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26
21
2
7
National
Journal
THE WEEKLY ON POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
JAN. 26, 1991/NO. 4
Can
That
Be
George
Bush
Proclaiming,
Power to
the
People?
WHITE
HOUSE
Power to the People?
President Bush plans to
ames P. Pinkerton is unrepentant
Pinkerton's spacious, disheveled of-
J
for having chosen such a pedagogi-
fice, strewn with books and stacks of
send Congress an
cal term. "I'm under no illusions
newspapers, hardly seems like a com-
that this will be gracing bumper
mand center for a social revolution. But
empowerment package,
strips," President Bush's long-term pol-
there's a hint of high stakes in the promi-
with new spending in
icy planner said of his hot New Paradigm,
nent painting near his desk of Sir
an intriguing set of conceptions about
Thomas More, who was executed by
the range of $2 billion.
how to confront social ills more respon-
Henry VIII for his stand on principle.
sively than bureaucracies have done since
Pinkerton admires More but hopes not
But doubt persists
Kafka's day.
to emulate him.
about how far the
"I think the term is absolutely accurate
He's unlikely to. A publicized swat he
for the intellectual construct," Pinkerton
took last fall from budget chief Richard
concept will get.
said as he sat coiled on a couch in his
G. Darman served only to further Pin-
office in the Old Executive Office Build-
kerton's crusade, not hinder it. (See NJ,
ing next to the White House. "I'm count-
12/15/90, p. 3046.) Pinkerton has become
ing on politicians as opposed to people
the most profiled member (other than
BY BURT SOLOMON
like me to find their own language, to
chief of staff John H. Sununu) of Bush's
find the words they can take it to the
staff, causing some resentment among
American people [with]. 'Empowerment'
more-senior advisers. Empowerment has
strikes me as such a word."
become the shibboleth of Administration
doméstic policy, so that even
Darman doesn't say a word against
it.
More is coming. A paean to em-
powerment will grace Bush's State
of the Union message on Jan. 29 if
domestic policy-amid a war-is
mentioned at all. His fiscal 1992
budget will feature an empower-
ment package of 10-15 pieces, an
official said, with new spending in
the range of $2 billion for housing,
education, enterprise zones, In-
dian affairs, small business and
possibly welfare reform. And that
will merely mark "the end of the
first quarter" in a policy mission
that may extend to job training and
welfare reform later this year and
possibly to health care in 1992, an
aide said in describing the Admin-
istration's "short and long-term
agendas."
This prospect has brought a
touch of vitality to an otherwise
dreary time for domestic policy,
given Washington's budget con-
Richard A. Bloom
strictions and a President more
taken with geopolitics than intrac-
table social problems at home. Re-
formers and social scientists fa-
Bush policy planner James P. Pinkerton
tigued by a decade of seeing social
"A system this sick" can't reform itself.
problems ignored have delighted
204 NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91
PUBLIC SCHOOL 'CHOICE' GATHERING MOMENTUM
T
o the empowerment team at the
more states have adopted versions of
part of the choice movement are mag-
White House, New York City's
school choice, as have several major
net schools, which are proliferating
East Harlem school district is the
urban school systems. Advocates say
around the country, and publicly fi-
epitome of what empowerment in edu-
choice programs spur more educa-
nanced vouchers to permit poor par-
cation is all about.
tional diversity, catalyze more parental
ents to send their children to private
There, public school students can
involvement in schools and weaken the
schools, an idea being tried in Milwau-
choose among dozens of educational
power of centralized school bureaucra-
kee. But magnet schools, though they.
programs, with schools that specialize
cies, which often act as roadblocks to
often offer strong academic programs,
in the performing arts, sports, science
educational restructuring. "Almost
frequently "cream" off the best stu-
and mathematics, communications,
without exception, wherever choice has
dents, Nathan said, and absorb a dis-
health services, the environment and
been attempted, choice has worked,"
proportionate share of a locality's edu-
other programs.
President Bush told. a 1989 White
cation resources, weakening other
Many of the schools are small, with
House education conference.
schools.
several housed in a single building. The
But a good chunk of the nation's
As for vouchers, Washington fi-
curricula are overseen by teams of
education establishment, including
nanced an experiment in the 1970s that
teachers who are given wide latitude to
school superintendents, principals and
provided $7 million in vouchers to per-
innovate.
local school boards, remains skeptical.
mit some students in the San Jose sub-
East Harlem schools attract hun-
These officials worry that school dis-
urb of Alum Rock to attend the school
dreds of white students from outside
tricts may be rushing into choice plans
of their choice. But the experiment
the district, where the population is
without careful attention to the details
produced no academic differences be-
predominantly Hispanic and black and
or the program's impact. They point
tween students who used the vouchers
largely poor. Academically, East Har-
out that some school districts, such as
and those who did not.
lem pupils' test scores rose from last
Seattle's, have experienced major ad-
Until last year, choice strategists
place among New York City's 32
ministrative problems trying to imple-
concentrated primarily on promoting
school districts in 1973, the year before
ment choice programs.
more choice within public schools.
the "choice" program was launched, to
"School systems have to do several
Then last June, political scientists John
16th last year.
things simultaneously, or choice can be
E. Chubb and Terry M. Moe co-
Across the nation, the movement to
harmful," Charles Vert Willie, a Har-
authored a plan, published by the lib-
give public school parents more lati-
vard University education and urban
eral-leaning Brookings Institution, to
tude in choosing schools for their chil-
studies professor, said. Willie fears that
include private schools in the mix. Un-
dren is gaining political momentum.
choice programs that rely solely. on
der the plan, parents could choose any
Schools such as those in East Harlem
market forces will have the harshest
appropriate public or private school
have improved, choice advocates say,
impact on poor and minority children
for their youngster, with state and local
because parents there can pick the
by undermining one of the few remain-
funds following the student to the
schools their children attend instead of
ing institutions in underclass neighbor-
school. The White House empower-
being forced to accept the school dis-
hoods-the public schools. School dis-
ment team has endorsed that idea; but
trict's' assignment. As a result, choice
tricts ought to provide choice, Willie
others say that public and private
supporters say, schools work harder to
said, but they should, also "invest
schools alike could end up worse off
deliver innovative and quality educa-
heavily" in failing schools, not shut
under such a program.
tion; otherwise; they lose enrollment
them down.
"Competition alone isn't enough to
and go out of business.
Another concern is that so many di-
stimulate school improvement,' Na-
Such free-market notions once came
vergent education concepts now march
than said. In his view, school districts
mainly from conservatives, but now a
behind the school choice banner that
with successful choice programs, such
growing number of Democrats and lib-
some programs "may end up creating
as East Harlem, also offer parents di-
erals agree. The main reason is that a
more problems than they solve," said
verse, strong schools from which to
massive-wave of school reform efforts
Joe Nathan, a senior fellow at the Uni-
choose and make special efforts-from
in the 1980s failed to raise the achieve-
versity of Minnesota's Hubert H.
providing transportation to sponsoring
ment levels of U.S. students.
Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs
massive parent education programs-
In 1988, Minnesota became the first
and an adviser on the choice issue to
to ensure that all children can take ad-
state to implement a statewide school
the Bush White House.
vantage of the program.
choice program. Since then, seven
Among the ideas being promoted as
-Carol F. Steinbach
in the burgeoning discussion of a policy
about "how to help the disadvantaged
"evaporate" in 20 years, Pinkerton pre-
redirection that Washington University
rather than whether to."
dicted. "Over the long run-and let's be
social work professor Michael W. Sherra-
Champions of empowerment make big
clear I'm not talking about [fiscal] '91 or
den said could-if it helps poor Ameri-
claims. Putting decisions on education,
'92-if we want this country to be better,
cans accumulate property-"be the most
housing, health care and other social ser-
we've got to rethink in a pretty profound
important since the New Deal." Stuart E.
vices in recipients' hands would bolster
way a lot of what we're doing." A col-
Eizenstat, who was President Carter's
the programs' effectiveness, they say, and
league discerned nothing less than "an
chief domestic policy adviser, called em-
reduce the costs by eliminating bureau-
effort to reinvigorate participatory de-
powerment an "important and interest-
cratic middlemen. By empowering poor
mocracy in America."
ing" idea and exulted that the debate is
people, the so-called underclass would
Nor are the stakes small for Bush. Em-
NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91
powerment offers him a chance for
see how a system this sick," Pinkerton
long-term political gain by simulta-
said, "can reform itself."
neously providing a vision of domestic
Proponents say the strength of em-
policy that he can afford and swiping
powerment is that it takes human na-
his Democratic opponents' best is-
ture as it is, not as a welfare-state en-
sues. (For a report on Democrats'
gineer would hope it to be. "Adults
ideas, see this issue, p. 210.)
are motivated by money-why not
This stew has been spiced by the
kids?" House Minority Whip Newt
emergence of peculiar political coali-
Gingrich, R-Ga., explained in describ-
tions. On Capitol Hill, do-gooders
ing a venture he sponsored last sum-
and cost cutters-camps usually at
mer in Georgia to induce schoolchil-
odds-have joined forces. In Wash-
dren to read by paying them $2 a
ington, empowerment has mainly
book. Bureaucracies may work in Eu-
been Republican conservatives' policy
rope, where the culture supports the
property. But many Democrats have
pervasive presence of government
taken to it, too, and are competing for
rules, Gingrich said, but America was
political control. In both parties, sen-
settled by people who chose to leave
timent toward empowerment varies
rules behind. "We have to reshape
less by ideology than by generation. It
government to fit America," not the
appeals more to baby boomers of as-
reverse, he said, judging Pinkerton
sorted political hues than to tradition-
"right in raising the debate to the par-
alists of any stripe, suggesting an issue
adigm level."
with staying power.
The core idea in what Pinkerton
But it's far too soon to presume
portrayed as "looking at the world
that empowerment will rise from the
A. Bloom
through new eyes" is to let consumers
pages of its prophets in a fashion that
of social services vote, in effect, with
someday will seem to have mattered.
their feet. That can happen in a vari-
Bush won't decide until the Persian
ety of fields. The educational
Gulf war is finished, officials say,
"choice" movement, now spreading in
whether empowerment will be a half-
Stuart Butler of the Heritage Foundation
state after state, would let parents in-
hearted Administration theme or a
The new empowerment has to do with economics.
stead of government officials decide
meaningful centerpiece of the govern-
where children should go to school.
ment's domestic policy. Among Adminis-
manry. It carries a ring of the 1960s' pleas
(See box, p. 205.) Poor people could
tration policy makers, open opposition to
from the Left for "power to the people."
spend government-supplied "vouchers"
empowerment has ceased. But true be-
Empowerment served then as a rallying
to line up housing rather than inhabiting
lievers remain few, and even adherents
cry for the civil rights movement and in
a high rise that hardly feels like home.
wonder whether it carries enough reso-
the 1970s for feminists and the disabled,
(See box, p. 209.) Vouchers could also be
nance with voters, who "don't have confi-
whose independent-living movement
used for purchasing health insurance (see
dence in government to turn [social prob-
sought "to empower individuals to take
box, P. 207) or job training.
lems] around fundamentally," a senior
control" of their own care and circum-
Another tool empowerment advocates
Administration official said.
stances, Disability Rights Education and
favor is tax credits. Congress enacted
Voters'. skepticism may prove well-
Defense Fund lobbyist Patrisha A.
$12.5 billion worth (over five years) to
placed. For hard questions about em-
Wright recounted.
subsidize child care last fall, and Bush is
powerment remain. Its proposed pro-
"The New Paradigm is ancient wis-
expected to propose other credits in his
grams are mainly unproven. Social
dom," New York Gov. Mario M. Cuomo
1992 budget to lure employers to "enter-
scientists warn of a profusion of nitty-
recently told reporters.
prise zones" in inner cities. Housing and
gritty obstacles to achieving the advances
Today's empowerment doctrine differs
Urban Development (HUD) Secretary
that its advocates foresee. In many cases,
from the 1960s' version in its focus on
Jack F. Kemp, the leading advocate in
empowerment would entail infusions of
economic-not political-power, ac-
Administration councils of enterprise
federal funds that are, at best, unlikely to
cording to Heritage Foundation domes-
zones and other forms of empowerment,
be available any time soon.
tic policy director Stuart Butler, one of
has pressed for major tax cuts (such as
Robert Greenstein, director of the
the current concept's intellectual fathers.
for capital gains and social security) but
Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, a
It is a reaction to what Pinkerton de-
isn't expected to prevail.
liberal Washington think tank, said he
scribed as the entrenched system's "red
But some proponents mean more by
finds "some interesting things" in em-
tape and bureaucracy and rules and regu-
empowerment than a mechanism for fun-
powerment but fears it's been oversold.
lations and institutionalized redundan-
neling aid to recipients. That has made
"I'm a bit suspicious of sweeping princi-
cies and stupidities," which perhaps suf-
the buzzword expansive as well as elu-
ples," he said. "There are no simple an-
ficed in the 19th century but not in this
sive. Empowerment also means ensuring
swers."
"infinitely more sophisticated time, when
that "people can vote with their feet,"
people are achingly more aware of their
said assistant Labor secretary for em-
VOTING WITH THEIR FEET
rights and entitlements."
ployment and training Roberts T. Jones,
This so-called Old Paradigm, empow-
a member of Kemp's Cabinet panel on
There's not much new about the New
erment advocates say, rewards the wrong
empowerment. Only with a decent edu-
Paradigm. Proponents discern its under-
behavior-abandoning a family, losing a
cation and upbringing can an individual
lying notions in the 1862 law granting
job-and demonstrably hasn't worked,
compete in a market economy, this think-
homesteaders 160 acres in the West and,
resulting in terrible schools, deteriorat-
ing goes, and so escape the dependency
even earlier, in Thomas Jefferson's vision
ing cities and increasing millions of chil-
of democracy among a propertied yeo-
fostered by having the government subsi-
dren with no reason to hope. "It's hard to
dize day-to-day consumption.
NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91
ESTABLISHING A FREE MARKET FOR HEALTH CARE
A
S yet, Bush Administration theo-
In its place, they would require that
The federal government would pro-
reticians haven't extended their
individuals purchase catastrophic
vide long-term nursing home and
theories of "empowerment" to
health insurance to cover high-cost in-
home care for the elderly poor under a
the problems of the nation's crumbling
juries and illness. For lower-cost, more
new program. Medicaid, the joint fed-
health care system: the inexorable cost
routine medical expenses, people
eral-state program for welfare recipi-
increases and the 30 million-plus
could buy insurance or pay the costs
ents, would no longer serve as a payer
Americans without health insurance.
themselves.
of last resort for elderly people who
Health and Human Services Secre-
To make this health insurance af-
have been impoverished by the costs of
tary Louis W. Sullivan has used the
fordable, the federal government
such care.
term to exhort people to take respon-
would provide tax credits that would
More-affluent elderly would be en
sibility for their own health, but he has
partially subsidize the purchases. The
couraged to purchase private long-
not presented President Bush with a
subsidy would be larger for those with
term-care insurance policies, and
plan to improve public access to health
low incomes or with high medical costs.
workers would be encouraged to save
care and restrain costs-the charge
State governments could also experi-
toward the cost of their retirement
Bush gave him in his State of the
ment with special risk pools or other
health care needs with tax-free savings
Union speech last year.
aid to the unemployed and to medi-
accounts and sizable tax credits. They
"It's the last area the conservatives
cally high-risk individuals.
would continue to be eligible for medi-
have tackled," Heritage Foundation
This arrangement, the Heritage ana-
care benefits, but they would face
health care policy analyst Edmund F.
lysts argue, would not only redistribute
higher deductibles
Haislmaier said. "It has taken conser-
existing tax subsidies more equitably,
Some analysts have greeted the pro-
vatives a while to hash out the issue-
but would also make consumers more
posal with skepticism. It "shifts from
other than just to react against [liberal
cost-conscious and health care provid-
the efficient administrative system [of
proposals]-because coming to grips
ers and insurers more competitive and
group insurance] to reintroducing the
with this issue is difficult and com-
efficient. Haislmaier and his Heritage
inefficiencies of the individual health
plex."
colleagues don't buy. the prevailing
insurance market," said Judith Feder,
But Haislmaier and several of his
view that consumers can't make in-
co-director of the center for health pol-
Heritage colleagues say they think they
formed choices about their own health
icy studies at Georgetown University
have come up with an alternative to a
care. They say that interested consum-
School of Medicine and former staff
government-run or government-regu-
ers could draw on the expertise of a
director of the congressionally estab-
lated health insurance system, either of
health plan or an insurer in making
lished Pepper Commission on health
which, they say, would be inefficient
complicated medical decisions on big-
care reform.
and cumbersome. The Heritage pro-
ticket health services.
Feder's view is that private insurers
posal has been widely circulated and
Proposed changes in medicare, the
are notorious for their high marketing
has attracted some interest in the busi-
federal program for the elderly, are
costs and their attempts to avoid cus-
ness community.
more tentative. Under a plan proposed
tomers who are seen as bad risks. She
The key, the Heritage people say in a
by Peter J. Ferrara, a senior fellow at
also questioned how much would be
proposal first unveiled in 1989, is to
the Cato Institute, medicare would be
needed in direct government subsidies
turn the health care system "into a true
changed to provide insurance only for
or tax subsidies to make care afford-
market system."
catastrophic illnesses: premiums would
able to all.
To accomplish that, they would do
be eliminated, but the elderly would
The proposal's authors concede that
away with the employer-based system
have to buy or pay for insurance to
the scheme comes with a host of unan-
of health insurance that now covers the
cover lower-cost, routine care. Each
swered questions. "We don't claim to
vast majority of Americans under age
medicare beneficiary would receive a
have all the answers, all the i's dotted,
65. That would recoup almost $40 bil-
voucher equal to the value of the aver-
all. the t's crossed," Haislmaier said.
lion in taxes that are currently lost each
age amount that the government now
"We just wanted to lay out a philo-
year because employer-paid health
spends on their health care and could
sophical framework and run it up the
benefits are not taxed as income to
then choose among competing medical
flagpole."
workers.
plans.
-Julie Kosterlitz
That has caused proponents to count
policy adviser, said he has in mind "a
a White House adviser said. "It's obvi-
as empowerment a wide range of welfare
more fully developed sense of empower-
ously a good thing."
and job training programs-even those
ment" that includes not only rights and
that are run by bureaucrats in big build-
opportunities but also individuals'
ings-along with sundry initiatives to
responsibility to, say, read to children or
ON THE CHEAP
combat illegal drugs, discourage racial
voluntarily recycle. Also counted by
Crucial to the concept of empower-
hiring quotas and let employees work at
some as empowerment is the notion of
ment is an assumption about psychology:
home and carry their pensions from one
measuring government performance by
that giving people a stake in the economy
job to the next. "That's stretching it,
its results-by whether a caseworker
will alter their expectations about up-
don't you think?" a House Republican
helps a client, for example-instead of by
ward mobility and change their behavior.
aide said.
how much the agencies spend. "I don't
This is the basis for the proposal by
It's been stretched further. Roger B.
personally care whether you call that em-
Washington University's Sherraden; of
Porter, Bush's economic and domestic
powerment or
good government,"
"individual development accounts," fed-
NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91
erally subsidized savings accounts to
gage market for low-income homes or
be applied only to such laudable goals
encourage tenant management of
as college tuition or a first mortgage.
public housing. But empowerment
"With assets," he has written, "people
"doesn't build new housing," Rep.
begin to think in the long term and
Charles E. Schumer, D-N.Y., ob-
pursue long-term goals." Legislation
jected, or provide money for fuel oil.
that House Select Committee on
"Letting people help themselves
Hunger chairman Tony P. Hall, D-
would cost more than [the White
Ohio, will soon introduce would try
House] is willing to spend," Economic
this idea in a dozen or so pilot proj-
Policy Institute president Jeff Faux
ects.
said.
A hope of altering down-and-
Empowerment advocates say
outers' expectations also stands be-
there's no point in spending more
hind some Labor Department ven-
money until the system works. But
tures already in the works: In six poor
"unless hard budget choices eventu-
urban neighborhoods and one rural
ally get made," Heritage theorist But-
one, any youth is deemed eligible for a
ler conceded, "empowerment is a
coordinated program of social ser-
boutique program."
vices (job training, drug counseling,
etc.) and is guaranteed a job or-in
one locale-a college education.
POLITICAL SHELL GAMES
Starting this spring, Labor will also
Empowerment may prove politi-
team with HUD in perhaps a dozen
cally useful to Bush, however, even if
communities on what assistant Labor
its substance falls short. That prospect
secretary Jones described as "a holis-
gives Democrats fits. The "best em-
tic approach" in social services to re-
powerment bills of all time" were the
store homeless people to the eco-
Federal Housing Administration sub-
nomic mainstream. If these exper-
John
sidies enacted during the Depression
iments work, Jones said, they could
and the GI Bill for financing veterans'
affect how tens of billions of existing
Progressive Policy Institute's Will Marshall
educations after World War II, both
federal dollars are spent and "proba-
Empowerment did not "spring from a void."
Democratic ideas, Democratic Lead-
bly drive more money in."
ership Council (DLC) executive di-
Those are 2 of 31 empowerment-re-
considers public housing "an invention of
rector Al From said. A congressional
lated initiatives-most fairly modest-on
the devil." Few would disagree.
Democratic aide said that Sen. Daniel
a White House list of, things seven agen-
But they and other social scientists re-
Patrick Moynihan, D-N.Y., who'd pro-
cies might do without Congress's ap-
main wary of empowerment advocates'
posed poverty programs in the mid-1960s
proval. Some were already under way;
assertions. Educational choice, for in-
in which the poor were to participate,
many still aren't. Other initiatives, mainly
stance, can "be part of real reform" in
should "be picketing the White House"
pilot projects, will be in Bush's 1992 bud-
schools but hardly all of it, Bane said.
for thieving his ideas.
get, possibly including a controversial
"It's not just one thing or another [that
For some Democrats, empowerment
test of letting states fiddle with welfare
brings reform]. It's a whole bunch of
remains an unacquired taste. That in-
rules for disbursing aid to families with
things." In addition to the manifold prac-
cludes those who'd prefer to see addi-
dependent children. The budget will pro-
tical problems in overhauling social ser-
tional funds go first to proven programs
pose some "pretty significant" expendi-
vice delivery systems and in scaling up
such as Head Start, Rep. Dennis E. Eck-
tures for housing as well as grants to cit-
pilot ventures into full-fledged ones,
art, D-Ohio, said. That's also the case for.
ies and states for administrative costs in
Washington seems to have precious little
many liberals who are politically be-
adopting educational choice, an official
leverage to effect real change.
holden to public employee labor unions
said, but "there's not a whole lot of room
In education, certainly, for which
and have a vested interest in the old, bu-
for new spending" or programs.
Washington pays only 7 per cent of the
reaucratic ways.
-Thatdoesn't faze White House policy
costs, it is-up to state-and local govern-
Political suspicions also play a part. A
makers, who insist that they can pursue
ments to manage and oversee the
House Democratic leadership aide as-
empowerment on the cheap. They've un-
schools. The Education Department has
sailed the White House for what he took
dertaken a "distributional analysis"
established a toll-free telephone line to
to be a political "shell game" intended to
(overseen by Council of Economic Ad-
counsel school systems thinking of trying
"dismantle programs that benefit low
visers member Richard L. Schmalensee)
educational choice, and Bush may visit
and moderate-income people."
of how much Washington already spends
successful programs to raise their profile.
But empowerment has proved popular
on the poor, and they expect to have use-
(Aides say they've seen no variant of
among many Democrats, who see a po-
ful information in hand later this year.
choice they don't like.) But it's "not very
litical threat in the idea and are strug-
The purpose is to "build a case," an offi-
important what the federal government
gling for a share of the issue. Those Dem-
cial said, that "the current system isn't
does" in promoting choice, said Progres-
ocrats are common in the South, where
working."
sive Policy Institute president Will Mar-
Govs. Lawton Chiles of Florida and Bill
That isn't a hard case to build. What
shall, an empowerment booster.
