13/90
13:23
STATE-EAP
002
THE EAGLE
AND THE ELEPHANT
150 YEARS OF THAI-AMERICAN RELATIONS
150 il
Edited by
Vimol Bhongbhibhat
Fun INSTRUME
Bruce Reynolds
"I" naturala
Sukhon Polputpicharn
grown
Translated by
Junia
Napa Bhongbhibhar
11111
Published by
goownw
United Production
yluim Internation
November 1982
HIMAN IIIII PAYS
06/13/90
13:23
STATE-EAP
003
The ceremonial sword with .1 golden hill and is abbaid presented by Edmund Roberts in 1833 to King Nang Klao (Rama III)
as .1 gift from President Andrew fill kson.
a it! internal no. TI united WITH 11
two W.M. 2375
the Chao Phraya Phra Klang's residence, near Wat
Prayoon. On March 3 His Majesty the King granted
1.700 inn 1,500 unn
the President's representative an audience and re
ceived at number of gifts from the President, includ-
the 07/01/21
ing a silver hasket, a gold watch and silk. The most
UNITH
important item, which the King mentioned in his
letter to President Franklin Pierce, Was a ceremonial
sword with a gill scabbard and with a design of an
elephant and an cagle chased on il gold handle. The
6 woth
return gifts from the King to the President were
local products. including ivory, tin, wood, incense,
tulnu Initial
pepper and sapan wood. During their stay in Bang-
insuring "Whon" unformation 18 nummer
kok, Roberts and his party WCR: treated 115 friends
2375 Janna
by all concerned. It so happened that there was a
International 15
royal cremation that of Krom Phra Rajwung Bo-
vorn (Vang Na) - during Roberts' stay, SO the whole
party was invited to watch the procession at a
3 Durnal 2375
prearranged place. The negotiation between Ro-
19714
34
004
Kyb-
over 7
unum
+****
STATE-EAP
13:24
06/13/90
The Treats of Amity and Commerce which marked the opening of Thai U.S. official relations. This lies: treaty be-
:ween the twe countries was negotiated and signed in 183 in the reign of King Rama 11 by Edmund Roberts President
Andrew Jackson's epresentative. The 1081 Will: written in rewages: 1 Thai, Persons Chinese and
06/13/90
13:24
STATE-EAP
005
berts and the Thai side, represented by Chao Phra-
united UNEUWS Шиби
ya Phra Klang, took three weeks and the treaty was
concluded on March 20, 1833. The ten-clause
Werr
treaty was substantially similar to the one earlier
concluded with Britain. For example, it allowed
free trade between Thai and American merchants,
"un down
except in rice, firearms and opium. This treaty
finance wintnu uniths tituoin
contained the "most favored nation" clause under
which any concessions made to any other nation
could also be claimed by the United States. Written
ns
in four languages - Thai, Chinese, English and
Portuguese - the treaty Was the outcome of
diplomatic negotiations which, according to Ed-
mund Roberts, "ended in a most satisfactory
manner." After the successful negotiations the
3
American delegation departed Bangkok on April 6.
nucroture 20 W.A. 2375 10 To
units IND
The British and the American treaties of the
The
Third Reign did not help foreign trade to flourish
UNITH t
very much. It was alleged by foreign merchants
unimals use NUTT
that the Thai government did not respect the agree
ment on free trade. There was, for example, a
ual 4 myn
system of tax-farming. Tax farmers, most of whom
FID "lnes Signapt TH UND Intrograme
WCIC Chinese who had been granted concessions
by the King, would collect taxes and give to the go-
asingiis" unculation 12/14/2014 mudn
vernment annually an agreed sum for each item,
keeping the rest for profit. This system, which ob-
viously increased the price of commodities, had
been used from the end of the Second Reign, al-
though it was during the Third Reign that the go-
3
vernment allowed dozens more items of important
exported goods to come under this system of tax-
collecting. This practice was tantamount to evading
the free trade agreement with the British and the
Americans. Furthermore, the government increased
ul requirements
the number of trade monopolies. The sugar trade is
an example. Thailand produced large quantities of
sugar, which was in great demand by foreign
traders. The government made it a monopoly, sent
officials to buy sugar from private producers all
3
over the Kingdom and sold it to foreign merchants
who were denied permission to travel to the pro-
vinces. This made the sugar price so high that in
1838 the American trading vessel Stag left Bang-
kok without sugar because the price was thought
you walno
unreasonably excessive. Between that year and
a
1850 no American ships sailed up the Menam to
Bangkok. It can be said, then, that the Edmund
Roberts Treaty did not fully realize the targets set
by the two parties.
36
6/13 FROM STATE.
Wah Jay
(Lange/Cawley)
June 11, 1990
9:15 A.M.
[THAI.DOC]
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: DEPARTURE, PRIME MINISTER CHATICHAI
SOUTH PORTICO
THURSDAY, JUNE 14, 1990
1:15 P.M.
Thank you all. Prime Minister
Chunhawan
Chatichai
[choon-
hwan
CHAHT-ch-eye], Foreign Minister Sitthi [SIT], honorable
members of your delegation. It has been my pleasure to host
this delegation from Thailand: one of America's oldest friends
and closest allies in Asia.
Prime Minister Chatichai [CHAT-ch-eye] is a distinguished
emissary from a noble land. From the temples and palaces of
Bangkok to the teak forests and fertile rice paddies of the
provinces, the Kingdom of Thailand is a land proud in its
independent history, rich in resources, and steadfast in its
culture and faith.
But in this era of breathtaking change -- in Asia and around
the world -- what is most remarkable about Thailand is that it
has combined double digit economic growth with the emergence of
parliamentary democracy.
B
As His Royal Majesty King Bhumiphol [Boom-ee-ball] reminded
a joint session of Congress thirty years ago this month -- the
word "Thai" actually means "free." Thailand is the only country
in Southeast Asia that maintained its independence throughout the
colonial era.
So even though our peoples live on opposite sides of the
globe, our countries are joined by a common vision. We have made
2
freedom our common cause. And in freedom, our nations have found
an abiding friendship.
In our discussions, the Prime Minister and I agreed on the
importance of maintaining the U.S.-Thai security relationship. I
told him that while regional circumstances and world conditions
have changed, America's commitment under the Manila Pact to
Thailand's security and integrity remain firm. America is proud
of her role in the Pacific -- a commitment that has fostered
peace, freedom, and economic development among democratic friends
like Thailand.
But the Prime Minister and I agreed that much work remains.
I expressed our appreciation for Thailand's long cooperation in
providing asylum to Indochinese refugees -- and assured him we
will continue to welcome to America our share of Vietnamese
refugees presently residing in Thailand.
We also talked about resolving the tragic conflict in
Cambodia. We agreed that both our countries should continue our
diplomatic efforts to end the violence -- to achieve a
comprehensive solution that meets the aspirations of the
Cambodian people -- by assuring genuine self-determination
through free and fair elections under U.N. auspices, and in the
presence of an international peace-keeping force.
The Prime Minister's visit comes shortly before a meeting in
Singapore on greater economic cooperation among the Pacific Basin
countries. Thailand and the five other ASEAN [ah-SAY-ahn]
nations are key to the success of this promising initiative. I
3
assured the Prime Minister of America's commitment to closer
cooperation; to a successful conclusion to the Uruguay Round of
trade negotiations this year; and to mutually beneficial economic
growth.
In the spirit of collective effort that extends back to our
first economic treaty back in 1833, the Prime Minister and I
agreed to establish a joint U.S. - Thai Committee for Commercial
Cooperation chaired by the Secretary of Commerce for the United
States and by Thailand's Minister of Commerce. This committee
will develop opportunities for bilateral cooperation in trade and
investment while promoting greater commercial activity between
the United States and Thailand.
Thailand is now enjoying a diversified and rapidly expanding
economy, a stable government, and a business community attractive
to foreign investors. We are working closely with the Thai
people to assure the mutual benefits of economic growth, as well
as environmental protection and joint science and technology
efforts.
But there's one kind of business we agree we will not
tolerate: narcotics. It's a challenge of global proportions --
and we look forward to expanding cooperation with Thailand in
suppressing the production and trafficking of these poisons.
Mr. Prime Minister, relations between our two countries now
span 150 years. We share many goals in common -- but what unites
us is our commitment to peace, to prosperity -- and to the
freedom that makes peace and prosperity possible. As you and
4
your delegation depart after very productive and cordial
discussions, Mr. Prime Minister, the best wishes of the American
people go with you.
(Lange/Cawley)
June 7, 1990
9:15 A.M.
[THAI. DOC]
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: DEPARTURE, PRIME MINISTER CHATICHAI
SOUTH PORTICO
THURSDAY, JUNE 14, 1990
1:15 P.M.
Thank you all. Prime Minister Chunhawan Chatichai [choon-
hwan CHAHT-chai], Foreign Minister Sitthi [SIT], honorable
Peterson
members of your delegation. It has been my pleasure -- and
America's honor -- to host to this delegation from Thailand: one
of America's oldest friends and closest allies in Asia.
Prime Minister Chatichai [chaht-chai] is a distinguished
emissary from a noble land. From the temples and palaces of
Bangkok to the lush forests and breathtaking cascades of the
provinces, yours is a land proud in its history, rich in
resources, and steadfast in its culture and faith.
But in this era of breathtaking change -- in Asia and around
the world -- what is most remarkable about Thailand is its
enduring devotion to an ideal we Americans hold dear: the ideal
of freedom.
Foreign
visitors To In fact -- as the King of Thailand reminded a joint session
Congress II ,1956-1988
of Congress thirty years ago this month -- the word "Thai"
actually means "free." And Thailand is the only country in
Nanahaka
Southeast Asia that has never fallen to colonization.
644-7876
So even though our peoples live on opposite sides of the
globe, our countries are joined by a common vision. We have made
freedom our common cause. And in freedom, our nations have found
an abiding friendship.
2
In our discussions, the Prime Minister and I agreed on the
importance of maintaining the U.S.-Thai security relationship. I
told him that while regional circumstances and world conditions
have changed, America's commitment under the Manila Pact to
Thailand's security and integrity remain firm. America is proud
of her role in the Pacific -- a commitment that has fostered
peace, freedom, and economic development among democratic friends
like Thailand.
Petr
But the Prime Minister and I agreed that much work remains.
I expressed our appreciation for Thailand's long cooperation in
providing first asylum to Indochinese refugees -- and assured him
we will maintain our resettlement of refugees from Thailand.
We also talked about resolving the tragic conflict in
Cambodia. We agreed that both our countries should continue our
diplomatic efforts to end the violence -- to achieve a
comprehensive solution that meets the aspirations of the
Cambodian people -- by assuring genuine self-determination
through free and fair elections under U.N. auspices, and in the
presence of an international peace-keeping force.
The Prime Minister's visit comes shortly before a
ministerial in Singapore, on greater economic cooperation among
the Pacific Basin countries. Thailand and its allies in ASEAN
[ah-SAY-ahn] are key to the success of this promising initiative.
I assured the Prime Minister of America's commitment to closer
cooperation; to a successful conclusion to the Uruguay Round of
trade negotiations this year; and to mutually beneficial economic
3
growth.
NSC draft
In the spirit of collective effort that extends back to our
first economic treaty back in 1833, the Prime Minister and I
agreed to remove any obstacles to expanded economic ties. And I
know we share similar outlooks on the value of enterprise --
Nanci
because it was the Prime Minister who first initiated reforms
which opened Thailand to expansion of its business sector.
Soon
after his eléction, he declared his ambition to turn Indo-China
"from a battlefield into a trading market.
p.972
X
That ambition is leading to results in Thailand -- which now
X
enjoys a diversified and growing economy, a stable government,
xuidHagen
and a business community attractive for investment. So we're
state
647-9240
X
working closely with the Thai people to assure the mutual
X
benefits of economic growth, as well as environmental protection
X
and joint science and technology efforts.
But there's one kind of business we agree we will not
tolerate: narcotics. It's a challenge of global proportions --
and we appreciate Thai cooperation in supressing the production
and trafficking of these poisons.
Mr. Prime Minister, relations between our two countries now
span 150 years. We share many goals in common -- but what unites
us is our commitment to peace, to prosperity -- and to the
freedom that makes peace and prosperity possible. As you and
your delegation depart after very productive and cordial
discussions, Mr. Prime Minister, the best wishes of the American
people go with you.
THE OFFICIAL WORKING VISIT
TO
WASHINGTON, D.C.
OF
HIS EXCELLENCY
GENERAL CHATICHAI CHOONHAVAN
PRIME MINISTER
OF
THE KINGDOM OF THAILAND
AND
THANPUYING BOONRUEN CHOONHAVAN
JUNE 13 TO 15, 1990
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
WEDNESDAY
JUNE 13
3:00 pm-
Greeted by Assistant Chief of Protocol
3:05 pm
Black, Ambassador Vitthya, and Welcoming Committee,
Andrews Air Force Base, Washington, D.C.
3:05 pm-
United States Presidential Helicopters to
3:15 pm
Washington Monument Grounds, Reflecting Pool.
3:15 pm-
Greeted by Secretary of State and Mrs. Baker and
3:20 pm
Chief of Protocol Reed, Washington Monument
Grounds, Reflecting Pool.
-12-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
WEDNESDAY
JUNE 13
(Continued)
3:25 pm
Arrive Blair House.
4:30 pm-
Wreath-Laying Ceremony, Tomb of the Unknown
5:00 pm
Soldier, Arlington National Cemetery.
Private Dinner.
Overnight: Blair House.
-13-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
THURSDAY
JUNE 14
Private Breakfast.
11:00 am-
Meeting with The President, Oval Office, The
11:15 am
White House. *
11:15 am-
Expanded Meeting with The President, Cabinet Room,
12:00 pm
The White House. *
12:00 pm-
Working Luncheon with The President, Old Family
1:00 pm
Dining Room, The White House. *
10:30 am- Coffee offered by Mrs. Bush in honor of
11:00 am Thanpuying Boonruen, Family Quarters,
The White House.
12:00 pm- Reception and Luncheon offered by Mrs.
1:30 pm Baker in honor of Thanpuying Boonruen,
James Madison Room and James Monore Room,
Department of State.
1:05 pm-
Departure Statements by The President and
1:15 pm
Prime Minister Chatichai, South Lawn, The White
House. *
3:00 pm-
Meeting with Speaker Foley and House Minority
3:15 pm
Leader Michel, Room H-204, United States Capitol. *
* Thanpuying Boonruen does not attend.
-14-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
THURSDAY
JUNE 14
(Continued)
3:30 pm-
Meeting with Senate Majority Leader Mitchell and
3:45 pm
Senate Minority Leader Dole, Room S-211, United
States Capitol. *
4:00 pm-
Joint Reception offered by Senate Foreign Relations
5:00 pm
Committee Chairman Pell and House Foreign Affairs
Committee Chairman Fascell in honor of Prime
Minister Chatichai, East Front Room, United States
Capitol.*
6:00 pm-
Reception offered by Ambassador Vitthya and
8:00 pm
Mrs. Orasa in honor of Prime Minister Chatichai and
Thanpuying Boonruen, Thai Ambassador's Residence.
8:20 pm-
Private Dinner, Peking Gourmet Inn, Falls Church,
10:00 pm
Virginia.
Overnight: Blair House.
* Thanpuying Boonruen does not attend.
-15-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
FRIDAY
JUNE 15
Private Breakfast.
10:00 am- Thanpuying Boonruen tours Kimball
10:45 am Elementary School.
10:30 am-
Meeting with The Vice President, Blair House. *
11:15 am
11:45 am-
Meeting with United States ASEAN Council for
12:00 pm
Business and Technology, Main Lounge, National
Press Club. *
12:00 pm- Private luncheon for Thanpuying Boonruen,
1:50 pm Hisago Restaurant.
12:00 pm-
Reception and Luncheon offered by Members in honor
1:00 pm
of Prime Minister Chatichai, National Press Club. *
1:00 pm-
Address to Members, National Press Club. *
2:00 pm
2:40 pm-
Farewell Ceremony with Acting Secretary of State
2:45 pm
Eagleburger, Chief of Protocol Reed, and Farewell
Committee, Washington Monument Grounds, Reflecting
Pool.
* Thanpuying Boonruen does not attend.
-16-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
FRIDAY
JUNE 15
(Continued)
2:45 pm-
United States Presidential Helicopters to
2:55 pm
Andrews Air Force Base.
3:00 pm-
Depart via Thai Airways International Special
3:50 pm
Aircraft en route New York, New York, and resume
private schedule.
-17-
6/12/90 Thorland NSC Meeting
1:05 Remarks
no translution
on Driversy
Address by title & first name
Opodiums b/c Chotichni is 5'5
His remorks in English
Staffed Capy Copy
(Lange/Cawley)
June 11, 1990
9:15 A.M.
[THAI.DOC]
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: DEPARTURE, PRIME MINISTER CHATICHAI
SOUTH PORTICO
THURSDAY, JUNE 14, 1990
1:15 P.M.
Thank you all. Prime Minister Chunhawan Chatichai [choon- Peter
hwan CHAHT-ch-eye], Foreign Minister Sitthi [SIT], honorable
members of your delegation. It has been my pleasure -- and
America's honor -- to host to this delegation from Thailand: one
of America's oldest friends and closest allies in Asia.
Prime Minister Chatichai [CHAT-ch-eye] is a distinguished
emissary from a noble land. From the temples and palaces of
Bangkok to the lush forests and breathtaking cascades of the
provinces, yours is a land proud in its history, rich in
resources, and steadfast in its culture and faith.
But in this era of breathtaking change -- in Asia and around
the world -- what is most remarkable about Thailand is its
enduring devotion to an ideal we Americans hold dear: the ideal
of freedom.
X
X
X
X
Visitors , of
In fact -- as the King of Thailand reminded a joint session
Congress thirty years ago this month X -- the word "Thai" X
X
X
X
X
Yol.II- 19.687 P
actually means "free." X And X Thailand X is the only country in
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Southeast Asia that has never fallen to colonization.
So even though our peoples live on opposite sides of the
1.5%
globe, our countries are joined by a common vision. We have made
freedom our common cause. And in freedom, our nations have found
an abiding friendship.
NSC
Syaft
2
In our discussions, the Prime Minister and I agreed on the
importance of maintaining the U.S.-Thai security relationship. I
told him that while regional circumstances and world conditions
have changed, America's commitment under the Manila Pact to
Thailand's security and integrity remain firm. America is proud
of her role in the Pacific -- a commitment that has fostered
peace, freedom, and economic development among democratic friends
like Thailand.
But the Prime Minister and I agreed that much work remains.
Peter
I expressed our appreciation for Thailand's long cooperation in
providing asylum to Indochinese refugees -- and assured him we
will maintain our resettlement of refugees from Thailand.
We also talked about resolving the tragic conflict in
Cambodia. We agreed that both our countries should continue our
diplomatic efforts to end the violence -- to achieve a
comprehensive solution that meets the aspirations of the
Cambodian people -- by assuring genuine self-determination
through free and fair elections under U.N. auspices, and in the
presence of an international peace-keeping force.
The Prime Minister's visit comes shortly before a
ministerial in Singapore, on greater economic cooperation among
the Pacific Basin countries. Thailand and its allies in ASEAN
[ah-SAY-ahn] are key to the success of this promising initiative.
I assured the Prime Minister of America's commitment to closer
cooperation; to a successful conclusion to the Uruguay Round of
trade negotiations this year; and to mutually beneficial economic
NSO
Draft
3
growth.
In the spirit of collective effort that extends back to our
NSCDraft
first economic treaty back in 1833, the Prime Minister and I
agreed to remove any obstacles to expanded economic ties. And I
know we share similar outlooks on the value of enterprise --
because it was the Prime Minister who first initiated reforms
which expanded Thailand's business sector. Soon after his
Asted. 1990
election, he declared his ambition to turn Indo-China "from a
battlefield into a trading market."
That ambition is leading to results in Thailand -- which now
enjoys a diversified and grówing economy, a stable government,
and a business community attractive for investment. So we're
working closely with the Thai people to assure the mutual
benefits of economic growth, as well as environmental protection
and joint science and technology efforts.
But there's one kind of business we agree we will not
tolerate: narcotics. It's a challenge of global proportions --
and we appreciate Thai cooperation in suppressing the production
and trafficking of these poisons.
Mr. Prime Minister, relations between our two countries now
span 150 years. We share many goals in common -- but what unites
us is our commitment to peace, to prosperity -- and to the
freedom that makes peace and prosperity possible. As you and
your delegation depart after very productive and cordial
discussions, Mr. Prime Minister, the best wishes of the American
people go with you.
D5518
:-
.F3
1990
WH
The
Far East and
Australasia
1990
TWENTY-FIRST EDITION
EUROPA PUBLICATIONS LIMITED
THAILAND
Physical and Social Geography
HARVEY DEMAINE
The Kingdom of Thailand, which was formerly known as Siam,
appearance. Since the main rivers flowing across it rise within
occupies the centre of the South-East Asian mainland, bordered
this same area of low rainfall, Korat is less favourably placed
by Myanmar (Burma) to the west, by Laos and Cambodia to
in respect of irrigation water than the central plain, which,
the east, and by Peninsular Malaysia to the south. Its total
though likewise receiving an annual rainfall of less than 1,500
area is 513,115 sq km (198,115 sq miles).
mm, is well watered by the Chao Phraya system.
Of this territory, much the greater part lies to the north of
Because of its focal position, its fertile alluvial soils, and the
the Bight of Bangkok, and hence well removed from the main
well developed system of natural waterways, the central plain
shipping routes across the South China Sea between Singapore
forms by far the most important single region within the
and Hong Kong, though peninsular Thailand, extending south
country. And within this region, the delta, which begins about
to the Malaysian border approximately at latitude 6°N, has a
190 km from the coast, enjoys all these advantages to a more
coastline of some 960 km facing the Gulf of Thailand, and a
pronounced extent, and it is here that both the former capital,
somewhat shorter one facing the Andaman Sea. Between these
Ayudhya, and the present capital, Bangkok, are situated, and
two the peninsula narrows at the isthmus of Kra to a straight-
that the highest densities of rural population also occur.
line distance of only 56 km between salt water on both sides,
and at various times since the 19th century the possibility has
NATURAL RESOURCES
been considered of cutting a canal here to link the Indian
Thailand's main natural resources lie in its agricultural poten-
Ocean with the South China Sea, thus bypassing Singapore.
tial, and in particular in the capacity of the central plain (and
to a lesser extent the Korat plateau) to produce a substantial
PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC ENVIRONMENT
surplus of rice. In addition, since the late 1950s substantial
Apart from peninsular Thailand, which (except in the far south)
areas of upland have been opened up in these areas for the
consists of mainly narrow coastal lowlands backed by low and
cultivation of maize, cassava (tapioca), kenaf (upland jute),
well-wooded mountain ranges, the country comprises four main
beans and, more recently, cotton and pineapple. The more
upland tracts-in the west, north, north-east and south-east-
humid and more truly equatorial coastal plains of the southern
surrounding a large central plain drained by the principal
peninsula of Thailand have similarly expanded their production
river, the Menam Chao Phraya. Because of its central position
of rubber. Unfortunately this expansion has been very much
within mainland South-East Asia, Thailand, while experiencing
at the expense of the country's timber resources, which are
estimated to have contracted to less than 20% of the total
tropical temperatures throughout its entire area, receives rela-
tively less rainfall than either Myanmar (Burma) to the west
area, with the once famous teak of the northern hills now in
or most parts of the Indo-Chinese lands to the east. In general,
extremely short supply.
rainfall is highest in the south and south-east, and in the
Thailand is not especially well endowed with minerals, with
uplands of the west and, to some extent, in the higher hills in
the southern tin deposits, an extension of those in Peninsular
the north, but most of the rest of the country, in effect,
Malaysia, for long the most important. Mining has now
constitutes a rain-shadow area where the total annual fall is
extended offshore into the Andaman Sea. Nevertheless,
various other minerals, including tungsten, lead, fluorite and
below 1,500 mm.
The western hills are formed by a series of north-south
lignite, are being worked, and the country's heavy dependence
ridges, thickly covered by tropical monsoon forest with much
on energy imports has begun to lessen, following the initial
bamboo, and drained by the Kwei Noi and Kwei Yai rivers.
exploitation of reserves of natural gas in the Gulf of Thailand.
Although summit levels here are only of the order of
These reserves are estimated at 172,000m. cu m, and there is
600-900 m, the ridge-and-furrow pattern makes this generally
a prospect of a substantial increase in Thailand's total reserves,
inhospitable country. In the northern uplands, which represent
following discoveries onshore in the Nam Phong area of Khon-
the southernmost portion of the great Yunnan-Shan-Laos
kaen province, on the north-east plateau. Small quantities of
plateau, altitudes are higher than in the west, reaching an
petroleum have also been identified in the north-central plain
upper limit of about 1,500 m, and the upland surface is fairly
province of Kampaengphet. In addition, massive rock-salt and
well forested, although the natural cover has clearly deterior-
potash deposits are known to underly the Khorat Plateau.
ated in many areas as a result of shifting cultivation. However,
POPULATION AND ETHNIC GROUPS
in the four parallel valleys of the Ping, Wang, Yom and Nan
rivers, which flow through these uplands and subsequently
The population at mid-1989 was estimated to be 55,448,000,
converge farther south to form the Chao Phraya, there are
giving an average density of 108.1 per sq km. Although average
relatively broad lowlands with a more open vegetation, now
densities fall to between one-quarter and one-half of this in
largely cleared for rice cultivation.
the west and north, the total area of really sparsely populated
The north-eastern plateau, also known as the Korat plateau,
upland is small, and in general the population is much less
is mostly of much lower altitude than the two uplands just
unevenly distributed than in most other countries in South-
described. On its western and southern edges it presents a
East Asia. Similarly, the proportion formed by indigenous
continuous rim usually exceeding 300 m, and in places much
minority peoples is low. Apart from some 700,000 Muslim
higher than that, but elsewhere it consists of a relatively low
Malays in the far south, a smaller number of Cambodians near
and undulating surface, draining eastwards, via the Nam Si
the eastern borders, and a total of 300,000 scattered hill
and the Nam Mun, to the Mekong, which flows along its entire
peoples-Meo, Lahu, Yao, Lisu, Lawa, Lolo and Karen-mainly
northern and eastern edge.
in the far north and west, virtually the entire indigenous
In contrast to most of the other uplands, including the small
population belongs to the Thai ethnic group (which also includes
south-eastern area of steep and rugged hills which lie along
the Shan and Lao) and subscribes to Buddhism, predominantly
the northern shore of the Gulf of Thailand and are very heavily
of the Hinayana (Theravada) form. However, it should be
forested, the Korat plateau is an area of barely adequate rain,
added that the inhabitants of the north-east tend to be closer
which during the dry season presents a barren and desiccated
in speech and custom to the Lao populations on the other side
965
THAILAND
Physical and Social Geography, History
of the Mekong than to those of central Thailand, and this sense
As an overwhelmingly agricultural country, Thailand so far
of difference is aggravated by the lower standards of living in
shows only a relatively limited degree of urbanization. The
the former area.
urban scene is totally dominated by the single great complex
Excluding the Lao groups, the largest minority in Thailand
of Bangkok Metropolis (including Thonburi), which had an
may be said to be the ethnic Chinese. However, estimates as
estimated population of 5,916,779 at 31 December 1988. This
to their proportion of the total population vary and many
metropolis overshadows other urban centres, of which the
Chinese have been assimilated into the Thai culture. Most are
largest at the 1980 census were Songkhla (population 172,604)
now entitled to be, and have become, Thai citizens and in 1970
Chon Buri (115,350), Nakhon Si Thammarat (102,123) and
only 311,000 remained Chinese citizens.
Chiang Mai (101,594).
History
RUTH McVEY
PREHISTORY AND EARLY PERIOD
Ayuthia's position on the central river, near enough to the
Recent archaeological findings show very ancient civilizations
sea to become involved in the developing trade between
to have existed in what is now Thailand, but the earliest
Europe and the Far East, gave it a particular advantage in
evidence which we have of the Thai peoplè is as part of a
the accumulation of power. The Portuguese, then the dominant
population speaking related languages and inhabiting moun-
European power in South-East Asia, sent a mission to Siam
tainous areas of what is now. Yunnan in China. These Thai-
soon after their conquest of Malacca (Melaka) in 1511; there-
speaking groups gradually spread southward into the highland
after, Ayuthia became increasingly involved in European
areas of present-day Laos, northern Viet-Nam, north-eastern
rivalries until, under King Narai (1657-88), it accepted a French
Myanmar (Burma) and northern Thailand, where many pre-
military mission. Narai's death brought a reaction against the
serve their identity as 'hill tribes' which are only very partially
involvement with foreigners and inaugurated a long period of
integrated into modern nation-states. The mountainous terrain
isolation. Ayuthia's reduced resources and unstable leadership
in which they lived ensured that their polities remained small
enabled rising Burmese power to challenge it, and in 1767 the
and simply organized, but in some river valleys of northern
city was laid waste.
Thailand the development of irrigated rice cultivation led to
relatively dense population and complex states controlling
EMERGENCE OF A MODERN STATE
water distribution systems. Southward migration of these peo-
ple brought them to the edge of the great central plain of the
On Ayuthia's fall, a new Thai state centre was founded by the
Chao Phraya river system; there, in AD 1238, they established
Chinese war-lord Taksin at Thonburi, near the mouth of the
the first historical Thai (Siamese) kingdom of Sukothai.
Chao Phraya. He was overthrown in 1782 by the house of
Sukothai was initially subject to the major mainland power,
Chakri, and the capital was moved across the river to Bangkok.
the Khmer (Cambodian) empire of Angkor, but the growth of
The early Chakri kings were anxious to recuperate Thai power
its population enabled it to express an increasingly Thai charac-
against Burmese and, increasingly, European threats. They
ter and finally to assert independence under King
pressed the extension of Siamese authority over Laos, western
Ramkamheng (reigned I283-c. 1317). He extended the king-
Cambodia and the northern Malay states, and sought to
strengthen the central administrative structure and to substi-
dom's influence against both the Khmers and the Mons to the
tute tax farming for the older tributary system. This concern
south and west, establishing Thai power over the central plain
and making it a major element in the South-East Asian state
for increased efficiency received a forceful impetus in 1855,
system. Ramkamheng is also credited with establishing the
when the Bowring Treaty, imposed by the British, deprived
standard Thai writing system, which was derived, under Mon
Thai rulers of important income from tolls and monopolies on
and Khmer influence, from Indian scripts, reflecting the great
foreign trade. Under Kings Mongkut (Rama IV, 1851-68) and
prestige which Indian culture and statecraft had for the ancient
Chulalongkorn (Rama V, 1868-1910), interest in Western tech-
civilizations of South-East Asia. The religion of Sukothai was
nology and ideas grew rapidly among the royal and noble
Hinayana (Theravada) Buddhism, which spread initially from
élite, and Chulalongkorn was able to push through a major
reorganization of the state, which substituted a modern central-
Sri Lanka and became the dominant faith of the major popu-
lation groups of mainland South-East Asia.
ized bureaucracy and fiscal system for the old chao muang
arrangement.
The continued southward movement of the Thais on to the
central plain brought the establishment in the mid-14th century
By its internal reforms and concessions to European inter-
of a new centre of Siamese power, called Ayuthia, at a point
ests, Siam was able to maintain formal independence, but it
had to concede France its claims to suzerainty over Laos and
on the Chao Phraya river attainable by seagoing vessels. In
1368 it conquered Angkor and established Siam as a power
western Cambodia, and Britain its claims over the Malay states
with interests in Cambodia. Ayuthia's great King Trailok
of Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Trengganu. In order to placate
(reigned 1448-88) pursued its extension against the Burmese
the Europeans, to improve its expertise, and to finance econ-
to the west, Thai principalities in the north, and Malay sultan-
omic and administrative modernization, Siam sought foreign
ates in the southern peninsula. He greatly strengthened
loans and accepted European and US advisers in key govern-
Siamese state organization, making the first efforts at a central-
mental posts. It attempted to prevent any one country from
having predominance but, as Britain was by far the strongest
ized bureaucratic structure and ranking system and codifying
power in the region, it fell effectively within the British sphere
customary rules into law. Nonetheless, Ayuthia's power was
of influence.
diffuse by modern standards resting, as in the earliest Thai
However, at the same time that Siam smarted under unequal
states, on the ability of a population centre (muang), under its
relationships, it prospered with the development of the inter-
lord (chao muang), to enforce authority over, and extract
national rice trade, which provided the major source of finance
tribute from, the rural areas around it. Those who commanded
for the modern Thai state. The extension of rice lands led to a
larger resources in population and wealth, usually by virtue
rapid expansion of settlement throughout the central Thai
of strategic location on a river system which enabled them to
plain. Bangkok developed into a major trading centre, in which
control trade, established themselves as overlords; and the
(as in colonized South-East Asia) European firms dominated
strongest of these might make himself king. However, the
large-scale international activity and immigrant Chinese took
monarch's control remained uncertain, and the borders of the
roles as shopkeepers, middlemen and labourers. Central control
kingdoms shifted with the waxing and waning of the central
over Siam's remaining territories was strengthened, though
muang's ability to exact loyalty from its more distant tribu-
not without alienating people in the north, north-east and
taries.
south who were still loyal to their customary chiefs. Although
966
and so nad minuted fandholdings and the possibility or serzing
rTTur, then regent for King Ananda (nama /111, 1950-40, Still
land in payment of debt; this effectively prevented a drastic
a child and at school in Switzerland). Pridi set up an anti-
rural upheaval akin to that experienced by Burma (now Myan-
Japanese resistance which enjoyed some immunity from the
967
THAILAND
History
Within a short time, however, violence returned to the south,
was punctuated by sharp retrenchments, most notably the
this time as a flare-up of Islamic resentment. The largely
monetary reform of November 1984 which ended the link
Malay-speaking southern Muslim population, concentrated in
between the Thai baht and the US dollar and brought a sharp
the provinces bordering on Malaysia, has never been well
devaluation. However, the pattern of expansion begun in the
integrated into the Thai polity and since 1948 has supported
1960s was resumed, and the outlines: of a-major social trans-
resistance movements, of which the principal survivors are the
formation became more apparent. Industrial, agribusiness, and
Patani United Liberation Organization (Pulo) and the National
construction sectors expanded rapidly, with Thai as well as
Popular Front (BRN). In the 1970s, when insurgency was at a
foreign business interests prominent in them. The middle
high level, the Thai authorities made serious efforts to reduce
and working classes grew in importance and self-confidence,
the causes of revolt, in particular by improving rural communi-
pressing for such reforms as the establishment of a social
cations and transport, bringing religious schooling under closer
security system. Secondary urban centres began to flourish,
supervision, and giving young Muslims preferential treatment
challenging the capital's monopoly on political power. For the
in obtaining higher education and bureaucratic jobs. The 1980s
first time light manufacturing, particularly of textiles, played
saw this policy bear fruit, but with the lessening parochialism
a significant part in exports, and access to foreign markets
of the Muslim population came greater contact with inter-
became a major political and economic issue. The principal
national Islamic ferment. Dakwah (religious revival) efforts,
outlet for Thai textile manufactures was the USA; by the end
initially approved by the authorities since they were not
of 1986 Thailand had a favourable balance in its US trade of
identified with separatism, led to conflict between Islamic and
over US $1,000m., which put a considerable strain on US
Thai bureaucratic norms, and, in December 1987, to a furore
willingness to continue as Thailand's benevolent patron. With
resulting from the forbidding of the veil to students in a
the flagging of Singaporean and Malaysian growth in the mid-
teacher training college. The widespread protests encouraged
1980s, Thailand's economy was hailed as the most dynamic in
the remaining separatist insurgents to launch a series of armed
South-East Asia, a contrast to its earlier image of underdevel-
attacks in early 1988, mostly against government schools and
opment.
schoolteachers. Thai military authorities claimed that they
The growth of the 1980s differed from the boom which
were reinforced by terrorists returned from training in the
Marshal Sarit had launched two decades earlier in that it
Middle East. Compromise was reached on the issue of the veil,
lacked any personal leadership or clear ideology. The regimes
but the growth of Islamic self-consciousness and the looming
of Kriangsak and Prem were reactive rather than dynamic,
problem of educated but unemployed Muslim youth seem to
and they confined their innovative efforts to the search for a
guarantee continuing problems.
constitutional formula which would create strong yet control-
More serious violence resulted from confrontation with the
lable political parties. In their view this was essential to long-
communist regimes consolidating their power in Indo-China.
term stability, particularly in the light of the increasing size
Disputes over refugees, claimed infiltration, and the poorly
and self-confidence of the middle class. The Government
marked common border brought tension between Laos and
attempted to remove the army from the political process while
Thailand, though this was generally tempered by a shared
safeguarding its interests, an effort which found support in
sense that the close linguistic, cultural, and geographic connec-
the early 1980s from the Democratic Officers Movement (DOM),
tion between the two countries offered the basis for a more
a group of military men who argued this was necessary for the
positive and profitable relationship. In November 1987, how-
sake of national progress, military unity, and professionalism.
ever, a dispute about 80 sq km of border territory brought an
Indeed, the basis of politics appeared to be changing from the
ill-fated Thai military operation to dislodge the Laotians. The
old personalist ties of patron-client relations to alliances based
principal result of the campaign, which ended ingloriously with
on interest groups and political ideals. Banking, manufacturing,
a truce in March 1988, was to reveal grave weakness of
and agribusiness interests began to play a significant role in
organization and equipment in the Thai army, which had shown
politics; partly because of their participation the parties seemed
itself incapable of defeating a much weaker opponent.
to acquire more substance, and young army officers began to
On the Cambodian border, the Vietnamese dry-season offen-
form groups supporting particular political objectives rather
sive of 1984/85 greatly reduced the strength of the 'Democratic
than an individual patron or faction.
Kampuchean' forces which were accommodated in Thailand.
The effort to reform the system culminated in the consti-
The destruction of the buffer zone which they had occupied
tutional changes endorsed by the general election to the House
forced Thai troops to face the Vietnamese directly on their
of Representatives in April 1983, which greatly reduced the
border, or across it, for the first time. Thai forces have shown
power of the appointed Senate and banned the appointment
little ability to respond to Vietnamese incursions, but during
of civil servants (including military officers) to positions in the
the Kriangsak and Prem regimes the country's leaders gave
Council of Ministers. Such attacks on entrenched interests did
no indication that they might seek a compromise with Viet-
not go unchallenged, both by senior officers aspiring to national
Nam on the Cambodian question, in spite of increasing pressure
leadership and young ones who sought a more dynamic role
from other ASEAN countries. Political immobilism, historical
for the army, and the state in general, in developing the
rivalry with Viet-Nam for influence in Indo-China, and the
country. Already in 1981 radical nationalist middle-rank officers
profits to be made from smuggling, the arms trade, and major-
had attempted a coup. In 1983 Gen. Arthit Kamlang-ek,
power involvement in the Cambodian conflict kept Thailand's
Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces and C-in-C of the
leadership firmly opposed to any compromise with the Heng
Army, formed an alliance with these 'Young Turks' in his
Samrin regime.
attempt to consolidate military support against the consti-
While it maintained an unyielding stance towards its commu-
tutional reforms. The opposition to Gen. Prem's course culmi-
nist neighbours, the Thai Government quietly restored US
nated in the abortive coup of September 1985, led by Col.
military aid projects and training schemes, which it had
Manoon Roopkachorn. It soon transpired that senior military
rejected following the 1973 uprising and the defeat of the USA
officers had been involved in this attempted putsch, and both
in Viet-Nam. US forces began to participate in Thai military
Kriangsak and Gen. Serm na Nakhorn, a former Supreme
exercises on a substantial scale in late 1985. In April 1986,
Commander of the Armed Forces, were arrested. In May
plans were devised for the establishment of a stockpile of US
1986 Gen. Arthit was dismissed from his posts as Supreme
weapons in Thailand, the first occasion for a US reserve of
Commander of the Armed Forces and Army C-in-C; his replace-
weapons in a country without US military bases.
ment was Gen. Chaovalit Yongchaiyut, one of Prem's closest
In its recent international economic relations, Thailand has
advisers and the acknowledged leader of the successful cam-
been more fortunate. Towards the end of the 1970s the dis-
paign against the communist insurgency.
covery of oil and natural gas in the Gulf of Thailand helped
Chaovalit had once been prominent in the DOM, but soon
revive local economic optimism. About the same time foreign
after his elevation he began to voice opinions which seemed
investors, realizing that Thailand was not after all about to
more in line with the ideas of the 'Young Turks'. He began to
fall to communism, began to move funds into the country. In
call for a state-led 'revolution' that would transform the coun-
particular Japan, seeking new sources of cheap manufacturing
try's political, economic, and social structure for the benefit
labour and outlets for its capital, contributed greatly to a new
of both growth and equity. Early in 1987 he engineered a
wave of economic development. The growth of the 1980s
reorganization of the powerful Internal Security Operations
971
THAILAND
History
Command (ISOC) which appeared to arrogate to itself some of
Thai's business orientation. The size of the business communi-
the authority of government. Together with the increasing
ty's financial support for Chart Thai's campaign reflected not
army role in village defence and development efforts this
only appreciation of the party's attitude but also a new respect
aroused civilian concern for continuing military ambitions to
for the importance of party politics and a departure from
shape society. Others, however, saw in this assertiveness the
reliance on the protection of powerful individuals.
stronger leadership they had been seeking. Chaovalit emerged
as a political force, while his military dominance seemed
Initially, there was considerable doubt whether Chaticha,
who was not a charismatic figure, could gain sufficient auth-
secured by the appointment of his close associates to top
army posts in October 1987. His reputation suffered heavily,
ority to maintain his coalition of Chart Thai, the SAP, the DP,
however, in the débâcle of the Laotian border dispute. In May
Rassadorn, the United Democratic Party and the Mass Party.
However, he very soon showed a dynamism that removed
1988 he resigned, in accordance with his pledge in 1986 to
retain the post for only two years. His resignation was refused
these doubts and satisfied those who had appealed, during,
by Prem, in what was seen as a calculated move to prevent
Prem's rule, for more innovative leadership. Chatichai initiated
Chaovalit from becoming a political threat in the forthcoming
reforms which opened Thailand to expansion of the business
elections. In September 1988, however, instead of standing
sector. In particular, he reduced the role of the National
down as expected, Chaovalit retained his posts and further
Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB), which had
consolidated his power base through the promotion of a new
exercised a major and conservative influence on government
generation of officers.
planning under Prem. At the same time, the new Prime
Minister stressed the need for regional development, particu-
TOWARDS PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT
larly in the poor and troubled areas of the north-east and the
extreme south. In 1989 he gained considerable popularity by
Prem's administration and the constitutional system had been
convening a series of cabinet meetings in regional capitals, thus
re-endorsed by elections in July 1986, which gave the DP a
providing tangible evidence of the importance being assigned to
strong plurality in the House of Representatives and resulted
regional problems. By early 1989, Chatichai's dominance was
in a pro-government coalition consisting of the DP, Chart Thai,
such that the major opposition parties felt it necessary to unite
SAP, and Rassadorn. However, opposition was increasingly
in order to conserve their forces. However, the formation of
vocal, and the DP proved to be unable to keep all its parliamen-
the resulting Ekkaparb (Solidarity) in April of that year was
tary representatives in support of the Government. Such incon-
stancy reflected the superficiality of Thai constitutionalism.
marred by the defection of some opposition parliamentarians,
giving the ruling coalition 229 of the 357 seats in the House of
The growth of interest-group politics and the middle class has
Representatives. The army itself was calm, in spite of Chati-
been noticeable, but often enough this has resulted in deadlock
chai's criticism of military-dominated policy concerning Indo-
rather than political decisiveness. As a consequence, the influ-
China. Chatichai retained Chaovalit as Army C-in-C and took
ence of political parties and civilians generally has remained
marginal compared with that of the armed forces. Arthit failed
care to involve him in some of his more controversial foreign
to wrest power from Prem, not as a result of party intervention
policy innovations. With the prospect of a long-term peace,
or popular pressure, but because of military factionalism and
Chaovalit concentrated on ensuring the army's continuing
the increasing political influence of the King. Chaovalit's failure
political and budgetary importance; as ISOC Commander, he
to maintain political momentum was generally assigned not to
announced, in 1989, the creation of two 'development divisions,'
civilian opposition but to military disaster and royal distaste.
with which the army would campaign against poverty and
social unrest in the north-east and south.
Indeed, in the 1970s and 1980s the King became a pivotal
figure in political negotiations, his opinion being sought as a
In international affairs, Chatichai abandoned his previously
means of breaking the impasse resulting from the conflict of
intransigent stance on the Indo-China question, overcoming
interests. Prem himself adopted an ambivalent stance towards
considerable resistance by his Minister of Foreign Affairs, Air
political parties, attempting to strengthen their role while
Chief Marshal Siddhi Savetsila (the leader of the SAP), who
refusing to become a party candidate in his own election
had been largely responsible for the Prem regime's rigidity.
campaigns. At the same time, he did not establish himself as
For a long time, Chatichai had considered that Cambodia and
a charismatic leader; excellent at manoeuvering and compro-
Laos were not necessarily impervious to Thai influence and
mise, he was not able to provide people with a sense of
that Thai-Vietnamese relations would seem very different if
direction. As a result, what was in many ways a very successful
they were based on economic, rather than military, consider-
regime was characterized by a high level of frustration.
ations. Soon after his election, he declared his ambition to
In April 1988 the National Assembly was dissolved, and in
turn Indo-China 'from a battlefield into a trading market. In
July a general election for the House of Representatives was
November 1988 he, Siddhi and Chaovalit visited Laos and
held. The election was marred by the perennial vote-buying and
began discussions aimed at settling the border issue. The
campaign violence, compounded by the burning of a number of
main interest, however, was economic, as Chatichai hoped to
rural schools by separatist Muslims. The results were an
transform Thailand's north-east into a centre for trade and
endorsement of the existing coalition Government but also a
industry, linking Laos and, eventually, the rest of Indo-China
severe decline in the power of the DP, which split, and the
to Thailand. Vietnamese preparations for withdrawal from
growth of the right-wing Chart Thai, which was the self-
Cambodia gave an opportunity for Thailand to stress its inter-
appointed spokesman for Thai big business and had spent
est in aiding the rehabilitation of those two countries after the
lavishly on the campaign. Prem was asked to continue as Prime
evacuation was completed. Meanwhile, the Government quietly
Minister but refused the invitation, leaving the leader of Chart
relaxed efforts to enforce official restrictions on trade with
Thai, Gen. Chatichai Choonhavan, to form a government.
Viet-Nam and Cambodia.
Chatichai's appointment as Prime Minister in August 1988
All this was approved both by the Indo-Chinese states,
was not expected to have a significant effect on government
desperate for trade and investment, and by Thai business
policy, since Chatichai was not only a retired General but also
executives, who foresaw major new opportunities for enter-
the son of Phin Chunhawan, founder of the Phin-Phao-Phibun
prise. In December 1988, in order to promote Thai interests,
military clique which led Thailand from 1948 to 1957. It was,
Chaovalit visited Thailand's other socialist neighbour, Myan-
however, a major step towards the consolidation of parliamen-
mar (Burma), thus earning the gratitude of the internationally
tary rule in Thailand; for the first time since 1987, an elected
isolated Saw Maung regime. It seemed that South-East Asia's
leader was in charge of the Government. Chatichai was primar-
most avowedly capitalist regime was preparing to make itself
ily known as a politician, and he was the architect of Chart
the economic focus of the region's failing socialist states.
recovery
a diversified & growing econ.
9 since 86
a stable goif., incr. dirtofor. moet
972
THAILAND
Economy
Economy
CHRIS DIXON
Although never formally a colony, Thailand was incorporated
high, compared with countries having similar levels of GDP
into the world economy from the 1850s onwards, under West-
per head. Similarly, Thailand had a low level of urbanization,
ern domination. In 1896 an Anglo-French treaty reserved the
with 80% of the population residing in rural areas. This com-
Kingdom as a field for British trade and investment. British
paratively small urban population is disproportionately concen-
advisers exerted some control over Thai finances until 1950,
trated in Bangkok, which, with 6m.-8m. inhabitants (depending
although their power had been reduced by successive treaty
on the definition of the urban area used), is some 40 to 50
revisions, notably in 1927.
times the size of the next largest centres.
After the Second World War, US influence became more
Regional disparities have also increased rapidly as the econ-
important, and from 1963 to 1978 the Thai baht was tied to
omy as a whole has grown, certainly since the appearance of
the US dollar. In the 1950s a large volume of US loans,
adequate regional figures in 1951. The Bangkok and central
grants and direct investment flowed into Thailand to finance
plain (now sub-divided into east, west and central) regions
infrastructure developments, many with strategic implications.
have sharply increased their share of the national GDP, as
Early in the 1960s US aid was reduced, partly owing to the
well as their levels of per caput income, which reached 322.6%
growth of the Thai economy in the general world boom. From
and 142.3% of the national average by 1980. In contrast, the
the middle of the 1960s, however, growth rates began to
north-east has fallen further behind, with a per caput income
slow down in line with world trends. Increasing insurgency,
only 43.4% of the national average. Urban-rural incomes show
especially in the north-east region, and Thailand's strategic
a similar pattern of increasing disparity. Data for levels of
position for the Viet-Nam war brought more US aid and
personal income are far from reliable. Official surveys suggest
military presence. After the defeat of the USA in Viet-Nam
a dramatic fall in the incidence of poverty, from 57% in 1962-63
in 1975, both the aid and the bases were rapidly withdrawn,
to 24% in 1981. However, these data also reveal a noticeable
causing serious problems of readjustment in a period of deepen-
polarization of incomes, with the poorest groups experiencing
ing national and international economic difficulties. Since the
an absolute decline in living standards.
mid-1970s American economic influence has been steadily
The National Economic Development Board (NEDB) was
replaced by that of Japan, which is now Thailand's principal
established in 1959 to co-ordinate and stimulate development,
trading partner and the main source of foreign investment.
and the first Economic Development Plan was implemented
Between 1961 and 1980, Thailand's gross domestic product
from 1961 to 1966. This was the only Plan to achieve either
(GDP) increased at an average annual rate of 6.6% at constant
overall or sectoral targets, and subsequent Plans, although
prices, but this growth was extremely erratic and also slowed
based on sounder statistics and more sophisticated techniques,
considerably after 1970. Whereas the growth rate averaged
have fallen short of expectations.
7.4% in the period before 1970, it averaged 6.4% from 1970 to
In the second and third Plans, regional elements became
1980. Growth declined sharply in the early 1980s, averaging
more important, with particular emphasis placed on the north-
4.9% between 1979 and 1986. Growth rates of the Thai economy
east with its extreme poverty and increasing communist insur-
during this period, however, were considerably better than
gency. Under the third Plan (1972-76), separate regional plans
those of many Asian countries, and Thailand appears to be
were drawn up but, because of the shortage of funds, the
suffering less than many of its neighbours from the recession.
failure to complete the infrastructure projects of the second
Nevertheless, the majority of the Thai population has experi-
Plan and widespread unrest, greater emphasis was placed on
enced a substantial reduction in income since 1982, as a result
low-cost self-help schemes in rural areas. A shift of expenditure
of a sharp fall in the prices of major export commodities,
to social projects was matched by a change of name for the
particularly rice, sugar, rubber, maize and tin. During 1986,
NEDB to the National Economic and Social Development
however, the Thai economy underwent a noticeable improve-
Board.
ment, with the balance of payments moving into surplus on
These trends were continued in the fourth Plan (1977-81),
the current account, acceleration in the growth of GDP and
drafted under the more liberal civilian regime (1973-76). This
an increase in foreign investment. Despite some deterioration
plan was implemented under the very different political con-
in the balance of payments, the recovery was sustained during
ditions which prevailed after the 1976 coup d'état, and amid a
1987 and 1988, with GDP expanding by 6.6% and 8.5% respec-
rapidly worsening economic situation. The social measures
tively. These growth rates reflect a general rise in commodity
were largely abandoned. By 1981, not only were many of the
prices, renewed confidence in the Thai economy by investors
targets of the fourth Plan not realized, but a number from the
and the success of Thai exporters in expanding sales.
third Plan remained uncompleted.
In sectoral terms, growth rates have been very uneven. This
The fifth Plan (1982-86) shifted the emphasis from national
is well illustrated by a comparison of the agricultural and
and regional planning, as solutions to developmental problems,
manufacturing. sectors. Between 1977 and 1988 the average
to broad structural changes which would reduce regulations
annual rate of growth of agricultural GDP was only 2.3%,
and state involvement, and would stimulate the private sector.
compared with 7.8% for manufacturing. However, agricultural
Particular importance was attached to the development of
growth has been far more irregular: 3.3% in 1984; 2.7% in
heavy industry in association with the exploitation of the
1985; 0.1% in 1986; -0.2% in 1987 and 3.% in 1988. This
eastern seaboard gas reserves. According to the Plan, overseas
compares unfavourably with manufacturing: growth was 6.3%
and private domestic investors would provide most of the
in 1984; 6.8% in 1985; 6.9% in 1986; 9.1% in 1987 and 10.0% in
funding for this project.
1988.
