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Greek Independence Day Proclamation Signing 3/25/91 [OA 6856]
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Greek Independence Day Proclamation Signing 3/25/91 [OA 6856]
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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
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This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
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Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13750
Folder ID Number:
13750-006
Folder Title:
Greek Independence Day Proclamation Signing 3/25/91 [OA 6856]
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3
3
TALKING POINTS: GREEK INDEPENDENCE DAY PROC. SIGNING
ROOSEVELT ROOM \ MARCH 25, 1991 I 11:30 A.M.
0
IT IS A PLEASURE TO WELCOME HIS EMINENCE ARCHBISHOP
IAKAVOS [YOCK-OH-VOSE] AS WELL AS AMBASSADOR
ZACHARAKIS [ZAH-HAH-RAH-KEES] TO THE WHITE HOUSE
THIS MORNING. SECRETARY DERWINSKI. ((DISTINGUISHED
MEMBERS OF CONGRESS.)) I AM ESPECIALLY PLEASED
THAT so MANY ESTEEMED GREEK-AMERICANS COULD JOIN ME
TODAY AS I SIGN THIS PROCLAMATION OFFICIALLY
DESIGNATING MARCH 25TH -- GREEK INDEPENDENCE DAY.
- 2 -
0
MARCH 25TH MARKS SEVERAL TURNING POINTS IN HISTORY.
AND JUST AS AMERICANS AND GREEKS SHARE MANY COMMON
VALUES, WE EACH HOLD THIS DATE IN SPECIAL REVERENCE
FOR THE STRIDES WE MADE IN THE NAME OF FREEDOM. IT
WAS IN THE SPRING OF 1584 THAT THE FIRST COLONISTS
SET SAIL FROM ENGLAND IN SEARCH OF NEW
OPPORTUNITIES AND INDEPENDENCE. 170 YEARS AGO --
DAY OF THE ANNUNCIATION, 1821 -- THE GREEK BANNER
OF REVOLT WAS FIRST RAISED IN THE A SUCCESSFUL
UPRISING IN THE NAME LIBERTY.
- 3 -
0
THE SHARED SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS DATE IS MORE THAN A
COINCIDENCE. IT IS JUST ONE EXAMPLE OF THE COMMON
IDEALS AND VALUES THE PEOPLE OF GREECE AND AMERICA
HOLD so DEAR -- FREEDOM, DEMOCRACY, HUMAN RIGHTS,
AND JUSTICE. AND UNDER THE CURRENT LEADERSHIP OF
PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS [MIT-SO-TOCK-ISS], WITH
WHOM I HAD THE PLEASURE OF MEETING TWICE LAST YEAR,
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OUR TWO COUNTRIES
CONTINUES TO FLOURISH. WE HOPE TO MEET AGAIN SOON.
- 4 -
o
I WOULD LIKE TO TAKE A MOMENT TO THANK THE PEOPLE
OF GREECE FOR THEIR SUPPORT AND COOPERATION IN THE
HISTORIC COALITION EFFORT To LIBERATE KUWAIT FROM
RUTHLESS AGGRESSION. THE PEOPLE OF GREECE CAN TAKE
GREAT PRIDE IN THEIR COUNTRY'S ROLE IN PROTECTING
THE RULE OF LAW.
- 5 -
0
Now IT IS MY PLEASURE TO PUT PEN TO PAPER AND
PROCLAIM GREEK INDEPENDENCE DAY: A NATIONAL DAY OF
CELEBRATION OF GREEK AND AMERICAN DEMOCRACY.
#
#
#
Comments from Nick Burns,
NSC X6849
TALKING POINTS: GREEK INDEPENDENCE DAY PROC. SIGNING
ROOSEVELT ROOM \ MARCH 25, 1991 \ 11:30 A.M.
o
It is a pleasure to welcome Archbishop Iakavos [ocka-VOSE] as
well as Ambassador Zacharakis [zak-uh-RACK-iss] to the White
House this morning. Secretary Derwinski. " Distinguished
members of Congress.) ) I am especially pleased that so many
esteemed Greek-Americans could join me today as I sign this
proclamation officially designating March 25th -- Greek
Independence Day.
