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Brazil / Background Color 12/3/90 [OA 8320] [2]
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Brazil / Background Color 12/3/90 [OA 8320] [2]
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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Speech Backup Chronological Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S; 2004-0734-F; 2009-1186-F
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
Subseries:
Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13741
Folder ID Number:
13741-008
Folder Title:
Brazil / Background Color 12/3/90 [OA 8320] [2]
Stack:
Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
G
26
21
2
1
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77TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 The New York Times Company;
The New York Times
February 12, 1990, Monday, Late Edition - Final
SECTION: Section A; Page 8, Column 3; Foreign Desk
LENGTH: 677 words
HEADLINE: Collor Receptive to Criticism Of Brazil's Policy in Amazon
BYLINE: By JAMES BROOKE, Special to The New York Times
DATELINE: RIO DE JANEIRO, Feb. 11
BODY:
Facing foreign criticism of Brazil's treatment of the Amazon region and the
Indians living in its rain forest, Brazil's President-elect has been
surprisingly conciliatory.
In Britain, Italy and West Germany, Fernando Collor de Mello encountered
small demonstrations last week protesting Brazil's environmental policies. In
each country, the President-elect made room in his schedule to meet with
environmentalists.
' ' He assured me that he is very concerned with the question and that he is
open to new ideas,' Mario Signorino, president of the Friends of the Earth
organization in Italy, told reporters after a hastily scheduled meeting with the
Brazilian leader in Rome.
Mr. Collor is to be inaugurated March 15 for a five-year term as president of
Brazil, which encompasses about two-thirds of the Amazon region.
Criticism From Prince Charles
The most startling criticism of Brazil came from Prince Charles last
Tuesday, two days before Mr. Collor was to arrive in London.
'We are literally the last generation which can save the rain forest from
total destruction,' the Prince warned in a lecture at the Royal Botanic
Gardens. He said the Yanomami Indians of Brazil ''are driven into extinction
by measles, venereal disease or mercury poisoning following the illegal invasion
of their lands by gold prospectors.'
The next day, Mr. Collor scheduled an appointment with the Prince and assured
a Brazilian reporter the conflict in the northeast Amazon should be settled
'within the recognition of the right that the Yanomami Indians have to their
lands.
Recognizing the power of environmental lobbies, Mr. Collor met with
cabinet-level officials in Britain, France and West Germany and repeatedly
broached environmental issues with the ning heads of state he met on his world
tour.
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(c) 1990 The New York Times, February 12, 1990
''This is a head of state who is solidly committed to giving environmental
protection its due importance,' Jurgen Warnke, West Germany's Minister of
Economic Cooperation, said after meeting the Brazilian.
In the election campaign last year, Mr. Collor largely rejected foreign
criticism as interference.
Steps to Allay Fears
On the tour, Mr. Collor took a series of steps to allay fears. He announced
his Government would introduce environmental protection into the curriculum of
Brazil's public school system.
Saying 'we have nothing to hide,' the Brazilian invited experts and
officials to attend the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, which is to be held in Brasilia in 1992.
Mr. Collor, a former businessman, appealed to President Bush and to other
leaders of developed countries to give Brazil access to anti-pollution
equipment and technology without charging royalties. 'Developed countries,
should offer the scientific knowledge accumulated over the years in fighting
pollution,' Mr. Collor told the Rio daily newspaper 0 Globo last week.
Foreign Sources of Funding
To channel world environmental concern into concrete gain for Brazil, Mr.
Collor's transition team advocates tapping three foreign sources of funding for
environmental projects: ''ecological''' tourism, nongovernmental organizations
and ''debt for nature'' swaps.
In a debt-for-nature swap, a foreign group would buy Brazilian Government
debt on the secondary market and then retire it on the condition that fixed
amounts in cruzados, the Brazilian currency, be channeled to environmental
projects.
Mr. Collor's 19-day tour is to end with his return here on Tuesday.
'With these overseas talks, Collor is going to have to toughen up,''
Brazil's highest ranking environmental official, Fernando Cesar Mesquita, said
today in the Rio newspaper Jornal do Brasil. A frequent critic of Mr. Collor's
environmental stance, Mr. Mesquita is president of the Brazilian Institute of
Environment and of Renewable Natural Resources.
''I think it is good that Collor felt close up the pressure of Europe on the
Indians and the Amazon, a high-ranking Brazilian diplomat said last week.
'People in Brasilia always think we are exaggerating.'
SUBJECT: FOREIGN AID
NAME: BROOKE, JAMES; COLLOR DE MELLO, FERNANDO; BUSH, GEORGE (PRES)
GEOGRAPHIC: AMAZON JUNGLE
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71ST STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 The Daily Telegraph plc;
The Daily Telegraph
February 13, 1990, Tuesday
SECTION: INTERNATIONAL; Pg. 10
LENGTH: 399 words
HEADLINE: Brazil's leader will invite critic Prince to ecology talks
BYLINE: By Clare Hargreaves, Foreign Staff
BODY:
BRAZIL'S President -elect, Senhor Fernando Collor de Mello, is to invite
the Prince of Wales to attend a United Nations conference on the environment
which Brazil will host in 1992, Brazilian sources said yesterday. Senhor
Collor has promised to make protection of the environment a priority of his new
government.
He discussed the conference with the Prince during a one-day visit to London
last week, and will extend the invitation officially after taking office on
March 15.
A spokeswoman at Buckingham Palace was not aware of the invitation or whether
the Prince would accept, but the Brazilian sources said he had appeared
enthusiastic during his 40-minute meeting with Senhor Collor on Thursday.
They added that Senhor Collor had also invited Mrs Thatcher to attend the
conference and to visit Brazil this year as well as part of a tour of Latin
America.
The Brazilian leader's visit came two days after Prince Charles made a
controversial speech accusing Brazil of "continuing a dreadful pattern of
collective genocide" against its 9,000 Yanomami Indians, whose territories have
been invaded by 45,000 wildcat gold prospectors.
But, despite the emotive language of the Kew Gardens speech last Tuesday,
Brazilian sources said Senhor Collor viewed it as "very reasonable".
They said he was impressed by the fact that it suggested developed nations
bore as much responsibility for the environment as developing ones. He was also
impressed by the Prince's knowledge of environmental affairs and the Yanomami
Indians.
In a speech to British businessmen last week, Senhor Collor said he would
make environment a priority of the new government and promised to set up an
Environment Secretariat answerable directly to the President.
The sources said he also proposed to introduce the teaching of ecology in
schools; compulsory demarcation of Indian reserves, and tough measures to
enforce existing environmental legislation forbidding the burning and irrational
devastation of the rain forests.
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(c) 1990 The Daily Telegraph plc, February 13, 1990
But Senhor Collor, whose country is saddled with a £69 billion foreign debt
and high inflation, told British bankers and politicians last week that such
actions would require cash from Western nations. "Let us not forget that there
is no worse pollution than poverty. Human rights and environmental concerns are
meaningless in the absence of a global development strategy," he said.
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135TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 Inter Press Service:
Inter Press Service
April 14, 1990, Saturday
LENGTH: 356 words
HEADLINE: BRAZIL: NEW ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY TO BE PRESENTED NEXT WEEK
DATELINE: RIO DE JANEIRO, April 14
BODY:
Brazil will present its new environmental program at the International
Conference on Scientific and Economic Research in Washington April 17, reports
here say.
Environment Secretary Jose Lutzemberger and Science and Technology Secretary
Jose Goldemberg will represent Brazil at the meeting where delegations from 19
countries will discuss various environmental issues related to climatic changes.
Lutzemberger, a well known environmentalist, had accepted the challenge to
"shift to the other side" by joining the government of President Fernando
Collor de Mello.
There had been tension between Washington and the previous government of
President Jose Sarney because of the massive destruction of the Amazon region in
Brazil.
The coming meeting, to be inaugurated by U.S. President George Bush, is
therefore very important since it could bring an end to external pressures on
Brazil.
The Collor government hopes Lutzemberger's international prestige would help
neutralize criticisms, and that his presence would be seen as a sign of a shift
in the country's environmental policy.
Environmentalists have strongly criticized Brazil's agricultural practices,
which include the excessive use of toxic products and the destruction of Amazon
jungles and other ecosystems.
Lutzemberger proposes the conversion of foreign debt into resources for
environmental projects. The Sarney administration had rejected similar proposals
in the Dast. believing they could threaten national sovereignty.
The Brazilian official said he would meet with U.S. authorities and
non-governmental organizations to raise funds to be used especially for programs
to protect the Amazon region.
Goldemberg. who also surprised many when he joined Collor's government
because of his leftist past, will reveal plans to overcome another external
conflict.
He intends to gradually eliminate protectionism in the Brazilian computer
market, which was the main cause of trade problems with the United States.
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(c) 1990 Inter Press Service, April 14, 1990
Through this decision and other trade initiatives, the Brazilian government
hopes to attract investments and technology from industrialized countries.
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71ST STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 Newspaper Publishing PLC
The Independent
April 22, 1990, Sunday
SECTION: FOREIGN NEWS PAGE; Page 16
LENGTH: 527 words
HEADLINE: The professor who wants to save the world: On Earth Day. Brazil's
new environment chief tells Richard House in Brasilia of his radical approach
BYLINE: By RICHARD HOUSE
BODY:
IT IS NOT so rare these days for a lobbyist and outsider to cross the divide
and become a government minister, but never in such a case can the stakes have
been higher than they are for Jose Lutzenberger.
For years a thorn in the side of Brazilian governments with his attacks on
their environmental policy, Dr Lutzenburger now directs that policy. As
environment secretary in the government of Brazil's new President, Fernando
Collor de Mello, he finds himself in charge of saving the world's greatest
rain forests.
Last week. he was leading the Brazilian delegation at the global warming
conference in Washington, where he issued an aggressive challenge to the
established notion that economic growth is essential to progress. Dr
Lutzenberger and Jose Goldemberg, Brazil's science and technology secretary,
?
are credited with helping sway President Bush away from the idea that too little
is known about global warming to spend money fighting on it now. As a result, an
international agreement on carbon buildup is expected to be signed at the 1992
UN Environment Conference in Brazil.
But high office has not made a diplomat of Jose Lutzenberger. One of his
first acts as environment secretary was to ask the World Bank to hold fire on a
$ 220m conservation loan for the Amazonian state of Rondonia, pending proper
consultation with local people - not an act calculated to endear him to the
Rondonia authorities.
Amazonia is at the heart of Dr Lutzenberger's near-mystical doctrine of a
sentient global being - the Gaia Theory, developed by the British scientist
James Lovelock. At its simplest. Gaia - Mother Earth in Greek - suggests that
the Earth's life-forms are part of a great living being that regulates its own
stability.
The rain forests are ''gigantic air conditioning units for the global
climate'', capable of counteracting warming effects caused by human-produced
carbon. By cutting down forests, man is upsetting the self-balancing of Gaia.
''The prevailing attitude is that we just need a few technical fixes such as
controlling pollution,' Dr Lutzenberger says. ''This is not so: either we
change our philosophies or we really will finish off life on this planet.
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(c) 1990 The Independent, April 22, 1990
He adds: 'Modern industrial society is a suicidal process. We insist on
continuous growth, like a snowball, yet we measure progress just by adding up
the flow of money. Nobody deducts the loss of the mountain or the forest that
was the livelihood of the Indians and rubber tappers who lived there.
The appointment of Dr Lutzenberger, who founded Brazil's first
environmental group in the early 1970s, was hailed by ecologists as a sign of
the sincerity of Mr Collor's promises to save Amazonia. But it is proving risky.
He has already denounced two Collor campaign pledges: to complete a road
through the Amazon to the Pacific and to continue the military occupation of
Amazonia's ''empty'' frontier regions. The team that prepared Mr Collor's
ecological manifesto has resigned in protest, but Dr Lutzenberger responds: ''Mr
Collor said he'd chosen me because I was totally independent and indomitable.
The minute I feel I'm wasting my time. I'll just go.''
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60TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 The Christian Science Publishing Society:
The Christian Science Monitor
April 23, 1990, Monday
SECTION: THE WORLD; Pg. 4
LENGTH: 527 words
HEADLINE: Brazil's Budget Saps Environmental Groups
BYLINE: Julia Michaels, Special to The Christian Science Monitor
DATELINE: SAO PAULO, BRAZIL
BODY:
THE telephone at Fundacao S.O.S. Mata Atlantica, one of Brazil's
environmental groups, rang unanswered last week.
The switchboard operator and most of the headquarters' 23 employees were on
paid leave. The directors didn't have time to answer the phone.
Instead, they were out trying to try to save their projects and programs -
and Brazil's environment.
S.O.S. Mata Atlantica is just one of about 200 Brazilian nongovernmental
environmental groups that were struck a severe blow by President Fernando
Collor de Mello's March 16 anti-inflation plan.
'There will be a slowdown and this could disorganize foundations on the
action level. If they (foundations) can't reorganize, it will seriously harm the
environment because the government does very little to deal with the problems,
says Clayton Ferreira Lino, director of science and protected areas at S.O.S.
Mata Atlantica.
Aimed at Brazil's chronic inflation. which topped 80 percent in March, Mr.
Collor's plan put a squeeze on liquidity and government spending. It froze much
of most people's savings and investments, including those of groups like S.O.S.
It suspended tax breaks for corporate gifts to environmental and cultural
causes.
One of the plan's first effects was a drop in the value of the dollar.
Strapped individuals and companies were forced to cut unnecessary - and even
necessary - spending.
'We'll have to fire almost a third of our employees, and we may have to go
on a half-day work schedule,' Mr. Lino says.
The problem is the morale effect,' says Nikolaus von Behr, public affairs
director for Funatura, a Brasilia-based foundation that depends heavily on
corporate giving. Fifteen of Funatura's 18 projects have come to a halt.
Projects funded by foreign institutions are in the best situation, but even
these will have to adjust because US dollars are suddenly worth little more than
half of what they bought before the plan.
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(c) 1990 The Christian Science Publishing Society, April 23, 1990
This is the problem in the case of a three-year project to develop an
alternative to Amazon clearing, funded by the Ford Foundation and the
Conservation Foundation.
Funatura and other groups have already asked international foundations,
including the Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, and the World
Wildlife Fund, for emergency monies.
According to Funatura, foreign groups give Brazilian nongovernmental
organizations a total of $1 million annually.
But environmentalists are just one of hundreds of interest groups lobbying
Brasilia to help them out of financial trouble. The issue, says federal deputy
Fabio Feldmann, who is reputed to be the only environmentalist in Congress,
'has taken back seat to discussion and negotiation of the plan itself.
Still, Brazil's new president committed himself in his inauguration speech
to doing more for nature.
And the new government is reportedly negotiating the sale of ''ecological
bonds'' in the international financial community, to fund a large Amazon
reforestation project.
'We hope that Jose Lutzemberger (the new environment secretary) will be
sensitive and use his influence on Fernando Collor to get us out of this
situation. says Mr. von Behr.
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139TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
The Associated Press
The materials in the AP file were compiled by The Associated Press. These
materials may not be republished without the express written consent of The
Associated Press.
April 13. 1990. Friday, PM cycle
SECTION: International News
LENGTH: 800 words
HEADLINE: Ecologists Applaud Choice for New Environment Minister
BYLINE: By PETER MUELLO, Associated Press Writer
DATELINE: RIO DE JANEIRO. Brazil
KEYWORD: Saving the Amazon
BODY:
Defenders of nature say the appointment of Jose Lutzenberger. a noted
ecologist, as Brazil's environment minister could signal an end to wanton
destruction of the Amazon rain forest.
The choice of Lutzenberger, 63, was seen as a victory for conservationists,
who claim the government has done little to stop slash-and-burn devastation of
the Amazon. He was named by President Fernando Collor de Mello, who took
office March 15.
By 1988, ranchers and farmers had destroyed about 8 percent of the rain
forest in the 2 million square miles of Amazon wilderness, said U.S. researcher
Philip Fearnside of the National Institute of Research in the Amazon.
Carbon dioxide produced by the burning is believed to add to the "greenhouse
effect" warming the Earth's surface.
"Lutzenberger is the right man in the right place; nobody else has his
credibility," Johan Dalqas Frisch, head of the Wildlife Preservation Association
in Sao Paulo, said in an interview.
Antonio Carlos de Oliveira of the ecology group Oikos said: "He is
superimportant, a legend. We all have the greatest respect and admiration for
him."
Lutzenberger seeks radical changes in Brazil's environmental policy. He
favors solar, wind and other natural forms of energy over the huge hydroelectric
complexes of recent decades.
A Rio newspaper made the wry comment that Lutzenberger was 50 radical about
protecting nature that he even opposed lawn mowers.
The new environment minister told The Associated Press: "We have to question
the fundamental doctrines of modern industrial society, which is geared to the
needs of the powerful. We're not saving give up technology. but go a different
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The Associated Press, April 13, 1990
way.
In his first week on the job. Lutzenberger sooke out against the
controversial Northern Rim project, which would create army posts to guard
Brazil's vast jungle border.
He also promised to review a decision that allowed gold miners to settle on
land claimed by the primitive Yanomami Indians.
Prosqectors have invaded Yanomami land in the remote western Amazon state of
Roraima, devastating the forest and bringing disease and death to the Indians.
After consulting with Lutzenberger and visiting the area. Collor ordered the
dynamiting of clandestine air strips on tribal land and said the Northern Rim
project would be redirected toward protecting the environment.
"We must remove the prospectors, but we also must give them decent living
conditions, Lutzenberger said. "They are not there because they're bad or want
to destroy.'
Lutzenberger. a descendant of German immigrants. is an agronomist with a
degree from the University of Louisiana. In the 1970s, he resigned as a chemical
company executive to join the ecology movement and helped found Brazil's first
environmental protection group.
Later. Lutzenberger established an environmental consulting firm.
He pushed for tougher laws on pesticide control and for installation of
anti-pollution filters at a cellulose plant in his native Rio Grande do Sul
state, in southern Brazil.
Lutzenberger was among the first to sound the alarm about the Amazon.
"This problem concerns all of humanity," he told reporters shortly after
becoming environment secretary.
"It concerns the continuation of life on this planet. This requires not just
plans for preservation, protection or parks. It requires fundamentally
rethinking our economic programs."
He appealed for help from industrialized countries.
"We must establish now an intensive and continuing dialoque between the
governments of the First World and the Third World on how we can collaborate to
save the last jungles." Lutzenberger told the journalists.
One way, he said, is to write off part of Brazil's $$114 billion foreign
debt aqainst programs to preserve the Amazon.
Brazil has rejected such "debt for nature" swaps on grounds they violate
national sovereignty. Of that, Lutzenberger said:
"The idea is to find ways to reduce the debt in exchange for the preservation
of Amazonia by our government. There is not the slightest intention to
'internationalize" the Amazon."
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The Associated Press, April 13, 1990
A key test of his strength is likely to be a proposed highway from the
western Amazon through Peru to the Pacific.
Lutzenberger opposes the highway, but Peru and governors of Brazil's
Amazonian states say it is vital to economic development in the region. Most of
the governors supported Collor for president.
"The important thing to watch is how much power he has. Let's see what
happens when he conflicts with the highway lobby." Fearnside. the U.S.
researcher, said in a telephone interview from Manaus, in the Amazon jungle
3.000 miles northwest of Rio.
Some fear Lutzenberger's well-known temper and firm convictions could work
against him.
"If he's verv radical, Collor will be pressured to get rid of him." Frisch
said.
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MANAUS
Founded in 1669 as Sao Jose Fort, a jungle outpost on the
banks of the Negro River near where it joins the Amazon, Manaus
began acquiring the trappings of civilization in the 1870's as
rubber, its primary export, grew in importance on the world
market. The rubber boom lasted until 1912, and then collapsed
when it could no longer compete with Malaysian plantation
rubber, the trees of which had grown from seeds taken out of
Brazil in 1876 by English merchant Henry Wickham.
During the boom years, Manaus became a bustling city
designed along European lines, with attractive parks, wide
avenues, public squares, and even British-style bandstands.
There was a large waterworks, an efficient trash collection and
disposal system, trams for transportation, and electric lights.
The influx of the wealth allowed the city's rubber barons
(who never numbered more than 100) to import whatever they
wanted from Europe. The customs house and lighthouse were
shipped stone by stone, from Liverpool. Marble from Italy
graced many of the rubber barons' mansions. Cultural
institutions, such as a large public library, several theaters
and museums, and a botanical garden further graced the scene.
The jewel, however, was the world-famous 700-seat Teatro
Amazonas, or Opera House. Completed in 1910 at a cost of $2
million (equivalent to about $40 million today), the wood used
in its construction came from the nearby rain forest, but all
other building materials were shipped from Europe.
When the boom collapsed, the luxury quickly faded and the
city slipped into relative insignificance. Its importance was
revived in 1967 with the establishment of the city as a Free
Trade Zone. Not the same as a Duty Free Port, legislation
allows industry to import components for assembly in the
factories they establish in the area. Today, the Zone is a
center for assembly of computers, calculators, TV sets, videos,
sound systems, watches, jewelry and motorcycles. Coca Cola is
rumored to be planning to establish a plant for manufacture of
its secret syrup here, the only one to be outside the U.S.
Largely because of the industries within the Free Zone, the
over one-million inhabitants of Manaus enjoy the lowest
unemployment rate in the country. However, wages for unskilled
and semi-skilled labor are low, and basic living conditions for
much of the population remain precarious. The city has
recently gained high-rise hotels and offices, and some of the
grand old buildings are still maintained, but most buildings
are simple structures. Transportation to other cities is
usually by river or air, as road links to the south are
submerged several months a year.
THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF AMAZON RESEARCH (INPA)
The National Institute of Amazon Research was created in
1952 and began operations in 1954 to promote and carry out
basic scientific research and technological development
relating the natural environment to the socio-economic-cultural
systems of the Amazon Region.
Today INPA has some 1000 people, nearly 300 of which are
scientists, while the remainder are technicians and support
staff. In 1985 the main campus of INPA, covering 23 hectares
in Manaus, was inaugurated, consolidating and modernizing a
variety of facilities that had grown in diverse locations.
Special laboratories on that campus include wood products,
fish culture, mineral technology, quality control of charcoal,
structural testing of wood, and glass (for making laboratory
equipment). There is also a herbarium and a food technology
center. The library has over 266,000 references. There are
over 148,000 catalogued botanical specimens, 200,000 fish
specimens, 250,000 insect specimens, and a collection of
regional woods with some 10,000 registered specimens.
In addition to the main campus, there are two small branch
campuses in the states of Acre and Roraima and a research
station in Rondonia. Field research sites include one which is
administered jointly with the Smithsonian Institution to study
minimum critical size of forest for sustaining a given level of
biodiversity.
Formerly a special institute of the National Research
Council (roughly equivalent to the National Science
Foundation), INPA began reporting directly to the Ministry of
Science and Technology in 1987 (today a Secretariat). It has
suffered badly from the economic problems of the country, and
today scarcely has sufficient money to pay the low salaries of
its employees, let alone expenses for field research. The
Secretariat of Science and Technology has placed priority on
finding a way to make the Institute a viable research center
once again.
THE AMAZON BASIN
Nearly one-half of Brazil, some 1,380,722 square miles
(3,576,070 square kilometers) is part of the Amazon Basin
ecosystem of rain forest, swamp, and rivers. The Basin has a
steady climate of high humidity (over 80%) and ample rainfall,
together with an evenly high temperature of 87-94 degrees
Fahrenheit.
The River
Of the twenty largest rivers in the world, ten run through
the Amazon Basin, with the entire system containing 18% of the
world's surface fresh water supply. The most famous, and the
second longest river in the world, is the Amazon itself, which
begins in the Peruvian Andes and flows first north and then
east for 4,087 miles to the Atlantic Ocean. For 1,962 miles it
passes through Brazil to its mouth, where the river spreads
across 180 miles, flowing around the island of Marajo, which is
larger than Switzerland.
The force of the river as it enters the sea causes tidal
waves twelve feet high and mingles the fresh water of the river
with the salt water of the Atlantic to a distance of 200 miles
offshore. The Amazon is navigable upstream by seagoing ships
for over 2,000 miles, and by small boats for hundreds of miles
beyond that.
The Amazon cannot be compared with a North American river
because, downstream from Iquitos, Peru, there is not one single
riverbed, but several parallel channels separated by long
islands. The actual shoreline is constantly shifting according
to seasonal changes in water level. In Manaus, at the
confluence of the Rio Negro and Rio Solimoes, the water level
varies as much as 39 feet during the year, with low water in
November and high water in June and July.
Most of the 5 million inhabitants of the Brazilian Amazon
live directly on the banks of the rivers or not far away. Even
huts built on parts of the river not normally flooded are built
on stilts to give protection against the sporadic extreme high
water levels. Because entire islands and riverbanks can be
obliterated during flooding, villages are sometimes wiped out
and must be re-established, often several miles distant from
their last site.
The Forest
The forest contains over 2000 species of trees, with many
thousands more of other plant life, many as yet undiscovered.
Experts distinguish between three to five stories, the top
being formed by the tips of the highest trees, which reach a
height of some 200 feet. Although tall. they do not have thick
-2-
trunks nor do they have many branches. Lower stories are
formed by medium-sized trees whose closed and interleaved
foliage make up the jungle canopy and then an understory.
Lower down are smaller specimens, such as tree ferns, and at
the very bottom is undergrowth, but rarely is there grass or
moss.
Amazon forest areas are also classified by their location
with regard to the river. In the Igapo forest, which includes
many palm species, the trees actually grow in the water. The
Varzea forest is on the flood plain, an area which has the
richest woil from the annual flooding of the river. Finally,
there is "terra firme" forest, which covers the most land area.
While luxuriant in appearance, all this vegetation grows on
a thin and vulnerable layer of humus. The roots are, by
volume, three-quarters embedded in a shallow layer that only
extends some 20 inches downward. This shallow penetration
accounts for the buttressed roots of many of the taller trees.
Ninety percent of the organic material of the forest is at or
above ground level.
Clearing the forest causes loss of most of the nutrients
above ground level. It also affects the water cycle. At least.
50% of the precipitation in the Basin is formed of water that
has evaporated from the forest. Sea-borne humidity accounts
for a small proportion of the rain.
The forest is a source of extractive crops, including
rubber, Brazil nuts, fruits, wild vegetables, and medicinal
herbs. At the turn of the century, rubber was responsible for
a major boom in the region. Although there are an estimated
300 million wild rubber trees in the Basin today, with a
production of some 25,000 tons annually, this source was
eclipsed in importance by plantations in Malaysia begun some 70
years ago by seedlings taken out of Brazil.
The Fauna
The Basin is home to some 700 species of mammals, 1800
varieties of birds (including many varieties of parrots), and
1500 species of fish and other aquatic creatures (including the
famous pink dolphins and manatees). Every story of the forest
has species of insects, and scientists believe hundreds of them
have not yet been catalogued. Reptiles abound, and spiders
come in an infinite variety, as do bats.
Some of the more interesting and well-known varieties of
birds are, in addition to pparrots, toucans and hummingbirds.
Among the mammals, the monkeys, there are species such as the
pygmy marmoset which is only 6 inches high and weighs 100
graws. provide amazing variety Irom the predatory 250 lb.
arapaima to the South American lungfish and multiple types of
piranha.
FEDERAL ENVIRONMENT PROGRAM
In response to national and international concern about
environment problems in Brazil, especially about deforestation
in the Amazon region, President Sarney re-organized that sector
within his government in January 1989 by combining the
Secretariat of Environment (a regulatory body), the Brazilian
Institute for Forestry Development (similar to a combination of
the U.S. Forest Service and National Park Service), the
Secretariat for Rubber Production, and the Secretariat for
Fisheries into one organization: the Brazilian Institute for
Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA). He
appointed Fernando Cesar Mesquita, a journalist by training, as
President of the new organization.
Mesquita brought with him not only an expert knowledge of
the media and a personal love for the natural environment, but
tremendous energy and considerable administrative skill. He
also had the direct ear of the President. In one year he
galvanized the federal environment sector to perform far beyond
what it had ever done before, especially in the areas of public
education and enforcement.
President Collor continued IBAMA with some modification.
He separated policy-making function from program execution,
creating SEMAM (the Secretariat for Environment) as the policy
head and leaving IBAMA as the executive body. The Secretary
for Environment is Dr. Jose Antonio Lutzenberger, an
environmental activist for twenty years. He gained West
Germany's National Award for Preservation of Nature in 1981 and
Sweden's Right Livelihood Award in 1988. An uncompromising
lobbyist for environmental causes, he is highly respected for
his technical skill in alternatives to existing agricultural
practices. He is particularly valuable to President Collor as
an "Ambassador" for environmental affairs internationally.
IBAMA is headed by Tania Munhoz, a career officer in the
environmental sector. She was only confirmed in her position
in mid-June, and the Institute is now trying to recover some
lost momentum.
Other important players in the environment sector are the
Ministry of External Relations (MRE) and the Secretariat of
Science and Technology. MRE is chairing the interministerial
committee planning for the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Development and Environment. Science and Technology has
important research institutes in the sector and works with
SEMAM on projects such as ecological zoning and global warming.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN BRAZIL
INTRODUCTION
Brazil is larger than the continental United States and
the fifth largest country in the world. Its population of 145
million is the sixth largest in the world. Its economy ranks
ninth in the non-communist world, tenth overall.
Ecologically, Brazil is both rich and diverse. It
contains 30 percent of the world' tropical forests and the
world's largest wetland. It has more species of primates,
spiders, amphibians, flowering plants, and psittacine birds
(such as parrots and macaws) than any other country. In
numbers, it has more terrestrial vertebrate animáls than any
other country. Brazil also has more endangered and threatened
species than any other country and the deforestation of the
Amazon has caught the attention of the world.
As a developing country, Brazil feels it must exploit its
rich natural resources to support its people. Burdened with a
rapidly growing population and with both external and internal
debt, the government feels it is necessary to make immediate
economic gains.
Brazil would like to achieve sustainable development with
protection of the environment through better utilization of
natural resources. Adequate development models for doing this
are, however, lacking, and the government currently knows of no
way to achieve this goal other than to spend more resources
than it has. Brazil has a good body of environmental
protection law and a number of national parks and reserves, and
it remains open to suggestions and assistance which can be
implemented within a Brazilian framework.
Brazil also has sophisticated science capability for
basic research. Its Institute of Amazon Research (INPA),
created in 1951, has accumulated a large body of data on the
Amazon region. The Agricultural Research Institutes (EMBRAPA)
scattered around the country have developed information and
technology on alternative uses of the natural resources for
production. The National Institute of Space Research (INPE)
uses sophisticated remote sensing techniques to determine
deforestation rates within Brazil.
Brazil has been active on environmental issues within an
international context. It has ratified the Montreal Protocol
on Ozone and has participated in the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change from its inception. It will be the host of the
Second World Conference on the Environment in 1992 (the first
having been in Sweden in 1972).
-2-
ECOLOGICAL REGIONS
The Legal Amazon covers 4,906,784.4 square kilometers,
and is barely beginning to be understood. The Legal Amazon is
a politically defined area encompassing 58 percent of the
national territory and including the states of Para, Amazonas,
Acre, Amapa, Rondonia, Roraima and Tocantins plus parts of
Maranhao and Mato Grosso, extending well south of the tropical
forest area. The Amazon River basin has 18 percent of the
world's fresh water supply as well as 30 percent of the world's
tropical forests. Over 90 percent of the forest is still
intact and contains thousands of species of flora, the majority
believed to be not yet classified. The forest affects the
hydrological cycle of the South American continent. As a
source of heat, it affects the seasonal climate of North
America as well.
The Cerrado is the plains area covering some 28 percent
of the central region of Brazil, including the capital city of
Brasilia. It is a varied habitat ranging from open grassland
to forested riverbank. Its soils, with the addition of
fertilizer, are suitable for agriculture, and the flat plains
lend themselves to mechanized agricultural techniques.
The Pantanal region is where Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay
meet. Seasonally flooded by the Paraguay River, its 50 million
acres are home to the largest concentration of fauna in the
Americas, including large populations of caimans and capybaras,
tens of thousands of aquatic birds, and several species of
primates, cats, armadillos, and other animals. The area is
currently threatened by poaching and by toxins in the water
from mining and agriculture.
The Atlantic Forest region covers a corridor along the
Atlantic coast from Rio Grande do Norte to Sao Paulo. Only
five percent of the original forest cover remains, and this is
highly endangered and could disappear within the next few
years. Within the limited forest cover dwell 14 species and
subspecies of monkeys, 13 of which are found nowhere else on
earth. The area is now Brazil's industrial center and also
includes agricultural land. The urban industrial centers have
complex air and water quality problems on a scale familiar to
the industrialized world.
The Caatinga, or dry forest, is in the interior of
northeastern Brazil and is the poorest and most sparsely
vegetated region of the country.
-3-
MAJOR THREATS TO THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
DEFORESTATION
The most publicized threat to the Amazon region has been
the annual burnings, a traditional agricultural technique of
clearing land in a way which returns some of the vegetable
nutrients to the soil in the form of ash. By 1975, only 0.58
percent of the Legal Amazon had had dense forest destroyed. By
1978 the percent increased to 1.57. Official figures released
in April 1989 by the Institute of Space Research (INPE)
indicated that 5.12 percent had been destroyed. The peak
burning year was 1987 when 204,000 square kilometers went up in
flames, but sixty percent of that is estimated to have been
either cerrado or pasture land and not virgin forest. The lack
of differentiation between land being burned and forest being
destroyed led to overestimates of deforestation in World Bank
projections published in 1988 (indicating 12 percent
deforestation by that year). Area burned in 1988 was 120,700
square kilometers, down some 40 percent from 1987. 1989 was
lower still as the result of the publicity attendant upon the
burnings, government denial of some 5000 requests to deforest
land, and an unusually prolonged rainy season which has
prevented the drying of the vegetation. The leap in
deforestation rate between 1978 and 1988 was considered
alarming by a Senate Commission of Inquiry in early 1989.
Loggers extract some 267 million cubic meters of wood per
year, but only 64 million cubic meters annually are being
replanted. Recent issuance of regulations which will prohibit
logging of virgin forest after 1995 is an attempt to enforce
reforestation and sustained commercial logging practices.
HYDROELECTRIC PROJECTS
The numerous rivers of the Amazon Basin would seem to
make the area a paradise for hydroelectric power. In 1987 the
parastatal electric company Electrobras developed a thirty year
plan called "Plano 2010", projecting Brazil's energy needs and
infrastructure to meet those needs through the year 2010, which
envisages a total of as many as 80 hydroelectric plants in the
Amazon region, a projection which has already been scaled down
markedly.
-4-
Contrary to popular belief, the Basin is not an ideal
location for hydroelectric plants, primarily because it is
flat. Dams create only shallow reservoirs, flooding huge areas
to generate relatively small amounts of electricity. Observers
cite the example of Balbina, located near Manaus, which flooded
256,000 hectares to generate 250, megawatts of energy at a cost
of US$4.08 per kilowatt. (In comparison, the Tucurui Dam near
Belem, with a deeper reservoir, flooded approximately the same
area but produces 4000 megawatts at a cost of US$2.05 per
kilowatt.)
To compound the damage, the Balbina area was flooded
without first deforesting the area. The decaying forest under
the lake produces so much sulfuric gas that the water will be
unsuitable for pisciculture for the next ten years and also
threatens the wildlife around its borders. In addition, it is
highly corrosive for the turbines. The polluted water is a
breeding ground for vector born diseases. Research undertaken
to address these same problems at Samuel (near Porto Velho),
the most recent dam to come on line, has provided some answers,
including harvesting the underwater forest with special
equipment to reduce the pollution level and gain commercial
value from the wood, and treating the water passing through the
turbines with oxygen to reduce corrosion.
MINING
Almost 80 percent of the gold mining in Brazil is done by
an estimated 500,000 independent prospectors working in or near
potentially gold-rich waterways. Erosion and siltation from
the dredging and/or processing of ore have become so serious
that some rivers, such as the Tapajos, are little more than
moving mud; and all former aquatic life has been destroyed.
Each kilo of gold is estimated to consume 1.7 kilos of
mercury during processing. The country imports approximately
100 tons of mercury annually, virtually all of which is washed
into the rivers and waterways of the Amazon region and the
Pantanal, contaminating flora and fauna and affecting the
population which depends on these water and food sources.
The President of IBAMA recently indicated he believed
damage from uncontrolled mining was the single most serious
environmental problem in Brazil today. In addition to the
physical damage, invasions by prospectors into Indian lands and
national forests have created violent conflicts over land
-5-
rights and introduced diseases into the Indian communities
(most notably malaria) which did not exist there before. The
most serious problems are in the states of Rondonia and Roraima
where invasions are of such proportions that they are virtually
uncontrollable.
WHAT DRIVES THE DEVASTATION
POPULATION GROWTH
During the 1950's Brazil's population grew at a rate of
3.3 percent annually. That growth rate has now been reduced to
2.25 percent. However, those born in the 1960's are now
entering the workforce, demanding the creation of 1.7 million
new jobs each year. The creation of that many jobs requires
the economy to expand at a rate of some 5 or 6 percent annually.
The Brazilian population is a migrant one with 40 percent
living in some place other than where they were born. The
primary migration has been rural to urban and northeast to
south and southeast. Sao Paulo receives over 600,000
immigrants per year while Rio receives over 200,000. 90
percent of the population now lives on 35 percent of the land
area, concentrated in the south and southeast, with the
northeast still overpopulated for its rural subsistence economy
and a source of continuing out-migration.
INDUSTRIALIZATION
Like many developing countries, Brazil has responded to
the demand for economic development by industrializing. In
1950 the industrial sector accounted for just 22 percent of
GCP. By 1980 it was 38 percent. Growing with industry has
been a companion modern service sector, including trade,
transportation and finance. Together, these two sectors
accounted for 85 percent of GDP and employed 45 percent of
nonagricultural workers in 1980.
The building and paving of major highways linking all
parts of the country has been a primary factor encouraging
migration flows from the south and center of the country to the
Amazon region. Deforestation patterns clearly radiate out from
these roads and studies at the Institute of Amazon Research
(INPA) have shown geometric growth rates in deforestation
during the six years immediately following the paving of the
Brazilia - Belem and Cuiaba - Porto Velho roads, with
deforestation then levelling off.
-6-
While Brazil has been more creative than most countries
in the energy sector -- developing alternative fuels such as
cane-produced alcohol, expanding oil exploration and
production, and exploring nuclear energy options -- the
electricity sector has been planned with heavy emphasis on
hydroelectric power. 1987 consumption was 180 billion kw per
hour and was projected to grow at a rate of 6.3 percent
annually through 2010, with a concomitant need for new
hydroelectric power plants.
FISCAL INCENTIVES
In spite of the high rate of industrialization, Brazil's
major urban centers have not been able to adequately absorb the
rapid population growth. In partial response, the government
established tax and other credits to encourage people to move
into the sparsely populated center west (cerrado) and Amazon
regions. When roads were built into these areas, ease of
access plus fiscal incentives attracted thousands.
Tax incentives and income protection objectives also
encourage businessmen to invest heavily in robusiness in the
south and southeast. They buy land from small holders who then
move into the cerrado or Amazon region. In the Amazon region,
most of the land is not suitable for the annual crops raised by
southern smallholders, and it is quickly exhausted. The large
landholders then come in and buy out the smallholders,
establishing cattle ranches on the land, while the smallholders
move on to clear new land. Laws requiring clearing of land to
demonstrate ownership encouraged landholders to deforest,
especially during the peak burning season of 1987 when there
was uncertainty about the direction agrarian reform legislation
would take in the new Constitution.
EXTERNAL DEBT
By the mid-1980's, Brazil placed great emphasis on
increasing its trade surplus as a means of servicing the
country's external debt. This policy helped drive
industrialization and agro-business in the south and southeast,
one of the factors in the new migration from the south to
center west and the Amazon.
-7-
ENVIRONMENTAL MEASURES
as of January
1990--
LAW
Brazil's new Constitution contains a chapter requiring
the federal government to protect and preserve the environment
for the common use and essential health and quality of life of
current and future generations. Behind that chapter is a
comprehensive body of law, including the Forestry Code, the
Protection of Fauna Law, the Fish Code, the National Plan of
Coastal Management, and a series of decrees, regulations and
instructions.
NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES
Brazil currently has 32 national parks, 18 biological
reserves, and 20 ecological stations, totalling 14 million
hectares. Such protected areas comprise 1.8 percent of the
nation's land area. Many Brazilian environmentalists believe
this is too small and the areas themselves are inadequately
protected because of lack of personnel and financial resources.
ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES
Until January 1989 the Brazilian federal government had
two main environmental protection agencies: the Special
Secretariat for the Environment (SEMA) and the Brazilian Forest
Development Institute (IBDF). SEMA's mandate covered the full
range of urban and rural environmental issues while IBDF was
responsible for maintaining and properly using Brazil's forest
resources. The two agencies were attached to different
ministries, and they found it difficult to coordinate their
activities. SEMA had an annual budget of US$20 million in 1988
and a staff of 300. It delegated most of its enforcement role
to state secretariats of environment. IBDF had a budget of
US$14. 5 million and a staff of 3500. In 1988 IBDF had 350
forest guards in the Amazon region, a ratio of one for every
15,000 square kilometers. In January 1989 SEMA and IBDF were
dissolved, along with the Fishery and Rubber Secretariats, and
their responsibilities and budgets folded into the Brazilian
Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources
(IBAMA). IBAMA only had its structure and budget approved at
the end of January 1990. During this organizational period,
the IBAMA President had two priorities: raising consciousness
of the Brazilian population on environmental issues, and
-8-
applying more rigorous enforcement of existing legislation and
rules. He has been effective in spite of the limited resources
of the organization, largely because he has had a direct
channel to the President which allowed him some independence
from his administrative authority, the Ministry of Interior,
and because of his skillful use of the media.
The proposed organization for the incoming government is
a National Secretariat for the Environment to be attached to
the Presidency and responsible for policy, with IBAMA a
separate organization primarily responsible for enforcement.
There has been a growing Brazilian NGO movement in the
environmental arena, with numbers of foundations and
associations burgeoning since the mid-80's and doubling within
the last year. They now number over 1000 (9 are foundations),
and they have become increasingly vocal and political in
orientation.
In order to better respond to the growing international
concern in environmental issues in Brazil, the Ministry of
External Relations created a Department of Human Rights and
Environment in February 1989.
"OUR NATURE" PROGRAM
In October 1988 President Sarney announced a new national
environmental protection program called "Our Nature". This
program called for the establishment of six working groups,
coordinated by the Advisory Secretariat for National Defense
(SADEN), to study the problems of and give possible solutions
for protection of forest cover, research, environmental
education, interests of indigenous people and traditional
forest communities, and pollution caused by independent
miners. The conclusions and recommendations of the study
groups formed the basis of a series of Presidential decrees and
proposals for law announced by President Sarney in early
April. Several of the decrees created new national parks and
reserves, others suspended fiscal incentives in the Atlantic
Forest and Amazon regions, and others set guidelines for
control of toxic substances such as mercury used in gold mining.
Proposals for law included the creation of a Superior
Council for Environment, modification of the Forestry Code,
systems for regulating agrotoxins, and creation of a national
fund for the environment (costs for the first two years were
estimated to be 350 million new cruzados, in January 1989
currency). These proposals were considered by Congress; most
were modified and passed before Congress recessed at the end of
June 1989.
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America Nor. 18,1989
"democratic" presidency is called into question. Hon-
most powerful nations in South America, has been such
duras is saddled with the problem of the Nicaraguan con-
that no political force-except an ugly one whose face
tras that we put there. El Salvador's civil war, which has
we will not want to contemplate-will be able to cope
already taken 70,000 lives, continues. Nicaragua's elec-
with it. Four years ago the Argentinian austral was worth
tions, scheduled for Feb. 25, are made doubtful, among
slightly more than our dollar; now one dollar buys more
other reasons, because we have not cooperated in dis-
than 700 australes.
banding the contras whom we created. Panama, no com-
The purpose of this sad recital is not to offer specific
ment. In Colombia, the judicial infrastructure has been
recommendations. That will require, not a letter, but
neutered by a mafia feeding on our own drug addiction.
years of work. That basically is our plea: Sir, you need to
Peru is in a state of virtual civil war, with the country's
expend as much of your considerable smarts and energy
midsection in the hands of the anarchic Sendero Lumi-
on Latin America as on Europe. It is the right and the in-
noso. Inflation in Brazil and Argentina, potentially the
telligent thing to do.
Yours respectfully,
Concerned Editors
TURNING BACK THE
called in the military police to disperse peasant protes-
tors. Now, with Vatican heft behind him, he is closing a
regional seminary and a theological institute (involving
some 500 seminarians and other students, about half of
CLOCK IN BRAZIL
them lay people), both with close ties to Christian base
communities and rural grass-roots movements. At their
October meeting, the region's bishops voted to support
the closings-though the London Tablet reporter claims
The very image of what the church stands for on the eve
that, in part, this vote happened because progressive
of the 21st century, we guess, will not be determined in
bishops either did not attend or left in disgust before the
North America so much as in a nation like Brazil, in size
meeting concluded.
and population the world's largest Catholic country (cf.
Protestors and the press, Archbishop Cardoso asserts,
AM., 10/28/89). In the early 1960's, that meant "Catho-
slander him as "the enemy of the poor and in favor of the
lic" in name only. At that time, two-thirds of the university
rich classes." He denies it (and we believe him); he sim-
students surveyed in Rio de Janeiro identified themselves
ply wants priests and lay catechists out of politics.
as unbelievers and viewed the church as "on the side of
Agreed, without an episcopal connection, the "popular
injustice." In 1978, after a decade in which many priests
church" is all too easily coopted and loses its indepen-
and bishops risked (and lost) their lives defending
dent, critical edge-as we have seen in Nicaragua. But
human rights, another poll found a stunning change:
Brazil has been different. There, for the last two dec-
three-fourths of the students declared themselves believ-
ades, bishops have sponsored 150,000 base communities
ers and favorable to the church. Hotshots who previously
as sanctuary for a threatened democratic remnant; and
would have become Brazilian Carl Icahns or Ted Turners
bishops have been the sole protectors of the landless poor
are now entering seminaries. Question: Will the Vatican's
against the depredations of big landholders and the mili-
current long-term policy toward Brazil jeopardize this
tary. In the context of Brazil's acute land conflict, it is
promising transformation?
hard to avoid the judgment that the Archbishop Cardosos
Since he took office, Pope John Paul II has replaced
and their Vatican patrons are politically naive, oblivious
progressives with conservatives in nine out of Brazil's 36
that their stress on the "spiritual" signals to the police and
archdioceses, with only three progressive bishops ap-
landowners that they can now have at the landless move-
pointed during this time. That these appointments are be-
ment with impunity.
ginning to take their toll is perhaps best illustrated in Re-
Secure in our prosperity and protected by liberal politi-
cife, in desperately poor northeastern Brazil, where the
cal institutions, we North Americans may be inclined to
new Archbishop, José Cardoso Sobrinho, is moving
think that disputes over proper seminary education, the
swiftly to dismantle the human rights work of his charis-
appointment of bishops and liberation theology are ar-
matic predecessor, Dom Hélder Câmara. In August,
cane stuff with no immediate practical import. In Brazil,
Archbishop Cardoso dismissed the regional pastoral
on the contrary, this is the kind of thing that exposes peo-
commission, and since then he has threatened to suspend
ple to death squads-and that may yet bury a church that
"activist" clergy associated with peasant movements and
was returning from the dead.
336
AMERICA NOVEMBER 18, 1989
ENVIRONMENT
World Press Reason Sept. 1989
A Tale of
Two Forests
Hope for the Amazon, while China 'de-greens'
The
Economist
rive into São Paulo from the airport, and one of the
It is still easier to find reasons for gloom than for hope.
D
first signs you see says, "Save the Amazon." Brazil's
The forces pushing people north to the Amazon are as
attitude toward its vast ecological treasure trove to
powerful as ever. The mechanization of farming in the
the north is showing the first faint signs of change, though
south of the country, sometimes paid for by foreign aid,
there is far to go before the country develops-and, more
drives people from the land: Soya farming, for instance,
important, enforces-a sensible policy on what to do with
displaces 11 people for every job it creates. Small farmers
the Amazon.
who have sold their land in the south tend to buy new land
The international uproar over the destruction of the
in the Amazon. And giddy inflation (heading above 1,000
rain forests, which has reached peak volume in the past
percent this year) feeds land speculation.
year, caught the government by surprise. Its reaction was
The areas of forest zoned for protection have greatly in-
hostile, fed by an old fear that the rest of the world would
creased in recent years. But enforcement is pitifully weak.
love to get its hands on this last great tract of underpopu-
In the state of Rondônia, 60 men from the federal police
lated but inhabitable land. Since then, several half-hopeful
and 80 from the military police, poorly equipped, guard
things have happened.
an area almost as large as West Germany. The organiza-
A broadly sensible policy for the Amazon, called Nossa
tion charged with protecting the indigenous people is
Natureza (Our Nature), has been drawn up by a group
mainly corrupt and inefficient. Some Indians say that the
with support from Brazil's armed forces and put under
most effective single measure the government could take
the control of one of the generals in President José Sar-
would be to let them police their own land.
ney's cabinet. It is, however, badly underfinanced. To car-
The growing realization that the Amazon is almost as
ry out the Amazon program, four environmental-protec-
rich in minerals as in wildlife constitutes a new threat to
tion bodies have been rolled into one, called IBAMA, and
the forest. The 1982 discovery of gold in Mato Grosso
put under the supervision of Fernando Cesar Mesquita,
touched off a gold rush in that state. In the past two years,
one of President Sarney's close friends. IBAMA, too, has
prospectors have been pouring into the state of Roraima
insufficient cash for the job. An offer from Britain, howev-
in the north. These garimpeiros (prospectors) roam the
er, to help with research and conservation work, and to
forest like medieval brigands, in gangs of 50 or 100, armed
help pay for setting up a new biological reserve, was ac-
to the teeth, killing Indians who get in their way and pol-
cepted by the government in July. The World Bank is now
luting the rivers with the mercury they use to pan for gold.
negotiating a loan of $100-150 million, which it hopes to
They are regarded as romantic heroes: Boa Vista's town
sign early next year, to strengthen IBAMA and improve
square is dominated by a sentimental statue of a garim-
forest management.
peiro panning for gold.
Although the government's economic difficulties have
Farther south, the discovery of the world's largest iron-
meant too little cash available for environmental protec-
ore deposits, at Grand Carajás, has spawned an even more
tion, they have also forced cuts in public works such as
damaging development. The Carajás mine itself has been
roads and dams, which bring deforestation in their wake.
sensitively managed, but more than half of the land along
The electricity industry, which many months ago had
the railway built to take ore to the sea has been logged or
projects for dams that would have displaced 500,000 peo-
cleared. Worse, umpteen pig-iron plants are planned or in
ple, has been redoing its sums to give more weight to so-
operation, using charcoal as fuel, which also depletes the
cial and environmental factors. As a result, most of its
forest. An unpublished study for the World Bank argues
projects have been discarded for the time being.
that, if all 34 planned projects are set up, they will destroy
580 square miles a year, using up all of the region's forests
From the newsmagazine "The Economist" of London.
within 70 years.
(Continued)
40 WORLD PRESS REVIEW
SEPTEMBER 1989
ENVIRONMENT
In spite of the speed of deforestation-the gloomiest
cal issues. Since the military crackdown in June, cam-
estimates reckon that an area the size of France has al-
paigns to protect the environment are likely to become
ready gone-a vast amount of rain forest remains. Bra-
more difficult to mount. The irony, says He, is that the en-
zil's technical institutes are full of people doing world-
vironmental crisis may be far more serious than the politi-
class work to discover what the forest contains and how
cal problems.
it can most sensibly be used. They get virtually no help
According to official figures, forests now cover 12 per-
from companies, even those that make money from their
cent of China, compared with 12.7 percent when the com-
discoveries. The director of the Museu Goeldi Herbari-
munists came to power in 1949. But He believes that for-
um in Belém points out that a West German pharmaceu-
ests actually cover only between 10.5 and 11 percent of the
tical company has for more than 20 years been using a
country and that by the year 2000, the area will have
wild plant from the Amazon to make a product to treat
dropped to 8.3 percent. He says that, in comparison, for-
glaucoma. Yet the company has not put a penny into re-
ests in Japan cover 66 percent of the land; in the Soviet
search into the cultivation of the plant, which is now
Union, 35 percent; in the U.S., 33 percent; in West Ger-
close to extinction.
many, 29 percent; in France, 26 percent; and in India, 26
Finding ways to exploit the Amazon in its present state
percent.
is clearly the best way to give people a financial interest in
Fire is one of the biggest causes of deforestation: China
preserving it. The potential of the forest is only beginning
has the worst forest fires in the world. In 25 years, the
to be understood.
country has lost 21.2 million acres of forests due to fire-
equivalent to one-third of saplings planted and surviving
in that period, according to estimates by He and con-
firmed by other forestry experts. The worst fire was in
Can't See China's
1987. In the Da Xing Anling region in north China, 2.5
million acres of forest were destroyed.
The People's Daily reported that the annual consump-
Forests-or Its Trees
tion of 10.6 billion cubic feet of timber for fuel, building,
and paper far exceeded growth of 7 billion cubic feet. If
this rate of consumption continues, the paper warned,
state timber enterprises will have nothing to log by the end
of the century.
To reverse this trend, the ministry urged the country's
leaders to reiterate the policy that everyone between the
ages of 11 and 65 plant between three and five trees a year.
newscientist
Forestry officials say that through its afforestation drive,
By KATHARINE FORESTIER
China gains more wooded areas than it loses. They state
that 65 percent of the new trees planted each year survive.
ailure to halt the destruction of China's environment
F
But professors from one forestry research institute say
was one of the many grievances that fueled dissatis-
that half of the annual afforestation figures are bogus, and
faction with the 40 years of communist rule. Environ-
that of the other half, only 40 percent of trees planted sur-
mentalists have been painting a grim picture of China,
vive. According to He, over the past 25 years only 10 per-
warning that the country is losing its natural resources at
cent of young trees have survived.
an alarming speed.
Deforestation has had an inevitable impact on wildlife.
He Bochuan, a professor who teaches the philosophy of
Qin Jien Hua, director of the wildlife management depart-
science at Zhongshan University, Guangdong, is one of
ment in the forestry ministry, says that in 1962, 60 species
the most outspoken critics of the management of China's
were threatened with extinction. That number has now
environment and economy. Many government officials
risen to 300-and includes the giant panda. The govern-
dismiss his catalog of disasters, listed in his recent book,
ment has set up 400 natural reserves covering 2 percent of
China in the Valley. But most researchers in institutes
the total area of China and passed a new wildlife protec-
agree with his conclusions. In recent months, the official
tion law. But Qin says this has not been enough.
press has reported many examples of environmental de-
Increasing soil erosion is the other consequence of de-
generation, and the country's leaders have promised ac-
forestation. More than 5.6 billion tons of soil are lost each
tion to reverse this trend. Some people say that the gov-
year. One-sixth of the total area of China is now affected.
ernment's new concern for the environment, as shown in
As soil is eroded, rising levels of silt in the rivers increase
the media, is simply a ploy to deflect attention from politi-
the risk of floods. Last year floods killed 6,000 people, left
4 million homeless, and inundated 28 million acres of
From the weekly "New Scientist" of London.
land. Half of China's provinces were affected.
42 WORLD PRESS REVIEW
SEPTEMBER 1989
Dec '90
Brazil visit file
Fernando COLLOR de Mello
BRAZIL
(Phonetic: KOHlor)
President-Elect
Addressed as: Mr. Collor
Young (40), charismatic Fernando Collor de
Mello, who will take office on 15 March, will be
Brazil's first directly elected president in 29 years.
Virtually unknown at the onset of last year's
presidential campaign, the conservative former
(1986 - May 1989) Governor of Alagoas, a small
state in Brazil's underdeveloped northeast, has
portrayed himself as a tough leader who intends to
reform his country's corrupt central government.
Collor is popular among some segments in his home
state for his attacks on "maharajas"-civil servants
who receive astronomical salaries for little or no
©
work. In his campaign strategy he targeted the common man and stressed a broad vision of a
better, more honest government for Brazil.
Collor has declared that he is a firm believer in free enterprise and acknowledges the
need for a more open economy in order to compete internationally. He advocates the
privatization of many state enterprises and says he will work to reduce inflation by cutting
the budget deficit. He also wants to renegotiate Brazil's external debt on terms that will
allow for adequate economic growth.
Collor was born on 12 August 1949 into a wealthy Alagoas family and spent his
formative years in Rio de Janeiro. He is the son of a former senator and governor and the
grandson of a former federal deputy and Cabinet minister. Collor studied economics and
journalism at the University of Brasilia and at the Federal University of Alagoas, while
helping to run his family's large communications network. He entered politics in 1979, when
the military government appointed him mayor of Maceio, the capital of Alagoas. He served
as a federal deputy from 1982 to 1986 under the banner of the Democratic Social Party; he
then switched to the Brazilian Democratic Movement Party and was elected Governor of
Alagoas. He later broke with that party over the length of President Jose Sarney's term.
After a brief affiliation with the Youth Party, Collor founded the National Reconstruction
Party and entered the presidential race in May 1989.
Collor has received favorable coverage in the Brazilian press for his recent travels; since
mid-January 1990 he has visited three neighboring South American countries, followed by a
three-week global tour of the United States, the Soviet Union, Japan, and several west
European countries. Recognized for his facility with languages, he speaks some English,
French, Spanish, and Italian. Collor was twice national karate champion of Brazil and says
he relieves stress by running, swimming, and practicing karate. He is married to the former
Rosane Malta and has two sons-Arnon Affonso and Joaquim Pedro-from his previous
marriage to Rio de Janeiro socialite Lilibeth Monteiro.
1 March 1990
Introduction
to the American
Nations
GENERAL SECRETARIAT, ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES, WASHINGTON, D.C.
General Secretariat
Organization of American States
Washington, D.C.
INTRODUCTION TO
THE AMERICAN NATIONS
Department of Public Information
General Secretariat
Organization of American States
Washington, D.C.
FOREWORD
This publication, as its name indicates, introduces to the
reader the American nations that form the Organization of
American States. Although the present Government of Cuba
is excluded from participation in the Organization, the
country itself still remains a member and is, therefore,
included in this booklet.
This family of nations is united not only geographically, but
also in principles and purposes. It marches toward a better
future through social, economic, and cultural development,
which constitutes the true basis for the spiritual unity of the
Hemisphere.
Each nation is described separately in alphabetical order,
beginning with a general description of the country and
continuing with information and data on the principal
historical, social, cultural and economic aspects.
The booklet clearly points up the solidarity that exists
among the member nations, despite the different
characteristics of each individual country. It is directed mainly
to the general public and to centers of primary and
secondary education and, therefore, does not pretend to be
an in-depth study of each country or to give detailed
information on the history, geography, culture, and economy
of a country. Obviously, many important names and events
cannot be included. The main purpose of this publication is
to awaken an interest on the part of the general public in the
countries of the Hemisphere, and to develop through this
interest a better understanding of the family of nations that
form the regional Organization.
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA
12434
1538571
F7942
Sailing and racing in the blue waters of the Caribbean is a favorite sport in Antigua and Barbuda
Area: 171 square miles
Population: 76,000
situated St. John, the capital of the country. The island
Capital: St. John
consists mainly of a lowland plateau with its highest hill,
Currency: East Caribbean dollar
Boggy Peak, rising to 1,330 ft. in the southwest. In the
Language: English
north and east the land is undulating in certain areas.
Independence Day: November 1
Antigua is divided into six parishes: St. John in the
northwest, St. George in the north and center, St. Mary in
Antigua and Barbuda-a country formed by two islands
the southern side, St. Peter in the northeast, St. Phillip in
the east, and St. Paul extending from the center to the east.
and an islet, Redonda-lies outside of the Leeward Islands
chain. It was discovered by Christopher Columbus in his
Barbuda, 25 miles north of Antigua, is surrounded by coral
second voyage to the New World in 1493, and named by
reefs, making it ideal for those who enjoy scuba diving and
him after the Virgin of Santa María de la Antigua in the
the multicolor fish that abound in those waters. The
Cathedral of Seville, Spain.
dependency of Redonda, about 35 miles west of Antigua, is
an extremely rocky islet encompassed by sheer cliffs. Its
GEOGRAPHY. It is probable that the islands of Antigua
only inhabitants are goats, large crabs, lizards and many
and Barbuda formed one body of land at one time, some
seabirds. The territory of Antigua is 108 square miles,
10,000 years B.C., when the sea level was 250 ft. lower than
followed by Barbuda with 62 square miles, and Redonda
it is today. Antigua, a land of deeply indented shores lined
which totals less than one square mile. The temperature of
by reefs, has many natural harbors, on one of which is
the country is agreeable. Even on the hottest days in
August when it reaches near 90° F. the constant sea
breezes make the heat bearable. It never gets colder than
British possession under the terms of the Treaty of Breda.
70° F. in the winter months of January and February. The
The country remained in British hands until 1967 when it
most pleasant time of the year is from November to May.
became an Associated State. In 1958 the Federation of the
West Indies was formed and Antigua became a member
and remained one until its dissolution in 1962. Antigua and
CULTURE. Ninety per cent of the people of Antigua and
Barbuda became fully independent on November 1, 1981,
Barbuda are black, descendants of slaves brought from the
and joined the Organization of American States in that
West Coast of Africa; the rest of the population is caucasian
of British and European origin, and a small percentage of
same year.