The Plan had four main stated aims: to reduce rural poverty
Since 1960 considerable changes have taken place in the
through policy directed towards the most backward areas;
structure of the economy. Agriculture has declined sharply
to improve the balance of payments, particularly through a
both in terms of contribution to GDP and export earnings. It
programme of export promotion; to improve energy conser-
has been replaced by the expansion of the manufacturing,
vation; and to reduce the budget deficit by increasing govern-
service and financial sectors. Between 1960 and 1987, agricul-
ment revenue. The fifth Plan recognized the long-term
ture's share of GDP was reduced from 40% to 16.7%. However,
structural problems of the Thai economy, which, although
this decline has not been reflected in the sector's share of
evident since the early 1960s, have been exacerbated by the
employment, which, over the same period, decreased from 84%
world recession. Progress was reportedly disappointing, and a
to 67%. This discrepancy reflects under-recording of agricul-
general downward revision of targets has taken place.
tural production, low levels of domestic and international prices
The sixth Plan (1987-91) has been oriented chiefly towards
and the sector's low level of productivity. However, the gap
economic stabilization. It seemed likely that this aim would
between agriculture's shares of GDP and employment is very
take precedence over economic growth. However, recent
973
THAILAND
Economy
debates over the eastern seaboard developments suggested
consistently been the world's largest exporter, providing about
that there continued to be strong support within the Govern-
40% of world rice exports. During the 1980s the steady rise in
ment for a policy of growth maximization. The equalization of
the volume of sales has been generally accompanied by a fall
regional and personal income levels was expected to receive
in prices.
even lower priority than under the fifth Plan. Under the sixth
Owing to the depressed state of the world rice market and
Plan, the Government aims to reduce its role as the 'principal
the achievement of self-sufficiency by a number of Asian
economic stimulator' by limiting public expenditure and by
countries, Thailand has been able to expand exports only at
encouraging private investment. The sixth Plan assigned the
the expense of the USA. This has been the case particularly
Government 'the supportive role of co-ordinator, adviser and
in the EEC, Saudi Arabia and South Africa. Some limited new
facilitator to the private sector'. Private-sector investment was
projected to increase at an average rate of 8.1% per year,
markets have been opened up since 1985, including Viet-Nam,
China and Senegal. The US Government has expressed concern
while the annual increase in public investment was to average
over the continued expansion of Thai rice exports. The
only 1.0%, compared with growth of 2.4% in 1986. The sixth
implementation of the US Food Security Act in April 1986
Plan aims to achieve average growth in GDP of 5% per year,
flooded the world market with heavily subsidized, low-price,
and envisages the creation of more than 3.9m. new jobs over
high-quality rice from the USA. This has further depressed
the five-year Plan period.
the export price of, in particular, high-grade rice.
The efforts to diversify the economy since the late 1950s
The increasing problems facing exporters, and the need to
have achieved a measure of success. In particular, the develop-
keep export prices down, were the factors causing the major
ment of manufactured exports has reduced the dependence
change in government rice policy that was implemented in
on primary products. None the less, the economy remains
January 1986. Almost all restrictions on exports have been
sufficiently dependent on a narrow range of export commodi-
removed, and the long-standing export premium abolished.
ties for variations in price and production levels to have a
These changes represent a victory for free-market advocates
profound impact on the economy as a whole.
in the Government. These measures have helped to maintain
AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FISHING
conditions. the level of rice exports, under the prevailing difficult trading
Agriculture dominates the Thai economy in terms of employ-
For many years, the various price support schemes for paddy
ment, accounting for about two-thirds of the labour force, and
rice have been described as ineffective in alleviating poverty
was, until 1985, the largest single contributor to both the GDP
among rice farmers. In recent years, there is little doubt that,
and export earnings.
despite the low level of the support price, the schemes have
Thai agriculture is largely unintensive in character, and
been on a scale sufficient to reach a large number of farmers
has accommodated increases in production and agricultural
and provide much-needed, if limited, relief. However, during
population by steady expansion of the cultivated area. In
1987 there was evidence that the general rise in the domestic
recent years, much land has been cleared that is unsuited to
wholesale price (engendered by the price support scheme),
permanent cultivation, and there are now serious problems of
together with government buying to fulfil official export con-
land shortage and soil erosion, particularly in parts of the
tracts and a fall in output (due to drought), did not benefit the
north and north-east.
growers. Traders appear to have gained, while farmers were,
The slow and often unsuccessful development of irrigation,
in many cases, forced to sell a reduced output at a very low
particularly in areas outside the central plain, has inhibited
price.
the development of more intensive and more reliable pro-
duction. Since 1979, a programme of rain-fed rice development
Cassava (Tapioca)
has taken place, financed by World Bank loans. To date, this
The production of cassava has expanded considerably since
programme has had very limited impact, owing mainly to an
1967, particularly in the north-east of the country. Farmers
inability to breed rice varieties that are more suited to the
are attracted by prices which are higher and more stable than
prevailing unreliable rainfall conditions than the long-estab-
those of other crops, and by the lower labour inputs needed.
lished indigenous types.
However, the crop is demanding of soil nutrient, and yields
Rice
on poor soils fall sharply after only one or two years' culti-
vation. Soil exhaustion and erosion have been reported in parts
Exports of rice have declined in volume and value, relative to
of the north-east.
other commodities. The poorest areas of the Kingdom and some
Cassava is a subsistence crop in most producing countries,
of the most impoverished groups are those solely dependent on
but Thailand's output is almost entirely exported. Most is sent
rice cultivation, with little or no off-farm employment or other
to Europe, principally to the Netherlands, but also to France,
cash crops to supplement incomes. The poverty of rice growers
Belgium and the Federal Republic of Germany, in the form of
results from world price fluctuations and low farm-gate prices.
processed products, mainly tapioca pellets for cattle food. As
A high degree of monopsony reduces the farmers' bargaining
a result of the boom in cassava, some inferior products have
position, and a cycle of low prices and low inputs (fertilizers,
reached the market, and occasional shipments have been
80% of which are imported, are relatively expensive) leads to
rejected because they exceeded the 3% impurity standard.
low output, which, in turn, limits incomes on all but the largest
Since 1979 the Thai Tapioca Trade Association, in conjunction
farm units in the most favoured areas of the central plain.
with the Thai board of trade, has attempted to enforce purity
Thailand's rice yields remain among the lowest in South-East
standards; but the enforcement of purity standards by the
Asia.
EEC stemmed partly from a desire to restrict imports.
Unreliable rainfall, especially in the planting months, and
From 1979 to 1982 exports exceeded 6m. metric tons every
the fact that a mere 20% of the land is classed as 'irrigable'
year, reaching a record 7,815,455 tons in 1982. Between 1979
combine to produce considerable variations in the area planted
and 1983 cassava ranked second to rice as an export earner,
each year, and this, in conjunction with crop damage and
contributing as much as 13.6% of export earnings in 1982. In
variable yields, creates great fluctuations in the total output.
1983 exports fell sharply to only 5,197,000 tons, a direct result
The north-east region has the most unreliable growing con-
of the imposition of a 5m.-ton import quota by the EEC. In
ditions, the lowest level of irrigation provision and the largest
1984 the EEC further restricted imports, to 4.5m. metric tons.
proportion of people directly dependent on agriculture.
The increase in Thailand's exports to 7.1m. tons in 1985, and
Despite marked annual variations in production, the long-
to 8.1m. tons in 1988, reflected the success of exporters in
term trend is one of gradual expansion. Since the late 1960s
penetrating non-EEC markets. New markets include Israel,
the volume of exports, while always varying with production
Portugal and Taiwan. An agreement with the Republic of
levels, has become even more variable as the international rice
Korea to reduce import duties on Thai cassava from 20% to
market has become more volatile. Since the poor harvest of
7% was also expected to result in a major increase in sales. In
1977, which reduced exports of milled rice to 1.6m. metric tons
1986 Thailand entered into a new voluntary export restraint
in 1978, foreign sales have averaged more than 3m. tons, and
agreement with the EEC. This guaranteed a market for 21m.
reached successive record levels of 3.7m. tons in 1982, 4.6m.
metric tons during 1987-90, an increase of 2m. tons on the
tons in 1984 and 4.8m. tons in 1988. Thailand has, since 1981,
amount sold in the 1983-86 period. However, expansion of
974
THAILAND
Economy
production in 1987/88 and 1988/89 has resulted in over supply
duration of the recession and has proved ineffective in control-
and, during 1988, a 27.5% fall in domestic prices.
ling either domestic prices or production levels. In addition,
inability to repay the first instalment of the 1982 loan has
Maize
necessitated re-financing over an extended repayment period.
Maize spread widely as a cash crop in the late 1950s and 1960s,
and from 1959 until the early 1970s it was the most valuable
Rubber
agricultural export after rice and rubber. It is cultivated
Since the late 1920s, rubber has been a major crop and a
principally in the northern parts of Thailand's central plain.
significant export. Until challenged by maize, cassava and
The domestic market is small, with the main trade as cattle
sugar in the 1970s, it was Thailand's second most important
fodder for Japan and, to a lesser extent, Singapore, Malaysia
export earner. Production is mainly in the south, on smallhold-
and Hong Kong. In 1982 the valuable Taiwan market was lost,
ings often with old, low-yielding trees. The small scale of the
owing to unacceptable levels of aflatoxin in Thai maize, and
operations, both for growing and processing, has resulted in
new markets have been developed, particularly in Kenya, the
problems of quality, but replanting and reorganization, initi-
USSR and, most recently, China. Between 1979 and 1984,
ated in the 1970s against a background of rising costs for
production and exports increased as a result of relatively stable
petroleum-based synthetic rubber, are slowly overcoming these
prices and the guaranteeing of export markets, the result
problems. The rubber planting aid fund, in operation since
principally of trading agreements with Hong Kong. Production
1961, was revitalized between 1977 and 1980-by the injection
increased from 2.8m. metric tons in 1978 to a record 5.0m.
of funds from the Commonwealth Development Corporation
tons in 1985. Of the latter total, 4.0m. tons were exported.
(CDC) and the World Bank; by 1984, about 34% of the area
Subsequently exports contracted sharply, to 1.6m. tons in 1987
had been replanted with high-yielding trees. In 1982 agree-
and to 1.2m. tons in 1988. This decline resulted partly from
ments were reached with the World Bank and the CDC for
the increase in domestic consumption of maize for animal feed.
loans of $140m. and $18.5m., respectively; these have been
However, Thailand is now faced with competition from new,
used to finance further smallholders' improvement schemes.
lower-price producers, particularly Viet-Nam and Indonesia.
The schemes have been aimed primarily at improving the
In addition, since 1986, as a consequence of US legislation,
quality of latex. The success of these programmes is reflected
large amounts of cheap American maize appeared on the
in the substitution of Thai rubber for Malaysian imports,
international market. In an attempt to make Thai maize more
particularly in the production of tyres for motor vehicles, and
competitive by a reduction in export costs, the regulations
the rapid expansion of the rubber goods industry. Between
governing maize exports have been simplified, the quota sys-
1971 and 1988, Thailand increased production at an average
tem has ended and export taxes have been reduced. However,
annual rate of 6.5%, faster than any other major producer, and
the loss of established markets has been only very partially
since 1979 the country has been the world's third largest
offset by an expansion of trade with the Republic of Korea. In
producer, providing about 15% of world production.
1988 drought in the USA and reduced production in China and
Despite the depressed state of the international rubber
Brazil resulted in an increase in prices and a renewed expansion
market, Thailand has steadily increased production, from
of Thai exports.
552,000 tons in 1982 to 921,500 tons in 1988. Exports similarly
The expansion of maize production is causing considerable
rose, from 533,840 tons in 1982 to 895,600 tons in 1987. The
concern because large areas of marginal, erosion-prone land in
main areas of export expansion were the Federal Republic of
the north-east are being cleared. Attempts to prevent the
Germany, Italy, the UK and the Republic. of Korea. The
cultivation of such land have been largely unsuccessful.
growth of the latter reflects Thailand's increasingly close trade
relationship and the rapid development of the motor vehicle
Sugar
industry. During 1988, despite price rises and increased pro-
The production of Thai sugar, 75% to 90% of which is exported,
duction, the volume of exports declined to 622,000 tons. This
varies considerably in response to climatic conditions and
reduction resulted from the rapid expansion of the largely
international price levels. Favourable weather conditions and
export-oriented rubber manufacturing sector.
relatively high prices in the early 1980s brought production to
a peak of 30.3m. metric tons of cane and 2.9m. tons of refined
Other Crops
sugar in 1982. The collapse of world sugar prices since 1982
During the 1960s the crop which was expanding most rapidly
has significantly reduced production; between 1983 and 1986,
in cultivation was kenaf, a low-grade fibre similar to jute. The
annual output of cane varied from 23m. to 25m. tons. Sugar
crop was grown almost exclusively in the north-east region,
exports increased from 0.75m. metric tons in 1980 to 1.97m.
and its introduction was responsible for bringing large numbers
tons in 1982, before declining to 1.2m. tons in 1984. After 1985,
of the region's farmers into the market economy. In 1966
rising international prices and the opening of new markets
exports of kenaf provided 11.5% of total exports by value, but
enabled exports to expand to 2.0m. tons in 1987 and to reach
production and exports subsequently declined, and in 1980
1.9m. tons in 1988. Sugar's share of export earnings declined
kenaf accounted for only 0.1% of exports. The low quality of
from 9.7% in 1982 to 3.1% in 1988. Japan and the Republic of
the fibre, unreliable price levels and a general fall in world
Korea have replaced the People's Republic of China and the
demand for hard fibres, together with the potential for cultivat-
USSR as the main buyers.
ing cassava on the same land, explain this decline. Since 1980,
A disturbing feature of Thai sugar production is the drastic
production has varied between 164,000 tons and 283,000 tons
reduction in yields. Production of cane declined from 50.2 tons
per year. The crop is now used mainly for the domestic
per ha in 1976 to 26.4 tons per ha in 1981, a result of less
production of gunny sacks, in which there is a limited export
intensive cultivation in response to uncertain price levels. The
trade.
use of fertilizer has declined, and there are now serious signs
Since the 1970s, in spite of agronomic problems and an
of soil exhaustion in many. areas.
initial shortage of processing facilities, oil-seed crops, notably
All exports are channelled through the Thai Sugar Trading
soybeans (soya beans), groundnuts and muang beans, have
Corporation or the Thai Sugar Producers' Association. Since
become widely cultivated. Other crops that are currently con-
1982, Thailand has repeatedly exceeded the export quota allo-
sidered to offer potential for expansion include oil palm, coffee
cated by the International Sugar Organization (ISO) and has
and cotton. Fruit crops, too, have increasingly found export
been threatened with a total withdrawal of export quotas. In
markets; pineapples account for a large proportion of an
1982 a scheme was introduced in an attempt to alleviate the
expanding fruit-canning industry in the southern provinces,
expected fall in world sugar prices. Sugar planters and millers
and a substantial proportion of the world supply. The boom in
formed a 70:30 revenue-sharing scheme to split the proceeds
pineapple production and canning has attracted considerable
from domestic sales and exports. This scheme was codified in
foreign and domestic investment; production of canned pine-
the 1984 Sugar Act. Long-term export contracts are handled by
apples, almost all of which is exported, increased from 10,470
the Thai Cane and Sugar Corporation (TCSC), which combines
metric tons in 1971 to a peak of 161,591 tons in 1981. The
growing, milling and government interests. In 1982 the TCSC
emergence of a world surplus and the continued recession
borrowed US $76m. to finance a price stabilization scheme.
resulted in a drastic fall in production, to only 85,000 tons
However, the TCSC seriously under-estimated the depth and
in 1985. Since then, Thailand has taken advantage of lower
975
THAILAND
Economy
productivity among such major competitors as Côte d'Ivoire,
Kenya and South Africa. Renewed expansion of production
shortage of locally produced high-quality leather and increasing
use is being made of imported synthetics.
took exports in 1987 to a level of 250,000 tons.
The export market for fresh fruit has steadily expanded
Fish
since the late 1970s, but growth is limited by the exclusion of
Thai produce from many markets as a result of quarantine
Thailand has the third largest marine fishing sector in Asia,
exceeded only by Japan and China. However, the establish-
restrictions. To date, no producer or exporter has been pre-
ment of an exclusive economic zone extending 370 km (200
pared to invest in the necessary fumigation plant to comply
nautical miles) offshore by neighbouring countries has curtailed
with these regulations. In recent years about 10% of Thai
the development of deep-sea fishing and caused the depletion
fresh fruit has been exported; this was mainly longan, a fruit
of inshore stocks by over-fishing. Catches declined in the late
similar to the lychee. In 1986 about 50% of the longan crop
1970s, and only the development of agreements with other
was exported, as well as increasing quantities of durian, ramba-
countries (including Oman, India and Bangaladesh) over joint
tan and mangoes. The main markets are long-established (Hong
Kong, Singapore and Malaysia), but since 1985 there has been,
exploitation of distant waters, enabled production to rise again.
In 1985 the catch of 1.97m. metric tons represented a return
in addition, a gradual development of new markets, particularly
to the 1977 level. Increased exports are occurring at the
in the EEC, the USA and Japan.
expense of the domestic market, where high-quality produce
Tobacco production and exports expanded rapidly between
is becoming prohibitively expensive.
1980 and 1983, from 55,000 tons and 37,000 tons to 83,834 tons
For the Thai market, much fish is dried, salted, fermented
and 55,330 tons respectively. The neutral taste and low-tar
or turned into paste or sauce for preservation. Since 1975 the
content of Thai tobacco make it particularly suitable for blend-
ing. Since 1983, a decline in international demand and an
development of canning and freezing facilities has greatly
expanded the export of seafood, particularly shrimps, prawn
increase in competition from producers of cheaper, better-
and squid. In 1988 260,000 tons of frozen seafood and 280,900
quality tobacco have resulted in a sharp fall in both production
tons of tinned seafood were exported as against only 18,761
and exports. In 1988 production was only 62,000 tons, while
tons and 43,621 tons in 1981. Frozen seafood has been the
exports totalled 40,920 tons.
Despite the development of canning and, more recently,
most rapidly growing sector, the volume of exports increasing
by almost 200% between 1986 and 1988. Seafood represents
freezing of fruit, the majority of Thai crops are exported after
one of the few Thai commodity exports whose prices have
only very simple processing. There are now plans for a major
steadily risen in recent years. The main export market is
fruit- and vegetable-processing zone to be established, either
currently Japan, but Thai exports are experiencing increased
at Kong Toey port or Don Muang airport.
competition from cheaper Chinese produce. The rapidly
Livestock
expanding US market is being threatened by increased levels
of protection, particularly for tuna fish. By 1986 Thai producers
Sales of livestock have consistently contributed between 2.9%
had captured 60% of the US tuna market. Since 1985 there
and 3.9% of GDP since the early 1970s, but there is little
has been similar but less rapid penetration of EEC markets,
specialist livestock-rearing. The north-east supplies roughly
particularly in France and Italy.
one-third of the pigs and one-half of the cattle and buffaloes
The freshwater sector is highly subsistent in character and
for the domestic meat market, as well as draught animals for
production almost impossible to estimate. It remains, however,
the more intensive arable areas of the central plain. The
of vital importance to rural protein supply. Some inland com-
latter market is delining, as mechanical cultivation is adopted.
mercial development has taken place with the stocking of the
Indeed, the decline in the number of draught animals is cre-
larger irrigation reservoirs.
ating a domestic meat shortage.
Since 1982 a number of coastal and inland fishery improve-
The export of live cattle and beef was limited until the early
ment projects have been initiated. Most notable is a prawn
1980s by disease and consequent restrictions on imports from
and fishing programme affecting coastal areas in 25 provinces.
Thailand, by the low quality of the stock and by stringent
This has played a significant part in the increase in the number
quotas for slaughtering and exports, designed to protect the
of shrimp farms from 3,578, producing 7,064 tons in 1980 to
stock of draught and breeding animals. Since 1978 a disease-
5,300, producing 18,000 tons in 1986.
free zone has been established in the south, major breeding
programmes have been initiated, and regulations relaxed. In
Forestry
1982 livestock marketing regulations were relaxed to permit
From the late 19th-century, teak was exported by European
the establishment of private slaughtering to produce meat for
companies, and around the turn of the century timber
export. However, the main restraint on exports of beef and
accounted for more than 10% of goods sold overseas. In 1951
cattle is now a shortage of supply. Between 1983 and 1987,
it accounted for a mere 3.3%, and the volume of timber, as
the number of exported cattle declined from 6,715 to 150, while
well as its relative share of export earnings, has declined
the value of beef exports fell from $17,592 to $7,428 over the
consistently since then. Timber and wood products now account
same period. There is now a serious shortage on the domestic
for less than 1.0% of export earnings.
market, despite large-scale cattle-smuggling from Myanmar
Heavy cutting and widespread clearance for agriculture (par-
(Burma).
ticularly now that there are commercial crops which can use
In contrast to the beef sector, there has been serious over-
land which is not suited for the traditional subsistence staples),
production of pigs and poultry since 1984, largely as a result
local construction and fuel, together with an absence of planting
of farmers' attempts to increase their income by using rice to
by the forestry firms, led to a serious depletion of the timber
raise livestock rather than selling at the prevailing low prices.
reserves. Forest cover has declined from 53.3% in 1981 to
The glut has given renewed emphasis to the plans to develop
29.0% in 1985. The remaining 15.5m. ha is being cleared at a
export markets and processing facilities. At present, relatively
rate of 1.57m. ha per year. Vast areas are designated as forest
little meat is processed for export, although since 1979 the
reserves under the jurisidiction of the Royal Thai Forestry
export of frozen chickens has been one of the fastest-growing
Department, but control over them has been far from effective.
sectors, the main market being Japan. By 1987 66.9% of Japan's
However, in 1988, the Government, faced with evidence of
frozen chicken imports were from Thailand. Total Thai exports
major environmental damage, imposed a complete commercial
rose from 64,800 metric tons in 1986 to 98,000 tons in 1987.
logging ban.
Exports of hides and skins, although variable, fell sharply
Timber production has fallen sharply since the late 1970s,
during the 1970s. In 1986 only 1,784 tons were exported,
from 4.3m. tons in 1979 to 1.9m. tons in 1986. Thailand is now
compared with 9,603 tons in 1972. The decline of unworked
facing a timber shortage, and since 1978 has been a net
leather exports partly reflects the growth of the leather pro-
importer. The wood-working industry has become heavily
ducts industry both for domestic and overseas markets.
dependent on imported forestry products. Rattan furniture, a
Exports of leather goods, mainly shoes, gloves and travel
major export, is now almost exclusively made from imported
goods, have increased rapidly in recent years. Shoe exports,
materials; rattan imports have risen from 3,163 tons in 1982
for example, have risen from 956m. pairs in 1981 to 3,185m.
to 18,453 tons in 1987. In rural areas, timber for fuel, as well
pairs in 1986. The industry is, however, now experiencing a
as for construction, is in short supply, and in many areas
976
THAILAND
Economy
watersheds and steeply sloping land are being cleared for
Like Indonesia, Thailand has firmly rejected the attempts
charcoal making. Charcoal is estimated still to account for 42%
to devise a rescue package for the International Tin Council
of total energy consumption and for 74% of household use.
(ITC) owing to the high cost. However, under the auspices of
Teak production is now very small, and much of Thailand's
the Association of Tin Producing Countries (ATPC), of which
present output is believed to be illegally imported from Laos.
Thailand is a founder member, attempts have been made to
Since 1978 a number of replanting schemes have been pro-
raise prices and reduce the levels of surplus stocks. Under
posed, mainly for fast-growing pine and eucalyptus trees.
export quotas allocated by the ATPC during 1986, Thailand
Some of the projects have been integrated with watershed
was assigned 19,000 tons, representing just under 20% of the
rehabilitation programmes. Schemes, although often very suc-
total agreed by the ATPC and other major producers (except
cessful have been generally very small in scale. Successful
Australia). Thailand did not fulfil this quota in 1987 or 1988.
pilot projects involving 'community forestry', fast-growing soft
In the absence of a recovery in the world tin trade Thai
woods and 'forest villages' have not been consolidated, the
production is likely to continue to be gradually forced down as
Royal Forestry Department having insufficient resources to
higher-cost operations are forced to close or curtail production.
implement major programmes. Since 1985 private companies
have been encouraged to take an interest in commercial tree
MANUFACTURING
production and a major private eucalyptus planting programme
The manufacturing sector has expanded steadily, if not spec-
has been proposed for large areas of eastern Thailand. Interest
tacularly, over the last 25 years. While Thailand cannot be
has been expressed by a number of foreign firms, most notably
classed as a Newly Industrializing Country (NIC), manufactur-
Shell, largely because there is a potential market for the wood
ing has increased its share of GDP from 6.8% in 1960 to 24.1%
in Taiwan and Japan. However, the area of degraded forest
in 1987 and is now more important than agriculture (16.7%).
proposed for the scheme is in many cases partly cultivated
Data on the size of Thailand's labour force are unreliable and
and the long-standing unresolved conflict between agricultural
not always collected on the same basis, but an impression of
and forestry interests may seriously curtail the programme.
the increase in industrial employment can be gained from
Overall, the impact of replanting has to date been slight, and
official statistics. In 1947 only 2.2% of the working population
schemes have been generally dismissed as 'too little and too
were employed in industry, but by 1987 the figure was 11.1%.
late'.
There is widespread under-registration of small operations, to
avoid the provisions of legislation concerning safety and mini-
mum wages as well as taxes, and it is reasonable to assume
MINING
that both GDP and employment statistics underestimate the
The mining sector is dominated by the production of tin.
growth of the industrial sector.
Excluding petroleum, tin has accounted for more than 60% of
The industrial sector is dominated by the processing of
the value of mineral production in recent years. Other minerals,
primary produce in small-scale plants. Although a wide range
such as tungsten, lead, antimony, manganese, copper and zinc,
of products are now made in Thailand, traditional agricultural
are produced in very small quantities. Only lead and zinc are
processes, such as rice milling, tapioca chipping and other food
not declining. The existence of the Mae Sot zinc deposits
processing still comprised 15% of industrial output in 1987.
estimated at 3.5m. tons encouraged a Thai-Belgian consortium
Thai industry remains generally small in scale, with family
to open a smelting plant in 1984. Subsequently, the production
control still a dominant feature. However, some large groups
of zinc ore has markedly increased: 148,000 tons in 1984 to
appeared during the 1970s, notably Siam City Cement which,
341,100 tons in 1987. Since 1983 the precious-stone sector has
since 1973, has acquired controlling interests in a wide range
revived, with the opening of new markets in the USA, Japan
of firms and has emerged as Thailand's largest export group.
and the EEC, and with the rapid development of the Thai
Textiles were a major sector during the 1960s, first for the
jewellery industry. Thailand remains a rich source of a wide
internal market, and later for export. Since 1977 the export
range of stones, including sapphires, rubies, zircon, garnet,
market for Thai textiles has been relatively buoyant in spite of
quartz and jadite. Exports have risen steadily since 1983
the recession. By 1983 textiles represented 25.8% of industrial
reaching US $448 in 1986, 3.8% of export earnings. Indeed
prouction and employed 30% of the industrial workforce. Since
since 1983, because of the depressed tin market, the value of
1986 textiles have been the largest source of export earnings,
gem exports has greatly exceeded that of tin. However, the
in 1987 contributing 16.2% of total earnings, and have suc-
jewellery industry has become increasingly dependent on
ceeded rice as the largest item. Expansion has been impeded
imported stones.
by the existence of a surplus in the world textile market and
The Thai tin industry is dominated by large numbers of
by the imposition of quotas and tariff barriers by the EEC
small-scale producers, using very simple hydraulic technology.
and the USA in particular. The EEC and the USA refused to
Many of these enterprises are highly marginal, reworking old
agree to more than marginal increases in the import quotas,
alluvial deposits, and move in and out of production depending
but the latter is threatening to increase tariff barriers on the
on the prevailing price levels.
grounds that the Thai Government's policy of extending credit
The collapse of the international tin market in October 1985
to exporters at less than commercial interest rates amounts
came after five years of increasing difficulty for the industry.
to a subsidising of the industry and thereby constitutes 'unfair
Since 1981 falling world prices and increasing operating costs
trading'. Thai exporters exceeded their US quota, in both 1984
have resulted in the closure of a large number of small mines.
and 1985, by as much as 30%. As a result, an embargo was
Production of tin concentrates, with a metal content of some
placed on Thai imports for the last three months of 1985. This
73%, declined from a peak of 46,547 metric tons in 1980 to
prompted the Thai Government to place stricter controls on
20,500 tons in 1988. Even this drastically-reduced production
the flow of textiles to the USA, to prevent the recurrence of
level represented over-production, according to prevailing
the problem. Under the auspices of the General Agreement
world market conditions. In 1988 only 15m. tons were exported.
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), a new Multi-fibre Arrangement
Since 1984 the Offshore Mining Organisation (OMO) and the
(MFA) took effect in August 1986. The new MFA, while placing
Mineral Resources Department (MRD) have introduced a vari-
a quota on Thai exports, did constitute a guarantee that
ety of measures in an attempt to reduce output. These have
exports would be allowed to expand at a minimum of 6% per
met with little success because of the very large number of
year.
small mines, many of which are illegal. During 1986, however,
Since 1983, considerable efforts have been made to develop
two of the major dredging companies ceased production and
new, largely 'non-quota', markets in the Middle East, Eastern
the MRD reported that between October 1985 and April 1986
Europe, Australia and Japan. The appreciation of the Japanese
206 out of the 429 mines in the south had closed. Attempts to
yen during 1986 and 1987 has enabled Thailand to expand sales
stimulate the industry by such measures as the ending of the
at the expense of Japanese exports, particularly in the Middle
20-year ban on the export of tin concentrates may reduce
East and Taiwan. These developments are giving the Thai
stockpiles but are unlikely to revive the mining sector.
textile industry an increasingly diversified market, which will
Additionally, it is feared that the export of concentrates may
make it less vulnerable to increase in protection or reduction
adversely affect the already ailing smelting sector, which was
in quotas, on the part of the EEC or USA. In 1984 the US
represented by only one concern in 1988.
market accounted for 35.8% of Thai exports; by 1987 this had
977
THAILAND
Economy
fallen to 18.6%. The success of Thai exporters in coping with
Since 1969 the Government has attempted to convert the
difficult world trading conditions is indicated by the growth of
vehicle industry from assembly to production. An Automobile
textile export earnings by 32.6% in 1986 and by 55.5% in 1987.
Development Committee was established in 1969, but little
The restriction of established export markets and the need
positive action was taken until 1978. In the latter year the
to compete, either in\-lower-price areas (such as the Middle
import duty on 'complete knock-down kits' was raised from
East), or with lower-cost producers and those who were exempt
50% to 80%, and on completely-built vehicles from 80% to
from the EEC's 27% import duty, revealed the serious struc-
150%, while imports of assembled passenger vehicles. were
tural weakness of the Thai textile industry. Government con-
banned. This ban is no longer in force but, in 1986 assembled
trols, aimed at limiting production and improving quality, have
passenger vehicles became subject to a 600% tariff, while
proved largely ineffective. In 1984 the Thai Textile Association
'complete knock-down kits' became liable for import duties
reported that there was serious over-capacity in the industry,
varying between 120% and 160%. The required 'local' content
which neither the Government nor the trade associations were
of passenger cars was raised to 45% in 1983, relaxed to 35%
capable of reducing. Part of the problem lies in the large
in 1984 and increased to 54% in 1988. In addition, a number of
number of illegal plants; in 1984 informed sources estimated
tax and credit incentives have been introduced to stimulate
that 30% of the capacity was illegal. Even in the legal sector,
domestic component production.
many concerns, including some of the larger ones, are operating
Exports of vehicles remain insignificant. However, there is
old and ill-maintained machinery. The textile factories import
an encouraging growth in the export of components to other
silk and cotton yarn from Japan, illustrating the failure of the
ASEAN countries. Since goods assembled from imported com-
newer types of Thai industry to substitute entirely for imports.
ponents are excluded from the US market, Mitsubishi is devel-
The stagnation of domestic cotton production and the increased
oping component manufacture in Thailand.
cost of imported yarns, particularly synthetics, are likely to
Few major multinational corporations have established
increase production costs sharply and place increased strain
branch plants in Thailand, because there have hitherto been
on the industry.
more attractive and secure areas for investment in South-East
Construction was a major growth sector in the late 1970s, in
Asia. Between 1959 and 1985, 1,685 foreign firms were issued
spite of the constraints that were imposed by shortages of
with 'promotional certificates' by the BOI, which exempt them
cement and timber. In 1979 this sector grew by 14% and
from restrictions on repatriating profits and capital, and on
represented 6.5% of GDP. The recession has resulted in a
foreign ownership of land, import duties and taxes on equip-
sharp decline in this sector's importance with negative growth
ment. The certificates were also guarantees against nationaliz-
rates in 1981 and 1982. Since 1986 major infrastructural pro-
ation or competition from state enterprises. Only 1,037
jects, notably in the eastern seaboard and residential develop-
companies have actually started operations under this scheme,
ments in Bangkok and the main tourist centres have brought
and total investment under this scheme amounts to $5,729.8m.,
renewed growth to the construction sector. However, the
of which 73.4% originates from Thailand. The largest foreign
industry is being constrained by the high prices and short
investors are Japan (with 27.4%), Taiwan (11.2%) and the
supply of construction materials, particularly steel and cement.
USA (10.9%). However, since 1985 Japan's share of foreign
The demand for steel has been increased by the shortage of
promotional application has increased sharply, to 34.9% in 1986
timber, exacerbated in 1988 by the ban on commercial logging.
and to 46.4% in 1987. In general, although new foreign firms
The growth of the construction industry during the 1970s led
are larger, in terms of investment, than domestic concerns,
to heavy investment in cement production. By 1986 Thailand's
they are small by multinational standards. In 1984 total employ-
annual capacity was almost 10m. tons, but plants were operat-
ment in all foreign-owned enterprises with promotional status
ing at less than 75% of capacity due to the depressed state of
was estimated at between 450,000 and 500,000, representing a
the construction industry. Thai cement has never successfully
growth of some 5% per year over the previous 20 years and
penetrated the export market, largely because of high pro-
comprising 20% of total employment in the modern sector.
duction costs and a lack of bulk-shipping facilities. In 1988,
A review of the promotional programme by ESCAP in 1983
despite increased domestic demand, cement plants were report-
concluded that it had been too expensive and had created little
edly still operating well below capacity due to a shortage of
production or employment. The Export Priority Zone (EPZ)
crushed stone.
was similarly criticized. A reorganization of the BOI, in late
Except for cement, the development of basic industry is still
1982, made the promotional programme more selective; privi-
very limited. A range of companies produce steel products,
leges are now proportional to the degree to which the firms
but, despite a number of proposals in recent years, there are
comply with criteria on employment, the use of Thai raw
no definite plans for an integrated iron and steel plant. At
materials and provincial location. The promotional programme
present steel producers can satisfy only about one-third of
is being oriented away from import substitution, towards
domestic demand. Similarly, the output of the three petroleum
export-priority industry. In 1984 a policy of active promotion
refineries is inadequate, and the production of fertilizer falls
and financing of research into new technology was announced.
considerably short of demand.
Particular emphasis was being given to bio-technology, com-
puter software, solar cells and microwave insulators. The
Government policy has been directed at stimulating invest-
ment, particularly from abroad, through the Board of Invest-
promotional procedure was greatly simplified during 1985, and
applicants were guaranteed a decision within 90 days. At
ment (BOI), founded in 1959. Emphasis has been given to
the same time, increased tax concessions were available for
concerns which would substitute local manufacture for
enterprises in the Export Priority Zone.
imported goods. The assembly of motor vehicles illustrates
The development of new industrial estates close to Bangkok
the problems associated with Thailand's import substitution
attracted some small integrated circuit assembly plants, mainly
industrial sector. Until 1961, Thailand was entirely dependent
branches of multinational corporations based in the USA and
on the import of assembled vehicles, but since then the steady
Japan. Exports from the plants go principally to the parent
expansion of assembly plants has radically changed this situ-
companies in the USA and Japan, and there are very limited
ation. In 1987 only 3,914 commercial vehicles and 369 passenger
links to the rest of the Thai manufacturing sector. In 1987,
cars were imported, representing only 5.4% and 1.2% of total
however, sales of integrated circuits represented 5.1% of total
domestic sales respectively. The industry, however, remains
export earnings. There are signs that the multinational com-
small in scale, and heavily dependent on imported components.
panies are regarding Thailand more favourably than hitherto.
Several of the plants are very small, assembling vehicles in
The Japanese Minebea Group, for example, had three assembly
small batches. Since the mid-1970s, the assembly of European
plants in Thailand by 1986, and was holding discussions with
vehicles has been replaced by Japanese, which in 1985 com-
the Thai Government over a major expansion into a range of
prised 80% of output. Although the total capacity of the
computer-related products. In early 1986 Ansell International
industry was estimated at 228,000 vehicles a year in 1987, only
opened a new plant at Lat Krabang, near Bangkok, utilizing
29,333 passenger cars and 68,150 commercial vehicles were
Thai rubber to produce a range of goods for the export market.
produced. Early in 1987 Mitsubishi finalized arrangements to
Attempts to develop industrial estates in the peripheral
use some of the excess capacity to produce 2,000 vehicles a
regions of the north and north-east have been unsuccessful.
month for export to Canada.
Only the Lamphum Estate, about 20 km south of Chiang Mai
978
THAILAND
Economy
has been completed, but it has failed to attract significant
importantly, overseas investment in gas-associated industries,
domestic or foreign investment.
eight major infrastructure projects are planned at a cost of
US $1,000m. During 1985 the Eastern Seaboard Development
ENERGY
Programme (ESDP) became a matter of public debate, follow-
Thailand is heavily dependent on imports of petroleum. In
ing a major review of the programme by the Government in
1980 petroleum and its derivatives represented 13.1% of Thai-
January 1986. The decision to continue with the programme
land's total import expenditure, having risen sharply from 23%
was made despite strong opposition from conservative govern-
in 1979. Government measures to restrict consumption proved
ment economists, academics and the World Bank. Many of
to be largely ineffective. Total energy consumption continued
these opponents argued that the high-cost, capital-intensive
to grow, expanding at an average rate of 7.2% per year
programme would increase the country's foreign debt burden
between 1979 and 1984. In the commercial sector, consumption
while generating very limited socio-economic returns. The Thai
grew by 10% per year in this period, and that of the transport
Government is experiencing difficulty in financing the major
sector by 7.4%. The planned growth of only 4.8% in total
infrastructure projects. However, in 1987, work began on the
energy consumption, proposed in the fifth Plan, has thus been
Nong Kho-Laem Cabang pipeline and the Mab Taphod indus-
greatly exceeded. The fall in petroleum prices, together with
trial estate. A number of other projects, notably the Mab
the substitution of offshore natural gas for petroleum, steadily
Taphod deep-sea port and the Chonburi-Pattaya highway are
reduced petroleum's share of import expenditure from 31.1%
scheduled to begin during 1989. Several major private projects
in 1980 to 13.3% in 1987.
have been postponed, reduced in scale or even abandoned, as
Thailand's dependence on imported fuel oil has fallen rapidly;
was the case with the planned $350m. Mab Ta Pat fertilizer
in 1980 80% of electric power was generated by oil, but by
plant. Doubts have been expressed over the viability of the
1984 only 17% was produced in this way. By source, the
development of a petrochemical sector, given the surplus in
composition of electricity generation in 1984 was: natural gas
the world market. In late 1987 and early 1988, however,
41%, hydroelectric power 19%, lignite 19%, fuel oil 17%, and
some 60 applications for promotional privileges on the eastern
electricity imported from Laos 4%. However, in term of total
seaboard were made to the Board of Investment; major appli-
energy consumption, fuel oil still comprised 66% in 1984. It is
cants include, ICI, AMOCO and Mitsubishi.
planned that by 1996 the contribution of imported petroleum
to total energy supply will fall to 46%. In spite of the progress
in the development of rural electrification and bottled gas,
INVESTMENT
rural areas remain heavily dependent on kerosene and the
dwindling supplies of fuel wood. Since 1981 there has been
Direct foreign investment in Thailand is relatively small, com-
some development of alternative energy sources for rural
pared with that of other ASEAN countries. In general, Thai-
areas, particularly bio-gas. However, the impact to date has
land has been unattractive to multinational corporations and
been extremely limited. A more significant development has
foreign investors because of poor international communications,
been the exploitation of the lignite reserves of northern Thai-
uncertainty over the country's long-term political stability, and
land, which are now believed to exceed 180m. tons. The lignite-
the absence of any significant labour cost advantages. How-
fuelled electricity generating plant at Mae Moh has a capacity
ever, since 1986, there has been some reassessment of Thailand
of 825 MW; during 1988 it produced 12% of national output. It
by foreign investors. This has largely resulted from rising
is planned to raise the plant's capacity to 1,725 MW by the
labour costs and signs of increasing political unrest elsewhere
early 1990s.
in South-East Asia. Thailand's labour costs for assembly work
In 1977 the Natural Gas Organization of Thailand (NGOT)
are now reported to be the lowest in ASEAN. In addition,
was set up to co-ordinate the exploitation and development of
investors now appear to have accepted that Thailand is suf-
offshore natural gas resources in the Gulf of Thailand. A
ficiently stable to warrant major investment, and even when
number of multinational and Thai firms are involved in these
a change of Government involves a coup d'état foreign interests
developments. There are now 12 offshore gas fields in the
are unlikely to be affected. Favourable comments on the
Gulf of Thailand with estimated proven reserves, according to
Government's conservative fiscal policy, and the country's
NGOT figures, of 6,070,000m. cu ft (172,000m. cu m) of gas
international credit rating have had little impact on the levels
and 119.5m. barrels of condensate. Further offshore exploration
of investment.
is in progress, while five companies are engaged in onshore
In 1987 foreign direct investment totalled $182m. and port-
exploration for petroleum, principally in the north and north-
folio investment $346m. Japan has become the main source of
east. The only real success to date has been the Shell concession
foreign investment, contributing 43.3% in 1986 compared to
at Kamphaengphet, which produces only 17,000 b/d. In 1987
17.3% from the USA and 14.4% from Hong Kong.
work began on the construction of Thailand's first petrochemi-
Between 1980 and 1986 the composition of foreign investment
cal complex in Rayong.
has changed with a fall in the share of financial institutions
Gas began to be piped ashore from the Erawan Field in
(50.7% to 23.5%) and a rise in the share of manufacturing
1981, via the world's longest underwater pipeline (425 km). In
(12.2% to 27.5%). Since 1984 there has been a sharp fall in the
spite of initial shortfalls in production from this field, which
resulted in a serious dispute between the Electricity Generat-
share of oil and gas exploration, from 18.1% to 2.3% in 1986.
ing Authority of Thailand (EGAT) and the concession holders,
Much direct investment recently has taken the form of the
Union Oil, output has reached 200m. cu ft of gas and 7,500 b/d
expansion of existing plants. The expected large-scale invest-
of condensate. The commencement of production from the
ment directly associated with the development of offshore gas
Baanpat field in October 1983 (30m. cu ft of gas and 1,750 b/d
reserves has not yet occurred. Oil companies have been reluc-
of condensate) and from the Satun and Platong fields in early
tant to invest in infrastructure and processing, limiting their
1985 raised production to 350m. cu ft per day of gas and 14,500
investment to exploration, pipelines and offshore facilities. The
b/d of condensate. By 1988 daily production capacity had
Thai Government has borrowed from a number of organiz-
reached 542.2m. cu ft of gas and 18,803 barrels of condensate.
ations, notably the World Bank and OPEC, to develop process-
In addition to gas, the Sirikit field is producing 19,825 b/d of
ing facilities and infrastructure in the eastern seaboard area.
crude petroleum. Petroleum from the field is currently being
Surplus domestic capital has, since 1976, found outlets in
used to fuel the five EGAT power stations. An agreement has
speculation in stocks and commodity futures, both on the
also been reached with Texas Pacific (Thailand) to develop
Securities Exchange of Thailand and, by way of complicated
exports of liquefied natural gas (LNG) produced from the
brokerage arrangements, on the Hong Kong and Singapore
Texas Pacific concessions, and a $42.3m. contract has been
exchanges. Similarly, foreign money has been involved in
awarded to a Japanese consortium to build six LNG depots.
speculation on the Thai exchange.
Offshore natural gas is planned to form the basis of extensive
Economic growth is still restricted, as it was in the 1960s
industrial development in the eastern seaboard area. In 1984
and 1970s, by the lack of direct investment on a large scale
the construction of the $320m. Mab Ta Pat gas separation
and the shortage of government funds to promote the major
plant, together with an associated LNG depot and marine
infrastructure necessary to attract a large volume of long-term
terminal, was completed. To encourage domestic and, more
manufacturing investment projects.
979
THAILAND
Economy
FOREIGN TRADE AND FINANCE
tourism. Since 1985, the total value of exported manufactured
An adverse balance of payments first appeared in 1953 and,
goods exceeded 50% of total export earnings, reaching 56% in
except in 1955, 1956 and 1986, has been a consistent feature
1988. However, the largest earner of foreign exchange was
of the economy. Since the early 1950s the import bill for
tourism with textiles coming next.
such items as consumer goods, raw materials, machinery and,
Protectionism on the part of traditional trading partners has
particularly, petroleum has grown enormously, while earnings
encouraged a search for new destinations for exports, and
from exports have failed to keep pace. As with all petroleum-
trade missions have been sent to the People's Republic of
importing developing countries, Thailand's trade deficit
China, Iran, Romania, Hungary, the Republic of Korea and
increased substantially as a result of the steep rise in the price
the USSR. There have been increasing sales to West Africa
of petroleum products in the 1970s. The country's terms of
and the oil-rich Middle Eastern countries, such as Kuwait and
trade declined steadily from 100 in the base year, 1978, to 58
Saudi Arabia, as well as to Eastern Europe (including the
in 1985, with only a brief recovery during 1983. Since 1985 the
USSR), but Japan and the USA remain the major trading
sharp decline in oil prices coupled with a slight improvement
partners. However, the US market is becoming increasingly
in commodity prices improved the terms of trade to 69 in 1969
uncertain, owing to the imposition of quotas and increased
and to 70 in 1987.
tariff levels. Within the region, trade is predominantly with
Since 1981, a series of government measures have been
Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan and the Republic of
introduced with the aim of reducing the balance-of-payments
Korea. Increasing interest is being shown in the possibilities
deficit. Amongst the most significant have been the severing,
of developing trade with Laos and Viet-Nam.
in 1981, of the formal link between the baht and the US dollar
in favour of valuation against a 'basket' of currencies; new
TOURISM
banking legislation to strengthen the role of the Ministry of
Tourism has since 1982 been Thailand's largest source of
Finance and the Bank of Thailand; the devaluation of the baht
foreign exchange. In 1987 3.5m. foreign visitors generated
by 8% in 1981 and by 14.8% in 1984; and a variety of measures
US $2,000m.-11% more than textiles, the main export com-
taken with the object of reducing imports and expanding
modity. The rapid growth of tourism in the late 1970s and the
exports. The latter included import quotas, prohibitions, credit
early 1980s resulted in a series of ambitious hotel-building
restrictions on imports, reduced controls over exports and
programmes. A number of major Thai business groups that
preferential allocation of credit and foreign exchange to expor-
were previously unconnected with the tourist trade began to
ters. Many of the measures have been introduced in response
invest heavily in the sector. The sharp decline in tourist growth
to very immediate problems, and none resulted in any long-
rates since 1985 has resulted in serious over-capacity. Between
term improvement in the balance of payments.
1982 and 1985 annual tourist arrivals increased by only 2.2%,
The deficit on the current account of the balance of payments
while the number of hotel rooms increased by 33%. During
rose to a record 10% of GDP in 1979, narrowing to 7.9%
1985 nearly 30% of hotel rooms were unused, and a price-
($2,600m.) in 1981 and to 3.1% ($1,200m.) in 1982, but increased
cutting contest started, with some first-class hotels reducing
again to 7% ($4,450m.) in 1983. In 1984 and 1985 the deficit
prices by up to 70%. This situation was general in the Asian
narrowed to 5.0% ($2,109m.) and to 4.0% ($1,537m.). This was
tourist trade and Thailand, although by no means as badly
achieved principally through increasing the volume of several
affected as some countries, has become more dependent on the
exports, the devaluation of the baht in late 1984, and through
tourist trade than others in the region. Since 1985 there has
a decline in the cost of petroleum imports. In 1986 there was,
been a marked recovery with occupancy rates rising to 70% in
for the first time since 1956, a slight surplus of $222m. This
1986 to over 90% by the latter part of 1988.
improvement in the trading position was partly due to slight
Under the 1987-91 Plan, considerable emphasis is being
increases in the export prices for rubber, sugar and cassava,
placed on the development of tourism, particularly at centres
and the expansion of manufacturing, and was enhanced by an
other than Bangkok, Chiang Mai and the coastal resorts. The
increase in earnings from tourism. The improvement in export
year 1987 was designated the 'Year of the Tourist'. In 1984 a
earnings was, in part, facilitated by the depreciation of the
major programme to promote Thailand as a convention centre
baht in relation to the Japanese yen and European-currencies.
was initiated. The opening of the Mahbookrung Centre has
During 1987 and 1988 the trade gap widened rapidly-from
provided two 4,000-seat conference halls, the only such facilities
$386m. to a record $2,934m. The growth of earnings from
in South-East Asia.
tourism and remittances from overseas workers (unofficially
estimated to be $1,000m. in 1988) largely offset this, the current
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT AND PROSPECTS
account deficit only increasing from 1.1% of GDP in 1987 to
2.7% in 1988.
The Thai economy has survived two serious recent economic
The balance-of-payments deficit is being increasingly tackled
crises, in 1979 and again in 1981, when rapid inflation, an
by the use of foreign currency reserves and short-term loans.
increasingly adverse balance of payments, escalating foreign
In 1971 18% of the balance-of-payments deficit was financed
debt and declining confidence on the part of international
by foreign loans, a figure which rose to over 75% by 1985. As
creditors brought the economy to the verge of collapse.
a result, Thailand's foreign debt and the cost of servicing
In late 1980 the World Bank produced an economic report
it increased rapidly. Since 1980 the World Bank and other
on Thailand and recommended a five-year programme of 'struc-
tural readjustment'. The main policy recommendations were:
international creditors have repeatedly expressed concern over
to raise domestic energy prices to the international level; the
the rate of increase of Thailand's debts, and the Kingdom's
ability to continue to service them. Total overseas debt rose
development of a strong deflationary monetary and fiscal
from $5,115.3m. in 1981 to $17,480m. in 1987, in the latter year
policy; to end the import substitution policy for industry, and
to place emphasis on export-oriented industries; reduction of
the equivalent of 37% of GDP. The ratio of the cost of debt
import tariffs and the removal of all export restrictions and
servicing to export earnings increased from 19% in 1983 to
taxes; increased and more effective personal taxation; to end
27.7% in 1985. Despite these disturbing developments, and the
restrictions on the level of domestic interest rates; and a
concern expressed by financial agencies, Thailand's inter-
comprehensive review of government organization and expen-
national credit rating remained surprisingly good. Since 1985
diture in order to eliminate waste. These reforms were adopted
increased export earnings, an acceleration of the rate of econ-
as integral to the fifth Plan (1982-86). Their implementation
omic growth and an improved balance of payments situation
was also made the condition for the 1982 and 1983 World
have reduced the debt service ratio sharply, to 20% in 1986
Bank Structural Adjustment Loans (SALs) totalling US $225m.
and to 17% in 1987.
Progress was very limited; in both 1984 and 1985 targets
The composition of exports has changed, moving away from
were substantially reduced, and plans for further SALs were
tin, rice, rubber and teak, which together accounted for more
abandoned.
than 80% of exports in the period before 1950. These commodi-
In mid-1985 Thailand turned to the IMF for funding, reaching
ties accounted for 50% of export earnings in 1969 and for
agreement on a two-year financial package totalling
16.6% in 1986. They have been replaced by new crops, mainly
US $586.6m. The programme was designed to mitigate the
maize and cassava, and by manufacturing and earnings from
effects of the continued deterioration in the balance of pay-
980
THAILAND
Economy
ments. Government statements minimized the significance of
Thailand with much needed raw material and markets for
the conditions attached to the agreements to avoid creating
manufactured goods. This view is summarized in Prime Minis-
the impression amongst foreign banks that the country was
ter Chatichai Choohaven's much quoted statement on the need
on the verge of a debt crisis, which would reduce Thailand's
to turn Indochina 'from a battlefield into a trading market'.
favourable international credit-rating. Similarly, for domestic
The degree to which such a development is a realistic possi-
reasons, the Government wished to avoid any public concern
bility remains a matter of considerable debate.
over the loan. The conditions of the IMF agreement included
Under the fifth and sixth Plans rural and regional develop-
a reduction of the current account deficit, as a proportion of
ments have received much lower priority. Rural development
GDP, from 5% in 1984 to 4% in 1985, and to 3% in 1986; an
is being concentrated in the most backward and politically
inflation rate below 7%; a GDP growth rate of 6%; and a
unstable areas. Initially, 246 districts have been selected for
budget deficit of not more than 3.5% of GDP. The mid-term
special attention in an effort to reduce poverty. While rural
review of the programme in March 1986 revealed that while
insurgency has diminished in recent years, combined 'security'
the balance-of-payments and inflation targets had been met,
and development programmes are still being applied in parts
and the growth of GDP, while below target, was respectable
of the north, north-east and south. In the same way as its
by regional standards, the budget deficit at 5% of GDP was
predecessors over the last 20 years, the Government regards
giving cause for considerable concern.
economic advance as the best 'counter-insurgency measure'.
