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Mongolia- Pres. Ochirbat Visit 1/23/91 [OA 8321]
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administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
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George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
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Folder Title:
Mongolia - Pres. Ochirbat Visit 1/23/91 [OA 8321]
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26
21
2
4
McGroarty/Dooley
January 18, 1991
11:00 am
[MONGOLIA]
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS:
DEPARTURE STATEMENT FOR THE VISIT OF
PRESIDENT OCHIRBAT OF MONGOLIA
THE SOUTH LAWN
JANUARY 23, 1990
1:15 PM
Mr. President: It has been my great honor to welcome you to
the White House for this historic visit to our country -- the
first-ever by the head of state of Mongolia. //
Mr. President, Mongolia and the United States are countries
separated by thousands of miles, and a world of differences -- in
culture, history and outlook. Yet, in this past year, our two
nations have moved closer together -- drawn toward one another by
universal principles and ideals. //
In the past year, Mongolia has opened its controlled economy
to free market reform -- opened its closed political system --
and opened its doors to the world. //
Opposition parties are now legal. Mongolia held its first
multi-party elections in July -- free and fair elections that
electectectedir subsequently leg.
elevated you, Mr. President, to your position of leadership. //
And this transition toward broader political freedom has a
parallel in increased freedom of belief as well, with the re-
opening of several monasteries and a mosque -- and the invitation
to the Dalai Lama to visit Mongolia later this year
]
//
Mr. President, your party's positive approach toward reform
has meant peaceful change. //
In our discussions today, I made clear the strong support
the United States is ready to offer as Mongolia moves forward
toward greater freedom. Already, the U.S. has begun a program of
technical assistance to Mongolia. / Just this month, a team
from A.I.D. travelled to Ulan Bator [00-lahn BAH-ter] to brief 20
mid-level managers on free market reform -- and found 200
many members of the
officials ready to exchange ideas, including the entire Mongolian
legislature. / This summer, for the first time ever, Peace
Corps volunteers will begin work in Mongolia. / Later this
afternoon, our two countries will sign agreements opening the way
to expanded trade, and closer contact in the areas of science and
technology. / And today, I have given my approval to grant
Mongolia Most Favored Nation status -- a step I hope will spur
increased trade between our two countries. / /
In addition to these matters of mutual interest, I reviewed
with President Chairman Ochirbat world affairs of surpassing concern --
including OPERATION DESERT STORM. // Mongolia was among the
first to condemn Iraq's brutal invasion of Kuwait -- and to call
for Iraq's complete and unconditional withdrawal.
Mr. President, I know that you believe as I do, that no
nation must be permitted to assaualt and brutalize its neighbor.
//
The actions of Iraq's dictator -- the actions of one
misguided man -- cannot obscure mankind's bright destiny of
democracy and freedom. // The future lies with the process of
revolution and renewal now taking place in your nation -- a
democratic revolution that is destined to bring peace, freedom
and prosperity to the people of Mongolia, as it has to this
country and so many others around the world. //
Once again, Mr. President, it has been my pleasure to
welcome you to Washington, and to the White House. God bless you
-- and may God bless the people of Mongolia.
# # #
01.15.91 03:11 PM *DEPT OF STATE EAP
PO1
United States Department of State
Washington, D.C. 20520
BUREAU OF EAST ASIAN AND PACIFIC AFFAIRS
FAX COVER SHEET
DATE: January 15, 1991
TO: White House Speech office- Peggy Dooley
FAX NUMBER: 456-6218
ADDRESSEE'S PHONE: 647-9141
FROM: EAP/ china/Mongolia Desk
FAX NUMBER: 202-647-7350
SENDER'S PHONE NUMBER: 202-647-9141
NUMBER OF PAGES INCLUDING COVER SHEET: 5
REMARKS:
As promised.
UNCLASSIFIED
ONLY
01. 15. 91 03:11 PM *DEPT OF STATE EAP
P O 2
Country Profile
Mongolia
Official Name:
Legislative-People's Great Hural
molybdenum, phosphates, tin, nickel, zino,
Mongolian People's Republic
(National Assembly), and August 1990
wolfram, fluorspar, gold.
election of first Baga Hural (Small Hural).
Agriculture: Products-livestock,
Judicial-blend of Russian, Chinese, and
wheat, oats, barley, hay fodder,
Geography
Turkish law systems, administered by
vegetables. Rural population (1990)-
Area: 1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.);
courts and Office of the Procurator-
43%.
slightly smaller than Arizona, New Mexico,
Supreme Court elected by People's Great
Industry (50% of GNP est.): Animal-
Texas, and Louislana combined (land
Hural. Legal code under revision. No
derived products, building materials,
boundarles 8,158 km). Cities: Capital-
provision for judicial review of legislative
minerals.
Uleanbaater (pop. 600,000, 1986). Other
acts. Legal education at Mongolian State
Electric power: 522,000 kW capacity
cities-Darhan (63,300), Erdenet (48,000).
University. Mongolia does not accept
(1983); 1,765 million kWh produced in
Terrain: Almost 90% of land area is
International Court of Justice jurisdiction.
1983, 1,487 kWh per capita.
pasture or desert; 0.9% Is arable; 8.9% is
Political parties: Mongolian People's
Communications: Railroad 1,815 km.
forested, Climate: Continental, with little
Revolutionary Party (the communist
(1990). all broad gauge (1.524 m.). High-
precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctua-
MPRP has dominated the country since
ways 49,150 km. total; composed of
tions.
1921.) The following opposition parties
concrete, asphalt, crushed stone, gravel,
were registered as of June 7, 1990:
and earth (42,610 km. are unpaved).
People
Mongolian Democratic Party, Social
Trade: Exports-livestock, animal
Democratic Party, Party of National
products, wool, hides, fluorspar, nonfer-
Noun and adjective: Mongolian(s). Popu-
Progress, Party of Free Labor, and the
rous metals, and minerals. Imports-
lation (1989): 2.044 million. Annual
Green Party.
machinery and equipment, petroleum,
growth rate (1976-88): 5.7%. Ethnic
Suffrage: Universal 18 and older.
clothing, consumer durables, building
groups: Predominantly Mongal (77%
Elections: People's Great Hural elections
materials, sugar, tea, chemicals, and food
Khalkha, 11.7% other Mongolian groups).
held every 4 yrs, scheduled July 29, 1990.
products. Partners (1989)-93.5% with
5.3% Kazakh, 2% Chinese, 2% Russian,
Administrative subdivisions: 18
communist countries (USSR 73.3%). US-
2% other. Languages: Khalkha Mongol,
aymags (provinces) and three autono-
Mongolia trade-$1.6 million (1989). Total
more than 90%; minor languages Include
mous cities (Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Er-
turnover-About $1.7 billion (1989).
Kazakh, Chinese, and Russian. Relig-
denet).
Ald received: Heavily dependent on
ions: Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism is the
Defense expenditures: About 12% of
USSR. Official exchange rate (1990):
predominant religion of 94% of the
total GNP (ending December 1977, more
2.9975 tugriks=US$1. Flacal year:
population, Muslim 6% (primarily in the
recent figures unavallable); 405 million
calendar year.
southwest) and Shamanism. Religious
tugrike.
activity, though guaranteed in the 1960
National holidays: International
Membership In
constitution, has been limited by the
Socialist Workers' Day, May 1; People's
International Organizations
communist regime; however, since
Revolution Day, July 11. Flag: Three
January 1990, the process of reopening
vertical bands-red, sky-blue, red; on the
UN and some of its specialized agencies,
two monasteries and one mosque has
left red band, golden five-pointed star and,
including UNESCO, International Atomic
begun. Education: Years compulsory-8.
underneath, the golden soyombo (the
Energy Agency (IAEA), International Labor
Literacy-about 80%. Life expectancy
Mongolian national emblem, composed of
Organization (ILO), International Telecom-
(1985): 65.6 yrs.
a flame, sun, moon, two triangles, four
munication Union (ITU), Universal Postal
rectangies, and two fish) are arranged.
Union (UPU), World Health Organization
Government
(WHO), World Meteorological Organiza-
Type: Communist state undergoing
Economy
tion (WMO), International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO); Interparilamentary
democratic transition. Independence:
GDP (1990 Mongolian est.): $3 billion. Per
Union, Council for Mutual Economic
1921. Constitution: 1960, major amend-
capits GDP (1990 est): $1,500. Annual
Assistance (CEMA), Economic and Social
ments 1990.
growth rate (1975-88): 5.7%.
Commission for Asia and the Pacific
Branches: Executive-highty central-
Natural resources: Coal, copper,
(ESCAP).
ized administration (Council of Ministers).
us Department of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
July 1990
Office of Public Communication
01. 15. 91 03:11 PM *DEPT OF STATE EAP
PO3
GEOGRAPHY
and the rest are Tungusic-speakers,
proclaimed their Independence in
The Mongolian People's Republic
Chinese, and Russians.
December 1911, shortly after a success-
(MPR) is in central Asia, with the Soviet
Formerly, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism
ful Chinese revolt against the Manchus
Union to the north and China to the
was the predominant religion; however,
in October. Through agreements signed
south. It coincides roughly with "Outer
religious activity had been suppressed
in 1913 and 1915, the Russian govern-
Mongolia," a term historically applied to
and only one showcase monastery had
ment forced the new Chinese republican
the area by the Manchus to distinguish it
remained open in recent years. in early
government to accept Mongollan
from Inner Mongolia, an autonomous
1990, as part of the liberalization
autonomy under continued Chinese
region in northern China, and Buryat
process, the government announced
sovereignty, presumably to discourage
Mongolia in the Soviet Union.
that two more monasteries and one
other foreign powers from approaching
In the southeast, the Gobi supports
mosque would be reopened.
a newly independent Mongolian state
almost no vegetation and is sparsely
About 4 million Mongols live outside
that would be looking for support from
populated. North and west of the Gobi,
Mongolia-approximately 3.4 million in
as many foreign sources as possible.
the landscape changes gradually to
China, mainly in the the Inner Mongolia
The Russian revolution and civil war
rugged mountains rising to elevations of
Autonomous Region, and about 500,000
gave China an opportunity to establish
more than 3,962 meters (13,000 ft.)
in the USSR, primarily in Buryat
rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese
above sea level. The highest peak in
Mongolia and the Kalmyk Autonomous
troops were dispatched there In 1919.
Mongolia is Nayramdal Uul (4,374 m.-
Republic.
But, following Soviet military victories
14,350 ft.). Many salt lakes and prairies
over White Russian forces In the early
dot the country. Water is more abundant
HISTORY
1920s, Moscow again became the
in the habitable north, although the
In 1203 AD, a single Mongolian feudal
major outside Influence on Mongolia.
rivers in this area are rough and
state was formed from nomadic tribal
Under the revolutionary leaders Sukhe
uncontrolled.
groupings under the leadership of
Bator and Choybalsan, the Mongolian
The climate is continental, with little
Ghengis Khan. He and his immediate
People's Republic was procialmed in
precipitation, sharply defined seasons,
successors conquered nearly all of Asia
November 1924.
great diurnal temperature changes,
and European Russia and sent armies
Historically, Mongolia's foreign
long, cold winters (October-April), short
as far afield as Central Europe and
relations have focused on its two
summers, and some of the highest
Southeast Asia. Ghengis Khan's
neighbors, the Soviet Union and China.
recorded barometer pressures in the
grandson, Kublai Khan, gained fame In
During the Sino-Soviet conflict of the
world. The mean monthly temperature at
Europe through the writings of Maroo
early 1960s, Mongolia tried to remain
Ulaanbaatar ranges from -27° c (-17° F)
Polo. Although Mongol-led confedera-
neutral. However, this situation
in January to 18° c (64° F) in July, with
tions sometimes exercised wide political
changed in the middle of the decade. In
recorded extremes of -48° C (-54° F)
power over their conquered territories,
1966, Mongolia and the Soviet Union
and 39° C (102° F). Precipitation aver-
their strength declined rapidly after the
signed a new agreement which allowed
ages 25.4 centimeters (10 in.) annually
Mongol dynasty in China was over-
Moscow to reintroduce large-scale
at Ulaanbaatar.
thrown in 1368.
Soviet ground forces as part of the
The Manchus, who conquered China
USSR's general bulldup along the Sino-
PEOPLE
in 1644, brought Outer Mongolia under
Soviet frontier. Many factors may have
Life in sparsely populated Mongolia is
Manchu rule in 1691. Although the
motivated this shift, including Mongolla's
becoming more urbanized and seden-
Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath
historical antipathy for the Chinese,
tary. The birth rate is estimated at 2.6%.
of allegiance to the Manchu emperor,
continued tensions on the Sino-
Of the 2 million people, approximately
they remained autonomous. However,
Mongolian border (despite a 1964
25% live in the capital; another 32% live
all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia
demarcation). statements attributed to
in various provincial centers. In the
since the overthrow of the Manchu
Beijing suggesting a continued interest
countryside, nomadic life still predomi-
dynasty have rested on this oath. In
among some Chinese for reannexing
nates, but settled agricultural communi-
1727, Russia and Manchu China
Mongolia, Russia's historical counterbal-
ties are becoming common. Tradition-
concluded the Treaty of Klakhta,
ancing of Chinese influence, and heavy
ally. Mongollans have scorned agricul-
delimiting the border between China and
Mongolian dependence on Soviet
ture, but once-nomadic herders now use
Outer Mongolia that exists in large part
economic aid,
modern farm machinery to raise grain
today.
The birth of perestroika in the Soviet
and fodder crops.
Outer Mongolia was a Chinese
Union and the democracy movement in
Mongolians account for about 90%
province from 1691 to 1911, an autono-
Eastern Europe was mirrored in Mongo-
of the population and subgroups are dis-
mous state under Russian protection
lla. The first demonstrations were held
tinguished primarily by their dialects.
from 1912 to 1919, and again a Chinese
in Ulaanbaatar in December 1989, and
The majority (77%) are Khalkha
province from 1919 to 1921. As Manchu
the first organized opposition group, the
Mongols. Non-Khalkhas-Durbet
authority in China waned, and as Russia
Mongolian Democratic Association,
Mongols and others in the north, and
and Japan confronted each other,
appeared. In the face of popular
Dariganga Mongols in the east-total
Russia gave arms and diplomatic
sentiment for faster reform, the leader-
about 8% of the population. Turkic
support to nationalists among the
ship of the Mongolian People's Revolu-
speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and
Mongal religious leaders and nobles.
tionary Party (MPRP) resigned in March
Khotans) comprise 7% of the population,
The Mongols accepted Russian aid and
1990. The constitution was amended in
2
01. 15. 91 03:11 PM *DEPT OF STATE EAP
P04
Below the national level are 18
Principal Government Officials
aymage (provinces) plus the capital,
Chairman, Presidium, People's Great Hursi-Punsalmaaglyn Ochirbat
Ulaanbaster. On the next administrative
Chairman, Council of Ministere-Sharabyn Gungaadorj
level are somon (In the provinces) and
First Deputy Chairman, Council of Ministers-Dashiyn Byambasuren
horoo (In Ulaanbaatar and the munici-
Deputy Chairmen, Council of Ministers
palities). In many cases, leaderships of
Kinayatyn Dzardyhan
the somon and the livestock and farming
Badrahyn Sharabsambuu
cooperatives operating within the somon
Sonomyn Lubsangombo
are the same. Local elections will also
Tsendiyn Moiom
Dondoglyn Teebegmid
be held on July 29, 1990.