Lebanese and Syrians. This mixture of races and nationali-
GOVERNMENT. The form of Government is based on the
ties has developed interesting cultural patterns and indi-
British Parliamentary system. There is a Governor Gen-
vidual characteristics. Carnival, held at the beginning of
eral named by the Queen of England. Responsibility for
August, is the liveliest of all, but other forms of expression
executive government lies with the Prime Minister. Parli-
have been maintained and developed over the years. The
ament consists of a Senate and an elected House of
Little Theatre Group formed in 1969 extended the base of
Representatives.
theatrical productions from European drama to Carib-
bean plays. Calypso is unique for its cleverly written lyrics,
combining rhythm with wit. Poetry and short stories have
ECONOMY. The first crop grown on the island was
become other forms of expressing the feelings of the people.
tobacco, but sugar took over and in the second half of the
Music and rhythm are the natural heritage of the country
17th century the African slave trade began when heavy
and are performed through the popular oil drums as well
labor was required for the sugar trade. The economy was
as through the traditional piano and organ. The perfor-
dominated by the sugar and cotton industry for 300 years
mances of the Contemporary Dance Theatre have deligh-
until 1960 when efforts were made to diversify it. Tourism
ted audiences. Paintings by untrained artists are becoming
was introduced then and it now contributes about 60 per
more popular each day for their primitive values.
cent of the GNP, if taken into account associated services
St. John in the parish of the same name is the capital of
and the multiplier effect of money circulating throughout
the country and its most important cultural and commer-
the economy. The target of the Government's five-year plan
cial center. The variety of merchandise in the shops in this
drafted in 1980 is to achieve by 1984 a more balanced
city is truly remarkable and the prices on crystal, china,
economy with tourism remaining as the most important
perfumes, and liquor are probably lower than in duty-free
factor. Two years after the publication of the plan the
shops in most other countries. There are several luxury
country can already point to a remarkable degree of suc-
hotels, guest houses and apartments, and good restaurants
cess in achieving its aspirations, as projects such as the
offering international cuisine. Night life diversions include
following have been launched or completed: Livestock
casinos, nightclubs and discotheques. Sports enthusiasts
development, hotel training, food processing, small busi-
may enjoy golf, tennis, deep sea fishing, and sailing.
ness training, oil refinery, conventional and wind-powered
Cricket is the main national sport. The country is famous
electricity generation, energy conservation, water distri-
for its international one-week sailing regatta. Antigua and
bution, school construction and hospital improvement.
Barbuda offers many historic sites, including Admiral
Antigua and Barbuda was one of the three countries that
Nelson's House, now a museum. English Harbour, embrac-
brought a Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA) into
ing Nelson's dockyard, was the base used by the English
being in 1965, which was later converted into a Caribbean
Fleet during the Napoleonic Wars. Nearby is Clarence
Community and Common Market (CARICOM).
House, a fine Georgian House built for the Duke of Clar-
The principal agricultural product is cotton which has
ence before he became King William IV. In the capital
export potential. Food crops are cultivated for domestic
there is St. John's Cathedral, built to an unusual architec-
consumption. Antiguan pineapples deserve special men-
tural design during the 1840's; it has two baroque towers,
tion. The famous Antigua Black is among the sweetest
and the interior is encased in pinewood. Parham Church,
variety of pineapple in the world, and the Government
built in 1840 in the Italian style, has a reputation as the
believes that a lucrative export market is likely to develop.
finest church in the Commonwealth Caribbean.
The main exports are rum and wine, while the country
The country has a total of 37 public schools; nine of which
imports apparel, foodstuffs, timber, among other items.
are secondary schools. Higher education is provided
The country's oil refinery produces 17,000 barrels a day
through scholarships and fellowships to study abroad,
of refined oil products.
mainly at the University of the West Indies, which also has
Several airlines link the country to Europe, the United
a branch in Antigua and Barbuda offering higher educa-
States, Canada, and other Caribbean and Latin American
countries. Communications are very good as are the roads
tion and adult education courses.
that link the manufacturing areas to the International
HISTORY. Although Christopher Columbus discovered
Airport. Several shipping companies call at Antigua's
Antigua and Barbuda, the Spaniards never colonized the
deep water harbor. Cruise ships are given priority over
country. They found there were not enough natural springs
freight vessels during the peak winter season; the great
for water and were faced with raids from the Carib Indians
popularity of Antigua for cruise ship visitors lies in the
who roamed the islands of the area. The French also made
excellence of the shop facilities in St. John.
several attempts at settlement but failed. Finally, the Brit-
ish colonized the island in 1632. Since, the English retained
FLAG. It is composed of three triangles, the middle one is
possession except for a brief period in 1667 when it was
black, blue, and white with a golden sun on the black
captured by the French. However, in 1667 it was declared a
portion. The triangles on the sides are red.
ARGENTINA
Highway that runs from
the Port of Buenos Aires
to the principal routes
that connect the capital to
the interior
Area: 1,504,509 square miles (including continental and
GEOGRAPHY. Climate is generally temperate, with wide
Antartic areas)
variations in temperature from the jungles of the Chaco to
Population: 28,085,000 (1981)
Capital: Buenos Aires
the glaciers of Tierra del Fuego, Antartica, the islands of
Currency: Peso
the south Atlantic, the Malvinas islands, and the islands of
Language: Spanish
South Georgia and South Sandwich. The sub-tropical
Independence Day: July 9
northeast comprises the Chaco plains, whose dense que-
National hero: José de San Martín
bracho forests are the world's major source of tannin used
in leather-tanning, and the fertile Mesopotamia region.
Argentina, incorrectly named "Land of Silver" by the
Iguassú Falls, with its 275 separate cataracts, is located in
early settlers, is a country of tremendous agricultural,
the northeast corner of Misiones Territory, an area noted
mineral, and forest resources. It has many uranium,
for its production of yerba mate.
petroleum, and gas reserves, and a great variety of fish
The pampa, heart of Argentina, lies south of the Chaco.
abound in the coastal waters. Argentina is world-famous
This great plain is divided roughly into five zones of
for its beef and wheat, its wealth of spectacular beauty
production: dairy, fruit, and truck farming around Buenos
found in the Andean lake region, and its magnificent
Aires; the livestock zone extending from Mesopotamia to
capital Buenos Aires.
Bahia Blanca; the corn and flax-producing area around
Rosario; the alfalfa zone in the west and south; and the
Pérez Esquivel in 1980; the Nobel Prize of Medicine went
famous "wheat crescent" which extends some 600 miles.
to Bernardo Houssay in 1947; and Luis Federico Leloir
The mountainous Andean region includes Mt. Acon-
obtained the Nobel Prize of Chemistry in 1970.
cagua, the Hemisphere's loftiest peak; warm, luxuriant
valleys, great salt plains, and barren tablelands. Vine-
EARLY HISTORY. In 1516 Juan Díaz de Solis, searching
yards, olives, and citrus fruits are cultivated in the sunny
for a passage to the "western sea," anchored in the great
valleys framed by the snow-capped Andes.
mouth of the Atlantic, later named Rio de la Plata, and
South of the Colorado River lies the arid, windswept
claimed the territory for the Spanish Crown. Tales of
plateau of Patagonia. In the lowlands which separate the
fabulous wealth attracted other conquerors and adven-
plateau from the Andean foothills, one finds beautiful lakes
turers, but it was not until 1580 that Juan de Garay
surrounded by heavily-wooded national parks. Patagonia
succeeded in permanently establishing the city of Buenos-
is devoted primarily to sheep-raising and wool production.
Aires, originally founded by Pedro de Mendoza in 1536.
Argentina's most important petroleum field is located at
On May 25, 1810, the people demanded self-government,
Comodoro Rivadavia on Patagonia's north-eastern coast.
forced the viceroy to resign, and created a patriotic council
Tierra del Fuego, an island south of the Strait of
called the "first Junta." After winning freedom for Argen-
Magellan, is shared by Chile and Argentina. Ushuaia,
tina, the liberator José de San Martín carried the struggle
capital of Argentina's portion, is the southernmost seat of
for freedom over the Andes into Chile and Peru. On July 9,
organized government on the globe.
1816, the Congress of Tucumán proclaimed the national
Declaration of Independence. In 1853 the Congress of
CULTURE. The people, culture, and institutions are a
Santa Fe adopted the Federal Constitution, which unified
blend of the Old World and the New, merged in a uniquely
the country and marked the beginning of the modern
Argentine pattern. The tide of European immigration,
republican period. This Constitution, with amendments, is
which started in the 1850's, has produced a population that
in effect today.
is approximately 97 per cent European in origin. This
mixture of nationalities, mostly Italian and Spanish, but
GOVERNMENT. The Constitution provides for three
also French, German, British, Irish, Polish, Arab, and
branches of government: legislative, executive, and ju-
Jewish, with Argentines of Spanish descent has produced
dicial. The bicameral Congress consists of the Senate and
an open-minded dynamic, and progressive people. Free-
Chamber of Deputies. The president and vice president are
dom of religion is guaranteed by the Constitution. Over
elected for a six-year term by an absolute majority of votes
eighty per cent of the population is Catholic.
cast by the Board of Electors, whose members are chosen
Argentina's unique, colorful gaucho slowly faded into
by direct vote in the provinces and federal capital. The
oblivion during the nineteenth century, with the trans-
judicial branch consists of the Supreme Court and lower
formation of the pampa into large farms, called estancias,
courts.
and fenced-in farmlands. The distinctive songs, dances,
and way of life of these nomadic horsemen are preserved in
ECONOMY. Agriculture accounts for 70 per cent of
the Argentine folk music of the provinces, which contains
Argentina's export earnings and is the basis of a thriving
both Spanish and Indian influences. The tango is the
agroindustry. Leading exports include beef, wheat and
traditional dance.
other grains, and wool. Argentina's rich soils and varied
The influence of Spanish culture is still seen in the
climate allow the production of almost every sort of
colonial cities of the northwest: in Córdoba, with its
commodity, both those native to the tropics and those of the
tradition of culture and learning; in Tucumán, the "garden
temperate zones. Argentina is the second beef producer in
of the republic;" historic Salta; and beautiful Mendoza in
the world and the fourth wine producer.
the heart of the wine-making country. These cities contain
Manufacturing generates some 36 per cent of the gross
fine examples of colonial art and architecture.
domestic product (GDP) and employs the majority of the
Over ten million people live in the metropolitan area of
labor force. Automobiles, ships, railroads, textiles, chemi-
Buenos Aires, making this city the fifth among the largest
cals, tractors, other agricultural machinery, and siderurgy
in the world. Buenos Aires is also one of the major seaports
make up the principal heavy industries. While Argentina
of the world. Government, politics, business, finance, trade
must import a few manufactures such as aircraft and some
unions, and sports are centered in Buenos Aires, which is
types of chemicals, the country is self-sufficient in most
also a major cultural center for literature and the arts,
consumer goods.
especially painting, music, and ceramic art. It is a leading
Massive plans for the decided increase of hydroelectric
publishing center of the Spanish-speaking world, with well
capacity are under way, along with intensive petroleum
over 100 publishing houses. Modern Rosario, with its
exploration. Argentina is also the regional leader in
shipping facilities and surrounding industries, ranks
nuclear technology and counts with a good supply of
second to Buenos Aires; it is, together with Córdoba, the
uranium.
country's fastest growing industrial center.
The road system in the country is excellent. There are
Argentina has one of the highest rates of literacy in the
30,000 miles of highways and 100,000 miles of other paved
Hemisphere with only about 13 per cent of adult population
roads.
registered as illiterate.
Four Argentines have obtained Nobel Prizes: The Nobel
FLAG. The Argentine flag consists of three horizontal
Prize of Peace was obtained by the Minister of Foreign
stripes of equal width; the middle one is white with a
Affairs, Carlos Saavedra Lamas in 1936, and by Adolfo
golden sun in the center, and the other two are light blue.
THE COMMONWEALTH OF
THE BAHAMAS
Bustling Bay Street in Nassau is a mecca for bargain-hunting visitors
Area: 5,384 square miles
islands are located above the Tropic of Cancer and thus
Population: 254,000 (1981)
Capital: Nassau
enjoy a subtropical weather and vegetation. Tropical
Currency: Bahamas dollar
palms and pines seen in more arid lands intermingle with
Language: English
the white sandy beaches and blue-green waters.
Independence Day: July 10
GEOGRAPHY. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is
formed by around 3,000 islands, small cays, and rocks 69
miles off the Florida coast extending toward the island of
Hispaniola. The archipelago is bounded to the east and
The archipelago of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas,
west by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream. The island
gateway to the New World, was the first land discovered by
of New Providence in the center of the archipelago is 180
Christopher Columbus on October 12, 1492, when he set
miles from Miami. With an area 21 miles long and seven
foot in San Salvador, one of the islands of the country. Not
wide, while not the largest it is the most populated island,
only does this land play an important part in history, but it
and where the capital, Nassau, is located. A deep water
is also blessed with beauty and a climate which can hardly
harbor surrounds the capital. Growing in importance is
be equalled in the rest of the Hemisphere. Part of the
Grand Bahama island, 145 miles northwest of Nassau. The
largest is Andros island, 20 miles west of New Providence,
HISTORY. The Discovery of the New World by Chris-
with an area of 2,300 square miles.
topher Columbus began on October 12, 1492, with the dis-
The temperature ranges from 72° F in the winter to
covery of San Salvador, one of the islands of the Common-
85° F in the summer, with variations in the islands depend-
wealth of the Bahamas. However, the Spaniards did not
ing on their northern and southern locations.
colonize the land. The first to establish settlement were the
"Eleutherian Adventurers," who landed in what is now
CULTURE. The Taine culture of the gentle Arawak indi-
known as Governor's Harbour on the island. Governments
ans was the first to take roots in the islands. After the
created by such groups continued until 1717 when the
arrival of the Spaniards the inhabitants were transplanted
island became a British colony. It remained British, except
to Cuba and other Spanish possessions to work in the mines.
for a short period when it was ruled by the Spaniards. But
In a short time they were extinct and the islands were
in 1783 the Treaty of Versailles ceded the land irrevocably
uninhabited for many years. The English influence began
to the British Crown. During the American War of Inde-
in the middle of the seventeenth century when a group of
pendence thousands of loyalists and their slaves were
British and Bermudian refugees settled in one of the
drawn to the islands by grants of Crown land. From then
islands which they called Eleuthera, meaning freedom.
on, other than economic and social changes brought about
The African slaves arrived in the eighteenth century.
by the abolition of the slaves in 1838, the history of the
Today the blacks represent about 90 per cent of the popula-
Colony was rather uneventful. The independence of the
tion, the rest is of European and mixed origins.
Commonwealth of the Bahamas was obtained on July 10,
The dominant cultural patterns of the country are Brit-
1973, and the country became a member of the Organiza-
ish. From way back English education, English language,
tion of American States (OAS) in March 1982.
English tradition of individual freedom have left their
mark in the people of the Bahamas. The letters and the
GOVERNMENT. Responsibility of the government rests
arts, therefore, are works of individuals who were edu-
on the Governor General appointed by the Queen of Eng-
cated primarily under British rule. However, the African
land, a Senate composed of members appointed by the
influences together with other nationalities and races have
Governor, a House of Representatives elected by popular
given this country a unique flavor. In this land music,
vote, a Prime Minister appointed by the Governor, and a
singing, and dancing are essential ingredientes of the pop-
Cabinet of Ministers responsible to the Legislature for the
ular culture, and have a religious and social significance.
general direction and control of government.
The capital, Nassau, is also the cultural and commercial
center of the country. This city has a mixture of colonial
ECONOMY. The mainstay of the economy of the Com-
and modern buildings surrounded by lanes of flamboyant
monwealth of the Bahamas is tourism which accounts for
trees. The architectural details of the nineteenth century,
77 per cent of the GNP. Accommodations for visitors
such as falousies, framework decorations, verandahs, and
include excellent hotels, guest houses, country clubs. Many
shingled roofs, can still be seen in some houses, but are
restaurants offer different cuisines. There are also many
gradually disappearing, together with the skilled crafts-
resort developments. More than three quarters of the labor
men. They are being replaced by less expensive styles of
force is in the service sector.
building. However, around Rawson Square on Bay Street
Agricultural policy is directed to achieving self-suf-
which is the focal point of town, there are many interesting
ficiency in staple food crops and to encouraging growth of
places to see. The houses of Parliament are located here and
export crops. The Government is devoted to increasing the
so is a large straw market offering the visitors many varied
use of modern production techniques for fruit, vegetables,
goods made by the vendors. In this part of the city there is a
and meat products. The main export products are oil, rum,
statue of Queen Victoria and the Queen's Staircase which
fruits. Imports include foodstuffs, live animals, and manu-
leads to Fort Fincadle and to a magnificent view of the
factured goods.
island from the top. Sports may be enjoyed in Nassau and
Livestock consists mainly of poultry, goats and swine.
throughout the island of New Providence where there are
Since the surface of the island is small, cattle is a problem
five 18-hole championship golf courses, as well as tennis
to maintain. Fish abound in many varieties, but with the
courts and sailing and fishing facilities.
increase in population and of visitors to the island it is
Nightclubs, shops, casinos, and restaurants offering
mainly consumed domestically.
national and international cuisine are found in Nassau and
Other than tourism, there is no other major industry.
in Freeport, Grand Bahama. Luxury hotels throughout the
Petroleum refining and pharmaceutical production is done
islands have their own casinos and nightclubs.
mainly for the export market.
Paradise Island, just across from Nassau is a dream
Communications are good. There is a road system of
resort. It connects to New Providence through a bridge and
about 600 miles in New Providence and a total of 850 in the
a toll gate. The luxury hotels there command glorious
other islands. Steamships communicate with the United
views of the ocean. The Versailles Gardens and a 14th
States. the United Kingdom, and South America. The air-
century Augustian Cloister are sites one should not miss.
line service is very good, internationally and locally, with
The Government provides free education which is com-
airports in several islands including the International Air-
pulsory between ages 5 and 14. Primary and secondary
port of Nassau. All types of telecommunications services
education are provided by the Government and private
are provided by The Bahamas Telecommunications
centers. The College of the Bahamas offers an associate
Corporation.
degree of arts in any of its seven academic divisions. Sev-
eral college courses are offered in cooperation with univer-
FLAG. Consists of three horizontal stripes: two blue, and
sities in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada,
one yellow in the center, superimposed by a black triangle
and the University of the West Indies.
next to the staff.
BARBADOS
Trafalgar Square,
Bridgetown
Area: 200 square miles
GEOGRAPHY. Barbados, which possibly derived its
Population: 247,000 (1981)
name from its "bearded" fig trees, is situated in the Atlan-
Capital: Bridgetown
tic Ocean; its western coastline is bathed by the waters of
Currency: Barbados dollar
Language: English
the Caribbean Sea. This pear-shaped island of approxi-
Independence Day: November 30
mately 200 square miles-about: 21 miles long and 14 miles
wide-is 2,100 air miles from New York City and 200 miles
from Trinidad. The island's terrain is largely a flat, rolling
lime-stone surface with three main topographical div-
isions: the rugged region in the northeast, known as the
Beautiful Barbados, traditionally known as "Little Eng-
Scotland District, which reaches its highest point at Mount
land in the tropics," is the most easterly of the Windward
Hillaby (1,115 feet above sea level), an upland plateau
Islands, which form the southern arc of Caribbean islands,
which descends to an 80-foot escarpment west and south of
known also as the Lesser Antilles. Although a tiny island-
the Scotland District; and beyond, the third and largest
about two and one-half times the size of the District of
region, consisting of a lowland plateau which extends to
Columbia-Barbados has an impressive historic and cul-
the coast and all around the island except for the rocky
tural background. It is unique among the islands of the
northeast coastline.
West Indies because it never came under Spanish or
The island is provided with a pure water supply from
French rule, having remained strictly British from the
limestone beds and natural springs. Owing to the porous
time of its colonization in 1627 until it became a sovereign
nature of the soil, there are no rivers. Although Barbados
nation on November 30, 1966.
has no natural harbor-Carlisle Bay being an open road-
stead with a protected inner harbor-there is a deep-water
ments of Arawak Indians in Barbados, but they had all
harbor directly west of Bridgetown, which accommodates
disappeared before the first known landing of British
ships of up to 30,000 tons.
ships in 1625. During the next three years, two settlements
The calm, clear sea and silver sands of the West Coast
were established by rival British companies. Sir William
are matched in beauty by the beaches of pink coral sand on
Courteen founded Jamestown, so-named in honour of King
the southeastern shore, which is encircled by coral reefs
James I and later re-named Holetown. The second settle-
extending nearly three miles out to sea. Barbados' famous
ment, St. Michael Town, founded by the Earl of Carlisle, is
flying fish are a unique attraction on the beaches; and after
now Bridgetown. From the beginning, Barbadians
nightfall, one hears the piping or whistling of tiny tree
claimed the rights and privileges of Englishmen living
frogs. The climate of Barbados is salubrious and fairly
overseas, and a governor, council, and assembly were
uniform, with a dry season from January to June and a
established in 1627 to govern the colony. Since 1639, when
rainy season from June to December. Temperatures range
the first Barbadian Parliament met, there has been a con-
between 75° to 85° F, with August the hottest month and
tinuous system of representative government. "The Char-
February, the coolest.
ter of Barbados" of 1652, setting forth the rights and privi-
leges of the inhabitants has been incorporated in the
CULTURE. The contemporary cultural pattern is a har-
preamble of the new Constitution. Barbados was one of the
monious blend of British and African traditions and folk-
British West Indian islands that formed a federation in
ways implanted in the seventeenth century. By 1628 Bar-
1958, but this collapsed in 1962.
bados was a thriving colony with a mixed population of
By a gradual process of evolution. Barbados became a
Europeans and African slaves. They traded in tobacco and
sovereign nation on November 30, 1966, and a member of
cotton. The introduction of sugar production under the
the British Commonwealth.
plantation system led to the importation of increasing
numbers of African slaves. By 1666 the population com-
GOVERNMENT. The national government is a parlia-
prised some 50,000 slaves and roughly 8,000 persons of the
mentary democracy, headed by a Governor-General
white race. Despite the rise of sugar production, which
named by the British Crown. The Prime Minister is the
required additional slave labor, slavery was abolished in
leader of the political party holding the majority of seats in
1834, and the planters received substantial compensation
the House of Assembly, the lower house. The functions of
from the British Government. This social and economic
government are exercised by the Prime Minister and the
heritage accounts for the present composition of the popu-
Cabinet of Ministers. The Senate, or upper house, is com-
lation. People of African descent constitute about 89 per
posed of 21 members named by the Governor General on
cent of the total inhabitants; those of mixed race (mainly
the advice of the major political parties. The House of
African and British), about seven per cent; and those of
Assembly, or lower house, consists of 27 members elected
European descent (mainly British) about four per cent.
by the people.
Bridgetown is the capital and largest city. Situated on
As to its international relations, Barbados became a
Carlisle Bay, the capital centers around Trafalgar Square,
member of the United Nations in December 1966, and took
and among its interesting landmarks are the statue of
its place as the twenty-third member of the Organization
Lord Nelson, Government House, the residence once occu-
of American States on November 15, 1967.
pied by George Washington, and the Public Buildings.
ECONOMY. The Barbadian economy is mostly dependent
Quaint streets, Georgian-type architecture, and typical
West Indian homes combine to give the capital individual-
on sugar and tourism for foreign exchange. Agriculture
and fishing are the largest productive sectors, with sugar
ity and charm.
Barbados is justly proud of the high degree of harmony
and its byproducts, molasses and rum, accounting for the
prevailing in its society; its literacy rate of 98 per cent of
greatest percentage of total exports. Widely grown com-
modities for the domestic market are yams, sweet potatoes,
the population-one of the highest in the world; and its
comprehensive, free educational system, to which is allo-
beans, poultry, and milk, among others. The lucrative fish-
cated about 21 per cent of the annual national budget.
ing industry is undergoing further upgrading and ex-
The Bajans, as the natives call themselves, are friendly,
pansion.
hospitable and resourceful. A deepseated spirit of inde-
Agroindustry is the principal manufacturing activity
and encompasses food processing, beverages, tobacco, and
pendence and love of learning are traditional.
Today, the national school system offers universal free
textiles. Electrical component assembly, chemicals, and
education in primary and secondary government schools.
the refining of a small amount of petroleum also contribute
to the economy.
The government pays the tuition fees of all Barbadians
Because of its many attractive resorts and scenic beauty,
who study at the local campus of the University of the West
tourism is Barbados' second major income earner. Tourist
Indies. The National Historical Trust preserves monu-
accomodations range from luxury hotels to more modest
ments of the past and the Barbados Museum is one of the
finest in the West Indies. It combines a collection of relics
guest houses and cottages. The island's first class paved
roads and many secondary roads make sightseeing easy
from the early Arawak and Carib Indian inhabitants with
exhibits of the work of modern Barbadian painters and
and pleasurable.
sculptors.
FLAG. Barbados flag has three equal vertical bars; the
outer bars are ultramarine blue and the center one is gold
HISTORY. Until the sixteenth century there were settle-
with a broken trident in black.
BOLIVIA
Panoramic view of Lake Titicaca which is situated at 12,500 feet above sea level
Area: 424,200 square miles
Population: 5,755,000 (1981)
ranges of the Andean lies the altiplano, running 515 miles
Capital: Sucre
from north to south, and 75 miles in width from east to
Seat of Government: La Paz
west, at elevations averaging 12,000 feet. La Paz, lying just
Currency: peso boliviano
below the rim of the altiplano, is the world's highest
Language: Spanish
capital. The altiplano itself is cold, dry, and windswept, the
Independence Day: August 6
soil adequate only for growing a few native crops. Around
National heroes: Simón Bolívar, Antonio José de Sucre
Lake Titicaca and the Rio Desaguadero, the earth is more
fertile, moist and appropriate for farming and cattle-
raising.
Bolivia, located in the middle of the Continent of South
In the many valles, or valleys, indenting the eastern
America, is a vast land of soaring mountains, great rivers,
slopes of the Andes all kinds of fruits and local produce are
and dense jungles. Immensely rich in natural resources.
cultivated, although some are at elevations of 5,000 to 8,000
Bolivia is one of the largest tin-producing countries in the
world.
feet. The climate of the region is benign and temperate
throughout the year despite its position between the Equa-
GEOGRAPHY. Bolivia, which has no outlet of its own to
tor and the Tropic of Capricorn. However, rainfall is sparse
and droughts often occur. Principal cities of the valles are
the sea as a result of the Pacific War against Chile in 1879,
Sucre, Cochabamba, Tarija, Tupiza and Sorata.
is divided into four unique regions. Between the two forked
An intermediate region, 1,600 to 5,000 feet high, is
known as the yungas. At this height the climate is suffi-
ment, is the newest of Department capitals and the only one
ciently warm to grow semi-tropical and tropical crops.
not founded by the Spanish.
The llanos or great plains of Bolivia extend from the
slopes of the Eastern Range to the frontiers with Peru,
EARLY HISTORY. Before the Spanish conquest Bolivia
Brazil, and Paraguay at altitudes varying between 650 to
was part of the Inca Empire. The Spanish conqueror Fran-
3,000 feet. This area includes the departments of Pando,
cisco Pizarro sent exploring parties from Peru to Bolivia in
Beni, Santa Cruz, and part of La Paz.
the 1530's. Pedro de Anzures founded La Plata, called "the
At the northeast of the country on the frontier with Peru,
city of four names" because it was later re-named Charcas,
the Department of Pando is seamed with navigable water-
Chuquisaca, and finally Sucre in honor of its liberator.
ways, which with their tributaries, drain into the great
Discovery of silver at Potosí greatly enhanced the impor-
Amazon River. Here rubber, cacao, almonds, fine woods,
tance of Bolivian territory in the eyes of the Spaniards. In
and all sorts of tropical produce are grown.
1559 the present Bolivia was incorporated in the viceroy-
The Andean peaks of Illampú, Illimani, and Sajama
alty of Peru as the Audiencia of Charcas and was called
exceed 20,000 feet above sea level and are among the high-
Upper Peru; it became part of the viceroyalty of the Rio de
est mountains in the Western Hemisphere; the world's
la Plata in 1776. Uprisings against Spanish authority
highest navigable body of water, Lake Titicaca, lies partly
began in the early eighteenth century. Upper Peru became
in Bolivia and partly in Peru at 12,500 feet above sea level.
the first Spanish colony in America to proclaim its right to
independence on May 25, 1809, when the patriots of Chu-
CULTURE. The racial background of Bolivia's population
quisaca deposed the president of the Royal Audiencia. This
is made up primarily of three groups: those of Spanish
was followed on July 16 by a similar revolt by the patriots of
descent, Indians, and mestizos (Spanish and Indian ances-
La Paz, led by Pedro Domingo Murillo, who created a junta
try). The large majority of the present-day Indians belong
or governing council. The revolt failed and Murillo was
to two groups: the Quechuas and the Aymarás.
executed.
Indian art of the Tiahuanaco period has been found in the
In January of 1825 a formal declaration of independence
Lake Titicaca region, giving evidence of a long and
was proclaimed. General Sucre liberated the colony from
advanced pre-Inca civilization. Colonial architecture is a
Spanish rule and Simón Bolívar wrote the Constitution of
fusion of Spanish form and Indian design. Modern art
the new republic, which was named for him. General Sucre
reflects Indo-Hispanic influence. Colonial literature was
became president in December 1826.
concerned mainly with chronicles and scientific and reli-
gious treatises. National literature took on definite forms
GOVERNMENT. The Bolivian Constitution provides for a
in the nineteenth century. Bolivian music is regional gay in
democratic, representative, unitary republic, with a gov-
the valleys, melancholic in the highlands.
ernment made up of three branches: legislative, executive,
In a rugged Andean canyon more than two-and-a-
and judicial. Executive power is exercised by the presi-
quarter miles above sea level lies La Paz, the seat of the
dent, elected by direct vote for a four-year term, together
national government. Sucre, the city in which the Supreme
with the ministers of state. Legislative power is vested in
Court holds its sessions, is the official capital of the repub-
the National Congress, consisting of the Chamber of Depu-
lic; however, La Paz is the seat of the executive and legisla-
ties and the Senate. Judicial power is in the hands of the
tive branches of the government and commercial, indus-
Supreme Court.
trial, and transportation center of the country.
The impressive stone ruins of the ancient Indian city of
ECONOMY. Bolivia's mining sector generates most of its
Tiahuanaco are famous. Scenic Copacabana, on the east-
foreign exchange, although agriculture takes precedence
ern shore of Lake Titicaca, abounds in Inca and pre-Inca
as a contributor to GDP (17 per cent for mining versus 25
ruins and is noted for its church. Sorata, lying in the
per cent for agriculture). Major exports are tin, tungsten,
shadow of the imposing mountain Illampú, is a favorite
antimony, zinc, bismuth, silver, and gold. Petroleum ex-
resort for skiing and boating. Cochabamba, second city of
traction has declined from its highs of 1974 because of the
the republic, is the center of the eastern region, the most
gradual depletion of known oil-bearing deposits and lack of
productive agricultural section of the country. At Potosí in
investment in further exploration. Natural gas, however,
1545 Diego Huallpa, an Indian, accidentally discovered
has maintained a good level of productivity, and Bolivia
what was to become the richest silver mine in the world. In
exports the fuel to Argentina and Brazil. Lately, the dis-
1546 a Royal Decree gave title to the lands to Captain Juan
covery of new crude oil reserves is improving prospects for
de Villarroel, founder of the city of Potosí. Oruro, another
raising the output of both petroleum and gas.
city that owes its existence to the discovery of mines, was
With the exception of coffee, agricultural products are
founded in 1606 by Don Manuel Castro de Padilla. Santa
primarily destined for domestic consumption. Principal
Cruz is in the middle of the tropical zone and only 1,045 feet
crops are cotton, sugar, coffee, corn, potatoes, and rice.
above sea level. The growth and progress of Santa Cruz
Food processing, beverages, and tobacco count for some
have been phenomenal. Tarija was founded in southeast
two thirds of industrial output. Textiles, leather goods,
Bolivia on the banks of the sparkling Guadalquivir River.
cement, and glass are also produced on a lesser scale.
Capital of the Department of Beni is Trinidad, on the
Export of manufactured goods is minimal.
banks of the deep-flowing waters of the Mamoré River.
This city is at the center of a region that is crossed by many
FLAG. The Bolivian flag consists of three horizontal
of the country's navigable rivers on their long journey to
stripes. The upper stripe is red, the center one yellow, and
the Amazon Basin. Cobija, the capital of Pando Depart-
the lower one green.
BRAZIL
Esplanade of the Alvorada Palace, Brasilia
Area: 3,265,000 square miles
Population: 121,547,000 (1981)
Capital: Brasília
GEOGRAPHY. Climate in Brazil varies from tropical in
Currency: cruzeiro
the north to temperate in the south. The sparsely settled
Language: Portuguese
basin of the Amazon River, which explorer Francisco de
Independence Day: September 7
Orellana named Amazonas in honor of a tribe of white
National hero: José Bonifacio de Andrada e Silva
women warriors he claimed to have discovered there, is hot
and humid. Here one finds virgin forests abounding in
Brazil is often called the "land of the future" because of
valuable hardwoods and exhuberant flora and fauna.
its dynamic people, growing industry, and varied re-
Large scale exploitation of the northern region's mineral
sources. With its vast forest and mineral wealth, large iron
resources (manganese, iron, bauxite, copper, cassiterite
deposits, and hydroelectric potential, Brazilian industry is
and lead) began in 1980 and cattle raising (particularly
forging ahead. Brazil's twenty-three states, Federal Dis-
buffalo) began in 1979. States of the half-wooded, half-
trict, and territories make up the largest republic in Latin
desert expanse of uplands in the northeast are warm but
America.
dry. Cotton, cacao, sugar cane, and coffee are raised here
and carnaúba wax is harvested from a variety of palm
GOVERNMENT. Brazil's Constitution provides for the
particularly suited to drought conditions. The southern
separation of power among three branches of government:
and coastal regions are cooler, having moderate but ade-
legislative, executive, and judicial. The president of the
quate rainfall. Here one finds the most fertile and pro-
republic is elected for a six-year term and may not succeed
ductive lands, coffee fazendas, cotton, fruits, livestock, and
himself. The legislative power is vested in the National
the principal mining and manufacturing centers.
Congress composed of two houses: the Federal Senate and
the Chamber of Deputies. The judicial power consists of a
Federal Supreme Court, and Federal Court of Appeals,
CULTURE. A land of colorful contrasts, Brazil's people
and military, electoral, and labor tribunals. In 1960 the
and cities reflect a diverse background. The population is
seat of the federal government was moved from Rio de
made up of all the basic stocks into which the human race is
Janeiro to Brasilia. The purpose of this change was to speed
divided-Indian, Caucasian, African, and Asiatic. Bra-
development of the country's vast interior.
zilians are proud of the fact that they have no segregation
or discrimination against minorities.
ECONOMY. After many years of concentration on
Ultra-modern Brasilia, capital of the nation, is the
building a powerful industrial infrastructure, Brazil is
showcase of the Brazil of today and tomorrow. Strate-
again giving priority attention to agriculture. Major crops
gically located on the Central Plateau, and having grown
are coffee, corn, rice, meat, dairy products, soybeans,
more than any other Brazilian capital city during the past
cocoa, sugar, and citric fruits. Of these, Brazil exports
10 years, (8.13 per cent a year), it is the center of the
coffee, sugar, cocoa, soybeans, and fruit concentrates,
developing hinterland. Salvador, first capital of colonial
which generate 45 per cent of total export earnings. Brazil
Brazil, is noted for its fine port, majestic churches, and
is number one in the world in coffee, and orange pro-
fabulous carnival celebration in which African folklore
duction; it is second to the United States in soybean
still plays a colorful part. Recife, is Brazil's third largest
production, second to the Soviet Union in sugar production,
city and hub of the northeast. Among historic landmarks
and second to Ghana in cocoa production.
are forts and buildings constructed by early Dutch settlers.
Manufacturing accounts for almost 29 per cent of GDP.
São Paulo, one of the fastest-growing cities on the globe, is
Heavy industry -iron, steel, metalworking, chemicals, oil
South America's major industrial center.
refining and petrochemicals- is growing by leaps and
In the meat-packing and wine-producing state of Rio
bounds. In the secondary industrial sector the largest
Grande do Sul one finds descendents of immigrants from
relative increases in real output have been in machinery
Portugal, Bavaria, Tuscany. The cosmopolitan former
and tools, electronic and communications equipment, pulp
capital, Rio de Janeiro, blends the beauties of nature and
and paper, chemicals and plastic products. Brazil became
man. Its many attractions include Copacabana Beach,
the world's tenth largest automobile manufacturer in 1978.
Sugar Loaf Mountain, and Corcovado Peak.
Also, the industrial sector is responsible for over 50 per
cent of exports, ranging from airplanes, automobiles and
heavy machinery, to shoes, furniture and housewares. In
HISTORY. Brazil was discovered in 1500 by the Por-
recent years the service sector has markedly increased its
tuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral, who claimed the
participation in export earnings, mainly in the fields of
territory for King Manoel of Portugal. Cabral called the
civil engineering and telecommunications. Both industry
region Vera Cruz, a name eventually changed to Brazil
and services find promising markets in the developing
after a dyewood, pau-brasil, found and exported by the
world.
early settlers. Brazil's first movement for independence
Pressed by volatile international oil markets, and its
(1789) was led by idealistic Joaquim José da Silva Xavier,
huge fossil fuel bill, Brazil has stepped up development of
better known by the nickname of "Tiradentes".
new oil fields, through its state-owned enterprise
In 1815, Brazil was declared part of a united kingdom
PETROBRAS, and risk contracts with foreign firms,
under the Portuguese monarch King João VI, whose son
increasing domestic production from 17 per cent of total
Dom Pedro was named regent of Brazil in 1821. Dom
consumption in 1976 to nearly 40 per cent in 1982. As part
Pedro declared Brazilian independence with the "Grito do
of its energy program, Brazil is not only involved in
Ypiranga" (Independence or Death) on September 7, 1822.
regional development of major hydroelectric projects and
After being proclaimed constitutional emperor of Brazil,
in the expansion of its nuclear capacity, but is also a leader
Pedro I chose as his prime minister the great statesman
in the development of renewable sources of energy, as
José Bonifacio de Andrada e Silva, who is honored by
demonstrated by its alcohol fuel program, the largest of its
Brazilians as "Patriarch of Independence" and national
kind in the world.
hero. The rise of the republican spirit during the next 50
years resulted in the total abolition of African slavery in
FLAG. The national flag consists of a green rectangle on
1888 and the end of the monarchy. Brazil was proclaimed a
which a yellow diamond is centered, containing a blue
federal republic without violence or bloodshed, in Novem-
sphere with 23 stars representing the Southern Cross, the
ber 1889. The Constitution of 1969 or first amendment to
states, and the Federal District. Across the sphere is a
the Constitution of 1967, as it is officially called, is now in
white band bearing the words "Ordem e Progresso' (Order
force.
and Progress).
CHILE
St. Lucia Hill, Santiago
Area: 292,200 square miles
Population: 11,128,000 (1981)
2,700 miles to the southernmost tip of South America. This
Capital: Santiago
narrow ribbon of land (nowhere more than 250 miles wide)
Currency: peso
lies imprisoned between the snow-capped Andean ranges
Language: Spanish
Independence Day: September 18
and the Pacific. Under its northern Atacama Desert are
National hero: Bernardo O'Higgins
the world's largest deposits of nitrate and copper. In this
desert region are places in which no rain has ever been
In addition to its unusual geographic features and
recorded. Antofagasta is the major port of this mining
spectacular scenery, Chile is known for notable achieve-
area.
ments on the human scale: It was one of the first countries
Middle Chile, from Coquimbo to Concepción, contains
to found a public school system, to establish social security,
the bulk of the population, the major cities, the largest and
to pass model labor laws, and undertake low-cost housing
richest farms, and the industrial centers of the country.
programs. By nature good-humored and hospitable,
The Andean ranges, rich in gold, silver, copper, nickel,
Chileans are justly proud of having one of the highest
lead, manganese, and other minerals, reach heights ex-
literacy rates in the Western Hemisphere.
ceeding 21,000 feet between Copiapó and Valparaíso.
The Central Valley, with its temperate climate, rapid-
GEOGRAPHY. Chile, lashed by waves, cut by rushing
flowing rivers, and rich soil, is one of the world's most
rivers, and studded with mountain peaks, extends almost
fertile agricultural regions; it also contains mineral and
forest resources. The chief crops are wheat, corn, lentils,
year Pedro de Valdivia founded Santiago and laid the
and subtropical fruits. The valley's famous vineyards
foundation of a new colony. Colonization was slow because
produce millions of gallons of wine, famed for its quality
of the fierce resistance of the freedom-loving Araucanians,
and flavor.
led by Lautaro and Caupolicán. The latter is immortalized
Patagonia, one of the world's finest sheep-raising regions
in La Araucana, written by Alonso de Ercilla, a Spaniard
extending southward to the Strait of Magellan, is a land of
who recorded Chile's early history in one of the greatest
virgin forests, strong winds, snow-capped volcanic cones,
epics of Spanish-American literature.
sparkling lakes, glaciers, and fiords. The Chilean lake
Chileans remained loyal to the Spanish Crown until
region is one of South America's most popular resort and
1810. By that time the revolutionary movement was
tourist areas.
gathering force throughout the Continent and on Sep-
South of Puerto Montt, a maze of channels and islands
tember 18, 1810, Chilean patriots established a self-
makes coastal navigation dangerous. Steamers end their
governing junta (council). Under the leadership of Ber-
run at Punta Arenas, a busy modern port at the Strait of
nardo O'Higgins and José M. Carrera, a congress was
Magellan and Chile's southernmost city. As the center of a
convoked in Santiago on July 4, 1811, and the first
vast sheep-raising industry, Punta Arenas is the shipping
republican constitution was adopted. Spanish royalist
port for wool and mutton; and more recently for crude oil
forces from Peru regained possession of the country, but
and coal. South of the Strait of Magellan lies the island
Chile was liberated from Spanish rule in decisive battles
known as Tierra del Fuego shared by Chile and Argentina.
won by the Army of the Andes, led by José de San Martín
The rugged island supports a huge population of sheep.
and O'Higgins in 1817-18. Chile began its history as an
Chile's islands possessions include Easter Island and the
independent republic under the presidency of Bernardo
Juan Fernández Islands. Chilean territory extends into the
O'Higgins, honored as the "Father of His Country" and
frozen Antarctic, home of penguins, seals, and the famous
national hero.
blue whales.
CULTURE. Chile is a country of energetic people, the
GOVERNMENT. Under the provisions of the Constitution
descendants of Araucanian Indians, Spanish settlers, and
of 1980, the Government of Chile is divided into three
other European immigrants, who came in large numbers
branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial.
from all parts of Europe during the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. The mixture of these hardy elements
ECONOMY. Economic emphasis in Chile has been on
produced a people noted for physical strength, endurance,
diversifying and strengthening industry. A variety of
resourcefulness, personal independence, and optimism.
heavy and light industries include iron and steel, pulp and
The present Indian population comprises two per cent or
paper, copper products, chemicals and petrochemicals,
less of the total; Chile has virtually no blacks. Santiago,
metalworking, automobile assembly, electronics, food and
capital of the republic, is the political, economic, and
beverages, and textiles and clothing.
artistic center of the nation. Its Spanish colonial heritage
Agriculture employs 28 per cent of Chile's labor force
has been enriched by learned scholars, both native and
and is marked by a wide variety of crops, such as grains
foreign, who have molded a truly national culture. Chileans
and all kinds of fruits and vegetables. Grapes are widely
have contributed much to the field of literature and the
grown and are the basis of Chile's famous wine industry.
arts. Gabriela Mistral, winner of the Nobel Prize for
Chile is one of the ranking producers and exporters of
Literature, in 1945, and Pablo Neruda, awarded the same
copper and the main producer of natural nitrates. Other
honor in 1971, are recognized as among the major poets of
important minerals extracted are iron ore, molybdenum,
the Americas. Claudio Arrau is one of the world's out-
and coal. Established petroleum deposits supply 40% of the
standing pianists.
internal needs, but great expectations are held for deposits
Busy Valparaíso is major port for exportation of the
believed to exist in the Strait of Magellan.
products of central Chile: Viña del Mar, renowned seaside
Fishing and the country's large forest reserves are
resort, lies on the hills and in the curve of a beautiful bay.
assuming more and more economic importance. The cellu-
Santiago, Concepción, Valparaíso, and Valdivia are the
lose and paper products industry is growing vigorously,
main industrial centers.
and processed and unprocessed seafood is increasing its
share of foreign exchange earnings.
EARLY HISTORY. Northern Chile formed part of the
In addition to iron ore and nitrates, major exports
Inca Empire at the time of its conquest by Francisco
include forest products, fruits and vegetables, processed
Pizarro and his partner Diego de Almagro. The King of
foods, and petrochemicals.
Spain named Almagro Captain-General of New Toledo,
now northern Chile. In the civil war between Pizarro and
FLAG. The lower half of the Chilean flag is red and the
Almagro over the dividing line of their colonial domains,
upper half white, with a field of blue in the upper left
both men lost their lives before the end of 1541. In this same
corner, with a white star in the center.
COLOMBIA
One of the golden figures displayed in
Bogotá's Museum of Gold
Area: 439,800 square miles
Population: 26,730,000 (1981)
are highland valleys; and the oriente, or eastern region,
Capital: Bogotá
which is divided into the plains or llanos of the north and
Currency: peso
the selvas or jungle-forest in the basins of the Orinoco and
Language: Spanish
Amazon rivers. The climate ranges from hot and humid in
Independence Day: July 20
the coastal plains, llanos, and selvas, to temperate and cold
National hero: Francisco de Paula Santander
in the highlands. The Cauca Valley, noted for its climate
and scenic beauty, is one of the country's principal agricul-
Colombia, the only country in the world that bears the
tural areas.
name of the discoverer of America, abuts the Isthmus of
Panama. Land of El Dorado and emeralds, Colombia is
CULTURE. Before the Spanish conquest, Colombia was
unique in that its shores are washed by the waters of two
inhabited by numerous Indian tribes. The principal ones
oceans, the Atlantic (Caribbean) and the Pacific.
were the Caribs, who lived in the lowlands bordering the
Caribbean, and the Chibchas, who occupied the highland
GEOGRAPHY. Colombia is made up of coastal lowlands
plateaus of the Andes. Remnants of the Chibcha, Quim-
bordering both the Atlantic (Caribbean) and the Pacific; a
baya, and Calima cultures consist chiefly of jewelry,
mountainous west central region, crossed from north to
masks, and other metal objects. Outstanding examples are
south by three parallel ranges of the Andes, between which
preserved in the Museum of Gold in the Bank of the Repub-
lic in Bogotá. This famous collection of hand-wrought gold
the status of a viceroyalty in 1718. The movement for inde-
and silver articles and ceramics gives evidence of a high
pendence was nurtured by the great patriot and intellec-
degree of native craftsmanship. The population of Colom-
tual leader Antonio Nariño, who translated The Rights of
bia is predominantly of European and Indian origin, with a
Man into Spanish. Growing unrest against mounting taxes
small percentage of Blacks and pure Indians.
and the restrictions imposed by the Crown reached a
The venerable capital Bogotá in its majestic setting on
climax with the comunero revolt in the town of Socorro in
the broad sabana (plateau) partially encircled by Andean
1781. On July 20, 1810, the Creoles of Bogotá demanded self
ranges, represents the essence of Colombian tradition
government and created the Supreme Junta (administra-
based on Spanish colonial culture. This "Athens of Amer-
tive council) of New Granada. Absolute independence from
ica," as it has been called, preserves its colonial landmarks
Spain was proclaimed on July 16, 1813. However, the Spa-
and renowned institutions of learning side by side with its
niards reconquered New Granada and reestablished the
tall, modern buildings. Medellín, second city of the repub-
viceroyalty in 1817. In 1819 the great Venezuelan hero,
lic in size and first in economic importance, is an intellec-
Simón Bolívar, and General Francisco de Paula Santander
tual, industrial, and commercial center. Coffee produced
led their armies over the Andes from Venezuela and won a
in this region is noted for its flavor. Cali, in the luxuriant
decisive victory over the Spanish forces at Boyacá. Bolí-
Cauca Valley, is Colombia's fastest growing city. The
var's dream of uniting New Granada with Venezuela in the
patrician city of Popayán, birth place of many eminent
Republic of Greater Colombia was consummated by the
men contains priceless examples of colonial art and
Congress of Angostura (December 1819). However, the
architecture.
confederation was dissolved in 1830, when Venezuela and
Cartagena, strategically situated on a fine natural har-
Ecuador withdrew to establish themselves as sovereign
bor, was one of the wealthiest centers of colonial trade and
nations.
the object of repeated attacks by pirates who sailed the
In 1832 a new Colombian constitution established the
Spanish Main. Bucaramanga is the center of an important
federal form of government. General Santander, called the
coffee and tobacco growing zone. Tropical cosmopolitan
"Champion of Legality," was the first president, and he
Barranquilla is an important shipping and transportation
more than any other made Colombia a nation, charting its
center at the mouth of the Magdalena River near the
course toward democracy and sound, orderly government.
Caribbean. Cúcuta, birthplace of Colombia's national hero
The revolution of 1885 marked the end of the federal
Francisco de Paula Santander, is the center of a large
system.
agricultural and livestock zone; the development of the
Catatumbo oil fields has been a recent factor in its growth
GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of 1886 reorganized
and prosperity. The port of Santa Marta, one of the oldest
the nation as a unitary republic with three main branches:
cities on the South American mainland, still preserves its
the executive, legislative, and judicial. This Constitution
distinctive colonial architecture. The export of bananas is
with subsequent amendments, is still in effect.
the leading commercial activity. Colombia's principal sea-
The president, head of the executive branch, is elected by
port on the Pacific is Buenaventura. Manizales, Pereira,
popular vote for four years. The legislative power is exer-
and Armenia are progressive industrial cities in western
cised by a Congress consisting of two chambers, the Senate
Colombia.
and the House of Representatives. Judicial power rests
Colombia is outstanding because of the consistency with
with the Supreme Court.
which is has maintained a high cultural level throughout
its history, and for the unusually large number of cultured
ECONOMY. Colombia has one of the most varied econo-
and professional men who have devoted themselves to pub-
mies in the world due to its peculiar geographic configura-
lic life. Colombian literature and writing are noted for
tion. Its economy, traditionally based on agriculture, cattle-
their classic purity. Gabriel García Márquez was the
raising, and mining, has been buttressed by rapid in-
winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1982. Colonial
dustrial growth. Within this category are food processing
architecture closely resembles that of Spain, a distinctive
and textile-weaving. The latter employs the most ancient
local feature being the simplicity of exterior decoration.
and, at the same time, the most modern techniques in
Colombia's popular music possesses a wealth of original
Latin-America and is an important item of export. Colom-
themes and rhythms, influenced by the forms introduced
bia's petroleum industry is among the foremost on the
by the Spaniards and by Black slaves.
Continent and its coal reserves are among the largest in the
Hemisphere. Also a great producer of coffee, Colombia is
EARLY HISTORY. Colombia was discovered by Alonso
second only to Brazil. Seventy per cent of the nation's
de Ojeda, who accompanied Columbus on his second
income is derived from export of coffee beans. Other agri-
voyage to the New World in 1500. Between 1500 and 1538
cultural products are bananas, cacao, cotton, sugar cane,
when Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada founded Santa Fe de
tobacco, fruits, and many types of vegetables and grain.
Bogotá, the territory was widely explored and the first
The Paz del Rio Steel mills process all iron and steel. From
permanent settlements were established. Quesada, the cul-
Colombia come 95 per cent of all the emeralds in the world.
tured magistrate and symbol of justice, was the greatest
Other minerals mined are gold, silver, copper, platinum,
figure in the first 40 years of existence of New Granada, as
mercury, manganese, coal, iron, nickel, and salt.
the colony was called.
Despite conflicts with the Indians and frequent attacks
FLAG. The national flag consists of three horizontal
on the coastal cities by French, English, and Dutch bucca-
stripes-yellow, blue, and red, the upper half of the flag
neers, the colony grew and prospered and was elevated to
being yellow.
COSTA RICA
Monument to the national hero,
Juan Rafael Mora, in San José
Area: 19,700 square miles
Population: 2,271,000 (1981)
Capital: San José
cooler uplands and dairy farming is also an important
Currency: colón
occupation. The temperate central plateau, with its coffee
Language: Spanish
plantations, picturesque villages, and age-old forests, is the
Independence Day: September 15
heart of the nation; it contains the majority of the popula-
National hero: Juan Rafael Mora
tion and produces the best agricultural crops. The soil is
unusually rich because of volcanic ash deposited over the
Costa Rica is outstanding for its long-established system
centuries. Irazú is the highest and most active of Costa
of public education and its orderly, democratic tradition.
Rica's eleven volcanoes. Of the other ten Arenal and Poás
are still active; the latter's crater at its summit is said to be
GEOGRAPHY. Costa Rica's three volcanic ranges give
the largest in the world-more than a mile in diameter. In
climatic variety to a country lying completely in the trop-
March of 1963 Irazú, after lying almost dormant for many
ics. Hot, rainy lowlands along the Caribbean are ideal for
years began to erupt and showered the central valley with
the cultivation of bananas and cacao. Coffee is grown in the
tons of volcanic ash for nearly two years.
CULTURE. Costa Rica has a homogeneous population. Of
anchored on his fourth and last voyage to the New World.
the total, about 48 per cent of the people are descended
The important Pacific seaport of Puntarenas is also a popu-
from Spaniards, Italians, Germans, or other Europeans,
lar seaside resort.
and 47 per cent have some Indian blood. Only two per cent
are pure Indian, and three per cent black. On the central
EARLY HISTORY. When Columbus discovered Costa
plateau, the majority of farmers operate their own small
Rica in 1502, he sent his brother Bartolomé to explore the
farms; but on the Pacific side there are large properties
region. The Indians, friendly at first, stubbornly resisted
and tenant workers. The farmer, a respected member of
later invasions by the Spaniards. It was not until 1564 that
Costa Rica's thriving middle class, adds a dash of color to
Juan Vásquez de Coronado founded Cartago, the first
the provincial scene by decorating his oxcart with gay,
permanent settlement. Coronado, who advanced the con-
geometrical designs.
quest of the region by peaceful means, brought with him
colonists of Basque origin and introduced cattle, horses,
Costa Rica's advanced system of public education
and swine. He established some of the earliest cattle
accounts for its very low rate of illiteracy-one of the lowest
ranches in the New World. After Coronado's death, Costa
in the Hemisphere. Presently there are four public univer-
Rica was ruled from Guatemala City by the Spanish
sities, with around 90,000 enrollment. The National Insti-
Captaincy-General.
tute of Learning for vocational manpower training has
On September 15, 1821, the independence of Spain's
been functioning for several years, and the Institute of
Central American colonies was proclaimed at Guatemala
Technology is located in Cartago. The Inter-American
City. In 1823, the five Central American provinces united
Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture, a specialized
to form the federation of Central America, which endured
organization of the OAS, with headquarters in San José,
around 15 years and was dissolved after much internal
makes a significant contribution to agricultural develop-
strife that culminated in the death of one of Central Ameri-
oment in Latin America through research, training, and
ca's famous heroes, General Francisco Morazán. Years
technical assistance.
later Costa Rica was compelled to resort to armed force
The native Indians who inhabited the country before the
when an audacious North American adventurer, William
Spaniards came were excellent craftsmen, noted for their
Walker, attempted to take over the country. Walker was
gold and jade ornaments, pottery, and stone sculpture. The
defeated by troops led by the national hero, Rafael Mora,
Chorotegas excelled in exquisite pottery and carved jade,
then President of the Republic.
which showed a Mayan influence. The Borucas, who inha-
bited the southwest, produced an unusual brown textile,
GOVERNMENT. The current Constitution came into
woven SO that the designs appeared on one side only.
being in 1949, replacing the one promulgated in 1871. Its
Costa Rica's peaceful and democratic way of life is
first article declares that "Costa Rica is a free and inde-
exemplified by its literature. A leading type of writing is
pendent democratic republic." Legislative power is vested
the realistic "costumbrismo," which describes the folkways
in a Legislative Assembly, consisting of only one house. The
and customs of the people. In music and dance the blending
president is elected directly by the people for a term of four
of Indian and Spanish elements finds full expression. Cul-
years. Judicial power resides in the Supreme Court.
ture in general is magnificently represented in an abun-
ECONOMY. Traditionally agriculture is the main eco-
dance of painting and sculpture, theatrical performances,
nomic activity in Costa Rica. In the 1980s, however, indus-
and the concerts of the National Symphony Orchestra.
try and tourism have been the principal contributors to
The Costa Rican capital, San José, with its varied Span-
GNP because of a series of droughts that affected farm and
ish colonial and modern architecture, is the center of busi-
livestock productivity.
ness, political, and cultural life. The city is situated on a
Principal agricultural products are coffee, bananas,
plateau abounding in streams, rocky gorges, waterfalls,
cocoa, sugar, and beef, all of which are exported as well as
pine groves, and rolling hills. San José has grown outward,
consumed domestically.
not upward, because of the possibility of earthquakes. One
The dynamism of industry, trade, and investment lar-
of its most outstanding attractions is the National Theater,
gely offset the stagnation in agriculture. Costa Rica manu-
reputed to be one of the most beautiful in Central America.
factures and exports fertilizers, paints, pharmaceuticals,
On the grassy sabana (plain) outside of the city are sports
furniture, and refrigerators.
fields and the National Stadium. Alajuela, second city of
The scenery, charm, and hospitality of Costa Rica
the republic and center of a sugar and coffe-growing dis-
accounts for a rising tide of tourism. The industry is bene-
trict, is not far from San José; the International Airport
fiting from an infusion of investment and improved promo-
"Juan Santamaría" is situated on its outskirts.
tional know-how.
Cartago, the first capital, is Costa Rica's oldest Spanish
The country has over 15,000 miles of roads and high-
colonial city. Heredia, called the "city of flowers," is the
ways, including a section of the Pan American Highway.
center of the principal coffee-growing province and an
Various routes and ways connect the ports of the Atlan-
important cattle center. Here too is found the National
tic and Pacific. There is an ample supply of hydroelectric
University. Settled by Andalusians, its southern Spanish
power.
atmosphere is hightened by red-tiled roofs, iron grillwork
at the windows, beautiful patios, and white adobe walls.
FLAG. The Costa Rican flag consists of five horizontal
The busy Caribbean port of Puerto Limón is situated on the
stripes; the center one of red is the widest; the next two are
site of an Indian village on Caríarí Bay, where Columbus
white, and the outside ones are blue.
CUBA
Presidential Palace facing Misiones Avenue, Havana
Area: 44,200 square miles
Population: 9,833,000 (1980)
Capital: Havana
Lying at the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, this long,
Currency: Peso
narrow land consists of three principal mountain ranges:
Language: Spanish
the Sierra de los Organos, the Macizo Central, and the
Independence Day: May 20
Sierra Maestra. More than half of the land area consists of
National hero: José Marti
coastal lowlands and rolling green valleys. The most
GEOGRAPHY. Cuba, "the pearl of the Antilles," has a
rugged mountains lie in the southeastern part of the island,
wealth of scenic beauty, historical treasures, agricultural
the Oriente. Deep pouch-shaped bays along the irregular
products, and mineral deposits. Located just inside the
coastline make excellent natural harbors. Numerous keys
tropical zone, Cuba is the largest island of the West Indies.
and islets dot the coast, the largest being the beautiful Isle
of Pines, famous for its fruits.
CULTURE. Cuba has a population composed of persons of
roads of trade, thus attracting the attention of pirates who
Spanish descent, mulattoes, and some blacks. The coun-
made repeated attacks on the island during the sixteenth
try's contributions to literature are considerable. Among
and seventeenth centuries. In 1762, when Spain was at war
its more representative writers, José Martí is pre-eminent.
with Great Britain, a British force attacked Havana and
Two great musical traditions-European and African-
took it by force. Havana was held by the British until July
exist. They have developed both independently and as a
1763, when the island was returned to Spain in exchange
modern mixture.
for Florida. Numerous rebel outbreaks preceded the so-
The Cuban capital, Havana, is the largest city and chief
called "Ten Years War," which started in 1868 when Carlos
port; it is a cosmopolitan blend of native, ancient, and
Manuel de Céspedes, with a group of patriots, issued the
modern traditions. Havana's notable landmarks include its
proclamation of independence known as the "Grito de
harborside forts: impressive Morro Castle, the fortress of
Yara." As a result of this long war, a great part of the
La Punta, and ancient La Fuerza.
island's wealth was destroyed.
Pinar del Rio Province, in the western part of the coun-
The second and definitive war of independence, begun in
try, is a region of mountains, canyons, and beautiful fertile
1895, was largely engineered by José Martí, who revived
valleys, such as the Valley of Viñales. The famous Vuelta
the Cubans' nationalistic feelings. The final conflict began
Abajo region produces some of the best tobacco in the
in the town of Baire, with the "Grito de Baire," under the
world.
military command of Máximo Gómez and with the cooper-
Located in an extensive agricultural region is Cama-
ation of such valiant generals as Antonio Maceo, Calixto
güey, known as the city of churches. It is the capital of the
García, and others. With the death of Martí that year, the
province of the same name, which is outstanding for exten-
Cubans were more dedicated than ever to winning their
sive cattle-raising, as well as for valuable hardwood
liberty. In 1898 war broke out between the United States
forests, important mineral deposits, and tropical fruits.
and Spain; it lasted 100 days and resulted in the final
Matanzas, in the beautiful, palm-dotted Yumurí Valley on
liberation of Cuba. The Republic of Cuba was established
Cuba's north coast, is an important sugar-trading and
on May 20, 1902, with Tomás Estrada Palma as President.
shipping center. Close by are the Bellamar Caves and the
Hermitage of Monserrate. To the northeast is the popular
GOVERNMENT.* The Constitution in force is that of 1976
Varadero Beach.
that declares the country to be "a socialist state". The
Santa Clara is an important railroad junction in the
supreme power is the Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popu-
center of the island. Cuba's thriving port of Cienfuegos, is
lar (the National Assembly of People's Power). The
situated on the magnificent 20-miles-long Bay of Jagua.