In December 1986 a further review again drew attention to
However, expenditure on defence and internal security has
the IMF's disquiet over the budget deficit. It appears that the
remained high: in 1987 it represented 19.6% of the national
Ministry of Finance and the Bank of Thailand could not come
budget.
to an agreement with the IMF over the budget and in conse-
The role of the private sector in agricultural development is
quence the IMF package was cancelled with a little over one-
being given increased prominence. Rural areas have been
half of the funds drawn. The decision was prompted on the Thai
divided into three types: backward; where development will
side by the greatly improved balance-of-payments situation,
be government-financed; more advanced, where combined
acceleration of the rate of economic growth, the increased
government and private development will be fostered;
stability of the economy and the realization that the Govern-
advanced, which will be left entirely to the private sector.
ment could borrow funds internationally more cheaply from
However, shortage of funds, vested interest and unwieldy
non-IMF sources.
administration seriously limit the impact of programmes such
Since 1986 Thailand had undergone a remarkable economic
as rural credit, water supply and land reform. In many rural
recovery. The growth of the manufacturing export sector, in
areas, there is an acute shortage of land, with much landless-
particular, has led the Government to the conclusion that
ness, illegal forest clearance, and cultivation of unsuitable land,
Thailand is firmly on the path towards newly industrializing
including some on watersheds which are prone to soil erosion.
status. However, during 1988 and early 1989 there were signs
The ambitious land improvement scheme, drawn up in 1976,
that the rapid expansion was beginning to falter. The lack of
has met with little success. The World Bank recommended
infrastructure, particularly port facilities, was creating serious
bottle-necks and raising production costs. While this problem
that much scrubland, currently classified as forest, could be
is recognized by the Government, and a number of major
released for agriculture, but the productivity of such land is
projects have been formulated, there can be no immediate
likely to be extremely low. There is increasing official recog-
solutions. Similarly, the lack of adequate technical training
nition of the environmental consequences of uncontrolled
schemes was resulting in a serious shortage of skilled labour
development. Under the auspices of the National Environmen-
which was beginning to restrict the growth of the manufactur-
tal Resources Board, a number of studies have been initiated,
ing sector. Additionally, shortages, and in some cases the high
particularly in the northern and the southern coastal areas.
prices, of domestically produced materials and components are
The weakness of controls, and the difficulty of implementing
not only limiting production, but also accelerating the growth
Plans is, however, giving rise to concern.
of imports. During 1988 the economy became heavily depen-
Despite the high rates of growth maintained since 1986,
dent on earnings from tourism and remittances from overseas
low wages and unemployment pose serious problems for the
workers in order to balance the record trade deficit. When
Government. In 1986 official unemployment was 0.8m. or 2.3%
this is taken in conjunction with the increasing importance of
of the workforce. It should be stressed, however, that these
the electronics assembly industry, a notoriously 'footloose' and
official figures probably underestimate unemployment; unoffi-
volatile sector, the basis of the recent economic growth appears
cial estimates calculated unemployment at over 2m., more than
far from secure.
7% of the labour force. In addition, the labour force was
Despite Thailand's success in opening new markets and
growing at 3% annually, with some 700,000 persons entering
expanding sales the growth of protectionism continues to pose
the job market each year. Particular attention has focused on
a threat to the increasingly export-oriented economy. During
the high incidence of unemployment among university gradu-
1988 and early 1989 the attitude of the USA hardened towards
ates. In 1984 73% of unemployed persons aged 15-24 years
Thai imports. Duties were raised on a number of items, includ-
were graduates. The Government has laid emphasis on the
ing ball bearings and steel pipe fittings, and it is likely that
employment to be generated by the eastern seaboard develop-
the textile trade will be further restricted. Similarly, during
ments. However, it is unlikely that more than 100,000 new
1988 the EEC banned the import of canned seafood, because
jobs will be created by the 1990s.
of the presence of 'unacceptable preservatives' and is expected
Rising unemployment and low wages have led to renewed
to restrict the importing of footware. Increasing restrictions
labour unrest and public protests. Increases in minimum wage
on the entry of Thai manufactured goods into the USA and
rates have generally been well below the level of inflation and
EEC will discourage Japanese firms from establishing branch
rates well below the legal minimum are widely paid. It is clear
plants whose products are aimed at these markets.
that a number of large-scale public protests have influenced
Within the South-East Asian region Thailand has taken a
Government policy since 1982, as has increased criticism from
lead in investigating the possibilities for trade and investment
the business and political communities. While low wages are
in Laos and Viet-Nam. The present Government views the
essential to the Government's industrial programme, labour
recent relaxation of trade restrictions, the establishment of
unrest will discourage foreign investment and seriously under-
foreign investment codes and the prospect of a settlement of
mine current development strategy. In view of the history of
the Cambodia issue, as offering major opportunities for Thai-
coup d'états and the overthrow of the Thanom regime in 1974,
land. It is considered that Laos and Viet-Nam could provide
no Thai Government can afford to ignore these signs of unease.
981
THAILAND
Statistical Survey
Statistical Survey
Source (unless otherwise stated): National Statistical Office, Larn Luang Road, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 281-3022.
Area and Population
Agriculture
AREA, POPULATION AND DENSITY
PRINCIPAL CROPS ('000 metric tons)
Area (sq km)
513,115*
1985
1986
1987
Population (census results)t
1 April 1970
34,397,374
Rice (paddy)
20,264
18,868
17,650
1 April 1980
Maize
4,934
4,309
2,736
Males
22,328,607
Sorghum
404
211
243
Females
22,495,933
Sweet potatoes*
355
360
364
Total
44,824,540
Cassava (Manioc, Tapioca)
19,263
15,255
19,554
Population (official estimates at mid-year)
Dry beans
323
301
298
1987
53,605,000
Soybeans
309
356
290+
1988
54,536,000
Groundnuts (in shell)
171
169
158
1989
Cottonseed
55,448,000
68
38
50
Cotton (lint)
34
19
Density (per sq km) at mid-1989
108.1
25
Coconuts
1,226
1,280
1,350
Copra*
54
99
* 198,115 sq miles.
99
Water melons*
500
500
Excluding adjustment for underenumeration. For 1970 this was
504
Sugar cane
25,055
24,093
2.01%, giving an adjusted census total of 35,103,000.
4,450
Bananas*
1,580
1,596
1,604
Kenaf (Mesta)
266
240
201
Natural rubber
773
811
860*
PRINCIPAL TOWNS
Pineapples
1,769
1,636
1,781+
(population at 1980 census)
Onions (dry)
163
166
171*
Bangkok Metropolis*
4,697,071
Tobacco (leaves)
90*
85t
63+
Songkhla
172,604
Castor beans
33
36
40*
Chon Buri
115,350
Nakhon Si Thammarat
102,123
* FAO estimate.
t Unofficial estimate.
Chiang Mai
101,594
Source: FAO, Production Yearbook.
* Formerly Bangkok and Thonburi. The estimated population of
Bangkok Metropolis at 31 December 1988 was 5,916,779 (Source:
Ministry of the Interior).
LIVESTOCK ('000 head, year ending September)
1985
1986
1987
BIRTHS, MARRIAGES AND DEATHS*
Horses
20
21
19
Registered
Registered
Registered
Cattle
4,829
4,879
4,931*
live births
marriages
deaths
Buffaloes
6,250
6,257
6,350*
Pigs
4,224
4,201
4,200*
Rate
Rate
Rate
Sheep
45
58
73
(per
(per
(per
Goats
74
81
80
Number
'000)
Number
'000)
Number
'000)
Chickens (million): 79 in 1985; 79 in 1986; 80 in 1987.
1980
1,077,300
23.2
305,588
6.5
247,970
5.3
Ducks (million): 19 in 1985; 18 in 1986; 19 (FAO estimate) in 1987.
1981
1,062,238
22.4
332,798
7.0
239,423
5.0
Source: FAO, Production Yearbook.
1982
1,075,633
22.2
317,462
6.5
247,402
5.1
1983
1,055,802
21.3
380,023
7.7
255,592
5.2
1984
956,680
19.0
392,822
7.8
225,282
4.5
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS ('000 metric tons)
1985
973,624
18.8
343,134
6.6
202,634
3.9
1986
945,827
17.9
333,974
6.3
218,025
4.1
1985
1986
1987
1987
884,043
16.4
373,637
6.9
232,968
4.3
1988
870,512
15.8
391,124
7.1
231,229
4.2
Beef and veal*
152
154
156
Buffalo meat*
73
73
73
* Registration is incomplete. Estimated rates for 1981 are: Births
Pig meat*
205
205
212
28.4 per 1,000; Deaths 7.7 per 1,000.
Poultry meat
470
506
546*
Sources: Health Statistics Division, Ministry of Public Health;
Cows' milk
58
697
75*
Department of Local Administration, Ministry of Interior.
Buffalo milk
7
7
7
Hen eggs
165+
170*
180*
Other poultry eggs*
13.2
13.7
14.5
ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE POPULATION
Cattle and buffalo hides*
42.7
43.2
43.6
('000 persons aged 11 and over, August 1988)
* FAO estimates.
Agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing
19,576.5
t Unofficial figure.
Mining and quarrying
43.1
Source: FAO, Production Yearbook.
Manufacturing
2,460.6
Construction, repair and demolition
702.2
Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services
119.7
Commerce
2,896.7
Transport, storage and communications
640.4
Services
3,016.6
Activities not adequately described
7.8
Total in employment
29,464.0
Source: Report of the Labour Force Survey, National Statistical
Office (Round 3).
982
THAILAND
Statistical Survey
Forestry
Industry
ROUNDWOOD REMOVALS ('000 cu m, excluding bark)
SELECTED PRODUCTS
('000 metric tons, unless otherwise indicated)
1985
1986
1987
1986
1987
1988
Sawlogs, veneer logs and logs
for sleepers
1,875
2,015
2,149
Raw sugar'
1,697
1,570
1,794
Other industrial wood*
2,406
2,445
2,484
Beer ('000 hectolitres)
863.3
972.9
1,216.4
Fuel wood*
31,922
32,438
32,967
Cigarettes (metric tons)'
29,593
31,403
32,507
Total
36,203
36,898
Cotton yarn (metric tons)
169,470
187,789
37,600
193,972
Woven cotton fabrics (million
* FAO estimate.
sq m)4
1,060
1,181
1,567
Non-cellulosic continuous
Source: FAO, Yearbook of Forest Products.
filaments (metric tons)5
40,000
n.a.
n.a.
Woven fabrics of man-made
fibres (million sq m)4
1,080
1,224
1,478
SAWNWOOD PRODUCTION ('000 cu m)
Tyres for road motor vehicles
('000)2
2,263
3,064
4,065
1985
1986
1987
Sulphuric acid²
77.8
81.1
59.9
Hydrochloric acid²
93.2
110.1
119.1
Sawnwood (incl. boxboards)
938
1,007
1,075
Caustic soda-100%²
121.2
135.4
138.5
Railway sleepers
20
20
20
Liquefied petroleum gas
1,027
1,095
(million litres)6
248.7
272.6
307.0
Total
958
Naphtha
160
n.a.
n.a.
Source: FAO, Yearbook of Forest Products.
Motor spirit-petrol⁶
2,200
2,407
n.a.
Kerosene (million litres)6
148.0
140.8
129.0
Jet fuel (million litres)6
1,149.3
1,125.6
1,301.0
Fuel oils (million litres)6
2,188.9
2,135.0
2,529.0
Petroleum bitumen-asphalt
(million litres)6
169.6
157.7
160.0
Fishing
Cement2
7,914
9,850
11,519.5
Crude steel'
463
n.a.
n.a.
('000 metric tons, live weight)
Tin-unwrought: primary
(metric tons)⁸
19,672
15,438
n.a.
1985
1986
1987
Passenger motor cars-
assembly ('000)2
21.1
29.3
57.9
Inland waters
167.5
188.1
164.8
Commercial motor vehicles-
Indian Ocean
312.6
403.5
340.7
assembly ('000)²
53.1
68.8
94.7
Pacific Ocean
1,745.1
1,944.8
1,659.7
Electric energy (million kWh)
22,034
24,894
28,253
Total catch
2,225.1
2,536.3
2,165.1
1 Source: Sugar Institute.
Source: FAO, Yearbook of Fishery Statistics.
2
Source: Industrial Economics and Planning Division, Ministry of
Industry.
3
Source: Thailand Tobacco Monopoly, Ministry of Finance.
4
Source: The Thai Textile Manufacturing Association.
5
Source: Textile Economics Bureau, Inc. (New York).
Mining
6. Source: National Energy Administration, Ministry of Science,
Technology and Energy.
7 Source: Bureau of Mines, US Department of the Interior.
(production in metric tons)
8 Source: International Tin Council (London).
1986
1987
1988
Tin concentrates*
23,298
20,486
19,420
Tungsten concentrates*
922
1,269
1,173
Lead concentrates*
61,885
55,300
69,351
Finance
Zinc ore*
340,000
341,145
420,102
Antimony ore*
2,397
962
1,048
CURRENCY AND EXCHANGE RATES
Manganese ore*
4,888
9,148
7,664
Monetary Units
Iron ore*
37,330
97,026
99,207
100 satangs = 1 baht.
Gypsum
1,665,557
3,030,919
4,549,010
Lignite
5,542,247
6,929,212
7,273,617
Denominations
Fluorite
189,712
104,552
76,321
Coins: 1, 5, 10, 25 and 50 satangs; 1 and 5 baht.
Barite
142,232
33,369
54,138
Notes: 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 500 baht.
* Figures refer to the gross weight of ores and concentrates. In
Sterling and Dollar Equivalents (30 June 1989)
1986 the estimated metal content (in metric tons) was: Tin
£1 sterling = 40.20 baht;
16,775; Tungsten 479; Lead 24,800; Zinc 65,600; Antimony 1,055;
US $1 = 25.95 baht;
Manganese 1,700; Iron 21,000.
1,000 baht = £24.88 = $38.54.
Source: Department of Mineral Resources.
Average Exchange Rate (baht per US $)
1986
26.30
1987
25.72
1988
25.29
983
THAILAND
Statistical Survey
BUDGET ESTIMATES
NATIONAL ACCOUNTS (million baht at current prices)
(million baht, year ending 30 September)
National Income and Product
Revenue
1986/87
1987/88
1988/89
1986
1987
1988*
Taxation
165,164.9
178,550.5
238,332.0
Compensation of employees
318,451
352,014
400,100
Sale of property and services
5,366.2
5,407.3
8,328.3
Operating surplus
555,211
629,006
748,739
State enterprises
8,305.9
8,826.7
9,014.1
Others
Domestic factor incomes
6,663.0
6,715.5
6,825.6
873,662
981,020
1,148,859
Total revenue
185,500.0
199,500.0
262,500.0
Consumption of fixed capital
93,365
102,919
117,598
Total borrowing
42,000.0
44,000.0
23,000.0
Gross domestic product
(GDP) at factor cost
967,027
1,083,939
1,266,437
Total receipts
227,500.0
243,500.0
285,500.0
Indirect taxes, less subsidies
127,652
150,091
199,299
GDP in purchasers' values
1,094,679
1,234,030
1,465,736
Expenditure
1986/87
1987/88
1988/89
Net factor income from abroad
-22,437
-22,599
-25,330
Gross national product
1,072,242
1,211,431
1,440,406
Education
41,110.0
43,860.7
47,550.7
Defence
41,057.7
42,985.1
46,307.1
Less Consumption of fixed
Economic services
35,902.0
38,088.5
47,039.8
capital
93,365
102,919
117,598
Internal security
10,922.2
11,634.9
12,598.5
National income in market
Public health
prices
978,877
1,108,512
1,322,808
Public utilities
24,405.0
27,334.5
30,910.6
*
General administration
6,208.3
6,693.2
8,528.7
Estimate.
Debt services
56,097.2
59,746.7
66,563.7
Others
11,796.6
13,156.4
26,000.9
Expenditure on the Gross Domestic Product
Total
227,500.0
243,500.0
285,500.0
1986
1987
1988*
Source: Bureau of the Budget, Office of the Prime Minister.
Government final consumption
expenditure
144,607
147,724
168,421
INTERNATIONAL RESERVES (US $ million at 31 December)
Private final consumption
expenditure
713,138
789,375
898,768
1986
1987
1988
Increase in stocks
3,833
27,963
25,331
Gross fixed capital formation
237,447
290,492
377,790
Gold*
972
1,204
1,015
Statistical discrepancy
-27,367
-24,757
30,936
IMF special drawing rights
33
60
61
Total domestic expenditure
1,071,658
1,230,797
1,491,246
Reserve position in IMF
35
41
39
Foreign exchange
2,736
3,906
5,997
Exports of goods and services
290,169
371,521
505,315
Less Imports of goods and
Total
3,776
5,211
7,112
services
267,148
368,288
530,825
* Revalued annually on the basis of the London market price.
GDP in purchasers' values
1,094,679
1,234,030
1,465,736
Source: IMF, International Financial Statistics.
* Estimate.
MONEY SUPPLY (million baht at 31 December)
Gross Domestic Product by Economic Activity
1986
1987
1988
1986
1987
1988*
Currency outside banks
72,051.3
86,653.1
98,953.0
Agriculture, forestry and
Demand deposits held by
fishing
180,841
198,284
247,748
public
31,375.5
45,742.6
49,539.7
Mining and quarrying
34,398
38,203
44,333
Manufacturing
255,029
295,512
357,851
Total money
103,426.8
132,395.7
148,492.7
Construction
56,564
62,995
74,524
Electricity and water
28,689
31,858
37,487
Source: Bank of Thailand.
Transport and communications
85,371
92,947
106,834
Wholesale and retail trade
169,828
192,381
232,231
Banking, insurance and real
COST OF LIVING (Consumer Price Index. Base: 1976 = 100)
estate
37,376
48,671
60,032
Ownership of dwellings
44,842
48,802
52,702
1986
1987
1988
Public administration and
defence
50,612
52,712
56,242
Food
180.8
184.1
193.5
Other services
151,129
171,665
195,752
Clothing
196.0
197.4
199.3
GDP in purchasers' values
1,094,679
1,234,030
1,465,736
Housing
216.0
201.0
206.7
Personal and medical services
194.2
223.5
229.6
*
Estimate.
Transport
242.7
244.2
250.9
Source: National Economic and Social Development Board.
All items
197.7
202.6
210.4
Source: Department of Business Economics, Ministry of
Commerce.
984
THAILAND
Statistical Survey
BALANCE OF PAYMENTS (US $ million)
PRINCIPAL TRADING PARTNERS (million baht)
1986
1987
1988
Imports c.i.f.
1986
1987
1988
Merchandise exports f.o.b.
8,803
11,595
15,781
Australia
4,241
5,846
8,779
Merchandise imports f.o.b.
-8,415
-12,019
-17,856
China, People's Republic
6,917
12,968
17,191
388
-424
-2,074
France
3,956
5,130
12,413
Trade balance
Germany, Federal Republic
13,824
19,868
27,592
Exports of services
3,333
4,168
5,895
Hong Kong
3,659
4,875
6,369
Imports of services
-3,699
-4,334
-5,725
Italy
2,584
4,326
6,094
Balance on goods and
Japan
63,656
86,864
148,903
services
22
-590
-1,904
Korea, Republic
5,731
8,016
14,233
Malaysia
10,118
12,767
10,748
Private unrequited transfers
Saudi Arabia
2,522
3,712
5,132
(net)
64
100
46
Singapore
15,845
26,029
38,196
Government unrequited
Taiwan
8,730
12,491
21,334
transfers (net)
161
125
187
United Kingdom
7,767
10,834
15,185
Balance on current account
247
-365
-1,671
USA
34,518
41,612
69,557
Direct capital investment (net)
261
182
1,092
Total (incl. others)
241,358
334,209
513,114
Other long-term capital (net)
-173
418
309
Short-term capital (net)
-219
462
2,361
Source: Department of Customs, Ministry of Finance.
Net errors and omissions
598
248
504
Total (net monetary
Exports f.o.b.
1986
1987
1988
movements)
714
945
2,596
Valuation changes (net)
239
331
-63
China, People's Republic
7,252
10,014
12,008
Changes in reserves
952
1,276
2,533
France
5,301
7,315
9,597
Germany, Federal Republic
10,827
14,773
18,635
Source: IMF, International Financial Statistics.
Hong Kong
9,306
12,560
17,969
Indonesia
1,516
1,592
2,106
Iran
1,061
3,284
2,110
Italy
3,847
5,618
7,409
Japan
33,134
44,590
64,412
External Trade
Malaysia
10,025
9,971
11,946
Netherlands
16,996
19,993
22,015
PRINCIPAL COMMODITIES (million baht)
Saudi Arabia
5,398
7,583
9,013
Singapore
20,689
26,987
30,981
Imports c.i.f.
1986
1987
1988
United Kingdom
7,447
10,719
14,885
USA
42,219
55,727
80,865
Food and live animals
13,087
13,946
24,239
Total (incl. others)
233,383
299,853
403,570
Beverages and tobacco
1,996
1,515
2,626
Crude materials (inedible)
except fuels
16,184
24,669
34,708
Mineral fuels, lubricants, etc.
32,354
44,177
38,827
Animal and vegetable oils and
fats
153
175
483
Transport
Chemicals
38,794
50,876
64,424
Basic manufactures
43,655
65,384
109,746
RAILWAYS ('000)
Machinery and transport
equipment
74,215
108,662
203,013
1986
1987
1988
Total (incl. others)
241,358
334,209
513,114
Passenger journeys
76,702
77,931
82,706
Source: Department of Customs.
Passenger-km
9,273,693
9,582,750
10,301,376
Freight (ton-km)
2,591,431
2,729,263
2,867,271
Freight carried (metric tons)
5,287
5,590
6,218
Exports f.o.b.
1986
1987
1988
Source: The State Railway of Thailand.
Food and live animals
101,629
109,341
137,566
Beverages and tobacco
1,565
1,428
1,613
Crude materials (inedible)
ROAD TRAFFIC (registered motor vehicles)
except fuels
20,529
26,751
35,649
Mineral fuels, lubricants, etc.
1,832
2,099
3,069
1985
1986+
1988
Animal and vegetable oils and
fats
225
307
180
Passenger cars*
732,636
770,370
1,168,157
Chemicals
3,381
4,528
4,829
Buses
58,789
59,276
87,069
Basic manufactures
43,392
58,751
76,865
Lorries and vans
608,198
610,914
980,670
Machinery and transport
Motor cycles
1,826,290
1,871,332
3,894,824
equipment
24,851
35,522
63,789
Others
49,224
68,545
92,092
Total (incl. others)
233,383
299,853
403,590
* Including taxis and excluding Bangkok Metropolis.
t Excluding Changwat, Chiang Mai and Pattani.
# 1987 figures are not available.
Source: Licences Division, Police Department, Ministry of the
Interior, and Department of Land Transport, Ministry of Transport
and Communications.
985
THAILAND
Statistical Survey, Directory
SHIPPING (Port of Bangkok)
Communications Media
1985
1986
1987
Vessels entered:
1986
1987
1988
Numbert
4,037
4,086
4,296
Net registered tonnage*
Radio receivers
7,917,912
7,922,566
6,447,697
8,530,900
8,292,324
8,796,759
Vessels cleared:
Television receivers
4,819,200
5,275,637
5,928,486
Numbert
3,953
4,033
4,072
Book production: titles
7,728
n.a.
n.a.
Net registered tonnage*
7,498,776
6,803,947
7,992,572
Cargo tons unloaded
17,374,877
16,437,183
24,442,992
Source: National Statistical Office, Office of the Prime Minister.
Cargo tons loaded
18,513,290
20,888,545
19,004,860
Telephones (1984): 733,000 in use.
Daily newspapers (1984): 25.
* In ballast.
t In ballast and with cargo.
Non-daily newspapers (1984): 216.
Source: Department of Customs, Ministry of Finance.
Other periodicals (1984): 1,189.
CIVIL AVIATION
1986
1987
1988
Education
Kilometres flown
67,029,097
71,518,038
85,003,000
(1987)
Passengers carried
Number
4,452,400
5,255,449
6,282,438
Institutions
Teachers
Students
Passenger-km
('000)
11,339,383
13,539,958
16,742,348
Office of the National
Freight carried
Primary Education
Tons
120,737
131,659
157,969
Commission
31,353
337,118
6,790,885
Ton-km ('000)
465,170
492,945
589,064
Office of the Private
Mail carried
Education Commission
2,944
62,431
1,315,016
Tons
5,896
7,168
7,636
Department of General
Ton-km ('000)
26,957
31,985
33,596
Education
1,751
95,084
1,584,655
Bangkok Metropolitan
Source: Thai Airways Co Ltd and Thai Airways International Ltd.
Administration,
Municipalities and Muang
Pattaya
897
23,085
483,265
Vocational Education
Department
162
13,506
227,350
Tourism
Ministry of University
Affairs*
46
16,261
182,085
Border Patrol Police
158
846
16,821
1986
1987
1988
Department of Teacher
Education
58
5,842
53,688
Number of visitors
2,818,192
3,482,958
4,230,737
Total (incl. others)
37,626
559,673
10,727,608
Receipts (million baht)
37,321
50,024
78,859
* Excluding Ramkhamhaeng University and Sukhothai Thamma-
Source: Tourism Authority of Thailand.
thirat Open University.
Source: Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education.
Directory
The Constitution
and be 25 years of age or older and a member of a political party.
His term of office is four years. The King may dissolve the House
The present Constitution was promulgated on 22 December 1978.
of Representatives for a new election of members to the House.
It consists of 206 sections in 11 provisions, and one transitory
Members of the Senate and the House of Representatives are
provision which ended in April 1983. A summary of the main
immune from prosecution in voting or expressing opinions during
provisions follows:
sittings of the National Assembly. At a sitting of the Senate or
the House of Representatives, the presence of not less than one-
THE KING
half of the total number of members of each House is required to
Thailand is a unitary Kingdom. The King is Head of State and is
constitute a quorum. The President of the Senate acts as President
head of the armed forces. Sovereignty rests with the people and the
of the National Assembly. The Assembly is vested with the power
King exercises such power only in conformity with the provisions of
to control the administration of state affairs and to give approval.
the Constitution. The King exercises legislative power through
* An amendment to the Constitution, passed in July 1989, provided
the National Assembly, executive power through the Council of
for the President of the House of Representatives to act as
Ministers and judicial power through the courts. The person of
President of the National Assembly. The amendment was sched-
the King is sacred and shall not be violated, accused or sued in
uled to come into effect after a general election in 1992.
any way. The King appoints the President of the Privy Council
and not more than 14 other Privy Councillors. The Privy Council
advises the King on all matters pertaining to his functions.
THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY*
The King appoints a Prime Minister, the Royal Command being
countersigned by the President of the National Assembly. He also
The National Assembly has the duty to consider and approve Bills.
appoints not more than 44 Ministers to constitute the Council of
The Assembly is a bicameral legislature, with 267 members of the
Ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. The King may
Senate appointed by the King, on the recommendation of the
remove a Minister on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime
incumbent Prime Minister, and 357 members of the House of
Minister and Ministers may not be a government employee or a
Representatives elected by the people. A Senator must have Thai
member of the armed forces, nor hold any position in a private
nationality by birth and be 35 years of age or older and his term
undertaking which operates its business for profit. The Prime
of office is six years. A Senator must not be a member of any
Minister and Ministers may speak at meetings of the National
political party. A Representative must be a Thai national by birth
Assembly but may not vote.
986
THAILAND
Directory
EMERGENCY POWERS
Deputy Ministers of Public Health: SUTHAS NGERNMUEN, PRA-
The King may enact Royal Decrees which are not contrary to law.
SONG BURANAPONG.
All laws and royal commands relating to state affairs must be
Minister of Science, Technology and Energy: PRACHUAB
countersigned by the Prime Minister or a Minister. In case of an
CHAIYASAN.
emergency when there is an urgent necessity to maintain national
Minister of Transport and Communications: MONTRI PONG-
or public safety or national economic security or to avert public
PANICH.
calamity, the King may issue an emergency decree which shall
have the force of an Act. The emergency decree shall be submitted
Deputy Ministers of Transport and Communications: NIKHOM
by the Council of Ministers to the National Assembly as soon as
SAENCHAROEN, PRATUAN ROMAYANOND, ANEK TABSUWAN.
possible. If it is approved, it shall continue in force; if not, it shall
Minister of University Affairs: TAVICH KLINPRATHOOM.
lapse.
MINISTRIES
OTHER PROVISIONS
Office of the Prime Minister: Government House, Nakhon
Judges are independent in the trial and adjudication of cases in
Pathom Rd, Bangkok 10300.
accordance with the law. Any dispute concerning jurisdiction
Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives: Ratchadamnoen Nok
between the Court of Justice and any other Court, or between
Ave, Bangkok 10200; tel. (02) 281-5955.
other Courts, is decided by the Constitutional Tribunal.
Ministry of Commerce: Sanamchai Rd, Bangkok 10200; tel. (02)
220-0855; telex 82389.
The Government
Ministry of Defence: Sanamchai Rd, Bangkok 10200; tel. (02) 222-
1121.
HEAD OF STATE
Ministry of Education: Chandrakasem Palace, Ratchadamnoen
Nok Ave, Bangkok 10300; tel. (02) 281-7644.
HM King BHUMIBOL ADULYADEJ (King RAMA IX); succeeded to
Ministry of Finance: Rama VI Rd, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02)
the throne June 1946.
2710207.
PRIVY COUNCIL
Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Saranrom Palace, Bangkok 10200;
tel. (02) 221-9171; telex 82698.
Dr SANYA DHARMASAKTI (President).
Ministry of Industry: Phra Ram Hok Rd, Bangkok 10400; tel.
Gen. (retd) PREM TINSULANONDA.
(02) 246-1137; telex 84375.
Dr PRAKOB HUTASINGH.
Ministry of the Interior: Atsadang Rd, Bangkok 10200; tel. (02)
Police Maj.-Gen. ARTHASIDHI SIDHISUNTHORN.
222-1141.
M. C. CHAKRABANDHU PENSIRI CHAKRABANDHU.
Ministry of Justice: 6 Rachinee Rd, Bangkok 10200; tel. (02) 221-
3161.
CHARUNPHAN ISARANGKUN NA AYUTHAYA.
M. L. CHIRAYU NAVAWONGS.
Ministry of Public Health: Devavesm Palace, Samsen Rd, Bang-
kok 10200; tel. (02) 282-2121.
Dr CHAOVANA NA SYLVANTA.
Ministry of Science, Technology and Energy: Thanon Phra Ram
THANIN KRAIVIXIEN.
Hok, Phaya Thai, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 246-0064; telex 20838.
Prof. Dr KALYA ISRASENA.
Ministry of Transport and Communications: Ratchadamnoen
CHITTI TINSABADH.
Nok Ave, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 281-3422; telex 70000.
M. L. USNI PRAMOJ.
Ministry of University Affairs: 328 Sri Ayudhya Rd, Bangkok
Squadron Leader KAMTHON SINDHAVANANDA.
10400; tel. (02) 2458268; telex 72610.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
(October 1989)
Legislature
Prime Minister and Minister of Defence: Gen. CHATICHAI
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
CHOONHAVAN.
The Senate
Deputy Prime Ministers: PONG SARASIN, Gen. TIENCHAI SIRISUM-
Speaker: WAN CHANSU.
PAN, BHICHAI RATTAKUL.
Ministers to the Prime Minister's Office: MEECHAI RUCHUPAN,
The 267 members of the Senate are appointed by the King on the
nomination of the Prime Minister.
BOON-EUA PRASERTSUWAN, KORN DABBARANSI, ANUWAT
WATTANAPONGSIRI, CHAISIRI RUANGKANCHANASES, SUPATRA MAS-
House of Representatives
DIT, Col PHOL RERNGPRASERTVIT, CHALERM YUBAMRUNG.
Minister of Agriculture and Co-operatives: Maj.-Gen. SANAN
General Election, 24 July 1988
KHACHORNPRASART.
Party
Deputy Ministers of Agriculture and Co-operatives: CHAROEN
Seats
KANTHAWONG, UDOMSAK TANGTHONG, UDON TANTISUNTHORN.
Chart Thai
87
Minister of Commerce: SUBIN PINKHAYAN.
Social Action Party
54
Deputy Ministers of Commerce: SHUCHEEP HANSAWARD, PINYA
Democrat Party
48
CHUAYPLOD.
Ruam Thai*
35
Minister of Education: Gen. MANA RATANAKOSES.
Prachakorn Thai
31
Rassadorn Party
21
Deputy Ministers of Education: SAKUL SRIPROM, MAI SIRI-
Prachachon Party*
19
NAWAKUL.
Puangchon Chao Thai
17
Minister of Finance: PRAMUAL SABHAVASU.
Palang Dharma Party
14
Deputy Ministers of Finance: SUCHON CHAMPOONOD, NIPHON
Community Action Party*
9
PHROMPHAN.
Progressive Party*
8
Minister of Foreign Affairs: Air Chief Marshal SIDDHI
United Democratic Party
5
SAVETSILA.
Mass Party (Muan Chon)
5
Liberal Party
3
Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs: Sub-Lt PRAPAS LIMPA-
Social Democratic Force Party
1
BANDHU.
Total
357
Minister of Industry: BANHARN SILPA-ARCHA.
Deputy Ministers of Industry: DUSIT RANGKHASIRI, PAITOON
* Merged February 1989 to form Ekkaparb (Solidarity) Party, with
KAEWTHONG.
71 seats.
Minister of the Interior: PRAMARN ADIREKSARN.
Deputy Ministers of the Interior: SANOH THIENTHONG, SANTI
CHAIVIRAT, TRAIRONG SUWANNAKHIRI, WATTANA ASSWAHEM.
Political Organizations
Minister of Justice: CHAMRAS MANGKALARAT.
Chart Thai (Thai Nation): Bangkok; tel. (02) 282-7054; f. 1981;
Minister of Public Health: CHUAN LEEKPAI.
right-wing; includes mems of fmr United Thai People's Party;
987
THAILAND
Directory
Leader Gen. CHATICHAI CHOONHAVAN; Sec.-Gen. BANHARN SILA-
Finland: Amarin Tower, 16th Floor, 500 Ploenchit Rd, Bangkok
PAARCHA.
10500; tel. (02) 256-9306; telex 82492; Ambassador: BENJAMIN
Communist Party of Thailand: Bangkok; illegal; Sec. THONG
BASSIN.
JAEMSRI.
France: 35 Custom House Lane, off New Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel.
Democrat Party (Prachatipat): Bangkok; tel. (02) 270-0036; f. 1946;
(02) 234-0951; telex 82663; Ambassador: IVAN BASTOUIL.
liberal; Leader BHICHAI RATTAKUL; Sec.-Gen. Maj.-Gen. SANAN
Germany, Federal Republic: 9 Sathorn Tai Rd, Bangkok 10120;
KHACHONPRASET.
tel. (02) 286-4223; telex 87348; Ambassador: BERND OLDENKOTT.
Democratic Labour Party (Raeng Ngan Pracha Tippatai): Bang-
Holy See: 217/1 Sathorn Tai Rd, POB 12-178, Bangkok 10120;
kok; tel. (02) 279-1645; f. 1988; Liberal and Socialist; Leader PRA-
tel. (02) 2125853; telex 20726; Apostolic Pro-Nuncio: Archbishop
SERT SAPSUNTHORN; Sec.-Gen. YONGYUT WATANAVIKORN (acting).
ALBERTO TRICARICO.
Ekkaparb (Solidarity): Bangkok; tel. (02) 251-9534; f. 1989; oppo-
Hungary: 28 Soi Sukchai, off Sukhumvit 42, Bangkok 10110; tel.
sition merger by the Community Action Party, the Prachachon
(02) 391-7906; telex 82954; Chargé d'affaires: PETER TRUNK.
Party, the Progressive Party and Ruam Thai; Leader NARONG
WONGWAN; Sec.-Gen. CHALERMBHAN SRIVIKORN.
India: 46 Soi Prasarnmitr, 23 Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel.
(02) 258-0300; telex 82793; Ambassador: VINAY VERMA.
Liberal Party (Seriniyom): Bangkok; tel. (02) 241-0543; f. 1981;
Leader Col. NARONG KITTIKACHORN; Sec.-Gen. SURASAK
Indonesia: 600-602 Phetchburi Rd, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 252-
CHAVEWONGSE.
3135; telex 82559; Ambassador: DATOT SUWARDI.
Mass Party (Muan Chon): Bangkok; tel. (02) 424-1851; f. 1985;
Iran: 602 Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 259-0611; telex
Leader CHALERM YUBAMRUNG; Sec.-Gen. SOPHON PETCHSAVANG.
82684; Ambassador: MOHAMMED MEHDI SAZEGARA.
Palang Dharma (Righteous Force): Bangkok; f. 1988; Leader
Iraq: 47 Pradipat Rd, Samsen Nai, Phya Thai, Bangkok 10400;
CHAMLONG SIMUANG; Sec.-Gen. CHIDPONG CHAIVASU.
tel. (02) 279-1893; telex 82478; Ambassador: MUNIR SHIBAB AHMED
AL-BAYATI.
Prachakorn Thai (Thai Citizens Party): Bangkok; tel. (02) 277-
1194; f. 1981; right-wing; monarchist; Leader SAMAK SUNDARAVEJ;
Israel: 31 Soi Lang Suan, Ploenchit Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02)
Sec.-Gen. SAMAK SIRICHAN.
252-3131; telex 87322; Ambassador: ENAD AVITAL.
Puangchon Chao Thai (Thai People's Party): Bangkok; tel. (02)
Italy: 399 Nang Linchee Rd, Bangkok 10120; tel. (02) 287-2054;
585-5683; f. 1981; Leader Gen. ARTHIT KAMLANG-EK; Sec.-Gen.
telex 82523; Ambassador: Dr GIORGIO VECCHI.
CHAIYASIT THITISUTI.
Japan: 1674 New Phetchburi Rd, Bangkok 10130; tel. (02) 252-
Rassadorn (Citizens' Party): Bangkok; tel. (02) 246-2326; f. 1981;
6151; Ambassador: HISAHIKO OKAZAKI.
conservative; Leader Gen. TIENCHAI SIRISUMPHAN; Sec.-Gen. Gen.
Korea, Republic: Sathorn Thani Bldg, 12th Floor, 90 North
MANA RATTANAKOSET.
Sathorn Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234-0723; telex 82824;
Social Action Party (SAP) (Kij Sangkhom): Bangkok; tel. (02) 243-
Ambassador: CHUNG CHOO-NYUN.
0100; f. 1981; conservative; Leader Air Chief Marshal SIDDHI
Laos: 193 Sathorn Tai Rd, Bangkok 10120; tel. (02) 286-0010; telex
SAVETSILA; Sec.-Gen. MONTRI PONGPANIT.
82192; Ambassador: KHAMPHAM SIMMALAVONG.
Social Democratic Force Party: Bangkok; f. 1974 as the New
Malaysia: 35 Sathorn Tai Rd, Bangkok 10120; tel. (02) 286-1390;
Force Party, renamed in 1988; left of centre; seeks a wide range
telex 87321; Ambassador: BAKRI AIYUB GHAZALI.
of reforms along social democratic lines; Leader CHATCHAWAL
CHOMPUDAENG; Sec.-Gen. INSORN BUAKIEW.
Myanmar: 132 Sathorn Nua Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 233-2237; telex
21467; Ambassador: U NYUNT SWE.
United Democratic Party (Saha Pracha Tippatai): Bangkok; tel.
(02) 241-1235; f. 1981; orientated towards the promotion of business
Nepal: 189 Soi 71, Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 391-
and commercial interests; Leader Col PHOL ROENGPRASERTVIT;
7240; Ambassador: RAM CHANDRA BAHADURSINGH.
Sec.-Gen. TAMCHAI KAMPHATO.
Netherlands: 106 Wireless Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 254-7701;
telex 82691; Ambassador: ARNOLD PETER VAN WALSUM.
New Zealand: 93 Wireless Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 251-8165;
Diplomatic Representation
telex 81165; Ambassador: HARLE FREEMAN-GREENE.
Norway: Chokchai International Bldg, 20th Floor, 690 Sukhumvit
EMBASSIES IN THAILAND
Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 258-0531; telex 87309; Ambassador:
Argentina: 20/85 Prommitr Villa, Soi 49/1, off Sukhumvit Rd Soi
JOHAN DAHL.
49, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 259-0401; telex 82762; Ambassador:
Pakistan: 31 Soi Nana Nua (3), Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110;
JULIO C. FERRARI.
tel. (02) 253-0288; telex 84774; First Sec. ABDUL HAMEED ALIANI.
Australia: 37 Sathorn Tai Rd, Bangkok 10120; tel. (02) 287-2680;
Philippines: 760 Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 259-0139;
telex 82149; Ambassador: RICHARD WILLIAM BUTLER.
telex 34445; Ambassador: JOSUE L. VILLA.
Austria: 14 Soi Nandha, off Soi Attakarnprasit, Sathorn Tai Rd,
Poland: 61 Soi Prasanmitr 23, Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel.
Bangkok; tel. (02) 286-3019; telex 82386; Ambassador: Dr PETER
(02) 258-4112; telex 82074; Ambassador: LUCIAN MIECZKOWSKI.
KLEIN.
Portugal: 26 Bush Lane, Charoen Krung Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel.
Bangladesh: 6-8 Charoenmitr, Soi 63 Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok;
(02) 234-0372; telex 82866; Ambassador: JOSÉ EDUARDO DE MELLO
tel. (02) 391-8069; telex 82330; Ambassador: Kazi ANWARUL MASUD.
GOUVEIA.
Belgium: 44 Soi Phya Phipat, off Silom Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02)
Romania: 39 Soi 10, Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 251-
2360150; telex 82563; Ambassador: PIERRE DE MÜELENAERE.
7881; Chargé d'affaires: LUGANU CONSTANTIT.
Brazil: 8/1 Sukhumvit Rd, Soi 15, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 252-
Saudi Arabia: Boonmitr Bldg, 10th Floor, 138 Silom Rd, Bangkok
6043; telex 82742; Ambassador: JOAQUIM IGNACIO AMAZONAS MAC-
10500; tel. (02) 235-0875; telex 87648; Chargé d'affaires: MOHAMMED
DOWELL.
MAHDI AL-MUSLIH.
Brunei: Orakarn Bldg, 14th Floor, Soi Chidlom, Ploenchit Rd,
Singapore: 129 South Sathorn Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 286-
Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 251-5766; Ambassador: Dato Paduka
2111; telex 82930; Ambassador: TAN SENG CHYE.
HAMID BIN JAAFAR.
Spain: 104 Wireless Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 252-6112; telex
Bulgaria: 64 Soi Charoenmitr, Sukhumvit Soi 63 (Ekamai), Bang-
82885; Ambassador: CARLOS REPARAZ.
kok 10110; tel. (02) 3811385; Ambassador: EDUARD LEOMIDOV
SAFIROV.
Sri Lanka: 48/3 Soi 1, Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02)
Canada: Boonmitr Bldg, 11th-12th Floors, 138 Silom Rd, Bangkok
251-8399; telex 87019; Ambassador: R. PREMARATNE.
10500; tel. (02) 234-1561; telex 82671; Ambassador: LAWRENCE
Sweden: Boonmitr Bldg, 11th Floor, 138 Silom Rd, Bangkok 10500;
A. H. SMITH.
tel. (02) 234-3891; telex 87114; Ambassador: OLOV TERNSTROM.
Chile: 15 Sukhumvit Soi 61, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 391-8443;
Switzerland: 35 North Wireless Rd, POB 821, Bangkok 10501;
telex 84042; Ambassador: SERGIO CABEZAS DUFEU.
tel. (02) 253-0156; telex 82687; Ambassador: ARMIN KAMER.
China, People's Republic: 57 Rachadapisake Rd, Bangkok; tel.
Turkey: 153/2 Soi Mahadlek Luang 1, Rajdamri Rd, Bangkok
(02) 245-7032; Ambassador: LI SHICHUN.
10500; tel. (02) 251-2987; Ambassador: A. ERDINC KARASAPAN.
Czechoslovakia: Silom Bldg, 7th Floor, 197/1 Silom Rd, Bangkok
USSR: 108 Sathorn Nua Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234-9824;
10500; tel. (02) 233-4535.
telex 84693; Ambassador: ANATOLI IVANOVICH VALKOV.
Denmark: 10 Soi Attakarn Prasit, South Sathorn Rd, Bangkok
United Kingdom: Wireless Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 253-0191;
10120; tel. (02) 286-3930; telex 87304; Ambassador: F. KIAER.
telex 82263; Ambassador: RAMSAY MELHUISH.
Egypt: 49 Soi Ruam Rudee, Ploenchit Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel.
USA: 95 Wireless Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 252-5040; telex 87008;
(02) 253-0161; telex 82544; Ambassador: MAGDY SABRY.
Ambassador: DANIEL A. O'DONOHUE.
988
THAILAND
Directory
Viet-Nam: 83/1 Wireless Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 251-5835;
CHRISTIANITY
Ambassador: LE MAI.
The Roman Catholic Church
Yugoslavia: 28 Soi 61, Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02)
391-9090; Ambassador: DZON SIROKA.
For ecclesiastical purposes, Thailand comprises two archdioceses
and eight dioceses. At 31 December 1987 there were an estimated
223,747 adherents in the country.
Bishops' Conference: Conférence des Evêques de Thailande, Prae-
Judicial System
tham Bldg, 57 Oriental Ave, Bangrak, Bangkok 10500; f. 1969;
Pres. HE Cardinal MICHAEL MICHAI KITBUNCHU, Archbishop of
SUPREME COURT
Bangkok.
Sarn Dika: The final court of appeal in all civil, bankruptcy,
Catholic Association of Thailand: 57 Soi Burapa Rd, Bangkok
labour, juvenile and criminal cases. Its quorum consists of three
10500.
judges. However, the Court occasionally sits in plenary session to
Archbishop of Bangkok: HE Cardinal MICHAEL MICHAI KITBUN-
determine cases of exceptional importance or where there are
CHU, Assumption Cathedral, Bangrak, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02)
reasons for reconsideration or overruling of its own precedents.
233-8712.
The quorum, in such cases, is one-half of the total number of
judges in the Supreme Court.
Archbishop of Thare and Nonseng: Most Rev. LAWRENCE KHAI
SAEN-PHON-ON, Archbishop's House, POB 6, Tharé, Sakon Nakhon
President (Chief Justice): AMNAK KLAISAN.
47230; tel. (042) 711718.
Vice-Presidents: SOMBOON BUNPHINON, SOPHON RATANAKORN,
SAKDI SNONGCHATI.
The Anglican Communion
Thailand is within the jurisdiction of the Anglican Bishop of
COURT OF APPEALS
Singapore (q.v.).
Sarn Uthorn: Appellate jurisdiction in all civil, bankruptcy, juven-
Other Christian Churches
ile and criminal matters; appeals from all the Courts of First
Instance throughout the country, except the Central Labour Court,
Baptist Church Foundation (Foreign Mission Board): 90 Soi 2
come to this Court. Two judges form a quorum.
Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 252-7078; Mission Admin:
JERRY HOBBS, POB 832, Bangkok 10501.
Chief Justice: (vacant).
Church of Christ in Thailand: 14 Pramuan Rd, Bangkok 10500;
Deputy Chief Justices: DAMRONG SAICHUA, APIN PUSPARKHOM,
tel. (02) 236-9499; f. 1934; 40,361 communicants; Moderator Rev.
SOMPRASONG PANICHATTRA.
ARUN TONGDONMUAN; Gen. Sec. Rev. Dr BOONRATNA BOAYEN.
COURTS OF FIRST INSTANCE
ISLAM
Central Juvenile Courts (Sarn Kadee Dek Lae Yaowachon): Orig-
Office of the Chularajmontri: 100 Soi Prom Pak, Sukhumvit Rd,
inal jurisdiction over juvenile delinquency and matters affecting
Bangkok 10110; Sheikh Al-Islam (Chularajmontri) Haji PRASERT
children and young persons. Two judges and two associate judges
MOHAMMED.
(one of whom must be a woman) form a quorum. There are courts
in Bangkok, Songkla, Nakhon Ratchasima, Chiang Mai, Ubon
BAHÁ'Í FAITH
Ratchathani and Rayong.
Chief Justice: ADULKIT KITIYAKARA.
National Spiritual Assembly: POB 1503, Bangkok 10501; tel. (02)
Central Labour Court (Sarn Rang Ngan Klang): Jurisdiction in
252-5355; mems resident in 735 localities.
labour cases throughout the country.
Chief Justice: CHALERM KARNPLEMJIT.
Civil Court (Sarn Pang): Court of first instance in civil and
The Press
bankruptcy cases in Bangkok. Two judges form a quorum.
Chief Justice: AMPHONE NA TAKUATHUNG.
DAILIES
Criminal Court (Sarn Aya): Court of first instance in criminal
Thai Language
cases in Bangkok. Two judges form a quorum.
Ban Muang: 1 Soi Pluem-Manee, Vibhavadi Rangsit Rd, Bangkok;
Chief Justice: SURAT-SRIANUPHUN.
tel. (02) 5130230; Editor MANA PRAEPAN; circ. 70,000.
Magistrates' Courts (Sarn Kwaeng): Adjudicate in minor cases
Daily Mirror: 15/8 Lardprao 104, Bangkok; tel. (02) 5380220; f.
with minimum formality and expense. Judges sit singly.
1978; Editor AMPHON BOONYATHITTHAN; circ. 60,000.
Provincial Courts (Sarn Changwat): Exercise unlimited original
Daily News: 1/4 Vibhavadi Rangsit, Bangkok; tel. (02) 579-0010;
jurisdiction in all civil and criminal matters, including bankruptcy,
f. 1964; Editor PRACHA HETRAKUL; circ. 450,000.
within its own district which is generally the province itself. Two
judges form a quorum. At each of the five Provincial Courts
Dao Siam: 60 Mansion 4, Rajdamnern Ave, Bangkok; tel. (02)
in the south of Thailand (i.e. Pattani, Yala, Betong, Satun and
2226129; f. 1974; Editor SANTI ONTRAKARN; circ. 140,000.
Narathiwat) where the majority of the population are Muslims,
Khao Panich (Daily Trade News): 22/27 Ratchadapisek Rd, Bang-
there are two Dato Yutithum or Kadis (Muslim judges). A Kadi
kok; tel. (02) 511-5066; Editor TERASAKD SATHIDHAYANGKUL; circ.
sits with two trial judges in order to administer Shari'a (Islamic)
30,000.
laws and usages in civil cases involving family and inheritance
Matichon: 12 Thedsaban Naruban Rd, Bangken, Bangkok; tel.
where all parties concerned are Muslims. Questions on Islamic
(02) 589-0020; f. 1973; Editor RUENGCHAI SAPNIRAND; circ. 55,000.
laws and usages which are interpreted by a Kadi are final.
Naew Na: 96 Mooh 7, Vibhavadi Rangsit Rd, Bangkok 2; tel. (02)
Thon Buri Civil Court (Sarn Pang Thon Buri): Civil jurisdiction
521-4647; Editor PANAPHAN TOOMTHONG; circ. 50,000.
over nine districts of metropolitan Bangkok.
Siam Rath: 12 Mansion 6, Rajdamnern Ave, Bangkok; tel. (02)
Thon Buri Criminal Court (Sarn Aya Thon Buri): Criminal juris-
2219593; f. 1950; Editor CHATTAWA KLINSUTHON; circ. 120,000.
diction over nine districts of metropolitan Bangkok.
Siam Time: 192/8-9 Soi Vorapong, Visuthikasat Rd, Bangkok; tel.
(02) 281-7422; Editor NARONG CHARUSOPHON.
Thai: 423-425 Chao Khamrop Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 223-3175;
Religion
Editor VICHIEN MANA-NATHEETHORATHAM.
Thai Rath: 1 Vibhavadi Rangsit Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 271-0217;
Buddhism is the predominant religion, professed by more than
f. 1948; Editor PITHOON SUNTHORN; circ. 800,000.
95% of Thailand's total population. About 4% of the population are
Muslims, being ethnic Malays, mainly in the south. Most of the
Visnews: 72 Soi Vorapong, Samsen Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 282-
immigrant Chinese are Confucians. The Christians number 273,537,
0643; Editor Mrs PONGPAN U-DOMSILP.
of whom about 75% are Roman Catholic, mainly in Bangkok and
northern Thailand. Brahmins, Hindus and Sikhs number 64,369.
English Language
Bangkok Post: U-Chuliang Bldg, 3rd Floor, 968 Thanon Phra
BUDDHISM
Ram Si, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-8030; telex 84804; f. 1946;
morning; Publr IAN FAWCETT; Editor PAISAL SRICHARATCHANYA;
Supreme Patriarch of Thailand: SOMDEJ PHRA YANASANGYORN.
circ. 40,000.
The Buddhist Association of Thailand: 41 Phra Aditya St, Bang-
The Nation: 59 Soi Saeng Chan, Sukhumvit 42, Bangkok 10110;
kok 10200; tel. (02) 281-9563; f. 1934 under royal patronage; 4,183
tel. (02) 392-0050; telex 20326; f. 1971; morning; Editor and Publr
mems; Pres. PRAPASANA AUYCHAL
SUTHICHAI YOON; circ. 46,500.
989
THAILAND
Directory
Chinese Language
Associated Press (AP) (USA): Charn Issara Tower, 14th Floor,
New Chinese Daily News: 1022-1030 Charoen Krung Rd, Talad-
942/51 Rama Rd, POB 775, Bangkok; tel. (02) 234-5553; telex 82606;
Noi, Bangkok; tel. (02) 234-0684; Editor PUSADEE KEETAWORA-
Correspondent DENIS D. GRAY.
NART; circ. 72,000.