Other Ministers
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Although the first two decades of
Agriculture, Light & Food Industry-
Foreign Affairs-
communist rule in Mongolia were
Dandzanglyn Randnaaragchas
Tserenpillyn Gombosuren
politically unstable, there was no
Communications-Irbudziyn Norobjab
Health & Society Security-
significant popular unrest until Decem-
Construction-
Pagbjabyn Nyamdabaa
ber 1989. Collectivization of animal
Ubsanbaldanglyn Nyamsambuu
Heavy Industry-Sodobyn Bathuyag
husbandry, introduction of agriculture,
Culture-Bedziyn Baljinnyam
Irrigation (Water)-
and the extension of fixed abodes have
Defense-Lubsangombyn Molomjamts
Dzundulyn Janjaadorj
Justice-Origiyn Jambaldorj
been, or are being, carried out without
Education-Norobyn Urtnasan
Environmental Protection-
Trade & Cooperation-
perceptible popular opposition. The
Uthany Mablet
Nadmidyn Babuu
emergence of the democracy movement
Finance-Demchigjabyn Molomjamts
Transportation-Dogyn Yondonsuren
in December 1989 has brought swift and
peaceful change to Mongolia, and the
May, deleting the MPRP's role as the
chairman and secretary of the Baga
government has adopted a positive
guiding force in the country, legalizing
Hural, and the president. The president
approach toward reform
will nominate a prime minister who must
During the period of Sino-Sovlet
opposition parties, creating a standing
tensions, relations between Mongolia
legislative body (Baga Hural), and
be confirmed by the People's Great
and China also deteriorated. In 1983,
establishing the office of president.
Hural.
Mongolia's first multiparty elections are
Until May 1990, only the communist
the MPR began systematically expelling
some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese from
scheduled for July 29, 1990, to bring a
MPRP was officially permitted to
new government to power.
function. Although the MPRP, which
Mongolla, despite the fact that many of
them had lived in the MPR since the
Traditionally, Mongolia has adhered
has 88,000 members, continues to run
to the Soviet line in foreign policy.
the government, five opposition parties
1950s when many Chinese had assisted
However, it is now improving ties with
had been recognized by early June
in construction projects. Mongolian
relations with China began to improve in
China, has reached an agreement for
1990.
The MPRP central committee
the mid-1980s when consular agree-
the withdrawal of all Soviet troops by
ments were reached and cross-border
1992, and is moving toward a non-
elected a new.presidium of six members
aligned foreign policy.
headed by General Secretary Gom-
trade contacts expanded. China and
bojavyn Ochirbat in March 1990. Only
Mongolia exchanged foreign minister
GOVERNMENT
one member of the new party presidium,
visits In 1989, and in May 1990 a
Tserenplilyn Gombosuren, who is
Mongolian head of state visited China
The Mongolian government was
for the first time in 28 years. Soviet
modeled on the Soviet system. The
foreign minister, also holds a high
dramatic shifts of 1990 are continuing.
troop withdrawals, which began In 1987,
government post.
and the general structure of the new
A new government took office in
are scheduled to be completed by 1992.
The establishment of relations with the
government is just beginning to emerge.
April 1990. Sharabyn Gungaadorj
United States in 1987 also has marked a
A People's Great Hural is scheduled
(prime minister) is the chairman of the
to be elected on July 29, 1990. Voters
council of ministers and Punsalmaagiyn
new effort by the MPR to develop
relations outside the socialist world. in
will cast ballots indicating their support
Ochirbat is chairman of the presidium of
for one of the parties registered to
the People's Great Hural (head of state).
this connection, Mongolia's prime
compate in the election. After the newly
Justice in the MPR is administered
minister visited Japan in March 1990.
elected People's Great Hural meets, It
by the court system and the office of the
The Mongolians also established
will elect 50 members to the Baga Hural
procurator. The supreme court is elected
diplomatic relations with South Korea in
March 1990.
("Small Hural"-the standing congress).
by the People's Great Hural, while lower
Candidates for the Baga Hural will be
courts are elected locally. The People's
ECONOMY
nominated by each political party based
Great Hural appoints the procurator,
on the number of votes they receive in
who in turn appoints lower level procura-
Mongolia's economy is heavily agricul-
the election. in addition, the People's
tors. The Mongolian legal code is
tural. Live animals and animal prod-
Great Hural will elect a chairman, vice
currently under revision.
ucts-meat, butter, wool and hair, hides,
3
01. 15. 91 03:11 PM *DEPT OF STATE EAP
P05
and furs-account for half of Mango-
lia's output and almost 90% of its
Some Key Events in Mongolia
exports. Cosi is also an important
1920-present
export. Principal Imports include
machinery, petroleum, cloth, and
building materials. Although almost all
March 13, 1921: Provisional people's government declares independence of
Mongolian external trade is conducted
Mongolla. People's revolutionary government established on July 21.
with the Soviet Union and Warsaw
Pact countries, links with non-
May 31, 1924: USSR signs agreement with Peking government, referring to
communist states are developing, and
Outer Mongolia as an "integral part of the Republic of China," whose "sovereignty"
a growing tourist trade is making the
therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.
country better known to the outside
world.
November 1924: People's Great Hural meets for first time, proclaims exis-
In recent years, Mongolians have
tence of Mongollan People's Republic (MPR), and adopts constitution In which it
calls itself Independent.
begun coal, copper, and molybdenum
mining, grain and fodder production,
March 12, 1936: Formal 10-year USSR-MPR treaty of friendship and mutual
consumer goods and construction
defense is signed. Chinese sovereignty is not mentioned, and two Chinese
material production, commercial
protests are disregarded by Moscow.
fishing. and development of a food-
processing industry. The railway
August 14, 1945: In an exchange of notes signed at the conclusion of the
linking Moscow, Ulaanbaatar, and
Sino-Soviet treaty of friendship and alliance, the government of the Republic of
Beijing. completed In 1955, provides a
China agrees to recognize the independence of Outer Mongolia within its "existing
shorter route between the USSR and
boundery," provided that a plebiscite of the Outer Mongollan people confirms their
China than the line through Manchu-
oft-expressed desire for independence.
ria. Mongolia has both Internal and
October 6, 1949: Newly established People's Republic of China accepts rec-
international airline service, and trucks
ognition accorded MPR and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.
have largely replaced camels on
domestic freight routes.
October 27, 1961: MPR admitted to UN.
The rapid changes of the first 6
months of 1990 marked the beginning
January 27, 1987: Diplomatic relations established with the United States.
of Mongolia's efforts to develop a
December 1989: First popular reform demonstrations, Mongolian Democratic
market economy, but transforming the
Association organized.
traditional centrally planned economy
will be a difficult and prolonged
March 1990: Top government leaders resign.
process.
Despite some progress, Mongolia
March 2, 1990: Soviets and Mongollans announce that all Soviet troops will
has been unable to achieve economic
be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.
independence. Foreign aid, which is
April 1990: Mongollan first deputy prime minister visits the United States.
necessary to help finance a vast ex-
pansion of educational and other
May 1990: Constitution amended to provide for multiparty system and new
public services and a great deal of
elections.
construction, continues to come from
the Soviet Union-the principal source
of credit-and the Soviet-led mem-
US-MONGOLIA RELATIONS
The US has sought to expand
bers of CEMA [Council for Mutual
The US Government recognized Mongolia
relations with Mongolia, primarily in
Economic Assistance]. The 1986-90
in January 1987 and established its first
cultural and economic matters. In 1989,
5-year plan anticipated Soviet aid of
embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988,
the US and Mongolia concluded a
approximately $3 billion. The esti-
The embassy formally opened in Septem-
cultural accord. Several other agree-
mated debt to the Soviet Union in
ber 1988 with the presentation of creden-
ments, including a Peace Corps accord,
1990 was 9.6 billion rubles, Consider-
tials by the US Ambassador. After
a trade agreement, and a consular
able technical assistance has also
administrative preparations were com-
convention, are currently under discus-
come from the Soviet Union and
plated, the embassy opened on a year-
sion.
several East and Central European
round basis in June 1989. The first Am-
Since the beginning of Mongolia's
countries. In the early 1960s, the
bassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams,
reform movement, the United States has
People's Republic of China also
was not resident in Mongolia. Joseph E.
sought to be supportive of the trend
advanced more than $100 million in
Lake was confirmed on June 22, 1990, as
toward greater democracy and market-
grants and credits and made available
ambassador, and he is expected to arrive
oriented reform.
thousands of its workers to overcome
in the summer of 1990. The Mongolian
a shortage in Mongolia.
People's Republic accredited its first
ambassador to the United States in March
1989.
4
WASHFAX RECEIPT
DEPARTMENT OF STATE
B
S/S #
53
061304
MESSAGE NO.
CLASSIFICATION Limited official USE No. Pages 2
FROM: Dave Keegan
EAP/CM
647-9141
4318
(Officer name)
(Office symbol)
(Extension)
(Room number)
MESSAGE DESCRIPTION draft of President's Statement at
departure of President Ochirbat
TO: (Agency)
DELIVER TO:
Extension
Room No.
white House
Poggy Douley - Speech office
456-7750
111/1/2
FOR:
CLEARANCE
INFORMATION
PER REQUEST
COMMENT
REMARKS: As promised
(Washfax # 395-5221)
S/S Officer:
M
FORM
DS-1760
7-77
Called 1658- 15JAN91
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
PRESIDENTIAL STATEMENT
AT THE DEPARTURE OF PRESIDENT OCHIRBAT
JANUARY 23, 1991
Mongolia and the United States are countries far separated
by circumstance - with different histories, different cultures,
and different societies. Yet, we are now united in our
conviction that a free and democratic political system and a
market-oriented economy provide the best life for our people.
In my meetings today with President Ochirbat I heard him
describe what his country has accomplished in the brief span of
a year. What had been an authoritarian one-party state has
changed course, and is now moving toward democracy through the
cooperative actions of the Mongolian people and their
government.
We in the United States respect and admire all that
Mongolia has accomplished. We are convinced that Mongolia has
chosen the right course, and we are committed to doing what we
can to help it succeed. The United States has already begun a
program of technical assistance to Mongolia, and Peace Corps
volunteers will begin work there this summer. Today I have
signed a Presidential determination that Mongolia qualifies for
Most Favored Nation status. This afternoon our two countries
will sign agreements on trade and on cooperation in science and
technology. These steps establish a firm basis for the warm
and friendly cooperation between our two countries.
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
During our talks this morning I reviewed with President
Ochirbat the situation in the Gulf. He recalled that Mongolia
was among the first countries to condemn Iraq's invasion of
Kuwait and to call for its unconditional withdrawal. I think
that is important, because Iraq's aggression is not something
which concerns just the Security Council or just the Arab
world. The principle that all nations should be secure from
]1
intimidation and invasion is precious to all of us.
The big news of the past year is, in the final analysis,
not the depredations of aggressors like Iraq, but the
courageous, peaceful democratic revolutions embarked upon by
Mongolia and other countries around the world. Mr. President,
I know I speak for all Americans when I congratulate you on
what you and your people have done to build democracy and
prosperity. Rest assured, you have the support and the warm
friendship of the American people as you continue down this
path.
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
Withdrawal/Redaction Sheet
(George Bush Library)
Document No.
Subject/Title of Document
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and Type
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P-1, (b)(1)
C
Collection:
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Office:
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Series:
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Subseries:
WHORM Cat.:
File Location:
Mongolia - Pres. Ochirbat Visit 1/23/91
Date Closed:
10/29/2004
OA/ID Number:
08321
FOIA/SYS Case #:
Re-review Case #:
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P-1 National Security Classified Information [(a)(1) of the PRA]
(b)(1) National security classified information [(b)(1) of the FOIA]
P-2 Relating to the appointment to Federal office [(a)(2) of the PRA]
(b)(2) Release would disclose internal personnel rules and practices of an
P-3 Release would violate a Federal statute [(a)(3) of the PRA]
agency [(b)(2) of the FOIA]
P-4 Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential commercial or
(b)(3) Release would violate a Federal statute [(b)(3) of the FOIA]
financial information [(a)(4) of the PRA]
(b)(4) Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential or financial
P-5 Release would disclose confidential advise between the President
information [(b)(4) of the FOIA]
and his advisors, or between such advisors [a)(5) of the PRA]
(b)(6) Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
P-6 Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
personal privacy [(b)(6) of the FOIA]
personal privacy [(a)(6) of the PRA]
(b)(7) Release would disclose information compiled for law enforcement
purposes [(b)(7) of the FOIA]
C. Closed in accordance with restrictions contained in donor's deed of
(b)(8) Release would disclose information concerning the regulation of
gift.
financial institutions [(b)(8) of the FOIA]
(b)(9) Release would disclose geological or geophysical information
Withdrawal/Redaction Sheet
(George Bush Library)
Document No.
Subject/Title of Document
Date
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and Type
02. Report
Government report. (1 pp.)
