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Marshall Space Flight Center 6/20/90 [OA 7562]
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Speech Backup Chronological Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S; 1999-0093-F
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
Subseries:
Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13722
Folder ID Number:
13722-007
Folder Title:
Marshall Space Flight Center 6/20/90 [OA 7562]
Stack:
Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
G
26
20
6
3
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
NASA
John B. Taylor
Director of Public Affairs
Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama 35812
205 544-0031
205 881-7843 (residence)
MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER / HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA
WEDNESDAY, JUNE 20, 1990 / 2:00 P.M.
THANK YOU, DICK [TRULY]. I CAN'T TELL YOU HOW
LUCKY WE ARE HAVING THIS MAN LEAD NASA THROUGH THESE
EXCITING TIMES. AND I'M PLEASED TO BE HERE WITH
GOVERNOR GUY HUNT, WHO IS DOING SUCH AN OUTSTANDING JOB
FOR THE GREAT STATE OF ALABAMA. AND I ALSO WANT TO
THANK JACK LEE, THE DIRECTOR OF THIS CENTER AND MY TOUR
GUIDE TODAY. VERY EDUCATIONAL, BELIEVE ME.
- 2 -
(SORRY WE WERE A LITTLE LATE GETTING STARTED. BUT
YOU KNOW HOW THESE ARRANGEMENTS AFFECT EVERYTHING.
TODAY EVEN I COULDN'T FIND A PARKING PLACE.) III
(WHENEVER I'M IN WEATHER THIS HOT IT REMINDS ME OF
MY BASEBALL DAYS IN COLLEGE. THE PLAYERS USED TO
GATHER AROUND HOME PLATE SO THEY COULD FEEL THE BREEZE
AS I STRUCK OUT!)
- 3 -
BUT IT'S GREAT TO BE BACK IN ALABAMA, AND GREAT TO
BE BACK IN HUNTSVILLE. I'M VERY PROUD OF THIS STATE,
AND THIS FACILITY. THE MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER IS
THE BIRTHPLACE OF AMERICA'S FIRST SATELLITE, AMERICA'S
FIRST SPACE STATION -- AND THE WORLD'S FIRST MOON
ROCKET. IT WAS HERE, WITH THE SATURN FIVE, THAT
HUMANKIND BEGAN ITS HISTORIC JOURNEY TO THE STARS. III
BECAUSE OF THESE TRADITIONS, HUNTSVILLE HAS A
SPECIAL IMPORTANCE TO AMERICA AND TO THE WORLD.
- 4 -
AND IT HAS A SPECIAL IMPORTANCE TO ME, AS WELL. IT WAS
TO HUNTSVILLE THAT I JOURNEYED IN THE FALL OF 1987, TO
GIVE THE CAMPAIGN'S FIRST MAJOR ADDRESS ON SPACE.
ON THAT OCTOBER DAY, TWO AND A HALF YEARS AGO, I
PROMISED TO CREATE A NATIONAL SPACE COUNCIL, CHAIRED BY
THE VICE PRESIDENT. I PLEDGED TO UNDERWRITE MISSION TO
PLANET EARTH, TO BOOST SPACE SCIENCE, AND TO LAUNCH A
DYNAMIC NEW PROGRAM OF BOTH MANNED AND UNMANNED
EXPLORATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
- 5 -
AND TODAY I'M PLEASED TO RETURN TO MARSHALL TO
REPORT THAT MY ADMINISTRATION HAS MADE GOOD THESE
PROMISES. AND WE'VE DONE IT THE OLD-FASHIONED WAY --
THE AMERICAN WAY -- STEP-BY-STEP, PROGRAM-BY-PROGRAM,
ALL ADDING UP TO THE MOST AMBITIOUS AND FAR-REACHING
EFFORT SINCE MARSHALL AND APOLLO TOOK AMERICA TO THE
MOON. III
- 6 -
THE SPACE COUNCIL I PROPOSED IS NOT ONLY UP AND
RUNNING, BUT -- UNDER THE DYNAMIC LEADERSHIP OF
AMERICA'S OUTSTANDING VICE PRESIDENT -- LEADING THE WAY
INTO THE 21st CENTURY. MISSION TO PLANET EARTH -- A
BOLD AND UNPRECEDENTED INITIATIVE TO PRESERVE OUR
PRECIOUS ENVIRONMENTAL HERITAGE -- HAS BEEN PLUCKED OFF
THE DRAWING BOARD AND PLACED IN THE HANDS OF THE
SCIENTISTS WHO WILL MAKE IT HAPPEN.
- 7 -
AND NOW THAT THE SHUTTLE PROGRAM HAS PUT AMERICA BACK
IN SPACE, WE STAND AT THE DAWN OF A NEW ERA IN SPACE
SCIENCE, WITH WONDERS LIKE THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE,
AND THE FANTASTIC VOYAGE OF GALILEO TO JUPITER.
EXACTLY 11 MONTHS AGO, I STOOD BEFORE THE AIR AND
SPACE MUSEUM IN WASHINGTON TO COMMEMORATE A SPECIAL
ANNIVERSARY FOR YOU WHO WORK AT THE MARSHALL SPACE
FLIGHT CENTER -- THE 20TH ANNIVERSARY OF APOLLO 11's
THUNDEROUS JOURNEY TO THE MOON.
- 8 -
AND STANDING WITH NEIL ARMSTRONG AND DOZENS OF OTHER
ASTRONAUTS, I ANNOUNCED THREE MAJOR SPACE POLICY
OBJECTIVES: FIRST, TO HAVE SPACE STATION FREEDOM UP
BEFORE THE CENTURY IS OUT. SECOND, FOR THE NEW
CENTURY, A PERMANENT LUNAR BASE. WE'RE GOING "BACK TO
THE MOON, BACK TO THE FUTURE -- AND THIS TIME -- BACK
TO STAY."
- 9 -
THE THIRD OBJECTIVE WAS REFINED LAST MONTH IN
TEXAS, WHERE I WENT TO ANNOUNCE A NEW AGE OF
EXPLORATION, WITH NOT ONLY A GOAL, BUT A 30-YEAR
TIMETABLE. I DECLARED THAT: "BEFORE APOLLO CELEBRATES
THE 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF ITS LANDING ON THE MOON -- THE
AMERICAN FLAG SHOULD BE PLANTED ON MARS." III
BEING FIRST IN SPACE IS NOT JUST AMERICA'S DREAM
-- IT IS AMERICA'S DESTINY. AND TO SEE THIS HAPPEN,
WE'VE MATCHED RHETORIC WITH RESOURCES.
- 10 -
OUR BUDGET PROPOSES $15.2 BILLION FOR NASA -- AN
INCREASE OF NEARLY 25 PERCENT -- AND THE LARGEST
INCREASE FOR ANY MAJOR AGENCY OF THE GOVERNMENT.
UNFORTUNATELY, NOT EVERYONE ON CAPITOL HILL SHARES
THIS COMMITMENT TO INVESTING IN AMERICA'S FUTURE. LAST
WEEK, THE HOUSE APPROPRIATIONS SUB-COMMITTEE FOR SPACE
VOTED TO PULL THE PLUG ON THIS HISTORIC UNDERTAKING,
COMPLETELY GUTTING THE SEED MONEY WE PROPOSED FOR THE
MOON/MARS MISSION.
- 11 -
BUT YOU KNOW, SPACE USED TO BE A BI-PARTISAN EFFORT
-- AN AMERICAN EFFORT. THE LAST TIME A PRESIDENT
VISITED MARSHALL, JOHN F. KENNEDY COMPARED THOSE WHO
WERE UNCERTAIN ABOUT AMERICA'S LEADERSHIP IN SPACE TO
THOSE IN QUEEN ISABELLA'S COURT WHO COUNSELED, IN
EFFECT, "TURN BACK! LEAVE THE RICHES AND REWARDS FOR
OTHER NATIONS AND BRAVER HEARTS!"
SOME SAY THE SPACE PROGRAM SHOULD WAIT -- THAT WE
SHOULD ONLY GO FORWARD ONCE THE SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF
TODAY ARE COMPLETELY SOLVED.
- 12 -
BUT HISTORY PROVES THAT ATTITUDE IS SELF-DEFEATING.
HAD COLUMBUS WAITED UNTIL ALL THE PROBLEMS OF HIS TIME
WERE SOLVED -- THE TIMBERS OF THE SANTA MARIA WOULD BE
ROTTING ON THE SPANISH COAST TO THIS DAY. INSTEAD HE
VENTURED FORTH -- AND HIS TRAVELS BROUGHT SPAIN TO THE
ZENITH OF HER STATURE AS A NATION. III
MANY AN AMERICAN SCHOOLKID HAS READ THE STORY OF
COLUMBUS'S DOUBTERS, AND SHOOK THEIR HEADS IN DISBELIEF
THAT THESE NAYSAYERS COULD HAVE BEEN so SHORT-SIGHTED.
- 13 -
MY FRIENDS, WE MUST NOT LET THE CHILDREN OF THE
FUTURE SHAKE THEIR HEADS AT OUR BEHAVIOR. RIGHT NOW,
IN THE FUNDING WARS IN CONGRESS, WE FACE A CENTRAL
QUESTION -- THE QUESTION OF WHETHER AMERICA WILL
CONTINUE TO BE A PIONEERING NATION.
WHEN JOHN F. KENNEDY STOOD BEFORE THE CONGRESS IN
1961 AND SPOKE ABOUT THE MOON, HE SPOKE TO A NATION OF
PIONEERS.
- 14 -
Now SOME IN CONGRESS APPEAR READY TO GIVE UP ON THAT
PIONEERING SPIRIT -- TO TURN THEIR SIGHTS INWARD, TO
CONCEDE THAT AMERICA'S DAYS AS A LEADER IN SPACE HAVE
PASSED.
I, FOR ONE, AM NOT READY TO GIVE UP. AMERICA HAS
ALWAYS BEEN, AND WILL ALWAYS BE, A NATION OF PIONEERS.
I MAY NOT BE HERE IN 2019 -- BUT SOME OF YOU YOUNG
PEOPLE IN THE AUDIENCE WILL BE.
- 15 -
AND ON THAT SPECIAL DAY 30 YEARS FROM NOW, I WANT YOU
TO THINK BACK TO THE COMMITMENT WE MADE HERE TODAY, AS
YOU LOOK AT THE T.V. MONITORS -- MAYBE RIGHT HERE AT
MARSHALL SPACE CENTER -- AND WATCH THE FIRST AMERICAN
PLANT HIS FEET ON MARS.
DURING THE APOLLO ERA, AMERICA'S SPACE EFFORTS
GREW AT UNPRECEDENTED RATES, THE GOVERNMENT HIRED THE
BIGGEST AND THE BEST SCIENTIFIC FORCE IN HISTORY, AND
COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES SWELLED WITH APPLICANTS AND
GRADUATES IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING.
- 16 -
IT PRODUCED A GOLDEN AGE OF AMERICAN TECHNOLOGY
ADVANCEMENT -- AN AGE THAT, TODAY, WE CAN RECAPTURE AND
BEGIN ANEW.
WERNHER VON BRAUN WAS THE GIANT WHO PUT HUNTSVILLE
ON THE MAP. WHEN SOMEONE ASKED HIM WHAT IT WOULD TAKE
TO BUILD A ROCKET TO REACH THE MOON, VON BRAUN REPLIED
SIMPLY: "THE WILL TO DO IT." III
- 17 -
AND SO I STAND TODAY AT THIS MONUMENT TO DARING AND
IMAGINATION THAT VON BRAUN BUILT -- AND CALL ON THE
AMERICAN CONGRESS TO STEP FORWARD WITH THE WILL THAT
THE MOMENT REQUIRES.
DON'T POSTPONE GREATNESS. HISTORY TELLS US WHAT
HAPPENS TO NATIONS THAT FORGET HOW TO DREAM. THE
AMERICAN PEOPLE WANT US IN SPACE. So LET US CONTINUE
THE DREAM -- FOR OUR STUDENTS, FOR OURSELVES, AND FOR
ALL HUMANKIND. III
- 18 -
THANK YOU. GOD BLESS YOU. AND GOD BLESS THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
#
#
#
Preliminary Results of House Mark-up
NASA Portion of FY 1991 Exploration Initiative
($$$s in millions)
FY 1991
House Mark
1990
Total
SEI
Total
Amount
Program
Request
Increm
Mark
Cut
NASA:
National Aerospace Plane
59.0
119.0
0.0
114.0
5.0
Space Research and Technology
124.6
314.9
88.0
115.9
199.0
R&T Base
35.2
36.3
36.3
Exploration Mission Studies
5.0
0.0
0.0
Exploration Tech (Pathfinder)
21.9
179.4
88.0
25.4
154.0
Civil Space Technology (CSTI)
57.1
92.3
47.3
45.0
In-Space Experiments
5.4
6.9
6.9
Exploration Mission Studies
(15.0)
37.0
0.0
0.0
37.0
Space Transportation Cap Dev
21.2
64.3
50.0
14.3
50.0
ALS Civil Systems
0.0
3.9
3.9
ALS Propulsion
0.0
40.0
40.0
0.0
40.0
Exploration Studies
5.0
0.0
0.0
Advanced Transportation (base)
5.7
10.4
10.4
Shutt-C PhB/Heavy Lift
10.5
10.0
10.0
0.0
10.0
Life Sciences
50.4
80.0
0.0
72.0
8.0
Extended Duration (SSF)
0.4
10.0
10.0
Lifesat Def./Centrifuge/SBI
7.8
16.2
8.2
8.0
Research & Analy/Spacelab
42.2
53.8
53.8
Space Station
5.7
30.8
20.0
30.8
0.0
Solar Dynamics
5.7
10.8
0.0
10.8
Exploration
0.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
Planetary
186.9
227.6
30.0
212.6
15.0
Mars Observer
98.9
83.9
15.0
83.9
MO Launch Vehicle/TOS
73.2
124.2
124.2
Mars Balloon Relay
4.4
2.0
2.0
Exploration Studies
5.0
0.0
0.0
Lunar Observer Phase B
2.5
15.0
15.0
0.0
15.0,
Other (MRSR/Network)
2.9
2.5
2.5
Facilities
0.0
32.3
0.0
32.3
0.0
Research & Program Mgmt
55.0
56.9
0.0
56.9
0.0
Total, NASA
502.8
962.8
188.0
648.8
314.0
Other Agencies:
Department of Defense
323.0
263.0
National Aerospace Plane
192.0
158.0
SP-100
20.0
20.0
Advanced Launch System
111.0
85.0
Department of Energy
30.0
51.0
SP-100
30.0
51.0
Total, Other Agencies
353.0
314.0
TOTAL, SPACE EXPLORATION
855.8
1,276.8
06/13/90
McNally/Simon
June 15, 1990
Draft Two (B:MARSHALL)
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER
HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA
WEDNESDAY, JUNE 20, 1990, 1:45 P.M.
Truly
Thank you, Jack [[LEE, DIRECTOR OF THE CENTER]]. And I'm
Piggry
Huzeldigg
pleased to be here with Governor Guy Hunt, who is doing such an
outstanding job for the great State of Alabama.
[[ADD'L ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: KEY "SPACE" CONGRESSMEN, ETC. ]]
(Sorry we were a little late getting started. But you know
how these arrangements affect everything. [[EVENT IS IN THEIR
PARKING LOT]] Today even I couldn't find a parking place.) III
(Whenever I'm in weather this hot it reminds me of my
baseball days in college. The players used to gather around home
plate SO they could feel the breeze as I struck out!) III
But it's great to be back in Alabama, and great to be back
in Huntsville. I'm very proud of this state, and this facility.
Marshall Space Flight Center is the birthplace of America's
IKE speech first satellite, America's first space station -- and the world's
9-8-60
first Moon rocket. It was here, with the Saturn Five, that
humankind began its historic journey to the stars. III
Because of these traditions, Huntsville has a special
importance to America and to the world. And it has a special
spach
importance to me, as well. It was to Huntsville that I journeyed
10-29-87
in the fall of 1987, to give the campaign's first major address
Landurships 118
on space.
issues
On that October day, two and a half years ago, I promised to
create a National Space Council, chaired by the Vice President.
2
I pledged to underwrite Mission to Planet Earth, to boost space
science, and to launch a dynamic new program of both manned and
unmanned exploration of the Solar System.
And today I'm pleased to return to Marshall to report that
my Administration has made good these promises. And we've done
it the old-fashioned way -- the American way -- step-by-step,
program-by-program, all adding up to the most ambitious and far-
reaching effort since Marshall and Apollo took America to the
Moon. III
The Space Council I proposed is not only up and running, but
- - under the dynamic leadership of America's outstanding Vice
President -- leading the way into the 21st Century. Mission to
Planet Earth -- a bold and unprecedented initiative to preserve
our precious environmental heritage -- has been plucked off the
drawing board and placed in the hands of the scientists who will
make it happen. And now that the Shuttle program has put America
back in space, we stand at the dawn of a new era in space
science, with wonders like the Hubble Space Telescope, and the
fantastic voyage of Galileo to Jupiter and beyond
apollo
Exactly 11 months ago, I stood before the Air and Space
speech
Museum in Washington to commemorate a special anniversary for you
7-20-89
who work at the Marshall Space Flight Center -- the 20th
anniversary of Apollo 11's thunderous journey to the Moon. And
standing with Neil Armstrong and dozens of other astronauts, I
announced three major space policy objectives: First, to have
Space Station Freedom up before the century is out. Second, for
3
the new century, a permanent lunar base. We're going "back to
the Moon, back to the future -- and this time -- back to stay."
Texas
The third objective was refined last month in Texas, where I
A+I
went to announce a new Age of Exploration, with not only a goal,
spech
but a 30-year timetable. I declared that: "Before Apollo
5-11-80
celebrates the 50th anniversary of its landing on the Moon -- the
American flag should be planted on Mars.
III
Being first in space is not just America's dream --- it is
America's destiny. And to see this happen, we've matched
FY 91
rhetoric with resources. Our budget proposes $15.2 billion for
Budget
P. so 51 NASA -- an increase of nearly 25 percent and the largest
increase for any major agency of the government.
Unfortunately, not everyone on Capitol Hill shares this
Mark commitment to investing in America's future. Last week, the
albrecht,
Nut Natil. House Appropriations Sub-Committee for Space voted to pull the
space plug on this historic undertaking, completely gutting the seed
Council
money we proposed for the Moon/Mars mission.
But you know, space used to be a bi-partisan effort -- an
JFR
American effort. The last time a President visited Marshall,
speech
5-18-63
John F. Kennedy compared those who were uncertain about America's
leadership in space to those in Queen Isabella's Court who
counseled, in effect, "Turn back! Leave the riches and rewards
for other nations and braver hearts!"
Some say the space program should wait -- that we should
only go forward once the social problems of today are completely
solved. But history proves that that attitude is self-defeating.
4
his time
Had Columbus waited until all the problems of Spain were solved
on the Spanish
-- the timbers of the Santa Maria would be rotting in Barcelona
Coast
to this day. Instead he ventured forth - and his travels made
Spain rich beyond all dreams, the zenith of her stature as a
nation. III
Many an American schoolkid has read the story of Columbus'
doubters, and shook their heads in wonder that they could have
225-
7092
Gary
3481
been so short-sighted. Well, next week the House Appropriations
andres
Committee gets its own crack at the history books. And I say to
Pete + Worden
x6175 them that the future is NOW. Don't postpone greatness. Twenty
years is long enough. And history tells us what happens to
nations that forget how to dream. \\\\
During the Apollo era, America's space efforts grew at
unprecedented rates, the government hired the biggest and the
best scientific force in history, and colleges and universities
swelled with applicants and graduates in science and engineering.
It produced a golden age of American technology advancement - - an
age that, today, we can recapture and begin anew.
TIME
Wernher Von Braun was the giant who put Huntsville on the
6-27-77 map. When someone asked him what it would take to build a rocket
to reach the Moon, Von Braun replied simply: "The will to do
it." III
And so I stand today at the temple Von Braun built -- and
call on the American Congress to step forward with the will that
the moment requires. The American people want us in space. Let
5
us continue the dream -- for our students, for ourselves, and for
all humankind. III
Thank you. God bless you. And God bless the United States
of America.
#
#
#
Next
STATUS AND PERSPECTIVES ON THE PRESIDENT'S SPACE EXPLORATION
INITIATIVE
On December 14, 1972 Gene Cernan left man's last footprint
on the moon. The Apollo program cost $100B (1990 dollars) and
took eight years. During that time other, non-Apollo space
efforts grew at unprecedented rates, the government hired the
largest scientific force in history (and the best), and colleges
and universities swelled with applicants and graduates in science
and engineering. It is widely regarded as the golden age of
American technology advancement.
President Nixon later in 1972 decided against a follow-on
exploration initiative to include a space station, a return to
the moon and a manned journey to Mars.
President Nixon, instead started the space shuttle program
as a "stepping stone", but made no commitments beyond that
development.
President Reagan in 1984 initiated the space station
program as a means of "assuring for the United States preeminence
in the utilization and exploration of space".
Early congressional criticism of the space station focused
on the lack of an overall plan and strategy. In 1985 President
Reagan established a national commission to provide a long range
strategy.
In January of 1986, the space shuttle Challenger exploded
during launch, killing seven people.
The national commission reported later in 1986 and was
followed by the Ride report to NASA on America's future in space,
both cited a lack of long term focus as a critical defect in our
space program.
The National Academy of Sciences wrote President-elect
Bush in December, 1988 urging him to provide a long term focus
for our space efforts, a durable framework to establish
priorities.
On July 20, 1989 President Bush announced a long term goal
for space exploration, completion of Space Station Freedom before
the end of the nineties, a return to the moon to stay, and a
human exploration of Mars.
The exploration initiative was enthusiastically received
by the space community, and immediately attacked by Congressional
Democrats as an unaffordable pipe dream on the one hand and too
vague, without firm timetables and cost estimates on the other.
The general public reception was mixed and low key.
In the late Winter of 1990, President Bush further defined
the initiative as a focused technology development program for
the next few years with an objective of developing alternate
approaches which promised lower costs and better performance, and
he invited international cooperation. He also set a target of a
manned mission to Mars no later than 2019.
The FY 91 NASA budget request included $952M for the Space
Exploration Initiative (SEI). Roughly $764M of ongoing programs
and $188M of new money.
In March, 1990 the President met with Congressional
leaders to discuss space and his exploration initiative.
On Tuesday, the House subcommittee on NASA appropriations
6/12
funded the bulk of the President's overall space request, but
specifically and purposefully zeroed the SEI.
ISSUE:
How hard should the Administration fight for the exploration
initiative within the Congress?
PRO's:
This initiative has been the galvanizing focus of the
President's thrust in space. Failure to rally about it
now will show weakness and lack of commitment to the
entire program.
Having thrust the exploration gauntlet down, the
entire manned effort hangs in the balance. For
example, the space station is designed to provide the
life science data required for manned flight beyond low
earth orbit. The station is to be permanently manned.
Both of these capabilities would be threatened by a
rejection of long term space exploration goals. The
Space Shuttle itself would come under attack as
expensive and dangerous with no central purpose.
With Japan and Europe moving out on their own manned
programs, this would undermine our leadership role.
Ultimately, the question is, if not us, who? If not
now, when? Having started this, the President has to
finish it.
CON's:
The initiative has not generated a groundswell of
support on the Hill. A lot of work would be required
to make a floor issue of this.
We could always do our spadework over the coming year
and take it up next year, perhaps winning more popular
support.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
1.
The President's speech in Huntsville, AL on Jun 21 should
reinforce the President's commitment to space exploration
and take strong issue with the House Committee action.
2.
OMB should issue a forceful reclama to the House
Appropriations Committee concerning the exploration program.
3.
The Administration should work, at the summit level, to
obtain the largest possible allocation for NASA.
4.
The Administration position should be that money for the SEI
is a requirement at any level of NASA funding.
5.
The Vice President should personally contact House and
Senate appropriations committee senior members to express
the Administrations commitment to a strong exploration
program.
6.
Senior White House and OMB leadership should undertake
vigorous efforts to ensure the Senate Appropriations
allocation and subcommittee mark contain SEI funds.
Time : 6-27-77
of Peenemünde, where began the work
ity to visualize both a problem and its so-
The Will to Do It
that led to Hitler's dreaded V-2 rocket.
lutions, and a brilliant leader who could
As the war drew to a close, Von Braun
His first rocket-pressurized with a
transmit his enthusiasm to others. Stuh-
was considering a missile that could
bicycle pump and launched from a lo-
linger's admiration is understandable.
reach New York City.
cal dump-failed to fly. Some of his later
When someone asked Von Braun what
In early 1945, as Russian armies ap-
it would take to build a rocket to reach
models flew only too well. taking off
proached Peenemünde, Von Braun and
from sites in Germany and occupied
the moon, Von Braun replied simply:
many of his staff fled to Bavaria and sur-
"The will to do it."
Holland to impact on London with hor-
rendered to U.S. troops. The Americans
Von Braun ignored both the criti-
rifying effect. But if Wernher von Braun.
recognized the value of their prisoner.
who died of cancer last week at 65. is re-
cism and the praise, concentrating on
Within a few months, he was working
his goal of turning the space race into a
membered by future generations. it will
under contract to the U.S. Army at the
probably be for his postwar achieve-
vehicle for international cooperation.
White Sands Proving Grounds in New
ments. As one of the most valuable war
He once said: "I look forward to the day
Mexico. By 1950, he was placed in
trophies carried home by the U.S., he
when mankind will join hands to apply
charge of guided missile development at
headed the team that developed the Ju-
the combined technological ingenuity of
the Redstone Arsenal near Huntsville,
all nations to the exploration and uti-
piter C rocket that put the U.S. into the
Ala. In 1960, Von Braun, who had since
space race by launching the Explorer I
lization of outer space for peaceful uses."
become an American citizen, was
That day has not yet arrived, but Von
satellite in 1958. His team pioneered the
named director of NASA's Marshall
development of the Redstone. which
Braun's work has certainly helped to
Space Flight Center at Huntsville and
bring it closer.
carried America's first astronaut aloft in
1961. Most important. he designed and
developed the huge Saturn 5 rocket,
which opened a new era of space ex-
ploration in 1969 when it carried the
Apollo 11 astronauts to the surface of
the moon. "Wernher von Braun's name
was inextricably linked to our explora-
tion of space." said President Carter.
"Not just the people of our nation. but
all the people of the world have prof-
ited from his work."
Born in Germany. where his father
was a baron. Von Braun showed a pre-
cocious interest in rocketry: at the age
of twelve he managed to construct a
rocket-powered wagon, and by the time
he was 21 he had outlined the design
for a moon rocket. His genius led the
German army to employ him in 1932
to develop liquid-fueled rockets: by 1937
it had moved him to the Baltic Sea port
VON BRAUN SURRENDERING IN 1945
A 20th century Columbus.
charged with building the rockets that
would eventually carry U.S. astronauts
to the moon.
Von Braun's readiness to work for a
new master and single-minded dedica-
tion to rocketry won him some critics.
Satirist Tom Lehrer skewered Von
Braun in a mocking song (Sample verse:
"Once the rockets are up/ Who cares
where they come down/ That's not my
department/ Says Wernher von
Braun"). Even some Von Braun admir-
ers admitted that their hero was not al-
ways easy to like.
But most of those who worked with
Von Braun felt that he was a genius.
Alan Lovelace, acting director of NASA.
described the handsome German as "a
20th century Columbus who pushed
back the new frontiers of outer space
with efforts that enabled his adopted
country to achieve pre-eminence in
space exploration." Colleague Ernst
Stuhlinger considered him an excellent
engineer with an almost uncanny abil-
McNally/Simon
June 14, 1990
Draft One (B:MARSHALL)
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER
HUNTSVILLE, ALABAMA
WEDNESDAY, JUNE 20, 1990, 1:45 P.M.
Thank you,
And I'm pleased to be here with
Governor Guy Hunt, who is doing such an outstanding job for the
great State of Alabama. (Also here today -- Congressmen
, etc., etc.)
(Sorry we were a little late getting started. But you know
how these arrangements affect everything. [[EVENT IS IN THEIR
PARKING LOT]] Today even I couldn't find a parking place.) III
(Whenever I'm in weather this hot it reminds me of my
baseball days in college. The players used to gather around home
plate so they could feel the breeze as I struck out!) III
But it's great to be back in Alabama, and great to be back
in Huntsville. I'm very proud of this state, and this facility.
The Marshall Space Flight Center is the birthplace of America's
first satellite -- and the world's first space station. And it
is here, with the Saturn Five, that humankind began its historic
journey to the stars.
Because of these traditions, Huntsville has a special
importance to America and to the world. And it has a special
importance to me, as well. It was to Huntsville that I journeyed
in the fall of 1987, to give the campaign's first major address
on space.
On that October day, two and a half years ago, I promised to
create a National Space Council, chaired by the Vice President.
2
I pledged to underwrite Mission to Planet Earth, to boost space
science, and to launch a dynamic new program of both manned and
unmanned exploration of the Solar System.
And today I'm pleased to return to Marshall to report that
my Administration has made good these promises. And we've done
it the old-fashioned way -- the American way -- step-by-step,
program-by-program, all adding up to the most ambitious and far-
reaching effort since Marshall and Apollo took America to the
Moon.
The Space Council I proposed is not only up and running, but
-- under the dynamic leadership of America's outstanding Vice
President -- leading the way into the 21st Century. Mission to
Planet Earth -- a bold and unprecedented initiative to preserve
our precious environmental heritage -- has been plucked off the
drawing board and placed in the hands of the scientists who will
make it happen. And now that the Shuttle program has put America
back in space, we stand at the dawn of a new era in space
science, with wonders like the Hubble Space Telescope, and the
fantastic voyage of Galileo.
Exactly 11 months ago, I stood before the Air and Space
Museum in Washington to commemorate a special anniversary for you
who work at the Marshall Space Flight Center -- the 20th
anniversary of Apollo 11's thunderous journey to the Moon. And
standing with Neil Armstrong and dozens of other astronauts, I
announced three major space policy objectives: First, to have
Space Station Freedom up before the century is out. Second, for
3
the new century, a permanent lunar base. We're going "back to
the Moon, back to the future -- and this time --- back to stay."
The third objective was refined last month in Texas, where I
went to announce a new Age of Exploration, with not only a goal,
but a 30-year timetable. I declared that: "Before Apollo
celebrates the 50th anniversary of its landing on the Moon -- the
American flag should be planted on Mars." \\\
Being first in space is not just America's dream -- it is
America's destiny. And to see this happen, we've matched
rhetoric with resources. Our budget proposes $15.2 billion for
NASA -- an increase of nearly 25 percent -- and the largest
increase for any major agency of the government.
Unfortunately, not everyone on Capitol Hill shares this
commitment to investing in America's future. Last week, the
House sub-committee on space voted to pull the plug on this
historic undertaking, completely gutting the seed money we
proposed for the Moon/Mars mission.
But you know, space used to be a bi-partisan effort -- an
American effort. The last time a President visited Huntsville,
John F. Kennedy compared those who were uncertain about America's
leadership in space to those in Queen Isabella's Court who
counseled, in effect, "Turn back! Leave the riches and rewards
for other nations and braver hearts!"
Some say the space program should wait -- that we should
only go forward once the social problems of today are completely
solved. But history proves that that attitude is self-defeating
4
-- and that that day will never come. Had Columbus waited until
all the problems of Spain were solved -- the timbers of the Santa
Maria would be rotting in Barcelona to this day. Instead he
ventured forth -- and his travels made Spain rich beyond all
dreams, the zenith of her stature as a nation.
Knowing what we do today, many an American schoolkid has
read the story of Columbus' doubters, and shook their heads in
wonder that such influential leaders could have been so short-
sighted. Well, next week the House appropriations committee gets
its own crack at the history books. And I say to them that the
future is NOW. Don't postpone greatness. Twenty years is long
enough. And history tells us what happens to nations that forget
how to dream.
During the Apollo era, America's space efforts grew at
unprecedented rates, the government hired the biggest and the
best scientific force in history, and colleges and universities
swelled with applicants and graduates in science and engineering.
It produced a golden age of American technology advancement -- an
age that, today, we can recapture and begin anew.
Werner Von Braun was the giant who put Huntsville on the
map. When someone asked him what it would take to build a rocket
to reach the Moon, Von Braun replied simply: "The will to do
it." III
And so I stand today at the temple Von Braun built -- and
call on the American Congress to step forward with the will that
the moment requires. The American people want us in space. Let
5
us continue the dream -- for our students, for ourselves, and for
all humankind.
Thank you. God bless you. And God bless the United States
of America.
#
#
#
OMV
Marshall's Historic Successes
The Center's major mission from its inception to 1969
was the development of the Saturn family of heavy space
rockets. The largest of these, the Saturn V, was used in
landing the first man on the Moon on July 20, 1969.
Six additional Saturn V's were used in the Apollo
Program of manned expeditions to the Moon, and all of
Marshall is also responsible for the Orbital Maneuver-
the stages performed flawlessly.
ing Vehicle, or "OMV" as it is sometimes called. This
Lunar Roving Vehicles, developed by Marshall to carry
unmanned robotic vehicle will be carried into orbit by the
two astronauts over the surface of the Moon for a dis-
Shuttle and perform a number of activities, such as
tance of several miles from the landing site, accompanied
moving satellites from one orbit to another. It is expected
the last three Apollo missions to the Moon.
to extend the range of Shuttle on-orbit operations by
about 1,500 miles and will play an important role in the
Lunar Roving
Vehicle
Space Station program. Its rendezvous and berthing, or
docking, with satellites or other spacecraft will be ac-
complished remotely by human pilots at work stations on
Earth. The first flight of the vehicle is planned for 1991.
Marshall Space
Eventually it will be based at the Space Station, which will
have servicing capability for one or two maneuvering
vehicles.
Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama
Mercury-Redstone
Skylab
The Marshall Center played a significant role in the
success of Skylab, man's first Space Station. Skylab's
three different three-man crews spent up to 84 days in
Earth orbit and performed a variety of more than 100 ex-
periments. The Marshall Center provided the four Saturn
launch vehicles and most of the Skylab hardware. The
Center was also responsible for the direction of many of
the experiments in Skylab.
The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was an international
The Center's Beginnings
space mission in which the Soviet Soyuz and American
Apollo space vehicles remained docked in orbit for two
The Marshall Center was formed July 1, 1960, by the
days. Marshall provided the Saturn 1B launch vehicle for
transfer to NASA of buildings and personnel comprising
the Apollo spacecraft and managed certain assigned ex-
part of the U.S. Army Ballistic Missile Agency. Named for
periments, as well as participating in mission planning.
the famous soldier and statesman, General of the Army
For a number of years in the late 1970s and early '80s,
George C. Marshall, it was officially dedicated by Presi-
the Marshall Center managed a famed series of orbiting
dent Dwight D. Eisenhower on September 8, 1960.
instruments known as the High Energy Astronomy Ob-
Mr. James R.(J.R.) Thompson Jr. has served as director
servatories. The entire family of three HEAO satellites,
of the Marshall Center since September 1986. Previous
designed to study high energy radiation in the universe
directors were the founding director, Dr. Wernher von
such as X-rays and cosmic rays, returned significant
Braun, who served from 1960 to 1970; Dr. Eberhard Rees
data to scientists over a period of several years. All three
from 1970 to 1973; Dr. Rocco A. Petrone from January
of the High Energy Astronomy Observatories were
1973 to June 1974; and Dr. William R. Lucas from June
regarded as highly successful.
NASA
1974 1986
Looking to the Future
*The Orbital Transfer Vehicle, which would carry
Space Station — that would study the full spectral range
Shuttle payloads to higher orbits than the Shuttle is
of electromagnetic radiation from the sun.
In other areas of study, the Marshall Center is examin-
capable of doing, including geosynchronous orbit 22,300
ing ways to lift heavier amounts of material into space.
miles above the equator, and would retrieve payloads
Eventually, larger payload capability than the 65,000
from higher orbits and return them to the Shuttle.
pounds provided by the Shuttle will be required as
*Gravity Probe-B, a module in low Earth orbit and
Broad Range of Research
mankind extends itself into the further reaches of space.
employing super-accurate gyroscopes, that would test a
Marshall has been looking-into designs of cargo vehicles
portion of Einstein's theory of general relativity and
The Marshall Center now conducts a broad range of
to be used in the next decade and beyond, some of
provide data to resolve conflicting gravitational theories.
supporting research in many scientific and engineering
which may carry as much as 250,000 pounds of payload.
*The Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility,an orbit-
disciplines including propulsion, electronics, materials
Evolving from components of the Shuttle into completely
ing X-ray observatory proposed for launch later in the
(including processing in space), solar energy conversion
new versions called heavy-lift launch vehicles, or
decade, that would be many times more sensitive than its
structures, dynamics, testing, data management and
"HLLVs", these cargo carriers are proposed for the late
predecessors and would peer into space for X-ray
others.
1990s and the early years of the 21st century.
sources toward the very edge of the observable universe.
The concrete and steel structures, the swift computers
Also under study at the Marshall Center are a variety of
*The Advanced Solar Observatory, a combination of
and the laboratories with sensitive equipment here are
other possible programs. These include:
instruments -- possibly as an attached payload to the
valued at over 400 million dollars.
"
I
NASA
XXX
A-
Hubble Space
A Primary NASA Center
Telescope
to be in orbit by 1994. The station would offer the
capabilities of scientific research and technology
The Marshall Space Flight Center, located on 1,800
acres inside Redstone Arsenal at Huntsville, Ala., is a
part of the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration.
The Center has about 3,300 civil service employees.
Of this number, about 58 percent are scientists and en-
gineers and 16 percent are business professionals. The
remainder consists of technicians and administrative and
Marshall's Many Assignments
clerical personnel.
Space
Two other sites are managed by Marshall: the Michoud
In helping to reach the nation's goals in space, the
Station
Assembly Facility, New Orleans, used for manufacturing
Center is working on more projects today than at any
the External Tank; and the Slidell Computer Complex,
time in history.
Slidell, La., which provides computer services to the
Marshall has a significant role in the development of
Michoud facility.
the Space Shuttle. NASA's largest development
In the past, the Center has been identified most often
program, the Shuttle is a reusable launch vehicle system
development by both government and industry; the
as NASA's launch vehicle development center. While this
with the capacity to orbit, repair, service, retrieve and
commercial use of space in such areas as the manufac-
accurately describes part of the Center's activities, it does
replace many different types of space payloads. The
ture of critical materials and pharmaceuticals not avail-
not tell the whole story.
Marshall Center is providing the orbiter's engines, the ex-
able on Earth; the assembly, servicing and repair of
Today, the Marshall Center is a multi-project manage-
pendable external tank that carries liquid hydrogen and
satellites and other large structures in space; and
ment, scientific and engineering establishment, with a
liquid oxygen for those engines, and the solid rocket
research focused on extending a human being's staying
great deal more emphasis on projects involving scientific
boosters that assist in lifting the orbiter off the launch
time in space as a first step toward even more ambitious
investigation and the application of space technology to
pad.
manned space programs. International participation in
the solution of problems on Earth. This is the Center's
The Center is also playing a key role in development of
the Space Station program has been invited by the
new image, one that will be reflected in the projects of the
payloads that are flown aboard the Shuttle.
president.
future.
One such payload is Spacelab, a reusable, modular
As now envisioned the Station will be modular in
scientific research facility that is carried in the cargo bay
design, with four pressurized modules much like the cur-
of the Shuttle orbiter.
rent Spacelab facility to provide living and working areas,
Spacelab is composed of modules in which non-
plus a logistics module containing replenishables - air,
astronaut scientists work and unpressurized pallets to
food, water, clothing, etc. The elements would be carried
which experiment equipment requiring direct exposure to
into low-Earth orbit by the Shuttle and assembled there.
space is mounted. The facility was designed, tested and
The station would be manned by a crew of six to eight
provided to NASA by the European Space Agency (ESA).
people who would rotate about every three to six
Marshall is responsible for technical and programmatic
months. The Marshall Center is responsible for the
monitoring of development activities and for development
design of all of the pressurized modules provided by the
of selected hardware. The Center is also responsible for
United States (two other modules will be provided by
managing many of the future Spacelab missions.
ESA and Japan).
The Hubble Space Telescope, for which Marshall has
The Tethered Satellite System, the "satellite on a
been assigned management responsibility, is planned as
string" expected to be flown in 1990, is also under Mar-
an optical telescope that would be placed in orbit above
shall management. Scheduled to be carried into orbit by
the Earth's hazy, turbulent atmosphere, enabling
the Space Shuttle, the satellite would be suspended
scientists to see deep into space - farther than is now
either downward or upward from the Shuttle's cargo bay
possible, perhaps to the outer edges of the universe. The
on a tether - a super-strong synthetic cord about a six-
Spacelab
Space Shuttle will place the telescope in orbit in the late
teenth of an inch thick and up to 60 miles in length.
1980s and serve as a base from which astronauts can
When deployed upward, as it will be for its maiden mis-
make repairs and replace instrument packages or add
sion in 1990, the satellite will study electrodynamic and
new experiments.
other scientific phenomena. Deployed downward, as it
The Marshall Center has been given a substantial role
will be for later missions, the satellite will troll the Earth's
toward the development of a Space Station, a per-
upper atmosphere for magnetospheric, atmospheric and
Shuttle Launch
manent manned facility proposed by President Reagan
gravitational data.
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1960
9 287
= possibility of
was honored by having the opportunity last May to act as host for the
:- Aside from
Sixth Annual Meeting of the SEATO Council of Ministers in Washing-
ities would be
ton. On that occasion I had the great honor and pleasure of greeting
personally the Council members, their senior civil and military advisers,
5054.
the Secretary-General and the Chief of the Military Planning Office of
SEATO. At the Sixth Annual Meeting, the member nations renewed
their pledges to insure mutual security, reaffirmed their determination to
resist Communist aggression and subversion and further developed their
remonies
plans to foster and support the economic and social advancement of the
Treaty Area. On this occasion, I am happy to reaffirm United States
support for these solemn pledges.
Anniversary of
DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER
Defense Treaty
nization, more
lance the
287
У
Remarks at the Dedication of the George
le na-
C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville,
an, Philip-
States-have
ial and
e development
and member Area. working Communist in Asia rights the with fostering the for of and
Alabama. September 8, 1960
inment self-
Governor Patterson, Mrs. Marshall, Mayor Searcy, Dr. Glennan, Dr.