Inter Press Service (IPS) (Italy): Panarongse Bldg, Room 503,
Sing Sian Yit Pao Daily News: 267 Charoen Krung Rd, Bangkok;
104 Surivong Bldg, 10500 Bangkok; tel. (02) 235-6200; telex 22204;
tel. (02) 222-6601; telex 72306; f. 1950; Editor TAVORN TRONGLAK-
Correspondent PHILIP SMUCKER.
THAM; circ. 90,000.
Jiji Tsushin-sha (Japan): Jiji Press, 8th Floor, Boonmitr Bldg, 138
Sirinakorn: 108 Suapa Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 221-4182; f. 1959;
Silom Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 236-6800; telex 82316; Man. YASUSHI
Editor PRASERT VAREVES; circ. 80,000.
TOMIYAMA.
Thai Shang Yig Pao: 46/27 Soi Brarom Banpott, Chakrapaddi-
Kyodo News Service (Japan): U Chuliang Bldg, 2nd Floor, 968
phong Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 223-6254; f. 1977; evening; Editor
Rama IV Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 236-6822; telex 82562;
LIANG SAE TANG; circ. 100,000.
Bureau Chief MICHITAKA YAMADA.
Tong Hua Daily News: 877/879 Charoen Krung Rd, Talad-Noi,
Reuters (UK): POB 877, Prinya Bldg, 544/11 Ploenchit Rd, Bang-
Bangkok; tel. (02) 234-3220; telex 84479; Editor CHART PAYONITHI-
KARN; circ. 50,000.
SPENCER. kok; tel. (02) 252-9950; telex 82636; Correspondent GRAHAM D.
Universal Daily News: 21/1 Charoen Krung Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02)
Telegrafnoye Agentstvo Sovetskovo Soyuza (TASS) (USSR): 56
221-0629; Editor BOON-ING SAE LI; circ. 25,000.
Sathorn Nua Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-4007; Bureau Chief
BORIS CHEKHONIN.
WEEKLIES
United Press International (UPI) (USA): U Chuliang Bldg, 968
Thai Language
Rama IV Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 238-5244; Man. PAUL WEDEL.
Bangkok Weekly: 533-539 Sriayuthaya Rd, Bangkok; Editor
Xinhua (New China) News Agency (People's Republic of China):
VICHIT ROJANAPRABHA.
Room 407, Capital Mansion, 1371 Phahol Yotin Rd, Bangkok; tel.
Mathichon Weekly Review: 12 Thedsaban Maruban Rd, Bangken,
(02) 278-3290; telex 82014; Correspondent MA SHENGRONG.
Bangkok; Editor RUANGCHAI SABNIRAND.
Antara (Indonesia) also has a bureau in Bangkok.
Satri Sarn: 83/35 Arkarntrithosthep 2, Prachathipatai Rd, Bang-
kok; f. 1948; women's magazine; Editor Miss NILAWAN PINTONG.
PRESS ASSOCIATIONS
See Ros: 612 Luke Luang Rd, Bangkok; Editor MANI CHIN-
Confederation of Thai Journalists: 538/1 Samsen Rd, Dusit,
DANONDH.
Bangkok 10300; tel. (02) 241-4795; Pres. KITTI CHUPINICH; Sec.-
Siam Rath Weekly Review: Mansion 6, Rajdamnern Ave, Bang-
Gen. THONGCHAI NA NAKORN.
kok 10200; Editor PRACHUAB THONGURAL
Press Association of Thailand: 299 Ratchasima Rd, Dusit, Bang-
Skul Thai: 58 Soi 36, Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 258-
kok 10300; tel. (02) 241-0766; f. 1941; Pres. PREECHA SAMAK-
5857; Editor PRAYOON SONGSERMSAWAS.
KIDHAM.
English Language
There ations. are also regional press organizations and journalists' organiz-
Bangkok Post Weekly Review: U-Chuliang Bldg, 3rd Floor, 968
Rama IV Rd, Bangkok 10500; f. 1989.
Business Times: Thai Bldg, 1400 Rama IV Rd, Bangkok 10110.
Publishers
FORTNIGHTLIES
Advance Media: U Chuliang Foundation Bldg, 968 Rama IV Rd,
Thai Language
Bangkok; Man. PRASERTSAK SIVASAHONG.
Dichan: 1400 Thai Bldg, Thanon Phra Ram Si, Bangkok; tel. (02)
Bhannakij Trading: 34 Nakornsawan Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 282-
286-5384; Editor PEE MALAKUL NA AYTHAYA.
5520; Thai fiction, school textbooks; Man. SOMSAK TECHAKASHEM.
Lalana: 59 Soi Saengchan, Sukhumvit 42, Bangkok; tel. (02) 392-
Chalermnit Press: 108 Sukhumvit Soi 53, Bangkok; tel. (02) 252-
0050; Editor NANTAWAN YOON.
8759; f. 1957; dictionaries, history, literature, guides to Thai lan-
guage, works on Thailand; Mans M. L. M. JUMSAI, Mrs JUMSAI.
MONTHLIES
Dhamabuja: 5/1-2 Asadang Rd, Bangkok; religious; Man. VIRO-
CHANA SIRI-ATH.
Chao Krung: 12 Mansion 6, Rajdamnern Ave, Bangkok 10200;
Thai; Editor NOPPHORN BUNYARIT.
Graphic Art Publishing: 204/12-13 Surawongse Rd, Bangkok
The Dharmachaksu (Dharma-vision): Foundation of Mahãmakut
10500; tel. (02) 233-0302; telex 20657; f. 1972; textbooks, science
fiction, photography; CEO Mrs ANGKANA.
Rãjavidyãlaya, Phra Sumeru Rd, Bangkok 10200; f. 1894; Thai;
Buddhism and related subjects; Editor WASIN INDASARA; circ.
Prae Pittaya Ltd: POB 914, 716-718 Wang Burapa Palace, Bang-
5,000.
kok; tel. (02) 221-4283; general Thai books; Man. CHIT PRAEPANICH.
Grand Prix: 7/7-8 Prachachuen Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 585-6647;
Prapansarn: Siam Sq., Soi 2, Rama I Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 251-
Editor PRACHIN EMSAMNAO.
2342; Thai pocket books; Man. Dir SUPHOL TAECHATADA.
The Investor: Pansak Bldg, 4th Floor, 138/1 Petchburi Rd, Bang-
Ruamsarn (1977): 1091/86 Petchburee 33 Rd, Payathai, Bangkok
kok 10400; tel. (02) 282-8166; f. 1968; English language; business,
10400; tel. (02) 253-1489; f. 1951; fiction, literature, philosophy,
industry, finance and economics; Editor Tos PATUMSEN; circ. 6,000.
religion and textbooks; Man. PIYA T. WATANASARN.
Kasikorn: Dept of Agriculture, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900; tel.
Ruang Silpa: 663 Samsen Nai Rd, Bangkok; Thai pocket books;
(02) 579-5369; f. 1928; Thai; agriculture and agricultural research;
Propr DHAMNOON RUANG SILPA.
Man. VITTAYA INMAN; Editor UDOM SIMABAN.
Sermvitr Barnakarn: 222 Werng Nakorn Kashem, Bangkok; gen-
The Lady: 77 Rama V Rd, Bangkok; Editor Princess NGARMCHITR
eral Thai books; Man. PRAVIT SAMMAVONG.
PREM PURACHATRA.
Suksapan Panit (Business Organization of Teachers' Institute):
Look East: Taniya Bldg, 6th Floor, 62 Silom Rd, Bangkok; tel.
Mansion 9, Rajdamnern Ave, Bangkok 10200; telex 72031; f. 1950;
(02) 233-8126; Editor CEGAL SAGEESE.
general, SATHIRAKUL. textbooks, children's, pocket books; Man. KAMTHON
Satawa Liang: 689 Wang Burapa Rd, Bangkok; Thai; Editor
THAMRONGSAK SRICHAND.
Suriayabarn Publishers: 14 Pramuan Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 234-
Villa Wina Magazine: Chalerm Ketr Theatre Bldg, 3rd Floor,
7991; f. 1953; religion, children's, Thai culture; Man. Dir BAMPEN
KRISHNAKAN.
Bangkok; Thai; Editor BHONGSAKDI PIAMLAP.
Thai Watana Panit: 599 Maitrijit Rd, Bangkok; tel. (02) 210111;
children's, school textbooks.
NEWS AGENCIES
Foreign Bureaux
Watana Panit Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd: 216-222 Bam-
rungmuang Rd, Samanrat, Bangkok 10200; tel. 2221016; children's,
Agence France-Presse (AFP): Panavongs Bldg, 104 Surivongse
school textbooks; Man. ROENGCHAI CHONGPIPATANASUK.
Rd, POB 1567, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 236-6847; telex 82170;
Bureau Chief CHARLES ANTOINE ANDREA DE NERCIAT.
PUBLISHERS' ASSOCIATION
Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata (ANSA) (Italy): 548 Ploen-
chit Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. 252-9666; telex 84444; Correspondent:
Publishers" and Booksellers' Association of Thailand: 20 Rajpra-
DAVID BUTLER.
song Trade Centre, Bangkok 10502; Pres. M. L. MANICH JUMSAI;
Gen. Sec. Miss PLEARNPIT PRAEPANIT.
990
THAILAND
Directory
Radio and Television
14,414m. (Dec. 1986); Chair. CHAROON EUARCHUKIATI; Pres. and
Dir Yos EUARCHUKIATI; 47 brs.
In 1986 there were an estimated 7,700,000 radio receivers and
Bank of Ayudhya Ltd: 550 Ploenchit Rd, POB 491, Bangkok
3,300,000 television receivers in use.
10330; tel. (02) 253-8601; telex 82334; f. 1945; cap. p.u. 2,000m.,
dep. 52,947m. (Dec. 1988); Chair. CHUAN RATANARAK; Pres. and
RADIO
CEO KRIT RATANARAK; 173 brs.
Radio Thailand (RTH): National Broadcasting Services of Thai-
First Bangkok City Bank Ltd: 20 Yukhon, 2 Suan Mali, Bangkok
land, Government Public Relations Dept, 236 Vibhavadi Rangsit
10100; tel. (02) 223-0500; telex 84120; f. 1934 as Thai Development
Rd, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 277-9125; telex 72167; f. 1930; govt-
Bank; cap. p.u. 1,365m., dep. 16,097m. (Dec. 1985); Chair. MANOEH
controlled; educational, entertainment, cultural and news pro-
KANCHANAEHAYA; Man. Dir PAKORN MALAKUL NA AYUDHYA; 53
grammes; operates 91 stations throughout Thailand; Dir of Radio
brs.
Thailand CHAN POOLSOMBAT.
Krung Thai Bank Ltd (State Commercial Bank of Thailand): 35
Home Service: 10 stations in Bangkok and 85 affiliated stations
Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 255-2222; telex 81179;
in 49 provinces; operates three programmes; Dir CHALERMSRI
f. 1966; govt-owned; merged with Siam Bank Ltd (fmrly Asia Trust
HOONCHAROEN.
Bank) in 1987; cap. 6,786m., dep. 150,245m. (Dec. 1988); Chair.
External Services: f. 1928; in Thai, English, French, Viet-
PANAS SIMASATHIEN; Pres. THIENCHAI SRIBICHITR; 296 brs.
namese, Khmer, Japanese, Burmese, Lao, Malay and Chinese
Leam Thong Bank Ltd: 289 Surawongse Rd, POB 131, Bangkok
(Mandarin); Dir BUBPHA LAEMLUANG.
10500; tel. (02) 233-9730; telex 82989; f. 1948; cap. p.u. 400m., dep.
Ministry of Education Broadcasting Service: Centre for Inno-
3,122m. (Dec. 1987); Chair. Gen. SOM KATAPAN; Man. Dir SUCHATI
vation and Technology, Ministry of Education, Bangkok; tel. (02)
NETISINGHA; 9 brs.
246-0026; f. 1954; morning programmes for schools (Mon.-Fri.);
Nakornthon Bank Ltd: 90 North Sathorn Rd, POB 2731, Bangkok
afternoon and evening programmes for general public; (daily); Dir
10500; tel. (02) 233-2111; telex 82837; f. 1933 as Wang Lee Bank
of Centre Kosol CHOOCHAUY.
Ltd, renamed 1985; cap. p.u. 120m., dep. 5,140m. (Dec. 1986);
Pituksuntirad Radio Stations: stations at Bangkok, Nakorn Rach-
Chair. SUNTHORN HONGLADAROM; Pres. SUVIT WANGLEE; 20 brs.
asima, Chiangmai, Pitsanuloke and Songkla; programmes in Thai;
Siam City Bank Ltd: POB 488, 1101 New Petchburi Rd, Bangkok
Dir-Gen. PAITOON WALJANYA.
10400; tel. (02) 253-0200; telex 82477; f. 1941; cap. p.u. 1,540m.,
Voice of Free Asia: Ratchadamnoen Ave, POB 2-131, Bangkok
dep. 22,704m. (Dec. 1985); Chair. CHALERM CHEO-SAKUL; Pres.
10200; tel. (02) 224-4904; f. 1968; broadcasts in Thai, English, Lao,
DILOK MAHADUMRONGKUL; 100 brs.
Khmer and Vietnamese; Dir of Broadcasting SIRIWAT SUTHI-
Siam Commercial Bank Ltd: 1060 Petchburi Rd, POB 15, Bang-
GASAME.
kok 10400; tel. (02) 256-1234; telex 82376; f. 1906; cap. p.u. 1,700m.,
dep. 84,010m. (Dec. 1988); Chair. PRACHITR YOSSUNDARA; Pres.
TELEVISION
and CEO TARRIN NIMMANAHAEMINDA; 206 brs.
Bangkok Broadcasting & TV Co Ltd (Channel 7): 998/1 Soi
Thai Danu Bank Ltd: 393 Silom Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-
Sirimitr, Phaholyothin, Talad Mawchid, POB 456, Bangkok 10900;
9160; telex 82959; f. 1949; cap. p.u. 200m., dep. 7,482m. (Dec. 1986);
tel. (02) 278-1255; telex 82730; commercial.
Chair. POTE SARASIN; Pres. PAKORN THAVISIN; 28 brs.
Bangkok Entertainment Co. Ltd (Channel 3): 2259 Thanon
Thai Farmers Bank Ltd: 400 Phahon Yothin Ave, POB 1366,
Petchburi Tadmai, Bangkok 10310; tel. (02) 3145416; telex 82616.
Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 270-1122; telex 81159; f. 1945; dep.
The Mass Communication Organization of Thailand (Channel
118,593m. (Dec. 1988); Pres. BANYONG LAMSAM; Chair. and CEO
9): 222 Thanon Yaek Asok-Dindaeng, Bangkok 10300; tel. (02) 245-
BANCHA LANSAM; 301 brs.
1844; telex 84577; f. 1954 as Thai Television Co Ltd; colour service;
Thai Military Bank Ltd: 34 Phayathai Rd, Bankok 10400; tel.
Dir-Gen. RACHAN HUSEN.
(02) 246-0020; telex 82324; f. 1957; cap. p.u. 1,000m., dep. 34,829m.
The Royal Thai Army Television HSA-TV (Channel 5): Phaholy-
(Dec. 1986); Pres. PRAYOON CHINDAPRADIST; Chair. Gen. PRAYUDH
othin St, Sanam Pao, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 2798854; telex 81080;
CHARUMANI; 126 brs.
f. 1958; operates channels in Bangkok, Nakorn Sawan, Nakorn
Union Bank of Bangkok Ltd: 1600 New Petchburi Rd, POB
Rachasima and Chiang Mai; Dir-Gen. PRATEEP CHAIYAPANI.
2114, Bangkok 10310; tel. (02) 253-0488; telex 82550; f. 1949; cap.
Television of Thailand (TVT): National Broadcasting Services of
p.u. 600m., dep. 14,356.4m. (June 1988); Chair. Gen. BANJURD
Thailand, Public Relations Dept, Petchaburi Rd, Bangkok 10200;
CHOLVIJARN; Pres. PIYABUTR CHOLVIJARN; 87 brs.
tel. (02) 314-4001; telex 72243; operates 16 colour stations; Dir-
Gen. VICHIT VUDHIAMPHOL.
Foreign Banks
TV Pool of Thailand: c/o Royal Thai Army HSA-TV; established
Bank of America NT and SA (USA): 212 Wireless Rd, POB 158,
with the co-operation of all stations to present coverage of special
Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 251-6333; telex 87329; f. 1949; cap. p.u.
297m., dep. 1,369m. (Dec. 1986); Vice-Pres. and Man. GERALD H.
events.
THOMPSON.
Bank of Tokyo Ltd (Japan): 62 Thaniya Bldg, Silom Rd, Bangkok
Finance
10500; tel. (02) 236-0119; telex 83100; cap. p.u. 400m., dep. 2,713m.
(Dec. 1986); Gen. Man. MICHIAKI MATSUDA.
(cap. = capital; p.u. = paid up; res = reserves; dep. = deposits;
Banque Indosuez (France): 142 Wireless Rd, POB 303, Bangkok
m. = million; brs = branches; amounts in baht)
10500; tel. (02) 252-2111; telex 81156; cap. p.u. 37m., dep. 889m.
(Dec. 1986); Man. J. MALLET.
BANKING
Bharat Overseas Bank Ltd (India): 221 Rajawongse Rd, POB 372,
Central Bank
Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 224-6180; telex 82390; f. 1974; cap. p.u.
24m., dep. 671m. (Dec. 1986); Chief Man. K. L. BHAT.
Bank of Thailand: POB 154, 273 Samsen Rd, Bangkhunprom,
Bangkok 10200; tel. (02) 282-3322; telex 22527; f. 1942; bank of
Chase Manhattan Bank, NA (USA): 965 Rama I Rd, POB 525,
issue; cap. p.u. 5,020.9m., dep. (govt, banks and' others) 93,601m.
Siam Center, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 252-1141; telex 82601; cap.
(Dec 1986); Gov. KAMCHORN SATHIRAKUL.
p.u. 358m., dep. 1,859m. (Dec. 1986); Man. KENNETH L. WHITE.
Deutsche Bank (Asia) (Federal Republic of Germany): POB 1237,
Commercial Banks
Thai Wah Tower, 21 South Sathorn Rd, Bangkok 10120; tel. (02)
Bangkok Bank Ltd: POB 95, 333 Silom Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel.
240-9401; telex 87949; cap. p.u. 200m., dep. 898m. (Dec. 1986); Gen.
(02) 234-3333; telex 82638; f. 1944; cap. p.u. 4,000m., dep. 248,750m.
Man. RAINER MUELLER.
(Dec. 1987); Pres. CHATRI SOPHONPANICH; Chair. PRASIT KANCHA-
Four Seas Communications Bank Ltd (Singapore): 231 Raja-
NAWAT; 347 brs.
wongse Rd, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 222-2161; telex 82191; cap.
Bangkok Bank of Commerce Ltd: 99 Surasak Rd, Bangkok
p.u. 16m., dep. 255m. (Dec. 1986); Man. NG TANG CHYE.
10500; tel. (02) 234-2930; telex 82525; f. 1944; cap. p.u. 800m.,
Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corpn (Hong Kong): 64 Silom
dep. 30,872m. (June 1988); Chair. M. R. KUKRIT PRAMOJ; Pres.
Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-1904; telex 82932; cap. p.u. 65m.,
KRIRKKIAT JALICHAN; 140 brs.
dep. 1,544m. (Dec. 1986); Man. J. BOUCHER.
Bangkok Metropolitan Bank Ltd: 2 Chalermkhet 4 St, Bangkok
International Commercial Bank of China (Taiwan): 95 Suapa
10100; tel. (02) 223-0561; telex 82281; f. 1950; cap. p.u. 923m., dep.
Rd, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 221-8121; telex 83690; cap. p.u. 88m.,
25,153m. (Dec. 1986); Chair. UDANE TEJAPAIBUL; Vice-Chair. Dr
dep. 370m. (Dec. 1986); Man. JAMES C. C. CHENG.
YONG UAHWATANASAKUL; 105 brs.
Mercantile Bank Ltd (UK): 965 Silom Centre, Rama I Rd, Bang-
Bank of Asia Ltd: 191 South Sathorn Rd, Khet Yannawa, Bangkok
kok 10500; tel. (02) 251-3225; telex 81063; dep. 209m. (Dec. 1984);
10120; tel. (02) 287-2211; telex 81185; f. 1939; cap. p.u. 900m., dep.
Man. DAVID MORTLOCK.
991
THAILAND
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Mitsui Bank Ltd (Japan): 138 Silom Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02)
234-3841; cap. p.u. 583m., dep. 1,992m. (Dec. 1986); Man. TAKACHI
Paiboon Insurance Co Ltd: Thanasap Bldg, 4th-5th Floors, 68/1
HANYA.
Silom Rd, POB 1111, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-8960; telex 82353;
Security Pacific Asian Bank Ltd (Hong Kong): 197/1 Silom Bldg,
f. CHAIYAWAN. 1927; non-life; Chair. ANUTHRA ASSAWANONDA; Pres. VANICH
Silom Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234-7030; telex 82941; cap. p.u.
200m., dep. 371m. (Dec. 1988); Man. DOUGLAS LORENTZ.
South-East Insurance Co Ltd (Arkanay Prakan Pai Co Ltd):
South-East Insurance Bldg, 315 Silom Rd, POB 2607, Bangkok
Standard Chartered Bank (UK): Dusit Thani Office Bldg, POB
10500; tel. (02) 233-7080; telex 82343; f. 1946; life and non-life;
320, 946 Rama IV Rd, Bangkok 10501; tel. (02) 234-0821; telex
Chair. PAYAP SRIKARNCHANA; Man. Dir ATHORN TITTIRANONDA.
81163; dep. 1,129m. (Dec. 1987); Man. P. GETHIN-JONES; 2 brs.
Syn Mun Kong Insurance Co Ltd: 12/7-9 Plabplachai Rd, Bang-
United Malayan Banking Corpn Ltd (Malaysia): 149 Huakee
kok 10500; tel. (02) 223-2889; f. 1951; fire, automobile and personal
Bldg, 3rd Floor, Suapa Rd, POB 2149, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02)
accident; Chair. SUPASIT MAHAKUN; Man. Dir THANAVIT DUSADEE-
221-9191; cap. p.u. 237m., dep. 425m. (Dec. 1985); Man. YAP-KHONG.
SURAPOTE.
Development Finance Organizations
Thai Commercial Insurance Co Ltd: Sathorn Thani Bldg, 11th
Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Co-operatives (BAAC):
Floor, 90/27 North Sathorn Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234.
469 Nakorn Sawan Rd, Dusit, Bangkok 10300; tel. (02) 280-0180;
2345; f. 1940; automobile, fire, marine and casualty; Chair. THANA
POSAYANOND; Man. Dir SURAJIT WANGLEE.
telex 72221; f. 1966 to provide credit for agriculture; cap. 1,978m.,
dep. 22,351m. (March 1986); Chair. PRAMUEL SABHAVASU; Pres.
Thai Health Insurance Co Ltd: 123 Ratchadaphisek Rd, Bangkok
SUWAN TRAIPOL.
10310; tel. (02) 246-9680; telex 82353; f. 1979; Chair. APIRAK THAI-
PATANAKUL; Dir and Gen. Man. PRANEET VIRAKUL.
Board of Investment (BOI): Thai Farmers Bank Bldg, 16th Floor,
400 Phaholyothin Rd, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 270-1400; telex
Thai Insurance Co Ltd: Thai Danu Bldg, 7th Floor, 393 Silom
72435; f. 1958 to publicize investment potential and encourage
Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-5991; f. 1938; non-life; Chair. POTE
SARASIN; Man. Dir CHALOR THONGSUPHAN.
economically and socially beneficial investments; Chair. Gen. The
Prime Minister; Sec.-Gen. CHIRA PANUPONG.
Thai Life Insurance Co Ltd: U Chuliang Bldg, 968 Rama IV Rd,
Government Housing Bank: 212 Rama IX Rd, Huay Kwang,
Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-7580; f. 1942; life; Chair. PRAYOON
Bangkok 10310; tel. (02) 246-0303; telex 84474; f. 1953 to provide
CHINDAPRADIT; Man. Dir APIRAK THAIPATANAGUL.
housing finance; cap. 1,541.86m., assets 15,690.72m. (Oct. 1987);
Thai Prasit Insurance Co Ltd: 295 Siphraya Rd, Bangkok 10250;
Chair. KRAISRI CHATIKAVANIJ; Man. KITTI PATPONGPIBUL.
tel. (02) 236-0035; f. 1947; life, fire, marine, automobile and general;
Government Savings Bank of Thailand: 470 Phahonyothin Rd,
Chair. SURA CHANSRICHAWLA; Man. Dir SUKHATHEP CHANSRI-
CHAWLA.
Samsennai, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 279-0060; f. 1913; cap.
4,284.46m., dep. 59,561.47m. (Feb. 1986); Chair. PANDIT BUN-
Wilson Insurance Co Ltd: Bangkok Bank, Ratchawong Branch
YAPANA; Dirs-Gen. M. R. CHANDRAM, S. CHANDRATAT; 445 brs.
Bldg, 5th Floor, 245-249 Ratchawong Rd, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02)
Industrial Finance Corpn of Thailand (IFCT): 1770 New Petch-
224-6405; f. 1951; fire, marine, motor car, general; Chair. CHOTE
buri Rd, Bangkok 10310; tel. (02) 253-7111; telex 82163; f. 1959 to
SOPHONPANICH; Man. Dir VAJIRA HIRANSOMBOON.
assist in the establishment, expansion or modernization of indus-
Associations
trial enterprises in the private sector; organizes pooling of funds
and capital market development; makes medium- and long-term
General Insurance Association: 223 Soi Ruamrudee, Wireless Rd,
loans, complementary working capital loans, investment advisory
Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 251-4132; Exec. Sec. JITRA THONGTHIPAYA.
services, underwriting shares and securities and guaranteeing
Thai Life Assurance Association: 36/1 Soi Saphanku, Rama IV
loans; cap. p.u. 1,562,125m.; loans granted: 29,502.1m. on 1.481
Rd, Bangkok 10120; tel. (02) 286-0897; Pres. KITTIPONG JINTA-
projects (May 1989); Chair. SOMMAI HOONTRAKOOL; Pres. SUKRI
VARALUK.
KAOCHARERN.
Small Industries Finance Office (SIFO): 16 Mansion 6, Ratcha-
damnoen Ave, Bangkok 10200; tel. (02) 2241919; f. 1964 to provide
Trade and Industry
finance for small-scale industries; cap. 154m. (1988); Chair. PISAL
KONGSAMRAN; Man. BOONEHAI KASIVATE.
CHAMBER OF COMMERCE
Bankers' Association
Thai Chambers of Commerce: 150 Rajbopit Rd, Bangkok 10200;
tel. (02) 225-0086; telex 72093; f. 1946; 1,374 mems, 118 assoc. mems
Thai Bankers' Association: Bangkok Insurance Bldg, 302 Silom
(1989); Pres. Prof. Dr YUKTA NA THALANG; Vice-Pres PREECHA
Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234-1140; Chair. BANYONG LAMSAM.
TANPRASERT, SUVIT WANGLEE, VICHIEN TEJAPAIBOON, SMARN
OPASWONGSA, VINYOO KUVANANT.
STOCK EXCHANGE
Securities Exchange of Thailand (SET): Sinthon Bldg, 2nd Floor,
GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS
132 Wireless Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (662) 250-0001; f. 1975; 30
Board of Trade of Thailand: 150 Rajbopit Rd, Bangkok 10200;
mems; Pres. MARUEY PHADOONGSIDHI; Chair. Dr ARAN
tel. (02) 221-1827; telex 84309; f. 1955; Pres. YUKTA NA THALANG.
THAMMANO.
Central Sugar Marketing Centre: Bangkok; f. 1981; responsible
for domestic marketing and price stabilization.
INSURANCE
Forest Industry Organization: 76 Ratchadamnoen Nok Ave,
In 1984 there were 70 domestic insurance companies operating in
Bangkok 10200; tel. (02) 282-3243; f. 1947; oversees all aspects of
Thailand (5 life, 52 non-life, 6 life and non-life, 6 health and 1
forestry and wood industries; Man. Dir ACOM SAISA-AT.
reinsurance). There were also 5 foreign companies (1 life, 4 non-
life).
National Economic and Social Development Board: 962 Krung
Kasem Rd, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 282-1151; economic planning
Selected Domestic Insurance Companies
agency; Sec.-Gen. PHISIT PAKKASEM.
Bangkok Insurance Co Ltd: The Bangkok Insurance Bldg, 302
Office of the Cane and Sugar Board: Ministry of Industry, Rama
VI Rd, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 245-9918.
Silom Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234-1155; telex 87333; f. 1947;
non-life; Chair. and Man. Dir CHAI SOPHONPANICH.
Petroleum Authority of Thailand (PTT): 14 Vibhavadi Rangsit
Bangkok Union Insurance Co Ltd: 175-177 Surawongse Rd,
Rd, Bangkok 10900; tel. (02) 537-2000; telex 87940; f. 1978; subse-
Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-6920; telex 82131; f. 1929; non-life;
quently merged with National Gas Organization of Thailand
Chair. PRACHAI LEOPHAIRATANA; Man. Dir MALINEE LEOPHAIRAT.
(NGOT) and the Oil and Fuel Organization; supervises all activities
relating to the development, exploitation, production and distribu-
China Insurance Co (Siam) Ltd: 95 Suapa Rd, Bangkok 10100;
tion of petroleum and gas; Chair. Gen. ATAYA PAAOPANCHON; Gov.
tel. (02) 221-4206; f. 1948; non-life; Chair. JAMES C. CHENG; Man.
Dr ANAT ARBHABHIRAMA.
Dir FANG RONG-CHENG.
Rubber Estate Organization: Nabon Station, Nakhon Si Tham-
INTERLIFE Co Ltd: 364/29 Sri-Ayudhya Rd, Samsen Nai Dis-
marat Province 80220; tel. (075) 411554; Man. Dir THAVORN
trict, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 245-2491; f. 1951; life; Chair. MANOCH
VISESJINDA.
KANCHANACHAYA; Acting Exec. Dir CHAISIT CHAIPHIBALSARISDI.
Telephone Organization of Thailand (TOT): 977 Ploenchit Rd,
International Assurance Co Ltd: 488/7-9 Henri Dunant Rd, Bang-
Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330; tel. (02) 257-1170; Chair. Gen. Dr
kok 10500; tel. (02) 251-8714; f. 1952; non-life, fire, marine, general;
PAIBOON LIMPAPHAYOM.
Chair. PICHAI KULAVANICH; Man. Dir SOMCHAI MAHASANTIPIYA.
Ocean Insurance Co Ltd: 163 Surawongse Rd, Bang Rak, Bang-
INDUSTRIAL AND TRADE ASSOCIATIONS
kok 10500; tel. (02) 234-8000; telex 72153; f. 1949; life and non-life;
Chair. KIRATI ASSAKUL; Man. Dir SUNTHORN WONGSUPALAK.
Bangkok Rice Millers' Association: 14/3 Sathorn Tai Rd, Bang-
kok 10120; tel. (02) 286-8289.
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The Federation of Thai Industries: 394/14 Samsen Rd, Tambol
Karnasuta General Assembly Co Ltd: 1494 New Petchburi Rd,
Wachira, Amphur Dusit, Bangkok 10300; tel. (02) 280-0951; telex
Phyathai, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 252-4391; telex 82689; motor
72202; f. 1987, formerly The Association of Thai Industries; 2,500
vehicle assemblers; Chair ADISORN KOVINDHA; Man. Dir SUEBCHAI
mems; Chair. PARON ISSASENA; Vice-Chairs ANAND PANYARA-
CHAINUVATI.
CHUN, CHOKCHAI AKSARANAN, KASEM NARONGDEJ, VIROJ
Khon Kaen Sugar Industry Co Ltd: 205/4-5 Patumwan Sq.,
PUKRAKUL.
Phyathai Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 251-9003; telex 5321; Chair.
Mining Industry Council of Thailand: Sinthorn Bldg, Room 111,
NUNDHA CHINTHAMMIT; Man. Dir CHAVALIT CHINTHAMMIT.
Wireless Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 250-1808; f. 1983; intermedi-
ary between govt organizations and private mining enterprises;
Sahaviriya Panich Co Ltd: 33/1 Liab Maenam Chaophya Rd,
Pres. DARMP TEWTHONG; Sec.-Gen. PUNYA ADULYAPICHIT.
Chong Nonsi, Bangkok 10120; tel. (02) 286-1597; telex 84924; Man.
Dir W. V. PRAPAIKIT.
Rice Exporters' Association of Thailand: 37 Soi Ngamdupli,
Rama VI Rd, Bangkok 10120; tel. (02) 2872674; Chair. SAMARN
Sangsom Co Ltd: 290 TCC Bldg, Surawongse Rd, Bangkok 10500;
tel. (02) 235-1350; telex 82333; alcoholic beverages; Chair. Lt-Gen.
OPHASWONGSE.
NOP PINSAIKEO; Man. Dir CHAROEN SIRIVADHANABHAKDI.
Rice Mill Association of Thailand: 81-81/1 Yotha Rd, Talat Noi,
Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 235-7863; Pres. NIPHON WONGTRAGARN.
Siam Cement Co Ltd: 1 Siam Cement Rd, Bangsue, Bangkok
10800; tel. (02) 587-0111; telex 72251; Thailand's largest industrial
Sawmills Association: 101 Amnuaisongkhram Rd, Dusit, Bangkok
group, with 30 subsidiaries manufacturing more than 6,000 prod-
10300; tel. (02) 2434754.
ucts, incl. cement and construction materials, small diesel engines,
Thai Food Processors' Association: 888/114 Mahatunplaza Bldg,
paper products, plastics and ceramic tiles; net sales 13,532m.
11th Floor, Ploenchit Rd, Bangkok 10330; tel. (02) 253-6791.
baht (1984); 8,700 employees; Chair. POONPERM KRAIRIKSH; Pres.
Thai Jute Association: 1 Sivadol Bldg, 10th Floor, Rm 10, Convent
PARON ISRASENA NA AYUTTHAYA.
Rd, Silom, Bangrak, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234-1438.
The Siam Chemicals Co Ltd: 26/26 Orakarn Bldg, 11th Floor,
Thai Lac Association: 66 Chalermkhetr 1, Bangkok 10100; tel.
Chidlom Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 252-0608; telex
(02) 233-8331.
84393; Chair. Dr CHARNG RATANARAT; Gen. Man. PHAIRAT
VATANAPAHU.
Thai Maize and Produce Traders' Association: 92/26-27
Sathorntane Bldg, Bangrak, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 236-8413.
Siam City Cement Co Ltd: 550 cnr Ploenchit and Wireless Rds,
Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 253-8583; telex 72372; Chair CHUAN RATA-
Thai Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association: 1759/30 Soi
NARAK; Man. Dir SOMKIART LIMSONG.
Udomsub, Pinklao-Nakornchaisri Rd, Bangkok 10700; tel. (02) 433-
6547; telex 87278; f. 1969; Pres. Dr VAIVUDHI THANESVORAKUL;
Siam Europe Motor Co Ltd: 404 Central Happiness Bldg, Phy-
Sec.-Gen. YUDHACHAI RAJATASEREEKUL.
athai Rd, Patumwan, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 251-5196; telex
82203; motor vehicle assemblers; Chair. KHANYING PHORNTHIP
Thai Rubber Traders' Association: 57 Rongmuang 5 Rd, Pathum-
NARONGDEJ; Man. Dir PHAITOON PHONGWATTANA.
wan, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 214-3420; Pres. VICHIT UPATISRING.
Siam Food Products Co Ltd: 235/9 Asok Rd, Prakanong, Bangkok
Thai Silk Association: c/o Dept of Industrial Promotion, Rama
10110; tel. (02) 258-0120; telex 82958; Chair. NAM PHOONWATHU;
IV Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 390-0684.
Pres. THEP ROONGTANAPIROM.
Thai Sugar Producers' Association: Thai Ruam toon Bldg, 794
Krung Kasem Rd, Pomprap, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 281-0342;
Siam Pulp and Paper Co Ltd: 1 Siam Cement Rd, Bangsue,
Bangkok 10800; tel. (02) 587-0111; telex 72250; Chair. CHALERM
telex 82718.
CHEO-SAKUL; Man. Dir UTHEN PHISUTHIPORN.
Thai Tapioca Trade Association: Sathorn Thani Bldg, 20th Floor,
Siam Yamaha Co Ltd: 1 Soi Annopnarumitr, Dindang Rd, Samse-
92/58 Thanon Sathorn Nua, Bangrak, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234-
4734; telex 20522; Pres. LIANG SRISATHAPORN.
annai, Phyathai, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 245-7820; telex 82904; f.
1964; sale and production of motorcycles, spare parts, engines;
Thai Textile Manufacturing Association: 454-460 Sukhumvit Rd,
Pres. KASEM NARONGDEJ; Vice-Pres. KHUNYING PHORNTHIP
Bangkok 101100; tel. (02) 258-2044.
NARONGDEJ.
Thai Timber Exporters' and Importers' Association: 46/1-5
Siriwiwat (2515) Co Ltd: 988-992 Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110;
Siphaya Rd, Bangrak, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 235-5105.
tel. (02) 391-0772; telex 81084; electrical wiring, repairs; Chair. and
Timber Merchants' Association: 4 Yen-Arkad Rd, Thung-
Man. Dir SOMJET WATANASIN.
Mahamek, Yannawa, Bangkok 10120; tel. (02) 2495565.
Srimaharaja Co Ltd: 36-38 Mansion 5, Rajdamnern Ave, Bangkok
Union Textile Merchants' Association: 160 Sethi Bldg, 3rd Floor,
10200; tel. (02) 223-2661; telex 82354; hardboards, mattresses;
Samphanthawong, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 222-3559.
Chair. POONPERM KRAIRIKSH.
Tanin Industrial Co Ltd: 52 Soi Udomsuk, 103 Sukhumvit Rd,-
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL COMPANIES
Bangna, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 393-1585; telex 82280; mfrs and
American Standard Sanitary Ware (Thailand) Ltd: Soi 18, 392
assemblers of radio and TV sets; Man. Dir J. UDOM VIDHAYA-
Sukhumvit, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 258-0175; telex 82769; mfrs of
SIRINAN.
sanitary ware; Chair. Man. Dir CHALERMBHAND SRIVIKORN; Gen.
Thai Amarit Brewery Ltd: 369/1 Pracharaj Rd, Bangkok 10800;
Man. HORCE M. WHITTLESEY.
tel. (02) 585-0222; telex 82934; Man. Dir UDANE TEJAPHAIBUL;
Atlantic Laboratories Corpn Ltd: 2038 Sukhumvit Rd, Pra-
Gen. Man. SOMPONG AMORNVIVAT.
kanong, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 311-0111; telex 82736; mfrs of
Thai Asahi Glass Co Ltd: Cathay Trust Bldg, 3rd Floor, 1016
pharmaceutical and veterinary supplies; Exec. Vice-Pres. SOMSAK
Rama IV Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-0571; telex 20011; Man.
VANASWAS.
Dir SOMBATH PHANICHEWA; Gen. Man. CHAIKIRI SRIFUENGFUNG.
Bangkok Steel Industry Co Ltd: 5th Floor, UFM Bldg, 205
Thai Metal Works Co Ltd: 181 Soi Amorn, Linchee Rd, Bangkok
Rajawongse Rd, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 223-0114; telex 84631;
10120; tel. (02) 286-7212; telex 81023; aluminium coils, sheets, tubes
mfrs of steel bars; Chair. Gen. PONGSE PUNNAKANTA; Pres. PLENG-
and slugs; Chair. JUANG NITIKARN PRASOM; Man. Dir CHATCHA-
SAKDI PRAKASPESAT.
WARN CHAIXANIEN.
Boon Rawd Brewery Co Ltd: 999 Samsen Rd, Bangkraboe, Dusit,
Thai Oil Refinery Co Ltd: Sarasin Bldg, 6th Floor, 14 Surasak
Bangkok 10300; tel. (02) 241-1360; telex 82567; beer and sodawater
Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-9781; telex 82695; Chair. Dr
mnfg; Chair. and Man. Dir PRACHUAB BHIROM BHAKDI.
AMORN CHANDARASOMBOON; Man. Dir CHOW CHOWKWANYUN.
Charoen Pokphand Group Co. Ltd: c/o 36 Soi Yenchit, Chan Rd,
Thai Pineapple Canning Industry Co Ltd: 87 Sukhumvit Rd, 8th
Bangkok 12; tel. (02) 2114667; f. 1921; seed production, crop grow-
Floor, Nai Lert Bldg, Bangkok 101100; tel. (02) 251-2212; telex
ing, poultry and swine breeding, agricultural consultancy; Chair.
72344; Chair. and Man. Dir PIPAT TANTIPIPATPONG.
DHANIN CHEARAVANONT.
Thai Plastic & Chemical Co Ltd: South-East Insurance Bldg,
Foremost Friesland (Thailand) Ltd: 3rd Floor, Shinawatra Bldg,
11th Floor, 315 Silom Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234-8374; telex
94 Soi 23 (Prasanmitr) Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02)
72226; resins and compounds; Chair. CHAROON EUARCHUKIATI;
258-0280; telex 87908; sweetened condensed and evaporated milk
Gen. Man. SOMCHAI KONGSALA.
and UHT milk; Chair. SOMBOON NANDHABIWAT; Man. Dir G.
Thai Plywood Co Ltd: Mansion 6, 2-4 Rajdamnern Ave, Bangkok
SIMON.
10200; tel. (02) 224-0034; telex 72286; Chair. THALERNG THAMRONG;
Imperial Industrial Chemicals (Thailand) Co Ltd: Benetone
Man. Dir Sub-Lt UTHAI SINTUPRAMA.
Bldg, 6th Floor, 16/23-24, Sukhumvit Soi 19, Bangkok 10110; f.
Thai Seri Cold Storage Co Ltd: 1575 Charoen Nakorn Rd, Bang-
1980; tel. (02) 253-0124; telex 21179; organic chemicals; Man.
kok 10600; tel. (02) 437-0158; telex 82812; processors and exporters
MAKUND S. RAO.
of seafood products; Pres. PHAIRAUH PULGEH; Man. Dir POLPAT
The Jalaprathan Cement Co Ltd: 2974 New Petchburi Rd, Bang-
PULGEH.
kok 10310; tel. (02) 314-0061; telex 72228; Chair. Lt-Gen. POON
Thai Sing Chao Engineering Co Ltd: 9/5 Plabplachai Rd, Pom-
WONGVISES.
prab, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 233-8131; telex 72295; iron and
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THAILAND
Directory
steel products; Chair VITES WONGWATANASIN; Man. Dir THEP
TITAMATATOL.
for South-East Asia. A new container port at Laem Chabang, 105
km south-east of Bangkok, is due for completion in 1991.
Thai Sugar Mill Co Ltd: 9/5 Plabplachai Rd, Pormprab, Bangkok
10100; tel. (02) 223-1644; telex 72295; white and raw sugar; Man.
Harbour Department: 1278 Yotha Rd, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02)
233-5087; Dir-Gen. Sr Lt CHID ONGSUWAN.
Dir VITES WONGWATANASIN.
Office of the Mercantile Marine Promotion Commission: 19
Thai Teijin Textiles Ltd: 98 Mansion 1, Rajdamnern Ave, Bangkok
Phra Atit Rd, Bangkok 10200; tel. (02) 281-9367; f. 1979; Sec.-Gen.
10200; tel. (02) 223-3000; yarns, dyed fabric; Pres. DEJ BOON LONG.
SACHEE SIRISON.
Thailand Sugar Corpn Ltd: 624 Jawarad Rd, Bangkok 10100; tel.
(02) 234-4956; telex 82325; Man. Dir VEERA PRAPHAWONGSE.
Port Authority of Thailand: Sunthornkosa Rd, Klongtoey, Bang-
kok 10110; tel. (02) 249-0362; telex 72331; 36 vessels, 5 vessels at
United Flour Mill Co Ltd: UFM Bldg, 9th Floor, 177-179 Raja-
Sattahip Commercial Port; Chair. Adm. PRAPAT KRISNACHAN; Dir-
wongse Rd, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 223-0114; telex 84631; wheat
Gen. Sr Lt PONGSAK VONGSAMOOT.
flour milling; Chair. FUEN RONNAPAKAS RIDDHAGNI; Pres. PLENG-
SAKDI PRAKASPESAT.
Principal Shipping Companies
United Grain Jute Mill Co Ltd: Bangkok Union Insurance Bldg,
Bangkok United Mechanical Co Ltd: 144 Sukhumvit Rd, Bang-
2nd Floor, 175-177 Suriwongse Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234-
kok 10110; tel. (02) 252-4061; telex 82654; coastal services; 1 tanker;
5065; telex 72255; jute yarn, twine, hessian cloth and bags; Pres.
Pres. P. PRASARTTONG ORSOTH; Man. C. W. CHAIKOMIN.
PRACHAI LEOPHAIRATANA.
CP Co Ltd: Silom Bldg, 2nd Floor, 197/1 Silom Rd, Bangkok
Universal Food Co Ltd: Sibunruang 2 Bldg, 6th Floor, 1/7 Convent
10500; tel. (02) 235-0240; telex 87345; services to Singapore; 16
Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-9520; telex 72240; canned fruit
coastal tankers; Chair. Rear-Adm. CHANO PHENJATI; Man. Dir
and vegetables; Chair. and Man. Dir CHAMNARN VIRAVAN.
PRAWAT HUTASINGH.
Yuasa Battery (Thailand) Co Ltd: 164 Sukhumvit Rd, Taiban,
Jutha Maritime Co Ltd: Mano Tower 2nd Floor, 153 Soi 39,
Muang, Samut Prakan 10280; tel. (02) 395-1095; car and motorcycle
Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok 10/10; tel. (02) 260-0050; telex 87366;
batteries; Man. Dir KAMTORN MANUTHAN.
services between Bangkok and Japanese ports; 5 vessels; Chair.
Rear-Adm. CHANO PHENJATI; Pres. CHANET PHENJATI.
TRADE UNIONS
Thai International Maritime Enterprises Ltd: Sarasin Bldg, 5th
Thailand's trades union movement dates from the early 1970s and
Floor, 14 Surasak Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 236-8835; telex
has an estimated 287,000 members. Under the Labour Relations
81176; services from Bangkok to Japan; 2 vessels; Chair. and Man.
Act (1975), a minimum of 10 employees are required in order to
Dir SUN SUNDISAMRIT.
form a union; by mid-1988 there were an estimated 539 such
Thai Maritime Navigation Co Ltd: 59 Charoen Krung Rd, Yan-
unions.
nawa, POB 2428, Bangkok 10120; tel. (02) 211-5301; telex 87328;
Labour Congress of Thailand: 1197/10 Phaholyothin Rd, Phaya-
services from Bangkok to Japan, the USA, Europe and ASEAN
thai, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 278-3262; f. 1978; represents 85 labour
countries; 3 vessels; Chair. Gen. PRATIEB THESVISARN; Dir-Gen.
unions and 95,000 individual mems; Pres. THANONG PHODIARN.
ANUSAK INTHRAPHUVASAK.
National Congress of Thai Labour: 30/1 Sukhumvit Rd, Bangkok
Thai Mercantile Marine Ltd: Charn Issara Tower, 10th Floor,
10110; tel. 391-9062; represents 186 unions and c. 100,000 individual
942/144 Rama IV Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 233-0926; telex
mems; Pres. ATT SRIKART.
82924; f. 1967; 4 vessels; services between Japan and Thailand;
National Free Labour Union Congress (NFLUC): 277 Mu 3,
Man. Dir SUTHIM TANPHAIBUL.
Ratburana Rd, Bangkok 10140; tel. (02) 4276506; represents 38
Thai Ocean Transportation Co Ltd: Sarasin Bldg, 5th Floor, 14
unions and 30,000 individual mems; Pres. THANASAK BOONYAPRA.
Surasak Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 234-7983; telex 84494; 2
Thai Trade Union Congress (TTUC): 121 Chakrapet Rd, Wangbu-
vessels; Chair. CHOW CHOWKWANYUN.
rapa, Phranakon, Bangkok 10200; tel. (02) 2212182; f. 1982; repre-
Thai Overseas Line Ltd: Sinthon Bldg, 7th Floor, 132 Wireless
sents 105 unions and more than 200,000 individual mems; Pres.
Rd, Bangkok 10500; tel. (02) 250-1460; telex 81161; 4 vessels.
WATTANA IAMBUMROONG.
Thai Petroleum Transports Co Ltd: 355 Soontornkosa Rd, POB
2172, Klong Toey, Bangkok 10110; tel. (02) 249-0255; 5 coastal
Transport
tankers; Chair. C. CHOWKWANYUN; Man. Capt. B. HAM.
United Thai Shipping Corpn Ltd (UNITHAI): 26 Orakarn Bldg
RAILWAYS
(Ground Floor) Chidlom Rd, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330; tel. (02)
254-8400; telex 84498; regular containerized/break bulk services to
State Railway of Thailand: Rong Muang Rd, Pathumwan, Bang-
Europe and Far East; 4 vessels; Chair. Adm. AMNUAY IAMSURO;
kok 10330; tel. (02) 223-0341; telex 72242; f. 1819; 4,452 km of
Man. Dirs FREDERICK W. T. TSAO, M. L. JOENGJAN KAMBHU.
track in 1989; Chair. CHATCHAI UPAPONG; Gen. Man. SOMCHAI
CHULACHARITTA.
CIVIL AVIATION
Expressway & Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand: Phaholy-
othin Rd, Bangkok 10900; tel. (02) 579-5380; telex 72346; responsible
Don Muang (near Bangkok), Chiang Mai, Haadyai and Phuket
for the Mass Rapid Transit System in Bangkok; Gov. C. BURA-
airports are of international standard. U-Tapao is an alternative
airport.
PHARAT.
Airports Authority of Thailand: Bangkok International Airport,
ROADS
Vibhavadi Rangsit Rd, Bangkok 10210; tel. (02) 535-1111; telex
87424; f. 1979; Man. Dir Air Marshal SOMBOON RAHONG.
The total length of the road network was 151,200 km at the end
of 1987, of which 15,700 km were main roads, 29,500 km were
Department of Aviation: 71 Soi Ngarmduplee, Rama IV Rd,
secondary roads and 106,000 km were rural roads. Two sections
Bangkok 10120; tel. (02) 286-0921; telex 72099; f. 1963; Dir-Gen. Dr
of the Bangkok overhead expressway were completed in early
SRISOOK CHANDRANGOU.
1983 and in January 1989 the concession was awarded to a private
Thai Airways International Ltd (TAI): 89 Vibhavadi Rangsit Rd,
company to finance and operate a 36-km overhead expressway,
Bangkok 10900; tel. (02) 513-0121; telex 82359; f. 1959; merged with
completing the ring road around central Bangkok.
Thai Airways Co in 1988; international services from Bangkok to
Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA): 888 Nai Lert Bldg,
Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Brunei, Canada, People's Republic
Phaya Thai, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 251-6503; controls Bangkok's
of China, Denmark, Egypt, France, Federal Republic of Germany,
urban transport system; Chair. Lt-Gen. SAK BOONTHRAKUL; Dir
Greece, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Republic of
ANOTHAI UTENSUTE.
Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, the Netherlands, New
Department of Highways: Si Ayudhaya Rd, Bangkok 10400; tel.
Zealand, Oman, Pakistan, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore,
(02) (02) 281-7082; Dir-Gen. SATHIEN VONGVICHIEN.
Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, the United Kingdom,
the USA and Viet-Nam; Chair. Air Chief Marshal KASET ROJAN-
Department of Land Transport: Phahonyothin Rd, Bangkok
ANIN; Pres. Air Chief Marshal VEERA KITCHATHORN; Exec. Vice-
10900; tel. (02) 271-0120; Dir-Gen. BANTERNG VATTANASIRITHAM.
Pres. CHATRACHAI BUNYA-ANANTA; fleet of 2 B747-300, 6 B747-
Express Transportation Organization of Thailand (ETO): 485/1
200, 3 DC-10-30ER, 11 Airbus A300-B4, 1 A300-C4 Combi, 7 A300-
Si Ayudhaya Rd, Bangkok 10400; tel. (02) 245-3231; telex 72053;
600, 1 BAe 748, 4 Shorts 330, 2 Shorts 360, 2 146-300.
f. 1947; Chair. Pres. PONGPOL ADIREKSARN; Vice-Pres. PENSRI
KANCHANAPHAN.
SHIPPING
Tourism
There is an extensive network of canals, providing transport for
Thailand is a popular tourist destination, noted for its temples,
bulk goods. The port of Bangkok is an important shipping junction
palaces and pagodas. Tourist arrivals increased from 2.8m. in 1986
994
THAILAND
Directory, Bibliography
to 3.5m. in 1987 and to 4.2m. in 1988. Income from tourism
18% of total planned spending. Expansion of rural education has
amounted to 70,859m. baht in 1988.
been an important project to stem the increasing flow of students
Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT): Head Office: 4 Ratchadam-
to the cities, especially Bangkok.
noen Nok Ave, Bangkok 10100; tel. (02) 282-1143; telex 72059; f.
Much has been done for the improvement in both quality and
1960; Gov. DHARMNOON PRACHUABMOH; Dep. Govs SEREE WANG-
quantity of vocational training throughout the country. Short-term
PAICHITR, PAIROTE THAMMAPIMUK, VIRAKIART ANGKATAVANICH.
vocational courses are given in more rural areas, and new multi-
Tourist Association of Northern Thailand: Old Chiang Mai Cul-
vocational mobile schools have been tried out giving such courses
tural Centre, 185/3 Wualai Rd, Chiang Mai 50000; tel. (053) 235097;
as dressmaking, hairdressing, cooking, etc. Another innovation is
Pres. Prof. PHOON-PHON ASANACHINTA.
the Special Agricultural School for the self-help settlements,
designed to give such settlers a basic knowledge of agriculture.