Clinton of Arkansas plan to place legisla-
exists now is a "crazy-quilt
of well-
The government could do more in
tive emphasis this year on empower-
meaning programs that don't add up to a
other fields-notably, housing, welfare
ment-related issues. There's a demo-
sensible" whole, Urban Institute senior
and health care-if it had the money. But
graphic correlation as well. A constit-
fellow Isabel V. Sawhill said. Harvard
without it, empowerment can do little be-
uency for this sort of theme may reside in
University welfare expert Mary Jo Bane,
yond tinker at the edges. The govern-
the third of baby boomers in knowledge-
a onetime New York State welfare chief,
ment could establish a secondary mort-
related occupations who, University of
208 NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91
Massachusetts (Amherst) professor
Ralph Whitehead Jr. has found, are
HOME OWNERSHIP POWER TRIP
more skeptical of big institutions than
their parents were. This suggests that em-
powerment didn't "spring from a void,"
"T
here's something sacrosanct
programs that expand the share of
Marshall said.
about home ownership.
poor and homeless people who re-
Both parties seem attentive to the po-
When you own a home,
ceive government assistance. Ray-
litical implications. The DLC's From
when you have something to leave to
mond J. Struyk, senior research asso-
"absolutely" can see a Democrat running
your children, you start thinking
ciate at the Urban Institute, suggested
for President next year on an empower-
about life in terms of long-term hori-
that the money authorized for
ment platform. Possible Democratic
zons instead of just existential, over-
HOPE's ownership programs could
presidential candidates known to sympa-
night survival."
pay for rental vouchers for 150,000
thize with empowerment-related notions
Like a meditator chanting a man-
poor families who qualify for federal
include Sens. Albert Gore Jr. of Tennes-
tra, Jack F. Kemp has uttered these
housing programs but receive no aid.
see, Sam Nunn of Georgia and Charles S.
words and words like them in hun-
According to HUD's own estimates,
Robb of Virginia and Govs. Clinton and
dreds of public forums across the
more than four million eligible house-
L. Douglas Wilder of Virginia. Sen. Bill
country since he became Housing and
holds receive no federal housing assis-
Bradley of New Jersey is said to have
Urban Development (HUD) Secre-
tance because of a shortage of funds.
started to think them through.
tary two years ago.
Practical obstacles also exist. There
Republicans are already intrigued.
Congress has finally given Kemp a
may not be enough experienced non-
Capturing the policy momentum on edu-
chance to test his theories about home
profit groups that can help train ten-
cation, poverty and health care would let
ownership as a tool to break the pov-
ants and offer practical assistance.
them challenge the status quo with inno-
erty cycle. In November, it enacted a
And some public housing officials
vative ideas and bring them considerable
wide-ranging housing bill that incor-
worry about scandals if tenant owner-
political succor. The more Bush is criti-
porates Kemp's "Homeownership
ship plans aren't painstakingly crafted
cized for domestic do-nothingness, the
Opportunities for People Every-
and monitored. "If you don't go in
more he may want a way out.
where" (HOPE) program. If Con-
and train tenants properly, provide fi-
At least in words, he's thought sure to
gress finds the cash to pay for it,
nancial management training so they
take it. Bush has twice described empow-
HOPE would provide $1 billion over
can be fiscally responsible and put in
erment in speeches as his "centerpiece"
two years to sell off public housing
good accounting procedures before
of domestic policy. "The rhetoric of em-
units to their tenants. The money
you turn the housing over, my experi-
powerment will continue to be impor-
would also be used to promote tenant
ence is that tenants will steal," said
tant," an adviser said. But how far policy
ownership of private apartments and
the director of a large public housing
will fit the label "is less clear to me," he
single-family homes in the federal in-
agency who asked not to be named.
added, noting that some Bush aides think
ventory of foreclosed properties.
Though Congress, in its new hous-
the concept "too cute by half."
The HOPE plan offers poor people
ing bill, endorsed many of Kemp's
Empowerment also poses some politi-
potential ownership of more than two
ideas, it failed to adopt another cen-
cal risk to the White House. The concept
million government housing units,
tral tenet of the Kemp plan to revital-
has little to say except in the long run
says Kemp, who likens the new law to
ize poor communities: enterprise
about pivotal economic issues-of reces-
the 1862 Homestead Act, which of-
zones. The HUD Secretary's pro-
sion and competitive strength-on which
fered 160 acres of land to settlers who
posal, which would have created sev-
a presidency can turn. Among empower-
wanted to make a go of it in the wil-
eral dozen zones within which busi-
ment-related issues, only school choice
derness. The plan would also try to
nesses would receive generous tax
would directly benefit middle-class vot-
improve coordination between hous-
breaks to spur job creation, would
ers, who already have choice in schools
ing aid programs and other social ser-
have cost the federal government an
by having chosen where to live. Other-
vices to encourage government aid re-
estimated $1 billion in forgone tax
wise, those who'd benefit aren't custom-
cipients to move toward greater
revenues over four years.
arily Republican-though the White
economic self-sufficiency.
In the absence of a federal pro-
House would be pleased to convert them.
HOPE's tenant ownership provi-
gram, about two-thirds of the states
These issues may not be enough to
sions have widespread appeal. But
have set up hundreds of enterprise
constitute "a central core" for domestic
some analysts contend that the high
zones: Supporters say the zones have
policy, a-senior Administration official
cost of transferring rental housing to
been responsible for thousands of
said, or "to speak that powerfully to most
poor tenants could severely limit the
new jobs in poor communities. But
Americans."
impact of Kemp's program. Housing
skeptics say the job growth was the
Nor is it evident that empowerment
experts estimate that the price tag for
result of general economic expansion
speaks that powerfully to Bush. Aides say
rehabilitating public housing projects
in the 1980s and can't be attributed to
the President has an affinity for youthful
and providing the needed financing
the tax incentives in enterprise zones.
ideas and an anti-Establishment streak
assistance to tenant purchasers will
They'd prefer to see the forgone reve-
he's not given credit for. But they con-
run as high as $50,000-$60,000 a unit.
nue spent instead on social service
cede he's no radical. For empowerment
If they are correct, HOPE spending
programs, such as Head Start and job
to work in a way that will matter decades
would pay for the transfer of only a
training. In their view, the prevailing
hence, advocates say, Bush's enthusiasm
few thousand public housing apart-
barrier to economic growth in poor
for it must be genuine. But "it is hard to
ments annually.
communities isn't high taxes, but
see him leading a 'power to the people'
Some housing activists would
crime and the inadequate work skills
campaign with fist clenched," Eizenstat
rather see the federal government
of the people who live there
said. "It's dubious to think that George
spend its scarce housing resources on
-Carol F. Steinbach
Herbert Walker Bush is going to be the
Eldridge Cleaver of the 1990s."
NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91 209
National
Journal
THE WEEKLY ON POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
JAN. 26, 1991/NO. 4
Can
That
Be
George
Bush
Proclaiming,
Power to
the
People?
91-01-25 10:47
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HOUSE
Power to the People?
President Bush plans to
J
ames P. Pinkerton is unrepentant
Pinkerton's spacious, disheveled of-
for having chosen such # pedagogi-
fice, strewn with books and stacks of
send Congress an
cal term. "I'm under no illusions
newspapers, hardly seems like a com-
that this will be gracing bumper
mand center for a social revolution. But
empowerment package,
strips," President Bush's long-term pul-
there's a hint of high stakes in the promi-
with new spending in
icy planner said of his hot New Paradigm,
nent painting near his desk of Sir
an intriguing set of conceptions about
Thomas More, who was executed by
the range of $2 billion.
how to confront social ills more respon-
Henry VIII for his stand on principle.
sively than bureaucracies have done since
But doubt persists
Pinkerton admires More but hopes not
Kafka's day.
to emulate him.
about how far the
"I think the term is absolutely accurate
Hc's unlikcly to. A publicized swat he
for the intellectual construct," Pinkerton
took last fall from budget chief Richard
concept will get.
said as he sat coiled on a couch in his
G. Darman served only to further Pin-
office in the Old Executive Office Build-
kerton's crusade, not hinder it. (See NJ,
ing next to the White House. "I'm count-
12/15/90, P. 3046.) Pinkerton has become
ing on politicians as opposed to people
the most profiled member (other than
BY BURT SOLOMON
like me to find their own language, to
chief of staff John H. Sununu) of Bush's
find the words they can take it. to the
staff, causing some resentment among
American people [with]. 'Empowerment'
more-senior advisers. Empowerment has
strikes me as such a word."
become the shibboleth of Administration
domestic policy, so that even
Darman doesn't say a word against
it.
More is coming. A paean to cm-
powerment will grace Bush's State
of the Union message on Jan. 29 if
domestic policy-amid a war- is
mentioned at all. His fiscal 1992
budget will feature an empower-
ment package of 10-15 pieces, an
official said, with new spending in
the range of $2 billion for housing,
education, enterprise zones, In-
dian affairs, small business and
possibly welfare reform. And that
will mercly mark "the end of the
first quarter" in a policy mission
that may extend to job training and
welfare reform later this year and
possibly to health care in 1992, an
aide said in describing the Admin-
istration's "short and long-term
agendas."
This prospect has brought a
touch of vitality to an otherwise
dreary time for domestic policy,
given Washington's budget con-
Richard A. Bloom
strictions and a President more
taken with geopolities than intrac-
table social problems at home. Re-
formers and social scientists fa-
Bush policy planner James P. Pinkerton
tigued by a decade of seeing social
"A system this rick" can't reform itself.
problems ignored have delighted
204 NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91
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PUBLIC SCHOOL 'CHOICE' GATHERING MOMENTUM
the empowerment team at the
more states have adopted versions of
part of the choice movement are mag-
White House, New York City's
school choice, as have several major
nel schools, which are proliferating
East Mariom school district is the
urban school systems. Advocates say
around the country, and publicly fi-
epitome of what empowerment in edu-
choice programs spur more educa-
nanced vouchers to permit poor par-
cation is all about
sional diversity, catalyze more parental
ents to send their children to private
There, public school students can
involvement in schools and weaken the
schools, an idea being tried in Milwau-
choose among dozens of educational
power of centralized school bureaucra
kee. But magnet schools, though they
programs, with schools that specialize
cies, which often act as roadblocks to
often offer strong academic programs,
in the performing drts, sports, science
educational restructuring Almos
frequently "cream" off the best stu-
and mathematics, communications.
without exception wherever choicenes
dents, Nathan said and absorb a dis-
health services, the environment and
been attempted choice has &
proportionate share of a locality's edu-
other programs.
President Bush told 1989 White
cation resources, weakening other
Many of the schools are small, with
House education conference,
schools.
several house in asiagle building. The
But a good chunk of the nation's
As for vouchers, Washington fi-
curriculs are overseen by teams of
education establishment, including
nanced an experiment in the 1970s that
teachers who are given wide latitude to
school supe fintchdents, principals and
provided million in vouchers to per-
innovate.
Ideal school boards, remains skeptical
mit some students in the San Jose sub-
East Harlem schools attract hun-
These Policials worry that school dis
urb of Alum Rock to attend the school
dreds of white students from outside
tricts may be resbing into choice plans
of their choice. But the experiment
the district, where the population is
without careful attention to the details
produced no academic differences be-
predominantly Hispanic and black and
or the program impact. They point
twccn students who used the vouchers
largely poor. Academically, East Har-
out that some school districts, such as
and those who did not.
Icm pupils' test scores trose from last
Seattles, have experienced major ad-
Until last year, choice strategists
place among New York City's 32
uninistrative problems trying to imple-
concentrated primarily on promoting
school districts in 1973, the year before
ment choice programs.
möre choice within public schools.
the "choice" program was Jauriched, to
"School systems have to do several
Then last June, political scientists John
16th last your
things simultaneously, or choice can be
E. Chubb and Terry M. Moe co-
Across the nation the movement to
harmful, Charles Vert Willie, a Har-
authored a, plan, published by the lib-
give public school parcuts more Inti-
vard University education and urban
end-leaning Brookings Institution, to
tude in choosing schools for their chil-
studies professor, said. Willie fears that
include private schools in the mix. Un-
dren is gaining political monichtum
choice programs that rely solely* on
3
der the plan, parents could choose any.
Schools such as those in East Harlem
market forces will have the harshest
appropriate public or private school
have improved, choice advocates say,
infipact on poor and minority children
for their youngster, with state and local
because: parents there can pick the
by undermining one of the few remain-
funds following the student to the
schools their children attend instead of
ing institutions in underclass neighbor-
school. The White House empower-
being forced to accept the school dis-
hoods-the public schools. School dis-
ment team has endorsed that idea, but
trict's assignment IAS à retult, choice
tricts ought to provide choice, Willie
others say that public and private
supporters say, schools work harder to
said, but they should also invest
schools alike could end up worse off
deliver innovative and quality reduca-
heavily" in failing schools, not shut
under such a program.
tion; otherwise, they lose enrollment
them down
Competition alone isn't enough to
and go out of business.
Another concern is that so many HP
stimulate school improvement," Na-
Such free-market-notions once came
vergent education concepts how march
than said. "In his view, school districts
mainly from conservatives, but now a
behind the school choice banner that
with successful choice programs, such
growing number Democrate and lib-
some programs "may end up creating
as East Harlem, also offer parents di-
erals agree. The main reason is that a
more problems than they solve, said
verse, strong schools from which to
massive wave of school reform efforts
Joe Nathan, & senior fellow at the Uni-
choose and make special efforts-from
in the 1980s failed 10 faise the achieve-
versity of Minnesota's Hubert H.
providing transportation to sponsoring
ment levels of U.S students,
Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs
massive parent education programs-
In 1988, Minnesota became the first
and an adviser on the choice issucito
to ensure that all children can take ad-
state to implements statewide school
the Bush White House.
vantage of the pfogram.
choice program. Since then, seven
Among the ideas being promoted as
-Carol F. Steinbach
in the burgeoning discussion of a policy
about "how to help the disadvantaged
"evaporate" in 20 years, Pinkerton pre-
redirection that Washington University
rather than whether to."
dicted. "Over the long run-and let's be
social work professor Michael W. Sherra-
Champions of empowerment make big
clear I'm not talking about [fiscal] '91 or
den said could-if it helps poor Ameri-
claims. Putting decisions on education
'92-if we want this country to be better,
cans accumulate property "be the most
housing, health care and other social ser-
we've got to rethink in a pretty profound
important since the New Deal." Stuart E.
vices in recipients' hands would bolster
way a lot of what we're doing." ^ col-
Eizenstal who was President Carter's
the programs' effectiveness, they say, and
league discerned nothing less than "an
chief domestic policy adviser, called em-
reduce the costs by eliminating bureau-
effort to reinvigorate participatory de-
powerment an "important and interest-
cratic middlemen. By empowering poor
mocracy in America."
ing" idea and exulted that the debate is
people, the so-called underclass would
Nor are the stakes small for Bush. Em
NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91 205
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powerment offers him a chance for
sce how d system this sick," Pinkerton
long-term political gain by simulta-
said, "can reform itself."
neously providing a vision of domestic
Proponents say the strength of em-
policy that he can afford and swiping
powerment is that it takes human na-
his Democratic opponents' best is-
ture as it is, not as a welfare-state en-
sucs. (For u report on Democrats'
gincer would hope it to be. "Adults
ideas, see this issue, p. 210.)
are motivated by money-why not
This stew has been spiced by the
kids?" House Minority Whip Newt
emergence of peculiar political coali-
Gingrich, R-Ga., explained in describ-
tions. On Capitol Hill, do-gooders
ing a venture he sponsored last sum-
and cost cutters-camps usually at
mer in Georgia to induce schoolchil-
odds-have joined forces. In Wash-
dren to read by paying them $2 a
ington. empowerment has mainly
book. Burcaucracies may work in Eu-
been Republican conservatives' policy
rope, where the culture supports the
property. But many Democrats have
pervasive presence of government
taken to it, too, and are competing for
rules, Gingrich said, but America was
political control. In both parties, sen-
settled by people who chose to leave
timent toward empowerment varies
rules behind. "We have to reshape
less by ideology than by generation. It
government to fit. America," not the
appeals more to baby boomers of as-
reverse, he said, judging Pinkerton
sorted political hucs than to tradition-
"right in raising the debate to the par-
alists of any stripe, suggesting an issue
adigm level."
with staying power.
The core idea in what Pinkerton
But it's far 100 soon to presume
portrayed as "looking at the world
that empowerment will rise from the
through new eyes" is to let consumers
pages of its prophets in a fashion that
Richard Bloom
of social services vote, in effect, with
someday will seem to have mattered.
their feet. That can happen in a vari-
Bush won't decide until the Persian
cty of fields. The educational
Gulf war is finished, officials say,
"choice" movement, now spreading in
whether empowerment will be a half-
Stuart Butler of the Heritage Foundation
state after state, would let parents in-
hearted Administration theme or a
The NOW empowerment bas to do with economics.
stead of government officials decide
meaningful conterpiece of the govern-
where children should go to school.
ment's domestic policy. Among Adminis-
manry. It carries a ring of the 1960s' pleas
(See box, P. 205.) Poor people could
tration policy makers, open opposition to
from the Left for "power to the pcople."
spend government-supplicd "vouchers"
empowerment has ceased. But true be-
Empowerment served then as H rallying
to line up housing rather than inhabiting
lievers remain few, and even adherents
cry for the civil rights movement and in
a high rise that hardly feels like home.
wonder whether it carries enough reso-
the 1970s for feminists and the disabled,
(See box, P. 209.) Vouchers could also be
nance with voters, who "don't have confi-
whose independent-living movement
used for purchasing health insurance (see
dence in government to turn [social prob-
sought "to empower individuals to take
DOE, P. 207) or job training.
lems] around fundamentally," a senior
control" of their own care and circum-
Another tool empowerment advocates
Administration official said.
stances, Disability Rights Education and
favor is tax credits. Congress enacted
Voters' skepticism may prove well-
Defense Fund lobbyist Patrisha A.
$12.5 billion worth (over five years) to
placed. For hard questions about em-
Wright recounted.
subsidize child care last fall, and Bush is
powerment remain. Its proposed pro-
"The New Paradigm is ancient wis-
expected to propose other credits in his
grams are mainly unproven. Social
dom," New York Gov. Mario M. Cuomo
1992 budget to lure employers to "cnter-
scientists warn of a profusion of nitty-
recently told reporters.
prise zones" in inner cities. Housing and
gritty obstacles to achieving the advances
Today's empowerment doctrine differs
Urban Development (HUD) Secretary
that its advocates foresee. In many cases,
from the 1960s' version in its focus on
Jack F. Kemp, the leading advocate in
empowerment would entail infusions of
economic-not political-power, ac-
Administration councils of cnterprise
federal funds that are, at best, unlikely to
cording to Heritage Foundation domes-
zones and other forms of empowerment,
bc available any time soon.
tic policy director Stuart Butler, one of
has pressed for major tax cuts (such as
Robert Greenstein, director of the
the current concept's intellectual fathers.
for capital gains and social security) but
Center on Budget and Policy Prioritics, a
It is a reaction to what Pinkerton de-
isn't expected to prevail.
liberal Washington think tank, said he
scribed as the entrenched system's "red
But some proponents mean more by
finds "some interesting things" in em-
tape and bureaucracy and rules and regu-
empowerment than a mechanism for fun-
powerment but fears it's been oversold.
lations and institutionalized redundan-
beling aid to recipients. That has made
"I'm a bit suspicious of sweeping princi-
cies and stupidities," which perhaps suf-
the buzzword expansive as well as elu-
ples." he said. "There are no simple an-
ficed in the 19th century but not in this
dive Empowerment also means ensuring
swers."
"infinitely more sophisticated time, when
that "pcople can vote with their fcct,"
people are achingly more aware of their
said assistant Labor secretary for cm-
rights and entitlements."
playment and training Roberts '[', Jones,
VOTING WITH THEIR FEET
This so-called Old Paradigm, empow-
a member of Kemp's Cabinet panel on
There's not much new about the New
erment advocates say, rewards the wrong
empowerment. Only with a decent-edu-
Paradigm. Proponents discern its under-
bchavior-ahandoning a family, losing a
dation and upbringing can an individual
lying notions in the 1862 law granting
job-and demonstrably hasn't worked,
compute in 3 market economy, this think-
homesteaders 160 acres in the West and,
resulting in terrible schools. deteriorat-
ing goes, and so escape the dependency
even earlier, in Thomas Jefferson's vision
ing cities and increasing millions of chil-
finstered by having the government subsi-
of democracy among a propertied yco-
dren with no reason to hope. "It's hard to
dize day-to-day consumption.
206 NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91
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ESTABLISHING A FREE MARKET FOR
HEALTH CARE
A
$ yet, Bush Administration theo-
In its place, they would require that
The federal government would pro-
reticians haven't extended their
individua purchase catastrophic
vide long-term nursing home and
thoories of "empowerment" to
health Insurance to cover high-cost In-
home care for the elderly poor under a
the problemsjos the nation's crumbling
juries and illness. For lower-cost, more
new program: Medicaid, the joint fed-
health care'system: the inexorable cost
routine medical expenses, people
eral-state program for welfare recipi-
increases and the 30 million-plus
could buy insurance or pay the costs
ents, would no longer scrve as a payer
Americans without health insurance.
themselves,
of last resort for elderly people who
Health and Human Services Secre-
To make this health insurance if
have been impoverished by the costs of
tary Louis W. Sullivant has used the
fordable the federal governme
such care,
term to exhoft people to take respon-
would provide tax credits that would
More-afflucntielderly would be en-
sibility for their own health but he has
partially subsidize the purchases. The
couraged to purchase private long-
not presented President Bush with a
subsidy would be larger for those with
term-care insurance policies, and
plan to improve-public access to bealth
incomes with high medical costs.
workers would be encouraged to save
care and restrain costs-the charge
State governments could also expéri-
toward the cost of their retirement
Bush gave him in his State of the
ment withispecial trisk pools or other
health care needs with tax-free savings
Unionspeech last year.
aid to the unsmployed and to medi-
accounts and sizable tax credits. They
"It's the last area the conservatives
cally highwrisk individuals.
would continue to be eligible for medi-
have tackled Heritage Foundation
This arrangement, the leritage ana-
care benefits, but they would face
health date policylanalyst Edmund R
lysts argue, would not only redistribute
higher deductibles.
Haislmater said. It has taken conser:
existing tax subsidies more equitably,
Some analysts have greeted the pro-
vatives a while to hash out the issue
but would also make consumers more
posal with skepticism. It "shifts from
other than just to react against [liberal
cost-conscious and Health care provid-
the efficient administrative system [of
proposals] because: coming to grips
this and Insurers more competitive and
group insurance] to reintroducing the
with this issue is difficult and com-
efficient. Hassimaier and his Heritage
Inefficiencies of the individual health
plax."
colleagues don't duy the prevailing
insurance market," said Judith Feder,
But Haistmaies and several of his
view that consumers can't make in-
co-director of the center for health pol-
Heritage colleagues say they think they
formed choices about their own health
icy studies at Georgetown University
have come up with an alternative to a
care. They say that interested consum-
School of Medicine and former staff
government fun or, government-regu
ers could draw on the expertise of a
director of the congressionally estab-
lated health insurance system, either of
health plan or an insurer in making
lished Pepper Commission on health
which, they, say, would be inefficient
complicated medical decisions on big-
care reform.
and cumbersome. The Heritage pro-
ticket health services.