Von Braun, Members of the Congress here present, other distinguished
guests, and my fellow Americans-all of you:
ity
hirably task
It is always good to come back to our Southland, this region of tra-
lefense the
ditional hospitality and friendliness. I thank you, Governor, for making
of
me feel so much at home, and so welcome in your State.
nts
I have long looked forward to visiting this spot. I know that, for an
is to-
old foot soldier, it will be a revelation to see at firsthand the efforts here
ast is
under way to probe into the mysteries of the universe millions of miles
g develop-
from our earth.
vancing educa-
Already, in brief visits with your distinguished men of rocketry, I have
ural exchanges
made a significant discovery of my own.
hievement. It
I find that the leaders of the new space science feel as if Venus and
T in its second
Mars are more accessible to them than a regimental headquarters was
Asian engineers
to me more than 40 years ago, when I was a platoon commander.
radio meteoro-
To move conceptually, in one generation, from the hundreds of yards
ure. All these
that once bounded my tactical world to the unending millions of miles
objectives.
that beckon these men forward, is a startling transformation.
shments and it
Now I freely admit to sentimentality in my contemplation of these
689
287
Public Papers of the Presidents
advances, because so much of this dramatic accomplishment was pio-
neered in the United States Army, which until recently was my home
and my life.
Here, under Army guidance, Redstone and Jupiter and a whole family
of missiles have taken form. Here, too, was created Explorer I, Amer-
ica's first earth satellite. I share with the Army its gratification in these
trail-blazing achievements, which have their counterparts in other serv-
ices. These achievements have thrilled the American people and won
plaudits throughout the world.
The momentum thus gained accelerates today under the civilian man-
agement of the new National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
guided by Dr. Glennan, and his Deputy, Dr. Dryden. The gifted scien
tists, engineers, and technicians who splendidly served the Army are now
eagerly developing, for this new organization, the gigantic launch vehicle
Saturn.
No doubt this mighty rocket system makes its presence known loudly-
possibly too loudly-in Huntsville. But it is a significant forward step
in our conquest of space and for growth in human comprehension.
Already we have improved our understanding of matter, energy, mo-
tion, and life processes through our early efforts in space.
The characteristics of the radiation belts girdling the earth-the true
nature of our space environment, including solar storms-the appearance
of the earth's total cloud cover-the feasibility of a worldwide communi-
cations system utilizing satellites-these and other space ventures have
opened new vistas of thought, of understanding, and of opportunity.
These, of course, are only beginnings. This past month new mile-
stones in space exploration have been headlined throughout the world.
As the months go by we shall see many more.
But marvel as we will at these technical achievements, we must not
overlook this truth:
All that we have already accomplished, and all in the future that we
shall achieve, is the outgrowth not of a soulless, barren technology, nor of
a grasping state imperialism. Rather, it is the product of unrestrained
human talent and energy restlessly probing for the betterment of human-
ity. We are propelled in these efforts by ingenuity and industry, by
courage to overcome disappointment and failure, by free-ranging imagi-
nation, by insistence upon excellence-with none of this imposed by fiat,
none of it ordered by a domineering bureaucracy. In this fact is proof
690
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1960
287
was pio-
once again that hard work, toughness of spirit, and self-reliant enterprise
my home
are not mere catchwords of an era dead and gone. They remain the
imperatives for the fulfillment of America's dream.
ole family
Not pushbuttons nor electronic devices, therefore, but superlative hu-
I, Amer-
man qualities have brought success and fame to this place. These qual-
n in these
ities I mention because they typify a distinguished American, George
ther serv-
Catlett Marshall, in whose name we carry forward this activity.
and won
General Marshall was supremely endowed. He was a man of war,
yet a builder of peace-forceful and dynamic as a leader, calculating and
lian man-
prudent in judgment, yet warmly regarded by his associates. He was
nistration,
selfless, indeed self-effacing, yet known and admired throughout the
ited scien
world. Though dominating in personal force, in action and thought he
y are now
was humble and considerate.
ch vehicle
Northern born and Southern schooled, all-American through military
service, he ultimately became a citizen of the world. I, of course, knew
1 loudly-
him best during the prosecution of World War II. I found him immune
ward step
to discouragement, relentless in carrying the war to the enemy, and un-
nsion.
sparing of himself in his leadership of the great forces he directed. But
ergy, mo-
so profound was his devotion to the constructive works of peace, so out-
spokenly was he their advocate as Secretary of State, that he later became
-the true
the symbol of renewed hope for scores of millions of suffering people
ppearance
through his great plan for Europe that will forever bear his name. He
communi-
became, in consequence, the only professional soldier ever to be honored
ures have
with the Nobel Peace Prize.
rtunity.
During his final 20 years he lived with, he counselled and influenced,
new mile-
the greatest men and movements of his time. Through it all he remained
the world.
unaffected, reserved, completely disinterested in self, and dedicated to
our Nation's highest ideals.
must not
We, participating in this brief ceremony, agree with Sir Winston
Churchill, who said that succeeding generations must not be allowed to
e that we
forget General Marshall's achievements and his example.
gy, nor of
There are ways to do this that General Marshall would have prized
restrained
far more than what we do here today. It is not enough that we rest with
of human-
praise of his name.
dustry, by
But we can newly resolve to work ceaselessly, with all our hearts and
ing imagi-
with such talents as we may possess, as he did throughout his life, for the
ed by fiat,
good of this land and its freedoms.
ct is proof
Thus we shall carry forward the noble mission of our Republic, ever
60295-61-47
691
287
Public Papers of the Presidents
striving to strengthen peace, ever advancing the cause of human liberty,
ever doing our best to build a better life for all.
That is what George Marshall would wish from us today.
In this spirit, and with deep satisfaction in having shared in this
tribute to a revered friend, I dedicate this, the George C. Marshall Space
Flight Center.
May this great Center be ever worthy of its honored name.
Now, Governor Patterson and friends, I have an additional comment
that is especially meaningful to me. With us is Katherine Marshall,
General Marshall's constant helpmeet during the world events of which
I have spoken. Without her inspiration, loyal support, and compan-
ionship, the great American whom we honor here today could not have
hoped to achieve the heights I have briefly outlined.
I salute this distinguished lady. I am, with all of you, delighted that
she could be with us today, as we permanently enshrine a bust of her
husband which will serve as an inspiration to all who work and visit here.
Mrs. Marshall, I would be deeply grateful if you would step forward
with me and unveil this sculpture of General George C. Marshall.
NOTE: The President spoke at 10:35 a.m.
ville, T. Keith Glennan, Administrator,
in the Administration Building. His open-
National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
ing words referred to John Patterson,
istration, and Wernher von Braun, Direc-
Governor of Alabama, Mrs. George C.
tor of the George C. Marshall Space
Marshall, R. B. Searcy, Mayor of Hunts-
Flight Center.
288
У
Memorandum of Disapproval of Bill for
the Relief of Raymond Baurkot.
September 9, 1960
Released September 9, 1960. Dated September 8, 1960 ]
I HAVE WITHHELD my approval from H.R. 6767, "For the relief of
Raymond Baurkot."
This bill would permit the filing of a tax refund claim that was in fact
filed after the deadline date set by law.
Public Law 85-859 provided for the refund of internal revenue taxes
paid on certain liquors lost as the result of a major disaster occurring prior
to the date of enactment, September 2, 1958. It required that claims be
filed on or before March 2, 1959. The claimant filed on March 16, 1959
692
[194] May I8
Public Papers of the Presidents
I94 Remarks at Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Alabama.
May 18, 1963
Senator Sparkman, Governor Wallace, Sen-
objective, and that is to see the United
ator Hill, Congressman Elliott, Senator
States of America, of which we are proud,
Kefauver, Chairman Wagner of the TVA,
not only meet its responsibilites here at
Congressman Jones, Congressman Albert
home, not only provide a better life for its
Rains, Dr. Von Braun, distinguished guests,
people, but also continue to be, as it has since
ladies and gentlemen:
1945, the keystone of the arch of freedom
I want to express a very warm sense of
all around the world. There are 11,000
appreciation to you for coming out and join-
Americans serving today in defending the
ing us. We flew this morning from Wash-
freedom of Viet-Nam, and they stretch,
ington to Nashville in about an hour and
either in service themselves, or by the guar-
45 minutes. One hundred years ago or so,
antees which are maintained by the Armed
130 years ago, it took Andrew Jackson 30
Forces of the United States-they maintain
days to go from Washington, D.C., the
the freedom of countries stretching all the
White House, to his house, the Hermitage,
way around from South Korea in a great
in Nashville. I don't know whether the
half-circle to Berlin. Without the United
world is better off than it was then, but at
States there are literally dozens of countries
least we move around more. Whether we
that would not now be free, and with the
accomplish much is going to depend on the
United States, and with our determination,
judgment of other generations, but I will
and with our strong look forward, not only
say as we move faster, there is no place in
shall they be free, but also the people who
the world in this decade that is going to
come after them.
play a more significant role in that motion
I know there are lots of people now
than this community right here in the center
who say, "Why go any further in space?"
of Alabama.
When Columbus was halfway through his
I wonder how many of the people here,
voyage, the same people said, "Why go on
now that we have all been introduced-we
any further? What will we possibly find?
would like to know something more about
What good will it be?" And they want to
you. How many of you here are either in
stop now.
the Armed Forces of the United States, the
I believe the United States of America is
wife of a member of the Armed Forces of
committed in this decade to be first in space.
the United States, or the child of a member?
And the only way we are going to be first in
Could you hold up your hands? Well, you
space is to work as hard as we can here and
have just convinced Senator Sparkman and
all across the country, and support not only
Senator Hill to vote for that pay raise, and
Major Cooper but all those who come after
I am glad we all came down here.
him.
Then I wonder how many of you work in
So, ladies and gentlemen, we depend on
one way or another for the space agency.
you, either you in the Armed Forces of the
Would you hold up your hands? And then
United States who help defend the freedom,
I wonder how many of you are taxpayers
even here, of countries thousands of miles
that are supporting all the rest of us? And
away, you who are building these missiles
what about the Arsenal? All right.
which not only raised an American into
In any case, all of us, whether we are do-
space but raised the prestige and reputation
ing one thing or the other, whether we are in
of this country. I am proud to be here.
Huntsville, Washington, D.C., wherever we
I leave this valley, this State, this region,
may be, all of us are committed to a great
in which I arrived only a few hours ago,
412
PROPOSED AGENDA FOR PRESIDENT BUSH VISIT TO MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT
CENTER, JUNE 20, 1990
Motorcade arrives at Marshall Center building 4663, West End
marked HOSC (Huntsville Operations Support Center).
*
Presidential party is met by Jack Lee, Director, and is
escorted into the facility.
Party goes up one-flight of stairs to second floor and east
along hallway to the HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE CHECKOUT AREA.
All engineering data from the new telescope is downlinked to
this facility where teams of engineers from NASA, Lockheed,
Hughes, Allied Signal and the European Space Agency analyze
the state of the HST's health and solve problems that occur.
Brief discussion with engineers on success of initial
checkout.
Viewing window for pre-positioned press.
5 MINUTES
Party proceeds to east end of hallway, turns right (south)
down hallway to the SPACELAB MISSION OPERATIONS CONTROL.
This new Spacelab control facility is the science command
center for the Astro-1 Spacelab mission. On the day of the
visit, the control team and all mission scientists will be
conducting a 24-hour dress rehearsal of this astronomy
mission.
The President will enter this colorful command center, which
features high-tech video animated Shuttle views on the wall,
and meet several members of the control team. The President
will be seated at the "Capcom" station to make a brief call
to the astronaut crew working elsewhere in a spacelab
simulator. Bush: "Astro this is Huntsville." Crew: "Go
ahead Huntsville." Bush: "This is George Bush sitting in
for Debbie Underwood here in Spacelab Control; it sure looks
like you folks are ready to go." Crew response: etc. This
room has major press support facilities built in.
Both CBS and CNN have standup locations already in place.
Pre-positioned press will view from the hallway viewing
area. NASA has overhead robot cameras.
10 MINUTES.
The party then exits the command center thru the south door,
taking a stairway to the first floor, entering the SCIENCE
WORKING AREA from the south.
Directly below the main control center, this area is occupied
with scientists from Johns Hopkins, University of Wisconsin
and other institutions surrounded by electronic astronomy
equipment. From here they work with the astronomers in the
Spacelab, send commands to their telescopes in space, etc.
The President will greet the scientists from the south end of
this room. Lots of university banners.
Press will be positioned at the north end of the room, and/or
pre-positioned to the President's left side in a viewing
room.
3 MINUTES.
The party turns to the right, through a doorway, and enters
the Astro SPACE CLASSROOM.
Located right in the control center complex, this is a
special classroom where 12 seventh and eighth graders from
Huntsville and other major cities in the Southeast (Atlanta,
Memphis, Birmingham, Montgomery, Nashville, etc) will
participate in this Astro-1 mission. The astronauts in the
Spacelab will teach a lesson on the electromagnetic spectrum,
after which local science teacher Karen Widenhofer will lead
the students through demonstrations and experiments dealing
with the spectrum and astronomy. Then the students will
discuss what they learned with the astronauts in orbit. Very
visual classroom. Students will be in the room preparing for
the mission.
The President will meet them and will have the opportunity to
talk with them about their role in the mission.
Press will be pre-positioned positioned to view the
interaction.
10 MINUTES.
PRESS AVAILABILITY IN CLASSROOM IF DESIRED.
5 minutes.
Party will proceed pass the press to a stop in the north end
of the room where a explanatory exhibit on SEI will be
stationed detailing the Marshall Center role in support of
the President's initiative.
The party exits through the north door, proceeds through a
hallway to the northeast exit to the building.
Interior holding rooms are located here.
The party exits the building, facing the LASER (Learning
About Science, Engineering, and Research) van, a 40-foot
tractor-trailer.
This tractor-trailer van is a fully equipped teacher resource
center that will be crisscrossing the country helping
teachers prepare lessons about science and math. The
President can meet teachers from all over the country who
will be on board using this facility (teachers will be at the
Marshall Center participating in our NEWMAST teacher training
program conducted jointly with the National Science Teachers
Association). Van is set up with a long row of "captains
chairs" facing a wall of computers and video equipment that
the teachers use to gather materials.
5 MINUTES
The party turns right, east, to a location on the East wall
of the building for an address to Marshall Center employees.
Depart
3
Project
NASA
LASER
Learning
About
Science,
Engineering,
and Research
NASA
reaches out to
help rebuild
America's
science and
technology
workforce
Project LASER
Introduction
The American people expect and deserve leadership in the
international community now and as we move into the 21st
century. This nation pioneered the world's standards of living
and many of the technologies which have allowed the human
race to burst the limits of imagination and capability in the
decades since World War II.
But the "educational pipeline" which produced scientists
and engineers of the 1950's through the '70's is drying up. Fewer
students are entering science
and engineering careers be-
cause they decide science and
Goal 1
math are too hard, dull, or
All children, from all backgrounds, must have a quality education
which includes science and mathematics, and an equal opportunity
"nerdy." The shocking statistic
to become a vital part of our science and engineering workforce-as
is that this decision is not made
workers, beneficiaries, taxpayers, and voters.
when they enter college, but
in third or fourth grade-long
before they are aware of the excitement the future can hold.
Recent international math achievement tests rank U.S. students
on a par with Thailand and Hungary-and far behind other
nations (Hong Kong and Japan ranked 1 and 2). U.S. rankings
in physics, chemistry and biology ranged from abysmal to
mediocre compared with other nations.
This decline has alarmed Congress which, in 1987, estab-
lished a Task Force on Women, Minorities, and the Handi-
capped in Science and Technology (P.L. 99-383) to define the
problem and find solutions. If left unchanged, the Task Force
has warned, "the prospects for maintaining an advanced indus-
HOW AMERICA SCORED
trial society will diminish." 1
Graphs below are typical of how stu-
dents from 13 countries, including
America, fared on International Sci-
NASA is supportive of the six goals outlined by the Task
ence and Math Achievement Tests.
Force-and which are paraphrased on these pages-and is
(Source: International Association for
Evaluation of Educational Achieve-
carefully assessing its education programs to identify those
ment)
CHEMISTRY
GEOMETRY
United States
United States
Sweden
Thailand
Singapore
Sweden
Poland
Scotland
Norway
New Zealand
Japan
Japan
Italy
Israel
Hungary
Hungary
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Finland
Finland
England
England
Canada
Canada
Australia
Belgium
1
Project LASER
offering the greatest potential for achieving the Task Force
"It is obvious that if this trend is not
objectives with a reasonable range of resources. A major
corrected, the Buck Rogers of the
initiative is under way on behalf of NASA at its Marshall Space
1990s will be living in Seoul, not
Chattanooga, Los Angeles, or Chi-
Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, where highly effective fea-
cago.
tures of several NASA education programs along with innova-
tions are being integrated into a comprehensive pilot program.
University of Tennessee President
This program, dubbed Project LASER, is discussed presently.
Lamar Alexander⁵
Finding new minds
What made America great was not manifest destiny, but the
hunger of immigrants who were willing to sacrifice, to perform
harder and learn more. When Leo Durocher said that "Nice guys
finish last," he meant that the hungry ones hustle to finish first.
Today that hunger and hustle
are found throughout the
Goal 2
world in nations that are
Education must be reformed to allow American students-from pre-
outperforming America in the
kindergarten to grade 12-to enter college as future competitors in
marketplace, and which have
the international marketplace.
recognized, as Japan did al-
most three decades ago, that
"Economic competition is technical competition, and technical
competition has become educational competition."
It can also be found and nurtured in America's inner cities
and impoverished citizens if we provide the opportunities to
learn and grow. In the year 2000, 85 percent of the new workers
will be members of minority groups, women, and the disabled.
Further, the nation will be short some 560,000 science and
engineering professionals at that time. As expressed by the Task
Force, "The Nation can meet future potential shortfalls of
scientists and engineers only by reaching out and bringing
New Entrants Into Labor Force, 1988-2000
THE CHANGING WORKFORCE
Changing demographics will markedly
Asian, Other Women
affect the composition of the future
workforce. Of the new workers entering
Asian, Other Men
the labor force between 1988 and the
year 2000, less than a third will be the
Hispanic Women
white males traditionally sought by
Hispanic Men
most employers. (Source: U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics)
Black Women
Black Men
White Women
White Men
0
10
20
30
40
Percent
2
Project LASER
members of these underrepresented groups into science and
engineering. America's standing and competitiveness depend
on it."
For years it has been easier to deal with the students who
were readily available in the schools near the factory and around
the executives' neighborhoods. But assuring America's vitality
and competitiveness requires that business and government
reach outside their "comfort
zones" to capture the imagina-
tions of minority and disad-
Goal 3
vantaged students. Simply
By the year 2000 the number and diversity of American science and
stated, it is folly to ignore large
engineering graduates must expand to meet the demands for faculty,
industry, and government.
segments of any manpower
pool.
If left untrained, the poor and disadvantaged children of
today will become the poor and disadvantaged parents of
tomorrow and the pattern will repeat. They will also become a
terrible burden on the economy and keep the nation from
reaching its full potential. If tapped, they can become the
greatest resource for building the economy and regaining
stature and economic power in the world marketplace. In the
words of the Task Force:
BASIC SPACE TECH
Students from Bob Jones High School
UNITED
receive a lecture on basic rocket propul-
sion as part of the Space Science and
STATES
Technology pilot course. (NASA photo)
Bob Jones
3
Project LASER
AFTER SCHOOL
Students who stay at the public library
to study or just read after regular school
hours will be offered introductions to
science through space. (NASA photo)
"We should commit to the task of producing a world-
class science and engineering workforce not only be-
cause science and technology happen to be the coin of
international power. We should take action not just
because Japanese students score higher in international
tests. We should take action not only because the oppor-
tunity costs of not acting-school dropouts, welfare, and
prisons, for example-are staggering.
"One, every American citizen, regardless of back-
ground, gender, physical disability or race, should receive
the educational and economic opportunity to develop to
his or her fullest potential.
"Two, we should
extend rights not only in
the name of social jus-
Goal 4
tice, but as a test of a
Because Federal R&D resources strongly influence national science
and engineering work, they must be used to help leverage the world's
modern, well-function-
best science and engineering workforce by the year 2000.
ing society. This is the
standard by which we
should continue to stand and be measured."
From the stars to the Earth
NASA can and will play a vital role in this effort. Because the
Space Act directs NASA to expand human knowledge of space
and to disseminate information to the widest audience, NASA is
a type of education agency, well-suited to capture a child's
imagination. Edward Mabley, president of the Society of Auto-
motive Engineers, observed, "Have you ever seen a kid who
4
Project LASER
didn't like a car or airplane?"² Or a spaceship? Nothing fires the
imagination as space does. But for many students, that becomes
limited in elementary school.
NASA does not entertain the notion that all students it
contacts will want to become astronauts or space scientists. Most
will move on to other career interests, many of them outside of
science and engineering. However, NASA does know that
"Education is a way of life. And
unless the nation provides itself a large enough pool of scien-
educational reform is an urgent
responsibility for every parent, ev-
tists and engineers, and taxpayers who appreciate their impor-
ery student, every community. And
tance, then the agency will find itself in an intense competition
those who do not advance the
for the few skilled people who are available. Through their natu-
cause of education hinder it."
ral interest in space, students can be stimulated to develop skills
in science and mathematics that will serve all disciplines. And
President George Bush¹⁰
the best environment for expanding man's presence in space is
a nation with a vibrant economy driven by first-rate technical ca-
pabilities in all fields, and supported by a citizenry which is func-
tionally literate in science and mathematics.
Although all levels of edu-
cation must be addressed,
Goal 5
studies have identified the first
The Federal government will continue to set the pace in providing
four years of primary school
accessible, equitable, and favorable workplaces for under-repre-
education as the most crucial.
sented groups in science and engineering.
Young people are naturally
curious and eager to learn. However, as they reach the third to
fourth grade, there is a general tendency for their interest in the
more difficult concepts of mathematics and science to give way
to less difficult and entertaining activities. This is markedly true
for minorities, girls, and children from socially and economically
deprived situations. This problem is caused by a lack of "hands-
on" experiences that cultivate and stimulate a child's natural
curiosity, and in rote learning that appears to have no immedi-
ate application or reward.
As noted by Philip and Phylis Morrison-a noted MIT
physics professor and a specialist in elementary science educa-
tion-one of the problems with today's metropolitan society is
that many children are not exposed to the same learning
experiences as 100 years ago.³ Children who grew up in small
"Fortunately, producing an ade-
towns and on the farm "knew intimately many things that are not
quate supply of scientists and giv-
in the experience of children coming to school today
the
ing scientific literacy to the non-
rhythm of the moon in the sky. They knew many of the serious
scientists can be accomplished by
steps to keep alive animals for whom they had responsibility
the same means-teaching excel-
and on whom they depended. They knew a good bit about
lent science to every child at the
elementary school level."
machinery and how it worked, how it could be mended, what
you could do with it that was not exactly what it was intended
Educator Daniel Koshland⁷
5.
Project LASER
for." Today, few children build their own radios-a Walkman is
"Elementary teachers are often
cheaper than a kit-or comprehend its workings beyond the
regarded as the best science teach-
face of the volume control.
ers because they are quick to admit
to not knowing."
A LASER to light the way
Educator Robert Yager⁶
Project LASER, a major initiative being undertaken by
Marshall Space Flight Center on behalf of NASA, will provide
hands-on experiences that challenge children to continue
science and math studies.⁴ "Laser" was selected because it is a
readily recognized high-tech
device. (Significantly, most
Goal 6
people cannot tell what the
American culture must change.
acronym means or how a laser
News and entertainment media, businesses and communities are
works.) As adopted by the
needed to reverse negative images:
Marshall Center's education
"Mad" scientists portrayed in entertainment media.
outreach program, LASER
Science and math are "too tough" or "for nerds."
means Learning About Sci-
"Only geniuses need apply."
ence, Engineering, and Re-
search. The brightly-colored logo depicts a laser etching its own
name.
There are several areas of focussed effort designed into
Project LASER. Although the project includes all teachers and
PROJECT LASER ELEMENTS
students in elementary through high schools, there will be an
Major elements of Project LASER, and
intense focus of effort, technology, and reinforcement designed
their development schedules, are de-
to draw underprivileged and underrepresented children into the
pected below. The Space Science and
Technology Course is outlined at right.
mainstream of the educational process and to keep them there.
(NASA diagrams)
PROJECT LASER
Learning About Science, Engineering, and Research
Data Bank of Volunteers
MSFC Employees-NASA Retirees-NASA Contractors
I
II
III
IV
V
Space
Public
Mobile
Audio/Visual
Teacher
Technology
Library
Laboratories
Workshops
Courses
Science
Computer
Program
Grades:
Materials
Elementary,
(High Schools,
A: 2 (K-8)
Middle, and
Middle Schools)
(8 branches)
B: 1 (9-12)
Interactive
High Schools
C: 2 Teacher
Video
Resource
Instruction
Centers
1989-90
Phase-in to be
2nd Semester,
1990
1990
School Year
determined
1989-1990
by Library
6
Project LASER
SCIENCE DAY
A Marshall Center volunteer supporting
Project LASER introduces elementary
students to physics experiments. Such
an outreach will be possible for more
schools through Mobile Discovery
Labs. (NASA photos)
In addition, NASA believes special attention is required in
three areas:
"Einstein didn't learn about atoms
from lectures."
First, assisting teachers in ways which facilitate and enrich
science and mathematics education without adding to the
Education ad, ca. 1988 ⁸
teaching burden.
Second, developing practical applications and interesting
"hands-on" activities that attract children to put forth the
effort necessary for understanding mathematics and science.
Third, expending a greater effort in grades 3 through 8 to
create and maintain the necessary interest through positive
reinforcement to sustain the students' desire to learn algebra,
geometry, calculus, biology, chemistry, and physics.
Space Science and Technology Course
"We are unique in our ability to
I. Introduction and overview: Why explore space?
capture the interest of children and
young adults. No program of any
II. Astronomy: Heavenly bodies in space as an environment.
other agency, public or private, can
inspire kids more than our activities
III. History: Man's venture to the sky and beyond.
on the cutting edge of space or
aeronautics research."
IV. Getting there: Technology required to go from idea to spaceflight.
NASA Administrator Richard
V. Space flight: Man's accomplishments and plans.
Truly11
VI. Experiments in space: What we test and observe.
7
Project LASER
Within Project LASER are five major elements; others may be
added as our understanding of educational needs and capabili-
ties is refined. The Marshall Center is using the Huntsville and
Madison County School Systems and its own facilities as the
laboratory in which LASER programs are developed. As the
elements mature they will be "spun off" to other NASA centers,
Federal agencies, school systems, and businesses-anyone, in
short, who has the need and the interest.
"The essence of science is curios-
ity. We must instill in our children
The major program elements within LASER are:
the curiosity about their everyday
world that will always lead to discov-
ery."
Volunteer Databank: Current and retired employees of
Marshall Center have been asked to volunteer to support
Michael S. Brown, 1985 Nobel lau-
space activities at various city and county schools. "Job
reate in physiology and medicine⁹
categories" include tutors for students and small groups;
instructors at schools or field trips; consultants for teachers;
science fair judges; and volunteers providing other assis-
tance as needed. An important element will be a Discovery
Lab at the Marshall Center which will provide specific labo-
ratory capabilities for the schools.
Space Technology Course: This course is being developed by
a team of certified teachers and Marshall Center scientists
and engineers. Implementation is under way at Bob Jones
High School in Madison County and will continue as a full-
time course of instruction throughout the 1989-90 school
year. Students who attend must arrive an hour before regular
classes, but will receive one elective credit. Development of
a space technology textbook is being considered as an
extension of this program. Marshall Center earlier "adopted"
Johnson High School and is helping it develop space science
studies integrated with traditional courses.
"At a time when the need for strong
math and science programs in our
schools has never been greater, we
Public Library Science Program: The Huntsville Public Li-
recognize that government agen-
brary's main branch has discovered that many children from
cies and industry can and must
nearby housing projects "hang out" at the library until their
make important contributions to
education."
parents return home from work. This provides a natural en-
vironment in which science and math programs can be
MSFC Director Jack Lee
presented as an adjunct to classroom learning. The library
may also host weekend, evening, and summer programs to
help teach children. The library management has agreed to
furnish space in the facility for the Marshall Center to engage
the children in learning with NASA-provided materials.
Mobile Discovery Laboratories: This is derived from the
Spacemobile familiar to many Americans. The Mobile Labs
will carry simple lab equipment and computers to provide
8
Project LASER
hands-on activities and demonstrations for students, and
provide teachers with classroom activities. There will be two
for grades K-5, and one for 6-8. At work stations in the
mobile labs, teams of two to five students will use prepack-
aged materials that will show them practical applications of
principles being taught in the classroom.
Mobile Teacher Resource Centers: The greatest potential in
terms of resources invested in LASER may be offered by the
development of Mobile Teacher Resource Centers. Mobile
facilities, built on the highly successful NASA-wide system of
Teacher Resource Centers (at NASA centers and regional lo-
cations), can reach teachers all over the nation, especially
those that would otherwise not have the opportunity to avail
LASER WORKERS
themselves of this valuable resource. Initially, the vans
LASER's various activities will be
would visit the six-state region served by the Marshall Center
staffed by volunteers who have a vari-
ety of options for helping the program.
to prove the concept. This would be followed by expansion
(NASA diagram)
TUTORS
POOL OF SCIENCE
FAIR JUDGES
Requested by teacher for
1-on-1 or small groups.
Short orientation
Tutor nights at
MSFC
Huntsville Public Library.
Employees
Workshops on
(250)
science projects
Judging school
MARSHALL
and system-wide fairs
DISCOVERY LAB
2,500-ft² lab space
in Building 4487
PROJECT LASER
ADOPT-A-VOLUNTEER
Data Base
Requested by teachers for
specific lab set-up.
of Volunteers
Working relationship with
class, teachers, or schools.
Target: January 1990.
Consulting, tutoring,
lecturing, coordinating,
assisting with labs
INSTRUCTORS
Offer enrichment
Retirees
Lecture/presentation/lab
(50)
CONSULTANTS
at school by request
On a directory:
Conduct field trips
Answer questions.
GOAL:
Help solve problems.
Conduct labs and teacher
Offer assistance according to
Assist with planning or
workshops at MSFC
teacher needs and wants
presentation (on request)
with minimum inconvenience.
9
Project LASER
NASA
LASER
NASA
to each of the other NASA centers with at least two mobile
FOR TEACHERS
units per center. The first center is to debut in early 1990.
The Mobile Teachers' Resource Center
(above) will be highly visible on the
nation's highways as it carries a set of
Computer and A/V Materials: The potential of computer-
six work stations (below) plus other
aided learning cannot be underestimated, nor should it be
facilities to teachers at their schools.
oversold. Not all school systems can afford machines that
(NASA photos)
provide "hypermedia" and other advanced systems. Never-
theless, the potential is great and must be explored to
develop affordable systems. The proliferation of VCR's make
videotapes a natural medium for presenting educational
material, but not simply by taping old movies; new produc-
tion values and techniques must be used to provide presen-
tations that children want to see and hear. An initiative is
under way to join the Alabama University System's audio-
video network which is now delivering live interactive
instruction by highly-skilled educators in high school class-
rooms in such subjects as anatomy. NASA would use its new
Space Technology Course as a pilot effort to expand its
outreach into as many school systems as possible.
Teacher Workshops: "Hands-on" activities are equally impor-
tant for teachers at all levels. NASA and the Marshall Center
will incorporate summer workshops and other related
activities into LASER to share the program with as many
teachers as possible.
LASER's programs will not be produced overnight. The da-
tabase, for example, is being completed, and the Discovery
Laboratory is to be opened in 1990. Other activities will be
initiated during the 1989-90 school year, then refined over the
years as experience is gained.
Assistance from industry and academia will be needed in de-
veloping these programs. Although NASA has a multi-billion-
dollar budget, its monies are largely obligated to fulfilling its
primary charter: expanding aerospace science and technology
for the national good.
10
Project LASER
And despite the marvels which NASA has developed, it is not
a "know-it-all agency." Neither is it a factory. NASA is an R&D
agency. The help of the education community will be needed
as NASA brings its expertise and facilities to bear. Most
important, the support of the business community will be
To my mind, the main task is how
needed to develop and distribute new educational tools, either
generally to improve the education
by corporate sponsorships, cost-sharing, donations, or other
of the young. [You] can do no
means. Non-profit professional institutions (many of whom
greater work than help make better
have struggled with the education problem for years) are
the elementary school system
throughout the world.
needed to act as receiving agents to make sure that industry
receives proper. tax credits and to help maintain a proper
Albert Einstein
separation between business and government. Already, several
(to the League of Nations Commit-
aerospace firms have expressed interest in helping NASA. Edu-
tee on International Cooperation,
cation programs and materials which support the overall goals
ca. 1924)
of Project LASER will also be distributed through the Mobile
Teacher Resource Centers and Discovery Laboratories.
The support of the entire business community will be needed
in what will become the most important investment that any
company can make. The return will not come quickly or easily.
But the price of not investing is too high to bear.
References
1. Changing America: The New Face of Science and Engineering. Interim
report of the Task Force on Women, Minorities, and the Handicapped
in Science and Technology. Washington, September 1988.
2. Plumb, Stephen E. "New SAE president beats drum for tech education."
Ward's Automotive Magazine, March 1989, p. 83.
3. "Why 'Hands-On' science in a loaded curriculum?" National Research
Council News Report, August/September 1988, p. 17.
4. "NASA and a changing America: Outreach to increase our nation's
science and engineering workforce. Report by the Administrator to the
Task Force on Women, Minorities, and the Handicapped in Science and
Technology, 1989.
5. Bryne, Gregory. "U.S. Students Flunk Math, Science," Science, Feb. 10,
1979, p. 729.
6. Yager, Robert. "Wanted: More Questions, Fewer Answers," Science and
Children, September 1987, p. 22.
7. Koshland, Daniel E., Jr. "Scientific Competency Through Fun," Science,
Feb. 24, 1989, p. 989.
8. Avertisement by Sheldon Science Support Systems, ca. 1988.
9. "When I was in school, science Science and Children, September
1988, pp 14-19+.
10. Bush, George. Remarks delivered in university convocation, University
of Virginia, Sept. 28, 1989.
11. Truly, Richard. "A New Year's Message from the Administrator." HQ
Bulletin, NASA, Jan. 2, 1990.
11
Project LASER
For more information about Project LASER,
or additional copies of this booklet, contact:
JD Horne,
Director, Executive Staff-DX01
Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, AL 35812
(205-544-1913)
Produced by Martin Marietta for NASA
12
NASA
National
Aeronautics and
Space
Administration
MSFC
January 1990
Seeing in a New Light
Teacher's Guide With Activities
Acknowledgements
The Astro-1 Teacher's Guide, "Seeing in a New Light," was
prepared by Essex Corporation of Huntsville, AL, for the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration with the
guidance, support, and cooperation of many individuals
and groups.
NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC
Office of Space Science and Applications
Flight Systems Division
Astrophysics Division
Office of External Affairs
Educational Affairs Division
Office of Communications
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, AL
Payload Projects Office
Public Affairs Office
Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD
Explorers and Attached Payload Projects
Laboratory for Astronomy and Solar Physics
Public Affairs Office
Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX
Astronaut Office
Scientists, teachers, and others who gave their time
and creativity in recognition of the importance of the
space program in inspiring and educating students.
Special thanks to the Astro Team and to Essex Corporation
for their creativity in making this document a reality.
Astro-1 Teacher's Guide With Activities
Seeing in a New Light
January 1990
EP274
NASA
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
Astro-1 Teacher's Guide With Activities
Seeing in a New Light
CONTENTS
Preface
iii
Introduction
1
Instructions for Using the Teacher's Guide
2
Seeing the Colors in Light: Concept 1
4
Seeing the Invisible: Concept 2
10
Seeing Waves Everywhere: Concept 3
16
Seeing Into the Universe: Concept 4
22
Seeing Through a Filter: Concept 5
28
Seeing Above the Atmosphere: Concept 6
34
Your Career in Astronomy
40
Study Prints and Line Drawings
41
Why They Became Astronomers
49
Resources
51
Where to Obtain Materials
56
Glossary
57
i
Astro-1 Crew
VANCE BRAND
Vance Brand
Guy Gardner
Commander
Pilot
NASA
Mike Lounge
Jeff Hoffman
Robert Parker
Mission Specialist
Mission Specialist
Mission Specialist
LENNETTING
SAMUEL DURRANCE
RONALD PARISE
A
ЛӀЛЅЛ
Sam Durrance
Ron Parise
Ken Nordsieck
Payload Specialist
Payload Specialist
Payload Specialist
ii
Preface
We, the crew of the Astro-1 Observatory mission, invite you to join us on a special
adventure: NASA's first Shuttle mission dedicated to astrophysics. Astrophysics is the
branch of astronomy that investigates the physical characteristics of celestial objects such
as their size, mass, temperature, and chemistry. On this mission, the Space Shuttle
Columbia will lift three ultraviolet telescopes and one X-ray telescope above the scattering
and absorbing effects of Earth's atmosphere so that astronomers in the Shuttle and on the
ground can observe some of the Universe's most fascinating objects. Together, we will use
complex computers and pointing systems to turn huge telescopes on the stars and analyze
their light for information about their structure and chemistry.
We can hardly wait to share the excitement of astronomy in orbit with students and
teachers alike.
This Teacher's Guide concentrates on the electromagnetic spectrum, a subject that was
chosen because it is part of the middle school curriculum and because an understanding of
the different ranges of energy is crucial to an understanding of the high-energy astronomy
performed by the Astro-1 telescopes. Other information about the Astro-1 mission is
available through the various NASA Educational Resources listed on page 53 of this
Teacher's Guide.
This is only the beginning. There will be other science missions in the months to come. We
hope you will make us and future Shuttle crews a part of your classrooms as we explain
how science is done in orbit.
Come join us in space.
Vance Brand
Duy Dardner
Mike Lounge Loung
Vance Brand
Guy Gardner
Commander
Pilot
Mission Specialist
Bhat Pala
Jeff Hoffman
Robert Parker
Mission Specialist
Mission Specialist
Ran tamil
Ken Nordenck
Sam Durrance
Ron Parise
Ken Nordsieck
Payload Specialist
Payload Specialist
Payload Specialist
iii
&
am
Introduction
For as long as people have walked the Earth, they
Then, students will be introduced to the Astro Pro-
have looked to the stars. Besides exciting the
gram, a series of Space Shuttle flights that will lift
imagination and inspiring songs and poetry, the
a complement of telescopes above the distorting
stars have provided guidance for many of the
and absorbing effects of Earth's atmosphere.
advances of civilization. Farmers have sown and
Astro-1 is scheduled to fly in the spring of 1990.
harvested crops according to the phases of the
Moon and the positions of heavenly bodies.
Astro-1 will carry 4 instruments during its 10-day
Explorers and sailors have charted their courses
mission. Three are ultraviolet instruments: the
across deserts, forests, and open seas with the aid
Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT) developed at
of the stars. Those who studied the stars were
The Johns Hopkins University, the Ultraviolet
sometimes pictured as magical and wise -
Imaging Telescope (UIT) developed at Goddard
wizards who tried to understand the remote and
Space Flight Center, and the Wisconsin Ultraviolet
beautiful night skies; even today, astronomy
Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE) devel-
embodies both the practical and the romantic, the
oped at the University of Wisconsin. The fourth
understandable and the mysterious.
instrument is the Broad Band X-Ray Telescope
(BBXRT), also developed at Goddard Space Flight
Almost every culture has studied the skies. The
Center. With these instruments, astronomers will
Babylonians first grouped the stars into constella-
investigate celestial bodies that emit ultraviolet
tions; the Chaldeans and Egyptians used astro-
and X-ray radiation impossible to detect with
nomical observations to calculate the length of the
Earthbound telescopes. Some of these objects are
year as 365-1/4 days; the Greeks determined the
hot, young stars; old, dying stars; quasars; neutron
circumference of Earth and catalogued 1,080
stars; supernova remnants; binary star systems;
stars, grouping them by their brightness. The
active galaxies; and maybe even black holes.
Greeks also may have been the first to teach that
the Sun was the center of the solar system. During
This expanding and fascinating world of high-
the Middle Ages, many of the sciences experi-
energy astronomy awaits your students: a world
enced setbacks, but astronomy was kept alive by
of ultraviolet and X-ray spectrometers and tele-
the Arabs who translated and preserved the works
scopes that explore stars, nebulae, and phenom-
of the Greeks and improved astronomical instru-
ena like quasars and black holes, which were
ments. In 1543, Copernicus, a Polish researcher,
unknown to the ancients and are new even to your
again advanced the theory that the Sun was the
students' parents.
center of the solar system. Kepler, a German
mathematician, calculated the movements of the
This Teacher's Guide may be used to introduce
planets and proved Copernicus right. With
and summarize the lessons that will be taught
Galileo's use of a primitive telescope in the 1600s,
from space by Astro-1 crew members. It is also a
the science of astronomy took a giant leap forward
practical source of lesson plans and student
as more of the Universe was brought into view.
activities that may be used by itself to teach
scientific principles and to interest students in the
Today's astronomers use giant telescopes, Earth-
field of astronomy. It can supplement sections of
orbiting satellites, and sophisticated instruments
texts in Earth science, physical science, or social
that operate above the atmosphere to explore the
studies. Many activities are designed to extend
Universe. So that progress will continue, students
into the realms of literature, mathematics, art, and
must be made aware of the fascination of astron-
history.
omy. The goal of this guide is to excite the
imagination of students in grades 6, 7, and 8 and
The National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
encourage them to pursue the study of science,
tration (NASA) has chosen a wizard as the logo for
particularly astronomy. To do this, they will be
this Teacher's Guide in the hope that today's
introduced first to the basic scientific principle of
students and teachers, like their ancestors, will
the electromagnetic spectrum and to related
discover the mystery, excitement, and importance
concepts. As the guide progresses, the concepts
of astronomy and that students will look to the
become more complex, encompassing the ideas of
stars to learn about the Universe.
light waves, their lengths, frequencies, and
relationship to color; the effect of the atmosphere
on light waves; and the relationship of these
concepts to astronomy.
1
Instructions for Using the Teacher's Guide
This Teacher's Guide is designed to be used with classes of varied sizes and abilities and
can be adapted to different time schedules. It is written for middle school students
(grades 6, 7, and 8), but many activities will appeal to younger and older students.
Six basic concepts are taught:
Concept 1: Visible light demonstrates the existence of the spectrum.
Concept 2: Radiation exists above and below the visible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Concept 3: Light and other kinds of radiation consist of photons that travel in waves.
Concept 4: Certain celestial objects give off radiation other than visible light, and we must
study them in other energy ranges.
Concept 5: Certain waves of radiation are blocked by Earth's atmosphere.
Concept 6: Astronomers need to place telescopes above Earth's atmosphere to perform
astronomical observations in several regions of the spectrum.
These concepts are arranged so that the simpler ideas are presented first. If students are
not prepared to work on wavelengths, for example, you may want to cover only Concepts 1
and 2. If your students are well along in studying the electromagnetic spectrum, you may
want to begin with Concept 5.
All answers and suggestions for the teacher are printed at the end of each concept, before
the Student Activity pages.
Background
This information introduces each concept. Interested students may be referred
to some of the references given in the back of this guide.
Classroom Activities
You may choose from several classroom activities to teach each concept,
depending on the interests and needs of your students. You also may duplicate
these and use them as task cards for students working as individuals or in
groups.