According to UNESCO estimates, the adult illiteracy rate in 1985
Defence
was only 9.0% (males 5.8%; females 12.2%).
In June 1988 the total strength of the armed forces was 256,000:
ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION
army 166,000, navy 42,000, air force 48,000. Paramilitary forces
Starts at the age of seven and lasts for six years. All children are
numbered approximately 123,700. Military service lasts for two
required by law to attend elementary school. From 1955 on the
years between the ages of 21 and 30 and is compulsory.
Ministry of Education made an annual provision in the budget so
Defence Expenditure: Budgeted at 44,770m. baht for 1987/88.
that every district would have at least one primary extension
Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces and Commander-in-
school. These efforts have now spread to the villages, resulting in
Chief (Army): Gen. CHAOVALIT YONGCHAIYUT.
the opening of about 100 schools of this type every year. In 1985
there were 8,125,836 children in elementary education.
Commander-in-Chief (Air Force): Air Chief Marshal KASET
Secondary education aims at providing knowledge and skills to
ROJANANIN.
enable pupils to carry out an occupation or to prepare them for
Commander-in-Chief (Navy): Adm. NIPHON SIRITHON.
further education. Secondary education is divided into the lower
and upper schools, each having no more than three grades. At the
lower level, the studies cover a range of academic and vocational
Education
subjects but are not concerned directly with occupational skills.
The upper level is designed to prepare students with knowledge
Education in Thailand is free and compulsory for six years. All
and skills for directly taking up specific occupations. There is also
education is state controlled. There are four types of schools: (i)
a teacher-training stream at secondary level. In 1985 4,022,858
Government schools established and maintained by government
were in general secondary education; this figure does not include
funds; (ii) Local schools which are usually financed by the Govern-
those in teacher training or vocational courses.
ment; however, if they are founded by the people of the district,
funds collected from the public may be used in supporting such
HIGHER EDUCATION
schools; (iii) Municipal schools, a type of primary school financed
In 1985 there were 14 universities and technical institutes in
and supervised by the municipality; (iv) Private schools set up and
Thailand, offering both undergraduate and graduate courses in all
owned by private individuals under the provisions of the 1954
fields. The enrolment of women, although small, has increased
Private Schools Act. The National Scheme of Education provides
faster than that of men. Other higher education establishments
for education on four levels: (i) Pre-School Education (nursery and
include the various Military and Police Academies providing a
kindergarten), which is not compulsory; (ii) Elementary Education;
standard of training equivalent to that of civil establishments,
(iii) Secondary Education; (iv) Higher Education. Budgetary expen-
and teacher-training establishments. In 1983 1,120,084 students
diture on education in 1987/88 was projected at 43,800m. baht, or
enrolled for higher education.
Bibliography
GENERAL
Skinner, William G., and Kirsch, Thomas A. (Eds). Change and
Brummelhuis, Hanten, and Kemp, J. (Eds). Strategies and Struc-
Persistence in Thai Society. Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press,
tures in Thai Society. Amsterdam, University of Amsterdam
1975.
Antropologisch-Sociologisch Centrum, 1984.
Tambiah, S. J. World Conqueror and World Renouncer: A Study
Bunnag, Jane. Buddhist Monk, Buddhist Layman. Cambridge
of Buddhism and Polity in Thailand Against a Historical Back-
University Press, 1973.
ground. Cambridge University Press, 1975.
Calavan, M. Decisions against Nature: An Anthropological Study
of Agriculture in Northern Thailand. Northern Illinois Centre for
HISTORY
Southeast Asian Studies, 1977.
Bunnag, Tej. The Provincial Administration of Siam 1892-1915.
Donner, W. Five Faces of Thailand. London, C. Hurst, 1978.
Oxford University Press, 1977.
Hanks, Lucien. Rice and Man. Ithaca, NY, Cornell University
Chakrabongse, Prince Chula. Lords of Life: the Paternal Monarchy
Press, 1972.
of Bangkok, 1782-1932. New York, Taplinger and London, Alvin
Ishii, Yoneo. Sangha, State and Society: Thai Buddhism in His-
Redman, 1960.
tory. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 1986.
Chaloemtiarana, Thak (Ed.). Thai Politics 1932-1957. Bangkok,
Ishii, Yoneo (Ed.). Thailand, A Rice-Growing Society. Honolulu,
Social Sciences Association of Thailand, 1978.
University Press of Hawaii, 1978.
Kaufman, H. K. Bangkhuad: A Community Study in Thailand.
Chaloemtiarana, Thak. Thailand: The Politics of Despotic
Prentice Hall, 1978.
Paternalism. Bangkok, Social Sciences Association of Thailand,
1979.
McKinnon, John, and Wanat Bhruksari. Highlanders of Thailand.
Kuala Lumpur, Oxford University Press, 1983.
Charnvit Kasetsiri. The Rise of Ayudhya. Oxford University Press,
1976.
Rajadhon, Phya Anuman. Popular Buddhism in Siam and other
Essays on Thai Studies. Bangkok, Thai Inter-Religions Com-
Hong Lysa. Thailand in the Nineteenth Century: Evolution of the
mission for Development, 1985.
Economy and Society. Singapore, Institute of Southeast Asian
Sato, T. Field Crops of Thailand. Kyoto University, South-East
Studies, 1984.
Asia Centre, 1966.
Suksamran, Somboon. Political Buddhism in Southeast Asia: The
Seidenfaden, E. The Thai Peoples. Bangkok, The Siam Society,
Role of the Sangha in the Modernisation of Thailand. London,
1963.
Hurst, 1977.
Sharp, L., and Hanks, L. Bang Chan: Social History of a Rural
Terweil, B. J. A History of Modern Thailand 1767-1942. St Lucia,
Community in Thailand. Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press,
University of Queensland Press, 1983.
1978.
Wood, W. A. R. A History of Siam. Bangkok, Chalermnit, 1959.
Skinner, G. W. Chinese Society in Thailand. Ithaca, NY, Cornell
Wyatt, D. K. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, Conn, Yale
University Press, 1957.
University Press, 1984.
995
THAILAND
Bibliography
Young, Ernest. The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe. Oxford Univer-
na Pombhejra, Vichitvong. Readings in Thailand's Political Econ-
sity Press, 1982.
omy. Bangkok Printing Enterprise, 1978.
ECONOMICS AND POLITICS
Neher, C.D. Modern Thai Politics: From Village to Nation.
Cambridge, Mass, Schenkman, 1979.
Brown, I. The Elite and the Economy in Siam c. 1890-1920.
Singapore, Oxford University Press, 1989.
Samudvanija, Chai-Anan. The Thai Young Turks. Singapore, Insti-
tute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1982.
Girling, J. L. S. Thailand: Society and Politics. Ithaca, NY, and
London, Cornell University Press, 1981.
Silcock, T. H. (Ed.). The Economic Development of Thai Agricul-
Hewison, K. The Development of Capital and the Role of the State
ture. Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1970.
in Thailand. New Haven, Conn, Yale University Press, 1988.
Suksamran, Somboon. Buddhism and Politics in Thailand. Singa-
Ingram, J. C. Economic Change in Thailand 1850-1970. 2nd Edn,
pore, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1982.
Stanford, Calif, Stanford University Press, 1971.
Unphakorn, P., et al. Finance, Trade and Economic Development
Kerdphol, Gen. Saiyud. The Struggle for Thailand: Counter-Insur-
in Thailand. Bangkok, 1973.
gency 1965-1985. Bangkok, South Research Centre, 1986.
Van Roy, E. Economic Systems of Northern Thailand. Ithaca,
Keyes, Charles F. Thailand: Buddhist Kingdom as Modern
NY, Cornell University Press, 1971.
Nation-State. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 1987.
Wedel, Yuengrat. The Thai Radicals and the Communist Party.
Morell, D., and Chai-Anan Samudvanij. Thailand: Reform, Reac-
Singapore, Maruzen Asia, 1983.
tion and Revolution. Cambridge, Mass, Oelgeschlager, Gunn and
Hain, 1981.
Xuto, Somsakdi (Ed.). Government and Politics of Thailand. Hong
Kong, Oxford University Press, 1987.
996
Administrative boundaries
ARCTIC
OCEAN
Railways
03
Towns with population
between 500,000 and 1 million
Towns with population
MAGADAN
over 1 million
0
500
1000
1500 km
OBLAST
4
0
500
1000 miles
Voronezh
River Lena
KAMCHATKA
Krivoi
Gorky
YAKUT
OBLAST
Rog
Kharkov
KRASNOYARSK
ASSR
Dnepropetrovsk
Kazan
River Ob
TYUMEN
KRAI
Izhevsk
R.
Zaporozhye
Donetsk
OBLAST
Tolyatti
Penza
Saratov
Zhdanov
Rostov-on-
Kuibyshev
Ufa
Sverdlovsk
Yenisei
Krasnodar
Don
Volgograd
Chelyabinsk
OMSK
TOMSK
SAKHALIN
GEORGIAN
OBL.
OBLAST
OBLAST
KURILE Is
PACIFIC OCEAN
KHABAROVSK
SSR
Omsk
IRKUTSK
KRAI
Tbilisi
Krasnoyarsk
AMUR OBLAST
CHITA
Yerevan
Novosibirsk
KEMER
AZERBAIDZHAN
SIBIRSK OBL.
ovo
OBLAST
BURYAT
Khabarovsk
KAZAKH SSR
OBL.
ASSR
SSR
Barnaul
Novokuznetsk
Baku
Irkutsk
PRIMORSKY
ALTAI
OBLAST
JEWISH
(MARITIME)
ARMENIAN
KARAKALPAK
ASSR
Karaganda
KRAI
TUVA ASSR
AUTONOMOUS
KRAI
SSR
OBLAST
TURKMEN
Vladivostok
x SSR
UZBEK
Harbin
Ashkhabad
SSR
Tashkent
MONGOLIA
Frunze
SEA OF
JAPAN
Alma-Ata
Dushanbe
IRAN
KIRGHIZ
SSR
KOREA
JAPAN
TADZHIK SSR
S. KOREA
GORNO-BADAKHSHAN
OBLAST
AFGHANISTAN
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
PAKISTAN
The USSR in Asia
Gen.
PRESIDENT'S DEPARTURE STATEMENT
VISIT OF THAI PRIME MINISTER CHATCHAI CHUNHAWAN
JUNE 14, 1990
Prime Minister Chatchai and I held very useful discussions
today. During a period of rapid change in the world at large and
in Asia most particularly, it is fitting that we consult with the
Prime Minister, since Thailand is one of our oldest friends and
closest allies in Asia. His visit also serves to renew and
remind us of the abiding friendship between the Thai and American
peoples.
In our discussions, the Prime Minister and I agreed on the
importance of maintaining the U.S.-Thai security relationship. I
told him that although regional circumstances and world
conditions have changed, the commitments of the United States
under the Manila Pact to Thailand's security and integrity remain
firm. We take pride in our role in the Pacific, which has
contributed to the environment of security that has fostered
peace, freedom, and the economic development of democratic
friends like Thailand.
We also discussed resolving the tragic conflict in Cambodia.
We agreed that both our countries should continue our diplomatic
efforts to end the violence, to achieve a comprehensive solution
that meets the aspirations of the Cambodian people, by assuring
genuine self-determination through free and fair elections under
U.N. auspices, and in the presence of an international peace-
keeping force.
The Prime Minister's visit comes shortly before a second
ministerial meeting will take place in Singapore on greater
economic cooperation among the Pacific Basin countries.
Thailand, and its allies in ASEAN, are key to the further
development of this promising initiative. I assured the Prime
Minister that Southeast Asia remains of great importance to us,
that we encourage American investment in Thailand and the area,
and that we will continue to strengthen our relations with
Southeast Asia in all fields.
The Prime Minister and I noted the common commitment of
Thailand and the United States to closer economic cooperation, to
a successful coach. end to the Uruguay A Trade negotiations, and to
Round of
things,
mutually beneficial economic growth. In the spirit of friendship
and cooperation which dates back to our first economic treaty in
1833, the Prime Minister and I agreed that we can and would work
cooperatively to resolve any obstacles to expanded economic
links.
Praise
P.M.
I stressed to the Prime Minister my concern over the
narcotics problem. It is a challenge of global proportions; and
we appreicate Thai cooperation in the suppression of narcotics
production and trafficking. I likewise expressed the necessity
for even greater efforts in consonance with the National Drug
Strategy I announced last September. I also reiterated to the
Prime Minister our appreciation for Thailand's long cooperation
in providing first asylum to Indochinese refugees. I assured him
that we will maintain our resettlement of refugees from Thailand.
Throughout the 150-year history of our relations, Thailand
and the United States have shared many fundamental goals,
particularly the desire to pursue our lives as free men. This,
and mutual respect for cultures and customs, is the unchanging
basis of the bonds of friendship which bind Thailand and the
United States.
As you depart after very productive and cordial discussions,
Mr. Prime Minister, may I wish you and all the Thai people
prosperity, health and peace.
Ref.
E173
U6
v.2
Bettmann
WH
UNITED STATES
CAPITOL HISTORICAL SOCIETY
FOREIGN VISITORS
TO CONGRESS
Madame Chiang Kai-shek of China addresses the U.S. House of Representatives on February
SPEECHES AND HISTORY
Edited by MARY LEE KERR
Preface by EDMUND S. MUSKIE
Historical Note by FRED SCHWENGEL
VOLUME 2
1956 - 1988
18, 1943.
KRAUS INTERNATIONAL PUBLICATIONS
A Division of The Kraus Organization Limited
Millwood, New York
B
humibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand
INTRODUCTION BY JOHN L.S. GIRLING
KING BHUMIBOL, IN HIS ADDRESS
to Congress in 1960, stated with pride that his father studied at
Harvard and that he himself was born in Boston in 1927. The king's
father, Prince Mahidol, was an unusual person for his time. He had
studied for his M.D. at Harvard and it was in the United States that
he met his future wife, who was then a nursing student. The prince,
who died young, was a great benefactor of medicine in Thailand and
the present medical university in Bangkok is named after him. His
elder son, who became King Ananta Mahidol, died mysteriously in
1946, and was succeeded by the present king.
The year 1960, when the king addressed Congress, marked a
watershed in a period of great uncertainty in Southeast Asia. Six
years before, the international conference at Geneva had reached
agreement among the powers to end the war between the
Communist-led nationalist movement (the Vietminh) and the
French colonial regime in Vietnam; the Geneva agreements divided
the country temporarily into two separate zones, North and South
Vietnam. An uneasy peace followed, but it was marked by repres-
sion and violence in both North and South. In the North, Ho Chi
Minh managed to retain his authority, but President Diem in the
South faced mounting challenges from former Vietminh partisans
and, increasingly, from the Buddhist majority, from two important
politico-religious sects, from mountain tribes, and from disaffected
students, professionals, and organized labor. Three years later, in an
atmosphere of crisis, Diem was assassinated in a military coup, and
the country was plunged into a disastrous civil war in which
Thailand, under a military regime, was also involved.
King Bhumibol's speech reflects his awareness of the worsen-
ing situation in Vietnam, a country separated from Thailand only by
the newly independent but vulnerable Laos and by Sihanouk's
Cambodia. Hence the king's emphasis both on the value of Ameri-
can assistance and on the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
(SEATO), founded in 1954 and headquartered in Bangkok. SEATO
685
686
FOREIGN VISITORS TO CONGRESS
did in fact provide some assurance of security to Thailand, but not
much else, because its members were so disparate in their interests
and concerns. Nevertheless, the U.S.-Thai relationship became a
dominant factor; this was formally recognized by the Rusk-Thanat
agreement of 1962, guaranteeing U.S. support for Thailand, what-
ever the attitude of other members of SEATO.
CONGRESS
1, but not
current
Pn
interests
Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand
ecame a
sk-Thanat
Address before a Joint Meeting of the U.S. Senate and House of
nd, what-
Representatives
June 29, 1960
30 years ago this month
Mr. President, Mr. Speaker, and
Members of Congress, it is a privilege and a pleasure for me to
address you in this stately building, which is the scene of many grave
decisions in the history of your great country and, I may even say, of
the world.
When the President of the United States kindly invited me to
visit this country, I was happy to accept; and was glad to travel
halfway round the world in order to be here. My reason is threefold.
I would like to mention them briefly to you and, through you, to the
people of the United States.
First, I have long desired to see and learn more of your country.
When I hear of intolerance and oppression in so many parts of the
world, I want to know how, in this country, millions of people,
differing in race, tradition, and belief, can live together freely and in
happy harmony. [Applause.] I want to know how these millions,
scattered over a large territory, can agree upon the major issues in
the complicated affairs of this world, and how, in short, can they
tolerate each other at all.
Second, I wished to bring to you, in person, the greetings and
good will of my own people. [Applause.] Although the Americans
and the Thai live on opposite sides of the globe, yet there is one thing
Thairand=ouly
common to them. It is the love of freedom. [Applause.] Indeed, the
word "Thai" actually means free. The kind reception which I am
country in
enjoying in this country enables me to take back to my people your
friendship and good will. Friendship of one government for another
region that never
is an important thing. But it is friendship of one people for another
free to colonization.
that assuredly guarantees peace and progress.
Third, I have the natural human desire to see my birthplace.
[Applause.] I expect some of you here were also born in Boston;
[applause] or, like my father, were educated at Harvard. [Applause.]
I hasten to congratulate such fortunate people. I am sure that they
Congressional Record, 86th Congress, 2nd Session, vol. 106, part 11, pp. 14964-14965.
687
688
FOREIGN VISITORS TO CONGRESS
are with me in spirit. We share a sentiment of deep pride in the
academic and cultural achievements of that wonderful city. [Ap-
plause.]
Just as in ancient days all roads led to Rome, so today they lead
to Washington. [Applause.] And now that I am here, I should like to
say something about two subjects which are fundamentally impor-
tant to my country, namely, security and development.
As I look at history, I see mighty military empires rise, through
conquest and subjection of alien peoples. I see them decline and
fall, when the subject peoples threw off their yoke. It is only in this
present century that we find a great military power refrain from
war, except for the defense of right and peace. I refer to the United
States of America. [Applause.] This signal example is a long step
forward toward the security of mankind.
You, of course, know by heart all the words of President
Lincoln's address at Gettysburg. They lay down basic principles
which should inspire the conduct of all nations and all govern-
ments. One of those principles is contained in the following words,
"a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition
that all men are created equal."
In accordance with that broadminded proposition, your people
have given, by their own sovereign will, full freedom and equality to
a southeast Asian nation. When a Far Eastern country was being
overwhelmed by a war for its oppression, the United States without
hesitation went to war to save that country. There Thai soldiers
fought side by side with your GI's. [Applause.] It is such prompt
actions as this that have given great encouragement and confidence
to a small country like mine. Furthermore, U.S. initiative has
brought forth SEATO, the international alliance which is the pillar
of my country's security.
When a country feels reasonably confident of its own security,
it can devote more attention to economic development. As you are
all aware, my country is classified as underdeveloped. The average
income of a Thai is only about $100 a year. You will understand
what great urgent need there is to increase the income and raise the
living standard of my people.
One of the handicaps of countries in our region is the lack of
capital and technical know-how. It is at this point that the United
States has so generously come to our assistance. And here I should
like to refer to the economic and technical cooperation agreement
between our respective Governments. Its preamble states that
liberty and independence depend largely upon sound economic
conditions. It then goes on to say:
ONGRESS
BHUMIBOL ADULYADEI (1960)
689
in the
The Congress of the United States of America has enacted legisla-
y. [Ap-
tion enabling the United States of America to furnish assistance in
order that the Government of Thailand, through its own individual
ey lead
efforts, may achieve such objectives.
like to
impor-
In that preamble, there is one concept that needs to be
emphasized. American assistance is to enable the Thai to achieve
rough
their objectives through their own efforts. I need hardly say that this
e and
concept has our complete endorsement. Indeed, there is a precept
in this
of the Lord Buddha which says: "Thou are thine own refuge." We
1 from
are grateful for American aid; but we intend one day to do without
United
it. [Applause.]
g step
This leads me to a question in which some of you may be
interested. The question is: What do we Thai think of U.S. coopera-
sident
tion? I shall try to explain my view as briefly as I can.
ciples
In my country there is one widely accepted concept. It is that of
overn-
family obligations. The members of a family, in the large sense, are
words,
expected to help one another whenever there is need for assistance.
sition
The giving of aid is a merit in itself. The giver does not expect to hear
others sing his praises every day; nor does he expect any return. The
eople
receiver is nevertheless grateful. He too, in his turn, will carry out
lity to
his obligations.
being
In giving generous assistance to foreign countries, the United
ithout
States are, in my Thai eyes, applying the old concept of family
ldiers
obligations upon the largest scale. The nations of the world are
rompt
being taught that they are but members of one big family; that they
dence
have obligations to one another; and that they are closely interde-
e has
pendent. It may take a long time to learn this lesson. But when it has
pillar
been truly learned, the prospects of world peace will become
bright. [Applause.]
curity,
Some of you may recall that my great-grandfather, King
ou are
Mongkut, was in communication with President Buchanan during
erage
the years 1859 to 1861-100 years ago. President Buchanan sent
stand
him a letter dated May 10, 1859, with a consignment of books in 192
se the
volumes. The king was very pleased with the books and in a letter
dated the 14th of February 1861, he sent certain presents in return
ack of
as gifts to the American people and an offer that became historic.
Inited
At that period, there was much demand for elephants in our
hould
and neighboring countries. Elephants had been sent to Ceylon,
ment
Sumatra, and Java and turned loose in the jungles for breeding
that
purposes, and the result is that elephants are plentiful in those
omic
countries.
In the past, elephants had great potentialities. From the eco-
690
FOREIGN VISITORS TO CONGRESS
nomic point of view, they could be used in the timber industry for
hauling big logs and other heavy materials, like tractors do in
present days. As they could go through thick jungles, they were also
used as beasts of burden for transport purposes. And in view of their
enormous size and strength, in time of war they struck awe into the
enemies. Since elephants could be put to such various good uses
and since they were available in large number in our country, as a
friendly gesture to a friendly people, my great-grandfather offered
to send the President and Congress elephants to be turned loose in
the uncultivated land of America for breeding purposes. [Applause.]
That offer was made with no other objective than to provide a
friend with what he lacked, in the same spirit in which the
American aid program is likewise offered. And understanding and
appreciating the sentiment underlying your aid program, the Thai
Government welcomes the program and is grateful for it. [Ap-
plause.]
Our two countries have had the best of relations. They started
with the coming of your missionaries who shared with our people
the benefits of modern medicine and the knowledge of modern
science. This soon led to official relations and to a treaty between
the two nations. That treaty dates as far back as 1833.
It can be said that from the beginning of our relationship right
up to the present time no conflict of any kind has arisen to disturb
our cordial friendship and understanding. [Applause.] On the con-
trary there has been mutual good will and close cooperation
between our two countries. In view of the present world tension and
the feeling of uncertainty apparent everywhere, it is my sincere
feeling that the time is ripe for an even closer cooperation. It will
demonstrate to the world that we are one in purpose and convic-
tion, and it can only lead to one thing-mutual benefit.
I thank you for your kind indulgence. [Applause, the Members
rising.]
JUN-06-1990 17:12 FROM AID ANE E
TO
94566218
P.01
Office of East Asia Affairs
Room 6644 NS
Agency for International Development
Washington, D.C. 20523-0067
FAX
Date: 6/6
To: CAROLYN CAWLEY
FAX No: 456-6218
Telephone No: 456-7750
Number of pages: 4
(Including this sheet)
From: ANE/EA, Dave Hagen
FAX No: 202-647-6791
Telephone No: 202-647-9240
Subject: THAILAND : DEPARTORE SPETCH
: Scientific /technicel Cooperatin
2. Environmental Cooperation
3. Economic Assistance
Comments: CARRYN :The attached naturals may
be helpful fa your deporture statement. ALSO:
by The U.S. We sherefore Have a fundamental
one forth of Thailand's exports are absorbed
interest in forging stranger investment and trode
wore spectics.
lineages with thailand. CAll if you need
JUN-06-1990 17:13 FROM AID ANE E
TO
94566218
P.02
ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL COOPERATION
PROGRAM LEVELS (MILLIONS OF U.S. DOLLARS)
DA
ESF
TOTAL
FY 1985
24.0
8.0
32.0
FY 1986
19.0
5.0
24.0
FY 1987
15.9
5.0
20.9
FY 1988
15.3
5.0
20.3
FY 1989
14.9
5.0
19.9
FY 1990
8.0
2.5
10.5
DA = DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE ESF = ECONOMIC SUPPORT (Affected
Thai Village Program)
PROGRAM HIGHLIGHTS - DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE (DA)
Thailand is an advanced developing country.
Manufactured exports and tourism drive Thai growth which
now depends on Thailand's broader and deeper integration
]
with the world economy.
The U.S. has a fundamental interest in helping Thailand
sustain its growth as a responsible world economic
partner. The A.I.D. program has been redirected to
facilitate strong, permanent nongovernmental U.S. - Thai
linkages central to a mature economic partnership.
The 1990 - 1995 A.I.D. program will provide U.S.
assistance for technology and business management,
increased U.S. private capital flows, and environmental
management.
Post 1995 bilateral development assistance may be
administered through an A.I.D. representative office.
PROGRAM HIGHLIGHTS - ECONOMIC SUPPORT (ESF)
Thailand serves as country of first asylum to refugees
from Cambodia, Laos, Burma, and Vietnam, placing great
strain on Thai rural resources. A.I.D. assists Thai
villages affected by refugee flow and fighting along the
Lao and Cambodia borders. This assistance impacts on
over 400 villages and 300,000 people by supporting road,
water supply, and related basic needs.
UNCLASSIFIED
JUN-06-1990 17:13 FROM AID ANE E
TO
94566218
P.03
DEPARTMENT OF STATE
BRIEFING PAPER
ENVIRONMENT
Thailand's environment and natural resources are under
increasing pressure from rapid economic growth.
Industrialization and rising incomes will double the
demand on natural resources over the next 25 years.
Currently, natural resources account for over 50% of
Thailand's foreign exchange earnings (tourism,
agriculture, fisheries and minerals).
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION PROBLEMS
Water Pollution: Less than 5% of Bangkok has sewerage.
Lack of water and sewerage treatment affects key tourism
areas as well as cities and towns. Rivers are
increasingly overloaded with industrial and domestic
waste.
Industrial Pollution: Dumping of toxic substances and
hazardous wastes is typical and few industries make
efforts to protect the environment or worker health and
safety. Air and noise pollution in Bangkok combine with
unplanned urbanization and traffic gridlock.
Resource Exploitation: Rapid deforestation, extensive
watershed destruction, soil erosion, and contamination
of water supplies with agricultural chemicals and
pesticides threaten rural industry and urban consumers.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION
A.I.D. administers a $44 million environmental project
(MANRES) to help the Thai public sector and private
sector better manage natural resource and environmental
problems.
A separate A.I.D. activity has focused on operational
approaches for coastal resource management which would
allow for nationwide policy development.
A.I.D. is helping the U.S. World Environment Center and
the Federation of Thai Industries to work with the RTG
and Thai private sector on applying today's
environmental technology to resolve current problems in
the areas of industrial pollution, toxicology, and
environmental risk management.
The National Park Service, the World Wildlife Fund
U.S.A. and other organizations are funded through A.I.D.
to support biodiversity activities in Thailand.
UNCLASSIFIED
JUN-06-1990 17:14 FROM AID ANE E
TO
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P.04
DEPARTMENT OF STATE
BRIEFING PAPER
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY COOPERATION
BACKGROUND:
The Thai university system has a small but significant S&T
capability. Commercialization of research is limited.
Overall R&D investment is low, approximating 0.2% of GDP as
compared with 2.0% for Korea and 3.0% for Japan.
Industrial R&D is less than 0.1% of corporate. revenues.
Most Thai industry uses available technology; economic
growth has lessened the perceived need for R&D investment.
ISSUES:
Thailand faces a' human resource shortage for capably
managing and adapting new technology.
Constraints to R&D investment reflect Thai policies: steep
tariffs on imported R&D equipment and instruments; taxes on
royalties and license fees.
Intellectual Property Rights protection (IPR) remains a
significant bilateral concern.
A five year Thai-U.S. umbrella S&T agreement expired in
1989 and has not been renewed because of Thai concerns
related to an (IPR) annex. U.S. agencies active in S&T
proceed outside the umbrella.
U.S. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY COOPERATION
A.I.D. administers a $35 million S&T project to promote
increased Thai appreciation and use of technology through
R&D grants, fellowships, policy analyses, and the
improvement of standards, testing and quality controls.
Thailand is an active participant in the worldwide A.I.D.
S&T competitive grants program for innovative research.
They have captured about 20% of all issued grants. (35active
The A.I. -supported Thailand Science and Technology
grants)
Development Board (STDB) has contacts with the U.S. Patent
Office, the National Institute of Standards and Testing,
the Food and Drug Administration, and other U.S. agencies.
There is also increasing outreach to the U.S. private
sector. A.I.D. recently offered to extend its support to
STDB through 1994.
We are in the process of finalizing a bilateral AIDS
program with Thailand.
UNCLASSIFIED
Chris changes before staffing
(Lange/Cawley)
June 7, 1990
9:15 A.M.
[THAI.DOC]
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: DEPARTURE, PRIME MINISTER CHATICHAI
SOUTH PORTICO
THURSDAY, JUNE 14, 1990
1:15 P.M.
Thank you all. Prime Minister Chunhawan Chatichai [choon-
hwan CHAHT-chail Foreign Minister Sitthi [SIT], honorable
members of your delegation. It has been my pleasure -- and
America's honor --- to host to this delegation from Thailand: one
of America's oldest friends and closest allies in Asia.
Prime Minister Chatichai [chaht-chai] is a distinguished
emissary from a noble land. From the temples and palaces of
Bangkok to the lush forests and breathtaking cascades of the
provinces, yours is a land proud in its history, rich in
resources, and steadfast in its culture and faith.
But in this era of breathtaking change --- in Asia and around
the world -- what is most remarkable about Thailand is its
enduring devotion to an ideal we Americans hold dear: the ideal
of freedom.
In fact --- as the King of Thailand reminded a joint session
of Congress thirty years ago this month -- the word "Thai"
actually means "free." And Thailand is the only country in
Southeast Asia that has never fallen to colonization.
So even though our peoples live on opposite sides of the
globe, our countries are joined by a common vision. We have made
freedom our common cause. And in freedom, our nations have found
an abiding friendship.
2
In our discussions, the Prime Minister and I agreed on the
importance of maintaining the U.S.-Thai security relationship. I
told him that while regional circumstances and world conditions
have changed, America's commitment under the Manila Pact to
Thailand's security and integrity remain firm. America is proud
of her role in the Pacific -- a commitment that has fostered
peace, freedom, and economic development among democratic friends
like Thailand.
But the Prime Minister and I agreed that much work remains.
I expressed our appreciation for Thailand's long cooperation in
providing first asylum to Indochinese refugees -- and assured him
we will maintain our resettlement of refugees from Thailand.
We also talked about resolving the tragic conflict in
Cambodia. We agreed that both our countries should continue our
diplomatic efforts to end the violence -- to achieve a
comprehensive solution that meets the aspirations of the
Cambodian people -- by assuring genuine self-determination
through free and fair elections under U.N. auspices, and in the
presence of an international peace-keeping force.
The Prime Minister's visit comes shortly before a
ministerial in Singapore, on greater economic cooperation among
the Pacific Basin countries. Thailand and its allies in ASEAN
[ah-SAY-ahn] are key to the success of this promising initiative.
I assured the Prime Minister of America's commitment to closer
cooperation; to a successful conclusion to the Uruguay Round of
trade negotiations this year; and to mutually beneficial economic
3
growth.
In the spirit of collective effort that extends back to our
first economic treaty back in 1833, the Prime Minister and I
agreed to remove any obstacles to expanded economic ties. And I
know we share similar outlooks on the value of enterprise --
because it was the Prime Minister who first initiated reforms
investment
which opened Thailand to expansion of its business sector. Soon
after his election, he declared his ambition to turn Indo-China
"from a battlefield into a trading market.'
That ambition is leading to results in Thailand -- which now
enjoys a diversified and growing economy, a stable government,
and a business community attractive for investment. So we're
working closely with the Thai people to assure the mutual
benefits of economic growth, as well as environmental protection
and joint science and technology efforts.
But there's one kind of business we agree we will not
tolerate: narcotics. It's a challenge of global proportions --
and we appreciate Thai cooperation in supressing the production
and trafficking of these poisons.
Mr. Prime Minister, relations between our two countries now
span 150 years. We share many goals in common -- but what unites
us is our commitment to peace, to prosperity -- and to the
freedom that makes peace and prosperity possible. As you and
your delegation depart after very productive and cordial
discussions, Mr. Prime Minister, the best wishes of the American
people go with you.
POINTS TO BE MADE FOR MEETING WITH THAI PRIME MINISTER
CHATCHAI CHUNHAWAN
II. Plenary Meeting
O
Security and the U.S.-Thai Relationship
As my predecessors since Eisenhower have done, I want
to reaffirm the strong America commitment to the
security of Thailand under the Manila pact.
We must maintain this relationship, even in a time of
diminished threat, for our mutual long-term security.
--
Thailand remains a close friend and valuable ally.
This is our underlying approach to the relationship.
We have an expanding and evolving relationship, much
wider than even a few years ago. It is thus not
surprising that we have a number of bilateral problems;
there are none, however, which we cannot cooperatively
resolve.
Security Assistance
We are faced with budget constraints which have
severely decreased our ability to provide security
assistance funding at levels we would like.
However, we are seeking ways to lessen the adverse
impact of funding reductions, such as sales of excess
equipment. We have already approved allocation of
tanks to Thailand.
Narcotics
Given the current situation in the Golden Triangle,
with increased production in Burma and Laos, drug
trafficking needs to be attacked in Thailand.
We need better law enforcement. We therefore welcome
your moving to the Parliament asset seizure and
conspiracy statutes - important tools against
traffickers ad corrupt officials. I hope you will
personally push this legislation.
We are greatly concerned about continuing reports of
involvement of military and Royal Thai Government
officials in trafficking operations.
I therefore very much welcome your designation of
Minister Korn to oversee combatting narcotics and the
formation of a national committee including the
military to direct enforcement effort.
--
(if raised) We will review with your narcotics staff
the role and need for helicopters or other equipment in
your suppression plans.
O
Refugees
We are very appreciative of Thailand's long cooperation
on Indochinese refugees, and now on refugees from
Burma. We are conscious of the number to whom first
asylum has been provided over the years and the 300,000
displaced Khmer who remain in Thailand.
We are concerned by recent statements that first asylum
countries would consider conditioning the continuance
of first asylum on agreement of early involuntary
repatriation of screened out refugees.
We oppose involuntary repatriation, but I assure you
that we will continue to work in good faith with the
countries of first asylum to find a mutually
satisfactory way of handling the problem. We will
continue to take as many refugees as we can to lessen
the pressure created by numbers on your facilities. We
also believe voluntary repatriation will work for ASEAN
countries, as it has begun to work in Hong Kong.
|
In the meantime, we ask for patience, and ask that you
not take actions which remove the focus from Vietnam as
the source of the problem and could threaten the lives
of those seeking asylum.
0
Economic Issues
Southeast Asia trade and development; investment in
Thailand; APEC; bilateral "umbrella" economic agreement
(latter only if raised)
--
We very much intend to stay engaged in all areas with
Southeast Asia - ASEAN as a group has for example,
already become our seventh largest trading partner.
We strongly favor increased private sector U.S.
investment in Thailand and ASEAN.
However, we are concerned that a major potential U.S.
investment - Guardian Glass - has not yet been allowed
to enter the Thai market. This case, which has been
repeatedly raised with your govenment, certainly will be
seen by American business as test of Thai Government
intentions in regard to free competition and interest
in foreign investment.
We very much support the process of Asia Pacific
Economic Cooperation (APEC), launched at the Canberra
Ministerial last November, which provides new
opportunities for Pacific Basin countries to work
together.
The Secretary of State will head our delegation to both
the ASEAN Post-Ministerial Conference and the APEC
Ministerial in July, and we look forward to working
with Thailand toward the success of both meetings.
(If raised) After a comprehensive Cambodia settlement
we are prepared to normalize relations with Vietnam and
Cambodia, allowing our private sector to pursue
commercial opportunities, in cooperation with Thai
business if desired.
(If raised) We are not sure an "umbrella" U.S.-Thai
economic cooperation agreement is necessary, but we
recognize the rapid expansion and complexity of our
economic links. We would be pleased to study with you
how economic cooperation and coordination could be
intensified in ways which would not undercut existing
ties, the ASEAN-U.S. Initiative, or the Uruguay Round.
Uruguay Round
As a growing presence in world trade, Thailand stands
to benefit from liberalization in the Uruguay Round.
We hope you will work with us for successful, far-
reaching results by year-end.
IPR issues (Patent and Trademark Protection)
--
For the investment you most want to attract
(information, electronics and other high-tech),
intellectual property protection is essential.
U.S. political realities also oblige us to pursue
adequate protection.
We are gratified that the Thai Government is drafting
legislation for better patent protection. We look
forward to its introduction to Parliament as soon as
possible, and to the passage of the ending trademark
law.
Civil Aviation
:
We would like to maintain the excellent civil aviation
relations we have traditionally had. I suggest we
instruct our negotiators to return to the table as soon
as possible to avoid termination of our agreement.
--
Cigarettes
--
A ban on the import of all foreign cigarettes is not
justifiable in terms of the more open trade we both
seek.
--
Recognizing that the ban is now the subject of our GATT
complaint, we urge that the Thai Government take the
political decision to allow non-discriminatory market
access for foreign cigarettes.
Textiles
--
It is not politically sustainable in the U.S. for a
growing textile exporter like Thailand to continue
indefinitely without a bilateral agreement. We urge
you to make the political decision to renew an
agreement.
--
Rice Title of Food Security Act (if raised)
|
We recognize that the perceptions of this legislation
are very negative in Thailand.
--
The political realities, however, indicate that similar
provisions are likely to be a part of the 1990 Farm
Act.
n
Need to Get:
How many Thais in US
How many Americans in Thailand
--What POTUS did on Thailand visit
How to spell Chatichai Chatichai Choonhaven
colonization4 SA
Chatt chai Chun hawan
joint session speech of
Thais trade successes %age increase 10yrs ? Total in #?
(i.e., positing to their progress as part of a gentle nudge for
copyright, trade Airness...)
Scientific Heclosical collaborations?
bi let AiDS program
w/cDC.
ooh
adorn
David Hagen 7-9240
MEMORANDUM
TO:
MARK
FROM:
CAROLYN
RE:
CHATCHI DEPARTURE REMARKS
-Prime Minister Chatichai came to office in August of 1988
He was the Assistant Military Attache here in the US from 1948
to 1950
POTUS went to Thailand in December 1967 when he was a member
of the House
POTUS and Chatichai last met in Tokyo at the funeral of
Emperor Hirohito
Cobra Gold Military Exercise:
the #2 military program in Asia
this year's exercise will be the largest to date
it is hosted by Thailand
all branches are involved
Acknowledgements:
"Prime Minister Chatichai, Foreign Minister Sitthi ( (SIT) ) ,
and the honorable members of your delegation
"
VOLUME 26
Sumatra to Trampoline
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
AMERICANA
INTERNATIONAL EDITION
COMPLETE IN THIRTY VOLUMES
FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1829
GROLIER INCORPORATED
International Headquarters: Danbury, Connecticut 06816
a past is always present
d, and the
n fusion of past and present
roust, the process realization
igh art.
i is diffuse and erratic.
cting insights that constitu
t" of Thackeray's best
ly disorganized."Comment
ne of his letters. Irony fails
and satire, poetic allus
ble are no longer effective
e novel profoundly influence
Henry James, The Newcon
e baggy monster"; yet
ve alludes to it, and in
e James' characters, the New
ckeray's Newcomes-Mme.
ently related to Thackeray's
offers a Jamesian juxtapo
and new, but although
ntly, it eventually loses vitality
r and Philip recur to ther
lready explored, and Denie
n 1864) was interrupted by
orian critics often contrast
ckeray-aptly-since their
ROBERT FRERCK
cipate a full range of fiction
The towers and peaked roofs of Bangkok's Grand Palace are framed by the Chao Phraya river and skyscrapers.
novels include mythic, fantas-
ents that play little part
se Dickensian motifs, typical
THAILAND, ti'land, an Asian country that was
CONTENTS
modes, were too idiosyncrati
known as Siam through most of its long national
Section
Page
Section
Page
listic convention. Thackeray
existence. Its capital is Bangkok. Situated in
1. The Land
586
3. The Economy
588
nic, relativistic vision, psycho-
the center of mainland Southeast Asia-touching
2. The People and
4. History and
on Laos, Kampuchea (formerly Cambodia), Ma-
Their Culture
586
Government
589
d dispassionate "commentary"
ne and method to later novel-
hysia, and Burma-the kingdom of Thailand has
voice persists in the com-
great strategic importance. Moreover, it is rich
Thai-speaking peoples. The change of name to
f George Eliot's narration,
in natural resources. It produces a surplus of
Thailand by Premier Phibun reflected his ambi-
xities and James' subjective
rice and other crops for export and is a leading
tion to extend his country's frontiers by taking
d in the thematic recurrence
source of tin and rubber.
advantage of Japanese power and hostility to
on, of dubious masculine chiv-
As the region's only nation to have avoided
Western colonial rule in Asia. Border areas were
England, and Europe juxta
the experience of colonial domination, Thailand
annexed during World War II when Thailand
'oolf and E. M. Forster extend
was able to preserve much of its traditional soci-
was an ally of Japan. The annexed border areas
may find its culmination
ety, its religious traditions, and its ancient India-
in Laos and Burma were inhabited by Thai
ince of Things Past, althous
derived conception of governmental authority.
peoples, and those in Cambodia and Malaya, al-
ly on Eliot, Ruskin, and Pater.
The modernization changes that Thailand has
though not ethnically Thai, had been under Sia-
ates, Hawthorne was perhaps
experienced since the mid-19th century have not
mese control at one time. The name Thailand
keray, Howells certainly
was,
been particularly disturbing because they were
was abandoned in 1945 by the pro-Allied Free
it "influence," Sinclair Lewis,
largely royally sponsored rather than imposed
Thai government in order to expedite peace ne-
n Faulkner continued varioush
from the outside. A succession of able rulers
od that may be said to have
recognized that accommodation to external pres-
with the incipient rejection
sure was unavoidable if the kingdom was to sur-
INFORMATION HIGHLIGHTS
el. See also the Index entry
vive. Today's visitor to Bangkok is struck by the
Official Name: Kingdom of Thailand (conventional);
LAM MAKEPEACE.
contrast between the modern airport, the deluxe
Prathet Thai (Thai).
hotels, and the heavy motorized traffic, on the
Name of Nationals: Thai (sing. and pl.).
JOHN W. LOOFBOUROW
Head of State: King.
Boston College
one hand, and the many surviving evidences of
Head of Government: Premier.
royal tradition, the colorful Buddhist temples,
Legislature: National Assembly, consisting of the
Bibliography
and the still heavy khlong (canal) traffic on the
Senate and the House of Representatives.
other. Although Western dress is increasingly in
Area: 198,456 square miles (514,000 sq km).
by: Prodigal Genius (Faber 1980).
Boundaries: North, Burma and Laos; east, Laos,
ickeray's Canvass of Humanity: As
vogue in the cities, the countryside seems little
Kampuchea, and Gulf of Thailand; south, Malay-
lic (Ohio State Univ. Press 1979)
changed. Within a radius of 50 miles (80 km) of
sia; west, Andaman Sea and Burma.
hackeray: Interviews and Recoller
artin's Press 1983).
Bankok can be seen the impressive monuments
Elevations: Highest-Doi Inthanon, 8,514 feet
(2,595 meters); lowest, sea level.
Makepeace Thackeray (G.K.
of pre-Thai Mon and Khmer civilization, along
Population: (1980 census) 44,278,147; (1983 est.)
Thackeray's Literary Apprenticeship
with the ruins of an early Thai capital, Ayutthaya.
49,459,000.
The cultural vitality of the past is very much in
Capital and Largest City: Bangkok (Krung Thep).
roft 1979).
Major Languages: Thai (official), Chinese, Malay,
he Emergence of Thackeray's Serial
evidence.
English.
1. Press 1979).
Thailand's national history dates from the
Major Religious Groups: Buddhists, Muslims, Chris-
Thackeray's Workshop (1956; reprint,
).
13th century, when Thai leaders at Sukhothai in
tians.
the north assumed independence from the falter-
Monetary Unit: Baht (= 100 satang).
Thackeray and the Form of Fiction
Flag: Broad blue horizontal stripe in the center,
lian Press 1976).
ife of William Makepeace Thackersp
ing Khmer state of Angkor. The kingdom of
flanked above and below by narrower pairs of
Siam, as Thailand was called until 1939, includ-
stripes, the inner ones white and the outer ones
t, Darby Bks. 1982).
red. See also FLAG.
ed only a portion of the total region inhabited by
585
586
THAILAND: 1. The Land-2. The People and Their Culture
gotiations with Britain, but it was revived in 1948
tion of Thailand's central valley, however,
when Phibun returned to power.
because lower reaches of the Mekong are part
Thailand has been a constitutional monarchy
navigable.
since 1932. The monarchy provides a symbol of
In the extreme south Thailand occupies
governmental authority and is respected by the
Isthmus of Kra and the long narrow neck of
population. Political power, however, has for
Malay Peninsula. Isthmian Thailand has
long periods resided with the military, who have
ores, and natural gas is produced in the gulf
shared governing duties with a permanent, non-
Climate. Thailand's climate is hot and humid
political bureaucracy. Policies have been deter-
mined and implemented by executive order,
most of the year. In the central plain the coole
tures rarely go below 65° F (18° C)
leaving the National Assembly with little real
months, December and January, and extend
power in comparison with Western legislatures.
Postwar Thailand spawned no revolutionary
from March to May.
ward to around 100° F (38° C) in the hot season,
elite, as happened elsewhere in Southeast Asia.
Summer monsoon winds bring a rainy
The government has usually been paternalistic
from June through September. The central season
toward the Thai ethnic majority but also prompt
plain lies in the 'rain shadow" of the Burmese
to discourage overt dissent.
mountains, which intercept moisture-bearin
JOHN F. CADY, Author of
winds. Burma's Tenasserim (southeastern) coan
"Southeast Asia: Its Historical Development'
receives 220 inches (5,600 mm) of rain a
1. The Land
compared with 50-55 inches (1,300-1,400 mm) year
in the lower plain of the Chao Phraya. This
Thailand may be divided into five distinct
not quite enough for paddy; the shortfall is mad
regions. The heart of the country is the central
good by natural flooding, which can be chancy
plain of the Mae Nam Chao Phraya. Mae nam
a dry year.
(menam) means "permanent river."
Plants and Animals. Thailand's plant life
Regions. The Chao Phraya is formed by the
tropical throughout. Valuable teakwood timber
confluence of northern tributary streams, and its
is obtained from the northwestern sections adjs
flat, heavily sedimented valley is capable of ex-
cent to the Salween River boundary with Burma
tensive agricultural development through irriga-
The country produces a great variety of delicious
tion. Dams and conduit canals have done much
fruits, such as mangoes, bananas, pineapples, cit.
in modern times to expand rice cultivation. In
rus fruits, litchis, durians, and mangosteens.
the heart of the central plain is located the
Among the animals is the elephant, which is
ancient Khmer city of Lavo (modern Lop Buri).
used in logging and is a symbol of Thai royalty
Just south is the site of Ayutthaya, and near the
There are also monkeys, wild and tame buffs
lower (southern) end of the valley is Bangkok. A
loes, and tigers as well as smaller cats. The Six-
subsidiary region lies to the east and south of
mese domestic cat is probably native to China
Bangkok, bordered by the shores of the Gulf of
rather than Thailand. Tropical birds are present
Thailand and the mountains of Kampuchea.
in great variety.
This area enjoys an abundant summer rainfall
JOHN F. CADY, Author of
but is mountainous and lacks extensive cultiva-
"Southeast Asia: Its Historical Development
ble areas. Modern highways link its port of Sat-
tahip with central and northeast Thailand.
2. The People and Their Culture
The northwestern region, one of the most in-
Except in the border mountain areas and
teresting, is made up of the four parallel valleys
the extreme south, the population of Thailand
is
of the Ping, Wang, Yom, and Nan rivers, all trib-
largely homogeneous. The Thai people are
utary to the central Chao Phraya River. The val-
cially Mongoloid. Lighter complexioned than
leys are separated by low watersheds, but the
the neighboring Burmese, Khmer (Kampu-
region as a whole is enclosed by a formidable
cheans), and Malay, they resemble kindred
horseshoe rim of mountain ranges, open to the
peoples of South China. The Thai people speak
south. The present city of Lamphun, just south
the Thai language, use the same script, are so
of Chiang Mai, was the seat of the ancient Mon
cially integrated, and are committed to a common
state of Haripunjaya. The region exhibits a cul-
Buddhist faith. The Lao of the Mekong low-
tural identity all its own.
lands are also culturally and ethnically Thai, and
An equally ancient Mon state, called Dvarav-
non-Buddhist Thai-speaking tribal groups extend
ati, occupied a third region, located to the west of
northward through the mountains of Laos and
Bangkok and extending southward. Its center
across the border of China.
was Nakhon Pathom. Strongly influenced by In-
The Thai language, like Chinese, is tonal is
dian culture at an early date, the Dvaravati Mon
character-that is, words that differ in meaning
maintained connections between the northwest-
may be identical in sound except for the height
ern corner of the Gulf of Thailand and passes that
and movement of the fundamental pitch of the
led through the mountains to ports on the Anda-
voice. Thai is also similar structurally to Chi-
man Sea.
nese but has a different vocabulary and different
A fourth region is the Korat plateau in north-
inflectional systems. Modern Thai includes
eastern Thailand, extending from the limits of
many Sanskrit words, reflecting heavy literary
the Chao Phraya plain eastward to the Mekong
borrowing from the Indianized Mon and Khmer
River boundary. Largely wooded, the Korat in-
who preceded the Thai in Thailand.
cludes a number of parallel river valleys draining
Ethnic Minorities. The one large minority peo-
into the Mekong basin. The soil is generally
ple in Thailand are the Chinese, who comprise
infertile, often sandy and leached of mineral nu-
approximately 10% of the country's total popula
trients, so that the area of irrigated rice cultiva-
tion. They concentrate in centers of trade and
tion is limited. The people of the Korat are iden-
industry, such as Bangkok, where they dominate
tical with Lao-Thai peoples who inhabit the east
the world of business. Discriminated against for
bank of the middle Mekong River. Cultural and
most of two decades (1937-1957) by Premier
commercial connections are largely in the direc-
Phibun, the Chinese escaped such treatment
THAILAND: 2. The People and Their Culture
587
ure
the advent of Marshal Sarit to power in 1957.
Local trade and craftsmanship are in the
ntral valley, however, parti
es of the Mekong are
Sarit expanded governmental controls over trade
hands of the Thai ethnic group, but the distant
duties, and export licenses, but otherwise en-
through designated monopolies, high customs
marketing of surplus produce is handled by itin-
erant Chinese traders. Thai farmers work their
outh Thailand occupies
he long narrow neck of
Couraged privated enterprise. Nevertheless Chi-
plots of land individually but pool their labor at
it expedient to name pres-
harvest time. Young male villagers from outly-
Isthmian Thailand has
is produced in the gulf
ETX as owners of unpurchased
the Thai ruling elite to
ing areas, particularly the Korat, often journey to
Bangkok to make their fortunes operating samlor
I's climate is hot and hun
Chinese are adaptable and
(3-wheeled taxis), or working on construction
1 the central plain tempers
65° F (18° C) in the cool
not politically inclined. They perform important
projects. They assemble in squatter hutments
and January, and extend
functions in many areas of economic life.
adjacent to drainage canals or on the edges of the
F (38° C) in the hot seasor
Thailand's next-largest minority are the Ma-
city. Many such migrants return home with
Thai-speaking Muslims, they are mainly
their savings after a few years' absence. They
1 winds bring a rainy seaso
by. Shermen and rice cultivators and live in the
then acquire a home, some land, and a wife and
September. The centri
southern provinces bordering Malaysia.
settle more comfortably into peasant routines.
The tribal peoples are less important. Those
Thai men tend to aspire to civil-service jobs
in shadow" of the Burmet
Sving along the Burma borders-the Lisu, Luwa,
or to police or army service rather than to busi-
intercept moisture-bearis
Shan, and Karen-are usually slash-and-burn
ness careers. Generally speaking, it is the Thai
asserim (southeastern) COR
women who engage in business. They manage
(5,600 mm) of rain a yet
cultivators, shifting their residence in ac-
55 inches (1,300-1,400
cordance with the cycle of land utilization.
bazaar stalls and sometimes perform manual la-
of the Chao Phraya. This
Christianization of border Karen by American
bor in construction projects, up to the level of
paddy; the shortfall is ma
issionaries was carried over from Burma after
carpenter and bricklayer. Educated middle-
foreigners were excluded from that country in
class women operate real estate agencies and
ding, which can be chancy
the early 1960's.
substantial business ventures in the cities-func-
Is. Thailand's plant life
Difficulties have arisen along the northern-
tions that otherwise fall to resident Chinese.