- 2 -
O
March 25th marks several turning points in history. And just as
Americans and Greeks share many common values, we each hold this
date in special reverence for the strides we made in the name of
freedom. It was in the Spring of 1584 that the first colonists
set sail from England to escape religious persecution. 170
years ago -- free Easter Sunday of independence. 1821 -- the Greek flag was first
raised in the successful revolt against the oppressive
domination of the Ottoman Empire.
The shared significance of this date is more than a coincidence.
It is just one example of the common ideals and values the
people of Greece and America hold so dear -- freedom, democracy,
human rights, and justice. And under the current leadership of
Prime Minister Mitsotakis with whom I had the pleasure this of
meeting with last June, the relationship between our two
twice
I
year,
countries continues to flourish.
- 3 -
O
I would like to take a moment to thank the people of Greece for
their support and cooperation in the historic coalition effort
to liberate Kuwait from ruthless aggression. The people of
Greece can take great pride in their country's role in
protecting the rule of law.
O
Now it is my pleasure to put pen to paper and proclaim National
Greek Independence Day.
#
#
#
call Mattby
JIM Acknowledgements
CM - Nick Burns-
Athens trip later
this year
TALKING POINTS: GREEK INDEPENDENCE DAY PROC. SIGNING
ROOSEVELT ROOM MARCH 25, 1991 \ 11:30 A.M.
His Eminence
0
IT IS A PLEASURE TO WELCOME ARCHBISHOP IAKAVOS
Yock-oh-vose YOCK - vose
[OCKA-VOSE] AS WELL AS AMBASSADOR ZACHARAKIS [ZAK-
Zah-HAH-rah-kees
UH-RACK-ISS] TO THE WHITE HOUSE THIS MORNING.
SECRETARY DERWINSKI. " DISTINGUISHED MEMBERS OF
CONGRESS.)) I AM ESPECIALLY PLEASED THAT so MANY
ESTEEMED GREEK-AMERICANS COULD JOIN ME TODAY AS I
SIGN THIS PROCLAMATION OFFICIALLY DESIGNATING MARCH
25TH -- GREEK INDEPENDENCE DAY.
Joan gibson
Proc's
Rm 93 X 2270
"Greek Independence Day :
A Nt'l Day of Celebration
/
of Er & Am Democracy, 1991"
- 2 -
0
MARCH 25TH MARKS SEVERAL TURNING POINTS IN HISTORY.
AND JUST AS AMERICANS AND GREEKS SHARE MANY COMMON
VALUES, WE EACH HOLD THIS DATE IN SPECIAL REVERENCE
FOR THE STRIDES WE MADE IN THE NAME OF FREEDOM. IT
Almanoc of Dates
WAS IN THE SPRING OF 1584 THAT THE FIRST COLONISTS
by Millgate
under 3/25
SET SAIL FROM ENGLAND TO ESCAPE RELIGIOUS
DAYE
PERSECUTION.
170 YEARS AGO -- EASTER SUNDAY OF
banner of revolt
Holidays + Anniversaries
1821 -- THE GREEK FLAG WAS FIRST RAISED IN THE
of the world by
SUCCESSFUL REVOLT AGAINST THE OPPRESSIVE DOMINATION
Mossman, p.230
Greece : A Country study
OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE.
Foreign Area studies,
American p.19 university
25Apr 25 182/2020 Day to of the the virgin Anunciation Mary
not Easter
(Greek Orthdox 212/570-3500) Archdiocese
- 3 -
0 THE SHARED SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS DATE IS MORE THAN A
COINCIDENCE. IT IS JUST ONE EXAMPLE OF THE COMMON
IDEALS AND VALUES THE PEOPLE OF GREECE AND AMERICA
HOLD so DEAR -- FREEDOM, DEMOCRACY, HUMAN RIGHTS,
AND JUSTICE. AND UNDER X THE CURRENT LEADERSHIP OF
X
x
Mit-so-tock-ees
x
NSC
PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS, WITH WHOM I HAD THE
Nick Burns, X 6849
John Long, greece
PLEASURE OF MEETING WITH LAST JUNE THE
Desk officer
X
647-6112
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OUR TWO COUNTRIES CONTINUES TO
FLOURISH.
in
(pans.