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P-1, (b)(1)
Collection:
Record Group:
Bush Presidential Records
Office:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File, Backup
Subseries:
WHORM Cat.:
File Location:
Mongolia - Pres. Ochirbat Visit 1/23/91
Date Closed:
10/29/2004
OA/ID Number:
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2004-2265-S
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RESTRICTION CODES
Presidential Records Act - [44 U.S.C. 2204(a)]
Freedom of Information Act - [5 U.S.C. 552(b)]
P-1 National Security Classified Information [(a)(1) of the PRA]
(b)(1) National security classified information [(b)(1) of the FOIA]
P-2 Relating to the appointment to Federal office [(a)(2) of the PRA]
(b)(2) Release would disclose internal personnel rules and practices of an
P-3 Release would violate a Federal statute [(a)(3) of the PRA]
agency [(b)(2) of the FOIA]
P-4 Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential commercial or
(b)(3) Release would violate a Federal statute [(b)(3) of the FOIA]
financial information [(a)(4) of the PRA]
(b)(4) Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential or financial
P-5 Release would disclose confidential advise between the President
information [(b)(4) of the FOIA]
and his advisors, or between such advisors [a)(5) of the PRA]
(b)(6) Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
P-6 Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
personal privacy [(b)(6) of the FOIA]
personal privacy [(a)(6) of the PRA]
(b)(7) Release would disclose information compiled for law enforcement
purposes [(b)(7) of the FOIA]
C. Closed in accordance with restrictions contained in donor's deed of
(b)(8) Release would disclose information concerning the regulation of
gift.
financial institutions [(b)(8) of the FOIA]
(b)(9) Release would disclose geological or geophysical information
PD-
Ú-lan BAH-
McGroarty/Dooley
Fyl,
January 17, 1991
playsee 2
4:00 pm
[MONGOLIA]
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: DEPARTURE STATEMENT FOR THE VISIT OF
PRESIDENT OCHIRBAT OF MONGOLIA
THE SOUTH LAWN
7119
JANUARY l3 22 1990
1:15 PM
Rm.20
Mr. President: It has been my great honor to welcome you to
the White House for this historic visit to our country -- the
first-ever by the head of state of Mongolia. //
Mr. President, Mongolia and the United States are countries
separated by thousands of miles, and a world of difference -- in
culture, history and outlook. Yet in this past year our two
nations have moved closer together -- drawn toward one another by
principles and ideals of universal attraction. //
In the past year, Mongolia has opened its controlled economy
to free market reform -- opened its closed political system --
and opened its doors to the world. //
Opposition parties are now legal. Mongolia held its first
multi-party elections in July -- free and fair elections that
elevated you, Mr. President, to your position of leadership. //
And parallel this transition in increased 5-10 toward freedom broader of belief political as well, freedom with has the a re- ?
opening of two monasteries and one mosque. //
invited
Dalai Lamo year
Mr. President, your party's positive approach toward reform
this
has meant peaceful change. //
stating -
12 MON - Dan Price 395-3639 - USTR
In our discussions today, I made clear the strong commitment
we in the United States feel toward Mongolia as it moves forward
toward greater freedom. Already, the U.S. has begun a program of
Hample
technical assistance to Mongolia. / This summer, for the first
time ever, Peace Corps volunteers will begin work in Ulan Bator
and elsewhere in Mongolia. / Later this afternoon, our two
countries will sign agreements opening the way to expanded trade,
and closer contact in the areas of science and technology. / And
nd.
today, I have given my approval to grant Mongolia Most Favored
with
market econ
mgrs overtire nid- mid-level o specting 10-20 brief 20 200 Pastoral leg
Nation status a step I hope will spur increased trade between
our two countries. //
In addition to these matters of mutual interest, I reviewed
with Chairman Ochirbat world affairs of surpassing concern --
standing
nc!
including the current situation in OPERATION DESERT STORM. //
Mongolia was among the first to condemn Iraq's brutal invasion of
Kuwait -- and to call for Iraq's complete and unconditional
withdrawal.
Mr. President, I know that you believe as I do, that no
nation must be permitted to assaualt and brutalize its neighbor.
[DESERT STORM UPDATE] //
The actions of Iraq's dictator -- the actions of one
misguided man -- cannot obscure mankind's bright destiny of
democracy and freedom. // The future lies with the process of
revolution and renewal now taking place in your nation -- a
democratic revolution that is destined to bring peace, freedom
and prosperity to the people of Mongolia, as it has to this
country and so many others around the world. //
Once again, Mr. President, it has been my pleasure to
welcome you to Washington, and to the White House. God bless you
-- and may God bless the people of Mongolia.
# # #
366
MONGOLIA: 3. History of the Mongols
The overthrow of the Manchus in China in
a plebiscite in the republic in October 1945,
1911 provided the opportunity. Manchu suzer-
by which Mongols voted almost unanimously in
ainty was automatically eliminated, the claim of
favor of independence from China. In January
the new Chinese Republic was ambiguous, the
1946, Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang government
Mongols wanted autonomy with Russian support,
of China officially recognized the independence
and the Russians desired to play a larger role
of the MPR, although it later withdrew that
in Mongolian affairs. The political shift of Mon-
recognition. Following the assumption of power
golia from the Chinese to the Russian orbit OC-
in China by the Communists in 1949, Peking rec-
curred at this time.
ognized the independence of the MPR. Sino-
The 20th Century. The obvious weakening of
Mongolian trade relations were renewed in 1952,
Manchu control in China had led to new jockey-
and significant Chinese immigration to the MPR
ings for power aimed at redrawing the lines of
began in 1955.
force in Central Asia. Japan entered the Asian
In 1957 talks in Moscow between Premier
mainland, and secret treaties with Russia in
Yumzhagiyn Tsedenbal and Soviet leaders re-
1907, 1912, and 1916 divided Mongolia into
sulted in the MPR's endorsement of Soviet foreign
"spheres of influence" by which Outer Mongolia
policy, a pledge to continue economic and cul-
was assigned to Russia and eastern Inner Mongo-
tural cooperation, and an agreement for Soviet
lia to Japan. The republican revolution in China,
economic aid. The USSR agreed to hand over
plus Russian encouragement and support, led
its share of the Sovmongolmetal minerals develop-
the Outer Mongols to declare their "autonomy,"
ment company and its airport installations at
a political condition that existed from Dec. 1,
Ulan Bator and Sain Shanda and to sell the Mon-
1911, to 1919, with the eighth Jebtsun Damba
golneft oil trust on easy terms to the republic.
Khutukhtu of Urga as head of the government.
The Sino-Soviet split that developed after
The 1915 Tripartite Treaty of Kyakhta, signed
1958 led to the withdrawal of most Chinese in-
by "autonomous" Mongolia, republican China,
fluence and personnel from the MPR. In 1962,
and czarist Russia, gave Outer Mongolia an am-
however, China and the MPR signed a border
biguous legal status: "autonomous," recognizing
treaty. In 1969, Peking drastically reduced the
Chinese suzerainty, but with Russia in effect
area of China's Inner Mongolian Autonomous
controlling its foreign relations.
Region in a manner that leaves two thirds of the
The Russian Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 de-
Mongols in China outside the region that remains
stroyed this delicate balance, and China reas-
nominally theirs.
serted full sovereignty over Outer Mongolia in
In the MPR in the 1970's, the considerable
1919. Then, late in 1920, anti-Communist forces
industrial growth in the northern city of Dark-
led by Baron Alexander von Ungern-Stemberg
han, the start of construction on the new copper-
took refuge in Outer Mongolia as a result of the
molybdenum mine at Erdenet, the extensive New
consolidation of Bolshevik control in Siberia.
Lands program for agriculture in the Selenga
Red Army troops, accompanied by a small Mon-
Valley, and the integration of the electric-power
golian detachment, destroyed anti-Communist
grid of the northern part of the country with
forces on Outer Mongolian soil and entered Urga
the East Siberian power complex all substantial-
on July 6, 1921.
ly reinforced the infrastructural web binding the
Since that time, Russian influence has been
republic to the Soviet Union.
paramount. The Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu,
ROBERT A. RUPEN
however, remained nominal head of the country
University of North Carolina
until his death in 1924, when Outer Mongolia
took the official name of Mongolian People's
Bibliography
Boyle, John A., The Successors of Ghengis, tr. from Persian,
Republic and the city of Urga became Ulan
(Columbia Univ. Press 1971).
Bator (Red Hero). Khorloin Choibalsan and
Bovle, John A., The Mongol World Empire, 1206-1370
Sukhe Bator formed and led the early Revolu-
(State Mutual Bk. 1980).
Ewing, Thomas E., Between the Hammer and the Anvil:
tionary party, and Choibalsan served from 1939
Chinese and Russian Policies in Outer Mongolia, 1911-
to 1952 as premier.
1921 (Ind. Univ. Res. Inst. 1980).
Extensive economic, social, and political
Friters, Gerard M., Outer Mongolia and Its International
Position (1949; reprint, Hippocrene Bks. 1974).
change occurred in the republic after 1924. Chi-
Hedin, Sven A., Across the Gobi Desert. tr. by H.J. Cant
nese economic control was broken, and social
(1931; reprint, Century Bookbindery 1968).
revolution became especially violent in 1929-
History of the Mongolian People's Republic, tr. from the
Mongolian and annot. by William A. Brown and Urgunge
1932 when an abortive attempt at collectivization
Onon (Harvard Univ. E. Asian Res. Center 1975).
of livestock resulted in mass destruction of the
Howorth, Sir Henry H., History of the Mongols from the
herds and widespread purges swept the country.
9th to the 19th Century, 4 vols. (1927: reprint, B. Franklin
In the 1930's the Japanese renewed their active
Hyer, 1965). Paul, and Jaquid, Sechin, A Mongolian Living Bud-
aggression on the Asian mainland, creating the
puppet state of Manchukuo from China's Man-
Jaquid, Sechin, and Hyer, Paul, Mongolia's Culture and
dha (State Univ. of N.Y. Press 1983).
churian provinces and forming an Inner Mongo-
Society (Westview Press 1980).
Kahn, Paul, ed., Secret History of the Mongols (North Point
lian government called Meng-chiang, headed by
Press 1984).
the Mongolian prince Te Wang. Japanese mili-
Lattimore, Owen, The Mongols of Manchuria (1934; reprint,
tary buildup on the border of the MPR in the
Riazanovsky, Valentin A., Customary Law of the Mongol
Fertig 1969).
Barga area of Manchuria led to the Soviet-Mon-
golian Treaty of Mutual Assistance of 1936, and
Rupen, Robert, How Mongolia Is Really Ruled (Hoover
Tribes (1929; reprint, Hyperion Press 1980).
various incidents culminated in a fairly large-
Rupen, Robert A., Mongols of the Twentieth Century, 2
Inst. Press 1979).
scale clash in which Russian troops defeated the
vols. (Indiana Univ. Res. Ctr. 1964).
Japanese at Nomonhan in 1939.
Sanjdorj, M., Manchu Chinese Colonial Rule in Northern
The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Army
Saunders, John J., The History of the Mongol Conquests
Mongolia (St. Martin's 1980).
joined the Soviet Red Army in military operations
against the Japanese in World War II in the
Spuler, Bertold, History of the Mongols (Univ. of Calif.
(Barnes & Noble 1972).
week before Japan's surrender. A provision of
Zhamtsarano, Ts, Ethnography and Geography of the Dark-
Press 1971).
the Yalta Agreement of February 1945 led to
hat and Other Mongolian Minorities (Mongolia 1979).
Services of Mead Data Central
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2
11TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 Chicago Tribune Company;
Chicago Tribune
July 30, 1990, Monday, NORTH SPORTS FINAL EDITION
SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 3; ZONE: C
LENGTH: 543 words
HEADLINE: U.S. critics take shots at Baker's Mongolia trip
BYLINE: By George de Lama, Chicago Tribune
DATELINE: SINGAPORE
BODY:
So far, Secretary of State James A. Baker III has spent his time in Southeast
Asia grappling with allies over Cambodia and Vietnamese boat people in an
embarrassing policy conflict that no amount of diplomatic niceties could hide.
Now another controversy is marring Baker's Far East tour, this time over his
well-known fondness for hunting and how much it may have had to do with his
decision to visit out-of-the way Mongolia later this week.
Aides scrambled Sunday to deny published reports accusing Baker of traveling
to one of the world's most isolated lands mainly to hunt and fish.
They were even more exercized by the suggestion that he had been intrigued by
the possibility of shooting Mongolia's rare argali sheep, an endangered
species prized as a trophy among well-to-do hunters back in his native Texas.
"Secretary Baker has never, ever considered shooting an endangered animal
anywhere on Earth
his spokeswoman, Margaret Tutwiler, told reporters.
"He is an outdoorsman and has too much love and respect for wildlife."
Baker, a shrewd political operator, also may have too much horse sense to get
caught shooting an animal already on or about to be placed on the endangered
species list. Before leaving Washington, he had aides check the status of every
wild animal in Mongolia with the National Wildlife Federation, just in case,
Tutwiler said.
That done, Baker has no intention of even visiting the Altai Mountain range
where the endangered sheep live, Tutwiler said.
But he definitely plans to fish and may hunt during a day-and-a-half
excursion to Mongolia's Gobi Desert. If he does shoot game, "it will only be
wild goats," Tutwiler said. "That's like shooting deer in Alabama."
Nonetheless, his three-day visit to Mongolia reportedly has caused
grumbling in Washington. The Washington Post reported that career diplomats
in the State Department question the need for Baker's visit to a remote country
low on most Americans' mental radar screens at a time when the department is
being forced to cut its budget.
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(c) 1990 Chicago Tribune, July 30, 1990
Pointing out that Baker is traveling 4,500 miles out of his way to spend two
days in talks with officials of a nation that received its first U.S. ambassador
just 10 days ago, the paper quoted one unnamed U.S. diplomat as saying: "It's
a two-day hunting trip, primarily. And ask them what it costs to take all those
people there."
Tutwiler said that was a cheap shot. She noted that the day before traveling
to Mongolia, Baker will meet only an hour's flight away with Soviet Foreign
Minister Eduard Shevardnadze in the Soviet Siberian city of Irkutsk.
Tutwiler said she did not know what it cost to travel to Mongolia, but said
Baker deemed it important to visit the remote land to bolster its transition
from communism to a multiparty democracy.
Sensitive about the suggestion Baker may be wasting taxpayers' money with his
visit, Tutwiler said her boss turned down a Mongolian offer to pay for his
lodging and travel for the journey to the Gobi. Instead, Baker is paying his own
way for the excursion. State Department security guards will accompany him, but
in a smaller contingent than normal.
Baker also will pay $1,200 for a hunting license if he decides to hunt at
all, she said.
ISSUE; OFFICIAL; UNITED STATES; TRIP; MONGOLIA; HUNTING; QUOTE
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1ST STORY of Level 2 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 The Washington Post
November 7, 1990, Wednesday, Final Edition
SECTION: FIRST SECTION; PAGE A21; THE FEDERAL PAGE
LENGTH: 657 words
HEADLINE: No Place Like Mongolia, U.S. Envoy Says;
Health Care, Food and Clean Air Hard to Come By, but Diplomats Play Down
Hardship
SERIES: Occasional
BYLINE: Al Kamen, Washington Post Staff Writer
BODY:
U.S. Ambassador to France Walter J.P. Curley lives in one of the great
residences of France, a mansion that is a stone's throw from the Palais de
L'Elysee, the French president's palace in the heart of Paris.
Shirley Temple Black, Washington's representative in Prague, lives in a
65-room palace filled with antiques on a beautifully manicured 3 1/2-acre
estate.
Then there is the "residence" of Ambassador Joseph E. Lake, our man in Ulan
Bator, capital of Mongolia.
Lake lives on a smaller scale. Much smaller. To be precise, 410 square feet,
not counting the bathroom. In a four-story walk-up.
The architecture, like almost everything built since the Soviets made
Mongolia a satellite 70 years ago, is classic neo-Stalinist: gray, crumbling
concrete. The poorly lit hallways make the stairs treacherous to negotiate even
in daylight, as reporters discovered on a visit in August.
For neighbors, Lake, a career diplomat who served in Bulgaria, Nigeria and
Taiwan before arriving in Mongolia in July, has the Palestine Liberation
Organization on the right. Japan -- whose hand-me-down furniture he used for a
dining room table and chairs -- is on the left.
Lake and his assistants get a special hardship allowance (an extra 25 percent
in salary) for a number of reasons. First, there is no decent local health care,
a State Department official said. Political officer Michael J. Senko last year
had to travel 30 hours by train to Beijing to get his broken jaw set.
In addition, virtually all the food Lake, Senko and administrative officer
Theodore R. Nist eat is brought in from Beijing, which is a 40-hour train ride
in the winter, when temperatures can plunge to minus-40 degrees. While mutton is
plentiful, vegetables, for example, are nearly non-existent.