Valuable teakwood tim
most borders adjacent to Laos from alien Meo
The Buddhist Eightfold Path of righteous liv-
tribesmen, who are fairly recent migrants from
ing includes high ethical principles for earning
northwestern sections ad
River boundary with Burm
South China. Their intrusions into the Mekong
merit by conquering desire, but the prevailing
Valley are the most recent example of the age-
social mores accommodate the traditional sym-
es a great variety of delicio
bes, bananas, pineapples,
long migration of peoples southward from China.
bols of power. Socially potent are the demands
durians, and mangosteen
The Meo live by subsistence agriculture and
connected with status, requiring deference and
S is the elephant, which
opium sales to the outside and tend to locate in
respect from below and paternal concern from
I is a symbol of Thai royalt
mountaintop areas left unoccupied by longer-res-
above. A person's status can be enhanced by
akeys, wild and tame bull
ident tribal groups. Meo guerrilla activities,
educational accomplishment. In fact, university
vell as smaller cats. The SV
said by Bangkok to be Communist inspired,
graduates prefer to receive their diplomas from
caused the government in 1969 to begin attempts
the hand of the king. Other roads to status are
is probably native to Chip
to relocate the Meo away from the Laos border.
civil-service appointments, of which there are
d. Tropical birds are prese
Most of Thailand's 60,000 to 70,000 Vietnam-
several grades, and the cultivation of useful per-
JOHN F. CADY, Author
ese are well established in the country. Of the
sonal and family connections.
several hundred thousand Khmer, a large propor-
Overseas study and degrees have carried a
Its Historical Development
tion entered Thailand from Kampuchea after
high premium since the beginning of the 20th
heir Culture
1975 and face an uncertain future as refugees or
century, when only princes were afforded such
order mountain areas and
illegal immigrants.
opportunities. Foreign-trained professional
the population of Thailand
Religion. Adherence to Theravada Buddhism
men and private engineers usually hold some
us. The Thai people are
is almost universal among the Thai, and all Bud-
status job although they derive their principal
Lighter complexioned the
dhist young men are expected to spend some
income from business or personal services. The
Burmese, Khmer (Kamp
time in a monastery as novices. Popular religion
status structure reaches its incontestable peak in
ay, they resemble kindre
includes a variety of animistic and kindred be-
royalty, which provides the divine sanction for
hina. The Thai people speal
liefs, such as spirit (phi) propitiation, reverence
the exercise of governmental authority.
use the same script, are
for sacred images, and various forms of magic.
Within the status hierarchy, criticism by a
$0
id are committed to a common
Thai religious tradition is conservative, non-
subordinate is unwelcome and is not usually of-
he Lao of the Mekong lou
political in character, and in general not involved
fered. Silence envelops competition for power
rally and ethnically Thai, and
in a positive way with promoting or guiding
and wealth within the upper levels of Thai soci-
social and cultural change. A few monastic lead-
ety. However, the maintenance of governmental
-speaking tribal groups exten
the mountains of Laos an
ers are reacting to change and to mounting social
stability requires that the perquisites of power
needs, but their following is slight and they have
should be widely shared within the elite commu-
of China.
lage, like Chinese, is tonal
no political power. Thai Buddhists cherish their
nity in order to forestall armed coups and other
words that differ in meanin
beautiful wat (temples) and continue lavish ex-
expressions of rebellion. Ruling circles must
n sound except for the heigh
penditures on them. But the traditional reli-
also try to prevent popular grievances-such as
the fundamental pitch of the
gious activities and celebrations often seem to
high food prices, increased bus fares, and addi-
0 similar structurally to Ch
attract less popular interest than modern diver-
tional direct taxes-that might generate wide-
erent vocabulary and different
sions, the movies.
spread discontent. An unscrupulous individual
ns. Modern Thai include
Social System. Thai society is loosely struc-
who has operated successfully within the hierar-
rds, reflecting heavy literar
tured, without clans or strict class lines. The
chical system is usually envied rather than criti-
e Indianized Mon and Khm
monogamous family is the basic social unit.
cized. Popular hatred is reserved for the greedy
Thai in Thailand.
Marriages continue to be arranged by parents,
Chinese employer or merchant, who is alien to
The one large minority per
although those based on personal choice are in-
the system. Well-to-do Thai families are. not
e the Chinese, who compris
creasing.
averse to acquiring an educated Chinese son-in-
6 of the country's total populs
Most Thai live in villages. These socially
law earning a good income, but such ethnic
ntrate in centers of trade
integrated communities respect the influence of
assimilation takes place only at the upper social
Bangkok, where they dominal
elders and customary patron-client relationships,
levels.
ess. Discriminated against
which function informally as agencies of social
Adjustment to Change. There is a growing cul-
ades (1937-1957) by Premi
control. Government activities, by comparison,
tural gap between village Thailand and Bangkok,
ese escaped such treatment
constitute an unwelcome intrusion.
a modern city of more than 5.5 million people.
588
THAILAND: 2. The People and their Culture-3. The Economy
But the gap between countryside and metropolis
Thai art is religious, and it is based Traditions on
sculpture and temple decoration.
appears to be somewhat less abrupt in Thailand
than it is in the Philippines and Malaysia and
was in South Vietnam.
forms. The building of temples and the product Indiza
One reason for this difference between Thai-
tion of sculpture and paintings were ways
earning religious merit. The traditional
land and other Southeast Asian states is the
tenacity of traditional Thai social standards even
is an interweaving of dance, literature, theater music
under the pressure of a modern urban environ-
and drama. Thai craftsmen do excellent work
furniture, particularly in bamboo and ratts
ment. Thailand's long experience with modern-
Their work in textiles is much admired also,
ization sponsored by its own kings, rather than
imposed by foreigners, contributed to its capaci-
duced for the foreign market.
increasingly the beautiful Thai silks are pro-
ty for tolerating and rationalizing paradoxical sit-
uations: Reverence for royalty and the insis-
Much of the classical Thai literature was lost
beyond recovery in the Burmese destruction
tence that power is exercised in the king's name,
plus the inertia of the vast civil-service structure,
Ayutthaya in 1767. Surviving from the pre-1500 of
respect for status, and the persistence of Thai
period were copies of the linguistically valuable
identity as distinct from that of resident aliens,
Oath of Allegiance; a historical narrative of Ayul.
are all important factors contributing to the sta-
thaya's warfare with Chiang Mai; various master.
bility and unity of Thai society. Moreover, the
pieces in the fields of ethical poetry and tragic
country has been spared the devastation of war-
romance; and examples of dignified Thai prose
found in legal preambles. The golden age
fare and consequent social dislocation in modern
times. The vitality of the Buddhist faith also
Thai literature, during the century from King of
Narai's accession in 1657 to the renewal of the
does much to bridge social gaps, such as prevail
Burmese wars, saw an outpouring of poetry, folk.
between city and countryside.
lore, songs, dance, drama, pilgrimage ballads
The genius of the Thai social system is that it
can encompass contradictory factors within the
based on Hindu sources, and grammars, but only
a fraction of this survived 1767. Recovery efforts
framework of an expanding economy and cul-
of the new Chakkri dynasty centered at first 05
ture. Economic depression, involvement in war,
scriptures, legal codes, a Buddhist history of
or the eventual pressure of excess population
Siam, and adaptations of Hindu classics. In the
could disrupt the adjustment process, as could
19th century, King Rama II was a poet, Rama III
overabuse of power and privilege at the center.
collected a library, and Mongkut's reign (1851-
Education. The Thai have traditionally re-
1868) saw the emergence of prose fiction.
garded education as highly important, and until
The impact of European patterns on Thai lit.
the late 19th century the responsibility for edu-
erature has been evident since 1910. Among the
cating the young rested with the temple monks.
notable modern writers are Dok Mai Sot and Si
In the gradual transition to modern public in-
Burapha, novelists; Sot Kuramarohit and Kukrit
struction the educational system has remained
Pramoj, novelists and journalists; and Kukrit's
conservative.
brother, Seni Pramoj, lawyer, politician, and
Since 1950 the Thai government has greatly
journalist, and compiler of a distinguished an-
increased the number of public schools and their
thology of Thai poetry,
pupil enrollment. However, parents who can
afford to send their children to private schools
JOHN F. CADY, Author of
"Southeast Asia: Its Historical Development
often prefer to do so because they believe the
standards of instruction are higher there. There
3. The Economy
are inadequacies in the training of teachers for
Despite escalating prices for petroleum im-
public schools, and teachers' salaries are low.
ports in the 1970's, the Thai economy has contin-
English-speaking foreigners in Thailand are in-
ued to perform well. Foreign debt increased
clined to notice the deficient results of English-
rapidly to almost $20 billion by the early 1980's,
language training, which begins in the elemen-
but debt service, less than 10% of export earn-
tary grades. Substantial assistance in the
ings, constituted no serious burden.
expansion of elementary education has been ren-
Characteristics of the Economy. The main impe-
dered by the United Nations Children's Fund
tus to economic growth continued to be the ex-
(UNICEF).
panding export trade in agricultural products.
University education emphasizes lectures
Traditional exports increased sharply, but Thai-
rather than outside reading. Achorns (lecturers)
land also found large foreign markets for several
are traditionally regarded as fountainheads of
new crops. The cultivated area increased rapid-
learning, and there is little pressure on them to
ly, through improved irrigation, extended dou-
revise their lectures once these have been pre-
ble-cropping, and much-perhaps excessive-
pared. The emphasis on memorization of lec-
forest clearing. These changes reflected new
ture notes is detrimental to future scholarship.
road construction, multipurpose water utilization
Health and Medicine. General health and stan-
schemes, and other infrastructural investment
dards of medical practice in Thailand have im-
carried out in successive five-year development
proved greatly since 1950. For example, malaria
plans that, though ambitious, broadly achieved
has been mostly eliminated from Bangkok and
their goals. Thailand became an important fish-
large areas elsewhere in the country. Partly be-
ing nation, and offshore discoveries of natural
cause of lower infant-mortality rates, the rate of
gas promised relief from the cost of imported
population growth is 2.3% annually, which
energy. Strong support from the World Bank
would double the population in 30 years. Out-
and International Monetary Fund helped the
side agencies such as the Rockefeller Founda-
flow of aid and credits and discouraged possible
tion in Bangkok and the World Health Organiza-
injurious intervention in the economy by the
tion have substantially helped the government in
military.
improving public health.
A major problem remains the marked in-
The Arts. Thai artistic activity is at its best in
equalities in income and living standards among
wood carving, the classical dance, and religious
the regions and, above all, between burgeoning
my
THAILAND
decoration. Traditio
CITIES and TOWNS
Khon Kaen 29,431
C 2
Phuket 34,362
B 4
Chang (isl.)
C 3
nd it is based on Indian
Khorat (Nakhon
Prachin Buri 14,167
C 3
Chao Phraya, Mae
D3
Ratchasima) 66,071
C 3
Prachuap Khiri Khan 9,075
C 4
Nam (riv.)
C 3
f temples and the product
Amnat and Thong 7,267
B 3
Khu Khan
D3
Pran Buri
C 3
Chi, Mae Nam (riv.)
C 2
paintings were ways
Aranyaprathet
Krabi 8,764
B'4
Rahaeng (Tak) 16,317
B 2
Chong Phra (point)
B 4
C 3
Kra Buri
B 4
Ranong 10,301
B 4
Dangrek (mts.)
C 3
t. The traditional the
12,276 mgkok (cap.) 1,867,297
C 3
Krung Thep (Bangkok) (cap.)
Rat Buri 32,271
B3
Dong Rak (Dangrek) (mts.)
C 3
dance, literature, musle
engkok 2,495,312
C 3
1,867,297
C 3
Rayong 14,846
C 3
Inthanon, Doi (mt.)
B 2
Lamung
C 3
Kumphawapi
C 2
Roi Et 20,242
C3
Khwae Noi, Mae Nam (riv.)
B 3
men do excellent work
Saphan
B 4
Lae
C 2
Sakon Nakhon 18,943
D2
Kra (isthmus)
B 4
in bamboo and ratt
Hat Yai 47,953
85
Lampang 40,100
B 2
Samut Prakan 46,632
c 3
Kut (isl.)
C 4
is much admired also,
Kantang 9,247
B5
Lamphun 11,309
B 2
Samut Sakhon 33,619
C 3
Lahan, Nong (lake)
C 2
B 4
Lang Suan 4,020
B 4
Samut Songhkram
Lanta (isl.)
B5
tiful Thai silks are
Kapong
Khlong Yai
C 4
Loei 10,137
C 2
23,574
B 3
Libong (isl.)
B 5
market.
Pak Phanang 13,590
C 4
Lom Sak 10,597
C 2
Sara Buri 25,025
C 3
Luang, Thale (lagoon)
C 5
al Thai literature was
phot Phisai
B2
Lop Buri 23,112
C 3
Sattahip
C 3
Luang (mt.)
B 4
Pua
C 2
Mae Hong Son 3,981
B2
Satun 7,315
B 5
Mae Klong, Mae Nam (riv.)
B 3
e Burmese destruction
Tha Uthen
C 2
Maha Sarakham 19,707
C 2
Sawankhalok 8,387
B 2
Malay (pen.)
B5
arviving from the pre-150
uriram 16,431
C 3
Mukdahan
D2
Selaphum
D 2
Mekong (riv.)
D 2
choengsao 22,106
C 3
Nakhon Nayok 8,185
C3
Sing Buri 9,050
C 3
Mun, Mae Nam (riv.)
C 3
the linguistically valuable
Chse Hom
B 2
Nakhon Pathom 34,300
B 3
Singora (Songkhla) 41,193
C 5
Nan, Mae Nam (riv.)
C 2
istorical narrative of
Badan
C 3
Nakhon Phanom 20,385
C 2
Sisaket 13,662
D3
Pakchan (chan.)
B 4
Chei chai Buri
C 2
Nakhon Ratchasima 66,071
C 3
Songkhia 193
C 5
Pa Sak. Mae Nam (riv.)
C 3
hiang Mai; various mast
ethical poetry and
Chainat 9,944
C3
Nakhon Sawan 46,853
C 3
Sukhothai 15,488
C 2
Pha Hom Pok, Doi (mt.)
B 1
B 4
Nakhon Si Thammarat
Suphan Buri 18,768
B 3
Phangan (isl.)
C 4
Chaiya Chaiyaphum 12,540
C 3
40,671
C 4
Surat Thani 24,923
B 4
Pho (cape)
C 5
es of dignified Thai prose
Chang Khoeng
B 2
Nan 17,738
C 2
Surin 16,342
C 3
Phuket (isl.)
B 4
bles. The golden age
Chanthaburi 15,479
C 3
Nang Rong
C 3
Suwannaphum
C 3
Pia Fai, Doi (mt.)
C 3
g the century from Ki
Chiang Dao
B2
Narathiwat 21,256
C 5
Tak 16,317
B 2
Ping, Mae Nam (riv.)
B 2
Chiang Khan
C 2
Nong Khai 21,150
C 2
Takua Pa 7,825
B 4
Prawa, Kao (mt.)
B 2
657 to the renewal of
Chiang Mai 83,729
B 2
Pathiu
B 4
Thoen
B 2
Rawi (isl.)
B5
outpouring of poetry, fol
Chiang Rai 13,927
B 2
Pattani 21,938
C 5
Thon Buri 628,015
C 3
Samui (isl.)
C 4
Chiang Saen
B1,
Phanat Nikhom 10,514
C 3
Trang 32,985
B5
Samui (strait)
B 4
Irama, pilgrimage balla
Chon Buri 39,367
C3
Phangnga 5,738
B 4
Trat 7,917
C 3
Siam (Thailand) (gulf)
C 4
es, and grammars, but only
Chumphon 11,643
B4
Phatthalung 13,336
C 5
Ubon 40,650
D3
Talumphuk (cape)
C 4
Dan Sai
C 2
Phayao 20,346
B 2
Udon Thani 56,218
C 2
Tao (isl.)
C 4
ed 1767. Recovery efforts
Den Chai
B 2
Phet Buri 27,755
B 3.
Uthai Thani 10,525
B3
Tapi, Mae Nam (riv.)
B 4
ynasty centered at first
B 2
Phetchabun 6,240
C 2
Uttaradit 12,022
C 2
Tarutao (isl.)
B 5
es, a Buddhist history
Hus Not Hin 21,426
C 3
Phichai
C 2
Yala 30,051
C 5
Tha Chin (riv.)
B 3
of Hindu classics. In
Kabin Buri 4,687
C 3
Phichit 10,814
C 2
Thailand (gulf)
C 4
Kalasin 14,960
C 2
Phitsanulok 33,883
C 2
OTHER FEATURES
Thalu (isls.)
B 4
ma II was a poet, Rama III
Kemphaeng Phet 12,378
B 2
Phon Phisai
C 2
Three Pagodas (pass)
B 3
Kenchanaburi 16,397
B 3
Phrae 17,555
C 2
Amya (pass)
B 3
Wang, Mae Nam (riv.)
B 2
d Mongkut's reign (1851
Khanu
B 2
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya
Bilauktaung (range)
B 3
nce of prose fiction
Themmarat
D 3
37,213
C 3
Chan (isl.)
B 4
opean patterns on Thai
ent since 1910. Among
the
rs are Dok Mai Sot and
ot Kuramarohit and Kukit
1 journalists; and Kukrit
j, lawyer, politician,
ler of a distinguished
y.
JOHN F. CADY, Author
S Historical Development
Pattaya, on the Gulf of Thailand near Bangkok, was developed as a Western-style resort.
JACK FIELDS/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
g prices for petroleum im
e Thai economy has contin
Foreign debt increased
billion by the early 1980
S than 10% of export earn
serious burden.
: Economy. The main impe
vth continued to be the CI:
e in agricultural products
ncreased sharply, but That
foreign markets for several
ivated area increased rapid
d irrigation, extended dow
nuch-perhaps excessive
ese changes reflected new
ultipurpose water utilization
infrastructural investment
ssive five-year development
mbitious, broadly achieved
d became an important fish
hore discoveries of natural
from the cost of importe
port from the World Bank
Monetary Fund helped the
its and discouraged possible
on in the economy by the
n remains the marked
in
and living standards amos
ove all, between burgeoning
D
108°
E
Chongzuo
Chau
C
I
N
Bac Can 9
Pingxiang
o
Lang Son
Bai
Thai Nguyen
Mong Cai Belha
Ninh
Weizhou Dad
Hangi
Haiphong
GULF
Nam Dinho
Ninh Binn
Dao Bach Long VI
(Nightingals
F
Thanh Hoa
HAINA
TONKIN
ng
Vinh
Ha Tinh
ang
Dong Hoi
hammouan
Hon Gio
hon
nnakhet
o Quang Tri
Hue
SP
© CARL PURCELL/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
Da Nang
arat
Saravan
Quang Nam
Farmer's load rice into a threshing machine. Thailand grows enough rice for its own needs and for export.
at
Ubon
Pakse
Bangkok and the provinces generally. Because
ble those of a decade earlier, but the share of rice
Muong May-
peripheral regions contain substantial popula-
S
in export earnings steadily declines. Although
Kontum
tions that are now lowland Thai, ethnic and lin-
Muang
the rice-premium, an export tax on rice, has en-
Khongen
guistic differences accentuate economic inequal-
couraged farmers to shift to other crops where
An Tuc,
ity in promoting political unrest. Poorer regions
possible, the rapid growth of new export crops
thus receive a larger share of development ex-
reflects primarily a response to favorable prices
Stoeng Treng
penditure than in the past.
in the world market.
Agriculture. In having regularly a large food
B
I
A
Hybrid maize (corn), destined mainly for ex-
Ban Me That
surplus Thailand is almost unique among Third
port as stockfeed to Japan, was first grown in the
Kracheh
World countries. Some 80% of the work force is
mpong
Thum
northeast under foreign-aid schemes but has be-
employed in agriculture, whose 25% contribu-
come of major importance in the upper Chao
Kampong
Cham
tion to gross domestic product is heavily under-
Dala
Phraya plain. Another new crop in these two
valued in official statistics.
regions is kenaf, a jute substitute. Cassava (tap-
Prey Veng
Rice. Wet rice occupies almost 25 million
ioca), long grown on small scale throughout the
Sray Rieng
acres (10 million hectares) and is by far the most
country, is a specialty of the southeast region
Bien Hos
Phan
important crop, though much less so than in the
Ho Chi Minh
between Bangkok and the Kampuchea border;
City(Saigon)
past. Near-optimal physical conditions and a fa-
this too is a stockfeed export but is directed
Long
My
The
vorable land-to-labor ratio make Thailand a very
Xuyen
mainly to Western Europe. The southeast is also
low-cost producer, but there are substantial re-
an The
notable for sugarcane. Notwithstanding difficult
gional differences in cultivation practices and in
conditions in the world's sugar economy, Thai-
Khanh Hung
S T
productivity. With the best soils and the best
land emerged as a significant sugar exporter in
Bác Lieu
water control, the lower Chao Phraya plain is the
the 1970's, and its output appears likely to sur-
CHINA
leading rice area. It alone has a large, modern
pass that of the Philippines, long the leading pro-
Con SonBo
integrated irrigation system. The northeastern
ducer in Southeast Asia.
$ E A
and northern regions have several smaller irriga-
Rubber. The four southernmost provinces of
tion systems, but much rice still depends on nat-
the peninsula possess some 80% of the 750,000
ural flooding or simple indigenous irrigation
techniques.
acres (300,000 hectares) under natural rubber,
Overall, rice yields are only modest. Tradi-
which make Thailand the world's third-largest
producer after Malaysia and Indonesia.
tional varieties are long-term (6-8 months) and,
Rubber is almost entirely a smallholder activ-
THAILAND
being of high quality, fetch a premium price.
Adoption of modern, quickly maturing (3-4
ity, carried on largely by Thai Chinese or by Thai
Muslims (Malays). This fact and remoteness
SCALE OF MILES
months), high-yielding strains spread rapidly in
0
150
the Chao Phraya plain in the 1970's but else-
from Bangkok largely explain long government
50
100
200
where was limited by poorer irrigation facilities.
neglect of the industry, which is technically
SCALE OF KILOMETERS
backward. Under the aegis of the Association of
0
50
100
150
200
Thai farmers regard these varieties as unpalat-
Capitals of Countries
*
able and grow them largely for sale. In the
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Malaysia is
providing technical assistance and improved ma-
International Boundaries
northeast and north most rice is of the glutinous
terial.
kind, which is preferred by the local Lao popu-
lation. Because less than a fifth of the total rice
Agriculture and Population Growth. Average
D
108*
farm size, at some 10 acres (4 hectares), is large
area is double-cropped, the scope for expansion
by Asian standards. Moreover, the country has a
appears large.
relatively large livestock population of some 5
New Crops. Rice exports of more than 3 mil-
lion tons annually in the early 1980's were dou-
million cattle and 6 million water buffalo.
These factors go far to explain the higher stan-
588a
dard of living in Thailand than in many other
parts of Asia. Except near Bangkok, tenancy is
not extreme and relatively little landlessness ex.
ists. However, the situation is changing rapidly
with population growth, and the future is not
promising. The once extensive forests are being
rapidly destroyed or debased through new clear.
ing, much of which is illegal, or through illegal
logging. The once valuable teak industry of the
north appears beyond rehabilitation.
Largely through foreign aid in the introduc-
tion of trawling and seining, Thailand has an
annual fish catch exceeding that of many Europe-
an countries. The Gulf of Thailand, though, al-
ready appears overfished.
Mining and Manufacturing. The southeast coast
of the peninsula is one of the world's most impor-
tant tinfields. By the early 1980's, Thailand has
become the world's second-largest tin producer,
with an annual output of more than 30,000 tons.
The only other mineral of major importance is
natural gas, which is produced offshore from the
southern peninsula in the Gulf of Thailand. A
pipeline conveys the gas to the head of the gulf,
southeast of Bangkok, for use in the production
of electricity and petrochemicals.
Manufacturing is the most rapidly growing
sector of the economy, but total employment re-
mains very small. In addition to a wide range of
consumer industries are more capital-intensive
activities such as vehicle assembly, glass and
chemical production, and steel fabrication. In-
dustrial development outside Bangkok is ex-
tremely limited.
Trade. Thailand's largest trade partner is Ja-
© SUSAN MCCARTNEY/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
pan, which accounts for some 30% of total trade
turnover (imports plus exports) and with which
(Above) A fruit-and-vegetable market on a Bangkok canal
Thailand normally has a large deficit balance.
requires little overhead cost. (Below) A woman paints an
Despite buoyant exports, the overall trade bal-
umbrella in the northern village of Bang Sor, which is
ance has also been in deficit in most years. Ex-
noted for its handcrafted parasols.
ports of manufactures, particularly of textiles and
PORTERFIELD-CHICKERING/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
apparel, augment those of primary products, but
quota restrictions hinder further penetration of
foreign markets. Nevertheless, through capital
inflows in the form of aid, foreign investment,
and tourism, the overall balance of payments is
usually favorable.
Transportation. Until the early 1960's, trans-
portation facilities were largely confined to the
waterways of the Chao Phraya plain, which are
still heavily used for the transport of rice and oth-
er bulk commodities, and to the state railways.
Strategic considerations had powerfully influ-
enced the growth of the rail system, but the
state's desire to protect it from highway competi-
tion forced large parts of the country to depend
on roads fit only for oxcarts and impassable in the
rainy season. A massive program of road con-
struction, much the result of foreign aid, has
made most parts of the country accessible to
motor vehicles. Trunk routes now link most re-
gional urban centers with the capital, and all-
weather feeder roads in the provinces greatly
stimulated cash-crop production. About half of
all the motor vehicles are in the Bangkok area,
where many of the old khlongs (canals) have
been paved over.
Modernization of the port system has been
more protracted. Although Bangkok became ac-
cessible to oceangoing vessels in 1957, its port
has always been congested. Sattahip, on the
Gulf of Thailand, originally a U.S. base and used
in the American aid program, may provide some
relief, but major improvement must await the
588b
the Mon state of Pegu in southern Burma.
eru was a mercenary leader, formerly in Was
khamhaeng's employ, who took over Pegu Ram- fo).
lowing the overthrow of the Burmese state
Pagan, to the north, by armies of
In Burma's central
chiefs seized control
ters, which they
attacks by the Mongols.
It is more than coincidental that Thai hege.
mony developed during the peak period of the
Mongol impact on Southeast Asia, but the latter
Siamese borrowed from both the Mon and
factor was more occasion than cause. The early
Khmer in such cultural areas as alphabet and
script, spirit propitiation and Theravada Bud-
dhism, architecture and art forms, kingship tradi-
tions and governmental institutions. But a dis-
tinct Thai flavor was added.
Ascendancy of Ayutthaya. Following Ramkham-
haeng's death in 1317, it became evident that the
extended Thai empire required a capital central.
ly located in the lower Chao Phraya plain, close
to the Gulf of Thailand, adjacent both to Angkor
and to the passes leading across the isthmus to
ports on the Andaman Sea. The city and king-
dom of Ayutthaya accordingly were founded in
1350 by Ramathibodi, a descendant of the
Chiang Mai line, in a move long resisted by Suk-
hothai. During his 20-year rule Ramathibodi I
extended Ayutthaya's control along the Tenas-
JACK FIELDS/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
serim coast of the Andaman Sea and promulgated
Stupas, or Buddhist reliquary structures, stand on the site
a Siamese law code that combined local customs
of Ayutthaya, a Thai capital destroyed in 1767.
(such as trial by ordeal) with adaptations of the
classical Indian Code of Manu. It was not until
1438 that Sukhothai acknowledged vassaldom to
11th century. Unable to capture the fortified
Ayutthaya, and Chiang Mai's resistance contin-
city of Lavo; on the east bank of the Chao Phraya
ued well into the next century. Meanwhile,
River, the Thai invaders proceeded southward
Ayutthaya's attacks on the Khmer had so weak-
along the west bank, overrunning the Mon state
ened them that Angkor was abandoned after
of Dvaravati and continuing into the isthmus.
1444, causing its famed irrigation facilities to be
Khmer control also collapsed in the Korat area
swallowed up by the jungle.
along the middle Mekong.
King Trailok (reigned 1448-1488) divided his
The incomparable hero of early Siamese his-
administration into several functional depart-
tory was Ramkhamhaeng. The second son of Sri
ments. He also assigned fieflike estates to high
Indradit, he took over in 1275 and ruled until
officials and set up a code of palace law defining
1317. Siamese legend probably exaggerates his
the status of princely personnel and the obliga-
stature as a man of learning, but he was a skillful
tions of vassal states. The office of deputy king
military leader and diplomat and a wise and just
(uparat) was instituted to relieve the difficulty of
ruler. He reportedly challenged the rigid
selecting successors.
Khmer tradition of divine absolutism by permit-
Ayutthaya's rise owed much to the collapse of
ting popular appeals for redress of grievances by
older Mon and Khmer power, to the dismember-
direct application to the palace itself. The im-
ment of the Pagan kingdom in Burma, and to the
pressive palace ruins at Sukhothai reflect the
slowness of the southward movement of the Viet-
strong cultural influence emanating from Khmer
namese along the east coast of Indochina in the
Angkor, including an imposing colonnaded re-
face of tenacious Cham resistance. But Siam
ception hall and massive Buddhist shrines. But
encountered inevitable opposition-in the 15th
the laterite blocks available locally at Sukhothai
century from Malacca (now Melaka), a powerful
were a poor substitute for the more easily sculp-
commercial center in Malaya that the Portuguese
tured sandstone of Angkor. Ramkhamhaeng's
-took over in 1511, and in the 16th century from
military operations were patterned on the model
the Toungoo dynasty of Burma.
of the Mongol armies of Kublai Khan, with whom
A Burmese attack on Ayutthaya came in the
Sukhothai cultivated friendly vassal relations.
late 1540's, when King Tabinshweti, assisted by
The resistance of Haripunjaya was crushed in
Portuguese gunner mercenaries, invaded Siam
1292 by Ramkhamhaeng's ally, King Mangrai of
by way of Tenasserim. This attack ran aground
Chiang Rai, a Thai state located to the northeast
partly because Ayutthaya had enlisted the assis-
along the major route of Thai entry from the
tance of another group of Portuguese gunners.
north. Mangrai then founded a new capital at
Approximately a decade later, Burma's King
Chiang Mai. Other Thai communities, in the
Bayinnaung, now in full command of Burmese
upper Mekong basin as far upstream as
and Shan resources, invaded Siam through the
Louangphrabang, in modern Laos, became tribu-
Chiang Mai corridor in the north, where support
tary to Sukhothai. Ramkhamhaeng is properly
for Ayutthaya was less than enthusiastic. Chiang
acclaimed as the creator of the Siamese state.
Mai became for a time vassal to Burma, as did the
Also vassal to Sukhothai was King Wareru of
new Laotian state of Lan Xang. Bayinnaung's
590
in southern Burma.
leader, formerly in Ram.
who took over Pegu fol
of the Burmese state
y Mongol armies in 1287
ssfully defended from late
S.
incidental that Thai hege
ng the peak period of the
itheast Asia, but the latter
ion than cause. The early
rom both the Mon and
ral areas as alphabet and
tion and Theravada Bud.
d art forms, kingship tradi.
al institutions. But a dis.
added.
aya. Following Ramkham-
it became evident that the
required a capital central.
:r Chao Phraya plain, close
d, adjacent both to Angkor
ding across the isthmus to
A. PETERSON/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
n Sea. The city and king.
Classical dance is one of Thailand's finest examples of artistic expression.
cordingly were founded in
di, a descendant of the
move long resisted by Suk
!0-year rule Ramathibodi
first capture of Ayutthaya in 1564 was promptly
from both Tenasserim and the north. This time
I
control along the Tenas.
annulled by its rebellion. His second attempt in
Ayutthaya's defenses were completely de-
laman Sea and promulgated
1569 was devastatingly effective. A vassal king
stroyed, together with its palaces and temples
hat combined local customs
was installed, and so powerless did Ayutthaya
and its artistic and literary treasures.
eal) with adaptations of the
become that the Khmer managed to return to
Siam benefited from the invasion of Burma by
Angkor.
Chinese armies in 1767-1770 and from internal
of Manu. It was not until
acknowledged vassaldom to
The disintegration of Bayinnaung's empire
troubles that subsequently developed there.
after his death in 1581 saw the emergence of the
Meanwhile, Siamese guerrilla resistance broke
ng Mai's resistance contin-
heroic Phra Naret, son of Ayutthaya's vassal king.
out in areas to the west of the lower Chao Phraya
next. century. Meanwhile
n the Khmer had so weak
He challenged the Burmese power after 1584,
plain. The guerrillas were led by a half-Chinese
gkor was abandoned after
recaptured Angkor in 1589, and took over Ayut-
named Phraya Taksin, who repelled renewed
thaya in his own right as King Naresuan in 1590.
Burmese invasions, eliminated the last heir of
ed irrigation facilities to be
He recovered Tenasserim in 1593 and also rees-
the Ayutthaya line, and set himself up as king in
jungle.
tablished suzerainty over Chiang Mai in 1595.
1778 with his capital at Thon Buri, on the lower
ned 1448-1488) divided his
several functional depart
Naresuan and Ramkhamhaeng are the authentic
Chao Phraya River. Taksin was rightly ac-
gned fieflike estates to high
heroes of Siam's history.
claimed as a military hero, but he early demon-
code of palace law defining
European Intervention and Renewed Burmese Inva-
strated signs of mental derangement and was
y personnel and the obliga-
sions. Throughout most of the 17th century, Siam
pushed aside in 1781 by a coterie of nobles. In
The office of deputy king
was receptive rather than hostile to newly ar-
1782 they installed King Rama I as the first rep-
rived European trading companies operating in
resentative of the new Chakkri dynasty. A new
ed to relieve the difficulty of
Southeast Asia. Ayutthaya welcomed Dutch
capital, Bangkok, was built directly across the
wed much to the collapse of
traders in 1608 and British in 1612. The British
river from Thon Buri and was adorned with a
became discouraged in 1622, and Ayutthaya
splendid palace and temple areas.
er power, to the dismember-
broke with the Dutch under King Narai (reigned
Recovery Under the Chakkri. Siam required sev-
ingdom in Burma, and to the
award movement of the Viet-
1657-1688), who invited first the British and
eral decades to recover from the catastrophe of
ist coast of Indochina in the
then the French to replace the Dutch. Two de-
1767. Rama I repelled Burmese attacks during
cades of intrigue on the part of French Jesuit
the 1780's and 1790's, gained control over the
Cham resistance. But Siam
missionaries and agents of the Paris government
lower isthmus and Chiang Mai, and carried
able opposition-in the 15th
ca (now Melaka), a powerful
with Constantine Phaulkon, an unscrupulous
through laborious drainage operations on Bang-
n Malaya that the Portuguese
Greek adventurer-interpreten in high position at
kok's water-logged site. He also took advantage
and in the 16th century from
Narai's court, threatened to subvert the kingdom
of civil strife raging in Vietnam to establish Thai
to French control. A hostile court faction inter-
hegemony in the Khmer Kingdom of Cambodia:
of Burma.
His successor, Rama II (reigned 1809-1824),
k on Ayutthaya came in the
vened in 1688, during the course of Narai's ter-
ing Tabinshweti, assisted by
minal illness, and Phaulkon was executed. His
contributed substantially to the recovery of reli-
mercenaries, invaded Siam
palatial residence at Lop Buri can still be identi-
gious, literary, and art treasures lost at Ayutthaya,
im. This attack ran aground
fied. After Phaulkon's death, the Dutch re-
but he failed to regain Tenasserim from Burma.
sumed commercial operations with Siam, but for
Rama III (reigned 1821-1851) made minimal
thaya had enlisted the assis-
roup of Portuguese gunners.
more than a century and a half thereafter, other
concessions in 1822 and 1826 to the British pres-
lecade later, Burma's King
Europeans were suspect in Ayutthaya.
ence on Pinang (Penang) Island off Kedah, a
n full command of Burmese
Trouble again developed between Siam and
Malay sultanate that was theoretically vassal to
S, invaded Siam through the
Burma in the mid-1700's, when the vigorous new
Bangkok, but he failed to recover Tenasserim
Konbaung dynasty unified Burma. A Burmese
during and after the first Anglo-Burmese War of
r in the north, where support
ess than enthusiastic. Chiang
attack on Ayutthaya failed in 1759 when King
1825. However, Siam's security was enhanced by
me vassal to Burma, as did the
Alaungpaya was fatally injured. His son, Hsin-
the veto that British possession of Tenasserim
of Lan Xang. Bayinnaung's
byushin, was successful in 1766-1767, attacking
provided against subsequent Burmese attacks.
591
MATHIAS OPPERSDORFF/PHOTO RESEARCHEDS
Elephants at a training school near Chiang Mai are given time off for their favorite sport-bathing.
Rama III afforded little encouragement to Euro-
From 1893 to the death of Chulalongkom in
peans either in trade or treaty relations, and he
1910, Bangkok made rigorous efforts to modern-
endeavored to strengthen Siam internally. He
ize the government, courts and legal codes, the
conquered most of Laos after 1828 and subse-
economy, and foreign relations. The lead was
quently agreed to share suzerainty over Cambo-
taken by two princes who had been trained in
dia with the Nguyen dynasty of Vietnam.
Europe, Prince Damrong as interior minister and
Colonial Threat. At the end of Rama III's 30
Prince Devawongse in law and foreign relations.
years of firm rule, Siam faced expanding Europe-
Siam made its final territorial concessions to
an colonial influences on its borders. An indefi-
France in Laos (1904) and Cambodia (1907) and
nite continuation of Bangkok's refusal to come to
to Britain when Thailand gave up its claim to
terms commercially and politically with develop-
suzerainty over four Malay sultanates (1909).
ing British-Indian hegemony in Southeast Asia
World War I finally dissipated the colonial
would have raised serious problems.
threat. By the statesmanship of two rulers, Siam
Prince Mongkut (Rama IV) lived as a Bud-
was thus spared the experience of colonization.
dhist monk throughout the reign of his half-
The postwar period witnessed the final revision
brother Rama III. He was a reformist Buddhist
of all of Siam's unequal treaties, dating from the
scholar, who had acquired a command of English
Bowring Treaty of 1855.
and Latin from missionary friends, along with a
Limited Monarchy to 1963. Chulalongkorn's two
lively interest in Western science. Mongkut
sons, who took over successively in 1910 and
(reigned 1851-1868) negotiated the Bowring
1925, were educated in Europe and fitted rather
Treaty with Britain in 1855, which provided a
badly into the Bangkok setting. King Vajiravudh
pattern for treaties with other Western powers.
(reigned 1910-1925) aspired to be a writer and
The treaties limited Siam's control of foreign
actor and became a patron of rugby and polo and
trade, domestic taxes and customs collections,
an extravagant entertainer. His brother, Praja-
and Siamese court jurisdiction over resident for-
dhipok (reigned 1925-1935), was politically
eigners. Mongkut initiated the practice of invit-
more liberally inclined but lacked the personal
ing a variety of Western advisers of different
authority and intellectual vigor needed to carry
nations to assist him in the modernization of gov-
through reforms in the face of conservative opposi-
ernment, transportation, education, and the
tion at court. Forced by the post-1929 depres-
armed services. The advent of French imperial-
sion to cut expenses, he offended the European-
ism in southern Vietnam and Cambodia in the
educated civilian and army elite, who regarded
1860's presented a threat with which Mongkut's
monarchal absolutism as a barrier to progress.
son and successor, King Chulalongkorn, or Rama
When the malcontents staged a coup in 1932,
V (reigned 1868-1910) would have to deal.
the king failed to challenge the rebels and
Chulalongkorn's initial caution as a reforming
eventually had to abdicate in favor of a youthful
king, in deference to court conservatives, gave
nephew living in Switzerland. The reformers
way in the face of threats of colonial intrusions.
eventually split between a somewhat leftist civil-
British interference in several of the Malay sul-
ian faction, led by the lawyer Pridi Phanomyong.
tanates in 1874-1875 challenged Bangkok's tra-
and the military group of Col. Plaek Phibunsong-
ditional suzerain claims there. France moved
khram. The colonel took over power in 1937 and
into northern Vietnam in 1883-1885, and British
trimmed his sails to catch the Japanese breeze
Burma absorbed what was left of the Burma king-
during World War II as a means of recovering
dom in 1885. In 1893-1895, France erased
territories. on all of Thailand's frontiers. As the
Siam's holdings in Cambodia and took over all of
war turned against Japan, Phibun gave way in
Laos east of the Mekong in a warlike gesture that
1944 to Pridi's Free Thai faction, which made
found Bangkok virtually defenseless when the
peace with Britain but gave initial support to var-
British refused assistance.
ious anti-French factions in Indochina.
592
© DE WILDENBERG/SYGMA
ATHIAS OPPERSDORFF/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
favorite sport-bathing.
The royal barge appeared on the Chao Phraya river during the Bangkok bicentenary celebration in 1982.
death of Chulalongkom in
Pridi lost out in 1946-47. As the royal re-
id economic growth. Changes of political lead-
rigorous efforts to modern-
gent, he recalled King Ananda Mahidol from Eu-
ership sometimes were carried out by force (as in
courts and legal codes, the
rope in late 1945 in an endeavor to prepare him
1971, 1973, and 1976) and sometimes by peaceful
in relations. The lead was
for his future symbolic role as ruler. When, on
means. The generals aligned Thailand very
S who had been trained in
the eve of Ananda's return to Europe in June
closely with the United States during the Viet-
rong as interior minister and
1946, the king was found shot in bed under mys-
nam War years.
in law and foreign relations
terious circumstances, political enemies of Pridi,
From time to time, the generals allowed civil-
1 territorial concessions to
with no justification, blamed him for the deed.
ian politicians and parties broader participation
1) and Cambodia (1907) and
His meager civilian and naval support was un-
in government. In 1983, for example, the consti-
ailand gave up its claim to
able to withstand Phibun's mobilization of royal-
tution was amended to allow for a more demo-
Malay sultanates (1909).
ist and army opposition, and Pridi was obliged to
ally dissipated the colonial
flee the country in 1947, leaving the military fac-
manship of two rulers, Siam
tion in full control.
In parts of Thailand, people build houses for spirits to live
experience of colonization.
Phibun was joined by younger police and
in, and leave offerings for the supposed residents.
witnessed the final revision
army leadership in the persons of Phao Siyanon
PORTERFIELD/CHICKERING/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
[ual treaties, dating from the
and Sarit Thanarat, respectively. They kept the
855.
trial of Ananda's alleged assassins going on until
) 1963. Chulalongkorn's two
1955, while pursuing an anti-Chinese policy in
Γ successively in 1910 and
the domestic economic field. King Bhumibol
I in Europe and fitted rather
Adulyadej, Ananda's younger brother, returned
:ok setting. King Vajiravudh
to Bangkok from Europe in 1950 and played a
) aspired to be a writer and
symbolic role in the government.
patron of rugby and polo and
Marshal Sarit ousted both Phibun and Phao in
rtainer. His brother, Praja-
1957, assumed direct control of the government
925-1935), was politically
in 1958, and was vested with almost absolute
ned but lacked the personal
powers as premier. He began an impressive
ectual vigor needed to carry
economic development program, which was con-
e face of conservative opposi-
tinued after his death in 1963.
ed by the post-1929 depres-
Meanwhile, Thailand had taken a firm anti-
i, he offended the European-
Communist stance, beginning with Mao Tse-
nd army elite, who regarded
tung's triumph in China in 1949 and the outbreak
m as a barrier to progress.
of the Korean War the next year. A Thai army
ntents staged a coup in 1932,
contingent was sent to Korea in support of Unit-
challenge the rebels and
ed Nations forces, and in 1954, Thailand joined
bdicate in favor of a youthful
the United States and six other nations in signing
Switzerland. The reformers
the collective defense treaty that created the
ween a somewhat leftist civil-
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).
he lawyer Pridi Phanomyong,
Later the United States gave unilateral assur-
up of Col. Plaek Phibunsong.
ances of Thailand's security.
1 took over power in 1937 and
JOHN F. CADY, Author of
o catch the Japanese breeze
"Southeast Asia: Its Historical Development'
II as a means of recovering
Thailand's frontiers. As the
The Vietnam War and Postwar Adjustments. After
Japan, Phibun gave way in
Marshal Sarit's death in 1963, Thailand was
e Thai faction, which made
ruled mainly by his military successors. They,
out gave initial support to var-
too, favored an anti-Communist, pro-American
ctions in Indochina.
foreign policy and placed great emphasis on rap-
593
VAN BUCHER/PHOTO RESEARCHIPS
The king of Thailand is carried in a royal procession in the grounds of the Grand Palace.
cratically elected National Assembly. The civil-
Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia, and the Philip-
ian politicians tended to favor domestic policies
pines. The members seek to increase their in-
that promoted more equal distribution of wealth
fluence in foreign affairs and international trade
rather than maximum economic growth. Thus,
by closer coordination of their policies. Most
they sought to increase the funding of social ser-
major conflicts between member states have
vices and special programs to aid backward re-
been reduced or eliminated. After 1979 the
gions.
ASEAN states supported Thailand in its efforts to
In foreign affairs, the civilians leaned toward
prevent Vietnam from completing its conquest of
a more traditional Thai policy of "flexibility."
Kampuchea.
In practice, this might mean seeking good rela-
PETER A. POOLE
tions with China as well as the United States.
Author of "The Vietnamese in Thailand
Kukrit Pramoj, one of the few civilian premiers,
established diplomatic relations with China in
Bibliography
1975 after North Vietnam had completed its con-
Akrasanee, Narongchai, Thailand and Asian Economic Co
operation (Gower Pub. 1981).
quest of Indochina. Some civilian politicians
Batson, Benjamin A., The End of the Absolute Monarchy is
urged reconciliation with Vietnam, whose domi-
Siam (Oxford 1985).
nation of Laos and Kampuchea (Cambodia) was a
Bowie, Theodore, ed., The Arts of Thailand (Ind. Univ.
Press 1960).
thorn in the side of the Thai Army.
Bunge, Frederica M., ed., Thailand: A Country Study
The military and civilian leaders pursued the
(USGPO 1981).
same policy in seeking support from two major
Cady, John F., Southeast Asia: Its Historical Development
(McGraw 1964).
institutions: the Thai monarchy and the elite ci-
Donner, Wolf, The Five Faces of Thailand: An Economic
vilian bureaucracy. The bureaucracy tended to
Geography (St. Martin's Press 1978).
side with the military, hoping to use the strength
Garrett, Stephen A., Bangkok Journal (Southern III. Univ.
Press 1986).
and discipline of the armed forces to implement
Girling, John L. S., Thailand: Society and Politics (Cornell
its own goals of national development. King
Univ. Press 1981).
Bhumibol, on the other hand, tried to draw on
Grace, Brewster, The Politics of Income Distribution in
Thailand (AUFS 1977).
the best qualities of both leadership groups-on
Grace, Brewster, Population Growth in Thailand, parts I
the strength and modernizing zeal of the military
and 2 (AUFS 1974).
and on the civilian politicians' commitment to
Haas, David F., Interaction in the Thai Bureaucracy (West-
view Press 1979).
democracy and traditional values.
Ingram, James, C., Economic Change in Thailand, 1850-
Because of the king's moderating influence,
1970 (Stanford Univ. Press 1971).
most Thai governments tended to blend the
Nicol, Kenneth J., and others, eds., Agricultural Develop-
goals of military and civilian leaders. The gen-
ment Planning in Thailand (Iowa State Univ. Press
1982).
erals accepted the need for closer ties with China
Poole, Peter A., The Vietnamese in Thailand (Cornell Univ.
in order to resist the westward advance of Viet-
Press 1970).
Sharp, Lauriston, and Hanks, Lucien M., Bang Chan: So
nam. They invested large sums of money to
cial History of a Rural Community in Thailand (Cornell
develop the long-neglected northeast and thus
Univ. Press 1978).
discourage subversion among the Lao and Viet-
Suksamran, Somboon, Buddhism and Politics in Thailand
(Gower Pub. 1982).
namese minorities there.
Terwiel, B. J., A History of Modern Thailand (Univ. of
In 1967, Thailand took the lead in creating
Queensland Press 1984).
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Wales, Q., Divination in Thailand (Humanities Press 1983).
Wyatt, David K., Thailand: A Short History (Yale Univ.
(ASEAN), which by 1984 included also Malaysia,
Press 1986).
594
DES
.E5
1982
WH
The New
t
Encyclopædia
Britannica
in 30 Volumes
MACROP/EDIA
Volume 18
Knowledge in Depth
FOUNDED 1768
15 TH EDITION
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
William Benton, Publisher, 1943-1973
Helen Hemingway Benton, Publisher, 1973-1974
Chicago/Geneva/London/Manila/Paris/Rome
Seoul/Sydney/Tokyo/Toronto
Thailand 197
to lecture on "The Four Georges" (the four Hanoverian
Important manuscripts of letters and literary works are held
kings of England of that name); he repeated the series
by the Henry E. Huntington Library, San Marino, California;
Person
of lectures in England and Scotland in 1856 and 1857.
the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York; and the Berg
Collection of the New York Public Library. The Oxford
charac
In July 1857, he unsuccessfully stood as an independent,
Thackeray, ed. by GEORGE SAINTSBURY, 17 vol. (1908), is the
istics
reforming candidate for the city of Oxford constituency
standard collected edition of the works. The Letters and
1
in a Parliamentary election. The Virginians, his next
Private Papers of William Makepeace Thackeray, ed. by
novel, is set partly in America and partly in England in
GORDON N. RAY, 4 vol. (1945-46), provides much biographi-
:
the latter half of the 18th century and is concerned
cal information, and the letters are of absorbing interest in
t
mostly with the vicissitudes in the lives of two brothers,
themselves. Ray's two-volume biography, Thackeray: The
George and Henry Warrington, the grandsons of Henry
Uses of Adversity, 1811-1846 (1955) and Thackeray: The
Esmond, the hero of his earlier novel. During its serial-
Age of Wisdom, 1847-1863 (1958), is definitive and indis-
y
d
ization, he became involved in a protracted quarrel with
pensable. DUDLEY FLAMM, Thackeray's Critics (1967), is an
annotated bibliography of 19th-century criticism, some of the
a young journalist and fellow member of the Garrick
most important items of which are reproduced in Thackeray:
i-
Club, Edmund Yates, who had written a satirical por-
The Critical Heritage, ed. by GEOFFREY TILLOTSON and DON-
I-
trait of Thackeray in a periodical, Town-Talk, and who
ALD HAWES (1968). An interesting critical estimate by a friend
h
enlisted the support of Dickens in the dispute. Thackeray
and fellow novelist is provided by ANTHONY TROLLOPE,
and Dickens were not reconciled until 1863.
Thackeray (1879, reprinted 1968). Saintsbury's acute and
The final years of Thackeray's life were dominated by
enthusiastic introductions to the volumes in the Oxford
The Cornhill Magazine, of which he became the first
Thackeray were collected as A Consideration of Thackeray
n
editor in January 1860. For this magazine he wrote two
(1931). GEOFFREY TILLOTSON, Thackeray the Novelist (1954),
S-
y
serial novels, the brief Lovel the Widower and the long-
is a subtle, persuasive exploration of his art. A variety of
20th-century opinions is assembled in Thackeray: A Collec-
y.
er Adventures of Philip, and charming essays, Round-
tion of Critical Essays, ed. by ALEXANDER WELSH (1968).
),
about Papers, which, in the opinion of some critics, rank
with the essays of Charles Lamb. He relinquished the
(D.Ha.)
of
es
editorship in March 1862, although he continued to
Thailand
Ky
write for the magazine. In May 1863 he began another
A nation wedged like a keystone into the heart of South-
ne
historical novel set in the 18th century, Denis Duval, but
east Asia, Thailand in the last decades of the 20th century
le
did not live to complete it. He had been troubled by ill
holds a critical position in the attempts of the countries of
»1-
health for a number of years, suffering from digestive
this area to achieve and maintain a political, economic,
o-
and urethral maladies, and died quite suddenly on De-
and social stability. Since 1932, when an absolutist mon-
of
cember 24, 1863. He was buried in Kensal Green Cem-
archy was overthrown, the nation has been a constitution-
es
etery in the suburbs of London, and a commemorative
al monarchy with a representative legislature; in 1939 the
on
bust was placed in Westminster Abbey.
official name was changed from Siam to Prathet Thai, or
ait
MAJOR WORKS
Thailand-literally, the "land of the free." The several
OW
NOVELS: Catherine (serialized 1839-40; pub. 1869); The
ethnic and religious groups represented among Thai-
he
Luck of Barry Lyndon (serialized 1844; pub. 2 vol., 1852;
land's more than 34,000,000 people are characteristic of
in
rev. as The Memoirs of Barry Lyndon, Esq., 1856); Vanity
the cultural diversity that for centuries has spread across
he
Fair (serialized 1847-48, pub. 1848); The History of Penden-
ys
nis (serialized 1848-50; pub. 2 vol., 1849-50); The History
this portion of the continent, a mélange of influences
of Henry Esmond, Esq., 3 vol. (1852); The Newcomes (se-
from the two Asian giants, China and India.
gn
rialized 1853-55; pub. 2 vol., 1854-55); The Virginians (se-
Thailand's landscape is one of high mountains at the
try
rialized 1857-59; pub. 2 vol., 1858-59); Lovel the Widower
edge of the Himalayan chain, of fertile, alluvial plains
vas
(serialized 1860, pub. 1861); The Adventures of Philip on
dotted with rice paddies, and of sandy beaches and tropi-
to
His Way Through the World (serialized 1861-62; pub. 3 vol.,
cal forests set amid the latitudes of the Asian monsoons.
nd
1862); Denis Duval (unfinished, serialized 1864; pub. 1864).