Feder's view is that private insurers
posal has been widdly circulated and
Proposed changes in modicare, the
are notorious for their high marketing
has attracted some interest in the busi-
federal program for the elderly, are
costs and their attempts to avoid cus-
ness community
more tentistive. Under a plan proposed
tomers who are scen as bad risks. She
The Key, the Heritage people say in
by Peter J. Ferrara, a senior fellow at
also questioned how much would be
proposal first unveiled in 1989, is to
the Cato Institute, medicare would be
needed in direct government subsidies
1
turn the health care system "intola true
changed to provide insurance only for
or tax subsidies to make care afford-
market system.
catastrophic illnesses: premiums would
able to all.
To accoraplish that? they would do
be eliminated, but the eldetly would
The proposal's authors concede that
away with the employer-based system
have to bay or pay for insurance to
the scheme comes with a host of unan-
of health insurance that now covers the
cover lower-cost, routine care. Each
swcred questions. "We don't claim to
vast majority of Americans under age
medicare beneficiary would receive a
have all the answers, all the i's dotted,
65. That would recoup almost $40 hil-
Voucher cqual to the value of the aver-
all the t's crossed," Haislmaier said.
lion in taxest are currently lost cach
age amount that the government now
"We just wanted to lay out a philo-
your because employerpaid health
spends on their health care and could
sophical framework and rup it up the
benefits tafe not tired as income to
then choose among competing medical
flagpole."
workers
plans,
-Julie Kosterlitz
That has caused proponents to count
policy adviser, said he has in mind "a
a White House adviser said. "It's obvi-
as empowerment a wide range of welfare
more fully developed sense of empower-
ously a good thing."
and job training programs-even those
ment" that includes not only rights and
that are run by bureaucrats in big build-
opportunities but also individuals
ings along with sundry initiatives to
responsibility to, say, read to children or
ON THE CHEAP
combat illegal drugs, discourage racial
voluntarily recycle. Also counted by
Crucial to the concept of empower-
hiring quotas and lct employees work at
some as empowerment is the notion of
home and carry their pensions from one
ment is an assumption about psychology:
measuring government performance by
that giving people a stake in the economy
job to the next. "That's stretching it,
its results-by whether a caseworker
will alter their expectations about up-
don't you think?" a House Republican
helps a client, for example instead of by
ward mobility and change their behavior.
aide said.
how much the agencies spend. "T don't
This is the basis for the proposal by
It's been stretched further. Roger B.
personally care whether you call that em-
Washington University's Sherraden of
Porter, Bush's economic and domestic
powerment or
good government.'
"individual development accounts," fed-
NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91 207
РОБ
erally subsidized savings accounts to
gage market for low-income homes or
bc applied only to such laudable goals
as college tuition or a first mortgage.
encourage tenant management of
"With assets," hc has written, "people
public housing. But empowerment
begin to think in the long term and
"doesn't build new housing." Rep.
Charles E. Schumer, D-N.Y., ob.
pursue long-term goals." Legislation
that House Select Committee on
jccted, or provide money for fuel oil.
"Letting people help themselves
Hunger chairman Tony P. Hall, D-
would cost more than [the White
Ohio, will scon introduce would try
House] is willing to spend," Economic
this idea in a dozen or SO pilot proj-
Policy Institute president Jeff Faux
ects.
said.
A hope of altering down-and-
Empowerment advocates say
outers' expectations also stands he-
there's no point in spending more
hind some Labor Department ven-
money until the system works. But
tures already in the works. In six poor
"unless hard budget choices eventu-
urban neighborhoods and one rural
ally get made," Heritage theorist But-
one, any youth is deemed eligible for a
ler conceded, "empowerment is a
coordinated program of social ser-
boutique program."
vices (job training, drug counseling,
etc.) and is guaranteed a job or-in
one locale-a college education.
POLITICAL SHELL GAMES
Starting this spring, Labor will also
Empowerment may prove politi-
team with HUD in perhaps a dozen
cally useful to Bush, however, even if
communities on what assistant Labor
its substance falls short. That prospect
secretary Jones described as "a holis-
gives Democrats fits. The "best cm-
tic approach" in social services to re-
powerment hills of all time" were the
store homeless people to the cco-
nomic mainstream. If these exper-
iments work, Jones said, they could
John Eisele
Federal Housing Administration sub-
sidies enacted during the Depression
and the GI Bill for financing veterans'
affect how tens of billions of existing
Progressive Policy Institute's will Marshall
educations after World War II, both
federal dollars are spent and "proba-
Empowerment did not "spring from . void."
Democratic ideas, Democratic Lead-
bly drive more moncy in."
ership Council (DLC) executive di-
Those are 2 of 31 empowerment-re-
considers public housing "an invention of
rector AI From said. A congressional
lated initiatives-most fairly modest-on
the devil." Few would disagree.
Democratic aide said that Scn. Daniel
a White House list of things seven agen-
But they and other social scientists re-
Patrick Moynihan, D-N.Y., who'd pro-
cies might do without Congress's ap-
main wary of empowerment advocates'
posed poverty programs in the mid-1960s
proval. Some were already under way;
assertions. Educational choice, for in-
in which the poor were to participate,
many still aren't. Other initiatives, mainly
stance, can "be part of real reform" in
should "be picketing the White House"
pilot projects, will be in Bush's 1992 bud-
schools but hardly all of it, Banc said.
for thieving his ideas.
gel, possibly including a controversial
"It's not just one thing or another [that
For some Democrats, empowerment
test of letting states fiddle with welfare
brings reform]. It's a whole bunch of
remains an unacquired taste. That in-
rules for disbursing aid to families with
things." In addition to the manifold prac-
cludes those who'd prefer to see addi-
dependent children. The budget will pro-
tical problems in overhauling social scr-
tional funds go first to proven programs
pose some "pretty significant" expendi-
vice delivery systems and in scaling up
such as Head Start, Rep. Dennis E. Eck-
tures for housing as well as grants to cit-
pilot ventures into full-fiedged ones,
art, D-Ohio, said. That's also the case for
ies and states for administrative costs in
Washington seems to have precious little
many liberals who are politically be-
adopting educational choice, an official
leverage to effect real change.
holden to public employee labor unions
said, but "there's not a whole lot of room
In education, certainly, for which
and have a vosted interest in the old, bu-
for new spending" or programs.
Washington pays only 7 per cent of the
reaucratic ways.
That doesn't faze White House policy
costs, it is up to state and local govern-
Political suspicions also play a part. A
makers, who insist that they can pursue
ments to manage and oversec the
House Democratic leadership aide as-
empowerment on the chcap. They've un-
schools. The Education Department has
sailed the White House for what hc took
dertaken a "distributional analysis"
established a toll-free telephone line to
to bc a political "shell game" intended to
(overseen by Council of Economic Ad-
counsel school systems thinking of trying
"dismantle programs that benefit low
visers member Richard L. Schmalensee)
educational choice, and Bush may visit
and moderate-income people."
of how much Washington already spends
successful programs to raise their profile.
But empowerment has proved popular
on the poor, and they expect to have use-
(Aides say they've seen no variant of
among many Democrats, who SCC a po-
ful information in hand later this year.
choice they don't like.) But it's "not very
litical threat in the idea and are strug-
The purpose is to "build a case," an offi-
important what the federal government
gling for a share of the issue. Those Dem-
cial said, that "the current system isn't
does" in promoting choice, said Progres-
dcrats are common in the South, where
working."
sive Policy Institute president Will Mar-
Govs. Lawton Chiles of Florida and Bill
That isn't a hard case to build. What
shall, an empowerment booster.
Clinton of Arkansas plan to place legisla-
Drists now is a "crazy-quilt
of well-
The government could do more in
tive emphasis this year on empower-
meaning programs that don't add up to a
other fields-notably, housing, welfare
mont-related issues. There's a demo-
sensible" whole, Urban Institute senior
and health care-if it had the money. But
graphic correlation as well. A constit-
fellow Isabel V. Sawhill said. Harvard
without it, empowerment can do little be-
ucncy for this sort of theme may reside in
University welfare expert Mary Jo Banc,
yond tinker at the edges. The govern-
the third of baby boomers in knowledge-
a onetime New York State welfare chief,
ment could establish a secondary mort-
related occupations who, University of
208 NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91
91-01-25
10:55
Massachusetts (Amhcrst) professor
Ralph Whitchead Jr. has found, are
HOME OWNERSHIP POWER TRIP
more skeptical of big institutions than
their parents were. This suggests that cm-
powerment didn't "spring from a void,"
here's something secrosanct
programs that expand the share of
Marshall said.
about
home
ownership.
pobr and homeless people who ro-
Both parties seem attentive to the po-
When you town a home,
ceive government assistance. Ray-
litical implications. The DLC's From
when you have something to leave to
mond Struck, senior research asso
"absolutely" can sce a Democrat running
your children, you start thinking
cistc at the Urban Institute, suggested
for President next year on an empower-
about life in terms of long-term hore
that the money authorized for
ment platform. Possible Democratic
zons instead of just existential, ovèr-
HOPE's ownership programs could
presidential candidates known to sympa-
night sturyival,
pay for rental vouchers. for 150,000
thize with empowcrment-related notions
Like a meditator chanting a man-
poor families who qualify for federal
include Sens. Albert Gore Jr. of Tennes-
tra, Jack F. Kompahas ruttered these
housing programs but receive no aid,
sce, Sam Nunn of Georgia and Charles S.
words and words like them in hun-
According to HUD's own estimates,
Rubb of Virginia and Govs. Clinton and
dreds of publics forums across the
more than four million eligible house
I, Douglas Wilder of Virginia, Sen. Bill
country since he became Housing and
sholds receive notfederal housing assis-
Bradley of New Jersey is said to have
Urhan Development (HUD) Secre,
tabce because of a shortage of funds.
started to think them through.
saty two years ago?
Practical obstacles also exist. There
Republicans are already intrigued.
Congress has finally given Kemp a
may not be enough experienced non4
Capturing the policy momentum on edu-
chance to tost his theories about home
profit groups that can help train ten-
cation, poverty and health carc would let
ownership as a tool to break the pov-
ants and offer practical assistance.
them challenge the status quo with inno-
city cyclic. In November it enacted a
And some public housing officials
vative ideas and bring them considerable
wide-ranging housing bill that incor-
worry about scandals if tenant owner.
political succor. The more Bush is criti-
porates Kemp's Homeownership
ship plans aren't painstakingly crafted
cized for domestic do-nothingness, the
Opportunities for People Every-
and menitored: If you don't go, in
more he may want a way out.
where (HOPE) program If Con
anditrain tenants properly, provide fi-
At least in words, he's thought sure to
gress finds the cash 10 pay for it,
nancial management training so they
take it. Bush has twice described empow-
HOPE would provide $1 billion over
can be fiscally responsible and putsin
erment in specches as his "centerpiecc"
two years to sell off public housing
good accounting procedures before'
of domestic pulicy. "The rhetoric of em-
units to, their tenants. The money
you turb the housing over, my experi-
powerment will continue to be impor-
would also be used to promote tenant
EDCE is that tenants:will steal?" said
tant," an adviser said. But how far policy
ownership of private apartments and,
the director of a large public housing
will fil the label "is less clear to me," he
single-family homes in the federal in-
agency who askedmot to be named.
added, noting that some Bush aides think
wentory of foreclosed properties.
Though Congress, in its new hous-
the concept "too cute by half."
The HOPE plan offers poor people
ing bill, endorsed many of Kemp's
Empowerment also poses some politi-
potential ownership of more than two
ideas, it failed to adopt another cen-
cal risk 10 the White House. The concept
million government housing units,
tral tenet of the Kemp plan to revital-
has little to say except in the long run
says Kemp, who likens the new law to
ize Poor communities:- enterprise
about pivotal economic issues-of reces-
the 1862 Homestead Act. which of
zofica. The HUD Secretary's pro-
sion and competitive strength-on which
fered 160 acres of land to settlers who
posal, which would have created sev-
a presidency can turn. Among empower-
*wanted to make & go of it in the wil-
eral dozen 20ncs within which busi-
ment-related issues, only school choice
derness. The plan would also try to
nesses would redeive gcnerous tax
would directly benefit middle-class vot-
improve coordination between hous-
breaks to sput job creation, would
crs, who already have choice in schools
ing aid programs and other social ser-
have cost the federal government an
by having chosen where to live. Other-
vices toencourage government ald re:
estimated SB billion in forgone tax
wisc, those who'd benefit aren't custom-
cipients to move soward greater
revenues over feur years. %
arily Republican-though the White
economic self-sufficiency.
In the absence of a federal pro-
House would be pleased to convert them.
HOPE's tonant ownership provil
gram, about two-thirds.of the states
These issues may not be enough to
sions have widespread appeal. But
thave sel up hundreds of enterprise;
constitute "d central core" for domestic
some analysta contend that the high
zones. Supporters say the zones have
policy, a senior Administration official
cost of transferring rental housing to
been responsible for thousands of
said, or "to speak that powerfully to most
poor tenants could severely limit the
new jobs in poor communities But
Americans."
impact of Kemp's program. Housing
skeptics say the 100 growth was the
Nor is it evident that empowerment
experts estimate that the price tag for
result of general economic expansion
speaks that powerfully to Bush. Aides say
rehabilitating public housing projects
in the 1980s and can the attributed to
the President has an affinity for youthful
and providing the needed financing
the tax incentives enterprise zones.
ideas and an anti-Establishment streak
assistance to tenant purchasers, will
They prefer to see the forgone reve-
he's not given credit for. But they con-
ràn as high as $50,000-$60,000 unit.
nue spent instead on social service
cede he's no radical. For empowerment
If they are correct, HOPE spending
programs such as Head Start and job
to work in a way that will matter decades
would pay for the transfer of only a
training In their view, the prevailing
hence, advocates say, Bush's enthusiasm
few thousand public housing apart-
harrier to economic growth in poor,
for it must be genuine. But "it is hard to
ments annually
communities isn't high taxes, put
see him leading a 'power to the people'
Some housing activists would
drime and the inadequate work skills
campaign with fist clenched," Eizenstal
eather
see
the
federal
government
of the people who live there.
said. "It's dubious to think that George
spend its scurce housing resources OR
Carol R Stelmbach
Herbert Walker Bush is going to be the
Eldridge Cleaver of the 1990s."
NATIONAL JOURNAL 1/26/91 209
THE WASHINGTON POST
ANN LANDERS
EAR ANN LANDERS:
stamps produces feelings of guilt and shame
low-income and welfare people. They need to
do? He gets into trouble at every opportunity
We are the other POWs-Prisoners
that I can't put into words.
know that it works.-Almost Free in Iowa
to get the attention he so desperately wants.
of Welfare. Every day people face the
Welfare recipients are considered lazy slobs
Dear Iowa:
As I write this, Junior is in prison for a long list
bitter reality that they have no alternative but
who are looking for a free ride. The vast
You did, and I thank you.
of offenses, the last one being assault and rape.
to become captives of the welfare system. We
majority really want to work. I have a friend
Daughters have a different set of needs.
are mostly single and divorced mothers. Only
who holds down three jobs. She is close to a
DEAR ANN LANDERS:
When they are ignored or rejected by their
through education can we escape this degrading
nervous breakdown. Baby-sitters are raising
I'm writing about the letter from
fathers, they look for male acceptance and
trap and find our way into the job market.
her three kids, and it makes, sick. Another
"Everything Isn't Okay in Oklahoma," the
approval, usually through sex. One unmarried
friend turned to prostitution. She now has a.
woman whose husband didn't pay any
I am a divorced woman, 35, with two sons.
teenage girl in our neighborhood has been
pimp, and her life is a nightmare. Please, Ann,
attention to his children. If only those fathers
I've been stuck on welfare for seven years.
pregnant three times.
Taking a handout from the government makes
ask your readers not to judge us until they have
knew how important it is to establish a bond
I know these people. Deep down they aren't
walked in our shoes.
with their little ones. "Uninterested" fathers
me feel like I'm nothing. If I work, the
bad, the problem is that their fathers never
minimum-wage money earned is deducted from
Welfare shouldn't be a way of life. It should
are destined to reap a harvest of indifference
spent any time with them.-A Student of
be a temporary crutch to help people get back
and, ultimately, trouble. In a few years these
my next month's welfare check. There is no
Experience in Alabama
on their feet and be self-supporting. Education
dads will be scratching their-heads wondering
Dear Student:
legal way to get ahead. If I don't report my
is the only way to keep the number of welfare
what went wrong.
Your letter should be posted on the walls of
earned income and the welfare people find out,
recipients from growing in this country.
In my own neighborhood I have seen this
every delivery room in every hospital. Thanks
I'm eliminated from the program.
Ann, please give a giant thank-you to all the
happen. Dad pays attention to "Junior" only
for sharing your wisdom.
Being forced to buy groceries with food
states that have education programs for
when he gets into trouble. So what does Junior
© 1991, Creators Syndicate
Photocopy-Preservation
EDWARD N. LUTTWAK KNIFES CAP WEINBERGER
JUNE 11.
THE
NEW REPUBLIC
Anne Hollander: Simone de Beauvoir The Editors: What Bush should tell Gorbachev
Bleeding-heart cons ervanve
Robert-Kiner
STATE
Jack Kemp
DEFENDING
James Cramer
DOLLAR
24
07107
John Sununu two-were also expected to drive home
the point that Kennedy-Hawkins has broad support.
WHITE HOUSE WATCH
The sessions were stacked with backers of the bill. Clint
Bolick of the Landmark Legal Center for Civil Rights.
who opposes the bill, was told the meeting he attended
with Bush on May 16 would be half supporters. half
V
foes. It turned out to be two-thirds supporters. one-
ETO-READY
third foes. Some conservatives. though. declined invita-
tions. "I didn't see the utility in participating.' said
Patrick McGuigan of the Free Congress Center for Law
and Democracy. "I've got lots of things to do."
By Fred Barnes
ush's rude awakening came in the first meeting
he moment-10 a.m., May 22-was ripe for
T
B
on May 14 with sixteen black and civil rights lead-
tough talk by Newt Gingrich, the House Repub-
ers, three of them conservatives. "A lot of you
lican whip, on civil rights legislation. Eight days
have known me a long time." he said in opening
earlier President Bush probably would have ig-
remarks. "You know where I've stood on civil rights
nored Gingrich. Now he listened and didn't disagree.
I've always been against discrimination and harassment
Instead of just saying he wants to sign a civil rights bill
in employment
As you know. I've always been op-
this year, Gingrich argued. Bush ought to assert that he
posed to quotas. I don't believe they are consistent with
is ready and willing to veto legislation that promotes
the equal employment vision we all share." Most of the
racial quotas. That's good government. good politics,
meeting was devoted to a discussion of potential areas of
and a good negotiating strategy. Besides, the White
compromise between Kennedv-Hawkins and the admin-
House is in a stronger position than anyone had
istration's alternative bill, which is far narrower. At one
thought. Gingrich insisted. "In the House, we can
point. Robert Woodson, who heads the National Center
sustain your veto," he said. Bush seemed persuaded.
for Neighborhood Enterprise. dismissed both bills as ir-
He raised only one red flag in the meeting with Ging-
relevant to the plight of poor blacks. "What is needed
rich and other GOP congressional leaders. He noted
instead is an economic agenda for empowerment of the
that Jewish groups, which usually oppose any legisla-
underclass," he said. This drew no response from the
tion that encourages quotas, are backing the Kennedy-
others, but Bush listened intently.
Hawkins bill. But Bush didn't pursue the point.
The source of Bush's heartburn is one provision of
Why was Bush suddenly receptive to vetoing Kennedy-
Kennedy-Hawkins, which would overturn or modify five
Hawkins. also known as the Civil Rights Act of 1990?
1989 Supreme Court decisions on civil rights. In Wards
He had met with leaders of civil rights, black, His-
Cove Packing Company V. Antonio. the Court ruled that
panic. Jewish. women's, Japanese-American, Chinese-
merely demonstrating a racial imbalance in hiring and
American. disabled. and conservative groups in sepa-
promotions (with whites in the professional jobs. say.
rate sessions on May 14, 15, and 16. Bush felt his con-
and blacks in the blue-collar ones) is not sufficient to
cern that the bill would force businesses to adopt racial
prove unlawful discrimination. A plaintiff would have to
quotas in hiring and promotions wasn't taken seriously
cite a discriminatory action. Kennedv-Hawkins would
enough. Nor did his call for talks to work out a compro-
reverse this, shifting the burden of proof in employment
mise get as positive a response as he had expected. Bush
cases. If sued for bias. the employer would have to prove
was "disturbed" and "disheartened," an aide said. And
that the statistical imbalance was job-related and not
willing to consider the veto option.
caused by racial discrimination. Attorney General Rich-
Before this round of meetings. Bush and his advisers
ard Thornburgh contends this would prompt business-
figured the goodwill he'd generated among minorities
es to apply racial quotas just to avoid suits thev'd have
(blacks especially) would provide an atmosphere for
difficulty winning. At the meeting. Bush hoped to hear
compromise. In amicable negotiations, the bill would
suggestions for eliminating or reducing the prospect of
be doctored to expunge (or at least weaken) any provi-
quotas. Instead. he encountered resistance. notably
sion that even indirectly leads to quotas. This done.
from Julius Chambers of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund.
Bush would sign the bill and bask in the appreciation of
and Drew Days, head of the Justice Department's civil
the civil rights community. His popularity among blacks
rights division in the Carter administration.
would remain extraordinarily high. Almost as nice, his
In truth. there isn't much room for compromise.
standing among whites would hold up too, since he'd
Ralph Neas, the executive director of the Leadership
have dealt with their fear of quotas. Bush was dreaming.
Conference on Civil Rights. points to a change in
The meetings. organized by White House communi-
Kennedy-Hawkins that lessens the standard of proof for
cations chief David Demarest and public liaison Bobbie
employers. Rather than proving the employment pattern
Kilberg. were (in Bush's words) "listening sessions."
is "essential to effective job performance." as the bill
They would allow the president to explore how much
initially required. an employer would have to show it
room for compromise there is. particularly on the quota
bears a "substantial and demonstrable" relationship.
issue. The meetings-Bush hosted three, chief of staff
This. says Neas, "addresses any legitimate concern the
12 THE NEW REPUBLIC JUNE 11, 1990
Bush administration has had about the quota issue."
The bill. says Neas. is backed by large enough majorities
Thornburgh and Boyden Gray. the White House coun-
in the House and Senate to guarantee passage and clo-
sel. regard this change as meaningless. John Dunn. the
ture in the Senate. But Neas does not claim veto-proof
current chief of the civil rights division. savs it's crucial
support. Enter Gingrich and his veto strategy. Bush
that the burden of proof rest with the employee. That. in
doesn't want to veto Kennedv-Hawkins. says Press Sec-
effect. would leave the Wards Cove decision intact. which
retary Marlin Fitzwater. but he will if he has to.
is exactly what Kennedv-Hawkins is supposed to prevent.
At the meeting with women's and ethnic groups on
May 16. Bush was still looking for a compromise or
some assurance that the bill wouldn't create quotas.
Supporters told him it wouldn't. One noted that the
word "quota" isn't mentioned in the bill. Bush and
Thornburgh exchanged glances over this. Finally. Bush
popped a question. Since the sponsors claim Kennedv-
Hawkins is not a quotas bill. he said. they shouldn't
object to inserting strict anti-quota language. should
they? His answer came from Thornburgh. Language
like that would make the bill worse. Thornburgh said. It
would produce a bill that "requires quotas and then
bans them." With the burden of proof shifted to the
employer. he said. a sound lawver would advise his
client to adopt quotas to stav out of court.
Two conservatives in the meeting. Bolick and Mark
Liedel of the Heritage Foundation. reminded Bush that
Senator Hubert Humphrey had specifically precluded
quotas in the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Humphrey told his
colleagues that the legislation "does not require an
employer to achieve any kind of racial balance in his
work force by giving preferential treatment to any indi-
vidual or group." Yet preferential treatment has often
been the result. they said. As the meeting wound down.