Then there is the extraordinarily bad air. The clever communist regime built
the city power plant downstream 50 as not to pollute the river. The only problem
is that the plant, which belches huge clouds of black smoke in winter, is upwind
from the 4,000-foot-high city, making the air almost unbreathable.
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Lake, with the smallest ambassador's residence, also probably has the
shortest commute to work -- about 3 feet across the hall. The 685-square-foot
office was recently doubled by adding a second-floor apartment. Even so, the
photocopier sits on a plywood board atop the bathtub.
There is almost no social life. Picnics, even in the winter, are the main
social activity. The popular local brew is fermented mare's milk, which has
something of a kick to it but tastes much like buttermilk gone bad.
The diplomats and their wives nonetheless maintain an extraordinary esprit de
corps, they say, because they see their jobs as a frontier adventure rather than
a posting on the end of the earth.
"It is a place where we can have an impact," Lake, in town for intensive
language training, said in an interview this week. "It is a rare moment in
history where the United States can do something, where you can accomplish
something," he said, adding that the "Mongolian people are wonderful to deal
with."
Mongolia, once ruler of much of the known world, has shed Soviet
domination, holding its first democratic elections in July. The nation, with a
population of 2 million, is also quickly undoing its communist economic system
and looking for Western investment.
Lake may be getting some additional living space soon, State Department
officials said. Washington and Ulan Bator have nearly com-pleted negotiations
for the only empty building in that city. The building would more than triple
Lake's residential space and provide 2,400 square feet of office space. The new
offices are likely to be where the U.S. mission will stay for the next decade,
when officials hope an embassy will have been completed.
Meanwhile, Mongolia's ambassador here, Gendengiin Nyamdoo, is comfortably
ensconced in an appropriately ambassadorial residence in fashionable Potomac.
GRAPHIC: PHOTO, THE BUILDING ABOVE IN ULAN BATOR HOUSES BOTH THE AMBASSADOR'S
RESIDENCE AND THE U.S. EMBASSY, WHERE THE PHOTOCOPIER, ABOVE RIGHT, RESTS ON
AN OLD BATHTUB. AL KAMEN; PHOTO, CYRENA CHANG
TYPE: NATIONAL NEWS, FOREIGN NEWS
SUBJECT: AMBASSADORS, ATTACHES, ETC.; U.S.S.R.; UNITED STATES; MONGOLIA;
EMBASSIES
NAMED-PERSONS: JOSEPH E. LAKE
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7TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 The Economist Newspaper Ltd.
August 4, 1990
SECTION: World politics and current affairs; ASIA; Pg. 28 (U.K. Edition Pg. 44)
LENGTH: 660 words
HEADLINE: Mongolia;
Wild goat's chase
BODY:
ONE way or another, Mongolia is back on the map. On July 29th the world's
second-oldest communist state held its first free and (more or less) fair
election. Before the Kuwait crisis, Mr James Baker, the American secretary of
state, fresh from superpower talks in Irkutsk, over the border in Siberia, with
the Soviet foreign minister, Mr Edward Shevardnadze, was due there for a spot of
goat-shooting and a chat about trade and the big, wide world.
The election was won by Mongolia's communist party. No great surprise
there. The opposition grew out of demonstrations against communist rule that
began only late last year. It had little time to organise or find candidates
for most of the seats outside Ulan Bator, the capital. However, six parties
contested the election, including a Green party that wants the Russians, who
have all but colonised Mongolia during these past 69 years of communist rule,
to pay for the damage they have done. The communists won around 80% of the
seats in the People's Great Hural, Mongolia's full parliament. They got a
less impressive 60% of the seats in the Small Hural, the part of parliament that
will actually do the work, drafting the new laws that Mongolians hope will
catapult them out of poverty and isolation.
The victorious communist party boss, Mr Gombojavyn Ochirbat (who scraped into
parliament only by a 4% majority), has already called for a coalition. For once
the communists are looking ahead. They have moved nimbly to pinch many
opposition policies, including privatisation, freer prices and greater openness
to foreign investment. They no doubt hope to share out responsibility for the
hard times ahead.
They also hope to catch the attention and tap the pockets of rich governments
in the West. Mongolia is in a fix. Only central planning could ensure that
meat is hard to come by in this vast country of rolling, grassy steppes, where
livestock (mainly sheep, horses, cattle and goats) outnumber the people (roughly
2.2m of them) ten to one. Unemployment officially stands at 70,000 (approaching
10% of the workforce). The country is in hock to the Soviet Union to the tune
of perhaps 10 billion roubles ($ 17 billion at the fictional exchange rate).
More to the point, Mongolia still depends on the $ 800m-worth in fresh aid
that the Soviet Union is reckoned to pour in each year. It has been told to
look for new donors, and would like early membership of the Asian Development
Bank, and of the World Bank and the IMF.
Mongolia also needs new trading partners. About 80% of its trade is done
with the Soviet Union and most of the rest with Comecon, now no longer under
Soviet management and disintegrating. What is more, from next January Comecon
is committed to hard-currency trading, which will cause still more problems
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(c) 1990 The Economist, August 4, 1990
for its weaker brethren. Hence the visit to Japan in May by Mongolia's former
prime minister, and the hopes attached to Mr Baker's visit.
Interest in Mogolia, once a staging post on the lucrative Silk Road along
which trade between China and Europe moved, is reviving all round. The recent
star of the tiny diplomatic community in Ulan Bator (probably the only capital
where the Albanian embassy dwarfs the American one) is India: it scored points
by appointing as ambassador a man said to be a living Buddha.
Just as Mongolia is turning outwards in search of trade and investment, so
it is turning back to its ancient roots. Genghis Khan, whose hordes once lorded
it over a vast empire, has been brought back as local hero. The opposition
parties are pressing for religious freedom and the reopening of Buddhist
temples. Most portentous of all may turn out to be the little-noticed reopening
last month of Mongolia's consulate in Hohot, the capital of Chinese-ruled
Inner Mongolia - There are more Mongolians in China than in Mongolia
proper. There would be a lot of bother if they should ever decide they want to
get together again.
GRAPHIC: Picture, Wild horses wouldn't stop them bringing in the ballot-box
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11TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 McGraw-Hill, Inc.;
Business Week
June 18, 1990, Industrial/Technology Edition
SECTION: LETTER FROM MONGOLIA; Number 3165; Pg. 22 A
LENGTH: 1082 words
HEADLINE: GLASNOST MEETS THE HEIRS OF GENGHIS KHAN
BYLINE: LYNNE CURRY; Despite the cuisine, Beijing reporter Curry says she's
eager to get back.
BODY:
From Beijing to Ulan Bator there is just one plane a week, a battered
Antonov-24. And service to the remote Mongolian capital is so irregular that it
isn't even listed on the airport's schedule board. Perhaps with good reason.
Primitive communications, outdated equipment, and overcast weather conspire to
cancel our flight.
''Does this happen often?' my husband asks a Japanese businessman who is a
veteran of the run.
''Always.'' If, as rumored, the winds of change from Moscow have indeed
swept across the Gobi and reached Ulan Bator, they haven't quite reached this
little outpost of Mongolian Airlines at the Beijing airport. But we return the
following day, and this time, all systems are go. We board the plane along with
two Western TV crews, a Swiss banker, and groups of American hunters and
Japanese anglers. The flight attendant hands out newspapers written in Cyrillic
and the English-language tabloid Moscow News. The in-flight snack is raw bacon
and a small bottle of vodka.
Three hours later, we land in Ulan Bator, the capital of Mongolia. Once
called Outer Mongolia, this territory was for centuries dominated by China -
which still includes within its borders the area known as Inner Mongolia. But
since 1921, Mongolia has been a Soviet satellite state.
The night air is cooler and fresher than Beijing's. There's just a
scattering of neon lights on a few bars and on a couple of hotels, but compared
with Bei-jing, it looks like Las Vegas. Daylight shows a city of broad avenues
and immense Socialist-style buildings in peach and red hues. Slightly shabby,
the blocks of high-rise offices retain a vaguely European feel, a result of 70
years of Soviet rule. After overcrowded and repressive Beijing, Ulan Bator feels
relaxed and empty. Mongolia's entire population is only two million, less than
a third that of the Chinese capital.
Many men and women wear leather boots and the traditional high-collared robe
held together with a brightly colored sash -- all sported with a style and grace
rarely found in socialist countries. The felt tents clustered in various
suburban neighborhoods give the city a frontier quality despite all the modern
buildings. The inhabitants, like their nomadic countrymen out in the grasslands,
while away the evenings around cozy coal-fired stoves.
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In the city's premier hotel, the drab, stolid Ulan Bator Hotel, with its $
160, two-bit rooms, we're made to feel lucky that we even have one. There is
daily rancor at the check-in desk as guests with delusions of confirmed bookings
argue and cajole to get the receptionists -- who speak only Mongolian and
Russian - to hand over room keys.
BLOBS OF FAT. Then, there's the food: mutton and potatoes -- no fresh green
vegetables and never a new entree on the menu. The waiters bring large blobs of
fat and present them as barbecued lamb. But the cuisine's reputation has
preceded it, and we have packed peanut butter, crackers, canned spaghetti,
fruit, dried noodles, and powdered milk. (The greenless diet seems to suit the
Mongolians, who all look quite hardy.)
It's Lenin's birthday, and in front of the hotel, goose-stepping soldiers
and a marching band enliven the laying of wreaths at the foot of the only
remaining statue of him in town. The city's last remaining statue of Stalin was
torn down in February. But the Communist Party is still in control and is widely
expected to win the country's first multiparty elections this summer, having
co-opted much of the opposition's reform program.
Not that Stalin doesn't get his lumps. Among other crimes, he is accused by
our government-supplied guide of having nearly obliterated the country's
traditional Buddhist religion. Gandan, the sole surviving Buddhist monastery,
was once the center of a faith that boasted more than 700 monasteries and tens
of thousands of monks. Now, there are only a few elderly saffron-robed monks to
be seen, carrying out their devotions before camera-laden tourists from Eastern
Europe.
In other areas, the cultural renaissance takes strange forms. The rock band
Harankh resembles any other heavy-metal group with its shoulder-length hair,
metal studs, and volume. But their lyrics deal with poverty, bureaucracy, and
repression. Another rock group, Hongk, has hit the local top of the pops
chartwith an ode to hometown boyGenghis Khan. Their songreaches back to the 13th
century to ask the great conqueror and his horde of horsemen to pity the
Mongolian people for what has befallen them under communism. For decades, the
mere mention of his name was forbidden as too potent a symbol of Mongolian
nationalism.
Several thousand Russians still live in Ulan Bator, but nobody seems to like
them, and there are reports that they are sometimes attacked. Westerners
mistaken for Russians feel the sting of deep hostility. When I take my
fair-haired, three-year-old son to the city's only large department store,
frosty stares and averted eyes make the other shoppers' resentment clear. But
when I make it known that I'm an American, smiles break out.
In the countryside, however, the Mongols are friendly. A family of herders
invites us into their tent. For lack of more elaborate refreshments, they offer
us lumps of sugar as we make small talk through our translator.
Mongolians have expressed a keen interest in having contact with the West.
The country already sells leather, rugs, cashmere, and woolens to the Soviet
Union and Eastern Europe, and it's eager to expand those exports to the West. To
attract investment, Mongolia earlier this year passed laws that would allow
foreigners to hold majority ownership of joint ventures. One result: Embassies
in Ulan Bator are becoming more important. The U. S. embassy, opened in 1987,
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is staffed by Mike Senko and Ted and Sally Nist. The Nists live in a one-bedroom
flat. The embassy, one floor below, is so small that the copying machine is kept
in the bathtub. As neighbors in the diplomatic compound, they have envoys from
the PLO, East Germany, and Cuba.
One day we go into the hills on a picnic with American and British
diplomats. Here, on the edge of the Gobi Desert, the air is clear and cold,
and, all things being relative, the tuna sandwiches and chocolate chip cookies
taste delicious. Sally Nist recalls that in her childhood, Mongolia was the
kind of place your mother said she would send you if you didn't eat your
spinach. But this afternoon, being in Mongolia doesn't seem like much of a
punishment.
GRAPHIC: Photograph, IN ULAN BATOR, MONGOLIA'S CAPITAL, A HARDY PEOPLE DESPITE
A DIET SHORT ON GREENS PHOTOGRAPH BY CHARLESWORTH/JE PICTURES; Map, Mongolia
MAP BY ALBERTO MENA/BW
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12TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 The Time Inc. Magazine Company;
Time
May 7, 1990, U.S. Edition
SECTION: WORLD; Pg. 44
LENGTH: 865 words
HEADLINE: MONGOLIA;
Asia's Gentle Rebel;
As democracy stirs in this frozen outpost of Stalinism, the leadership takes a
slow-motion approach to perestroika
BYLINE: By JAIME A. FLORCRUZ ULAN BATOR
BODY:
Inside a fenced government compound in the heart of Ulan Bator, Mongolia's
capital, a traditional felt tent, known as a ger, rests on the concrete square.
Inside the ger stands Mandakh Jiguur, 28, an artist who has abandoned his oils
and watercolors for a higher calling: private enterprise. Spiritedly, he moves
between the eight tables, pushing sausages, vodka and smoldering Mongolian hot
pot on his customers. Jiguur heaves a sigh of relief that this day the
authorities did not arbitrarily shut down his bar. "One day they tell you to
stand up and start a business,' says Jiguur. "But the next, they hit you on the
head."
Call those meddlesome government officials Mongolia's past and the
enterprising Jiguur the future. The present is just as Jiguur experiences it: a
country trying, by fits and starts, to make a graceful transition from orthodox
communism to something approximating democracy. Since last December,
reform-minded Mongolians have been pressuring their leaders for ever faster
economic and political change. In response, the ruling Communist Party has
opened Mongolia's doors to foreign investment and ceded its monopoly on power,
giving rise to more than a dozen pro-democracy parties. Activists insist that
the changes are merely cosmetic. But measured against the intransigence of North
Korea, China and Vietnam, Asia's other Marxist states, Mongolia is a renegade,
spearheading the charge from behind the Bamboo Curtain toward the more
democratic and market-oriented future now embraced by Eastern Europe.
Perhaps what surprises most about Mongolia's quiet revolution is how
peacefully it is unfolding. Mongolia, after all, is the homeland of Genghis
Khan, who seven centuries ago led one of history's most notorious tribes of
warriors. Twentieth century Mongolian history has not been much kinder. Economic
stagnation, diplomatic isolation and political repression have withered the
nation of 2 million since it fell into Moscow's orbit in 1921. The most basic
commodities are in scarce supply -- even meat, despite the fact that Mongolia
has more than six times as many sheep as people. Half the meat production is
exported in exchange for Soviet goods and loans. The exports help repay
Mongolia's $5.5 billion foreign debt.
Against that backdrop, the gains of Mongolia's revolution seem
breathtaking. Prodded by Moscow and local reformers, the ruling Mongolian
People's Revolutionary Party has gingerly embraced shinechiel (renewal), the
local version of perestroika. Last March, Ulan Bator opened its doors to
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foreign investment after the government approved a law that guarantees unlimited
and tax-free repatriation of profits for investors and joint ventures. The
results seem promising. The Gobi Cashmere Factory already produces garments for
Japanese and European markets, and Japanese, European and U.S. traders are
talking about joint ventures.