The main body of the country is surrounded by Burma
tail
ESSAYS, SKETCHES, AND MISCELLANIES: The Yellowplush
on the west and northwest, Laos on the northeast and
ok
Correspondence (serialized 1837-38; pub. 1838, complete ed.
1852 as The Yellowplush Papers); Some Passages in the Life
east, Cambodia on the southeast, and the Gulf of Thai-
is
nsi-
of Major Gahagan (serialized 1838-39, pub. in vol. 2 of
land (Gulf of Siam) on the south. From the southwest
Comic Tales and Sketches); The Paris Sketch Book, 2 vol.
corner, part of Thailand stretches southward down the
-
(1840); Comic Tales and Sketches, 2 vol. (1841); The Irish
Malay Peninsula as far as Malaysia. This peninsula cuts
ain
Sketch-Book, 2 vol. (1843); Notes of a Journey from Corn-
off shipping using Thailand's capital and chief port,
to
hill to Grand Cairo (1846); The Snobs of England (serialized
Bangkok, from points westward; Bangkok is, neverthe-
zed
1846-47; pub. as The Book of Snobs, 1848); The History of
less, the international air hub of Southeast Asia.
me
Samuel Titmarsh and the Great Hoggarty Diamond (serial-
Contacts of long standing between Thailand and the
on
ized 1841; pub. as The Great Hoggarty Diamond, 1848);
West have affected the forms if not the realities of Thai-
ety,
Miscellanies: Prose and Verse, 2 vol. (1849-51); The Kickle-
Sub-
burys on the Rhine (1850); Rebecca and Rowena. A Ro-
land's political and economic life. The relative political
eo-
mance upon Romance (1850); A Shabby Genteel Story, and
stability Thailand has maintained in the face of continual
Other Tales (1852), includes "The Professor," "The Bedford
Communist guerrilla warfare inside its borders since
on
Row Conspiracy," and "A Little Dinner at Timmins's";
World War II is largely the result of Western support.
uch
Men's Wives (serialized 1843, pub. 1852); Mr. Brown's Let-
Thailand's free-enterprise economy participates vigorous-
por-
ters to a Young Man About Town; with The Proser, and
ly in worldwide commerce yet remains based on primary
uch
Other Papers (serialized 1845-50, pub. 1853); Punch's Prize
products and relies on imports for manufactured goods.
ated
Novelists, The Fat Contributor, and Travels in London
In addition, the nation's economic balance is maintained
nn in
(serialized 1844-50, pub. 1853); The Confessions of Fitz-
Boodle (1852); The Rose and the Ring (1854, dated 1855);
by aid from the United States and other nations. (For
ting
a of
Miscellanies: Prose and Verse, 4 vol. (1855-57); Christmas
information on the nation's history, see the article SIAM
Books (1857); Roundabout Papers (serialized 1860-63, pub.
AND THAILAND, HISTORY OF; for its linguistic background,
om-
1863); Miscellanies, 6 vol. (1864); Early and Late Papers
TAI LANGUAGES; for its arts, SOUTHEAST ASIAN PEOPLES,
Hitherto Uncollected (1867); Miscellanies (1870); The
ARTS OF; for an associated physical feature, MEKONG RIV-
es to
Lectur
Orphan of Pimlico, and Other Sketches, Fragments and
ER. See also the article BANGKOK.)
er
a
in
the
Drawings (1876); Sultan Stork, and Other Stories and
1 his
United
Sketches (1829-44) (collected 1887).
THE NATURAL AND HUMAN LANDSCAPE
nov-
States
LECTURES: The English Humourists of the Eighteenth
The natural environment. Three main geological re-
iddle
Century (1853); The Four Georges (1860).
the
OTHER PROSE: The Letters and Private Papers of William
gions cover most of Thailand's 198,455 square miles
each
Makepeace Thackeray, 4 vol. (1945-46); Contributions to
(514,000 square kilometres)-the folded mountains in
the Morning Chronicle (1955).
the north, the Khorat uplift in the east, and the Chao
rldly
Phraya depression, comprising much of the central
hrist-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a full description and assessment of
writing on Thackeray, see LIONEL STEVENSON, "William Make-
plains. In addition, the maritime southeast and the long,
and
peace Thackeray," in Victorian Fiction: A Guide to Research
slender peninsula in the southwest constitute separate
1. He
(1964). The most comprehensive bibliography is HENRY S.
physical regions. The monsoon climate prevailing across
time
VAN DUZER, A Thackeray Library (1919, reprinted 1971).
most of the country has a distinct influence on the land-
198 Thailand
MAP INDEX
Chaturat
15.29n 101.49e
Pai
19.25n 98-26e
Ubon
Chawang
8.25n 99-32e
Pak Phanang
8.21n 100-12e
Ratchathani
15-15n 104.54e
Cities and towns
Chiang Dao
1923n 98.59e
Pak Phayun
7.22n 100.19e
Udon Thani
17-25n 102.48e
Amnat Charoen. 15.51n 104-38e
Chiang Kham
19-31n 100-18e
Pak Thong Chai.
14-44n 102.03e
Uthai Thani
15.20n 100-02e
Ang Thong
14-35n 100.27e
Chiang Khan
17.50n 101.39e
Panang
17-33n 99.05e
U Thong
14-22n 99-54e
Ao Luk
8-24n 98-44e
Chiang Khian
19.39n 100:01e
Pathiu
10.41n 99-20e
Uthumphon
Aranyaprathet
13-42n 102.32e
Chiang Mai
Pathum Thani
14-01n 100-32e
Phisai
15.06n 104.10e
Ban Aen
18.02n 98.35e
(Chiengmai)
18-46n 98.58e
Pattani
6-51n 101-16e
Uttaradit
17.38n 100-06e
Ban Bua Chum
15.15n 101-15e
Chiang Rai
19-54n 99-50e
Phan
19-30n 99.45e
Wang Chin
17.51n 99.39e
Ban Bung Na
Chiang Saen
20.14n 100-05e
Phanat Nikhom 13-27n 101.10e
Wang Noi
1414n 100:43e
Rang
16-10n 100.11e
Chom Thong
18-23n 98.41e
Phangnga
8-28n 98-32e
Wang Saphung
17.24n 101-36e
Ban Dan
15.19n 10530e
Chon Buri
13-22n 100.59e
Phanom
Wang Thong
16.50n 100-26e
Ban Dan Lan
Chon Daen
16.09n 100-54e
Sarakham
13-46n 103.23e
Wanon Niwat
17-41n 103.41e
Hoi
16.59n 99.35e
Chum Phae
16-40n 102.10e
Phanom Thuan
14.07n
99-44e
Warin Chamrap
15.09n
104.54e
Ban Don, see
Chumphon
10.32n 99-13e
Phan Thong
13.26n 101-07e
Wiang Pa Pao
1924n 99-32e
Surat Thani
Chumphon
Buri.
15.19n 103.20e
Phato
9.51n 98-45e
Wichian Buri
15-39n 101-10e
Bangkok
13.45n 100-31e
Chum Saeng
15.55n 100-15e
Phatthalung
7.38n 100.04e
Yala
6.32n 101-19e
Bang Krathum
16-36n 100:20e
Dan Sai
17.18n 101.05e
Phayao
19-11n 99.55e
Yaring
6-49n 101.28e
Bang Lai
17.06n 101.25e
Den Chai
17.59n 100.04e
Phet Buri
13-06n 99.56e
Yasothon
15-46n 104-12e
Bang Lamung
12.55n 100.56e
Det Udom
14.54n 105-06e
Phetchabun
16.24n 101.11e
Bang Mun Nak
16.02n 100-23e
Dong Takon
16-04n 100-46e
Phibun
Physical features
Bang Pa-In
14-21n 100-38e
Don Muang
13-55n 100-39e
Mangsahan
15-14n 10515e
and points of Interest
Bang Saphan
11.14n 9931e
Fang
19.56n 99.14e
Phichai
17-16n 100-06e
Andaman Sea 11.00n 97.00e
Ban Hom
15-33n 98-46e
Hat Yai
7.01n 100.27e
Phichit
16-24n 100.21e
Ban Don, Ao,
Ban Hong
18.19n 98-51e
Hot
18-06n 98-35e
Phimai
15-13n 102.29e
bay
9-20n 99-25e
Ban Huai Yang
11.32n
99.38e
Hua Hin
12.34n 99.58e
Phitsanulok
16-49n 100-15e
Bilauktaung
Ban Kaeng
Huai Yot
7.45n 9937e
Phon
15-50n 102.35e
Range
13.00n 99.00e
Khoi
14-33n 100.59e
Hua Sai
8.02n 100-17e
Phon Phisai
18-00n 103-06e
Bukit Bubus,
Ban Kai Kiang
14.55n
99-15e
Kabin Buri
13.57n 101.43e
Phrae
18.07n 100.11e
mountain
6.12n 101-06e
Ban Kan Luang
Kalasin
16-29n 103.31e
Phra Nakhon Si
Chaem, river
18-10n 98-40e
Dong
16.47n 104-29e
Kamphaeng
Ayutthaya
1421n 100-33e
Chamao, Khao,
Ban Khai
12.48n 101.20e
Phet
16-26n 99-33e
Phran Kratai
16.41n 99-30e
mountain
12.58n 101-45e
Ban Khlong
Kanchanaburi
14-02n 99.33e
Phrao
19-22n 99-15e
Chang, Ko,
Kua
6.59n 100-07e
Kanchanadit
9.06n 99.26e
Phra
island
12-05n 102.20e
Ban Khuan
Kantang
7-23n 99-32e
Phutthabat
14-41n 100-51e
Chao Phraya,
Mao
7.58n 99-38e
Kantharalak
14-38n 104-41e
Phrom Phiram
17-01n 100-14e
river
13-32n 100-36e
Ban Krang
12-45n 99.29e
Kapoe
9-35n 98-38e
Phuket
7.54n 98-24e
Chi, river
15.13n 104-45e
Ban Kruat
14-24n 103.04e
Kaset Sombun
16.20n 101.58e
Phutthaisong
15-25n 102.55e
Chuor Phnum
Ban Le Kathe
15.49n
98-48e
Khao Saming
12.21n 102.28e
Pong
19.07n 100-16e
Krâvanh,
Ban Mae La
Khao Yoi
13-14n 99.49e
Prachantakham
14-04n 101.34e
mountains
12-30n 102.50e
Luang
18-28n
97.57e
Khemmarat
16-03n 10511e
Prachin Buri
14.03n 101-25e
Dom Noi, river
15-18n 105-30e
Ban Mae Mo.
18.19n 99-47e
Khiri Mat
16-50n 99.49e
Prachuap Khiri
Dom Yai, river
15-19n 105-10e
Ban Muang Yot. 19-23n 100-35e
Khlong Khlung
16-14n
99-40e
Khan
11.48n 99-47e
Du Ngae, Khao,
Ban Na Kha
9.26n 98-28e
Khlong Thom
7-56n 99.09e
Prakhon Chai
14.49n 103:06e
mountain
15-13n 98-44e
Ban Na Kham
16-24n 103-14e
Khlong Yai
11.47n 102.53e
Pran Buri
12.21n 99.59e
Ing. river
20.13n 100-27e
Ban Na Mai
17-47n 103-12e
Khlung
12.30n 102.15e
Ranong
9.59n 98-40e
Han, Nong,
Ban Nam Chan
18-03n 103-44e
Khok Kloi
8.19n 98.18e
Ranot
7-46n 100:20e
river
17.10n 104-05e
Ban Nam
Khok Pho
6-42n 101-08e
Rasi Salai
15.17n 104-11e
Inthanon, Doi,
Thaeng
15-34n 105-30e
Khok Samrong
15-03n 100-44e
Rat Buri
13-32n 99-49e
mountain
18-38n 98-30e
Ban Na San
8.53n 99-17e
Khon Kaen
16-26n 102.50e
Rattanaburi
15.16n 103-45e
Kamphaeng,
Ban Na Wi
17.56n 103:55e
Khu Khan
14-42n 104-12e
Rattaphum
7.05n 100-22e
Khao,
Ban Nong
Khun Yuam
18.47n 97.57e
Rayong
12-43n 101.20e
mountain
14-40n 99-15e
Lumphu
14-40n 102.43e
Klaeng
12.46n 101-39e
Roi Et
16-05n 103.42e
Kha Khaeng,
Ban Nong
Klang
18-28n 100-14e
Sa
18.37n 100-44e
river
14.55n 99-10e
Takhian
13.06n 101.25e
Ko Kha
18-11n 99-24e
Sadao
6-39n 100-31e
Khayung, river
15-14n
104-50e
Ban Pak Bong
18-30n 98.57e
Kosum Phisai
16.16n 103.01e
Sai Buri
6.42n 101-37e
Khieo, Khao,
Ban Pak Chan
10-30n
98-51e
Krabi
8-05n 98.53e
Sai Yok
14.08n 99-10e
mountain
13.15n 101-04e
Ban Pak Nam
10-24n
99.16e
Kra Buri
10-24n 98-47e
Sa Kaeo
13-50n 102-04e
Khong, see
Ban Pak
Kuchinarai
16-23n 104-04e
Sakon Nakhon
17.10n 104.01e
Mekong
Phraek
8.13n 100.13e
Kumphawapi
17.08n 102.55e
Sam Ngao
17.16n 99-01e
Khorat Plateau
15-30n 102.50e
Ban Phai
16.07n 102-47e
Lae
19-25n 101-00e
Samut Prakan
13-35n 100·40e
Khun Tan, Doi,
Ban Phai
17-33n 103-00e
Laem Ngop
12.12n 102-26e
Samut Sakhon
13-31n
100.15e
mountain
18-30n 99-20e
Ban Phak
Lampang
18-16n 99-34e
Samut
Khwae Noi,
Phang
16-06n 101-48e
Lamphun
18-35n 99-01e
Songkhram
13-25n 100·03e
river
14-00n 99.33e
Ban Phe
12-39n 101-38e
Lang Suan
9.55n 99-07e
Sangkhla
15-05n 98-32e
Kok, river
20.14n 100-09e
Ban Pho
13-34n 101-09e
Lap Lae
17-35n 100-01e
Sangkhla Buri
14-44n
9838e
Kra, Isthmus of.
10-20n
99-00e
Banphot Phisai
15.55n
99-58e
Laun
10-06n 98-47e
Sara Buri
14-30n 100.55e
Krasieo, river
14-48n 100-07e
Ban Pong
13.50n 99.55e
Li
17.50n 98.55e
Saraphi
18.43n 99-03e
Kut, Ko,
Ban Rai
15-01n 99.35e
Loei
17-32n 101-34e
Sattahip
12.41n 100.54e
island
11-40n 102-35e
Ban Ron
Lom Kao
16.55n 101-10e
Satun
6-39n 100·03e
Laem, Khao,
Phibun
8.11n 99.51e
Lom Sak
16.47n 101-12e
Sawankhalok
17.19n 99.54e
mountain
1427n
101-34e
Ban Saen To
16-09n 99-44e
Long
18-05n 99-50e
Sawi
10-16n 99-06e
Lang Ka, Doi,
Ban Salik
18-32n 100-44e
Lop Buri
14-48n 100-37e
Selaphum
16-01n 103.59e
mountain
19-00n 99-22e
Ban Sam Phan
8-34n
99-02e
Mae Hong Son
19-16n
97-56e
Sikao
7-34n 9921e
Lanta Yai, Ko,
Ban Samrong
14-27n 102.50e
Mae Ramat
16.57n 98.36e
Si Khiu
14-54n 101-44e
island
7-35n 99-05e
Ban Sangkha
14-36n 103-53e
Mae Rim
18.54n 98.56e
Sing Buri
14-53n 100-25e
Lao, river
19-59n 99.59e
Ban Sichon
8.57n 99.54e
Mae Sariang
18-10n
97.59e
Si Prachan
14-37n 100.11e
Loei, river
17.50n 101-35e
Ban Song Phi
Mae Sot
16-40n 98-35e
Si Racha
13.10n 100-56e
Luang, river
18-00n 103-05e
Nong
14-18n 100-06e
Mae Tha
18-28n 99.08e
Sisaket
15.07n 104-21e
Luang Chiang
Ban Sop Huai
Maha
Si Satchanalai
17.30n 99-48e
Dao, Doi,
Hai
19-33n 98-05e
Sarakham
16.12n 103-16e
Songkhla
7.13n 100-34e
mountain
19.22n 98-52e
Ban Sum Sui
14-30n 99-08e
Makham
12-40n 102-12e
Sop Prap
17.53n 99-21e
Luang, Khao,
Ban Takhlo
15-26n 100·46e
Muang Sam Sip.
15-35n 104-48e
Sukhothai
17-01n 99.49e
mountain
8-30n 99-45e
Ban Takua Pa
8.52n 98-21e
Mukdahan
16-31n 104-42e
Sungai Kolok
6-02n 101.58e
Luang Praban
Ban Tha Li
17-35n 101-24e
Nakhon Nayok
14.12n 101-13e
Sung Noen
14-54n 101.50e
Range
19.00n 101-00e
Ban Tha Ling
Nakhon Pathom. 13.49n 100·06e
Suphan Buri
14-29n 100-10e
Luang, Thale
Lom
12.53n 99-39e
Nakhon
Surat Thani
Jagoon
7.40n 100-15e
Ban Tong Khop. 17-04n 104-16e
Phanom
17-22n 104-46e
(Ban Don)
9.06n 99-20e
Mae Klong,
Ban Um Mao
16-50n 104-37e
Nakhon
Surin
14.53n 103-30e
river
13-21n 100-00e
Ban Umun
16.51n 102-27e
Ratchasima
14.57n 102-09e
Suwannaphum
15-35n 103-48e
Malay
Ban Wang
San
15.52n
99.39e
Nakhon Sawan
15-42n 100-06e
Tak
16.52n 99-08e
Peninsula
6-00n 102-00e
Ban Ya Plong
8-50n
98-40e
Nakhon Si
Ta Khli
15-18n 100-20e
Maw-daung
Betong
5.47n 101-03e
Thammarat
8-26n 99-58e
Taphan Hin
16.12n 100-26e
Pass
11-47n
99.39e
Bo Phloi
14-17n 99-32e
Nakhon Thai
17.05n 100-44e
Tha Dua
17-08n 101-55e
Mekong
Borabu
16-04n 103-05e
Nam Pat
17-40n 100-33e
Thai Muang
8-25n 98-16e
(Khong), river
15.15n
105-30e
Bua Yai
15-34n 102-24e
Nam Phong
16.45n 102.52e
Thalang
8-04n 98-20e
Miang, Phu,
Bung Kan
18-21n 103-38e
Nam Tok
14-21n 99-00e
Tha Pla
17-48n 100-34e
mountain
17:45n 100.58e
Buriram
14-59n 103-08e
Nan
18-48n 100-46e
Tha Sala
8-35n 99.56e
Mokochu, Khao,
Cha-am
12-48n 99.58e
Nang Rong
14-39n 102-49e
Tha Tako
15-42n 100-30e
mountain
15.57n 99.00e
Chachoengsao
13-42n 101-06e
Na Noi
18.19n 100-43e
That Phanom
16.56n 104-42e
Mun, river
15-19n 105-31e
Chae Hom
18-44n 99-37e
Narathiwat
6.25n 101-48e
Tha Tum
15-19n 103-41e
Nan, river
15.42n 100.11e
Chai Badan
15.05n 101-04e
Na Thawi
6-45n 100-42e
Tha Uthen
17-34n 104-34e
Ngat, river
19-09n 99-01e
Chainat
15-10n 100-10e
Ngao
18.45n
99.59e
Thepha
6.51n 100-57e
Pai, river
19-08n 97-33e
Chaiya
9.24n 99-12e
Nong Bua
Thoen
17-41n 99-14e
Pao, river
16.12n 103-40e
Chaiyaphum
15-48n 102.02e
Lamphu
17.11n 102-25e
Thon Buri
13-43n 100-29e
Pa Sak, river
14:11n 100-40e
Chakkarat
15-02n 102.27e
Nong Han
17.21n 103-06e
Thung Song
8-11n
99-41e
Pattani, river.
6-53n 101.16e
Champa
17-24n 103-42e
Nong Khai
17.52n 102.45e
Thung Wa
7.01n 99-41e
Phachi, river
13.55n 99-25e
Chana
6-55n 100-44e
Nonthaburi
13.51n 100-34e
Trang
7-33n 99.36e
Phangan, Ko,
Chanthaburi
12.37n 102-09e
Non Thai
15.10n 102-03e
Trat
12.14n 102:33e
island
9-45n 100-04e
200 Thailand
MAP INDEX (continued)
Siam, Gulf of,
north and east of the Khorat region and runs along most
see Thailand,
Phang Hoei,
Gulf of
of the Laotian border, swampy land and lakes are com-
Khao,
Si Yat, river
13-45n 101.14e
mon, in contrast to the aridity of much of the region. A
mountain
15.37n 101-20e
Sri Thep,
Phaniang, river
16-46n
102-25e
high underground water table that can be tapped pro-
ruins
16.25n 101-04e
Phanom
Suphan Buri,
duces mostly unpalatable water, but the Thai government
Bencha, Khao,
river
13-29n 100.17e
has done much to improve the freshwater situation in this
mountain
8.15n
98.58e
Suthep, Doi,
Phanom
part of the kingdom. The Mekong itself, from about
mountain
18-49n 98-54e
Dongrak,
Taeng, river
19-05n
98-57e
2,300 to 4,300 feet wide, is either studded with islands or
Thiu Khao,
Talibong, Ko,
broken up by impassable rapids. The governments of
mountains
14-25n 103-30e
island
7.15n
99.25e
Phet Buri,
Talumphuk,
both Thailand and Laos, however, are planning for its use
river
13.10n 99.57e
Laem, cape
8-30n 100-10e
in agriculture and industry.
Phetchabun,
Tam Chuak,
Thiu Khao,
The generally rolling countryside of the southeast has
Laem, cape
8-35n
98-13e
mountains
16-20n 100-55e
Tao, Ko, island
10.05n
99-53e
high hills in the centre and along the eastern boundary
Phong, river
16.27n 102.57e
Taphaen, river
14.07n
99-25e
with Cambodia. Notable peaks are Khao Khieo (2,614
Phra Rop, Khao,
Ta Pi, river
9-05n
99.12e
mountain
13-10n
9930e
Thailand, Gulf of
feet [797 metres]), visible from the top of Phu Khao
Phuket, Ko,
(Gulf of Siam) 10-00n 101.00e
Thong (the Golden Mount) in Bangkok, and Khao Soi
island
8-00n
98-22e
Thap Than,
Dao ("Reaching for the stars"), which attains a height of
Phum Duang,
river
15.20n 104.00e
river
9.10n 99-20e
Thaungyin,
5,471 feet (1,668 metres). The mountains, reaching near-
Ping, river
15.40n 100-09e
river
17-50n
97.42e
ly to the sea, create a markedly indented coastline fringed
Plai Mat, river.
15-23n 102-47e
Three Pagodas
Pran Buri, river 12.25n 100-00e
with many islands, some of which are popular tourist
Pass
15-18n
98.23e
Sai Buri, river.
6.42n 101-37e
Tun, river
17.20n 98-42e
resorts. The short, seaward-running streams have built up
Salween, river
17.45n
97.40e
Wa, river
18.35n 100-45e
small alluvial basins and deltas along the coast, while the
Sam Chom,
Wang, river
17.07n 99-02e
Khao,
Yai, Khao,
mouths of larger rivers consist of tidal flats and mangrove
mountain
8-08n 99-28e
mountain
15-27n 99-20e
swamps. Long stretches of sandy beach make Chon Buri,
Samui, Ko,
Yai, river
7-10n 100.27e
Rayong, and some of the islands year-round resorts. On
island
9-30n 100-04e
Yang, river
15-44n 104.00e
Sap, Thale,
Yao Yai, Ko,
higher grounds plantations produce rubber, sugarcane,
lagoon
7-30n 100-17e
island
8.00n 98-36e
pineapples, and cassava.
Sap Songkhla,
Yom, river
16.40n 100-14e
Thale, lagoon
7.13n 100-30e
The central plains, which form the Thai heartland, con-
The
Yuam, river
17-47n
97.48e
Se Bai, river
15-19n 104.50e
sist of two regions-the heavily dissected rolling plains in
central
the north and the Chao Phraya River Delta. A rolling
plains
plain in the north also is heavily dissected, principally by
and the
the three rivers-the combined Ping and Wang, the Yom,
peninsula
scape, its vegetation and animal life, and its human uses.
and the Nan-that merge to form the Chao Phraya and
Physiographic regions and drainage. The mountains, a
its delta. Like most deltas, that of the Chao Phraya,
continuation of the Himalayan system from India, Bur-
which stretches southward to the Gulf of Thailand, is
ma, and China, extend far southward in Thailand along
braided into many small channels; it is joined by other
the western border and the peninsula and into Malaysia.
rivers as it crosses the plains. The usual flooding of the
Long granitic ridges were formed when great masses of
flat delta in the wet season is an asset to the rice-growing
The
molten rock forced their way upward through the older
activity, although higher ground on the extreme eastern
mountains,
sedimentary strata. Between the ridges lie relatively flat
and western edges of the delta requires irrigation. The
the Khorat
basins drained by the four principal tributaries of the
entire delta was at one time covered by the Gulf of Thai-
Plateau,
Chao Phraya, Thailand's major river. Important provin-
land, but the water-borne sediments from the uplands to
and the
cial centres, or changwats, such as Chiang Mai, Lam-
the north filled it in over many centuries. Such silting is a
southeast
pang, Phrae, and Nan, grew up along these four streams.
continuing obstruction to navigation channels of the
The alluvial soils of these intermontane basins provide
Chao Phraya, but it also provides several feet of new land
fertile soil for the cultivation of rice, vegetables, tobacco,
each year at the river's mouth-so much so that a temple
and fruit trees. Peaks average about 5,200 feet above sea
once on an island now lies on the river's west bank.
level. Doi Inthanon, at 8,514 feet (2,595 metres) the
The topography of the peninsula is rolling to mountain-
highest in the kingdom, is southwest of the ancient city
ous, with little flat land. A gently sloping sandy coastline,
of Chiang Mai (Chiengmai), which is overshadowed by
the site of the famous beach Hua Hin, borders the Gulf
the peak of Doi Suthep, a tourist attraction and site of
of Thailand on the east. The Phet is one of several large
the royal resort palace, Phu Phing Ratchanivet. Many
rivers dammed for irrigation. Massive mountains on the
of the rugged limestone hills contain caves from which
west, reaching about 4,900 feet, contain difficult passes
remains of prehistoric man have been excavated.
between Thailand and Burma. Toward Malaysia moun-
The lower reaches of the mountains are rich in teak and
tains look to the Andaman Sea to the west and to the
other commercial timber, while the upper slopes are dot-
South China Sea to the east. Off the rugged and much-
ted with tea plantations. The rivers emptying through
indented west coast lie numerous major islands, including
narrow valleys into the central plain are glutted by the
tin-rich Phuket and others rich in bird and fish life.
monsoons, sweeping along in their steep descent great
Climate. The major influences on Thailand's climate
quantities of sediments that have produced vast, fan-
are its location on the Indochinese Peninsula within the
shaped heaps of alluvial deposits along the flood plains at
sphere of the tropical monsoons and certain topographic
Effects
the foot of the mountainous regions.
features that modify the effects of the rains: Beginning in
of the
The Khorat region, enfolded on three sides by Laos and
May, warm, humid air masses flow northeastward over
monsoons
Cambodia, consists of a two-sided geological fault that
the region from the Indian Ocean, depositing great quan-
has been tilted rather than a uniform uplift of the under-
tities of rain that reach a maximum in September. Be-
lying sedimentary rocks. At the western edge, the tilting
tween October and February, the wind currents are re-
produced north-south ranges whose escarpments look
versed, and cold, dry air masses are driven in from the
westward over the central plain. To the south, the tilting
northeast. Stagnant air in March and April is associated
produced east-west ranges along the Cambodian border;
with the hot, dry season.
these form steep escarpments that overlook the Cambodi-
Topographic effects are most noticeable on the peninsu-
an plain. Surface elevations in the Khorat region are
la, where Ranong on the west receives 188 inches (4,772
about 650 feet; the terrain is rolling, and the hilltops
millimetres) of rain annually, and Hua Hin on the east
generally slope in conformity with the tilt of the land.
receives only 40 inches (1,007 millimetres). Songkhla
Monsoon rains over the thin forest cover produce rapid
has its rainy season during the winter months, the result
runoff; flooding occurs almost yearly at Ubon Ratcha-
of moisture picked up from the Gulf of Thailand by the
thani at the junction of the Mun and Chi. These two major
cold northeast air masses. In this area a true tropical
rivers have built up scattered alluvial lands that are used
rain-forest climate prevails.
for rice growing.
Nationwide, temperatures are relatively steady through-
Close to the Mekong River, which meanders across the
out the year, averaging between 75° and 86° F (24° and
Thailand 201
30° C). The greatest fluctuations are in the north, where
portant exports. In general, the people depend on agri-
frost may occur in December on higher elevations; mari-
culture, but the scanty rainfall and sandy soil make the
time influences moderate the climate in the south. The
living in the region difficult. As a result, migration from
cold, dry winter air produces frequent morning fogs that
the northeast to other parts of the country is common.
generally dissipate by midday.
The highway to the northeast and thence to Laos makes
Vegetation and animal life. About one-half of Thai-
the region a growing crossroads. It is probably the only
land is forested, one-fifth covered by grass, shrub, and
part of the country to which the government is devoting
swamp, and the remainder under settlement or cultiva-
both attention and money in an effort to raise the stan-
tion. Forests consist largely of such hardwoods as teak and
dard of living to that of the other regions.
members of the dipterocarp family of timber- and resin-
The central plain, lying mostly on the undulating to flat
producing trees. As elsewhere in Southeast Asia, bamboo,
delta region, is the major rice-producing area of the coun-
palms, rattan, and many kinds of fern are common. The
try, much of whose surplus is exported. Because of its
southeastern forest is dense with undergrowth and aerial
central position, population and manpower are heavily
roots, while orchids climb the trunks of many trees.
concentrated, especially in Bangkok, and industrial and
Grasses and shrubs have sprung up across many cutover
commercial enterprises have grown faster there than else-
areas, and lotuses and water lilies dot most ponds and
where. The eastern, western, and northern peripheries of
swamps throughout the country.
the central plain, however, remain to be developed. The
Elephants, buffalo, cattle, horses, and mules are
soil of the northern half of the plain is inferior. People
among the important domesticated animals for agricul-
from the northeast and other places have migrated to the
ture and transportation. Some elephants are still found
central area in hope of a better living.
wild in the west and the northeast. Although forestry is
The southeast, lying close to the sea on an undulating to
now done by machines, elephants remain helpful in dif-
hilly region, is well watered. Close to the sea fishing
ficult terrain. Agricultural machines are rapidly replacing
predominates; plantations and gem mines are found on
draft animals, and horses and mules increasingly are used
the inner hill and mountain slopes. Thai of Chinese de-
only as pack animals along the mountain trails of the
scent live here in great numbers. Tapioca and sugarcane
north. Wild animals are decreasing in quantity and in
are the chief crops, and fish supply the Bangkok and the
number of species due to game hunting. The rhinoceros
upper-country markets and are also exported. Chantha-
he
and tapir are almost extinct. Deer and antelope can still
buri and Trat are famous for their sapphires. The beaches
entral
be found, but the big-cats are becoming fewer in number.
are popular and attract foreign tourists.
lains
The Siamese cat is popular among foreigners.
The people of the Pak Tai region of the peninsula speak
nd the
Lizards live around houses and prey on insects. Frogs
a dialect that has a different intonation from that of the
eninsuli
and toads (some of them edible) are numerous, and croc-
central Thai. The extreme south consists of Thai who
odiles are also found; a crocodile farm in Bangkok raises
speak the Malay language, the majority of whom are
them for commercial and scientific purposes. Snakes
Muslim. The southern economy depends on exports of tin
abound, including the king cobra, numerous vipers, and
and rubber. Fishing provides income for the people living
dangerous water snakes. A snake farm in Bangkok raises
close to the seas on both sides of the peninsula. Phuket
many kinds for extracting venom. The green turtle of the
and Songkhla are well-known for their fine beaches,
sandy coast lays hundreds of eggs at a time, which are
which are lined with beautiful coconut groves.
highly regarded as culinary delicacies.
The west and southwest, consisting mostly of hilly to
Both freshwater and marine fish are abundant, as are
mountainous terrain adjoining the Burmese border, is
edible crustaceans, such as shrimp, prawn, and sea crabs.
sparsely populated. The forest covers are chiefly mixed
The most useful insect is the silkworm. Many species are
deciduous and bamboo. The soils are rich with minerals,
wild, but some are raised for the prosperous silk industry.
such as tin, tungsten (wolfram), and fluorite. The Karen
Mosquitoes still carry malaria, although incidence of the
from Burma often migrate and live within the Thai
malady is decreasing. White ants and moths are a scourge
border. They clear the land and cultivate the hill slopes
to clothing and books.
in the same manner as the mountain Thai in northern
Human uses of the land. Traditional regions. In the
Thailand. The region is also the chief supplier of the
traditional or popular sense, the regions of Thailand are
bamboo used in the curing of rubber.
the Lanna Thai, or northern Thailand; the Isan, or north-
Patterns of settlement.
Hill settlements depend much
eastern Thailand; the central plain; the southeast; the Pak
on shifting cultivation of upland crops. Such mountain
Tai, or south Thailand; and west and southwest Thailand.
Thai as the Karen, Meo, Yao, Lahu, Lisu, and the low-
The people of the mountainous Lanna Thai speak a
land Thai who have migrated usually settle on the ridges
dialect similar to that of neighbouring Burma. The wom-
and the slopes in groups ranging from two to three to 100
Rural and
en wear simple blouses and knee-length sarong; the men
or more houses, depending on the resources of the area.
urban
wear loose trousers and cotton jackets called mohom.
The Meo are opium cultivators, preferring to live on high
Thailand
Most of the people live on glutinous rather than common
slopes where opium grows well in the cool climate. The
rice. The people have a complexion that is fairer than
Karen live along the stream valleys and grow rice on well-
that of other Thai. The fertile valley plains grow rice and
tended, terraced fields. The Thai who have migrated earn
such other crops as peanuts, beans, garlic, onions, com,
a living from their tea and coffee plantations.
Inter-
and tobacco on the irrigated lands. Tea, widely cultivated
No true plains villages exist in Thailand, although in the
Effects
actions
as a permanent crop, is consumed in the north as both a
northeast the villages are scattered on the higher grounds
of the
of the
pickled and a drinking tea. Besides rice, the outstanding
to escape the floods; the lower grounds are used for rice
monsoon
satural and
export of the region consists of teak and other commer-
farming. In the north, where the villages are found on
human
cial timbers. The mountains of the north are also the
the alluvial basins of major rivers, increased population
ecologies
home of the mountain Thai, who migrate from Burma,
and transportation have tended to disperse the villages
Laos, and sometimes from southern China.
away from the river toward the main railroads and high-
The Isan is situated on the undulating terrain bordered
ways, reducing the amount of rice-growing land.
on the west and south by rather hilly topography. The
The delta is densely settled, but only on the high ground
people dress much like the northern Thai, except close to
that is free from flooding. The irrigation canals modify
the Cambodian border, where the pha chong kraben-a
the pattern of settlement; with increasing facility in trans-
side-rolled skirt for women, a broadly bloused and belted
portation offered by small motorboats, the villages tend
pantaloon-like garment for men-similar to the Hindu
to become dispersed away from the rivers in an east-west
dress of India, is worn instead of trousers. The dialect is
direction. New highways also tend to modify the pattern
like that of Laos, although very similar to that of the
of settlement, especially at the crossings of canals and
central Thai. With some attention, however, the north-
rivers by highways, where new towns grow up rapidly.
erners and the northeasterners can understand one an-
The southern and southeastern plantations, especially
other. Agglutinous rice is consumed in most of the north-
the fruit and rubber plantations, are scattered along the
east, except near the Cambodian border. Besides rice,
fertile slopes, alternating with the low and narrow rice
various kinds of timbers, jute, and cattle constitute im-
fields, and the villages are therefore arranged according-
202 Thailand
ly. Most of them are joined by good roads and highways.
Alluvial deposits containing tin, no matter how isolated,
Thailand, Area and Population
are accessible to all kinds of land and sea communica-
area
population
tions. Settlement is almost continuous along both sides of
the peninsula. Most of the people live by fishing, except in
sq mi
sq km
1960 census
1970
census*
areas in which bird's-nest collecting (the jelly-like adhe-
Regions (phaks)
sive of which is the basis of a popular soup or sweet des-
Central
sert) brings a good income. The coastal villages are con-
Provinces (changwats)
nected both by land and sea highways.
Ang Thong
379
981
198,000
217,000
Urban settlement in Thailand is found mostly on the
Chachoengsao
2,093
5,422
323,000
338,000
Chainat
plains and in the coastal areas rather than on the hills.
1,018
2,636
245,000
256,000
Chanthaburi
2,337
6,052
158,000
211,000
Bangkok, for example, grew from a small settlement on
Chon Buri
1,732
4,485
392,000
542,000
the east bank of the Chao Phraya. In other large towns,
Kanchanaburi
7,524
19,486
233,000
321,000
such as Chiang Mai, the old, square city walls are still
Lop Buri
2,544
6,588
336,000
433,000
Nakhon Nayok
932
2,414
apparent, with numerous Buddhist temples scattered in-
154,000
161,000
Nakhon Pathom
841
2,178
370,000
411,000
side and outside the walls. Thus, urbanization in Thailand
Nonthaburi
241
623
196,000
254,000
can be said to centre around the original sites of the pal-
Pathum Thani
578
1,497
190,000
233,000
aces and the temples. Other interesting patterns of settle-
Phet Buri
2,454
6,357
238,000
278,000
Phra Nakhon-Thonburi
598
1,549
2,136,000
2,633,000
ment can be observed in certain urbanized areas. Phitsa-
Phra Nakhon
958
2,480
479,000
501,000
nulok, for example, has a number of floating houses along
Si Ayutthaya
both banks of the rivers. Chon Buri, a seaside town, has
Prachin Buri
4,554
11,795
335,000
421,000
a trellis pattern of houses on islands that are accessible by
Prachuap
2,461
6,373
152,000
249,000
Khiri Khan
footbridges. Such patterns of settlement reflect the strong
Rat Buri
1,977
5,120
411,000
464,000
demand for living space in the urban areas.
Rayong
1,277
3,307
148,000
250,000
Samut Sakhon
324
840
166,000
158,000
THE PEOPLE OF THAILAND
Samut Songkhram
154
399
162,000
159,000
Samut Prakan
361
934
235,000
325,000
The diversity of ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups in
Sara Buri
1,144
2,963
304,000
342,000
Thailand is characteristic of most nations of Southeast
Sing Buri
325
842
154,000
162,000
Asia, where shifting political boundaries have done little
Suphan Buri
2,061
5,339
491,000
561,000
Trat
1,127
2,919
66,000
94,000
to impede the centuries-long migrations of people from
North
one area to another.
Provinces
Composition of the population. Ethnic groups. Thai
Chiang Mai
8,878
22,993
798,000
1,024,000
people are found not only in Thailand but also in Laos,
Chiang Rai
7,260
18,803
812,000
1,086,000
Burma, India, both Vietnams, and in southern China.
Kamphaeng Phet
3,457
8,954
173,000
333,000
Geograph-
These Thai speak the Thai language, but with different
Lampang
4,833
12,518
472,000
616,000
Lamphun
1,702
4,407
250,000
318,000
ical
accents and a few different words. Little difference exists
Mae Hong Son
5,105
13,222
81,000
104,000
dispersion
between the Thai in Laos, Burma, and even in China and
Nakhon Sawan
3,736
9,677
648,000
758,000
of Thai
those of northern Thailand, but there is a noticeable dif-
Nan
4,515
11,694
240,000
310,000
Phetchabun
peoples
4,311
11,166
ference between them and the Thai living in the central
320,000
513,000
Phichit
1,749
4,530
389,000
440,000
plain and close to Cambodia. The peninsular Thai also
Phitsanulak
3,729
9,659
352,000
492,000
are much influenced by the Malay.
Phrae
2,258
5,847
299,000
365,000
Sukhothai
Wars between Thailand and Burma in the past brought
2,641
6,841
316,000
394,000
Tak
6,027
15,609
168,000
217,000
many refugees and prisoners of war into Thailand. The
Uthai Thani
2,499
6,472
146,000
177,000
Mon, a Burmese people, settled in many parts of the
Uttaradit
2,940
7,614
260,000
321,000
north, the centre, and the west; their distinctiveness is
Northeast
evident in their festivals and religious rites. Even the
Provinces
original Thai are not completely free from ethnic inter-
Buriram
4,159
10,771
584,000
797,000
mixture, and the ethnic origin of the modern Thai is even
Chaiyaphum
4,165
10,788
486,000
626,000
Kalasin
2,954
7,650
427,000
573,000
more complex when the Chinese and the Indian descen-
Khon Kaen
5,175
13,404
844,000
1,025,000
dants are considered. Bangkok is the chief melting pot of
Loei
4,222
10,936
211,000
326,000
the Thai race. Tracing true Thai blood in Bangkok
Maha Sarakham
2,224
5,760
499,000
613,000
Nakhon Phanom
should not be attempted, as a famous Thai scholar (him-
3,764
9,749
436,000
561,000
Nakhon Ratchasima
7,564
19,590
1,095,000
1,547,000
self of Chinese descent) has said, for what makes the
Nong Khai
2,789
7,223
257,000
442,000
Thai is the institution.
Roi Et
3,033
7,856
668,000
780,000
Sakon Nakhon
Except the Karen, who mixed rather easily with the
3,683
9,539
427,000
598,000
Sisaket
3,403
8,813
601,000
790,000
northern Thai, the hill tribes, or the mountain Thai, pre-
Surin
3,392
8,784
582,000
747,000
fer to keep themselves isolated. They occasionally come
Ubon Ratchathani
8,787
22,758
1,131,000
1,480,000
down to the markets to trade with the lowlanders. They
Udon Thani
6,411
16,605
744,000
1,118,000
South
are probably of purer stock than the modern Thai. Two
small hill tribes are of special interest, the Lawa and the
Provinces
Semang. The Lawa are believed by some historians to be
Chumphon
2,219
5,746
175,000
235,000
Krabi
1,785
4,624
94,000
148,000
the original dwellers of the delta plain, driven into the
Nakhon Si
3,926
10,169
730,000
927,000
hills of the northwest by the Thai who conquered the
Thammarat
area. The Semang of the southern mountains live by
Narathiwat
1,632
4,228
266,000
326,000
Pattani
777
hunting with blowpipes and spears. Another ethnic group
2,013
282,000
330,000
Phangnga
1,583
4,100
93,000
135,000
that often escapes attention is that of the Chao Nam, or
Phatthalung
1,262
3,269
234,000
298,000
sea dwellers. Rarely settling permanently, they live by
Phuket
309
801
76,000
100,000
fishing along the western coast and the adjacent islands
Ranong
1,323
3,426
38,000
59,000
Satun
of the peninsula.
1,031
2,669
70,000
131,000
Songkhia
2,576
6,673
500,000
621,000
Linguistic groups. The Thai, who live in almost all
Surat Thani
4,946
12,811
325,000
434,000
areas, comprise the majority linguistic group. The great-
Trang
1,909
4,944
240,000
326,000
Yala
est concentration is in the Chao Phraya Delta. Burmese,
1,821
4,716
149,000
199,000
Total Thailand
198,455
514,000
26,258,000 $
34,152,000$
Laotian, and Cambodian influences already have been
The mix of
noted. The people of Tak and Kanchanaburi, near the
*Preliminary.
|Converted area figures do not add to total given because
of rounding.
Excludes an estimated 250,000 hill people who have never
tongues
southwestern Burmese border, speak Karen and Mon.
been enumerated. Figures do not add to total given because of rounding.
and faiths
From Chumphon to the south, the Thai speak a southern
Source: Official government figures.
dialect with much musical inflection. Most of the Thai
have been in contact with one another, especially admin-
remote areas can understand the central Thai.
istrative officials and teachers, and the Thai living in
Chinese is the second major language. In the commer-
Thailand
203
cial centres of Bangkok and other cities, Chinese or their
0
50
100
150
200 mi
descendants operate both large and small commercial
Chiang Mai
0
100
200
300km
enterprises. Those of Chinese descent also make a living
as middlemen and storekeepers. Most of them speak
isus*
Chinese, as do some of the northern hill tribes, such as
the Meo and Ho.
Although no reliable statistics exist, English-speaking
Udon Thani
Thai probably make up the third major linguistic group.
Nong Khai
000
English is required in secondary schools and the universi-
000
ty, and frequent contact with American military person-
000
nel also encourages the speaking of English. The preva-
Lampang
000
000
lence of Indian dialects reflects the large number of Indi-
Phitsanulok
000
an merchants and their descendants in the commercial
000
centres. Other linguistic groups are found among the
Ubon
000
Ratchathani
000
mountain Thai. Some of them can speak Chinese, al-
Nakhon Sawan
000
though most of them understand the northern Thai dia-
000
lect (see further TAI LANGUAGES).
000
000
Religious groups. The religious groups in Thailand, in
order of size, are the Buddhists, the Muslims, the Confu-
Lop Buri
000
cians, the Christians, and the Sikhs. Buddhism, professed
000
Chao Phraya
by more than 90% of the population, is considered
000
the national religion, and Buddhists are scattered
Nakhon Pathom
Nakhon Ratchasime
000
throughout the nation. Muslims live mostly in the south,
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya
000
whereas about one-half of the Christians live in the cen-
Bangkok-Thon Buri
000
tral region. Hindus and the Sikhs are concentrated in the
Phet Buri
Samut Prakan
,000
,000
central region, chiefly around Bangkok. Although sever-
Chon Buri
,000
al of the hill tribes have converted to Buddhism or Chris-
Samut Sakhon
,000
tianity, most remain animists. An interesting religious
,000
,000
group in Thailand, although totalling only about 4,000
families, exerts much influence on the Thai religious life.
GULF
ahmin
These are the Brahmins. The royal and the official cere-
monies are almost always directed or performed by the
OF
,000
religious
,000
incluence
Brahmins, whose rites are blended harmoniously with
THAILAND
,000
those of the Buddhists. Brahmins are famous for their
,000
,000
astrological experiences. The plowing ceremony, carried
,000
out in the presence of the king and queen by Brahmins
,000
and other officials, is believed to bring a good rice harvest.
,000
,000
The Brahmins and the royal astrologers are also respon-
1,000
sible for the preparation of the national calendar.
Nakhon Si Themmarat
1,000
Contemporary demography. Birthrates and mortality
Persons
5,000
per sq km
per sq mi
rates. By the early 1970s, Thailand's population had more
1,000
65
,000
than doubled since World War II. Trends suggest that
25
Phuket
comparable growth will continue, since the government's
50
130
',000
,000
attempts at family planning run counter to much social
Songkhia
100
260
and religious tradition. The very high birthrate of about
250
650
33 per year per 1,000 people is about twice that of many
500
1,295
7,000
Western nations, but, since Thailand is an agricultural
5,000
3,000
country, the population pressure on the land is not as
changwat boundary
5,000
serious as it would be in an industrial country. The World
amphur boundary.
5,000
Health Organization has helped to suppress such endemic
3,000
diseases as malaria and tuberculosis. The death rate has
Population density of Thailand.
1,000
7,000
been reduced from about 16 persons per 1,000 to about
By courtesy of the Royal Thai Survey Department
2,000
7.0 per 1,000 since World War II.
0,000
Distribution of population. Productivity and location
500,000 persons. Their immigration can be traced to their
8,000
0,000
make the delta plain of the Chao Phraya the most densely
need for more land to grow opium and other crops, to the
populated area. The municipality of Bangkok-Thonburi
demand for labour in the forest industry, and to political
7,000
unrest in their original homeland.
0,000
alone had a population of about 3,200,000 persons in
8,000
Emigration of Thai doctors and nurses to other coun-
1970. Population centres in the north and northeast gen-
tries, especially to the United States, has resulted in seri-
erally follow the rivers. The southern population is con-
centrated along the eastern coast, where there are some
ous shortages of medical personnel in Thailand.
5,000
8,000
wide strips of agricultural lands. Tin mining and smelt-
THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
7,000
ing and shipping on the west coast make Phuket Island
the most densely populated province of the south. The
Thailand's economy is still based on the production of
16,000
0,000
southeast coast is also another heavily populated area.
basic agricultural, mineral, forest, and other raw mate-
Areas of forest, rugged topography, dry and infertile
rials. Its gold and other foreign-exchange reserves in-
15,000
8,000
soils, or swampy vegetation are thinly populated.
creased by about 15% annually after 1957, and the
0,000
Migratory patterns. Immigration, especially from Chi-
Thai unit of currency, the baht, is among the world's
59,000
most stable currencies.
31,000
na, is more significant than emigration. The government
has felt that overpopulation by the Chinese in Bang-
The economic milieu. Areas of economic activity.
21,000
34,000
kok and other commercial centres must be controlled.
Growing demands have encouraged a stronger and more
26,000
Although the quota has been brought down to 200 a year,
diversified Thai agriculture. Rice is likely to remain as
Primary
99,000
the major crop, unless radical dietary changes occur in
and
52,000$
the number of Chinese nationals in Thailand at present
Asia. Sweet corn, cassava, and plants yielding fibres are
fabricated
is about 400,000, not including Chinese who are Thai
cause
other major crops. Fine breeds of cattle and pigs have
products
never
citizens. Of the Europeans, Americans, and Indians who
been introduced from the West. Hardwoods, such as
unding.
take up residence for commercial purposes, only some
teak and yang (a source of gurjun balsam), are major
of the Indians make Thailand their permanent home.
forest products; rubber trees-introduced into the coun-
The northern hill tribes, of course, have immigrated
try during the 19th century-are important. Fishery in-
from neighbouring countries. This influx continues, and in
cludes both marine species and freshwater fish caught in
the early 1970s they numbered between 300,000 and
the rivers or in cultivation ponds.
204 Thailand
There are more than 650 tin mines, most of them in the
graphic facilities are also available. The Telephone Or-
peninsula, making Thailand the world's third-largest pro-
ganization of Thailand services well over 150,000 (a fig-
ducer of tin. Construction of a smelter has made possible
ure constantly rising) telephones and links 25 provinces
domestic smelting of most of the ore. Iron-ore production
with telephone and radio-relay cable.
rose manyfold during the 1960s. Other important mining
and quarrying operations produce gypsum, fluorite, tung-
ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS
sten, limestone, and marble.
Structure of government. Following the revolution of
The share of the gross national product (GNP) contrib-
1932, a provisional constitution was promulgated, stat-
uted by manufacturing is only about 15 percent, with the
ing that supreme power lay in the hands of the people.
major part of it involved in processing agricultural, for-
The monarch, the National Assembly, the Commissariat
est, and mineral products. The main centres for large
of the People (later, the State Council), and the law
industry is the Bangkok-Thonburi metropolis, while nu-
courts were to exercise power on their behalf. Since then,
merous cottage industries in the north produce textiles,
several constitutions have been created because of
teak carvings, lacquer ware, and similar products. In the
changes of government, but the provisions are similar.
southeast, in addition to food processing, oil refining
Under the present constitution, the king is head of state
Constitu
and gem cutting are carried on.
and of the armed forces. He is held to be sacred and
tional
Thailand has several hydroelectric plants, but most
inviolable, and in the name of the people he exercises
framewo
electrical power is produced by generating plants using
legislative power, with the advice and consent of the As-
and legal
gas and solid fuels, such as lignite, which is mined in
sembly. He also appoints the prime minister. Executive
system
Thailand. A nuclear-power plant is under construction at
powers are vested in a Council of Ministers, judicial pow-
Chon Buri. Small amounts of petroleum are produced
ers in the courts; both operate in the name of the king.
domestically, and the government has granted conces-
The royal family is very much at the core of modern Thai
sions for offshore explorations in the Gulf of Thailand.
society, being regarded as the symbol of national unity
The Bank of Thailand, established in 1942, issues cur-
and the protector of national welfare and traditions.
rency, acts as central banker to the government and to the
In form, the Thai government resembles those of West-
16 commercial banks, and serves as fiscal agent in deal-
ern nations; various ministries are responsible for such
ing with international monetary organizations. Nearly
matters as finances, agriculture, education, public health,
one-half of the nation's retailing and other distribution
communications, and justice.
businesses are located in Bangkok-Thonburi. Middlemen
The province, or changwat, of which there are 70, is the
handle most farm commodities. Retail stores are small,
major unit of local government. Beneath these are dis-
except in Bangkok, which has several large department
tricts, subdistricts, and communes and villages. The 120
and cut-rate stores. In these; as well as in most food
municipalities in the kingdom are classified as cities,
markets, prices are fixed; bargaining occurs mostly in
towns, or communes, according to their populations; they
the souvenir and gift shops of larger cities.
are run by an elected mayor and councillors.