NOV-
- 4 -
0
I WOULD LIKE To TAKE A MOMENT To THANK THE PEOPLE
X
X
X
X
Nick Burns, X6849
OF GREECE FOR THEIR SUPPORT AND COOPERATION IN THE
John Long, 647-6112 HISTORIC X COALITION X EFFORT X To LIBERATE KUWAIT FROM
RUTHLESS AGGRESSION. THE PEOPLE OF GREECE CAN TAKE
GREAT PRIDE IN THEIR COUNTRY'S ROLE IN PROTECTING
THE RULE OF LAW.
0
Now IT IS MY PLEASURE TO PUT PEN TO PAPER AND
PROCLAIM NATIONAL GREEK INDEPENDENCE DAY.
16587
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ASSOCIATIONS, 25th Edition 1991
Page 1848
Pay
speakers' bureau. Affiliated With: Chios Societies of America.
16594
GREEK AMERICAN PROGRESSIVE ASSOCIATION (GAPA)
*1
c/o Nickolads Rodinos
Publications: Newsletter, 11 year.
2701 N. 77th Ave.
Convention/Meeting: annual - always spring.
Phone: (708) 452-8294
12
Elmwood, IL 60635
Nickolads Rodinos, Exec. Officer
Pot
Founded: 1923. Members: 1000. Staff: 1. Local Groups: 80. Persons of
16587
CHIAN FEDERATION OF AMERICA (Greek) (CFA)
Fol
Greek ancestry or birth.
Phone: (718) 204-2550
the
44-01 Broadway
Astoria, NY 11103
John G. Nictas, Exec.V.Pres.
Publications: Tribune of GAPA, quarterly.
pec
Founded: 1974. Members: 3000. Budget: $88,000. Local Groups: 21.
Convention/Meeting: biennial - always July.
to
Greek-Americans born on the island of Chios. Organizes and coordinates pa-
izer
triotic, cultural, educational, charitable, and religious activities for the per-
non
16595
petuation of Greek ethnicity and civilization. Maintains library of 2000 vol-
GREEK CATHOLIC UNION OF THE U.S.A. (GCUUSA)
Gre
umes emphasizing Chian and Greek history, Greek literature, and history of
5400 Tuscarawas Rd.
Phone: (412) 495-3400
tior
Greeks in America. Bestows Homeric Award annually to an individual who has
Beaver, PA 15009
George Batyko, Pres.
Cor
worked for human rights and honorable causes of the American and Greek
Founded: 1892. Members: 52,000. Budget: $300,000. Local Groups:
peoples. Computerized Services: Mailing list of all Chians in the United
400. Fraternal benefit life insurance society. Provides aid to unemployed in-
dividuals and funding to religious education programs. Sponsors competitions;
*1
States. Divisions: Athletic; Cultural; Dance Group; Women's Auxiliary; Youth.
Publications: Chios, quarterly. Magazine.
Skinos, quarterly. Magazine.
bestows awards. Telecommunications Services: Toll-free number,
(800)722-4GCU.
25.
Sykousis, quarterly. Magazine.
Also publishes souvenir journals.
Publications: Messenger, bimonthly.
Ast
Convention/Meeting: annual.
Fou
Convention/Meeting: quadrennial.
Am
16588
CHIOS SOCIETIES OF AMERICA (Greek) (CSA)
the
2701 N. 77th Ave.
Phone: (312) 452-8294
KASSIAN BENEVOLENT SOCIETY IN AMERICA (Greek)
the
16596
Elmwood Park, IL 60635
Nikolaos Rodinos, Pres.
(KBSA)
guis
Founded: 1939. Members: 32. State Groups: 12. Philanthropic societies.
nort
148 W. 230 St.
Phone: (212) 543-6903
Provides financial assistance to churches, schools, and libraries on the Greek
for
Bronx, NY 10463
Emanuel Pepis, Contact
island of Chios and in the U.S. Promotes events that bring together Greeks and
Epir
Founded: 1930. Members: 150. Individuals originally from Kassos Island,
Americans of Greek extraction. Offers scholarships; conducts seminars.
Greece. Objective is to assist members, particularly youth and Kassians
Epir
Maintains library on Greek and American history. Affiliated With: Chian Fed-
an,
attending college.
eration of America. Formerly: (1986) United Chian Societies of America.
arsh
Convention/Meeting: monthly.
Tel
Convention/Meeting: annual.
Righ
mer
16589
CRETANS' ASSOCIATION "OMONOIA" (Greek) (CAO)
16597
MAIDS OF ATHENA (Greek) (MA)
erat
32-33 31st St.