Options for Extending the Lesson Across the Curriculum
These activities are included to reflect the current emphasis on interdisciplinary
learning. They are suggestions, and teachers should use them according to the
time available for study, the ability of other teachers to help in team teaching,
and student interest.
2
Home Activities
Assign these lesson extensions after Classroom and Student Activities have
been completed. They help students remember what has been learned, are
enjoyable supplements to homework, and provide an opportunity for parents to
participate.
Student Activities
These are intended to be reproduced for independent individual or small-group
work.
Your Career in Astronomy
One of the goals of the Astro-1 Teacher's Guide is to encourage students to
take an interest in astronomy and perhaps pursue it as a career. This section
may be copied for students to read and used for classroom discussion.
Hopkins Ultraviolet
Wisconsin Ultraviolet
Telescope (HUT)
Photo-Polarimeter
Experiment (WUPPE)
Ultraviolet Imaging
Broad Band X-Ray
Telescope (UIT)
Telescope (BBXRT)
Astro-1 Payload
3
Seeing the Colors in Light
Concept 1
Visible light demonstrates the existence of the spectrum.
Objective
Students observe a visible spectrum.
Background
We often think of rainbows as magical - the subject of charming legends of
leprechauns and pots of gold. This makes the rainbow an exciting starting
point for the study of the electromagnetic spectrum. Think about the colors
of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Rain-
drops break white light into its component colors, producing rainbows. This process can
be duplicated with a prism or a diffraction grating or even a pan of water and a mirror.
Activity 1: Producing a Spectrum
Materials Needed
pan of water and a small mirror or
a prism or
diffraction grating (You may be able to borrow a diffraction grating
from a high school physics teacher or remove one from an inexpensive
spectroscope.)
light source, such as sunlight, or
1 or 2 straight filament lights with sockets
If you are using the pan of water, set the tray of
water in bright sunlight. Lean the mirror against an
inside edge of the pan and adjust it so that a spec-
trum appears on the wall.
If you are using a prism, turn the prism at various
angles until a spectrum appears. Adjust carefully
until the spectrum is spread out as much as
possible.
If you are using a diffraction grating, turn the
grating so that the colors are to the right and
left of the bulb.
Questions
1. What colors in the spectrum can you
name?
2. Are the spectra produced by different
diffraction devices the same?
3. What do you think the word
"diffraction" means?
4
Activity 2: "Bubble-ology"
Materials Needed
The colors of visible light can also be seen in an enjoyable experiment with
"bubble-ology."
1 gal (4 l) of cold water in a pan or bowl
1 C (0.25 l) of liquid dishwashing detergent
several straws
light source, such as sunlight, or
1 or 2 straight filament lights with sockets
Step 1: In a shallow bowl or pan, gently mix the water and detergent. Use the straws to
blow large bubbles in the water.
Step 2: Put the bowl in sunlight and examine the colors appearing on the surface of the
bubbles.
When light hits the thin film of a bubble, it is reflected off both the top and bottom surfaces.
These two different reflections cross and run into one another. When this happens, the
reflected light separates into rainbow colors, also known as "interference color."
As the bubbles grow thinner and their "skin" is stretched out, the colors become redder.
Later lessons will help you understand why.
5
Options for Extending the Lesson
Across the Curriculum
Language
Look up the word spectrum. The plural used in the questions for Activity 1
is spectra. Why would the plural be formed this way? Spectrum is a Latin word and so
forms its plural differently. Are there other words that form their plurals this way? What is
the origin (etymology) of these words?
Creative Writing
Make up your own rainbow legend and share it with a younger child.
Art
Different colors of light and different colors of paint can both be mixed; however, red, green,
and blue combine to form white light, while the primary colors of paint (red, yellow, and
blue) combine to make black. Set up three projectors. Put a red filter on one, a blue filter
on another, and a green filter on the last. Project these onto the same area. Where the
colors overlap, white light will appear. Now, experiment with red, yellow, and blue paints.
Paints have color because they absorb certain frequencies of light and reflect others. Why
does black result when all three primary paint colors are mixed?
Home Activities
1. Early in the morning or late in the afternoon, use a hose with a sprayer
attachment to create a rainbow in your yard. Use dark trees, bushes, or
grass as a background for greater visibility.
2. With a magnifying glass, examine the screen of a television or a color picture from a
magazine to see how color is achieved.
3. On a clear, dark night, look carefully at the stars. Color can be found here, too. If you
look closely, some stars are noticeably red in color and some are blue-white. The blue-
white stars are hotter, and red stars are cooler.
Activity 1 Answers: 1. Because there are no clear divisions between the colors, answers will differ here. This helps
introduce the concept of a continuous spectrum that has no lines or well-defined boundaries. 2.Yes, basically they are
the same. 3. Accept any reasonable answer here: breaking up, bending, splitting, and so on.
Note to Teacher: For science supplies such as prisms and diffraction gratings, see "Where to Obtain Materials," page 56.
Answers for Options for Extending the Lesson Across the Curriculum: Language - Some other words are medium
(media), memorandum (memoranda), curriculum (curricula). These words come from the Latin, which does not use "s" to
form plurals. Art - Black results because all colors are being absorbed; none are being reflected.
Student Activity Answers: What Color is Black?: All pigment colors are found in black ink.
6
Concept 1
Visible light demonstrates the existence of the spectrum.
Student Activity
What Color is Black?
Materials needed
black felt-tip pen
strips of coffee filters or clean newsprint
glass jar
water
pencil or tongue depressor
tape
Step 1: Place a dot of black ink from the pen about 1 in. (2 cm) from one end of the paper
strip.
Step 2: Tape the other end of the strip to the center of the pencil or tongue depressor.
Step 3: Put water into the jar so that about 0.5 in. (1 cm) of the paper strip will be under
water when the pencil is placed on top.
Step 4: What colors do you think will be in the ink? Place a check next to those colors.
Color
Predicted
Actual
black
red
pencil and tape
green
strip
blue
yellow
Water
dot
level
orange
2 cm
-1 cm
indigo
violet
Step 5: Rest the pencil on top of the jar so that the paper is in the water. The dot should
not be under water.
Step 6: Observe carefully for 5 minutes. Check the colors that actually appear on the strip.
Results
What can be said about the colors in black ink?
7
Concept 1
Visible light demonstrates the existence of the spectrum.
Student Activity
Colors and Your Mind
Colors play an important role in our lives, and we make color decisions every day. What
color shirt should I put on? What color slacks should I buy?
Different people have different color preferences. Do you like the warm reds and oranges
or the cool. greens and blues? Do color choices change? Do males and females tend to like
different colors?
Try doing a survey.
Step 1: Color the wheel below according to the labels. Make the colors as similar as pos-
sible in intensity (felt-tip markers are good for this). Make the colors as "true" as possible;
that is, make the red a "true red" rather than an orange-red or a blue-red, and so on with
the other colors.
Step 2: Ask your friends and teachers to choose a favorite color. Keep track of the results.
Red
Violet
Orange
Number
of
Blue
Yellow
Responses
Green
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Colors
Step 3: Fill in the number of responses vertically on the left side of the graph. Remember to
use consistent steps: 0, 5, 10, 15
or 0, 10, 20
and so on.
Step 4: You can plot your graph as a line graph or a bar graph. The bar graph might be
clearest because you could color your bars accordingly.
Step 5: Share the results with your class. An interesting variation might be to make two or
more copies of the graph and survey males and females separately. Is there a difference?
Try it again with individuals in different age groups; for example, people under 20 and those
over 20. How do these compare?
8
Concept 1
Visible light demonstrates the existence of the spectrum.
Student Activity
Color Wheels
Color wheels show how our eyes and our brain mix colors. Our eyes receive the reflected
colors, but because the colors are changing rapidly, our brain cannot distinguish them, and
we see some intermediate color.
Step 1: Using this circle as a guide, trace and cut another circle out of poster board or
heavy construction paper.
Step 2: Paint one side yellow and the other side blue.
Step 3: Attach strings to opposite sides of the circle.
Step 4: Twirl string so the circle flips rapidly.
Step 5: Try this experiment again with different colors and keep track of the resulting
colors.
Results
What colors result?
Use as model. Cut out of poster
board or heavy construction paper.
Paint one side yellow.
Paint the other side blue.
String
9 cm
Twirl disk strings between fingers and thumb.
9
Seeing the Invisible
Concept 2
Radiation exists above and below the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Objective
Students see evidence of the existence of radiant energy above and below the visible
spectrum.
Background
While creating a spectrum is enjoyable, the exciting part is still to come:
exploring the spectrum that is invisible.
Have you ever had X-rays taken? What did they look like? What could you
see? Did you see the X-rays coming out of the machine? How did you know they were there?
X-rays are part of the spectrum but are invisible. Today, you will prove the existence of
invisible radiation. Remember, radiation means energy. These invisible rays are beyond
both the red and violet ends of the visible spectrum and were discovered when Johann
Ritter proved the existence of ultraviolet rays and William Herschel did the same with
infrared radiation. These activities use almost exactly the same methods that were used
in the 1800s when these discoveries were made.
Activity 1: Herschel's Experiment
To demonstrate the existence of
infrared radiation, duplicate Herschel's
experiment.
Materials Needed
prism
three weather thermometers
light source
pencil and paper
Step 1: Allow the three thermometers to regis-
ter the temperature of the air where the experi-
ment will be done - about 5 minutes. Take
careful note of the temperatures.
Step 2: Create a spectrum using sunlight as the light source. (See Concept 1.)
Step 3: Place thermometers at several points in the spectrum: one in the violet range, one
in the center, and one just barely beyond the red end. Leave the thermometers in the
spectrum for at least 5 minutes, moving carefully as the sunlight moves the spectrum.
Temperature changes may be very slight, so observe carefully.
Questions
1. What were the final readings on each of the three thermometers?
2. Why would there be an increase in temperature beyond the red end of the spectrum?
3. What does this tell us about what exists beyond the visible red?
10
Activity 2: Ritter's Experiment
To demonstrate the existence of ultraviolet radiation, duplicate Ritter's
experiment: In 1801, Johann Ritter performed an experiment using paper
treated with silver chloride, which decomposes in the presence of light. He
found that the silver chloride deteriorated even more rapidly when exposed
to the previously unknown radiation beyond the violet end of the spectrum, which the
human eye cannot detect.
Materials Needed
several sheets of blueprint paper
1 qt (about 1 l) of household ammonia
flat pan
prism or mirror in pan of water
light source
Step 1: Using a prism or a pan of water,
create a spectrum on a horizontal sur-
face, such as a table. Use sunlight from
an open window, as glass blocks most
ultraviolet radiation. The prism should be
resting on a stable object so that the
spectrum does not move.
Step 2: Working quickly to prevent ex-
posure of the paper to too much light,
cut a piece of blueprint paper about four
times larger than the spectrum. Place
blueprint paper, which behaves the
same way that Ritter's silver chloride
paper did, underneath the spectrum.
Quickly outline the area covered by the
spectrum with a felt-tip pen. Label the
violet end.
NOTE: Depending on the sensitivity of the paper, different exposure times will be needed.
Most exposure times will be fairly brief, however: about 15 to 20 seconds.
Step 3: Put just enough ammonia in the pan to cover the bottom to a depth of about 0.5 in.
(1 cm). In front of an open window or beneath a vent fan, hold the paper over the pan of
ammonia so that the fumes will process the paper. Notice the changes in the area outlined
and the area just beyond the violet end. You may have noticed that this area began to
change even before processing with the ammonia.
Questions
1. What happened to the part of the paper lying where you can see violet?
2. What happened to the part of the paper lying just beyond that violet section?
3. What does this demonstrate about the area beyond the violet end of the spectrum?
11
Activity 3: Astro-1 Experiments
Look at the Astro-1 illustrations and Astro-1 Facts your teacher has given
you and/or projected onto the wall or a screen.
A NASA mission, named Astro-1, will carry instruments into space that will
look at the stars and other objects in invisible energy ranges. Astro-1 instru-
ments will be detecting the ultraviolet and X-ray ranges of the spectrum. Objects in the
Universe emit energy in different wavelengths: visible light, infrared rays, ultraviolet waves,
and others. The only way scientists can study many of these objects, particularly ones that
are billions of light-years away, is to study the energy they give off in different wavelengths.
Question
Why would astronomers want to study ultraviolet radiation and X-rays from far-away
objects?
Options for Extending the Lesson
Across the Curriculum
Language Arts
Look up the prefix infra. What does it mean? Why would infrared be
called "below" red? What does ultra mean? What other words can you find or do you
know that begin with ultra?
Art
Draw or paint your own portrait as your dog or cat would see you, using only combinations
of black and white.
Home Activities
Look through your clothes at home. Remember what you learned with the
colored cloths and the ice cubes? If you had to select clothes for a trip to
the Sahara Desert, what colors would keep you cool? What colors would
keep you warm on a trip to the Arctic?
Activity 1 Answers: 1. Answers will vary. 2. Heat must be there. 3. Invisible energy is there that produces heat.
Activity 2 Answers: 1. It shows signs of exposure. 2. It should be even more exposed than the violet section, probably
appearing as a lighter area. 3. It demonstrates that radiation is there, but it is not visible to the human eye.
Activity 3 Answer: Because interesting, very energetic processes create this invisible radiation, and we can learn more
about the Universe by studying it.
Note to Teacher: Illustrations of Astro-1 instruments can be found on page 41 of this guide. Paragraphs on the back of
that page provide additional information.
Answers for Options for Extending the Lesson Across the Curriculum: Language Arts - Infra means below. Maybe
it's called "below" red because it is a range of wavelengths whose frequencies are longer than red, and it is sometimes
shown below red on the electromagnetic spectrum. Ultra means beyond. Ultra-modern is another word.
Art - Note to Teacher: See Student Activity, page 14.
Home Activities: Note to Teacher: See Student Activity, page 13.
Student Activity Answers: The Great Ice Race: 1. Ice cubes covered with darker cloths should melt more quickly.
2. Darker colors absorb heat; lighter ones reflect heat. 3. Dark colors should keep the wearer warm; light colors should
help the wearer stay cool. 4. Space suits are white to reflect the Sun's heat.
Student Activity Answers: Pot-of-Gold Word Search: 1. Electromagnetic 2. Red; blue 3. Invisible 4. Filter 5. UV
6. Light, spectrum 7. Violet 8. Rainbow 9. Colors 10. Bulb 11. Bubble
12
Concept 2
Radiation exists above and below the visible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Student Activity
The Great Ice Race
Infrared radiation is heat. Certain colors absorb infrared radiation better than others. Try
this experiment to see which colors absorb infrared radiation and which colors reflect it.
Materials Needed
3 or more ice cubes of about the same size
the same number of flat dishes, all the same color
pieces of cloth, each of a different color
clock
light source, preferably sunlight
Color
Start
End
Melt
Time
Time
Time
1.
2.
3.
4.
Step 1: Put ice cubes in separate, flat dishes or containers in sunlight.
Step 2: Cover each cube completely with a different color cloth. Use a variety: ranging
from very light to very dark.
Step 3: Write down starting time for experiment (start time).
Step 4: When ice cubes are completely gone, write down the time (end time).
Step 5: Subtract the start time from the end time to get the melt time.
Results
1. Which ice cube melted fastest?
2. Based on your results, which colors seem to absorb the most heat?
3. What colors should you wear when you want to stay warm? When you want to stay
cool?
4. From what you have seen, can you guess why space suits are white?
13
Concept 2
Radiation exists above and below the visible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Student Activity
A Black-and-White Vision
Try to imagine a world of black and white: no rainbows, charcoal-colored grass, pale-gray
skies, black lakes and rivers, butterflies in shades of gray. A world like this sounds cold and
unattractive to humans, but few people realize that the world appears just this way to many
animals. Most mammals, except for apes and humans, have little color vision; some
humans, too, are color-blind. Bees and butterflies, on the other hand, not only have color
vision but can see into the ultraviolet region, and fruit flies can see almost up to the X-ray
range. Fish, reptiles, and birds possess some color vision, but animals like dogs, cats, and
horses see very little color at all. With this in mind, describe your room or your yard as your
dog or cat might see it.
14
Concept 2
Radiation exists above and below the visible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Student Activity
Pot-of-Gold Word Search
DPEOMREZBULBMES
ACSUALVCAWTLUBP
FOWONXIYIKXUDEE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
ROSEQTLUVTLSLJT
ARAOBREDUBRYOUR
CSCNMFTWIQUPACU
RARIDLGSXSOBJKM
GEGHRAINBOWBBUE
PSPEFVGGIDIGMLN
QVQHNOIPHJHTUOE
FRFILTERLTKIAVZ
Fill in the blanks in the questions below by finding the correct words in the puzzle. The
words run horizontally, vertically, and diagonally. Circle the words when you find them.
1. The whole range of energy waves from the longest to the shortest is called the
spectrum.
2.
, green, and
are primary colors of light.
3. X-rays are
to the human eye.
4. Looking at a red apple through a green
will cause it to appear black.
5.
stands for ultraviolet.
6. White
is broken into a
by a prism.
7. The color of visible light that is closest to the invisible higher frequencies is
/
.
8. A
is produced when white light is refracted by raindrops.
9. There are seven
found in visible light.
10. An ordinary light
will not produce a complete spectrum when its
light passes through a prism.
11. Interference color can be seen on the surface of a
.
15
Seemy waves Everywhere
Concept 3
Light and other kinds of radiation consist of photons that travel in waves.
Objective
Students observe changes in wave motion created with different amounts of force.
Background
Try to visualize colors as having form and personality. Red waves are long
and have little energy; green is a little shorter and more active; violet waves
are short but energetic. Colors are found in visible light, and light is a kind of
radiation. Radiation can be thought of as packets of energy called
photons that travel in waves. Long waves travel with less frequency while short waves
travel at the same speed but with greater frequencies.
Think about ocean waves. Light waves have high points, or crests, and low points, or
troughs, just as ocean waves do. At the beach, do the gentle swells move your body? No,
they just pick you up and set you down again. This is the nature of waves: energy traveling
through things, rather than moving things.
Activity 1: Waves on a Rope
Wave action can be demonstrated easily with a piece of rope.
Materials Needed
piece of lightweight rope, approximately 4.5 ft (1.5 m) long
Step 1: Tie one end of the rope to a doorknob or desk and move the other end up and
down.
Step 2: Move the rope up and down, slowly at first, and then with more energy.
Questions
1. What happens when the rope is
moved slowly?
2. What happens when it is moved
quickly?
Crests
3. What does this tell us about the en-
ergy of the source of the wave? Are
long waves likely to be produced by
0
a low-energy source or a high-
energy source? What about short
Troughs
waves?
4. Exploding stars give off much
energy. What kinds of waves would
result?
16
Activity 2: Waves in Water
Visible light is just a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, the range of
radiation from radio waves to gamma rays. These electromagnetic waves
are usually identified by their frequencies because all waves travel at the
same speed but have different wave frequencies. Radio waves travel at
low frequencies; gamma rays, at the other end of the spectrum, travel at very high fre-
quencies. To observe wave frequency, try this experiment. Because this experiment
involves water and electrical equipment, it should be done by the TEACHER ONLY.
Materials Needed
clear glass pan, approximately 9 in. X 13 in., filled to a depth of about 1 in. (2 cm) with
water
tongue depressor
putty or clay
overhead projector
Step 1: Soften a piece of clay or
putty and place it on the bottom
of the pan near the end. Stand
the tongue depressor with the
clay.
Step 2: Fill the pan with water.
Step 3: Place the pan on the
overhead projector surface.
Step 4: Using the side of your
hand, slowly strike the water's
surface at the end opposite the
stick. Waves will appear on the
projector screen. Note how many
waves pass the stick in 5 sec-
onds. You may count by observ-
ing either wave crests or troughs
passing the stick.
Step 5: Strike the water more quickly and again note the number of waves passing the
stick in 5 seconds. You are seeing variations in wave frequency.
Questions
1. Which action produces more frequent waves?
2. Think about what you have observed. Can you write your own definition of frequency?
17
Activity 3: Looking at the Spectrum
It is important to study the different frequencies that make up the electro-
magnetic spectrum.
Materials Needed
chart of the electromagnetic spectrum
Look at the chart of the spectrum your teacher has given you or projected onto a screen or wall.
There are seven wavelength ranges. On this chart, the less energetic frequencies are on
the left, the more energetic frequencies on the right. Those that were investigated in
Concept 2 are beyond the visible spectrum. (The infrared and the ultraviolet.)
Astro-1 instruments are used in high-energy astronomy; they observe objects in the ultra-
violet and X-ray ranges. These waves are shorter than visible light waves, but they are
more energetic.
Questions
1. How do waves at the red end of the spectrum compare in length to the waves at the
violet end?
2. Which waves probably are more energetic?
Options for Extending the Lesson
Across the Curriculum
Language Arts
Did you know that you can speak Latin? In a dictionary that gives word
origins, look up the prefix astro. What does it mean? Can you think of any other words that
begin with this prefix? Astro is a Latin prefix. What does the fact that the Romans, who
spoke Latin, had a word for "star" tell you about them? Their word for "sailor" was nauta.
What word do astro and nauta make together?
Creative Writing
"Once upon a time, long, long ago, people could see ultraviolet radiation and X-rays
"
Write a legend that explains what happened to this imaginary ability.
Activity 1 Answers: 1. Long waves are produced. 2. Short waves are produced. 3. It tells us that the length of the wave
is related to the energy of the source. Long waves are likely to be produced by a low-energy source. Short waves are
likely to. be produced by a high-energy source. 4. Short waves
Activity 2 Answers: 1. Striking the water quickly 2. Frequency is the number of crests or troughs passing a point in a
unit of time. Note to Teacher: To do this as a student activity, suspend a clear light bulb over a glass pan set on a white
surface. When other room lights are turned off, wave shadows can be seen clearly.
Activity 3 Answers: 1. Waves at the red end are longer than the waves at the violet end. 2. The waves at the violet end
Note to Teacher: See page 47 for electromagnetic spectrum.
Answers for Options for Extending the Lesson Across the Curriculum: Astro comes from the Latin word astra,
meaning "star." The fact that the Romans had a word for star tells us that they were interested in the stars. Roman
sailors navigated by the stars, and astronaut means "star sailor."
Student Activity Answers: Metric Math Challenge - Making Long Numbers Short: 1. 6.5 X 10-⁷ m 2. 5.0 X 10⁻⁷ m
3. 2.2 X 10¹⁹ km 4. 4.0 X 10⁷ km 5. 1.0 X 10⁻⁵ or 10⁻⁵ cm
Student Activity Answers: The Spectrum and You: 1. Visible light 2. Ultraviolet rays 3. Radio waves 4. X-rays
5. Infrared 6. Microwaves
Student Activity Answers: The Long and Short of It: 1. Atom - X-ray waves 2. Statue of Liberty radio waves
3. Dime - microwaves 4. Pinhead infrared waves 5. Nucleus of an atom - gamma ray waves 6. White blood cells -
ultraviolet light waves 7. Dust specks - visible light waves
18
Concept 3
Light and other kinds of radiation consist of photons that travel in waves.
Student Activity
Metric Math Challenge - - Making Long Numbers Short
Now that you have a good idea of the sizes of wavelengths across the spectrum, let's work
on writing the sizes as astronomers do. Scientists working with very large or very small
numbers use a system called scientific notation. This shortens numbers by substituting
powers of 10 for long strings of zeros. For example, the star nearest to us outside the solar
system is Proxima Centauri, which is 4.3 light-years away. A light-year, the distance light
can travel in a year, is almost 10 trillion kilometers, or 10,000,000,000,000 km. Proxima
Centauri is 43,000,000,000,000 km away. Writing numbers this way would take a lot of time
and paper, so instead astronomers move the decimal enough places to the left to leave the
4 by itself (4.3). Then, they multiply 10 by itself enough times to supply all the zeros:
10,000,000,000,000 or 10¹³. Now, Proxima Centauri can be said to be 4.3 X 10¹³ km away.
Very small numbers can also be written this way. An X-ray is about 0.000000001 meter
long. Now, however, the power of 10 is given as a negative exponent, 10⁻⁹, and X-rays are
said to be 1.0 X 10⁻⁹ m long or simply 10-9 m. More examples are given below. Can you
figure out how to write these other wavelengths in scientific notation?
1. Red light is 0.00000065 m. Write in scientific notation.
2. Green light is 0.00000050 m. Write in scientific notation.
3. The nearest large galaxy, Andromeda, is 2.2 million light-years, or
22,000,000,000,000,000,000 km away. Write this in scientific notation.
4. Venus is 40,000,000 km from Earth. That is
km in scientific notation.
5. Written as
in scientific notation, a white blood cell is about
0.00001 cm long.
10x10x10x10x10x10x10x10x10x10x10x10x10 = 10¹³ (10,000,000,000,000)
Number
Move Decimal
Powers of Ten
+/-
Scientific Notation
43,000,000,000,000.00
4.3 (13 places)
10x10x10x10x
+
4.3 X 10¹³
10x10x10x10x
>1
10x10x10x10x
10 = 10¹³
0.000000781
7.81 (7 places)
10x10x10x10x
7.81 X 10-⁷
10x10x10 = 10⁷
<1
19
Concept 3
Light and other kinds of radiation consist of photons that travel in waves.
Student Activity
The Spectrum and You
Different radiation wavelengths are part of your everyday life. Write the name of the wave-
length in the blank below the way that it affects your life.
Music
3.
Tan
2.
Eyes
1.
Bones
4.
Food
6.
Heat
5.
microwaves
radio waves
infrared
ultraviolet rays
visible light
X-rays
20
Concept 3
Light and other kinds of radiation consist of photons that travel in waves.
Student Activity
The Long and Short of It
Although the range of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum is continuous, it has been
divided into seven categories of energy, distinguished by their wavelengths (the distance
between their crests or troughs). Below are some objects approximately the same size as
the wavelengths. Can you match the length of the wave with the size of the object? Write
the name of the wavelength next to the object that is approximately the same size.
Objects
Type of Radiation
Gamma Ray Waves
mm
1. Atom
X-ray Waves
Ultraviolet Light Waves
Visible Light Waves
2. Statue of
Liberty
Infrared Waves
LIBERT
3. Dime
Microwaves
1984
4. Pinhead
Radio Waves
5. Nucleus of
an Atom
6. White
Blood Cells
7. Dust
Specks
21
Concept 4,
Certain celestial ectsigive of radiation other than visible light, and we must study them
in other energy ranges.
Objective
Stud ents will identify some celestial objectsithat are studied in other energy ranges.
Background
Can you name the star nearest Earth? Did you remember that the Sun is a
star? The Universe holds an incredible variety of objects. The twinkling stars
and dusty Milky Way that we see in the night sky are only a small portion of
what is actually there; many of the most fascinating objects in the
Universe give off much of their energy as the invisible wavelengths that you have been
studying: radio waves, infrared waves, ultraviolet rays, X-rays, and gamma rays.
Objects that give off a lot of energy emit short wavelengths, while objects that give off less
energy emit longer wavelengths. Many of the objects we see by visible light, such as plan-
ets, are relatively cool; hotter objects, such as very new stars or old stars give off ultraviolet
radiation. White dwarfs, which are small stars in the last stages of their lives, emit much of
their energy as ultraviolet radiation and are sometimes in binary star systems, pairs of
stars attracted to each other by gravity. In this star combination, the white dwarf may pull
matter from a larger star, forming an accretion disk, the hot matter that connects the two
stars.
Young galaxies give off large amounts of ultraviolet and X-ray radiation in their spiral
arms where new stars are born and in their centers where high-energy processes take
place. Galaxies come in several different shapes. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is a spiral
galaxy and has a pinwheel shape. Mysterious black holes, possibly the remains of col-
lapsed giant stars, swallow even light. X-rays are given off as they consume everything
close to them. Neutron stars, the tiniest and densest stars known, are also sources of
X-ray radiation. Neutron stars may be found in the centers of supernova remnants, also
called nebulae, the remains of giant exploded stars. The interstellar medium, the term
given to the shapeless clouds of dust and gas between the stars, actually absorbs ultra-
violet radiation and distorts astronomers' views.
These are just a few of the hundreds of kinds of intriguing objects in the Universe, but they
are millions and millions of miles away, and we can learn about them only by studying the
light messages they send through space. They exist in a Universe mostly hidden from the
naked eye but visible to astronomers studying them with ultraviolet and X-ray instruments,
such as those on Astro-1.
22
Activity 1: Color and Temperature
Stars, like everything around us, come in different colors of visible light and
also give off invisible radiation, such as radio waves, infrared waves, ultra-
violet waves, X-rays, and gamma rays. You can see color differences with
your naked eye. Cool, red stars can be picked out on a clear, dark night.
How do astronomers know that red stars are cool?
Materials Needed
wax candle
matches
Step 1: Turn room lights down or off.
Step 2: Light the candle. Without getting too close,
look carefully at the candle flame.
Questions
1. What colors do you see there?
2. Where are the different colors found? Describe their location in the flames.
3. Where would you guess that the hottest part of the flame would be?
4. What color would the hottest stars probably be?
5. The cooler stars?
Activity 2: How Far the Stars?
When you were growing up, you probably asked your parents lots of ques-
tions: Why is the sky blue? Why do dogs bark and cats meow? Why do
stars twinkle? All of us are curious about the world around us. Astronomers
try to answer questions about the Sun, the solar system, the Milky Way
Galaxy, and the endless reaches of deep space. The incredible distances of the objects
they study provide a real challenge.
To give you some idea of the distances, consider this: light travels about 186,000 mi
(300,000 km) per second. It could travel the distance from New York City to Los Angeles in
1/100 of a second.
See if you can calculate the time it takes for light to travel to Earth from some of the objects
closest to us. Remember, distance equals rate multiplied by time (D = RT), and light's rate
of travel is 186,000 mi (300,000 km) per second.
Questions
1. The Moon is about 239,000 mi (384,000 km) from Earth. How long does it take sunlight
reflected off the Moon to reach Earth?
2. The Sun is about 93,000,000 mi (150,000,000 km) away. When you are standing in the
sunlight, how long did the light that falls on you have to travel?
3. The closest star to us, other than the Sun, is Proxima Centauri, which is about
26,000,000,000,000 mi (43,000,000,000,000 km) away. If your spaceship could travel at
the speed of light, how long would the trip take?
23
Options for Extending the Lesson
Across the Curriculum
Art
Use colored pencils or pastels to color the stars in the Hertzsprung-Russell
Diagram of the main sequence, page 25. The colors should reflect the colors that are filled
in at the bottom.
Creative Writing
Research black holes, then use your imagination to describe a trip into a black hole. How
does it feel? How long does it take? What do you see? What is on the other side?
Music
Listen to "Thus Spake Zarathustra," the theme music from "2001: A Space Odyssey." Why
do you think it was selected for this movie? Another selection is "Neptune" from Holsts'
"Planets." What imagery does it convey?
Home Activities
Look at a 3-D book with special glasses, then without. Describe the differ-
ences between the two images that your special glasses make. Do these
special glasses make it possible to see more clearly and completely? Is this
similar to the way astronomers use special instruments to observe celestial
objects?
If you have access to a VCR, rent a "space movie" such as "2001: A Space Odyssey,"
"Star Wars," or others. What kinds of music were used? Was the story based on any
scientific principles?
Activity 1 Answers: 1. White, blue, orange, and red 2. The center of the flame is white, with blue at the top. Outer parts
are reddish-orange. 3. The hottest part, which is blue, is just above the center. 4. The hottest stars would be blue.
5. Cooler stars are reddish-orange.
Activity 2 Answers: 1. 1.28 seconds 2. Approximately 8 minutes 3. About 4.3 years
Student Activity Answers: The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram: Temperatures (left to right): 20,500°; 10,000°; 7,000°;
5,500°; 5,000°; 3,500°. Colors (left to right): violet, indigo, blue, white, yellow, orange, red. 1. Mass increases also.
2. Blue 3. Red 4. White
Student Activity Answers: Scrambled Eggs-tra Galactics: Note to teacher: It may be necessary to discuss the shapes
and processes of these objects before assigning this activity to students. See Concept 4, Background, page 22.
1. Black hole 2. Supernova remnant 3. Neutron star 4. Galaxy 5. Spiral arm 6. Binary star system 7. White dwarf
8. Accretion disk 9. Interstellar medium 10. Star
24
Concept 4
Certain celestial objects give off radiation other than visible light, and we
must study them in other energy ranges.
Student Activity
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
Astronomers need to study all ages and types of stars. This is what the Astro-1 mission will
do. Astro-1 telescopes will observe young stars, middle-aged stars like our Sun, and older
stars near their death.
Two astronomers, Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Russell, studied the lives of stars in the
early part of this century. Though they did not work together, both found that there is a
relationship between the brightness, or magnitude, of a star and its temperature: as the
temperature increases, the brightness increases, unless the star appears bright just
because it is close. This relationship forms a pattern, shown on the Hertzsprung-Russell
(H-R) Diagram. This pattern runs from the upper left to the lower right of the diagram. The
stars in this area are called main sequence stars.
Later, scientists discovered that there is a relationship between a star's temperature and
mass. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. Stars with more mass burn differently
and have higher temperatures than stars with less mass. This is shown on the H-R Diagram.
The diagram also reveals the relationship between star temperature and color: hotter,
more massive stars are blue, while cooler, less massive stars are red.
Step 1: Fill in the temperatures in the spaces at the bottom of the chart. Remember that
the stars in the upper left corner are the hottest. Where will the highest temperature go?
Step 2: Some of the colors are missing from the chart. Use what you have learned about
star colors (colors in the shorter frequencies, like ultraviolet, are from hotter objects) to fill in
the missing colors. Read carefully.
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
supergiant
Temperatures
5,000°, 7,000°, 3,500°,
Mass
20,500°, 5,500°, 10,000°
Magnitude
main sequence
Colors
dwarfs
red, indigo, yellow,
dwarfs
888
violet, orange, blue
Color
White
C
C
C
C
C
C
Questions
1. As magnitude increases, what happens to mass?
2. What color will the supergiant in the upper left be?
3. What color will the dwarfs in the lower right be?
4. What color will the dwarfs in the center be?
25
Concept 4
Certain celestial objects give off radiation other than visible light, and we
must study them in other energy ranges.
Student Activity
Scrambled Eggs-tra Galactics
Shown below are some of the objects that will be observed by the Astro-1 telescopes.
Astronomers have never seen black holes; this drawing just suggests what they may be
like. Unscramble the names below. Then match them with the objects or parts of objects by
writing the names on the blank next to the object.
1.
2.
3.
10.
9.
6.
7.
4.
8.
5.
Icakb ohel
sarlip rma
aibrny srta tyssme
lyaaxg
hteiw radwf
psroavneu rtnneam
narcciteo skid
tnuroen rats
rats
leitsalerrtn uidmme
26
Concept 4
Certain celestial objects give off radiation other than visible light, and we
must study them in other energy ranges.
Student Activity
Getting the Whole Picture
If we could view the Universe in only one wavelength, we would miss some very important
things. Wavelengths other than visible light are needed to see certain objects in space:
ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IF), and X-rays (X). Use colored pencils to fill in the coded blanks.
First, color the UV pieces purple. Can you see what it is? Leave W white, but color Y pieces
light yellow. Color IF blanks red. Now can you tell? Make the X pieces black. Now you're
seeing in several wavelengths. What could you have missed?
Y
W
W
UV
W
Y
W
X
W
UV
W
Y
W
W
UV
X
W
W
UV
W
W
W
Y
Y
W
Y
Y
UV
Y
W
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
UV
UV
Y
W
UV
W
UV
UV
UV W
UV
Y
UV
UV
UV
UV
W
UV
UV
UV
Y
W
Y
Y
IF
IF
Y
W
IF
Y
Y
IF
Y
W
IF
IF
Y
IF
IF
IF
W
IF
IF
IF
W
W
Y
IF
W
W
Y
IF
IF
Y
IF
IF
W
Y
Y
W
X
Y
X
X
Y
W
W
X
Y
X
X
Y
X
X
X
W
X
W
Y
X
X
W
W
X
X
Y
X
X
X
X
Y
X
Y
Y
Y
W
W
W
Y
W
W
W
UV
W
Y
UV
Y
X
UV
W
X
X
W
UV
X
Y
X
27
Seeing Through a Filter
Concept 5
Certain waves of radiation are blocked by Earth's atmosphere.
Objective
Students participate in an experiment that demonstrates how Earth's atmosphere blocks
certain wavelengths.
Background
Think of Earth's atmosphere as a pair sunglasses - a barrier that repels
some forms of radiation while allowing others through. Sunglasses allow
visible light to pass through but block certain other rays. Like sunglasses,
the atmosphere absorbs or scatters certain waves of radiation coming from
the Sun, stars, and other objects in space. Most ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and short, highly
energetic gamma rays from space do not reach Earth's surface nor do some wavelengths
in the longer infrared and microwave ranges. The atmosphere protects animal and plant
life from harmful radiation that can cause skin cancer in humans and affect plant photosyn-
thesis. At the same time, the atmosphere blocks the infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray, and
gamma-ray radiation that allow us to "see" objects in the Universe in other energy ranges.
Activity 1: Refraction
Use a jar of cloudy water and a flashlight to demonstrate refraction. The
bending of the light wave demonstrates one of the ways that the atmos-
phere affects light waves.
Materials Needed
1-qt (1- l) jar (clear glass)
small flashlight with narrow beam
water
few drops of milk
Step 1: Fill the jar with water. Add a few
drops of milk to make the water cloudy.
Step 1
Step 2
Step 2: Shine the flashlight into the water
below the surface.
Step 3: Move the flashlight up to the
water's surface.
Questions
1. What happens when the light beam shines through the water below the surface?
2. When the light beam travels from air into water, what happens?
3. If Earth's atmosphere contains particles of dust and water vapor, what do you think
happens to radiation coming into the atmosphere?
28
Activity 2: The Atmosphere and Color
To show the effect of the atmosphere on the Sun's rays, try this experiment.
Use only diluted acid. This should be done by the TEACHER ONLY, even
though the acid listed is very diluted. The aquarium may be used for
other purposes if washed thoroughly after this experiment.
Materials Needed
5-gal (20- l) rectangular
aquarium (clear glass)
1 gal (4 l) water
10 g sodium thiosulfate or
sodium hyposulfite
(photographic fix)
160 ml 0.5N solution of sulfuric
acid
flashlight
white screen
Step 1: Mix thiosulfate and water
(this amount is not critical) in the
aquarium.
Step 2: Add 160 ml of diluted
sulfuric acid and stir with glass
rod.
Step 3: Project light through
aquarium to screen.
Questions
1. At the beginning, what color is the water when the flashlight shines through it?
2. What color is the light of the flashlight when viewed directly?
3. How does the color of the water change as time goes on?
4. What causes the water to change color?
5. What is the final color of the light?
6. Why? Have you seen anything like this in nature?
More Help
This demonstration helps explain the scattering effects of Earth's atmosphere on different
wavelengths. Think of the water in the aquarium as Earth's atmosphere and the flashlight
as the Sun. The reaction of the acid on the sodium thiosulfate creates very fine particles,
and very fine particles in the atmosphere cause the sunlight to scatter. The scattering effect
first removes the violet and blue end of the spectrum (the shorter waves) and later the red
end (the longer. waves) as the particles grow larger. Short waves are scattered more than
long waves and are scattered by smaller particles than are long waves.
29
Activity 3: A Picture of a Different Color
Most high-energy radiation, such as ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma-ray
emissions, does not penetrate Earth's atmosphere. Many objects in space,
however, give off much of their energy in these ranges. Therefore, scientists
must go above the atmosphere to study these objects. Look at these
diagrams of star energies.
Amount of
Radiation
Hot Star
Amount of
Radiation
Sun
Amount of
Radiation
Cool Star
Infrared
Visible
Ultraviolet
Infrared
Visible
Ultraviolet
Infrared
Visible
Ultraviolet
Type of Radiation
Type of Radiation
Type of Radiation
Questions
1. Hot stars emit most of their radiation in what range?
2. Cool stars emit most of their radiation in what range?
3. Would any of these three stars be invisible to a traveler passing in a spaceship?
4. Would it be correct to say that Earthbound astronomers are, in a way, "color-blind"
because their instruments cannot detect all the wavelengths?
Options for Extending the Lesson
Across the Curriculum
Creative Writing
Ultraviolet rays cause suntans. If we are not careful, they can also cause
sunburns. Use your imagination to write a description of what X-rays would
do if not blocked by the atmosphere. What effect would X-rays have on plants? Animals?
Use lots of descriptive words.
Home Activities
Observe sky color differences at sunrise, noon, and sunset. How is this like
the classroom experiment?
Activity 1 Answers: 1. The beam appears to widen slightly but doesn't bend. 2. The beam bends when it hits the water.
3. Radiation entering Earth's atmosphere is absorbed, reflected, or transmitted.
Activity 2 Answers: 1. A blue-violet color 2. White 3. Goes from blue to yellow-green, to orange, and then red 4. The
size of the particles increases, and so different wavelengths of light are scattered. The larger the particle, the longer the
wavelength that is scattered. 5. No light comes through. 6. There is no light at the end because all wavelengths are
being scattered. A similar situation occurs at sunset.
HERSCHEL
Activity 3 Answers: 1. Ultraviolet 2. Infrared 3. No. All three
X
R
P
E
I
RAINBOW
UP
give off at least some of their radiation in the form of visible
TROUGHS
N
A
L
light. 4. Yes. Astronomers could be considered color-blind
A
T
F
S
V
T
Y
SPECTRUM
E
because they must look through the filters of Earth's
RITTER
A
ASTRO
A
atmosphere.
R
A
W
V
Student Activity Answers: Surfing on Math Waves:
FREQUENCY
H
I
AD
O
O
(a) 50 (b) 4 (c) 50 (d) 0.4 (e) 0.15 (f) 0.6
D
N
T
L
L
Student Activity Answers: Crosswords and Colors:
I
T
E
SC
o
P
E
BLACK
I
N
T
Student Activity Answers: Atmospheric Sunglasses:
T
N
G
1. Radio waves 2. Microwaves 3. Infrared waves 4. Visible
I
UV
0
0
light (given) 5. Ultraviolet waves 6. X-rays 7. Gamma rays
TAN
U
S
30
Concept 5
Certain waves of radiation are blocked by Earth's atmosphere.
Student Activity
Surfing on Math Waves
You have learned that waves have lengths, which is the distance between two neighboring
crests (high parts) or between neighboring troughs (low parts). They also have frequen-
cies. The frequency of a water wave, for instance, can be described as the number of
crests of a water wave passing a particular point in 1 second. The number of complete
waves passing during 1 second is the frequency (f) of that wave. Frequency is measured in
Hertz (Hz), named after Heinrich Hertz, who was one of the first to study light waves. One
complete wave passing a point each second is a frequency of 1 Hz.
Photons, the packets of energy that make up light and other forms of radiation, also have
velocity. In space, all energy waves travel at the same velocity.
The relationship between wavelength, velocity, and frequency of waves is expressed this
way:
wavelength = velocity
W = V
frequency
f
You can use different forms of the same expression to find velocity and frequency:
frequency =
velocity
f =
V
wavelength
W
and
velocity = = frequency X wavelength
V = fxw
Below is a chart with velocity, frequency, and wavelength. Use the equations given above
to figure out the missing figures. Happy surfing.