Assembly also exercises the legislative power and names
The city is known for its distilleries, and soap, candle,
the Council of State. The President of the Council is the
tobacco, brick, tile, and soft drink industries. Farther east
head of Government. The Judicial power rests on the Trib-
is unspoiled Sancti Spiritus, with its air of antiquity and
unal Supremo Popular (Popular Supreme Court).
many old colonial buildings. Overlooking the Caribbean
coast is the museum city Trinidad, one of the first settle-
ECONOMY. Cuba is essentially an agricultural country.
ments on the island and port of departure for Cortés when
Its economy is based on the sugar industry, in spite of its
he set out to conquer Mexico.
great mineral resources of nickel, copper, and manganese.
In the mountainous Province of Oriente-a region of
Cuba also grows some of the finest tobacco in the world.
great mineral wealth, vast untouched forests of rare woods,
Stock-raising and related processing industries are also of
and many sugar mills-is Las Tunas, scene of a famous
importance. Among the many fruits grown in the country,
battle of the Second War of Independence in 1895. The
pineapples and bananas are of excellent quality. The thriv-
ancient village of Gibara, where Columbus first set foot on
ing citrus industry is a large volume producer of concen-
Cuban soil, is also in this area. Colorful, mellow Santiago,
trated orange juice. Principal exports are sugar, tobacco,
second city of the republic, is a historical place located in a
nickel oxide and sulfide, fish, rum, and fruits.
sea-and-mountain setting. Nearby Yara and Baire were
two of the chief points at which the patriots raised the
FLAG. The Cuban flag consists of three horizontal blue
standard of Cuban freedom. To the east lie the hills of El
stripes separated by two white stripes; on the side next to
Caney and San Juan, sites of historic battles.
the flagstaff is an equilateral triangle in red with a white
star in its center.
EARLY HISTORY. Cuba was discovered by Columbus in
1492 and colonized by Diego Velázquez. By 1515 he had
established seven settlements, including Santiago, which
*The Cuban Government was excluded from participation in the OAS
served as the capital until 1556. Cuba prospered as a cross-
in January 1962. The country remains a member.
COMMONWEALTH OF DOMINICA
This beautiful lily is representative of the rare flora and fauna that abound in the Commonwealth of Dominica.
Courtesy of the Caribbean Tourism Association
Area: 300 square miles
Population: 81,000 (1979)
GEOGRAPHY. This country is the largest of the island
Capital: Roseau
group known as the Windward Islands in the Lesser
Currency: Eastern Caribbean dollar
Antilles. With an area of 300 square miles, it is 29 miles
Language: English
long and 16 miles wide. The rugged but beautiful terrain is
Independence Day: November 3
dominated by a central mountain range that runs from one
end of the island to the other, with lateral salients
The Commonwealth of Dominica, a sun-splashed island,
descending from each side. Toward the north the main
is one of the newest, and smallest of the 31 nation members
of the OAS. Roughly oblong in shape, the Commonwealth
peak is Morne aux Diable, which is separated from the
of Dominica is located between Guadeloupe and Mar-
central part by a valley. Over the center of the country loom
tinique and is 90 minutes by air from Venezuela.
Morne Diablotin (4,747 ft.), Morne Couronne, and Morne
Trois Pitons.
Flowing west along the central mountains' valley is the
Interesting buildings in the town are the Roman Catholic
Roseau River, SO named by the French for the thick reeds,
Cathedral of the Assumption, the House of the Bishop of
or roseau, that cover its banks. To the west at the mouth of
Roseau, Government House, and the Fort Young Hotel,
the river lies the island's most populous city, Roseau.
which was built into the old French Fort. On the outskirts
At the lower end of the island the peaks of Morne Anglais
of Roseau, the island's pride, her botanical gardens, occupy
and Morne Plat Pays are divided by two river valleys
44 acres containing native and exotic trees and plants and
through which a road links Soufrière in the west to Grand
colorful flowering shrubs.
Bay.
Portsmouth, the town second in importance, lies on
The volcanic origin of the island is evident from the many
Prince Rupert Bay in the northwest. It is the outlet for
thermal and numerous other springs. The Boiling Lake
crops from the interior and the main point of access to the
Geyser is an interesting phenomenon.
most beautiful part of the island.
Rainfall is variable throughout the country. The moun-
tains receive much more rain than the coast. June to
HISTORY. Because of its rugged terrain the Common-
October is normally the true rainy season. Daytime tem-
wealth of Dominica was one of the last of the Windward
peratures range between 75° F. and 90° F.
Islands explored, although it was discovered by Christo-
pher Columbus in 1493 on a Sunday (Domingo), hence its
CULTURE. The Commonwealth of Dominica was once
name.
inhabited by the peaceful Arawak Indians, who were later
Time after time in the 17th century the island changed
exterminated by the fierce Caribs. In the 18th and early
hands between France and England. Even after the Treaty
19th centuries the island changed hands several times as
of Paris in 1793 gave over possession to England, French
Great Britain and France engaged in a tug-of-war over its
forces in 1805 invaded Dominica and burned Roseau. the
possession. Meanwhile, Africans were imported to work
British ransomed the island for 12,000 pounds, and the
the plantations. When the island reverted conclusively to
French departed this troubled speck of the Caribbean for
British hands, the warlike Caribs were consigned to a
the last time.
reservation in the interior. There, today, they represent the
Still under the aegis of the British Crown, the Common-
last surviving remnant of a tribe that once inhabited all the
wealth of Dominica joined the short-lived Federation of the
islands of the Caribbean. Of the some 2,500 residents of the
West Indies in 1958 and remained a member until its
reservation few, if any, can be considered "pure" Caribs,
dissolution in 1962. It then became an Associated State of
having given refuge to and freely intermingled with the
the United Kingdom in 1967, a status that brought the
runaway slaves that long ago fled their white masters.
island self-government, but left the U.K. responsible for
The country's present population is overwhelmingly
defense and foreign affairs. On November 3, 1978, at
black and, while English is the official language, many of
exactly 12:01 a.m., the country became a fully independent
the people speak a local patois akin to French-a reminder
nation and a member of the British Commonwealth.
of the many years of French occupation.
The island's general standard of public health is ex-
GOVERNMENT. The Commonwealth of Dominica is
cellent. Literacy is a relatively high 80 per cent. Clear,
governed under a parliamentary system, headed by a
sparkling springs, emanating from the country's 365
Prime Minister, assisted by Cabinet ministers. Local
rivers, provide pure drinking water. Postal and telephone
government is conducted by individual town and village
systems are reliable.
councils.
Since its beaches are negligible, Dominica relies for
ECONOMY. Dominica is mainly an agricultural nation
tourism on the attraction of its lush, tropical vegetation,
with industrial activity directed toward food processing
stunning mountains, and picturesque rivers. It calls itself
and consumer goods. Main crops are bananas; citrus fruit,
"the land of the three Rs": rivers, rainbows, and romance.
in particular, limes; and coconuts. Food processing consists
And, in spite of the dearth of beaches, Dominica offers
of fruit and fruit juice canning; extraction of lime juice, bay
many types of water sports. Further, the rich variety of
oils, and vanilla; meat processing; and production of copra
flora and 135 species of native birds constitute an irresis-
from coconuts. Consumer industries include the manu-
tible lure to naturalists and bird watchers. Roughly nine
facture and refining of crude and edible oils, wine-making,
per cent of the island is reserved for the development of
and the production of various articles of apparel.
national parks. Inter-island hops to and from Guadeloupe
and Martinique and other nearby islands provide a
FLAG. A circular emblem of red bearing a Siseron Parrot
popular and inexpensive change of pace.
(Amazon Imperialis) standing on a twig, the bird encircled
Roseau, the country's capital city, is the chief port and
by ten lime-green stars. The emblem is superimposed on
administrative and commercial center. It is also the site of
three vertical and three horizontal stripes of yellow, white
the most important schools and the Princess Margaret
and black, forming a triple-colored cross against a general
General Hospital.
background of forest green.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Cathedral of Santa María,
America's first cathedral,
Santo Domingo
Area: 18,700 square miles
Population: 5,648,000 (1981)
1492, is the oldest and yet one of the most modern of the
Capital: Santo Domingo
Caribbean nations. It was the cradle of Spanish-American
Currency: peso
civilization and the point of departure for explorers, con-
Language: Spanish
querors, and colonizers in the early sixteenth century.
Independence Day: February 27
National hero: Juan Pablo Duarte
GEOGRAPHY. The Dominican Republic occupies the
The Dominican Republic, discovered by Columbus in
eastern two thirds of the island of Hispaniola, which it
shares with Haiti. Four almost parallel mountain ranges,
jurisdiction over all the Antilles.
covered with thick vegetation, cross the country from east
Meanwhile, French power grew in the western part of
to west. The largest is the Cordillera Central, which divides
the island. In 1795, by the Treaty of Basel, Spain ceded the
the republic into almost equal parts. The highest peak in
eastern part of the island to France. After the Haitian
the West Indies, Pico Duarte (10,206 feet), is in this range.
General Toussaint Louverture gained absolute control of
In the north is the Cordillera Septentrional and in the south
the French colony of Saint-Domingue (Haiti), he invaded
are the Sierra Neiba and the Sierra de Bahoruco.
Spanish Santo Domingo and united the whole island under
The Valley of the Cibao, between the Cordillera Central
his rule. In 1809 the Dominicans rose in revolt and re-
and the Cordillera Septentrional, is the largest and most
established Spanish rule. In 1821 the Dominicans expelled
important valley. The Vega Real (Royal Plain), often called
the Spanish governor and sought briefly to join Gran
the "Garden of the Antilles," is the island's granary, pro-
Colombia; but this did not materialize.
ducing fruits, vegetables, and sugar cane; its grassy
The Haitians under President Boyer invaded Santo
savannas afford excellent pasturage. The capital and prin-
Domingo, annexed the territory, and ruled it for 22 years.
cipal ports are located on the southern coast. The humid
On February 27, 1844, the Dominicans, led by Juan Pablo
eastern section of this region contains large forests and
Duarte, Francisco del Rosario Sánchez, Ramón Matias
savannas. Many small islands dot the Dominican coast.
Mella, and others, revolted and proclaimed independence.
Political instability and unrest paved the way for a restora-
CULTURE. The Dominican Republic early became a
tion of Spanish rule, and in 1860 Spain annexed the country
crossroads for migrations of people from South and Cen-
at the request of General Santana; but poor administration
tral America and Europe. Cultural life was enriched by
resulted in the War of Restoration and the defeat of the
this intercourse. The National Museum contains one of the
Spanish forces. Thus, the country once more gained its
best pre-Columbian archaeological collections in the
independence in 1865.
Antilles, in addition to paintings which date from colonial
times to the present day. Dominican music is a composite of
GOVERNMENT. Under the Constitution the government
Indian, Spanish, and African elements. The popular
is divided into three branches: legislative, executive, and
merengue is the national dance.
judicial. Congress is composed of the Senate and the
The Dominican capital, Santo Domingo de Guzmán, was
Chamber of Deputies.
founded, in 1496 by Bartolomé Colón, Columbus' brother.
There is a striking contrast between its Old World charm
ECONOMY. Agriculture generates approximately 67 per
and its modernistic steel and concrete structures of the
cent of export earnings and employs half of the labor force.
present century. The cathedral of Santa María is the oldest
Cropland is devoted to the production of sugar cane, coffee,
in America. The fortress-like castle of Columbus' son
plantains, rice, peanuts, and cocoa, in quantitative order.
Diego, Alcázar de Colón, stands among beautiful gardens
Rising international prices encouraged increased empha-
on a hill overlooking the Caribbean. The capital also con-
sis on the cultivation of coffee and cocoa. Income from the
tains the first seat of higher learning in the New World, the
export of coffee beans more than doubled in recent years.
University of Santo Domingo, founded in 1538. Outstand-
A dynamic manufacturing sector contributed about 18.5
ing among the capital's modern buildings is the National
per cent to GNP in 1982. Many new plants, catering mainly
Palace, built of native pink stone. Luxurious modern hotels
to the domestic consumer, began operations in the 1970's.
overlook the blue Caribbean
This was the result of the Government's policy of generous
The republic's second city and leading center in the
fiscal support and easy credit aimed at reducing imports to
Cibao Plain is Santiago. This city, situated on a high bluff
counteract reduction in the import capacity caused mainly
on the Yaque del Norte River, was founded in 1500. Today,
by the oil price increases. Principal industries are sugar
Santiago is one of the republic's most modern cities. The
refining, food processing, tobacco, alcoholic and soft bev-
Dominican Republic has many seaports including La
erages, and chemicals.
Romana, San Pedro de Macorís, Sánchez, Puerto Plata,
Value added by the mining sector increased primarily on
and Monte Cristi.
the strength of gold and silver mining.
Tourism development broke records in the 1970's with
EARLY HISTORY. The history of Santo Domingo began
the opening of several hotels and the total number of vis-
with Columbus' second voyage to Hispaniola in 1493. His
itors rose to new highs. The tourism industry accounts for
fleet of 17 ships brought more than a thousand colonists
more than 10 per cent of export earnings.
and basic necessities for building the first permanent set-
The Dominican Republic exports coffee and cocoa beans,
tlement. In 1496 Columbus sailed back to Spain, leaving
sugar, bauxite, feronickel, and doré (raw ore containing a
his brother Bartolomé Colón as governor of the colony.
mixture of gold and silver). Major imports are various
Upon his return, Columbus found the colony torn by civil
types of machinery and equipment, chemicals, vehicles
strife. Francisco de Bobadilla, sent by the Spanish Crown
and parts, wheat, and rice.
to restore order, imprisoned Columbus, his brother, and
son Diego, and sent them to Spain. It was Governor Nicolás
FLAG. The Dominican flag is divided into four sections
de Ovando who restored peace to the colony and promoted
separated by a white cross. The upper left section is dark
its development in many ways. He was succeeded by Diego
blue; the lower left is red. On the right side of the cross the
Colón. Santo Domingo flourished until the latter part of the
colors are reversed. The coat of arms appears in the center
sixteenth century. Its Audiencia Real (royal tribunal) had
of the cross.
ECUADOR
172508
PRESEN
/
Colonial house. In the background the
magnificent Cathedral of Latacunga, Cotopaxi
Province
Area: 104,506 square miles
Population: 8,025,000 (1982)
humid lowlands containing rice fields and sugar cane plan-
Capital: Quito
tations, and the Guayas River, route of ocean-going ships
Currency: sucre
from the Pacific to Guayaquil, the country's major port.
Language: Spanish
The Oriente, a steaming jungle, extends from the eastern
Independence Day: August 10
foothills of the Andes into the Upper Amazon Basin. Two
National hero: Eugenio Espejo
parallel ranges of the Andes traverse the country from
north to south, with cross ranges forming fertile valleys.
Ecuador, crossed by the Equator for which it is named, is
Dominating the highlands are 22 lofty peaks ranging from
a country of impressive contrasts. The Andean cities with
14,000 to more than 20,000 feet in altitude. Cotopaxi is one
of the highest active volcanoes in the world, and Mt. Chim-
their background of high, snow-capped volcanoes, contrast
borazo rises almost four miles above sea level. Ecuador also
with the coastal cities in their setting of tropical forests.
Sheep and cattle thrive in the highlands; while the fertile
possesses the Colón Archipelago or Galápagos Islands,
crossed by the Equator some 600 miles west of the main-
lowlands produce cacao, rice, coffee, bananas and other
land. These islands, noted for their rare flora and fauna
tropical fruit, balsa wood, and kapok. Ecuador's treasures
of colonial art, found mostly in the churches of Quito, are its
and their volcanic characteristics, have attracted many
most precious heritage.
noted scientists, including Charles Darwin; their giant tor-
toises are famous.
GEOGRAPHY. The three regions of Ecuador differ widely
in topography and climate. Along the Pacific coast are hot
CULTURE. The Ecuadorean population is composed
primarily of the descendents of the Spanish conquerors
and of various Indian tribes such as the Caras, Incas, Caña-
incorporated to the Viceroyalty of New Grenada, remain-
ris, and Punaes, with a sprinkling of blacks in some coastal
ing thus until independence.
sections. Many Indians who live in the highlands still pre-
The spirit of revolt flared in a series of rebellions and a
serve their native customs. The eastern forests are inha-
continuous state of turmoil, which finally took concrete
bited by various Indian tribes, among them the Jívaros,
form under the leadership of Eugenio Espejo, Ecuador's
Záparos, Shuaras y Aucas. The unique Colorados (red
revered national hero. Although he was imprisoned by the
ones), who dye their bodies and hair a vivid red, live in the
Spanish authorities and died in 1785, his inspired political
western part of Pichincha Province.
writings exerted a profound influence on leaders of the
Ecuadorean culture of the colonial period shows a strong
South American revolutionary movement in Ecuador,
religious influence. Quito's churches are famous for their
Venezuela, and Colombia. On August 10, 1809, the presi-
exquisitely wrought wood and stone sculpture as well as
dent of the Audiencia was deposed by the revolutionists,
elaborately carved altars, many of which are covered with
and a supreme governing council was set up. The Spanish
gold leaf. Ecuador has many outstanding examples of
royalists, however, aided by troops from other colonies,
colonial architecture. The Casa de la Cultura Ecuatoriana
again seized power. Nevertheless, the efforts of the Ecua-
guides many of the country's artistic and intellectual activ-
dorean patriots gained momentum. Following the final
ities today. Ecuador has produced many excellent writers
liberation of Venezuela from Spanish rule, General Simón
and painters both in the colonial and republican eras. Both
Bolívar dispatched Antonio José de Sucre, his trusted
folk and formal music reflect the European and native
young general and countryman, to Guayaquil, where Sucre
traditions.
gave strong support to the patriots in taking control of the
Ancient, fascinating Quito, capital of Ecuador, is located
port-city from the Spanish forces in 1821. Sucre then
almost on the Equator at more than 9,000 feet of altitude. It
advanced on Quito in the Andes, where on May 24, 1822, the
lies on the slopes of a deep valley at the foot of the volcano
decisive victory on the slopes of Mt. Pichincha assured
Pichincha. In the battle of Pichincha, General Antonio José
Ecuador's freedom from Spain. Bolívar, who arrived in
de Sucre defeated the Spanish royalists to gain Ecuador's
Quito a few weeks later, united Ecuador with Colombia
freedom. During the colonial period it became a leading
and Venezuela to form the Republic of Gran (Great)
center of the arts, which flourished in the monasteries
Colombia. Bolívar then proceeded to Guayaquil to meet
founded by the Spaniards. The old part of the city contains
General José de San Martín. The confederation was dis-
ancient colonial churches and buildings in contrast with
solved in 1830, when both Ecuador and Venezuela with-
the modern structures that have transformed the northern
drew to form independent republics. Ecuador adopted a
sector of the city. Quito's population in 1982 had 858,733
constitution on September 11, 1830.
inhabitants.
Progressive Guayaquil with a population of 1,175,276
GOVERNMENT. Ecuador is a democracy. Its govern-
inhabitants is the largest city and port and the commercial
ment is divided into three branches: legislative, executive,
hub of the country. Its broad avenues bordered by build-
and judicial.
ings with arcades and balconies, its plazas and sidewalk
cafes, and its market overflowing with tropical produce,
ECONOMY. The Ecuadorian economy has traditionally
give it a gay, bustling atmosphere. The agricultural and
depended upon the production and export of agricultural
stockraising center, Riobamba, halfway between Guaya-
commodities. Since 1972, the petroleum sector has in-
quil and Quito, produces textiles, dairy products, and var-
creased in importance and has enabled Ecuador to become
ious consumer goods. The "garden city" Ambato is a fruit-
more closely integrated into the world economy.
growing center with a temperate climate, luxuriant vege-
After the nation became a net oil exporter, in 1972-82,
tation, and majestic Andean views. It is also the birthplace
real GDP grew at an average annual rate of 8.0%. Most of
of Juan Montalvo, one of Latin America's greatest writers.
this growth occurred in the oil and manufacturing sectors.
Otavalo is famous for its authentic, colorful Indian fair and
For the period 1974-75, real GDP grew at lower annual
fine woolen goods. Gracious Cuenca, set in a beautiful
rate because of a decline in domestic oil output due to
Andean valley, is a center of hand-woven toquilla straw
disruptions in the Trans-Andean pipeline, and a slacken-
hats (mistakenly called "Panama" hats). San Antonio de
ing in world oil demand.
Ibarra is outstanding for its handicrafts.
Manufacturing, which employs 25 per cent of the work
force, has been growing substantially in the past. The most
EARLY HISTORY. Ecuador, dominated at various peri-
dynamic subsectors are textiles, soft drinks, tobacco,
ods by different Indian nations, was conquered by the Incas
leather, and plastics.
in the late fifteenth century. War between the two brothers
Atahualpa and Huáscar, who inherited the Inca empire,
Ecuador's principal exports are petroleum, bananas,
weakened the country and facilitated its conquest by the
coffee, cocoa and processed cocoa, seafood, especially
Spaniards. In 1526 Francisco Pizarro landed on the coast
shrimp. Principal imports are raw materials and capital
of present-day Ecuador. By the end of 1533 the Spaniards
goods directed to the industrial sector.
had subjugated the land and executed Atahualpa, last of
the Inca emperors. In 1534 Sebastián de Benalcázar estab-
FLAG. The Ecuadorean flag consists of three horizontal
lished San Francisco de Quito on the site of Atahualpa's
stripes. The top stripe is yellow, the middle one blue, and
capital. Quito prospered and in 1563 became the seat of a
the bottom one red. The coat of arms appears in the center
Royal Audiencia, or governing council. In 1717 it was
against the yellow and blue stripes.
EL SALVADOR
Side view of the Presidential House in San Salvador
Area: 8,200 square miles
Population: 4,958,000 (1983)
a special variety of balsam tree, which produces a valuable
Capital: San Salvador
medicine and perfume base.
Currency: colón
Language: Spanish
GEOGRAPHY. El Salvador, a land of mountains, hills,
Independence Day: September 15
and upland plains, is crossed by two mountain ranges from
National hero: José Matías Delgado
west to east. A chain of 25 volcanic peaks parallels the
seacoast. Between this range and the Pacific lies a narrow,
El Salvador, smallest of the Central American republics,
flat strip of land which produces sugar cane and cotton. A
is the largest coffee exporter of them all and ranks eight
semi-tropical plateau region, broken by numerous fertile
among the world's coffee-producing nations. It is the only
river valleys, lies between the coastal range and the moun-
Central American country which has a frontage on one
tain chain along the northern border. Savannas of the
ocean only-the Pacific. One of its most interesting geo-
Lempa Valley are used chiefly for grazing cattle. The land
graphical features is the volcano Izalco, called the "Light-
is elevated and hilly in the central and western portions of
house of the Pacific" because the smoke and flames from its
the plateau, but eastward it sinks gradually into tropical
regular eruptions serve as a navigation beacon for ships at
lowlands which produce cotton and henequen. Coffee plan-
sea. El Salvador's famous Balsam Coast, located between
tations, the economic mainstay of El Salvador, are on the
the ports of Acajutla and La Libertad, takes its name from
temperate mountain slopes of the upland area east of the
Lempa River, as well as in the western part of the country
El Salvador has three important seaports. La Unión, La
between San Salvador and the Guatemalan border.
Libertad, and Acahutla, a modern port and a most popular
In the volcanic desert near Ahuachapán small cracks in
seashore resort.
the ground emit steam and sulphuric vapors which wind
and twist into weird and fantastic shapes: this phenomenon
EARLY HISTORY. The Spanish conquistador Pedro de
is presently being used as a source of energy. One of the
Alvarado arrived in El Salvador in 1524, defeated the
largest Salvadorean lakes Ilopango, occupies an ancient
Indians and in April 1525 founded the city of San Salvador
volcanic crater. Lake Guija, which drains into the Lempa
de Cuzcatlán. In 1542 the colony was placed under the
River, is of special interest to archaeologists because of the
Captaincy-General of Guatemala, together with what are
ancient ruins located on its shores and islands. Lake Coate-
now the republics of Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua,
peque with its clear blue water is one of the main tourist
Costa Rica, and the Mexican states of Chiapas and Tabasco.
attractions. Lake Suchitlán is the largest Salvadoran lake,
The outstanding hero of the independence movement was
situated at the hydroelectric dam Cerron Grande.
Father José Matías Delgado, who in November 1811 led an
unsuccessful revolt. A second unsuccessful attempt was
made in 1814. In 1821 the Captaincy-General of Guatemala
CULTURE. El Salvador can claim a share of one of the
declared its independence from Spain. The Mexican
greatest pre-Hispanic civilizations, that of the Maya. Vol-
Empire decided to annex the Central American provinces
canic ash has preserved interesting relics of this past cul-
to Mexico. El Salvador opposed this attempt and struggled
ture. One of the important Indian tribes that inhabited
with the Mexican forces until the fall of Emperor Agustín
what is now El Salvador was the Pipil, whose culture indi-
Iturbide in 1823. El Salvador promulgated its own consti-
cates that they were probably related to the Toltecs and
tution on June 12, 1824, the first independent constitution
Aztecs of Mexico. The present-day population is of Spanish
adopted in Central America; and in November of the same
and Indian descent. A few of the Indians, notably the Pan-
year the constitution of the federation of Central America
chos from Panchimalco and the Izalcos, proudly retain
was promulgated. In 1834 the federation's capital was
some of their old traditions and dress. The energetic Salva-
transferred to San Salvador and later on to Sonsonate. The
doreans have a great love for the soil; consequently, a famil-
federation soon collapsed. In 1841, El Salvador's national
iar pattern throughout the land is one of many small hold-
assembly formally proclaimed its separation from the
ings intensively cultivated.
federation.
Spanish colonial architecture was almost entirely reli-
GOVERNMENT. According to the Constitution of 1983 El
gious and of simple vigorous design. Structural character-
Salvador is a democratic and representative republic; the
istics developed as a result of earthquakes are the low roofs
government is divided into three branches: legislative,
and solid, massive walls.
executive, and judicial; sole legislative power is vested in
El Salvador's modern capital, San Salvador, situated in
the one-chamber legislative Assembly; executive power is
the Valle de las Hamacas (Valley of the Hammocks), is laid
vested in the president, elected by direct popular vote for a
out in the form of a cross. In the belltower of the oldest
five-year term; the judicial power is exercised by the
Salvadorean church, La Merced, is the bell with which the
Supreme Court.
republic's national hero, Father Delgado, announced his
first effort to free his people. Antiguo Cuscatlán, on the
ECONOMY. Agriculture is the backbone of the Salvado-
outskirts of town, is a quiet village which in pre-Columbian
rean economy, employing more than half the labor force.
days was the site of the Pipil capital. Nearby, at the San
Because of the density of population the land is intensively
Andrés hacienda in the Department of Santa Ana, is a
cultivated.
Maya ruin discovered the last decade. Santa Tecla is situ-
The principal crop and chief food of the people of El
ated in an idyllic valley of large flourishing plantations.
Salvador is corn, which is raised on a large scale. Sorghum,
Above the town are the laboratories of the Coffee Growers'
beans, rice, sugar cane, and fruits are raised mainly for
Association. Santa Ana, second to the capital as a business
domestic consumption. Henequen, or sisal, is used in the
center lies in a beautiful valley. Its cathedral is one of El
manufacture of bags for shipping produce and for making
Salvador's finest. San Miguel, the third city of the country,
twine, ropes, and netting.
situated in the east, is a major cotton producing center.
Industry generates 74 per cent of GDP and employs 12
Picturesque San Vicente, at the base of the 7,000-foot vol-
per cent of the work force. The most rapidly growing sub-
cano of the same name, is an historic and colorful colonial
sectors are food processing, beverages, textiles, metal pro-
town important today as commercial center of a sugar,
ducts, and machinery.
cacao, and cereal-producing region. It has been the site of
Principal exports are coffee (57,3 per cent of the value of
the national capital and of the national university for short
all exports), cotton, shrimp, sugar, and nontraditional pro-
periods. Zacatecoluca, center of a rich agricultural region,
ducts exported principally to other Central American
is the birth place of the Salvadorean patriot, José Simeón
countries. Principal imports are heavy and intermediate
Cañas, who fought for and secured the freedom of the
equipment for the manufacturing sector and durable
slaves in Central America 40 years before Lincoln's Eman-
goods for the consumer.
cipation Proclamation. Cojutepeque, which has twice
served as the national capital, is a large cotton and sugar-
FLAG. The Salvadorean flag consists of two horizontal
producing center. Sonsonate is engaged chiefly in cattle-
blue stripes separated by a white one; in the center of the
raising and extracting balsam from the trees..
white band is the national coat of arms.
GRENADA
Grenada's beaches are a haven for sunseekers from the world over
Area: 120 square miles
with many streams and mineral and natural springs.
Population: 111,000 (1980)
Capital: St. George's
GEOGRAPHY. The Windward Islands belong to the same
Currency: Eastern Caribbean Dollar (EC$)
relatively new volcanic range as that of the Leeward
Language: English
Islands. The volcanic chain terminates in Grenada. The
Independence Day: February 7
main mountain mass in the center of the island consists of a
number of ridges, some of which contain crater basins and
Southernmost of the Windward Islands, Grenada is a
jewel-like, tropical West Indian island, among the most
one which has a large crater lake called Grand Etang. To
beautiful in the world. "Welcome to the Isle of Spice" reads
the north and south of this lake rises Grenada's two highest
peaks, Mt. St. Catherine and Mt. Sinai, both with an eleva-
a sign at the airport, reminding visitors that this tiny coun-
try is second only to Indonesia as a producer of nutmeg.
tion of more than 2,500 feet above sea level. The rugged
Grenada, less than 90 miles north of Venezuela and Tri-
south coast of the island is deeply indented, and the west
coast is far steeper than the east.
nidad, includes also the islands of Carriaçou and Petit
Martinique. The land is mountainous, thickly-wooded,
Grenada has a tropical marine climate and an average
annual temperature of about 83° F. Yearly rainfall varies
from an average of approximately 40 inches at Point Saline
For a long time, like SO many other Caribbean islands,
in the southwest to about 150 inches at Lake Grand Etang
Grenada was the object of a tug-of-war between the two
in the mountainous center. The dry season lasts from Janu-
great powers. Conquered by the British under Commodore
ary to May and the rainy season from June to December,
Swanton in 1762, the island surrendered and was formally
with November the wettest month.
ceded to the British Crown by the Treaty of Paris on Feb-
ruary 10, 1763. Sixteen years later, it was retaken by the
CULTURE. Life in the island is noteworthy for the conge-
French under Comte d'Estaing, only to be restored to Great
nial relations that exist among its people, 98 per cent of
Britain by the Treaty of Versailles in 1783. In 1795 it was
whom are black, of mixed ancestry, or East Indian, with a
the scene of a rebellion against the British rule, but in June
miniscule white minority. Of the native Amerindians and
1796 Sir Ralph Abercromby suppressed the uprising.
Caribs, there is now little trace, although as late as 1960 the
Grenada joined the Federation of the West Indies as an
census recorded nine Caribs, six of whom were males. The
independent member on January 3, 1958, and SO remained
bulk of the present population are descendants of the Afri-
until the Federation was dissolved in 1962. A governor was
cans imported during the slave-trade years and, to a lesser
appointed by the Crown for the self-governing and depend-
degree, indentured laborers from the East Indies. Blacks
ent state of Grenada, which like other islands, became
own most of the land and property, including luxurious
"associated" with Great Britain. However, in February of
homes next door to those of wealthy winter residents.
1974 the country was granted independence within the
For many years Grenadians spoke a patois largely of
British Commonwealth.
French origin and, although it is on the wane, the dialect
can still be heard among the older people in some of the
GOVERNMENT. Grenada is a member of the Common-
villages. English, the official and commercial language in
wealth of Nations. According to the Constitution the Gov-
general use, is spoken by the middle-class of Grenada with
ernor General is named by the British Crown and the head
great precision and clarity. Primary education is provided
of government is the Prime Minister.
in 59 schools, thirteen of which are maintained entirely by
On March 13, 1979, the Government of Sir Eric Gairy
the government. The remaining 46 are under denomina-
was overthrown in a coup-de-etat led by the New Jewel
tional control and receive grants-in-aid from public funds.
Movement. Maurice Bishop was named Prime Minister
There are 12 secondary schools: three government and nine
and a Peoples Revolutionary Government was formed.
grant-aided; two are for boys, three for girls, and seven are
On October 19, 1983, elements of the Peoples Revolution-
coeducational. A technical center serves the government
ary Army staged a coup. Maurice Bishop and several other
schools.
Cabinet members were killed in the uprising. The Gover-
St. George's, the capital and hub of commercial and intel-
nor General, Sir Paul Scoon, called on the Organization of
lectual life, is the most hilly city in the whole Caribbean.
Eastern Caribbean States, Jamaica, Barbados and the
Except on the waterfront, one can scarcely walk a few feet
United States to assist him in the restoration of law and
without steeply climbing or descending. Located at the
order. On October 25, 1983, a combined force landed in
southwest of the island, it is Grenada's chief port. The
Grenada and the Military Junta was put down.
highest point in the heart of the city is Fort George, a
In November 1983 Sir Paul Scoon named an Advisory
prominent tourist attraction, but there are two less cen-
Council to assist him in the administration of the State
trally located forts, Fort Frederick and Fort William
until new general elections were held.
Henry, that are still higher. All three forts, according to a
persistent legend, were once connected by tunnels, long
ECONOMY. Agriculture is the island's chief source of
since blocked up. In Sauteurs, a sizable town located on a
income, providing employment for between five or six
steep cliff at the northern tip of the island, is Leaper's Hill
thousand adult workers. Crop diversification has but-
where the Caribs made their last stand against the French.
tressed the Grenadian economy for over two centuries. Two
Passing through Woodford and Grand Roy, one reaches
other important features of local agriculture are the great
Gouyave, population 2,256, on the west coast. This is the
number of small holdings devoted to farming and the
main fishing point and a center of the nutmeg industry.
intercultivation or mixing of crops in the field. Main agri-
Grenville is midway up the Atlantic coast. Visitors will
cultural products are cocoa, nutmeg mace, bananas, sugar
enjoy relaxing and swimming off Grenada's beautiful
cane, coconuts, citrus (mainly limes), and cotton. Food
beach, Grand Anse, on the southwest coast, where the
crops of wide variety grown for local consumption include:
island's principal hotels are clustered.
yams, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, corn, and cassava. Live-
stock production is a major occupation, but domestic sup-
HISTORY. Discovered by Columbus on August 14, 1498,
plies of meat and milk do not meet demand. Fishing,
on his third voyage, the island now known as Grenada was
chiefly by seine, trolling and drifting with hand lines, is a
given the name "Concepción." In 1609 English settlers
traditional occupation. An expanding tourist industry is at
tried to colonize it, but were discouraged by the fierce
present the focus of attention, and a Development Incen-
hostility of the Caribs. The French tried later and were
tives Ordinance is directed towards attracting capital
successful for they did not hesitate to use harsh measures
investment in tourism and other industries.
against the Caribs. In 1650 Du Parquet, Governor of Mar-
tinique, purchased the island from a French company and
FLAG. Two green triangles on a field of gold, with a sym-
established a settlement at St. George's. Funding the ven-
bolic nutmeg in the left triangle. A star, circled in red, joins
ture did not pay, Du Parquet sold the island in 1657 to the
the two triangles. The whole is framed by a red border,
Comte de Cerrillac, and in 1674 it was annexed to France.
with three stars on each horizontal stripe.
GUATEMALA
The capital's Civic Center
Area: 50,700 square miles
volcanic area, central mountain range, and the lowlands of
Population: 7,200,000 (1981)
Petén.
Capital: Guatemala City
The fertile coastal plain produces the finest cattle and
Currency: quetzal
cotton in the country, along with sugar cane, essential oils,
Language: Spanish
and a variety of tropical fruits.
Independence Day: September 15
Ascent to the highlands of the central range of the Sierra
National hero: Tecún Umán
Madre brings an abrupt change in the landscape. Of the
more than 30 volcanos inside the Pacific belt of fire, some
found here are the loftiest in Central America; Tajumulco
Guatemala, "land of eternal spring," was the cradle and
is the highest at 13,841 feet above sea level. Many impor-
homeland of Maya civilization. Among its natural attrac-
tant cities are located on the high plateau of the Sierra
tions are Lake Atitlán, with a view of three volcanos: Toli-
Madre.
mán, Atitlán, and San Pedro. Others are Lake Izabal and
Growing in the lowlands of Petén Department are groves
scenic Dulce River.
of chicozapote or gum trees. These exude a latex or resin
which is the base of the chewing gum manufactured in
GEOGRAPHY. The country is divided from north to south
Guatemala and shipped from the Caribbean ports of Santo
into four geophysical sections: the Pacific coastal plain, the
Tomás and Barrios.
CULTURE. The people of Guatemala are chiefly of Euro-
EARLY HISTORY. Pedro de Alvarado, conqueror of Gua-
pean and Maya Indian descent. With the advent of new
temala, after subduing the Quiché Indians of the high-
means of communication many of the Indians from the
lands, established the city of Santiago in Iximché, royal
interior, especially the highlands, have cast off their ances-
court of the Cakchiquel Indians. Later the capital was
tral isolation and taken on the ways of Western culture.
transferred to a site close to present-day Ciudad Vieja, near
Although for some 200 years there has been no great
Antigua Guatemala. When Alvarado was killed in combat
variation in the Indian style of dress, certain influences
in Mexico, his widow doña Beatriz de la Cueva was named
have led to the adoption of individual designs that set one
Governor, thus becoming in 1541 the first woman to head a
group of Indians apart from the others. The typical
government in the Americas. However, three days later
embroidered designs and figures have undergone a natu-
she herself died in the earthquake and floods that com-
ral evolution from the strictly traditional to the variegated.
pletely demolished the city. The survivors moved the
Twenty languages derived from the Maya are still spoken
government in 1543 to what is today Antigua Guatemala.
in the country.
That too was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt until, in
Guatemala City, capital of the republic, with its magnif-
1773, it was decided to move the seat of government for the
icent modern buildings, still retains a certain flavor of the
fourth time to its present location. Guatemala declared its
eras that came after its founding in 1776. Largely des-
independence from Spain September 15, 1821. For a short
troyed by the earthquakes of 1917-18 and the last of 1976
period the country formed part of the transitory empire of
the city's principal edifices date back only to those years.
Agustín de Iturbide, until, on July 1, 1823, Guatemala
However, many of the old churches have been restored to
became a member of a federated system and proclaimed its
their original architectural lines.
total and absolute independence. The Federation of the
With the new suburbs surrounding it, Guatemala City
United Provinces of Central America was torn by civil
has experienced considerable growth. Its museum collec-
wars. When the Federation was dissolved, Guatemala
tions cover the period of Maya civilization up to the present
declared itself a State, and after 1847, a free and sovereign
day. The archaeological historical, and anthropological
republic.
museums possess artifacts of tremendous value. Others
have superb sculptures and modern paintings on view.
GOVERNMENT. According to its Constitution, Guatem-
Among its cultural institutions are the Federal University
ala is a free nation, sovereign and independent, in which
of San Carlos de Guatemala and four other private owned
the rights of the people to liberty, security, and justice are
universities, along with high schools, institutes, and ele-
guaranteed. The governmental system is that of a repre-
mentary schools, all part of a modern educational system.
sentative democracy, taking the form of a republic. The
Among tourist attractions are the hill of "El Carmen" in
exercise of sovereignty is delegated equally among the
the northeast of the city; a relief map of the country, one of
legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Executive
its kind in the world; and the remains of a Maya settlement
power is vested in the president. The legislative power
known as Kaminaljuyú. The city of Antigua Guatemala
resides in a unicameral Congress. The chief judge of the
was for some two and a half centuries the capital of the
Supreme Court of Justice heads the judiciary.
Royal Audience, Government, and Captaincy-General of
Guatemala until the present site was proclaimed capital by
ECONOMY. Guatemala is traditionally an agricultural
decree. The old city is bound by rich coffee plantations and
country, but it is also a supplier of manufactured goods to
contains valuable relics of Spanish art. Many of its build-
its Central American neighbors. In fact, 27 per cent of total
ings have been reconstructed, for instance, the present
exports are traded within the region, and 90 per cent of
Colonial Museum was once the seat of the Royal Pontifical
such sales are manufactures, such as shoes, clothing, plas-
University of San Carlos de Borromeo, founded in 1676.
tics, and furniture.
Esquipulas, located in a valley of the same name, is the
The majority of the population, however, still live in
home of a majestic sanctuary which holds the Black Christ,
rural areas and engage in subsistence farming or work on
renown in Central America and throughout the Continent.
the large plantations. Guatemala's rich volcanic soil and
Quiriguá, in the low valley of Motagua, was in ancient
fine climate lend themselves to the cultivation of a wide
times an important Maya religious center. In Petén there
variety of crops. Cattle-raising is also a mainstay of the
are many ruins of Maya ceremonial towns, among which
economy. The nation's principal exports are coffee, cotton,
the most outstanding is Tikal. Zaculeu, near the present
bananas, sugar, and meat. Principal imports are heavy
city of Huehuetenango, was the foremost fortified city of
equipment, machinery, and construction materials, al-
the royal Mam. Cobán, in the Department of Alta Verapaz,
though Guatemala is a significant producer of cement.
is a busy industrial center known for its silverwork and
Deposits of nickel, lead, sulphur, and smaller amounts of
weaving. Quezaltenango, the second most important city in
other minerals are of increasing importance to the econ-
the country is an important commercial center. On the
omy. Considerable private capital is being invested in
Caribbean coast are Puerto Barrios and Santo Tomás de
nickel mining and exploration for petroleum and natural
Castilla, both with up-to-date port facilities. The seafood-
gas.
processing town of Champerico on the Pacific coast special-
izes in frozen shrimp, which not only supply the national
FLAG. The Guatemalan flag consists of three vertical
market, but are shipped over the efficient highway com-
stripes of equal width, a bright blue stripe on either side of
plex to ports on the Caribbean for export to the United
a white one, which bears the national coat of arms in the
States.
center.
HAITI
The National Palace in Port-au-Prince is located in the Heroes of Independence Square
Area: 10,700 square miles
Population: 5,099,000 (1981)
Sun-drenched Haiti, a land of tropical scenic beauty, is
Capital: Port-au-Prince
the world's first black republic and the only French-
Currency: gourde
speaking republic in the Hemisphere. Haitians who
Language: French
became leaders in their own country's struggle for liberty
Independence Day: January 1
fought with George Washington's army for the independ-
National hero: Jean Jacques Dessalines
ence of the English colonies of North America. Haitian
independence marked the first successful revolt against
1492, was part of the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo. In
European colonial rule in Latin America.
1664, French settlers founded Port-de-Paix; and by the
Treaty of Ryswich (1697) France acquired the western
GEOGRAPHY. Haiti, an Indian name meaning moun-
third of the island and called the colony Saint-Domingue.
tainous land, occupies the western third of the island of
The French Revolution stirred demands for the abolition of
Hispaniola, which it shares with the Dominican Republic.
slavery and for political rights, but these were denied by
Two mountainous peninsulas stretch westward like the
the colonial rulers. It was then that Toussaint Louverture
claws of a giant crab, partially enclosing the gulf of
appeared on the scene. A former slave, he gradually rose in
Gonâve. One mountain range, including groups known as
rank until he became a general in the French Army and
La Hotte and La Selle, extends from east to west along the
Governor of Saint-Domingue (Haiti). To break Toussaint's
lower peninsula. Two other ranges stretch from southeast
control, Napoleon sent a powerful expedition under the
to northeast across the mainland and northern peninsula.
command of his brother-in-law, General Leclerc, to estab-
Morne La Selle, the highest peak, is in the southeast. There
lish French authority once more. After many fierce battles,
are four important plains: the North Plain, along the
Toussaint was captured, and sent to France where he died
northern coast between the mountains and the sea; the
a prisoner. Two Haitian generals formerly in the French
Central Plain, bordering the Dominican Republic; and the
Army carried on the war: the Haitian national hero, Jean
Artibonite and Cul-de-Sac Plains which extend eastward
Jacques Dessalines, and Alexandre Pétion. The French
from the Gulf of Gonâve. Coffee plantations spread over the
were defeated after a long and bitter struggle in 1803.
moist foot-hills and the lowlands are green with sugar
On January 1, 1804, Dessalines proclaimed the inde-
cane.
pendence of Saint-Domingue and adopted the original
Indian name of Haiti.
CULTURE. The Haitian population is 90 per cent black
and ten per cent mulatto-of French and African ancestry
GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of 1957 divides the
-making this the only black republic in the Western Hem-
powers of state into three branches: legislative, executive,
isphere. The Haitian people are by nature happy, resource-
and judicial. The national legislature, Chambre Legisla-
ful, and creative. Their culture combines elements trans-
tive, is a unicameral body. The executive power is exer-
planted to the island by the French colonizers and by
cised by the president of the republic. The judicial branch
blacks brought from Africa as slaves during the colonial
of the government consists of the Court of Cassation, sim-
period. Successive generations have created a truly
ilar to the U.S. Supreme Court, and lower courts.
national culture, as exemplified in Haitian literature and
the fine arts.
ECONOMY. The principal occupation of Haiti's people is
Port-au-Prince, the Haitian capital, is a city of contrasts.
farming. Main crops are coffee, sugar cane, rice, sisal,
There is the magnificent National Palace; the ultra-
wheat, corn, and beans. Coffee accounts for almost half of
modern buildings and pavilions along the waterfront,
the country's export earnings. Because of rising domestic
many of which are decorated with spectacular Haitian
demand in recent years, there has been a shift away from
designs; the ancient Iron Market with its four Moorish-
export crops to commodities for domestic consumption.
style turrets; and charming flower-filled squares. The cap-
Agriculture, however, has been relatively stagnant due to
ital's Museum of Ethnology, with its fascinating Voodoo
rudimentary farming techniques and serious soil erosion.
section, is outstanding. The city's main plaza, the Place de
Manufacturing and construction have been the most
l'Indépendence, is the center of community life. Smaller
dynamic sectors of the economy and their contribution to
modern towns are Jacmel and Aux Cayes on the southern
GDP have risen smartly in relation to agriculture. The
coast, and St. Marc and Gonaïves, where Dessalines pro-
larger manufacturing plants consist of a cement plant,
claimed Haiti's independence in 1804, on the west coast.
sugar refineries, and a flour mill. Approximately 200
Cap Haïtien is the republic's second city. It was the capital
small enterprises engage in the assembly of electronic
of colonial Haiti and later the seat of Henri Christophe's
equipment, sporting goods, and clothing for export, mainly
kingdom. On the picturesque waterfront freighters load
to the United States. The construction sector has benefited
coffee, sisal, and bananas. At the nearby village of Milot
by large public investment to finance major improvements
one can see the remains of King Henri Christophe's fabu-
in roads, power, water supply, and ports.
lous palace, Sans Souci, and his mighty fortress, La Cita-
Bauxite extraction is the only real mining activity in
delle Laferrière, a few miles distant. Les Cayes, on the
Haiti. Tourism is of growing significance because of Haiti's
Caribbean, is the chief commercial center and seaport of
exotic ambience, excellent restaurants, and superior
southern Haiti.
accomodations.
Haitian handicrafts include a wide variety of artistic and
Haiti's principal exports are coffee, bauxite, essential
useful articles made chiefly from mahogany, sisal, and
oils, and miscellaneous assembled articles.
straw. The contemporary art of Haiti shows the influence
of French and African artistic traditions.
FLAG. The half of the Haitian flag next to the staff is black
and the other half red. In the center is a rectangular field
EARLY HISTORY. Haiti, discovered by Columbus in
on which appears the national coat of arms.
HONDURAS
Presidential House, Tegucigalpa
Area: 43,300 square miles
of the five Central American republics, is the most moun-
Population: 3,821,000 (1981)
tainous of all and is the only one having no volcanoes. The
Capital: Tegucigalpa
Central American Cordillera runs through the country
Currency: lempira
from northwest to southeast. Vast banana plantations are
Language: Spanish
Independence Day: September 15
found on the broad northern coastal plain extending inland
National hero: Francisco Morazán
from the Caribbean. A great expanse of swamps, moun-
tains, and forests covers the lower eastern coast called
Mosquitia. The Central Plateau, with its high ridges and
Honduras is a land of banana and coffee plantations,
deep valleys, occupies about 65 per cent of the national
fields of cotton and sugar cane, rich mineral resources, and
territory. Most of the arable land in this major region is
extensive forest regions covering roughly 45 per cent of the
under cultivation, producing coffee, tobacco, wheat, fruits,
total area. The country is one of the world's major produc-
and vegetables. Honduras has several large rivers, count-
ers of fine woods, notably, mahogany. Two highlights of the
less streams, and several coastal lagoons. Its pride is Lake
country are the ancient Maya ruins of Copán and the Pan
Yojoa in the Celaque Mountains.
American Agricultural School, one of Latin America's
Honduras also has insular possessions including the pic-
most advanced agricultural colleges, located in the Zamo-
turesque Bay Islands, formed by the summit of a sub-
rano Valley.
merged mountain range. Honduras' only Pacific port,
Amapala, is located on Tiger Island in the Gulf of Fonseca.
GEOGRAPHY. Wedge-shaped Honduras, second largest
The Bay Islands and the Mosquitia region were ruled
alternately by Spain and Great Britain until 1859, and the
Tegucigalpa, probably accounting for its Indian name
majority of the inhabitants are descendants of the British,
derived from Tegus Galpa, meaning Silver Hill. Because of
some of whom claim relationship with the free-booters and
its mineral wealth and growing economic importance,
buccaneers of the Spanish Main who finally settled here.
Honduras was frequently attacked by French, British, and
Dutch buccaneers during the sixteenth and seventeenth
CULTURE. The homogeneous population of Honduras is
centuries. In the eighteenth century the Misquito Indians
chiefly of Spanish and Indian descent. The nation has a
with the aid of British forces fought the Spaniards. They
firmly established tradition of racial equality, which em-
were defeated and forced to retire to the Mosquitia region.
phasizes the importance of talent, ability, and education.
The British forces occupied the Bay Islands until 1859
Pre-Columbian art in Honduras centers around the
when England signed a treaty with Honduras relinquish-
ruins of Copán, one of the great cultural centers of the Old
ing control of this region.
Empire of the Mayas. The ancient ruin, re-discovered in
On September 15, 1821, Honduras joined the other four
1839 and later restored, spreads over many acres; it is built
Central American provinces comprising the Captaincy-
on two levels, the upper on a cliff overlooking the Copán
General of Guatemala in declaring independence from
River. The Great Court where worshippers gathered, the
Spain. All were annexed to the Mexican Empire of Agustín
Hieroglyphic Stairway, with its carved steps containing
Iturbide in 1822-23. Upon the downfall of the empire in
the longest known Maya inscription, and the magnificently
1823, Honduras joined the federation known as the United
proportioned temple in the East Court are Copán's chief
Provinces of Central America; its first president was José
highlights. Contemporary art revolves around the Na-
Arce. In 1830, Francisco Morazán became the second pres-
tional School of Fine Arts in Comayagüela. It is noted for
ident of the federation. Able, idealistic Morazán intro-
its "Maya Corridor" with frescos illustrating Maya life and
duced many reforms, both social and economic. Despite
culture.
Morazán's efforts to preserve the federation, it disinte-
Mountainous Tegucigalpa, Honduras' capital, stands as
grated. On November 5th, 1838, Honduras declared its
it was originally built, quaint streets of stairs connecting
independence. In January 1841 the first constitutional
one level with another. Tegucigalpa is one of the few world
president Francisco Ferrera was inaugurated.
capitals without a railroad, but its air services are out-
GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of 1982 divides the
standing. It is the center of the silver and gold mining
powers of government into three branches: legislative,
region and of a large sub-tropical agricultural zone in the
executive, and judicial. The legislative power is exercised
interior. The republic's second city, San Pedro Sula, center
by the unicameral Congress of Deputies. Executive power
of the banana and sugar-growing industries, is an impor-
is vested in the president, elected by popular direct vote for
tant distributing point for the northern and western areas.
a four-year term. The judicial power is exercised by the
Industries are more developed in this briskly modern city.
Supreme Court.
Choluteca, on the wide, beautiful plain of the Choluteca
River, is a cattle and coffee center. La Ceiba is one of
ECONOMY. Agriculture-particularly the great banana
Honduras' principal Caribbean ports.
plantations-contributes over two thirds of the country's
Comayagua, the first capital of Honduras, is also the site
exportable goods. In 1975 the Honduran Banana Corpora-
of the first Spanish colonial university in Central America,
tion (COHBANA) was established to rehabilitate the
established in 1632. The purest examples of colonial archi-
banana plantations devastated by the 1974 hurricane Fifi.
tecture in Honduras are found in this city. Today it is the
As a result of these efforts, banana production by 1977 had
distributing center for the great Comayagua Valley.
recovered to about 80 per cent of its 1973 capacities.
Rising domestic and Central American demand enabled
EARLY HISTORY. Columbus landed on the Central
industry to grow 8.3 per cent in 1977. An increase in pri-
American mainland in 1502 to the south of what is now
vate investment not only stimulated the established indus-
known as Cape Honduras. The country's name, from the
trial subsectors, such as food processing, forest products,
Spanish word honduras (depths), was suggested by the
and construction materials, but encouraged the founding
deep waters found off the north coast. Attempts at conquest
of new enterprises. However, beginning in 1980 the expan-
and settlement followed; but the Spaniards quarreled
sion of economic activity slowed sharply and by 1981 the
among themselves and the settlements they established
gross domestic product (GDP) had grown only 0.3 per cent.
engaged in continuous rivalry. The Indians were not
The instability in the Central American region undoubt-
subdued until the late 1530's, when the Indian chief Lem-
edly had a decisive influence in the Honduran economy,
pira with 30,000 of his followers fought the Spaniards until
affected by the level of private investment and the flight of
he was assassinated at a peace parley. The name Lempira
capital.
(now the name of the country's monetary unit) is a Hondu-
The forests of Honduras are its largest natural resource.
rean symbol of liberty and courage. In 1537 Comayagua
The country's major foreign exports are agricultural:
was founded as the provincial capital.
bananas, coffee, sugar and lumber.
In 1543, jurisdiction over Honduras was exercised by the
Audiencia, a judicial tribunal with political and adminis-
FLAG. The Honduran flag consists of three horizontal
trative functions, which in the seventeenth century became
stripes of equal width, the two outer ones blue, and the
the Captaincy-General of Guatemala. In 1786 Honduras
center one white. In the center of the white stripe are five
was divided into two provinces: Tegucigalpa and Comaya-
blue stars representing the states that formed the Central
gua. In 1578 silver was discovered in the hills around
American federation.
JAMAICA
Area: 4,243.6 square miles
Population: 2,095,878 (1982)
Capital: Kingston
Currency: Jamaican dollar
Language: English
Independence Day: First Monday in August
National hero: Marcus Garvey
Christened Xaymaca, meaning "Land of Wood and
Water," by its first inhabitants the Arawak Indians, this
exotic island has attracted to its shores an extraordinary
variety of peoples during its long history of almost five
centuries, starting with its discovery by Columbus in 1494.
The early buccaneers, adventurers, and Spanish colonizers
were followed by Europeans, Africans, East Indians, and
many others. The intermingling of diverse races, nationali-
ties, and cultures from all regions of the globe has made
Jamaica unique and fascinating to students, social scient-
ists, and tourists alike. Jamaicans are justly proud of their
multiracial society, marked by harmonious integration-a
rare example to the rest of the world-and simply ex-
pressed by the national motto "Out of many, one people." If
variety is the "spice of life," then Jamaica is overflowing
with it: in human types and culture, magnificent scenic
contrasts, folklore, and entertainment.
GEOGRAPHY. Jamaica is the third largest Caribbean
island. It lies about 90 miles south of Cuba. The topography
and landscape comprise three distinct regions. The rocky,
mountainous eastern part has been eroded through the
ages, accounting for the sharp-crested ridges and deep,
twisting valleys; this region is dominated by the Blue
Mountains, the highest range on the island, having a peak
of 7,402 feet. The central and western zones are capped by
thick layers of white limestone, from which several pla-
teaus were formed in the age-old geological development of
the island. One rare feature is the disappearance of the
streams, which flow through a maze of underground cav-
erns, reappearing in the deeper basins or at the edge of the
limestone. The Cockpit Country is S0 broken into deep,
circular arenas and huge rocky buttresses, that it is almost
impenetrable and, therefore, sparsely populated. The
highland section consists of a rolling countryside of
rounded hills and hollows.
Surrounding the highlands is a narrow coastal plain,
interrupted by spurs of highland reaching down to the sea.
Miles of gleaming white sand beaches rim the northern
and southern shores, many of them protected by coral
reefs.
Half of Jamaica's land area is used for the basic compo-
nent in the manufacture of aluminum. There are also sub-
stantial deposits of limestone, gypsum, silica, marble and
A typical tropical sunset in the beautiful island of
natural whiting. Limestone has many uses, including road
Jamaica. Courtesy of Jamaica Tourist Board;
building construction.
photo by Johnny O'Brien
Jamaica does not have the excessively hot, humid climate
Port Royal became headquarters for Henry Morgan,
usually associated with the tropics. The temperature range
who was rewarded by England with the post of lieutenant-
is slight, July being the hottest month (with an average
governor of Jamaica; he died there in 1688. While Jamaica
temperature of 81 degrees) and January, the coolest (aver-
was becoming one of the world's largest slave markets,
aging around 76 degrees). Highland temperatures are 10
Port Royal gained the reputation of being the "wickedest
to 20 degrees lower, and on the plains it is rare for day-time
city in the world," until a violent earthquake toppled most
temperatures to exceed 91 degrees. The rainy season beg-
of it into the sea in 1692. Although the slave trade was
ins around the end of April and reaches a maximum in
abolished by law in 1808, slavery continued in Jamaica
September, October, and November. The overall delightful
until the British Parliament passed the Abolition Act in
climate and 300 days of sunshine a year enhance Jamaica's
1834.
many attractions to tourists, retired persons and lovers of
Two great heroes are associated with the island: Simón
the outdoors.
Bolívar and Horatio Nelson. The latter began his rise to
admiral in the British Navy at Port Royal in 1777. While
CULTURE. Jamaica's cultural heritage is predominantly
living in exile on the island during the wars of independ-
Afro-European. The oldest ethnic group having living des-
ence against Spain, the great Latin American liberator
cendants today are the Maroons. Following the retreat of
Simón Bolívar wrote in 1815 his famous "Jamaican Let-
the Spaniards, this warlike minority of African stock
ter," setting forth his dream of an America united in "free-
(some of mixed Spanish and/or Arawak descent) took to the
dom and glory."
remote highlands, where they lived a "life apart" in their
Jamaica was a Crown Colony from 1816 to 1944, when a
isolated villages until recent times. Since the late seven-
teenth century, people of African origin have predomi-
new constitution was adopted conferring dominion status.
nated; about 15 per cent of the population is classified as
In 1958, Jamaica joined the Federation of the British West
Indies, which was dissolved four years later. Jamaica
Afro-European by the national census. The rest of the
Jamaicans are international by racial and national origins.
achieved full self-government on August 6, 1962, when it
Thus, their sense of national identity and unity is all the
became an independent nation within the British Com-
monwealth of Nations.
more remarkable.
The center of cultural life and activity is the capital,
GOVERNMENT. Jamaica is a Parliamentary Democracy
Kingston. It was founded on a beautiful protected harbor in
based on a system of representative and responsible
1692 after the destruction of Port Royal by earthquake.
Government. Universal adult suffrage was instituted in
Kingston is noted for the following cultural institutions:
1944, and members of the House of Representatives are
the Institute of Jamaica, housing exhibits of historic and
elected at five-year intervals. The House of Representa-
artistic relics; the University of the West Indies, having
tives consists of 60 members and is the more powerful of the
outstanding medical and engineering schools; the College
two Houses of Parliament. The second is the Senate or
of Arts, Science, and Technology, Devon House and the
'Upper House'. There are 21 Senators, thirteen of whom
Royal Botanical Hope Gardens. There is much cultural
are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the
activity at Kingston's Little and Ward Theatres and the
Prime Minsiter, and eight on the advice of the Leader of the
Cultural Training Centre for Music, Drama, Dance and
Opposition.
Art. Chinese, East Indians, the Lebanese and other ethnic
The Government's executive function is carried out by
groups have contributed much to the cultural mosaic.
the Prime Minister and his Cabinet of Ministers. Jamaica's
African folklore, deeply ingrained in the national culture,
legal system and the judiciary are based on English Com-
is most vividly expressed in music and dance; and Jonka-
mon Law and practice and the administration of justice is
noo dancers are typical, as are their steel drum bands.
vested in an independent judiciary.
Jamaica is also the home of the ska and reggae sounds in
Jamaica became a member of the Organization of Amer-
music.
ican States in 1969.