Phone: (718) 278-9711
c/o Daughters of Penelope
Astoria, NY 11106
1707 L St., N.W., Suite 200
Phone: (202) 737-7638
Pub
Efphisios Diouraoukakis, Pres.
Founded: 1918. Members: 350. A chapter of the Pancretan Association of
Faye Kallas, Grand Pres.
Stru
Washington, DC 20036
America (see separate entry).
Founded: 1930. Members: 2038. Local Groups: 159. Junior auxiliary of the
Con
Publications: Kritikoi Antilaloi (in Greek), monthly. Newsletter.
Daughters of Penelope (see separate entry). Goals are to build character, to
guide and prepare young women to lead socially productive lives, and to pre-
Convention/Meeting: biennial; also holds monthly meeting.
*16
serve Hellenic heritage and traditions. Engages in service activities. Offers
246
educational seminars and children's services. Sponsors competitions; bestows
16590
DAUGHTERS OF EVRYTANIA (Greek) (DE)
New
awards. Maintains speakers' bureau. Affiliated With: Order of AHEPA.
121 Greenwich Rd.
Phone: (704) 366-6571
Fou
Charlotte, NC 28211
Dena Stassinos, Pres.
Convention/Meeting: annual Supreme Council - 1990 August, Hollywood, FL.
com
Founded: 1948. Members: 200. Women with an interest in the province of
Also holds annual symposium.
Gree
Evrytania, Greece; especially in helping the schools and hospitals in that area.
tains
tees
Affiliated With: Evrytanian Association of America.
16598
ORDER OF AHEPA (Greek) (OA)
Ass
Convention/Meeting: annual.
1707 L St., N.W., Suite 200
Phone: (202) 785-9284
Constantine W. Gekas, Exec.Dir.
Pub
Washington, DC 20036
16591
DAUGHTERS OF PENELOPE (Greek) (DP)
Founded: 1922. Members: 50,000. Staff: 10. Local Groups: 700. Frater-
Con
1707 L St., N.W., Suite 200
Phone: (202) 737-7638
nal organization composed primarily of persons of Greek descent. U.S. citi-
Washington, DC 20036
Helen G. Pappas, Exec.Dir.
zenship (or declared intention to achieve citizenship) is required. Conducts
*16
Founded: 1929. Members: 14,000. Local Groups: 364. Women's fraternal
charitable and social activities in the United States, Australia, and Canada.
170
organization. Awards scholarships to girls of Greek descent and participates in
Makes 500 scholarships available to eligible students each year. Contributes
Was
other philanthropic activities: Sponsors Daughters of Penelope Foundation.
financial aid to the people of Greece through organizations and institutions,
Four
Committees: Cooley's Anemia; Pap Cancer Institute; Penelope House for
such as Greek War Relief, hospitals in Athens and Thessaloniki, American
Books for Greece, and CARE (see separate entry). Maintains library of 1000
Orde
Abused Women; Special Olympics; Youth Activities. Affiliated With: General
ages
Federation of Women's Clubs; Order of AHEPA.
books and articles on early Americans of Greek descent and on Greek history.
Convention/Meeting: annual Supreme Council; also holds biennial Con-
Telecommunications Services: Fax, (202)429-9820; telex, 469778
gian
AHEPACI. Committees: AHEPA Charitable Foundation; AHEPA Cooley's
laws
gressional Banquet and Salute to Women - 1990 Hollywood, FL.
Anemia Research Foundation; AHEPA Educational Foundation; AHEPA-PAC;
and
for
16592
EVRYTANIAN ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA (Greek) (EAA)
Athletic; Cyprus and Hellenic Affairs; St. Basil's. Affiliated With: Daughters Hel- of
AHE
121 Greenwich Rd.
Phone: (704) 366-6571
Penelope; Maids of Athena; Sons of Pericles. Also Known As: American
semi
Charlotte, NC 28211
Stavros Trastelis, Pres.
lenic Educational Progressive Association.
Founded: 1944. Members: 850. Staff: 1. Men and women coming to the
Publications: The Ahepan, quarterly. Magazine.
Publ
U.S. from the Greek province of Evrytania. Provides medical and educational
Convention/Meeting: annual 1990 August, Hollywood, FL; 1991 August,
Con
facilities to the people of Evrytania; sponsors scholarship program for stu-
Bahamas.
dents in Greece and in the U.S. Affiliated With: Daughters of Evrytania.