Wavelength
Frequency
Velocity
(meters)
(Hertz)
(meters per second)
(a)
3
150
(b)
2
8
0.5
(c)
25
4.0
(d)
1.6
0.5
0.3
(e)
0.4
1.5
(f)
31
Concept 5
Certain waves of radiation are blocked by Earth's atmosphere.
Student Activity
Crosswords and Colors
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
-
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Across
Down
1. The man who proved the existence of
2. The tops of waves.
infrared radiation.
3. The kind of radiation that reveals broken
6. Produced when sunlight hits raindrops.
bones.
8. The opposite of down.
4. Transparent object with triangular sides
9. The low parts of waves.
that can be used to produce a spectrum.
10. Continuous range of energy.
5. The kind of radiation that warms us.
11. The man who discovered ultraviolet rays.
7. Shape of radiation paths. Has crests and
12. One Space Shuttle program that will put
troughs.
telescopes in space.
8. The frequency above violet.
15. How often a complete wave occurs.
13. A narrow beam of radiation (X-
).
18. The ancient Greeks studied the stars B.C.
14. The color of light that can be spread out
We study the stars
.
.
into a spectrum with a prism.
20. Instrument that can be used to view distant
16. Another name for energy.
objects.
17. Unending.
21. The color of paint that absorbs all colors.
19. In terms of length, gamma ray waves are
22. Abbreviation for ultraviolet.
short; infrared waves are
.
23. What ultraviolet rays can do to your skin.
32
Concept 5
Certain waves of radiation are blocked by Earth's atmosphere.
Student Activity
Atmospheric Sunglasses
This chart will give you an idea of how Earth's atmosphere, its "sunglasses," works to filter
harmful wavelengths, such as X-rays and gamma rays, while admitting visible light. The
altitude is given on the left, and the approximate length of the wave in centimeters is given
at the top.
Write in the names of the wavelengths at the correct places. Remember that the shorter,
more energetic wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere. Visible light is shown for
you.
ED
1 km
1 cm
0.01
0.0001 cm
0.000001 0.00000001.000000000001 cm cm
1.
1000
2.
800
3.
600
4.
Visible Light
Altitude (km)
400
5.
200
6.
100
7.
50
25
12
6
3
Sea Level
33
Above Atmosphere
Concept 6
Astronomers need to place telescop above Earth's atmosphere to
observations in several.regions of the spectrum.
Objectives
Students learn what a telescope is. Students learn about Astro- instruct
Background
The study of the skies is an ancient one: the earliest farmers sowed and
reaped crops according to the phases of the Moon; sailors and explorers
steered their courses by the stars; many, like the wizards of the Middle
Ages, have tried to understand the present and foretell the future by
studying the stars.
Have you ever looked through a telescope? Simple telescopes, made of lenses, mirrors,
and a tube, have been used to examine distant objects for hundreds of years. More
recently, larger and more complex telescopes have evolved but have been Earthbound.
With the coming of the space age, astronomers have been able to place instruments above
the dust and glare of the atmosphere to study the size, shape, and structure of the stars,
galaxies, and other objects.
Activity 1: Seeing Farther
Astronomers use large telescopes to collect as much light as possible from
celestial objects. By examining that light, they can determine what elements,
such as iron or calcium, are in the object. They can also learn much about
the object's shape. Try this experiment with some simple instruments.
Note: Some telescopes can give an inverted image. Does yours?
Materials Needed
binoculars
telescope
Step 1: Go outside or look through the window at
some distant object. How big does the object look?
Step 2: Look at the same object with a pair of binocu-
lars. Now, how big does the object look?
Step 3: Look at the same object with a simple telescope. How big does it look now? For
years, telescopes like this one, which collects visible light, were the main sources of infor-
mation about the stars. Many stars and other objects give off radiation in forms other than
visible light, but the atmosphere blocks most of the higher energy waves. Astronomers
have been sending satellites with telescopes above the atmosphere for many years. Now,
they are sending Astro-1 on the Space Shuttle with four telescopes that detect ultraviolet
waves and X-rays.
34
Activity 2: The Astro-1 Telescopes
Materials Needed
illustrations of Astro-1 instruments
Look at the illustrations of the Astro-1 instruments your teacher has given you or
projected onto the wall.
The Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT) will use an instrument called a spectrograph to
study the spectra of galaxies and other objects. Astronomers can determine what elements
a particular object contains because each element creates a definite pattern in the spec-
trum. For example, hydrogen has a únique signature that always appears in certain places
on the spectrum. The Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT) will take ultraviolet pictures of
hot stars and other objects to reveal their structure and brightness. The Wisconsin Photo-
Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE) [pronounced "whoopee"] will examine the shape of
stars and the dust that floats in space by seeing how these objects polarize, or direct, light.
The Broad Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) will study X-rays from different sources in the
Universe, including quasars, the most distant objects in the Universe.
Questions
1. What two energy ranges do these instruments explore?
2. From what you know about Earth's atmosphere, why do you think it is important to take
these telescopes and other instruments into space?
Activity 3: Polarization
One of the Astro-1 telescopes, the Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter
Experiment (WUPPE), uses special instruments to study light from celestial
objects. Try this experiment to examine the direction of light waves.
Materials Needed
polarized filter or
polarized sunglasses
light source, preferably sunlight
shiny, horizontal surface, such as a mirror
Step 1: Put the sunglasses on.
Step 2: Look through the lenses at the shiny surface.
Step 3: With the sunglasses still in place, tilt your head to the right or left about 90°.
Questions
1. A horizontal surface reflects horizontal light waves. Which way did the sunglasses
block more light?
2. Polarized sunglasses are made from a material that blocks light waves coming from
certain directions but not from others. Which way do you think the blocked light waves
are moving - vertically or horizontally?
3. If photo means "light," and polar refers to "direction," what do you think a photo-
polarimeter experiment will measure?
35
Options for Extending the Lesson
Across the Curriculum
History
Research Ptolemy's concept of the solar system (Earth-centered, or geo-
centric) and Copernicus' concept of the solar system (Sun-centered, or
heliocentric) and report to the class on what you find.
Art
Look up Ptolemy's Earth-centered concept of the solar system and Copernicus' concept of
the solar system. Draw these same concepts for the class.
Literature
You may want to read E.A. Robinson's poem, "Merlin," or T.H. White's The Book of Merlin,
which is the final chapter of The Once and Future King. You also may enjoy listening to
"Camelot," which is the musical version of White's book. All of these deal with King Arthur
and the Knights of the Round Table and contain references to an early wizard - Merlin.
Archaeology
If you are interested in archaeology or early astronomy, you may want to research Stone-
henge in England. From your research, write a report, draw a picture and present an oral
report, or build a model of Stonehenge. If you would like to work in a small group, get
several classmates to work with you on this.
Home Activities
Watch for newspaper articles about the Astro-1 mission, scheduled to fly in
the spring of 1990. Bring these to class and share them. Also be sure to
watch for information about Astro-1 on TV.
Activity 2 Answers: Note to Teacher: Illustrations of Astro-1 instruments are found on page 41.
1. Ultraviolet and X-ray 2. These instruments will have to be above the scattering and absorbing effects of Earth's
atmosphere to collect ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from celestial objects.
Activity 3 Answers: 1. They block mòre light in normal wearing position. 2. The blocked light waves are those moving
from side-to-side (horizontally). Those that move through the sunglasses are moving up and down (vertically) 3. It will
measure the direction of light from an object.
Options for Extending the Lesson Across the Curriculum: Note to the Teacher: See Study Print of Stonehenge,
page 43.
Student Activity Answer: Room With A View: Note to Teacher: See Study Print of Whipple Observatory Telescope,
page 45. 3. Early rockets - 100 km; later rockets - 200 km; Space Shuttle 350 km; scientific satellites 1,000 km
Student Activity Answer: SNAC (Students Need Acronyms for Comprehension): 1. ultraviolet 2. rest in peace
3. National Football League 4. North Atlantic Treaty Organization 5. Federal Bureau of Investigation 6. radio detecting and
ranging 7. General Motors 8. Volkswagen 9. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
10. sound navigation ranging 11. Internal Revenue Service 12. University of California at Los Angeles 13. Wisconsin
Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment 14. personal computer 15. Broad Band X-Ray Telescope 16. Massachusetts
Institute of Technology 17. United Nations 18. Bavarian Motor Works 19. American Federation of Labor - Congress of
Industrial Organizations 20. Atlantic & Pacific (Tea Company) 21. intelligence quotient 22. Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics 23. General Electric 24. Students Against Drunk Driving 25. American Telephone and Telegraph 26. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration 27. light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation 28. American Football
League 29. Young Urban Professional 30. Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope
36
Concept 6
Astronomers need to place telescopes above Earth's atmosphere to
perform astronomical observations in several regions of the spectrum.
Student Activity
Room With A View
If you wanted a good view of the Moon and stars, where would you put your telescope? At
the top of a building or on your front porch? In a city or in the country? Where would you be
able to see the stars best?
Since Galileo first turned a telescope to the stars, astronomers have been trying to see
farther and more clearly. It was not until 200 years after the first telescope was invented,
however, that it occurred to astronomers to put telescopes on the tops of mountains.
There, higher in the atmosphere and above the dust and lights of the cities, the view was
better.
The first mountaintop observatory was the Lick Observatory, built in California in 1887. It
held a refractor telescope with a 36-in. (91-cm) lens. As time went on, astronomers built
bigger and bigger telescopes. Larger telescopes collect more light and enable astronomers
to see fainter and more distant objects. In 1904, a large reflector telescope with a 4.9-ft
(1.5-m) mirror was built on Mt. Wilson, and in the 1940s, an even bigger reflector telescope
with a 16.6-ft (5.08-m) mirror was built on Mt. Palomar.
After World War II, scientists began to use captured German rockets to explore up to
62 mi (100 km) above the Earth; later rockets soared up to 124 mi (200 km) to take pictures
of astronomical objects from above the atmosphere. The Space Shuttle will carry the
Astro-1 telescopes about 218 mi (352 km) above Earth. Scientific satellites can travel
621 mi (1,000 km) above Earth or even higher. For a better understanding of astronomy on
Earth and above, try these activities:
1. Research refractor telescopes. Describe these briefly and sketch one on the back of
this sheet. Be sure to show light paths and label the parts.
2. Read about reflector telescopes. Describe these briefly and sketch one on the back of
this sheet.
3. Write in the name of the following instruments next to the appropriate altitude shown on
the Atmospheric Sunglasses Chart, Concept 5, page 33: early rockets, later rockets,
Space Shuttle, scientific satellites.
37
Concept 6
Astronomers need to place telescopes above Earth's atmosphere to per-
form astronomical observations in several regions of the spectrum.
Student Activity
Who Invented It?
You have probably heard that Galileo invented the telescope. Actually, he probably did not
invent it but was the first person to use the telescope to observe planets and stars. It is
possible that the person who invented the telescope was Hans Lippershey (lip'-per-shee)
who lived in Holland about 1600. The story is that two children were in Lippershey's spec-
tacle (eyeglasses) shop, playing with the lenses. They put two lenses together and then
looked through both at the same time at a distant weather vane on top of the town church's
steeple. It was magnified. Lippershey looked through the children's invention and began
making telescopes himself. After that, many people tried to claim that they had invented the
telescope. Galileo himself wrote, "The first inventor of the telescope was a simple spec-
tacle-maker," and did not claim credit for the discovery.
Below is a drawing of what early telescopes probably looked like. Label the eyepiece (the
concave lens), the objective (the convex lens), and the tube. Look up concave and
convex to do this activity.
Concave means
Convex means
An Early Telescope
About 4 cm in diameter
Probably about
4 cm in
diameter
Probably about 1.2 m long
The lines in the telescope trace the path of the light in this refracting telescope. In a few
sentences, describe the light's journey from the Moon to the eye.
38
Concept 6
Astronomers need to place telescopes above Earth's atmosphere to perform
astronomical observations in several regions of the spectrum.
Student Activity
SNAC (Students Need Acronyms for Comprehension)
An acronym is a word or word-like group of letters made from letters of a phrase. HUT, for
example, comes from the name Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope, one of the instruments
aboard the Astro-1 mission.
Below are some other acronyms. Some are from the space program, while others are from
government, sports, business, and science.
See how many you can identify. Many can be found in the dictionary. Good Luck.
1. UV
16. MIT
2. RIP
17. UN
3. NFL
18. BMW
4. NATO
19. AFL-CIO
5. FBI
20. A & P
6. radar
21. IQ
7. GM
22. USSR
8. VW
23. GE
9. NAACP
24. SADD
10. sonar
25. AT&T
11. IRS
26. NASA
12. UCLA
27. laser
13. WUPPE
28. AFL
14. PC
29. yuppie
15. BBXRT
30. UIT
39
Your Career
in Astronomy
It was early in the morning on a cold moun-
What kind of person becomes
taintop in Chile. Twenty-nine-year-old lan
an astronomer?
Shelton was developing pictures taken
Are you curious? Do you wonder how things
through his simple, 10-in. refractor telescope.
work or what they are made of? Are you
The pictures were of the Large Magellanic
interested in where things come from and
Cloud, or LMC, the nearest galaxy to our own,
how they began? Do you work well both
just 170,000 light-years away. As he devel-
alone and in groups? Do you enjoy math?
oped the photographic plates, he suddenly
Are you willing to work at something that is
noticed something strange: a bright star near
interesting to you? Astronomers often have
the center, one that was not there 2 days
these qualities.
earlier. Shelton walked outside to look for
himself, and sure enough, there was a some-
What do astronomers do?
thing new in the sky. Shelton had become the
Many astronomers teach and do research in
first person to photograph the supernova, the
colleges and universities, like the astrono-
huge, violent explosion marking the death of a
mers who developed the Astro-1 instruments;
star. This star explosion was named Super-
some astronomers teach in high schools.
nova 1987A, the first of 1987, but also the first
Others work in observatories, museum
in 383 years near enough to be seen with the
planetariums, and government and private
naked eye.
research organizations.
Few astronomers are lucky enough to be the
How can you become an astronomer?
first to see a supernova, but all of them study
fascinating objects: clusters of millions of
Middle School
stars, mysterious black holes, tiny, dense
Middle school students should study mathe-
neutron stars, and vast, brilliant galaxies.
matics and science and work on developing
Astronomers study these using a variety of
good communication skills, which astrono-
Earthbound instruments: telescopes that
mers need in order to share information and
detect visible light, radio, infrared, and ultra-
discoveries. You can also do things outside
violet radiation. They use spectrometers to
school: build a telescope, join or start an
study the chemistry of celestial objects and
astronomy club, and visit a planetarium or
polarimeters to study their geometry. Many
observatory near you.
astronomers now make observations with
instruments aboard satellites. Some astrono-
High School
mers, like those crew members flying on
You will need to take more mathematics and
Astro-1, will even go into space themselves to
plenty of science courses such as physics,
study these distant objects in different ranges
chemistry, and Earth science. Continue your
of the spectrum. Over the next 10 years,
studies in the language arts as well. Com-
NASA will send several new telescopes, such
puter courses at both the middle school and
as the Hubble Space Telescope, the Gamma-
high school levels are very helpful.
Ray Observatory, the Advanced X-Ray Astro-
physics Facility, and the Space Infrared
College
Telescope Facility into orbit. These huge
You would work for a bachelor's degree in
instruments will open incredible new vistas for
astronomy, mathematics, or physics and
astronomers.
probably go to graduate school.
40
WISCONSIN ULTRAVIOLET
PHOTO-POLARIMETER
BROAD BAND X-RAY
TELESCOPE (BBXRT)
HOPKINS ULTRAVIOLET
TELESCOPE (HUT)
ULTRAVIOLET IMAGING
TELESCOPE (UIT)
100
41 Astro-1
Astro-1 Facts
To see ultraviolet radiation and X-rays from astronomical objects, telescopes must be placed above
the lower atmosphere, which absorbs most types of radiation before they reach telescopes on
Earth.
Astro-1 is the first Shuttle mission dedicated completely to astrophysics, the branch of astronomy
that investigates the physical characteristics of celestial objects, such as their size, mass, tempera-
ture, and chemistry. Three ultraviolet telescopes and one X-ray telescope will observe a variety of
celestial objects. The observations will emphasize hot and energetic sources, some of the most
dynamic objects in the Universe.
The Astro-1 Instruments
Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT)
The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD; Principal Investigator: Arthur F. Davidsen
The telescope probes the most energetic part of the ultraviolet spectrum, an almost unexplored
region that holds secrets about the chemistry and structure of stars and galaxies. Ultraviolet radia-
tion focused on a mirror is reflected to a spectrometer that records the evidence of hydrogen,
helium, carbon, and many other elements.
Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT)
Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD; Principal Investigator: Theodore P. Stecher
UIT takes the first extensive set of detailed ultraviolet photographs of the Universe, most of which
has never been imaged in the ultraviolet. Light enters the telescope and is reflected by a primary
mirror to a secondary mirror to a camera, which records images on film.
Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE)
The University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI; Principal Investigator: Arthur D. Code
The telescope observes the polarization (direction), photometry (brightness), and spectra of ultra-
violet light from celestial objects. Light entering the telescope is focused by mirrors through polariz-
ers and then onto a spectrometer and detectors that record data to give scientists clues about the
shape and size of objects, the strength of magnetic fields, and the nature of gas and dust between
the stars.
Broad Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT)
Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD; Principal Investigator: Peter J. Serlemitsos
BBXRT explores violent events such as exploding stars or matter and light being consumed by a
black hole. Black holes may exist in the centers of galaxies. Two telescope mirrors focus X-rays
onto detectors that record evidence of iron, oxygen, silicon, and other heavy elements found in the
objects.
On-Orbit Crew
Commander:
Vance D. Brand
Mission Specialists:
John M. (Mike) Lounge
Pilot:
Guy S. Gardner
Jeffrey A. Hoffman
Robert A.R. Parker
Payload Specialists:
Samuel T. Durrance
Ronald A. Parise
Mission Parameters
Launch Date:
April 1990
Altitude:
190 n.mi. (354 km)
Mission Duration: 10 days
Payload Weight: 30,948 lb (14,038 kg)
42
Photo Credit: Dr. E.C. Krupp, Griffith Observatory
43
Stonehenge
Stonehenge
Astronomy is an ancient science practiced since the earliest recorded times. Evidence of
these studies can be found in many parts of the world. Stonehenge, in Wiltshire, England,
may have been an observatory or calendar built by early astronomers during three periods
ranging from about 2500 B.C. to about 1700 B.C.
The monument consists of a complicated arrangement of stones, trenches, and holes
arranged in concentric circles. Some of the stones are aligned with the directions of the
Sun during its rising and setting at the vernal (spring) and autumnal (fall) equinoxes.
44
The Whipple Observatory
Photo Credit: Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
45
The Whipple Observatory
Over thousands of years, astronomers have progressed from searching the skies with the
naked eye to using giant telescopes on mountaintops. They have transcended the atmos-
phere with instruments in balloons, rockets, satellites, and the Space Shuttle.
Whether on Earth or in space, all these scientists use instruments to collect light from
celestial objects. By analyzing this light, they learn more about the size, shape, and chemi-
cal makeup of the targets being observed.
The photograph shown here is of an optical telescope at the Whipple Observatory, located
on Mt. Hopkins, near Tucson, Arizona. Whipple Observatory is named after planetary
expert Fred Lawrence Whipple and is part of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in
Cambridge, Massachussetts. Astronomers at Whipple Observatory use a variety of instru-
ments to research stars, planets, and objects beyond the Milky Way Galaxy. In addition,
they study the Sun and monitor the health of Earth and its atmosphere.
46
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
1 km
1 cm
1⁻² cm 10⁻⁴ cm
10⁻⁶ cm
10⁻⁹ cm
10⁻¹³ cm
!
Visible
Radio
Microwave
Gamma ray
Ultraviolet
00
Infrared
X-ray
47
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
For hundreds of years, scientists believed that light energy was made up of tiny particles
which they called "corpuscles." In the 1600s, researchers observed that light energy also
had many characteristics of waves. Modern scientists know that all energy is both particles,
which they call photons, and waves.
Photons travel in electromagnetic waves. These waves travel at different frequencies,
but all travel at the speed of light. The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of wave
frequencies from low frequencies (below visible light) to high frequencies (above visible
light).
The radio wave category includes radio and television waves. These low-energy waves
bounce off many materials. AM waves bounce off the ionosphere and are reflected back to
Earth. FM and television waves bounce off satellites for long-distance transmission.
Microwaves pass through some materials but are absorbed by others. In a microwave
oven, the energy passes through the glass and is absorbed by the moisture in the food.
The food cooks, but the glass container is not affected.
Like other wavelengths, infrared or heat waves are more readily absorbed by some
materials than by others. Dark materials absorb infrared waves while light materials reflect
them. The Sun emits infrared waves, heating the Earth and making plant and animal life
possible.
Visible light waves are the very smallest part of the spectrum and are the only frequencies
visible to the human eye. Colors are different frequencies within this category, ranging from
the red wavelengths, which are just above the invisible infrared, to violet. Most of the Sun's
energy is emitted as visible light.
The Sun also emits many ultraviolet waves. High-frequency ultraviolet wavelengths from
the Sun cause sunburn.
X-rays can penetrate muscle and tissue but are blocked by bone, making medical and
dental X-ray photographs possible.
Gamma-ray waves, the highest frequency waves, are more powerful than X-rays and are
used to kill cancerous cells.
The atmosphere protects Earth from dangerous ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma-ray
radiation.
48
Why They Became Astronomers
Jeff Hoffman
I've been interested in astronomy as long as I can remember. When I
was growing up in New York City, I went to the planetarium and learned
all I could about the stars and planets. There was something intriguing
about researching things too far away to touch. You could only use
powerful telescopes to look at the light coming from them. We dreamed
that we might someday travel into space, at least to the moon and plan-
ets, but that was the 1950s, and satellites hadn't been launched into space, much less
people. As I went through high school and college, I studied a lot of mathematics and
science, especially physics. Before becoming an astronaut, my work in astronomy involved
putting telescopes into space to look at X-rays, gamma rays, and other radiation that
doesn't penetrate the atmosphere. We put these telescopes up in high-flying balloons,
rockets, and satellites, which intrigued me.
It was exciting because we were studying radiation that human beings had never seen be-
fore. Each new telescope put into space was almost guaranteed to make exciting new dis-
coveries. Eventually, scientists were able to work on the Space Shuttle, and I was lucky
enough to be selected to become an astronaut. I made one spaceflight in 1985, and I'm
looking forward to flying on Astro-1.
Ron Parise
I have always been interested in spaceflight and astronomy. As a child, I
followed the early space program closely; I read books on stars and
planets. Astronomy was fascinating to me because of the questions it
brought to mind: "Does the Universe go on forever?" "If it doesn't go for-
ever, what's on the other side of it?"
As a teenager, I was involved with an amateur astronomy group and made astronomical
observations myself. When you make observations, you find that the seemingly unchang-
ing, fixed objects in the sky are actually quite dynamic: their intensities change, their spec-
tra change, their positions change - it's not a static Universe at all.
Another interesting thing is that astronomy is not an experimental science like physics,
chemistry, or biology, in which you can perform an experiment to prove a theory. You can't
do that because the astronomical objects are at such vast distances. We have to be con-
tent with observing the electromagnetic radiation that they emit.
That brings another challenge into the subject - trying to develop new ways of observing
things. On the ground, if you want to know what's on the other side of a wall, you go and
look. In astronomy, you may come up against dust or gas floating around the stars that
prevents you from seeing something. You have to develop ways to see around or through
that barrier. It is a challenge to develop techniques that we can use to put the puzzle
together.
49
"How did the Universe actually get here in the first place?" "What was there before it?"
"How do all of these stars, planets, and galaxies work?" These questions brought me into
astronomy, and the Space Shuttle gives me the opportunity to go into space and look at
wavelengths that have rarely been observed.
Sam Durrance
I don't know for certain why I became an astronomer. I was always
curious about how things work, but I was not always interested in astron-
omy. In high school and shortly after, I preferred things like building
sports racing cars.
I was always interested in the space program, however; and on July 20, 1969, when men
landed on the moon, I decided that I wanted to be part of that excitement. I went to college
and earned my bachelor's and master's degrees in physics. I went to graduate school to
study astronomy and became involved in a number of space projects, such as launching a
rocket-borne telescope to look at Venus and using the Pioneer Venus-orbiting spacecraft to
study that planet. After that, I went to The Johns Hopkins University, where I work today, to
develop space astronomy hardware.
My primary interest in astronomy is studying the formation of planets in our own solar
system, and the formation of planets around other stars. One of Astro's objectives is to
study planets in our solar system, so I feel fortunate to be a part of Astro-1.
I have helped develop one of the Astro-1 telescopes and get it ready for flight, and now I
look forward to doing the observations in space.
Robert Parker
I don't remember ever making a conscious decision to become an as-
tronomer. Early influences may have been related to a simple book on
the myths associated with constellations that I received in the second or
third grade and a much more involved book a couple of years later. In
any case, by junior high school I had become fascinated by the books of
Sir James Jeans who at that time was probably similar to Carl Sagan as a popularizer of
astronomy.
The fact that my father was a physicist (astronomy is, after all, just a branch of physics)
was also clearly a background influence; my twin brother is a nuclear physicist.
50
Resources
Audiovisual Materials and Kits
"Stellar 23"
Adventures in Science: Light
Hubbard Scientific
Activity cards and supplies
1946 Raymond Drive
Educational Insights
North Brook, IL 60062
Dominguez Hills, CA 90220
Phone: 1-800-323-8368
Astronomy Overhead Transparencies
Hubbard Scientific
Organizations
1946 Raymond Drive
American Astronomical Society
North Brook, IL 60062 Phone: 1-800-323-8368
2000 Florida Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20009
Astronomy Study Prints
Phone: 202-328-2010
Hubbard Scientific
1946 Raymond Drive
Aerospace Educational Development Program
North Brook, IL 60062 Phone: 1-800-323-8368
6991 South Madison Way
Littleton, CO 80122
Glow-in-the-Dark Celestial Chart. #298505
Phone: 303-694-6836
The Nature Company
P.O. Box 2310
American Astronautical Society
Berkeley, CA 94702
6212 Old Keene Mill Court
Springfield, VA 22152
Our Universe Spacekit
Phone: 703-866-0020
National Geographic Society, 1980
Accompanies Our Universe text.
Astronomical Society of the Pacific
390 Ashton Avenue
"Seven Days in Space." Video. Available with
San Francisco, CA 94112
Teacher's Guide, audio supplement (crew inter-
Phone: 415-337-1100
views), computer software.
Halcyon Films and Video
The Planetary Society
110 Beach Road
65 North Catalina Avenue
Kings Point, NY 11024
Pasadena, CA 91106
Phone: 1-800-426-0582
Phone: 818-793-5100
3-D Star Maps. Book and two sets of 3-D glasses
Planetariums and Observatories
#300582
Griffith Observatory
The Nature Company
2800 East Observatory Road
P.O. Box 2310
Los Angeles, CA 90027
Berkeley, CA 94702
Phone: 213-664-1181
Star Chart
Hansen Planetarium
Hubbard Scientific
15 S. State Street
1946 Raymond Drive
Salt Lake City, UT 84111
North Brook, IL 60062
Phone: 801-538-2098
Phone: 1-800-323-8368
Catalog and orders: 1-800-321-2369
Star Finder/Zodiac Dial
Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
Hubbard Scientific
60 Garden Street
1946 Raymond Drive
Cambridge, MA 02138
North Brook, IL 60062
Phone: 617-495-7000
Phone: 1-800-323-8368
National Optical Astronomy Observatories
Games
P.O. Box 26732
"Sky Challenger"
Tucson, AZ 85726-6732
Hubbard Scientific
Phone: 602-325-9204
1946 Raymond Drive
North Brook, IL 60062
Phone: 1-800-323-8368
51
Publications
Books
Periodicals
Apfel, Necia H. Astronomy Projects for Young
Air and Space Magazine
Scientists. New York: Arco Publishing, Inc., 1984.
Smithsonian Institution
P.O. Box 51244
Baker, David. Believe It Or Not - Space Facts.
Boulder, CO 80321-1244
Vero Beach, FL: Rourke Enterprises, 1988.
Phone: 303-449-9609
Bova, Ben. Starflight and Other Improbabilities.
Astronomy Magazine and Astronomy Educator
Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1973.
Kalmbach Publishing
21027 Crossroads Circle
Chaple, Glenn F., Jr. Exploring With A Telescope.
P.O. Box 1612
New York: Venture Books, 1988.
Waukesha, WI 53187
Phone: 1-800-446-5489
Chartrand, Mark R. Skyguide: A Field Guide for
Amateur Astronomers.
Odyssey: Space Exploration and Astronomy for
Racine, WI: Golden Press, 1982.
Young People
Astro Media Division
Gallant, Roy A. The Macmillan Book of
Kalmbach Publishing
Astronomy.
21027 Crossroads Circle
New York: Macmillan, 1986.
P.O. Box 1612
Waukesha, WI 53187
Jespersen, James, and Jane Fitz-Randolph. From
Phone: 1-800-446-5489
Quarks to Quasars.
New York: Atheneum Press, 1987.
Sky and Telescope
Sky Publishing Corporation
Mitton, Jacqueline, and Simon Mitton. Discovering
49 Bay State Road
Astronomy.
Cambridge, MA 02138
London: Stonehenge Press, 1982.
Phone: 617-864-7360
Byron Preiss, Ed. The Universe.
New York: Bantam Books, 1987.
Provenzo, Eugene F., Jr., and Asterie Baker
Provenzo. Rediscovering Astronomy.
La Jolla, CA: Oak Tree Publications, Inc., 1980.
Rossie, John P. Handbook for Aerospace
Education.
Littleton, CO: Aerospace Educational
Development Program, 1988.
Taylor, Ron. The Invisible World.
New York: Facts on File Publications, 1985.
Zim, Herbert S. Waves.
New York: Morrow, 1967.
52
NASA Educational Resources
NASA Spacelink: An Electronic Information
Mr. William D. Nixon
System
Educational Technology Branch
Educational Affairs Division
NASA Spacelink is an information access system
Code XE
that allows individuals to log on and receive news
NASA Headquarters
about current NASA programs and activities and
Washington, DC 20546
other space-related information, including histor-
Phone: 202-453-8388
ical and astronaut data, lesson plans and class-
room activities, and even entire publications.
Although primarily intended as a resource for
Central Operation of Resources for Educators
teachers, anyone with a personal computer and
(CORE)
modem can access the network.
CORE is a centralized mail-order audiovisual
Use the instructions that come with your modem
library for educators; no printed materials are
and communications software when calling NASA
available. Submit a written request on your school
Spacelink. The computer access number is
letterhead for a catalogue and order forms.
205-895-0028. The data word format is 8 bits, no
Orders are processed for a small fee that includes
parity, and 1 stop bit. Your computer may send
the cost of the media. For more information,
carriage returns or line feeds, but not both. To log
contact:
on as a first-time caller, enter the Username
NEWUSER and the Password NEWUSER. The
NASA CORE
service is free, but you may have to pay long-
Lorain County Joint Vocational School
distance phone charges. For more information,
15181 Route 58 South
contact:
Oberlin, OH 44074
Phone: 216-774-1051, Ext. 293 or 294
Spacelink Administrator
NASA Marshall Space Flight Center
Mail Code CA20
Teacher Resource Center Network
MSFC, AL 35812
Phone: 205-544-6527
To make information available to the educational
community, the Educational Affairs Division has
created the NASA Teacher Resource Center
NASA Educational Satellite Videoconferences
Network. Teacher Resource Centers (TRCs)
contain a wealth of information for educators:
During the school year, a series of educational
publications, reference books, slides, audio
programs is delivered by satellite to teachers
cassettes, videocassettes, telelecture programs,
across the country. The content of each video
computer programs, lesson plans and activities,
conference varies, but all cover aeronautics or
and lists of publications available from government
space science topics of interest to the educational
and nongovernment sources.
community. The broadcasts are interactive; a
number is flashed across the bottom of the screen,
Because each NASA field center has its own
and viewers can call collect to ask questions or
areas of expertise, no two TRCs are exactly alike.
take part in a discussion. For further information,
Phone calls are welcome if you are unable to visit
contact:
the TRC that serves your geographic area. The
chart on the next page delineates the geographic
Videoconference Coordinator
regions and provides addresses.
NASA Aerospace Education Services Program
300 North Cordell
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK 74078-0422
Phone: 405-744-7015
53
For more information about Elementary
and Secondary Programs
If you live in:
Center Education Programs
Teacher Resource Center
Officer
Alaska
Mr. Garth A. Hull
NASA Ames Research Center
Arizona
Chief, Educational Programs
Attn: Teacher Resource Center
California
Branch
Mail Stop T025
Hawaii
Mail Stop T025
Moffett Field, CA 94035
Idaho
NASA Ames Research Center
Phone: 415-694-3574
Montana
Moffett Field, CA 94035
Nevada
Phone: 415-694-5543
Oregon
Utah
Washington
Wyoming
Connecticut
Mr. Elva Bailey
NASA Goddard Space Flight
Delaware
Chief, Educational Programs
Center
District of Columbia
Public Affairs Office (130)
Attn: Teacher Resource
Maine
NASA Goddard Space Flight
Laboratory
Maryland
Center
Mail Code 130.3
Massachusetts
Greenbelt, MD 20771
Greenbelt, MD 20771
New Hampshire
Phone: 301-286-7207
Phone: 301-286-8570
New Jersey
New York
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Vermont
Colorado
Mr. James D. Poindexter
NASA Johnson Space Center
Kansas
Educational Specialist
Attn: Teacher Resource Room
Nebraska
Public Affairs Office (AP4)
Mail Code AP-4
New Mexico
NASA Johnson Space Center
Houston, TX 77058
North Dakota
Houston, TX 77058
Phone: 713-483-8696
Oklahoma
Phone: 713-483-8624
South Dakota
Texas
Florida
Mr. Raymond R. Corey
NASA Kennedy Space Center
Georgia
Chief, Education and Awareness
Attn: Educators Resources
Puerto Rico
Branch
Laboratory
Virgin Islands
Mail Code PA-EAB
Mail Code ERL
NASA Kennedy Space Center
Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899
Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899
Phone: 407-867-4090
Phone: 407-867-4444
54
Kentucky
Mr. Roger Hathaway
NASA Langley Research Center
North Carolina
Education Specialist
Attn: Teacher Resource Center
South Carolina
Mail Stop 154
Mail Stop 146
Virginia
NASA Langley Research Center
Hampton, VA 23665-5225
West Virginia
Hampton, VA 23665-5225
Phone: 804-864-3293
Phone: 804-864-3312
Illinois
Dr. Lynn Bondurant
NASA Lewis Research Center
Indiana
Chief, Educational Services Office
Attn: Teacher Resource Center
Michigan
Mail Stop 7-4
Mail Stop 8-1
Minnesota
NASA Lewis Research Center
21100 Brookpark Road
Ohio
21100 Brookpark Road
Cleveland, OH 44135
Wisconsin
Cleveland, OH 44135
Phone: 216-433-2016 or 2017
Phone: 216-433-5583
Alabama
Mr. Jeffrey Ehmen
Alabama Space and
Arkansas
Education Officer
Rocket Center
lowa
Public Affairs Office (CA20)
Attn: NASA Teacher Resource
Louisiana
NASA Marshall Space
Center
Missouri
Flight Center
Huntsville, AL 35807
Tennessee
MSFC, AL 35812
Phone: 205-544-5812
Phone: 205-544-6531
Mississippi
Education Officer
NASA John C. Stennis
Public Affairs Office
Space Center
NASA John C. Stennis
Attn: Teacher Resource Center
Space Center
Building 1200
Stennis Space Center, MS 39529
Stennis Space Center, MS 39529
Phone: 601-688-3341
Phone: 601-688-3338
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Mr. Philipp D. Neuhauser
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
serves inquiries related to space
Manager, Education
Attn: Teacher Resource Center
and planetary exploration and
Mail Code 180-205
JPL Educational Outreach
other JPL activities.
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Mail Stop CS-530
4800 Oak Grove Drive
Pasadena, CA 91109
Pasadena, CA 91109
Phone: 818-354-6916
Phone: 818-354-8592
55
Where to Obtain Materials
Concept 1
Concept 3
prism or diffraction grating:
color filters:
FSC Educational
Colored plastic wrap or cellophane or
905 Hickory Lane
color filters from local camera shop
P.O. Box 8101
Mansfield, OH 44905
Optical kits containing color filters may
Phone: 1-800-225-FREY
be obtained from scientific suppliers
listed above.
Sargent-Welch
7400 N. Linder Avenue
Concept 5
P.O. Box 1026
dilute sulfuric acid:
Skokie, IL 60077-1026
Phone: 1-800-SARGENT
Sargent-Welch
7400 N. Linder Avenue
Concept 2
P.O. Box 1026
blueprint paper:
Skokie, IL 60077-1026
1-800-SARGENT
local print shop
sodium thiosulfate or sodium hyposulfite:
local camera shop or scientific supply
listed above
56
Glossary
accretion disk - a rapidly spinning disk of matter
gamma rays - shortest, most energetic form of
that has been drawn from a primary star in a close
electromagnetic radiation.
binary star system. The matter does not fall
directly onto the compact companion, which may
galaxy collections of millions of stars mixed with
be a neutron star, white dwarf, or black hole, but
gas and dust. Galaxies have three basic forms:
swirls down onto the smaller body in the form of a
spiral, elliptical, and irregular.
disk. Gradually the matter in the disk heats up and
spirals onto the smaller body emitting large quanti-
Hertz (Hz) - a measure of frequency equalling one
ties of X-ray and ultraviolet radiation.
cycle per second.
binary star system - two bodies revolving around
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram (H-R Diagram) - a
a common center of gravity. Usually consists of a
diagram showing the relationship between the
primary star and a compact companion, such as a
temperature, magnitude, mass, and color of stars.
white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.
Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT) - a tele-
black hole - a point in space where scientists
scope and spectroscope developed at The Johns
believe that gravitational forces are so intense that
Hopkins University. Studies the ultraviolet spectra
neither matter nor light escapes. Possibly the
of faint astronomical objects. HUT, along with two
result of the collapse of a massive star.
other ultraviolet instruments and one X-ray instru-
ment, will fly on the Astro-1 mission.
Broad Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) - an
X-ray telescope developed at Goddard Space
infra prefix from the Latin meaning "below,"
Flight Center. Uses mirrors and advanced solid-
especially as in a scale or series.
state detectors as spectrometers to examine the
chemistry, structure, and dynamics of a source.
infrared radiation - radiation just beyond the red
BBXRT will fly on the Astro-1 mission scheduled
end of the visible portion of the electromagnetic
for spring of 1990.
spectrum. Most infrared radiation is blocked by the
atmosphere, but enough solar infrared penetrates
concave - curving inward.
to heat Earth's surface. Infrared radiation is used
to make maps of Earth's surface.
continuous spectrum - a spectrum of radiation in
which there are no lines of emission or absorption.
interstellar medium - matter existing between the
Emissions from hot, dense matter will produce a
stars, consisting mainly of hydrogen and flecks of
continuous spectrum.
dust. Helium may also be a major component.
convex - bulging outward.
light-year - the distance that light or any form of
electromagnetic radiation can travel in 1 year,
crest - the highest point, e.g., the highest point of
approximately 5.9 X 10¹² mi (9.5 X 10¹² km).
a wave.
magnitude the brightness of stars and other
diffraction grating - a plate etched or ruled with a
celestial objects. The greater the brightness, the
large number of grooves. Acts to disperse light
lower the magnitude.
into different wavelengths, thus producing a visible
spectrum.
main sequence stars - the band on the
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram where most stars
electromagnetic spectrum - the full range of
are found. It runs from the hot, blue stars in the
electromagnetic radiation from the longest to the
upper left to the cool, red stars on the lower right.
shortest wavelengths. Usually divided into seven
sections: radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultra-
mass the amount of matter in an object.
violet, X-ray, and gamma-ray radiation.
microwave radiation - radiation less energetic
frequency the number of wave crests or troughs
than infrared and more energetic than radio
passing a set point in a unit of time.
waves. Used for radar and to cook food.
57
neutron star - a star that has undergone gravita-
supernova remnant - the expanding shell of gas
tional collapse, forming the tiniest, densest object
and matter blown off in a supernova. Frequently
known. A neutron star has a mass comparable to
are strong sources of X-ray and ultraviolet emis-
the Sun but is collapsed into an object about
sions.
12.4 mi (20 km) in diameter, resulting in matter so
dense that a teaspoonful could weigh a billion
ultra - prefix meaning "beyond."
tons.
Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT) - a combi-
photon - a packet of electromagnetic radiation.
nation telescope and camera developed at
Goddard Space Flight Center. Takes ultraviolet
prism - a transparent object with five sides and
pictures of celestial objects. Will fly on the Astro-1
triangular ends that can be used to break visible
mission in the spring of 1990.
light into its component colors.
ultraviolet radiation - the energy range just
radiation - a flow of energy, usually defined as
beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum. Most
photons, or packets of energy, traveling in waves.
ultraviolet radiation is blocked by Earth's atmos-
phere, but some solar ultraviolet penetrates and
radio waves - the longest and least energetic
aids in plant photosynthesis. Ultraviolet radiation
form of energy on the electromagnetic spectrum.
has both positive and negative effects on humans:
some ultraviolet helps produce vitamin D; too
reflector telescope - a telescope that collects and
much can burn skin.
focuses light with a mirror. Also called a reflecting
telescope.
white dwarfs - faint stars that have undergone
gravitational collapse in their final stages of
refractor telescope - a telescope that collects
evolution. White dwarfs, which emit most of their
and focuses light by means of a lens. Also called a
radiation in the ultraviolet, are sometimes found as
refracting telescope.
companions to larger stars in binary star systems.
scientific notation - a way to write very large or
white light - radiation in the electromagnetic
very small numbers. Substitutes powers of 10 for
spectrum that is visible to human beings.
strings of zeros. For example, 561,000,000,000 =
5.61 X 10¹¹ and 0.0000000079 = 7.9 X 10⁻⁹.
Wisconsin Photo-Polarimeter Experiment
(WUPPE) - an ultraviolet instrument developed at
spectra - plural form of spectrum.
the University of Wisconsin. Measures the polari-
zation and intensity of ultraviolet radiation from
spectrum - the range of electromagnetic energy
celestial objects and the interstellar medium. Will
emitted or absorbed by a substance.
fly on the Astro-1 mission.
spiral arms - the parts of a spiral galaxy where
X-rays - energetic form of radiation between
new stars are most likely to be formed. The arms
ultraviolet radiation and gamma rays. Because
are concentrated areas of gas and dust.
they are energetic enough to penetrate muscle
and tissue but not bone, X-rays are used to
star - a celestial object that generates energy by
examine bones and teeth.
means of nuclear fusion reactions.
supernova - the explosion of a giant star; its last
stage of evolution.