HISTORY. Although Columbus discovered Jamaica in
ECONOMY. The chief contributors to the Jamaican econ-
1494, on his second voyage to the New World, the Spa-
omy are the bauxite mining, alumina production, agricul-
niards did not actually occupy the island until early in the
ture, and tourism. Manufacturing has developed into an
sixteenth century. Failing to find gold, they raised lives-
important sector in both the domestic and export markets.
tock and a few crops. However, the native labor supply
Jamaica is one of the world's largest producers of baux-
declined rapidly because the gentle Arawak Indians, who
ite, which together with hydrate of aluminum, represents
were enslaved by the Spaniards and decimated by the
approximately 35 per cent of total export value. It accounts
European diseases, were almost completely wiped out dur-
for three-fourths of the country's visible export earnings.
ing the sixteenth century. To replace them, the Spaniards
Tourism is the second largest earner of foreign ex-
began to bring in Africans as early as 1517 to work as field
change, generating some 20,000 jobs, directly and in-
and household slaves; thus began three centuries of slav-
directly.
ery, which finally ended under British rule.
Domestic and export agriculture account for one third of
To the evils of slavery was added the long period of
national employment. The major agricultural exports are
piracy, highlighted by the role of the infamous Henry Mor-
sugar, bananas, coffee, cocoa and recent thrusts have been
gan, whose buccaneer fleet was the scourge of the Spanish
made into several non-traditional areas.
Main and an invaluable asset to the English in gaining and
Other important industries are textiles, rum and pro-
holding Caribbean islands. The English invaded Jamaica
cessed foods.
in 1655 and five years of guerrilla warfare ensued; finally
FLAG. A diagonal cross in gold divides the flag into four
in 1670, Spain ceded possession of the island to England by
triangles in juxtaposition; the top and bottom triangles are
the Treaty of Madrid.
green, and the other two are black.
MEXICO
Ruins of an Indian Temple, Chichén Itzá
Area: 759,600 square miles
Madre and the Western Sierra Madre, cross the country
Population: 72,270,000 (1981)
from north to south forming between them a number of
Capital: Mexico City (Federal District)
valleys and plateaus. The Central Plain is located between
Currency: peso
these ranges. With a few exceptions, the principal cities are
Language: Spanish
Independence Day: September 16
in this region. Between the mountain ranges and the coast
National hero: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
are tropical coastal plains. South lie the broken plateaus of
the Mesa del Sur and Chiapas Highlands. The peninsulas
Mexico is a country of contrasts and color. Its heritage
of Yucatán and Baja California complete the national
combines ancient Indian civilizations with the rich cultur-
territory.
al contributions of Old Spain. Modern Mexico is progres-
sive and dynamic. The national territory encompasses
CULTURE. Mexico's present-day population is primarily
tropical lowlands, temperate highland zones, magnificent
of mixed ancestry, although there exist pockets of pure
mountains, arid deserts, and such famous volcanic peaks as
Indians and people of direct European descent, mainly
Orizaba, Popocatépetl, and Iztaccíhuatl.
Spanish. Mexicans are nationalistic, progressive, and
deeply concerned with economic, social and cultural
GEOGRAPHY. Because of its wide range of altitude,
development.
Mexico has a greatly diversified climate ranging from
The pre-Columbian peoples of Mexico-notably the
tropical to cold. Two mountain chains, the Eastern Sierra
Mayas, the Nahuas, the Zapotecs, the Mixtecs, and the
Tarascos-developed beautiful and original art forms.
for its beautiful beaches in a mountain setting, and
Their architecture and sculpture are particularly im-
Cancún for its blue-green waters and white sandy beaches.
pressive, rivaling in majesty those of the Egyptians. Great
temples and palaces are found in Chichén-Itzá and Uxmal
EARLY HISTORY. Before the arrival of the Spaniards,
in Yucatán. Among the more surprising Mayan achieve-
great civilizations flourished in Mexico. In 1325 the Aztecs
ments was the creation of a calendar more accurate than
founded Tenochtitlán, site of present-day Mexico City. In
the Julian.
1519 Cortés landed on the beach of what is today Veracruz,
The last of the Nahua Indians to inhabit the Central
climbed to the Mexican Highlands, and after two years of
Plateau were the Aztecs, who assimilated the culture of the
struggle defeated the Aztecs with the help of rival Indian
peoples who lived before them in central Mexico. Their
tribes. New Spain was governed by viceroys for the next
capital city, Tenochtitlán, was comparable in size and
300 years.
services with the great European cities of the time.
Independence from Spain was declared on September
During Mexico's colonial period architecture was the
16, 1810, by the priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Upon his
predominant mode of artistic expression, with Indian
death in 1811, José María Morelos y Pavón continued the
motifs combined with the European styles then in fashion.
battle. Finally, in 1821 the independence of the nation was
This is particularly marked, for example, in the sanctuary
achieved. However, in 1848 Mexico, in a war with the
of the Cathedral of Mexico.
United States, lost half of what was then national territory.
Perhaps Mexico's greatest contribution to contemporary
The country entered a long period of civil strife and
art is mural painting represented by the works of Diego
foreign intervention. When Benito Juárez became presi-
Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and
dent in 1858, he instituted a series of liberal reforms and a
other famous masters. The artisans and craftsmen of
more democratic form of government. This aroused the
Mexico are noted for their ceramics and working of gold
animosity of the conservative aristocracy and the high
and silver.
clergy and led to civil war. Juárez defeated the con-
Mexico has a rich body of folk music and renowned liter-
servatives; but a conflict for which Mexico was ill-
ary figures. Among major authors from colonial times to
prepared, arose with France. In 1863 the French invaded
the present are Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz and Alfonso
the country and set up a monarchy under Emperor
Reyes.
Maximilian. The regime endured for four years until the
Mexico City, the oldest metropolis on the Continent, was
overthrow of Maximilian, after which Juárez resumed the
founded in 1521 by Hernán Cortés on the ruins of ancient
presidency until his death in 1872. Not long after, General
Tenochtitlán. During the colonial epoch several "firsts"
Porfírio Díaz took over the country and set up a dictator-
came about in Mexico before anywhere else in the Western
ship that lasted until 1910. That year Francisco I. Madero
Hemisphere. In 1539 the press of Juan Pablos printed the
led what was to be the Mexican Revolution, finally ousting
first book in the Americas; the University was founded in
Díaz and reclaiming the land for the people. In 1917 a
1551, and in the same year the Cathedral of Mexico was
Constitution was drawn up which legally embodied the
begun on the ruins of the Aztec Great Temple; in 1527 the
ideals that inspired the Revolution.
oldest hospital on the Continent, Hospital de Jesus, was
established.
GOVERNMENT. The official name of the country is the
Mexico City is not only the cultural and political center of
United Mexican States. It is a federal democracy with
the country, but also the heart of its economic and in-
three branches of government. Executive power is exer-
dustrial life. In its environs are famous tourist attractions
cised by the president, who is elected for six years by
such as Lake Xochimilco with its "floating gardens," and
popular vote; legislative power lies with the Congress,
the ruins of Teotihuacán, with its imposing pyramids of the
which is divided into the House of Deputies and the Senate;
Sun and the Moon, rising 200 feet into the air. To the north
judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court and the
of the city is the shrine of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which
lower courts. The states that form part of the federation are
holds the mantle of the Indian Juan Diego, on which,
free and sovereign in matters concerning internal affairs.
according to legend, the image of the Virgin miraculously
ECONOMY. Mexico is as much an agricultural as an
appeared.
industrial country. Agriculture, cattle-raising, and fishing
Guadalajara, second largest city of the republic, is
are extremely important sectors of the national economy.
located in a rich cattle-raising and agricultural district. It
Principal exports are petroleum, cotton, beef, and shrimp.
is noted not only for its graceful Spanish architecture and
The nation is rich in minerals and lumber and is also one of
exceptional climate, but also for its regional industries and
the leading producers of silver. Other important minerals
arts, such as pottery and glassware. Monterrey, capital of
are gold, copper, slate, zinc, antimony, mercury, arsenic,
the state of Nuevo León in the north, is another important
graphite, molybdenum, sulphur, coal, and opals. Mexico is
industrial city. Puebla, along with the historic city of
in the forefront of the petroleum-producing countries and
Guanajuato, remain two of the most typically colonial
one of the major oil exporters. The industrial sector is now
cities in the country.
able to produce articles that used to be imported such as
Mérida, the capital of Yucatán, is the production center
electronic devices, items of iron and steel, and chemical
for henequen, a fiber better known as sisal for the port
products. Mexico is famous for its handicrafts in silver,
from which it is shipped. South of Mérida are the famous
pottery, leather, wood, fibers, and fabrics.
Maya ruins of Uxmal and to the west those of Chichén-Itzá.
Veracruz, the country's largest port, is on the Gulf of
FLAG. The Mexican flag consists of three vertical stripes
Mexico. Tampico, at the mouth of the Pánuco River, is a
of equal width: green, white, and red, in the center of the
center of the petroleum industry. Acapulco is world famous
white stripe is the national coat of arms.
NICARAGUA
Monument in Managua dedicated to the
poet Rubén Darío, founder of the
modernistic movement
Area: 54,022 square miles*
GEOGRAPHY. Triangular in shape, Nicaragua is divided
Population: 2,917,816*
into two regions by the Central American cordillera. The
Capital: Managua
most important agricultural and industrial area is the
Currency: córdoba
broad lowland belt that parallels the Pacific coast. The
Language: Spanish
large scenic lakes, Nicaragua and Managua, dominate this
Independence Day: September 15
National hero: Augusto César Sandino
region. The northwestern end of the lowlands is broken by
*1982, Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos
a chain of more than 20 volcanoes, some of which are still
(National Institute of Statistics and Census)
active. Coffee, oil-producing sesame seeds, cacao, sugar,
cotton, and tobacco flourish in the rich volcanic soil. The
Nicaragua, native land of the illustrious poet Rubén
lowlands on the Caribbean coast, largely covered with
Darío, is the largest of the five Central American repub-
tropical forests, are called the Mosquito Coast. To the
lics. Dominated by a chain of dormant volcanoes, the land
north, a triangular wedge of temperate highlands rises to
has many scenic attractions. Lake Nicaragua is one of the
an altitude of 7,000 feet and slopes gradually toward the
world's largest fresh-water lakes. Together with the San
east. Coffee thrives in this zone of farms and cattle ranches.
Juan River, the lake forms a great natural waterway,
which has long been considered suitable for the construc-
CULTURE. From the crossing of Indigenous, European
tion of an interoceanic canal connecting the Atlantic and
and African origins, stem the roots of the Nicaraguan peo-
the Pacific.
ple. Today, practically all the Nicaraguan people are Mes-
tizo. Nevertheless, according to their ethnic identifications
the Pacific oceans, gave this country an important geopolit-
and based on the cultural linguistic criteria, the Nicara-
ical status since colonial days.
guan people can be divided into the following groups: Indi-
ans, who speak different dialects, consist of about three per
EARLY HISTORY. In 1502 Columbus anchored in calm
cent of the population; Creoles, who are of African origin
waters at the cape named by him Cabo Gracias a Dios
and speak English, consist of one per cent; and the Mesti-
(Cape Thanks Be to God), after rough sailing along the
zos, who speak Spanish, constitute approximately 96 per
coast. The land was named for Nicarao, an Indian chieftain
cent.
who ruled the area at the time of the Spanish Conquest.
In the field of education, the most significant inroad
Columbus claimed possession of the land in the name of the
made by Nicaragua has been the Great National Crusade
King of Spain, and 20 years later Gil González Dávila
Against Illiteracy. It has been SO successful that since its
began exploration. In 1524 Francisco Hernández de Cór-
establishment illiteracy has been reduced to 12 per cent,
doba founded Granada, followed by León. During most of
one of the lowest indexes in the world. By contrast, in 1979,
the colonial period the province was under the jurisdiction
50 per cent of the population did not read or write. Public
of the Captaincy-General of Guatemala.
education is free and compulsory.
The independence of the five provinces of Central Amer-
Managua, capital of the republic, is located on the shores
ica from the Spanish Crown was proclaimed in Guatemala
of Lake Managua. A modern, progressive city, one of
City on September 15, 1821, and Nicaragua joined the
Managua's attractions is the park and monument dedi-
other four in forming the United Provinces of Central
cated to the poet Rubén Darío, founder of the modernistic
America. However, this federation was dissolved in 1838;
movement. Near the capital at Acahualinca, prehistoric
on April 30 of the same year Nicaragua declared national
footprints have been preserved by volcanic cinders which,
independence and adopted a constitution.
from an archaeological standpoint, indicate the existence
of man in America from the most remote times. In 1972 an
GOVERNMENT. The Fundamental Statutes and the Sta-
earthquake partially destroyed Managua. With the help of
tutes of Rights and Guarantees of Nicaraguans were
private and governmental organizations, including the
adopted in 1979. Under the Fundamental Statutes the
OAS, the Government of Nicaragua helped the people
powers of state are divided into three branches: executive,
rebuild and improve a more efficient capital city. The old
exercised by the Government Board; legislative, exercised
city of León Viejo lies in ruins near Momotombo Volcano.
by the State Council and the Government Board; and judi-
After its destruction by an earthquake in 1609, León was
cial, composed of the Supreme Court and other courts of
rebuilt on a new site; it was the provincial capital during
justice. Elections for President, Vice President and
the colonial period and then of the republic until 1852. This
members of the Constituent Assembly will be held on
classical colonial city of cobbled streets, adobe houses, red-
November 4, 1984.
tile roofs, and many old buildings, cherishes the distinction
of being Rubén Darío's final resting place. His tomb is in
ECONOMY. Agriculture and industry employ 60 per cent
León's splendid Cathedral, one of the largest in Latin
of the economically active population and together gener-
America, which also possesses valuable jewels and reli-
ate about 50 per cent of GDP. Most important products are
gious relics. A center of culture throughout its history,
cotton, coffee, sugar cane, bananas, tobacco, sesame, meat,
León is the seat of the national university.
seafood. Basic grains are grown mainly for domestic con-
Nicaragua's oldest city, unspoiled, venerable Granada,
sumption, although 20,000 metric tons were exported in
has been a center of commerce and wealth since early
1977. Livestock and meat processing also are important to
colonial days. It is situated on the shores of Lake Nicaragua
the economy.
in a fertile coffee-and sugar cane-producing region. Many
Industry has been expanding as a result of the Govern-
of its people are landowners or merchants engaged in trade
ment's program of credit assistance and rising domestic
and industry. It is famous for its exquisite hand-made laces
and foreign demand. Food processing and food products
and embroidery, for a valuable collection of Indian idols,
contributed over 40 per cent of industrial output. Other
and for the more than six hundred picturesque little
fast-growing subsectors are textiles, furniture and other
islands along its shoreline. The "City of Flowers," Masaya,
forest products, and chemicals, especially fertilizers and
which grew up around the proud Indian enclave of
pesticides.
Monimbó, is the capital of national folklore. Located at the
Nicaragua's principal exports are coffee, cotton, sugar,
center of Nicaragua's densely populated Western coast, it
and meat. Seventy per cent of the yearly harvest of magnif-
is famous for its artisan markets.
icent woods is exported. Gold and silver mines are adminis-
Nicaragua's principal port, Corinto, is on the Pacific
tered as a State industry and gold has become one of Nica-
coast. Matagalpa, chief city of the north, lies in the midst of
ragua's principal exports. Within the Central American
coffee groves, grazing lands, and virgin forests. Some of
region, the country exports chemical and pharmaceutical
the country's finest coffee is grown here. Bonanza, Siuna,
products, raw materials for agriculture, and concentrated
and La Luz are large gold mining centers developed in
animal feed.
recent years with machinery flown in by plane. Bluefields,
The National Reconstruction Governing Board is devel-
the largest port on the Caribbean, takes its name from the
oping a successful economic plan. In 1980 Nicaragua
Dutch pirate Blewfeldt.
reached an economic growth of 10 per cent, the largest in
San Juan river, the outlet for the great lakes, forming
America.
most of the borderline with Costa Rica is geographically
and historically important. The geographical position of
FLAG. The national flag consists of three horizontal
Nicaragua and the possibility that the country's territory
stripes. The upper and lower ones are blue and the middle
could be a way of communication between the Atlantic and
one white with the national coat of arms in the center.
PANAMA
Aerial view of
Miraflores Locks on the
Panama Canal
Area: 28,800 square miles
range in size from small ones with a few coconut palms to
Population: 1,940,000 (1981)
large ones inhabited by hundreds of Indians. Taboga
Capital: Panama City
Island, just off-shore from Panama City, and Contadora
Currency: balboa
Island in the Gulf of Panama are popular summer resorts.
Language: Spanish
Contadora forms part of the Pearl Archipelago and is
Independence Day: November 3
National hero: Tomás Herrera
known for its rich fishing grounds and fine modern hotel.
CULTURE. Panamanians have long been subjected to a
Panama is strategically located at the crossroads of
wide variety of cultural influences through continuous con-
international trade and travel, being the connecting link
tact with both transient and immigrant foreigners.
between the Atlantic and the Pacific and the land bridge
Although they have accepted certain ideas, habits, tastes,
between North and South America. It is also the junction
and economic patterns, the underlying culture is the origi-
for inter-American air traffic. Panama's resources include
nal traditional Hispanic one. Since the birth of the repub-
extensive virgin forests; a complex river system under
lic, the nation's artists, writers, and intellectuals have
development to provide hydroelectric power and easy
developed an outstanding national culture. Panamanians
transportation; and fertile agricultural lands. Panama
identify their population as being composed of a Spanish-
City was the site of the first Pan American Congress con-
speaking majority, largely of Spanish and Indian descent,
voked by Simón Bolivar in 1826.
and minority groups of Antillean blacks and Indians.
The modern cosmopolitan capital, Panama City, is a
GEOGRAPHY. The Isthmus of Panama runs east and
blend of Spanish colonial charm, modern progress, and the
west, looking somewhat like a reclining letter S. Two main
bazaar atmosphere of the Orient. In addition to being the
mountain ranges form the backbone of the isthmus, enclos-
political and cultural center of the country, it is also the
ing many fertile valleys and plains. The eastern region
leading commercial center. Panama City is situated at the
consists mainly of vast expanses of jungle and tropical
Pacific terminus of the Canal. Outstanding religious struc-
forests. Panamanian coasts are indented and scattered
tures of Spanish colonial times are the Cathedral with its
with islands. The most interesting islands belong to the San
painting of the Virgin of the Rosary by Murillo, and the
Blas Archipelago in the Caribbean. These 365 islands
Church of San José, famous for its golden altar saved from
destruction by the pirate Morgan when a resourceful monk
Spain's third Royal Audiencia in 1538. For two hundred
painted it to look like wood. On the grounds of the Presiden-
years it was a focal point of commerce in the New World
tial Palace, graceful snow-white egrets stroll about the
and was one of the principal seats of colonial administra-
Moorish court yard, which is ornamented with columns
tion in Spanish America until 1793, when it was put under
studded with mother-of-pearl.
the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (later to
Las Bóvedas (The Vaults) are the dungeons under the sea
become the Republic of Colombia).
wall built to defend the city from attack. The Spanish
In 1819 Venezuela and Colombia, freed from Spanish
governors kept political prisoners in the dungeons. Santo
rule, united as the "Republic of Greater Colombia".
Tomás Hospital and the Social Security Hospital are
Panama declared its independence and joined the Confed-
among the best-equipped institutions of their kind in Latin
eration under the name of the Department of the Isthmus
America. The National University of Panama, one of the
in 1821. Although the Confederation was dissolved in 1830,
most modern cultural centers in the Hemisphere, is an
Panama remained united with Colombia until 1903, except
autonomous institution and provides free tuition. The ruins
for brief intervals when secessionist movements led the
of Old Panama, about seven miles from the capital, mutely
people to seek autonomy. The most successful of several
tell the tale of sacking and destruction by the pirate Henry
was led by Panama's national hero Tomás Herrera in 1840,
Morgan. Built in 1518 and famed for its splendor, Old
after which the country maintained its independence for
Panama is gradually being restored.
thirteen months. Panama seceded from Colombia and pro-
Panama City, in fact all of Panama, is famous for its
claimed its independence on November 3, 1903. Soon
pre-Lenten Carnaval. Religious parades and festivals
afterward, Panama signed a treaty with the United States
make Holy Week a colorful spectacle.
for the construction of the Canal, one of the greatest engi-
Colón, situated at the entrance to the Canal, is a great
neering feats in history opened to worldwide shipping in
international commercial center and free trade zone. The
1914.
sector known as Cristóbal is primarily engaged in loading
In mid-1977 Panama and the United States signed two
and unloading the vessels of all nations that line its piers.
new treaties which will turn control of the Canal over to
Romantic Portobelo, overlooking a beautiful harbor shel-
Panama at the end of the year 2000.
tered by rugged hills, was a colonial stronghold and chief
port-of-call for Spain's treasure fleet in the sixteenth and
GOVERNMENT. The Constitution provides for three
seventeenth centuries.
branches of government: executive, headed by the Presi-
Outside of Panama City and Colón, the majority of Pan-
dent, legislative composed by an Assembly of Representa-
amanians live in the region west of the Canal and south of
tive and a Legislative Council, and the judiciary headed by
the mountain divide, in thousands of scattered villages,
the Supreme Court of Justice.
hamlets, and isolated farms. A growing network of access
roads is now linking this region with the national highway,
ECONOMY. The principal factors determining the
the Panamanian sector of the Pan American Highway Sys-
growth rhythm of Panama's economy have been public and
tem which runs between Panama City and David, the
private investment. Generally speaking, the greatest dy-
country's third largest city. David, in the extreme western
namism is seen in the service field: banking, insurance,
part of the country, is the capital of prosperous Chiriqui
various types of financial establishments, warehousing,
Province, a region of extensive forests, rich soil, fine grass-
and services in connection with the Panama Canal. In the
lands, and plantations. Puerto Armuelles is the Pacific port
past three years the economic situation of Panama has
for this region.
improved considerably due in part to the successful conclu-
The Caribbean region west of the Canal is a sparsely-
sion of the Canal negotiations.
inhabited area of virgin forests, except for banana and
The growth of the agricultural sector reflects the effects
cacao plantations near the Costa Rican border and farms in
of favorable weather and government assistance through
the vicinity of Gatún Lake. Most of eastern Panama and all
credit and price supports.
of Darién Province to the Colombian border constitute a
The value added of the livestock sector expanded partly
vast reservoir of land and dense jungle only partially
as the result of ample credit available.
explored. The Cuna and Chocoe Indians live in the south-
Industrial output of foodstuffs, shoes, clothing, and con-
western part of Darién Province and still retain their
struction materials increased as manufacturing benefited
ancient tribal customs, languages, and mode of living. The
from a rise in tariffs and the introduction of import quotas
Cuna Indians, who inhabit the San Blas Islands off the
in 1976.
northern Caribbean coast, have an interesting social
Panama's main exports are bananas, beef, shrimp, and
organization and unique handicrafts.
refined petroleum and its derivatives. Imports consist of
crude oil, imported for refining and re-export, capital
EARLY HISTORY. In 1502 Columbus explored the Carib-
equipment, food products, and chemicals.
bean coast of Panama, claiming the land for the Spanish
An expanding tourism industry remains one of the
Crown. In 1513 Vasco Núñez de Balboa set out on his
brightest spots in the country's economic picture.
journey across the Isthmus, which ended with his discovery
of the Pacific Ocean. The provincial governor Pedro Arias
FLAG. The Panamanian flag is divided into four quarters.
Dávila ("Pedrarias") moved the seat of government to the
The upper one next to the staff is white with a blue star in
Pacific coast and established the town of Panama in 1519.
its center; the other one is red; the lower one next to the staff
The town grew in importance and was made the seat of
is blue and the fourth, white with a red star in the center.
PARAGUAY
San Roque Church at Areguá, finished in 1720
Area: 183,950 square miles
tion have molded the Paraguayan into something of a stoic,
Population: 3,268,000 (1981)
Capital: Asunción
ready and able to repell aggression. These farmer-soldiers,
Currency: guaraní
as the Paraguayans are called, are legendary warriors
Language: Spanish and Guaraní
whose determined resistance throughout history against
Independence Day: May 14-15
superior forces has enabled them to face adversity with
National hero: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia
decision and equanimity.
Paraguay is a country of hardworking, peaceful people.
GEOGRAPHY. Paraguay is located to the south-center of
Its mediterranean condition and unusual racial composi-
the South American Continent. It has no maritime coast-
line, which, however, has little effect on the nation's eco-
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the
nomic, political, and cultural life.
Jesuits carried out an unparalleled social and missionary
The Tropic of Capricorn passes through the mouth of the
program that brought the Indians into the mainstream of
Pane River, dividing the country into two climatic zones:
national life.
to the north, the torrid zone; to the south, a temperate zone,
In 1721 a revolutionary movement known as the Comu-
which places Paraguay in the category of a sub-tropical
neros developed. Headed by José de Antequera y Castro, in
region.
a popular reaction against Spanish domination, it was to
Paraguay is a beautiful country of towering palms,
launch the first cry for liberty heard in the Americas by
enormous forests, and valuable species of hardwood; a land
proclaiming that "the will of the people supersedes the
of orchids, oranges and spectacular waterfalls.
rights of the Crown."
Geographically, the country is divided into two regions:
While this early rebellion failed, Paraguay eventually
the Eastern, lying east of the Paraguay River, with its
obtained her independence from Spain in May of 1811.
fertile and well-watered soil; and the Western or Chaco
Paraguayan patriots, lead by Pedro Juan Caballero, Ful-
Boreal of immense cattle and mineral wealth; both provide
gencio Yegros and others, forced the Spanish Governor
the underpinnings of Paraguayan economic development.
Bernardo de Velasco to surrender his power.
The majority of the population and the prinicipal indus-
trial and commercial activities are concentrated in the
GOVERNMENT. With the national Constitution promul-
Eastern Region. The Chaco Boreal to the west is a lightly-
gated August 25, 1967, by the National Constitutional Con-
populated land of wide prairies and dense woods.
vention, Paraguay reaffirmed its status as a united, indi-
Two great rivers, the Paraguay, some 1,600 miles long,
visible republic, with a democratic, representative govern-
and the Paraná, about 2,800 miles in length, flow into the
ment. Governmental powers are divided among three
Atlantic Ocean and form the country's vital communica-
branches: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial.
tion links with the outside world.
ECONOMY. In the past, one of the most underdeveloped of
CULTURE. The ethnic base of the Paraguayan people is a
the Latin American countries, Paraguay has had (with the
cross-breeding between the Spanish colonists and the Gua-
exception of 1974) an almost unbroken record of fast eco-
raní Indians, a cultural mix that has managed to retain to
nomic growth in the 70s. This unprecedented expansion
this day the original traits of both races. Spanish and Gua-
was happily combined with the lowest inflation rate in
raní are the national languages.
South America, a very favorable balance of trade, and
In literature, drama, and the plastic arts, Paraguayan
rising international reserves.
artists have deep roots in their own unique environment.
In spite of the overall dynamism of the economy in recent
As long ago as the colonial period the Franciscans and
years, Paraguay's productive structure depends basically
Jesuits founded musical societies and art schools, thus
on agriculture. Good weather and rising demand have
encouraging the innate artistic talent of the Paraguayan
benefited the country's major crops: tobacco, soybeans,
people.
yucca, sugar cane, rice, and cotton. All are exported with
Handicrafts are an important activity among the people.
the exception of yucca and rice.
The behavior of the Paraguay's manufacturing turns
For example, among the crafts of surpassing quality is the
exquisite lace called ñandutí, meaning in Guaraní spider
directly on conditions prevailing in the primary sector,
since two thirds of manufacturing value added comes from
web.
the processing of livestock, wood, cotton fibers, tobacco,
Asunción, the capital, is the center of business activity
sugar, and oil seeds.
and the seat of government and its agencies, located on the
banks of the Paraguay River. It is a thriving city where
Paraguay is a supplier of electric power to Brazil and
modern architecture lives compatibly alongside the old,
Argentina. The hydroelectric plant at Acaray has made
colonial-style mansions with their gardens and iron grill-
electricity available throughout the country and plans are
work. Major nineteenth century buildings are the López
under way to further increase the generating capacity of
Palace, seat of government, the Congressional Palace, the
this complex.
National Pantheon of Heroes, and the Cathedral. The city's
The construction of the world's largest hydroelectric
clean, well-designed streets are bordered by lush orange
complex is the work of the Entidad Nacional Paraguayo-
trees. A number of museums hold valuable mementos of
Brasileña ITAIPU, established by a treaty signed between
Paraguayan history. Asunción's botanical garden ranks
Paraguay and Brazil in April 1973. The construction has
among the best in the Hemisphere.
gone through three fundamental stages: Diversion of the
Other main cities of Paraguay are Villarica, Puerto Pre-
Paraná river in 1978 in order to begin construction safely;
sidente Stroessner, Encarnación, Concepción, Coronel
damming the Paraná river and consequent formation of
Oviedo, Paraguarí, Pedro Juan Caballero, Luque, San
the ITAIPU dam, completed in 1982; and operation of the
Bernardino, Pilar, San Juan Bautista, Mariscal Estiga-
first three power-generating units in 1983. The total pro-
rribia, and Ypacaraí, near the famous lake of the same
duction capacity of the complex is 12,000,000 kilowatts.
Paraguay is also cooperating with Argentina in the build-
name.
ing of the 4,000,000 kilowatts Yacyretá dam south of
Encarnación.
EARLY HISTORY. In 1537 Juan de Salazar y Espinosa
FLAG. The Paraguayan flag is composed of three horizon-
founded the city of Nuestra Señora Santa María de la
tal stripes, the upper red, the middle white, and the lower
Asunción, which became the colonial capital. From Asun-
blue. In the center of one side is the national coat of arms, on
ción the conquistadores went forth to establish other cities.
the reverse the Treasury Seal.
PERU
"why
This beautiful fountain adorns the Plaza de Armas. In the background is the Government Palace. Lima
Area: 496,224 square miles
GEOGRAPHY. The country, situated on the northern half
Population: 17,030,000
of South America's west coast, is the third largest country
Capital: Lima
in South America, bordered by Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil,
Currency: sol
Bolivia and Chile. The three topographical and climatic
Language: Spanish and Quechua
Independence Day: July 28
regions are the following: the Coastal zone, consisting of
National hero: Hipólito Unánue
arid plains and foothills, with mild temperatures year-
round. Rains seldom falls on the coast due to the effect on
the cold Humboldt Current, flowing northward from the
Peru is outstanding for its scenic beauty, natural re-
Antartic. The main agricultural, industrial and commer-
sources, Inca and pre-Inca remains, and Spanish colonial
cial centers of the country, which depend on water running
architecture..
off the Andes, are in this region. The contrast between the
desert and the verdant river valleys along the coast is
extended over a vast region from northern Ecuador to
striking; the Highlands (la Sierra), crossed by the Andean
central Chile. In search of the Inca's wealth, the Spanish
Mountains, occupies 27 per cent of Peru's land area and is
explorer Francisco Pizarro arrived in the territory during
inhabited by 47 per cent of the population. The topographic
a debilitating and disruptive period of a protracted civil
characteristics of the Sierra have hindered the develop-
war of succesion. By 1533, the Inca capital of Cuzco had
ment of transportation and communication facilities
fallen, and by 1542 the Spanish had consolidated control.
within the area and between the coast and the interior. The
Gold and silver from the Andes enriched the conquerors,
highest mountain, Huascarán, raises over 22,000 feet
and Peru rose to be the richest and most powerful of Spain's
above sea level. The climate in the Sierra ranges from
viceroyalties in America.
temperate to frigid, depending on its elevation. Peru
Peru was the last of the continental colonies to be freed
shares with Bolivia famous lake Titicaca, the world's high-
from Spain. In 1820, General José de San Martín, an
est navigable body of water, situated 12,500 feet above sea
Argentinian, sailed from Valparaiso, Chile, with a great
level with an area of about 3,427 square miles; the Jungle
expedition to liberate Peru. Peruvian patriots, long held in
(La Selva) accounts for more than half of Peru's land area.
check by the royalists joined forces with San Martín's army
Many rivers descend from the Andes eastern slopes and
and on July 28, 1821, Peru was declared free and independ-
feed into the Amazon. The climate is warm and humid,
ent. However, the decisive battle for freedom was fought by
with abundant rainfalls throughout the year. The Selva is
Simón Bolívar's forces under the command of General
thought to have large petroleum deposits.
Antonio José de Sucre, who defeated the royalists at Aya-
cucho on December 9, 1824.
CULTURE. Pre-Columbian Peru has several of America's
most advanced cultures. A series of great civilizations
GOVERNMENT. Peru's governmental structure is estab-
flourished in Peru, dating approximately 800 B.C. Out-
lished by the Constitution which took effect on July 28,
standing among them were the Chimu Civilization with its
1980. It has a republican form of government consisting of
capital Chan Chan (north of the present city of Trujillo) and
three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. Legis-
the Chavin Culture in the Callejón de Huaylas. Brilliantly
lative authority is vested in the Congress composed of the
colored handwoven textiles and polished ceramics typify
Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The Executive power is
the Paracas and Nazca cultures. The Tiahuanaco Civiliza-
vested in the President and two Vice Presidents, elected for
tion of the Altiplano produced a massive style of architec-
a period of five years, and assisted by a Cabinet of Minis-
ture. The Incas, unsurpassed in the skills and accuracy of
ters. The Judiciary power is headed by the Supreme Court,
their stone cutting and fitting also achieved a high degree
whose members serve for life and includes superior and
of economic, political and social development around 1400
lower courts.
A.D. The basis of the Inca society was the community or
clan, called the "ayllu"; their capital and sacred city was
ECONOMY. The economy of Peru, traditionally extrac-
Cuzco. During the colonial period, Spanish baroque fused
tive and agricultural, has engaged, along with the majority
with the rich Inca tradition to produce a creole art. The
of the Latin American nations, in a massive effort to
Cuzco school of painting followed the Spanish baroque
develop an increasing complex and diversified industry.
tradition with influence from the Italian, Flemish and
Heading the list of exportable products are petroleum,
French schools.
copper and fishmeal. Following in importance are coffee,
Lima, the "City of Kings," capital of the republic, is
silver, zinc, and sugar, Imports consist mainly of heavy
Peru's most important industrial, cultural and commercial
machinery. Peru has long been famous for its rich and
center. It possesses fine examples of colonial architecture,
varied mineral resources; it is one of the world's leading
modern buildings, museums, wide avenues and prome-
producers of silver, zinc, lead, copper, gold and iron ore.
nades. Lima is the seat of the National University of San
Although not a major crude oil producer, Peru became
Marcos which was created in the XVI century. The ancient
self-sufficient and a net oil exporter in 1978. Aggressive
Inca capital of Cuzco is called the "Archeological Capital of
exploration now being carried out is expected to increase
South America" because of the ruins of Inca temples, for-
known reserves and prolong Peru's ability to export oil.
tresses, palaces, and other structures throughout the city
The fishing industry of Peru is among the first in the
and vicinity, among them the fortresses of Sacsahuamán
world. Eighteen ports and bays are reserved for this activ-
and Ollantaytambo. The city of Machu Picchu is another
ity which employs some 150,000 workers.
example of Inca architectural design.
Principal farm products are cotton, wool, leather, hides,
sugar, coffee, rice, potatoes, beans, barley and tobacco.
EARLY HISTORY. When the Spanish arrived in 1532,
FLAG. The Peruvian flag is composed of three vertical
Peru's territory was the nucleus of the highly developed
stripes: red, white, and red, with the coat of arms in the
Inca Civilization. Centered at Cuzco, the Inca Empire
center.
SAINT CHRISTOPHER
AND NEVIS
Fort George located in Brimstone
Hill mountain in St. Kitts. Nevis
in the background
Area: 104 square miles
Population: 44,400 (1980)
Nevis is to the south of St. Kitts separated by a two-mile
Capital: Basseterre
wide channel. Approaching this island from the sea one is
Currency: Eastern Caribbean dollar (EC)
struck by the spectacular beauty of its central mountain
Language: English
range emerging gradually to form an almost perfect cone
Independence Day: September 19
about 3,300 feet high surrounded by clouds which give it
the appearance of a snow capped mountain. It is believed
In 1983 the islands of St. Kitts and Nevis became the
that when the Spaniards saw it they named the island
independent nation of Saint Christopher and Nevis, the
"nieves", meaning snow. The climate is the same as that of
32nd member of the Organization of American States. This
St. Kitts but the soil, unlike that of St. Kitts which is light
beautiful country boasts one of the healthiest climates of
and porous, is composed of clay studded with volcanic
the Caribbean islands, hardly any tropical disease exists.
boulders. The only town, Charlestown, has a population of
As in other Caribbean islands, ocean breezes temper the
about 1,000. The island's population is about 10,000, and
tropical mean temperature of about 79° F, but unlike oth-
has an area of 36 square miles.
ers humidity is low, and there is no rainy season.
CULTURE. The present population of Saint Christopher
GEOGRAPHY. St. Kitts is situated 200 miles southeast of
and Nevis is 90 per cent black descendents of the African
Puerto Rico. It is part of the Leeward islands group. The
slaves brought by the Europeans and the rest is caucasian
island is of volcanic nature with a high peak, Mount Mis-
and of mixed blood. The torch that appears in the country's
ery, dominating the central mountain range, a branch of
coat-of-arms is held by the hands of an African, a European
which encloses a fertile valley extending to the sea coast
and a person of mixed races and signifies the struggle and
where the capital of the country, Basseterre, is located. The
quest for freedom by a people of differing ethnic origins
valleys and lower slopes of the mountain range constitute
but united in purposes. These origins have developed into a
most of the arable and cultivated portion of the island. The
very interesting cultural pattern, influencing the people,
higher slopes are covered with short grass, excellent for
their customs, and the arts. The visitors will admire the
cattle grazing. Forests abound at the summit of the range.
Georgian style of the beautiful plantations, churches and
Most of the beaches of St. Kitts are of black volcanic sand,
other buildings amidst a forest of ever-green trees. Music
except those of golden sand extending toward Nevis and
and dance are the most vibrant art forms of the country and
bordering the peninsula known as Frigate Bay. St. Kitts is
are fully expressed during Carnival. In this country Carni-
oval in shape with a narrow neck of land extending from
val is a unique calendar of activities that include the
the south eastern end. It is 23 miles long with an area of 65
Christmas festivities and a display of cultural events. A
square miles.
Dramatic and Cultural Society in Nevis became aware of
the wealth in folklore and customs, and a festival called
Nevis like St. Kitts was visited by Columbus in the same
Culturama was created in 1974. The main purpose was to
year. Little was heard of Nevis after its discovery until it
revive the traditional customs and the interest in the indi-
was colonized by the British in 1628. The hard work of the
genous folk art as well as to preserve traditional customs
settlers led to the island's prosperity which was inter-
and local folk art. It was also established to raise funds in
rupted by the Spaniards who captured the land in 1629.
order to build a community cultural center.
Although it suffered periodically from Spanish and
French attacks the island remained in the hands of the
Education is one of the country's major concerns. To
British and maintained a sound economic position for a
satisfy the needs and requirements of a changing society
long time. The island never recaptured the splendor it once
more emphasis has been placed on technical and vocational
had, but it is still known as the "Queen of the Caribbean
training in secondary schools and centers. The University
Islands."
of the West Indies provides higher education to the men
In 1816 St. Kitts, Nevis, Anguilla, and the Virgin Islands
and women of the country through different centers and
formed a single British Colony. Between 1958 and 1961
programs that include seminars, workshops and lectures.
they were a part of the West Indies Federation, and in 1966
There are 34 government, 14 private, and 6 denomina-
St. Kitts, Nevis and Anguilla joined with others in a State
tional schools in St. Kitts and Nevis. Primary education is
of Association with Great Britain. St. Kitts and Nevis
compulsory for all children between the ages of 5 and 14,
gained independence on September 19, 1983.
but children may remain in school until the age of 16.
There are many sites of cultural and historical interest in
the islands, and the visitors may reach them via beautiful
GOVERNMENT. Under the 1983 Constitution St. Kitts
and memorable drives. In St. Kitts a must to see is Brim-
and Nevis is a sovereign and democratic federal state with
stone Hill, a mountain with steep and forbidding slopes
a parliamentary system. There is a Governor-General who
where the famous Fort George is located. The site itself
is appointed by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on the
advise of the Prime Minister. The Governor-General
with towering mountains in the background and sugar-
names as Prime Minister that member of the House of
cane fields sloping gently down to the blue Caribbean is
worth the visit. Brimstone Hill was known as the "Gibral-
Assembly who appears to him likely to command the sup-
tar of the West Indies" for the important part it played in
port of the majority of the representatives. The Legislative
the history of the country. In Nevis one can see, among the
power consists of the Governor-General and the House of
historical sites, the Fig Tree Church where the register of
Assembly. A Puisne Judge of the East Caribbean Supreme
the marriage of Admiral Nelson to a young widow, Mrs.
Court is resident of St. Kitts. The Constitution also provides
France Nisbet, is preserved. Visitors from the United
for a legislature and an Assembly for the Island of Nevis.
States would be interested to know that Alexander Hamil-
ton was born in Nevis. A plaque commemorating his birth
ECONOMY. The Government's objectives are to further
may be seen on the original front wall of the ruins of the
develop agriculture, diversify the economy, actively en-
house where he was born. The picturesque little capital,
courage the establishment of industry and tap the vast
Charlestown, with its old buildings and vivid flowers will
potential for tourism development. The Government has
also charm the visitor.
adopted this strategy partly to compensate for the decline
There are excellent accommodations in hotels and old
of the sugar industry, traditionally the most important
inns and the visitors will enjoy shopping in the duty-free
economic factor. Sugar dominated the economy for over
boutiques offering handicrafts, silk-screened and hand
three and a half centuries and still remains the major
embroidered clothes.
employer of labor.
Agriculture is vital to the social and economic develop-
ment of the country. It employs 38 per cent of the total labor
HISTORY. The first-known inhabitants of St. Kitts, it is
force. At present it satisfies about 30 per cent of domestic
believed, were Indians that came to the land around 3000
consumption but it is estimated that 65 per cent could be
years B.C. From the crudely made tools found by an expe-
met by local production.
dition in 1975, they must have lived a very simple life,
Livestock consists mainly of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs,
relying mostly on shellfish for sustenance. They were fol-
and poultry.
lowed by the Saladoid Indians who came around the first
Industrial growth is based on the development of small
century. These Indians made colorful pottery and de-
and medium-size manufacturing plants. The tourist indus-
pended mostly on agriculture to survive. For reasons not
try is gaining in importance.
too well determined yet, they suffered a gradual decline
The principal exports are sugar and cotton. Footwear,
and no trace of their culture has been found dated after 650
garments, and electrical appliances are also exported.
A.D. Between 650 A.D. and the arrival of the Caribs and
International telegraph, telex and telephone services are
Arawaks, little is known of the history of that part of the
provided. There are 12 miles of streets in Basseterre and 58
world.
miles of roads in and around St. Kitts. In Nevis there are 63
When Columbus arrived in St. Kitts during his second
miles of roads. Golden Rock Airport with its 8,000 feet
voyage in 1493, it was populated by the Caribs. The Spa-
runway is capable of handling all large aircraft. In Nevis
niards did not colonize the island which was first con-
the Newcastle runway has been lit to accommodate night
quered by Britain in 1623. France also conquered other
landing facilities. There is a deep-water port in Basseterre
parts of the island in 1624, and intermittent wars broke up
with a main berth of 400 feet long and a minimum water
between these two countries that lasted many years, dur-
depth of 30 feet.
ing which command of the island shifted from one to the
other. Finally in 1783 the island was ceded to Britain by the
FLAG. Green and red triangles separated by diagonal bars
Treaty of Versailles.
of gold and a black central column with two white stars.
SAINT LUCIA
Saint Lucia's famous two Pitons rise out of the Caribbean Sea. Courtesy of the
Caribbean Tourism Association.
Area: 238 square miles
are several other mountains ranging between 2,000 and
Population: 120,300 (1981)
3,000 feet. Among these, the most striking are the twin
Capital: Castries
peaks Gros Piton and Petit Piton, old volcanic cones near
Currency: Eastern Caribbean dollar
the town of Soufrière on the east coast.
Language: English
Independence Day: February 22
The climate in St. Lucia is pleasant all year round, with
temperatures in the resort areas ranging from 75° F. to 93
in the warm season (May to October). Minimum night-time
Unspoiled St. Lucia, which has rightly been called an
temperatures in the cool season (December-March) fall no
"island paradise," is one Columbus never "discovered" or
lower than 64° F. There is a rainy season from July to
set foot upon. The same cannot be said of the English and
November, though it does not rain constantly during this
French who fought over St. Lucia for more than a century
period. St. Lucia is laced with many small rivers and the
In fact, the young nation is known as the "Helen of the
coastline, particularly on the Atlantic shore, is indented
West" for the long series of battles that swirled around her
with hundreds of bays and inlets.
as they did around the fabled Helen of Troy.
CULTURE. The racial composition of St. Lucia is much
GEOGRAPHY. The lush, green mountains and hills that
like that of the other Caribbean islands-a majority popu-
occupy the central portion of St. Lucia are fringed with
lation of blacks, descendents of Africans, brought to work
beaches washed on the one side by the blue Atlantic and on
the plantations in the days of slavery, an East Indian
the other by the turquoise Caribbean.
minority, and a small white population.
With a population of 120,300, St. Lucia lies 25 miles from
St. Lucians are generally a warm, hospitable people,
Martinique to the north and 20 miles from St. Vincent on
proud of their land and cultural heritage. African tradition
the south. The island is about 238 sq. miles in area, 27 miles
is particularly notable in music and dance, but the years of
long and 14 miles wide. Like most of the Windward
occupation also made for strong British and French in-
Islands, it is of volcanic origin with a rugged, hilly terrain.
fluences. English is the official language, but even more
The highest peak is Morne Gimie at 3,145 feet, but there
prevalent is a French patois intermingled with African
dialect. Predominant religion on the island is Roman
claimed St. Lucia as its own. The Governor married a
Catholicism. The leading Protestant churches are Angli-
Carib and the colony was left in peace until his death in
can and Methodist.
1654 at the hands of rebellious Caribs. In spite of their
The works of local artists and craftsmen are to be found
increasing and dangerous problems with the Caribs, the
in the shops and market places. St. Lucians are especially
French stayed on under several different governors. In
adept at the fabrication of cane furniture and at pottery-
1664 their claim to the island was challenged by the
making. The most unusual type of pottery is the St. Lucian
British. Under the leadership of Sir Thomas Warner, a
coalpot, a kind of West Indian hibachi made of heavy clay.
thousand Barbadians and 600 Caribs invaded St. Lucia,
Because of two serious fires in 1927 and 1948, much of St.
meeting with little resistance. This attack marked the
Lucia's Georgian architecture was destroyed. However, a
beginning of a century-long struggle between the French
number of stone cathedrals are worth visiting, along with
and British, with advantage going first to one and then the
the Victorian library at Castries and the Governor's
other in the battle for St. Lucia. Finally, in 1803, the
Residence on Morne Fortuné.
British gathered a large force and invaded the island at
Choc Bay. This proved to be the decisive victory that would
The quality and availability of education is generally
return St. Lucia to British rule for 176 years.
quite good from the primary grades onward to the tech-
nical and professional level.
In 1838 St. Lucia was annexed to the Government of the
Castries, with a population of over 40,000 is the capital
Windward Islands, comprised then of Barbados, Grenada,
city. It lies at the eastern side of one of the largest and most
St. Vincent, and Tobago. St. Lucia remained a member
beautiful harbors in the West Indies. The Vigie Peninsula
until 1960, when it became a separate administrative unit
forms the northern arc of the Castries Harbour and is the
of the Crown and was given a new constitution. In 1967 the
site of an airport that serves inter-island and small air-
island received an improved constitution and became an
craft. There is an international airport at Vieux Fort 40
associated state of Great Britain. With this the island
miles from the capital.
achieved internal self-government, and Great Britain
Castries is the commercial and professional hub of the
remained responsible for defense and external affairs. A
island. It also abounds in luxurious hotels, motels, fabulous
parliamentary form of government was adopted.
restaurants, and boutiques and shops of every description.
On February 22, 1979, St. Lucia attained full indepen-
The capital, however, has no monopoly on good ac-
dence. That same year the young nation became a member
commodations, for the entire western coastline from
of the Organization of American States.
Castries to Cap Estate at the very northernmost tip of the
island is dotted with attractive beachside resorts offering
GOVERNMENT. Saint Lucia is an independent state,
every type of diversion.
To the south, the town of Soufrière, spectacularly
attaining that status on February 22, 1979. It remains a
member of the Commonwealth with the Queen as Head of
guarded by the two Pitons, has drawn visitors to its
State. A Governor-General appointed by the Queen on the
gardenlike atmosphere and its healthful Sulphur Springs
advice of the Prime Minister represents the Queen in the
for many decades. These springs are located within the
State. The executive government rests on the Prime
remains of an old volcano. Plans are to harness some of the
Minister. Parliament is composed by the House of As-
thermal power recently discovered in the vicinity of the
springs which would augment the electrical capacity of the
sembly and the State.
island, decrease dependency on imported fuel, and spur
industrialization.
ECONOMY. The mainstay of the St. Lucian economy is
The town of Vieux Fort with an international airport
agriculture which employs the majority of the population.
and a luxury hotel is now being developed along the
Principal crops are bananas and coconuts. All types of
concept of a Free Zone area.
citrus fruits are grown commercially. Sugar cane was for
many years the leading export crop, but in recent times has
HISTORY. First evidence of the island appears on a
yielded first place to bananas. Many types of fruits and
Vatican globe of 1502, where it is called Santa Lucia. But
vegetables are grown for domestic consumption.
the first definite records of its existence occur in August
The nation's industries include the production of soft
1604. They report the landing of 67 Englishmen whose ship
drinks, coconut oil, beer, flour, electrical components,
was blown off course on the way to the Guianas. The 67
clothing, and corrugated cartons. A large multimillion-
passengers decided to abandon the trip and set up a
dollar oil complex has been under construction.
settlement on the island. The small colony failed to take
The main seaport, Castries Harbour, is one of the most
root, however, due to the attacks of the resident Carib
sheltered anchorages in the world. It is an international
Indians. Few escaped with their lives.
shipping port and can accommodate three large cargo and
In 1639 another attempt at colonization was made when
passenger ships simultaneously. The port facilities are in
Sir Thomas Warner, to whom rights to the island had been
the process of expansion.
granted, commissioned about 400 men to set up a colony. At
Tourism is big business in St. Lucia and makes an
first all went well and a truce was made with the Caribs.
important contribution to the national economy.
But after two years, relations between the Europeans and
the Indians collapsed, and in 1640 the Caribs wiped out the
FLAG. The flag of St. Lucia is blue. In its center is an
entire colony.
isosceles triangle inside of which a gold equilateral
The French were next to dare the wrath of the Caribs. A
triangle rises from a common base. The remaining portion
French settlement was established in 1651, and France
of the isosceles triangle is black, edged with white.
SAINT VINCENT
AND THE GRENADINES
Courthouse, Kingstown
Area: 150 square miles
Population: 110,000 (1981)
from north to south and 11 miles from east to west. The
Capital: Kingstown
Grenadines include the rest of the islands mentioned in a
Currency: Eastern Caribbean dollar
chain extending between Saint Vincent and Grenada. All
Language: English
have soft white sandy beaches, crystal clear waters and
Independence Day: October 27
coral reefs with enclosed bays that provide excellent
cruising grounds. These waters are reputed to be among
Beautiful is the simplest way to describe Saint Vincent
the finest sailing waters in the world. The weather is of a
and the Grenadines in the Windward Islands, located 100
pleasant tropical nature with an average temperature of
miles west of Barbados, 21 miles south-west of Saint Lucia
78° F. The bright sun and clear skies make the days warm;
and 190 miles north of Trinidad and Tobago. It is a country
however, the prevailing north-east trade winds are very
of sandy beaches and mountainous terrain surrounded by
refreshing; the nights are cool.
blue-green waters. When discovered by Christopher
A mountain range running from north to south splits the
Columbus in 1498, these lands were populated by Carib
island of Saint Vincent almost equally into a windward
Indians.
side and a leeward side. To the north is the Soufriére
Volcano. Before this 4,000-ft. high volcano erupted in 1979,
GEOGRAPHY. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines covers a
it was possible to swim in a lake created by its one-mile
total area of 150 square miles formed by the islands of Saint
crater. No water is left now and a cinder dome has formed
Vincent, Bequia, Mustique, Canouan, Mayreau, Union,
in the center of the crater. The view atop the volcano is
Prune (Palm), Petit St. Vincent and numerous islets. The
largest island of the country, Saint Vincent, is 18 miles
spectacular, especially on the leeward side overlooking the
Caribbean. The Windward coastline is bathed by the
Atlantic. Here the gently undulating slopes are a restful
HISTORY. When Christopher Columbus discovered Saint
site interrupted only by the pounding of the waves. The
Vincent and the Grenadines in 1498 he found it was
Caribbean coastline of the leeward side provides dramatic
inhabited by the Caribs as were most of the islands in the
views, but the waters are gentle offering good swimming
area. The Caribs possessed the island until 1627. For a
conditions.
number of years the island was claimed by both the British
and the French and control passed back and forth between
CULTURE. The majority of the people are black. Their
them. In 1783 it was ceded to the British Crown under the
first ancestors to arrive in Saint Vincent did not come as
terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The emancipation of
slaves, but as the survivors of a slave ship that sank
slaves took place in 1838. Saint Vincent joined the Feder-
between Saint Vincent and Bequia. The Caribs accepted
ation of the West Indies as an independent member in 1958
them in their community and eventually intermixed with
and remained until 1962 when the Federation was dis-
them, forming the Black Caribs. Intermittently, the
solved. On October 17, 1969 Saint Vincent became an
British and the French controlled the island and also left
Associated State of the United Kingdom with internal self-
their mark on the culture of the country. Towards the end
Government. Britain was still responsible for foreign
of the eighteenth century, the British brought black slaves
affairs and defense. On October 27, 1979, Saint Vincent
to work the land. When slavery was abolished in 1838,
and the Grenadines became an independent state. In 1980
Portuguese and East Indians came to settle and work as
it joined the United Nations, and in 1981, the Organization
indentured servants. The Vincentian today is the result of
of American States.
this cultural mixture.
Although Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is among
GOVERNMENT. Responsibility for the executive govern-
the world's newest free nations, it is rich in culture. What
ment lies with the Prime Minister. Parliament consists of a
makes this small nation great is the people. The Vin-
Senate and an elected House of Representatives.
centians are friendly, courteous and have a wonderful
sense of humor. Their carnival and calypso are typical
ECONOMY. Of the 150 square miles, 35,000 acres are
forms of expression. The strength of character of the people
arable in which bananas, arrowroot, coconuts, carrots,
has been amply demonstrated by the struggle to maintain
peanuts, citrus fruits, sweet potatoes, and other vegetables
stability after the hurricanes of 1875, 1886, 1898 and
are grown. The principal export crops are bananas, coco-
recently those called Allen and David SO devastating for the
nuts, and arrowroot. Livestock farming is gradually im-
economy of the country and the welfare of the people.
proving. A meat processing plant began operation in 1975.
Despite these calamities the Vincentians have managed to
Fishing is presently done only for domestic purposes.
survive and keep their good-humored nature.
However, a fisheries development plan is being formulated
Down in the valley at the foot of the hills lies the capital,
with the assistance of FAO. The banana industry accounts
Kingstown, surrounded by the sparkling harbor located on
for about 60 per cent of the economy. Other industries
the Caribbean side of the island. There are three main
include arrowroot starch, coconut oil, rum and cigarettes.
streets, Bay Street near the waterfront, Middle Street in
The country forms part of the Eastern Caribbean
the center of town, and Back or Grenville Street toward the
Common Market and is a member of the Caribbean Free
hills where the houses have unobstructed views of the bay.
Trade Association (CARIFTA). The beauty of the land
Busy life can be experienced on Saturday when products
should attract tourism, but facilities are not fully de-
are brought by buses or ships to the colorful waterfront
veloped. The hotels are small and range from modest to
market. In contrast, relaxation may be found in palm-lined
luxurious. The Government has begun a comprehensive
lanes where St. George's Anglican Cathedral and St.
tourist plan that should transform tourism into a major
Mary's Catholic Church are located. The architecture and
industry. It is also making concessions to investors in order
stained glass windows of the churches are reminiscent of
to attract foreign capital.
European style. A must to see is the two-century old
Transportation and communications are good. The
Botanical Garden, which may be the oldest in the Western
Arnos Vale airport handles international and domestic
Hemisphere, overlooked by Government House, home of
flights. The harbor of the capital serves white-sailed yachts
the Governor-General.
as well as modern freighters, cruisers, and mail boats.
Primary education is free and is provided by 60 primary
International telephone and telex services are also
schools. 12 secondary schools are scattered throughout the
provided. There are about 220 miles of highways and 230 of
island. The majority are financed and run by the govern-
secondary roads.
ment. Higher education is provided by a Teachers
Training College and a Technical College. The University
of West Indies offers professional training for suitably
FLAG. The flag has three vertical stripes of blue, yellow,
qualified students. There are library services comprising
and green separated by narrow stripes of white. In the
headquarters in the capital and fifteen branches through-
center of the middle stripe is the coat-of-arms super-
out the country. There is also a bookmobile serving seven
imposed on a breadfruit leaf.
points on Saint Vincent.
SURINAME
An old section of Paramaribo lined with mahogany trees
Area: 65,000 square miles
large part of the interior. The central range stretches
Population: 350,000 (1981)
southward toward the Tumac-Humac mountains on the
Capital: Paramaribo
Brazilian border. The Wilhelmina and Kayser ranges rise
Currency: Suriname florin (Sf)
to the west and the Orange mountains to the east.
Language: Dutch
The climate is characterized by frequent rains that are
Independence Day: November 25
heavier in the mountains of the interior. Although there
In northeast South America, between the Orinoco and
are four seasons, none of them is completely dry or rainy.
the Amazon rivers, lies a vast territory known as Guiana.
The temperature during the day varies from 72° F to 89° F
Suriname, for many years a colony of the Netherlands and
(23° to 32° Celsius). The most pleasant time of the year is
then called Dutch Guiana, is the heart of this region. It is
the "short dry season," which extends from February to
now a free and sovereign nation.
April.
GEOGRAPHY. Suriname lies between Guyana and
CULTURE. Most of the native Amerindians and the
French Guiana. Its roughly rectangular territory is
Bushnegroes, descendants of runaway freedom-seeking
seamed with countless rivers and streams and divided into
slaves, live in the hinterland. Almost half the Surinamese
four distinct regions. The coastal belt-where the majority
people live in or near Paramaribo. The majority are
of the people live-comprises about 16 per cent of the total
descendants of slaves from Africa and contract laborers
land area; the intermediate plains are covered by dense
from India, Indonesia, and China. The balance are Amer-
vegetation and savannah; to the west, steep mountains
indians and descendants of settlers from Europe and the
cloaked in impenetrable tropical rain forests make up a
Middle East.
The official language is Dutch, although a lingua franca
colony. Not long after, however, the English and the Dutch
called "Sranan tongo," a mixture of English, Dutch,
made peace, and with the Treaty of Breda the English gave
Spanish and Portuguese, is widely used, and Hindi,
up claim to Suriname in exchange for New Amsterdam,
Javanese, and Chinese are also spoken. English is com-
which they renamed New York.
monly used in international business contacts.
Nearly a century later, in 1799, the British again
Education is provided by public schools controlled by the
invaded Suriname and kept possession of it off and on until
government and private schools run primarily by religious
1816, when, under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, it was
organizations. Attendance at school for children from 7 to
returned to the Kingdom of Holland. After several bloody
12 years of age has been cumpulsory since 1876. There are
uprisings by runaway slaves called Marrons, who were
four centers of higher learning and one university, esta-
fighting for their freedom, King William II of Holland
blished in 1966.
finally abolished the inhuman system of slavery on July 1,
Cultural centers and associations frequently schedule
1863. July 1 is now celebrated by Suriname as "Freedoms
concerts, plays, and ballet performances. Various little
Day."
theater groups perform folkloric and other types of drama.
In 1866 the colony obtained a limited right of suffrage,
The region is rich in handicrafts, particularly ceramics,
and the "Staten," an elected representation of the people,
woodcarving, and gold and silver work.
was created. In 1954 Suriname obtained complete auto-
The capital, Paramaribo, located on the left bank of the
nomy in its internal affairs, and, finally, on November 25,
Suriname River, is the country's administrative center and
1975, Suriname became an independent republic.
principal port. It is a modern city at the heart of which
remain many of the old colonial structures. Here a popu-
GOVERNMENT. Since the revolution of February 1980, a
lation of over 100,000 is concentrated. To the north of the
transitional constitution establishes governing authority
city is the oldest section with its typical buildings adorned
with a Policy Center and a Council of Ministers. Suriname
with splendid, wooden balconies, painted in vivid colors.
is working towards the establishment of a form of direct
The city spreads in all directions toward the edges of the
democracy based on a representation by elected officials,
suburbs, where elegant residential areas boast white-
representing regional and functional sectors within the
country. Those representatives will form a National
walled villas with magnificent gardens.
New Nickerie, the second city of Suriname, is located on
Legislative Assembly.
the south bank of the Nickerie River. Its population of more
than 24,000 people can travel to Paramaribo by highway,
ECONOMY. The economy of Suriname is primarily based
by air, and by waterway. Important towns are Albina, 18
on agriculture and bauxite mining. While bauxite is the
miles from the mouth of the Marowijne River, on the
principal source of income from foreign trade, agriculture
border with French Guiana; Moengo, 100 miles up the
is increasingly important. The richest and most accessible
Cottica River, an important loading center for the bauxite
lands are found mainly near the rivers, where most
mines of the Suriname Aluminum Co.; Paranam, head-
farming is carried on. The humid coast, however, is
quarters of a bauxite mining and processing plant; and
suitable for the cultivation of rice, the primary agri-
Smalkalden, also a mining and loading town on the
cultural product. Almost half the work force is engaged in
Suriname River.
agriculture.