As Mongolia's isolation lifts, outside influences seep in. English is
taught in schools and on television. Western pop culture -- from rock music to
lambada dancing -- has invaded the cities. And the infectious spirit of Eastern
Europe's pro-democracy parties is broadcast directly into many Mongolian homes,
courtesy of Soviet television.
In many respects, the changes speak more of a revived sense of nationalism
than of a hunger for democracy. The descendants of Genghis Khan are
rediscovering traces of an identity that was systematically blurred during the
decades of Soviet domination. Mongolian script, abandoned in the 1940s in favor
of the Cyrillic alphabet, is again being taught. The image of the Mongol hero
is back in vogue: a nearly completed joint-venture hotel is named after Genghis
Khan, and his visage adorns the label of a local vodka that is bottled for
export. An elaborate memorial to the warrior will soon be constructed in the
capital. Meanwhile, the last of the Stalin statues in Ulan Bator has been
dismantled.
Since December, pro-democracy activists have turned the heat on the ruling
party with a series of demonstrations. In March they won a surprising victory
when the Communist Party replaced its five-member Politburo with a younger, more
progressive team and promised to hold multiparty elections for a bicameral
parliament by this July. The opposition feels those changes do not go far
enough. At a four-day congress in April, the ruling party approved plans for
greater freedom for party members and rejected the Leninist principle of
democratic centralism. But after intense infighting, the congress re-elected the
top party echelon. Last week opposition and security forces almost came to blows
as 40,000 protesters descended on the government palace to demand change.
The opposition faces an uphill sprint. The Communists, who have ruled for 69
years, enjoy access to state money, media and organizational apparatus. To
offset those advantages, six opposition parties and groups have agreed to field
common candidates in the elections. Even if Mongolia's first democratic
exercise is fair, local and foreign observers in Ulan Bator predict that the
Communists will win by a comfortable margin. Still, it would seem that the days
of absolute rule are over.
GRAPHIC: Picture, An exotic land edges into the modern age, clockwise from top
left: protesters in Ulan Bator demand democracy, freedom and reform; the
military parades through Sukhe Bator Square; children learn English in high-tech
fashion; one of the proliferating ger compounds outside the capital; street
sweepers chat during a break; Lamaist monks outside Mongolia's only working
Buddhist temple descColor: Six photographs: Protesters; military parade in
Mongolia; children watching television screen; tent compound; street sweepers;
monks., Photographs for TIME by Peter Charlesworth -- J.B. Pictures
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Meyer to Nauvoo
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
$
AMERICANA
INTERNATIONAL EDITION
COMPLETE IN THIRTY VOLUMES
FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1829
GROLIER INCORPORATED
International Headquarters: Danbury, Connecticut 06816
gols
Burya
TI
Europ
Mong
pletel
centu
Cl
playe
secula
perio
classe
tracir
Khan
khan
calle
gove
were
some
ulati
who
expr
alba
for t
from
20th
ing
dom
PAOLO KOCH. FROM RAPHO/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
"Li'
Mongolian arat (herdsman) lassos a horse with an urga, a long pole with a leather loop.
ical
pen
MONGOLIA is a geographical region of east cen-
gols was weakened by their small numbers and
trol
tral Asia, lying principally between the Soviet
nomadic way of life. In China and the Middle
and
Union and China but including portions of those
East, they were absorbed and transmuted, but in
ove
countries. Traditionally Mongolia was divided
Russia their influence was greater and was one
into two distinct regions, Inner Mongolia and
significant factor separating Russia's historical
Outer Mongolia, separated by the Gobi desert.
development from that of western Europe.
30,
Inner Mongotia has been under Chinese control
The Mongolian People's Republic (MPR) was
as
since the 17th century. Outer Mongolia was a
established in 1924 but for decades was almost
Chinese province from the end of the 17th cen-
completely isolated from all but Russian influ-
of
tury until 1911. The terms "inner" and "outer"
ence. Since the mid-1950's, however, its inter-
ual
refer to the position of the two Mongolias as
national contracts have multiplied. and diplomat-
viewed from China proper.
ic relations have been established with some 80
the
Today the contiguous area inhabited by Mon-
countries, of all political hues. The main polit-
gols is divided into three political units: (1)
ical significance of the MPR lies in the context
the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, which
of the Sino-Soviet ideological dispute. The USSR
by
belongs to China: (2) the independent Mongolian
has remained dominant and controlling in this
als
People's Republic: and (3) the Buryat Autono-
state, whereas China has been excluded.
id
mous Republic, a subdivision of the Russian
Republic of the USSR. The total Mongolian
1. The People
population of these areas is about 3 million.
The Mongols are classic examples of the yel-
Mongolia is a mountainous, landlocked, arid
low, Mongoloid race. They usually have stocky
of
plateau, covering 2 million square miles (5 million
builds with short legs, and rarely exceed 5 feet
pl
sq km) of steppe, forest steppe, desert steppe,
6 inches (168 cm) in height. Their identifying
and true desert. Most of the area has a conti-
characteristics include round head (brachy-
nental climate, with light precipitation and great
cephalic), coarse dark hair, scant beard, flat
extremes and variations of temperature.
nose, black or brown eyes with epicanthic fold
The scattered nomadic population of Mongolia
of the upper eyelids ("slanted" eyes), generally
bases its economic life chiefly on livestock herd-
broad flat face, and, for a brief period after birth,
ing. Chinese immigration from the south and
the "Mongolian spot" of bluish pigment in the
Russian immigration from the north are greatly
skin of the lumbar region.
extending and expanding the area's agricultural
Only in the MPR do Mongols still constitute
and industrial development, but they also are
a clear majority of the population-more than
constricting the traditional pastoral nomadism and
1.2 million of a total of 1.5 million. Chinese
significantly decreasing the area in which the
outnumber native Mongols in the Inner Mongo-
Mongols are culturally and numerically dominant.
lian Autonomous Region (IMAR). The 1953
The Mongolian conquests of the 13th to 15th
census of China reported 1,462,956 Mongols in
centuries extended southward to China, south-
China, mostly in the IMAR, but only speculative
westward to Turkestan, Iran, and Iraq, and north-
estimates have been available since 1953. Rus-
westward into Russia. The impact of the Mon-
sians and Ukrainians now outnumber the Mon-
356
MONGOLIA: 1. The People
357
in the major Soviet Mongolian areas, the
them. Collectivization of the herds and concomi-
Buryat and Kalmyk autonomous republics.
tant settlement of the nomads eliminated pastoral
The Kalmyk Mongols number 100,000 in
nomadism among the Buryat Mongols in the
Russia. The small group of Hazara
1930's and now threaten the livestock-herding
Mongols, European in central Afghanistan, has been com-
nomads of the MPR and Inner Mongolia. Many
pletely isolated from the other Mongols for
Buryats live in Russian log huts, and some In-
centuries and constitutes a unique population.
ner Mongols live in Chinese loam huts. In the
Changing Social Patterns. Kinship and clan
MPR the yurt has changed, now often including
played a large role in traditional Mongolia. The
a stove and a wooden floor and frequently elec-
secular social structure before the Communist
tricity as well. Thousands of Mongols work in
period began in 1921 encompassed two main
factories and live in Western-style housing. Mili-
classes: the nobility, or "white bone," in theory
tary service, internal passports, taxes, production
tracing its descent from Genghis (Chinggis)
norms, labor laws, an extensive police system,
Khan; and commoners, or "black bone." Six
and improved health and sanitation standards
khans were nominal rulers of territorial units
now affect the outlook and activity of the people.
called aimaks, and 105 jassaks, or ruling princes,
Language and Writing. The Mongolian lan-
wovernedivided. khoshuns into which the aimaks
guage belongs to the Altaic family, which also
Hoshuns were subdivided into
includes Turkic and Manchu-Tungusic languages.
somons, bags, and arbans. The bulk of the pop-
Many Mongols in Buryat Mongolia and the MPR
ulation were the arats, livestock-herding nomads
speak Russian, and many in Inner Mongolia
who lived in tents and owed fealty to the princes,
speak Chinese.
expressed in terms of goods and services called
The Mongols of the MPR now use the Cyrillic
alba. There were also serfs called khamjilgas,
(Russian) script, adapted to the contemporary
for the old society was feudal in its basic pattern.
Khalkha dialect spoken around Ulan Bator. The
From the late 16th century, Buddhism brought
MPR announced adoption of this modified Cyril-
from Tibet flourished in Outer Mongolia. By the
lic alphabet in 1941. Since 1946 it has been
20th century nearly 100,000 males were lamas,
used for all printing in the republic, and since
large numbers of whom lived permanently in mon-
1950 it has been mandatory in all official business.
asteries and devoted themselves mainly to chant-
The People's Republic of China announced
ing and praying. The church hierarchy was
adoption of the Latin script for Inner Mongolia,
dominated by the Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu, or
but the traditional Mongolian vertical script is
FROM RAPHO/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
"Living Buddha," who exerted great secular polit-
still used extensively there. Buryats used a Latin
with
a
leather
loop.
ical power as well as religious influence.
alphabet from 1931 until 1937, when they
The Buddhist Church in Outer Mongolia
changed to Cyrillic. Differences in pronunciation,
their small numbers and
penetrated every aspect of life. It owned or con-
vocabulary, and grammar make Buryat and
In China and the Middle
trolled extensive property, vast sums of money,
Khalkha almost mutually incomprehensible.
and transmuted, but in
and tens of thousands of people. It presided
Culture. Mongolian culture is built of five
over its own land, livestock, and buildings, and
main layers. On a base consisting of the original
was greater and was one
was even governed by its own legal code. The
nomadic culture lies a thick Buddhist-Tibetan
Russia's historical
eight largest monasteries alone included over
stratum followed by layers of traditional Chinese,
of western Europe.
30,000 lamas and were the fixed centers of trade
Czarist Russian, and Soviet Russian (Commu-
Republic (MPR) was
as well as of worship in the nomads' society.
nist Chinese in Inner Mongolia).
for decades was almost
Mongolian cities, including Ulan Bator, capital
Early nomadic culture included urban centers
all but Russian influ-
of the MPR, originated as monasteries and grad-
even before the establishment of Kara Korum
1950's. however, its inter-
ually became urban centers as trade, commerce,
(Karakorum) as the capital of the Mongol Em-
multiplied, and diplomat-
and a permanent secular population established
pire in the 13th century. For millennia the
established with some 80
themselves in the vicinity. The Jebtsun Damba
steppe nomads of Mongolia had a close relation-
hues. The main polit-
Khutukhtu, the Buddhist Church, and the many
ship with the settled farmers on the other side of
MPR lies in the context
lamas guarded and maintained a tradition marred
the Great Wall of China. Tibetan Buddhism
logical dispute. The USSR
by superstition and backwardness. But they
spread through Mongolia mainly after 1586, and
and controlling in this
also defended a separate and unique Mongolian
the Tibetan language as well as Buddhist litera-
been
excluded.
identity from incursions by Chinese and Russians.
ture and art styles from Tibet came into wide-
The arat lived in a wooden latticework-framed
spread use. The Chinese supplied the manufac-
felt tent, or yurt (ger), and moved with his
tured goods the nomads needed. including
lassic examples of the vel-
herds in a fairly well-defined seasonal pattern
Buddhist icons and artifacts. They left their
They usually have stocky
of nomadism. The herds comprised mainly sheep
mark on the architecture of the Buddhist temples,
and rarely exceed 5 feet
plus lesser numbers of horses, cattle, goats, and
unmistakably Chinese-built and modified con-
height. Their identifying
camels. Nomadic mobility depended on the
siderably from the original Tibetan models. Chi-
round head (brachy-
horse, which occupied a very special place in the
nese language and education were common, espe-
hair, scant beard. flat
heart of the Mongol, often reflected in song and
cially among the princes, and Chinese literature
with epicanthic fold
story. Camels (the two-humped variety) served
and drama were much appreciated.
"slanted" eyes), generally
for goods transport, and the camel caravan was
Czarist Russian influence began in the mid-
a brief period after birth,
a common sight on the Mongolian steppe. Such
19th century, slowly and tentatively starting the
of bluish pigment in the
typical Mongols consumed large quantities of
process of Westernization and modernization that,
meat, tea, and dairy products, especially airak
under the Communists, transformed Mongolian
Mongols still constitute
(kumiss, or fermented mare's milk); spoke Mon-
society. Even before 1917 many Mongols learned
population-more than
golian but rarely could read or write it; and
Russian, and some were educated in Russia. The
of 1.5 million. Chinese
professed Buddhist Lamaism, which included
Russian influence was especially strong among
in the Inner Mongo-
many superstitions surviving from earlier Mon-
the Buryat Mongols around Lake Biakal, and a
(IMAR). The 1953
golian shamanism. Illiteracy, ignorance, and
small but very influential Russian-educated Bur-
1,462,956 Mongols in
disease were widespread.
yat intelligentsia was in the forefront of cultural
but only speculative
Russian and Chinese influences have affected
change in Outer Mongolia as early as 1900.
ailable since 1953. Rus-
all these characteristics of traditional Mongol
Soviet Russia weakened, and in the 1930's de-
outnumber the Mon-
society and have completely eliminated some of
stroyed, the very important Buddhist component
The MPR has established art schools, and
State Theater of Music and Drama sponsors
ductions of Mongolian dramatic works. Plays
cal European dramatists are also performed.
Shakespeare, Molière, Chekhov, and other classi
1921, motion pictures became popular. In After
produces films of its own.
tion to showing some foreign films, the republic
An unusual traditional sport was the
aba, the great hunt, last witnessed in the zegule-
18th century. This was in reality a giant
war game-maneuvers in preparation for
quest. It began with Genghis (Chinggis) Khan
Other traditional sports were Mongolian
tling, archery, and horse racing, all of which wres.
have to some extent survived. But now Western
wrestling, basketball, soccer, and track are very
popular, and enthusiastic Mongolian participation
in the Olympic Games influences the shape of
PAOLO KOCH, FROM RAPHO/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
the officially supported sports program.
(Above) Herdsmen assemble a yurt, which is a felt tent
on a wooden latticework frame. (Below) This modern
2. The Mongolian People's Republic
yurt is equipped with a stove and electricity. Some
have wooden floors and other amenities.
The Mongolian People's Republic (MPR),
formerly Outer Mongolia, is an independent
country located in east central Asia between the
Soviet Union and China. After a Communist
revolution occurred in July 1921, the MPR was
officially proclaimed in November 1924. Massive
social and economic changes have completely
transformed the country from its former primitive
and backward condition into a modern Com-
munist state. Health and education have im-
proved immeasurably, while the nomadie life
traditional for most of the population has declined
drastically. Urbanization has been extensive. the
capital city Ulan Bator having grown from about
60,000 inhabitants in 1921 to more than 350,000
in 1977. Economic development has not been
nearly as radical or successful as social transfor-
mation. Traditional livestock-herding has thus
far continued to dominate Mongolian economic
activity, although light industry has been estab-
lished throughout the country and a massive
copper-mining project at Erdenet represents a
major new economic thrust.