#16
Publications: Membership Book, biennial.
Velouchi Bulletin, quarterly.
*16599*
PANARCADIAN FEDERATION OF AMERICA (Greek)
Phone: (PFA)-6200
19W
Convention/Meeting: annual.
3802 N. Austin
Addie
16593
Chicago, Founded: IL 1931. 60634 Members: 5000. Staff: 20.
Takis
Four
FEDERATION OF STEREA HELLAS (Greek) (FSH)
Holly Oak Terrace
Groups: 5. State Groups: 30. Persons of Arcadian ancestry either Bestows:
1209 Jefferson Ave.
birth or marriage. Maintains Panarcadian hospital
Wilmington, DE 19809
awards; conducts educational
Founded: 1945. Members: 52. Greek societies composed of Americans and
Services: Computerized Fax, (312)736-6201. Committees:
Services: Data <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
Canadians of Greek descent interested in Sterea Hellas. (Sterea Hellas is an
area in Greece, located west of Athens.) Promotes better relations among
Relations.
Americans and Canadians of Greek origin. Provides moral and financial as-
Also publishes
sistance to members in need; cultivates the Greek language and belief in the
Publications: Bulletin, periodic.
Newsletter, quarterly.
Greek Orthodox religion. Coordinates activities of members pursuing edu-
cational and philanthropic aims to cities and towns within the provinces of
letters. Convention/Meeting: annual conference 1990 Sept. 14-15, Richmont
Sterea Hellas.
VA.
*8969*
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ASSOCIATIONS, 25th Edition - 1991
Page 998
sources; Modern Greek Literature. Presently inactive.
8973
COMMITTEE FOR HISPANIC ARTS AND RESEARCH (CHAR)
Publications: Bulletin, annual. Journal.
Neo-Hellenika, annual.
Also
P.O. Box 12865
Phone: (512) 469-9748
publishes books and journals; plans to publish two series: Americans in the
Austin, TX 78711
Romeo Rodriguez, Dir.
Greek Revolution (1821-1830) and American Interest in the Cretan Struggle
Founded: 1980. Members: 250. Staff: 3. Artists and supporters of the arts.
(1866-1869).
To promote, support, and encourage Hispanic artists by sponsoring seminars,
offering scholarships, and conducting charitable programs. Bestows awards.
Publications: Arriba, monthly. Magazine.
8969* MODERN GREEK STUDIES ASSOCIATION (MGSA)
Box 1826
Phone: (203) 397-4189
New Haven, CT 06508
John 0. Iatrides, Exec.Dir.
8974
HISPANIC INSTITUTE (HI)
Founded: 1968. Members: 450. Budget: $30,000. Scholars in the field of
612 W. 116th St.
modern Greek studies; friends of Greece; institutions and libraries. Seeks to
Columbia Univ.
Phone: (212) 854-4187
foster and advance modern Greek studies and assist in the establishment of
New York, NY 10027
Susana Redondo de Feldman, Dir.
chairs and programs of modern Greek studies. Serves as a center for dis-
Founded: 1920. Members: 326. Budget: Less than $25,000. Regional
semination of information in the field and about professional opportunities.
Groups: 116. State Groups: 92. Local Groups: 208. Provides research pro-
Organizes symposia and summer seminars; maintains speakers' bureau.
grams; offers lectures and concerts. Bestows the Vernon Prize for the best
Publications: Bulletin, semiannual.
Journal of Modern Greek Studies,
literary essay by a college student. Maintains archives of Spanish and Por-
semiannual.
Modern Greek Society: A Social Science Newsletter, semian-
tuguese literature and linguistics. Formerly: Instituto de las Espanas; (1988)
nual. Consists of an extensive bibliography of books, articles, reviews, and
Hispanic Institute in the United States.
dissertations on modern Greece. Includes calendar of events and research
Publications: Revista Hispanica Moderna: Nueva Epoca, semiannual. Includes
updates. Price: $10/year. ISSN: 0147-0779. Circulation: 600.
Also
literary articles and book reviews. Price: Included in membership dues. ISSN:
publishes proceedings of symposia.
0034-9593. Circulation: 1836. Advertising: not accepted.
Also publishes
Convention/Meeting: biennial conference.
monographs.