The largest industrial centers are the bauxite plants in
HISTORY. During a voyage along the coast of South
Paranam, Onverdacht, and Moengo; aluminum products
America near the end of the fifteenth century, Spanish
are manufactured at plants in the industrial park at
explorers discovered Suriname. And, although the English
Paramaribo, and the smelter is located near Paranam.
had visited there under the command of Sir Walter
Medium-sized industries include a brewery; factories for
Raleigh, King Philip II of Spain formally declared the land
the manufacture of cigarettes, furniture, clothing, paint,
a Spanish possession in 1593. Early in the seventeenth
construction materials, and household appliances.
century the English began an attempt at colonization that
The lumber business is also important. Thanks to large
was reinforced by Jews from Italy and Holland, who
forest reserves, Suriname can provide neighboring nations
established tobacco farms in the Jodensavanna region. The
and European clients with wood and wood products such as
Dutch also set up a colony near the Commewijne River,
plywood and pre-fabricated housing materials.
where they concentrated on the lumber business. These
Principal agricultural exports are rice, bananas, coffee,
short-lived colonies were razed by the Spaniards in 1613
citrus fruits, sugar, and lumber. Livestock and seafood are
and the settlers dispersed. The French tried to gain a
in the process of development, the latter for export as well
foothold by building a fort, which was never finished. In
as domestic use.
1650 Lord Francis Willoughby, Governor of Barbados,
Principal imports are petroleum and other fuels, basic
declared Suriname a British possession and the land was
materials, and other consumer capital goods, textiles, and
reopened for colonization. During this era 500 plantations
automobile parts.
were established, and, because the Amerindians were
considered unsuited to farm work, many slaves were
imported from Africa.
FLAG. Five alternating horizontal stripes: green and
In 1667 British rule came to an end when Commander
white, red, white and green. The broad red stripe has a
Abraham Crijnssen from Zeeland took possession of the
yellow star in the center.
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
Sunset on one of Tobago's many
fine beaches
Area: 2,000 square miles
natural gas and asphalt; of calypso, limbo-dancing, and
Population: 1,072,000 (1981)
steel bands.
Capital: Port of Spain
Currency: Trinidad and Tobago dollar
Language: English
GEOGRAPHY. Southernmost of the Caribbean Islands,
Independence Day: August 31
Trinidad is located close to the northeast coast of Venezu-
ela, some 15 miles to the north of the delta of the Orinoco
Cosmopolitan Trinidad and serene, exotic Tobago form
River. The tips of its two peninsulas that encircle the Gulf
the two-island nation whose official name is Trinidad and
of Paria are separated from the shores of Venezuela by the
Tobago. Peopled by a mixture of races from many nations
narrow Dragon's Mouth and Serpent's Mouth channels.
and continents, it is a land of white coral beaches, lush
The island is about 48 miles long and 35 miles wide, with an
tropical vegetation, fields of rice and sugar cane, and plan-
area of 1,864 square miles. Three low mountain ranges that
tations of coconut palms and citrus fruits; of oil wells,
cross the island in the north, center, and south, are the
continuation of a Venezuelan range. Numerous rivers lend
ing Trinity). At that time Trinidad was inhabited by the
beauty to the landscape and keep the fields and forests
warlike Caribs and the more peaceful Arawaks. Tobago
green. The two most outstanding physical features of Tri-
was believed to be uninhabited. It was not until 1532 that
nidad are the Maracas Falls in the north and the great
Spain named a governor to Trinidad and later encouraged
Pitch Lake in the south. To appreciate the true charm and
colonization. During the seventeenth century the islands
character of the island, one must take to the highways and
suffered attacks by the Dutch and French. At the time of
explore the fields and forests, and visit the beaches for
the French Revolution many French families migrated to
water sports, fishing, and boating. The climate is tropical,
Trinidad from Haiti and other Caribbean islands. In 1797,
with a dry season from January to May and a rainy season
during the Napoleonic Wars, an English force seized Tri-
from June to December.
nidad, which was ceded to Great Britain in 1802 by the
The 116-square-mile Island of Tobago, 20 miles to the
Treaty of Amiens. Tobago passed from Spain to England,
northeast of Trinidad, is of volcanic origin and formed of a
then to Holland and later to France, which ceded it to
single mountainous mass, with a range of hills rising from
England in 1814. Tobago formed part of the colony of the
the coral beaches to the height of 1,798 feet in the center.
Windward Islands until 1899, when it was united adminis-
The coast is ringed with coves, bays, and peaceful beaches,
tratively with Trinidad.
while dense tropical vegetation covers the hills.
The two islands were governed as a Crown Colony with a
Five smaller islands are included in the national terri-
measure of self-rule until January 1958, when they, to-
tory, including Little Tobago, a bird sanctuary, which is
gether with Jamaica, Barbados, and the Windward and
said to be the only place outside of New Guinea where the
Leeward Islands formed the Federation of the British
Bird of Paradise can be seen in a natural setting.
West Indies. The Federation was dissolved in 1962, and
Trinidad and Tobago became an independent nation
within the British Commonwealth on August 31, 1962, and
CULTURE. Trinidad has one of the most cosmopolitan
a member of the Organization of American States in
populations in the world. Here the cultures of the Africans,
March 1967. Trinidad and Tobago became a Republic on
British, Chinese, East Indians, French, Lebanese, Portu-
August 1st, 1976.
guese, Spanish, and Syrians mingle in perfect harmony.
Having assimilated SO many peoples from diverse back-
GOVERNMENT. Under the Constitution of 1976, Tri-
grounds, Trinidad's culture is today rich in gifted artists,
nidad and Tobago is a Parliamentary Democracy. The
writers, and musicians. Visitors to this picturesque island
Parliament consists of the President, the Senate, and the
see Moslem mosques, Hindu temples, and Victorian man-
House of Representatives. The President exercises the
sions; persons clad in Indian saris and modern tropical
executive power; the legislative power is composed by the
attire; and one hears calypso songs, rhythmic steel bands,
Senate and the House of Representatives: and the judiciary
Hindu and Moslem ritual music, and the murmur of many
power consists of the Supreme Court and the Court of
tongues.
Appeals.
The perfect harmony in which the varied peoples live is
clearly demonstrated during Carnival, when gay throngs
ECONOMY. Compared to other Caribbean countries, the
converge on Port of Spain, moving joyously to the throb of
economy of Trinidad and Tobago is relatively strong with
the steel drums. Nearly everyone on the island takes part
one of the highest GDPs of that region. However the poor
each year in the Carnival's colorful street dances, masque-
performance in recent years of two of the major sectors of
rades, and uninhibited revelry in happy, good-humored
the economy, petroleum and sugar, has affected the eco-
unity on the two days before Ash Wednesday. Moslem and
nomic growth of the country, but has been compensated for
Hindu religious holidays are also celebrated with tradi-
by a growth in the service sector.
tional rituals.
The construction industry is one of the most dynamic in
Port of Spain, the national capital, is an attractive town
the economy. The performance of this sector over the years
situated on the open roadstead of Trinidad's sheltered har-
has been impressive despite the shortage of materials. To
bor, with a backdrop of green hills, Activity in its business
remedy this shortage, the Government has invested in the
sector is unusually brisk for a tropical town, but there is a
expansion program of Trinidad Cement Limited and has
relaxed, old-world atmosphere in the residential section,
signed a joint agreement with Barbados for the construc-
with its wide tree-lined streets. San Fernando and Arima
tion of a cement plant in that country.
are the country's next largest towns.
Light manufacturing, processing, and assembly opera-
The inhabitants of Tobago are relaxed and informal. In
tions are also important industries. The agricultural sector
addition to a few retired residents, most of them British,
is the second largest source of earnings after petroleum.
the population is composed mainly of people of African
Recently the Government has directly promoted the devel-
descent. Tobago is an ideal spot for water sports, gamefish-
opment of energy-based industries such as the Iron & Steel
ing, bird-watching, or just relaxing. Scarborough, the
Company of Trinidad and Tobago and the Fertiliser Com-
principal town, is typical of the tropics. Situated on the
pany of Trinidad and Tobago. A urea plant and a methanol
shore of Rockley Bay and backed by hills, the town's steep
plant have also been established.
lanes climb the slopes. On the summit of the hill, Fort King
Chief exports are sugar-the main agricultural pro-
George still stands guard. Scarborough's native market is
duct-coffee, and cocoa.
its main tourist attraction. Charlotteville, located on Man of
Because of the beauty and uniqueness of this country
War Bay, is a larger town than Scarborough, but not as
tourism contributes to the economy, but it is not a major
important. A walk or drive through the verdant hills
foreign exchange earner.
affords magnificent views of both landscape and sea.
FLAG. The flag of Trinidad and Tobago consists of a red
HISTORY. When Columbus sighted the three peaks of the
field with a white-bordered black diagonal running from
island on the horizon in 1498, he named it Trinidad (mean-
the top left-hand corner.
UNITED STATES
The White House, Washington, D.C.
Area: 3,618 770 square miles
guaranteed by the Bill of Rights: freedom of speech, of the
Population: 226,545,805*
press, of religion.
Capital: Washington, D.C.
Monetary unit: Dollar (US$)
Language: English
GEOGRAPHY. The central part of North America, the
Independence Day: July 4
State of Alaska to the northwest of the continent, the State
National hero: George Washington
of Hawaii including a group of 20 islands in the middle of
the Pacific Ocean, the Free Associated State of Puerto
The United States is the fourth largest country in the
Rico, and several islands in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans
world. A dynamic country of great beauty with a popula-
make up the territory of the United States. The country is
tion as varied as its climate and topography. All races and
the second largest in the Western Hemisphere after Can-
almost all nationalities live within its boundaries. Despite
ada. Alaska occupies the territory bought from Russia in
their different origin all citizens have one thing in common
1867 and represents 16% of the total area. The arctic zone in
Alaska and the semi-tropical zones of Florida and Hawaii
*1980 census, Bureau of the Census
are the extreme opposites in climate and geography.
The main part of the territory comprising about 2,400
George Washington was the first president of the United
miles from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific may be
States elected under a new Constitution that came into
divided into five very different geographical regions: (1)
force in 1789, under which a federal union was established
the Atlantic Plains where the coastline is dotted with a
substantially more powerful than that established under
great number of bays and excellent ports extending to the
the Articles of Confederation.
low Appalachian Mountains covered with pine forests; (2)
In 1861 the insurmountable differences between the
the Great Plains, a semi-arid zone extending to the Rocky
northern and southern states on economic issues and slav-
Mountains, at the center of which the Mississippi River
ery of the Blacks resulted in the Civil War. In 1862 Presi-
runs from north to south and where a vast area is dedicated
dent Lincoln proclaimed the freedom of slaves, and three
to corn and wheat growing as well as cattle grazing; (3) the
years later the Union Army (the northern states) won vic-
Rocky Mountains region where the huge mountain peaks
tory over the Confederate Army, and the country was uni-
reach heights of over 16,000 feet and where the mineral
ted once more. In 1898 the Spanish-American War took
wealth of the country is located; (4) the subwestern region,
place, resulting in the independence of Cuba from Spain,
an extraordinary arid zone explored by the Spaniard
and the concession of the Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico,
Francisco Coronado when he was looking for the legendary
Guam, and the Philippines to the United States.
Seven Golden Cities of Cibola and found instead the Grand
United States participation in the two world wars of the
Canyon of the Colorado River, one of nature's wonders; and
20th century was the decisive factor that won victory for
(5) the West Coast that includes the Sierra Nevada, the
the countries of the free world. In 1946 the United States
Pacific coastline covered with palm trees and the giant
granted independence to the Philippines and Puerto Rico
sequoia, and the zone of the Central Valley comprising arid
became a Free Associated State in 1952.
lands as well as fruit groves and vineyards.
CULTURE: The motto that appears in the seal of the
GOVERNMENT. The Constitution of 1789 with 26 amend-
nation, E Pluribus Unum (from many, one) typifies the
ments is still in force. It is the supreme law of the country.
culture of the United States. According to the 1980 census
According to the Constitution the United States has a
over one million of the people are native Indians and over
democratic and representative form of government div-
26 million are Blacks. Of the total population, 116,492,644
ided into three branches: The executive power headed by
are women and 110,053,161 are men. The number of immi-
the President, the legislative power composed by the
grants from 1820 to 1980 reached 49,554,000. There are
Senate and the House of Representatives, and the judicial
14,605,883 Hispanics living in the United States. The
power vested on the Supreme Court and other lesser courts.
immigration of different nationalities and races has con-
The structure of the state and local governments is similar
tributed substantially to the economic, social and cultural
to that of the federal government. The citizens have the
growth of the country. The public schools that were
right of self-determination as expressed in the popular
founded in New England in 1647 constitute the basis of the
phrase, "A government of the people, by the people, and for
educational system. The middle class predominates and in
the people." They may exercise their right through a secret
1982 of the total of 99,526,000 persons employed, 43,256,000
ballot in local, state, and national elections.
were women.
ECONOMY. Agriculture was the main economic activity
HISTORY. John Cabot a navigator born in Genoa, Italy, at
until after the Civil War. Starting in 1862, millions of
the service of Great Britain, discovered the eastern coast of
people became landlords and farmers thanks to a special
North America in 1497, five years after Columbus disco-
law called the Homestead Act that donated 160 acres to any
vered the tiny island of San Salvador and South America.
citizen who would establish residence in nonpopulated
From his discoveries and those of his son, Sebastian, Great
land and cultivate it during five years. As of 1980 there
Britain claimed North America as one of its possessions.
were 2,500,000 individual farms with an average size of
However, it did not establish a colony until 1607 when
440 acres.
Jamestown in Virginia was founded. In 1513, the Spaniard
At the beginning of the 20th century the United States
Ponce de Leon discovered Florida and in 1565 Pedro
had become the first industrial nation of the world due
Menéndez de Aviles founded Saint Augustine, the oldest
mainly to five factors: (1) a wealth of mineral and forest
town in the United States.
resources, raw materials, hydroelectric power, and petro-
After 1607 the main British colonies were established by
leum deposits; (2) the industrial revolution brought about
men and women fleeing from religious or political persecu-
by the steamship, the telegraph, the telephone, the sewing
tion, looking for shelter in the New World. The first of those
machine, the airplane, and the inventions of Thomas Edi-
colonies was Plymouth founded in 1620 by the Pilgrim
son that amounted to more than 1,200; (3) the abundance of
Fathers who arrived in New England aboard the May-
manpower, reinforced by the continuous European immi-
flower. Other colonies, such as those of the Catholics, the
gration; (4) home appliances and automobile production
Quakers under William Penn and the French Huguenots,
and consumption; (5) foreign trade expansion that made
were established later.
the United States the first commercial nation and major
Years of unfair taxes and trade restrictions imposed by
purchaser of world market products.
England nurtured the revolutionary spirit of the colonists.
The total amount of exports in 1982 was over $212 billion
The first battles of the North American Revolution were
while imports reached over $243 billion.
fought in April 1775, and on the 4th of July of 1776 the
Declaration of Independence was signed. The patriot army
FLAG. The United States flag is composed of 13 horizontal
of General George Washington, strengthened with the eco-
stripes, seven red and six white, and 50 white stars over a
nomic and military aid of France and other foreign coun-
blue rectangle. The stripes represent the first 13 colonies
tries, fought bravely until victory was obtained in 1781.
and the stars the 50 states.
URUGUAY
Plaza Independencia,
Montevideo
Area: 72,200 square miles
Population: 2,908,000 (1981)
GEOGRAPHY. Smallest of the South American republics,
Capital: Montevideo
Uruguay is situated on South America's east coast, be-
Currency: peso
tween the mouth of the Río de la Plata and Brazil's
Language: Spanish
Independence Day: August 25
southernmost region. With the exception of the northern
National hero: José Artigas
highlands, the topography of the country is largely level,
with well-distributed natural waterways. About 73 per
Uruguay long ago achieved the reputation for being a
cent of the land consists of natural pastures, which support
pioneer in advanced political, economic, and social re-
fine herds of cattle and sheep; 12 per cent of the land is
forms. For this reason, it has been called "the social
under cultivation.
laboratory of the Americas" and "America's first welfare
state." Uruguay established the eight-hour working day
long before its adoption by most other countries of the
CULTURE. The national culture of Uruguay is a product
Hemisphere. Public education is free to students at all
of the country's native writers, artists, and thinkers, and
levels, from the primary grades through the university;
the cultural influences of Europe transplanted by immi-
thus, it is not surprising that Uruguay has one of the lowest
grants from many countries. Successive waves of immi-
rates of illiteracy in the Hemisphere.
gration, particularly from Spain and Italy, account for
Uruguay's racially homogeneous and cosmopolitan popu-
The revolutionary movement, touched off in Buenos
lation. The native Charrúa Indians had virtually dis-
Aires in 1810, spread to the Banda Oriental where patriots
appeared by 1830, but they are vividly portrayed in the
led by José Artigas fought for independence from Spain
great epic poem Tabaré by Juan Zorilla de San Martín. The
and against invading Portuguese forces for a decade.
works of José Enrique Rodó, one of America's foremost
Unable to defeat the Portuguese, Artigas was forced to
literary figures, represent the highest attainment in
retreat across the Uruguay River. The Banda Oriental was
national literature.
annexed to Portuguese Brazil as the Cisplatine Province in
Center of cultural, economic, and political life, Monte-
1821. Known as the "Father of Uruguayan Independence,"
video is one of America's most impressive capitals. Visitors
Artigas had firmly implanted the goal of a free Uruguay,
admire its broad, tree-shaded boulevards, magnificent
which was finally achieved by his former lieutenant Juan
parks and rose gardens, and public buildings-notably the
Antonio Lavalleja. Independence was declared in 1825.
marble and granite Legislative Palace. In the original "Old
José Batlle Ordóñez elected president in 1903 has been
City," founded in 1726, the chief colonial landmarks are the
called the "father of modern Uruguay" because of the
Cathedral and the Cabildo (former city hall). The capital's
tremendous benefits reaped from the advanced economic,
main boulevard, Avenida 18 de Julio, begins at the Plaza
social, and political reforms effected during his two terms
Independencia and terminates at Batlle Park, where the
as president of the republic. His ambition to adopt the
huge Centenary Stadium is located. Spreading along the
Swiss pattern of a national executive council was realized
Río de la Plata are beautiful residential suburbs and a
after his death, when Uruguay, by a national plebiscite in
string of crescent-shaped beaches from Ramírez and Poci-
1951, abolished the presidency and placed the executive
tos to Carrasco. Continuing eastward from the capital
power in a nine-man council of government elected directly
toward the Atlantic are the famous beach resorts of
by the people. However, after 15 years of government by
Atlántida, La Floresta, Piriápolis, Punta del Este, La
the National Council, this system proved unsatisfactory,
Paloma, and La Coronilla.
and on November 27, 1966, the Uruguayans voted in a
Paysandú, the nation's second city in size, is a busy
plebiscite to restore the executive power to a single chief of
commercial center with many industries, including flour
state.
mills, tanneries, sugar refineries, textile mills, breweries,
and canning factories. Salto, the third largest city, is a
GOVERNMENT. The Constitution provides that the
livestock and agricultural center, famous for its orange
President and Vice President shall be elected jointly and
and tangerine groves and wine grapes. The attractive city
directly by the people (cuerpo electoral) by a simple
of Mercedes, on the shores of the Negro River, is important
majority of votes for the period of five years under the
as a transportation center in a productive agricultural and
simultaneous double vote system in which there may never
livestock zone. Fray Bentos, the first major river port on
be accumulation of votes of party factions (sublemas).
the Uruguayan River, exports a large output of meat
products and extracts from its meatpacking industry.
ECONOMY. Agriculture and livestock-raising are the
Colonia is an important travel link by ferry between
pillars of Uruguay's economy. Significant food crops in-
Montevideo and Buenos Aires and contains many colonial
clude cereal grains, flax, oilseeds, sugar beets, and various
landmarks; it is the starting point of the Uruguayan sector
fruits and vegetables. Fishing has grown substantially due
of the Pan American Highway. Picturesque Minas was
to the Government's investments in expansion of the
named for its mines and is the source of beautiful varieties
fishing fleet, improvement of processing plants and ports,
of marble. In another beautiful region is Colonia Suiza,
and adoption of better marketing techniques. Traditional
originally settled by Swiss immigrants.
exports are meat, wool, and hides.
The processing of agricultural and animal products
EARLY HISTORY. Juan Diaz de Solis, one of Spain's
makes up about 50 per cent of Uruguay's industrial output.
chief navigators, discovered the Río de la Plata and landed
After two decades of stagnation, industry made a strong
about 100 miles east of present-day Montevideo in 1516. He
recovery between 1974 and 1976, but in 1981 it was
claimed the territory for the Spanish Crown, but was soon
affected by international recession and the increasing
killed fighting the Charrúa Indians, whose fierce resis-
competition of imports resulting from reduction in import
tance to the invaders prevented repeated attempts at
tariffs.
colonization for more than a century. In 1680 Nova Colonia
In an effort to reduce the heavy economic cost of
do Sacramento (now Colonia) was founded by the Por-
petroleum imports, the Government has embarked on
tuguese as an outpost against Spanish penetration from
several cooperative projects to exploit the country's con-
Buenos Aires, on the opposite shores of the Río de la Plata.
siderable hydroelectric potential. The largest project was a
The Spaniards founded Montevideo in 1726 as a fortified
joint venture with Argentina, the Salto Grande hydro-
stronghold against encroachment from the huge Portu-
electric plant.
guese colony of Brazil. Thus the Banda Oriental, as the
An influx of thousands of tourists to the luxurious resorts
region east of the Uruguay River was called, became a
and many beaches of Uruguay also contributes signifi-
battleground in a long struggle to conquer and hold the
cantly to the national income.
territory that lasted until 1828. The Portuguese were
finally expelled from Colonia by the Spaniards, and in 1777
FLAG. The Uruguayan flag consists of four blue horizontal
the Banda Oriental became part of Spain's Viceroyalty of
stripes alternating with five white ones, with a golden sun
the Río de la Plata.
in a white square in the upper corner next to the flagstaff.
VENEZUELA
bean coast from the Maracaibo Basin to the eastern penin-
sula of Paria; the Andean, which includes the mountainous
chain known as the Sierra Nevada where the highest
mountain peak of the country, the snow-capped Pico Bolí-
var, is found, rising more than 16,000 feet above sea level;
the Maracaibo Basin, a hot humid region of fertile valleys
surrounding Lake Maracaibo, and the greatest petroleum
center of the country; the llanos, or great plains, covering
almost a third of the national territory, from the Andes in
the west to the delta of the Orinoco river in the east; the
Escudo de Guayana to the south of the country, one of the
oldest geological formations of the world where the typical
mountain ranges of this region, the Tepuy, may be seen; the
Orinoco basin to the northeast, an important waterway
region; and the islands region that includes the islands of
Margarita, Coche Cubagua, Isla de Aves, and Los Mónjes.
Behind the hot Caribbean coast lies the temperate coffee
and cacao-producing region of the Central Highlands. The
greatest concentration of population is found in this area,
which includes Caracas, capital of the nation, Valencia and
Maracay, two important industrial centers. The country's
most productive agricultural lands in the valleys of Tuy
and Yaracuy, and Lake Valencia are also found in this
region. More towards the south are the high valleys of
Angel Falls, highest in the world, is shrouded in clouds in
Portuguesa and Barinas offering a wealth of agricultural
the scarcely explored jungles of the Guayana Highlands
production. The Maracaibo Basin is the petroleum and
milk producing region of the country.
Area: 352,200 square miles
The wide llanos to the north of the Orinoco river have
Population: 14,313,000 (1981)
traditionally been the center of the country's cattle indus-
Capital: Caracas
Currency: bolívar
try, but today modern technology is turning some of this
Language: Spanish
extensive pasture land into fields of rice, corn, sorgo, and
Independence Day: July 5
sesame. The Guayana Highlands of Venezuela are covered
National hero: Simón Bolívar
with impenetrable, scarcely explored, jungles. A mountain
chain in this region is the major source of the country's
Venezuela is rich in the variety and quantity of its natu-
mineral deposits. Gran Sabana and Auyantepuy are part of
ral resources, with enormous deposits of iron ore, bauxite,
the wide altiplano. Auyantepuy contains the highest known
gold, and other minerals. The country is also blessed with
waterfall in the world, Angel Falls, with a drop of approx-
very productive lands and many rivers that provide it with
imately 2,625 feet.
hydraulic potential. Among its natural wonders are Angel
Of the 71 islands in the national territory, the most
Falls, the highest waterfall in the world, the beautiful
important is Margarita Island, a major fishing port, once
Guácharo cavern and the Orinoco river, the third in volume
famous for its pearls, now well-known as a free port and a
of the world. These characteristics place Venezuela in a
great attraction for tourists.
unique position and make it a most attractive country.
The land is said to have received its name from the
CULTURE. The majority of Venezuelans are of European
explorer Americus Vespucius, who was reminded of
and Indian ancestry. There is a minority of blacks des-
Venice by the native huts built on piles over the waters of
cendants of the African slaves. A cosmopolitan population
Lake Maracaibo and called it Venezuela, Spanish for Little
includes some 700,000 foreigners who have settled in
Venice.
Venezuela especially since 1946, when an "open door"
immigration policy was established at the end of World
GEOGRAPHY. Venezuela exceptional geographical loca-
War II. Despite present immigration restrictions, Euro-
tion permits easy access to the most important ports in the
pean immigrants mostly Spanish, Italians and Portuguese
world. The country is situated in the north of South Amer-
have made a significant contribution to the economic,
ica. The variety of the climate is one of the most important
social, and cultural development of the country. More
geographical characteristics of the country. There are
recently there have been immigrants from neighboring
seven main regions: the northern, which follows the Carib-
countries, such as Argentina, Colombia, Chile and other
South American countries. The national culture has pre-
right to conquer and settle the most desirable parts of
served the Spanish colonial heritage along with the mod-
Venezuela. The German mandate was terminated in 1546
ern. The School of Plastic Arts Cristóbal Rojas has pro-
and true colonization began in 1556. Caracas, founded by
duced many outstanding contemporary artists, among
Diego de Losada in 1567, became the capital of the Pro-
them, Jesús Soto and Cruz Diez. The founding of the Cha-
vince of Venezuela in 1577, which together with the Pro-
cao Conservatory in the eighteenth century gave music an
vinces of Nueva Andalucía, Mérida, Maracaibo, and
important place in cultural life. The "Popule Meus" of José
Guyana formed the Captaincy-General of Venezuala, with
Angel Lamas is considered one of the most moving reli-
the same boundaries as the republic today (except for Tri-
gious works ever composed in the Americas. Today Vene-
nidad). By 1786 the Captaincy-General had its own Royal
zuela has one of the largest and most important cultural
Audiencia. Among the precursors that contributed to the
centers of the Western Hemisphere. The center has been
cause of Venezuela's independence, Francisco de Miranda
named after the renown Venezuelan pianist, Teresa Carre-
was considered the father of the independence movement.
ño, nationally and internationally famous. National litera-
Simón Bolívar, known in History as the Liberator, ob-
ture was greatly enriched by the writings of Simón Bolívar
tained liberty for northern South America. On July 5, 1811,
and by the gifted philologist, poet, and historian Andrés
Venezuela declared its independence from Spain and by
Bello. In the field of contemporary literature Doña Bar-
the end of the year had adopted a new constitution. In 1821
bara by Rómulo Gallegos is a classic of Latin American
Bolívar obtained Venezuela's independence at the Battle of
fiction.
Carabobo after seeking freedom for Colombia in the Battle
Education in Venezuela is free for all citizens. A wide
of Boyacá in 1819. Bolívar then sponsored the creation of
system of higher education has been developed to include
Gran Colombia, which encompassed Venezuela, New
universities and technical institutions of high quality
Granada, Ecuador, and what is now Panama. In 1830 Bolí-
which have produced scientists and specialists in engineer-
var died in Santa Marta and in the same year Venezuela
ing, medicine, social, political, and natural sciences, and
seceded from Gran Colombia and established its own
other fields.
constitution.
In Caracas, the political and commercial heart of the
After Bolívar's death the country suffered a long period
republic, one finds many reminders of the Liberator: the
of political instability. At the beginning of the twentieth
Bolívar Museum, the National Pantheon, and the Casa
century the country was controlled by a series of dictator-
Natal, Bolívar's birthplace. The overwhelming spirit of
ships that ended in 1936 when the democratic form of
modern times has transformed this venerable metropolis
government was first established. The democratic process
into a city of the most avant garde architecture. Here are
was completed in 1958, and in 1961 the National Constitu-
found six universities, several museums, broad boule-
tion now in force was adopted, under which Venezuela has
vards, lovely parks, and elegant residential districts.
consolidated its democratic institutions.
Maracay, very close to Caracas, originally a sleepy colonial
town, it is now a modern city of varied industries. Valencia,
GOVERNMENT. Venezuela is a representative demo-
in a setting of rolling hills, orange and lemon groves, coffee
cracy, with power divided among three branches: the
and cacao plantations, is the principal distribution center
Executive, headed by the president of the republic who is
for the agricultural products of the Aragua Valley. In
elected by direct popular vote for the period of five years;
recent years, however, Valencia has become the country's
the Legislative, composed of a Senate and a House of
largest industrial zone. Maracaibo, Venezuela's second
Representatives; and the Judiciary, consisting of the
city, is famous as a petroleum and commercial center of the
Supreme Court of Justice and other courts determined by
west of the country. Ciudad Bolívar, formerly Angostura,
law.
originator of the famous bitters, is historically important
as the seat of the Congress of Angostura, which proclaimed
ECONOMY. Based on its petroleum wealth, Venezuela
the Republic of Gran Colombia and elected Simón Bolívar
has become a very prosperous country with a low inflation
president in 1819. Besides, it is the main shipping and
index. Because of the sharp increase in oil prices in the
trading center for the southern llanos and the entire
early 70s, Venezuela's balance of payments accounts and
Orinoco river area. La Guaira, Venezuela's principal port,
international reserves soared, but due to the weakening of
is a city of steep, narrow streets climbing sharply from the
the world oil market a downward trend was observed in
busy port section to the terraced slopes of the Coastal
1980. However, it continues to have a strong economy,
Range, and Puerto Cabello is one of the largest natural
based mainly on basic raw materials, such as iron ore,
ports in the world. Barquisimeto, one of Venezuela's fastest
bauxite, coal, gold, petroleum and petroleum derivatives.
growing cities, is the main agricultural and economic
It also has great hydroelectric resources, forests, and
center of the northwest.
extensive lands for the development of cattle and agricul-
ture as well as a wide and modern road network.
EARLY HISTORY. Columbus discoverd the land later
The nation's main ports are La Guaira, Puerto Cabello,
christened Venezuela on August 1, 1498, when he anchored
and Maracaibo where Venezuela's main exports are
in the Gulf of Paria. His reports of pearls and gold induced
shipped to other countries-crude and refined oil, iron ore
Alonso de Ojeda and many others to explore the Caribbean
and ingots, industrial diamonds, gold, steel manufactures,
coast as far as Lake Maracaibo. Soon Venezuela's Pearl
natural gas, and sugar.
Coast became famous. Cubagua, founded in 1516, was the
first city in South America and after being destroyed by an
FLAG. The Venezuelan flag consists of three horizontal
earthquake Cumaná was founded in 1521. In 1528 Carlos I
stripes of equal width: yellow, blue, and red from top to
of Spain gave the German banking house of Welser the
bottom. The blue stripe has an arc of seven white stars.
THE ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES
The purposes of the Organization of American States (OAS) are to strengthen the peace and
security of the Hemisphere; to prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the pacific
settlement of disputes that may arise among the member states; to provide for common action
on the part of those states in the event of aggression; to seek the solution of political, juridical,
and economic problems that may arise among them; and to promote, by cooperative action,
their economic, social, and cultural development.
To achieve these objectives, the OAS acts through the General Assembly; the Meeting of
Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs; the three Councils (the Permanent Council, the
Inter-American Economic and Social Council, and the Inter-American Council for Education,
Science, and Culture); the Inter-American Juridical Committee; the Inter-American Commis-
sion on Human Rights; the General Secretariat; the Specialized Conferences; and the
Specialized Organizations.
The General Assembly holds regular sessions once a year and special sessions when
circumstances warrant. The Meeting of Consultation is convened to consider urgent matters of
common interest and to serve as Organ of Consultation in the application of the Inter-American
Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (known as the Rio Treaty), which is the main instrument for joint
action in the event of aggression. The Permanent Council takes cognizance of matters referred
to it by the General Assembly or the Meeting of Consultation and carries out the decisions of
both when their implementation has not been assigned to any other body; monitors the
maintenance of friendly relations among the member states and the observance of the standards
governing General Secretariat operations; and, in certain instances specified in the Charter of
the Organization, acts provisionally as Organ of Consultation under the Rio Treaty. The other
two Councils, each of which has a Permanent Executive Committee, organize inter-American
action in their areas and hold regular meetings once a year. The General Secretariat is the
central, permanent organ of the OAS. The headquarters of both the Permanent Council and the
General Secretariat is in Washington, D.C.
The Organization of American States is the oldest regional society of nations in the world,
dating back to the First International Conference of American States, held in Washington, D.C.,
which on April 14, 1890, established the International Union of American Republics. When the
United Nations was established, the OAS joined it as a regional organization. The Charter
governing the OAS was signed in Bogotá in 1948 and amended by the Protocol of Buenos Aires,
which entered into force in February 1970. Today the OAS is made up of thirty-two member
states.
MEMBER STATES: Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, The Bahamas, (Commonwealth of),
Barbados, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, (Commonwealth of),
Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica,
Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, St. Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela.
ISBN 0-8270-2211-5
$1.00
GUIDE
TO THE
COLUMBUS MEMORIAL
LIBRARY
Organization of American States
General Secretariat
COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY
Washington, D.C.
1988
Columbus Memorial Library
Organization of American States
19th and Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C. 20006-4499
(202) 458-6037
Hours of opening
Monday - Friday
09:30 16:30
Saturday - Sunday
Closed
The Library is closed on the following days: New Year's Day, Martin Luther King's Day,
Washington's Birthday, Good Friday, Memorial Day, U.S. Independence Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day,
Veteran's Day, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day.
Telephone
Director of the Library
458 6040
Secretary to the Director
458 6041
Circulation Desk
458 6039
Reference Desk
458 6037
Bookstacks Office
458 6277
Photographs Collection
458 6095
Acquisitions Unit
458 6172
Serials Control
458 6173
Gifts, Exchange and Deposit
458 6233
Cataloguing Unit
458 6036
OAS Documents Control
458 6042
Records Management Center
458 3849
Documentation and Information Series, nº 11
OEA/SG/0.1/IV/III.11
GUIDE
TO THE
COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY
2d edition
Columbus Memorial Library
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES
Washington, D.C. 20006-4499
1988
INTRODUCTION
This guide is intended to provide an introduction to the services and
collections of the Columbus Memorial Library. It describes those services
offered by the Library and gives considerable information pertaining to the
collections, activities and programs of the Library. The guide is solely a
first step in making the reader self-sufficient in using the Library. The
reader will gain further expertise through experience and by asking for
assistance from a member of the staff.
The Guide is divided into four sections - Reader Services, the
Collections, Processing Services, Glossary of Library Terms. Sufficient
detail is provided to answer the most commonly received inquiries. However,
all Library users are encouraged to contact a member of the staff should
they require additional information.
The Library provides for the selective dissemination of information
about books and periodical articles that are of especial interest to the
staff of the General Secretariat. The List of Recently Catalogued Books is
issued quarterly. Periodical Articles of Interest is issued bi-monthly.
These two publications provide an excellent means for keeping current with
matters of interest within the inter-American system. These publications
are sent to the offices of the Secretary General, Assistant Secretary
General, Assistant Secretaries and Departamental Directors. Others wishing
to receive these publications should contact the Library.
Thomas L. Welch
Director
Columbus Memorial Library
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES
Columbus Memorial Library
The collections of the Columbus Memorial Library contain millions of
books, periodicals, documents, microforms and other graphic materials. All
items housed in the Library may be consulted in accordance with the
regulations governing the use of the different types of resources.
Regulations governing usage are designed to assure all readers with the
maximum degree of access to materials in the collections.
- 2 - -
LOCATING INFORMATION
Locating recorded information is ordinarily a two-step process: first,
the identification of a work that is apt to contain the desired information,
and second, the location of a copy of a particular publication.
PUBLIC CARD CATALOGUE
- 3.
The public card catalogue is usually the first place to look to locate
bibliographic information. It provides a listing in standardized format for
most books and serials in the Library. The card catalogue in this Library
is divided into two sections. One section is the Author/Title Catalogue and
the other section is the Subject Catalogue. The Author/Title Catalogue is
an alphabetical listing of materials by their authors and titles. The
Subject Catalogue gives the bibliographic information under the subject
headings that specifically describe the contents. Subject headings may not
correspond exactly with those the reader has in mind. Try several
approaches or consult the subject authority control, a two volume set,
Library of Congress Subject Headings, which is located near the card
catalogue.
Arrangement of cards in the catalogues is alphabetical; however, please
note the following special filing rules.
1. Cards are filed alphabetically letter-by-letter and then word-by-
word.
2. Abbreviations are filed as if spelled in full.
3. Numbers are filed as if spelled in full according to the language
used in the book.
4. Proper names beginning with Mc or M' are filed as if spelled Mac
5. The apostrophe (') is ignored in filing cards except as indicated
in item four above.
6. The articles a, an, and the, as well their equivalents in
languages other than English, are disregarded in filing if they
are the first word of the title or a name.
7. Works published by a governmental agency, are filed, with few
exceptions, under the name of the jurisdiction, usually these are
country, state, county or city.
8. Period and date subdivisions are filed chronologically as part of
the subject heading.
9. In the subject catalogue, the priority for filing identical words
is person, place, object.
10. Computer languages and certain other common acronyms are filed as
words.
- 4
CARDS IN THE CARD CATALOGUE
There are more than one million cards in the public card catalogue of
the Columbus Memorial Library and some 2,000 are added each month. The
format and typography have varied a little over the years, but the basic
design remains a unit card with the main entry in the most prominent
position. All other headings and holdings information are added to this
unit card. Four to six cards identify most books in the Library. Notice
the types and quantity of information available on the catalogue card:
PQ
7082
Kapschutschenko, Ludmila.
1
.N7
El laberinto en la narrativa
K36
hispanoamericana contemporanea /
4
1981
Ludmila Kapschutschenko. -- London :
Tamesis, c1981.
115 p. ; 25 cm. (Coleçción
6
Tamesis. Serie A, Monograflas ; 85)
Originally presented as the author's
9
thesis (doctorate--University of
Pennsylvania)
8
Bibliography: p. 111-115.
2
284307.
10
ISBN 0-7293-0118-4
1. Latin American fiction--20th
3
century History and criticism.
2. Labyrinths in literature. I. Title
II. Series
5
DPU
21 NOV 86
8511031 DOAMnt 82-235398r84
7
11
1. Call Number
2. Author
3. Title
4. Place of
5. Publisher
publication
7. Number of pages
6. Date of publication
9. Series
8. Size of book
11. Added entries for subject,
10. Content notes
title and series.
5
OTHER CARDS IN THE CARD CATALOGUE FOR THIS BOOK
LATIN AMERICAN FICTION--20TH CENTURY
--HISTORY AND CRITICISM.
SUBJECT CARD
PQ
7082
Kapschutschenko, Ludmila.
.N7
El laberinto en la narraţiva
K36
hispanoamericana contemporanea /
1981
Ludmila Kapschutschenko. -- London :
Tamesis, c1981.
115 De 25 cm. -- (Coleccion
Tamesis. Serie A, Monografias , 85)
Originally presented as the author's
thesis (doctorate--University of
Pennsylvania)
141-115
LABYRINTHS IN LITERATURE.
SUBJECT CARD
PQ
7082
Kapschutschenko, Ludmila.
.N7
El laberinto en la narrațiva
K36
hispanoamericana contemporanea /
1981
Ludmila Kapschutschenko. -- London :
Tamesis, c1981.
115 p. ; 25 cm. --- (Coleçcion
Tamesis. Serie A, Monografias ; 85)
Originally presented as the author's
thesis (doctorate--University of
Pennsvlvania)
El laberinto en la narrativa,
hispanoamericana contemporanea
TITLE CARD
PQ
7082
Kapschutschenko, Ludmila.
.N7
El laberinto en la narrativa
K36
hispanoamericana contemporanea /
1981
Ludmila Kapschutschenko. -- London :
Tamesis, c1981.
115 p. ; 25 cm. -- (Coleçcion
Tamesis. Serie A, Monografias ; 85)
Originally presented as the author's
thesis (doctorate--University of
Pennsylvania)
Bibliography: p. 111-115.
284307.
Coleccion Tamesis. Serie A,
Monograflas ; 85.
SERIES CARD
PQ
7082
Kapschutschenko, Ludmila.
.N7
El laberinto en la narrativa
K36
hispanoamericana contemporanea /
1981
Ludmila Kapschutschenko. -- London :
Tamesis, c1981.
115 p. ; 25 cm. -- (Colección
Tamesis. Serie A, Monograflas ; 85)
Originally presented as the author's
thesis (doctorate--University of
Pennsylvania)
Bibliography: p. 111-115.
284307.
ISBN 0-7293-0118-4
1. Latin American fiction--20th
century--History and criticism.
2. Labyrinths in literature. I. Title
II. Series
DPU 21 NOV 86 8511031 DOAMnt 82-235398r84
- 6 -
CROSS REFERENCES
The card catalogues contain a large number of cross references. These
direct the user from a form of the name not used to the form accepted by the
Library. The same is also true for subject headings not used in the
Library.
For example:
Calderón, Francisco
ORPLAN
see
see
García Calderón, Francisco
Chile. Oficina Regional de
Planificación para la Región
del Maule
Economic sanctions
Foreign relations
see
see
Sanctions (Law)
Subdivision under names of
countries, e.g.,
Uruguay - Foreign relations
The Subject Catalogue also contains a large number of cards called see
also references. These cards direct the user to additional subject headings
that are likely to give the reader information on themes closely related on
the topic.
For example:
Debt
Political science
see also
see also
Bankrupty
Administrative law
- 7. -
LOCATION SYMBOLS IN THE CARD CATALOGUE
Most of the books and serials in the Library are located in the closed
stacks; however, some books are shelved in other areas. Those items not
shelved in the closed stacks are frequently identified in the card catalogue
by the addition of a superscription above the call number or a location
stamp prominently displayed on the left side of the card.
The superscriptions most frequently used in the Library are:
SUPERSCRIPTION
LOCATION
Archives
Vault - ask at Reference Desk
Rare
Vault - ask at Reference Desk
Ref.
Reference
Reserve
Reference
Vault
Vault - ask at Reference Desk
Many books and serials in the Library are shelved according to country.
These are identified by a prefix above the call number. This prefix is an
integral part of the call number and must be supplied when requesting books.
Examples:
Prefix Haiti
Prefix Peru
AP
F
51
3451
.D6
.L8
nº 2
C3
- 8 -
CLASSIFICATION OF BOOKS BY SUBJECT
The Library classifies materials according to the Library of Congress
Classification system. This classification scheme provides for the grouping
of related materials on the shelves by use of an alpha-numeric set of
symbols assigned to each book based on the book's content. The list below
identifies the principal subject areas. These are often further subdivided
by the addition of more letters in the call number.
Subject
Library of Congress
Classification
Agriculture
S
Anthropology
GN
Bibliography
Z
Biology
QH
Botany
QK
Business
HF, HG
Chemistry
QD
Economics
HB, HC, HD, HJ
Education
L
Engineering
TA TH
Fine Arts
N
Geography
G. GA, GB
Geology
QE
History
C, D, E, F
Americas
E, F
Europe
D
Home Economics
TX
Languages
P PM
Law
K
Literature (Includes fiction)
PN PZ
Mathematics
QA
Medicine
R
Music
M
Philosophy
B BD
Physics
QC
Political Science
J
Psychology
BE
Religion
BL BX
Sociology
HM HX
Recreation
GV
Technology
T
Zoology
QL
- 9 -
TO LOCATE A PERIODICAL
The Library's periodical collection is arranged in alphabetical
sequence and shelved by the name of the country in which the periodical is
printed. These are maintained in the closed stacks. Current issues of a
few selected titles for which there is a high reader demand are shelved in
the Reading Room.
A Periodical Catalogue is maintained in the Reading Room. This
catalogue is divided into three sections:
(1) Title
(2) Country (of issue)
(3) Subject
To determine if the Library has received a specific issue it is
necessary to consult the Periodical Kardex. The Serials Librarian will
provide holdings information when requested.
- 10 -
CONSULTATION AND CIRCULATION OF BOOKS AND PERIODICALS
Readers may freely remove books from the open shelves in the Reading
Room. These books should be returned to the Library Assistant on duty at
the Circulation Desk.
The Circulation Services Unit is responsible for the paging of
materials from the closed stacks collections, maintenance of the records of
those books currently in circulation and the return of Library materials.
To consult a book from the closed stacks:
The retrieval of materials housed in the closed stacks area of the
Library is accomplished by presenting a book or periodical request slip to
the assistant on duty at the Circulation Desk. The request slip must
contain the bibliographic information requested as well as the name of the
reader. There are two types of request slips as illustrated below:
Charge slip
to request
a book or classified serial
COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY
Circulation Desk
BOOKS
CALL NUMBER
MEX
Author Helm, Mckinley
ND
Title Modern Mexican Painters
255
Name of reader Pablo Gomez
B7
Date 14 March 1988
OAS Form 245
(1-82)
- 11 -
Charge slip
to request
a periodical
PERU
Periodical
Charge
Country
Letras peruanas
Name of periodical
Bd.
Mayo 1987
Unbd.
Date of publication
Dup.
Maria Gómez
Signature of borrower
10 March 1988
Date borrowed
OAS FORM 285
COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY
(5-70)
A Library staff member will deliver the materials requested directly to
the Reading Room. All materials must be consulted in the Reading Room.
The Columbus Memorial Library is a non-circulating library. Short term
loans are made to staff of the General Secretariat and to the officials
accredited by Member Countries to the Organization of American States. In
these latter cases books are lent for a period of two weeks and periodicals
may also be borrowed for two weeks.
To Place a Hold on a Book:
If a book is not available for immediate consultation, the Circulation
Services Unit will assist in filling out a hold request card. The Library
staff will notify the reader when the book is ready for use.
Overdue Library Materials and Lost Books:
Books and serials are lent to OAS officials and diplomatic personnel to
assist them in their work. It is fully expected that such materials will be
returned to the Library no later than the date due as indicated in the book.
Charges for lost books are assessed at the current replacement cost of the
item.
- 12 -
REFERENCE ASSISTANCE
The Reference and Information Services staff is on duty in the Reading
Room during the hours that the Library is open. Assistance will be provided
in the usage of all Library materials and resources, general information
about the Library, utilization of the card catalogues, methods of access to
a variety of materials, and guidance in research techniques.
The Reference collections contain a large number of atlases,
bibliographies, codes, dictionaries, directories, indexes and encyclopedias
to assist the reader to locate both information and bibliographic data. The
most commonly used reference work is an index to periodical literature.
Designed to locate specific articles in periodicals and newspapers, a
periodical index ordinarily lists by specific subject, author and/or title.
There are general indexes, such as Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature,
as well as highly specialized indexes, such as the Social Science Index.
The following citation is a selection from the index, Reader's Guide to
Periodical Literature. Most periodical indexes give citations in
approximately the same format. A newspaper index will omit the title of the
newspaper.
EXAMPLE OF A PERIODICAL CITATION
Subject
Subheading
ASSISTANCE, AMERICAN -- CARIBBEAN REGION
The Caribbean Basin Initiative. M.D. Wilde.
Title of
Author
Article
America
146:28-30
Ja 16, 82
Title of
Periodical
Volume
Pages
Date of issue
- 13 -
COMPUTERIZED INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SERVICES
The Library using the computerized information service, DIALOG, can
search some 225 individual online bibliographic data bases by subject, name,
geographic region, etc., in just a fraction of the time that would be
required to search manually for the same information in the conventionally
printed abstracts and indexes. The data files that are offered by the
DIALOG system are extensive and often interdisciplinary in nature, and
cover, for example, areas such as law, economics, government, public
affairs, textiles, the environment, medicine, education, and a myriad of
additional subjects.
Ordinarily an online search of any of the data bases included in DIALOG
will require only a few minutes of computer time and the chargés are
prorated. The more complete the citations requested, the more computer-
connect-time the search will require. For example, a reader desiring to
search by key-words, as well as descriptors, will be charged more, as the
search will require a more lengthy use of the data base. The average search
with an offline print of 15-20 citations usually costs approximately $15-
$20.
DRC
control
contra
- 14 -
INTERLIBRARY LOAN SERVICE
The Reference Librarian will assist patrons in locating materials not
available in the Columbus Memorial Library. This service is primarily for
the use of the staff of the General Secretariat who are engaged in extensive
research projects and for delegates of the missions working on studies
related to their assignments. All interlibrary loan transactions are
governed by the terms of the American Library Association's Interlibrary
Loan Code. Patrons are ordinarily billed for all costs charged by a library
responding to the Columbus Memorial Library's request to borrow materials.
Unfortunately the Columbus Memorial Library is unable to borrow materials
from libraries located outside the United States of America.
- 15 -
PHOTOCOPY SERVICES
The Columbus Memorial Library provides photocopy services for both
printed and microform materials. There is a charge of $.15 for each page of
photocopy. Delays in receipt of photocopies are unavoidable due to the
Library's dependence on a centralized photocopying service.
RECORDS MANAGEMENT CENTER
The Records Management Center of the Library provides service for
requests for records or historical information contained in the inactive
records produced in the normal course of the operation of the Organization.
Record materials within the custody of the Records Management Center are
agreements, conventions, articles, lectures, manuscripts, original
conference documents, correspondence, including letters, memoranda and
telecommunications, executed forms, policy and procedural issuances,
reports, and other documentary materials prepared or received by the General
Secretariat.
Consultation of records maintained in the Records Management Center is
almost exclusively limited in use to the staff of the General Secretariat.
A researcher wishing to use materials housed in the Records Management
Center should consult the OAS Records Management Handbook to ascertain the
types of materials stored and the length of their retention.
The originating office, the successor office, or a higher office with
administrative authority over these records have immediate access, but
access for outsiders is determined by the nature of the request. Persons
wishing to consult the OAS archival records should write or telephone the
Records Management Center prior to visiting.
Photocopy services are available at a charge of $.15 per copy.
- 16 -
THE COLLECTIONS OF THE
COLUMBUS MEMORIAL LIBRARY
The Columbus Memorial Library was created by the First International
Conference of the American Republics in 1890 with the passage of the
following resolution:
Resolved, that there be established at such location in
the city of Washington as the Government of the United
States may designate, to commemorate the meeting of the
International American Conference, a Latin American
Memorial Library, to be formed by contributions from
all Governments represented in this Conference, wherein
shall be collected all the historical geographical, and
literary works, maps, manuscripts, and official
documents relating to the history and civilization of
America, such library to be solemnly dedicated on the
day on which the United States celebrates the Fourth
Centennial of the Discovery of America.
- 17 -
The first book actually registered in the "Accessions Catalogue of the
Library of the Bureau", on 27 October 1890, was Delmar's Classified Trades
Directory, 1889-1890, published by Belford, Clark and Company of Chicago.
In October 1893 the Columbus Memorial Library accessioned its first
purchased volume, a work in German, by M. Clotten, Amerika, printed in
Leipzig in 1892. Since that time the collections have grown to include
millions of items in a variety of formats - books, serials, technical
reports, documents, periodicals, microforms, manuscripts, theses, maps,
phono-discs, honorary medals, stamps and photographs.
1. General Collection
The general collection of the Library consists of approximately 500,000
volumes related to Latin America and the Caribbean. These materials, both
monographic and serial, document the culture of the Member States, and
include as well a large number of titles about Spain, Portugal and France.
The works are grouped according to country and treat such subjects as law,
political science, art, technology, economics, rural and urban development,
music, education, human rights, history, geography, etc. The Library makes
efforts to acquire both monographs and serials that record the growth and
development of the inter-American system. Bibliographic access to these
titles is through the public Card Catalogue and the Periodical Catalogue.
2. Organization of American States Collection
The Library maintains a complete collection of the printed
documentation of the Organization of American States and its predecessor
organizations, the International Bureau of the American Republics and the
Pan American Union. This collection includes copies of the Informational
and Technical Publications of the General Secretariat, the Official Records
of the Organization of American States, and Technical Reports. The Library
provides bibliographic access to these documents by publishing the Lista
General de Documentos Oficiales, the Indice Analítico de Documentos
Oficiales, the Catálogo de Informes y Documentos Técnicos and through the
Library's public card catalogue.
3. Specialized Collections
The Inter-American Specialized Organizations are intergovernmental
agencies established by multilateral agreements with specific functions on
technical matters of common interest to the American States. The Library
collects materials by and about these organizations. To determine the
- 18 -
Library's holdings for the specialized Organizations, which include, Pan
American Health Organization, Inter-American Children's Institute, Inter-
American Commission of Women, Pan American Institute of Geography and
History, Inter-American Indian Institute, and the Inter-American Institute
for Cooperation on Agriculture. Bibliographic retrieval for the
publications of these agencies is through the public card catalogue.
4. Official Gazettes of the Member States Collection
Each Member States issues an official gazette that includes information
relative to laws, modification of regulations, treaty agreements, executive
orders, etc. The Library attempts to acquire each number issued and holds a
comprehensive collections of these.
5. United Nations Collection
The Library is a depository for publications of the United Nations.
The Library receives official United Nations's documentation in both English
and Spanish. Most of these are arranged according to the United Nation's
classification scheme. Bibliographic access to United Nations documentation
is available through a number of printed indexes and bibliographies as well
as the public card catalogue.
6. League of Nations Collection
The Library has a small, comprehensive collection of documents issued
under the aegis of the League of Nations, an international organization
formed after World War I to "promote international cooperation and to
achieve peace and security." Bibliographic access to these publications is
through a number of bibliographic printed indexes and the public card
catalogue.
7. Microform Collection
A large number of serial publications are available in the microform
collections of the Library. This collection includes the OAS official
records, selected serials, foreign newspapers, and similar materials. These
may be consulted in the Main Library.
- 19 -
8. International Organizations Collection
The Library acquires materials from a number of other international
organizations. Official papers, reports, and publications of such agencies
as the International Labor Office, the Inter-American Development Bank, Food
and Agriculture Organization, the International Monetary Fund, Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development, etc., are often included in this
collection. Access to these materials is through the Library's public card
catalogue.
9. Maps and Atlases Collection
A number of historical maps and atlas of the Caribbean and Latin
America are in the custody of the Library. Access is through a special maps
catalogue and through the public card catalogue.
10. Rare Books Collection
The Columbus Memorial Library's collection of rare and valuable books
relating to Latin America and the Caribbean contains approximately, 8,000
volumes. The earliest imprint is dated 1535. The collection contains
numerous descriptive accounts of the Member Countries, as well as legal
codes, dictionaries, geographies and histories. Bibliographic access is
through printed bibliographies and the public card catalogue. There are
restrictions on the use of these materials due to their rareness and
physical condition.
11. Photographs Collection
The Library maintains a large collection of photographs illustrative of
life and culture in the Member, Countries. Included in this collection are
portraits, works depicting the geography of the member countries, examples
of handicrafts, industrial development, rural scenes and thousands of other
similar items. These are indexed according to subject.
12. Leo Stanton Rowe Collection
The Library has custodianship of many of the personal papers of Dr. Leo
S. Rowe, Director General of the Pan American Union, 1920 to 1946. These
- 20 -
papers include notebooks, speeches, letters, diaries, newspapers clippings,
manuscripts, etc. Dr. Rowe's papers are bibliographically retrievable
through the consultation of special lists maintained by the Library. Use of
this collection requires the permission of the Director of the Library.
13. Archives Collection
The Library and Records Management Center comprise the single largest
depository of publications and papers documenting the history and programs
of the Organization of American States and its predecessor organizations.
Many of these are accesssible through the public card catalogue or through
trasmittal slips received when official papers are transferred from the
various offices of the General Secretariat to archival custody. This
collection includes millions of pages of printed and typewritten materials.
14. Honorary Medals and Decorations Collection
The Library is custodian of a number of honorary medallions and plaques
issued by the member countries. Access is through a listing of those held.
These medallions are often displayed for special celebrations. Examination
of a particular medallion requires the authorization of the Director of the
Library.
VOCABVLARIO
EN LENGVA MEXICANA Y CASTELLANA COM>
puelloporelming Renerendo Padre Fray Alenfoth Molina, dela
Order biensuentured auchro Padee fact Francifeo,
DIRIGIDOALMVYEX CELENTESENO R
Don Martin Enriques, farrey della mena Efpans.
toum Francifcum:
Signafti Domine Gignaftroomineferuum
Signisredéptionisnoftre.
Indorum nimis " Fecit prole parentent
Confixos langues cum meate reuolus.
Oin genuit motient,ques pater sime fouer.
Valneta, fliginate care gens.
EN MEXICO,
En Cafa de Amoniode Spinois.
1571
- 21 -
COLLECTION DEVELOPMENT, MAINTENANCE
AND BIBLIOGRAPHIC ACCESS
The primary goal of the collection development program is to build a
library collection which supports the information, reference, and research
needs of the General Secretariat and the missions accredited to the
Organization. It is the responsibility of the staff of the Library to
select materials that ensure appropriate printed resources are available to
permit officials of the Secretariat and missions to function effectively in
their work.
The Library acquire materials in a variety of ways - purchase, gift,
and exchange. Acquisition policies are described in the Columbus Memorial
Library Collection Development Policy. This policy statement describes the
subject areas and geographical regions that are included within the
Library's acquisition framework. A copy of the policy statement is
available from the Office of the Director of the Library.
The Library will automatically acquire most titles that are relative to
the Organization of American States and many more that are directly
concerned with the inter-American system. Also, other titles in high demand
by several areas of the Secretariat will be ordered through regular Library
channels.
PURCHASE OF LIBRARY MATERIALS
The Acquisition Unit of the Library is charged with the responsibility
for ordering all books and serials acquired by the offices of the General
Secretariat.
This unit maintains records of all titles currently on order as well as
records of titles waiting to be ordered. The Acquisitions Unit assists
officials of the Secretariat and the missions to locate bibliographic
information and prices for materials that they may wish to suggest for
purchase.
The acquisition of books and serials for the permanent use of offices
within the General Secretariat is handled by the Library. To order any book
or serial for the permanent use of an office of the Secretariat the Library
must receive a memorandum signed by the appropriate official and must
include the budget account number of the department. The memorandum must
include author, title, place and date of publication and the publisher. The
price of the book or serial should also be given.
- 22 -
GIFT, EXCHANGE, AND DEPOSIT
Gifts
A large number of books and serials are donated to the Library
annually. Any person desiring to give publications to the Library should
contact the Gift and Exhange Librarian.
- 23 -
Exchange
The Library frequently exchanges certain serial titles published by
the OAS for other titles it wishes to receive. This is an agreement between
the Columbus Memorial Library and another library to exchange one
publication for another. The Library does not ordinarily execute an
exchange agreement with individuals.
Depository Libraries
The Organization of American States publishes a large number of
documents and reports each year. To ensure their availability in the Member
Countries, the Library maintains a network of depository libraries
throughout Latin America, the Caribbean, and the United States. Designation
as a depository library necessitates a formal agreement with the Columbus
Memorial Library. The OAS depository library program is throroughly
explained in the document Bibliotecas Depositarias y de Canje de la
Organización de los Estados Americanos, a copy of which may be obtained from
the Gits and Exchange Librarian. In general terms the OAS depository
libraries are ordinarily the national libraries of the Member States, the
libraries of principal universities, the library of the ministries of
foreign relations, the libraries of international organizations, and the
libraries of the Specialized Organizations.
MAINTENANCE OF THE COLLECTIONS
The Library classifies, catalogues and indexes materials to make them
more readily accessible for consultation.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC CONTROL
The Cataloguing Unit is responsible for the bibliographic control of
books and serials in the General Collection. The Library adheres to
standardized policies for bibliographic control. The Library authority for
entry control is the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, 2d edition; subject
cataloguing adheres to the Library of Congress Subject Headings and the
classification scheme employed is that utilized by the Library of Congress.
All cataloguing is accomplished online through the OCLC system. Readers may
have access to the OCLC data base by contacting the Cataloguing Unit.
- 24 -
SERIALS CONTROL
Once a serial subscription is initiated, the Serial Publications Unit,
receives, examines, establishes holdings control records, and distributes
periodical publications, annuals, and the official gazettes received by the
Library. All serial titles received within the Secretariat are controlled
by the Serials Unit. This Unit routes serials to the appropriate offices.
To ascertain if a particular title or a specific issue of a serial has been
received in the Library it is necessary to contact this Unit.
25
CATALOGUING, INDEXING AND CLASSIFICATION OF
OAS DOCUMENTS
The Indexing and Classification Unit has the responsibility for
producing lists and indexes for a variety of publications issued by the
Organization. Among these are the Lista General de Documentos Oficiales,
and the Indice Analítico de Documentos Oficiales.