Liedel kept raising his hand. "Would you like a final
word?" Bush asked. Liedel said there's "a growing sen-
timent for a new direction in civil rights." He urged
Bush to press for opportunities for the underclass. not
job quotas for alreadv successful minorities.
n May 17 Bush had planned upbeat. concilia-
O
tory remarks at a Rose Garden ceremony to
honor the U.S. Civil Rights Commission. which
President Reagan had sought to eliminate.
Bush. disillusioned by what he heard in the meetings.
decided to "harden the rhetoric." said a senior White
House official. Bush attacked quotas. "No one here
todav would want me to sign a bill whose unintended
consequences are quotas. he said. "Because quotas
are wrong. and they violate the most basic principles of
our civil rights tradition and the most basic principles of
the promise of democracy I want to sign a civil
rights bill. but I will not sign a quota bill." Bush said he
is "confident" that a compromise can be worked out
with civil rights leaders. But he didn't sound confident.
Conservatives were thrilled by the chance that Bush
might veto Kennedv-Hawkins. "If the issue is drawn as
quotas. we win." said McGuigan. "If the issue is drawn
as civil rights. we lose." The White House is split on
Kennedv-Hawkins. Sununu is skeptical. Gray critical.
Thornburgh hostile. Another White House faction-
Demarest. Kilberg. congressional liaison Fred McClure.
Republican chairman Lee Atwater-are more favorable.
THE white HOUSE
WASHINGTON
2/20 pm
Mary Litte Grant: 126 080B
tyi
H
Opening Albany's Books
by Edwin S. Rubenstein
I
n Albany the most common explanation
deficit has been not a shortage of revenue
for the state's fiscal crisis runs like this:
but an excess of spending.
As the national and particularly the
Of course great needs, or bold new
regional economy have slowed, New York,
programs, might well justify rapid spending
like most nearby states,
increases. But the
U
has had an unexpected
increased spending did
revenue shortfall. New
not go toward bold new
York was particularly
programs, but to pay
hard hit because of the
for the increasing costs
large recent cuts in
of traditional services.
state income-tax rates.
Nor did the increases
The resulting revenue
clearly improve the
loss has been so severe
quality of these ser-
that despite several
vices. Much of the
years of relatively
increasing cost of tradi-
restrained spending, the
tional services can be
state now faces a huge
attributed to poor man-
and growing deficit not
agement, for which the
of its own making, a
Governor's office, the
gap that can be filled
Comptroller, the Leg-
only by tax increases or
islature, and both polit-
by substantial reduc-
ical parties all deserve
tions in vital services.
a share of the blame.
Though there are
As for the immediate
elements of truth here, in substance this
fiscal crisis, that is largely the product of
story is false. The deficit was not caused by
the state's insistence on using budgetary
a revenue shortfall. Revenues grew dramati-
shenanigans to spend beyond its means
cally during the Eighties, despite and in part
even during the boom, drastically overex-
because of the tax cuts, and have continued
tending its commitments, and then not act-
to grow (though more slowly than Albany
ing quickly enough when the economy
projected) even as the economy has slowed.
started to tighten.
Spending has not been restrained but lavish,
far exceeding even the substantial increases
Edwin S. Rubenstein is an economic consultant. An
that might have been justified by the boom
adjunct fellow of the Manhattan Institute, he also writes
of the Eighties. The immediate cause of the
an economics column for National Review.
52 NY The City Journal
Winter 1991
Spending vs. Revenues
The state's economy has slowed signifi-
FIGURE 1
cantly since late 1989. But this fall has been
New York State
from a new, higher baseline established by
Tax Revenues Rose $13.7 Billion
the Eighties boom. During the Eighties,
or 89% in Eight Years
New York's economy performed better than
Fiscal
Personal
Total
the most optimistic futurist would have
Year
Income Tax
Taxes
dared to predict.
Though lagging behind neighboring
1983
$ 8.2
$ 15.4
states, New York grew faster than the
1987
12.2
23.4
nation. Real personal income rebounded
1988
13.9
25.5
from no growth to average annual increases
1989
13.8
25.6
of more than 3 percent. Per capita income
1990
15.3
27.3
rose from 8.1 percent above the national
1991E
15.6
29.1
average in 1980 to 16.9 percent above in
Source: Official Statements
1989. Despite the current economic slide,
(issued in conjunction with state bond sales)
there are more than one million more New
Yorkers working and paying taxes today
than when Mario Cuomo took office in
1983. The state jobless rate declined from
relative parsimony of the Carey years,
8.6 percent to circa 5 percent, and at this
already spent 29 percent more per capita,
writing is still below 6 percent. The deterio-
and 13.8 percent more relative to personal
ration in the state's economy has been far
income, than the average of the other 49
less dramatic than the deterioration in the
states. Nevertheless, during the next eight
state's fiscal condition.
years, state-funded spending rose 91 per-
As for revenues, while some tax
cent. By 1988, the latest year for which
sources have shrunk in recent months, total
comparable data for all states are available,
state tax revenues continue to grow. Tax
the state was spending 47.3 percent more
revenues are up a startling 89 percent since
per capita than the average of the other 49
1983. (See Figure 1.) By comparison, infla-
states (see Figures 2 and 3), and 24.2 per-
tion was up 33 percent and federal revenues
cent more relative to personal income.
expanded by 53 percent. This increase in
From 1983 through 1988 New York
New York State tax revenues represents
State spending as a percentage of personal
more than $760 for every man, woman, and
income rose by 7.1 percent (from 14.7 per-
child in New York, a figure larger than the
cent of personal income to 15.7 percent of
total per capita tax collections of some
personal income), an astonishing event con-
states. State income tax revenues have
sidering that personal income rose by 47
grown substantially even in the face of the
percent during the same period. During the
income-tax rate cuts. (See "Did the Cuomo
same period the state-spending-to-personal-
Tax Cuts Work?" NY: The City Journal,
income ratio for the rest of the 49 states
Autumn 1990).
dropped by 1.8 percent. (See Figure 3.)
Had state spending merely kept pace
And despite the looming fiscal crisis, the
with the Eighties boom, Albany would have
state's fiscal 1991 budget still calls for an
a multibillion dollar surplus today. But this
additional 7.5 percent spending increase.
opportunity was lost.
The data seem very clear: State personal
In 1983 New York State, despite the
income and state revenues have increased
Winter 1991
NY The City Journal 53
enormously since 1983; nevertheless the state
sis, which most disinterested experts would
has outspent its growing resources. The fiscal
agree is the only sensible procedure.
crisis was caused by too much spending, not
Many New York officials, however, do
too little income.
not like the all-funds approach. They
would like public discussion to focus on
Budget Games
general-fund or on-budget spending.
Why then do so many people believe
Governor Cuomo, in fact, has criticized the
exactly the opposite? Part of the reason
author's previous use of the all-funds
surely is the opacity of the state's financial
approach, arguing:
records. The state's affairs are tangled in a
network of trust accounts, special funds,
the "All Funds" budget
include[s]
and off-budget enterprises apparently calcu-
billions of dollars of federally supported
lated to confuse potential critics.
appropriations, plus capital costs.
To measure total state spending without
Historically, the State's General Fund has
the distorting effects of interfund shuffling,
been used as a more realistic barometer of
and to facilitate meaningful comparisons
spending, and for good reason. The
with other states, I have here used total or
General Fund more accurately portrays
all-funds spending as the basis for my analy-
tax-supported expenditures.
-Letter distributed to
NYS editors, July 30, 1989
FIGURE 2
State Spending Per Capita
True, the general fund once was a reli-
New York vs. All the Other States
able measure of state spending. In recent
1983-1988
years, however, many state expenditures
$3000
long considered general-fund items have
N.Y.
been shifted off budget, to special-revenue,
U.S.
capital, and debt-service funds. As Figure 4
shows, off-budget spending has exploded in
the past eight years, growing by 306 per-
cent, or 7 times the rate of inflation. Over
$2000
the past eight years, a total of $5.9 billion
has been added to off-budget spending. In
the 1990-91 budget, off-budget spending is
slated to rise 27 percent, or more than 14
times the increase reported for the general
fund. All in all, more than 20 percent of
$1000
total state spending (excluding federally
supported spending) is excluded from the
general fund, up from 9.7 percent at the
start of this administration.
In the past, the assignment of spending
to off-budget accounts was based on man-
$0
1983
1988
agement or accounting considerations.
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce,
"Special-revenue" funds, for example,
State Government Finances, 1983, 1988.
served as depositories for federal grants,
which were then passed through to local
54 NY The City Journal
Winter 1991
governments. But a recent study by the
FIGURE 3
Peat Marwick accounting firm found no
From 1983 to 1988, State Spending
rationale for the recent fund shifts other
Per $1,000 Personal Income
than to give the illusion of spending
Grew in New York While Declining
restraint in the general fund.
in the Rest of the Country
Since 1983, regulatory agencies such as
the Public Service Commission, the
$160
Banking Department, the Insurance
New York
Department, the Commission on Cable
$150
Television, the Worker's Compensation
State Spending Per $1,000 of Personal Income
Board, and the Consumer Protection Board
have been reclassified from the general fund
$140
to special-revenue funds. The most common
justification for moving these agencies off
budget is that they are financed not by ordi-
$130
nary tax revenues but by fees levied on the
United States
industries they regulate.
Except New York
$120
The imposition of such "user fees" in
lieu of general taxes is a sound economic
practice that can curb inadvertent govern-
$110
ment subsidies to the affected businesses:
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
Under the fee system businesses pay for
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce,
their own regulation. But it makes no sense
State Government Finances, 1983, 1988.
not to count the budgets of these regulatory
agencies as part of general state spending.
FIGURE 4
Off-Budget Spending Has Grown Faster than Any Other Category
(In $ Billions)
Total
Fiscal
General
Off
Net State
Federal
All-Funds
Year
Fund
Budget
Spending
Grants
Spending
1983
$17.756
$1.915
$19.671
$6.752
$26.423
1985
21.035
2.841
23.876
7.980
31.856
1987
24.833
3.260
28.093
9.335
37.428
1989
28.244
5.055
33.299
10.150
43.449
1990
29.229
6.129
35.358
11.005
46.363
1991E
29.774
7.781
37.555
12.288
49.843
Percentage Increase: 1983-1991
67.7%
306.3%
90.9%
82.0%
88.6%
Source: Comptroller's Annual Reports; underwriters "Official Statements"
for state tax and revenue anticipation notes.
Winter 1991
NY The City Journal 55
To the consumers, employees, and share-
The Department of Social Services
holders who indirectly pay them, user fees
had no support from special-revenue
feel no different from taxes. As with tax rev-
funds in 1983; it now uses $116 million
enue, the need for fee revenue rises and falls
from sources such as fines for food-
with the efficiency of the agencies that spend
stamp fraud to help defray its $270
it. Fees, however necessary, are a general
million budget.
burden on the economy just like taxes, and
sop up some of the state's taxing capacity.
All these changes may represent sound
Finally, fee revenues and tax revenues
economic practice. They do not represent a
are fungible. That is, a new dollar in fee rev-
reduction in state spending.
enues should free up a dollar in tax revenues
As for the claim that the all-funds mea-
either to be returned to the people via a tax
sure should not be used because it includes
cut, or to be used for new spending. Only by
federally supported programs, this is wrong
looking at the all-funds
on several counts.
figure can we know
Federal aid cannot be
whether most of the tax
easily isolated from
dollars freed up by fees
To the consumers,
state-supported spend-
went to new spending or
ing. Much federal aid
were trimmed from the
employees, and shareholders
comes as matching
budget and returned to
funds tied to state
the voters.
who pay them,
spending increases.
In this budget year,
user fees feel no
Conversely, nonmatch-
the state will spend $3.1
ing federal aid is at least
billion in user fees and
different than taxes
partly fungible with
other special charges,
other state revenues, so
$500 million more than
an increase in certain
last year. The use of fee revenues to move
types of federal aid should permit a decrease
items off-budget has spread so that many
in the use of state funds. Because of such
traditionally tax-supported activities have
complications, it makes sense, when assess-
disappeared from the general fund:
ing a state's fiscal performance over time, to
count federally supported expenditures,
Fees on heavy trucks are paying the
provided one does so consistently.
salaries of 196 administrative and cleri-
Moreover, the inclusion of federally
cal workers at the State Department of
supported expenditures in the all-funds mea-
Transportation.
sure actually makes the state's recent fiscal
At the Department of Agriculture, 33
record look slightly better. As Figure 4
employees who used to be paid from
shows, "net state spending" includes all gen-
tax money are being paid from assess-
eral-fund and off-budget state-supported
ments on dairy producers and farms,
spending, but not federally supported
and from fines and fees paid by the
programs. Net state spending increased 91
food industry.
percent from 1983 through 1991, but federal-
About $100 million in new assessments
ly supported spending lagged behind,
on utilities is paying for, among other
increasing just 82 percent. Because of that
things, a Consumer Protection Board
lag, all-funds spending increased less than it
project to study utility issues of impor-
would have if federally supported spending
tance to the poor.
had kept pace with state-supported spending.
56 NY The City Journal
Winter 1991
One-Shot Deals
"Rainy Day Fund," proved irresistible: $133
Moving traditionally on-budget items
million of reserves were siphoned off.
off budget, and claiming that fee funds have
Another $300 million was drained from the
replaced tax funds when they have merely
State Insurance Fund.
supplemented them is, to be sure, dishonest.
In fiscal 1989 the state discovered $110
But in themselves such practices need not
million in what it declared "superfluous"
produce a fiscal catastrophe. A far more dan-
reserves in a trust fund set up to cover
gerous sleight of hand, and one increasingly
death and disability benefits. Another $123
used in New York State in recent years, is
million windfall transpired from selling
the use of nonrecurring "one-shot" revenues
Empire State Plaza bonds. (The plaza was
to drive spending levels beyond the state's
completed in 1974.) In refusing to turn
true ability to pay. Even in boom years such
Medicaid funds over to private carriers,
practices encourage the state to commit itself
Albany discovered yet another way to raise
to increases in spending
cash - $54 million in
far beyond those allowed
this case. The insurance
by normal economic
fund was good for
growth. When the boom
The use of
another $250 million.
stops, and the list of
In the past two fis-
available one-shots
nonrecurring "one-shot"
cal years the one-shot
grows short, disaster
trickle has become a tor-
looms. Indeed, if one-
revenues drives spending
rent. SUNY bonds were
shots must be used at all
beyond the state's
refinanced: $111 mil-
they should be saved to
lion. The Hazardous
"fill in the gaps" in hard
true ability to pay
Waste Removal Fund
times, not to overextend
was raided: $84 million.
the state's commitments
Ditto the Housing
when times are good.
Finance Agency ($30 million) and Court
Yet it was just at the tail end of the
Facilities Funds ($36 million). The
boom that New York State began to
Dormitory Authority was ordered to sell
overindulge in one-shots. In fiscal 1986, the
$68 million in bonds to pay for a new labo-
state succeeded in having the Urban
ratory for the State Health Department.
Development Corporation sell bonds to
"Back-bonding" for work done in previous
cover the cost of prison construction. Not
years on Mental Health Department facili-
content to cover construction costs for that
ties produced another $67 million. Those
year alone, bonds were sold to cover the
old standbys-the State Insurance Fund
costs for prior years as well. Presto! This
and the Aggregate Trust Fund-came up
"back-bonding" produced a painless $255
with a combined $290 million. A state office
million windfall to New York State.
building (or a prison) is to be sold to the
With that apparent success, the binge
state's own Urban Development
was on. In 1987 the state found a way to
Corporation. A highway will be sold to the
justify withdrawing $325 million from the
State Thruway Authority. New actuarial
State Insurance Fund (a worker's compen-
assumptions developed for the Teachers
sation fund for employers and workers) and
Retirement System will enable school dis-
$69 million from the Battery Park City
tricts to forgo $354 million in pension con-
Authority's accounts. The following year the
tributions, in effect shifting this money to
Tax Stabilization Reserve Fund, a.k.a. the
Albany as state aid to education.
Winter 1991
NY The City Journal 57
All in all, $5.6 billion worth of "special-
state and local governments spend 31 per-
effect" revenues have been dredged up since
cent more than the rest of the country. In
fiscal 1986-$1.8 billion in 1991 alone. The
1988, New York's combined per capita state
one-shots are an unsustainable source of
and local government spending was 55 per-
revenue. The very need for them should
cent higher than in the rest of the country
have been an early signal that the state was
($5,026 versus $3,243 per capita). The next
spending beyond its means. A state govern-
highest-spending industrial state,
ment pressed for cash as early as 1986 clear-
Massachusetts, spends 21.5 percent less on
ly needed to make spending cuts. Soon the
a per capita basis. New York could save $19
state will be deprived of most one-shot rev-
billion-enough to seal many years of fiscal
enues because practices such as claiming a
gaps-just by reducing spending to
$354 million saving by redoing some actuari-
Massachusetts' level.
al tables profoundly sway the credit markets.
Thus though New York's local govern-
As the credit markets
ments are lavish in their
tighten, fiscal rectitude
provision of services, at
will be forced on the
least in dollar terms,
state government. The
Practices such as claiming
Albany fails to take
inevitable spending cuts
advantage of this largesse
will be far more drastic
a $354 million saving
by trimming its own
and painful than they
needed to have been.
by redoing some
spending. Moreover,
Albany not only fails to
actuarial tables
take advantage of the
Local Largesse Lost
high level of local spend-
Spending increas-
upset credit markets
ing, it bears substantial
es, not revenue short-
responsibility for the size
falls, caused the current
of local expenditures.
crisis. That leaves us with the all-important
State regulations determine the level
question of whether the spending increases
and cost of many services provided by local-
were necessary or productive. To answer
ities. Albany mandates at least 65 percent of
that question requires some attention to the
Rensselaer County's budget, according to
major state spending programs. But it also
John Buono, Rensselaer County executive.
requires a look at local government spend-
New York is one of only 14 states that
ing in New York, which provides perhaps
forces local governments to pay for part of
the most powerful evidence that recent state
Medicaid. Local governments in New York
spending has been excessive.
account for about 80 percent of all local
Most states that rank high for state
government Medicaid spending nationwide.
government spending rank much lower for
Albany prescribes staffing levels for nursing
local spending, and vice versa. This is to be
homes. State regulations determine the
expected: In states where the state govern-
amount of courtroom space and jail cells
ment pays for a lot of services the localities
that counties must build, as well as the type
need do less; where the state is parsimo-
of food they must serve to inmates. Counties
nious, the localities must do more.
are required to house state prisoners, for
In New York this trade-off does not
which the state pays only a fraction of the
happen. We are among the national leaders
actual cost.
for both state and local government spend-
This year Albany initiated a new pro-
ing. Relative to personal income, New York
gram for handicapped schoolchildren,
58 NY The City Journal
Winter 1991
requiring counties to provide transportation
between 1980 and 1990, making New York
during the school year, and special youth
45th in the nation, down from 36th in 1980.
programs when school is not in session. Even
By contrast, New Jersey was able to
as the state mandates an increasing amount
increase SAT scores by 28 points over the
of local spending, it has revoked revenue
same period.
sharing for counties, and reduced the propor-
Although enrollment in New York
tion of certain state fees (e.g., motor vehicle
State's public schools is declining, there are
fines) returned to governments.
more administrators and other nonteaching
When local spending increases because
staff than ever before. The ratio of profes-
the state requires it, only a bookkeeping
sional staff members to students dropped
illusion attributes that rise to the locality.
from one to 15 in 1980 to one to 12 in 1989,
Also, when the state mandates raises in local
in part because of an increase in the number
spending, and therefore local taxes, it limits
of administrators per student. Albert
its own ability to raise revenues. In this
Shanker, President of the American
sense, much of what passes for local spend-
Federation of Teachers, says there are more
ing in New York is actually a state expense.
school administrators in New York than in
all of Western Europe.
Where the Money Is
As for where the money went, ask any-
Welfare
one in Albany and you will get pretty much
At $707 per capita, welfare was second
the same answer: not to new programs. Most
only to elementary and secondary education
of the increases in state spending seem to
as a state and local expense item in 1988.
have gone to education, welfare, and
Between 1983 and 1988, per capita welfare
Medicaid programs. Much of that money
spending increased 60 percent in New York
seems to have been wasted. New York pays
compared to 40 percent for the nation as a
far more per capita than most other state
whole. New York's welfare spending ranks
governments for these functions and there is
first in the nation as a percentage of person-
little evidence that it gets more for its money.
al income, though New York ranks only
In some cases it clearly gets less.
eighth nationally in the percentage of the
population on welfare, and 17th in the per-
Education
centage of the population living below the
Elementary and secondary education,
poverty line.
the single most expensive governmental
The classic welfare
function in New York State, cost New
on AFDC and home relief-has shrunk in
Yorkers $934 per capita in 1988, or almost
recent years. New York's welfare costs are
one-fifth of total state and local spending.
high partly because its administrative costs
New York's educational expenditures have
are high. It cost New York about $1,118 to
long been far above the national average,
administer one AFDC case in 1988, or nearly
but between 1983 and 1988, state education
twice the national average of $628. Only
spending rose an additional $7.1 billion, or
Oregon and Idaho-which clearly do not
49 percent. It cost $7,561 to educate each
have New York's economies of scale for wel-
pupil in New York State public schools in
fare administration-spend more per case.
1988-89, more than any state except New
A description of Department of Social
Jersey. The national average was $4,541.
Services productivity from the Arthur
Despite this spending binge, average
Andersen accounting firm helps explain
New York SAT scores declined seven points
why administrative costs were so high:
Winter 1991
NY The City Journal 59
Our analysis showed that 39 percent of the
continuing, long-term, and nursing home
observed time was spent performing value-
care," says Terence McGrath, a spokesman
added activity (e.g., direct work); 23 per-
for the State Department of Social Services.
cent was spent on nonvalue activity (e.g.,
Actually New York ranks 18th in the per-
filing, information retrieval, etc.); and 38
centage of population over age 65-and
percent was spent on nonwork (e.g., idle
49th in the growth of that population. Nor
time, nonbusiness talking, etc.)
The
is there much evidence that New York pro-
results confirmed a general sense of low
vides significantly higher-quality care than
productivity, and an overall lack of urgency
most states. New York, for instance, ranks
in the conduct of daily work activities.
third in the percentage of mothers who
receive little or no prenatal care, worse than
Medicaid
every other state except Texas and New
In recent years Medicaid has been the
Mexico. (See Figure 5.)
state's fastest growing spending program.
The real source of our Medicaid over-
With only 10 percent of the nation's
spending is a complicated series of poor
Medicaid recipients, New York accounts for
management decisions that doom the system
20 percent of nationwide Medicaid spend-
to waste and inefficiency. Thanks in part to
ing. New York spent $4,163 per recipient in
a plethora of state rules and regulations,
1989, far more than any other state. (The
skilled nursing home care, for instance, is
national average was $2,318; California
fantastically expensive in New York, cost-
spent $1,654 per recipient.)
ing about $25,000 per recipient here versus
State officials often blame high state
$8,500 in the rest of the nation.
expenditures on demographics. "We have a
The most significant Medicaid increas-
high percentage of elderly people who need
es, however, have come in hospital inpatient
FIGURE 5
New York Spends Far More than the Rest of the Country for Medicaid
% of Infants Whose
Mothers Received
Costs Per
Cost Index
Little or No
Recipient (a)
(NYS=100.0)
Prenatal Care
New York
$ 4,523.
100.0
10.2 %
Massachusetts
4,112.
90.9
2.8
New Jersey
3,602.
79.6
5.0
Ohio
2,352.
52.0
3.3
Pennsylvania
2,235.
49.4
5.3
Illinois
2,016.
44.6
4.6
Michigan
1,765.
39.0
3.4
California
1,654.
36.6
5.7
U.S. ex NYS
2,084.
46.1
N.A.
Sources: Health Care Financing Administration, States in Profile 1990
a. Year ended September 30, 1989.