8970
SOCIETY FOR THE PRESERVATION OF THE GREEK HERITAGE
8975
HISPANIC ORGANIZATION OF LATIN ACTORS (HOLA)
(SPGH)
250 W. 65th St.
Phone: (212) 595-8286
2401 Virginia Ave., N.W.
Phone: (202) 833-3019
New York, NY 10023
Francisco G. Rivela, Contact
Washington, DC 20037
Antonia Stearns, Exec.Dir.
Founded: 1975. Members: 340. Staff: 2. Budget: $75,000. Hispanic art-
Founded: 1974. Members: 600. Staff: 2. Local Groups: 2. Professional,
ists in the fields of theatre, film, television, radio, dance, video, and music;
business, and academic groups and individuals in the U.S. Objectives are to:
interested individuals, organizations, and corporations. Formed to foster an
join in private efforts in Greece to preserve the natural and cultural heritage of
image of Hispanic cultural diversity, richness, and vitality through the Ameri-
Greece; sponsor fundraising events and encourage international and private
can media by promoting the work of Hispanic actors and actresses. Has es-
sector participation in preservation efforts; support preservation programs
tablished a Career Development Center which offers adult theatre training,
that might be beyond the scope of the Greek government's efforts, such as
scholarships, and orientation seminars; also provides referral service to cast-
those concerning villages and traditional houses, folkways, and an unspoiled
ing agents. Conducts Festival of Actors. Computerized Services: Data base;
landscaped seashore. Conducts lectures; sponsors tours of Greece and other
mailing lists. Also Known As: Hispanic Organization of Latin Artists.
special events. Past projects include: funding archeological research in Ikaria;
restoring a ninth century church at monastery of Osios Loukas; purchasing a
Publications: Directory of Hispanic Actresses and Actors, biennial.
19th century house in Athens to restore as a museum and information center.
Directory of Hispanic Talent, biennial.
La Nueva Ola, 10/year. Newslet-
American sister organization of Elliniki: Etairia (Hellenic Society) of Greece.
ter providing information about casting, members' activities, commercial and
Convention/Meeting: none.
nonprofit projects, sponsorship opportunities, and marketing data. Circula-
tion: 1200.
Publications: Society for the Preservation of of the Greek
Heritage-Newsletter, quarterly. Includes book reviews. Price: Included in
membership dues. Circulation: 700.
8976
HISPANIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA (HSA)
613 W. 155th St.
Phone: (212) 926-2234
HEBREW: See Jewish
New York, NY 10032
Theodore S. Beardsley, Jr., Dir.
Founded: 1904. Members: 400. Persons who have made distinguished con-
8971
ASSOCIATION OF HISPANIC ARTS (AHA)
tributions to the fields of Hispanic art, literature, history, and general culture,
Phone: (212) 860-5445
which includes music, social customs, costumes, and bullfighting. Research
173 116th St., 2nd Fl.
Jane Arce Delgado, Exec. Officer
institute maintains museum which is representative of Hispanic development
New York, NY 10029
Founded: 1975. Staff: 8. To promote the general concept of Hispanic arts as
from prehistoric days to the present, including collections of paintings, sculp-
an integral part of the arts community in the U.S. Offers services to all non-
ture, furniture, metalwork, pottery, glass, lace, and textiles. Reference library
contains 200,000 manuscripts and 18,000 books printed before 1701 (in-
profit arts organizations, community organizations, and individual artists; also
cluding 250 incunabula) and 150,000 later books on the art, history, litera-
promotes the activities of related arts organizations. Assists community pre-
sentations of dance and music concerts, theatrical performances, and art ex-
ture, and culture of Spain, Portugal, and colonial Hispanic America; also in-
hibitions that reflect Hispanic history, culture, social conditions, beliefs, and
cluded are many prints dating from the 15th century and a reference file of
attitudes. Maintains central information office and a mailing list of active arts
photographs on the fine and decorative arts and costumes of Spain and Por-
tugal. Awards five different medals periodically for creative or scholarly dis-
organizations, individual artists, and funding and media sources. Offers indi-
vidual technical assistance and referral services on legal and administrative
tinction in literature and the arts; bestows predoctoral research scholarships.
matters, and maintains funding resource library of information related to gov-
Publications: Books, leaflets, and other materials; also produces films and
ernment and private funding. Projects: Audience Development; Funding Re-
recordings related to collections in the museum and library.
search and Development.