The OAS Documents Control Unit catalogues all documents issued as
Informational Publications as many of the OAS official records. Standard
bibliographic format is followed. This Unit is responsible for both
holdings and bibliographic information for all OAS publications received in
the Library. A Kardex is maintained of all official records, those
documents bearing the Secretariat's number. Copies of these documents are
filed immediately and are available for consultation in the Library.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE LIBRARY
The Columbus Memorial Library has throughout its history published a
large number of documents. Among the most prominent series are:
1. Bibliographic Series. Nº 1 51; 1930-1963
2. Cuadernos Bibliotecológicos. N° 1 48; 1960-1968
3. Documentation and Information Series. № 1 ; 1977-
4. Hipólito Unanue Bibliographic Series. N° 1 - ; 1988-
5. Lista General de los Documentos Oficiales. N° 1 ; 1959-
6. Indice Analítico de los Documentos Oficiales de la OEA.
№ 1
; 1960-
- 26 -
RECORDS MANAGEMENT CENTER
The Archives of the General Secretariat of the Organization of American
States consist of the inactive permanent and semipermanent records of the
various departments, offices, missions, and agencies. These records are
housed in the Records Management Center in order to conserve office space
and equipment.
The General Secretariat Filing System consists of an obligatory subject
file and an optional chronological file. Additional specialized files,
organized to meet the specific needs of various offices are also available.
All information concerning the filing systems in use in the General
Secretariat is included in the Records Management Handbook.
Temporary records should be disposed of by the office. Semipermanent
and permanent records must be tranferred to the Records Management Center.
The staff member responsible for offices files must prepare the records for
transfer. All records are to be packed in standard records containers. The
office will prepare the Records Transmittal and Receipt in triplicate, using
sequence office numbers for each box transferred and send all copies of the
slip to the Records Management Center. The Office will affix one gummed
label, properly filled out, to each box. The Records Management Center will
return one copy of the Transmittal Slip to the office once the records are
received.
Those records retired to the Records Management Center are available
for consultation in the Records Management Center or the staff will send
requested files via messenger. It is the responsibility of the borrower to
return all records intact to the Records Management Center.
All staff should be familiar with the information contained in the
Records Management Handbook.
OAS Form 70
(5-72)
OAS RECORDS TRANSMITTAL AND RECEIPT
This space for use in Records Center
To: Records Center
Receipt
Processed
List
No.
From:
Rm.:
Ext.
Date:
Date:
Total number of boxes:
By:
Inclusive
RECORDS TITLE AND RANGE
Dept.
Years
(Subject, Alphabetical, Numerical, Date)
Box
Box
Shelf
No.
No.
No.
- 27 -
GLOSSARY OF LIBRARY TERMS
ABSTRACT
Lists articles, books, and other materials in specialized fields with a
summary of the contents.
ADDED ENTRY
A duplicate of the main entry with the addition of a heading to
represent a secondary author, title, subject, series, etc., giving
another approach to the book.
ANNOTATION
A brief summary describing or evaluating a publication or a portion of
one, specially notes added in bibliography listings.
ATLAS
A collection of maps in book form.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A publication providing lists of books, periodicals, or other
publications as subject sources for certain information fields. Also
lists works consulted by an author.
CALL NUMBER
A combination of letters and numbers assigned to a book classifying it
by specific subject, thus providing the means of locating materials on
the shelves.
CARD CATALOGUE
Files of cards in which entries are on separate cards giving book
information on the holdings of a library. Author, title, and subjects
arranged in alphabetical order are the main types of entries.
- 28 -
CROSS REFERENCE
A directive note from one heading or descriptor to another.
DOCUMENTS
Publications on various subjects issued by all levels of government.
GAZETTEER
A geographical dictionary giving names and descriptions of places in
alphabetical order.
IMPRINT
Place and date of publication and name of publisher.
INDEX
A publication giving lists by specific subject, author, title to
materials in periodicals, newspapers, and books. Book reviews, plays,
poetry, quotations, and short stories may be found through specialized
indexes.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Provides for the grouping of related materials on the shelves by use of
an alpha-numeric set of symbols assigned to each book.
MAIN ENTRY
Considered the master card in the card catalog for a book, usually the
author card. Gives all the information necessary for complete
indentification of a book.
MICROFORM
All types of microform described below are photographic reproductions
so much smaller than the publications photògraphed that a projecting
machine is necessary to read the image.
- 29 -
Microcard
A microform on opaque card. Many government documents are
available on microcards.
Microfiche
A microform on a flat sheet of film. This is the medium used
for OAS documentation.
Microfilm
A microform on a roll of film. Many newspapers are reproduced
in this medium.
MONOGRAPH
A complete treatise on a particular subject.
OPEN ENTRY
A special spacing allowed on a card in the card catalogue for entering
information concerning additions or changes to the title.
READER-PRINTER
A projecting machine which will reproduce copies of certain types of
microforms.
REFERENCE BOOKS
A type of book compiled to provide brief, definite information covering
a specialized field and not intended to be read consecutively.
RESERVE BOOKS
A collection of legal codes for the Member States and is housed in the
Reference Collection.
- 30 -
"SEE" REFERENCE
A directive notation on a card in the card catalog from a heading not
sed to another heading under which materials will be found.
SERIAL
A publication issued in successive parts, usually at regular intervals.
SERIES ENTRY
A special card in the card catalog indicating that the work is part of
a series having a particular name.
STACKS
Bookshelves, usually double-faced.
SUBJECT CATALOGUE
The section of the card catalog listing the Library's holdings by
subject.
SUBJECT HEADING
The caption on the top portion of any card in the subject card
catalogue indicating the theme of the material in a book.
TRACINGS
The record on the lower portion of a catalog card indicating major
subject fields convered in a publication as well as certain other
information such as title, joint author, editor.
- 31 -
INDEX
A
Abstract
27
Added entry
5, 27
Address of Library
Inside front cover
Annotation
27
Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules
23
Archives
7, 20
Atlas
19, 26
Author/Title catalogue
3
B
Bibliographic control
23
Bibliographic series
25
Bibliography
27
Book, Lost
11
Book, Overdue
11
Book, Placing a hold
11
Book, Rare
19
Book request form
10
C
Call number
4, 7-8, 27
Card catalogue
2-7, 27
Card catalogue, sample cards
4-5
Circulation of library materials
10
Classification of books by subject
8
Collection development
21
Collection maintenance
23
Collections
1, 16-20
Computerized information
retrieval
13
Consultation of library
materials
10
Cross reference
6, 28
Cuadernos Bibliotecológicos
25
D
Depository libraries
23
Documents
28
Documentation and Information
Series
25
- 32 -
E
Exchange
23
F
Filing rules
3
G
Gazetteer
28
General collection
17
Gifts
22
Glossary of library terms
27-30
H
Honorary medals
20
Hours
Inside front cover
I
Imprint
28
Indice Analítico de Documentos
Oficiales
17, 25
Indexes and indexing
12, 23
Interlibrary loan
14
International organizations
collections
19
L
League of Nations collections
18
Leo S. Rowe collection
19
Library of Congress Classification
system
8, 28
List of Recently Catalogued Books
i
Lista General de Documentos Oficiales
17, 25
Location superscription
7
M
Main entry
4, 28
Maps
19
Microform
27-28
Microform collection
18
Monograph
29
0
OCLC data base
23
Official gazettes
18
Online searches
13, 23
Ordering books
21
Open entry
29
Organization of American States
collection
17
- 33 -
P
Periodical Articles of Interest
i
Periodical, index citation
12
Periodical request form
11
Periodicals catalogue
9
Photocopy services
15
Photographs collection
19
Publications of the Library
25
Purchase of materials
21
R
Rare books
19
Reader - Printer
29
Records Management Center
15, 26
Records Management Handbook
15, 26
Reference assistance
12
Reserve books
29
Rowe collection
19
"See" reference
30
"See also" references
6
S
Selective dissemination
of information
i
Serials
24, 30
Series entry
30
Specialized organizations
collection
17
Stacks
10, 30
Subject catalogue
3, 30
Subject heading
3, 23, 30
T
Telephone
Inside front cover
Title
4
Tracings
30
U
United Nations collection
18
THE ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES
The purposes of the Organization of American States (OAS) are to strengthen the peace and
security of the Hemisphere; to prevent possible causes of difficulties and to ensure the pacific
settlement of disputes that may arise among the member states; to provide for common action
on the part of those states in the event of aggression; to seek the solution of political, juridical,
and economic problems that may arise among them; and to promote, by cooperative action,
their economic, social, and cultural development.
To achieve these objectives, the OAS acts through the General Assembly; the Meeting of
Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs; the three Councils (the Permanent Council, the
Inter-American Economic and Social Council, and the Inter-American Council for Education,
Science, and Culture); the Inter-American Juridical Committee; the Inter-American Commis-
sion on Human Rights; the General Secretariat; the Specialized Conferences; and the
Specialized Organizations.
The General Assembly holds regular sessions once a year and special sessions when
circumstances warrant. The Meeting of Consultation is convened to consider urgent matters of
common interest and to serve as Organ of Consultation in the application of the Inter-American
Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (known as the Rio Treaty), which is the main instrument for joint
action in the event of aggression. The Permanent Council takes cognizance of matters referred
to it by the General Assembly or the Meeting of Consultation and carries out the decisions of
both when their implementation has not been assigned to any other body; monitors the
maintenance of friendly relations among the member states and the observance of the standards
governing General Secretariat operations; and, in certain instances specified in the Charter of
the Organization, acts provisionally as Organ of Consultation under the Rio Treaty. The other
two Councils, each of which has a Permanent Executive Committee, organize inter-American
action in their areas and hold regular meetings once a year. The General Secretariat is the
central, permanent organ of the OAS. The headquarters of both the Permanent Council and the
General Secretariat is in Washington, D.C.
The Organization of American States is the oldest regional society of nations in the world,
dating back to the First International Conference of American States, held in Washington, D.C.,
which on April 14, 1890, established the International Union of American Republics. When the
United Nations was established, the OAS joined it as a regional organization. The Charter
governing the OAS was signed in Bogotá in 1948 and amended by the Protocol of Buenos Aires,
which entered into force in February 1970. Today the OAS is made up of thirty-two member
states.
MEMBER STATES: Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, The Bahamas, (Commonwealth of),
Barbados, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, (Commonwealth of),
Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica,
Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, St. Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela.
ISBN 0-8270-2725-7
AMERICA
OUR
OUR
AMERICA
An Introduction to the Member Nations
of the Organization of American States
IN THE SEVEN years that have elapsed since Américas published its first supplement-"Our America"-the
Western Hemisphere has undergone a series of changes of a magnitude and intensity that would not have
been possible in any other age. Waning oil and energy supplies have forced a realignment of priorities in the
development efforts of most American countries. The continuing emergence of independent Caribbean
nations has given a new orientation to inter-American relations. Better communications among all
Hemisphere regions have turned happenings that once seemed remote and isolated into vital issues subject to
constant debate. The Latin American novel has scaled the heights to world-wide fame and readership. And in
several of the larger Latin American countries, manufacturing has far outdistanced agriculture as the
principal economic activity-by a ratio of more than three to one in Argentina and Mexico.
As the realities of the Hemisphere change, the Organization of American States is ever evolving to serve as
a more effective body in meeting the challenges that accompany those changes. Two new nations-Grenada
and Surinam-have been added to the OAS membership rolls, providing still greater diversity to the
spectrum of the great American family. The issues of our time-energy, human rights, collective economic
security and cooperation for development, and the like-are dealt with constantly in OAS forums held
throughout the Hemisphere. It is to the Organization's credit that it has been instrumental in the search for
definitive solutions to a number of problems that have too long plagued the unity of our America.
Because of the growing interest in inter-American affairs, Américas here presents a totally new version of
"Our America"-profiles of the twenty-six countries that make up the OAS today. To be sure, the information
presented here does not attempt in any way to be exhaustive; limitations of space restrict us to all-too-brief
summaries of the nations, grouped geographically to stress the common aspects of their land, history, and
culture. Those well versed in American affairs may find the approach useful as a kind of refresher course. For
those in whom interest is just awakening, we hope it promotes a better understanding of the lands and peoples
that make up our America.
-A.J.L.
THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE consists of North, Central and South America, and the great archipelago of
the Antilles. The true spinal cord of America, the Pacific mountain axis stretches all the way from Alaska
through Mexico and Central America, continuing as the Andes of South America, where majestic Aconcagua
(22,834 feet) reigns as the tallest of fourteen peaks that soar to heights of over four miles. The parallel
mountain chains often enclose high plateaus-as in the case of the altiplano of Bolivia and Peru, site of Lake
Titicaca, and the basin and range country of western United States, which includes the magnificent Grand
Canyon.
In North America the two major plains are the Missouri-Mississippi drainage and the Atlantic coastal
plain, while in South America major rivers are associated with four vast plains: the Orinoco (Llanos), the
Amazon (Amazonia), the Paraguay (Chaco), and the Paraná (Pampas). Central America is blessed with an
abundance of lovely lakes, though the largest fresh water bodies in the Hemisphere form part of North
America's Great Lakes system-Superior, Huron, and Michigan. The Caribbean islands share a delightful
tropical climate, exuberant vegetation, and the world's finest white sand beaches.
All climates on the planet can be found in the American Hemisphere, often separated by only a few miles. In
many areas below the Isthmus of Panama one can go from the serene cold of mountain peaks to the burning
heat of the tropics in a period of two hours. Even today past and present intermingle almost paradoxically:
beyond some of the prosperous and industrialized cities lie unexplored jungles and tribes virtually untouched
by civilization.
IT IS ESTIMATED that at the time of the conquest some fifty million Indians inhabited the Hemisphere.
Their ancestors are believed to have come to America across the Bering Strait in successive migrations many
thousands of years earlier. Tribal groups varied greatly in physical and cultural characteristics. Among the
most brilliant cultures were those of the Maya, whose history spans twelve centuries and who pioneered in the
development of writing, calendrics, architecture, and art; the Aztec, who forged a mighty and widespread
empire and organized a complex social and political structure; and the Inca, whose empire, which stretched
along the Andes and coastal plain from northern Chile to Colombia, was notable for both its skillful social
planning and its splendor.
Although the Norse had set foot in Greenland as early as the tenth century and Irish monks had visited the
island of "Bresail" centuries earlier, America was actually discovered by the Spaniards in 1492. Christopher
Columbus, a Genoese mariner serving Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella, discovered the island of
Guananí or San Salvador in the Bahamas, initiating a series of fantastic discoveries that were to transform
not only the geography but the very economy of the world. Formation of the Hispanic empire was extremely
rapid. Beyond the dividing line drawn in 1493 by Pope Alexander VI on the incomplete map of the world, all
lands, seas, and islands discovered and to be discovered belonged to Spain. Santo Domingo de Guzmán,
founded in 1502, was the first capital of the Americas and the center from which the major exploratory
expeditions departed. Hernando Cortez' conquest of the Aztec empire was completed in 1521, Centra
America was brought under control in 1529, and in 1531-not two decades after the discovery of the Pacific
Ocean by Vasco Núñez de Balboa-Francisco Pizarro began the fantastic conquest of the Inca empire.
By the middle of the sixteenth century Spain dominated most of America, except for Brazil, which was
ceded to Portugal in 1494 under the Treaty of Tordesillas. France and England established their own
territories in the northern part of the Hemisphere, the English settling along the coast of what is now the
United States and Newfoundland and the French forming permanent colonies in Nova Scotia and Quebec at
the beginning of the seventeenth century.
The Spaniards and Portuguese intermingled freely with the Indians-thus creating the American
mestizo-and established prosperous cities throughout the Hemisphere, leaving behind an extraordinary
monumental and artistic heritage that is today the pride of Latin America. St. Augustine (the first city
founded-by the Spaniards-in what is now the United States), Havana, Mexico City, Santiago de los
Caballeros de Goathemala, Santa Fe de Bogotá, San Francisco de Quito, Cuzco, Potosí, and Buenos Aires in
Hispanic America and Bahia and Pernambuco in Portuguese America soon grew into emporiums of wealth
and centers of culture rivaling the contemporary capitals of Europe. Along with the economic and social
development of the colonies-based essentially on mining, exploitation of natural resources, and
agriculture-came the emergence of Creole literature and arts and new architectural and painting styles
generated by the integration of Indian and European cultural values. The Indians were organized under the
encomienda system, a kind of servitude which despite protective laws soon became an abusive form of
exploitation. The ensuing shortage of Indian labor was particularly acute in the Caribbean area, making it
necessary to import African slaves and resulting in the incorporation of the African within the sociocultural
complex of both British and Latin America. Traditional songs in the United States, Cuban dances, and the
Brazilian samba, among others, reflect the African's rich contribution to the culture.
One factor that tended to unite most American colonies-Spanish, Portuguese, French, or British-by the
late eighteenth century was general dissatisfaction with rule from abroad. The 1776 Declaration of
Independence of the thirteen British colonies that were to become the United States marked the first step in a
long process of liberation that was not to end, insofar as the Spanish empire in the Americas was concerned,
until the beginning of the twentieth century with the independence of Cuba. The liberal concepts of the U.S.
Constitution unquestionably exerted a significant influence on the enlightened minorities of Latin America,
inclined as they were to any trend toward a style of life more consistent with the French revolutionary
thought then in vogue, and more consonant with their natural desire to free themselves from the control of a
faraway metropolis and to assume public power directly. Following the occupation of Spain by the
Napoleonic forces, revolutionary juntas appeared in most of the colonies, beginning in 1810. Though Spain
succeeded in reasserting its authority throughout the empire (except in the Viceroyalty of the River Plate), the
repressive policy of Ferdinand VII provoked the reemergence and expansion of independence movements.
The defeat of the Spanish armies by the combined forces of liberation at Ayacucho in 1824 sealed the
independence of the Americas. The Spanish empire in the Americas had been reduced to Cuba (which gained
independence in 1902) and Puerto Rico (which was acquired by the United States in 1898).
Haiti was the first Latin American country to win its independence in 1804. Brazil became independent in
1822 when Dom Pedro was acclaimed emperor; the monarchy ended and the republic was established without
bloodshed in 1889. Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, and Jamaica in the 1960's and Grenada and Surinam in
the 1970's achieved full independence through a gradual process.
OUR AMERICA is a crucible in which a new and wholly American race is still being forged. The New World is
inhabited by a diversity of human groups, with population minorities of different ancestry and origins
coexisting within the political mold of each nation. While often incorporating the initial presence of an Indian
America, the foreign powers that fought over and divided the American territory gradually shaped the new
nationalities in their own styles and images. Spaniards, Portuguese, English, and French endeavored by
every means to maintain fragmented and separate the common lands of the Hemisphere. This gave rise to the
first social distinctions that were later to reinforce social stratification in each of our countries. Conquerors
and conquered, masters and slaves, whites and blacks formed social classes within the nascent nations
themselves. While geographic conditions helped imprint common regional traits, the particular features of
the imported cultures provoked different reactions as they encountered the new environmental conditions.
The development of the nations north of the Rio Grande diverged from that of those to the south.
But the fact of a common geography and parallel history takes precedence over any trend toward disunity
in the Hemisphere. The eras of the discovery, conquest, colonization, and independence reveal very similar
events and circumstances in all our countries. A single ideal of freedom and democracy prevails and will
prevail in America despite any lapses. The need for joining our forces and combining our aptitudes and
abilities to attain mutual goals of protection and progress is now acknowledged.
To say America is to refer to all of our America, from Alaska to Patagonia: one in the plurality of its intrinsic
nature; one in the diversity of its resources, in the contrast of its geography, in the protean dimension of its
historical personality.
North America
The United States
Mexico
styles. Over eleven million people whose
independence was followed by the growth o:
first language is Spanish live on the U.S.
a national consciousness. Washington Ir
mainland, and nearly three million in
ving (1783-1812) represents the first rea
Puerto Rico, making the United States the
step toward an authentic national novel
sixth largest Spanish-speaking country in
Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David
the world.
Thoreau launched the philosophical essay
The country's recorded history began five
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Walt
years after the discovery of the New World,
Whitman raised poetry to the highest level
when John Cabot explored the Atlantic
Writers like Edgar Allan Poe, Harriet
Coast for England. Yet long before James-
Beecher Stowe, and Herman Melville popu
town was established in 1607, Ponce de León
larized U.S. literature throughout the world
discovered Florida (1513), where Pedro
The names of Emily Dickinson, Mark
Menéndez de Avilés founded the first city,
Twain, and Henry Adams, in the nineteenth
St. Augustine, in 1565.
century, and Stephen Crane, Eugene
Puritans, Catholics, Quakers, Huguenots,
O'Neill, Upton Sinclair, Robert Frost, Wil-
and others sought refuge and freedom in
liam Faulkner, John Steinbeck, Ernest
THE UNITED STATES
North America after the Pilgrim Fathers
Hemingway, and many others, in this
landed in 1620. On July 4, 1776, the
century, have won the United States a proud
THE UNITED STATES of America is a
Declaration of Independence was signed by
place in world literature.
great world power and leader of the free
the original thirteen colonies. George Wash-
Colonial art, whose initial architecture
world. For obvious reasons of geographic
ington's army of patriots, supported by a
followed English traditions combined with
and historical communality, the develop-
scattering of economic, military, and naval
local realities and whose art forms imitated
ment and well-being of the entire Hemi-
assistance from France and from other
the European styles with occasional ingenu-
sphere is of major concern to it.
distinguished foreigners, fought stubbornly
ous expressions of primitivism, evolved
until victory was won in 1781.
toward the discovery of a wholly national
Landscape. The main part of the territory,
Washington was elected as the first
style. Its first exponents in modern architec-
stretching three thousand miles from the
President under the Constitution, which
ture were Louis H. Sullivan and Frank
Atlantic to the Pacific, can be subdivided
took effect in 1789, creating a stronger
Lloyd Wright. In painting, the affirmation
into six distinct areas: (1) the Atlantic and
federal union than had been established
of an authentically U.S. school is apparent
Gulf region, whose uneven shoreline in-
under the Articles of Confederation.
from the portraits of Gilbert Stuart to the
cludes a great many excellent ports and
In 1861 differences between North and
abstractionism of Jackson Pollock and
bays, and which extends back to the forest
South on the question of slavery led to the
other contemporary artists. Among other
cover of the Appalachian Mountains; (2) the
Civil War. In 1862, President Abraham
internationally known painters were J.S.
region from the Appalachian Mountains to
Lincoln proclaimed the emancipation of the
Copley, Thomas Eakins, J. A. M. Whistler,
the Mississippi River, encompassing the
slaves in the Confederate states. Three
J.S. Sargent, and Edward Hopper.
Ohio Valley and the Great Lakes, a highly
years later, the armies of the North defeated
The Hispanic contribution to the histori-
industrialized area noted for its fertile land;
those of the South and the nation was
cal development of U.S. culture is represent-
(3) the Great Plains, stretching from the
reunited. The Spanish-American War,
ed especially by the architecture and tradi-
Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, a
which broke out in 1898, resulted in the
tions of Puerto Rico, St. Augustine, New
vast farming zone producing corn, wheat,
independence of Cuba from Spain and the
Orleans, San Antonio, and many cities in
hogs, and cattle; (4) the Rocky Mountains,
cession of the Spanish possessions of Puerto
New Mexico, Arizona, and California.
where the country's mineral wealth is
Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the
The United States possesses not only
concentrated; (5) the Southwest, an ex-
United States. U.S. participation in the two
numerous but excellent cultural institutions
traordinary partially desert area that in-
world wars during this century was a
that have contributed to the high average
cludes the Grand Canyon of the Colorado
decisive factor ensuring the victory of the
level of education. The country's library
River, one of the great natural wonders; and
nations of the free world. In 1946, the United
system in unparalleled, and the quality and
(6) the West Coast, with its snow-capped
States granted independence to the Philip-
abundance of its museums are a source of
peaks of the Sierra Nevada, its palm-edged
pines, and in 1952 Puerto Rico became a
pride. The government-supported museum
beaches, its giant redwoods, its vast deserts,
Commonwealth with full internal self-
complex of the Smithsonian Institution in
and its irrigated orchards and vineyards.
government.
Washington, D.C., is especially worthy of
Alaska and Hawaii are the noncontiguous
admiration, while the Metropolitan Mu-
states. In 1970 more than half the popula-
Culture. The characteristics that distin-
seum and the American Museum of Natural
tion lived in cities of over one hundred
guish U.S. literature today did not develop
History in New York City, the Boston
thousand, and there were thirty-five cities of
until the middle of the nineteenth century.
Museum of Fine Arts, the Field Museum of
more than one million inhabitants.
In the eighteenth century, Thomas Paine
Chicago, and several thousand smaller
and Thomas Jefferson were among the most
museums are the result of private endea-
National Background. In less than two
influential of numerous political theorists
vors. Among the world-renowned universi-
centuries, the nation's population has
and chroniclers of the natural and intellec-
ties and colleges, Harvard (1636) and
increased from just under four million (1790
tual scene. After the Revolution the theme of
William and Mary (1693) are the oldest.
census) to over 216 million. Descendants of
the new republic was examined extensively,
A list of inventors would certainly in-
European, Asian, and Middle Eastern
particularly in The Federalist, by John Jay,
clude, among others, the names of Alexan-
immigrants, African slaves, and native
Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison,
der Graham Bell, Robert Fulton, Samuel F.
Indians contribute to the variety of life
and Paine's The Rights of Man. Political
B. Morse, and Orville and Wilbur Wright.
Benjamin Franklin, Louis Agassiz, George
Washington Carver, Albert Einstein, and
Robert Oppenheimer are a few of the many
distinguished scientists.
Economy. The United States contains
about one twentieth of the world's popula-
tion but produces one third of the world's
goods and services. It has abundant natural
resources, including good soil and water
power, and coal, oil, and other minerals. It
exports, primarily, complicated modern
machinery and other items that are pro-
duced by heavy, technically advanced
industry or can be made more cheaply in
that country because of its huge scale of
production. About one quarter of its exports
are agricultural; in 1975 its grain exports
amounted to half of the entire world's.
MEXICO
NOTED FOR ITS extraordinary land-
scapes, dramatic contrasts, and vibrant
colors, Mexico is the most populous
Spanish-speaking country in the world. The
1 Washington, D.C.'s John F. Kennedy Center
Mexican people are proud of their Indian
for the Performing Arts
origins and the grandeur of their historical
2 San Esteban Rey Mission, Acoma Pueblo,
past, which have bequeathed to them a
New Mexico, oldest U.S. inhabited town
magnificent architectural and artistic heri-
3 World-famous Golden Gate Bridge joins San
tage. Favored by institutional and political
Francisco with Marin County, California
stability in recent decades, Mexico has,
4 The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River,
through rapid economic development, be-
one of the world's natural wonders
come one of the most prosperous countries in
the Hemisphere.
5 New York City's unparalleled skyline
bristles with skyscrapers
Cities and Landscapes. The main agricul-
3
tural region of Mexico runs from north to
south between the Western and Eastern
ranges of the Sierra Madre mountains. The
tropical Gulf coast region differs in topogra-
phy, climate, and economy from the central
plateau, while the Yucatán and Baja Cali-
fornia peninsulas have their own special
features. This panoramic diversity is one of
the country's major tourist attractions.
Mexican lakes are noted for their beauty
and coloring, and the beaches at Acapulco
and Puerto Vallarta are famous throughout
the world.
More than fifty national parks protect an
immense wealth of forest reserves, and
progressive use of water resources is making
vast desert lands productive. A forward
looking effort is also being made to bring
4
much of the dense Yucatán jungle into the
5
national economy.
Mexico City, the federal capital of the
United Mexican States, is located on the site
of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán. The heart
of an extensive metropolitan area, it is the
focus of the nation's economic and cultural
life. In addition to its magnificent capital,
the country boasts such other major cities as
Guadalajara, center of a ranching and
farming region; Monterrey, the most highly
industrialized city; Puebla, proud of its long
colonial tradition; and Veracruz, a highly
6
⑉⑈ ...
6 Chichén-Itzá, Maya ceremonial center in Yucatán, Mexico
7 Cathedral of Guadalajara, a colonial masterpiece
8 Magnificent plateresque Santa Prisca Church in Taxco
9 Poolside at an Acapulco hotel. A world-famous resort,
Acapulco boasts some twenty golden sandy beaches
10 Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City, residence of Emperor
Maximilian, is now a national historical museum
8
9
10
important port. Many other cities, despite
internal opposition to the Aztec overlords, he
was elected President in 1858. A civil war
their smaller size, attract visitors because of
was able to vanquish the armies of Moctezu-
nullified the Constitution, and the Arch-
the magnificence of their churches and their
ma and to destroy his empire. Three hun-
duke Maximilian of Austria, a man alien to
pre-Columbian monuments, the charm and
dred years of Spanish domination followed.
the traditions and nature of the Mexican
color of their plazas and markets, and the
Mexico City became the seat of the Viceroy-
people, was imposed as Emperor by Napo-
beauty of their settings.
alty of New Spain in 1535, rivaling the
leon III in 1864. Although in exile at the
Viceroyalty of Peru in prosperity and riches.
time, Juárez brought the revolution to
National Background. The pre-
When Napoleon Bonaparte invaded
Mexico, and the Emperor was executed.
Columbian peoples of Mexico developed
Spain in 1808, patriots in Latin America
Porfirio Díaz was elected President in 1877
many strong cultures and left evidence of a
seized the opportunity to act. Father Miguel
and was in power most of the time until he
creative architectural and artistic splendor.
Hidalgo gave the Cry of Independence. He
was overthrown by the Revolution of 1910.
The outstanding achievements of the Maya
and Father José María Morelos were the
Despite criticism of his administration, the
include invention of a 365-day calendar year
forerunners of a liberation movement that
extended period of peace made a significant
and the construction of magnificent temples
was to revolutionize the entire country,
contribution to the maturity of the new
such as those at Chichén-Itzá in Yucatán.
culminating in the final downfall of the
Mexican nation. Francisco Madero was the
The Aztec also left abundant proof of their
Spanish forces and Agustín Iturbide's
idealistic and humanitarian exponent of the
political organization and urban develop-
triumphal entry into Mexico City in 1821.
Revolutionary period, which included such
ment. Aztec domination of the broad central
After a brief imperial period, the Republic
other popular leaders as Venustiano Ca-
plateau was at its height when the Spanish
was reestablished with fewer civil liberties
rranza and Emilio Zapata. n1934, General
conquest began. In 1519, Hernando Cortez
and less representation of the people. Those
Lázaro Cárdenas was elected President,
landed at Veracruz and, by exploiting
goals were not achieved until Benito Juárez
launching the contemporary period under
the guidance of the Mexican Revolutionary
Sierra, Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera, Amado
known include textiles, tooled leather,
Party.
Nervo, Martín Luis Guzmán, Mariano
glassware, lacquered bowls and trays,
An orderly succession of Presidents has
Azuela, Alfonso Reyes, and José Vasconce-
painted sculptured religious panels, and
operated in favor of the development and
los. The contemporary movement, led by
basketry.
progress of the Mexican nation within the
Jaime Torres Bodet and José Gorostiza, now
framework of a liberal constitution.
includes such world-famous writers as
Economy. The growth of the Mexican
Octavio Paz, Carlos Fuentes, and Juan
economy since 1950 has been impressive due
Culture. The most distinctive feature of
Rulfo. Mexican painting, using strong
to a vigorous private enterprise sector and a
Mexican culture, its deep national roots, is
native sources, made an invaluable contri-
government policy that has made economic
combined with a readiness to adopt favor-
bution to twentieth century art through the
development a major national objective.
able contributions from other lands and
universally famed murals of Diego Rivera,
The value of the industrial production is
peoples.
José Clemente Orozco, Daniel Alfaro Siquei-
now triple the agricultural output. The
During the colonial period architecture
ros, and Rufino Tamayo. The search for
country is rich in mineral resources, and
was the dominant form of artistic expres-
musical identity was initiated by composers
mineral exports such as silver, sulfur, and
sion. The imported Spanish culture made
such as Manuel M. Ponce, Silvestre Revuel-
zinc are an important element of foreign
use of the Indian heritage to create combina-
tas, and Carlos Chávez. The National
trade. Gold, copper, manganese, coal, and
tions of artistic styles such as the Mexican
Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City is
iron ore are also produced. The discovery of
Baroque, which is most evident in the
among the world's finest.
extensive new oil fields enabled Mexico to
innumerable churches built during that
The soul of Mexico's people is expressed in
become self-sufficient in crude oil in 1974,
period. Colonial literature was represented
their extraordinarily rich music, dance, and
and the country has begun to export refined
by poets of the stature of Sor Juana Inés de
crafts, in which the Indian heritage is
petroleum products. Agricultural exports
la Cruz and writers like Juan Ruiz de
blended with many Spanish artistic and
consist mainly of cotton, sugar, coffee, and
Alarcón and José Joaquín Fernández de
folk influences. From Aztec and colonial
shrimp. Tourism has been growing at a
Lizardi, author of the first New World novel,
days to the present, the various regions have
rapid rate-with more than a tenfold in-
El Periquillo Sarniento.
had their traditional products, and their
crease since before World War II, largely
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth
beautifully decorated ceramic ware and
through Mexico's efforts to promote tourism
centuries, Mexico boasted a group of distin-
exquisite silver jewelry are world famous.
by constructing roads, hotels, and other
guished writers and poets, including Justo
Other typical items for which the country is
facilities.
The Antilles
Cuba
Jamaica
Haiti
Dominican Republic
Barbados
Grenada
Trinidad and Tobago
island: the Sierra de los Órganos, to the
National Background. Cuba was dis-
west; the Central Massif; and the Sierra
covered by Columbus in 1492 and settled by
Maestra, in the east. The island is sur-
Diego Velázquez. The island prospered as
rounded by numerous bays and islets, the
the key point on the route from the Indies,
largest of which is the beautiful Isle of
attracting many pirates during the six-
Pines, famous for its marble, citrus fruits,
teenth and seventeenth centuries. In 1762
and black sandy beaches. The deep, well-
Havana was captured by the English, but
formed bays along Cuba's coasts provide
soon returned to Spanish hands in ex-
excellent ports. Those of Havana and Bahía
change for Florida.
Honda, to the north, and Guantánamo, in
Several insurrections led to war in 1868,
the south, are among the best in the world.
when Carlos Manuel de Céspedes issued the
CUBA
Havana, the capital, is the principal city
Proclamation of Independence. The war
of the Antilles and one of the most attrac-
ended ten years later without the Cubans
KNOWN AS THE pearl of the Antilles,
tive. Founded in 1515, it is a harmonious
having obtained their freedom. In 1895, the
Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean.
blend of ancient and modern. The imposing
independence spirit, inspired by José Martí,
A land of fertile valleys and balmy breezes
fortresses that surround the city recall its
stirred the country to war. Generals Máximo
caressing tropical beaches, of the royal
role as a stronghold during the centuries of
Gómez and Antonio Maceo were its great
palm, sugar, tobacco, and rum, it is a
colonial rule. To the west of the capital, on
heroes. The intervention of the United
natural botanical garden. Its strategic
the southern plain of Pinar del Río, the
States in the conflict led to the liberation of
location at the entrance of the Gulf of
world-famous Vueltabajo tobacco is culti-
Cuba.
Mexico, crossroads of the Americas, has
vated. Providing the island with a natural
Tomás Estrada Palma, the first President
made it an object of rivalry among the world
monopoly, this tobacco has never been
of the new Republic, took office in 1902.
powers since its discovery, facilitated its
successfully grown elsewhere. Famous
Despite political conflicts its economic and
foreign trade, and led to the development of
Varadero Beach and the majestic Bellamar
social development raised the country to one
an extraordinarily prosperous nation.
Caves, two of the island's outstanding
of the highest levels in America. In 1959
natural attractions, are to the east of
Fidel Castro swept to power, carrying out a
Cities and Landscapes. Cuba is primarily
Havana. At the far eastern end is historic
revolution that brought the country into the
lowland. Three mountain chains cross the
Santiago de Cuba, the second largest city.
sphere of influence of the Soviet Union.
11 Modern Havana, an attractive
blend of old and new, is
studded with ancient plazas,
churches, and fortresses
12 El Templete marks
the site where the first
Mass was celebrated in Havana
on November 16, 1519
13 Formidable El Morro Castle
guards the entrance to the
harbor of Havana
11
12
Cities and Landscapes. Called "Xamay-
ca," or the land of woods and streams, by its
original Arawak inhabitants, Jamaica lies
approximately ninety miles south of Cuba.
Glorious white sand beaches surround the
island and the Blue Mountains, which rise
to over seven thousand feet above sea level,
dominate the eastern end of the country.
13
Generally, however, Jamaica's mountains
are low and gently sloping, well suited to
Owing to Cuba's intervention in the inter-
Economy. Cuba is basically an agricultu-
farming.
nal affairs of other American republics, the
ral country. It has rich deposits of nickel and
Kingston, the nation's capital, is the
Eighth Meeting of Consultation of Minis-
other minerals. Sugar, nickel, and tobacco
largest English-speaking city south of
ters of Foreign Affairs excluded the Govern-
are the chief exports.
Miami. An interesting blend of shuttered old
ment of Cuba from participation in the
buildings and modern skycrapers, it is also
organs and activities of the OAS.
the center of commercial and industrial
activity. Cruise ships and freighters from all
Culture. The determining factor in Cuba's
over the world enter Kingston's great
cultural evolution has been its close ties to
JAMAICA
natural harbor, well protected by the sand-
Spain. Contributing to the cultural complex
bar on which early Port Royal stood.
of the nation were African slaves who added
DESCRIBED BY COLUMBUS as "the
Montego Bay is a tourist mecca on the
distinctive features to the arts.
fairest island that eyes have beheld," lush
northern coast, a twenty-mile stretch of
The University of Havana, founded in
tropical Jamaica still remains curiously
splendid beaches.
1704, and the Economic Society of Friends
unspoiled despite the island's intense devel-
of the Country produced many thinkers and
opment-a noteworthy example of modern
National Background. Diego Columbus,
writers, including Felipe Poey and José
society's ability to grow and prosper in
the explorer's eldest son, administered the
Antonio Saco. Cuban poetry contributed to
harmony with nature.
island after the Arawak were subdued and
Spanish letters such famous names as José
María de Heredia, Gertrudis Gómez de
14
16
Avellaneda, and Cirilo Villaverde. The end
of the nineteenth century felt the imprint of
the philosophers Enrique José Varona, Ju-
lián del Casal, and José Martí, a forerunner
of the Modernist movement in the Americas.
The scientist Carlos J. Finlay made a
decisive contribution to the eradication of
yellow fever by discovering its vector.
In this century, the sociologist Fernando
Ortiz, the composers Sánchez de Fuente and
Amadeo Roldán, the painter Leopoldo
Romañach, the poets Augustín Acosta,
Emilio Ballagas, and Nicolás Guillén, the
14 Rose Hall Great House near Montego Bay
historian Emeterio Santovenia, the essay-
15 Modern buildings in Kingston
ists Jorge Mañach, Juan J. Remos, and José
María Chacón y Calvo, and the novelists
16 Tropical sunset in all its splendor
Alejo Carpentier, José Lezama Lima, and
Guillermo Cabrera Infante won internation-
al acclaim. Among the outstanding contem-
porary artists are Fidelio Ponce, Amelia
Peláez, Wifredo Lam, and the sculptor Juan
José Sicre. Popular musicians Ernesto
Lecuona and Gonzalo Roig made Cuban
music world famous.
15
the country was brought under the authori-
17 Garden of Eden, oil on masonite
by Wilson Bigaud of Haiti.
ty of Hispaniola in 1509. Eclipsed by more
Museum of Haitian Art, Haiti
important discoveries elsewhere, Jamaica
was little more than a supply base under
18 The grandiose Citadel, built
in the early 1800's against
Spanish rule, and eventually fell into
possible French invasion
English hands despite resistance from the
Maroons, escaped slaves who continued to
wage guerilla warfare for many years. After
the English founded Port Royal in 1655, the
island became a center for buccaneer
operations against the Spanish Empire.
Following an earthquake that destroyed
Port Royal in 1688, Kingston was esta-
blished on the other side of the bay. While it
crushed the island's economy, the abolition
of the slave trade in 1807 and slavery in 1833
launched a new free nation that was to
demand its civil and political rights. A
heroic rebellion was led in 1865 by black
leader Paul Bogle, who was later executed
along with Assemblyman George William
Gordon and several hundred other blacks.
Nevertheless, their outcry paved the way for
improvements made later through the
efforts of Dr. Robert Love. By the late 1930's
Jamaica began to achieve a semblance of
17
18
local political control, as Alexander Busta-
mante founded the Labor Party and Nor-
man Washington Manley established the
HAITI
credible human endurance and an un-
People's National Party. From 1958 to 1961
conquerable will to attain freedom Haiti
the nation was a member of the Federation
THE FIRST FREE black republic in the
survived three centuries of chained slavery,
of the West Indies. Jamaica attained its
world and the second sovereign nation in
violent conquest, and fratricidal warfare
independence from Great Britain in 1962,
the New World-this is Haiti, the only
before achieving independence. First
remaining a member of the British Com-
French-speaking independent nation in the
claimed by Christopher Columbus in 1492,
monwealth of Nations. Alexander Busta-
Caribbean, whose independence marked the
the entire island of Hispaniola was under
mante served as the first prime minister.
first successful rebellion against European
Spanish rule until the French established
colonial government in Latin America. It is
themselves and were ceded the western por-
Culture. Historical events have contribut-
a land whose history, setting, folkways, and
tion, which they called Saint-Domingue.
ed significantly to Jamaica's cultural devel-
people all combine to give it a mysterious
The burgeoning prosperity of the coffee
opment and the formation of a national
and picturesque enchantment.
plantations of the white aristocracy did not
identity. Other than a few words and place
extend to the thousands of slaves. Intoler-
names, scant traces remain of the native
Cities and Landscapes. Haiti occupies the
able conditions of slavery and brutality
Indians or the Spanish settlers. On the other
western third of the island of Hispaniola.
created a caldron of unrest out of which
hand, the population of African descent, a
Two mountainous peninsulas stretch west-
boiled the revolt of the slaves in the late
majority on the island since the eighteenth
ward like tongs partially enclosing the Gulf
eighteenth century, spewing death and
century, has been the determining factor in
of Gonaives. Peaks rise 8,000 to 9,000 feet
destruction over the land. The name of
the social process, shaping the country's
above sea level. Although tropical, the
Toussaint L'Ouverture is legendary as a
social evolution and decisively influencing
country is generally semiarid because the
precursor of Haitian independence. Follow-
all of its folk expressions. Prior to 1930 there
moist trade winds are cut off by the ranges
ing his treacherous capture the war was
was little intellectual or artistic activity in
that separate Haiti from the neighboring
carried on by others.
Jamaica. However, as the modern nation
Dominican Republic. The longest river, the
On January 1, 1804, Jean Jacques Dessa-
emerged, creative efforts began to flourish.
Artibonite, flows through the rich agricul-
lines proclaimed the country's independ-
The island's accelerated economic develop-
tural valley of the same name and supplies
ence and adopted for it the name of Haiti. He
ment has brought about improvements in
water for irrigation. Humidity and temper-
was appointed governor general for life and
education centers and cultural institutions,
atures are high in the coastal areas.
took the title of emperor in September 1805.
such as the Kingston-based Institute of
The country is a display of exotic flowers,
However, the next century was one of
Jamaica, which operates a number of
plants, and palms, and boasts a wealth of
political corruption and violent overthrow.
museums and schools of art, music, dance,
timber, including mahogany, in the forested
Waves of terrorism debilitated the country.
and drama. Another of the country's out-
mountains. The mountain terraces are
In 1915 the U.S. Marines intervened and
standing institutions is the famous botani-
dotted with coffee plantations, while sugar
assumed temporary authority. They were
cal garden of Kingston, the finest in the
cane plantations spread over the lowlands.
withdrawn in 1934 and control of the
Caribbean area.
The present capital, Port-au-Prince, is the
country returned to Haitian hands. In 1959
largest city and is situated on the Gulf of
François Duvalier was elected President,
Economy. Although it was traditionally
Gonaives at the hinge of the tongs. Cap-
and continued in office until his death in
based on plantation agriculture-primarily
Haïtien, called Le Cap by local residents, is
1971.
sugar and bananas-Jamaica's economic
bathed by the Atlantic on the north coast. It
prosperity has depended chiefly upon the
was the colonial capital and is now the
Culture. A blend of French and African
export of bauxite following the discovery of
country's second city in size and commercial
traditions and customs with a dash of
vast deposits of this "red gold" in the 1950's.
importance.
Indian and Spanish gives Haiti a unique
Tourism is the island's second largest
cultural heritage and bestows on her an
earner of foreign exchange.
National Background. By virtue of in-
aura of fascination for devotees of the arts.
Out of the turbulence of her past Haiti has
Cities and Landscapes. The Dominican
cluded invasion of Dominican territory by
produced many outstanding intellectuals,
Republic and neighboring Haiti share the
Haitian troops, its recovery by Spain, the
writers, sculptors, architects, and painters,
island of Hispaniola, a rugged land mass in
expulsion of the Spanish governor and the
especially the primitive painters who have
the Greater Antilles, midway between
movement to incorporate the country into
given us such beautiful murals. Haitian
Puerto Rico and Cuba. The country, which
Gran Colombia, and, finally, a second
music and dance are world famous for their
occupies the eastern two thirds of the island,
Haitian occupation that lasted twenty-two
African element of voodoo, which exists side
is crossed from east to west by four nearly
years. In the mid-nineteenth century three
by side with Catholicism, the official reli-
parallel mountain ranges covered with
independence leaders, Juan Pablo Duarte,
gion. French is the official language but
dense vegetation. The Central Cordillera,
Francisco Rosario Sánchez, and Ramón
almost everyone speaks Creole, a rich pa-
largest of these ranges, divides the republic
Matías Mella, appealed to the patriotism of
tois.
into two equal parts and one of its peaks,
the people and succeeded in winning the
Pico Duarte, is, at 10,206 feet, the highest
sovereignty of the Dominican nation. Al-
Economy. Haiti is densely populated and
point in the West Indies. Located between
though independence was proclaimed in
most of the population is rural and engaged
the Central Cordillera and the most norther-
1844, internal political rivalries prevented
in agriculture. Light manufacturing, ore
ly range are two heavily populated val-
development of the country, and a new
processing, and handicrafts are the main
leys-the Cibao and the Vega Real-one of
movement toward annexation briefly re-
industries. Leading exports include coffee,
the country's chief sources of agricultural
established Spanish rule. In 1865, Spain
sugar, bauxite, essential oils, and handi-
wealth.
definitely surrendered its claim to the
crafts.
Santo Domingo, the nation's capital and
Dominican Republic. After successive ep-
its main city and port, is a study in con-
isodes of U.S. intervention, free elections in
trasts, for while it is a completely modern
1924 restored full sovereignty to the nation,
city it retains historic landmarks from the
although circumstances later favored a
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
days of Columbus. Santiago de los Caballe-
dictatorship by Rafael L. Trujillo, which
ros, second in size and importance, is the
lasted until his assassination in 1961.
AS THE LAUNCHING point for the
hub of the productive Cibao Valley. The
Political developments in the mid-1960's
conquest and colonization of the Indies, the
principal northern seaport is Puerto Plata, a
led to the presence of an Inter-American
Dominican Republic is of paramount im-
modern, progressive city.
Peace Force, formed by the OAS, which was
portance to the history of the Americas. Its
withdrawn in 1966. Economic development
capital, Santo Domingo, was the first
National Background. The first colonists
policies and programs under President
Spanish settlement in the New World and
on Hispaniola, which was discovered by
Joaquín Balaguer have brought a remark-
was vital to the shaping of political and
Columbus in 1492, built many sugar mills
able, sustained period of growth.
administrative policies that were to become
and cultivated the fertile valleys. However,
the pattern for all new colonies established
the island's population declined as the
Culture. The Dominican nation is excep-
by Spain in the Hemisphere. Firmly based
Conquest progressed on the mainland and
tionally rich in cultural heritage. Santo
on its history, the modern Dominican
early settlers were lured away by discoveries
Domingo, cradle of western civilization in
nation is ready to face twentieth century
of gold and silver In 1692 the western end of
the New World, preserves the first cathedral
challenges of economic development and
the island was ceded to France. A long
in America, which contains the remains of
social justice.
period of turbulence and uncertainty in-
Columbus. It is also proud of the historic
ruins of the first university, the first
19
20
customs house, and the first hospital.
Against the background of their turbulent
history, the Dominican people have proved
their extraordinary strength and vitality.
Félix María del Monte, Federico Henríquez
Carvajal, Pedro Enríquez Ureña and Sa-
lome Ureña, Gastón F. Deligne, Manuel
Galván, and Manuel Peña Battle are the
pioneers of an admirable generation of
intellectuals. Dominican popular music
shares many of the common characteristics
of an Afro-Caribbean heritage. The African
influence, combined with elements from
European popular and religious music,
produced a Creole folk art and laid the
foundation for national music. As in other
Caribbean islands, carvings of the precious
woods native to the region predominate in
Dominican crafts.
21
Economy. The Dominican economy is
chiefly agricultural, with sugar, cacao, and
coffee the most important export crops. Salt,
gypsum, bauxite, and iron are the principal
mineral resources. Manufacturing is limited
to refining nickel and processing agricultur-
19 Santa María la Menor,
America's first cathedral
al commodities, including sugar, chocolate,
fruit, and meat. Other industrial enterprises
20 Façade of Santo Domingo's
National Library
include textiles, beverages, and cement.
Large-scale foreign investment in mining
21 Caribbean bathes beach
and oil refining provide good prospects for
near Santo Domingo
future economic growth.
22
22 Morgan Lewis Windmill, St. Andrew's Parish
23 Panoramic view of historic Trafalgar
Square in Bridgetown, the capital
24 White sandy beach on Barbados' west coast
23
24
BARBADOS
tion began immediately and the population
GRENADA
grew rapidly. By 1639 the first Parliament
"THE LITTLE ENGLAND of the tropics" is
had been established. From that date there
KNOWN AS THE isle of spice, Grenada
a lush island paradise with a unique
was a continuing evolution of representa-
provides nearly a third of the world's supply
historical cultural heritage. It is the only one
tive government culminating in the attain-
of nutmeg, as well as great quantities of
of the Antilles never subject to Spanish or
ment of independence, within the British
cinnamon, cacao, ginger, and other condi-
French rule.
Commonwealth of Nations on November
ments. Such production is all the more
30, 1966. Barbados is a parliamentary
astounding when one considers that the
Cities and Landscapes. Barbados is a
democracy headed by a Governor-General
island measures barely twenty-one miles
tiny pear-shaped island in the Atlantic, the
appointed by the British crown. There are
long by twelve wide. While also blessed with
most easterly of the Caribbean islands. Its
two Houses of Parliament. The Prime
magnificent mountains, lush green valleys,
land gently undulates from white coral sand
Minister and his Cabinet of Ministers
and superb white beaches, perhaps Grena-
beaches with their fascinating flying fish
exercise the functions of government.
da's greatest assest is its people-indepen-
through rolling sugar cane fields to Mt.
dent yet gracious islanders whose genuine
Hillaby in mid-island, the highest point, at
Culture. Barbadians embody their coun-
hospitality is sensed immediately by visi-
1,104 feet above sea level. There is little
try's motto, "Pride and Industry." They are
tors.
natural vegetation. The climate is pleasant
justifiably proud of their 97 per cent literacy
and healthful and the humidity is tempered
rate, one of the highest in the world and a
Cities and Landscapes. Located about
by the constantly blowing northeast trade
tribute to their system of universal free
one hundred miles north of Venezuela,
winds. There are no navigable rivers and no
education, to which a high proportion of
Grenada is the most southerly of the
natural ports. The Careenage serves as the
their budget is allotted. The national free
Windward Islands and has a total area of
inlet from the sea to picturesque Bridge-
education system embraces all educational
only 133 square miles, including its depen-
town, the island's capital and major popula-
levels from public primary and secondary
dencies of Carriacou and Petit Martinique.
tion center located in the southwest
schools through higher education, technical
The island is volcanic in origin, with rich
overlooking Carlisle Bay. The city has an
schools, and teachers' and liberal arts
dark soil and abundant rainfall well suited
Old World charm reflecting its heritage of
colleges. The language spoken is English
to tropical agriculture. Lakes have formed
three and a half centuries. Its main street
but the Barbadian dialect is often heard
in three extinct volcanoes, part of a moun-
leads to Trafalgar Square in the center of the
among the Bajans, as the islanders are
tain ridge traversing the length of the
city, which boasts a statue of Lord Nelson
called. The Barbados National Trust is
country. At the center of the island is Grand
that predates London's own. Just west of
dedicated to the preservation of national
Étang Lake, in a verdant rain forest.
Bridgetown is a deep-draft artificial harbor
monuments. The Barbados Museum, out-
Nearby towers Mount Saint Catherine, the
that has become a vital link in world
side of Bridgetown, is one of the finest in the
island's tallest, rising over 2,750 feet above
shipping and a favorite stopover for cruise
West Indies. Responsibility for promoting
the surrounding turquoise sea.
ships and pleasure yachts. The island has
various forms of art on the island rests with
St. George's, Grenada's capital city,
eight hundred miles of excellent roads
the Barbados Arts Council. Music, theater,
clings picturesquely to steep hills surround-
leading to a variety of old towns and
and literature are all actively promoted and
ing its sparkling blue harbor, one of the
villages as well as to stately mansions such
reflect the heritage of the island. The
loveliest in the Caribbean. Minutes away
as Sam Lord's Castle, built by privateer
predominant religion is the Church of
from the capital, world famous Grand Anse
Samuel Hall Lord in 1820. There are
England, but most other faiths are repre-
beach beckons to sunseekers with its two-
numerous sites of historical and geographi-
sented. Cricket is the national game and has
mile stretch of glistening sand bordered by
cal interest along these roads.
produced an overwhelming number of
fine hotels. Other points of interest include
cricketeers of international repute.
Fort George and Fort Frederick, which offer
National Background. Originally inhab-
spectacular panoramas of the island.
ited by Arawak Indians believed to have
Economy. Sugar production remains the
been destroyed by Carib Indians who then
island's key industry and occupies most of
National Background. Changes in Gre-
departed, Barbados was first claimed in
the arable land. Tourism is also important
nada's name over the centuries reveal much
1624 when an English trading ship touched
to the economy. Light industry development
about the course of its history. Discovered
on the west coast and took possession in the
is increasing, a result of government incen-
by Columbus in 1498, the island was
name of King James I of England. Coloniza-
tives to attract investment.
originally called Concepción. Later, Span-
25 Houses cling
picturesquely
to hills
surrounding
St. George's
harbor
26 The tropical
sea grape tree
thrives on
Grenada's
secluded beaches
25
26
ish sailors referred to it as Granada, after
TRINIDAD
peoples who have settled there, all these
the city in Spain. The French who followed
influences have been adapted precisely to fit
preferred Grenade, and then the English
AND TOBAGO
the country's own particular way of life. The
varied it again to its present Grenada
product is a multiracial society that is truly
(pronounced Gre-nay-dah).
DESCRIBED AS British in character, Latin
unique in the Americas.
Although the Spanish discovered it, the
in disposition, and cosmopolitan in appear-
British were the first to colonize the island
ance, modern-day Trinidadians and Toba-
Cities and Landscapes. The southern-
over a hundred years later. The warlike
gans present an exception to the rule that
most island in the Caribbean, Trinidad is
Carib Indians drove them off, however, and
the whole can be no greater than the sum of
separated from Venezuela by the seven-
the island was not permanently settled until
its parts. While the culture of the two-island
mile-wide Gulf of Paria. Some forty-eight
the mid-seventeenth century, when the
nation has been unmistakably shaped by
miles long and thirty-five wide, the island is
French finally managed to subdue the
African and East Indian, as well as Chi-
crossed by low mountains, an extension of
Indian population. Throughout most of the
nese, Portuguese, Irish, and many other
the Venezuelan cordillera. The beauty of the
eighteenth century England and France
clashed over control of the island, which
-after changing hands many times— was
27
28
restored to Great Britain in 1783 by the
Treaty of Versailles. Following the abolition
of slavery in 1834, large sugar plantations
were replaced by smaller land tenantries
that eventually gave rise to a yeoman
farmer class, still the basis of contemporary
Grenadian society. From 1833 to 1958,
Grenada was part of the Windward Islands
Administration. The country then became a
member of the short-lived Federation of the
West Indies and was a British Associated
State before attaining its independence in
1974.
Culture. While English is the nation's
official language, the French patois heard
occasionally reveals the influence of France
in the island's cultural development. The
mingled heritage is evident in the capital
city of St. George's, too, where eighteenth
century French provincial houses are found
alongside classic examples of English
Georgian. However, while such traditions
27 Sparkling costumes
as cricket are an inheritance from the
dazzle spectators
during annual
British and the strength of the Roman
Carnival
Catholic church is a legacy from the French,
in Trinidad
Africa contributed far more to the popula-
28 Silvery waters
tion than did Europe.
glisten as
sun sets over
tranquil Tobago
Economy. Agriculture has traditionally
sustained Grenada's economy, with nut-
29 Mohammed Ali Jinnah
Memorial Mosque,
meg, cacao, and bananas as the chief
evidence of
exports. In recent years, however, tourism
Trinidad's varied
has come to play a more important role than
religious heritage
agriculture as a source of foreign exchange.
29
landscape is enhanced by many rivers, and
National Background. After first glimps-
melting pot, Trinidad and Tobago has one of
the Maracas Falls are one of its most
ing three peaks on the horizon, Columbus
the most cosmopolitan populations in the
outstanding physical features. Famous
called the island Trinidad, in honor of the
world, as peoples from the east and west live
Pitch Lake, an industrial resource, has been
Holy Trinity, when it was discovered in
together in perfect harmony. Mosques,
supplying asphalt for almost four hundred
1498. It was inhabited at that time by the
Hindu temples, and Victorian mansions
years.
Carib, a very warlike tribe, and by the more
lend the urban architecture a picturesque
Tranquil Tobago differs greatly from
peaceful Arawak. Dutch and French pirates
and characteristic appeal. The colorful
commercial Trinidad, which lies only
attacked in the seventeenth century, and
blending of cultures is most evident during
twenty-seven miles to the southwest. The
many families emigrated to Trinidad from
Carnival, a spectacle in which virtually
island, with an area of 116 square miles, is
Haiti and other Caribbean settlements
everyone participates.
volcanic in origin and has a completely
during the French Revolution. Occupied by
Afro-Caribbean music in Trinidad and
tropical vegetation. Formed by a single
a British expedition during the Napoleonic
Tobago acquires a special accent, as world-
mountain mass, it rises in gentle slopes from
Wars, the island was ceded to Great Britain
famous limbo dancing and steel bands
coral beaches to a height of nearly 1,800 feet.
in 1802. Tobago, first ceded by Spain to
accompany the improvised rhythms of
The nearby isle of Tobaguito, an enchanting
England, later passed through Dutch and
calypso tunes.
bird sanctuary, is the only place outside
French hands before returning to English
New Guinea where the Bird of Paradise can
possession again in 1814. It became an
Economy. While still relying on export
be seen in the wild.
administrative unit of Trinidad in 1899.
markets for its principal products, petro-
An attractive city located on the Bay of
The two islands were governed as a
leum and sugar, the nation has attracted a
Trinidad, Port-of-Spain is the nation's
Crown Colony until 1958, when, with
continuing influx of foreign private invest-
capital. The next largest cities are San
several other Caribbean nations, they
ment in recent years through its political
Fernando and Arima. Except for Scarbor-
formed the Federation of the West Indies.
and economic stability. Trinidad and Toba-
ough, its principal city and port, most of the
After the Federation dissolved in 1962,
go has a good fiscal system with a progres-
towns on Tobago are quite small. The ruins
Trinidad and Tobago became an indepen-
sive tax structure, and manufacturing is
of seventeenth century forts dot the country-
dent country within the British Common-
expanding favorably as the country makes
side and serve as reminders that the island
wealth.
a determined effort to diversify the econo-
was long a prized port of call for English
my. Tourism is also an important source of
income.
seamen.
Culture. More of a crossroads than a
Central America
Guatemala
Honduras
El Salvador
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
lowlands edge the temperate plateaus, and
Santo Tomas de Castilla (formerly Puerto
mountain chains cover the central two
Barrios), is on the Atlantic and is famous
thirds of the country. Lake Atitlán is one of
among deep-sea fishing enthusiasts.
the most beautiful bodies of water in the
world. The Department of Petén, a sparsely
National Background. Many hundreds of
populated but richly wooded plain to the
years before the Spanish conquest the Maya
north, and some thirty-three volcanoes add
built some of their greatest cities in Guate-
an untamed element to the Guatemalan
mala. Most of them, including magnificent
landscape and enhance its exotic beauty.
Tikal in the Petén, were mysteriously
Guatemala City, the fourth capital, is a
abandoned around A.D. 900. However, the
cosmopolitan metropolis that dates from
decendants of that civilization, including
1776, when it was founded to supersede
the Maya-Quiché, form a major part of the
Antigua-then known as Santiago de los
modern population.
GUATEMALA
Caballeros de Goathemala-which had
Pedro de Alvarado conquered the territory
been partly destroyed by earthquake. Love-
in 1524 and established the first two
GUATEMALA POSSESSES a truly amaz-
ly parks, broad avenues, and attractive
Spanish capitals, which fell victim to
ing wealth of natural and archaeological
buildings grace the modern capital, which
earthquakes and floods. Present-day Anti-
treasures within its borders. While taking
was itself almost completely rebuilt in
gua, the third capital, was the headquarters
pride in their pleasant climate, beautiful
contemporary and Spanish colonial style
of the Captaincy-General and seat of the
scenery, and striking historical monu-
following the devastating earthquakes of
Audiencia for all Central America.
ments, contemporary Guatemalans have
1917-1918; damage to the city caused by the
After gaining independence from Spain in
also set an eye toward future growth
1976 earthquake has been largely repaired.