60 NY The City Journal
Winter 1991
bills, which grew more than 230 percent
Rafuse's latest research, covering the 1986-
between 1979 and 1989. Part of the expla-
87 fiscal year, found New York's state and
nation may be a shortage of nursing home
local governments spend 52.4 percent more
beds, which has left many elderly patients
than the national average even after taking
"stacked up" in overcrowded hospitals
needs and costs into account (see Figure 6).
awaiting transfers. New York Medicaid
New York ranked third in adjusted spend-
clients also spend more time in the hospital
ing, behind Alaska and Wyoming.
because they do not get enough regular
California spent only 12.4 percent above the
checkups and other preventive care. This in
national average. New Jersey and
turn, is partly because client care is man-
Massachusetts spent, respectively, 21.4 per-
aged much less aggressively and sensibly
cent and 27.7 percent above the national
here than in states that use Health
average. Illinois and Pennsylvania spent
Maintenance Organizations and other
below-average amounts.
"managed-care" programs for Medicaid
Public welfare, at 197.8 percent of the
patients. New York refuses to do this, fail-
national average, was the most lavishly
ing to realize that cost containment,
overfunded governmental program in New
aggressive management, and quality care
York, according to Rafuse's calculations.
often go together.
New York spent less than the national aver-
How to Count Costs
These anecdotal overviews, however,
FIGURE 6
are not the only evidence that the spending
New York Overspends for Most
binge of the past eight years was unneces-
Programs Even After Taking Needs
sary. Public-finance specialists have devel-
and Costs into Account
oped standard methods for comparing what
(U.S. = 100.0)
a state spends to what it needs to spend,
Per Unit
based on the experience of other states.
of Need,
These methods adjust for differences in the
Per
Adjusted
Capita
for Cost
cost of living, state government salaries, the
Spending
Differences
need for public services, etc. The best
Total Direct Spending
145.2
152.4
known of the various methodologies was
developed by Robert W. Rafuse Jr., of the
Primary/Secondary
Education
Advisory Commission on Intergovern-
133.6
149.2
mental Relations, a nonpartisan research
Higher Education
87.1
87.0
organization supported by New York and
Public Welfare
194.8
197.8
other states.
Health & Hospitals
168.7
172.5
Rafuse's "representative expenditure sys-
Highways
99.7
153.1
tem" is particularly exacting in the way it
Police & Corrections
163.6
144.4
accounts for differences among the states in
Environment &
such factors as population characteristics,
Housing
140.5
139.9
crime rates, local salary levels, and even the
Interest on Debt
149.9
149.9
number of miles residents drive on state roads.
Administration
132.5
31.4
The result is a rough-and-ready standard for
Other
173.6
173.0
whether a state is over- or underspending.
Source: Advisory Commission on
By that standard, New York's expendi-
Intergovernmental Relations
tures are grotesquely overgrown. Mr.
Winter 1991
NY The City Journal 61
age in only one area: higher education, at 87
Political leadership ultimately comes down
percent. (See Figure 6.)
not to numbers, but to choices and values. It
Rafuse's work contradicts the frequent-
is always possible for an honest man to
ly repeated assertion that New York's costs
argue that the government should spend
are high because of difficult local condi-
more, no matter how much it is already
tions. On his analysis it is hard to escape the
spending, or less, no matter how little. But it
conclusion that the state government has
is impossible to deny that New York's fiscal
been overspending for years.
crisis was caused by an extremely rapid
MORE WORKERS, LESS WORK
New York employs far more workers than most states and pays them higher
wages, with little to show for it:
The U.S. Department of Commerce's annual survey of public sector employ-
ment shows that New York State had 634 state and local government employ-
ees for every 10,000 residents, compared to a national average of 494 state
employees per 10,000 residents in the other 49 states.
New York employs one state highway worker per 6.2 lane miles, more than
twice as many workers per mile as the national average. Yet 60 percent of
New York's highway bridges were found to be deficient in 1988, more than
twice the national figure.
Between 1980 and 1988 the number of state government workers in New York
grew by 31 percent, while the state population grew by 2 percent.
New York's state and local government workers are paid more than their
counterparts in all but two states-Alaska and California. New York State
employees were the highest paid in the Northeast for 34 of 43 positions,
according to an Arthur Andersen study.
The Andersen study also concluded that: "Productivity is perceived as a 'pass-
ing' fancy by the line and staff managers in state agencies.
Too many peo-
ple view productivity as a revenue issue.
If revenue is not a problem, pro-
ductivity is not discussed."
The average New York State employee is paid $2,250, or 8.8 percent, per year
more than the typical New York State private-sector employee. In three of the
four contiguous states, state government employees are paid less than private-
sector employees.
62 NY The City Journal
Winter 1991
increase in spending, an increase so rapid as
FIGURE 7
to outpace the normal growth in revenues
From 1983 to 1988,
from one of the most powerful economic
the Growth in State Spending
booms in American history. It is nearly as
was Far Greater in
difficult to argue that this huge rise in
New York than
spending produced a comparable improve-
in All Other States
ment in the quality of state services or the
60
well-being of New Yorkers.
50
The Future
Percent Increase In State Spending
What about the future? The economic
40
downturn has already reduced revenue
growth far below the state's projections. A
30
year ago Albany claimed it would collect
$28.9 billion in tax revenues for fiscal 1990;
20
it got only $27.3 billion. When the 1991 rev-
enue forecast is next revised, the fiscal
10
crunch will look even worse.
0
The economy, however, will bounce
New York
All Other States
back eventually. The scary part of New
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce,
York's fiscal problem is that even in the best
State Government Finances, 1983, 1988.
of economic times large and growing
deficits seem inevitable. By Albany's own
admission, this year's budget is balanced
with $1.8 billion worth of items it cannot
FIGURE 8
count on next year. As one leading munici-
In 1988, New York's Spending
Per Capita was the Highest
pal bond trader comments: "The state has
in the Region and Far Above
dug itself into a fiscal hole. Actually, it's
the National Average
more like quicksand. Political considera-
tions strongly favor the increased use of
one-shot budget gimmicks to avoid perma-
N.Y.
nent tax hikes and spending reductions."
If Albany can not control the one-
N.J.
shots, spring borrowing, and chronic rev-
Per Capita Spending
enue overestimates, Wall Street will:
PENN.
Investors will demand higher interest rates
MASS.
to compensate for the higher credit risk.
Institutional investors will balk at adding
CONN.
still more state paper to their portfolios with-
out a credible financial plan. Investment
U.S. except N.Y.
advisors are already telling clients to lighten
$0
$1000
$2000
$3000
up on New York State bonds. If things con-
tinue as they have, the state will find itself
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce,
where New York City was in 1975, albeit
State Government Finances, 1983, 1988.
without the prospect of a bailout from a
friendly superior level of government.
Winter 1991
NY The City Journal 63
The
Heritage Foundation
February 12, 1991
Mary Kate:
I hope you've recovered from your
transportation empowerment experience.
Attached is our paper outlining
an empowerment civil rights strategy.
I really believe it could be the basis
of an extraordinarily powerful (and
historic!) speech.
I'm also enclosing a New Republic
article recounting our discussions with
President Bush last summer. Also an
article that notes the history of debate
in the black community on the issue of
political VS. economic empowerment.
Let me know if you need any more
information.
Mak
P.S. Bob Balkin says you're
his buddy. How can you hang
out with such left wing Freaks ?
Mark B. Liedl
DRAFT
CONFIDeNTIAL copy Chuir
TALKING POINTS ON CIVIL RIGHTS
AND OPPORTUNITY PACKAGE
The Administration's civil rights bill (summary of
employment discrimination provisions attached) will be
announced concurrently with a package of several bills to
enhance the power of individuals, families, and communities
on several fronts: 1) educational choice; 2) educational
flexibility; 3) Davis-Bacon reform; 4) enterprise zones; 5)
opportunity areas; and 6) crime.
Educational Choice: The President's upcoming Educational
Excellence Act would: include $200 million to provide
school districts with an incentive to allow parents to
choose the public or private schools their children will
attend; allow education grants under Chapters 1 and 2 to be
used for choice programs; and provide $30 million for choice
demonstrations.
Educational Flexibility: The Educational Excellence Act
would also incorporate flexibility provisions. Schools
would be held accountable for achieving specific educational
goals in exchange for increased flexibility in the use of
their resources.
Davis-Bacon Reform: The Davis-Bacon Reform Act of 1991
would raise the threshold at which prevailing wage
requirements apply to Federal and Federally assisted
construction contracts to $250,000. Raising the threshold
expands opportunities for smaller construction firms -- many
of which are minority businesses -- and creates employment
opportunities for those who have been denied the chance to
compete for jobs on Federal construction projects.
Enterprise Zones: The Enterprise Zone and Jobs-Creation Act
of 1991 targets tax incentives and regulatory relief to some
of our nation's most economically depressed areas. These
zones will attack poverty at its roots by attracting seed
capital for small business start-ups, creating incentives
for entrepreneurial risk taking, and reducing high effective
tax rates on those moving from welfare to work.
Opportunity Areas: The Opportunity Area Act of 1991 would
enable communities to develop systems to deliver a range of
social services to individuals and families in a manner the
community deems most appropriate. States and communities
would apply for waivers from Federal statutory and
regulatory requirements of various Federal programs.
Crime: Freedom from crime is the most basic civil right and
the Administration will again propose legislation to get
tough on violent criminals.
capital formation affirmative + investment spuring/ereating investment in black community
From the Budget Fact Sheet
INCREASING CHOICE. EXPANDING OPPORTUNITY.
AND PROVIDING HOPE TO DISTRESSED COMMUNITIES
(Chapter V. A.)
Child Care and Health Insurance Tax Credits: A newly
expanded Earned Income Tax Credit, and a new Health
Insurance Credit will make child care and health insurance
more affordable for low-income families with children while
assuring maximum freedom of choice over the use of the
benefits. For 1992, these credits will provide $10 billion
in support to working families with children, and $69
billion over the next five years. These credits were
created as part of the budget agreement last fall.
Child Care Block Grant: The new Child Care and Development
Block Grant, the first grant program of its kind to require
that assistance be offered through certificates to ensure
parental choice, will be funded at $732 million.
Educational Choice: The budget includes funding for the
President's upcoming Educational Excellence Act legislative
proposal which will include:
-
$200 million for a Certificate Program Support Fund to
provide school districts with an incentive to allow
parents 20 choose the public or private schools Chois
children will attend.
-
New authority to fund Magnet Schools of Excellence in
order to extend this proven choice approach to schools
regardless of racial composition or the presence of a
school desegregation plan. Support for magnet schools
for desegregation will be maintained as well.
-
Amendments to facilitate and increase use of Local
Agency Grants and Education Block Grants under Chapters
1 and 2 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
for educational choice programs.
-
$30 million to fund nationally significant choice
demonstrations.
Housing Choice: For 1992, $2.4 billion is requested to
provide an additional 78,860 housing vouchers to low-income
renters. This 41 percent funding increase over tenant-based
housing subsidies appropriated for 1991 reflects the
Administration's policy of assuring subsidized tenants
maximum choice over where to live and how much to pay for
housing.
Homeownership: Opportunity for low-income families to
become homeowners will be expanded through HOPE
(Homeownership and Opportunity for People Everywhere). For
1991, a fully-offset supplemental request for $287 million
-14-
is proposed for HOPE: for 2992, the request 15 $2.25
billion.
TO preserve those subsidized rental properties that may be
converted to other uses, $718 million is requested. The
goals are to protect low-income renters, provide
opportunities for low-income tenants to become homeowners,
and compensate owners fairly to retain their properties as
low-income rental units.
To reduce defaults and improve housing conditions for low-
income renters in financially distressed, FHA-insured rental
properties, a $668 million Low-Income Resident Empowerment
Program is proposed for 1992. This program will assist
those landlords who are willing to provide their low-income
tenants an equity interest in their units.
Increased Flexibility: To allow grantees to use funds more
effectively: certain categorical housing programs will be
replaced with more flexible HOME grants; several small
categorical programs for the homeless will be consolidated;
legislation will be proposed to permit waivers of some
Federal education program requirements for innovative
programs which can demonstrate progress toward stated
educational goals.
Using IRAS for First Home Purchases: First-time home-buyers
would be permitted to withdraw up to $10,000 from tax-
deferred IRAs without penalty for a down payment.
Enterprise Zones: To help revitalize economically
distressed communities, the budget includes proposals for
Federal tax incentives in up to 50 enterprise zones. A 5
percent refundable tax credit for low-income workers,
favorable tax treatment for purchase of newly issued
corporate stock in enterprise zones, and a zero capital
gains rate for investments in zone businesses are proposed.
Job Training: Reforms to the $4.0 billion Job Training
Partnership Act (JTPA) are proposed to target job training
efforts on extremely disadvantaged adults and youth.
Included is a new Youth Opportunities Unlimited (YOU)
program in up to 40 high-poverty areas. Reforms of the
Federal-State Employment Service also are intended to target
resources on more disadvantaged workers.
o
Reform of Davis-Bacon: Recently issued Labor Department
regulations would improve opportunities on Federal
construction projects for workers still learning their
journeyman skills and create another rung on the ladder to
economic success for less-skilled workers. The threshold
for application of the Davis-Bacon Act wage level provisions
-15-
for Federal construction projects would be raised to
$250,000 from the present $2,000., a ceiling which has not
been raised since 1t was imposed in 2935.
o
social Security Earnings Test: A modest liberalization is
proposed for the social Security earnings test, which
reduces retirement benefits to aged recipients after their
earnings reach a specified amount in any year. For 1992,
the amount of earnings recipients are allowed before their
benefits are affected would be increased B percent, to
$11,000.
-16-
INITIATIVES FOR POSSIBLE INCLUSION IN THE
CIVIL RIGHTS AND OPPORTUNITY PACKAGE
Legislation Required:
1.
Civil Rights bill.
2.
Educational Choice proposals:
--
$200 million Certificate Program Support Fund;
--
new authority to fund Magnet Schools of Excellence;
--
allow education grants under Chapters 1 and 2 to be
used for choice programs;
--
$30 million for choice demonstrations.
3.
Educational Flexibility bill.
4.
Davis-Bacon Reform.
5.
Enterprise Zones.
6.
Opportunity Areas.
7.
Crime bill.
8.
Increased Flexibility for Housing Programs.
9.
Use of IRAs for First Home Purchases.
10. Social Security Earnings Test Liberalization.
11. Reforms to the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA).
Legislation Not Required:
1.
Child Care and Health Insurance Tax Credits.
2.
Child Care Block Grant.
3.
Increase for Housing Vouchers.
4.
Funding for HOPE.
5.
Reform of the Public Employment Service.
6.
Targeted SBA Programs.
"Empowerment Opportunities Act
of 1991"
Section-by-Section Summary
The first section of the draft bill gives its short title,
as stated above.
Purpose; Federal Administrator
Section 2 (a) of the bill states its purpose: to declare the
need for new community level approaches to increase economic
opportunity and opportunities for self-sufficiency, through local
restructured delivery systems that --
1.
allow the integration and restructuring of services and
benefits to facilitate economic empowerment;
2.
are locally based with specified target groups;
3.
allow for target group participation in the design of
the system, and
4.
afford maximum choice and control to individuals in the
target group.
Subsection (b) describes the mechanism for administration at
the Federal level. The President will designate an official or a
group to act as a panel (in either case referred to as the
"Federal administrator" to serve as a focal point for the receipt
and approval of applications to operate an empowerment
opportunities system and thereafter to exercise lead
responsibility as the project continues. The Federal
administrator will consider the project application, and whether
it meets all applicable criteria for approval, and with respect
to inclusion of programs (and waiver of statutory and regulatory
requirements) for which another Federal department or agency head
administrative responsibility, will make recommendations to that
other Federal official.
Technical Assistance
Section 3 (a) authorizes any agency eligible to submit an
application to operate a demonstration system under the Act to
request technical assistance to develop the information necessary
to design a restructured system. The application is submitted to
the Federal administrator, containing some detail about its
proposed system (in order to determine the value of providing
technical assistance, and must assure that the target groups will
be given an opportunity to participate in designing the system to
be the subject of the application under section 4 the Federal
agency likely to have the preponderance of the programs included
in the applicant's system to furnish technical assistance. It
2
may be funded from any amounts available to the agency head to
the extent he concludes it is likely to promote the success of
the system.
Empowerment Opportunities System
Section 4 (a) defines an agency that is eligible to submit an
application to operate an empowerment opportunities system. It
must be currently receiving or eligible to receive Federal
assistance under a program to be included in the system. It must
also document the concurrence of any other non-Federal entity to
which the funds under any included program would otherwise be
given. This would include the State (in the case of programs for
which the authorizing statue requires making grants to States),
as well as any intermediate grantees between the State and the
ultimate beneficiary. The applicant must also assure that it has
the ability to design and carry out the system, that it will be
accountable for Federal funds, that it has the concurrence in its
application of the other entities that would ordinarily be the
grantees, and that individuals and families in the target groups
have participated in developing the system for which approval is
sought.
Subsection (b) requires the application to describe:
1.
the geographic area to be served by the system;
2.
the target groups included in the demonstration;
3.
the goals of the system and a plan for its
comprehensive evaluation;
4.
the way in which the individuals and families will be
enabled to participate in the long and short range
plans for all aspects of the provision of services and
other benefits;
5.
the Federally funded programs to be included in the
system, and the services and benefits (and eligibility
criteria) under the system;
6.
the Federal statutory or regulatory requirements for
which waivers are requested; and
7.
any other information which the Federal administrator
needs to decide whether to approve the application or
to carry out any of his other responsibilities under
the Act.
Subsection (c) states that the concurrence in the
application of entities that would otherwise be grantees
constitutes their consent to pay to the applicant agency that
3
portion of the program funds that would benefit the target groups
within the community served by the system. The application must
describe, however, the source of the non-Federal share which is
required by the statutes that authorize programs to be included
in the system.
Subsection (d) authorizes the Federal administrator, as a
prerequisite to approval of an application, to request a
statement by the Attorney General of the relevant State that the
applicant has authority under State law to take all the actions
necessary to implement the system.
Approval of Application
Section 5 (a) directs the Federal administrator to furnish a
copy of each application received to the head of any other
Federal department or agency with a program proposed for
inclusion within the applicant's system. Before approving the
application, the Federal administrator will make recommendations
regarding the approval of programs proposed by the applicant for
inclusion in the system, and regarding related waivers, to the
Federal officials with responsibility for those programs. The
Federal administrator (and the other Federal officials) may waive
any statutory or regulatory requirement if necessary for the
implementation of the system, and may substitute a lesser
requirement where appropriate (in effect, waive the requirement
in part, rather than completely).
Subsection (b) allows approval of the application only upon
the Federal administrator's finding that the system is likely to
achieve the economic empowerment of the target groups to be
served. However, in no event may he approve an application
unless he concludes that under the restructured system, the
target group members who were previously beneficiaries of an
included program will be reasonably able to meet the needs for
which those included programs were designed.
Subsection (c) provides that upon approval, the Federal
administrator must specify the agreements reach with the
applicant on the following:
1.
the demonstration's term, which may be extended by
mutual consent;
2.
the Federally-funded included programs, except the
system cannot include any program of benefits paid
directly to the individual by the Federal government,
Federal benefits financed from a trust fund, or medical
assistance which a State is required to provide under
title XIX of the Social Security Act;
4
3.
the waivers granted (and any lesser related
requirements that may have been imposed), but the
Federal administrator (or other Federal official) may
not waive any requirements under title VI of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964, section 504 of the Rehabilitation
Act of 1973, title IX of the Education Amendments of
1972, or the Age Discrimination Act of 1975. Further,
they may waive program requirements only where it will
not unnecessarily adversely affect the individual, and
may not impose confidentiality requirements that would
impede the necessary flow of information between
various points within the system;
4.
the total Federal cost of the demonstration (or an
agreed upon method for ascertaining the cost), but
authority under the Act cannot be exercised so as to
cause obligations or outlays under any program to
increase in any year over what they would have been in
the absence of this Act; and
5.
the plan for developing data for the comprehensive
evaluation of the system, with measurable performance
criteria applicable over the term of the demonstration.
Exclusivity of Empowerment Opportunities
Program as Sources of Services
and Benefits
Section 6 limits individuals and families in the target
group to be served under a system to receiving services and
benefits under an included Federal program only though that
system.
Evaluation and Modification
Section 7 (a) requires the non-Federal administering agency
to do everything necessary to carry out its evaluation
responsibilities, and to cooperate with the Federal administrator
in any Federal evaluation or other review. Within 30 days after
the close of each 12 month period that the system is in
operation, the administering agency must submit a report
summarizing the system's principal achievements and comparing
them to the agreed upon performance criteria.
(b) If the Federal administrator, after consulting with
each other affected Federal department and agency head, finds a
substantial failure of the system to meet the performance
criteria, he may terminate the demonstration, after allowing a
reasonable period for all relevant entities to resume
administration of the individual programs previously included in
the system.
5
Reports; Extension of Authority
for Successful Systems
Section 8 (a) requires the non-Federal administering agency
to submit interim and final reports, and cooperate in audits. If
the agency believes that its system was successful in achieving
the objectives of the Act, it may submit its final evaluation and
report prior to the expiration of the demonstration's term, and
request its extension. The Federal administrator (and the other
Federal officials with included programs) may, if it appears
warranted, agree to extend the approval, and the necessary
waivers, for an appropriate period.
Subsection (b) requires that a copy of the final report be
sent to the Governor.
Definitions
Section 9 define the following terms:
1.
"State" means the 50 States, the District of Columbia,
Puerto Rico, Guam and the Virgin Islands,
2.
"local agency" includes the governing organization of
an Indian tribe and, in the case of the District of
Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam or the Virgin Islands,
includes a State agency, and
3.
"Governor" means the chief elected of official of the
State.
Effective Date
Section 10 provides that sections 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 become
effective October 1, 1991; the remainder of the Act is effective
on enactment.
204
Encyclopedia Britamica PAINE
PAINE, pãn, Robert Treat (1731-1814), American
the followin
judge and signer of the Declaration of Indepen-
dence. He was born in Boston, Mass., on March
Justice, Welfar
11, 1731. After graduating from Harvard College
age, based 0
in 1749, he studied theology and then law and
delphia befo
was admitted to the bar in 1757. He practiced
In 1802,
law in Taunton, Mass., and was assistant prose-
United State
cuting attorney in the "Boston Massacre" trial.
forts to news
Paine represented Taunton in the Massachu-
administratic
setts legislature from 1773 to 1777, with the
litical princij
exception of 1776. He was a Massachusetts del-
period he ad
egate to the First and Second Continental Con-
tions for the
gresses and one of the few to sign both the "Ol-
ed to Preside
ive Branch Petition" to King George III and the
should serve
Declaration of Independence.
the black rep
After returning to Taunton, Paine in 1777 was
York City on
elected the first attorney general of Massachu-
farm in New
setts, a position he held until 1790. He played
Cobbett, an ]
an important role in the drafting of the state con-
body for reb
stitution of 1780. He declined an appointment
has since be
to the Massachusetts supreme court in 1783, but
Influence.
accepted in 1790 and served until 1804. He was
large measur
one of the founders of the American Academy of
ed for its sti
Arts and Sciences. Paine died in Boston on May
and rational
11, 1814.
NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDOR
spective, the
Thomas Paine, from an engraving by George Romney
in its insisten
PAINE, pãn, Thomas (1737-1809), Anglo-Ameri-
of republican
can pamphleteer, political scientist, and reli-
jecting Britis
gious thinker, who issued the first public call for
men's souls." The inspiration generated by the
lution was a
the American colonies to declare their indepen-
pamphlet is credited with contributing to the
natural rights
dence from Britain. During the course of the
American success at the Battle of Trenton. See
ment. Later
revolution, he dedicated his pen to proclaiming
CRISIS, THE.