The Land. The Mongolian People's Republic
PAOLO KOCH FROM RAPHO/PHOTO RESEARCHERS
has extreme dimensions of 1,471 miles (2,367
km) east to west and 782 miles (1,258 km)
of traditional Mongolian culture, and commu-
north to south. While the average elevation is
nism's general programs of social transformation
5,184 feet (1,580 meters), the land has the
have made deep inroads on traditional nomadism
general conformation of a saucer, tipped higher
as well. Mongols who tried to retain the old
in the northwest and lower in the southeast.
culture faced formidable obstacles erected by
Transitions from forest to steppe in the north
the Communist regimes directed by the Soviet
and from steppe to desert in the south, with
Union in the MPR and by China in Inner Mon-
generally light precipitation, mark the physical
golia. Little remains of the traditional culture.
aspect of the country. The Gobi desertlands are
Traditional Mongolian literature was rich in
confined to the south. In the north, rivers and
epics and other oral forms, and some historical
forests provide a Siberian rather than a typically
writing and legal codification developed as well.
Mongolian natural setting. Because of its fertile
But the contemporary literature generally follows
steppe, as well as forests and mountainous ter-
the Russian example, and much of the old liter-
rain, the northern third of the republic contains
ature has been lost or is known only to specialists.
the greater part of the human population and
The Khalkha author Tsendein Damdinsuren and
livestock. Vast "virgin lands" programs of new
the Buryat writer Khutsa Namsarayev represent
agricultural development threaten to cause ero-
the new literature, based largely on Soviet
sion and dust bowls, a problem compounded by
models. Beginning about 1900, there had been
high and erratic winds.
a promising literary renaissance, especially among
Several mountain systems lie within the re-
the Buryats. that attempted to harmonize and
public or on its borders. Along the northwestern
combine the traditional with Western literary
frontier with the USSR extends the Tannu-Ola
forms and content. But most representatives of
range. In the northeast are the Khentei Moun-
this approach lost their lives, or at least their
tains. The Khangai Mountains rise in the west
liberty, in the great Soviet purges of 1937-1938.
central part of the country, and extending from
Tsyben Zhamtsarano, Badzar Baradin. and Sol-
west to southeast near the Chinese border are
bone Tuya led this Buryat intelligentsia.
the Mongolian Altai and Gobi Altai. The former
358
Krasnoyarsk
Bratsk
has established art schools, and the
of Music and Drama sponsors pro
U
Angara
S
R
Mongolian dramatic works. Plays of
Molière, Chekhov, and other classi-
R.
dramatists are also performed. After
pictures became popular. In addi.
Irkutsk
ng some foreign films, the republic
Kyzyl
Chita
S of its own.
TANNU-OLAGANGE
Ulan Ude
Nerchinsk
Tabun
al traditional sport was the zegete-
Bogdo
it hunt, last witnessed in the late
BAYAN
Kyakhta
Onon
This was in reality a giant-scale
ULEGEI
Selenga
Sukhe Bator
aneuvers in preparation for con-
Kobdo
Darkhan
BARGA
an with Genghis (Chinggis) Khan.
Erdenet
Cholbalsan4
nal sports were Mongolian wres-
Uliassutai
Tsetserlig
Ulan Bato
, and horse racing, all of which.
Tamtsak
extent survived. But now Western
Kara Korum
Nalaikha
Harbir
ketball, soccer, and track are very
REPUBLIC
nthusiastic Mongolian participation
MONGOLIAN
PEOPLE'S
ic Games influences the shape of
SINKIANG
Sain Shanda
upported sports program.
GOBY
Dzamyn:Ude
lian People's Republic
ALTAI
Erhlien
Jolun
Mukden
OG
olian People's Republic (MPR),
(Dolonnor)
er Mongolia, is an independent
MONGOLIA
1 in east central Asia between the
Huhehot
Orining
and China. After a Communist
R
Paotow:
Peking
International boundaries and capitals
irred in July 1921, the MPR was
Hwang Ho
imed in November 1924. Massive
Boundaries of Mongol administrative
nomic changes have completely
units in China and USSR
C
country from its former primitive
YELLOW
0
400 Mi.
condition into a modern Com-
Health and education have im-
0
400 Km.
Hwang
SEA
surably, while the nomadic life
iost of the population has declined
range rises to 15,266 feet (4,653 meters) in
the relatively densely populated and economically
banization has been extensive, the
Tabun Bogdo, the highest peak in the Altai.
developed areas of the northern part of the MPR
n Bator having grown from about
Fertile river valleys in the north, especially
and of southern Inner Mongolia. One of the
nts in 1921 to more than 350,000
those of the Selenga and Orkhon, support most
most severe earthquakes ever recorded anywhere
omic development has not been
of the population. The valley of the Kerulen
shifted rivers and moved mountains in the re-
il or successful as social transfor-
forms a broad highway to eastern Mongolia.
mote Gobi Altai region on Dec. 4, 1957.
ional livestock-herding has thus
Lake Khubsugul in the northwest, 83 miles long
Annual precipitation, mainly in the form of
0 dominate Mongolian economic
and 21 miles wide ( 133 by 34 km), supports a
summer rain, ranges in different parts of the
th light industry has been estab-
fishing industry. Many undrained salt lakes and
country from 4 to 12 inches (100-300 mm).
nt the country and a massive
rivers that have no outlet illustrate that two
Light snow, combined with extreme cold, results
project at Erdenet represents a
thirds of the territory lies in the undrained basin
in a considerable belt of permanently frozen soil
nomic thrust.
of Inner Asia. The Selenga and the Orkhon,
(permafrost) in the northern part of the country.
he Mongolian People's Republic
however, flowing into Lake Baikal in the USSR,
The temperature. range is wide. At Ulan Bator,
mensions of 1.471 miles (2,367
drain ultimately to the Arctic Ocean. The Keru-
about midway between mountains and desert, the
est and 782 miles (1,258 km)
len and the Onon drain toward the Pacific.
average temperature for January is -28° C
While the average elevation is
About one fourth of the country. is occupied
( 18° F); and for July, 18° C (64.5° F). Ex-
680 meters), the land has the
by the Gobi, the arid steppe and desert that
tremes of temperature are much greater.
ation of a saucer, tipped higher
characterizes the southern part of the republic
Wild animal life is plentiful in many parts of
: and lower in the southeast.
and northern Inner Mongolia. The Gobi separates
rom forest to steppe in the north
the country, and hunting is a popular sport with
e to desert in the south, with
natives and visitors. Among the larger mammals
are mountain sheep, deer, reindeer (especially
precipitation. mark the physical
around Lake Khubsugul), and some wild camels
intry. The Gobi desertlands are
INFORMATION HIGHLIGHTS
south. In the north, rivers and
and horses. Przhevalsky's horse, once common,
Siberian rather than a typically
Official Name: Mongolian People's Republic.
is rarely if ever seen now. Marmots are ubiq-
Head of State: Chairman of the Presidium of the
al setting. Because of its fertile
uitous and hunted systematically for their fur.
Great People's Khural.
as forests and mountainous ter-
Head Ministers. of Government: Chairman of the Council of
Since 1975 an official Society for the Protection
of Nature and the Environment has functioned,
n third of the republic contains
of the human population and
People's Khural.
but the New Lands program and the giant new
square miles (1,565,000 sq km).
'virgin lands" programs of new
copper mine at Erdenet pose a serious challenge
China. USSR; east, south, and west,
to environmentalists.
lopment threaten to cause ero-
wls, a problem compounded by
Elevations: Highest-Tabun Bogdo (15,266 feet, or.
Dinosaur fossils and eggs have been associated
a
(275 meters).
with Mongolia since Roy Chapman Andrews led
winds.
tain systems lie within the
Bator.
expeditions there in the early 1920's. New dis-
orders. Along the northwestem
Mongolian
coveries bv Mongolian paleontologists of very
USSR extends the Tannu-Ola
Buddhist Lamaism.
large, well-preserved skeletons suggest that a
100 monggos).
rtheast are the Khentei Moun-
Flag: and Measures: Metric system.
treasure of dinosaur fossils may be found.
gai Mountains rise in the west
Three vertical stripes of equal width, alter-
nately red, light blue, and red, with a gold star
The People. The major portion of the republic's
e country, and extending from are
and the gold soyombo emblem on the left-hand
population is made up of Khalkha Mongols. The
tai and Gobi Altai. The former
near the Chinese border
Natripel See also FLAG-Flags of Asia.
largest Mongol minority groups are the more
Anthem: Our Free Revolutionary Land.
than 50,000 Oirats, who live in the western
provinces. and the 22,000 Buryats, inhabiting
359
per thousand for 1970-1975) have dramatically
reversed that trend. In 1925 there were two
physicians with M. D. degrees in the MPR, and
in 1952 there were 180. By 1973 the total had
increased to 2,700, and a network of hospitals
was functioning.
Education and Religion. Nearly universal pri-
mary education in the MPR has almost eliminated
illiteracy and has made great inroads on super-
stition. In addition to the general secondary
schools there are technical schools of agriculture,
trade, and industry. In Ulan Bator the State
Pedagogical Institute trains teachers, and Choi-
balsan University provides courses in sciences
and arts for some 3,000 students. The Mongolian
Committee of Sciences and Higher Education
dominates all fields of intellectual activity.
About 300,000 pupils attend eight-year and
ten-year general schools, and in 1975 there were
more than 13,000 university-level students. The
literacy rate, 6% in 1935, was 90% by 1970.
J. PH. CHARBONNIER, FROM PHOTO RESEARCHERS
The organized Lamaist Church, which once
Students watch an instructor perform an experiment
dominated the society and economy, has been re-
in a laboratory at the state university in Ulan Bator.
duced to scattered remnants. Today there are
only about 100 lamas and two or three function-
ing temples in the MPR.
mainly the Selenga Valley from north of Ulan
The Economy. Central planning has dominated
Bator to the Soviet border. In the southeast,
the long-term process of transforming a formerly
16,000 Darigangga Mongols, occupy an area that
feudal and backward nomadic society into an
once supplied camels to the Chinese Army. Dari-
industrial, professional, specialized, and scientif-
gangga had a favored status but is now inte-
ic modern Communist society. That transforma-
grated into the regular administrative structure
tion process had proceeded slowly after 1921,
of the MPR. Near Lake Khubsugul in the north-
and violent counterrevolution and civil war in
west. 7,000 Darkhat Mongols retain unique lin-
the 1930's resulted from an attempt to speed it
guistic and ethnographic characteristics. Before
up. Marked acceleration began with the Three-
1924 the Darkhats enjoyed a special position as
Year Plan of 1958-1960 and has continued since,
persons free of taxes because of their close relation-
largely because of the Sino-Soviet split and So-
ship to the Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu, head of
viet fear of some form of Chinese repossession
the Mongolian Lamaist Church.
of Mongolia. But all slow or rapid change is
The largest non-Mongol minority is the group
affected by a pervasive manpower shortage, of
of 26,000 Kazakhs. Turkish Muslims who have
both Mongols and Russians.
their own "autonomous area," the Bayan Ulegei
Most Mongolian political leaders have eco-
Aimak, in the western part of the country. A
nomic training and background, and economics
limited number of Russians live chiefly in Ulan
relates closely to politics. Mongolian Five-Year
Bator and other population centers. Some 10,000
Plans are coordinated with Soviet Five-Year
Chinese are especially important in the construc-
Plans, and locational economics follows political
tion industries.
as well as economic imperatives. Most major
Provincial cities of over 10,000 population
projects are in the north central part of the coun-
include Choibalsan (formerly Bayan Tumen), in
try between Ulan Bator and the Soviet border.
a coal-producing region in the eastern part of
Livestock and Agriculture. Despite numerous
the country: Tsetserlig, an old industrial center
campaigns and exhortations, the total number of
west of Ulan Bator: Kobdo (Jirgalanta) in the
livestock has not increased in 40 years. Collec-
west: Sukhe Bator, a transshipment point and
tivization was attempted unsuccessfully in the
rail depot north of Ulan Bator near the Soviet
1930's and accomplished only in the late 1950's.
border: and Darkhan, a new industrial center
About 20% of the livestock, however, remains
between Sukhe Bator and the capital.
privately owned. Two New Lands programs, since
Population Dynamics. In 1973 the urban popu-
1959, have vastly extended grain-farming. Most
lation of the MPR was 650,000 and the rural
wheat is grown on state farms, or goskhozes,
population just under 750,000. The urban pro-
but fodder for the animals is now produced on
portion had increased from 28% of the total in
the collective farms, or SKhO's.
1956 to 46% in 1973. About half of it is in Ulan
Manufacturing and Mining. The new city of
Bator. Of the total rural population, one fifth
Darkhan. announced in 1961, attained a popula-
was settled and nonnomadic in 1963 and one
tion of 50,000 by the late 1970's. Its economic
third in 1973, but the proportion is now much
activities include grain milling and storage and has
higher. The number of nomad livestock herders
considerable light industry. Ulan Bator
-"typical Mongols" -decreased by 30% in the
meat-packing and light manufacturing.
1960's, while total population increased almost
Construction of the city of Erdenet began
that much. The MPR's birthrate rose from 26
in 1973. This urban center will serve the new
per thousand in 1940 to 43 in 1960, but then de-
copper mine, which is to be the largest in Asia
clined to a UN-estimated average of 39 for
and one of the ten largest in the world. Mon-
1970-1975.
golian coal production. which supplies domestic was
Before 1921 the Mongols were probably dying
industry, is being doubled. An oil refinery 1969
out physically, from disease. Now their high
built in the Gobi in 1951 but closed in
birthrate and low death rate (estimated at 9.3
after oil production had declined.
360
70-1975) have dramatically
Trade. Meat products and wool have been the
In 1925 there were two
major exports, which go mainly to the USSR. Pro-
D. degrees in the MPR, and
cessed meat and washed wool have superseded
180. By 1973 the total had
the wasteful livestock-on-the-hoof and unwashed
and a network of hospitals
wool that once dominated exports. Imports from
the Soviet Union doubled in the 1960's, while
ligion. Nearly universal pri-
Mongolian exports did not increase, suggesting
e MPR has almost eliminated
a politically motivated subsidy to counter the
ade great inroads on super-
threat from China. But the entire copper and
1 to the general secondary
molybdenum production of the mine at Erdenet
:hnical schools of agriculture,
will go to the USSR and is intended to more near-
In Ulan Bator the State
ly balance Soviet-Mongolian trade. Mongolia has
e trains teachers, and Choi-
increased its export of fluorspar to the USSR,
provides courses in sciences
which formerly obtained this product from China.
000 students. The Mongolian
Transportation and Communications. The Trans-
nces and Higher Education
Mongolian Railroad, opened in 1956, is the coun-
of intellectual activity.
try's chief modern transportation artery. The
pupils attend eight-year and
northern part, linking Ulan Bator with the Trans-
ools, and in 1975 there were
Siberian main line, has been in operation since
niversity-level students. The
1950 and carries most of the freight. The Sino-
1935, was 90% by 1970.