1821 and coming briefly under the Mexican
through active involvement in development
Antigua, thirty miles away, is a museum
Empire, Guatemala joined with its neigh-
programs and regional trade organizations.
city of colonial architecture, religious and
boring countries in 1823 to form the Federal
domestic. Quetzaltenango, Guatemala's
Republic of Central America with its capital
Cities and Landscapes. Land of the
second industrial and trading center, was
in Guatemala City. The federation was
quetzal-a rare bird of brilliant plumage
established by the Spaniards on the site of
eventually dissolved, and the country be-
that dies in captivity-Guatemala has two
an Indian town that had been inhabited for
came an independent republic in 1839.
distinct geographic zones. Tropical coastal
at least a thousand years. The finest port,
President Justo Rufino Barrios' inaugura-
31
30
32
industrial center of the nation. It also
provides an excellent point of departure fo:
tourists who wish to visit the dramati
Maya ruins of Copán. Beautiful, unspoile
Lake Yojoa lies halfway between Tegucigal
pa and San Pedro Sula in the Jicoque
Mountains. Picturesque Bay Island off the
Caribbean coast can be reached from La
Ceiba, Honduras' largest port. The only por
on the Pacific, Amapala, is located on Tigre
Island in the Gulf of Fonseca.
National Background. Following Colum
bus' discovery of Honduras, the city of
Comayagua was founded by the Spaniards
30 Restored Maya temples
as capital of the province. European bucca
rise above jungle at
Tikal, Guatemala
neers frequently attacked Honduras after
silver deposits were found in 1578. During
31 Ancient copal incense
drifts across church
the eighteenth century British forces inter-
in Chichicastenango
vened in defense of the Mosquito Indians,
and Great Britain became the dominant
32 Colonial and modern
styles side by side
power until 1859, when a treaty waiving
in Guatemala City
rights to the territory was signed.
33 Soaring volcanoes
Honduras joined the Federal Republic of
keep vigil over
Central America, formed in 1823 after the
Lake Atitlán
collapse of Iturbide's Mexican Empire.
Despite the unifying efforts of Francisco
33
Morazán, Honduras' national hero, the
federation was dissolved in 1838 and the
tion in 1873 marked the beginning of the
republics, Guatemala's economy is based
reformist process that contributed decisive-
sovereign Honduran nation was pro-
largely on agriculture, with coffee, bananas,
claimed.
ly to the development of the modern nation.
sugar, cotton, meat, and timber as principal
While revolutions have not been uncom-
A series of authoritarian governments
exports. The development of nickel and
interspersed with periods of representative
mon in the country's history, lengthy
possibly petroleum resources is a prospect
periods of relative stability have also been
government has marked the succeeding
for future economic growth. The nation has
decades.
enjoyed. In July 1969 a brief but bitter war
taken an active role in the Central American
broke out with neighboring El Salvador;
Common Market, while at the same time
Culture. Guatemala is doubly rich in
after five days the OAS negotiated a cease-
concentrating on domestic problems. As-
fire, and good progress is being made on a
cultural heritage: its outstanding examples
sisting the rural poor and narrowing the
firm peace agreement.
of pre-Columbian art and architecture stand
large social gaps are current development
alongside the masterpieces of colonial
aims.
builders and craftsmen. The Pontifical
Culture. The history of Honduras is re-
University of San Carlos Borromeo,
founded in 1681, and the Economic Society
34
of Friends of Guatemala, established in
HONDURAS
1797, provided fertile ground for the growth
of contemporary thought and literature.
ONCE AN IMPORTANT Maya region, this
Among the writers who generated a strong
mountainous nation claimed by Columbus
intellectual movement were Antonio José de
for the Spanish crown in 1502 has taken its
Irisarri, José Batres Montúfar, and Enrique
place in twentieth century affairs, while at
Gómez Carrillo. From the ancient Popol
the same time preserving its great cultural
Vuh, the sacred book of the Maya-Quiché, to
and ethnic heritage.
the works of twentieth century Nobel
Laureate Miguel Ángel Asturias, Guatema-
Cities and Landscapes. The population of
lan writers and thinkers have made a
Honduras is concentrated mainly in the
number of significant contributions to Latin
western half of the country, where coffee,
American culture.
sugar cane, corn, and bananas are grown.
The Maya heritage marks the music,
In contrast, modern civilization has made
dance, and crafts of the nation with distinc-
few inroads into the dense swamps, moun-
tion. Cities like Chichicastenango are trans-
tains, and jungles of the largely uninhabit-
formed into living folk museums on market
ed eastern coastal area of Mosquitia.
and fiesta days, when Indians from sur-
Tegucigalpa, small, conservative, and
rounding areas come to town much as their
charming, is one of the few Central Ameri-
ancestors did centuries ago. Women in each
can capital cities that has not suffered
town have perfected their own distinctive
earthquake devastation. While retaining its
style of weaving, and the variety and
original architectural style of low adobe
quality of the fabric they produce is unsur-
buildings and attractive terraced streets, it
34 Statue of Morazán greets visitors
passed. The costumes, worn with great
is now becoming a headquarters for numer-
to San Miguel Cathedral in Tegucigalpa
pride, are unique to each Indian village.
ous Central American organizations. Hon-
35 Elaborately carved stelae commemorate
duras' second largest city, San Pedro Sula,
Maya rulers of Copán, Honduras
Economy. Like the other Central American
situated near the Caribbean coast, is the
vealed in the ethnic heritage of its people.
region's largest coffee exporter, as well as
architectural features, including low roofs,
Most Hondurans are mestizos-offspring of
one of its most heavily industrialized
massive walls, and smaller domes in place
the Spanish colonists and the native Indi-
countries. Imposing volcanoes and ancient
of lofty vaults.
ans. Blacks descended from former slaves
Maya ruins provide a link with the past.
Public education was fostered by Francis-
show the African influence, while the period
co Morazán soon after independence, and a
of British dominance is reflected by the
Cities and Landscapes. A mountainous
university was established in 1841. Salva-
numerous descendants of Englishmen
country, El Salvador is traversed by two
dorian culture gained momentum under
found along the northern coast and by the
east-west cordilleras, one along the Pacific
President Francisco Dueñas (1863-71),
English language spoken there.
coast and the other along the Honduran
which continued under such intellectuals as
In 1632 Central America's first university
border. Between them are subtropical pla-
Francisco Gavida and Alberto Masferrer.
was founded in Comayagua and it became
teaus crisscrossed by fertile valleys. Sugar
Salvadorian folkways often reveal great-
the intellectual center of the nation. Hondu-
cane is grown in the narrow sun-drenched
er Indian than Spanish influence, as is
ras has produced such influential philos-
Pacific plain, while coffee is cultivated on
shown by the charm and color of village
phers as José Cecilio del Valle, Ramón Rosa,
the fertile mountain slopes east of the
costumes worn on fiesta days.
and Alberto Membreño, as well as intellectu-
Lempa River and in the western region.
als Juan Ramón Molina and Rafael Helio-
Fourteen volcanoes line the southern
Economy. While agriculture remains the
doro Valle.
coastal region. The most famous is the
foundation of El Salvador's economy, indus-
The ruins of ancient Copán are among the
active Izalco, the Lighthouse of the Pacific.
trialization is encouraged by government
most photogenic of Maya sites, and the
Lake Guija, the nation's largest, occupies
policies that attract investment. The Sal-
Cathedral of Comayagua, dating from the
the crater of an old volcano and has ancient
vadorian textile industry is the largest in
seventeenth century, is an excellent exam-
ruins on its islands and shores. San Salva-
the region; other important industries
ple of early colonial architecture.
dor, the capital, is a modern city that was
include food products, shoes, and clothing.
rebuilt after the 1854 earthquake. Santa
Principal exports are coffee, manufactured
Economy. After Ecuador, Honduras is the
Ana, the hub of the western region of the
goods, cotton, sugar, and shrimp.
largest banana-exporting country in the
Republic, and Santa Tecla (officially re-
world, and this export crop is essential to its
named Nueva San Salvador) are located in
economic well-being. Next in importance
the coffee-growing area. Other cities of note
36
are coffee, lumber, frozen meat, silver, lead,
include San Vicente, at the foot of Chin-
zinc, cotton, and beans. Based mainly on
chontepec Volcano, and Cojutepeque, cotton
agricultural products, the economy is re-
and sugar center famous for its annual fair.
covering from the damage caused by Hurri-
La Unión, in the easternmost part of the
cane Fifi in 1974 and the severe drought in
country, is El Salvador's major port.
1975. There have been significant advances
in industrial, mining, and construction
National Background. Conquistador Pe-
activities.
dro de Alvarado reached El Salvador in
1524, and founded the city of San Salvador
the following year. Although there were
EL SALVADOR
earlier attempts to achieve independence
from Spain, led by such heroes as Father
THE SMALLEST Central American coun-
José Matías Delgado, it was not until 1821
try in square miles, El Salvador is the
that El Salvador, along with the other
Central American republics, successfully
proclaimed its freedom. When other nations
35
briefly came under Mexican Emperor
Agustín Iturbide, El Salvador resisted, and
published its own constitution in 1824, the
first to be adopted in Central America. It
played an active role in the Federal Republic
of Central America, which lasted until 1838.
Although late nineteenth century political
37
life was characterized by power struggles
and intrigues, twentieth century adminis-
trations have, in general, maintained order
and peace. There has been no recurrence of
hostilities following the brief 1969 war with
Honduras, and a firm peace agreement is
being negotiated. El Salvador is today the
seat of the Organization of Central Ameri-
can States (ODECA).
Culture. Among the original inhabitants of
El Salvador were many Maya groups, as
well as the Pipil, whose advanced civiliza-
tion was probably related to that of the
Aztec. Spanish settlers intermarried with
38
the Indians, and a genuine fusion of the two
peoples took place.
36 El Salvador's Izalco Volcano is known as
the "Lighthouse of the Pacific"
Surviving Spanish colonial architecture,
simple and well proportioned, is almost
37 Stately Maya temple at Tazumal
entirely religious. The constant danger of
38 Pools and lush foliage grace public parks
earthquakes has produced interesting local
39
40
39 Cathedral of León, the
largest in Central America
40 Managua's National Theater,
with monument to Rubén Darío
41 Cotton loading at Corinto on
Nicaragua's Pacific coast
NICARAGUA
colonial period was marked by wars be-
The School of Fine Arts in Managua,
tween the Mosquito Indians on the east
founded by sculptor Genaro Amador Lira
STRIKEN BY an earthquake that destroyed
coast and Spanish settlers on the Pacific
their capital city in 1972, Nicaraguans have
and painter Rodrigo Peñalba, brought new
side, by piracy, and by disputes with British
life to the creative arts in Nicaragua.
risen above disaster not only to rebuild but
settlers along the Caribbean. From 1823 to
to improve their homes, schools, and com-
1838 Nicaragua was a part of the Federal
Economy. Although Nicaragua lost almost
mercial centers. Such resiliency is charac-
Republic of Central America, before becom-
40 per cent of its national income in the year
teristic of a people who know both the
ing an independent republic. Patriot Miguel
following the 1972 earthquake, valuable
beauty and the fury of Nature.
Larreynaga-eminent teacher, author, and
agricultural products were unaffected. Pro-
jurist-emerged as a national hero during
duction of cotton-the most important
Cities and Landscapes. A country of
the troubled period that followed the federa-
export commodity-has increased in recent
lakes, volcanoes, and sweltering sun, Nicar-
tion's dissolution. The weakened national
years, and coffee and sugar have also shown
agua is the largest in area of the Central
unity allowed William Walker, a U.S.
gains. Other principal exports include meat,
American republics. Diversity of climate
adventurer, to seize power and declare
timber, sesame, and shrimp. The develop-
results from two mountain ranges that cross
himself president in 1856. He was soon
ment of industries, especially those related
the nation diagonally from northwest to
expelled. A period of relative peace followed
to construction and food processing, has
southeast. Most of the population is concen-
during which the country made substantial
been stimulated through the activities of the
trated along the Pacific coast, a tropical
progress. However, by the beginning of the
Central American Common Market, and the
lowland where industrial and agricultural
twentieth century there was great political
National Reconstruction and Development
centers are located. Lake Nicaragua, one of
unrest, and in 1912, at Nicaragua's request,
Plan, approved in 1975, is aimed at improv-
the largest fresh water bodies in the world,
U.S. Marines landed to restore order. Active
ing living conditions, continuing the recon-
and Lake Managua are bordered by numer-
U.S. involvement lasted until 1933, when
struction of Managua, reducing dependence
ous volcanoes and provide breathtaking
the Good Neighbor Policy and the principle
on foreign trade, and encouraging regional
vistas. The mountainous central region has
of nonintervention were adopted. Anastasio
growth.
a milder climate in which coffee plantations
Somoza García assumed the presidency in
and cattle ranches flourish. Dense forests
1936, and remained in office until his
cover the low, swampy eastern coast, which
assassination in 1956. His son Luis Somoza
is sparsely inhabited.
Debayle held the office until 1963; the
Five square miles of downtown Managua,
younger son, Anastasio Somoza Debayle
COSTA RICA
the capital city, were destroyed by the 1972
was elected President in 1967.
earthquake. The monumental task of re-
FROM ITS colonial beginnings, Costa Rica
building is well under way, with decentrali-
Culture. Many archaeological relics, such
has enjoyed the distinction of being a
zation the key word. Other cities include
as the pre-Columbian statues from Zapatera
strikingly beautiful and highly stable na-
León, the country's intellectual capital;
Island in Lake Nicaragua, attest to the
tion. Although rich in fertile soil for agricul-
Granada, in the heart of a fertile region that
advanced civilization of the original Indian
ture, the country lacks the gold and silver
produces coffee and sugar; and Metagalpa,
cultures. León and Granada are noted for
deposits that attracted fortune seekers and
chief city of the north, which offers a cool
their colonial architecture. The former is
gave rise to the problems of slavery in other
retreat from the warm lowlands. Corinto is
also the boyhood home of poet Rubén Darío,
areas. Thus spared the difficulties faced by
the major Pacific port, while Bluefields is
through whom Nicaragua achieved interna-
many of its fellow American nations, Costa
the largest on the Caribbean.
tional literary fame; the city's magnificent
Rica developed into a country famous for its
Cathedral, one of the largest in Latin
order and freedom and for its high level of
National Background. Although Colum-
America, contains his impressive tomb.
public education.
bus claimed the territory in 1502, it was not
After Darío, Santiago Argüello is the most
until twenty years later that Gil González
outstanding Nicaraguan representative of
Cities and Landscapes. Despite its tropi-
Dávila explored the interior and encoun-
Modernism-a style that emphasized art for
cal location on a narrow strip of land in
tered the Indian chief Nicarao, from whom
art's sake. Contemporary poets Ernesto
southern Central America, Costa Rica's
the name Nicaragua is derived. Granada
Cardenal and Ernesto Mejía Sánchez main-
three volcanic mountain ranges provide it
and León were founded soon after. The
tain that literary excellence.
with a variety of climates. Bananas and
43
42 Brightly painted Costa Rican
oxcart, a unique native craft
43 Exquisite baroque National
Theater in San José was inspired
by the Paris Opera House
44 Orosi Mission, built in 1745,
is still in use today
42
44
cacao thrive in the abundant rains that fall
development of its coffee crop. Seeking a
Economy. Costa Rica has the highest per
on the hot lowlands along the Caribbean
revenue-producing product, the government
capita gross national product in Central
coast, while the cooler regions are excellent
made free land available to anyone who
America, as well as the most evenly distrib-
for the cultivation of coffee. Nine volcanoes
would raise coffee on it. By 1850, coffee
uted national income. While the economy is
lend a primitive note to the landscape the
exports were successful, and Costa Rica's
based primarily on agriculture-coffee and
government hopes to protect by setting
future prosperity was well established.
bananas constitute the majority of all
aside nature reserves.
The elections of 1889, the first truly free
exports-light industry is also expanding
San José, the capital and center of
elections in the nation's history, are general-
rapidly.
business and cultural activities, is situated
ly considered to mark the beginning of the
on the lovely central plateau where most of
modern political era and signal a turning
the population is concentrated. An attrac-
point in the development of democracy. The
tive, hospitable city, it is the home of the
army was abolished in 1948 and a small
National Theater, considered one of the
National Guard maintains public order.
most beautiful in Latin America. Nearby
PANAMA
Heredia is the center of the coffee district.
Culture. The people of Costa Rica are
Alajuela is renowned for its beautiful
predominantly of European descent. While
THE CONGRESS of Panama, which repres-
flowers and invigorating climate, as well as
nearly half have some Indian ancestors, a
ents the earliest expression of the concept of
for its sugar growing and intensive ranch-
mere 2 per cent are of pure Indian descent;
inter-American cooperation, was convoked
ing activity. Many Spanish customs and
only a slightly larger number are blacks,
by Simón Bolívar and took place in 1826. As
traditions are still observed in the ancient
descendants of Jamaican immigrants who
both the link between Atlantic and Pacific
city of Cartago, the first capital. Puerto
arrived in the late nineteenth century.
Oceans and the land bridge joining North
Limón is the largest port on the Caribbean
Costa Rica's folk crafts differ somewhat
and South America, Panama still plays an
coast, while Puntarenas on the Gulf of
from those of its neighbors. The famous
important role in inter-American affairs
Nicoya is the chief Pacific port.
Costa Rican carts, decorated with intricate
today.
geometric designs in vivid colors, are
National Background. In 1502, when a
assumed to be the contribution of nine-
Cities and Landscapes. The Isthmus of
tempest drove his ship into Cariarí Bay,
teenth century Italian immigrants.
Panama is crossed by two mountain ranges,
Columbus discovered what is now Costa
The country's history of stability and
which form a series of fertile valleys and
Rica. His brother Bartolomé, sent to explore
prosperity has favored the evolution of
plains. Heavily forested hills and dense
the land, found it inhabited by the Chorote-
intellectual activity and the advancement of
jungles cover much of the country. The last
ga, Boruca, and Huetar.
public education. Well known throughout
unfinished section of the Pan American
Juan Vázquez de Coronado founded
the Spanish-speaking world, its writers,
Highway is in the Darién region, an area of
Cartago in 1564 and brought over the first
poets, and novelists have included Manuel
vast swamps and impenetrable jungle.
Basque colonists, a realization of his dream
González Zeledón, Aquileo J. Echeverría,
Numerous islands dot the Panamanian
of seeing the fertile land populated by
Alfredo Cardona Peña, and Fabián Dobles.
coastline.
peaceful homesteaders and cattle ranchers.
Created in 1970 to promote culture in all
Completed in 1914 on land leased by the
In 1821 Costa Rica, along with the other
its aspects, the Ministry of Culture, Youth,
United States, the Panama Canal divides
Spanish colonies of Central America, de-
and Sports sponsors free concerts and art
the nation into two nearly equal parts. Near
clared its independence and soon joined the
exhibits in towns and cities remote from the
the Pacific entrance to the Canal is cosmo-
new Federal Republic of Central America.
cultural centers. Top priority has also been
politan Panama City, the country's capital
The national constitution was proclaimed
given to developing music education and
and leading political, commercial, and
in 1824 and Costa Rica became an indepen-
creating an interest in music among the
cultural center. Colón, Atlantic gateway to
dent republic in 1838. In 1857 President
youth.
the Canal, is a port city of great importance
Juan Rafael Mora arose as the national hero
Headquartered in San José are the Inter-
as a distribution center for Latin American
when he defeated William Walker, a U.S.
American Institute of Agricultural Sci-
trade. David, in the extreme western section
adventurer who tried to take over the region.
ences, an important center for agricultural
of the country, is the commercial center for
Costa Rica began its tradition of economic
research and development, and the Inter-
all of Chiriqui Province, Panama's richest
stability soon after independence, with the
American Center for Music Education.
farming region.
was restored in 1972.
45 Fifty-five-foot water level difference between
oceans is dramatized by two ships in the Panama Canal
Culture. While Panamanians have adopt-
46 Ruins of Old Panama City, on the outskirts of the
ed certain ideas, concepts, and tastes from
present capital, are now being restored
the widely varied transient and immigrant
47 El Carmen Church against skyscraper in Panama City
peoples who have crossed their land, the
basic underlying cultural values are tradi-
tional Hispanic ones.
The Spanish cultural heritage is seen in
the ruins of Old Panama City, on the
outskirts of the present capital, and in
Portobelo, the colonial fortress. Both are
being restored, and will soon be important
tourist attractions.
Significant contributions to the intellectu-
al life were made by such thinkers as Justo
Arosemena and poets Gil Colunje, Darío He-
rrera, and Ricardo Miró. More recent writers
45
include Belisario Porras, Ricardo Alfaro,
and A. Menéndez Pereira. When the modern
University of Panama opened in 1935, all
social, economic, and cultural aspects of
society began to progress rapidly.
Popular music and dance reveal the
strong African influences in Panamanian
folk culture. Differing ethnic backgrounds
can also be noted during Carnival, when
regional costumes from each part of the
country are worn. The Cuna of the San Blas
46
47
Archipelago, who make the beautiful appli-
quéd molas, have maintained their cultural
National Background. Columbus sighted
lic of Gran Colombia. Although separatist
identity to a high degree.
Panama in 1502 as he explored the Caribbe-
demands brought about brief periods of
an coastline. Later, in 1513, Vasco Núñez de
secession in 1841 and 1857, Panama other-
Economy. Although Panama's economy
Balboa crossed the isthmus and discovered
wise remained part of Colombia until 1903.
has been directed for centuries toward
the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish then estab-
Immediately after independence, an agree-
international commerce and providing
lished ports and strongholds on both sides
ment negotiated with the United States
services for transit trade, recent efforts have
of the isthmus. Portobelo on the Atlantic
provided for the building of the Canal, a
been made to bridge the gap between urban
served as the terminal for fleets sailing to
masterpiece of engineering that, at the
and rural standards of living through the
the New World, as well as being Spain's
height of construction activity, employed
expansion of agricultural production. Lead-
major customs post for over a century,
more than 43,000 persons. Panamanian
ing exports include bananas, shrimp, and
during which period it suffered repeated
political and economic affairs were domi-
petroleum. Since Panama's liberal banking
attacks from daring buccaneers such as
nated by a relatively small elite group until
law went into effect in 1970, the nation has
Francis Drake and Henry Morgan.
1968, when the National Guard overthrew
become a major international financial
Following independence from Spain in
newly elected President Arnulfo Arias and
center, especially attractive for its location
1821, Panama, as a part of Colombia, and
established a provisional junta govern-
and good communications and transporta-
Venezuela and Ecuador formed the Repub-
ment. Elected constitutional government
tion facilities.
Andean South America
Venezuela
Colombia
Ecuador
Peru
Bolivia
Chile
VENEZUELA
torrid Caribbean coast, where tropical fruits
grow in profusion, stretching from Lake
VENEZUELA IS exceptionally rich in
Maracaibo to the peninsula of Paria; the
natural resources, and is endowed with
Sierra Nevada, forming the border with
abundant deposits of gold, diamonds, iron,
Colombia and dominated by Bolívar peak,
bauxite, and copper, but above all, petro-
which rises sixteen thousand feet above sea
leum-of which it is one of the major world
level; the humid and extremely hot region of
exporters. The country claims the great
Lake Maracaibo, an apparently inexhaust-
historical honor of being the birthplace of
ible source of petroleum; the vast llanos,
the Liberator, Simón Bolívar.
which account for one third of the country
and extend as far as the Orinoco delta; the
Cities and Landscapes. Six distinct areas
great southeastern plain; and, finally, the
make up the territory of Venezuela: the
superb agricultural area between the coast-
al zone and the llanos. The Orinoco River
curves around the dense jungle of the
48 Angel Falls, the highest in the world, bursts from
the face of Devil's Mountain in Venezuela
unexplored Guiana highlands. Angel Falls,
and drops a sheer 3,212 feet into the gorge below
at more than 3,200 feet, is the highest
49 Caracas' Pantheon, a national shrine, houses the
waterfall in the world, while Cerro Bolívar,
remains of Simón Bolívar, the Liberator
also in the sprawling State of Bolívar, is an
50 Bolívar Center in the capital city of Caracas,
incredible mountain of almost pure iron ore.
one of Latin America's fastest growing cities
The island of Margarita, off the northern
49
coast, is a popular resort spot that became
famous for its pearl-rich oyster beds.
Six cities in Venezuela have more than
one hundred thousand inhabitants, but
none has equaled the fantastic level of
urban development achieved in only a few
decades by Caracas, the capital. The other
major cities are Maracaibo, the oil metropo-
lis; Maracay, center of a rich farming area;
Valencia, the most highly industrialized
city; Ciudad Bolívar, formerly Angostura,
site of the Congress of that name; La
Guaira, the country's major port; Ciudad
Guayana, a new metropolis on the Orinoco
River; and the progressive city of Barqui-
simeto.
National Background. In 1498, Colum-
bus discovered the territory later to be called
Venezuela, finding various tribes of Caribs
48
and Arawaks who were ill-prepared to resist
the Spaniards. The shores of Venezuela
soon became famous for their pearls. One of
the first European communities in the New
World was Cumaná, founded in 1523 on the
Caribbean.
Caracas, founded in 1567, became the
capital in 1577. In 1777, the Captaincy
General of the United Provinces of Venezue-
la was established with the same bounda-
ries as the present republic, and in 1786 the
Royal Audiencia of Caracas was formed. Of
the many civilian and military leaders
contributed by Venezuela to the cause of
emancipation, two are outstanding: Fran-
cisco de Miranda, the forefather of the
independence movement, and Simón Bolí-
var, the Liberator. In 1811, the Constituent
Congress of Venezuela declared its indepen-
dence from Spain, and enacted a new
constitution. Shortly thereafter, the royalist
forces regained control until 1821, when
they were decisively defeated by the patriots
at the Battle of Carabobo. The political
genius of Bolívar then forged Gran Colom-
bia from Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador,
and what is today Panama, with the
Liberator as President. In 1830, Venezuela
seceded to become a sovereign state with its
50
own constitution. Bolívar died later the
same year, in Santa Marta, Colombia, while
Congress of Panama in 1826, which sup-
course of an orderly succession of democrat-
en route to his native Caracas. His remains
ported his concepts of collective security and
ic administrations.
rest in the National Pantheon in Caracas.
the peaceful settlement of dispute by arbi-
Since 1864, Venezuela has been a federal
tration and conciliation.
Culture. Venezuela does not have a signifi-
republic.
Venezuela's nineteenth century history
cant archaeological past nor does its present
Venezuela gave to America not only a
was marked by frequent periods of political
population include any appreciable compo-
great general whose military genius won the
instability and revolutionary turbulence,
nent of Indian descent. As in other parts of
freedom of half a continent, but also a
while the present century has seen long
the Caribbean, the colonial economy im-
statesman who was a century ahead of his
periods of authoritarian rule. During the
ported contingents of African slaves, while
time in the field of international relations.
presidency of Rómulo Betancourt (1959-64),
the rising prosperity of the past few decades
As early as 1815, Bolívar promoted the idea
the first popularly elected president in
attracted a wave of immigrants. The llanero
of a "league of nations of the New World,"
Venezuelan history to complete his term in
is perhaps the most authentic figure in the
and to this end he convoked the now historic
office, Venezuela embarked on its present
country's past. His participation in the
struggles for independence was both heroic
cent of the population is concentrated in the
Antonio Nariño. On July 20, 1810, the
and decisive.
west central mountain region, in the deep,
Creoles, eager for self-government, estab-
It was Bolívar's teacher, Simón Rodrí-
fertile valleys and broad plateaus-each
lished the Supreme Junta of the Kingdom of
guez, who marked the emergence of a liberal
with a distinctive soil, climate, and way of
New Granada, Colombia's first elective
and enlightened trend that, despite the
life-formed by three parallel ranges of the
body. Independence was proclaimed on July
economic and political conditions prevail-
Andes chain. The remaining 55 per cent of
16, 1813, but Spain recaptured New Grana-
ing during the nineteenth and early twen-
the land-largely uninhabited-is made up
da and restored the viceroyalty in 1817. In
tieth centuries, was to produce such notable
of coastal lowlands lining the Caribbean
1819, after freeing Venezuela, Simón Bol-
exponents as the educator Andrés Bello,
and Pacific and, in the east, the vast
ívar and his general, Francisco de Paula
Rufino Blanco Fombona, the poet Antonio
stretches of plains, or llanos, and the jungle
Santander, won a decisive victory over the
Pérez Bonalde, and Cecilio Acosta. A strong
of the Amazon basin.
Spaniards at Boyacá, thereby assuring
movement toward national identity is
Bogotá, the capital, a city of over three
independence. New Granada, Venezuela,
apparent in both literature and art. Novel-
and a half million people, is located on the
and Ecuador then united to form Gran
ists Arturo Uslar Pietri and especially
plateau of the eastern cordillera in the
Colombia, realizing Bolívar's cherished
Rómulo Gallegos, author of Doña Barbara,
center of the country. In its characteristic
dream. The federation was dissolved in
achieved international fame. Mariano Pi-
colonial architecture and tall, modern
1830. In 1832, a new Colombian constitution
cón Salas made an impressive contribution
buildings it projects the essence of Colombi-
established the federal form of government.
to historical criticism, while in the field of
an tradition and culture as well as of the
The first President, General Santander,
science Arnoldo Babaldón helped to eradi-
nation's rapid progress over the last four
transformed Colombia into a democratic
cate malaria from the country. Martín
centuries. Energetic Medellín, with a de-
nation devoted to the principles of legality.
Tovar y Tovar and Arturo Michelena
lightful climate, is the second largest city
Colombia's history has been marred by
promoted the national school of painting,
and the industrial capital of the country, as
repeated civil strife between the Conserva-
carried on by many fine artists such as
well as a leading intellectual and commer-
tive (centralist) and Liberal (federalist)
Federico Brandt and Armando Reverón,
cial center famous for its textile industry,
political parties. One such conflict, the 1855
and, more recently, by Héctor Poleo, Alejan-
high quality coffee production, and excel-
revolution, put an end to the federal system.
dro Otero, Marisol, and Jesús Rafael Soto.
lent universities. Cali, a rapidly growing
Since 1886 Colombia has been a unitary, or
Venezuelan folk arts are derived from the
agricultural and industrial center, is a
centralized, republic.
nation's three cultural sources: Indian,
warm, inviting city in the lush Cauca
In 1930 a long period of Conservative
Spanish, and African. Music and dance in
Valley, the principal sugar-producing re-
party rule ended, and a series of Liberal
particular cover a wide range of typical
gion. Tropical Barranquilla, at the mouth of
presidents ended when the assassination of
forms. The rhythmic joropo is popular
the Magdalena River on the Caribbean, is
the leftist leader Jorge Eliecer Gaitán in
throughout the Americas.
the principal port and an important com-
1948 triggered a mass uprising known as the
mercial city. The fortified city of Cartagena,
bogotazo and a decade of instability and
Economy. Oil accounts for over 95 per cent
also on the Caribbean coast, was among the
bitter rivalry known as La Violencia. The
of Venezuela's foreign exchange earnings.
richest colonial commercial centers and
country's only modern military ruler rose to
Revenue from petroleum, which gives Ve-
Spain's main stronghold in northern South
power during this time. To end civil strife, a
nezuela the highest per capita gross nation-
America. Colombia's third Caribbean port,
1957 plebiscite created the National Front,
al product in Latin America, is used to
Santa Marta, is the oldest permanent
which determined that the two political
finance public works and industrial pro-
settlement on the continent. Historic Popa-
parties would alternate in power for sixteen
grams, and as a result the country has a
yán, birthplace of numerous national her-
years. Liberal leader Alberto Lleras Camar-
well-developed infrastructure. Venezuela is
oes, boasts treasures of colonial art and
go was elected President in 1958. Having
also a major producer of iron ore and one of
architecture and one of the oldest universi-
one of the most stable democratic govern-
the top producers of electric power in Latin
ties in South America. Manizales, Pereira,
ments in Latin America, Colombia has
America. The agricultural sector (principal
and Armenia are progressive industrial and
recently enjoyed a period of rapid economic
crops are coffee and cacao) has lagged
agricultural zones. Bucaramanga, in the
and social development.
considerably in recent years due to massive
east, is a large coffee and tobacco producer.
rural to urban migration. Manufacturing,
Cúcuta, near the Venezuelan border, owes
Culture. There are really two Colombias
largely of textiles, paper products, food and
much of its prosperity to ranching and to its
culturally-that of the coast, sharing the
drink, furniture, steel, petrochemicals, and
proximity to the Catatumbo oil fields. The
characteristics and ethnic composition of
aluminum, is growing steadily.
country's main port on the Pacific is Buena-
the Caribbean peoples, with particularly
ventura.
strong black influence in popular music and
dance; and that of the Andes, a blend of
National Background. Colombia, the
Indian-especially Quimbaya, Chibcha,
only country whose name honors the great
and Chiriqui-and Hispanic cultures.
explorer, was not discovered by Columbus
Archaeologically, Colombia can take pride
COLOMBIA
but by Alonso de Ojeda, who accompanied
in the impressive stone sculptures of San
him on his second voyage to the New World.
Agustín and the dazzling gold objects in
COLOMBIA IS distinguished for its wealth
Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, founder of
Bogotá's Gold Museum. Colonial architec-
of natural resources-it is the ranking
New Granada and of Santa Fe de Bogotá,
ture, sculpture, and art treasures abound in
producer of gold in Latin America and a
dominated the first half-century of colonial
Bogotá, Popayán, Cartagena, and Tunja.
major world source of emeralds; for its richly
rule, becoming a national symbol of justice.
Colombia's extraordinary cultural attain-
varied landscapes; and for its well-deserved
The discovery of gold and the land's
ment is in part the result of its impressive
reputation as a cultured nation, where
strategic location brought frequent pirate
literary tradition. Literature and journal-
intellectual pursuits are esteemed and the
attacks yet the colony flourished as a result
ism-freedom of the press is zealously
purity of Castilian Spanish is proudly pre-
of Spanish organization, a well-established
guarded-have been characterized by a
served. After Brazil it is the second largest
legal system, and agricultural prosperity. In
classic purity of language. Such masters of
coffee grower in the world.
1717 it was made a viceroyalty.
the language as Miguel Antonio Caro and
An intellectual awakening set the stage
Rufino José Cuervo and poets and writers
Cities and Landcapes. Colombia is the
for the independence movement-touched
Julio Arboleda, Porfirio Barba Jacob, José
only South American nation with both
off by a translation of The Declaration of the
Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, Jorge
Atlantic and Pacific ports. Ninety-eight per
Rights of Man and Citizen into Spanish by
Isaac, and Guillermo Valencia bring honor
to Colombia, home of the Caro and Cuervo
Institute, a true sanctuary of the Spanish
language. Contemporary Colombian fig-
ures in literature and the arts are a legiti-
mate source of pride for the Hemisphere;
among them are the novelist Gabriel García
Márquez, the essayist Germán Arciniegas,
and painters Alejandro Obregón, Fernando
Botero, and Omar Rayo.
Economy. Coffee is Colombia's principal
export commodity, accounting for 45 per
cent of export income. Other important
crops are bananas, tobacco, rice, cacao,
sugar cane, grains, and cotton. Livestock-
raising has long been an important activity.
54 Colombia has Latin America's largest coal
reserves. It is outstanding for its minerals,
the most important being gold, silver,
emeralds, and platinum. The country is
rapidly industrializing and manufactured
goods now account for some 30 per cent of
total export income.
ECUADOR
THE COAST, the Sierra, and the jungle,
with their diverse characteristics and sharp
contrasts, make Ecuador a multifaceted
51 Modern apartments
country despite its clearly defined historical
tower over Bogotá's
famous bullring
individuality and strong national unity.
The nation named for the equator that it
52 Colonial balconies
grace typical
straddles is equally famous for the architec-
Cartagena street
tural and artistic heritage of its great
53 Gold ceremonial
colonial past.
knife shows skill of
ancient craftsmen
Cities and Landscapes. Two parallel
54 Lights twinkle as
night falls
Andes ranges form the backbone of the
over Medellín
country, linked by small spurs that create
55 Farmer chats with
the fertile, temperate valleys known collec-
priest in rural
tively as the Central Valley. Dominating
San Pablo, Nariño
the plateaus are twenty-two mountains,
many of them active volcanoes, that reach
heights of as much as twenty thousand feet.
55 Chimborazo is the highest peak, and Coto-
paxi at 19,347 feet is the highest active
volcano in the world. A fertile lowland rich
in tropical crops stretches between the
Sierra and the Pacific coast, while east of
the mountains, toward the great Amazon
basin, the land becomes a humid jungle.
The Galápagos Islands, on the equator
five hundred miles off shore, are renowned
for their flora and fauna and their volcanic
composition. They have fascinated the men
of science who have visited them, including
Charles Darwin.
Quito, the capital, is picturesquely set at
the foot of Pichincha Volcano. It preserves
an invaluable architectural and artistic
heritage as one of Spain's most beautiful
New World cities. Rivaling Quito in beauty
and historical interest is Guayaquil, the
chief seaport and center of commercial and
industrial activity. Cuenca, with its colonial
air, and Riobamba, Ambato, and Portoviejo
56 River slices through fertile valley in Ecuador's
mountainous southern Province of Azuay
57 Independencia Plaza, in the heart of Quito
58 Richly sculptured ornate façade of the Church of
La Compañía, a fine example of Spanish baroque
59 Sea lions and gulls on a Galápagos island, a natural zoo
5
56
58
59
are also major centers. Otavalo, famous for
succession of leaders. Four key figures left
the beginning of the nineteenth century
its Indian fairs, is in the north.
their imprints during the period: the conser-
Ecuadorian poetry was represented by José
vative Flores, who was opposed by the
Joaquín Olmedo, and in the Romantic
liberal, enlightened Vicente Rocafuerte, and
period by Remigio Crespo-Toral, among
National Background. The oldest New
the authoritarian Gabriel García Moreno,
others. But the outstanding figure of the era
World textiles yet found were woven on the
who was countered by the liberal Eloy
was Juan Montalvo, the symbol of liberal
Ecuadorian coast five thousand years ago.
Alfaro. Periods of fierce struggle were
ideas. Contemporary novelists Jorge Icaza
At the end of the fifteenth century the region
followed by interludes of constructive peace.
and Benjamín Carrión and poet Jorge
was conquered by the Inca. A power
Under its various constitutions, the Ecua-
Carrera-Andrade are notable. Among the
struggle between the brothers Atahualpa in
dorian nation has given proof of its firm
numerous painters in Ecuador today, Os-
Quito and Huáscar in Cuzco facilitated its
commitment to democracy.
waldo Guayasamín has attained interna-
conquest by the Spaniards in 1532. In 1534,
tional renown.
Sebastián de Benalcázar founded the city of
Culture. Ecuador's present population
Inevitably, the Sierra and coast have left
San Francisco de Quito on the site of the
represents a rich mosaic of racial and
their own special impression on the rich
capital of the old kingdom of Quitu. In 1563
cultural elements from various Indian
variety of Ecuadorian folk arts, which
the area was named the Royal Audiencia of
tribes, the Spanish conquerors, and black
display a blend of pre-Columbian and early
Quito and remained part of the Viceroyalty
slaves. Communities of pure Indian descent
European as well as contemporary motifs.
of Peru until 1718, when it was incorporated
still exist, such as the Otavalos, excellent
into the Viceroyalty of New Granada.
artisans; the Colorados; the Jivaros; and the
Economy. Ecuador has recently become
The political writings of Eugenio de Santa
Aucas. From the start, the Spanish colony
the second largest oil exporting country in
Cruz Espejo, a national hero, lighted the
was distinguished by its masterful artistry.
South America, with petroleum replacing
path to freedom. There was an abortive
Its school of sculptors, led by Caspicara, has
bananas as the most important export
attempt at independence in 1809, but it was
no peer in the Americas. The altarpieces of
commodity. The country's agricultural
not until 1822, when General Antonio José
Quito and Cuenca, together with the incom-
wealth remains undeveloped, with only 5
de Sucre defeated the Spanish forces at
parable pulpit of Guápulo, are genuine
per cent of the land cultivated. The chief
Pichincha, that independence was won.
masterpieces of carving. Miguel de Santiago
crops are bananas, coffee, cacao, and sugar,
Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela
and Bernardo Legarda made painting of
all exported. Other exports include balsa
formed Gran Colombia, a long-held dream
the Quito School famous. The churches of
and plywood, Panama hats (yes-from
of Bolívar's, but in 1830 Ecuador seceded to
La Compañía, San Francisco, Santo Domin-
Ecuador), ivory nuts, and rice. Two new
become a sovereign state, adopted its first
go, and La Merced are magnificent exam-
deposits of gold and silver and a widespread
constitution, and elected General Juan José
ples of Quito baroque.
deposit of copper were recently discovered.
Flores as the first President.
Gaspar de Villaroel and Eugenio Espejo
Ecuador's industrial products include tex-
During the first unstable century of its
formed the vanguard of the country's finest
tiles, cement, pharmaceuticals, and ceram-
independence Ecuador witnessed a rapid
men of letters in the eighteenth century. At
ics.
PERU
Cajamarca and condemned him to death,
Peru's independence.
greatly facilitating the conquest.
The nineteenth century saw periods of
THIRD LARGEST of the South American
Gold and silver from the Andes enriched
political crisis that threatened Peru's eco-
countries, Peru, land of the Inca, is unsur-
the conquerors, and Peru became a major
nomic development and social progress. The
passed in the variety and magnificence of
source of Spanish wealth and power in
loss of the nitrate-rich provinces of Tarapa-
its architectural heritage and the splendor
South America-and the last viceroyalty to
cá and Arica to Chile was a result of the
of its pre-Columbian and colonial areas.
secure independence from Spain. José de
1879-83 War of the Pacific. In this century
San Martín, at the head of the Argentine-
Peruvian governments have alternated
Cities and Landscapes. Peru, in western
Chilean liberation army, proclaimed Peru-
between constitutional civilian and extra-
South America, has a Pacific coastline 1,410
vian independence from Spain on July 28,
constitutional military regimes; military
miles long and a maximum width, from
1821, and its emancipation was completed
governments have ruled Peru since 1968.
western coast to eastern jungle, of about
in December 1824 when troops of the
eight hundred miles. The country is vertical-
Liberator Simón Bolívar defeated the Span-
Culture. Peru's historical and artistic
ly divided into three topographic and
iards at the Battle of Ayacucho. Spain made
heritage reflects the glory of its pre-
climatic regions, defined by ranges of the
several futile attempts to regain its former
Columbian civilizations, among them the
Andean mountains running north to south.
colonies, but in 1879 finally recognized
Chavín, Mochica, Paracas, Nazca, and
The coastal desert, though it seldom sees
rain, is crossed by more than sixty rivers,
which irrigate the valleys. Much of the
industrial, commercial, and agricultural
activity is centered in this region, where 40
per cent of the population lives.
The central sierra contains high Andean
peaks, ravines, tablelands, and fertile val-
leys, as well as the country's major mineral
deposits. The mountains-culminating in
snow-clad Mt. Huascarán, 22,200 feet above
sea level-are the principal barrier to
communications between the coast and the
interior. About 50 per cent of the country's
inhabitants, mostly Indian, live here.
The isolated eastern lowlands, or monta-
ña, occupy more than half of Peru's land
area. They are made up of vast, uncharted
hills, forests, and tropical jungle through
which numerous rivers-the only transpor-
tation routes in the area-wind to the
Amazon River. Mahogany and cedar are
grown commercially in this very sparsely
populated, largely undeveloped area, and oil
exploration and production are increasing.
Lake Titicaca, on Peru's southeastern
border with Bolivia, is the highest navi-
gable lake in the world.
60
Lima, City of Kings, in the coastal region,
is the capital of the republic and its most
important industrial, cultural, and commer-
60 Magnificent baroque façade of the
Archbishop's Palace in the Plaza de Armas,
cial center. Callao, the major industrial port,
the center of colonial Lima
is seven miles west of Lima. Highland
Cuzco, the ancient capital of the Inca
61 Furry alpaca and vicuña grace a barren
plateau of the Peruvian Andes
Empire, has a unique complex of colonial
buildings as well as pre-Columbian temples,
62 Machu Picchu, the lost city of the Inca,
crowns a high mountain saddle in
fortresses, and palaces. Not far away are the
southern Peru. It was discovered in 1911
ruins of Machu Picchu, the long lost Inca
city. Cerro de Pasco is the center of one of the
oldest mining communities in South Ameri-
ca. Arequipa, at the foot of majestic El Misti
Volcano, is the second largest city in the
country and the economic axis of the south's
ich agricultural zone. Pisco, Chimbote,
Trujillo, and Talara, on the Pacific; Iquitos,
on the Amazon; and colonial Ayacucho are
other important cities.
National Background. When conquista-
dor Francisco Pizarro reached Peru in 1532
he Inca Empire, centered at Cuzco, ex-
ended from northern Ecuador to central
Chile. Pizarro arrived in the midst of a civil
var between the Inca brothers Atahualpa
and Huáscar; he overcame Atahualpa at
62
61
Inca. Spanish contributions were no less
impressive; splendid examples of the Cuzco
School of painting and sculpture abound,
and its influence spread through the entire
continent during the height of Spanish rule.
INCA
The University of San Marcos in Lima
was founded in 1551, and later in that
century the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega wrote
his famous Royal Commentaries. In 1583
the first printing press arrived. Dr. José
Hipólito Unanue, physician, statesman,
and head of the first Government Council
was a foremost leader in the colony's
intellectual awakening in the late eigh-
teenth century. The second half of the
nineteenth century produced two of Peru's
greatest writers, Ricardo Palma, author of
Tradiciones Peruanas, and Manuel Gonzá-
lez Prada, and after the turn of the century
authors Francisco García Calderón, José
Santos Chocano, and César Vallejo and
63 The new and the old side by side on Lake Titicaca
symbolist poet José M. Eguren achieved
64 Set in the Andes, La Paz is the world's highest capital city
recognition. Other twentieth century writ-
ers include essayists Luis Alberto Sánchez
65 Devil Dancer from Oruro's annual pageant, the Diablada
and José Carlos Mariátegui, historian Jorge
Basadre, archaeologist Julio Tello, and
novelists Ciro Alegría and Mario Vargas
Llosa. There is a lively school of modern art
today.
Peruvian folk arts are particularly rich in
painting and sculpture, with many a unique
form and design. Exquisite fabrics continue
today the tradition of excellent textiles from
Paracas, and the musical repertory is no less
varied and interesting, reflecting the Indian
influence. Though Spanish is the official
language, many Indians speak only their
native Quechua or Aymara.
64
65
Economy. Nearly half of Peru's labor force
works in agriculture, with cotton, sugar,
coffee, and wool being the major exports.
and industrial activity is concentrated in
flourished beside Lake Titicaca (A.D. 600-
The mining industry accounts for about 40
the mineral-rich altiplano.
900). Centuries later it came under Inca
per cent of the country's total exports, with
Three of the highest mountains in the
control until the Spaniards, under Hernan-
copper, lead, zinc, and iron ore the principal
New World-perpetually snow-capped
do Pizarro, took possession in 1538. By 1559
metals. Petroleum is the most valuable of
Illampú, Illimani, and Sajama (all over
what is now Bolivia became the Audiencia
the numerous nonmetallic minerals pro-
twenty thousand feet)-are in Bolivia, while
of Charcas, part of the Viceroyalty of Peru,
duced. Fishing activities have expanded
Lake Titicaca, the world's highest navi-
and was known as Upper Peru, but in 1776it
notably, and a varied industrial develop-
gable body of water at 12,500 feet above sea
was transferred to the new Viceroyalty of
ment is under way.
level, is shared by Bolivia and Peru.
the River Plate. The colonial period was
La Paz, the highest capital in the world, is
intimately linked to the discovery, exploita-
the seat of government and center of the
tion, and eventual decline of the bountiful
country's political and economic life. The
silver deposits in Potosí, the economic
BOLIVIA
aristocratic city of Sucre, founded in 1624, is
center of the Spanish Empire in America.
the legal capital of Bolivia, which has the
Although brief revolts in 1809 asserted the
ESSENTIALLY AN Andean country de-
rare distinction of maintaining two capital
country's right to independence, it was not
spite a large tropical region, Bolivia is a
cities. Scenic Cochabamba, in the heart of
until 1825, after General Antonio José de
land whose austere and dramatic landscape
the farming region, is second in population
Sucre won the decisive Battle of Ayacucho,
has shaped the life style of the people and
and importance. Potosí, the one-time silver
that Bolivia attained its freedom. Simón
the evolution of the country. Proud to bear
capital of the world, with its famous Cerro
Bolívar drafted the Constitution of the re-
the name of the Liberator, Bolivia also
Rico (Rich Hill), is a fascinating historic
public, and Sucre was its first President.
honors its great pre-Columbian past.
town with narrow, twisting streets and fine
In a century and a half of unsettled
colonial architecture. Santa Cruz, a hot,
history, Bolivia has suffered a painful
Cities and Landscapes. Landlocked Bo-
dusty boom town whose population has
contraction of its territory. In the War of the
livia has three distinct regions: the barren,
doubled since 1968, is an agricultural and
Pacific (1879-1883) Bolivia joined Peru to
windswept, twelve-thousand-foot altiplano
economic center in the eastern plains. The
fight Chile over the Atacama coast and its
sprawling between two parallel ranges of
principal mining and transportation city is
rich nitrate deposits, then belonging to
the Andes; the verdant yungas, a region of
Oruro, on the altiplano.
Bolivia. As a result, Bolivia lost its access to
rugged relief along the eastern Andean
the sea. In 1938, following the Chaco War
slopes; and the fertile plains and forests of
National Background. Bolivia carries the
with Paraguay, Bolivia lost its claim to the
the eastern lowlands. Most of the population
imprint of the Tiahuanaco civilization that
Chaco Boreal, an undeveloped plains area
with unexploited petroleum deposits, but
Andes reach dazzling heights (over 21,000
Juan Fernández Islands, scene of the
gained access to the Paraguay River. Soon
feet) in this area.
shipwreck of Alexander Selkirk, the model
thereafter, Bolivia embarked on a profound
The southern lakes region is dotted with
for Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, and
social revolution that resulted in realization
emerald lakes and graceful, snow-capped
Easter Island, with its huge mysterious
of the long-sought ideals of universal
volcanoes; its spectacular scenery has made
stone images.
suffrage, agrarian reform, and nationaliza-
it one of South America's most popular
The capital of the republic, Santiago, is
tion of the largest tin mines during the
resort and tourist areas. Farther south is
the political, economic, and artistic center of
presidency of Víctor Paz Estenssoro (1952-
Patagonia, one of the world's finest sheep-
the nation. Valparaíso, the first port and
1956), founder and leader of the National
raising regions; it is a labyrinth of virgin
second city, is one of the major seaports on
Revolutionary Movement. Successive gov-
forests, fjords, and islands that extend to the
the west coast of South America. Nearby
ernments have been committed to the
Strait of Magellan, location of the area's
Viña del Mar, with its renowned casino, is a
country's orderly development, and have
principal city, Punta Arenas, a shipping
famous seaside resort. All three are located
worked to overcome both geographic and
port for wool, mutton, crude oil, and coal.
in the central region. Other leading commer-
historical obstacles.
South of the Strait of Magellan lies the
cial and industrial cities include Concepción
group of rugged islands known as Tierra del
and Valdivia, both south of Santiago.
Culture. The two factors of the Bolivian
Fuego (shared by Chile and Argentina),
cultural complex-the predominant Indian
with their huge population of sheep.
National Background. After the conquest
(Aymara and Quechua) and the Spanish
Pacific Ocean possessions include the
of the Inca Empire by Francisco Pizarro and
-blended to form a rich cultural heritage.
Bolivians take pride in the Tiahuanaco
ruins and the splendid masterpieces of 66
Hispanic art created by Indian artists.
In the field of letters, Gabriel René Moreno
is, perhaps, the most notable nineteenth
century literary figure, and Nataniel
Aguirre a prominent novelist. In the present
century, key figures include Ricardo Jaime
Freyre and Alcides Arguedas, and, more
recently, Fernando Díez de Medina. The
country has many fine modern artists.
Bolivian folk expression is one of the
richest and most attractive in the Hemi-
sphere. Its music is gay in the valleys,
melancholic on the plateau, and its crafts
show great originality and charm.
Economy. Tin mining and petroleum pro-
duction are the basis of the economy. Silver,
68
lead, tungsten, zinc, antimony, and copper
67
are also mined. Agricultural output and
manufacturing are expanding.
CHILE
TUCKED IN between the magnificent
Andes Mountains to the east and the Pacific
Ocean to the west is a 2,650-mile-long ribbon
of land known as Chile, occupying the
extreme southwest coast of South America.
Though only one hundred miles wide on the
average, Chile offers some of the world's
69
most spectacular contrasts in scenery.
66 Chilean sheep rancher
Cities and Landscapes. The northern
guides his flock
homeward after a long
portion of the country is the Atacama
day on the range
Desert, so dry that in some areas no rainfall
has ever been recorded. It contains the
67 Reerected stone giant
from prehistoric
world's largest deposits of nitrate and
civilization stands
abundant supplies of copper, Chile's princi-
guard over
Easter Island
pal export. The port of Antofagasta is the
region's major city.
68 Spectacular view of
Lake Inca
The relatively small central portion
in the Chilean Andes
-from Coquimbo to Concepción-domi-
at Portillo
nates the economy in terms of population
69 Santa Lucia Hill
and agricultural resources. Here are the
provides a romantic
largest and richest farms and vineyards
spot from which
to view busy
(producing world-famous Chilean wines)
metropolitan Santiago
and the industrial centers. The mineral rich
his partner Diego de Almagro, the King of
system. The 1970 presidential elections gave
gration, which was to bring forward out
Spain named Almagro Captain-General of
a plurality to Salvador Allende, the first
standing figures in all fields. Today ther
New Toledo, now northern Chile. But it was
Marxist to be elected to power in Latin
are seven public and private universities
not until 1541 that Pedro de Valdivia
America, and a period of abrupt economic
and the country has an 89.6 per cent literac
founded Santiago and laid the foundation of
and social changes followed, marked by
rate.
a new colony. Fierce resistance from the
nationalization of industries and inflation.
Chile's current population is in large par
Araucanian Indians, led by Lautaro and
A coup d'etat overthrew Allende in Septem-
of Spanish-Indian or Spanish ancestry, a
Caupolicán, slowed colonization; the
ber 1973 and a military government was
European immigration during the colonia
struggle was recorded by Spanish captain
instituted.
period was limited almost entirely to Span
Alonso de Ercilla in the epic poem La
iards. Later influxes of Irish, English
Araucana.
Culture. Chile is the homeland of two
German, Italian, Yugoslav, French, an
Though among the most neglected of
Nobel Laureates-poets Gabriela Mistral
Arab immigrants have left a strong imprint
Spain's colonies, Chile remained loyal to the
and Pablo Neruda-and is well known for
and there are over three hundred thousan
Crown until 1810, when a self-governing
its high level of learning. It has given the
Indians in the south-central area, mostl;
junta was established. Under the leadership
world such renowned figures as painters
descendants of the legendary Araucanians
of Bernardo O'Higgins and José M. Carrera,
Pedro Lira and Roberto Matta, composer
a congress was convoked in Santiago on
Domingo Santa Cruz, pianist Claudio
Economy. Copper, nitrates, and other mir
July 4, 1811, and the first republican
Arrau, and historians and essayists Miguel
ing products play a dominant role in Chile'
constitution adopted. Spanish royalist for-
Luis Amunátegui, Vicuña Mackenna, José
international trade and constitute 80 to 9
ces from Peru regained possession of the
Toribio Medina, and José V. Lastarria.
per cent of its total exports. Iron ore is th
country, but Chile was finally liberated
The education system dates back to the
second most valuable mineral export, with
from Spanish rule in decisive battles won by
very beginning of independence, when
90 per cent of production going abroad
the Army of the Andes, led by José de San
Venezuelan scholar Andrés Bello, Spanish
Chile is Latin America's second larges
Martín and O'Higgins, in 1817-1818. O'Hig-
writer José Joaquín de Mora, and Argentine
wine producer, with a total output of nearl
gins, the national hero, was the independent
educator and statesman Domingo Faustino
a hundred million gallons. Other nonminer
republic's first President.
Sarmiento aided in establishing the coun-
al exports include fishmeal, barley, oats
Following a border war with Bolivia and
try's centralized school system. In 1842 the
wool, onions, garlic, leather, lentils, fruits
Peru (1879-83), Chile secured prosperous
old University of San Felipe was reorga-
seafood, cellulose, newsprint, and wood
territories in the far north, and the twentieth
nized as the University of Chile, and at the
Industrial development has been undertak
century ushered in industrial development
same time an intellectual movement began,
en, and manufacturing is now the mos
and social reforms under a democratic
strengthened by a wave of European immi-
important factor in the national economy
Atlantic South America
Argentina
Uruguay
Paraguay
Brazil
Surinam
Mesopotamia zone, where fruit and rice are
Argentine sector, is the southernmost sea
grown, and the Chaco plains, whose dense
of organized government in the world.
quebracho forests are the major source of
Almost one third of Argentina's tota
tannin used in leather tanning.
population lives in Greater Buenos Aires
The pampas, heartland of Argentina, fan
the vast urban center of the nation'
out almost five hundred miles from Buenos
government, commercial, and financia
Aires in the east-central portion of the
activities. Its busy port is one of the larges
country. This great plain has some of the
in the world. Many literary and artisti
richest topsoil in the world, and is cultivated
trends have originated in this great city
extensively in wheat, corn, and sorghum,
and it occupies a major place in all Lati
while also providing year-round pasturage
American cultural life.
for many of Argentina's beef cattle.
Rosario, second city of the republic, is th
In the Andean mountain area, site of Mt.
major industrial and commercial center an
Aconcagua, the highest peak in the Hemi-
is also noted for its modernity and for it
sphere, there are wide salt plains, arid
river port. Spanish cultural influences ar
tablelands, and luxuriant valleys where
still apparent in the colonial cities of th
grapes, olives, and citrus fruit are cultivat-
northwest: in aristocratic Córdoba, with it
ARGENTINA
ed. A magnificent lake region surrounded by
tradition of learning; in Tucumán, known a
heavily forested national parks separates
the "garden of the republic"; in histori
ALTHOUGH never rich in silver as its
the tablelands from the foothills of the
Salta; and in beautiful Mendoza, headquar
Spanish name would imply, Argentina is
Andes. The Patagonian plateau, a dry
ters of the wine-making industry. The fines
vast and well endowed with natural re-
windy region south of the Colorado River, is
examples of colonial art and architectur
sources, and it takes pride in possessing one
devoted to raising sheep and producing
are found in these cities.
of the most beautiful capitals of the world,
wool. Comodoro Rivadavia, the most im-
Buenos Aires.
portant oil field, is also located in this area.
National Background. In 1516 Juan Día
Tierra del Fuego, south of the Strait of
de Solís anchored in the great estuary late
Cities and Landscapes. In the temperate
Magellan, is owned in part by each of Chile
called the River Plate and took possession C
region of the northeast are the fertile
and Argentina. Ushuaia, capital of the
these lands for the Spanish Crown. Tales C
71
72
0
70 Plaza del Congreso
in Buenos Aires
71 Argentine love of polo
attests to a
European heritage
72 Argentines like their
fine beef roasted at
open fires. Beef and
wool are major exports
73 Crystal lakes and
snowclad peaks abound in
Bariloche region
74 Andean mountain ranges
offer great slopes
for skiing enthusiasts
73
74
the fabulous riches of the Inca empire
caudillismo, an era distinguished by the
on education, sociology, and history. The
inspired expeditions by other conquistadors
presidencies of two great statesmen, Barto-
first of the great poets and writers of the
and adventurers, but not until 1580 was
lomé Mitre and Domingo Faustino Sarmien-
nineenth century was Esteban Echevarría.
Juan de Garay able to found the city of
to. A more liberal democratic and represen-
Gaucho literature, which stressed local
Buenos Aires on a permanent basis.
tative organization was introduced in 1912
values and problems, reached its highest
The territory was of little importance to
as a result of the struggles of popular leader
expression in the epic poem Martín Fierro,
Spain at that time, and the Viceroyalty of
Leandro Alem, and in 1916 Hipólito Irigo-
by José Hernández. Among the finest
the River Plate was not established until
yen became chief of state. Despite political
Argentine philosophers and essayists were
1777, with Buenos Aires as its capital. Soon
disputes between radicals and conserva-
José Ingenieros and Alejandro Korn, and
after, Spain permitted freer trade, and the
tives, social reforms and rapid industrial
today, Victoria Ocampo and Jorge Luis
prosperity of the colony was assured.
expansion characterized the ensuing years.
Borges, the latter also a poet and world
In 1810 the people demanded their own
In 1946, Juan Domingo Perón, a military
renowned short-story writer. In poetry
government, forced the Viceroy to resign,
officer, was elected President with the
Leopoldo Lugones and Alfonsina Storni
and set up a board of patriots known as the
support of the Labor Party and remained in
stand out. Excellent prose writers abound,
"First Junta." After winning freedom for
power until his overthrow by the army in
such as Ricardo Güiraldes, author of Don
Argentina, national hero José de San
1955. Perón returned to the presidency in
Segundo Sombra, and recently, Ernesto
Martín continued the struggle to obtain
1973. Upon his death the following year his
Sábato, Eduardo Mallea, and Julio Cortá-
freedom for Chile and Peru, and in 1816 the
wife, María Estela Martínez de Perón, took
zar. Among scientists Bernardo A. Houssay
Congress of Tucumán proclaimed the Dec-
the office, becoming the first woman presi-
won the Nobel Prize in 1947, and Luis F.
laration of National Independence. Decades
dent in the Western Hemisphere.