58
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1990-256-421/20018
NASA
...
...
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WUPPE
BBXRT
HUT
UIT
UV/X- RAYAstro-1 ASTRONOMY
Astro-1 Teacher's Guide: Seeing in a New Light
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Science : 2-6-76
Von Braun Seeks to Stir Up
Sagging Space Interest
Wernher von Braun, master rocket
builder for America's space program,
has emerged from the low profile he
maintained after quitting the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
in 1972 and now, at the age of 64, is
trying to get off the ground with his lat-
est vehicle, the National Space Institute
(NSI).
In two recent press conferences von
Braun said that his outfit Is different
from existing space organizations,
which spend all their time talking to
themselves. The purposes of the NSI
are twofold: one is to start a grass-roots
movement to get the American public
space-minded again. The other Is to
acquaint private industry with the bene-
fits to be gained from utilizing govern-
ment space-related research and de-
velopment.
Von Braun feels that interest in
space has lagged among a fickle public
just at the point where the real returns
for the investments of the 1960's should
be rolling in. He likens the country to a
farmer who has carefully sown and
tended his orchard and who, now that
the fruit is ripening, says he can't afford
to hire plckers.
Von Braun believes all the earth's
problems can be tackled with the aid of
space technology-from new manufac-
turing activities made possible in zero
gravity, to satellite communications
and earth resources monitoring, to the
construction of planetary colonies and
orbiting habitats. "Space takes the lid
off the pressure cooker called earth,"
says he.
The NSI has a small staff quartered
In Arlington, Virginia, an estimated an-
nual budget of $300,000. and a starry
board of directors Including broad-
caster, author, and all-around enthusi-
ast Hugh Downs, now cast as NSI vice
president; Boy Scout executive Alden
G. Barber; Fulton J. Sheen; Barry Gold-
water; Jacques Cousteau; Shirley Tem-
ple Black; Issac Asimov; James Van
Allen; and Bob Hope.-C.H.
use
one
in
a
million, Williams pointed out, in deciding what chance they would accept
of a rocket landing in a populated area. Why not use that?
Gilruth thought that was unrealistic. "You ought to say what you
honestly want," he reasoned. "In the long run, that's a better way than
to try to kid yourself. It's like setting your clock up when you know
you're going to be late." They compromised. The probability of getting
the crew back safely was set at three nines (.999), or 999 times in a
thousand. The probability of completing the assigned mission was set at
two nines, 99 times in a hundred.
And that, Johnson recalled, is how it happened, in a ten-minute talk.
"We wrote those numbers down, and they had a most profound effect on
the cost of the program. If you took one decimal point off of that thing,
in theory you could probably cut the program cost in half. If we'd added
one more, there's no way in the world we could ever have done it
-there's not enough money in the world to do it.
But having set the requirements for the spacecraft's reliability in
getting to the moon and back did not help to answer the deeper question:
How the hell were they actually going to do it?
*
The joke that made the rounds of NASA was that the Saturn V had a reliability rating of .9999.
In the story, a group from headquarters goes down to Marshall and asks Wernher von Braun how
reliable the Saturn is going to be. Von Braun turns to four of his lieutenants and asks, "Is there any
reason why it won't work?" to which they answer: "Nein." "Nein." "Nein." "Nein." Von Braun
then says to the men from headquarters, "Gentlemen, I have a reliability of four nines."
From the Book
Apollo the Race to the Moon.
pg. 102
50 APOLLO
"Those days were out of the Dark Ages" 51
went quite right. The preparation and launching of spacecraft at the dawn
on, the larger rockets were launched out over the ocean from Cape
of the space age turned out to be a laborious business, and the participants
Canaveral. The von Braun team itself was moved to Huntsville, Ala-
were still amateurs sitting at the bottom of the learning curve. "We were
bama, where the Germans used the facilities of the Redstone Arsenal.
green as thumbs," Merritt Preston used to say.
In contrast to the uneasy relationship between the engineers at
Langley and the local Virginians, the Germans and the Alabamians got
along fine from the beginning. The Germans were delighted to be out of
the arid Southwest and in a wooded, hilly area that reminded many of
1
them of the German countryside. The Alabamians were intrigued by
these foreigners and entertained by their eccentricities. The assimilation
Two months after the flight of Big Joe, on November 2, 1959, President
was extraordinarily fast. By 1952, only two years after the Germans had
Eisenhower signed an executive order transferring Wernher von Braun's
arrived in Huntsville, former Luftwaffe sergeant Walter Wiesman was
VonBraun
rocket engineers at the Army Ballistic Missile Agency in Huntsville to
president of the Huntsville Junior Chamber of Commerce, elected by a
NASA. It was the indispensable step for making NASA legitimate,
membership that was 70 percent World War II veterans ("So am I!"
giving that young and uncertain agency an infusion of talent it could have
Wiesman pointed out). As time went on, Huntsville became intensely
proud of its Germans, and especially of its most famous German of all,
history
gotten nowhere else.
The division of responsibility was clean: The Space Task Group had
Wernher
von
Braun.
jurisdiction over the spacecraft while the people at Marshall had juris-
diction over the launch vehicle.* The development of the working
Von Braun was the only non-astronaut in the space program who became
relationship took time, and there would always be rivalry. But with the
a household name. In Congress, his prestige was enormous. Movie-star
addition of the Germans, it became possible to go to the moon.
handsome, with an expansive smile and European charm to which he
added a touch of Alabama folksiness, he could dominate a congressional
By 1959, von Braun's rocket team had been in the United States for
hearing as easily as he dominated the media. Other senior people in
thirteen years following their surrender to the U.S. Army at the end of
NASA envied him and in some cases resented him ("That damned
World War II. At first they had been sent to White Sands in New Mexico,
Nazi," one was known to mutter when he had had several drinks),
where they were put to work showing the Americans how the V-2
intimating that von Braun spent too much time worrying about his public
worked. Then in 1950 the Army decided that an inland site was too
image and that the real work at Marshall was done by others. What was
confining, a decision prompted in part by an unfortunate occasion when
hard for some of his NASA peers to swallow was that von Braun was a
the German team put a V-2 into a cemetery south of Juarez. From then
natural. He was exceptionally good at being a public person, and none of
Here, in one place, are the genealogies and official nomenclature of the NASA centers
the other engineers of Apollo could compete.
principally involved in the space program: (1) For the spacecraft: The manned space program began
With the fame came a price. In some circles, von Braun was assumed
at Langley Research Center, where the Space Task Group was an organizationally independent
entity. In November 1961, the Space Task Group became the Manned Spacecraft Center (M.S.C.)
to be a Nazi who had escaped judgment only because of his value to the
located at Houston, Texas. In 1973, M.S.C. was renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
United States. No such charges were substantiated. On the contrary, his
(Johnson, or J.S.C.). (2) For the launch vehicle: In the 1950s, von Braun's group was part of the
Army Ballistic Missile Agency located at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama. In 1959, when
history reveals a man who from his teens had a passion for rockets and
von Braun joined NASA, it became the nucleus of the newly named George C. Marshall Space Flight
space travel, as oblivious to politics in the 1930s as America's Apollo
Center (Marshall, or M.S.F.C.). (3) For launch operations: The area around Cape Canaveral served
as a launch area for all of the armed forces during the 1950s. The initial launch group from Huntsville
engineers were oblivious to politics during the 1960s. During the height
was called the Missile Firing Laboratory. In 1959, when Redstone Arsenal became Marshall, the
of the war, von Braun was briefly jailed by the Gestapo for insufficient
Missile Firing Laboratory became the Launch Operations Directorate, still administratively under
ardor in making weapons. But even among those who bore him no ill
von Braun. In 1962, the Launch Operations Directorate became an independent center, the Launch
Operations Center. It was renamed the John F. Kennedy Space Center (Kennedy, or K.S.C.) at the
will, jokes were inevitable, given the contrast between von Braun's
end of 1963, immediately after Kennedy's assassination.
activities during the war and his transformation into an American hero.
Pg52
When a movie about von Braun was entitled I Aim at the Stars, the
underground version of the title quickly became I Aim at the Stars but
The working end of the rocket team at Redstone Arsenal was divided into
pg53
Sometimes I Hit London.*
eight laboratories, and a German headed each of them. Another German,
Von Braun was not a creative genius-to that extent, the public image
Kurt Debus, headed the Missile Firing Laboratory at the Cape. They ran
misrepresented him. It is not possible to think of "von Braun concepts"
these labs in a way that often seemed to caricature the precise, methodical
that changed the development of rocketry in the same way that "Faget
rocket scientist of the popular imagination. Their colleagues were
concepts" changed the development of spacecraft. Instead, he was a
"Mister or "Doctor rarely "Chuck" or "Bill," even
natural leader and technical manager. Karl Heimburg, chief of the
when, they had been working together for years. Everything had to be
Testing Lab, explained how von Braun went around looking for new
done with a meticulous exactness and order. Debus, for example, was
ideas, which he would then take to his associates. Heimburg would listen
known for making the rounds of his subordinates' offices after hours,
unimpressed and explain to von Braun why something wouldn't work.
sweeping papers and books from desks that didn't meet his standard of
And then Heimburg would find himself saying, "But we could do it in
neatness.
this other way," and an innovation that he had not considered would have
The Germans were extraordinarily conservative in their designs, with
opened up before him.
margins that were lavish even by aerospace standards-every component
In general, von Braun seems by the testimony of people who worked
had to be able to bear far more weight, tolerate far higher temperatures,
for him, ranging from senior colleagues to technicians on the pad, to have
withstand far higher dynamic pressures than the rated performance of the
been just about as good as his publicity made him out to be. He won from
vehicle required.* When preparing the hardware, the Germans for many
them loyalty and affection as well as professional respect. "He was a
years had no separate inspection function. Each engineer inspected the
noble type of man," said one American at Huntsville. "That's the only
work of his own technicians, and he was expected to be a good enough
word I can think of to describe him."
machinist or electrician or hydraulics mechanic in his own right to be able
Ultimately, von Braun won admiration, though sometimes grudging,
to know whether the work was done correctly. The Germans' testing
even from his peers in the other centers. Robert Gilruth, who got far less
programs were excruciatingly thorough, "to the point of being ridicu-
attention from the press and who in the early days had to struggle to keep
lous," said one American observer with both exasperation and envy.
the Space Task Group from being eclipsed when von Braun was brought
What made this Germanic conservatism and precision remarkable was
into NASA, had ambivalent feelings about his counterpart at Marshall.
that by the late 1950s most of the people from Huntsville who were
But once, after von Braun died in 1977, Gilruth was listening to another
behaving this way weren't Germans at all, but the Americans who had
senior NASA official talk about a technical problem on the shuttle. "I
been hired to work with them. Most of them were men from the small
wish Wernher were still around to ask about this," Gilruth broke in
towns of the deep South, graduates of nearby engineering schools like
suddenly. "You know," the NASA official reflected, "that was probably
Auburn and the University of Mississippi and Georgia Tech. The result
the greatest tribute von Braun ever got." And then the NASA official
was a combination of Germans like Eberhard Rees or Karl Heimburg or
proceeded to give von Braun the only compliment that really counted in
Walter Haeussermann-distinguished and courtly, talking about "ze vay
the Apollo fraternity. When you ignored all the P.R. stuff, he said, "von
ve do sings," very models of the rocket scientist-and Americans like
Braun was actually a pretty good engineer."
Alexander A. McCool of Vicksburg, Mississippi, an esteemed propulsion
It was an awkward situation to which the Germans remained sensitive long after they had
When during Apollo the spacecraft kept exceeding its weight limits, NASA officials from
become naturalized American citizens. During the early years of racial integration, an American
headquarters went down to Huntsville to find out whether there was any way that von Braun's people
engineer once overheard someone asking Hans Gruene, head of Launch Vehicle Operations at the
could cut some weight from the launch vehicle and thereby raise its performance beyond its original
Cape, how he felt about having a black live on his block. "I have no problem," Gruene replied. "I
rating. Sure, one American remembered them saying-"We can cut three thousand pounds, four
wonder what he thinks of an ex-Nazi living on his?" By that time, many of the Germans had become
thousand pounds-it won't make any difference." This was at a time when the spacecraft people
more American than the Americans. Ray Clark, Kurt Debus's deputy for administration at the Cape,
were trying to shave ounces. The German margins also let them uprate the performance of the
recalled gatherings after work at which Gruene and Debus would get into conversations about
engines of the first stage of the Saturn V from 7,500,000 pounds of thrust to 7,650,000. This
America's heritage and its future that more than once went on until dawn-they knew more about the
reservoir of extra performance that the Germans built into the launch vehicle came to the program's
rescue more than once during Apollo.
United States than he did, Clark often thought.
FROM the Book: Apollo, The Race to the Moon
MEN FROM EARTH
THE RACE BEGINS
3
(LOX), stood 46 feet high, and weighed 14 tons. The nose was packed
carry humans to the moon and beyond. Von Braun fell in with a group of
The of history
with a metric ton of high explosive.
like-minded, often eccentric young men who also believed in the
At liftoff the V-2 had climbed slowly, with just enough acceleration to
possibilities of spaceflight. They formed an amateur rocketry club, the
VonBraun
compensate for the force of gravity. But as the missile arched on its
Verein für Raumschiffahrt (VfR), and began testing their tiny missiles in
trajectory and more fuel was consumed, it began to move faster. Sixty-
the weedy field of a disused army storage depot outside Berlin. Over the
three seconds later, the V-2 was on the fringe of space, 23 miles high,
next two years, they slowly developed a crude rocket engine that burned
moving at one mile per second. Automatic timers closed the propellant
a mixture of LOX and gasoline.⁴
valves, and the pulsing rocket flame snuffed out. Far above the
The VfR's labors at the suburban Raketenflugplatz were noticed by
atmosphere, the V-2 continued climbing to the top of its arched
Colonel Walter Dornberger of the German army's ordnance ballistic
trajectory, 60 miles above the Thames estuary. Then the flight path
section. Dornberger had been ordered by the general staff to develop
curved down toward London.¹
long-range bombardment weapons that would be in accordance with the
When the V-2 hit it was moving at over 2,000 miles per hour, faster
stringent disarmament requirements the Allies had imposed on Ger-
than a rifle bullet and far too fast to be seen overhead. And the missile's
many in the Treaty of Versailles. Rockets weren't on that list because, in
speed was too great for accurate radar tracking. The mysterious second
1919, they weren't considered serious weapons.
blast in the sky reported from Chiswick was a sonic boom. The thirteen
Impressed by the VfR's work, Dornberger became the group's official
people killed and injured by the explosion in Chiswick were the first
sponsor. He urged von Braun to complete his education, so that he
casualties of a space weapon. Over the next six months, 1,114 more V-2s
could better assist the progress of German rocketry. Von Braun received
fell on England, killing almost 3,000 men, women, and children. Even
his bachelor's degree in aeronautical engineering in 1932 and his Ph. D.
worse was the damage done to the Allies' cross-channel debarkation port
in physics from the University of Berlin only two years later. Dorn-
at Antwerp: over 2,000 V-2s struck that city, shattering the waterfront.
berger's stewardship is obvious because von Braun's thesis on rocket
After the war, Supreme Allied Commander General Dwight
engines was immediately classified a military secret.
Eisenhower admitted that D-Day would not have been possible had this
After the Nazis took power in 1933, von Braun's "rocket team"
rocket bombardment begun earlier and been directed at the Allied
continued their research (though with a relatively small budget com-
invaders on the south coast of England or the Normandy beachhead
pared with the total funds devoted to the massive Nazi rearmament of
itself.³
the 1930s), and under Hermann Goering, the Luftwaffe funded a joint
The V-2 had been designed by a team of German scientists and
service rocket research center on the Baltic peninsula of Peenemünde.
engineers under the leadership of a young East Prussian aristocrat
But even after the Germans invaded Poland in 1939, the work of von
named Wernher von Braun. He was to become one of the undisputed
Braun's rocket team was still neglected by Hitler's general staff.
giants of spaceflight, a man who combined profound intelligence,
Von Braun's team continued to grow, however, and was developing
startling creativity, and unparalleled managerial skill within a person-
larger, longer-range liquid-fueled missiles. Despite repeated failures,
ality that has been described as nothing short of charismatic by those
the team doggedly overcame the multiple problems of modern rocket
who knew him.
engineering: flight stability, fuel management, steady combustion
Wernher von Braun was an eighteen-year-old technical school student
pressure, engine cooling, and guidance. Finally, Field Marshal Walther
in 1930 (coincidentally the same year I was born) when he met Professor
von Brauchitsch, the Wehrmacht commander, came to the aid of the
Hermann Oberth, a German from Rumania who had written widely on
Peenemünde effort with personnel and funds. Germany's considerable
the future use of rockets for interplanetary spaceflight. After reading
academic talent pool was canvassed for potential rocket experts, who
Oberth's work, von Braun was convinced that liquid-fueled rockets
were then sent to work at Peenemünde. The enlarged rocket team's goal
could be perfected and that one day they could be made large enough to
was to design a prototype operational missile, the A-4, that would carry a
full ton of explosives accurately to a target 180 miles away. By the
summer of 1942, von Braun's team had their prototype. They suc-
A-12 they planned was a true monster, capable of orbiting 30-ton
payloads.
cessfully fired it from Peenemünde on October 3, 1942. As the missile
This visionary planning soon caught the attention of the SS, and a
roared aloft and climbed on a steady arch to pierce high scattered
Gestapo spy denounced von Braun for "sabotage" because he had once
clouds, Dornberger (now a general) turned to von Braun. "Do you
realize what we have accomplished today? Today a spaceship was born!"⁵
mentioned at a cocktail party that the V-2's real purpose was spaceflight,
Then events moved more quickly. On June 28, 1943, SS Reichsfuhrer
not bombardment. He was arrested with two of his engineers, Klaus
Riedel and Helmut Gröttrup. Only the swift intervention of General
Heinrich Himmler visited Peenemünde on Hitler's behalf to assess the
potential of long-range rocket weapons. A first demonstration launch of
Dornberger saved them from a firing squad.⁷
the A-4 was a catastrophic failure, but the second was a near-perfect
By January 1945, it was clear to von Braun and his men that Germany
flight. Himmler was impressed. Von Braun and General Dornberger
had lost the war and that they should take their expertise to one of the
were brought to Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia where they
Allied victors. Von Braun called a secret meeting and tried to rally his
key personnel. "Let's not forget that it was our team that first succeeded
showed the Führer films of successful A-4 launches. Hitler immediately
ordered the rocket into mass production, which meant that the machine
in reaching outer space," he told them. "We have never stopped
Dornberger and von Braun had envisioned as a spaceship was to
believing in satellites, voyages to the moon, and interplanetary travel."
become the world's first ballistic missile. The night of August 17, 1943,
He directly asked them which Allied power should receive the incred-
ible technical heritage of the rocket team.8
however, almost 600 RAF heavy bombers struck Peenemünde, badly
They immediately decided that the rocket team would somehow find
damaging the rocket laboratories and production facilities and killing
hundreds of workers and technicians.
a way to surrender to the Americans.
After this air raid, Hitler ordered that rocket production be taken out
With typical organizational skill and energy, von Braun's team packed
of the hands of the von Braun team and placed under the control of the
up the entire Peenemünde technical archives: blueprints, test reports,
patents, and enough other essential documents to fill several boxcars.
SS. Von Braun's prototype A-4 was replicated and mass produced as the
V-2. The task fell to SS Brigadier Hans Kammler, who used thousands of
Von Braun created a bogus "Project for Special Dispositions," and with
Peenemünde's priority status he commandeered vehicles and fuel to
concentration camp laborers to build an underground production
facility in abandoned mine shafts near Nordhausen in the Harz
transport the rocket team and their families south and west toward the
mountains. Kammler was a relentless slave driver; by 1945, the
advancing American forces. In the spring of 1945, he somehow managed
Mittelwerk underground V-2 factory had reached a peak production
to lead 525 people out of the chaos of the collapsing Third Reich,
level of 900 V-2s per month. But the human cost was horrible. In the
eventually reaching Oberammergau in the Bavarian Alps. Key members
final weeks of the war, 150 slave laborers a day were dying of starvation in
of the team took the archives to Dörnten in the Harz mountains, where
the nearby Dora concentration camp.6
they buried tons of documents deep in an abandoned mine.
By the end of 1943, von Braun's team could concentrate on more
Von Braun and his close associates knew they were still in danger:
advanced projects. Since the VfR days in Berlin, they had been
they had learned of SS plans to liquidate them in order to prevent their
interested in rockets as spaceflight boosters, not as missiles. They also
capture by the Allies. But on the evening of May 2, 1945, GIs from an
designed enlarged V-2s with greater range and heavier warheads and
antitank company of the 44th Infantry Division were manning a
even larger classes of rockets that were much more than mere offshoots
roadblock in a valley beneath the Bavarian ski resort of Oberjoch. A
of the single-stage V-2. These larger boosters would have multiple stages
"shabby young German" in a patched leather jacket rode up on a bicycle.
to transport winged space-bomber gliders to near-orbital speed. The
"My name is Magnus von Braun," he said. "My brother invented the
V-2. We want to surrender."
7
PFC Fred Schneikert leveled his ritle at the Germans chest. think
but most important, Americas postwar priorities just did not include
you're nuts," the soldier said. In those days, when the war was coming
government funding of a grandiose spaceflight program.
to an end, all kinds of oddball German civilians were trying to climb on
We had a lot more serious things to worry about. By now it was clear
the Allied bandwagon. But luckily the GIs did report the incident, and
that the Soviet Union was no longer our ally. Stalin's occupation forces
later that night von Braun and Dornberger officially surrendered.9
remained in place, installing satellite governments throughout Eastern
Army Ordnance Colonel Holger Toftoy soon began a secret effort to
Europe, and Winston Churchill alerted the world to the situation with
bring German scientists to America, known as Operation Paper Clip.
his famous "Iron Curtain speech. The hot war with fascism that my
American ordnance teams rescued the hidden Peenemünde technical
father had fought in was over; the Cold War with communism had
archives and assorted parts for 100 V-2 rockets at Nordhausen from the
begun. Our small nuclear arsenal had become our single most impor-
approaching Soviet occupation forces. This material was dispatched to
tant deterrent to further communist expansion, a counterpoint to the
the Army's White Sands Proving Grounds in New Mexico. While
huge conventional forces of the Soviet Union.
waiting for transport to America, von Braun regaled American intel-
Even as a plebe at West Point, it was clear to me that I would end up
ligence officers with details of the rocket team's plans for multistage
fighting the Soviets or their surrogates someplace in the world sooner or
rockets and space stations.
later, probably sooner. I was just a young man then, learning the
To the Americans in the summer of 1945, this kind of talk bordered on
mysteries and rituals of military life in a service academy. It was a hard
delusion. But von Braun's enthusiasm was not dampened. On their way
revelation. I decided that if I had to go to war, I wanted to do it as a jet
west across the Atlantic to the New Mexican desert test ranges, he told
fighter pilot. I didn't have anything particular against the infantry, but I
his colleagues how fortunate they were to be working for the Americans.
knew my own talents lay more in the field of science and technology, and
This was a country, he stated with conviction, where spaceflight would
jet aviation was then the most advanced field around.
take root and flourish. But von Braun could not assess the true nature
The problem was that my dad and I didn't always agree on what
of the American wilderness that awaited them.
direction I should take in my career. Since I was his only son and
namesake "Buzz" is a childhood nickname that stuck-he'd been
pleased when I told him I wanted to attend a service academy. Both my
West Point, 1947-1951
parents had military backgrounds. Dad had been an Army Air Corps
When I entered West Point in the summer of 1947, spaceflight was still
pilot and an aide to General Billy Mitchell in the Philippines in the
a fantasy to the men who shaped Americas military and scientific policy.
1920s. It was there that he met my mother, Marion Moon, the daughter
Postwar America was more enthralled with jet aviation in Earth's
of a Methodist Army chaplain. But Dad left the Air Corps after Billy
atmosphere than with flying above it. Von Brauns team had by this time
Mitchell was court-martialed for his visionary-but outspoken-views
been relocated to Fort Bliss, Texas, where they conducted unimportant
on the future of airpower. My father became an executive with Standard
test flights with the captured V-2s in an underfunded and largely
Oil of New Jersey and developed their aviation fuel program. He
neglected program directed by the US Army Ordnance Corps.
believed that that was the way I should go: first service in the military,
Hiroshima and Nagasaki had demonstrated to President Harry
leading to a civilian business career.
Truman's key advisers in the Pentagon that the ability to drop a ton of
His years in the Army had given him a definite feeling about that
high explosives on a city was puny compared to the power of the atomic
branch of service. That was why he wanted me to attend the Naval
bomb. For that reason they didn't see any immediate practical military
Academy at Annapolis, instead of West Point. He said the Navy really
application for ballistic missiles. (Atomic weapons then were very
prepared a young man for a career in business. As an executive, he'd
cumbersome fission devices, much too heavy to be delivered by any of
seen a lot more ex-Navy officers in the boardrooms than Army generals.
the missiles of that day.)
He also said that Annapolis men took care of their own in a way that the
MEN FROM EARTH
THE RACE BEGINS
11
the war. He was a disciple of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who, in his
brilliant theoretical book Exploration of Cosmic Space with Reactive
lighter and more powerful than the first-stage engines-that is, with a
better thrust-to-weight ratio, generating more energy to accelerate less
Devices, written at the turn of the century, envisioned large multistage
boosters fueled by liquid hydrogen and oxygen, space stations, lunar
weight.
bases, and eventually permanent space colonies ringing Earth.
Practically, this concept required engine technology that was beyond
Tsiolkovsky was also the first to calculate the velocities and energy levels
the reach of the Soviets at the time. So Korolev's innovative compromise
that later became the routine mathematical language of spaceflight.¹
was to design a composite rocket that clustered four strap-on boosters
around a central core unit known as the "sustainer." Thus the rocket's
Korolev shared Tsiolkovsky's visions of interplanetary travel. But
Korolev was obliged to meet Stalin's military requirements while
stages were parallel rather than vertical. The Soviets used two variants
secretly harboring grandiose plans for spaceflight, just as von Braun had
of the original basic engine, the RD-107 and the RD-108, an upgraded
been during the war. And the parallel between the two runs deeper.
version of Korolev's earlier design. The strap-on boosters were tapered,
Korolev was arrested along with thousands of other scientists and
wider at the bottom than at the top, giving the base of the rocket the
technicians by the NKVD secret police in the "great terror" of the late
appearance of a flared skirt. The central core was powered by an RD-107
1930s and was imprisoned for seven years as a gulag convict, several
engine with much larger propellant tanks. At liftoff, all the engines fired
months of which he spent at the notorious Kolyma gold mine in the
simultaneously; the "staging" occurred when the strap-on boosters' fuel
Arctic. For the rest of his captivity during the war he worked as an
was expended. The boosters then fell away, leaving the central core's
engine to sustain the flight.¹⁶
engineer under aircraft designer A. N. Tupolev in a "special" prison
camp. When he was freed after the war, Korolev quickly rose in the new
Working with this concept, Korolev's team began designing a large,
Soviet missile hierarchy. Although he lacked von Braun's charisma, he
yet simple missile that would eventually become the most durable
was every bit as much a wily survivor.
spaceflight booster in history. Whenever I see pictures of new Soviet
By the late 1940s, Korolev had recognized that the Soviets had
space boosters these days, I'm amazed at their flared-skirt strap-on
learned all they were going to from their captive German scientists. It
boosters: they are obviously direct descendants of Korolev's first ICBM.
was time to strike out on his own. He first modified the basic V-2
The Soviets simply do not throw away useful technology. They improve
propulsion technology into a much larger and more powerful engine.
it. We can learn an important lesson from them.
Working within the limits of Soviet metallurgy, he solved the overheat-
ing problems inherent to high-energy rocket thrust by creating an
Huntsville, Alabama, 1950-1953
engine that had four small, thick-walled combustion chambers.
Korolev's RD-107 rocket engine was fueled by a mixture of kerosene and
In the beginning, Wernher von Braun and his rocket team didn't find in
LOX and produced an amazing thrust of almost 225,000 pounds. 15
America the fertile ground for rocketry that Gröttrup's engineers had
Von Brauns
Even though Korolev now had the principal building block for a huge
found in the Soviet Union. Von Braun's key designers had surrendered
Germany's human and technical rocket legacy to the US Army because
Rockettea
rocket that could serve as either an intercontinental ballistic missile or a
spacecraft booster, he still faced major technical hurdles. The key to a
they thought of America as the world's future leader in spaceflight, the
long-distance missile lay in Tsiolkovsky's pioneering concept of multiple
nation, they said, that was "most able to provide the resources required
vertical stages; the heavy first stage would break the bonds of gravity,
for interplanetary travel. But their early years in America had been a
allowing the lighter upper stages to accelerate to the speeds needed for
long exercise in frustration.
an intercontinental warhead trajectory or orbital flight. It would of
Colonel Holger Toftoy remained the team's sponsor after they were
settled at Fort Bliss in the west Texas desert outside of El Paso in 1945.
course be preferable for the engines of these upper stages to be both
Toftoy was already committed to the cause of missiles and rocketry, but
oven from earth
13
the Pentagon ignored him. The Germans slowly grew accustomed to the
ency and patronage would be vital to his future plans, especially because
alien culture and climate, but language remained a problem for years.
he had not forgotten his dreams of spaceflight.
By 1947, they had been joined by their families, and most had become
Von Braun spent his evenings in painstaking research, slowly develop-
US citizens by 1950.
ing a practical proposal for an international expedition to Mars. By 1948,
The rocket team's biggest problem was that they were given low-
this became a book manuscript, Mars Project, which eighteen US
priority assignments. Their postwar work with V-2s, assembled from the
publishers rejected as "too fantastic." Von Braun envisioned a large
parts Army Ordnance had spirited away from Nordhausen under the
international interplanetary expedition that would be assembled from a
noses of the Soviets, was limited to upper-atmosphere probes and minor
space station in Earth orbit. In essence, von Braun wrote a practical
adaptations of existing German missile technology.
handbook for interplanetary travel, including our Apollo flights of the
Probably the only excitement the scientists had during this period
1960s.
was the night they accidentally bombed Mexico. Just after 8:45 PM on
Von Braun's team was able to advance rocket engine and guidance
May 28, 1947, the rocket team fired an unarmed V-2 from the White
technology, however, when they were ordered to upgrade the basic V-2
Sands Proving Ground north of El Paso. The missile veered off course
into a tactical nuclear missile for the Army, following the explosion of the
and plunged south toward the Rio Grande, the Mexican border, where it
first Soviet atomic bomb in 1949. Toftoy, now a general, was dispatched
exploded near the Tepeyac cemetery in Ciudad Juárez. When a large
to Huntsville, Alabama, where he acquired and then combined the
Army contingent of engineers arrived in Juárez the next morning,
Redstone and Huntsville arsenals into a single sprawling Army reserva-
enterprising children tried to sell them twisted shards of the missile.
tion in the red clay hills of the Appalachian Piedmont. He brought von
As someone who can well remember the postwar inflation, I
Braun and his team from Texas to the new Redstone Arsenal, home of
understand why President Harry Truman's priorities were to turn
the Army Ordnance Missile Command. They began work on the long-
America's economy away from the military and back to civilian produc-
delayed successor to the V-2, which would become the reliable Red-
tion. But this meant American rocketry was eclipsed. Also, the 1947
stone missile, the rocket that eventually would put America into space.
reorganization of the armed services, which created the Department of
Defense, resulted in an interservice rivalry that made Toftoy's German
rocket experts even more irrelevant. The newly independent US Air
Korea, 1952-1953
Force made a strong bid for a massive strategic bomber force, and their
I was a West Point cadet on a summer study junket in Japan the day the
main competitor for scarce funds, the Navy, wanted "super" aircraft
North Korean Army invaded South Korea, June 25, 1950. The Cold War
carriers. To enhance its competitive position with the Navy, the Air
had just turned hot. My trip was cut short. America was at war with a
Force abandoned its tentative preliminary research into a revolutionary
communist army, very well equipped by the Soviet Union. By that
intercontinental missile project called the Atlas. This weapon would
December, the Chinese communists had joined the war, and America
have used high-pressure rocket engines to boost a huge, heat-shielded
was bogged down in a bloody stalemate on the Asian mainland.
nuclear warhead high into space to coast on a ballistic trajectory halfway
I graduated from West Point in June 1951, number three in a class of
around the world before reentering the atmosphere. Building the Atlas
475 cadets. This academic rating guaranteed that I could enter Air
in the late 1940s would have required an explosion of new technology
Force flight training, but I still had to face intense competition to earn
and a financial investment the Air Force was unwilling to make.
my wings and win an assignment as a jet fighter pilot. The cadets' code
With no American interest in long-range ballistic missiles, von
at West Point was "Duty, Honor, Country." Unofficially there was a
Braun's team simply had no viable work. And they had no sponsor
fourth tenet to the creed: "Work your ass off." And this stood me in good
among defense contractors, nor did they have a political patron in
stead during flight training, where the competition for the coveted jet
Washington. Von Braun learned during these years that such a constitu-
fighter assignments was stiff. By November 1952, I'd managed to stay
44
MEN FROM EARTH
"LEAD-FOOTED MERCURY"
45
list, even without White House support. The plan called for spacecraft
ations. Now that senior NASA officials were backing this method of
and booster technology that would send men on circumlunar flights by
fueling the boosters, he was more than happy to follow.¹³
1968 and possibly a manned lunar landing sometime after 1975. NASA
Silverstein's insistence on the high-energy cryogenic upper stages for
estimated that the first phase of the program would cost around $2
NASA's eventual Saturn rockets would become the key that would
billion. George Low told the press that America stood a chance to "win
unlock the door to the first moon landing. After the fall of 1959,
more gold medals in the space Olympics than any other nation."¹²
Wernher von Braun began participating to an even greater extent in
NASA realized a circumlunar flight would require a spacecraft that
both NASA's Project Mercury and ambitious advanced spaceflight
could provide life support for more than one astronaut and be capable of
plans. Eisenhower, recognizing that if America was going to compete
reaching a velocity of 25,000 miles per hour in order to escape from
with the Soviets it would need large civilian boosters, finally gave in to
Earth's gravitational field. It would also have to shield the crew from
Glennan's repeated requests and transferred von Braun's Development
radiation while traveling to the moon and be able to withstand reentry
Operations Division of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency to NASA,
to Earth's atmosphere at this speed, which was much greater than the
effective July 1, 1960. On that date, Wernher von Braun became director
17,500-mile-per-hour orbital reentry. The big spacecraft would be far
of NASA's new Marshall Space Flight Center (named for Ike's wartime
heavier than the booster capacity of any planned military missile.
colleague General George C. Marshall) in Huntsville, Alabama.
Von Braun's Huntsville team already had a class of large boosters on
Eisenhower even attended the dedication ceremonies on September 1,
the drawing board. Called the Saturn (after Jupiter's neighboring planet
1960. NASA had acquired the Army-funded Jet Propulsion Laboratory
in the solar system), the first generation of large boosters incorporated a
(JPL), the nation's preeminent satellite laboratory, the year before. This
cluster of Jupiter-type engines as the first stage, to produce 1.5 million
was part of a White House compromise designed to appease both
pounds of thrust. Von Braun also envisioned a second-generation
Glennan and the Pentagon, but actually satisfying neither because
superbooster he called the Nova, whose first stage would cluster the big
NASA didn't get the von Braun team and the Army lost the JPL.
F-1 engines that were then being studied by the Defense Department.
Von Braun's Huntsville center had an in-house industrial capacity
Each F-1 produced a thrust of 1.5 million pounds.
unlike anything seen before. His policy, from Peenemünde days, was to
In December 1959, Abe Silverstein and his advanced development
have his team actually build their own prototypes, rather than farming
group went even further than von Braun's ambitious initial plans for the
out the work to industry. So Marshall was actually a booster factory, not
Saturn class of rockets. Following conventional design philosophy, the
simply an R&D laboratory.14 JPL had the same type of operation for the
first stage of the new boosters would use proven kerosene and LOX
construction of prototype satellites and spacecraft systems. NASA now
propellants. Silverstein, however, knew that the upper stages of any
had the ability to begin practical work on a manned lunar landing
eventual moon booster would require a much higher thrust-to-weight
program. All they lacked was White House approval.
capability than LOX-kerosene technology could provide. His group
Abe Silverstein again drew on his knowledge of mythology for the
recommended fueling the upper stages with supercold ("cryogenic")
name of NASA's post-Mercury manned spaceflight project. "Apollo,"
liquid hydrogen and LOX, a high-energy combination whose use was
the name of the sun god who rode his flaming chariot across the sky, was
fraught with technical problems. This was the technology that the rocket
suitably evocative for this exciting program. Administrator Glennan
pioneers Tsiolkovsky, Oberth, and Goddard said offered the most
agreed on the name, but Project Apollo, George Low quickly admitted,
efficient and lightweight conversion of fuel to thrust. Von Braun knew
had as yet "no official standing." That was probably the understatement
this, of course, but was hesitant to embrace this unconventional
of that year.
propellant technology. His years of trying unsuccessfully to interest
Eisenhower may have supported unmanned scientific and military
America in spaceflight had taught him to be cautious in his recommend-
reconnaissance satellites, but he only grudgingly approved Project
THE EARTH OBSERVING SYSTEM
EOS
A Mission
To Planet Earth
Funding for the U.S.
Global Change Re-
search Program will
increase by nearly 60
percent, to over $1
billion [in FY 1991].
That commitment, by
far the largest ever
made by any nation,
reflects our determina-
tion to improve our
understanding of the
science of climate
change Our program
allows NASA and her
sister agencies and all
our international
partners to move for-
ward with the "Mission
to Planet Earth". That
will initiate the U.S.
Earth Observing System.
President George Bush
February 5, 1990
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GLOBAL CHANGE 3
THE TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVE 7
THE NEW PERSPECTIVE: EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE 16
EOS IMPLEMENTATION 30
SUMMARY 34
INTRODUCTION
To understand global change and the in-
EOS will continue and integrate the meas-
creasing demands of human activity, it is essential
urements now being taken by short-term research
that we document and comprehend how the Earth
missions. It will provide the first coordinated
works as a system. The international scientific
simultaneous measurements of the interactions of
community is organizing research efforts to ad-
the atmosphere, oceans, solid earth, and hydro-
vance our knowledge of both natural and human-
logic and biogeochemical cycles.
induced global change. The U.S. Global Change
Earth Probes will provide a focus on ob-
EOS: The Earth
Research Program, a consensus interagency plan,
serving specific Earth processes where smaller
defines the U.S. element of those efforts.
platforms and/or different orbits from EOS are re-
Observing
Mission to Planet Earth, the central NASA
quired. In addition to complementing EOS, Earth
contribution to the U.S. Global Change Research
Probes will provide critical near-term observations.
System
Program, includes two proposed initiatives in the
Development of EOSDIS will begin imme-
FY 1991 Federal budget: the Earth Observing
diately to support the research and analysis of
System (EOS) and Earth Probes.
both existing data and those to come from the
EOS consists of a space-based observing
near-term missions. EOSDIS will be a state-of-the-
system, a Data and Information System (EOSDIS),
art information system to foster rapid and easy
and a scientific research program. It represents
access for users.
the initiation of a comprehensive, global observing
This document presents EOS, Earth Probes,
system with broad and high-resolution spectral
and related precursor research missions-all in
and spatial, as well as long-term temporal, cover-
the context of supporting the U.S. Global Change
age of the Earth. The space component will con-
Research Program. For additional information,
sist of two series of polar-orbiting platforms, with
Pre-EOS and EOS Reference Handbooks are avail-
launch of the first platform in FY 1998. EOS will
able which provide in-depth information on
be supplemented by companion European and
candidate instruments, their measurements, and
Japanese platforms, as well as the continuing op-
the Data and Information System.
erational environmental satellites.
On the cover: the EOS-A (left) and -B (right) polar platforms. The five discs show (left to right): variable sea-surface topography, sea-surface temperature, a
composite of ocean chlorophyll concentration and terrestrial vegetation index, mean cloud cover, and stratospheric ozone.
aralleling the rise
population is an
ncreasing concentra-
on of atmospberic
reenbouse gases.
Vbile an associated
emperature rise is
ot yet detectable,
bere is general agree-
ent that it will occur;
be open question
egards its rate and
ragnitude.
THE ISSUE: GLOBAL CHANGE
e live on a planet of extraordinary
ing carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmos-
complexity; the presence of an atmos-
phere, but observations are ambiguous. Is the
phere and oceans with the right chemi-
signal lost in the noise of natural climate variabil-
cal composition on a solid planet has
ity, or are there other processes at work? Until we
supported the development of an abundant diver-
more completely understand the Earth system, we
sity of life. Throughout geologic history, the
will not be able to answer such crucial questions.
atmosphere, oceans, and land have interacted to
The oceans, atmosphere, and ice-covered
Understanding
produce global environmental change to which
regions of the globe are now recognized to be
life has contributed and adapted. Today, one
closely coupled in shaping the Earth's weather and
The Earth
species of life, humankind, through increasing
climate. Both terrestrial and oceanic biota are
population and quest for improved quality of life,
recognized as exerting a major influence on global
As A System
has developed the capability of changing our
climate and the chemical cycles important to life.
global environment in ways that we are only be-
But the fundamental questions about how the
ginning to perceive, but do not fully understand.
Earth system works remain unanswered.
In some cases, such as the depletion of the
Over the past 40 years, our view of the sol-
Earth's energy and mineral resources, the effects
id Earth has been dramatically transformed. The
of human activity are obvious. In other cases,
earlier notion of a placid, static globe has been
such as the alteration of atmospheric chemical
replaced by the dynamism of plate tectonics. Pat-
composition, the processes of change are difficult
terns of mountain-building, volcanism, and earth-
to document, and their consequences harder to
quake activity all fit consistently into this new view.
foresee. Moreover, the effects of many human-
It is essential that we understand how
induced changes cannot readily be distinguished
components of this system interact-from the
from the results of natural change over time peri-
short time scales of weather systems to the millen-
ods of decades to centuries.
nia of geological time-and how we affect these
We now know that we have embarked on
interactions. Until we have that understanding,
a global experiment, but we do not know the
we will not be able to predict how human activi-
consequences. Model predictions suggest that the
ties will change the environment.
Earth should be warming in response to increas-
3
A global view of the Earth's biosphere. Shown are three-year composite images of ocean chlorophyll concentration (increasing from purple to red) and land
vegetation index (increasing from tan to green), derived from NASA's Nimbus-7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner and the NOAA-7 Advanced Very High Resolution
Radiometer, respectively.
Clouds &
Radiation
Global Change
Research Priorities
7X
Climate &
Recognizing the
Hydrologic Systems
potential for global
Heat
change, the interna-
Biogeochemical
Transport
tional community is
Dynamics
organizing research
efforts to understand
Ecological Systems
the Earth system. The
& Dynamics
Global Change
Research Program,
Earth System
resulting from inter-
History
agency consensus,
defines the US contri-
Solid
Human
bution to those
Earth
Interactions
international efforts.