Soviet dispute has drastically reduced traffic on
Lamaist Church, which once
the part of the Trans-Mongolian that connects
GEORGE HOLTON, PHOTO RESEARCHERS
ty and economy, has been re-
Ulan Bator to Chinese railroads. Two short
Shoppers throng open-air stalls in the main square of
remnants. Today there are
feeder lines bring coal to Ulan Bator and Dark-
Ulan Bator, capital of the Mongolian People's Republic.
as and two or three function-
han, and a 100-mile (160-km) connection has been
MPR.
completed to Erdenet. Short rail lines in east-
ntral planning has dominated
ern Mongolia, built for military reasons in the
every three years by universal suffrage of per-
SS of transforming a formerly
struggle against Japan in the 1930's, connect the
sons over 18 years of age and meets at least
rd nomadic society into an
city of Choibalsan to the Trans-Siberian line.
once a year. It chooses from its number a Presi-
hal, specialized, and scientif-
The Soviet airline, Aeroflot, began direct jet
dium, which is in charge of state affairs during
ist society. That transforma-
service between Moscow and Ulan Bator in 1977.
the interval between sessions of the Great Khural.
roceeded slowly after 1921,
Domestic air transport connects all the provin-
The chairman of the Presidium is head of state.
revolution and civil war in
cial centers with the capital. Ships and barges
The Council of Ministers is the highest execu-
from an attempt to speed it
operate on the Selenga River and on Lake Khub-
tive and administrative body. Its chairman, or
ration began with the Three-
sugul. Few roads exist, but the Mongolian ter-
premier, is head of government. In 1974, Tse-
.960 and has continued since,
rain generally allows cross-country driving. Many
denbal became chairman of the Presidium, re-
he Sino-Soviet split and So-
bridges have been built since the 1950's.
linquishing the premiership to Jambyn Batmunkh.
orm of Chinese repossession
Radio and telephone service links all impor-
Justice is administered by the supreme court.
all slow or rapid change is
tant centers of the country. Television came to
whose members are elected by the Great Khural
asive manpower shortage, of
Mongolia in 1970. Each of the 18 provinces
for a period of four years. The smaller units of
Russians.
publishes a newspaper, and several periodicals
government have their own khurals and courts.
political leaders have eco-
and newspapers are published in Ulan Bator.
All male citizens must serve in the People's
background, and economics
Government. The leader of the ruling Mongo-
Revolutionary Army, which at times has attained
olitics. Mongolian Five-Year
lian People's Revolutionary party (MPRP) is the
a strength of 90,000 men.
ted with Soviet Five-Year
first secretary of its Central Committee, Yum-
al economics follows political
zhagiyn Tsedenbal. He and fellow members of
3. History of the Mongols
ic imperatives. Most major
the Politburo dominate the Central Committee
The span of years between the proclamation
orth central part of the coun-
and the 70,000 party members. Celebration of
of Genghis as khagan, or great khan, of the Mon-
Bator and the Soviet border.
Tsedenbal's 60th birthday in 1976 was marked
gols in 1206 and the period marked by the end
griculture. Despite numerous
by ality." many signs of an emerging "cult of person-
of their Yüan dynasty in China in 1368, the
ortations, the total number of
Russian defeat of the Mongols at Kulikovo in
creased in 40 years. Collec-
The MPRP follows its mentor and model, the
mpted unsuccessfully in the
Communist party of the Soviet Union (CPSU),
1380, and the death of Timur (Tamerlane) in
ished only in the late 1950's.
in substantive policy and in method of operation.
1405 includes the most impressive and important
livestock, however, remains
Party members occupy key positions all through
events of the famous Mongolian Empire. The
VO New Lands programs, since
the system of state administration, the economy,
reverberations of Mongolian power after 1405
xtended grain-farming. Most
education, armed forces, and public organizations.
were only minor aftershocks following tremen-
dous upheaval in the affairs of men.
1 state farms, or goskhozes,
Many party officials have received Russian
animals is now produced on
education or attended Soviet party schools for
Before the rise of Genghis Khan in the late
special courses. The Soviet ambassador to the
12th century, the Mongols were disunited. They
i, or SKhO's.
id Mining. The new city of
MPR has usually been an experienced official of
were one of several groups of peoples who inhab-
d in 1961, attained a popula-
the CPSU in eastern Siberia, thus providing a
ited the steppes and mountains north and west
the late 1970's. Its economic
direct Communist party connection that strength-
of China. The various Mongolian, Turkish, and
rain milling and storage and
MPR. ens even more the close ties of the USSR and
other peoples of Inner Asia were mostly pastoral
industry. Ulan Bator has
nomads whose tribes fought among themselves,
ight manufacturing.
The MPR is divided into 18 provinces called
formed shifting alliances, and made periodic
the city of Erdenet began
aimaks, which are subdivided into somon-coopera-
raids into the settled lands to the south. At
in center will serve the new
1 is to be the in Asia
bags,' household groups, were abolished in 1959.
tives, or county-agricultural collectives. The
times, strong leaders of well-organized nomadic
groupings founded states and dynasties in the
The highest organ of government is the Great
steppes, and occasionally they established their
ion, which supplies domestics
largest in
People's Khural, or People's Assembly, modeled
rule over parts of China, Southwest Asia, India,
doubled. An oil refinery
on the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and com-
or even Europe. Their empires, such as those of
in 1951 but closed in 1969
the posed of deputies chosen from the urban districts,
the Huns in the 5th century and of the Seljuk
I had declined.
aimaks, and the armed forces. It is elected
Turks in the 11th century, were usually short-
lived. In the early 13th century, the Chin dy-
361
expert advisers without restriction as to their
ethnic origin, creed, or color.
Enlargement of the Empire. Genghis died in
1227. Under the next four khagans-Ogodai
(reigned 1229-1241), his son Kuyuk (1246-
1248), and Tolui's sons Mangu (1251-1259)
and Kublai (1260-1294) Mongols vastly
enlarged the empire founded by Genghis Khan.
Ogodai completed the conquest of northern
China in 1231-1234, after which a 45-year war
began with the national Chinese empire of the
Sung in the south. Mainland Korea was effec-
tively occupied by 1236. Meanwhile, Ogodai's
generals had annexed western Iran to the empire
in 1230-1231 and had moved into the Caucasus.
By 1244 the Georgians, Armenians, and also the
Seljuk Turks of Anatolia had been defeated and
made vassals of the khagan. Jochi's son Batu
and the great Mongolian general Sabutai (Su-
botai) opened a third front in Europe in 1237.
They defeated the Kipchak (Cuman) Turks of
the southern Russian steppe and then the Rus-
sian princes of the north and west, failing only
to take Novgorod. Invading Poland and Hun-
gary, two Mongol armies almost simultaneously
(April 1241) annihilated the Polish and German
knights at Liegnitz and the Hungarians at Mohi
before withdrawing eastward.
THE GRANGER COLLECTION
In 1256, Mangu dispatched his brother Hu-
Genghis Khan (c. 1167-1227), founder of the Mongolian
lagu (Hulegu) to round out the Mongol empire
Empire, portrayed in a 16th century Persian manuscript.
in Southwest Asia. Hulagu took Baghdad in
1258, extinguishing the Abbasid caliphate, and
in the next two years overran Syria and Palestine,
nasty of Tungusic origin ruled northern China,
except for the Crusader strongholds. In 1260,
and the Khwarizm shahs of Turkish ancestry dom-
during his absence, his army was routed at Ayn
inated eastern Iran, Afghanistan, and Transoxiana
Jalut, Palestine, by the Mamluks (Mamelukes)
(roughly modern Uzbekistan, USSR). Within
of Egypt, under Baybars. This was the first
75 years, all of China, Central Asia, Iran, and
great Mongolian defeat and resulted in the loss of
Iraq, and most of Russia fell before Genghis
Muslim Syria and Palestine to the Mamluks. In
and his successors, who created the largest em-
China, Mangu sent another brother. Kublai, to
pire the world had ever known.
outflank the Sung from the southwest. Kublai
Genghis (Chinggis) Khan. Genghis-the accurate
conquered the state of Nan Chao in 1253, and
but less familiar spelling is "Chinggis"-won
one of his generals captured Hanoi in 1257.
power over all the peoples of Mongolia through
Mangu died in 1259 without completing the con-
hard fighting, and he devoted his life to uniting
quest of southern China. This was left to his
the nomadic tribes and establishing their domi-
successor, Kublai, whose final defeat of the
nation over the known world of his time. After
Sung in 1279 brought the Mongolian Empire to
reducing the state of Hsi-Hsia northwest of
its greatest extent.
China to vassalage, he invaded the Chin Empire
Genghis Khan had been satisfied to live in
of northern China in 1211. The Chin bought
a tent. It was Ogodai who established the im-
peace but could not prevent the loss of Peking
perial capital, Kara Korum, in 1235. But since
to the Mongols in 1215. Genghis then turned
Kublai's removal of the capital to Peking in
westward, conquering the state of Kara-Khitai
1260 left the city in the steppes without any
in 1218 and the dominions of the Khwarizm
particular function, it flourished only a very
shah in 1219-1221.
short time. In that brief period a European,
The more successful were Genghis' military
William of Rubruck (Guillaume Rubruquis),
conquests-and they were stunningly successful-
resided in Kara Korum for six months, and his
the more massive the contradictions that arose.
description immortalized it as the headquarters
The military, aggressive, and destructive quali-
of the Mongolian Empire. The Chinese de-
ties that made him a great conqueror did not
stroyed the city in 1388.
help to establish effective government. But
Fragmentation of the Empire. Within the two
Genghis had the capacity to formulate a large
Mongolian centuries (1206-1405), the year 1241
overall conceptual framework for Mongolian rule
is of great importance, for the callback of the
and to organize an empire around it. He assigned
Mongolian chieftains from all corners of the
his sons Jochi (Juchi), Chagatai (Jagatai),
empire to choose a new khagan appears to have
Ogodai (Ogadai), and Tolui to administer the
saved Europe from complete subjugation. At that
major parts of his realm. He believed in the
time the Mongols were close to Vienna and Ven-
necessity of fixed regulations, and his famous
ice, and had already defeated every kind of mili-
Yasa, or code of laws, was an impressive compi-
tary force that could be assembled. The events
lation. His system of post stations along trade
of 1241, only 14 years after Genghis Khan's of
routes and of rapid communication by couriers
Mongolian rule: the tremendous distancems sep-
death, illustrate two fundamental
using relays of horses was a work of genius.
Noted for his openness to advice, Genghis reached
arating the imperial capital from its possessions.
out for, effectively used, and generously rewarded
and the shakiness of the system for succession.
362
out restriction as to their
Remarkable organization did much to overcome
r color.
the handicap of distance, but infighting among
> Empire. Genghis died in
candidates for top leadership always threatened
DENTHORDE
next four khagans-Ogodai
Mongolian unity. Even the factor of distance was
), his son Kuyuk (1246-
never truly mastered, for the separate branches of
CHAGATAI
the empire could easily ignore the center.
EMPIRE
sons Mangu (1251-1259)
KHANATE
1294)-the Mongols vastly
Kublai's move to Peking in 1260 greatly
founded by Genghis Khan.
weakened the unified Mongolian center, which he
the conquest of northern
represented as khagan, for he devoted his atten-
AGREAT KHAN
after which a 45-year war
tion to eastern Asia in the 34 years he ruled.
onal Chinese empire of the
From 1260, real power lay in the separate divi-
Mainland Korea was effec-
sions of the empire. The breakup of unitary
1236. Meanwhile, Ogodai's
rule had been foreshadowed by Genghis' assign-
I
ment of steppe fiefdoms to his four sons. By
THE MONGOL KHANATES
western Iran to the empire
d moved into the Caucasus.
1260, four centers of power had emerged: China,
ABOUT 1300
100°F°C
ns, Armenians, and also the
where Kublai was to found the Yüan dynasty;
International boundaries
tolia had been defeated and
Turkestan, known as the Chagatai khanate be-
Boundaries of the khanates
khagan. Jochi's son Batu
cause Genghis had assigned it to his second son;
Conquests of the Mongols
golian general Sabutai (Su-
Iran, where Hulagu had founded the line of II-
d front in Europe in 1237.
Khans; and southern Russia, the domain of the
Kipchak (Cuman) Turks of
Golden Horde, ruled by Batu and his successors.
1 steppe and then the Rus-
Kublai was recognized by the other descendants
And just as the death of Ogodai in 1241 had
north and west, failing only
of Genghis as leader of the Mongols, but his
caused the Mongols to turn back from central
Invading Poland and Hun-
overlordship was nominal.
Europe, the death of Mangu in 1259 had brought
rmies almost simultaneously
China and Mongolia. Kublai's reign (1260-
the recall of Hulagu from the borders of Egypt,
ated the Polish and German
1294) was the period of Mongol glory in China,
the last stronghold of Islam in the Middle East.
and the Hungarians at Mohi
and was the time also of Marco Polo's experiences.
The early Il-Khans favored Christianity, and
eastward.
In China the Mongols ruled the world's richest,
until the adoption of the Muslim faith by Ghazan
dispatched his brother Hu-
most populous, most technologically advanced
(reigned 1295-1304), there was the possibility
und out the Mongol empire
and culturally resplendent country. Many of its
of a far-reaching power alignment: the Il-Khans
Hulagu took Baghdad in
wonders described by Marco Polo were disbe-
collaborating with European Christians against
the Abbasid caliphate, and
lieved, but he stimulated Europe's quest for
Islam. Negotiations were conducted with the
overran Syria and Palestine,
spices and other luxury goods of the East, and
papacy and other European powers but were not
sader strongholds. In 1260,
his book was closely read by Columbus.
fruitful. The alliance, had it occurred, might
his army was routed at Ayn
Kublai was a wise and effective ruler, who
have forestalled the rise of the Ottoman Turks
the Mamluks (Mamelukes)
unified China after 150 years of division and
in the 14th century and their conquest of Con-
Baybars. This was the first
added to its wealth and possessions. The weight
stantinople in 1453.
eat and resulted in the loss of
of China's huge population and impressive tradi-
Persian arts, literature, historiography, and
alestine to the Mamluks. In
tion diluted his nomadic Mongolian heritage,
scientific studies all flourished under the Il-
another brother, Kublai, to
and he became essentially a Chinese emperor.
Khans. After the death of Abu Said in 1235, the
from the southwest. Kublai
Thus the defeated Chinese, by absorbing the
II-Khanid empire disintegrated. and Iran re-
of Nan Chao in 1253, and
Mongols, emerged in fact victorious. Two ex-
mained disunited until its conquest by Timur
S captured Hanoi in 1257.
ceptions qualify his assimilation to Chinese cul-
(Tamerlane) at the end of the century.
without completing the con-
ture. He refused to appoint Chinese to top gov-
The Golden Horde. Whereas the Mongol im-
China. This was left to his
emment posts, and he arranged to be buried
pact was minimized through effective assimila-
whose final defeat of the
near the birthplace and grave of Genghis, in
tion in China and Southwest Asia, that dissipa-
ght the Mongolian Empire to
northeastern Khalkha Mongolia.
tion of influence did not occur in Russia. The
Although Kublai remained at heart a Mongol,
period of greatest significance, when Mongols
had been satisfied to live in
he seemed to treat Mongolia as a minor Chinese
not only ruled but actually shaped and formed
dai who established the im-
province. His status as both khagan of the Mon-
Russia, was mainly between 1237 and 1380.