American not
the American cause throughout Europe and to
In April 1777, largely because of his writings,
affairs and W
keeping spirits high at home. When a subse-
Paine was elected secretary of the congressional
dence moven
quent revolution broke out in France, he used in
Committee of Foreign Affairs. However, he was
The Right
its behalf principles identical to those in his
forced to resign two years later when it was dis-
of men in all
American writings, becoming an international
covered that he had released in a newspaper arti-
er the averag
spokesman for political equality, natural rights,
cle privileged information concerning treaty ne-
"swinish mul
and civil liberties. Inspired by events in
gotiations with France. After the war, Paine
aries. In the
France, he applied to religion the principles of
conducted various scientific experiments and in-
for France, ]
natural reason that formed the basis of his polit-
vented a method of constructing an iron bridge.
French sentir
ical works, developing a system of deism based
In an attempt to promote the bridge, he returned
reducing pre
on science and abstract morality.
to Europe in 1787, living in England and
Britain it circ
Life. Paine was born in Thetford, England, on
France.
became a cla:
Jan. 29, 1737. After a checkered career as corset
French Revolution. In 1791, Paine published
movement.
maker, schoolmaster, itinerant preacher, and cus-
the first part of The Rights of Man-a defense
toms inspector, he traveled to America, arriving
the French Revolution in reply to the attack by
in Philadelphia in November 1774. With a letter
Edmund Burke. (The second part was issued in
of recommendation from Benjamin Franklin,
1792.) As a result, Paine left England, where he
Further Rea
The Life of Tho
who at the time was an agent for the colonies in
was subsequently declared a traitor and out.
Paine's American
England, Paine was employed for six months as
lawed, and went to France, where he was grant-
er, Eric, Tom P
managing editor of a new periodical, the Penn-
ed citizenship and, in September 1792, elected
1977); Hawke, I
vid, Tom Paine:
sylvania Magazine, to which he contributed mis-
to the National Convention. In the convention,
liamson, Audrey,
cellaneous poems and essays.
Paine associated with such moderates as Condor
American Revolution. At first an advocate of
cet and voted against the execution of Louis XVL
PAINT, a pigm
reconciliation in the contest with Britain, Paine
He thereby aroused the suspicion of the radical
plication to a
adopted the doctrine of separation as a result of
majority and was arrested by the Committee of
an opaque SO.
the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April
General Safety, which confined him in the Lux-
Paint is us
1775 and brought out his pamphlet Common
embourg prison from December 1793 to Novem-
for decoration
Sense, calling for independence, in January
ber 1794.
corded histor
1776. Common Sense, which sold more than
While in prison, Paine worked on the state
Closely relate
100,000 copies in three months, had a profound
ment of his religious beliefs, The Age of Reason
for better dist
impact on public opinion and on the delibera-
(Part I, 1794; Part II, 1796). It opens with the
and industrial
tions of the Continental Congress, then meeting
words: "I believe in one God and no more, and
the
An even n
in Philadelphia. See COMMON SENSE.
hope for happiness beyond this life." For gen-
During the Revolution, in the bleak days fol-
erations The Age of Reason was misunderstood
chinerotection
lowing Washington's forced retreat across New
and assailed as an atheistic tract, when,
Jersey and the Delaware River in December
is an expression of deistic principles, accepted
weather.
rot and decay,
1776, Paine's writing revived the flagging morale
by Franklin, Jefferson, and other 18th century
and corrosion
of the troops and the civilian population. On
intellectuals.
December 19, while serving in the Continental
In 1796, Paine also issued
of purposes, Specialized €
Army, he published the first of a series of propa-
George Washington, voicing
ganda pieces, entitled The American Crisis,
with Washington's failure to
reflective pair
paints are
which begins, "These are the times that try
channels to secure his release from prison.
coming too h
PAINE-PAINT
205
the a broad government-spon-
following year, Paine published Agrarian
absorbent paints increase the efficiency of solar
collectors. Paints containing fungicides and
covering youth and old
pesticides help prevent mildew growth on
age, based on notions he had set forth in Phila-
houses, and antifouling paints discourage the
delphia before the American Revolution.
buildup of barnacles on ship bottoms.
In 1802, Paine left France and went to the
Phosphorescent paints absorb energy from
United States, where he devoted his major ef-
the sun during daylight and then glow at night.
forts to newspaper articles jointly defending the
Special fluorescent coatings afford greater visi-
dministration of President Jefferson and the po-
bility both day and night and are used on adver-
litical principles espoused in 1776. During this
tising billboards and signs, safety clothing, and
period he advised James Monroe in his negotia-
many novelties. Paints can be made electrically
tions for the purchase of Louisiana and suggest-
conductive or nonconductive to suit special pur-
ed to President Jefferson that the United States
poses. They even can be designed to indicate
should serve as mediator between France and
temperatures by color change. The United
the black republic of Haiti. Paine died in New
States produces approximately one billion gal-
York City on June 8, 1809, and was buried on his
lons of paint products annually.
farm in New Rochelle, N. Y. In 1819, William
Types of Paints and Coatings-Architectural Coat-
Cobbett, an English journalist, exhumed Paine's
ings. Architectural paints are used for decorating
body for reburial in England, but all trace of it
and protecting homes, apartments, farm build-
has since been lost.
ings, office buildings, and other commercial
Influence. Paine's vast influence is due in
structures. They include both solvent-type and
large measure to his luminous literary style, not-
water-type paints for interior and exterior sur-
ed for its striking metaphors, colloquial vigor,
faces. In the United States architectural paints
and rational directness. From a long-range per-
compose about 51% of all paint products pro-
GALLERY,
LONDON
spective, the importance of Common Sense lies
duced and amount to more than 500 million gal-
eorge Romney
in its insistence that America adopt a new system
lons each year.
of republican government rather than simply re-
Product Finishes for Original Equipment Manufac-
jecting British rule, and that the American Revo-
turers. This group of paints is applied by original
rated by the
lution was a philosophical movement based on
equipment manufacturers to all types of newly
iting to the
natural rights and not just a change of govern-
produced articles as part of the manufacturing
renton. See
ment. Later, it helped formulate the policy of
process. Included among such finishes are
American noninvolvement in European political
marine paints as well as coatings for automo-
his writings,
affairs and was an instrument in the indepen-
biles, trucks, aircraft, railroad equipment, home
ongressional
dence movement in Latin America.
appliances, office machines, furnaces, and air-
ever, he was
The Rights of Man, by defending the dignity
conditioning equipment.
n it was dis-
of men in all countries against those who consid-
Each product finish is formulated for a specif-
vspaper arti-
er the average person to be merely one of the
ic use. Because of the need to protect manufac-
ig treaty ne-
"swinish multitude," transcends national bound-
tured products from a broad spectrum of harmful
war, Paine
aries. In the United States it fostered sympathy
environments, this group of coatings makes use
ents and in-
for France, helping to check a growing anti-
of the greatest variety of chemical raw materials.
iron bridge.
French sentiment during the Federal period and
Depending on the equipment and its intended
he returned
reducing pressure for war with France. In
use, the coating may be designed to protect
ngland and
Britain it circulated among republican clubs and
against the weather, corrosion by fresh or salt
became a classic document in the working-class
water, chemicals, abrasion and wear, or heat and
e published
movement.
sunlight. In many cases product finishes also
a defense of
A. OWEN ALDRIDGE
must be colorful and attractive to add sales ap-
he attack by
Author of "Man of Reason"
peal to the products.
/as issued in
Product finishes account for some 31% of all
d, where he
or and out-
The Life of Thomas Paine (Lippincott 1959); id., Thomas
Further Reading: Aldridge, A. Owen, Man of Reason:
paints and coatings produced-more than 300
Paine's American Idealogy (Univ. of Del. Press 1984); Fon-
million gallons each year-in the United
e was grant-
er, Eric, Tom Paine and Revolutionary America (Oxford
792, elected
1977); Hawke, David F., Paine (Harper 1974); Powell, Da-
States.
vid, Tom Paine: The Greatest Exile (St. Martin's 1985); Wil-
Special-Purpose Coatings. Paints and coatings
convention,
liamson, Audrey, Thomas Paine (St. Martin's 1973).
included in this category account for slightly
S as Condor-
f Louis XVL
PAINT, a pigment-bearing liquid designed for ap-
more than 18% of all paints manufactured in the
f the radical
plication to a surface in a thin layer that cures to
United States or about 185 million gallons annu-
ommittee of
ally. The special-purpose category includes
an opaque solid film.
paint products generally used for maintenance
in the Lux-
Paint is used for many purposes. It was used
3 to Novem-
for decoration long before the beginning of re-
work and coatings for the transportation aftermar-
corded history, and this is still a major use.
ket. They differ from architectural paints in that
on the state-
Closely related to decoration is the use of paint
they are designed for special applications and for
for better distribution of light in homes, offices,
withstanding unusual environmental conditions.
ge of Reason
ens with the
and industrial plants.
For example, special-purpose coatings are for-
more, and
mulated specifically to stand up under extremes
the protection of wood and metal structures, ma-
An even more important function of paint is
of heat and cold, to resist chemical attack in oil
For gen-
sunderstood
en, in fact, it
chinery, the and other artifacts that are exposed to
refineries and chemical plants, to prevent fungus
growth in meat and food packing plants, and to
es, accepted
weather. Paint protects wood surfaces from
rot and decay, and metal surfaces from oxidation
withstand steam cleaning and high humidity.
8th century
and corrosion.
Special-purpose coatings are used widely in
Specialized paints are used for a wide variety
the transportation aftermarket for repainting au-
lic Letter to
of purposes, especially in industry. Skid-resis-
tomobiles, trucks, aircraft, ships and pleasure
boats. They are also used widely for traffic-
illusionment used offical In
reflective paints keep oil-storage tanks from be-
paints are used on steps and floors. Heat-
marking paints for highways as well as for the
prison.
coming too hot in sunny locations, and heat-
surfaces of parking lots and the floor areas of
manufacturing plants. Paints containing metal-
DOUGLAS-HOME-DOUGLASS
313
ulty
cones on the same tree: the
to internal party criticism. In 1970, Prime Minis-
are orange-red; the pistillate
ter Edward Heath named him foreign secretary.
a rounded scales, which are
The flower cones mature into
law law
Douglas-Home's political career revealed him as
a man who acted instinctively on the basis of
member of the
mission (SEC)
bright red along the edge.
0, 1, 1937, he became
a 1 scales. The seeds
E on the underside, purplish
somewhat rigidly held beliefs, rather than as the
possessor of a well-formulated ideology.
as much as ½ inch
A. J. BEATTIE, London School of Economics
he
$13
about 1/4 mm) long, with a light
DOUGLASS, Andrew Ellicott (1867-1962), Amer-
ever appointed
Court
wing that catches air currents for
ican astronomer and dendrochronologist, who
1 April 17, 1939.
brown-red of the seed.
originated the science of dendrochronology in
IS suffered' a stroke
Because of its symmetry and rapid growth,
1901. He was born in Windsor, Vt., on July 5,
recover fully.
Douglas fir is widely planted, thriving best in
1867, graduated from Trinity College, Hartford,
reme Court in the
porous, sandy loam. Unlike the spruces, which
Conn., in 1889, and was appointed professor of
forced him to
resembles in cultural requirements, it usually
physics and astronomy at the University of Ari-
should be planted in groups because the soft,
zona in 1906. He was the director of its Steward
erving a record
thin needles are easily broken and dessicated by
Observatory from 1918 to 1938. He died in
stently voted for
winds. The Douglas fir's many fibrous roots
Tucson, Ariz., on March 20, 1962.
Douglass developed dendrochronology as a
powers. For ex.
suit
it well for transplanting, even when the
dissented from the
is of considerable size, as well as for growth
result of an investigation of the theory that the
several cases that
tree shallow soils. Seeds for planting should be
sun affects the weather and the weather affects
the legality of the
collected at maturity and, after overwintering,
tree growth. Later, he established parallel pat-
ing a strong inter.
first in beds or flats and then into nursery
terns between the tree ring growth, climatic
he led the strug-
Seeds from trees on the Pacific slope
cycles, and sunspot variations, and he con-
those accused of
rows. produce plants subject to frost damage, but
structed an exact chronology of climatic varia-
st in dissent, be
trees from high elevations bear cold-resistant
tions over a period of nearly 2,000 years. His
seeds. Layering and grafting are used to propa-
technique of dating events by rings in aged
was applicable to
cess clause of the
gate unusual varieties and forms.
wood also proved useful in determining the
Mapp V. Ohio
RICHARD S. COWAN, Smithsonian Institution
dates of archaeological sites.
Amendment pro-
ALAN D. COVEY, Arizona State University
and seizures ap-
DOUGLAS-HOME, dug'les hûm, Sir Alec (1903-
rity of the court
), British prime minister from October
DOUGLASS, David (died 1786), English actor
S issue.
1963 to October 1964. Alexander Frederick
and theater. manager, who established America's
es for the court,
Douglas-Home was born in Scotland on July
first permanent theater, the Southwark, in Phila-
1903, the son of the 13th Earl of Home. After
delphia in 1766. He also directed (1767) his
vrote prolifically.
Mountains (1950),
attending Eton and Oxford, he entered the
American Company in Thomas Godfrey's The
52), An Almanac
House of Commons (with the courtesy title
Prince of Parthia, the first professional production
Journey (1956),
Lord Dunglass) as a Conservative in 1931. Until
of an American play.
and A Wilder.
World War II, his interest lay in domestic
Little is known about Douglass' early life.
1 1966, Douglas
issues, in which he emphasized the need to
In 1758, while on an acting tour in Jamaica, he
e died in Wash-
mitigate class divisions.
married the widow of the English theater man-
and was buried
When Neville Chamberlain became prime
ager Lewis Hallam, Sr. Douglass combined
minister in 1937, Dunglass was made his parlia-
Hallam's company with his own to form the
ersity of Chicago
mentary private secretary, with administrative
American Company and took his actors to the
rather than policy-making duties. He was omit-
American colonies. In spite of opposition from
ted from the Churchill government that replaced
the Puritans, he built several theaters there,
bearing tree, fre-
ill, with a trunk
Chamberlain's in 1940. He became a joint
including the historic Southwark and another
or more in diam-
parliamentary undersecretary at the foreign office
permanent theater, the John Street, which he
tsuga taxifolia),
May 1945 but lost his Commons seat in the
established in New York in 1767. At the onset
(Pinaceae), is
1945 election and did not return until 1950.
of the American Revolution, he returned to
Columbia south
In 1951, Dunglass succeeded his father as the
Jamaica, where he held a British government
western Texas
14th Earl of Home. Although forced to leave
post until his death.
d from sea level
the house of Commons, he made rapid progress
(3,300 meters).
politically. He became minister of state for
DOUGLASS, Frederick (1817-1895), American
in the northern
Scotland in 1951, Commonwealth secretary in
Negro abolitionist and reformer. He was born in
le beauty of its
1955, and leader of the House of Lords in
February 1817 near Easton, Md. Intelligent and
1957. In 1960 he was appointed foreign sec-
spirited, he escaped from slavery in 1838 and
to Europe.
retary by Prime Minister Macmillan. This ap-
settled in New Bedford, Mass. In 1841 at an
e trees is up to
vided into large,
pointment aroused criticism, but Home proved
abolitionist meeting in Nantucket he related his
is soft and red
to be diplomatically skillful and forthright.
slave experiences. and for the next four years.
white sapwood.
Macmillan resigned in October 1963, and
despite many indignities, he lectured throughout
ty, but it is one
Home, to general surprise, succeeded him as
the East for antislavery groups. In 1845 he
e United States,
prime minister, as a compromise candidate least
published The Narrative of the Life of Frederick
e it is used for
likely to split the party. He renounced his
Douglass, which revealed his master's identity
es, and pilings.
peerage and became Sir Alec Douglas-Home.
and endangered Douglass' liberty. The tall,
unning leathers.
As he was an excellent chairman
handsome, and articulate Douglass took refuge
their pendulous
business rather than a "power-
in England, where friendly liberals purchased
ith spirally ar-
his freedom from his master.
to two opposite
Douglas-Home surprised many by his effective-
Conservative defeat in 1964,
From 1847. after his return to the United
tipped needles
States, he published his own abolitionist news-
and about 1/16
of as leader of the opposition. But because
paper, the North Star, in Rochester, N.Y., until
ly dark yellow-
to his distaste for political intrigue, he refused
1863. It also supported women's rights, a cause
te) and female
Conservative save his position and resigned as
that Douglass championed from his participation
ur in separate,
leader in July 1965 in response
in the first women's rights convention (1848).
314
DOUHET-DOUKHOBORS
DOUKHOBORS,
Christian sect that
DOULTON WA
18th century and whose emi.
stoneware pott
grated to Canada. The total population of Dou.
the 18th centu
khobors in Canada is estimated at about 20,000.
ware decorated
The name "Doukhobors" derives from the Rus.
ham (London)
sian dukhobortsy, meaning "spirit fighters.
the firm of Do
Beliefs. In doctrine and practice the Doukho
was founded in
bors resemble somewhat the Quakers, Menno-
Watts. Among
nites, and other dissenting religious movements
gin bottles of
that arose at the same time. They seek to re-
ing from pistol
Frederick
store the simplicity of worship of the early
litical figures.
Douglass
Christian church. The church, priests, sacra-
In 1854 the
ments, and icons are therefore rejected. The
in the 1860's i
altar holds only water, bread, and salt.
orative pottery,
The Doukhobors seek inner inspiration, which
beth School of
must come from direct revelation. God is con
worth, known
ceived as the Soul of the World, living in the
amusingly mod
UPI
human heart, teaching wisdom, and giving hap
incised drawing
piness. The soul does not enter the body at the
Mitchell, for in
Gradually he broke with William Lloyd Gar-
moment of birth; it develops gradually during
Doulton in
rison's "moral suasionist" policy and became a
childhood and adolescence. It is shaped by the
bodies, includin
political abolitionist, ultimately supporting the
memory and reason of the "Living Book," which
"faience." The
Republican party. He used his lecture fees to
is a tradition that is believed to derive from
facture at Burs
aid fugitive slaves and headed the Rochester
Christ and is expressed in a large number of
stoneware prod
station of the underground railroad. He was
hymns, meditations, precepts, and commentaries
forced by a lack of funds to abandon his scheme
Autho
The doctrine of original sin is also denied. The
for an industrial college for Negroes. Despite
fall of Adam is understood as having no degen.
his opposition to the Harpers Ferry raid (1859),
erating influence on his descendants.
DOUMERGUE,
Douglass fled to Canada because he had raised
All Doukhobors are vegetarians. They are
president and ]
money for the ventures of his friend and confi-
also pacifists and refuse to be inducted into
at Aigues-Vives
dant John Brown.
military service. Family ties are based on mu.
law and holdin
During the Civil War he recruited Negroes
tual affection and not on parental authority.
the colonies, he
for the Union Army, pushed for emancipation
History. The Doukhobors sect was first dis
ties (1893-1910
and enfranchisement, and then supported con-
covered in 1750 by the czarist authorities in
the Senate. H
gressional Reconstruction. He campaigned for
the villages along the Dnieper River in the
before World V
the postwar Republican presidential candidates
Ukraine. The sect was by then already fully
premier for six
and was rewarded with various federal appoint-
organized with a clearly defined creed and
In 1923 he
ments including that of minister to Haiti (1889-
large membership. Members opposed the Ortho
ate and activel
1891). He died in Washington on Feb. 20, 1895.
dox Church and rejected the authority of the
of the Ruhr wh
JAMES J. KENNEALLY, Stonehill College
czar and government. They also refused to bear
tions payments
arms. The Doukhobors were severely perse-
France in June
Further Reading: Douglass, Frederick, Life and Writ-
ings, ed., by P. S. Foner, 5 vols. (1950-1955; reprint, Intl.
cuted by Catherine the Great and later by her
place national i
Pub. 1975); Martin, Waldo E., Jr., The Mind of Frederick
son, Paul I, who in 1799 commanded that all
A skillful ar
Douglass (Univ. of N.C. Press 1986).
members of the sect be banished to Siberian
increasingly COI
mines and given the hardest work. They were
term in 1931,
DOUHET, doo-e', Giulio (1869-1930), Italian
permitted to return by Czar Alexander I but
premier to forr
army air officer, who forecast the impact of air
were again exiled in the reign of Nicholas I.
the antiparliame
power and bombardment on military strategy.
One of the first notable leaders of the sect
proposals to ref
He was born at Caserta, Italy, on May 30, 1869,
was Saveli Kapustin. Like Doukhobor leaders
the executive p
and began his career as an artillery officer in
after him, he was acknowledged to be the re:
to the fall of hi
the Italian army. An early advocate of the air-
incarnation of Christ. The most influential leader
died at Aigues-
plane, he commanded an air battalion from 1912
was Peter Verigin, under whose guidance the
to 1914. In 1915, during World War I, he
Doukhobors accomplished their exodus from
unsuccessfully urged that Italy build a fleet of
Russia to Canada. With the financial help of
Caproni bombers and destroy vital areas in
Count Leo Tolstoy and the English Quakers,
DOURO RIVER,
Austria. Imprisoned for a year in 1916-1917
8,000 Doukhobors emigrated in 1898. Verigin
Spain and Por
for criticizing his superiors, he was later vindi-
was held in exile in Siberia but was permitted
Sierra de Urbió
cated by the Italian defeat at Caporetto, which
to join the sect in Saskatchewan in 1902. Many
occurred much as he had predicted, and was ap-
Doukhobors later settled in British Columbia.
Ailanticstward
pointed director of aeronautical technical ser-
In Canada the sect divided into three colon
Atlantics Oceard 1
]
vices. Douhet retired as a lieutenant colonel in
ies, which soon differed from one another
guese border.
1918 but was given post-service rank as major
creed and economic organization. The most
Along the fr
general in 1921. He died at Rome on Feb. 14,
radical group is called the Sons of Freedom
1930.
They refuse to send their children to public
waterpower of of tt
Douhet published The Command of the Air in
schools, reject modern technology, and generality
oppose the Western way of life. They have fellow
electric in plant at
and
1921, and another major work, The War of 19--,
appeared posthumously in 1931. In these books,
members who have strayed from the creed
violent methods, such as arson, to coerce
of Spain's hydro
western Euro₁
Douhet visualizes a purely defensive role for
surface forces, with almost sole reliance on
They have also held nude parades to demor
aerial offensives to command the air and destroy
strate their desire to return to primitive
sim
Beforde Dower f(
I
enemy capabilities. See also AIR WARFARE:
being
plicity. Most Doukhobors, however, are
Tower Dourouro at 1
JOHN W. CARPENTER, III
assimilated into Canadian life.
Lt. General, USAF; Commander, Air University
Iod
Val
SULA BENET, Hunter College, New
Her
592
SETH-SETTIGNANO
SETH, in the Old Testament, was the third son
SETON, sē'tan,
E
of Adam, born after Abel's death, according to
American
Genesis 4:25. Another tradition, based on Gen-
esis 5:3, does not mention Cain and Abel, thus
was born Ernest Seton Thompson in South
Shields, England, on Aug. 14, 1860, and
making Seth the first-born son of Adam and Eve.
taken to Canada as a child. He studied art
He was the father of Enosh, and the genealogical
Royal Academy in London and gained his at
table in I Chronicles 1:1 mentions him as an an-
edge of animals and woodcraft in the wilds
bustic
plays followed was
cestor of Noah. Luke included him in the gene-
Canada and the western United States.
ology of Christ (Luke 3:38). He was made the
The success of Seton's story collection
which 1666), was perforr
object of special reverence by a heretical Jewish
Animals I Have Known ( 1898; new ed., 1942)
before being pres
sect called the Sethites.
led him to write and illustrate some 40
Dryden, W
books. He also lectured widely and led scouting
position as the
SETI I, se'tē (reigned c.1303-1290 B. c.), was
and woodcraft activities for young people. Im-
cized
The Empress
the second king of the 19th dynasty of Egypt.
pressed by the scout organization founded
Crowne and
The son of Ramses I and father of Ramses II,
with a pamp
Britain, Seton helped to establish the Boy Scouts
Seti restored much of the territory and prestige
of America. Among his works are the stories The
Conquest of Grane
that Egypt had lost during the end of the 18th
stzed
him in his p
Trail of the Sandhill Stag (1899), The Biography
dynasty. He fought successfully in Palestine and
of a Grizzly (1900), and The Lives of the Hunted
1681), referring to
more pamphlet
against the Libyans and made peace with the
(1901) and his autobiography The Trail of
Hittites. He built much of the Hypostyle Hall at
In 1691, Settle
Artist-Naturalist (1940). He died in Santa Fe,
Karnak and his tomb at Thebes.