Solid Earth
Processes
Hydrologic
Cycle
Solar
Influences
Atmospheric
Carbon
Chemistry
Cycle
4
THE GLOBAL CHANGE RESEARCH PROGRAM
he demonstrated human role in global
ICSU has established the International Geosphere-
change requires that we develop a com-
Biosphere Programme to describe and understand
prehensive program of Earth studies
the interactive chemical and biological processes
that transcends traditional disciplinary
that regulate the total Earth system.
boundaries. Our goal is to obtain a scientific
In response to the scientific challenge and
understanding of the Earth as a system, from
a national perception that the U.S. must take a
which we hope to develop a capability to predict
leadership role in global change research, a fed-
A Plan
future change.
eral interagency Committee on Earth Sciences was
The key to understanding is accurate obser-
formed under the President's Science Advisor to
For Action
vations and modelling of the crucial interacting
develop a plan for action. With remarkable agree-
processes. Such observations of the state of the
ment and clear consensus, representatives of thir-
Earth are critical for providing a system for early
teen federal agencies have produced the first U.S.
warnings of change. To obtain that basic informa-
Strategy for Global Change Research.
tion, we need appropriate instruments deployed
The integrating priorities of this program
both on the Earth's surface and in space. Satellite
are to document change in the Earth System using
remote sensing provides global and long-term
observational programs and data management sys-
continuous measurements for monitoring the en-
tems, to carry out focused studies on controlling
tire planet. Surface-based measurements are re-
processes to improve our understanding, and to de-
quired both to validate the space-based observa-
velop integrated conceptual and predictive models.
tions, to provide more detailed studies, and to ob-
For the first half of the 1990s, space-borne
serve those processes not accessible from space.
contributions to the Global Change Research Pro-
The international scientific community is
gram will come from the missions described be-
developing programs to address global change.
low. These include the initiation of NASA's Earth
The World Climate Research Programme, spon-
Probes as well as the EOS Data and Information
sored by the International Council of Scientific
System (EOSDIS) which will support study of
Unions (ICSU) and the World Meteorological Or-
available satellite data. The launch of the first of
ganization, focuses on physical aspects of climate
NASA's EOS polar platforms is in FY 1998 and will
systems: the role of clouds and radiation, ocean
mark the beginning of a comprehensive and long-
circulation, air-sea interaction, and the effects of
term measurement system.
global water and energy budgets on climate.
5
Schematic representation showing how interdisciplinary components of NASA's EOS science program relate to the corresponding science priorities of the U.S.
Global Change Research Program.
90
92
94
96
98
00
NASA
LAGEOS-1
LAGEOS-2¹
SATELLITES
UARS
TOPEX/POSEIDON?
NASA
SIR
SHUTTLE
Research
SSBUV
Missions
ATLAS
DOD
GEOSAT
SALT
FOREIGN
ERS-1
ERS-2
JERS-1
RADARSAT
ADEOS
NOAA
POLAR
Operational
GOES
Missions
DOD
DMSP
EOSAT
LANDSAT
FOREIGN
GMS, INSAT, METEOSAT
SPOT
NASA 's traditional
focus on discipline-
NASA
TOMS/METEOR³
TOMS/ADEOS⁴
specific missions has
TOMS/SCOUT
TOMS/METEOR
emphasized the
SEAWIFS
development of im-
proved sensors, placing
Earth Probes
NSCAT/ADEOS⁴
TRMM5
lower priority on data
systems. While the
utility of remote
sensing has been dem-
Approved, Under Development, or Operating
Proposed
Possible Extended Mission
onstrated, the full
1 Joint with Italy, 2 Joint with France, 3 USSR Satellite, 4 Japanese Satellite, 5 Joint with Japan
potential of satellites
has yet to be realized
in Earth science.
6
THE TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVE
arth remote sensing has evolved from
observations; Japanese Earth Resources Satellite
developing and demonstrating technol-
(JERS-1), for global mapping of resources; Cana-
ogy to focusing on specific research
dian Radarsat, for sea-ice mapping; and Japanese
and operational topics. For example,
Advanced Earth Observing Satellite (ADEOS),
NASA's Seasat and the series of Nimbus satellites
which will include two of NASA's proposed Earth
have demonstrated the utility of active and passive
Probe sensors.
microwave systems for characterizing the oceans
Included in NASA's proposed Earth Probes
Focused
and atmosphere.
are sensors destined for flights of opportunity:
Building on the lessons learned, two re-
Total Ozone Mapping Sensor (TOMS) to provide
Near-Term
search missions under development are the Upper
interim ozone observations until the flight of EOS,
Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) and
Sea-viewing Wide-Field Sensor (SeaWiFS) to
Observations
TOPEX/Poseidon, focused on atmospheric chem-
provide improved observations of oceanic chlo-
istry and oceanic circulation, respectively. There
rophyll, and Scatterometer (NSCAT) to provide
are also sensors for short-term deployment from
marine surface winds. The Tropical Rainfall
the Space Shuttle: Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR),
Measuring Mission (TRMM) will provide the first
Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet sensor
spaceborne measurements of low-latitude rainfall.
(SSBUV), and Atmospheric Laboratory for Appli-
Throughout the first half of the 1990s, the
cations and Science (ATLAS). These address the
research missions discussed below will provide
development and utilization of synthetic aperture
remotely sensed data for the Global Change Re-
radar, accurate measurements of ozone in the
search Program. They will be complemented
upper atmosphere for cross-calibration purposes,
by operational missions currently consisting of
and observations of solar influences on atmos-
geosynchronous and polar-orbiting satellites for
pheric chemistry. Finally, accurate tracking of the
weather forecasting and land measurements. Si-
two laser geodynamics satellites (LAGEOS-1, -2)
multaneously, the EOS Data and Information
provides gravity and geodetic data.
System will provide a means for accessing data
In addition, the U.S. Department of De-
from these missions and integrating them in glo-
fense has flown an altimetric satellite, GEOSAT,
bal change studies-all in preparation for the
and plans another, SALT, for observing oceanic
comprehensive Earth Observing System of the
circulation. Foreign missions include the Euro-
second half of the 1990s.
pean Remote Sensing satellite (ERS-1), for ocean
7
This table shows the distribution of Earth-related missions in the pre-EOS era. Included are those proposed Earth Probes which have been defined.
traditionally
research
focused
on
disciplinary
wo current ex-
the UARS
PEX/Poseidon
addressing
beric chemistry
circulation,
RESEARCH MISSIONS: OCEANS AND ATMOSPHERE
WO major missions, each addressing
heat transport and biological processes. With at
a specific question relating to global
least two altimeters flying on different satellites in
change, are under development for
the EOS era, the broad spectrum of oceanic circu-
launch in the early 1990s. TOPEX/
lation can be monitored.
Poseidon is focused on oceanic circulation and
UARS. Major questions of atmospheric
the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS)
chemistry remain unanswered despite having re-
on atmospheric chemistry.
ceived much attention in recent years: What
Oceanic
TOPEX/Poseidon. The large-scale move-
causes ozone variations? How are the chemical,
ment of water in the ocean affects climate by
radiative, and dynamic processes of the strato-
Circulation,
transporting heat from the equator to the poles.
sphere coupled? UARS, planned for launch in
This oceanic circulation is one of the weak links
1991, will gather data related to the chemistry, dy-
Atmospheric
in our understanding of the physical climate
namics, and energetics of the ozone layer. UARS
system. Surface and deep currents, upwelling,
data will be used to study energy input, strato-
Chemistry
and bottom-water formation are involved. But to
spheric photochemistry, and upper atmospheric
observe this complex system has proved extraor-
circulation. UARS will help us understand and
dinarily difficult with conventional means. To
predict how the nitrogen and chlorine cycles- -
achieve a global synoptic view of the circulation
and the nitrous oxides and halocarbons which
will require satellite measurements as well as in
maintain them-relate to ozone balance. It will
situ studies. NASA and France's Centre National
also observe diurnal variations in short-lived
D'Etudes Spatiales have designed a joint mission,
stratospheric chemical species important to ozone
TOPEX/Poseidon, that will use a radar altimeter
destruction.
system deployed in an orbit specifically designed
UARS, primarily focused on the upper
for precise measurements of broad-scale ocean
atmosphere, will only provide a very limited set of
surface currents unobtainable via shipboard ob-
companion measurements in the troposphere.
servations. It will be launched in 1992 on an
Moreover, UARS, like most research missions, has
Ariane rocket.
a relatively short (two to five years) lifetime. EOS
TOPEX/Poseidon will give accurate meas-
will provide continuing measurements, as well as
urements of currents and tides, but with only a
more complete coverage of chemical species in
single altimeter, it cannot resolve the smaller-scale
both the stratosphere and troposphere.
ocean eddies which are also important in ocean
9
Sea-level variability measured by the U.S. Navy's GEOSAT over a two-year period revealing fluctuations in the western boundary currents and Antarctic
Circumpolar Current (increasing to red-yellow). The smaller images show two atmospheric constituents that were measured by the LIMS sensor aboard Nimbus-
7 during the winter of 1979: left, nitrogen dioxide; right, nitric acid (increasing from blue to red).
Operational satellites,
developed to support
activities such as
weather forecasting,
represent an important
source of global
observations. They
can make key contri-
butions to the Global
Change Research
Program, given im-
provements in sensor
calibration, as well as
the generation and
archival of data
products.
OPERATIONAL MISSIONS
nitial pictures of weather from space
At the same time, since the systems are
were produced from a U.S. TIROS satel-
driven by operational and commercial require-
lite in 1960. Today, the polar-orbiting
ments, the full use of the data for research on
and geostationary environmental satel-
global change has been limited. The spectral
lites of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-
coverage of the environmental and Landsat sys-
ministration, the Defense Meteorological Satellite
tems is limited, the repeat coverage of Landsat is
Program (DMSP), the commercial venture Eosat,
infrequent and the commercial viability and hence
Research Use
and their counterparts around the world provide
continuity of Landsat is in doubt. It has not been
valuable, real-time information about the changes
easy for researchers to access data, either for rea-
in the world's weather and land surface. In addi-
sons of cost or because data do not exist or are
Of Operational
tion, the operational satellites yield information on
not available in formats that can be easily used.
Data
climate variables, including surface temperatures,
The next logical step for these systems is
wind velocities, land cover and usage patterns,
to address long-term calibration and validation
snow cover and sea ice, cloudiness, global pre-
issues, generate research quality products, and
cipitation, and the Earth's radiation budget. This
make these products available to a wide variety of
operational system works well: the real-time data
users in a manner compatible with the EOS Data
provide continual warning of short-term weather
and Information System. In this way, the research
hazards such as hurricanes, storms, and other
community will have a means to work with large
extreme events.
data sets as it prepares for the new research
These data have provided a tantalizing first
missions and EOS itself.
view of the workings of the components of the
It is essential that the operational satellite
Earth system. Moreover, the data collected by the
observations extend into the future in order that
operational systems have the potential for provid-
the baseline information continue. With the gen-
ing useful information on global change. They
eration of research quality products and easy
constitute a record, now over a decade long, of
access to archives, the operational systems can
baseline information against which global change
significantly complement the research missions,
can be measured. In addition, new data products
Earth Probes, and EOS to provide the comprehen-
are being developed to exploit the data for use in
sive data set necessary to document and under-
longer-term climate studies.
stand global change.
11
The larger image from NOAA's GOES shows cloud patterns on September 22, 1989; note Hurricane Hugo off the coast of South Carolina. The smaller visible
image from DOD's DMSP shows prominent sea-ice features and wind rows in the Bering Sea on March 2, 1988.
imilar
itional
are
to
ob-
to the
TOMS
ozone
obser-
tively.
EARTH PROBES: BIOGEOCHEMISTRY
arth Probes are being proposed to ob-
SeaWiFS. One of the next Earth Probes is
tain near-term observations of specific
the Sea-viewing Wide-Field Sensor (SeaWiFS), an
Earth processes prior to EOS, as well as
ocean color scanner. Biological processes in the
to complement EOS in those cases
ocean are critical to biogeochemical cycles. In the
where smaller platforms and/or orbits other than
upper ocean, primary production by phytoplank-
EOS are required. Earth Probes are scheduled to
ton is a key parameter in regulating carbon flux in
begin flying in 1991 with a satellite launch every
the sea. Thus, it is essential to understand its
The Ozone
two to three years.
magnitude and variability. However, present un-
TOMS. The Total Ozone Mapping Spec-
certainties in estimates of oceanic primary produc-
Hole, Ocean
trometer (TOMS), the first Earth Probe, will meas-
tion are larger than the annual rate of atmospheric
ure atmospheric ozone. The habitability of the
carbon dioxide increase.
Productivity
Earth depends on maintaining the ozone layer,
To address this need, NASA has defined
which absorbs harmful ultraviolet light. We now
performance specifications for the SeaWiFS sensor
know that ozone depletion is caused by complex,
which will measure ocean color related to phyto-
coupled chemical reactions. In the early 1970s, a
plankton chlorophyll. SeaWiFS will be able to
warning was sounded that the chlorofluorocar-
measure chlorophyll in the open ocean where
bons used in widespread applications could cause
the signal is low, distinguish between phytoplank-
depletion of the ozone layer. The TOMS sensor
ton pigments and sediment in coastal water, and
on Nimbus-7 has provided a continuous global
make the necessary atmospheric corrections.
record of ozone over the full depth of the atmos-
These data will provide the first estimates of the
phere since 1978, but the instrument is now
mean and variable rates of primary production in
reaching the end of its useful life. To continue
the world oceans.
these measurements, NASA has made arrange-
Instruments planned for EOS will continue
ments for a TOMS instrument to fly on a Soviet
previous ocean color time series. In addition, with
Meteor-3 Satellite and on the Japanese Advanced
their higher spectral resolution, they will have
Earth Observation satellite; a low-cost U.S. satellite
important new capabilities that will accurately re-
to carry a TOMS payload is also being designed.
solve photosynthetic potential and plankton types,
Thereafter, instruments to monitor ozone will be
thus increasing our capability to study the interac-
carried on future NOAA satellites.
tions of marine ecosystems and global change.
13
Ozone concentration (smaller image) from TOMS showing the ozone bole for October 1989 (increasing from purple-blue to yellow-red). Four-year composite of
chlorophyll concentration (larger) from CZCS (increasing from purple-green to yellow-red); also shown is the typical minimal extent of sea ice in summer (white).
O
EARTH PROBES: PHYSICAL CLIMATE
n the tropical Pacific Ocean, the chang-
NSCAT data for contamination by atmospheric
ing winds, rainfall, and heat from the
water or the identification of rain-induced errors,
ocean are the signals and drivers of El
thus leading to subtle inaccuracies and geographi-
Niño, the periodic climate anomaly that
cal biases. EOS instrumentation will remedy these
has global implications. Accordingly, NASA is
deficiencies, as well as continue the measurement
developing systems to measure marine surface
series begun by NSCAT.
winds and rain as part of its Earth Probes program.
TRMM. The Tropical Rainfall Measuring
NSCAT. Winds drive ocean currents and
Marine Winds,
Mission (TRMM), a joint effort between the U.S.
modulate the fluxes of heat, moisture, gases, and
and Japan, is being proposed to test the feasibility
Tropical Rain
particulates between the air and the sea. Thus,
of using active and passive microwave data,
knowledge of ocean surface winds is crucial for
together with visible and infrared, to derive rain-
understanding the ocean-atmosphere coupling. A
fall amount and distribution between 35 degrees
better understanding of the marine boundary layer
north and south latitude. In addition, some infor-
and troposphere will also improve numerical
mation about the vertical distribution of rain in
weather predictions.
thunderstorms will be obtained. TRMM seeks at
At present, most wind observations over
least a three-year data set of monthly averaged
the oceans come from ships, and the data are
rainfall. As part of EOS, an additional TRMM
often inaccurate and geographically sparse. The
package is proposed for the Space Station in order
NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT), an active radar
to provide a decade of continuous observations.
system in a sun-synchronous orbit, can measure
TRMM data will be used directly in climate
both wind speed and direction over at least 90
models that are critical to understanding global
percent of the ice-free global oceans every two
change. However, TRMM will not measure pre-
days. NSCAT is now being developed for space
cipitation outside the tropics and subtropics, and
flight on the Japanese ADEOS satellite with launch
it will have relatively large sampling errors over
in 1995. This flight schedule will allow an overlap
land. These problems will be partially alleviated
with the extended mission of TOPEX/Poseidon,
by using the TRMM package on Space Station in
thus providing an estimate of the wind forcing
conjunction with complementary sensors on the
and ocean current response.
EOS polar platforms.
The absence of a co-located microwave
radiometer on ADEOS precludes correction of
15
The larger image shows surface streamlines (white lines with arrows) and wind speeds (increasing from blue-purple to red-yellow) from the Seasat Scatterometer
on September 14, 1978. The smaller shows 1988 Northern Hemisphere winter (top) and summer (bottom) estimates of total rainfall based on infrared observa-
tions from the geostationary weather satellites (increasing from red-yellow, through green-dark blue, to light-blue).
THE NEW PERSPECTIVE: EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE
nderstanding global environmental
composition of the atmosphere, and geological
change requires knowledge of the
and geophysical processes.
entire Earth system. A new concept,
EOS has been designed to meet observa-
Earth System Science, has developed to
tional needs of Earth System Science. It will
describe how its components and their interac-
operate for 15 years, a time period which encom-
tions have evolved, how they function, and how
passes a large span of major environmental
they may be expected to continue to evolve.
change, ranging from several atmospheric biennial
Integrated,
The ultimate goal of Earth System Science
oscillations, three to five El Niños, and an entire
is to develop the capability to predict environ-
solar cycle. It will provide a sufficiently large
Long-term
mental changes, both natural and human-induced,
platform to accommodate appropriate suites of
that will occur in the future. Meeting this chal-
sensors SO that multiple views of the same loca-
Observations
lenge for the next decade to century requires the
tion on Earth at the same time will avoid atmos-
integration of knowledge from the traditional
pheric-induced uncertainties. It will provide
disciplines and information from many different
broad and high-resolution spectral and spatial
sources into a coherent view of the Earth system.
coverage. It will feature a fixed payload for the
Earth remote sensing has matured as a
duration, SO that it can provide a consistent set
result of technology development and utility
of observations.
demonstrations. But even as this has occurred,
One particular strength of EOS is that it will
Earth science has continued to be organized along
provide, for the first time, a long-term, simultane-
traditional disciplinary lines. With the understand-
ous set of observations of the same phenomena
ing and experience which has grown within these
on ever-increasing spatial scales (local, regional,
disciplines, with new technology, and with the
global) that can be used to integrate and extrapo-
challenge of understanding Earth as a system, we
late our understanding of ecological and hydro-
are now ready to pursue Earth System Science.
logical processes.
We can now shift our focus from traditional
The EOS Data and Information System
disciplines toward interdisciplinary components
(EOSDIS) will not only provide access to EOS and
of the Earth system as discussed in the following
appropriate complementary ground-based data,
pages: the influence of clouds and radiation
but will also support the research and analysis of
balance, role of oceans and atmosphere in heat
data which exist today and which will come from
transport, hydrologic and carbon cycles, changing
pre-EOS missions.
16
Schematic representation of interdisciplinary components of NASA's EOS science program.
Clouds &
Radiation
Given the maturity of
Heat
remote sensing and
Transport
advances in computer
technology, the
traditional approach
can now give way to
one more appropriate
to understanding the
Earth as a system. The
potential now exists to
specify - - and collect
Solid
— integrated, long-
term, consistent Earth
Earth
science data sets.
Hydrologic
Cycle
Atmospheric
Carbon
Chemistry
Cycle
17
CLIMATE AND RADIATION BALANCE
he energy balance of the Earth's cli-
cooling of the atmosphere. This difference can be
mate system is determined by the bal-
monitored best from space.
ance between absorbed and emitted
The principal attributes of the atmosphere
radiation. For the Earth as a whole, and
that affect the radiative fluxes must also be moni-
over long time periods, there is a near balance of
tored to determine the processes that cause
net radiation at the top of the atmosphere. On
changes in the radiative balance. Such measure-
shorter time scales, the variable distribution of
ments have been made from space through the
What Is The
heating and cooling provides the sources and
use of operational satellites and the Earth Radia-
sinks of energy which drive the circulation of the
tion Budget Experiment. The results from these
Influence Of
atmosphere and oceans.
studies, only recently available, tend to confirm
Throughout the atmosphere, radiative
that low level clouds cause cooling through reflec-
Clouds?
heating and cooling compete with other processes
tion of solar radiation whereas high level clouds
such as evaporative cooling or latent heat release
cause heating through absorption and reflection of
to determine the temperature. Radiation is also
surface radiation. Further long-term measure-
important in partitioning energy between the
ments will be required to establish the validity of
atmosphere and the continental surface and be-
these initial conclusions.
tween the atmosphere and the oceans, thereby
EOS instruments will provide improved
determining the extent to which the oceans mod-
spatial resolution and high spectral resolution
erate climate change. Over land, the solar flux
observations of clouds and more accurate profiles
received at the surface has a strong influence on
of atmospheric temperature and water vapor.
the hydrologic cycle and the biosphere. To
They will also monitor cloud water vapor and pre-
understand all of these processes we must monitor
cipitation. All of these observations contribute to
the parameters that govern the radiation balance.
improved measurement of surface temperature
The incoming solar radiation heats the
and moisture. Other EOS instruments will provide
atmosphere and the Earth's surface. The Earth
complete hemispherical coverage of the radiance
and atmosphere cool by re-radiating a portion of
pattern to provide data for new angular distribu-
the energy at much longer wavelengths. The dif-
tion models, improved fluxes and daily, global
ference in radiation at the top of the atmosphere
observations of stratospheric and tropospheric
and at the surface is the net radiative heating or
aerosol optical thicknesses.
18
These figures show results from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment for January 1986 and include the combined effect of sunlight and infrared radiation.
The smaller figure shows the net radiation for clear-sky conditions, where blue (magenta) represents the net heat loss (gain) corresponding to the Northern
(Southern) Hemisphere winter (summer). In the larger figure, clouds have a net cooling (heating) effect in the blue-green (yellow-red-magenta) regions.
Clouds play a critical
role influencing the
heat balance of the
Earth. While high
clouds can have a net
beating effect, increas-
ing the potential
greenbouse effect, low
clouds can do just the
opposite. The study of
clouds will thus be a
central element in the
Global Change
Research Program.
CIRCULATION OF THE OCEANS AND ATMOSPHERE
tmospheric and oceanic circulations
accurate estimate. For many parts of the globe,
play a central role in the climate of the
particularly in the Southern Hemisphere, neither
Earth. The atmosphere is driven by the
the magnitude nor the direction of the directly
radiation from the sun. The surface
estimated heat transport is consistent with the
winds drive the oceanic circulation and influence
inferred transport.
the exchange of heat between the oceans and the
EOS, together with in situ measurements,
atmosphere. The result is a complex interacting
will provide for the first time the necessary simul-
How Is Heat
system of winds and currents which are a part of
taneous observations for accurate estimation on
the climate system. As we try to understand and
a global scale of both the circulation and heat
Transported?
predict changing climate, improving our knowl-
transport of the atmosphere and oceans. While
edge about the interaction between oceanic and
operational satellites have given profiles of atmos-
atmospheric circulation is essential. For example,
pheric temperature for almost two decades, EOS
the heat content and time scales of motion in the
will provide the first simultaneous wind profiles
oceans are larger than in the atmosphere. Thus,
on a global basis, which will improve estimates of
changing the storage of heat or the rate of forma-
the atmospheric heat transport. Similarly, the sea-
tion of cold deep water in the oceans could sub-
surface temperature, sea-ice coverage, and surface
stantially lessen the impact of a greenhouse effect.
oceanic circulation will be observed simultane-
Similarly, the formation of sea ice in the polar
ously by the radiometers and altimeters on EOS,
regions can lead to changes in heat transport and
leading to improved estimates of the heat ex-
deep-water formation which can have significant
change between the oceans and the atmosphere.
impacts on climate.
By combining simultaneous observations from
The best estimates of the heat flux by the
several EOS sensors, a better description of the
atmosphere and oceans have been obtained by
complex interaction between the oceans and the
inference from the global radiation budget and
atmosphere will be achieved. Coupled with
atmospheric heat transport. Using these estimates,
numerical models, these measurements should
the oceans and atmosphere are found to transport
greatly improve our ability to understand and
roughly equal amounts of heat poleward. How-
predict the role of oceanic and atmospheric circu-
ever, attempts to measure the oceanic heat trans-
lation in our changing climate.
port directly have not succeeded in providing an
20
The mean surface temperature (top) for June 1988 as obtained from the infrared and microwave radiometers (HIRS/MSU) aboard the NOAA series of meteorologi-
cal satellites (increasing from blue-yellow to red). In the lower figure, the mean dynamic topography obtained from the Geosat satellite shows the large-scale
average ocean circulation; streamlines are clockwise around the higher elevations (yellow-red) in the Northern Hemisphere.
O
12
With the oceans and
atmosphere each
playing a significant
role in transporting
heat from low to bigh
latitudes, it is impor-
tant to understand the
nature of their circula-
tions, as well as how
they are driven and
interact, SO that their
influence on regional
and global climate
can be assessed.
THE GLOBAL HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
he existence of abundant water, an
the first steps in investigating one of the least
essential ingredient for life, is a primary
known and most crucial elements of the global
difference between Earth and the other
hydrologic cycle. But we are far from understand-
planets. Through the hydrologic cycle,
ing how the hydrologic cycle will respond to a
water is an essential element of most processes
changing Earth system, or how water will influ-
that determine global climate change. The redis-
ence the other components of the system.
tribution of heat that governs the Earth's climate
Precipitation, soil moisture, atmospheric
What Governs
depends largely on the transport, evaporation,
water vapor, clouds, snow pack, sea ice, polar
condensation, and freezing of water, as well as the
glaciers, vegetation, temperature, and winds are
Rainfall
role of clouds and water vapor in the Earth's
each critical quantities needed to characterize the
radiation balance. Water is a primary agent in
climate and hydrologic system. The very diversity
Patterns?
shaping the landscape and in transporting sedi-
of the effects of water in the Earth system have
ments and nutrients. It is an essential part of all
limited the development of a unified understand-
biogeochemical cycles and interacts strongly with
ing of water. EOS will provide the first long-term,
vegetation. In the form of ice and snow cover,
consistent global measurements of many of these
water affects the Earth's radiation balance, polar
key physical variables. The most important contri-
oceans, and sea level. Water supply governs the
bution of EOS will be the capability for simultane-
distribution and level of agriculture, energy pro-
ous measurements necessary to investigate the
duction, and industry. Drought and floods are
processes which define the interactions and feed-
evident examples of the impact of water on socie-
backs within the hydrologic cycle.
ties. Despite the significance of water, our knowl-
A variety of EOS instruments will each
edge of the hydrologic cycle as part of the global,
contribute different components to our knowledge
interacting system is meager.
of physical climate and the hydrologic cycle. The
In tropical and subtropical regions, clouds
global measurements and the process studies
and precipitation are a major driving force for the
based on the simultaneous combination of EOS
circulation of the atmosphere. The Tropical
measurements are critical to understanding the
Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) and the efforts
central role of water in the Earth system.
to establish a global precipitation climatology are
22
This composite view (top) in the visible portion of the spectrum is based on data from NOAA's GOES-5 and European Meteosat-2 on July 4, 1983. Clouds are
shown in greys, oceans blue, and land green to tan. Nimbus-7 microwave radiometer-derived estimates (bottom) of sea ice and snow cover for February 1983.
Sea ice is white, permanent ice sheets purple, and depth of snow cover shades of blue.
Water must be a
central focus in
the Global Change
Research Program.
In addition to its
presence being a
limiting factor for life
itself, it expedites the
transfer of energy
within the physical
climate system, as
well as the transport
of nutrients within
the biogeochemical
system.
THE GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE
ince 1850, atmospheric carbon dioxide
Current operational observing systems can
has increased by 25 percent and atmos-
provide estimates of the rate of deforestation, but
pheric methane by more than 100
coverage is incomplete because of cloud cover
percent. Though the changing carbon
problems in the tropics. These systems have
cycle has been studied for a long time, we remain
extremely restricted spectral resolution and cannot
uncertain about many of the controlling processes
discriminate subtle changes in disturbed ecosys-
and the relative role of the terrestrial ecosystem
tems. EOS instruments will provide needed global
What Controls
versus the oceans in sequestering carbon. Hence
coverage of ecosystem states. The synthetic
we cannot predict future trends and effects. The
aperture radar, planned to fly on a separate space-
Atmospheric
exchange of carbon between the atmosphere,
craft, will have the ability to penetrate clouds and
terrestrial biosphere, and oceans as well as the
forest canopies to characterize forest biomass and
CO2?
magnitude of the major carbon reservoirs are
moisture status with high resolution maps. This
central issues in understanding the global carbon
information will be used to infer global productiv-
cycle. If climate changes, how will these ex-
ity patterns, both on the land and in the ocean,
changes be affected? Will the oceans take up less
another important aspect of the global carbon cycle.
carbon dioxide or more? Will the terrestrial feed-
The net flux of atmospheric carbon dioxide
backs be positive or negative? What will happen
into the oceans remains uncertain. The rate of
to the major storage reservoirs of carbon? These
carbon uptake by the oceans is controlled by a
are vital issues for society.
complex interaction of ocean biology, chemistry,
Large uncertainties in our understanding of
and circulation. Over 99 percent of all biologically
the carbon cycle are related to questions such as:
incorporated carbon is buried in ocean sediments.
How much carbon dioxide is being released from
Thus, small changes in oceanic primary productiv-
vegetation and soils as a result of natural changes
ity can have a major impact on the partitioning of
and deforestation? How much carbon dioxide is
carbon dioxide in the global carbon cycle. EOS
being taken up by the oceans? What is the rate of
instruments will allow dramatically improved es-
carbon transfer between the atmosphere and ter-
timates of biological activity in the upper ocean,
restrial ecosystems? The sources for increased
the sea-surface state, and the circulation. The data
methane emissions to the atmosphere need to be
will be used to make improved models of the
identified and quantified.
carbon cycle.
24
The figures on the right compare 1989 March (top) and October (bottom) vegetation index patterns (increasing from tan to purple) based on data from the
NOAA AVHRR. The figures on the left compare 1979 spring (top) and winter (bottom) phytoplankton chlorophyll concentrations (increasing from purple to
yellow-red) based on data from the Nimbus-7 CZCS.
Carbon must be
another central focus
in the Global Change
Research Program.
The intimate linkages
between gases, such as
CO2 and CH₄, and
their sources/sinks
within the biosphere -
whether oceanic or
terrestrial - must be
understood in order to
fully assess the poten-
tial for greenbouse
warming.
OZONE AND ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY
he changing chemical composition
Global-scale models that couple chemistry and
of the atmosphere in recent years has
dynamics must be used to put the observations
been a dramatic signal of global
into a coherent picture of the atmosphere that
change. The principal changes ob-
allows confident projections of ozone depletion
served have been the reduction of stratospheric
and greenhouse gas buildup for realistic emission
ozone by chlorofluorocarbons and the buildup of
scenarios.
greenhouse gases in the lower atmosphere.
UARS will provide focused data on strato-
How Is The
The chemistry of the atmosphere is central
spheric chemistry and dynamics in the early 1990s.
to understanding these critical environmental
The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS),
Atmosphere
processes, and ozone is at the center of atmos-
flown as an Earth Probe, will provide data on total
pheric chemistry. Ozone is a protective shield in
ozone to the mid- to late-1990s. After that time,
Changing?
the stratosphere and it is being depleted by reac-
instruments on EOS and NOAA satellites will
tions with chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons,
continue to watch stratospheric ozone depletion
which are released at the surface and transported
and to provide direct global-scale measurements
to the stratosphere. In the troposphere, ozone is a
of ozone and greenhouse gases.
pollutant gas from fossil fuel and biomass burning
EOS includes with its payloads the instru-
and from industrial activity. As global air quality
ments necessary to study the global processes
degrades, the ability of the atmosphere to cleanse
which control the stratospheric ozone layer and
itself chemically is reduced. This in turn could
to monitor changes in tropospheric gases. The
enhance the greenhouse effect by increasing the
15-year life of EOS will allow measurement over
accumulation of greenhouse gases.
a sufficiently large number of annual cycles, bien-
Monitoring ozone depletion in the strato-
nial oscillations, and ozone changes, to greatly
sphere and increase in the troposphere are key re-
improve our understanding of the ozone layer.
quirements of a Global Change Research Program.
It will have the capability to monitor the long-
Measurements of global ozone concentrations as a
and intermediate-lived chemical components of
function of altitude are required along with meas-
the troposphere and their long-term changes. The
urements of the global distribution of the atmos-
EOS instruments will thus address the central
pheric chemicals, dynamic processes, and solar
problems of the relation of climate to changing
energy input that control ozone concentrations.
atmospheric chemistry.
26
This time series of stratospheric ozone for the month of October begins in 1980 (far left) and ends in 1989 (the large image). The data, collected by the Nimbus-7
LIMS sensor, show the evolution of the "ozone hole" near Antarctica (increasing from purple-blue to green-red).
The reduction of
"protective" ozone in
the stratosphere via
man-made chemicals
such as chlorofluoro-
carbons, as well as the
increase of "harmful"
ozone in the tropo-
sphere as a result of
pollution, point to the
need to understand
atmospberic chemistry
as a key element of
the Global Change
Research Program.
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL PROCESSES
eological and geophysical processes
drastic events. Densely spaced, high resolution
vitally affect life on Earth. The spec-
geodetic measurement on a frequent basis is
tacular hazards of volcanic eruption,
the most likely technique to achieve timely earth-
earthquakes, floods, and landslides are
quake prediction. High resolution geodetic
familiar to all who follow the world news. Volca-
observation and altimetry are also the keys to
noes introduce chemicals and aerosols into the
understanding regional uplift, subsidence, and
atmosphere. Crustal movement results in earth-
associated hazards in coastal areas, as well as
What is the
quakes, regional sea-level variations, and potential
change in the shape and volume of polar ice caps.
flood hazards. Changes in the massive amounts
Changes in the Earth's rotation and length-of-day
Role Of The
of ice now stored in glaciers and polar ice caps
are best monitored using high resolution geodetic
could lead to significant changes in sea level and
techniques, while the deep-seated processes in
Solid Earth?
oceanic circulation. Desertification and erosion
the Earth which cause these changes are best
of large tracts of land affect the global hydrologic
understood by study of the Earth's magnetic field.
cycle and Earth's productivity. The motion of
We must be able to detect areas of current or
material deep in the core and mantle causes subtle
potential desertification and erosion, which re-
changes in Earth's rotation and length-of-day in
quires large-scale observation and detailed charac-
ways that are not yet well understood.
terization, and the ability to continually update
Understanding these processes requires a
the observations.
diversity of observations. We need to monitor the
EOS will provide the sensors required to
gaseous effusion and thermal productivity of
document and understand the interactions be-
volcanoes to gauge atmospheric effects and to
tween geological and geophysical processes and
assess the likelihood of eruption and potential of
other components of the Earth system. The diver-
resultant hazards. EOS atmospheric and land-
sity of simultaneous observations which will be
surface sensors will be used to characterize the
possible from the EOS platforms will allow timely
composition and nature of volcanoes. Altimeters
responses to situations which would not have
and positioning systems will be used to detect
been possible with earlier techniques. The remote
expansion of probable hazardous volcanoes.
sensing aspects minimize risk of human life in
We need to monitor the mechanisms of
documenting extreme events.
plate motion over long periods and during short,
28
Mineralogical and thermal features in the vicinity of Mt. St. Helens based on data from Landsat Thematic Mapper in July 1984, four years after its last eruption;
note the "bot spot" in the crater, as well as on the flank of the volcano. The black and white image (315 km square) from Seasat's synthetic aperture radar in
1978 shows surface features in Southern California, including the area where the San Andreas and Garlock Fault Zones converge.
Geological and
geophysical process
— whether shorter
term earthquakes a
volcanoes or longe
term weathering an
desertification — a
important elements
the Global Change
Research Program.
Understanding the
balance between se
level and ice-sheet
volume with chang
glaciation is also
critical.
EARTH OBSERVING SYSTEM: SPACE SEGMENT
new start is proposed for EOS in
Platform size for EOS has been chosen to
NASA's FY 1991 budget submission to
accommodate atmospheric sounding and surface
Congress, with development to be
imaging sensors, a grouping which maximizes the
initiated in October 1990. NASA began
synergistic use of coincident observations, as well
conceptual studies for EOS in 1982; coordination
as minimizes atmospheric induced uncertainties.
with the European Space Agency (ESA), Japan,
The satellites will be launched into polar orbit from
and Canada was initiated in 1986. Present plans
Vandenberg Air Force Base on Titan-IV rockets.
Gathering
call for two series of polar-orbiting platforms:
An EOS platform will accommodate a
EOS-A and EOS-B. The 15-year observational
payload up to 3500 kilograms and can supply up
Comprebensive
period will be achieved using three identical
to 3.2 kilowatts of power to the payload. This
satellites per series, each with a five-year design
platform is twice the size of UARS and can supply
Global
lifetime.
about four times the power; it will accommodate
ESA is planning two series of polar plat-
two to four instruments more than the 10 aboard
Observations
forms with a climatological and terrestrial focus,
UARS. Because of the wider spectral range of the
respectively, and Japan is planning one polar plat-
instruments, its data system will manage more
form. Both NASA and NOAA sensors are planned
than 10,000 times the data of UARS.
for inclusion on these platforms. Additionally,
The need for global coverage every one to
NASA is planning to provide sensors as attached
three days dictates a sun-synchronous orbit with a
payloads for the Space Station.
quasi-two-day repeat; a 705-kilometer altitude,
A group of 41 sensors from the U.S., Can-
98.2-degree inclination orbit meets this need. It
ada, Japan, and Europe has been selected as can-
will have a 1:30 p.m. local equatorial-crossing time.
didates for flight on EOS. The EOS-A series is
The Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), not
tentatively planned to focus on atmospheric
able to be efficiently accommodated on the EOS
sounding and surface imaging; selection of spe-
series of platforms, is planned for flight on a
cific sensors will be in October 1990. The EOS-B
dedicated satellite in 1999. Its orbit will have a
series is planned to include sensors capable of
620-kilometer altitude and similar equatorial-
extending observations made by the UARS and
crossing time; this will provide frequent opportu-
TOPEX/Poseidon missions; sensor selection for
nities for coincident observation of the same
EOS-B will occur one year later.
locations as sensors on EOS platforms.
30
NASA's Mission to Planet Earth includes the EOS-A and -B series of polar platforms, a separate EOS SAR mission, and the TDRS communication link; not shown
are the Space Station attached payloads and Earth Probes; related foreign polar platforms include the ESA M-1 and N-1 series, as well as the Japanese JPOP. The
smaller image shows a comparison of launch-configuration sizes with EOS-A at a 14.8-meter height.
EOS-A
EOS-B
EOS SAR
TDRS
ESA N1
JPOP
ESA M1
Two polar-orbiting
GSFC
series, each with three
5-year-life satellites,
White Sands
will span a 15-year
period. EOS-A will
include sensors for
atmospberic sounding
and surface imaging;
EOS-B will include
follow-on UARS and
TOPEX/Poseidon
coverage. Radar
imaging is planned
via a separate EOS SAR.
D
D
4
D
TOPEX/Poseidon
UARS
EOS-A
Space Telescope
31
EARTH OBSERVING SYSTEM: THE DATA AND INFORMATION SYSTEM
he EOS Program has put a major em-
There will be two types of data products:
phasis on the Data and Information
standard and specialized. Standard products will
System (EOSDIS). EOSDIS is planned
be generated and archived at Active Archive Cen-
to acquire a comprehensive, global, 15-
ters; the target time for the availability of engineer-
year data set; to maximize the utility of this data
ing-level products is within 48 hours of collection;
set for scientific purposes; and to facilitate its easy
the target for derived geophysical products is
access by the research community. In addition to
within 96 hours. Specialized products will be gen-
Providing
data processing, archival, and distribution facili-
erated by individual investigators and made avail-
ties, EOSDIS includes the necessary capabilities for
able to EOSDIS for archiving and distribution, as
Easy Access
command and control of the spacecraft.
appropriate.
The development of EOSDIS will be initi-
The EOSDIS policy specifies that all data
To Data
ated immediately by building on the existing
and derived products be available to all users,
infrastructure within the research community. It
with no preference given to EOS investigators.
will implement an architecture which is open and
Research users in the U.S. and participating coun-
distributed, SO that it can evolve with advances in
tries will pay only the nominal cost of data repro-
computing and networking technology. The near-
duction and delivery; they will be required to
term objectives are to support the research and
agree to publish their results and to make avail-
analysis of data which both exist and will come
able supporting information, including methods
from the near-term pre-EOS missions. In this
for analyzing data. Research users in other coun-
way, the research community can gain valuable
tries may propose cooperative projects and associ-
early experience in preparation for the future large
ated "in kind" contributions (i.e., provide similar
EOS data volume.
access to appropriate satellite, aircraft, and sur-
Archived data sets, in addition to those
face-based data) in exchange for access to EOS
from the EOS satellites, will include complemen-
data on similar terms. Access to the raw data
tary in situ and satellite data. EOSDIS will also
stream will be provided to operational agencies
involve the U.S. Geological Survey, National
for forecasting purposes. NASA will provide for
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the
the commercial distribution of data on a non-
National Science Foundation and other agencies.
discriminatory basis to all other users.
32
The distribution of the U.S. EOS investigators, shown along with proposed sites under consideration as EOSDIS Active Archive Centers (Goddard Space Flight
Center, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Langley Research Center, National Snow and Ice Data Center, National Center for Atmospheric Research, University of Alaska,
University of Wisconsin, and Michigan Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network).
EOSDIS re
concerted
make ava
research C
capability
a timely m
from the E
EOSDIS w
and evolve
Number of EOS investigators
existing ef
51-100
11-20
1-5
communit
21-50
6-10
will be ave
Proposed Active Archive Centers
all users.
SUMMARY
ur planet is experiencing profound
Our nation must take the lead in providing
environmental changes; the economic
sustained observations of the Earth. We have the
and social consequences of global
scientific and technical capability; our national
change have received attention at the
aspirations and spirit demand that we rise to this
highest governmental levels. To document, under-
challenge.
stand, and predict global change is a major scien-
The total cost of EOS is estimated to be
tific challenge; but up to now we have lacked the
17 billion dollars through the year 2000. The cost
Predicting
ability to provide the necessary comprehensive
of EOS platforms and payloads is commensurate
information for key policy decisions. Modern
with other large observing programs, such as the
Global Change
technology and new insights offer hope for early
four Great Observatories of NASA's Astrophysics
warning of change and accurate predictions of
Program.
future change, and thus major societal benefits.