Leloir in 1970. One of the first artistic
of instability followed while the Unitary
expressions of nationalism was produced by
Party, supported by Buenos Aires, fought
Culture. The total Indian population of
the painter Prilidiano Pueyrredón; since
the Federalists, supported by the provinces,
Argentina was comparatively small, yet the
that time, Argentina has consistently held a
until the latter won control of the country. In
more warlike tribes stoutly resisted the
major place in the world of art because of the
1853, the Congress of Santa Fe adopted the
Spaniards and continued to be a serious
caliber and number of its painters, sculp-
federal constitution, which marked the
obstacle to settlement and development of
tors, and sketchers. Throughout the repub-
beginning of the modern republican period.
the country as late as the 1800's. A few
lic, there are some ninety-eight museums
Adding to the original population of
descendants of the original Quechua, Gua-
under the auspices of the national govern-
Spanish descent, a steady wave of European
raní, Araucanian, and Patagonian tribes
ment. The modern art movement began
immigrants, mostly Italian, as well as many
still inhabit isolated regions of the country.
about the time of World War I and has
Spaniards, English, Germans, and French,
Religious art and architecture are the
grown steadily. The country's many out-
gradually shaped the present-day nation,
greatest cultural heritage from the colonial
standing twentieth century painters include
whose high literacy rate is the best index of
era. Such outstanding Argentine statesmen
S. Eugenio Daneri, Emilio Pettoruti, Raquel
its characteristic enlightenment.
as President Sarmiento, Bartolomé Mitre,
Forner, and Antonio Berni. Argentine
A national identity began to emerge
and Juan Bautista Alberdi are also noted as
music boasts such composers as José Castro
during the first period of the Argentine
men of ideas and letters and authored works
and Alberto Ginastera, and has one of the
finest theaters in the world, the Colón
Theater of Buenos Aires. The distinctive
Argentine tango, a modern Creole dance,
evolved from the old tango andaluz into a
ballroom dance after the turn of the century,
and is popular in America and in Europe.
Economy. The national economy is based
on agriculture, stock raising, and manufac-
turing. Good farmland is Argentina's rich-
est natural resource, and the crops and
livestock of the fertile pampas have long
provided the country with abundant food for
domestic consumption, in addition to plenti-
ful exports. Since 1967, industrial growth
75 Famous La Carreta monument is a tribute
has increased dynamically, especially in
to the courage of Uruguayan pioneers
chemical and metal products, automotive
76 Montevideo, on a lovely bay north
vehicles, and electrical machinery and
of the River Plate, is known for
its magnificent beaches and resort hotels
appliances. The value of manufactures is
three times that of agriculture. In 1976 the
77 Statue of a Gaucho in modern Montevideo
Government announced a new economic
symbolizes Uruguayan love of freedom
program designed to create the conditions
needed for sustained development, with
promotion of basic industries, expansion of
production of petroleum, and increase of
mining output among the major points.
Argentina's leading exports are grain and
cereals, meat, wool, hides, tannin, minerals,
and manufactured articles.
URUGUAY
CRADLED BETWEEN the giants
Argentina and Brazil, Uruguay is a land of
rolling, grassy plains, abundant pasture-
76
77
land, lovely sandy beaches, and delightful
temperate climate. It is especially outstand-
guese founded Nova Colonia do Sacramento
Spaniards and Italians, began after inde-
ing for its high literacy rate, and for the
(now Colonia) as an outpost against Span-
pendence. But the predominantly pastoral
charm of its beautiful capital, Montevideo,
ish penetration from Buenos Aires. The
way of life changed little, even up to the
one of the principal cities of the continent.
Spaniards founded Montevideo in 1726 as a
present. Internal political struggle and
bastion against the advances of the enor-
Uruguay's participation, with Argentina
Cities and Landscapes. Except for the
mous Portuguese colony of Brazil. The
and Brazil, in the War of the Triple Alliance
mountainous area in the north, Uruguay's
Banda Oriental, as the territory of Uruguay
against Paraguay prevented rapid progress
topography is generally level and its natu-
was called because it is on the eastern shore
until 1903, when José Batlle y Ordóñez, the
ral waterways evenly distributed. The
of the Uruguay River, became a battlefield
great statesman and reformer, was elected
black, potash-rich soil is extremely well
in the long struggle for possession between
President. The reforms initiated by him
suited for agriculture, while the lush grass
Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro. Finally
created Uruguay's broad and extensive
cover is ideal for grazing.
the Portuguese were expelled from Colonia
social security system, which made Uru-
Montevideo, a modern city with broad
by the Spaniards, and in 1777 the Banda
guay the first welfare state in America.
avenues, handsome buildings, and many
Oriental became part of the new Spanish
Uruguay was also the first country in South
splendid parks, is the capital and economic
Viceroyalty of the River Plate. In 1806 the
America to grant suffrage to women, to
and cultural hub of the country. Many fine
British captured Montevideo but were
legalize divorce, and to grant legal status to
bathing beaches extend along the water-
driven out by the settlers the next year.
illegitimate children, including the right to
front toward the region's greatest tourist
The Banda Oriental was annexed by the
inherit. It was one of the first to put into
attraction, Punta del Este, whose name is
Portuguese colony of Brazil in 1821. While
practice the eight-hour work day as well as
synonymous with landmark inter-
José Artigas is recognized as the hero of
other workers' benefits.
American meetings. Salto is the second
Uruguayan independence his goal of auton-
most important city and the center of the
omy was actually achieved by his country-
Culture. Contemporary Uruguayan cul-
citrus production and wine-making indus-
man and follower, Juan Antonio Lavalleja,
ture reflects the predominantly European
tries, followed by Paysandú, a bustling
who in 1825 led a band of patriots across the
composition of its population. An authentic
industrial and commercial community;
River Plate to free the country. It was not
national hero is the Uruguayan Gaucho,
Mercedes, on the banks of the Negro River;
until 1828, after a three-year war between
whose struggle for independence and moral
Fray Bento, a Uruguay River port that
Uruguayan patriots and Argentina on one
integrity and bravery became favorite
exports much of the country's meat output;
side and Brazil on the other, that indepen-
topics of nineteenth century Uruguayan
and Colonia, one of the oldest of its cities.
dence was finally won when the two nations
literature. Bartolomé Hidalgo is the greatest
signed a peace treaty.
of the Gaucho poets. Another subject of
National Background. In 1680 the Portu-
Large-scale immigration, primarily of
interest was the Charrua Indians, chosen by
Juan Zorrilla de San Martín, one of the great
tropical forests, lowland plateaus, and
ty. The expulsion of the Jesuit order from all
poets of the Hemisphere, as the heroes of his
prairies. The extremely fertile land produces
Spanish territories by King Charles III in
epic Tabaré. Uruguay is also proud of the
cassava, tobacco, sugar cane, maté, and a
1767 put an end to the social experiment.
philosopher José Enrique Rodó and the
great variety of fruits, and is the home of
Paraguay and Argentina were under the
poets Delmira Agustini and Juana de
most of the population and much of the
Viceroyalty of Peru from 1617 to 1776, when
Ibarbourou. Among the artists, Joaquín
commercial activity. The sparsely popu-
the Viceroyalty of the River Plate was
Torres-García is an outstanding pioneer of
lated Chaco Boreal to the west consists of
established to govern those two colonies.
the contemporary abstract movement, and
savannas, rivers, and dense forests. A third
The nation became independent in 1811,
Carlos Páez Vilaró is a well-known painter
important river, the Pilcomayo, which rises
when the Spanish governor resigned and a
and muralist.
in Bolivia and runs through the Chaco,
consular government took his place. In
Uruguayan folk life contributes its own
forms the national boundary on the south-
1814, José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia
native accent in both music and crafts.
west.
was proclaimed head of the government.
Asunción, the capital and center of
Known as "El Supremo," Francia ruled with
Economy. Livestock production continues
economic and cultural activities, has many
an iron hand, isolating the country from the
to be the backbone of the national economy,
factories along the banks of the Paraguay
outside world. Carlos Antonio López, Presi-
with 90 per cent of the land being devoted to
River. The next largest cities are Villarrica,
dent from 1844 to 1862, built roads and
stock-raising. Uruguay is one of the world's
in the midst of hills and orange trees;
railroads, introduced many reforms, and
largest producers of wool, which, together
Concepción, a northern colonial city; Vi-
promoted public education. He was suc-
with meat, provides the bulk of the country's
lleta, port of embarkation for fruits, cotton,
ceeded by his son, Francisco Solano López,
export revenue. Meat packing, food proces-
and tobacco; and Puerto Stroessner, on the
under whose leadership Paraguay initiated
sing, and production of other consumer
Paraná, connected to the city of Foz do
the disastrous War of the Triple Alliance, in
goods for the local market are the chief
Iguaçu, Brazil, by a monumental bridge.
which Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay
industrial enterprises.
allied themselves against Paraguay in a
National Background. Exploring in the
five-year struggle. The war ended with the
name of Portugal, Alejo García went from
death of López in 1870, and left the country
Brazil to Bolivia about 1520; and among the
in ruins.
many Indian tribes he encountered in the
The Chaco War between Bolivia and
PARAGUAY
region now known as Paraguay the most
Paraguay, costly to both in lives and money,
important was the Guarani. Asunción was
began in 1932. The peace treaty, signed in
TWO PEOPLES, the Indian and the Span-
founded in 1537 and served as the colonial
1938, awarded Paraguay some two thirds of
ish, each with its own distinct language,
capital until that function was transferred
the disputed area, while Bolivia received an
have come together in Paraguay to create
to Buenos Aires in 1580.
outlet on the Paraguay River.
one nation, characterized by great heroism,
Paraguay was an independent colony
In 1940, military leader José Félix Esti-
generosity, and hospitality.
governed by the first high-ranking Creole in
garribia was elected President and a new
Latin America, Hernando Arias de Saave-
Constitution was adopted. A period of
Cities and Landscapes. Though it is
dra (Hernandarias). It was he who pleaded
institutional instability and struggle fol-
classified as landlocked, the Paraná and
successfully with the Spanish rulers to send
lowed that ended when Alfredo Stroessner
Paraguay rivers provide the country with a
monks to teach the Indians and thus
became President after World War II.
direct outlet to the sea. East of the Paraguay
brought about the famous Jesuit missions,
River, which divides the nation in half, are
which organized a unique communal socie-
Culture. The Paraguayan people use both
78
79
80
78 Tablecloths made with ñandutí lace, a Paraguayan handicraft
79 Remains of Trinidad Mission, built by the Jesuits
80 Guairá Falls, on the Upper Paraná River
81 Downtown Asunción, on the banks of the Paraguay River
the Spanish and Guarani languages to
the country. Pernambuco and Bahia, the
tant industrial center.
express their dual cultural heritage. The
major centers of Brazilian life in colonial
The inland states of Mato Grosso and
long period of isolation helped to affirm
times, still exert a strong cultural influence.
Goiás form the west central region, covered
native values, and the nation's bloody
Much of what is specifically Brazilian in
with extensive savannahs and tropical
armed struggles exalted patriotic feelings
music, folkways, cookery, and popular art
grassland. The inauguration of Brasília, the
that were reflected from the beginning in its
comes from this region. The two regional
new capital, in 1960, in the middle of this
intellectual efforts. History and legend are
capitals are Recife (Pernambuco), a fast-
area has given tremendous impetus to
contained in the nineteenth century works
growing city built on a beautiful location
agricultural and industrial development. In
of Blas Garay, Juan E. O'Leary, and well-
along palm-lined tropical beaches, and
less than two decades the Federal District
known jurist Cecilio Báez. Eugenio Garay,
Salvador (Bahia), Brazil's capital for its
has become a full-grown city with a well-
J. Natalicio González, and Eloy Fariña
first two centuries. Constructed on two
established school and hospital system,
Nuñez continue this literary tradition,
levels, Salvador boasts a most impressive
universities, and its own newspapers and
expressed in the Guarani language through
ensemble of colonial architecture where one
radio and television stations.
such outstanding poets as Manuel Ortiz
may find old baroque churches with re-
Brasília has attracted worldwide atten-
Guerrero and writers like Narciso Colman
splendent gold interiors, ancient military
tion as a pioneer project, a revolutionary
and Moisés S. Bertoni. Augusto Roa Bastos,
forts, and picturesque, steep streets lined
architectural concept, and a successful
author of Hijo del Hombre, has received
with multicolored houses. It is the most
experiment in combining today's urban
world recognition for his novels.
African of all Brazilian cities, where the
requirements with the needs for future
The old missions embody the tradition of
rhythm of life is animated by festivities,
expansion. It was also a deliberate move to
craftsmanship that survives in Paraguay.
chief among them Carnival.
occupy, settle, and develop the great open
Justly world famous is the delicate ñandutí
The Southeast region is the most devel-
spaces of the west central region.
lace, fashioned in circular design like a
oped and industrialized of Brazil. The cities
cobweb, which is the origin of its name in
of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo
National Background. Brazil was dis-
Guarani. The folk music, particularly the
Horizonte form the economic hub of the
covered in 1500 by the Portuguese navigator
guaranías, became a part of the typical
nation, and the majority of the population is
Pedro Alvares Cabral, who claimed it in the
repertory during the Chaco War and repre-
concentrated there.
name of King Manuel of Portugal. It was
sents the first distinctive variation of
Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city, has
ruled from Lisbon as a colony until 1807,
Hispanic colonial traditions.
a majestic beauty that combines sea, tropi-
when the Portuguese royal family fled from
cal forests, and mountains. It has some of
Napoleon's army and established its seat of
Economy. Employing about 60 per cent of
the most impressive examples of baroque
government at Rio de Janeiro.
the labor force, agriculture and livestock-
architecture in Brazil, and modern architec-
In 1815 Brazil became part of the kingdom
raising dominate Paraguay's economy and
ture achieved its first triumph here with the
of Dom João VII of Portugal, whose son,
generate nearly 95 per cent of export
Ministry of Education and Culture building.
Dom Pedro, was appointed regent of Brazil
earnings, if processed agricultural products
Its magnificent beaches-Copacabana,
in 1821. On September 7, 1822, Pedro I
are included. The Government is presently
Ipanema, Leblon-give life in Rio a special
declared the independence of Brazil and,
engaged in an ambitious program to devel-
flavor.
after being proclaimed Constitutional Em-
op hydroelectric capacity.
The wealth created by coffee, the abun-
peror, named as Prime Minister José Boni-
dance of labor, and the spirit of enterprise of
fácio de Andrade e Silva, national hero and
many immigrants (mainly Italian) have all
Patriarch of Independence. The emergence
contributed to make São Paulo the largest
of a republican spirit over the next fifty
industrial center in Latin America. It is a
years brought the abolition of slavery in
BRAZIL
modern city that has lost much of its
1888 and the end of the monarchy. In
original colonial character; its skyline is
November 1889 the republic was proclaimed
BRAZIL IS THE largest of the Latin
being constantly changed by intensive
without bloodshed.
American nations, and the fifth largest in
building activity. The country's best univer-
The great political and economic centers
area in the world, after the Soviet Union,
sity is in São Paulo, as well as the best
of the country, Rio de Janeiro and São
Canada, the Peoples Republic of China, and
endowed museums and galleries of ancient
Paulo, have been rivals during the republi-
the United States. It occupies the east-
and modern art, and its Biennial of modern
can period. As a result of the 1929 economic
central part of South America, covering
art enjoys a worldwide reputation.
crisis, Gertulio Vargas came into power, and
nearly half of its territory, and having a
Belo Horizonte, capital of the important
his strong personality exercised a decisive
common boundary with every country
mining state of Minas Gerais, was the first
influence on Brazilian political life until he
except Chile and Ecuador.
Brazilian city to spring from an architect's
left office in 1945. Five years later, Vargas
In many aspects the normal scale of
drawing board, in 1895. This carefully
was reelected, and in 1954 the nation was
values cannot be applied to Brazil without
planned city is also undergoing changes.
stirred by his suicide. Two principal events
giving the impression that one has suddenly
Pampulha, a residential suburb, was
marked the term of office of his successor,
entered the realm of fantasy. In truth,
planned by Oscar Niemeyer, who also
President Juscelino Kubitschek. National-
concepts of time and space seem to take on a
designed its chapel, with murals by Cândido
ly, there was the beginning of the new
new dimension when one becomes aware of
Portinari.
capital, Brasília, which became the seat of
the surprising reality of this country of
Many of Brazil's most charming colonial
government in 1960; on the inter-American
gigantic proportions where-given its rapid
towns dot the outskirts of Belo Horizonte.
level, there was Operation Pan America, the
rate of development-a decade is equivalent
Ouro Prêto, Sabará, São João del Rey,
forerunner of the Alliance for Progress.
to a century.
Tiradentes, and Congonhas do Campo
Despite economic and political difficulties,
remain exactly as they were in old times.
the succeeding governments have pledged
Cities and Landscapes. The Northern
The South is also highly developed. Its
themselves to further the social progress
region accounts for almost half of the total
temperate climate attracted many Europe-
and development of the nation.
area of the country, encompasses a large
an immigrants whose influence is still
section of the Amazon basin, and is still
noticeable. Porto Alegre, capital of Rio
Culture. Four periods distinguish Brazil's
largely covered by forests. The two Ama-
Grande do Sul, stands near the southern-
literary development, each related to differ-
zonian capitals are Manaus and Belém.
most tip of Brazil, on the Guaiba River
ent stages in its political and social history:
The Northeast region, with its major oil
estuary where the scenery is magnificent.
the colonial period, until Independence; the
fields, is considered by many the very soul of
Over one million people live in this impor-
romantic period, coinciding with the years
82
of the Empire; the post-romantic period of
2 Each year Carnival explodes in the
the first few decades of the Republic, and
streets of Rio de Janeiro with a
finally the modernist period, which followed
tremendous display of pageantry and color
the Modern Art Week held in São Paulo in
3 Statue of Christ, atop jagged Corcovado
1922 and which came to exercise a profound
peak, dominates the majestic panorama of
influence on Brazilian literary and artistic
Rio de Janeiro and its natural harbor
development. Among the outstanding Bra-
4 Dramatic skycrapers in São Paulo, the
zilian figures in literature are, José de
fastest growing city in the world,
and most populous center in South America
Alencar, Aluísio de Azevedo, Joaquim Maria
Machado de Assis, Castro Alves, Euclides
5 Twin office towers of the Chamber of
Deputies and the Senate in Brasília, the
da Cunha, Jorge Amado, João Guimarais
seventeen-year-old capital city,
Rosa, Octávio de Faria, and Erico Veríssi-
where new architectural forms blend with
mo; in art, O Aleijadinho, Emilio de Caval-
imaginative landscape design
canti, Tarsila de Amaral, Cândido Portina-
6 Coffee harvesting in Brazil, the world's
ri; in modern architecture, Lucio Costa and
largest producer of this crop
Oscar Niemeyer; in music, Fray José Mau-
7 Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Matozinhos,
rício, Carlos Gomes, Heitor Villa-Lobos; in
Congonhas do Campo, is a masterpiece
of Brazilian baroque architecture
popular music, Chico Buarque and Tom
Jobim.
84 Economy. As the result of the brisk
industrial development of this traditionally
agricultural country, for the last fifteen
years the value of the national industrial
product has been greater than the total
agricultural output, and is now nearly
double. Coffee remains the principal export
commodity. The Federal Government has
given special attention to the development
of the Northeast region through SUDENE
(Superintendency for the Development of
the Northeast) and the growth rate of that
region's economy has exceded that of the
rest of the country.
SURINAM
FORMERLY KNOWN as Dutch Guiana,
Surinam is among the newest states in the
Americas, having attained full indepen-
dence in 1975. The only Dutch-speaking
independent nation in the Hemisphere, it
probably has one of the most ethnically
varied populations in the world.
Cities and Landscapes. Surinam is locat-
ed on the northeastern coast of South
America. Hot, humid lowlands, which
require diking, cover the northern coast of
the country; scattered savannahs over-
grown with grass and shrubs mark the
central zone; and, in the largely unexplored
south, densely forested hills rise gradually
to form the Wilhelmina Mountains. Seven
rivers, forming the main avenues of trans-
portation, dissect the land from south to
87 north.
Paramaribo, the capital and chief port, is
at the mouth of the Suriname River. About
90 per cent of the population lives in or
around this city, noted for its lovely Dutch
eighteenth and nineteenth century build-
ings, and, in parts, its Asian flavor. Nieuw
Nickerie, near the Guyana border, is a
pleasant colonial town. Wageningen, locat-
ed in the heart of the rice-growing region,
has one of the largest fully mechanized rice
farms in the world.
teenth centuries as a result of Indian and
88 Government administration buildings in Surinam's capital,
slave uprisings. The colony was conquered
Paramaribo, show European colonial influence
by the British in 1799, returned to the
89 Surinamese beauties display Javanese national costumes.
Netherlands in 1802, again became a
Large numbers of Javanese, Chinese, and Indian contract
laborers came to Surinam in the late 1800's
British colony in 1804, and was finally
restored to the Dutch in 1814. With the
90 Djukas, among the world's finest canoemen, are
abolition of slavery in 1863, contract labor
descended from runaway slaves and maintain a scarcely
changed form of West African tribal life
ers from China, Java, and India were
recruited.
In 1954 Surinam achieved internal auton
omy yet remained an integral part of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands until 1975
when it became an independent republic
with a new constitution and a new flag.
Culture. Surinam's racial potpourri in
cludes Creoles, or locally born persons O:
Afro-European descent; East Indians
known locally as Hindustanis; Javanese
Chinese; Europeans; Carib and Arawal
Indians; and Bushnegroes, descendants O:
escaped slaves. Each group preserves its
own culture and religion, yet shares the land
in harmony. Although the official language
is Dutch, English is widely used; the lingua
franca, spoken by almost all groups, is a
sing-song language called Sranang Tongo
or taki-taki.
The Dutch imprint can be appreciated ir
many picturesque colonial buildings
churches, and synagogues, while the local
primitive art of the Bushnegroes is noted foi
88
89
90
its distinctive style.
Economy. Surinam's bauxite deposits are
National Background. Although Colum-
colonies. The most notable immigrants were
considered among the richest in the world
bus discovered the Guiana coast in 1498, the
Jews from Holland, Italy, and Brazil, who in
and form the cornerstone of the economy
lack of gold failed to attract subsequent
1665 erected the first synagogue in the
The main food crop and most important
Spanish and Portuguese explorers. The first
Western Hemisphere.
agricultural export is rice, followed by
permanent settlement was founded by the
According to the Treaty of Breda, in 1667,
sugar, citrus fruits, and bananas. Coffee
British Lord Francis Willoughby in 1651.
the Dutch received possession of Surinam
cacao, peanuts, corn, coconuts, and pulses
Willoughbyland, as it was called, prospered
from the English in exchange for the Dutch
are grown mainly for local consumption
as an agricultural colony based on African
colony of New Amsterdam (New York).
The land's timber resources are consider
slave labor and settled by people from
Surinam suffered political and economic
able and a forestry development program is
Caribbean and other South American
unrest in the eighteenth and early nine-
being implemented to tap them.
This supplement is part of the series on the culture,
GRAPHICS CREDITS
history, art, and development of the member coun-
tries of the Organization of American States. It has
been produced in conjunction with Américas, month-
(Listed by photograph number): 1, John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Washington,
ly magazine published in English, Spanish, and
D.C.; 2, New Mexico Department of Develpment; 3-5, U.S. Department of Commerce; 6, Pan American
Portuguese. Cooperating on this supplement were
World Airways, Inc. (Pan Am); 7-8, Mexican National Tourist Council (MNTC); 9, Braniff
International; 10, MNTC; 11-16, OAS; 17, Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service; 18-
Arbon Jack Lowe, Flora L. Phelps, Kathryn Shaw,
19, Kay Chernush; 20, courtesy Darío Suro; 21, OAS; 22, Barbados Tourist Board (BTB); 23, Inter-
Veronica Gould Stoddart, Pilar Garffer, Stella
American Development Bank; 24, BTB; 25-26, Alfredo Fontes; 27, Trinidad and Tobago Tourist
Board; 28, Trinidad Carnival, No. 4, Port-of-Spain, 1976; 29, Noel P. Norton; 30, Pan Am; 31, Sheila R.
García-Peña, Adelfa Fernández, and Leonard J.
Turner; 32, Fontes; 33-34, Pan Am; 35, OAS; 36, Pan Am; 37-38, El Salvador Tourist Board; 39-40,
Faina Jr.
Arbon Jack Lowe; 41, Robert Schafer, courtesy World Bank; 42, Kurt Severin; 43-44, Embassy of Costa
Rica, Wash., D.C.; 45, Braniff; 46, Eduardo Latour; 47, Panamanian Tourist Institute; 48, Atwater
November-December 1977
Bradley, courtesy Embassy of Venezuela, Wash., D.C.; 49, OAS; 50, Embassy of Venezuela, Wash.,
D.C.; 51, José Bermúdez; 52-54, Maravillosa Colombia, edited by Edgar Bustamente, Barcelona, 1976;
55, Partners of the Americas; 56, OAS; 57, Bermúdez/OAS; 58, Latour; 59, South American Travel
Additional copies of this supplement are available at
Organization (SATO); 60, Braniff; 61, W. H. Hodge/OAS;62, Braniff; 63-64, Braniff; 65, OAS; 66, U.S.
US$1.00 each from he Sales and Promotion Unit of
Agency for International Development; 67, American Express; 68, Braniff; 69, Pan Am; 70, Fontes; 71-
the General Secretariat of the Organization of
72, OAS; 73, Pan Am; 74, Braniff; 75, Fontes; 76, Braniff; 77, Varig; 78, Braniff; 79, Graziano
Gasparini; 80, courtesy José Bernabé; 81, Braniff; 82, Embassy of Brazil, Wash., D.C.; 83, American
American States, Washington, D.C. 20006.
Express; 84, Braniff; 85, Fontes; 86, Embassy of Brazil; 87, Braniff; 88-89, OAS; 90, SATO.
Front cover: Soaring snow-capped
Inside front cover: Still, strange
Inside back cover: The brilliant,
Back cover: Picturesque cobbled
peaks dominate a barren
forms, sculptured by nature,
aquamarine waters and ivory-
streets and red-roofed houses
Andean plateau adorned with
take on their own special beauty
colored beaches of the Caribbean
climb the gentle slopes
graceful llamas.
in the deserts of the
islands attract local residents
in many a Central American
Photograph by Loren A. McIntyre
North American countries.
and tourists alike.
mountain village.
Photograph by Philip Hyde.
Photograph by Arbon Jack Lowe
Photograph by Chadwick R. Wyatt
Color separations courtesy
Sierra Club
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COLONIAL ART:IV
Early Visions of
IMPERIAL BRAZIL
an
S
V
TRA
<t.
1817 engraving by Hippolyte Taunay, son of Nicolai Antoine Taunay of the
French artistic mission, shows the wedding procession of Royal Princess
Leopoldina on its way to the Royal Chapel. Arches along the street were built
by Auguste-Henri-Victor Grandjean de Montigny and decorated by Jean-
Baptiste Debret, both of the French mission
Early Visions of IMPERIAL BRAZIL
ISABEL A. STRIKER
Cultural and Scientific Missions
far from the Tapajós River, who seemed to be covered with
beautiful dresses but in reality were nude. It was a fascinating
The arrival of Dom João VI of Portugal and his Court in Brazil
world for the Europeans. Their eyes, thoughts, and hands
in 1808 marked the beginning of a new era for his domains in
rolled beautifully upon the new scenery and left a splendid
America. He became concerned with almost every aspect of
legacy to Brazilian posterity. Some of them came on their
life in Brazil, and several changes and innovations were put
own to the New Kingdom proclaimed by Dom João. A few
into practice soon after his arrival. From the start the ideas
arrived with scientific expeditions sponsored by European
were in his mind, or in the minds of his advisors. They were all
governments.
art lovers. To them, it was essential to promote cultural life in
Shortly before the Court moved to Brazil, Czar Alexander I
Rio de Janeiro.
of Russia sent such an expedition around the world, under
The transfer of the Court from Lisbon to Rio opened Brazil
the leadership of Captain A. J. von Krusenstern. One member
to a continual flood of adventurers, travelers, and scientists
of the expedition, which sailed in 1803, was Freiher von
from many nations. Some were looking for new opportunity
Langsdorff, a German physician who was more interested in
in life. Others had a scientific purpose in mind: to study
natural history than in medicine. Langsdorff wrote a good
tropical nature, Brazil's people and their culture, or the land's
description of life on the Brazilian island of Santa Catarina,
natural resources.
where the expedition paused for five weeks in 1803-04. Only
The artists illustrated what most impressed them in Brazil.
one painting, published in 1817, illustrates his account of his
To several of them, an Indian's hut deep in the forest was as
stay on Santa Catarina. It depicts two black women sitting on
important to depict as the Palace of São Cristovão in Rio.
the floor, separating cotton seeds. Their physical features are
Equally worthy of attention were the lovely garments of ladies
more European than African, which leads one to believe the
in the capital and the well-coordinated lines marked on the
painting was done outside Brazil, probably by someone who
bodies of the Mundurucú Indian women in central Brazil, not
had never visited the country. However, the simplicity of the
Front cover: Freitas Lagoon, detail of painting by English artist Lieutenant Henry Chamberlain, from his 1822 book
Views and Customs of the City and Neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro. Inside front cover: Detail of A Market Stall, also
from Chamberlain's book. Inside back cover: Two of French artist Jean-Baptiste Debret's watercolors of life in Rio in
the 1820's-a Brazilian lady in her quarters, surrounded by her slaves (above) and the arrival of guests at a country
estates (below). From A Muito Leal e Heróica Cidade de São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro, 1965. Back cover: One form
of transportation in early Imperial Brazil was depicted by Portuguese-born artist Joaquim Cândido Guillobel in this
charming miniature. From A Muito Leal
s-1
room is typical of the region of Santa Catarina. In this matter,
the King and Linhares. In 1815 they decided to contract a
at least, the anonymous illustrator faithfully reproduces the
group of artists in Europe who would be willing to come to
impressions of the eyewitness. This painting can be
Brazil and establish that school in Rio. Linhares, a well-
considered the first of hundreds and hundreds that were to
educated man and friend of the Marques de Marialva,
follow. It is interesting to note that Langsdorff contracted
Ambassador of Portugal in the Court of French King Louis
several artists to accompany his later expedition to the
XVIII, asked Marialva to make the selection. The ambassador
interior of Brazil.
consulted the great scientist and traveler Alexander von
Between Langsdorff's first expedition and his second, in
Humboldt, who recommended Joachim Lebreton, former
1821, a series of important events occurred in Brazil, the most
Secretary of the Fine Arts Academy of the Institute of France.
significant being the transfer of the Portuguese Court there.
The mission was organized with Lebreton as its head.
While previously Brazil had not welcomed outsiders, Dom
Carefully he selected the most notable artists in his country.
João VI and his advisers Conde de Linhares and Conde da
After reaching Rio de Janeiro they faced all kinds of
Barca-the latter Minister for the Protection of Science-
opposition, as a group and as individuals, from local artists.
opened the doors for individuals, cultural missions, and
But men like the painter Nicolai Antoine Taunay, his brother
scientific expeditions, permitting them to travel in Brazil
Auguste, a great sculptor, the architect Auguste-Henri-Victor
without restriction.
Grandjean de Montigny, and the painter Jean-Baptiste
Debret were strong-willed and did not give up. They fought to
French Artistic Mission
fulfill their contract and gave Brazil a fine treasure of artistic
production while contributing greatly to the foundation of the
While Dom João and his ministers and advisers were
Academy of Fine Arts in Rio.
concerned mostly with economic and political reform, they
Perhaps the most celebrated member of the French
also envisioned improvements in the fields of education and
mission was Debret. Born in Paris on April 18, 1768, he had an
culture. Conde da Barca had the idea for a school of art,
excellent artistic family background, with many relatives
science, and crafts, which was welcomed and supported by
outstanding figures in the arts. After studing painting in
Debret chronicled Brazil's popular celebrations, as in this 1823 watercolor Dia do Entrudo-later known as Carnaval
s-2
A great richness of color pervades Nicolai Antoine Taunay's oil painting View of São Jose in 1816. Collection of Brazil's
National Museum of Fine Arts
France and Italy, he enrolled at the Fine Arts Academy in
time he produced a multitude of paintings on the history and
Paris when he was only seventeen years old. The pictures he
customs of its people-always his main theme. Engravings of
painted in the early years of his life were based on historical
156 of these were published in his three-volume book,
themes and won him several prizes. He was later to change
Voyage Pittoresque et Historique au Brésil, ou Sejour d'un
his motif and became more modern.
Artiste Français au Brésil. The first volume was published in
The loss of his nineteen-year-old son affected Debret
Paris in 1834; it has thirty-six Indian paintings. The second
deeply. He became indifferent. Then his friend Grandjean
was published in 1835; it includes forty-eight paintings of
learned about two French scientific expeditions that were
well-to-do families in Brazil, and is considered one of the
being organized, one proposed by Czar Alexander I and the
most beautiful illustrations of Brazilian society in those years.
other requested by Dom João VI. Grandjean and Debret
The third volume came out in 1839. Most of the paintings in it
decided to go to Brazil with the mission recruited for Dom
refer to the history, religion, and customs of Brazil.
João, and arrived there with it on March 26, 1816. Already
Debret felt it was important to begin with the history of the
forty-eight years old and with much sorrow in his heart,
native Indian. Thus his book begins with a portrait of a
Debret threw himself into his work. His first task was to paint
Camaca Indian and includes paintings of Indians from twelve
portraits of the Royal Family, which include Dom João in his
other tribes, showing them fighting, hunting, dancing, eating,
royal robe and a profile of Dona Leopoldina. Debret also
traveling, and relaxing. Debret also sketched their different
worked with Taunay and Grandjean in decorating the city for
kinds of homes, weapons, utensils, ornaments, useful plants,
special royal ceremonies. He worked at the São João Theater
musical instruments, and a large variety of ceremonial
as stage manager for seven years.
masks.
Debret was to spend fifteen years in Brazil, during which
In logical order of what Debret learned of Brazil, the
s-3
Debret spent fifteen years in Brazil chronicling the life and customs of its people. The second volume of his book
concentrates on the occupations of blacks. Clockwise, from upper left: Barbers at work on the street; freedwomen at
work; runaway slaves wearing iron collars as punishment; flower vendor and aristocratic lady at entrance of church
paintings of Indians are followed by pictures of people of
museums. According to the historian Afonso de E. Taunay,
African racial background. The illustrations show many of
there are 576 of his oil paintings in existence today, a few of
the occupations of blacks in Brazil. There are black street
which are at the National Museum of Fine Arts in Rio de
vendors, sawmill workers, sugar mill laborers, and blacks
Janeiro.
serving as transportation of every kind. For wheeled vehicles
were substituted the legs, shoulders, and heads of slaves.
Austro-German Scientific Expedition
Other scenes by Debret show how whites with good incomes
could enjoy a pleasant life. Churches and festivals are well
A scientific mission from Austria and Bavaria came to
illustrated in the second volume as well.
Brazil in 1817. It was jointly sponsored by the governments of
The third volume contains his historical, political, and
those two states and was to conduct research in natural
religious paintings. One of them is Embarkation in Praia
science in the vast interior of Brazil. Karl F.P. von Martius, a
Grande of Troops Destined for the Siege of Montevideo.
twenty-two-year-old botanist, was in charge of the mission.
Another scene, which was also painted by Franz Frühbeck, is
Zoologist Johann B. von Spix, his good friend, was also a
Landing of the Royal Princess Leopoldina; the two artists saw
member of the group, which made the trip from Europe in one
the event from different angles. Other historical scenes
of the ships that escorted Dona Leopoldina to Brazil to marry
painted by Debret include The Acclamation of Dom João and
Dom Pedro. Martius, like Langsdorff, had studied medicine,
Dom Pedro and the Departure of the Royal Family. One of the
but was more interested in botany, natural science, and
last scenes Debret painted in Brazil was The Acclamation of
ethnography. Accompanying Martius and Spix were Thomas
Dom Pedro II in 1831, the year the artist returned to France.
Ender, a painter, and Johann Buchberger, who was hired to
Nicolai Antoine Taunay, another member of the French
sketch plants.
artistic mission of 1816, was accompanied by his wife and five
Ender, unable to adjust to the tropical climate, could not
children and his brother Auguste Marie. Nicolai Antoine
fulfill his job in the expedition and separated from it in São
painted most of his life and his paintings were sold at high
Paulo. In spite of the fact that Ender and later Buchberger left
prices in Europe, where they are scattered in different
the mission, Martius managed to illustrate his book Reise in
Brasilien auf Behehl Sr. Majestat Maximilian Joseph / with
In his short stay in Brazil, Ender was able to produce a great
maps and pictures, including twenty-one pictures related to
volume of art-more than seven hundred drawings and
his study of the culture of several Indian tribes he met during
watercolors-covering most aspects of Rio and São Paulo.
the trip. Peter von Cornelius, the famous German artist,
(Most of these works are in the Library of the Academy of Fine
became very interested in those illustrations of Brazil and
Arts in Vienna.) He sketched a large number of churches,
painted the front cover of the atlas himself.
chapels, palaces, convents, houses, and other buildings. He
Martius developed considerable artistic talent, vying
added color to these drawings, many of which are now at the
successfully with Spix in the matter of drawings, as verified
Akademia of Vienna. Most of the buildings were sketched
by his three albums devoted to palm trees. In his volume
from different angles, showing their simple style and plain
Genera et Species Palmarum Martius produces 245 beautiful
façades. (Brazilian colonial architecture was not very
drawings. His study of Brazilian palms, begun in 1823, was
elaborate, though changes began to take place after Dom
not published until 1850; it is not only a brilliant production of
João established his residence there.) Several of Ender's
German science, but also of book publishing art. Martius'
sketches illustrate the simplicity of the interior of homes in
later publications were well illustrated; such is the case of the
Rio: large and spacious rooms with practically no furniture,
Flora Brasiliense, which already had 1400 engravings when
while his paintings of homes in São Paulo show many rooms.
he died in 1868, at the age of seventy-four.
The way people dressed is also illustrated in Ender's
Martius was especially concerned with the aboriginat
numerous drawings. The ladies of São Paulo wore long and
inhabitants of Brazil. He observed and studied the Indian
dark tailored dresses. They displayed big hats-another
social condition and physical aspects, making a great
touch of elegance-when they dressed up for church or a
contribution for further studies in science. In the atlas of
trip. Lower class women-the vast majority-wore white
Viagem Pelo Brasil, Martius presents no less than twenty-two
cotton tunics of the kind imposed by the Jesuits in earlier
paintings of members of different tribes.
years.
Spix and Martius had not intended to use their own art work
The usual man's costume in São Paulo was a long blue
to illustrate their research; for that they had contracted
poncho that hung almost to the ground. In a sketch Ender
Thomas Ender, a twenty-four-year-old artist and musician.
illustrates its semicircular form, which eliminated the four
At the age of seventeen he started his career, painting
corners and made the poncho very graceful and attractive. In
watercolors of the country near Vienna. Later he studied oil
time of rain the poncho could cover, as Ender shows, both the
painting and painted mountains and other beautiful land-
man and his horse. Otherwise, the wearer could fold it back
scapes in Austria. He won prizes and the admiration and
on the shoulder, leaving his arm and hand free. This outfit
respect of Prince Metternich and Salomon Rothschild, the
was used among the tropeiros, or male drivers. The quality of
financier. Ender practically became the protégé of Metter-
the poncho indicated the social prestige of the individual. In
nich. Through his influence Ender was chosen as a member
the province of São Paulo, both men and women wore big felt
of the Austro-German scientific expedition to Brazil.
hats shaped into various forms, as Ender's sketches show.
Ender stayed only seven months in Brazil. He could not get
Ender was an outside painter and preferred to sketch
used to the climate and wrote to his friends about its bad
buildings. Most of his views of buildings show no movement,
effects on his health. As a landscaper, Ender was very
but in a few paintings Ender combines buildings, landscapes,
interested in Rio de Janeiro and its surroundings. He went
and people coming and going, as in Panorama of Rio de
with the Spix-Martius expedition only as far as São Paulo.
Janeiro.
Along the way, he sketched many interesting scenes,
Another Austrian with the mission was Franz Frühbeck.
including towns, villages, fields, mountains, forests, and all
Born in Vienna in 1795, he was an amateur artist who was
the spells of nature.
contracted as an assistant librarian. After he finished helping
Debret's portrait of Dom João
The Acclamation of Dom João, from the third volume of Debret's book, which contains
VI in His Royal Robe
his historical, political, and religious paintings
s-5
These lovely portraits of
Brazilian Indians were first
reproduced in the book
Reise in Brasilien by Karl F.
P. von Martius, head of the
Austro-German scientific
expedition
Zoologist Johann B. von
Spix, also of the Austro-
German mission, made
many detailed drawings of
the exotic birds of Brazil.
The collection was later
published in his book
Avium Species Novae
Langsdorff, Russian Consul in Brazil and expert traveler,
organize the expedition. Langsdorff selected the scientists
and the sketcher, the German Johann Moritz Rugendas.
Rugendas, however, decided to separate himself from
Langsdorff's expedition once he was in Brazil. The head of
the mission thought it was important to have an artist and
hired two Frenchmen, already living there: Amado Adriano
Taunay (son of Nicolai Antoine of the 1816 mission) and
Hercules Florence. Unfortunately, the young Taunay died on
the trip.
Hercules Florence was born in Nice, France, in 1804. He
was twenty years old, an artist by profession, when he arrived
in Brazil. After working in Rio in a store owned by a
Frenchman, he found a better job in the typography shop of
Pierre Plancher, the founder of the Journal do Comercio do
with the installation of Dona Leopoldina's library, he found
Rio de Janeiro. A few months later he learned about an
himself without a job and plenty of time to do what he really
opening for an artist at the Russian Consulate and was hired
liked: painting. During the time he was in Rio he painted
for the expedition.
seven pictures and made two rough outlines. Among these
The main objective of Langsdorff's scientific expedition
are four that illustrate different aspects of the buildings,
was to study different aspects of botany and zoology in
squares, and streets of the city.
Brazil. The expedition left Rio in September 1825 and
Robert Smith and Gilberto Ferrez, in Franz Frühbeck's
returned in March 1829, crossing the heart of Brazil. They
Brazilian Journey (Philadelphia, 1960), survey his artistic
used canoes and mules in their four long years of traveling.
production and reproduce in their book sixteen of his
Florence made the entire journey. He recorded his experi-
paintings and drawings, including the nine he did in Rio.
ences and observations in a diary, in which he also made his
They were obtained in an auction in Vienna and today are
sketches. For some unexplained reason, the book remained
part of the collection of the Hispanic Society of America in
undiscovered until 1874, and was finally translated and
New York. Landing in Rio de Janeiro is the only painting
published in the Revista do Instituto Historico y Geografico
reproduced in color in the book on Frühbeck. It is a view of a
de Rio de Janeiro in 1875.
historical event: the arrival of Dona Leopoldina in Rio. It
The book was highly praised by several scientists who
shows the formality of the ceremony; it is a solemn occasion
recognized its content as very valuable to their fields. Among
and nothing seems to be out of place. Red, blue, gold, light
them was Theodor Koch-Grünberg, who considered it a
blue, and white were the colors of the uniforms, the carriage,
great contribution to the ethnology and geography of Brazil.
the sky, the sea, and the horses.
In Florence's book there are 115 pictures, fifty-one of which
are related to the Indians' Hife in the interior of Brazil. The
Russian Scientific Mission
Indian paintings are valuable as ethnological documents, as
they express reality among the Indian tribes in those years.
In 1824 Czar Alexander I decided to send a scientific
Florence outlined most of his drawings in pencil, using little
mission to Brazil. He requested that Georg Heinrich
shading, but expressing what he saw quite clearly.
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Panorama of Rio de Janeiro, oil, by Thomas Ender, was one of the few paintings in which the Viennese artist combined
buildings, landscapes, and people. In only seven months in Brazil Ender produced more than seven hundred works
Amado Adriano Taunay, the first artist of the Russian
operations. The painting that appears on the first page of the
scientific expedition, was already famous as an artist when he
book illustrates a well-organized working group in the
took the job with Langsdorff. Unfortunately, he drowned in
diamond mines. Another shows the bed of the Jequitinhonha
the Guaporé River at the age of twenty-five. At the time of his
River completely dry, its water having been diverted to make
death, one hundred of his drawings had been sent to St.
the removal of gravel easier. It is a very interesting painting
Petersburg, and 130 more were kept by Florence while the
for people today who are concerned for the conservation of
expedition remained in the interior.
our natural environment, as it gives a feeling of devastating
desolation.
Independent Artists and Travelers
In the Portuguese edition appears a picture published first
in the Italian edition-a very interesting painting of a Paulista
The three missions were in Brazil between 1816 and 1829.
in the typical outfit of the province. The Paulista is wearing a
Each had its own purpose and left a contribution to science.
long robe, open in front, with an elaborate white lace, about
The Academy of Fine Arts of Rio de Janeiro was the result of
four inches wide, around his shoulders. Something white is
the efforts of the French artistic mission of 1816. Before these
under the robe. He wears a black hat and is holding a big
missions came to Brazil, however, there were European
white handkerchief. His face is young, handsome, pleasant,
travelers, among them artists, who had arrived soon after
and proud. His left hand rests calmly on his side.
Dom João.
Mawe's paintings of the mines are clear. He illustrates what
Among the first to come, in 1809, was John Mawe. He was
he wanted. Very precisely he described the region's houses:
perhaps the first foreigner to travel in the interior of Brazil in
all had circular form. The precious stones were symmetrical-
the nineteenth century-a privilege not normally granted
ly sketched. The mines of topaz and gold are represented.
foreigners before the arrival of Dom João. A mineralogist,
Mawe's pictures are few, but they bring a historical
Mawe traveled to Minas Gerais to study, observe, and write
communication between the past and the present.
about the exploitation of diamonds, topaz, aquamarine, and
Henry Koster was another of the independent travelers; he
gold mines in the region. Some illustrations appear in his
came to Pernambuco for the first time in 1809. After several
book, Travels in the Interior of Brazil, which was published in
trips back to England, Koster returned to Bahia in 1817 and
London in 1812. Mawe did not use many paintings, but the
died there in 1820. In his book Travels in Brazil, Koster reveals
few in his book gave the reader a clear concept of the mining
his experiences on a trip to the sertão of northeastern Brazil.
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Southey. All of Guillobel's Brazilian paintings were done in
1814.
A noble traveler to Brazil was the German Prince
Maximilian Wied-Neuwied. He was interested in science and
art and visited Brazil in 1815 and 1817. He traveled between
Rio de Janeiro and Bahia through a region of dense forest,
where he pursued his interests in ornithology and zoology.
Many of his zoological works, a series of colorful animal
paintings, are now in the American Museum of Natural
History in New York. In his book, Reise nach Brasilien in den
Jahren 1815 bis 1817, are reproduced several portraits of
Indians and many landscapes. After Prince Maximilian
returned to Europe many German painters worked on his
sketches. It is curious that he did not paint any portrait or
scene involving blacks.
Another amateur painter was Lieutenant Henry Chamber-
lain, the oldest son of the British General Consul in Rio de
Janeiro during the period 1815 to 1829. He visited São Paulo,
Rio, Santos, Minas Gerais, and other parts of the interior,
where he did a lot of painting. Some of his city paintings are
quite revealing, for example those titled Convicts and Food
for Criminals. In both scenes the convicts are tied by the leg
with a long chain; in both of them there was a white prisoner.
in The Peddler and His Slaves, the slaves carried everything
except a big umbrella that the peddler carried to protect
himself from the sun or rain. Some critics have charged that
Chamberlain copied some of the paintings of others. He
certainly copied Guillobel's beggar miniature, and so did
View of slaves washing for diamonds, from John Mawe's
Ender.
1812 book Travels in the Interior of Brazil
Because painting was not considered an honorable
profession for the English nobility, many of Chamberlain's
watercolors were never published. Chamberlain was not a
Like the others, Koster felt the need of illustrating what he
scientist or a writer; he painted for pleasure. He simply
saw. There are six paintings in his book. They were painted
wanted to show his friends back home what he had seen in
not by him, but by some of his relatives in London. They
Brazil. For each painting he wrote an explanation. All of them
painted the things that most impressed him, as he expressed
were translated into Portuguese and published by Rubens
himself in his book: a long canoe with sixteen fishermen
Borba de Morales. In the volume there are forty-one
rowing at great speed, a mule transporting cotton, a sugar
engravings in color, six of which were published for the first
mill in operation, and so on.
time. The others were first reproduced in Chamberlain's time,
Some unusual paintings were produced by Joaquim
in Views and Customs of the City and Neighbourhood of Rio
Cândido Guillobel, who was born in Lisbon in 1787 and came
de Janeiro, published in London in 1822.
to Rio de Janeiro in 1811. His artistic production is
considered among the best. An artist by profession, Guillobel
taught art at the military academy for several years. As a
Engraving of Brazilian jungle scene by German Prince
painter he had his own style and, unlike other artists in those
Maximilian Wied-Neuwied, from his 1821 book
years, he worked in small sizes; he was a perfect miniaturist.
His paintings are less than five inches in length, and all have a
touch of purple, green, gold, black, and pink.
Guillobel's art work deals with people of all types and of
diverse economic and social conditions. He seems to have
especially enjoyed observing the street vendors, as did
Koster, although the latter did not illustrate their customs in
his book. These small scale and daily commercial activities
were carried out mostly by blacks. Guillobel painted many of
the motifs that were popular among painters. Few artists
missed the scene of the barber at work on the street, or of big
barrels being transported by several slaves, sometimes using
a rudimentary four-wheeled wagon, or of chickens for sale in
big baskets, or of a vendor playing a musical instrument to
announce his products. And Guillobel also painted portraits
of people of the upper class, which illustrate the fashions of
these years.
The total number of miniatures is more than fifty. In 1941
Brazilian Minister Caio de Melo Franco bought the collection
in Bristol, England. It had been the property of Robert
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Entrudo, 1824 watercolor
by English painter
August Earle, depicts a
typical Rio Carnaval
celebration. The painting
is explained in detail in
the text
Of the English painters, the one with the most extensive
cards, a jug of wine, hats and coats are all over the floor and
artistic background was August Earle. Born in England in
the lemons are flying. All the faces look amused. The sight is
1793, Earle came from a family that for generations had been
rather exciting and wild for someone from a different culture.
in the art profession. At the age of fourteen, he attended the
Earle's outside sketches reveal customs among the blacks:
Royal Academy in London and became acquainted with
the beat of the drums, the clap of the hands, the rhythm that
many outstanding American and English artists.
was typical on the street. They all seemed to forget their hard
Earle was an adventurer as well as a painter. In 1815, at the
life and enjoy the moment, in the best way possible.
age of twenty-two, out he went from London to Malta to stay
with his brother. He visited the whole Mediterranean area
before returning to England two years later. A few months
Engraving by German artist Johann Moritz Rugendas
portrays capitão do matto with captured runaway slave
later he sailed for the United States, where he traveled widely
for two years. Rio de Janeiro was the next place on his mind
and there he arrived on April 20, 1820. He stayed only two
months and it is not known if he did any painting during that
short visit. After traveling to Chile, Peru, and back to London,
Earle returned to Rio de Janeiro for almost four years. He
painted with dedication, all the time planning a way to get to
India. He ended up in Australia instead.
Although he was a great traveler, there is no evidence that
Earle ever visited the interior of Brazil. Apparently, he
stopped in Pernambuco on one of his two trips and painted
some scenes of Recife. He was also interested in the customs
of the ordinary people, and his paintings where actions are
illustrated create a variety of feelings of joy, sadness, and
amusement. He painted several portraits and did some
watercolors of fruit-bearing trees and plants, such as the
coconut and banana.
One of Earle's watercolors depicts a scene in the interior of
a home that is like nothing painted by the other artists. The
painting is called Pulling a Parasite Out of His Foot. The
event, which Earle probably witnessed, took place in a
kitchen. Another unique painting by Earle shows a place
where men went to have a good time, to drink and play cards.
The building next door has a similar business. The two
structures are separated by a narrow corridor. It is the
carnival season and the traditional water fight is taking place.
Men and women are throwing perfumed lemons to the people
in the other house, and vice-versa. Black servants supply the
lemons in large trays. There are eleven well-dressed men and
three women in long white dresses, with low-cut necks. The
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Landing in Rio
de Janeiro,
goauche, by
Franz Frühbeck
of Austria,
depicts the
arrival of Dona
Leopoldina in
Brazil. The same
scene was
painted from
another angle by
Debret
Earle did two paintings of slave markets, one in Pernambu-
The Rugendas drawings and watercolors in Vienna were
CO and the other in Rio. Also among his works are eight small
bought by Clovis Ribeiro Washington Rodrigues in 1928.
paintings that show ladies' fashions, the vendors on the
Some of them are now in Brazilian private collections in Rio
street, a priest, miners, and a man on horseback. They are all
de Janeiro and São Paulo. Three oil paintings of the Royal
very good.
Family are in the Imperial Museum in Petrópolis. The rest are
Earle left Brazil in 1824 and returned in 1832 for a short visit.
in the National Library in Rio de Janeiro. Fifty paintings were
In those days he painted more watercolors and took them
kept at the Staatliche Summlung in Munich until 1944, when
back to London. Only three were reproduced-all land-
they were lent to the Volkerkunde Museum in the same city.
scapes -and nobody knows where the other paintings are at
All of them were destroyed in a World War II air raid.
the present time. Maria Graham used four of his earlier
Rugendas' book was translated into Portuguese by Sergio
paintings to illustrate her Journal of a Voyage to Brazil. The
Milliet and published in São Paulo in 1941. It has 110
rest of his Brazilian paintings and watercolors are in the far
engravings, which can be classified according to the motifs.
away city of Canberra, Australia.
Rugendas painted many landscapes, as well as many
Johann Moritz Rugendas was born in 1802 in Augsburg,
portraits of Indians and blacks. Unlike Ender, he was more
Germany. Several members of his family were well-known
concerned with people than with architecture. He was
artists. He came to Brazil as the artist of the Russian scientific
inclined toward the field of anthropology. His portraits of
expedition, but soon separated from the mission. His father,
representatives of Indian and African ethnic groups are
who was the director of the Fine Arts Academy in Augsburg
remarkable. He vividly illustrates the features of the Indians,
was obligated to honor the contract broken by his son, then
giving each face a touch of great dignity. Rugendas carefully
nineteen years old. Rugendas was a rather good-looking
emphasizes the beauty of human nature regardless of the
young man, distinguished, and with fine taste, which he
social or racial position of his subjects.
expressed in many of his portraits. The Brazilians considered
Seventeen of his Indian portraits show their physical
him the artist of people and nature, and so he was.
appearance very clearly. Their handsome eyes have a
Rugendas' Das merkwü digsts aus dar malerischen reise in
genuine look, and, to a certain degree, a sort of sadness.
Brazilien was published by Engelmann in Paris, between
Since the Indians generally were nude, Rugendas painted
1827 and 1835. It has about one hundred Brazilian paintings,
them from above the chest, giving a touch of perfect beauty to
the originals of which have disappeared. According to the
the Indian women especially. Rugendas looked for the
contract signed by his father, Langsdorff had certain rights to
beauty and grace of the Indians, which was not always the
Rugendas' works of art in Brazil, and was given one group of
case with the other artists. Rugendas was equally attracted to
his paintings. Another lot was sent to St. Petersburg, Russia.
the blacks. They were dressed, so he could take the whole
Several hundred paintings were kept in Austria, and the rest
view of them. The blacks in his pictures look handsome albeit
of his surviving Brazilian artistic work wound up in Brazil.
perhaps too serious. There are twenty-one individual
With the help of the U.S. Ambassador in Russia, Rugendas'
portraits of blacks, some of whom have their faces painted;
biographer David James found the ones in Leningrad. He
Rugendas identifies the region of Brazil or Africa from which
reproduced fifteen of them for the first time in 1956. Some of
each came.
them are simple outlines: the artist's pencil catches the
Rugendas calls the next section of his book "The Life of the
features of the people, their actions, and the meaning.
European." It illustrates various activities among Europeans
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and their descendants in the cities of Brazil. The paintings
Princess started to paint in 1805, in Vienna, when she was
show streets and people; churches and parishioners; the
only eight years old. She used the pencil and outlined simple
square and soldiers parading; homes and relaxing moments;
features. It is hard to believe that she did not paint in Brazil,
travelers; mules and other transportation; parties and
and, in fact, historian Ritter von Schaffer states that the
dancing; a little store and its customers; the Junta of
Empress was occupied with reading, writing, and painting. In
Pernambuco and some politicians; the interior of a church,
letters she wrote to her aunt in 1818-1820, Dona Leopoldina
the priest, the mass, and the people. Each painting is very
mentioned that she was doing some drawings. She probably
clear, with people and nature in the foreground and buildings
did both portraits and landscapes. Unfortunately, nothing
in the background. Movement is present at all times, even in
she did in Brazil has been found.
the landscapes.
Rugendas was fascinated by what he saw in Brazil. His
Art in Brazil in the early nineteenth century provides a
search for beauty is the main theme of his artistic perfor-
remarkable historical documentation. It is clear, beautiful,
mance. None of his paintings bring on unpleasant feelings.
and easy to comprehend. It reveals the different characteris-
He seemed to reject the ugly part of life.
tics and activities of the inhabitants of the various parts of
Many European artists of all ages came to Brazil; all were
Brazil. Travelers like Mawe, a mineralogist, could not resist
men except for two distinguished ladies who loved art as
visiting the land of topaz, gold, and diamonds; Koster wanted
much as the males already mentioned. One of them was
to see and feel the country through his own observations;
Maria Graham from England, and the other was the Austrian
Prince Maximilian Wied-Neuwied crossed the Atlantic to
Princess Dona Leopoldina. The former was in Brazil from
persue his scientific hobbies in Brazil; Lieutenant Chamber-
1821 to 1824. She came to teach Dona Maria da Gloria, the
lain painted just for the pleasure of showing Brazil to his
future queen of Portugal. A great traveler, Miss Graham was
friends. Debret and Taunay were professional artists and
also an accomplished artist. To a degree, her work is similar
founders of the Academy of Fine Arts. Guillobel left a
to Ender's. Her paintings focus on buildings, topography,
treasure of miniatures. Ender, in a short period of seven
and vegetation; the human factor is practically absent. There
months, sketched and painted several hundred pieces. The
is no action; everything is static.
scientists also were fine artists: Spix and Martius, who
Maria Graham was a good friend of Dona Leopoldina. The
crisscrossed the Northeast and journeyed west on the
Black Porters, color engraving by Lieutenant Henry Chamberlain, shows two different methods used by slaves to
transport heavy barrels. Like many of Chamberlain's other themes, this one was first used in Guillobel's miniatures
s-11
Amazon as far as Colombia and Peru, illustrated all they
meaningful link between the past and the present of Brazil.
could. Rugendas and Florence, with delight, painted the
Indians and blacks, as did Earle, the young English
Isabel A. Striker, who holds the Master's degree in Spanish
"wandering artist," and Frühbeck, the assistant librarian. All
American literature and Latin American studies from the
of them painted part of the life of Brazil. Progress has
University of Florida, is presently continuing graduate
eliminated many typical scenes of those years. These
studies there. She has taught in public high schools in
paintings, watercolors, and drawings are the only visual
Panama, at the United States Embassy in Caracas, and at the
testimony of that particular period. It is a small and
Colegio Nueva Granada in Bogotá.
Panning for Gold and View of the Coast Near Bahia, two of the hundreds of engravings that resulted from Rugendas'
stay in Brazil. "His search for beauty is the main theme of his artistic performance"
This supplement is part of the series on the culture, history, art, and development of the member states of the Organization
of American States. It has been produced in conjunction with Américas, monthly magazine published in English, Spanish,
and Portuguese. Original prints to illustrate this supplement were generously made available by the Oliveira Lima Library
of the Catholic University of America.
January 1977
Editor in Chief
Editor and Art Director
Editorial Assistant
Artist
Guillermo de Zéndegui
Arbon Jack Lowe
Pilar Garffer
Leonard J. Faina Jr.
Additional copies of this supplement are available at U.S.$1.00 each from the Sales and Promotion Unit of the General
Secretariat of the Organization of American States, Washington, D.C. 20006.
Graphics Credits: 1-3, from A Muito Leal e Heróica Cidade de São
Particularly in the Gold and Diamond Districts of That Country, by John
Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro, by Gilberto Ferrez, Paris, 1965; 4-5, from
Mawe, London, 1812-from Reise nach Brasilien in den Jahren 1815 bis
Voyage Pittresque et Historique au Brésil, by J. B. Debret, Paris, 1835; 6,
1817, by Prince Maximilian Wied-Neuwied, Frankfurt, 1821;9, from A Muito
from Reise in Brasilien auf Behehl Sr. Majestat Maximilian Joseph I, by Karl
Leal. from Voyage Pittoresque dans le Brésil, by Johann Moritz
von Martius, Munich, 1823-31-from Avium Species Novae, by Johann B.
Rugendas, Paris, 1833; 10, from A Muito Leal..; 11, from Views and Customs
von Spix, 1824; 7, from o Velho Rio de Janeiro Através das Gravuras de
of the City and Neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro, by Lt. Henry
Thomas Ender, by Gilberto Ferrez; 8, from Travels in the Interior of Brazil,
Chamberlain, London, 1822; 12, from Voyage Pittoresque dans le Brésil.
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GENERAL SECRETARIAT
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20006 U.S.A.