With agricultural and raw materials the basic exports,
Thai law has been influenced heavily by the Hindu code
manufactured goods, such as machinery and transporta-
of Manu, which probably was transmitted through the
tion equipment, account for the highest value among im-
ancient Mon kingdom located in central Thailand. Re-
ports. Thailand's major trading partner, both for exports
form in the late 19th century introduced concepts of
and imports, is Japan; most other exports are sent to
Western jurisprudence. All judges sitting in the -110 courts
other Asian nations, whereas most other imports are from
across the country are professionals, appointed without
Europe and the United States.
political consideration; they are bolstered by a system of
Management of the economy. A huge public debt, in-
judge trainees.
curred since World War II, is componded by the situation
Under the king as commander in chief, the army, navy,
created by the rapidly increasing population that leaves
and air forces are assisted by the Military Assistance
less agricultural surplus for export. During the 1960s,
Program, and by the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
however, the volume output of the Thai economy dou-
(SEATO), of which Thailand is a member. Thai soldiers
bled, rising about 8% annually. Under government de-
have fought in Korea and Vietnam, but in the early 1970s
Govern-
velopment plans, gross national products increased at a
they were fully occupied in containing Communist infil-
ment and
slightly lower figure annually. Private and governmental
tration from neighbouring countries.
economic
investment rose consistently in this period. Aiming at
The political process. Thailand has had only nine elec-
planning
diversification, the government has supported a greater
tions since 1932, and in those years 13 attempts have
number of small industries since 1964. To encourage
been made to overthrow the 16 cabinets, of which six
exports, duties are low, except on rice, to which a pre-
were successful. The military has been involved in most
mium is attached to prevent domestic shortages.
of these attempts to influence the course of government.
Unions are prohibited, but the Labour Disputes Act of
Dissatisfaction with the pace of Thailand's progress to-
1966 guarantees good working conditions and fair wages.
ward achieving standards of living comparable with
Strikes are not allowed, unless management representa-
those in most Western nations has been at the bottom of
tives fail to agree with employees and Labour Depart-
many of these coups, some originating from within the
ment mediators.
parliament. The successful coup of November 1971 was
Transportation and communications. Bangkok is the
directed also at slowing the Communist insurgency with-
centre of Thailand's water, land, and air transport. The
in the country and at a rapidly rising crime rate.
rivers of the delta have been used for transport since
The social milieu. The average per capita income in
antiquity, and modern irrigation canals have added to the
Thailand is about 3,400 baht (21 baht = $1 U.S.; 50.4
inland-waterway mileage. Because of the rains, it is diffi-
baht = £1 sterling, on December 1, 1970), with regional
cult to keep some highways open all year, especially in
averages ranging from 4,800 in the central region to only
the peninsula. Mountain trails are often the only means of
1,300 in the northeast. In the early 1970s almost half of
travel in remote areas. Where roads are inadequate, air-
the population was under 15 years of age, creating an
plane and helicopter services often compensate. Rail lines
enormous dependency rate. The cost-of-living index was
radiate from Bangkok in several directions, one linking
also rising dramatically.
up with the Cambodian rail system.
Thailand's health and welfare services remain far from
The port of Bangkok, at Khlong Toei, is the largest and
adequate. The emigration of potential medical practition-
Health,
busiest of the 22 in the kingdom, handling 95% of im-
ers to more lucrative practices in the West has tended to
welfare,
ports and 85% of exports. It is congested, however, and
undermine governmental attempts to upgrade services
housing,
expansion is planned. Don Muang Airport, north of
within the country. Mobile medical centres and helicop-
and
Bangkok, is served by 28 international airlines, including
ters attempt to alleviate the lack of widespread facilities.
education
Thai Airways International, a state-owned line. Over 20
The doctor-patient ratio in the early 1970s was 15 per
smaller airports are located throughout the country.
100,000, and medical practice on the midwife level was
There are some 8,000 post offices, performing both reg-
common. Infant mortality and diseases of childbirth are
ular and ancillary services. Domestic and foreign tele-
leading causes of death, whereas malaria has been widely
Thames River 205
reduced through the use of DDT, which has hastened the
most of Thailand, are operated by the government's
devastation of forest areas as a side effect.
Public Relations Department. In 1955 Thailand became
Only Bangkok-Thonburi, and a few other large munic-
the first nation of mainland Asia to have regular tele-
ipalities have housing shortages. The construction of
vision programming, and in the early 1970s Bangkok had
government-financed housing cannot keep pace with de-
eight channels; three provincial stations reach over
mand, and slum areas have proliferated in some parts of
30 provinces. Two Earth satellite stations were built at
the city.
Si Racha in 1970 to facilitate overseas television links.
A National Scheme of Education was introduced in
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The annual Thailand Official Year Book
1960, requiring children under 15 to complete seven
is the best source for current information. An excellent, well-
years of elementary education. Secondary education gen-
illustrated pamphlet of the TRIBAL RESEARCH CENTER OF THAI-
erally lasts five years, but when it is vocational it lasts six.
LAND, "Tribesmen and Peasants in North Thailand, 1967"
Only a small minority of students go on to secondary
(1969), briefly describes all the tribesmen in Thailand. The
training, however. The entrance without examination of
ROYAL THAI SURVEY DEPARTMENT, Thailand National Re-
some 60,000 students into newly opened Ramkhamhaeng
sources Atlas (1969), is the only atlas that can be used au-
thoritatively as a reference. MASASHICHI NISHIO, "Public Health
University in 1971 nearly trebled the nation's university
onstitu
in Thailand," Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 11, no. 1 (1964;
nal
and teacher-training population. Eight other institutions,
Eng. trans. JPRS 32217, 1965), based on scholarly research,
not including military academies, offer degrees in under-
gives a true picture of health conditions in Thailand. On phys-
amewor
d legal
graduate and postgraduate fields.
ical geography, see ROBERT L. PENDLETON, Report to Accom-
pany the Provisional Map of the Soils and Surface Rocks of
stem
CULTURAL LIFE AND INSTITUTIONS
the Kingdom of Siam (1953); and the SIAM, MINISTRY OF
According to many historians, the Thai's original home
COMMERCE AND COMMUNICATIONS, Nature and Industry
was in China, perhaps as far north as Mongolia. The Thai
(1930).
(P.P.A.)
brought with them many cultural institutions of the
Chinese. They began settlement in the Indochinese Penin-
Thames River
sula about 800 years ago, at which time some Indian
colonies already were established. Indian culture has been
The Thames, the principal river of England and the
continuously absorbed into Thai life. Modifications were
stream on the banks of which London was built, winds
affected by the cultures of the Mon people, the Javanese,
through six of the country's southern counties for 210
and the Khmer and Burmese people.
miles (338 kilometres), of which 92 miles are tidal, to the
Traditional
Thai arts are reflected in religion, architecture, porcelain
North Sea. Rising in the southwest in the Cotswolds of
arts and
and pottery, painting, music, drama, and literature. In
Gloucestershire at Thameshead, three miles from Cir-
religion artistic expression can be found in the sculpture
encester, it broadens to 125 feet at Oxford and 250 feet at
extoms
of Buddha images. Thai architectural style is to be seen
Teddington, the tidal head. At London Bridge it has wid-
in the temples. Wood is usually the basic construction
ened to 750 feet, and 16 miles downstream, at Gravesend,
material. The ornamental parts are generally gilded and
it is 2,100 feet wide; and nearer the sea, between Sheer-
enriched with glass mosaic, gold leaf, porcelain, stucco,
ness and Shoeburyness, the estuary expands rapidly to 51/2
lacquer, and inlaid mother-of-pearl. The multiple-struc-
miles. The average gradient from source to tidal water is
tured temple ground is a paradise for architects. Porce-
30 inches per mile (for related information see LONDON).
The first of its tributaries enters the stream 154 miles
lain and pottery, although at first put to utilitarian uses,
were later regarded as objects of art. Thai painting prob-
above London Bridge; this is the Churn, whose source at
ably derived from India and Ceylon and is mostly re-
Seven Springs, four miles south of Cheltenham, has some
ligious; the artists are anonymous monks or dedicated
claim to be the source of the Thames. Descending a broad
laymen. The paintings are usually drawn on the temple
vale, it accepts the waters of the Coln, the Windrush, the
Evenlode, the Cherwell, the Ock, and the Thame before
walls, which are constructed with bricks and plaster.
Thai music is based on a unique system. It is not de-
its valley becomes steep-sided as it divides the Chiltern
rived from the Chinese or Javanese systems, although the
Hills from the Berkshire Downs. At Pangbourne the river
instruments used for playing may look the same.
turns abruptly eastward and flows beneath beautifully
The royal palace plays an important role in leading and
wooded slopes, taking in the Kennet and the Loddon.
Below Maidenhead the landscape flattens, save for
preserving Thai culture through frequent royal func-
tions and state ceremonies. Among these is the Kathin
Windsor's lone knoll, after which it is joined by the
Colne, the Wey, and the Mole. Below Teddington Lock,
ceremony, a colourful pageant marking the end of the
19 miles upstream from London Bridge, the river is tidal.
Buddhist Lent. It takes place with a procession of royal
barges on the Chao Phraya, reconstructing a tradition
Through Greater London it is embanked and spanned by
18 roads and six railway bridges. After the Tower Bridge
dating from the earliest days of Buddhism. Thai temples
and the Pool of London down the ten miles to Green-
hold ceremonies to mark the special events of Buddha's
wich, the banks are given over to quays and docks, and
life. These are often accompanied by fun fairs to attract
tunnels replace bridges: Rotherhithe, Blackwall, Green-
large crowds to the temples.
wich, and Woolwich, the latter two for pedestrians only.
The University of Fine Arts teaches all Thai fine arts,
Along the next stretch to Tilbury and Gravesend, estu-
including drama and music. It also designs architectural
arine marshes alternate with factories and chalk bluffs;
structures for the government as well as the religious
the Purfleet-Dartford Tunnel, connecting Essex and
institutions in a style that will preserve Thai forms. The
Kent, permits bypassing of London. Below Tilbury, the
Royal Institute of Thailand and the Siam Society are
main outport, the wide estuary is coastal in nature.
responsible for research and publication concerning the
The Thames Basin divides distinctly in two, above and
Drainage
Thai way of life. The National Museum acts as an educa-
below the Goring Gap. The upper portion, on Jurassic
pattern
tional and information centre for the evolution of culture
strata of which older Lias and oolitic (round-grained lime-
of the
in the country.
stone) series form the higher rim, is itself divided by a
river
The first type for printing Thai letters was devised by a
line of hills breached by the river at Oxford, where drain-
basin
British captain in 1828, and the first printing press was
brought to Thailand by an American missionary in 1836.
age converges. The lower basin consists of chalk down-
folded into a syncline or depression, with a west-east axis
The Thai government made use of the printing press for
and a covering of Eocene sands and clays.
Health,
the first time in 1839, when a royal proclamation banning
The thick series of Mesozoic clays and limestones, of
welfare,
opium smoking and trade was printed.
The
varying resistances to erosion, were subject at a later pe-
housing,
The number of newspapers in the early 1970s-more
and
communi-
riod to folding that created a downwarp along the line of
than 15 in Bangkok printed in Thai, Chinese, and En-
estions
the present Kennet-Thames. Individual streams flowing
education
glish, and some 50 in the provinces-was growing rap-
media
east toward the proto-Kennet-Thames were later cap-
idly. Similarly, the number of radio and television sets
tured by its more effective westward flow. The upper
was soaring: farmers often carried radios in the fields,
Thames itself developed as a west-east subsequent stream
and the roofline of many small towns sprouted a forest
and captured southward-flowing Cotswold streams (see
of antennas. About 30 radio transmitters, which cover
RIVERS AND RIVER SYSTEMS).
Library of Congre
UNITED STATES
CAPITOL HISTORICAL SOCIETY
FOREIGN VISITORS
TO CONGRESS
André de Laboulaye, Ambassador of the Republic of France, addresses a Joint Session of the
SPEECHES AND HISTORY
Edited by MARY LEE KERR
U.S. Senate and House of Representatives on May 20, 1934.
Preface by EDMUND S. MUSKIE
Historical Note by FRED SCHWENGEL
VOLUME 1
1824 - 1956
KRAUS INTERNATIONAL PUBLICATIONS
A Division of The Kraus Organization Limited
Millwood, New York
RS TO CONGRESS
, economic or
and cooperate
P.
II our foreign
Phibunsongkhram, Prime Minister of
integration of
Thailand
political and
INTRODUCTION BY DAVID K. WYATT
ur ratification
continent, the
e making. Let
in order that
WHEN FIELD MARSHAL P. PHIBUN-
egrated. [Ap-
songkhram strode into the halls of Congress in May 1957, he stood
at the threshold of the last climactic crisis of his long career in the
ingle market,
politics of his native Thailand.
n the Atlantic
He was born Plaek Khittasangkha, the son of a durian farmer in
merica of its
Nonthaburi, north of Bangkok, in 1897, and attended the Royal Thai
munity. This
Military Academy. Winning a military scholarship for further stud-
vill make for
ies in France, he there became involved in planning, and subse-
quently in executing, the bloodless coup d'état that ended Siam's
at friendship
absolute monarchy in 1932. Bearing now the title Luang, Phibun-
lement in the
songkhram (from which he took his surname), at the age of only 37
munity is, in
became minister of defense in 1934, and prime minister in 1938. As
dly relations.
prime minister he was a radical nationalist, promoting the change
of the kingdom's name to Thailand to reflect pan-Thai, anti-Chinese
policies which were coupled with the aggressive nationalism, mili-
tarism, and authoritarianism with which Thailand entered the
Second World War. It was Phibun's decision that led Thailand to
allow the passage of Japanese troops through the country, and to a
pragmatic wartime alliance with Japan. When Japan's defeat
seemed inevitable, Phibun's government was toppled by a parlia-
mentary vote in July 1944.
Though formally a constitutional monarchy since 1932, Thai-
land was for all but three years dominated by the military, and
political chaos brought Phibun and the army back to power in 1947.
Alarmed at developments in Indochina, and worried about Commu-
nist China's influence with his country's large Chinese minority,
Phibun adopted a strongly anti-Communist foreign policy in alli-
ance with the United States, and gained considerable military
e De Seabra of
assistance. By 1955, Phibun felt he was losing control: he faced
e House of
growing popular resentment (and foreign criticism) of military
fore the Senate
01, part 3, p.
rule, and challenges from military rivals. His addresses before the
U.S. House and Senate in May 1955 reflect a defensiveness as to
479
480
FOREIGN VISITORS TO CONGRESS
Thailand's political system and a subtle plea for continued military
aid, as well as a commitment to democratic evolution which, to the
surprise of his critics, both domestic and foreign, he acted upon his
return to Bangkok in June by announcing a transition to a parlia-
mentary government through elections in 1957. He hoped to
subdue both his critics and his rivals by emerging as a popular,
democratic leader; but his flagrant abuses of the electoral system
led to General Sarit Thanarat's military coup against him following
the elections in September 1957. He died in exile in Japan in 1964.
CONGRESS
d military
ch, to the
upon his
P. Phibunsongkhram, Prime Minister of Thailand
a parlia-
Address before the U.S. Senate
hoped to
May 4, 1955
popular,
al system
following
1 in 1964.
Thank you, Mr. Vice President.
I am greatly honored by the cordial welcome you have extended
to me and for this opportunity of meeting the Members of such an
eminent body of legislators, charged by the Constitution and the
people of the United States with important responsibilities concern-
ing both domestic and foreign affairs.
May I take this opportunity, Mr. President, to convey to you and
through you, sir, the warm greetings from the Government and
people of Thailand to the people of the United States, and my deep
gratitude for the gracious and kind welcome I have received from
the American people.
We, in Thailand, are still young in the parliamentary form of
government which we have had for only 25 years, but our love of
freedom is rooted in our history and traditions and is as strong as
the love of liberty which has made the United States the great
Nation it is today.
I have had the pleasure of personally meeting a number of
United States Senators who have been to my country, but I have long
had the desire to visit the United States Senate whose wise guidance
in matters of foreign policy, which is of particular concern to
Thailand and other countries, is of supreme importance during this
period of world tensions.
Thailand is proud to have stood with the United Nations and the
United States in Korea against aggression, and is proud to be a
partner, even though a small one, in the efforts being made by the
United States to bring about a lasting period of peace. I believe
peace can be achieved through collective strength mustered, not for
purposes of aggression or interference in the internal affairs of
other nations, but to preserve justice and liberty.
The danger with which we are confronted is real, for not only
are the peace and security of Asia, and indeed the world, threat-
ened, but more important than that, their very life and freedom.
Congressional Record, 84th Congress, 1st Session, vol. 101, part 4, p. 5578.
481
482
FOREIGN VISITORS TO CONGRESS
The people of Thailand shall continue to persevere with all their
strength and energy, in the course we have taken, for we believe
freedom, democracy, and righteousness will ultimately prevail.
Thank you once again for your friendly welcome. I extend to
each one of you a cordial invitation to visit Thailand.
[Prolonged applause, Senators rising.]
TO CONGRESS
th all their
we believe
prevail.
P. Phibunsongkhram, Prime Minister of Thailand
[ extend to
Address before the U.S. House of Representatives
May 4, 1955
Mr. Speaker and Members of the
House of Representatives, I greatly appreciate the kind welcome
you have extended to me. This opportunity of meeting the distin-
guished Members of the House of Representatives is one I shall long
remember and cherish, for you are the chosen Representatives of
the people of the United States, carrying out important and heavy
responsibilities under the Constitution of your country.
In Thailand, we have been a constitutional monarchy with a
parliamentary form of government only since 1932. To make this
change from the past has not been easy or simple. Nevertheless, we
are striving to achieve ultimately a fully representative government
directly responsible to the people.
I want to say to you that the spirit of freedom is strong among
the Thai people [applause], and we shall steadfastly continue to
preserve that spirit, for we believe righteousness and freedom of
mankind will ultimately prevail. [Applause.] I think it is our love of
liberty that makes the Thai people so greatly admire the United
States, who, we feel, is the champion of the weak and small nations
seeking national independence and their rightful place in the
society of nations.
It was our love of freedom and our friendship for the United
States which caused us to send our young soldiers to Korea to fight
shoulder to shoulder with the forces of the United States and the
United Nations. [Applause.] For these same reasons we stand with
your country against any further aggression, but we are a peace-
loving nation and, like the United States, have pledged ourselves to
work for lasting world peace. [Applause.]
And now, Mr. Speaker and honorable Members, may I convey
to you and through you the warm and sincere greetings and good
wishes of the Thai people to the people of the United States, as well
as my deep gratitude for the kindness and gracious welcome I have
received from the American people.
I wish to conclude by extending to each one of you a cordial
invitation to visit Thailand. [Applause, the Members rising.]
Congressional Record, 84th Congress, 1st Session, vol. 101, part 4, p. 5690.
483
418
419
Introduction
Thailand
Thailand is unique among Southeast Asian nations in having
developed its culture independently of western colonialism,
P.432
and the Thais are innately proud of their history. The king-
dom's Buddhism is the purest in the region. Its language is like
no other but is enormously rich, with an extraordinary capacity
for exact expression of the finest nuances of human relation-
from FODOR'S 90
ships, a sign of the importance Thais place on dealing with one
another peaceably and with dignity. Contrasts abound in the
country, both geographically and socially. In a land the size of
France, beach resorts run the gamut from sleazy Pattaya to
dignified Hua Hin. Idyllic island hideaways of virgin beaches
sheltered by palm groves and lapped by gentle waters contrast
with the frenetic capital.
Bangkok is a sensory kaleidoscope in which temples and pal-
aces of amazing beauty stand alongside ramshackle homes on
the banks of evil-smelling klongs (canals); appetizing odors of
exotic street food mix with the earthy pungency of open drain-
age systems; and graceful classical dancers perform on stages
Pearl Buddha
next door to bars where go-go girls gyrate in clinical naked-
ness. BMWs stall in traffic jams while tuk-tuks (three-wheel
cabs) scoot between them; deluxe hotels share the same block
with tin-roof stalls; and designer boutiques compete with
street vendors hawking knockoff Pierre Cardin shirts.
Chiang Mai, Thailand's second largest city, is situated in the
mountainous north of the country. It is older than Bangkok-in
fact, older than the Thai Kingdom. Chiang Mai's cultural heri-
tage reflects those of its neighbors, Burma and Laos, as much
as it does Bangkok's. The surrounding hills are dotted with
small villages of a people collectively known as the hill tribes,
whose way of life has, until the last two decades, remained in-
dependent from Thailand's national development and the 20th
century. To the northeast is the Golden Triangle, once notori-
ous for opium trafficking and still famous for its mountainous
scenery spreading over three countries-Thailand, Burma,
and Laos.
The small, sleepy market towns of Sukhothai and Ayutthaya
contain (restored) ruins that witness their mighty pasts as the
capitals of the Thai kingdom.
Away from the towns are no fewer than 50 national parks. Phu
Kradung in the northeast, for example, is 60 square miles of ta-
bleland covered with pine trees and tropical flora. Just to the
south of Bangkok is the province of Kanchanaburi, filled with
breathtakingly lush forests and cascades.
Forest cover, though, is declining in Thailand, down from 57%
in 1961 to 32% today. The mighty elephant, who used to work
the great teak forests, has joined the ranks of the unemployed.
What work he picks up nowadays is performing for tourists a
charade euphemistically called "Elephants at Work."
Just as tourism has given a new lease on life to the elephants, so
has it created alternative opportunities for a population that is
70% agrarian. More than 4 million visitors flock to Thailand
each year to seek a quick fix of the exotic at bargain prices.
Their demands and willingness to pay top dollar for their pleas-
ures have changed the Thai view of the foreigner. No longer a
Thailand
Mae
Chiang
Sait
Saen
Chiang Rai
VIETNAM
UNION OF
LAOS
MYANMAR
(BURMA)
Chiang Mail
Lamphun
lientiane
*
Udorn-Thani
Sukhothai
Sakhon
Nakhon
andon
Rhitsanulok
(Rangoon
VISA
Nakhon
21
Udon
Sawan
Ratchathani
Si Sa Ket
o
Lob Buri
Phraya
Authaya Bang Pa-In
Bangkok
037
Nathon
Demneed
Photo
Hua Hin
Chontabor
Ko
Samet
Andaman Sea
Phnom
Penh
Gulf of Thailand
VIETNAM
IST IMUS
OAKRA
Ko Phangan
Ko Samui
Surah Thani
Similan
Nakhon Si
Islands
Thammarat
Krabi
Ko Phuket
a
Phuket
Thung Song
Phuket Bay
N
Phi Phi
Islands
Trang
Songkhla
Hat Yai
Pattani
0
200 miles
0
300 km
MALAYSIA
421
Thailand
Staying in Thailand
423
guest, the visitor is something akin to a one-armed bandit: If
government and install a puppet regime. The result was that
the Thai can jerk the tourist just right, he will hit the jackpot...
the Thais not only threw out the French but also closed their
Because the Thai does this with a smile, the foreigner keepson
doors to all outsiders until the middle of the 19th century.
coming back for more. This is not the Thai heritage. In the past
When the West again threatened Thailand's sovereignty, King
making money for its own sake was frowned upon. Important to
Mongkut (Rama IV, 1851-1868), through a series of adroit
the Thai was social harmony and the simple goal of enough "fish
treaties, kept the colonial forces at bay. His efforts were con-
in the rivers and rice in the fields" for everybody-an idyllic
tinued by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V, 1868-1910). Thai
state associated with the 13th-century founding of the king-
independence was eventually secured by the cession to the
dom.
British of a little of what is now Malaysia and to the French of
a little of what is now Kampuchea.
Thailand's origins may even reach as far back as 5,600 years ago
to the world's oldest Bronze Age civilization. From the 6th to
Thailand's other concern was adapting to modern social pres-
the 13th centuries, known as the Dvaravati period, people from
sures. Under King Chulalongkorn, slavery was abolished,
the southern Chinese province of Yunnan moved into the fertile
hospitals and schools were established, and some upper-class
basin of the Chao Phraya River.
Thais received European educations SO they could replace
Western advisers. Under King Prajadhipok (Rama VII,
The Sukhothai period began when two Siamese chieftains
reigned 1925-1935), the world's economic depression brought
banded together, captured the Khmer outpost of Sukhothai
its share of discontent to Thailand. The pressure for sweeping
and established the first Thai kingdom in 1238. Early in the
reform ended in 1932 with the military demanding the estab-
Sukhothai period Thailand's first great king, Ramkhamhoeng,
lishment of a constitutional monarchy on lines similiar to that of
came to power. Not only was he an outstanding warrior, but he
Great Britain. Since then, quasimilitary governments and a
made two lasting and significant contributions to Thai culture.
strong bureaucracy have administered the country. Changes in
He revised and adapted the Khmer alphabet to the require-
government have as often been by coup as by election. As the
ments of the Thai language, and he invited Ceylonese monks to
new coalition of power holders customarily promises what the
purify the Khmer-corrupted Theravada (sometimes called Hi-
previous government promised when it came to power, the na-
nayana) Buddhism and establish the religion in a form that is,
tion's policies have been remarkably consistent in fostering the
for the most part, still practiced today.
expansion of the industrial economy.
By 1350 Sukhothai's strength had waned sufficiently for the
Up to now, the Thais' strong belief in Buddhism (except in the
rising and dynamic young state of Ayutthaya to usurp the reins
south, where most of Thailand's 2 million Muslims live) has ac-
of power. For four centuries and 33 kings, Ayutthaya was the
counted for their tolerant attitude, which can be summed up by
heart and brain of Thailand. In the 1650s, the city's population
their expression mai pen rai ("never mind, it does not matter").
exceeded that of London and-according to many foreign
The Thais' respect and deference for the monarchy (it is an in-
travelers-with its golden spires, waterways, and roads, it
dictable offense to slander the monarchy) has fostered an
was the most glorious capital not just in Asia, but in all the
acceptance of political authority, and a coup is treated with the
world.
attitude of mai pen rai. Whether the resilience of the Thai cul-
In 1768 the Burmese attacked the city. After a 15-month siege,
ture can withstand the pressures of the late 20th century is the
they finally captured Ayutthaya and plundered it. Golden
current question.
Buddhas were melted down, the treasuries ransacked, and
Thailand's attraction rests with the people. Proud of their in-
buildings burned. Thais who were unable to escape were killed
dependence, the Thais believe in accommodation rather than
or sent into slavery; by the time the Burmese left, Ayutthaya's
confrontation. Thais believe there is, or at least should be, a
population had dropped from 1 million to 10,000.
way to resolve differences politely and amicably. Demands,
The Thais, under General Taksin, regrouped, established a
displays of anger, and any behavior that upsets harmony are
capital on the Chao Phraya River at Thonburi (opposite
frowned upon. The Thais communicate by smiles, which have
present-day Bangkok), and set about successfully expelling the
many meanings, some of which we are probably better off not
Burmese from Thailand. In 1782 Chao P'ya Chakri, a supporter
knowing.
of General Taksin, who had briefly been crowned king, became
the first king of the current Chakri dynasty. (The present mon-
Staying in Thailand
arch, King Bhumipol Adulyadej, is the ninth in the line.) One of
the first acts of P'ya Chakri, or Rama I (all kings of the Chakri
dynasty are given the title Rama), was to move the Thai capital
Getting Around
to Bangkok.
By Plane The domestic airline is Thai Airways, which connects Bangkok
In the last 200 years, Thailand has had two prime concerns:
with all major cities and tourist areas in Thailand with the ex-
staving off foreign encroachment on its sovereignty and re-
ception of Ko Samui, where an airport is still being planned.
structuring its society to meet the demands of modern in-
Virtually all planes go through Bangkok. On popular tourist
dustrialism.
routes during peak holiday times, flights are often fully
Western powers were first welcomed when they arrived in
booked. Make sure you have reservations and make them well
1512, but the French (from whom the Thai word farang, mean-
in advance of your travel date. Flights should be reconfirmed
ing foreigner, is derived) tried to overthrow the legitimate
when you arrive in Thailand. Thai Airways has a good record
Thailand
124
Staying in Thailand
425
for keeping to schedule. During the rainy season, you may ex.
the year's count of foreigners who never made it home from
pect delays due to the weather.
their vacation!
By Train The State Railway of Thailand has three lines, all of which ter-
The major roads in Thailand tend to be very congested and
minate in Bangkok. The Northern Line connects Bangkok with
street signs are often in Thai only. But the limited number of
Chiang Mai and passes through Ayutthaya and Phitsanulok:
roads and, with the exception of Bangkok, the straightforward
the Northeastern Line travels up to Udorn Thani near the Lao-
layout of cities combine to make navigation relatively easy.
tian border; and the Southern Line goes all the way south
Driving at night in rural areas, especially north and west of
through Surat Thani-the stop for Ko Samui-to the Malay-
Chiang Mai and in the south beyond Surat Thani is not advised,
sian border and on to Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, a journey
as highway robberies have been reported.
that takes 52 hours. (There is no train to Phuket, though you
By Taxi Taxis do not have meters; fares are negotiated. Taxis waiting
can go as far as Surat Thani and change onto a scheduled bus
at hotels are more expensive than those flagged down while
service.)
cruising. Never enter the taxi until the price has been estab-
Most trains offer second- (air-conditioning and non-air-con
lished. Most taxi drivers do not speak English, but all under-
ditioning) or third-class tickets, but the overnight trains to the
stand the finger count. One finger means B10, two is for B20
north (Chiang Mai) and to the south offer first-class sleeping
and SO on. Ask at your hotel to find out what the appropriate
cabins. Couchettes, with sheets and curtains for privacy, are
fare from one point to another should be. Never pay more than
available in second class. Do not leave valuables unguarded on
what the hotel quotes; as they will have given you the high
these overnight trains as professional thieves have been known
price. If in doubt, accept 65% to 75% of the cabbie's quote.
to board the train and take what they fancy.
With any form of private travel, never change your initial
Tickets may be bought at the railway stations. Travel agencies
agreement on destination and price unless you clearly commu-
can also sell tickets for the overnight trains. Reservations are
nicate and establish a new "contract." Moreover, if you agree to
strongly advised for all long-distance trains. Train schedules in
the driver's offer to wait for you at your destination and be
English are available from travel agents and from major rail-
available for your onward or return journey, you will be
way stations.
charged for waiting time, and, unless you have fixed the price,
the return fare can be double that of the outbound fare.
Fares are reasonable. A second-class couchette, for example,
for the 14-hour journey from Bangkok to Chiang Mai is B530,
By Samlor
Often called tuk-tuks for their spluttering sound, these three-
first class is B980.
wheel cabs are slightly less expensive than a taxi and, because
of their maneuverability, the most rapid form of travel through
By Bus Long-distance buses are cheaper and faster than trains, and
congested traffic. All tuk-tuk operators drive as if your ride
there are buses into every corner of the country. A typical fare
will be their last, but, in fact, they are remarkably safe. Tuk-
for the nine-hour trip between Chiang Mai and Bangkok is
tuks are not very comfortable, though, and are best used for
B230. The level of comfort depends on the bus company. Air-
shorter journeys.
conditioned buses are superior, but the air-conditioning is al-
ways turned on full blast. The most comfortable long-distance
By Songthaew
Songthaews seat passengers on side bench seats and can serve
buses are operated by private travel/tour companies. For the
as minibuses or as private taxis. If they travel as a minibus,
most part, these private buses serve only resort destinations.
they will follow a fixed route and the fare is set. If they are used
Travel agents have the bus schedules and can make reserva-
as a taxi, then the fare must be negotiated.
tions and issue tickets.
By Bicycle For short trips bicycle rickshaws are a popular, inexpensive
By Car Cars are available for rent in Bangkok and in major tourist des-
Rickshaws
form of transport. They become expensive for long trips. Fares
tinations. An international driving license is required. Driving
are negotiated. It is imperative to be very clear with these driv-
is on the left; speed limits are 60 kph (37 mph) in cities and 90
ers about what price is agreed upon. They have a tendency to
kph (56 mph) outside. It is advisable to hire a driver. The
create a misunderstanding leading to a nasty scene at the end of
additional cost is small, and the peace of mind great. If a for-
the trip.
eigner is involved in an automobile accident, he-not the Thai
-is likely to be judged at fault.
Telephones
In Chiang Mai, Ko Samui, Pattaya, and Phuket, hiring a jeep
Public telephones are available in most towns and villages and
or motorcycle is a popular and convenient way to get around.
take B5 pieces. For a long-distance call in Thailand, dial the
Be aware that many rentals, especially those from small
area code and then the number. To make overseas calls, you
companies, are not covered by insurance, and you are liable
are advised to use either your hotel switchboard-Chiang Mai
for any damage to the vehicle, regardless of who is at fault.
and Bangkok have direct dialing-or the overseas telephone
Avis (16/23 N. Sathorn Rd., Bangkok, tel. 02/233-0397)
facilities at the central post office and telecommunications
and Hertz (1620 Petchburi Rd., Bangkok, tel. 02/252-4903) ren-
building. You'll find one in all towns. In Bangkok the overseas
tal companies are more expensive but tend to offer better
telephone center, next to the general post office, is open 24
insurance coverage.
hours; up-country the facilities' hours may vary, but they usu-
Also be aware that motorcycles easily skid on gravel roads or
ally open at 8 AM and some stay open until 10 PM. If you wish to
on gravel patches on the pavement. In Ko Samui, a sign posts
receive assistance for an overseas call, dial 100/233-2771. For
Thailand
426
Staying in Thailand
427
local telephone inquires, dial 100/183, but you will need to speak
Language
Thai. In Bangkok, you can dial 13 for an English-speaking
operator.
Thai is the country's national language. As it uses the Khmer
script and is spoken tonally, it is confusing to most foreigners.
Mail
What may sound to a foreigner as "krai kai kai kai" will mean to
a Thai, said with the appropriate pitch, "who sells chicken
Thailand's mail service is reliable and efficient. Major hotels
eggs?" However, it is easy to speak a few words, such as
provide basic postal services. Bangkok's central general post
"sawahdee krap" (good day) and "khop khun krap" (thank you).
office on Charoen Krung (New Road) is open 8-6, week-
With the exception of taxi drivers, Thais working with travel-
ends and public holidays 9-1. Up-country post offices close at
ers in the resort and tourist areas in Bangkok generally speak
4:30 PM.
sufficient English to permit basic communication.
Airmail postcard rates to the United States are B7.50; B6.50 to
Some words that may be useful to know as you visit places of
the United Kingdom. The minimum rate for airmail letters is
interest in Thailand are:
B12 to the United States and B10 to the United Kingdom. Allow
about two weeks for your mail to get to its overseas destination.
Bot: The main chapel of a wat (see below), where ordinations
If you want to speed that process, major post offices offer over-
occur and the chief image of the Lord Buddha is kept.
seas express mail (EMS) services, where the minimum rate
Chedi: A pagoda built in Thai style with a bell-shaped dome ta-
(200 g or 8 oz) is B230.
pering to a pointed spire, often where holy relics are kept.
Farang: Foreigner.
You may have mail sent to you "poste restante." Usually, there
Klong: Canal.
is a B1 charge for each piece collected. Thais write their last
Ko (often written Koh): Island.
name first, so be sure to have your last name written in capital
Nam: Water, often used to mean river.
letters and underlined.
Prang: A chedi built in the old Khmer style with an elliptical
spire.
Currency
Soi: Small street, or lane, often assigned a number and de-
scribed in conjunction with the abutting main street.
The basic unit of currency is the baht. There are 100 satang to
Stupa: Another word for chedi.
one baht. There are five different bills, each a different color:
Viharn: The large hall in a wat where priests perform religious
B10, brown; B20, green; B50, blue; B100, red; and B500, pur-
duties.
ple. Coins in use are 25 satang, 50 satang, B1, and B5. One-baht
Wat: The complex of buildings of a Buddhist religious site (mon-
coins are smaller than B5 coins; both come in three different
astery), or temple.
sizes-get the feel of them quickly.
The baht is considered a stable currency. All hotels will con-
Opening and Closing Times
vert travelers' checks and major currencies into baht, though
exchange rates are better at banks and authorized money
Thai and foreign banks are open weekdays 8:30-3:30, except
changers. The rate tends to be better in Bangkok than up-coun-
for public holidays. Most commercial concerns in Bangkok op-
try. Major international credit cards are accepted at most
erate on a five-day week and are open 8-5. Government offices
tourist shops and hotels.
are generally open 8:30-4:30 with a noon-1 lunch break. Many
stores are open daily 8-8.
What It Will Cost
National Holidays
The cost of visiting Thailand is very much up to you. It is possi-
ble to live and travel quite inexpensively if you do as Thais do-
The following are national holidays: New Year Day, January 1;
eat in local restaurants, use buses, and stay at non-air-
Magha Puja, February, on the full moon of the third lunar
conditioned hotels. Once you start enjoying a little luxury,
month; Chakri Day, April 6; Songkran, mid-April; Coronation
prices jump drastically. For example, crossing Bangkok by bus
Day, May 5; Visakha Puja, May, on the full moon of the sixth
is a 10c ride, but by taxi the fare may run to $10. Prices are
lunar month; Queen's Birthday, August 12; King's Birthday,
typically higher in resort areas catering to foreign tourists,
December 5. Government offices, banks, commercial concerns,
and Bangkok is more expensive than other Thai cities. Any-
and department stores are usually closed on these days, but
thing purchased in a luxury hotel is considerably more
smaller shops stay open.
expensive than if purchased elsewhere. Imported items are
heavily taxed.
Festivals and Seasonal Events
At press time, B23.25 = US $1.
The festivals listed below are national and occur throughout
Sample Prices Continental breakfast at a hotel, $8; large bottle of beer at a
the country unless otherwise noted. Many events follow the lu-
hotel, $3; dinner at a good restaurant, $15; 1-mile taxi ride,
nar calendar, SO dates vary from year to year.
$1.50; double room, $20-$40 inexpensive, $40-$80 moderate,
Dec. 31-Jan. 2: New Year celebrations are usually at their best
$80-$120 expensive.
around temples. In Bangkok, special ceremonies at Pramanae
Ground include Thai dances.
Thailand
428
Staying in Thailand
429
Feb.: Magha Puja commemorates the day when 1,250 disciples
Bronzeware
Uniquely handcrafted bronzeware can be bought in complete
spontaneously heard Lord Buddha preach the cardinal doctrine
table services, coffee and creamer and bar sets, letter openers,
on the full moon of the third lunar month.
bowls, tankards, trays, and candlesticks. Lately, the designs
Feb.-Apr.: Kite-flying contests are held (in Bangkok, see them
have become modern and classically simple. Traditional meth-
at the Pramanae Ground). Barbs attached to kite strings are
ods are still used, but a silicon coat is added to prevent
used to destroy the other contestants' kites.
tarnishing. Chiang Mai is a good source for this product.
Apr. 6: Chakri Day. This day commemorates the enthronement
Nielloware This special kind of silver with its inlaid design, which looks.
of King Rama I, founder of the present dynasty, in 1782.
black when held against the light at an angle and white when
Mid-Apr.: Songkran. This marks the Thai New Year and is an
looked at straight on, is also available with color inlays.
occasion that is used for earning merit, setting caged birds and
Nielloware comes as cufflinks, lights, jewelry, ashtrays,
fish free, visiting family, dancing, and water-throwing where
creamer sets and a host of other articles. Bangkok or the south-
everyone splashes everyone else in good-natured merriment.
ern province of Nakhon Si Thammarat are good places to buy it.
The festival is at its best in Chiang Mai with parades, dancing
in the streets, and a beauty contest.
Thai Silk Through the efforts of Jim Thompson, Thai silk has become a
May: Plowing Ceremony. At the Pramanae Ground in Bangkok,
much sought-after luxury fabric. The prices are fairly high, but
Thailand's king and queen take part in a traditional ritual that
they are much less than what you would pay at home. Be aware
serves to open the rice-planting season.
that the weights and quality do differ. Most yardage comes 40
May 5: Coronation Day: The king and queen take part in a pro-
inches wide and may be bought by the yard or as ready-made
cession to the Royal Chapel to preside over ceremonies
goods. Rivaling Thai silk is the handwoven cotton made in the
commemorating the anniversary of their coronation.
Chiang Mai area.
May: Visakha Puja: On the full moon of the sixth lunar month
Precious Stones
Rubies and sapphires are most associated with Thailand. These
the nation celebrates the holiest of Buddhist days-Lord
can be bought loose or in jewelry. Unless you are a gemologist,
Buddha's birth, enlightenment, and death. Monks lead the la-
you may wish to make your purchases from a Tourism Authori-
ity in candle-lit processions around their temples.
ty of Thailand-approved store. You should also get a guarantee
Aug. 12: Queen's Birthday. Queen Sirikit's birthday is cele-
and receipt written in English.
brated with religious ceremonies at Chitralda Palace.
Nov.: Loi Krathong Festival. Held on the full moon of the 12th
Dolls The more expensive dolls come dressed in Thai silk and repre-
lunar month, this is the loveliest of Thai festivals. After sunset
sent classical Thai dancers or mythological characters.
people throughout Thailand make their way to a body of water
and launch small lotus-shaped banana-leaf floats bearing
Lacquerware
Lacquerware, which is usually made into small tables or boxes,
is lightweight and commonly comes in a gold-and-black color
lighted candles. The aim is to honor the water spirits and wash
scheme. You'll find the better pieces are made in Chiang Mai.
away one's sins of the past year.
Nov.: Golden Mount Festival. Of all the fairs and festivals in
Carved
Wood Teakwood carvings, in the form of boxes, trays, or figures, are
Bangkok, this one at the Golden Mount is the most spectacular,
popular. Beware, there is a very convincing technique that
with sideshows, food stalls, bazaars, and crowds celebrating.
makes carvings into instant antiques! You'll find wood carving
Nov.: Elephant Roundup. Held at Surin in the northeast, this is
all over Thailand, but Chiang Mai is its main center.
a stirring display of 100 noble animals' skills as traditional
Thai Celadon
The ancient art of making this type of pottery has been revived,
beasts of war, as bulldozers, and even soccer players.
and the ware can be found mostly around Chiang Mai, though
Dec. 5: King's Birthday. A trooping of the colors is performed in
some can be purchased in Bangkok. Also made in the Chiang
Bangkok by Thailand's elite Royal Guards.
Mai area is Sukhothai stoneware. Near Bangkok, the kilns pro-
duce a very fine blue and white porcelain.
Tipping
Antiques
The Thai government has very strict regulations on the export
A taxi driver is not tipped unless hired as a private driver for an
of antiques and religious art. Images of the Lord Buddha
excursion. Hotel porters expect at least a B20 tip, and hotel
are not permitted to be exported. By law no antique may leave
staff who have given good personal service are usually tipped.
the country, and even reproductions not sold as antiques may
A 10% tip is appreciated at a restaurant when no service charge
need an export permit issued by the Fine Arts Department.
has been added to the bill.
A reputable dealer can obtain these permits in about one
week.
Shopping
Aside from traditional crafts, Thailand offers a host of other
good buys, ranging from local handicrafts to ready-made
Thailand offers some of the world's best shopping, and Bangkok
clothes from designer to knockoffs. There are also knockoff
and Chiang Mai are the best shopping cities. The critical factor
watches with designer names. A "Rolex" can be purchased for
in successful shopping is to know the product, especially if it is a
$20, though the emblem may be a little crooked. Pirated cas-
precious stone or an antique. Another requirement for a suc-
settes are another phenomenally inexpensive item. However,
cessful buy is bargaining. It's a process that takes time, but it
be aware that it is illegal to import pirated goods into the
saves you money and wins respect from the vendor.
United States. Beauty is a big business in Thailand, and walk-
Thailand produces several specialties to tempt shoppers:
in beauty parlors are ubiquitous. For 40c to $2 you can have a
Thailand
430
Staying in Thailand
431
manicure or pedicure; facials, permanents, and massages can
trips to uninhabited islands may be arranged. Big-game fishing
be had at correspondingly low prices.
is a feature at Bang Saray, near Pattaya.
Prices are fixed in department stores. In fashion boutiques,
Beaches
there is no harm in asking for a small discount. In stores selling
artifacts, price is open to negotiation, and in bazaars and
The beaches of Thailand, both on the Gulf of Siam (the south
street-side stalls, bargaining is essential.
and east coasts) and on the Andaman Sea (the southwest coast)
are becoming increasingly popular with Europeans. Full-scale
Sports
resort areas have been developed on both coasts-Pattaya,
Hua Hin and Cha' Am on the Gulf, Phuket on the Andaman Sea.
Spectator Sports
Thai boxing, known locally as muay Thai, allows boxers to use
their feet, knees, thighs, and elbows as well as their gloved fists
New resort areas are developing all the time. Ko Samui on the
Thai Boxing
to hit an opponent. Moreover, all parts of the opponent's body
Gulf is becoming increasingly popular, as is Ko Phi Phi off Phu-
ket. For those who like idyllic havens of beaches and no people,
can be struck, and points are awarded for any blow. Thai boxing
the area around Krabi facing the Andaman Sea is paradise, and
requires years of training, and prior to each bout, boxers in-
Ko Samet on the Gulf (near Pattaya) has a number of small
dulge in ritual praying that involves complicated maneuvers
beaches and bungalows for rent. The waters around Bangkok
designed to limber up the body.
are tropical, warm, and inviting, but do check on two factors
Motorcycle Racing
With the opening of the Bira Pattaya Circuit, on Route 36 be-
before you plunge in: the undertow and the presence of stinging
tween Pattaya and Rayong, international motorcycle events
jelly fish. Sand tends to be golden in color and slightly coarse.
are held regularly.
Scuba diving and snorkeling are best off Ko Samui and among
the Similan Islands off Phuket.
Takro This sport involves passing a small rattan ball back and forth as
long as possible before it falls to the ground. All parts of the
body may be used. The more complicated the pass, the better it
Dining
is judged. Other forms of takro require a hoop or net.
Thai cuisine is distinctive, often hot and spicy, and perfumed
Kite-fighting This sport dates back hundreds of years. Elaborate kites
with herbs, especially lemon grass and coriander. It is influ-
armed with barbs, designated pakpao (female) or chula (male),
enced by the cooking styles of China, India, Java, Malaysia,
struggle for dominance, trying to ensnare or cut the opponent's
and Portugal. Rice, boiled or fried, forms the basis for most
line. A good place to watch this is at Bangkok's Pramanae
Thai meals, though noodles can also play this role. Meats, poul-
Ground near the Royal Palace, particularly in March and April.
try, and seafood are highly seasoned with herbs and chilis.
Horse Racing Races are held at tracks in Bangkok (see Bangkok section, be-
Soups are also important in Thai cuisine and are usually spiced
with lemon grass and chilis. All courses of a Thai meal are
low).
served at the same time.
Boat Racing With SO many rivers, Thailand has many kinds of boat racing.
Teams from various towns or provinces vie for honors in color-
Each region has its own specialties. The Northeast favors
ful paddle-powered boats. Annual races are held in Bangkok,
sticky rice served with barbecued chicken and shredded green
Pichit, Ayutthaya and Nan.
papaya mixed with shrimp, lemon juice, fish sauce, garlic, and
chilies. In the North, a local sausage, пает, is popular, while in
Participant Sports
Some 50 excellent golf courses are spread around the kingdom,
the South there is an abundance of fresh seafood. Dessert is
Golf
though the majority are in the Bangkok region. Three of the
usually exotic fresh fruit or sweets made of rice flour, coconut
best are Navatanee golf course, site of the 1975 World Cup
milk, palm sugar, and sticky rice. Singha beer and Mekong
tournament, the Rose Garden course, and the Krung Thep
whiskey (made from rice) are the usual beverages. Western
Kreta course.
food is available in most hotels and at many restaurants in re-
sort areas.
Horseback Riding Though some of the beach resorts may have horses, only
Pattaya has a permanent stable, where horse treks into the
For more on Thai food, see Dining in Bangkok, below.
countryside are available to the public.
Except in the Bangkok Dining section, the following dining
Hiking and
Hiking is especially popular in the north, where groups go in
price categories apply throughout this chapter:
Trekking
search of hill-tribe villages and wildlife. The main center for
northern treks is Chiang Mai. But with dozens of national
parks around the country, you may hike in tropical jungles and
Category
Cost*
isolated highlands alike. Contact the Tourism Authority of
Very Expensive
over B500 ($21.50)
Thailand for information on bungalow-style accommodations in
the national parks.
Expensive
B250-B500 ($10.75-$21.50)
Moderate
B100-B250 ($4.30-$10.75)
Water
Sports With its long coastline and warm waters, Thailand offers splen-
did opportunities for all sorts of water sports, including
Inexpensive
under B100 ($4.30)
waterskiing, surfing, windsurfing, and parasailing. It is possi-
ble to rent power boats, water scooters, and sailboats. Scuba
*per person, including service charge
diving and snorkeling in the clear waters are also available, es-
pecially in Pattaya and Phuket, where rentals, instruction, and
433
Thailand
432
Bangkok
there by the Chao Phraya. After the fall of Ayutthaya, King
Lodging
Rama I decided in 1782 to move his capital from Thonburi to a
new site across the river. Foreigners looked at their naviga-
Every town of reasonable size offers accommodation. In the
tional charts and understood the capital to be where the village
smaller towns the hotels may be fairly simple, but they will
of Bangkok was marked.
usually be clean and certainly inexpensive. In major cities or
resort areas, there are hotels to fit all price categories. At the
In the last 20 years, the face of Bangkok has changed. Before
high end, the luxury hotels can compete with the best in the
the Vietnam War, and before Bangkok became the R & R desti-
world. Service is generally superb-polite and efficient-and
nation for American servicemen, the city had a population of
most of the staff usually speaks English. At the other end of the
1.5 million. Then, the flaunting of U.S. dollars attracted the ru-
scale, the lodging is simple and basic with a room that has not
ral poor to the city. Within two decades, it grew to 6 million, 40
much more than a bed. The least expensive places may have
times the size of any other city in Thailand. Space to live and
Asian toilets (squat type with no seat) and a fan rather than air-
breathe is inadequate. Air pollution is the worst in the world.
conditioning.
Traffic jams the streets from morning to evening, and no cure is
in sight. Use the pedestrian crosswalks-the traffic will stop if
All except the budget hotels have restaurants and offer room
you insist-or use the pedestrian flyovers.
service throughout most of the day and night. Most will also be
happy to make local travel arrangements for you-for which
Yet, while hurtling headlong into the world of modern commer-
they receive commissions. All hotels advise that you use their
cialism and technology, Bangkok strangely gives a sense of
safe-deposit boxes.
history and timelessness, even though it is only 200 years old.
This is perhaps because King Rama I was determined to build a
During the peak tourist season, October-March, hotels are of-
city as beautiful as the old capital of Ayutthaya had been before
ten fully booked and charge peak rates. At special times, such
the Burmese ransacked it. Bangkok requires an adjustment on
as December 30-January 2 and Chinese New Year, rates climb
our part. Let the gentle nature of the Thai and his respect for
even higher. Weekday rates at some resorts are often lower,
others win your heart, and let the serenity of the temples
and during the off-season it is possible to negotiate a reduced
soothe your spirit.
rate. Breakfast is never included in the room tariff.
An 11% government tax is sometimes included in and some-
Arriving and Departing by Plane
times added to hotel bills. In addition, deluxe hotels often add
10%-15% service charge.
Airports
Bangkok's Don Muang Airport's new international terminal,
and Airlines
adjacent to what is now the domestic terminal, has relieved
Throughout this chapter the following lodging price categories
passenger congestion and presents international passengers
apply:
with modern efficiency on arrival. As you exit customs, you
find an array of information desks where you can make ar-
rangements for taxis into Bangkok and transport to other
Category
Cost*
destinations; a reservation desk for Bangkok hotels (no fee);
and a TAT (Tourist Authority of Thailand) desk that has a large
Very Expensive
over B2,500 ($108)
selection of free brochures and maps. Both terminals have
Expensive
B1,500-B2,500 ($65-$108)
luggage-checking facilities (tel. 02/535-1250).
Moderate
B1,000-B1,500 ($43-$65)
There is a tax of B150 for international departures and B20 for
B500-B1,000 ($21.50-$43)
domestic departures.
Inexpensive
Don Muang is 25 km (15 mi) from the city center. The road is
Budget
under B500 ($21.50)
often congested with traffic. Be prepared for a 90-minute jour-
*per double room, including service and tax
ney by taxi, though there are times when it can take less than
40 minutes.
Thai International and Thai Domestic Airlines, the national air-
Bangkok
lines, have the most flights coming in and out of Don Muang.
Thai International has direct flights from the west coast of the
A foreigner's reaction to Bangkok is often as confused as the
United States and from Toronto in Canada. The airline also has
city's geography. Bangkok has no downtown, and the streets,
daily flights to Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, and Japan, and
like the traffic, seem to veer off in every direction. The oldest
direct flights from London.
quarter clusters around the eastern bank of the Chao Phraya
United Airlines is the major U.S. carrier with service to Bang-
River. The river winds between two cities, Thailand's current
kok. There are direct flights from the West Coast, and con-
capital and Thonburi, where the Thais first established their
necting flights from the East Coast with one change of plane at
capital after the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767.
San Francisco, Tokyo, or Hong Kong. A round-trip can be de-
Even Bangkok's name is disconcerting. Foreigners call the city
signed to include Tokyo and Hong Kong, which allows you to
Bangkok, but Thais refer to their capital as Krung Thep, the
enjoyably break the 20-hour flight from the East Coast or the
City of Angels. When Thailand's capital was Ayutthaya, to the
17-hour flight from the West Coast. Northwest also has flights,
north of present-day Bangkok, foreign vessels would reach
and Delta plans daily service from Portland, Oregon, by the end