Typically with flight programs, NASA has
Mission to Planet Earth, building on precur-
allocated about 70 percent of the funding for space-
sor research missions and encompassing the
craft hardware and 30 percent for ground-based
proposed Earth Probes and the Earth Observing
activities. For EOS, in recognition of the large data
System, is a major NASA contribution to the U.S.
volume and the need for a comprehensive science
Global Change Research Program. It will provide
program, NASA will allocate 40 percent for space-
the necessary comprehensive global observations
craft hardware and 60 percent for ground-based
of Earth which will reveal how the processes that
activities, including EOSDIS and science.
govern global change interact as part of the Earth
Although the cost of such an observing
System This understanding is critical to the devel-
and data system is large, it is small compared to
opment of models for predicting future environ-
that of taking no action or acting on incomplete
mental change. With a continuing, comprehensive
information. Considering the consequences of
data set from EOS, it will be possible to update
global change for humankind, we cannot afford
and enhance the models SO that they can provide
to do less. Mission to Planet Earth will enable us
the vital information needed about environmental
to observe, understand, and predict change on
change on local, regional, and global scales.
Planet Earth.
34
This table shows the distribution of the proposed Earth Probes, EOS, and related foreign missions. Near-term activities include the initiation of the EOS science
and Data and Information System activities.
90
92
94
96
98
00
NASA
TOMS/METEOR¹
TOMS, ADEOS2
TOMS/SCOUT
TOMS/METEOR¹
Earth Probes
SEAWIFS
NSCAT/ADEOS2
TRMM³
A
B
C
NASA
EOS SCIENCE
EOS DATA & INFORMATION SYSTEM
EOS-A
EOS-B
Earth Observing System
EOS SAR
SPACE STATION
Given the long-term,
FOREIGN
ESA M-1
comprebensive data
JPOP
set from EOS, as well
ESA N-1
as complementary in
situ observations, it
should be possible to
Approved, Under Development,
Proposed
Proposed
Proposed
document global
or Operating
Earth Probes
EOS
Foreign
change, understand
1 USSR Satellite, 2 Japanese Satellite, 3 Joint with Japan
relevant processes,
A, B, & C: Future Earth Probe candidates include Aristoteles/Gravity, MFE/Magnolia, & Topo Missions
and build improved
models. The ultimate
goal is the develop-
ment of realistic
predictive models.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, CREDITS
Bibliography
Committee on Earth Sciences, Federal
Committee on Global Change and the
Special Committee for the IGBP. The
Coordinating Council for Science, Engi-
U.S. National Committee for the IGBP.
International Geospbere-Biosphere
neering, & Technology. Our Changing
Toward an Understanding of Global
Programme: A Plan for Action. Stock-
Planet: The FY 1991 Research Plan-
Change: Initial Priorities for the U.S.
holm, Sweden: IGBP Secretariat, 1988.
The U.S. Global Change Research
Contributions to the International
200 pages.
Program. Washington, D.C.: FCCSET,
Geosphere-Biosphere Program. Wash-
1990. 60 pages.
ington, D.C.: National Academy Press,
Joint Scientific Committee. Scientific
1988. 213 pages.
Plan for the World Climate Research
Committee on Earth Sciences, Space
Programme. Geneva, Switzerland:
Science Board, National Research
EOS Program and Project Offices,
World Meteorological Organization,
Council. A Strategy for Earth Science
National Aeronautics & Space Admini-
1984. 150 pages.
from Space in the 1980's Part I: Solid
stration. EOS and Pre-EOS Reference
Earth and Oceans. Washington, D.C.:
Handbooks. Greenbelt, MD: Goddard
National Academy Press, 1982.
Space Flight Center, 1990 (in press).
99 pages.
Earth System Sciences Committee,
Committee on Earth Sciences, Space
National Aeronautics & Space Admini-
Science Board, National Research
stration Advisory Council. Earth System
Council. A Strategy for Earth Science
Science: A Program for Global Change.
from Space in the 1980's and 1990's
Washington, D.C.: NASA, 1988.
Acknowledgments
Part II: Atmosphere and Interactions
208 pages.
Design, Illustration, and Production:
with the Solid Earth, Oceans, and
Biota. Washington, D.C.: National
Managing Planet Earth, Scientific
InterNetwork, Inc.
Academy Press, 1985. 149 pages.
American-Special Issue, Volume 261,
Support Services: University Corpora-
Number 3 (September 1989):
tion for Atmospheric Research and
Committee on Earth Sciences, Space
pages 1-190.
Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Inc.
Science Board, National Research
Council. Strategy for Earth Explorers in
Space Science Board, National Re-
NASA wishes to thank numerous
Global Earth Sciences. Washington,
search Council. Space Science in the
members of the Earth science commu-
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988.
21st Century: Mission to Planet Earth.
nity who have contributed to the
55 pages.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy
outline, text, and review
Press, 1988. 121 pages.
of this brochure.
Credits: Front Cover: (left to right) Chet Koblinsky, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC); Otis Brown, University of Miami; Gene Feldman & Compton
Tucker, GSFC; William Rossow, NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS); Arlin Krueger, GSFC; Standard projection plotting by Gene Feldman, GSFC.
Inside Front & Back Cover: All photographs © Payson R. Stevens. Page 2: Gene Feldman & Compton Tucker, GSFC. Pages 4 & 6: InterNetwork, Inc. Page 8:
(top) Chet Koblinsky, GSFC; (bottom) James Russell, Langley Research Center (LaRC) and John Gille, National Center for Atmospheric Research. Page 10:
(top) NOAA/NESDIS; (bottom) Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, NOAA/NESDIS, & University of Colorado/CIRES. Page 12: (top) Donald Cavalieri &
Gene Feldman, GSFC; (bottom) Mark Schoeberl, GSFC. Page 14: (top) Peter Woiceshyn, Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Morton Wuretle, University of
California Los Angeles, & Steven Peteherych, Atmospheric Environment Service of Canada; (bottom) William Rossow, GISS & NOAA/CAC. Page 17: InterNet-
work, Inc. Page 19: ERBE Research Team, LaRC. Page 21: (top) Moustafa Chahine, JPL, & Joel Susskind, GSFC; (bottom) Byron Tapley, University of Texas
36
at Austin & Steve Nehrem, GSFC. Page 23: (top) William Rossow, GISS & WCRP/ISCCP; (bottom) Dorothy Hall & Donald Cavalieri, GSFC. Page 25: (Africa)
Compton Tucker, GSFC; (Atlantic) Gene Feldman, GSFC. Page 27: Mark Schoeberl, GSFC. Page 29: (top) Locke Stuart, GSFC; (bottom) John Curlander, JPL.
Pages 31, 33, & 35: InterNetwork, Inc. Back Cover: NASA.
2/90: 75K
For further information and
additional copies, write:
EOS Program Office
NASA Headquarters (Code EE)
Washington, D.C. 20546
Global change poses
monumental policy
issues, with enormous
economic and social
consequences. The
development of
realistic predictive
models requires data
and insight that EOS
and Earth Probes will
provide. We cannot
afford to do less,
especially considering
what is at stake.
NASA
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
"This we know: the
Earth does not belong
to man, man belongs
to the Earth. All things
are connected like the
blood that unites us
all. Man did not
weave the web of life,
be is merely a strand
in it. Whatever be does
to the web, be does to
himself."
Chief Seattle, 1852
Recovery of Solid Rocket Booster
Shuttle
(explosive) devices and moved away from the
Shuttle vehicle by eight separation motors - four
Propulsion
housed in the forward compartment and four
mounted on the aft skirt. The separation motors
are fired by a command from the orbiter.
System
The recovery system, in the forward section of
the booster, consists of parachutes and a homing
device. Following separation - at about 5.8
Solid Rocket Boosters
kilometers (19,000 feet) - the booster is slowed by
a drogue parachute and finally by three main
parachutes to impact water at a speed of about 25
Prior to launch, the entire weight of the Space
meters/second (85 feet/sec), aft end first. By
Shuttle is supported on the launch pad by two solid
entering the water this way, the air in the empty
rocket boosters. Each booster is attached to the
booster is trapped and compressed, causing the
pad by four large bolts.
booster to float with the forward end out of the
The heart of each booster is the motor, the
water. After divers insert a nozzle closure and
largest solid rocket ever to be flown and the first
force the water from the booster using air pumps,
designed for reuse. It is made of four factory
the booster is towed to shore.
prepared segments filled with propellant at the
After recovery, the booster is disassembled
manufacturer's facility and assembled at the launch
and refurbished. The motor segments are shipped
site. The segmented design permits ease of
to the manufacturer for reload for another Shuttle
fabrication, transportation and handling.
flight. The other systems are refurbished either at
The motor segments are loaded in pairs from
the launch site or at the respective manufacturers'
one batch of propellant ingredients to minimize any
locations.
thrust imbalances between boosters used for a
single Shuttle flight. Propellant loading is also
done in such a manner as to cause a reduction in
thrust 55 seconds into the Shuttle flight to prevent
overstressing the Shuttle vehicle during its critical
phase of flight, the period'of maximum dynamic
pressure. Each booster develops approximately
11.8 million Newtons (2.65 million pounds) of
thrust.
The exhaust nozzle in the aft segment of each
motor, in conjunction with the orbiter main en-
gines, steers the Shuttle during flight. It can be
moved up to eight degrees by the booster thrust
vector control system which is controlled by the
NASA
orbiter guidance and control computer.
National Aeronautics and
At burnout the two solid rocket boosters are
Solid Rocket Motor Test in Utah
Space Administration
separated from the external tank by pyrotechnic
MCX-009
Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama 35812
NASA's Space Shuttle opened a new era of
be compatible with launch-to-orbit at a maximum of
space transportation when it was launched for the
104 percent of rated power level, with each engine
first time in 1981. Essentially a reusable space
developing 2,174,286 Newtons (488,000 pounds)
vehicle, the Shuttle permits greater participation in
of thrust, 1,734,803 Newtons (390,000 pounds) at
space by the world-wide scientific community than
sea level. Full power level (109 percent of rated
ever before.
power) will be available for use in emergency
The Shuttle is composed of an orbiter - a
situations. During the latter part of ascent, engine
winged spacecraft - and a propulsion system.
thrust will be reduced to insure that an accelera-
The Shuttle propulsion system, consisting of three
tion force of no more than three times that of
main engines, an external tank, and two solid
Earth's gravity is reached. This acceleration level,
rocket boosters, is one of the most advanced
permitted by the throttleable Shuttle engines, is
propulsion systems currently in existence. The
about one-third the acceleration experienced on
external tank is theonly major component that is
previous manned space flights and is well under
used once.
the physical stress limits of non-astronaut scien-
The two solid rocket boosters and three main
tists who fly aboard the Shuttle. The lowest thrust
engines mounted on the orbiter provide the initial
throttle setting - minimum power level - equals
ascent thrust to lift the Shuttle and its payload off
65 percent of rated power.
the launch pad. During a normal mission, the
The Shuttle main engine is the first rocket
boosters provide thrust for approximately 2 minutes
engine to use a built-in electronic digital controller.
after lift-off, then are separated from the vehicle.
The controller will accept commands from the
The engines provide thrust for a total of 8 minutes
orbiter for engine start, shutdown and change in
after lift-off. The Marshall Space Flight Center in
throttle setting, and also will monitor engine
Huntsville, Ala., is responsible for management of
operation. In the event of a failure, the controller
the Shuttle propulsion elements.
takes action automatically to correct the problem or
shutdown the engine safely.
Shuttle Main Engine Test
Shuttle main engines are thoroughly inspected
Space Shuttle Main Engines
and tested between flights to assure acceptable
operation during subsequent flights. The design
goal is to operate for 7.5 accumulated hours.
The Space Shuttle main engine is the most ad-
(47,000 gallons) per minute of hydrogen and
vanced liquid-fueled rocket engine ever built. Its
64,000 liters (17,000 gallons) per minute of oxygen.
main features are variable thrust, high perform-
The main engines use a staged combustion
Main Engine Test Stand
ance, reusability, total redundancy, and a fully
cycle in which all propellants entering the engines
integrated controller. The performance of the
are used to produce thrust more efficiently than any
engine is the highest thrust for its weight of any
rocket engine developed previously. In the staged
engine yet developed.
combustion cycle, propellants are burned partially
Three main engines are mounted on the
at high pressure and relatively low temperature,
orbiter aft fuselage in a triangular pattern. The
and then burned completely at high temperature
engines are spaced so that they are moveable
and high pressure in the main combustion cham-
during flight and, in conjunction with the two solid
ber. The rapid mixing of the propellants under
rocket boosters, are used to steer the Shuttle
these conditions is so complete that a combustion
vehicle during flights as well as provide thrust for
efficiency of about 99 percent is attainable.
launch.
Each engine has three primary levels of thrust
Fuel for the engines, liquid hydrogen and liquid
or power -minimum, rated and full power. Engine
oxygen, is contained in the external tank, the
thrust, however, can be varied throughout the
largest element of the Shuttle. Fuel is supplied
range from minimum to full power level depending
from the tank at a rate of about 178,000 liters
on mission needs. Shuttle payloads will be sized to
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Resource
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Classroom teachers and other educators in the six-
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duplicating disks.
SPACE
STATION
FREEDOM
A Foothold
on the Future
USA
NASA
SPACE
STATION
FREEDOM
A FOOTHOLD ON THE FUTURE
by Leonard David
for the
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
Office of Space Station
CONTENTS
Introduction
2
NASA
A New Era
6
Living in Space
16
Dreams Fulfilled
20
USA
Building a Way Station
to Worlds Beyond
26
Orbital Mechanics
32
Evolving with Versatility
36
Foothold on the Future
40
Freedom will be an international
research center in space, and an
orbital base for future missions to
extend human presence out of Earth
orbit and into the Solar System.
INTRODUCTION
hroughout the long sweep
T
of history, the quest to push
back frontiers on Earth has
started with discovery and
exploration, followed by
settlement and economic
development. Indeed this is
how the length and breadth
of our country was devel-
oped. In a sense, therefore,
Space Station Freedom
signals the early stage of our
permanent settlement in low-
earth orbit. Backed by over
three decades of scientific
data gleaned by space
satellites and human space
voyagers, this new interna-
tional laboratory, anchored in
Earth orbit and inhabited
and tended by humans, will
help us master and develop
the space frontier.
The United States is not
alone in its attempts to tame
space. Many nations see a
bright future in exploring
and exploiting the space
frontier for world promi-
nence, national strength, and
commercial profit. Japanese,
German, and French indus-
try-government teams are
currently formulating space-
based programs in micro-
gravity research and other
space services, including
remote sensing of Earth.
And since 1971 Soviet
cosmonauts have been
regularly departing to and
from Earth to operate
stations in space, achieve-
ments that lead many experts
to expect bolder Soviet
missions in the future,
perhaps a mission to Mars.
During the early planning
years, experts called a space
station the next logical step
for America's space program.
Today, that space station,
christened Freedom by
President Reagan in 1988, is
becoming part of America's
foothold on the future. If
America is to demonstrate
An artist's view of an evolutionary
space station serving as a
"Spaceport" in low Earth orbit.
m Call,86
VSVN
VOLUZEY 40 STATE
ENITED
Conducting Science in Space
the permanently manned
pher these structures,
Once assembly of
facility are advances in
crystallographers coax
Freedom is complete, eight
materials science and life
biological molecules to
crew members - the
sciences. These are the
organize symetrically into
commander, operators,
scientific areas that can most
crystals big enough to study.
payload specialists, and
benefit from Freedom's
They bombard these molecu-
mission scientists from the
extensive capabilities and
lar crystals with X-rays to
United States and space-
from human supervision and
create diffraction patterns,
partner countries - will be
interaction.
which computers analyze.
on board. Floating free
One important research
Growing protein crystals
inside Freedom's pressurized
activity to be conducted
good enough to study is
modules or tethered outside
aboard Freedom will concen-
extremely difficult. Despite
to its truss, they will work as
trate on the basic structure of
tremendous efforts, research-
integrated teams in 9-hour
protein molecules, the
ers have crystallized relatively
shifts, 5 days a week.
building blocks of life.
few proteins successfully, and
Outfitted with a diverse
Protein crystallography, a
imperfections often mar the
set of hardware and elaborate
technique to be implemented
rare large crystals grown
instrumentation, Freedom
using devices in the U.S.
under normal circumstances.
will be an upward-, down-
laboratory module, is a
However, space experiments
ward-, and inward-looking
relatively new and exciting
suggest that larger and more
international research base. It
discipline that will be further
perfect crystals form in the
will be a site for conducting
stimulated by space-borne
absence of gravity.
basic research in physics,
experiments. Crystallogra-
Previous experiments have
chemistry, and life sciences,
phy is a powerful way to
demonstrated the feasibility
for processing materials, for
determine the three-dimen-
of growing large protein
monitoring Earth's fragile
sional structures of large
crystals in microgravity
environment, and for
molecules. Knowledge of
without the formation of
developing new technolo-
structure provides a key to
multiple seeds, which
gies. Servicing of attached
understanding the basic
produce numerous small
instruments and reusable
mechanisms of life. Many of
crystallites that would
spacecraft, and assembly and
the molecules essential for
checkout of large structures
living mechanisms-espe-
will be performed at Space
cially the proteins and
nucleic acids-are very large
molecules with extremely
complicated three-dimen-
sional structures. To deci-
Station Freedom. Ulti-
mately, Freedom will be a
point of departure to inter-
planetary space.
Complex experiments will
be performed within
Freedom's pressurized, shirt-
sleeve laboratories, providing
many important clues to the
basic laws of physics that
govern the delicate interac-
tion between gravity, hu-
mans, and materials. The
primary research objectives of
8
The U.S.-built
laboratory
module will
house hardware
designed to
conduct
Chemical
materials and
Vapor
Materials
life sciences
Transport
Processing
investigations.
Experiment
Glovebox
Element
Life Sciences
Equipment will
Control
1.8m
be similar to
Workstation
Centrifuge
devices found in
well-equipped
ground-based
laboratories.
Port
Starboard
Maintenance
Workstation
Contiuous Flow
Biospecimen
Electrophoresis
Life Sciences
Holding
Lab Sciences
System
Glovebox
Facilities
Workbench
Protein crystals,
like these
may prove to be
of major benefit
to medical
technology.
Configuration of U.S. modules shows
the habitat module (top center);
laboratory module (below habitat
module); logistics module (far left) for
storage and transport of supplies and
experiments; and resource nodes
which interconnect the modules and
house command and control systems.
(Courtesy of Boeing Aerospace)
9
preclude study by X-ray
diffraction techniques.
Protein crystals grown
aboard Freedom will be large
enough, and of sufficient
quality, to be studied by
conventional crystallography.
Once their three-dimensional
molecular structure has been
determined, these new
products may be synthesized
on Earth through bioengi-
neering techniques, and steps
can be taken to alter, en-
hance, or eliminate the
protein effects in the human
body. There are potential
applications to the treatment
of human diseases and
disorders, and to organ
transplants and implants.
Other fundamental areas
of investigation to be
explored within Freedom's
laboratory module include
properties of pure metals,
segregation effects in alloy
solidification, the microstruc-
ture of castings, nucleation
and growth phenomena in
the absence of container-wall
effects, and the process of
rapid solidification of highly
undercooled melts. For
example, the formation of
dendrites-whisker-like
growths similar to structures
found in snowflakes-may be
studied in detail. Dendritic
growth is an important
feature of solidification, with
implications for the strength
of castings. The high
vacuum of space also may be
utilized in metallurgical
studies. In combination with
containerless processing, a
vacuum system offers unique
opportunities to study metal
Ability to perform materials sciences investigations, similar to
those performed here by Byron Lichtenberg on the Spacelab 1 mission, will be
purification and the basic
dramatically enhanced by Space Station Freedom.
properties of ultrapure or
high corrosive materials.
The understanding of
room-temperature and
cryogenic fluid behavior is
a key to microgravity re-
search generally, since nearly
all materials are processed
in their fluid state. Specific
experiments performed
aboard Freedom could
examine processes and
phenomena related to
droplet and bubble dynam-
ics, phase transitions, capil-
10
Right: Spacelab 3 payload specialist
the behavior of liquid drops
Taylor Wang manipulates sphere in a
device which served as a forerunner
to the processing of molten
to a containerless processing facility
materials at high tempera-
being developed for Freedom.
tures.
Below: Life sciences investigations,
like this heart-monitoring
Space Station Furnace
echocardiograph being connected by
Facility for study of metal
Dr. Rhea Seddon to Jeffrey Hoffman
during a Shuttle mission, will study
and alloy solidification and
the effect of microgravity on plant,
crystal growth with applica-
animal and human organisms.
tions to electronic devices
and development of materials
with unique or improved
properties.
Modular Combustion
Facility to study fundamen-
TENNESSE
tal combustion processes and
phenomena and provide data
for combustion-related
applications such as fire
safety and control and
advanced furnaces.
Fluid Physics/Dynamics
Facility to provide a better
understanding of fundamen-
tal fluid behavior which is
essential to developing
processes that take full
advantage of the micrograv-
ity environment.
lary processes, forced multi-
cesses and living organisms
Equally important are
phase flows, nucleation and
at the cellular level. This
detailed studies in life
cluster phenomena, and
facility would permit a
sciences. Life on Earth, from
electrohydrodynamic effects.
detailed study of the
microbe to man, has been
Additional fundamental
response of various cells to
shaped by gravitational forces
research will provide im-
microgravity under carefully
in ways that are only now
provements in measurements
controlled conditions.
beginning to be revealed by
of thermophysical properties
space investigations. Previ-
and furnish data relevant to a
Advanced Protein
ous space missions have
wide variety of applications,
Crystal Growth Facility to
confirmed a complex interac-
including liquid propellant
grow high-quality crystals, to
tion between gravity and life,
storage and transfer, micro-
obtain the highest degree of
but these have been too
encapsulation of biomedical
long range order in the
limited or constrained to
materials, meteorology, and
crystalline lattice, which
permit authoritative biologi-
the study of planetary
determines the precision with
cal research. Space Station
interiors.
which X-ray crystallographers
Freedom-offering con-
Space Station Freedom
can determine the structures
trolled examination of a
will give researchers a
of these complex biologically
variety of species in long-
powerful facility for conduct-
active molecules.
duration microgravity under
ing research in the micro-
the skilled supervision of a
gravity sciences. Micrograv-
Modular Containerless
resident crew-will present
ity research presents oppor-
Processing Facility to
research opportunities
tunities for fundamental
provide basic support for a
unparalleled in the history of
research advances, some of
wide range of experiments
life sciences.
which could have landmark
that require the positioning
Freedom's laboratory
impacts on science and
and manipulation of samples
module will permit extraordi-
technology. Six microgravity
without physical contact.
nary advances in biology.
facilities planned for Free-
Acoustic, electromagnetic
Variable-gravity research
dom Station's laboratory
and electrostatic fields will
conducted aboard Freedom
module are:
provide the forces to ma-
will seek to advance our
nipulate the sample. Experi-
knowledge of fundamental
Biotechnology Facility
ments to be performed in
biological processes. A
to study the microgravity
this facility will range from
major objective of this
effects on biological pro-
tests of theories that describe
11
Given Freedom's vantage point, experiments can be carried out to observe
Earth's solid surface, atmosphere, oceans and ice deposits.
research is a deeper under-
further into the solar system,
device to study. Experiment-
standing of the relationship
and are expected to have
ers now hope to produce a
between gravity and life, as
wide-ranging clinical applica-
dynamic model of a
revealed through synergistic
tions on Earth, such as in the
mammal's neural network,
experimentation across a
treatment of bone-degrading
which could be used as a
suite of species ranging from
diseases such as osteoporosis.
model to design machines
single-cell organisms to
Gravity plays a key role in
capable of artificial intelli-
human beings.
the development of most, if
gence.
In the area of space
not all, biological systems.
Experimental modeling of
physiology, researchers will
The opportunity to examine
gas-grain interactions can
exploit the ambient micro-
microorganisms, plants, and
also be carried out in
gravity environment, to-
animal species throughout
gether with the variable
multiple life cycles in a
NASA
gravity produced by specially
microgravity environment is
designed research centri-
unprecedented in the history
fuges, to examine the
of biology. Experiments will
SPACE
CENTRIFUGE
physiological effects of
focus on identifying the
gravity on mammalian
organ or site of gravity
systems, especially human
reception; determining the
systems. Experiments will
effect of gravity on reproduc-
focus on the mechanisms by
tion, development and
which gravity influences
maturation; and investigating
bone and muscle, fluid and
physiological responses. In
hydrostatic systems, orienta-
particular, this program will
tion in space, homeostatic
sponsor scientific studies of
control, and response to
life born and raised beyond
environment. Data gleaned
Earth. Research in this field
from these experiments will
may have practical applica-
help lift the veil of mystery
tions for computer scientists.
Mockup of 1.8 meter centrifuge for life
surrounding human adapta-
The discovery that gravity-
sciences investigations.
tion to space flight, a
sensing cells in mammals also
necessary feat before extend-
act as parallel processors
ing the human presence
gives scientists a simple
12
technology for use within the
dented study of the origin
spacecraft. This research will
and evolution of matter in
investigate the use of plants
the galaxy by direct sampling
and microorganisms to
of galactic material. The
perform in space the same
experiment will produce a
functions performed on
magnetic field one thousand
Earth-production of
times the strength of Earth's
oxygen, potable water, and
magnetic field. To achieve
food from biological wastes.
its superconductivity, the
One of the practical benefits
device will be cooled by
of designing agricultural
liquid helium brought up by
systems for use in space is
the Shuttle and resupplied
that it could contribute to
periodically by Freedom's
developing new intensive
crew.
farming practices in extreme
Freedom will also support
environments on Earth. The
exobiology and solar system
design of small, efficient
research. Freedom provides
plant growth chambers may
an unprecedented opportu-
also have practical value in
nity to collect intact frag-
urban areas, in regions where
ments of interplanetary dust
growing conditions are not
particles, the "fossils" of early
right for a particular crop, or
solar system development,
in extreme environments
and possibly interstellar
such as the Antarctic or
particles for post-flight
deserts. And, aside from its
analysis. For example, a
importance in food produc-
Cosmic Dust Collector,
tion, closed ecological life
attached to Freedom's truss,
support system research may
will snag the finely divided
provide a model of other
solid matter-a substance
closed environments, such as
that may offer clues to the
modern insulated houses,
origin of the universe. A
where plants could act as
high-resolution, Astrometric
Freedom's laboratories, with
natural "scrubbers" to
Telescope Facility, designed
applications to the origin of
remove air pollutants.
to peer deep into the sur-
life, particularly the cosmic
Freedom's expansive
rounding universe with
history of organic molecules
horizontal truss will provide
superior pointing accuracy,
from the formation of
attachment points for
may also be mounted to
biogenic elements to their
payloads designed to study
Freedom's frame. This
incorporation into living
the Earth and its environ-
device will look for planets
organisms.
ment, the sun, other bodies
around other stars.
Research on Freedom will
in the solar system and
We are just beginning to
promote the development of
cosmic objects. Attachment
appreciate the complex and
a bioregenerative life-support
to Freedom Station offers a
highly volatile Sun-Earth
number of advantages,
relationships. Equipment
including provision of
fitted outside Freedom's
electrical power, communica-
pressurized modules, such as
tions and some pointing
the Solar Terrestrial Observa-
capabilities furnished by
tory, promises to advance our
Freedom itself, together with
understanding of solar
opportunities for resupply of
features and properties and
consumables and instrument
of the ebb and flow of
exchange by Freedom's
electrical plasma, the solar
resident crew.
wind cast off from the Sun
NASA has already identi-
before interacting with
fied many promising candi-
Earth. Other prospective
date payloads that can
attached payloads include a
benefit from Freedom's
Large Area Modular Array of
orbit, configuration and
Reflectors for surveys of
operation. One exciting
cosmic X-ray sources at low
Making use of the Freedom-its crew
experiment under study is
resolution and high sensitiv-
and high sensitive instruments-
Astromag, which would use a
ity, and a Pinhole Occulter
Earth's star, the Sun, can be
continuously observed. Dynamic Sun-
powerful superconducting
Facility for mapping of solar
Earth relationships, studied from the
magnet for unravelling
X-rays.
Station, may yield valuable clues
aspects of mysterious cosmic
Although the manned
about the effects of solar phenomena
on the Earth.
rays and begin an unprece-
base is only a few hundred
13
DREAMS
FULFILLED
or hundreds of years the idea
of an orbiting facility in space
F
has fueled the fantasies of
writers, scientists, and
engineers. Not until the
great burst of scientific
activity marking the turn of
the 20th century, however,
did the first truly thoughtful,
provocative concepts for a
space station emerge.
Penned mostly by scientists
and engineers, not one
postulated a station in space
as an end in itself.
Instead, the visionaries
saw space stations as serving
enduring purposes: enlarging
our understanding of the
cosmos, servicing Earth, and
providing a way station to
worlds beyond. In Russia,
scientist Konstantin Tsi-
olkovsky clearly spelled out
the possibility of orbital
stations forming the heart of
a program of space conquest
that would eventually lead to
"cities in space." To this day,
Soviet exploits have kept
alive Tsiolkovsky's assertion
that "the planet is the cradle
of mankind, but one cannot
spend one's life in a cradle."
The Space Era is Launched
On October 4, 1957,
when the Soviet's Sputnik 1
rumbled skyward to give
birth to the Space Age, the
stuff of science fiction moved
a notch closer to becoming
science fact. With the
creation of the National
Aeronautics and Space
Administration in 1958,
American civilian space
planning efforts were central-
ized, and the United States
set out to become the lead
space-faring nation in the
The Apollo program achieved the goal
of landing a man on the Moon and
returning him safely to Earth. Twelve
men walked on the Moon during
Apollo. One of the last to visit the
Moon was Apollo 17 scientist-
astronaut Harrison Schmitt shown
here next to a deployed U.S. flag. The
Earth, 240,000 miles away, is visible
in the background.
20
Astronaut Edward White conducts the
first American space walk June 1965
during a Gemini IV mission.
Rendezvous and docking techniques,
mandatory for the Apollo lunar landing
effort, were developed during the
Gemini program.
world. One year later, an
that is, using a space station
led to an alternative approach
embryonic space industry,
as a staging base for a flight
for the Apollo program: a
coupled with NASA, began
to the Moon. As an added
take-off from Earth to be
design studies of a manned
bonus, the station was to
followed by a lunar-orbit
space laboratory, soon to
remain in place after the
rendezvous, with one
become popularly known as
lunar landing. Within 10
astronaut orbiting the Moon
a space station.
years, every major new
as two others landed on the
program being proposed for
Moon and explored it.
The Challenge of Apollo
space was dependent on a
On May 25, 1961,
space station.
The Legacy of Skylab
President John F. Kennedy
Numerous designs were
Skylab was the first
launched the Apollo pro-
offered. They ranged from
American experimental space
gram, calling on the nation
very large stations placed in
station to be built. Furnish-
to "commit itself to achiev-
orbit by giant boosters to
ing a wealth of experience
ing the goal, before this
inflatable balloon-like
between 1973 and 1974,
decade is out, of landing a
structures, retrofitted rocket
Skylab achieved its funda-
man on the Moon and
stages, and cannisters
mental objective, to deter-
returning him safely to
arranged in a spoke configu-
mine human ability to adapt
Earth."
ration that were then spun to
to prolonged weightlessness.
Kennedy's call also
create artificial gravity inside.
Over 270 multidisciplinary
galvanized strong support for
Eventually, limited funds
investigations conducted by
an Earth-orbit rendezvous,
and the President's deadline
Skylab also provided un-
22
Original Mercury astronauts were announced on May 8, 1961. Left to right:
Donald Slayton, Walter Schirra, Gordon Cooper, Scott Carpenter, Virgil Grissom,
John Glenn and Alan Shepard.
Dr. Wernher von Braun contemplated use of large space stations in the 1950's to
support exploratory treks to the Moon and to help send off spaceships to Mars.
(Courtesy of NSI Archives)
precedented solar observa-
tions, Earth resource studies,
and tests of space manufac-
turing techniques.
Far removed from the
versatile Station now under
way, this modest orbital
workshop was actually a
converted, left-over, Saturn
V third stage used to launch
the Apollo astronauts to the
Moon. Astronauts were
flown to and from the
91,000-kilogram (100 ton)
An Atlas booster roars off its Florida launch pad carrying Scott Carpenter on
orbiting laboratory, the size
Mercury-Atlas 9. The Mercury program opened wide the doors to space
exploration by humans.
of a three-room house, in a
small Apollo spacecraft, a
transportation system limited
to single up-and-down trips.
To this day, Skylab's dimen-
sions, which encompassed
353 cubic meters (12,700
23
NASA
National
Aeronautics and
Space
Administration
NP-107/10-88
NASA
EDUCATIONAL
E
PUBLICATIONS
NASA
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
NASA
EDUCATIONAL
PUBLICATIONS
PAM-101/7-87
NASA
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
NASA Facts
The following listing of numbered NASA Facts are
identified according to their intended educational
audiences. When a publication number starts the entry,
an "e" in the parentheses following the publication
number indicates elementary; an "m," middleschool; an
"S," secondary school; and a "u," university.
NF-89 (s) The Voyager Mission
Presents information on Jupiter gathered from the Voyager
mission. The origin of Jupiter, its magnetosphere and great
red spot are discussed in detail. Illustrated in color. 8 pages.
1979.
Stock No. 033-000-00753-1. $2.00
NASA Facts
NF-121 (s) Astronaut Selection and Training
Outlines qualifications and training required for astronauts in
earlier space missions and the present Space Shuttle
program. Illustrated. 6 pages. 1981.
Astronaut
Stock No. 033-000-00823-6. $2.00
Selection and
Training
NF-127 (s) The Shuttle Era
NASA Facts
Describes the Space Shuttle system, presents a mission
profile, and explains why the Shuttle has ushered in a new
The Shuttle Era
era for America's space program. Illustrated. 8 pages. 1981.
Stock No. 033-000-00822-8. $2.00
NF-129 (s) The Next Step: Large Space Structures
Explains how giant antennas and platforms will be built in
NASA Facts
space in the coming decades. Discusses construction
techniques and materials for such structures, and includes
The Next Step: Large Space Structures
suggestions for classroom activities. Illustrated. 8 pages.
1982.
Stock No. 033-000-00853-8. $2.00
NF-132 (s) Images of Saturn from Voyager 2
NASAFacts
Describes images of Saturn returned by the Voyager 2
spacecraft. Illustrated in color. 4 pages. 1982.
Images of Saturn from Voyager 2
Stock No. 033-000-00837-6. $2.00
NF-134 (s) Our Planets at a Glance
Guide to current knowledge about the celestial bodies of our
solar system, based on the interplanetary explorations of
NASA
Viking, Voyager, Pioneer, and Mariner spacecraft. Illustrated.
Information Summaries
16 pages. 1982.
Stock No. 033-000-00859-7. $2.75
NF-135 (s) General Aviation
Summary of NASA research in general aviation aircraft
Our Planets
At Glance
technology, including new ideas on increasing safety, engine
performance, fuel efficiency, and instrument-flying
techniques. Illustrated. 8 pages. 1982.
Stock No. 033-000-00858-9. $2.00
10
NF-137 (s) Proving the Space Transportation System:
NASAFacts
The Orbital Flight Test Program
Describes the Space Shuttle test flight program in
nontechnical language, explaining how Columbia's different
Proving the Space Transportation System
The Orbital Flight Test Program
systems were tested during its first four flights, and why.
Illustrated. 20 pages. 1983.
Stock No. 033-000-00884-8. $2.50
NF-138 (s) Planet Earth Through the Eyes of Landsat 4
NASA Facts
Explains how pictures taken from Earth orbit reveal surface
features such as deserts, areas of vegetation, urban
development, and bodies of water. Illustrated in color. 12
pages. 1983.
Stock No. 033-000-00875-9. $2.25
Planet Earth
NF-140 (s) A New Dimension in Space Exploration:
Through
the
LDEF
Landsat
Explains purpose of the Long Duration Exposure Facility
(LDEF), an unmanned structure launched by the Space
Shuttle in which 53 experiments took place to test the effects
of space on different materials. Illustrated. 12 pages. 1984.
Stock No. 033-000-00914-3. $1.00
NF-144 (s) Space Shuttle: NASA's Answer to
Operations in Near Earth Orbit
Describes technological development and uses of the Space
Shuttle. Illustrated. 6 pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00968-2. $1.00
Posters and Wallsheets
The following listing of numbered posters and wallsheets
generally contain materials appropriate for use in secondary
school and university classrooms, but may also provide
motivational images and instruction for younger audiences.
Voyager at Saturn
WAL-33/34 Voyager at Saturn: The Planet and Rings
Voyager at Saturn
The Planet & Rings
and The Satellites
The Satellites
Two posters. Printed in color. 17x11 inches. Folded. 1981.
Stock No. 033-000-00827-9. $3.75
WAL-58 Comparing the Planets
Introduces comparative planetology (a "Teacher's Guide"
accompanies the wallsheet) by presenting information
gathered from NASA space missions. In addition to size and
distance from the Sun, planets are described in terms of
composition, density, atmosphere, and geology. Printed in
color. 32x56 inches. 1979.
Stock No. 033-000-00744-2. $3.75
WAL-81 Space Shuttle
Space Shuttle with "skin" removed to show skeletal structure
and interior. Includes statistics on the orbiter and brief
account of its nature and uses. Printed in color. 30x42
inches. Folded. 1978.
Stock No. 033-000-00743-4. $3.50
11
WAL-102 Spacelab Wallsheet
Spacelab and Space Shuttle orbiter during hypothetical
mission. Inserts show "life cycle" of spacelab from assembly
to launch, different Spacelab configurations and parts of the
vehicle. Printed in color. 43x44 inches. 1983.
Stock No. 033-000-00903-8. $3.75
WAL-109 Ten Years of Planetary Exploration
Highlights of NASA planetary research from 1972 through
1981, when all planets out to Saturn were explored by
spacecraft. Shows spacecraft trajectories and describes
major discoveries about each planet. Printed in color. 39x49
inches. 1982.
Stock No. 033-000-00861-9. $3.75
WAL-118 International Cometary Explorer Wallsheet
Depicts comet and International Cometary Explorer (ICE)
spacecraft, and lists mission details (a "Teacher's Guide"
accompanies the ICE Wallsheet). Printed in color. 37x41
inches. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00958-5. Wallsheet $4.00; Teacher's
Guide, $1.00
Voyager's Encounter with Jupiter and its Moons
Images taken from Voyager 1 and 2 flybys of Jupiter in
spring and summer of 1979. Includes Jupiter's Great Red
Spot, various views of four Jupiter's moons: Europa,
Ganymede, lo, and Callisto, and an intense volcanic eruption
on the surface of lo. Printed in color. Six posters 23½35
inches (each). 1980.
Stock No. 033-000-00791-4. $10.00
Other Publications of Interest
to Educators
THE PLANETS
A Look at the Planets
Results of NASA planetary exploration including a list of
spacecraft, description of each planet, and chart of facts and
size comparisons. Illustrated in color. 8 pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00964-0. $1.00
Apollo Expeditions to the Moon (SP-350)
Apollo
Photographic presentation of Apollo as told by the Apollo
Expeditions
astronauts and NASA executives. Illustrated in color. 313
to the Moon
pages. 1975.
Stock No. 033-000-00630-6. $ 13.00
NASA
Atlas of Mercury (SP-423)
Background and results of three Mariner 10 fly-bys of planet
Mercury. Illustrated. 128 pages. 1978.
Stock No. 033-000-00695-1. $21.00
Beyond The Atmosphere: Early Years of Space Science
(SP-4211)
History of early years of space science. Illustrated. 515
pages. 1980.
Stock No. 033-000-00798-1. $12.00
12
Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar
Spacecraft (SP-4205)
Survey of Apollo lunar exploration program focusing on
spacecraft hardware and how it was developed. Illustrated.
538 pages. 1979.
Stock No. 033-000-00768-0. $12.00
Evolution of the Solar System (SP-345)
A highly technical summary of the analysis of the origin and
evolution of the solar system. Illustrated. 599 pages. 1976.
Stock No. 033-000-00613-6. $17.00
Far Travelers: The Exploring Machines (SP-480)
Overview of NASA's unmanned spacecraft from early
development through completion of the Pioneer program in
the late 1970s. Illustrated. Clothbound. 267 pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00957-7. $17.00
Galileo to Jupiter: Probing the Planet and Mapping Its
Moons
Describes mid-1980s project named for scientist who
discovered Jupiter's four largest moons. Discusses purpose,
spacecraft design, the planet and its satellites. Illustrated in
color. 20 pages. 1979.
Stock No. 033-000-00763-9. $2.75
Global Geodynamics
Describes in nontechnical terms what NASA's Geodynamics
Program involves. Areas discussed include geodynamics,
geodesy, global dynamics, satellites, and geophysics.
Illustrated. 14 pages. 1983.
Stock No. 033-000-00865-1. $2.75
Halley's Comet: A Bibliography
References to publications on Halley's Comet, its history,
orbital motion, and physical characteristics. Also included are
preparations for space missions that studied Halley's Comet
in 1986. Illustrated. Clothbound. 585 pages. 1984.
Stock No. 030-000-00158-3. $26.00
High-Density Digital Recording (RP-1111)
History, background, and perspective of high-density digital
recording from a user's viewpoint. Also includes information
on state-of-the-art, high-density digital recording (HDDR),
discussing magnetic, optical and bit error correction
technologies. Illustrated. 320 pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00967-4. $11.00
Images of Mars: The Viking Extended Mission (SP-444)
Data on Mars gathered by Viking's orbiters and landers
during the period from summer 1976 to late 1979. Shows
changes that took place on the Martian surface during that
time. Illustrated. 32 pages. 1980.
Stock No. 033-000-00793-1. $3.25
Impact of Science on Society (SP-482)
Edited versions of speeches made in 1983 by James Burke,
Jules Bergman, and Isaac Asimov at the College of William
and Mary, commemorating NASA's 25th anniversary.
Illustrated. 101 pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00943-7. $4.50
13
Living Aloft: Human Requirements for Extended
LIVING ALOFT
Spaceflight (SP-483)
Identifies psychological and social problems that may be
Human Requirements
for Extended Spaceflight
associated with future space missions, and explores possible
solutions. Illustrated. 432 pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00949-6. $14.00
Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab
(SP-4208)
Built from a modified Apollo Saturn rocket, Skylab is
LIVING
considered by many to be the first Space Station. It was
AND
WORKING
during the Skylab mission that we learned many of the
IN SPACE
effects of living and working in space, as well as what
A History
of Skylab
advantages are to be gained from a permanent space base.
Illustrated in color. 462 pages. 1983.
Stock No. 033-000-00847-3. $20.00
Literature of Aeronautics, Astronautics and Air Power
Bibliographical essay providing guidance to various
publications in aeronautics, astronautics, and air power.
Illustrated. 66 pages. 1985.
Stock No. 008-070-00523-9. $2.50
Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger (SP-4210)
History of Project Ranger, the first successful American
Moon exploration project, from its authorization to 1965.
Illustrated. 450 pages. 1977.