N. Mex., on Oct. 23, 1946.
Landon. He died
Anya Seton (1916- ), his daughter,
SÉTIF, sã-tēf', is a city in northeastern Algeria, in
a successful novelist, whose works include was My
ETTLEMENT HOL
the department of the same name. It is situated
Theodosia (1941), the story of Aaron Burr's
neighborhood CE
at an altitude of about 3,600 feet (1,100 meters),
daughter; and Dragonwyck (1944), a Gothie
mpathetic worker.
in a cereal-growing region. Connected by rail
novel with a Hudson River setting.
particular local con
with Algiers and Constantine, the city serves as a
life and by enli
local trade and communications center. Its in-
SETON HALL UNIVERSITY, sē'tan, is a private
people. They devis
Roman Catholic, coeducational institution
services to indivi
dustries include carpet manufacturing and flour
milling.
higher learning, with its main campus in South
rganizations that
Known in ancient times as Sitifis, the city
Orange, N.J. It was founded as Seton Hall Col-
those of existing inst
dates back to the 1st century A. D., when the
lege in Madison, N. J., in 1856, and the campus
History. The first
Romans founded it as a veterans' colony. The
was moved to South Orange in 1860. It was
Hall, was found
modern city was built by the French on the ruins
named Seton Hall University in 1950.
Samuel Augustus
Parish and later can
of the ancient town. Population: (1977) 144,200.
Seton Hall grants bachelor's degrees in the
rigues were men fi
schools of arts and sciences, education, nursing
SETON, sē'tan, Saint Elizabeth Ann (1774-1821),
and business administration. A college of the
aiversities. Barnett
American Roman Catholic religious leader, who
university in Paterson, N.J., offers a similar
describe a group
was the first native-born North American to be
undergraduate program. A school of law is
in a working-clas
canonized. She founded the first American com-
cated in Newark. Graduate programs leading
Bemselves with its
munity of the Daughters (or Sisters) of Charity
to master's degrees are available, and a doctoral
Landing and improvi
of St. Vincent de Paul.
program in chemistry is also provided. In the
to bring people to
Elizabeth Ann Bayley was born in New York,
ocial barriers, so th
early 1970's, enrollment exceeded 9,000.
N. Y., on Aug. 28, 1774. The well-educated, de-
other and there
voutly Episcopalian daughter of a noted physi-
SETON-WATSON, se'tan-wot'san, Robert William
themselves and f
cian, she married the merchant William Seton in
(1879-1951), British historian. He was born
motivation of the
1794, had five children, and also found time to
Ayton, Perthshire, Scotland, on Aug. 20, 1879
was religious, b
help the poor. When Seton lost his fortune and
He was educated at New College, Oxford (B.
attlement as a nonse
his health, she accompanied him on a therapeutic
1902; D. Litt., 1910), and he studied at the As
identified with
voyage to Italy in 1803 to visit friends, the Filic-
universities of Berlin, Paris, and Vienna.
achool, politics, and e
chi family, in Livorno. They consoled her at
expert on central Europe and the Balkans, he was
The settlement mov
Seton's death six weeks later and introduced her
professor of central European history at the United
with the estab
to Catholicism. She returned to New York City
versity of London (1922-1945) and professor
Among Side of New York
Fat
now University
and was received into the Roman Catholic
Czechoslovak studies at Oxford (1945-1949)
Church in 1805.
He founded the magazine New Europe (1916)
noted pioneer
Elizabeth's family and friends, who shared the
and was joint editor, with Sir Bernard Pares, died
Addams, cofound
strong anti-Catholic prejudice of that era, op-
the Slavonic Review (1922-1949). He
slums of Chica
posed her conversion and abandoned the prac-
Skye, Scotland, on July 25, 1951.
with a colleague f
tically destitute widow. In 1808 she accepted the
Seton-Watson's works include The Southern
service that for
invitation of Father L. W.V. Dubourg, superior
Slav Question (1911), The Rise of Nationality Pat
The
Street Settlemen
of the Sulpicians, to found a girls' school in Balti-
in the Balkans (1917), Europe in the Melting Britisin
(1919), Slovakia Then and Now (1931), and
thborhood Centers
National Fede₁
more. Several women offered their aid, and Du-
bourg and Bishop Carroll of Baltimore gave her
in Europe, 1789-1914 (1937), Britain Descrity
entions ements in the Uni
a rule for a religious community. Mother Seton
Dictators (1938), From Munich to Slower
also exist in A1
moved to Emmitsburg, Md., in 1809 and in 1812
(1939), and History of the Czechs and
adopted a modified rule of the Daughters of
(1943).
Swe
Charity. She and her congregation devoted them-
selves to care of the sick and the poor and espe-
SETTER. Any of several breeds of dogs on
mational Federation
fon
cially to teaching, largely shaping the American
ing game. See ENGLISH SETTER; GORDON SETTER
inally trained to crouch in a set position
parochial school system. Several other inde-
organizations. later be represen
pendent congregations are derived from that of
IRISH SETTER.
Mother Seton. She died in Emmitsburg on Jan.
SETTIGNANO, Desiderio da. See DESIDERIO
boards Insofar
4, 1821, and was canonized in 1975. Her feast
concerned, S
day is January 4.
SETTIGNANO.
and, public
in many ca: a
enzo (1777-1850)
assical
BARTOLOZZI, bär-tõ-lôt'tse, He Francesco born (1727-
engraver. was in Florence,
era. He was were born
and
15), of a goldsmith. He studied at the
son where he excelled in draw-
later to engraving, he studied un-
1 in Paris. In 1808
and a bas.
Venice and in Rome, engraving copies of the
Joseph Wagner in Venice. He became active
sculpture in Car.
works of 17th century master painters.
in
In 1764, at the invitation of the librarian
King George III, he went to London, where
became engraver to the king. He lived in
England for nearly 40 years, in close association
Clara Barton
his friend Giovanni Cipriani, and produced
with merous engraved copies of the works of such
(1821-1912)
nâ'õ, Fra (1475-
is one of the lead-
as Holbein, Gainsborough, Reynolds, Cos-
naissance style
artists and Fra Angelico. In 1802, after accepting
of his paintings
commission to make an engraved portrait of
of form and clar.
the regent of Portugal, he went to Lisbon, where
lly known for
became director of the Royal Academy. He *
MATHEW BRADY PHOTO,
COURTESY AMERICAN RED CROSS
His full name was
died in Lisbon on March 7, 1815.
ittorino, Porta. and he
Bartolozzi exerted a strong influence on
BARTON, bär'ten, Clara (1821-1912), American
French and English engravers of his time, who
humanitarian, who organized the American Red
Florence on March
adopted his use of the stipple, or "red chalk,"
Cross. She was successively a school teacher,
ero di Cosimo and
method. This technique makes it possible to
clerk, battlefield heroine, lecturer, and relief
Rosselli, where he
produce varying shades of black and gray, there-
organizer.
by allowing the engraver to achieve a complete
Clarissa Harlowe Barton was born in North
inter who became
ork. Bartolommeo
range of tones.
Oxford, Mass., on Dec. 25, 1821. Forced to give
nardo and Michel-
Bartolozzi produced more than 700 engrav-
up her teaching career because of a throat ail-
arent in such early
ings, prized for their delicacy of execution and
ment, she worked in the Patent Office in Wash-
ment (1499-1501,
accuracy of design. His more notable copies of
ington, D.C., from 1854 to 1861. Distressed at
). After the death
masterworks include Death of Lord Chatham,
the lack of supplies and "comforts" for the
om he was an ad-
after John Singleton Copley; Virgin and .Child,
wounded in the Civil War, she began, without
o took holy orders
after Carlo Dolci; Clyte, after Annibale Carracci;
official organization or affiliation, to minister to
ican monastery of
Venus, Cupid, and a Satyr, after Luca Giordano;
casualties battle sites in Virginia. Soon known
for four years. In
and St. Jerome, after Correggio.
as the "Angel of the Battlefield," she divided
and gave Barto-
her time between caring for the wounded and
tive, receiving
BARTOLUS, bär'tõ-las (1314-1357), Italian legal
cooking pies and puddings for them. Eventually
ainting drapery.
scholar, who helped revive the historical method
she was accredited as superintendent of nurses
508, Bartolommeo
in law instruction. He was born at Sassoferrato
with the Army of the James.
ned a workshop,
in 1314. After receiving his LL.D. degree at
In 1865, at Miss Barton's urging, President
sistant. They pro-
Bologna, he became professor at Pisa and later
Lincoln authorized her to gather records on miss-
ant altarpieces for
Perugia. He published several works based
ing Union soldiers. Thousands of the dead were
the next decade.
on studies of the common law and ancient au-
thus identified, particularly many victims of the
orks are the Vision
thorities. The most important are On Procedure,
notorious Andersonville Prison in Georgia. While
Accademia, Flor-
On Evidence, and Commentary on the Code of
combining this work with lecturing, Miss Barton
St. Catherine of
Justinian. Bartolus, or Bartolo, died at Perugia.
became nationally famous, but in 1869 her health
iseo, Lucca), two
broke and she went to Europe to recuperate.
Catherine (1511,
BARTON, bär'ten, Bruce (1886-1967), American
In Geneva, Miss Barton first heard of the
alace, Florence),
advertising executive and writer. He was born
International Red Cross, established in 1864 at
(1515, Lucca),
in Robbins, Tenn., on Aug. 5, 1886. After
the instigation of Jean Henri Dunant. Enrolling
Salvator Mundi
graduating from Amherst College in 1907, he
as a volunteer to help civilian victims of the
intings on which
worked briefly in a railroad camp in Montana
Franco-Prussian War, she visited Paris and other
neo are the As
before taking an editorial job on the Home
-1508, Staatliche
Herald, a magazine published in Chicago. In
cities, remaining abroad until 1873.
ith Saints (1509,
1912 he became assistant sales manager for the
After resettling in Washington as a lecturer,
:), and the altar-
publishers P.F. Collier and Son in New York
Miss Barton was invited by Red Cross authorities
in 1877 to work for affiliation of an American
let (1511-1512
City, and it was for this firm that he wrote his
first advertising copy.
society with Geneva. The American group she
formed was incorporated as the American As-
d Rome, where
In 1919, with Roy Durstine and Alex Osborn,
founded an advertising agency, which merged
sociation of the Red Cross in 1881, and in 1882
d St. Paul, in the
the U.S. Senate voted adherence to the Geneva
and saw the later
1928 with the George Batten Company to be-
Convention of 1864 that established Red Cross
nardo, which im-
come Batten, Barton, Durstine and Osborn, Inc.,
is mature works
with Barton as chairman. BBDO (as the firm
principles in international law. Miss Barton as-
ations that even-
was familiarly known) quickly became one of
sumed the presidency of the American Red Cross.
Aided by a few devoted assistants, but with
t of 16th-century
e use of general-
Barton. world, and much credit for its growth goes to
most influential advertising agencies in the
no formal organization, she introduced to the
ontemporary COP
Red Cross program relief for victims of major
for He created the character Betty Crocker
the of gen-
General Mills and was instrumental in pro-
disasters, issued appeals for help, and personally
m of Dicturesque
led many relief expeditions into regions dev-
public image of the United
astated by forest fires, floods, and hurricanes.
clommeo challeaged was
Barton also wrote
In 1898, at the age of 77, she outfitted a ship to
orkshop declined
the best-selling The
take relief supplies to the Cuban insurgents; but
Oct. 31, 1517.
Knows (1925), a popularized treat-
City on July 5, 1967.
of the life of Christ. He died in New York
with the outbreak of the Spanish-American War
she diverted the ship to aid the American forces
and ran the operation from a Cuban beachhead.
283
284
BARTON-BARUCH
By 1900, growing criticism of Miss Barton's
BARTRAM, John (1699-1777), American bota-
type of personal leadership brought about rein-
corporation of the American Red Cross by Con-
nist, who was described as the greatest natural
botanist in the world" by Linnaeus and is fre.
gress. The new charter required the rendering of
quently called the "father of American botany."
an annual financial report: Although controversy
over Miss Barton's methods of control continued,
He was born near Darby, Pa., on March 23,
1699. As a young farm boy, he became inter.
she remained as president until 1904, when she
ested in botany and tried to read, even in Latin
resigned, and the society was reorganized.
all the available books on the subject. He
With the pains of the early Red Cross long
founded a botanical garden at Kingsessing, Pa,
since forgotten, and no evidence ever bringing
and began there what were probably the first
to question Clara Barton's character, her name
experiments in hybridization. Not especially in-
rests securely among the great and imaginative
terested in the details of classification, Bartram
pioneers in philanthropic accomplishments.
was above all a lover of living things. Though
Her publications include A Story of the Red
his main interest was always botany, he also gave
Cross (1904) and Story of My Childhood (1907).
some attention to zoology and geology. He
See also RED CROSS.
traveled extensively in the eastern United States
CHARLES HURD
and in 1751 published a report of its inhabitants
Author of "The Compact History
climate, soil, and other conditions. He was in
of the American Red Cross"
constant correspondence with European botanists
and sent them American plant specimens. He
BARTON, Sir Edmund (1849-1920), Australian
died on Sept. 22, 1777, at Kingessing, Pa. A
prime minister and judge. He was born in Syd-
genus of mosses, Bartramia, is named for him.
ney, on Jan. 18, 1849. Educated at the Uni-
William Bartram (1739-1823), his son, was 2
versity of Sydney, he. was a member of the New
traveler and naturalist. He was born in Kingses
BERNARD
South Wales legislature in 1879-1887 and 1891-
sing, Pa., on Feb. 9, 1739. He traveled in the
1894. Following the death of Sir Henry Parkes,
southeastern United States and in 1791 published
Barton was a leader of the movement for Aus-
a fascinating book describing his findings. The
quented
tralian federation and in 1900 headed the dele-
book is believed to have influenced Wordsworth
in New
gation to London for the passage of the Com-
and Coleridge. William Bartram also corre-
such mas
monwealth Constitution bill in Parliament. On
sponded with European naturalists. After his
R. Keene
December 31 of that year he became Australia's
father's death, he and his brother, John, man-
of vast in
first prime minister. He resigned this office in
aged the Kingsessing Gardens. He died at King-
Advise
1903 and became a senior justice of the Austra-
sessing on July 22, 1823.
tracted t
lian High Court. Barton died at Medlow on Jan.
President
7, 1920.
BARUCH, ba-rook', Bernard Mannes (1870-
Baruch (
1965), American financier, philanthropist, and
Advisory
BARTON, Elizabeth (c. 1506-1534), English-
public official. As a public official, a self-made
Defense E
woman, who figured in a political and religious
multimillionaire, and adviser to several presi-
sion on
controversy during the reign of Henry VIII. She
dents, Baruch reflected the temper of the Ameri
Later, W
was born at Aldington, Kent, and became a
can scene for half a century. A sounding board
purchasin
servant in Canterbury. Prone to hysterical, per-
and spokesman for unformulated public opinion,
pointed 1
haps epileptic, seizures during which she uttered
Baruch, the legendary "park bench statesman,
Board. B
religious revelations and prophecies, she became
often put into words what the average American
make him
famous when some of these came true. The
thought and felt but did not have the oppor-
accompan
"Maid of Kent," as she came to be called, at-
tunity to say. He was, by turns, a Wall Street
Conferenc
tracted the attention of William Warham, arch-
tycoon, a Wilsonian idealist, a reluctant New
Peace Co
bishop of Canterbury, and he ordered an investi-
Dealer, and an Eisenhower Democrat. A man
Economic
gation of the case. Meanwhile, Henry VIII
whose fame and influence were considerable
dealing W
delegated Thomas More to make inquiries. More
Baruch, in his determination to remain behind
of the pea
declared that he found her utterances nothing
the scenes and avoid political risks, also for-
ings of tl
but "what a right simple woman might speak of
feited many of the rewards of public service.
George, ai
her own wit."
Entering public life in 1916, Baruch mobi-
Later G
Edward Bocking, Canterbury's investigator,
lized American industry in World War I as chair-
official res
apparently exploited her for his own political
man of the War Industries Board. His last major
Coolidge a
ends. She became a nun at his suggestion, and it
national service was in 1946 when President
port from
is believed that he prompted her political prophe-
Truman named him to present to the United
publican
cies. She admonished Henry VIII that if he
Nations the U.S. plan for atomic energy control
down Pres
married Anne Boleyn, he would die within six
Early Life. Baruch was born in Camden, S.Gᵢ
an ambass
months; following his marriage she warned him
on Aug. 19, 1870. He was the second son at
war mobi
that he would be disavowed by his subjects.
Dr. Simon Baruch, a surgeon born in Posen, East
after Jame
Henry considered this warning treason, and he
Prussia, who had served with the Confederate
Baruch
had Elizabeth arrested and examined before the
forces under Gen. Robert E. Lee, and of Belle
Star Chamber. The chamber produced a con-
(Wolfe) Baruch, of Winnsboro, S.C., whose
fession that she had feigned the trances. She
American heritage reached back to colonial days
was condemned, without benefit of trial, and
The family moved to New York in 1881, and
Baruch graduated from the City College of New
charmships
was hanged at Tyburn, on April 21, 1534.
Bocking and four others also were executed.
York in 1889. In 1897 he married Annie Griffen,
The validity of documents attesting to her
who died in 1938. They had three children.
the years f
confession has been questioned. Without any
Baruch started out in Wall Street as a run- first
John K
trial records to examine, it is impossible to judge
ner earning $3 a week. He had amassed his by
fact-finding 1953. Celebra F.
of sophisti
man and
Sir Winsto
whether she was a conspirator, a saint, or a
million dollars by the time he was 30, and year
Paris Peac
woman with a mental illness. Some authorities
his mid-30's he had $1 million for
prime min
believe she was a simple, deluded, and much
of his age. He was a member of the
York home
exploited victim of political intrigue.
"Waldorf crowd," a group of financiers
556
WRIGHT
to contain more anger than art, but despite some
whose gliding experiments Wilbur and
unevenness of style he sustained in his works a
had followed eagerly, they thought of taking Orville
others (alt
narrative power and a disturbing emotional im-
pact that brought him lasting recognition.
gliding where Lilienthal had left off. Their up
terest in aerodynamics had been aroused in-
supersonic was a
WILLIAM BRACY, Beaver College
Further Reading: Gayle, Addison, Richard Wright: Or-
bands. Finding few books on the subject rubber in
childhood by a toy helicopter powered by in
other.
These
deal of a Native Son (Smith, P. 1983).
Dayton Public Library, they wrote in 1899 to the
attempt
liography. Books they then read included bib-
Smithsonian Institution at Washington for a the
knew what
WRIGHT, Silas, American political leader: b. Am-
to compil
herst, Mass., May 24, 1795; d. Canton, N.Y., Aug.
27, 1847. He graduated from Middlebury Col-
ienthal's The Problem of Flying and Practical Lil-
might desi
Experiments in Soaring; and
By: Their
lege, was admitted to the bar in 1819, and began
Machines, by Octave Chanute,
practicing in Canton. From 1824 to 1827 he was
of attempts to fly: Wilbur came
more culations, than
in the New York State Senate, where he became
ute, at first by correspondence, and years the
able chang
a leader of the Bucktail Democrats (opposed to
brothers kept him informed of their progress.
twin vertic
DeWitt Clinton) and a member of the Albany
Regency group. (See ALBANY REGENCY; BUCK-
Orville thought a flying machine should be
discovered
TAILS.) In 1827 he went to the House of Repre-
under better control than any yet tried, and that
needed to
sentatives in Washington, where he favored pro-
for sidewise balance there should be a way to
wings at d
scheme of
tection and helped frame the 1828 "tariff" of
present the right and left wings at different an-
abominations" (which later, in 1842, he admitted
gles to the wind; Wilbur hit on a practical way to
With the 1
do this, by twisting or warping the wings. To
of more th
was "a great error"). He resigned his House seat
test this method, they built, in July 1899, a small
smaller an
in 1829 to become comptroller of New York State
kitelike glider with superposed surfaces, each 5
than the h
and resigned this office in turn in 1833 to com-
feet from tip to tip. It showed that their system
built their
plete the term of William L. Marcy (who had
of control was effective, and they then planned
equipped
been elected governor of New York) in the
man-carrying glider.
felt sure it
United States Senate. Reelected senator in 1837
From United States Weather Bureau wind
Powered
and 1843, Wright was held in high esteem by his
records they found that Kitty Hawk, N.C., was
Hawk, Or
colleagues. He was a logical and powerful rea-
one of the breeziest places in the country; they
Wilbur, in
soner, of unflinching integrity, and ready to sac-
also learned that the area had sand hills, free of
in 59 secoi
rifice his inclinations to the needs of the Demo-
growth and suitable for gliding. They went
further ex]
cratic Party. His contemporaries referred to him
bur achiev
there in 1900 with their first man-carrying glider,
as "the Cato of the Senate" and "the Cato of the
which was 18 feet from tip to tip. It included &
closed a (
Union," and Arthur M. Schlesinger characterized
feature not on any previous glider, a horizontal
Department
him as "a preliminary sketch for Abraham Lin-
which tes
front rudder or elevator about 4 feet in front of
coln."
the lower main plane; the rear edge could be
while, in ]
As senator, Wright opposed rechartering the
raised or lowered for fore-and-aft balance. A cra-
France, W.
Bank of the United States, urged an independent
trained pil
dle, in which the operator lay, was connected
and Wilbu
treasury system, and saw the bill for the latter
with wires in order to give a spiral twist to the
passed in 1840. Refusing President John Tyler's
City in COI
wings; a movement of the body of 2 or 3 inches
ebration.
offer of an appointment to the United States Su-
from one side to another was enough to give all
preme Court in 1844 and the nomination for vice
Wright CO1
the twist needed. It was the brothers' intention
president on the Democratic ticket in the same
the origina
to fly the glider as a kite, with a pilot aboard, to
which had
year, he resigned his seat in the Senate to run for
gain practice, but they found this possible only
Museum a
governor of New York, winning the election and
when the wind was at least 25 miles an hour.
turned to
carrying the state for the Democratic presidential
The glider failed to perform in lifting as had
bition in 1
candidate, James K. Polk. As governor Wright
been calculated from the Lilienthal tables of air
D.C.
alienated the landlord interests by advocating
pressure, but they were encouraged by the way
rent reform but also lost popular support by sup-
their method of control worked. Before leaving
pressing the antirent disturbances. He was re-
camp for the year, they took the machine to Kill
Further
nominated in 1846 but lost to his Whig opponent,
Devil Hill near Kitty Hawk and made about a
Story of the
John Young.
dozen glides down the side of the hill. Disap-
Wright, Wilb
Further Reading: Garraty, John A., Silas Wright (1949;
pointed with the glider's lifting ability, they de-
lers of Wilb
(1951; reprin
reprint, AMS Press 1970).
termined to return the next year with a larger
machine having wings of deeper curvature.