Korum. in 1235. But since
gols and emperor of China generated a trouble-
That was long enough to divert Russia from the
if the capital to Peking in
some ambiguity. As the Mongols interpret it,
West and set it on a separate path. It would
in the steppes without any
they were never subjects of a Chinese govern-
never fully adopt, develop, or participate in
it flourished only a very
ment, but owed allegiance only to a Mongolian
Western culture.
it brief period a European,
khan or a Manchu ruler. The Chinese have al-
The Mongols under Batu had withdrawn from
ck (Guillaume Rubruquis),
ways looked on the Mongols as subjects of the
Hungary into the southern Russian steppe in
rum for six months, and his
Chinese Empire, whose sovereign rights passed
1242. Here they maintained their traditional way
alized it as the headquarters
to the republic after 1911.
of life and intermingled with the nomadic Turk-
Empire. The Chinese de-
In 1368 the Chinese expelled the last emperor
ish population. The Turko-Mongolian mixture
1388.
of the Yüan dynasty to reside in China. A rump
became the "Tatars" of Russian history (see also
the Empire. Within the two
Yüan dynasty claiming rulership of China con-
TATARS). Their state was called the Golden
S (1206-1405), the year 1241
tinued in Mongolia until the death of Ligdan
ince, for the callback of the
Khan in 1634.
Horde, with its capital at Sarai in the lower
Volga region. Cities of the Horde prospered as
ns from all corners of the
Iran and the II-Khans. Genghis' path of con-
cosmopolitan trading centers served in part by
new khagan appears to have
quest through eastern Turkestan (now Sinkiang)
routes the Mongols had secured across Asia.
complete subjugation. At that
and into Transoxiana and Khurasan, domains of
In 1258, about three years after the death
vere close to Vienna and Ven-
the Khwarizm shah, had brought the Mongols to
the world of Islam and the lands of another an-
of Batu, his brother Bereke became khan. Bereke
y defeated every kind of mili-
Id be assembled. The events
cient culture, that of Iran. or Persia. Just as
was the first Mongolian ruler to espouse Islam.
years after Genghis Khan's of
China had lost the battle but won the war by
He allied with the Mamluk ruler Bavbars against
NO fundamental problems
absorbing its Mongol conquerors, so did the
the Il-Khan Hulagu, his uncle. Thus for the
he tremendous distances sep-
Muslim faith and the seductive civilization of
first time a Mongolian khan joined with a non-
il capital from its possessions,
Iran the eventually divert the nomad warriors from
Mongol on the basis of religious faith, against
another Mongolian khan. The frail unity of the
of the system for succession.
larger Mongolian dream of Genghis Khan.
Mongolian Empire was completely destroyed.
363
364
MONGOLIA: 3. History of the Mongols
The vassal Russian princes of the forestlands
possible aroused bitter hatred. Nomad-farmer
north of the steppe served the Mongols. Through
antipathy was an ancient story, and to the con-
loyalty to the Golden Horde, the princes of Mos-
quered inhabitants of sophisticated cities the
cow and their city became increasingly impor-
simplicity of the Mongols seemed primitive.
tant. By 1340, when Uzbeg (Uzbek) Khan died,
But the Mongolian conquests had great posi-
Moscow and the Russians already threatened the
tive potential. The unification of China, Inner
predominance of Sarai and the Golden Horde.
Asia, and much of Southwest Asia and Russia
The defeat of the Mongols by the Russians at
fostered the growth of trade and cultural ex-
Kulikovo in 1380 and the destruction of Sarai
change between Asia and Europe, with the Mon-
and Astrakhan by Timur in 1395-1396 confirmed
gols acting as a transmission belt. These effects
the hegemony of Russia and Moscow.
were much greater on western Asia and Europe
Turkestan and Timur. The khanate of Chagatai
than on China. Chinese tradition remained large-
was inhabited mainly by Turkish peoples-no-
ly impervious to foreign cultural innovations,
mads in the east, or Moghulistan; farmers and
although Islam took permanent root in some
city dwellers in the west, or Transoxiana. After
western provinces. The impact of Chinese cul-
the reign of Kebek, which ended about 1326, the
ture on Russia, Iran, and Iraq was considerable.
state split into its dissimilar halves. These were
Commodities and ideas such as gunpowder, pa-
reunited in 1360 by Tughluq-Temur, the Cha-
per money, printing, porcelain, medical knowl-
gatai ruler of Moghulistan.
edge, and art motifs traveled westward, and some
Two members of the Turkish nobility of Tran-
reached Europe by way of the Islamic world.
soxiana-Timur (Tamerlane) and Husain-led a
An effect not realized at the time was the trans-
revolt that liberated Transoxiana from Mongol
mission of germs and disease. The Mongols may
rule. In 1370, Timur, having eliminated Husain,
have been a plague in the literal as well as figu-
became sole emir. From headquarters at Tash-
rative sense.
kent, he embarked on a whirlwind and fabulously
Genghis Khan is still a potent political sym-
successful but notoriously cruel and destructive
bol that stirs emotion and causes controversy.
campaign of conquest. He united the former
He supplies a sense of Mongolian identity, na-
dominions of Chagatai and the Il-Khans, rav-
tionalism, and a feeling of commonality among
aged the territories of the Golden Horde, shat-
Mongols everywhere-Pan-Mongolism The Mon-
tered the Delhi sultanate of India, and tempo-
golian hereditary aristocracy traced its lineage to
rarily checked the rise of the Ottoman Turks,
Genghis Khan. Traditional Mongolian literature
thus relieving their pressure on Constantinople.
sings his praises; poetry and stories still circulate
He even embarked on a crusade to take over
about him and even about his marvelous horses.
China, but died in 1405 before that venture got
Archaeology in Mongolia is politically sensitive
very far.
because of the continued potency of such sym-
Although Timur was not a descendant of Gen-
bols. For Mongols, Kara Korum is more than
ghis Khan, he claimed the heritage of Genghis
just an archaeological site. In the 1930's and
-the Mongolian Empire-and he sought mightily
1940's the Japanese and their Mongolian protégé
to recreate it. He consciously honored the Yasa
Te Wang exploited Genghis' memory. His
and the Mongolian traditions and named a
contemporary impact showed quite clearly in
genuine descendant of Genghis as nominal ruler.
1962 when the Mongols in Chinese-controlled
But Timur also represented Islam and Iran, and
Inner Mongolia celebrated the 800th anniversary
would follow their laws. He tried to yoke in-
of his birth. and those in the Soviet-dominated
compatible ideas and philosophies. His accom-
Mongolian People's Republic (MPR) tried, un-
plishments were negligible because he lacked
successfully, to celebrate it. At Ejen Khoro, Inner
Genghis' spark of genius, which went beyond
Mongolia, purported relics of the great khan are
simply winning battles. Yet with all his mon-
enshrined in an elaborate building erected by
strous cruelties and killings, he protected science
the Communist Chinese and are watched "eter-
and the arts. Senseless cruelty and refined sen-
nally" by special hereditary guards.
sibility were simultaneously within him. He al-
To the Russians, Genghis Khan and his heirs
ways meticulously spared the lives of intellectuals
meant defeat and destruction. To the Chinese,
and artisans in captured cities before he piled
Kublai and his descendants until 1368 were em-
up the skulls of all the other inhabitants. The
perors of China as well as Mongolian khans. In
annihilation of so many and the destruction of
the contemporary Sino-Soviet split, attitudes ex-
so much forever besmirch his memory and name.
pressed toward Genghis Khan imply attitudes
Timur's empire collapsed after his death. His
about the rivalry between the USSR and China.
descendants, known as the Timurids, ruled his
Buddhism. Before their conversion to Tibetan
eastern territories for about 100 years, some-
Buddhism the Mongols worshiped natural phe-
times in splendor. One descendant, Babur,
nomena. Their chief spirit was Tengri (the sky):
driven from his principality of Fergana by the
The Mongols had shamans, who they believed
Uzbek Turks, established himself in Afghanistan
could contact the spirits and mediate between
and invaded India, where in 1526 he founded
them and mankind. The shamans combined the
the Mughul ("Mongol") dynasty.
roles of priest, medicine man, and soothsayer in
The Mongolian Legacy. The small number of
ancient Mongolian society. Often they had
Mongols and the crudity of their nomad culture
great political influence.
meant that they contributed little to the more
In the 15th century the reformist Yellow Hat
developed lands they conquered. Subtle civiliza-
sect of Lamaist Buddhism became dominant in
tion and the silver bullets of luxury brought
Tibet. During the next two centuries Tibetan
down many tough Mongolian fighters, and it be-
monks spread this sect rapidly through Mongolia.
came extremely difficult for the Mongols to main-
With it came the Tibetan language, Indian in-
tain their readiness for battle. By continuing to
fluences in theology, medicine, and mythology,
expand outward, Genghis Khan had avoided this
new architectural forms, a religious literature,
problem. The terrible cruelty and widespread
medicine, philosophy, a new hierarchical organi-
destruction that often made Mongolian victory
zation, an educational system, and monasticism,
ter hatred. Nomad-farmer
cient story, and to the con-
of sophisticated cities the
ngols seemed primitive.
n conquests had great posi-
unification of China, Inner
Southwest Asia and Russia
of trade and cultural ex-
and Europe, with the Mon-
smission belt. These effects
n western Asia and Europe
ese tradition remained large-
oreign cultural innovations,
permanent root in some
The impact of Chinese cul-
and Iraq was considerable.
eas such as gunpowder, pa-
porcelain, medical knowl-
traveled westward, and some
way of the Islamic world.
d at the time was the trans-
I disease. The Mongols may
in the literal as well as figu-
still a potent political sym-
on and causes controversy.
of Mongolian identity, na-
GEORGE HOLTON. PHOTO RESEARCHERS
ling of commonality among
A stone tortoise from the ruins of Kara Korum, Mongolia's imperial capital, lies near Erdeni Dzu Monastery.
-Pan-Mongolism. The Mon-
stocracy traced its lineage to
litional Mongolian literature
This rich and varied culture appeared at a
acknowledged the overlordship of China itself.
:try and stories still circulate
time when internal quarrels divided the Mon-
In 1696 the Manchus defeated Galdan, and
about his marvelous horses.
gols. In the early 15th century the Oirats, or
the Khalkhas returned to their own territory, no
agolia is politically sensitive
western Mongols, had gained ascendancy in
longer independent. The Dzungars were not fi-
inued potency of such sym-
Mongolia. The Khalkhas and other eastern Mon-
nally conquered until the 1750's. The Mongolian
Kara Korum is more than
gols, ruled by descendants of Kublai, were torn
policy of the Manchus, who ruled China until
al site. In the 1930's and
by dissension. After the death of the Oirat leader
1911, included weakening the khans, preventing
and their Mongolian protégé
Esen-taiji in 1455. the eastern Mongols were
communication with the eastward-expanding
d Genghis' memory. His
reunited under Dayan Khan (reigned 1470-1543),
Russians, and obtaining horses and soldiers from
et showed quite clearly in
and Altan Khan (reigned 1543-1583) drove the
Mongolia. The Manchus also forbade permanent
ingols in Chinese-controlled
Oirats westward. Altan's death was followed by
Chinese settlement in Mongolia and, after a
brated the 800th anniversary
another period of disunity.
bloody revolt in 1756. decreed that future rein-
ose in the Soviet-dominated
The Buddhist Church in Mongolia developed
carnations of the Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu
Republic (MPR) tried, un-
mainly after the establishment of the monastery
must come from Tibet instead of from Mongolian
rate it. At Ejen Khoro, Inner
of Erdeni Dzu in 1586. It was built near the
aristocratic families.
relics of the great khan are
site of Kara Korum, SO that historical symbol-
The Manchu-Mongol arrangement began as
borate building erected by
ism fortified religious appeal. From the first,
one of near equality, including common suspicion
nese and are watched "eter-
the church was closely allied to the secular
of the Chinese, but the Manchus became assimi-
ereditary guards.
aristocracy, and top church figures came from
lated to Chinese culture and a growing Russian
Genghis Khan and his heirs
the families of lav khans and princes. In 1650 a
threat in the north further united Manchu and
estruction. To the Chinese,
son of the Tushetu Khan-ruler of the area
Chinese interests. Chinese merchants and money-
endants until 1368 were em-
around Urga (now Ulan Bator)-was named the
lenders penetrated into Mongolia almost from the
vell as Mongolian khans. In
first Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu, or "Living Bud-
beginning of the Manchu period, and new threats
no-Soviet split, attitudes ex-
dha." This opened a phase of Mongolian history
to the Mongols emerged at the end of the 19th
hghis Khan imply attitudes
that ended with the death of the eighth, and
century when the Manchus, alarmed by Russian
tween the USSR and China.
last, reincarnated Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu in
expansion into Manchuria, reversed earlier policy
their conversion to Tibetan
1924. These Mongolian Church leaders gained
and encouraged Chinese immigration to Mongo-
gols worshiped natural phe-
property, power, and prestige, and the native ad-
lia. Mongol-Chinese quarrels and confrontations
spirit was Tengri (the sky):
ministration theocracy. increasingly bore the character of a
became increasingly frequent in Urga, and the
shamans, who they believed
Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu more and more as-
pirits and mediate between
Manchus, Chinese, and Mongols. Galdan (reigned
sumed a nationalistic, anti-Chinese identity. The
The shamans combined the
1676-1697). khan of the Dzungar tribe of Oirats,
fact that many Mongolian princes were heavily
icine man, and soothsayer in
reestablished the old steppe fiefdom of Chagatai.
in debt to Chinese added a strong economic
society. Often they had
Turning his attention to eastern Mongolia in
1688, he quickly drove the Khalkhas southward
argument to the pressures for independence.
ury ice. the reformist Yellow Hat
Russians and Mongols. Russia wanted to keep
into Inner Mongolia, where they sought the
Mongolia free of Chinese colonization and hoped
ddhism became dominant in
protection of the Manchu K'ang Hsi emperor
next two centuries Tibetan
of China. In 1691, at Dolon-Nor, 550 repre-
to break Chinese control of the Mongolian trade,
but it also wanted to maintain economic and
ect rapidly through Mongolia.
sentatives of the Khalkha nobility, including the
three major khans and the Jebtsun Damba Khu-
other relations with China. The Czarist govern-
Tibetan language, Indian in-
:, medicine, and mythology,
tukhtu, swore fealty to the K'ang Hsi emperor.
ment opened a consulate in Urga in 1861, both
That "Diet- of Dolon-Nor" marked the subjection
for transit trade with China and for local trade
forms, a religious literature,
y, a new hierarchical organi-
of the Mongols to the Manchus, fellow nomads
with the Mongols. The more Manchu and Chi-
who had conquered China, but the Mongols never
nese pressure on the Mongols increased, the
hal system, and monasticism.
more attractive Russia looked to the Khalkhas.
365