Stock No. 033-000-00699-3. $10.00
Marshall Space Flight Center, 1960-1985: Twenty-Fifth
Anniversary Report
Review of Marshall Space Center's major achievements over
the past twenty-five years. Presentation is topical, and
focuses on propulsion and launch vehicles, space science
and technology, and manned space systems. Past
achievements, present projects, and future endeavors of the
center are discussed, and a 4-page chronology is provided
at the end of the publication. Illustrated. 86 pages. 1986.
Stock No. 033-000-00965-8. $6.00
The Martian Landscape (SP-425)
Genesis, planning, and fruition of the Viking missions to
The Martian
Mars. Includes sections devoted to Viking 1 and 2 lander
Landscape
pictures. Illustrated. Clothbound. 160 pages. 1978.
Stock No. 033-000-00716-7. $17.00
Mission to Earth: Landsat Views the World (SP-360)
Interpretations of information gathered by Landsat, originally
called Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS). Presents
400 plates, worldwide, most are in color. Clothbound. 469
pages. 1976.
Stock No. 033-000-00659-4. $34.00
(A "Teacher's Guide" accompanies Mission to Earth. It is
sold separately and has a separate GPO Stock Number.)
This Island Earth (SP-250)
Presents Earth as the "island" in space that it is. Includes
chapters on North America, Earth's atmosphere, lands and
waters, humanity's impact on Earth, and the Sun and solar
system. Illustrated. Clothbound. 192 pages. 1970.
Stock No. 033-000-00321-8. $12.00
14
A New Sun: The Solar Results from Skylab (SP-402)
Tells of the great harvest of information about the Sun
A NEW SUN
The Solar Results
gathered by the Apollo Telescope Mount on Skylab.
From Skylab
Illustrated in color. Clothbound. 217 pages. 1979.
Stock No. 033-000-00742-6. $21.00
On the Frontier: Flight Research at Dryden, 1946-1981
(SP-4303)
Traces development of Hugh L. Dryden Space Flight
Research center as NACA High-Speed Flight Research
Station, a division of Langley Laboratory, through use as a
landing site for the Space Shuttle Columbia. Illustrated. 399
pages. 1984.
Stock No. 033-000-00893-7. $15.00
Photographic Catalog of Selected Planetary Size
Comparisons
Size comparisons of moons and planets. Both global views
and prominent geographical features are depicted at the
same scale. Illustrated. 138 pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00961-5. $5.00
Planetary Exploration Through the Year 2000: A Core
Program, Mission Operations
PLANETARY EXPLORATION THROUGH YEAR 2000
Describes the application of cost control techniques to the
A CORE PROGRAM: MISSION OPERATIONS
planetary exploration program of the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory's Core Program. Mission Operations areas of
emphasis include the need to develop unique operations
and information systems for each planetary mission, gradual
elimination of labor-intensive operations, and changing
insufficient end-to-end analysis of deep space mission
operations. Illustrated. 55 pages. 1986.
Stock No. 033-000-00993-3. $4.00
Project Galileo: A Return to Jupiter
Describes goals of the Galileo mission scheduled to be
launched toward Jupiter and its moons in the late 1980s.
Illustrated. 8 pages. 1980.
Stock No. 033-000-00815-5. $1.75
SEARCHING THE HORIZON
Searching the Horizon: A History of Ames Research
A History of
Center, 1940-1976 (SP-4304)
Ames Research Center
1940-1976
Broad, chronological outline of technological achievements
at the Ames Research Center within the context of its
operational and managerial developments. Topics discussed
include plasma studies conducted using data from the
Pioneer spacecraft; the development of fighter aircraft during
World War II; the blunt-body concept used on the Mercury,
Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft; and a reusable thermal
protection system for the Space Shuttle. Illustrated. 316
pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00966-6. $13.00
Selections from the NASA Art Collection
Portfolio of 12 lithographs of artworks by well-known artists
that participate in the NASA Art Program. Subjects include
Shuttle launches and landings, flight tests of experimental
aircraft, space science satellites, deep-space probes, and
other key activities of the U.S. space program. Printed in
color. 11x14 inches (each).
Stock No. 033-000-00998-4. $6.00
15
Selling to NASA
Prepared to assist potential contractors in the process of
Selling
to
doing business with NASA. The procurement process is
NASA
explained and advice is offered for marketing products.
Illustrated in color. 44 pages. 1986.
Stock No. 033-000-00995-0. $3.25
Skylab, Classroom in Space (SP-401)
Results of Skylab experiments proposed by talented high
school students through Skylab Student Project administered
by the National Science Teacher's Association. Illustrated in
color. Clothbound. 182 pages. 1977.
Stock No. 033-000-00678-1. $11.00
NASA
Skylab, Our First Space Station (SP-400)
Complete story of Skylab, America's first manned
Earth-orbital space station. Illustrated. Clothbound. 176
pages. 1977.
Stock No. 033-000-00670-5. $11.00
A Spacefaring People: Perspectives on Early
Spaceflight (SP-4405)
Essays presented at a conference on the history of space
activity, held at Yale University. Topics discussed include
a spacefaring people.
space history, domestic and international ramifications of
PERSPECTIVES ON EARLY SPACEFLIGHT
space activity, technology, management and the space
program, and rationale for space exploration. Also included
are biographies on each participant. Illustrated. 164 pages.
1985.
V
Stock No. 033-000-00933-0. $3.50
Space Shuttle Lithographs
The
Four photographic lithographs of the Space Shuttle. Printed
in color. 8x10 inches (each). 1981.
Stock No. 033-000-00828-7. $4.00
Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the
Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles (SP-4206)
Technological history of the Apollo/Saturn lunar landing
program. Illustrated. 511 pages. 1981.
Stock No. 033-000-00794-9. $12.00
Supersonic Cruise Technology (SP-472)
History of supersonic cruise technology from the early
research efforts of the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (NACA) in 1920 through the NASA Variable
Cycle Engine program completed in 1981. Illustrated. 199
pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00944-5. $6.50
Telescopes and Space Exploration
Account of the uses of different kinds of telescopes for
astronomical research on such subjects as solar flares,
interstellar gas, black holes, and the nature of the universe.
Illustrated in color. 16 pages. 1976.
Stock No. 033-000-00647-1. $2.00
16
Viking Orbiter Views of Mars (SP-441)
Collection of Mars images including polar regions, moons,
atmosphere, craters, and channels. Stereo viewer enclosed.
Illustrated in color and black and white. Clothbound. 182
pages. 1980.
Stock No. 033-000-00795-7. $11.00
Volcanic Features of Hawaii: A Basis for Comparison
VOLCANIC FEATURES OF HAWAII
With Mars (SP-403)
A Basis for Comparison with Mars
Compares and contrasts Earth's largest volcanoes with the
larger ones NASA found on Mars. Illustrated. Clothbound.
216 pages. 1980.
Stock No. 033-000-00788-4. $ 15.50
Voyager Encounters Jupiter
Nontechnical discussions of discoveries by Voyager 1 and
Voyager 2 about the planet Jupiter and several of its
satellites. Illustrated in color. 48 pages. 1979.
Stock No. 033-000-00772-8. $3.50
Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn
Preliminary photographic results of Voyager 1's encounter
with Saturn and its major satellites, with easy-to-understand
captions. Illustrated in color. 40 pages. 1980.
Stock No. 033-000-00817-1. $3.25
Scientific and Technical
Publications
NASA Scientific and Technical Publications are aimed
at providing scientists and technicians with in-depth
information on highly technical subject areas. Some of
these books have educational benefits and are often
used in high-level university courses. Those books
listed here concentrate on individual topics and require
some familiarity with the particular subject area. (For a
complete listing of the most current titles available from
the Superintendent of Documents, contact the U.S.
Government Printing Office and ask for Subject
Bibliography SB-257, "NASA Scientific and Technical
Publications.")
Fuel Economy in Aviation (SP-462)
Provides an account of the Aircraft Energy Efficiency
Program (ACEE), a joint venture between NASA and the
private sector to develop energy-efficient technologies for
present and future aircraft. Chapters include Engine
Component Improvement, Energy Efficient Engine, Advanced
Turboprops, Composite Structures, Energy Efficient
Transport, and Laminar Flow Control. Illustrated. Clothbound.
120 pages. 1983.
Stock No. 033-000-00899-6. $15.00
17
Geology of the Terrestrial Planets (SP-469)
Outlines geologic history of the terrestrial planets, the Earth,
Mercury, Venus, and Mars in light of recent exploration and
changes in geological thought. Geological features of the
Moon, asteroids, and Comets are also discussed. Illustrated.
Clothbound. 325 pages. 1984.
Stock No. 033-000-00900-3. $16.00
International Halley Watch Amateur Observer's Manual
Two-volume set written for the advanced amateur
astronomer. Part one details general observing techniques
and data for tracking Halley's Comet during its reappearance
in 1985-86. Part two has ephemeris and star charts.
Illustrated. 97 and 86 pages. 1983.
Part 1: Stock No. 033-000-00888-1. Part 2: Stock No.
033-000-00889-9. $4.50 (each).
Laser Technology: A Survey (SP-5116)
A survey of lasers, extremely powerful new tools, developed
in the last few decades. Lasers may be used increasingly in
industry, medicine and dentistry, communications systems,
and many kinds of scientific research. This survey includes
both background information and suggestions regarding
potential uses for lasers. Illustrated. 48 pages. 1973.
Stock No. 033-000-00537-7. $4.50
Life in the Universe: Proceedings of a Conference Held
at NASA Ames Research Center (CP-2156)
Contains 31 papers presented on exploring the prospects
for research into nature and distribution of life in the
universe. Discusses the origin of life, life-supporting
environments, evolution of complex life, detectability of
technically advanced civilizations, and plans and rationale for
trying to locate extraterrestrial intelligence. Illustrated. 468
pages. 1982.
Stock No. 033-000-00841-4. $8.00
Magnetic Tape Recording for the Eighties (RP-1075)
Deals with both the practical and theoretical aspects of
state-of-the-art magnetic tape recording technology. Topics
include tape and head wear; wear testing; magnetic tape
certification; care, handling, and management of magnetic
tape; cleaning packing and winding of magnetic tape, tape
reels, bands, and packaging; coding techniques, and
tradeoffs of coding techniques. Devoted to detailed
discussion and analysis. Illustrated. 176 pages. 1982.
Stock No. 033-000-00855-4. $6.50
NASA SP-481
The Management of
Research Institutions
Management of Research Institutions: A Look at
Government Laboratories (SP-481)
Describes how technology development laboratories
operate, identifies conditions in favor or against the
performance of a laboratory's mission, and draws certain
conclusions as to how such laboratories should be
managed. Illustrated. 318 pages. 1984.
Stock No. 033-000-00937-2. $9.00
a
lookat
Managing NASA in the Apollo Era (SP-4102)
government
laboratories
Historical account of the development of NASA during the
1960s. Topics covered include key administrative decisions
in the early history of NASA, a narrative account of NASA
NASA
18
from its origins through 1969, contracting, manpower, the
budgetary process, headquarters organization, relations with
the Department of Defense, and long-range planning.
Illustrated. 364 pages. 1982.
Stock No. 033-000-00844-9. $10.00
Model Research: The National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, 1915-1958 (SP-4103)
Examines the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
(NACA) as an institution, explains its purpose, and evaluates
it as a research organization. Primary emphasis is placed on
political and institutional history. Illustrated. 2 volumes. 772
pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00894-5. $26.00
Modern Observational Techniques for Comets
Proceedings of a workshop held at Goddard Space Flight
Center. Includes papers on theory and needs, astrometry,
photometry, infrared observations, radio observations,
spectroscopy, imaging of coma and tail, image processing,
space telescope and shuttle observation, laboratory input,
and plans for Halley's Comet. Illustrated. 325 pages. 1981.
Stock No. 033-000-00835-0. $16.00
NASA and General Aviation (SP-485)
Overview of private aviation functions and the latest NASA
developments in technology for general aviation.
Aerodynamics, internal combustion engines and turbine
engines are discussed in detail. Other topics include safety,
electronics, and the future of general aviation. Illustrated. 141
pages. 1986.
Stock No. 033-000-00984-4. $6.50
SEARCH FOR THE
Search for the Universal Ancestors (SP-477)
UNIVERSAL ANCESTORS
Introductory analysis of chemical evolution and the origins of
life as defined by astronomers, biologists, chemists, and
physicists. Illustrated. 146 pages. 1985.
Stock No. 033-000-00953-4. $3.75
Significant NASA Inventions Available for Licensing in
Foreign Countries (SP-7038)
Abstracts of various NASA-owned inventions available for
foreign licensing. Illustrated. 180 pages. 1986.
Stock No. 033-000-00986-1. $5.00
Skylab Explores the Earth (SP-380)
NASA
Review of the Skylab experiment for determining the
astronaut's role in observing Earth on future orbital missions.
Covers subjects for study such as vegetation, cultural
features, geology, hydrology, oceanography, and
meteorology. 536 pages. Heavily illustrated. 1977.
Stock No. 033-000-00674-8. $16.50
Small Transport Aircraft Technology (SP-460)
Results of a NASA study on technical improvements in
commuter aircraft and how these improvements might help
to increase public acceptance and use of small planes.
Illustrated. 111 pages. 1983.
Stock No. 033-000-00872-4. $5.00
19
Space Physiology and Medicine (SP-447)
General reference manual for persons engaged in or
concerned with the practice of space medicine, this book
discusses space flight, space environment, space flight
systems and procedures, physiological adaptation to space
flight, health maintenance of space crewmembers, and
medical problems of space flight. Illustrated. Clothbound.
335 pages. 1982.
Stock No. 033-000-00864-3. $15.00
Space Resources and Space Settlements (SP-428)
Technical papers from a 1977 study of space settlements
and industrialization using nonterrestrial materials and
conducted at NASA Ames Research Center. The subjects
considered were research needs for regenerative
life-support systems, habitat design, dynamics and design of
electromagnetic mass drivers, asteroids as resources for
space manufacturing, and processing of nonterrestrial
materials. 300 pages. 1979.
Stock No. 033-000-00765-5. $9.00
Spacelab Users' Guide: A Short Introduction to
Spacelab
Briefly describes Spacelab, its configurations, and uses.
Published jointly by NASA and the European Space Agency.
Illustrated. 23 pages. 1983.
Stock No. 033-000-00897-0. $3.50
Sun As a Star (SP-450)
Guide
Essays on observations and diagnostics of the Sun, and on
theoretical interpretations of solar phenomena. The summary
(resume) of the book is in French and English; the rest of the
text is in English. Illustrated. 571 pages. 1981.
Stock No. 033-000-00747-7. $11.00
Sun, Weather, and Climate (SP-426)
Overall view of the present status of new field of investigating
the effects of the sun on weather and climate. Illustrated. 360
pages. 1978.
Stock No. 033-000-00747-7. $7.50
Voyage to Jupiter (SP-439)
Authoritative account of the Voyager Jupiter encounter,
including flybys of the planet in 1979. Illustrated. 211 pages.
1980.
Stock No. 033-000-00797-3. $9.00
Voyages to Saturn (SP-451)
A member of the Voyager science team tells the story of the
Voyager 1 and 2 encounters with Saturn and its moons.
Voyages
Includes behind-the-scenes anecdotes about the scientists
to Saturn
who shared the excitement of the Voyager discoveries.
Illustrated in color. 227 pages. 1982.
Stock No. 033-000-00842-2. $9.50
Wind Tunnels of NASA (SP-440)
Details history, development, and importance of wind tunnels
to aeronautical research. Illustrated. 164 pages. 1981.
Stock No. 033-000-00832-5. $ 13.00
20
Educational Materials From
Regional Service Centers
Some publications not available from GPO may be
obtained from NASA Regional Service Centers.
Materials may vary slightly from center to center. For a
listing of available publications, films, and other
services, contact the Educational Services Office at the
NASA field center that serves your state. Some
Regional Service Centers also have materials and
classroom aids unique to the centers. For a listing of
publications available exclusively from a selected
center, please contact the center nearest you.
NASA Ames Research Center
Moffet Field, CA 94035
Serves Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana,
Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Greenbelt, MD 20771
Serves Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia,
Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New
Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and
Vermont.
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
4800 Oak Grove Drive
Pasadena, CA 91109
Serves inquiries related to space exploration and other
JPL activities.
NASA Johnson Space Center
Houston, TX 77058
Serves Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, North
Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Texas.
NASA Kennedy Space Center
Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899
Serves Florida, Georgia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin
Islands.
NASA Langley Research Center
Hampton, VA 23665
Serves Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia,
and West Virginia.
NASA Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, OH 44135
Serves Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and
Wisconsin.
NASA Marshall Space Flight Center
Tranquility Base
Huntsville, AL 35812
Serves Alabama, Arkansas, lowa, Louisiana, Missouri, and
Tennessee.
National Space Technology Laboratories
NSTL, MS 39529
Serves Mississippi.
21
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<<<
/
HUNTSVILLE, AL
MARSHALL SPACE
FLIGHT CTR.
OFFICE OF PRESIDENTIAL ADVANCE
6/7/90
CONTACT SHEET
Name
Office
Phone Number
Presidential Advance Office
202/456-7565
Presidential Advance Fax Number
202/456-2820
JUDD SWIFT
PRESIDENTIAL ADVANCE 202/456-7565
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WHITE HOUSE comm AGENCY
202-395-4040
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205/544-0600
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MARINE ONE HELICOPTERS HMX-1
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205-544-1920
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205-544-5485
NASA
News
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama 35812
Bill Anderson
Marshall Space Flight Center
Space Celebration '89
Huntsville, Ala.
*
(Phone: 205/544-0038)
*
July 21, 1989
RELEASE NO: 89-154
LOCAL TEACHER ATTENDS NASA EDUCATORS' WORKSHOP
Ms. Lynne F. Zielinski of Long Grove, a teacher at Glenbrook
North High School, recently attended the two-week NASA Educational
Workshop for Math and Science Teachers (NEWMAST) at the Marshall
Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala.
Ms. Zielinski was one of 100 teachers selected by the National
Science Teachers Association from over 400 applicants from schools
throughout the nation. Marshall was host to 25 teachers
representing schools in Ohio, Michigan, Arkansas, Tennessee, Iowa,
Texas, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, Missouri, Indiana, Minnesota,
Illinois, and South Carolina.
The purpose of the workshop is to assist teachers in updating
and enhancing their knowledge of space science and technology.
Marshall is a multi-project management, scientific and engineering
establishment, with emphasis on launch vehicle development,
scientific investigation, and the application of space technology
to the solution of problems on Earth.
Highlights of the workshop included visits to the seven
research and development laboratories in the Center's Science and
Engineering Directorate. The teachers received detailed briefings
on the development of such projects as the Space Shuttle, Hubble
Space Telescope, Space Station, Spacelab, and other current and
future programs.
NEWMAST is sponsored by the National Science Teachers
Association and NASA.
-30-
Photo caption: Ms. Lynne F. Zielinski examines Space Shuttle
aft flight deck mockup in Payload Crew Training Complex at NASA
Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.
AN EXCITING OPPORTUNITY
IMMERSE YOURSELF IN NASA'S
NOMINATE TALENTED TEACHERS
FOR TOP TEACHERS
LATEST AEROSPACE ACTIVITIES
FOR NEWMAST NOW!
The NASA Educational Workshop for Math,
Winners of the NEWMAST award will return from the
ELIGIBILITY:
Science, and Technology Teachers (NEWMAST)
workshop with resources and ideas that will enrich
Nominees must be full-time outstanding teachers
gives outstanding educators the chance to personally
the science, math, and precollege technology
of math, science, or pre-college technology, grades
experience NASA's aerospace activities. NEWMAST
programs in their schools and provide inspiration for a
7-12, in public and private schools in the U.S. and
eachers update their knowledge of aerospace
new generation of scientifically literate citizens. As a
the U.S. territories, Department of Defense depen-
esearch and technology, develop new teaching
NEWMAST participant, you will be able to:
dent schools, Department of State overseas
strategies, and bring the U.S. aerospace program
schools, and Bureau of Indian Affairs schools.
back to their classrooms and communities.
Observe current state-of-the-art research and
development activities in space science and
Nominees must have a minimum of five (5) years
Norkshop participants will spend two weeks at a
technology at NASA centers
teaching experience and hold certification in
NASA center, witness its inner workings, learn the
science, mathematics, or pre-college technology.
atest technological information directly from NASA
Interact directly with NASA scientists and
scientists and engineers, and bring back a wealth of
engineers concerning specific projects in their
research laboratories
NOMINATION GUIDELINES:
materials for classroom use.
The nominee has established a reputation among
Each NEWMAST workshop includes:
Receive NASA resources to share with your
peers for motivating and encouraging students to
peers and students
reach a standard of excellence.
Seminars conducted by NASA scientists and
engineers
Update your knowledge of new technology and
The nominee has significantly improved student
developments in aeronautics, astronomy, and
Field trips within and outside the NASA center
understanding of science, mathematics, or precol-
aerospace science
lege technology.
Resource sharing sessions with other teachers
Review the wealth of materials in the NASA
The nominee has continued to grow and show
Teacher Resource Center
Hands-on resource and materials field-testing
professional involvement in his/her discipline, and
in the science and artistry of teaching.
NEWMAST workshops will be held between June 17
The nominee reaches students in particular need
and August 18, 1990 at the following NASA centers:
of educational resources and innovative or motiva-
tional approaches to interdisciplinary learning, such
Ames Research Center,
as rural populations, gifted and talented students,
Moffett Field, California
and underrepresented minority groups.
*Nomination of outstanding teachers from underrepresented
Goddard Space Flight Center,
minority groups is especially encouraged. The sponsors and
Greenbelt, Maryland
cooperators of the NEWMAST program are committed to eliminat-
ing barriers to educational opportunities for all students and
The NEWMAST program is cosponsored by the
educators.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Marshall Space Flight Center,
(NASA) and National Science Teachers Association
Huntsville, Alabama
(NSTA) in cooperation with the National Council of
DEADLINE:
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), and the
Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pasadena, Cailfornia
Completed nomination packages must be post-
International Technology Educational Association
marked no later than March 9, 1990.
(ITEA).
NASA FactSheet
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
George C. Marshall Space Flight Center
Marshall Space Flight Center. Alabama 35812
April 1990
"SPACE CLASSROOM
ASSIGNMENT: THE STARS
BACKGROUND
"Space Classroom" is a new NASA educational effort designed
to involve students and teachers in the excitement of Space
Shuttle science missions. This new program joins more than 160
other educational programs being conducted by NASA that use the
agency's missions and unique facilities to help educators
prepare students to meet the nation's growing need for a
globally competitive workforce of skilled scientists and
engineers.
The first Space Classroom project, called Assignment: The
Stars, will capitalize on the May 1990 flight of Astro-1, a
Space Shuttle astronomy mission. The project is designed to
spark the interest of middle school students, encouraging them
to pursue studies in mathematics, science and technology. It
will offer educators an alternative approach to teaching their
students about the electromagnetic spectrum -- a science concept
that is required instruction in many classrooms in the United
States.
Space Classroom, Assignment: The Stars, involves several
educational elements. They include a lesson on the electro-
magnetic spectrum to be taught live by the Astro-1 crew from the
cabin of the Space Shuttle Columbia during the flight; a
supporting lesson to be taught from the Astro-1 control center
in Huntsville, Ala.; an Astro-1 teachers guide; an Astro-1 slide
presentation; a NASA educational satellite video conference next
fall; and post-flight video products suitable for classroom use.
THE EDUCATIONAL ELEMENTS
A Lesson From Orbit
The major component of Assignment: The Stars will be a
lesson taught by members of the Astro-1 science crew from the
Space Shuttle as they orbit the Earth during the mission. This
15-20 minute presentation will focus on the electromagnetic
40
PAGE.010
FROM MSFC DIRECTOR OFC
61:51 06. 8 NNI
spectrum and its relationship to the high-energy astronomy
mission.
The crew presentation will be followed by demonstrations
and discussions of the concepts introduced by the crew from a
classroom in the Astro-1 control center at Marshall Space Flight
Center.
The lesson will conclude with an opportunity for some
students participating in the lesson from Marshall and from the
Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md., to ask questions of
the crew in orbit. Students at both centers will also
participate in additional workshops, tours and laboratory
sessions.
The lesson by the crew, the follow-up lesson from the
Astro-1 control center, and the question-answer session will be
carried live on NASA Select TV, Satcom satellite F2R,
transponder 13, 3960 megahertz, 72 degrees West longitude. NASA
Select will carry continuous programming of all mission events
as well.
The lesson is tentatively scheduled for the fifth day of
the mission. However, because launch dates and the actual
lesson date and time are subject to change, teachers may want to
arrange to videotape the lesson off NASA Select for subsequent
classroom use. Many local cable companies carry NASA Select TV
coverage of missions. Teachers may wish to check this possible
resource if they do not have access to satellite receivers. All
NASA Select mission programming may be used freely for
non-commercial purposes.
In the fall of 1990, tapes of the lesson will be available
for a small fee from NASA CORE, Lorain County Joint Vocational
School, 15181 Route 58 South, Oberlin, Ohio, 44074, phone: (216)
774-1051.
A Guide For Teachers
Seeing in a New Light, the Astro-1 teachers guide with
activities, is a practical source of lesson plans and student
activities on the electromagnetic spectrum. Intended for middle
school use, the concepts range in difficulty from basic
instruction on the electromagnetic spectrum to information on
interesting astronomical objects and telescopes. The guide is
interdisciplinary, with projects in math, literature, social
studies, and art, and is easily reproduced for individual and
small-group assignments.
The teachers guide is available at no charge from all NASA
Teacher Resource Centers.
41
110'3968
CEO DIRECTOR MSFC FROM 02:51 06, 8 NOS
A Slide Presentation
Astro-1: Seeing the Hidden Cosmos slide presentation, is a
scripted set of 24 slides. The presentation describes the
Astro-1 mission and basic concepts on the electromagnetic
spectrum and astronomy. The slides include X-ray, ultraviolet,
visible and infrared images of interesting astronomical objects.
Reproductions of the slide set and script are available
from NASA CORE or by visiting one of NASA's Teacher Resource
Centers.
A Post-flight Video Conference
A NASA Educational Satellite Video Conference on the
Astro-1 mission science results is scheduled for October 1990.
The interactive conference will feature NASA scientists and
specialists in aerospace education and will be broadcast by
satellite.
Further information will be available from Video Conference
Series, Aerospace Education Services Project, Oklahoma State
University, Stillwater, OK, 74078-0422; phone: (405) 744-8131.
An Experiment in Amateur Radio
The Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II) is another
element of the Astro-1 mission that offers educational value.
Payload Specialist Dr. Ron Parise, a Spacelab science astronaut,
will use a ham radio aboard the Shuttle to communicate with
amateur radio operators on Earth. Parise's call sign is
WA4SIR.
Additional information is contained in Amateur Radio in
Space, NASA EB-89-1, available from NASA Spacelink or from a
NASA Teacher Resource Center.
KEEPING CURRENT
NASA Spacelink
NASA Spacelink is a computerized information service for
educators. It is accessible from most computers through a modem
by dialing (205) 895-0028. It includes a variety of information
on the Astro-1 mission. During the flight, it will be updated
daily.
Spacelink information can be obtained by writing the
Center, Huntsville, Ala., 35812, or by phoning (205) 544-0038.
Spacelink Administrator, Mail Code CA20, Marshall Space Flight
Spacelink is a free service, but your telephone company makes
normal charges for the long distance call.
42
PAGE.012
OFF DIRECTOR MSFC FROM 02:51 06. 8 NOS
Telephone Hotline
Beginning approximately one week before launch, Astro-1
Update, a recorded bulletin on the status of the Astro-1 mission
and information about Space Classroom activities, will be
available by dialing (205) 544-8504.
Today in Space
Although not an element of the Space Classroom program,
NASA will air a half-hour daily summary of Astro-1 mission
activities at approximately 2:30 p.m. CDT on NASA Select during
the mission. Teachers may wish to record and view the program
as a source of up-to-date information on mission progress.
NASA TEACHER RESOURCE CENTERS
Further information about NASA's Astro-1 Space Classroom
project can be obtained from the following Teacher Resoure
Centers:
Teacher Resource Center
Teacher Resource Center
NASA GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER
NASA AMES RESEARCH CENTER
Mail Code 130.3
Mail Stop 204-7
Moffett Field, CA 94035
Greenbelt, MD 20771
301/286-8570
415/694-6077
Teacher Resource Ctr./Mail Stop: CS 530
Teacher Resource Center
JET PROPULSION LABORATORY
NASA JOHNSON SPACE CTR.
Mail Code AP-4
4747 New York Avenue
La Crescenta, CA 91214
Houston, TX 77058
713/483-8696
818/354-6916
Teacher Resource Center
Teacher Resource Center
NASA JOHN F. KENNEDY SPACE CENTER
NASA LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER
Mail Stop 146
Mail Code ERL
John F. Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899
Hampton, VA 23665
804/865-4468
305/867-4090
Teacher Resource Center, Mail Stop 8-1
NASA/MSFC Teacher Resource Ctr.
ALABAMA SPACE AND ROCKET CENTER
NASA LEWIS RESEARCH CENTER
Tranquility Base
21000 Brookpark Road
Huntsville, AL 35807
Cleveland, OH 44135
205/544-5812
216/433-2016/2017
Teacher Resource Center
Stennis Space Center
Building 1200
Stennis Space Center, MS 39529
601/688-3338
43
013 PAGE.013
FROM MSFC DIRECTOR OFC
12:51 06. 8 NNI
HOWELL HEFLIN
STATE OFFICES:
ALABAMA
355 FEDERAL BUILDING
1800 FIFTH AVENUE NORTH
AL 35203
COMMITTEE on AGRICULTURE
(205) 721-1500
NUTRITION. AND FORESTRY
United States Senate
COMMITTEE ON Enthor AND
113 ST. JOSEPH STREET
NATURAL RESOURCES
437 us. COUNTHOUSE
WASHINGTON. DC 20510-0101
MORKS AL 36602
COMMITTEE OR THE JUDICIARY
(205) 432-7715
SELECT COMMITTEE (IN ETHICS
April 19, 1990
FEDERAL COURTHOUSE, 0-20
16 LSE STREET
728 SENATE HART BUILDING
MONTGOMERY, AL 36104
WASHINGTON. nc 20510-0101
(205) 265-8507
(202) 224-4124
105 MAIN STREET
P.O. Box 228
TUSCUMERA, AL 35674
(205) 381-7000
Dear Colleague:
A premiere prototype NASA Mobile Teacher Resource
Center called Project LASER (Learning About Science,
Engineering and Research) will be parked on the Capitol East
Front Plaza on April 26 - 27, from 10:00 AM - 6:00 PM.
All MEMBERS are invited to visit this 48-foot-long
van-style trailer. It is designed and outfitted with
advanced electronic work stations for grades K - 12 teachers
to receive a broad range of information and educational
materials to enhance their classroom presentations in the
areas of mathematics, and science. The 6 work stations, for
12 teachers, are equipped with a computer, an electronic
information system, videotape recorder, and a monitoring
system so that teachers can copy from a large library of
NASA educational videotapes and documents. The van also
contains a laser printer, photocopy and photographic
equipment to allow teachers to copy lesson plans, slides
related to aeronautics, astronomy and space exploration.
Senate staff who have assignments in education and
space are also invited to visit the Mobile Teacher Resource
Center.
This pilot program has been developed by NASA's
Marshall Space Flight Center and numerous corporate
sponsorships. It is in response to White House and
Congressional requests that Federal R & D Agencies and
industry join forces to reach America's teachers and
students in a major educational outreach program.
The walk through, with NASA education staffers on
board, will be an educational experience. It should take
about 10 - 15 minutes.
Richard Shelby
Balma
18
PAGE 004
FROM MSFC DIRECTOR OFC
80:51 06. 8 NOS
Observatory Operations in the
Galaxy M101
Space Age
The Hubble Space Telescope was developed by
the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
Hubble Space
tion, and its partners in space, under the Office of
Space Science and Applications at NASA Head-
quarters in Washington, D. C. The Marshall Space
Telescope
Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, has been re-
sponsible for the design and development of the
telescope. Goddard Space Flight Center in Green-
belt, Maryland, developed the science instruments;
it will operate the telescope and manage the Space
Telescope Science Institute. The European Space
The Hubble Space Telescope and
Agency has played a major role in development of
The Great Observatories
the telescope by providing the power producing
solar arrays and one of the science instruments.
Progress occurs in science as information is
The Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, is
gained through many channels. NASA's strategy
training crews for the launch, deployment, and
for astrophysics research in the rest of this century
maintenance of the Hubble Space Telescope and
relies on a set of complementary observatories in
will be in charge of Shuttle mission operations. The
space, each dedicated to view the universe
Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida,
through a different window in the spectrum:
will ready the telescope for launch aboard the
Hubble Space Telescope (HST) - infrared
Shuttle.
radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation
After NASA deploys the telescope in space,
Marshall personnel will verify that the telescope
Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) - gamma
and ground support systems work, and Goddard
rays
personnel will check out the science instruments.
Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility
Because the telescope is so sophisticated and
(AXAF)- X - rays
complex, checkout will take time. It will be many
Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) -
months before it is ready for full-time research.
infrared radiation
The Space Telescope Operations Control Center at
With improvements in sensitivity and resolution
the Goddard Center will be in charge of day to day
much beyond their predecessors, the Great
telescope operations. Ultimately, the operations
Observatories will enable us to study astronomical
center will be able to complete more than 200 ob-
objects in more detail than we ever have. To-
servational programs a year, providing about 3,500
gether; they will produce a golden age of astron-
hours of observing time annually.
omy.
The Space Telescope Science Institute, oper-
The Hubble Space Telescope is a crucial
ated by the Association of Universities for Re-
search in Astronomy (AURA) and located at The
member of this family of Great Observatories, the
Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland,
only one designed to study the universe in visible
will be responsible for the telescope's observing
and ultraviolet light. Maximum scientific benefit will
agenda. In response to requests from scientists all
be achieved when all of these observatories
over the world, astronomers associated with the in-
operate simultaneously, each complementing the
stitute are generating the telescope's observing
others. Just as we depend on all of our senses to
plan. The institute scientists engage in their own re-
perceive the world around us, so we need all of the
search and distribute telescope data to other scien-
Great Observatories working together to better
NASA
tists.
know the universe.
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
2M189
almost every problem in astronomy, especially issues
involving the origin, age, and fate of the universe. The
The Telescope's Senses
Hubble Space Telescope will measure distances five times
Just as we have eyes that sense light and a
more accurately than current estimates.
brain that translates it into visible images, the
Hubble Space Telescope has instruments that
What are quasars and other exotic objects?
sense light and computers that convert it into
Among the most intriguing celestial objects are quasars
images and other forms of information. The
and other compact objects that produce intense radiation
for their size. Because these objects are small and distant,
telescope's "eyes" are in space, but much of
we cannot see exactly what they are from Earth. With the
its" brain" is on the ground.
Hubble Space Telescope,
The telescope's electronic light collectors,
astronomers may discover
which are so sensitive that they could detect
what these objects really
light from a flashlight a quarter of a million
are.
miles away, record energy as electrical sig-
nals. These signals are sent to powerful
What are the other
onboard computers and then to a computer
planets in our solar
network on the ground where the data analy-
system like? The
sis takes place. Astronomers use computers
Hubble Space Telescope
to display the signals as photographs, spectra
will give us our first close
and other types of data.
The spectrograph with the highest resolution
look at the outermost
For each observation, the pointing system
is able to detect objects 1,000 times dimmer
planet in our solar system,
Quasars
aims the telescope at a planet, star, galaxy or
than those observed by previous space
Pluto. Pictures of closer
other object. Light from the object enters the
instruments.
planets will be almost
telescope and strikes the primary mirror which
The photometer, a light meter, records the
Saturn
comparable to images
total light from an object in space and notes
from. the Voyager space-
any changes in brightness in fractions of a
craft; while the Voyagers
gave us passing glimpses
second. Using the data, astronomers can
of the planets, the Hubble
determine the relation of stars to each other
Telescope will view the
and their distances from Earth. Spikes of hot
planets over longer
energy erupting from sources also can be
periods to reveal seasonal
identified.
or other cyclic changes.
The telescope's pointing system also
collects scientific information by pinpointing
Do other planets
the positions of objects five times more accu-
exist?
rately than we can from Earth.
It is unlikely that of all
the stars in the universe,
our sun is the only one with a family of planets. The Hubble
Space Telescope probably will not observe planets around
The Universe Beyond
another star directly, for they would be small and hidden
by the star's light. The telescope may detect wobbles in a
Twinkling like diamonds in the night, stars
star's motion caused by an orbiting body. The telescope
enchant us. All our knowledge about the uni-
also may see swirling dust around a young star where a
verse is a result of what we observe, yet with
planetary system may be forming.
the naked eye we can see only about 6,000 of
Jupiter as seen by a telescope on Earth
the hundred billion stars in our own galaxy,
Preparing the telescope for launch
scientific instruments, electri-
the Milky Way. Our largest ground-based tele-
cal systems and batteries,
scopes have extended our vision to reveal a
universe with an estimated hundred billion
and the pointing and control
reflects it to a second smaller
mechanisms. Solar arrays for
galaxies, each populated by several hundred
mirror. This mirror directs the
billion stars.
generating electricity and an-
tennas for communicating
light into selected scientific
Radiation in the form of light, brings us the in-
instruments located behind the
with operators on the ground
formation needed to understand the past. Light
extend from the telescope.
primary mirror. The Hubble
travels very fast, but space is so vast that much
Doors allow astronauts to
Space Telescope uses five
time passes before the light from distant ob-
scientific instruments to study
remove parts for repair or re-
jects reaches us. When it is collected by the
the universe: two cameras, two
placement without bringing
Hubble Space Telescope this information will
the telescope home.
spectrographs, and one pho-
tell us about the conditions which prevailed at
tometer.
Building the telescope has
the source when that light was emitted. So in
The two cameras record light
presented many tough engi-
effect, we are "looking back in time." The
neering challenges. To
that is translated into pictures of
Hubble Space Telescope will extend our vision
the universe. A wide field cam-
collect the faint light from
by detecting light that started its journey 14
sources trillions of miles
era photographs large areas; it
billion years ago when the universe was young.
away, the Hubble Space
can photograph hundreds of
Imagine what wonders we will discover.
Telescope's eight-foot pri-
galaxies at once or the entire
face of each planet in our solar
mary mirror had to be almost
perfectly smooth. No telescope mirror has
system (except Mercury which is too close to
ever been more finely polished. If the surface
the sun). A faint object camera can cover only
Questions about the Universe
one-tenth the area of the wide field camera,
of Earth were as smooth, the highest peak
The Hubble Space Telescope will help answer
and the deepest valley would deviate from the
but it makes more detailed images of dimmer
key questions in astronomy and astrophysics.
surface by less than three inches.
objects. Astronomers can choose the best
How do stars and galaxies form and evolve?
camera for their observations.
Another challenge was to provide a way to
A variety of stars exist. Today, we see evidence of stars
point the telescope with precision. The tele-
In additon to pictures, other types of infor-
being born and dying. Stars and other objects come
scope must be able to locate a position in the
mation are valuable for studying the universe.
together to form galaxies of varied shapes and sizes. To
sky to within 0.01 second of arc. This is
Atoms emit and absorb light in packages of
understand the universe, astronomers need to get ac-
equivalent to pointing a needle at a human
energy called photons. Each element, com-
quainted with stars and galaxies of all ages and types. With
hair located two blocks away. The pointing
posed of atoms such as hydrogen or oxygen,
the Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers will view billions
has a unique signature associated with spe-
of stars and galaxies with
system is so accurate that it is actually used
as one of the scientific instruments.
cific energies. Spectrographs can separate
new clarity to obtain a
radiation by energy in much the same manner
large statistical survey of
that raindrops split visible light into the spec-
their characteristics.
trum of colors in a rainbow. By studying the
intensity and distribution of radiation, scien-
How big is the
tists can determine an object's chemistry,
universe?
temperature, and density.
We have never accu-
The Hubble Telescope spectrographs will
rately measured distances
The primary
reveal details of objects that we ordinarily
to stars and galaxies well
mirror
beyond the Milky Way.
cannot see. They will study both the visible
Current estimates are so
and ultraviolet radiation emitted by objects.
Andromeda Galaxy
uncertain that distant
galaxies may be twice as far
away or only half as far away as we think. Distance is
.
X
GIVE
scope will alter our perceptions of the universe
- perhaps as dramatically as Galileo's tele-
scope revolutionized thought almost 400
High gain antenna
Secondary
mirror
years ago.
Equipment section
Apeture door
Unlike most observatories, the Hubble
Primary
Space Telescope will be in space outside our
Fine guidance
mirror
sensor (3)
Light shield
C
atmosphere. Looking at the heavens through
the best telescope from the highest mountain
Aft shroud
on Earth is still much like trying to identify
someone at poolside when you are sitting on
the bottom of a swimming pool. Our vision is
blurred. The atmosphere masks much of the
detail of objects in the universe. From orbit,
the telescope can detect light before it is
absorbed or distorted by the atmosphere. It
Axial scientific
can "see" stars that release infrared and ultra-
instrument (4)
violet light that, because of the atmosphere,
Radial scientific
Double roll out
never reaches telescopes on Earth.
instrument
Fixed head
solar array (2)
with radiator (1)
star tracker (3)
For many years, astronomers have dreamed
of placing a large observatory in orbit to make
high-quality observations. The Hubble Space
Telescope is the realization of that dream.
of the American astronomer, Edwin P. Hubble.
Before Hubble's work in the 1920s, no one
A Picture Window View
Placing the telescope in orbit
knew with certainty that the universe extended
far beyond the Milky Way. His observations of
Imagine seeing the universe as if it were
other galaxies led to his discovery that the
just outside your window. Clouds and light-
universe is expanding.
ning form as a storm brews on Jupiter. An icy
The Space Shuttle will carry the telescope
moon revolves nearby. In the distance, you
into orbit some 370 miles above Earth. Then,
see billions of stars. Still farther away, qua-
the Shuttle will come home, leaving the tele-
sars shine.
scope to observe the universe for 15 years or
NASA's Hubble Space Telescope will give
longer. The Hubble Space Telescope is a
us this picture window view of the universe.
major scientific resource that will be shared by
The telescope will see planets, stars, and
scientists around the world. To keep it in top-
other objects about 10 times better than we
notch condition, every few years, astronauts
now can with our best optical telescopes on
will visit it to do routine repairs and to replace
Earth. It will show us the most distant planets
scientific instruments and other equipment as
in our solar system and monitor seasonal
A Great Space Observatory
technology improves.
changes on nearby ones. It may detect
evidence of new worlds, planets revolving
The 43-foot Hubble Space Telescope will be
The 25,000-pound observatory is about the
around other stars, raising the possibility of
the largest astronomical observatory ever
size of a bus and looks like a tower of stacked
extraterrestrial life. The Hubble Space Tele-
placed in orbit. This great observatory was
silver canisters. Each section houses impor-
named the Hubble Space Telescope in honor
tant telescope components: the mirrors, the