Further Research Since the results obtained did
WRIGHT, 1
WRIGHT, Wilbur, b. Millville, Ind., April 16, 1867;
d. Dayton, Ohio, May 30, 1912; and Orville, b.
not at all agree with the estimated values com-
mer: b. Sa
Dayton, Ohio, Aug. 19, 1871; d. there, Jan. 30,
puted from Lilienthal's tables and other accepted
1948; American inventors. Their father, Milton
tables of air pressure, the brothers wondered if
San University Jose, I
Lilienthal's figures and all scientific books on the
sued gradu
Wright, was a bishop of the Church of the United
subject could be wrong. Toward the end of
In 1897 he
Brethren in Christ. Though both brothers com-
pleted high school courses, neither graduated
1901, they experimented with miniature wings 200
Lick Obse
was in cha
formally; Wilbur did not return from Dayton to
in a 6-foot wind tunnel, testing more than
Richmond, Ind., where the family had been liv-
types of wing surfaces set at different angles. tri-
the Southe
made astro
ing, to receive his diploma, and Orville, in his
They measured monoplane, biplane, and for
of the obs
final year, took a special course. Neither Wilbur
plane models, and models in which one wing
lowed the other; they measured the lift produced
won wide
nor Orville ever married. As a youth Orville
by different aspect ratios (the ratio of span
sebular sp
became interested in printing and in 1889 started
chord) and found that the greater the span in wing pro-
infrared pl
the West Side News, in which Wilbur joined him;
it was printed on a homemade press. In 1893
the two brothers opened a shop for the sale,
would be supported; they measured thick
portion to the chord, the more easily the and
basis of wh
secured th
thin iments surfaces. proved Among the undesirability other things, of these the exper- sharp by
some of th
repair, and manufacture of bicycles.
First Glider Experiments. After the death (1896)
of Otto Lilienthal, the German engineer, news of
edge at the front of a wing, then advocated
States WRIGHT-PA Air
WRIGHT-WRIT
557
thought left of taking
Wilbur and Orville
it has now been readopted for
They also learned that there
d id off. Their up
been aroused in-
was a from having one wing above an-
r powered by rubber in
on the subject in
Ther.These experiments marked the turning point
wrote in 1899 to the
attempts by man to fly. The Wrights now
no man had ever known before: how
Vashington for bib- the
1 read included Li].
inew whate tables of figures from which one
Flying and
might design an airplane that could lift itself and
d
Their 1902 glider, built from their own cal-
te, the best hist Chip
culations, By: had a wing span of 32 feet, 10 feet
:ame
than one used in 1901, but the most notice-
ce, and years the
more able change was the addition of a tail with fixed
of their progress.
twin vertical vanes. In further experiments they
machine should be
discovered that the tail is a balancing device
y yet tried, and that
needed to supplement the presenting of the
should be a way to
wings at different angles to the wind-the basic
ings at different an-
scheme of control used in all airplanes today.
With the 1902 machine the Wrights made glides
on a practical way to
ing the wings. To
of more than 600 feet, and they could glide at a
in July 1899, a small
smaller angle of descent, closer to the horizontal,
sed surfaces, each 5
than the hawks that they observed. When they
ed that their system
built their first power machine the next year,
they then planned
equipped with a motor of their own make, they
felt sure it would fly.
ather Bureau wind
Powered Flight. On Dec. 17, 1903, at Kitty
y Hawk, N.C., was
Hawk, Orville made the first flight of 120 feet;
n the country; they
Wilbur, in the fourth and longest, made 852 feet
d sand hills, free of
in 59 seconds. During 1904 and 1905 they made
iding. They went
further experiments at a field near Dayton, Wil-
bur achieving a flight of 24 miles in 1905. They
nan-carrying glider,
closed a contract with the United States War
) tip. It included a
glider, a horizontal
Department for the first army plane in 1908, for
which tests were completed in 1909. Mean-
it 4 feet in front of
while, in 1908, a Wright company was formed in
ear edge could be
-aft balance. A cra-
France, where Wilbur gave demonstrations and
trained pilots. In 1909 Orville flew in Germany,
ay, was connected
and Wilbur made sensational flights in New York
spiral twist to the
dy of 2 or 3 inches
City in connection with the Hudson-Fulton Cel-
CULVER PICTURES
ebration. By the end of 1909 an American
enough to give all
brothers' intention
Wright company had been organized. In 1948
Wilbur (left) and Orville Wright, taking turns, made four
h a pilot aboard, to
the original plane flown at Kitty Hawk in 1903,
powered flights at Kitty Hawk on Dec. 17, 1903.
which had been temporarily lent to the Science
this possible only
25 miles an hour.
Museum at South Kensington, London, was re-
turned to the United States for permanent exhi-
ton, Ohio. The Air Force Logistics Command
I in lifting as had
bition in the National Museum at Washington,
Headquarters, Air Force Museum, and 51 other
enthal tables of air
D.C.
tenant organizations share its 8,023 acres. It has
uraged by the way
FRED C. KELLY
twin airfields, now rare. The areas, formerly
d. Before leaving
he machine to Kill
separate, include Wright Field (named for Or-
Further Reading: Degan, Paula, Wind and Sand: The
ville and Wilbur Wright), and Patterson Field
and made about a
Story of the Wright Brothers (Eastern Acorn Press 1983);
(named for Lt. Frank S. Patterson of Dayton, who
of the hill. Disap-
Wright, Wilbur and Orville, Miracle at Kitty Hawk: The Let-
ters of Wilbur and Orville Wright, ed. by Fred C. Kelly
was killed near the base on June 19, 1918, while
ig ability, they de-
(1951; reprint, Arno 1971).
testing a device for synchronizing machine gun
year with a larger
fire with aircraft propellers). The base may be
per curvature.
esults obtained did
WRIGHT, William Hammond, American astrono-
called the birthplace of Air Force research, de-
nated values com-
mer: b. San Francisco, Calif., Nov. 4, 1871; d.
velopment, and logistics. Aviation "firsts" origi-
and other accepted
San Jose, May 16, 1959. He graduated from the
nating here include the first solo instrument
thers wondered if
University of California in 1893 and then pur-
takeoff and landing and the first human ejection
ntific books on the
sued graduate work at the University of Chicago.
from a speeding aircraft.
ward the end of
In 1897 he was appointed assistant astronomer at
RONALD GREEN
1 miniature wings
Lick Observatory, University of California, and
ng more than 200
was in charge of the observatory's expedition to
WRIT, rît, in Anglo-American law, a documentary
the Southern Hemisphere (1903-1906). He was
order issued in the name of a court or of an exec-
different angles.
biplane, and tri-
made astronomer in 1908 and served as director
utive officer, directing the person to whom it is
hich one wing fol-
of the observatory from 1935 to 1942. Wright
addressed to do or refrain from doing a particular
] the lift produced
won wide attention for his work on the gaseous
act described in the writ. The two principal cat-
ratio of span to
nebular spectra and, pioneering in the use of
egories are prerogative writs and writs of
infrared photography for astronomical purposes,
right.
er the span in pro-
e easily the wing
secured the first clear pictures of Mars, on the
Prerogative writs, frequently referred to as
asured thick and
basis of which he made tentative explanations of
extraordinary remedies, are issued in the discre-
ings, these exper-
some of the planet's characteristics.
tion of the court upon a showing that no other
lity of the sharp
remedy adequate to the circumstances is avail-
en advocated by
WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE, a United
able. Common examples of prerogative writs
States Air Force base, 8 miles northeast of Day-
are mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto, habeas
152
OWEN-OWENSBORO
came the basis of the settlement of 1846. He
was prominent in the founding of the Smithson-
ian Institution (1845) and in the revision of the
Indiana constitution (1850). In 1853 he was
made U.S. chargé d'affaires in Naples, and in
1855 minister to Italy. After his return to the
United States (1858) he was active as an aboli-
tionist.
In his later days Owen was a firm believer in
spiritualism, and in this connection he wrote
some of his most provocative works, such as
Footprints on the Boundary of Another World
(1859) and Debatable Land between this World
and the Next (1872). He died in Lake George,
N.Y., on June 24, 1877.
OWEN, õ'en, Wilfred (1893-1918), English poet,
whose writings, based on his experiences in
World War I, attack the brutality of war. Owen
was born on March 18, 1893, in Oswestry, Shrop-
shire, England, and was educated at Birkenhead
Institute, Liverpool. He enlisted in the army in
1915 and was sent to the battlefield in France a
year later. Owen was invalided home after
seven months. While recuperating at a military
hospital near Edinburgh, he met the poet Sieg-
fried Sassoon, who was impressed with his writ-
ing and influenced him greatly. Owen was re-
turned to the front as a company commander and
Jesse Owens made track-and-field history by winning four
received a military cross for bravery in October
gold medals in the 1936 Olympic Games at Berlin.
1918. He was killed in action in France on Nov.
4, 1918, one week before the armistice.
Barn owls, in spite of th
Owen's poetic abilities remained virtually
At the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, Germany,
tered spot-including I
unknown until 1920, when his collected works
Owens electrified the sports world by setting
were published by Sassoon. Owen subse-
new Olympic records in the 100-meter dash
quently was recognized as one of the most im-
(0.10.3), the 200-meter dash (0.20.7), and the long
OWL, any of about
portant English poets of World War I. As he
jump (26'51/2") and sharing a new world record in
nal birds of prey.
stated in his writings, his subject was "War, and
the 400-meter relay (0.39.8).
large heads, flat fac
the pity of War. The Poetry is in the pity.' His
His feats went unrewarded, however, and to
Some species hav
poems are infused with this sentiment, express-
support himself Owens ran exhibition races
Owls belong to twc
ing the horrors of the battlefield in harsh and
against horses and dogs, barnstormed with the
owls (Tytonidae), W
compelling imagery. Owen's experiments with
Harlem Globetrotters, and worked as a play-
cal owls (Strigidae
Worldwide in distr
half rhyme influenced later poets. His best-
ground janitor. In time, he prospered as a pub-
closely related anc
known works include Dulce et Decorum Est,
lic-relations consultant. He died in Tucson,
Ecologically, owls a
Greater Love, The Show, and Strange Meeting.
Ariz., on March 31, 1980.
United States government recognition came
of hawks and eagle
OWEN SOUND, õ'en, a city and port in Ontario,
late. President Ford awarded him the Presiden-
related. Similarit
hooked bill, and mc
Canada, the seat of Grey county at the mouth of
tial Medal of Freedom in 1976 and President
the Sydenham River, on Georgian Bay. A fish-
Carter a Living Legends Award in 1979.
result of convergen
to a similar predato
ing and tourist center, it is 100 miles (160 km)
Owls feed exch
northwest of Toronto. Manufactures include au-
OWENSBORO, 'enz-bûr-õ, a city in northwestern
Kentucky, and the seat of Daviess county. It is
sects, crabs, fish, ar
tomotive parts, electrical components, foam rub-
on the Ohio River, about 110 miles (177 km)
mals. Rodents are
ber, and glass. Printing and publishing are im-
of many species.
portant to the economy.
southwest of Louisville. The city is in a farming,
Settled in 1841, Owen Sound was incorporated
grazing, dairying, and oil-, gas-, and coal-produc-
feathers, and bone
food whole. Indis
as a town in 1857 and as a city in 1920. Popula-
ing area. It has an important tobacco market,
pellets that are a us
tion: 19,883.
meat-packing plants, food canneries, and whis-
of owls and of their
key distilleries. Manfactures include electronic
Most owls are a
OWENS, õ'enz, Jesse (1913-1980), American
components, electric motors, plastics, aluminum,
track-and-field athlete whose four gold medals in
furniture, and iron and steel products.
they can tudes, see well
where in
the 1936 Olympic Games climaxed a brilliant
Kentucky Wesleyan and Brescia colleges are
in the city. Other places of interest include the
are few if any, are
collegiate career and made him a legend in his
lifetime.
Owensboro Museum of Fine Art, the Owensboro
than
absolute darkness,
The son of sharecroppers whose forebears
Area Museum, an outdoor amphitheater on the
Ohio River, and a sports center used for concerts
owls acute
were slaves, Owens was born on a farm near
Danville, Ala., on Sept. 12, 1913. As a high-
and athletics.
The site, known originally as Yellow Banks,
ness they can locat
school student in Cleveland, Ohio, he became
was first settled about 1800 and became the
The plumage of
nationally known as a sprinter. Competing for
Ohio State University in a Big Ten meet in 1935,
county seat in 1815 under the name Rossbor-
are mottled browns
he broke three world records in the 220-yard
ed as a city in 1866 and renamed Owensboro for
larger similar, though the
nous in daylight. ]
ough. First incorporated in 1817, it was charter-
dash (0.20.3), the 220-yard low hurdles (0.22.6),
Col. Abraham Owen, a soldier in the Kentucky
the and heavier.
and the long jump (26'9") and equaled the record
Indian wars. Owensboro has a council-manager
in red and gray fo
in the 100-yard dash (0.9.4). His long-jump mark
a number of spec
stood until 1960.
form of government. Population: 54,450.
Mar. 6 / Administration of George Bush, 1990
Nomination of Jo Anne B. Barnhart To
talking to this group because most people
Be an Assistant Secretary of Health and
think I've been free associating for years.
Human Services
[Laughter]
March 6, 1990
I heard that last year I accidentally
caused panic among your executive direc-
The President today announced his inten-
tors. They thought I pledged no new faxes.
tion to nominate Jo Anne B. Barnhart to be
[Laughter]
Assistant Secretary for Family Support at
Believe it or not, there are still some
the Department of Health and Human
Americans who don't know what the "asso-
Services in Washington, DC. This is a new
ciation for associations" is. That's why next
position.
week they're doing a bit on you for TV's
Since 1986 Mrs. Barnhart has served as
"Unsolved Mysteries." [Laughter]
Republican staff director for the Govern-
Because really, only your organization is
mental Affairs Committee of the United
big enough and broad enough to include
States Senate. Prior to this, she served as
the Leafy Greens Council and the Associa-
campaign manager for Senator William V.
tion of Tongue Depressors. [Laughter] That
Roth, Jr., in Wilmington, DE, 1987-1988;
happens to be a fact.
consultant in the Office of Policy Develop-
But I guess it's only natural for the heads
ment at the White House in Washington,
of organizations like yours to get together
DC, 1986; Associate Commissioner for
themselves. Some people think of our great
Family Assistance at the Social Security Ad-
country as a nation of rugged individualists
ministration at the Department of Health
alone against the odds. And that is part of
and Human Services, 1983-1986; and
the American tradition, but only a part.
Deputy Associate Commissioner for Family
There's another tradition, a tradition as old
Assistance at the Social Security Administra-
as America itself, as old as Pilgrims and the
tion, 1981-1983. In addition, Mrs. Barnhart
served as legislative assistant for Senator
Mayflower Compact, as old as the pioneers
who settled the West. It's the tradition that
William V. Roth, Jr., 1977-1981; project di-
rector for SERVE Nutrition Project at the
Tocqueville described more than 150 years
Wilmington Senior Center, 1975-1977; leg-
ago, when he came to America, observed
islative liaison for the Mental Health Asso-
the scenes, and wrote that "Americans of all
ciation of Delaware, 1973-1975; and a space
ages, all conditions, and all dispositions con-
and time buyer for deMartin-Marona and
stantly form associations."
Associates in Wilmington, DE, 1970-1973.
That shouldn't surprise us, because the
Mrs. Barnhart graduated from the Uni-
act of association is nothing less than de-
versity of Delaware (B.A., 1975). She was
mocracy in action: individuals translating
born August 26, 1950, in Memphis, TN.
common interests into a common cause.
Mrs. Barnhart is married, has one child, and
And you know, today we see the power of
resides in Arlington, VA.
democracy, and isn't it an exciting time to
be alive, seeing this change in Eastern
Europe and in Managua, Nicaragua? We see
that power of democracy and we see fresh
evidence every day that the democratic
Remarks to Members of the American
ideal we cherish, the idea we call America,
Society of Association Executives
is alive everywhere: in the Revolution of
March 6, 1990
1989 that brought down the Berlin Wall
and brought freedom to Eastern Europe;
Neil, thank you, sir. Thank you all. Thank
here in our own hemisphere, in the great
you, Neil Milner, chairman, for that warm
victories for democracy in Panama and
welcome and challenge. And Bill [Taylor],
then again in Nicaragua; and millions of
the president, the other president here
people now enjoying the freedoms that
today, thank you, sir. [Laughter] Let me
America has known for two centuries.
just say I really am pleased and privileged
Here at home, we've got to see what
to be with this group of people that do so
these transforming changes in the world
much. You know, I really feel comfortable
mean for us. And those changes carry a
372
Administration of George Bush, 1990 / Mar. 6
challenge, a challenge to us to find in our
New York, Atlanta, Portland, thousands
ise most people
freedoms new ways to solve the problems
more. Think about ways that your organiza-
ating for years.
that threaten our society and our continued
tion, every one of your members, can make
leadership in the whole world community.
this mission of serving others your very
I accidentally
Look around at the problems we face: drug
own.
executive direc-
abuse, hunger, homelessness, illiteracy, de-
The story I want to tell you today-a
d no new faxes.
spair in our inner cities, the breakdown of
story that Martin Luther King, Jr., told in
the family. There's a role, a critical role for
his speech he made the night before that
are still some
government in finding solutions, but we
terrible day in Memphis, 22 years ago-it's
what the "asso-
know government doesn't always have the
a story about serving others and the cour-
That's why next
answers. If we could eliminate these prob-
age that takes. It's a familiar story about the
on you for TV's
lems, solve them once and for all with more
Good Samaritan and the stranger he
ghter]
programs, more bureaucracy, these prob-
helped. But there's another part of the
organization is
lems would have disappeared a long time
story we don't always remember. Before
ough to include
ago.
the Good Samaritan stopped that day, two
and the Associa-
The fact is, government isn't the only or-
other men saw the injured stranger and
[Laughter] That
ganized entity out there with the powers to
passed him by. And Dr. King thought long
change things, the power to make a differ-
and hard about it, and he used to ask him-
ral for the heads
ence. Everyone in this room is well aware
of the advantages of association. But I don't
self: Why didn't the others stop to help?
to get together
know whether you are really aware of the
And Dr. King came up with some good
ink of our great
full extent of your own power, of the re-
reasons: They didn't stop because they were
ed individualists
sources, the expertise, the potential energy
too busy, had more important work waiting
d that is part of
your organizations can bring to bear on
in Jerusalem of far more consequence than
ut only a part.
these problems-your ability to help solve
helping one unfortunate man; and so, on
tradition as old
community problems.
they went.
Pilgrims and the
I know most associations are already
And then one day, Martin Luther King
as the pioneers
active in community service, and I've heard
put himself in their shoes. At the age of 30,
he tradition that
about some of the wonderful work being
on his very first trip to the Holy Land, he
e than 150 years
done: the Medical Association of Atlanta,
and his wife, Coretta, traveled that road
nerica, observed
working after hours to provide free medical
from Jerusalem to Jericho. And Dr. King
'Americans of all
care to the homeless; by the Oregon
saw the story of the Good Samaritan in a
dispositions con-
Remodelers Association out there in Port-
new light. That road starts off more than
land, Oregon, in Project Pride, a program
1,000 feet above the sea level and ends in
us, because the
to do home repairs for the low-income el-
Jericho 2,000 feet below sea level. A twist-
ig less than de-
derly; by the Hotel Association of New
ing road, full of blind curves. He imagined
duals translating
York, with its ongoing commitment to
the road 2,000 years ago, each curve a per-
common cause.
donate surplus food to feed the hungry.
fect ambush for robbers. And at the
ee the power of
These are just three, just three of countless
moment, Dr. King realized why the two
exciting time to
community service projects that your asso-
men didn't stop. It had nothing to do with
nge in Eastern
ciations are engaged in, a commitment of
the reasons he had imagined. They didn't
caragua? We see
time and talent mirrored in similar commu-
stop because they were afraid.
and we see fresh
nity efforts by millions of Americans across
The way Dr. King imagined it, one asked
the democratic
the country.
himself: "If I stop to help this man, what
we call America,
In fact, one study in 1988 found that
will happen to me?" And he went on about
e Revolution of
Americans who volunteered in formal orga-
his way. But then the Good Samaritan came
the Berlin Wall
nizations gave almost 15 billion hours,
along and he asked himself a different ques-
Eastern Europe;
valued at an estimated $150 billion. Now,
tion: "If I don't stop to help this man, what
ere, in the great
that's tremendous, but it's just the tip of the
will happen to him?" And he asked himself
in Panama and
iceberg, just a fraction of all the good works
that question, and he found the courage to
and millions of
we are capable of. Because the fact is,
stop, the courage to help, the courage to
freedoms that
coping with the problems we face is within
serve.
centuries.
our power. There is no problem in America
So, which question, then, do we ask our-
got to see what
that is not being solved somewhere. Think
selves: about going down to the soup kitch-
es in the world
about it, the programs I've just mentioned:
en in that dangerous neighborhood; about
changes carry a
373
Mar. 6 / Administration of George Bush, 1990
stopping on a dark street to help a homeless
and I know one of the things you do best is
man; about reaching out to those desperate
to recognize outstanding performance. And
kids out there, kids who have no home life,
so, I ask you to turn the spotlight on com-
who are hooked on drugs, who live a night-
munity service in your newsletters, your
mare we can't begin to imagine? Doing any
magazines, at your annual meetings-on in-
of these things isn't easy. Every one takes
dividuals who give 110 percent helping
an act of courage. But unlike the Good Sa-
people in need and on those organizations
maritan, we don't have to act alone. Each
one of you understands the power of collec-
who demonstrate 100-percent participation
in community service.
tive action: how much we can get done
when we work together, pool our resources,
I'm counting on you, each one of you, to
combine our talents.
take these challenges to heart. People in
And don't think it won't take courage. It's
this room represent thousands of associa-
going to take courage to go back to your
tions, organizations of all sorts and sizes, a
member organizations, back to their CEO's
combined membership of 100 million
and boards of directors, and suggest that
Americans. And so today, I'm asking you:
they place community service at the center
Channel that energy into community serv-
of their agenda. It's going to take courage
ice, tap that power and transform a nation.
to insist that community service has a place
Once again, my thanks for all you are
at the very heart of every organization. It
doing and all that you're going to do. God
will take courage to make each one believe
bless you, and God bless the United States
that from now on in America, any defini-
of America. Thank you all very, very much.
tion of a successful life must include serving
others. But that's just exactly what I'm
Note: The President spoke at 2:12 p.m. in
asking you to do.
Hall A at the Washington Convention
Today, I want to lay down some chal-
Center. A tape was not available for verifica-
lenges, challenges to associations all over
tion of the content of these remarks.
America to take up community service.
First, build on a firm foundation. Find out
what's working in your industry, in your
profession, in your community; let your
Statement on Signing a Bill Extending
members know which community service
the Authorization for School Dropout
programs are most effective; and then, chal-
Demonstration Programs
lenge them to make those programs the
March 6, 1990
blueprint for their own efforts. Find new
ways to use existing assets. I understand
I am pleased to sign today H.R. 2281, a
that one of the ASAE's great strengths is its
bill that will help to attack the unaccept-
allied societies structure: 69 State and local
able dropout rate in our Nation's schools.
organizations, thousands more association
This bill extends an important Department
executives. And I'm asking each of these
of Education program, which provides
allied societies to take the lead in their
funds to local school districts to devise and
community for solving social problems,
demonstrate innovative strategies to reduce
become what we call Points of Light action
dropout rates and to encourage those who
groups.
have dropped out to return to school. Suc-
And second, set a target of 100-percent
cessful strategies can then be shared with
participation in community service. Chal-
other schools.
lenge your constituents to call on every em-
We all know that the dropout problem
ployee and member at every level of every
afflicting our educational system is both
organization, from the CEO on down to the
chronic and severe. Only about 70 percent
newest hire, to make community service
of our young people graduate from high
their personal mission.
school on time, and the statistics are even
And finally, a third challenge: recognize
worse for minority children and those in
those members who are what I like to call
urban areas. The consequences of our high
Points of Light. I've belonged, as many of
dropout rate are tragic for the individuals
you have, to many associations in my life,
who drop out and harmful for our Nation's
374