Publications: AHA! Hispanic Arts News, 10/year. Newsletter covering
Hispanic cultural activities. Includes calendar of events, people page, and
8977
ACCOKEEK FOUNDATION (Historic Preservation) (AF)
3400 Bryan Point Rd.
Phone: (301) 283-2113
opportunities for artists. Price: $15/year for individuals; $25/year for or-
ganizations. Circulation: 6000. Advertising: accepted.
Directory of His-
Accokeek, MD 20607
Dr. Wilston C. Corkern, Dir.
panic Arts Organizations, periodic.
Founded: 1957. Members: 420. Staff: 18. Budget: $700,000. Patrons and of
friends of the National Colonial Farm, a 150-acre tract in the southern end The
Prince Georges County, MD, across the Potomac River from Mt. Vernon. the
*8972* ASSOCIATION FOR PUERTO RICAN-HISPANIC CULTURE
foundation, which is named after an Indian tribe that originally owned to
(APRHC)
property, has established the farm as a genetic research station devoted
c/o Peter Bloch
the maintenance of and conditions of the mid-18th century. Has planted an
83 Park Terrace, W.
Phone: (212) 942-2338
cotton, tobacco, flax, crops sunflowers, wheat, barley, oats, and corn, as well main- as
New York, NY 10034
Peter Bloch, Pres.
experimental planting of American chestnut trees. Operates museum;
Founded: 1965. Budget: Less than $25,000. Promotes and preserves His-
tains data base and speakers' bureau; offers specialized education programs be-
panic culture by acquainting people with the artistic and literary work of His-
and children's services; conducts research programs; compiles statistics; of
panic persons. Sponsors concerts, poetry readings, dramatic productions, lit-
stows awards. Maintains collection of books on agriculture and U.S. history
erary gatherings, and other cultural events. Bestows Palma Julia de Burgos
the mid-18th century.
Almanack,
Cultural Award.
Publications: Agricultural History Research Reports, periodic.
quarterly.
Annual Report.
UNITED STATES: 24. European Exploration and Settlement
695
han the scramble
Spanish Legacy. In the vast American ter-
itime enterprises instead of land warfare, its king
They esteemed the for
The
that once belonged to Spain, extending
did not command a large standing army that
ant. They
of the present United States, the
could have been used to keep the country's busi-
THE
cultures occurred. When the Amer-
nessmen in line. As their trade grew and their
an
swarmed into these regions they found,
wealth increased, English merchants were not
anticularly in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and
dwarfed by an all-powerful, autocratic sovereign.
were flux replaced
Spanish institutions and culture firmly
In the sphere of religion, the monarch lacked the
of
They also found that the bulk of
power then exercised by the leading rulers on the
etained
were a racial mixture of Spanish and
Continent. In consequence, the English church
dian. some 37,500 of the "civilized" bor-
did not resort to severe persecution and permitted
colony
Lyland peoples, few, apart from the senior Span-
dissenting groups, such as the Puritans and the
ease
the
officials, did not have Indian ancestry, and
Quakers, to exist, to gain adherents, and to ex-
them were tens of thousands of
tend their influence.
The language, religion,
Diversity became the mark of English life. A
THE
institutions, and even
host of individual merchants, partnerships, and
ir
whitecture were alien to the Anglo-American
small companies carried on the nation's indus-
rkets
aperience and sense of what was proper.
tries and trade. Religious sects multiplied. The
Indies
frontier way of life was deemed
relative weakness of the monarchy encouraged
nained a financial drain
Merior, and its practitioners were considered a
thought, initiative, and enterprise. The multi-
lesser breed to be kept apart. Within a few gen-
plicity of trading interests and of religious points
the Illinois settlements
the the old culture were submerged, and only vestiges
of view produced many projects for activity both
the French settlers
were retained, to be exploited
at home and abroad. Within 75 years after 1606,
h 800 to 900 Negro mill
commercial ends. Spanish place-names, the
English leaders and promoters established 15
moved across the MIN
church for the vast ranches, the adobe buildings
separate colonies within the eastern limits of the
Anglo-American dom't
with elements of the baroque architectural style
present United States. Each of these colonies
e town of St. Louis. THE
these survived. With the passage of time,
created conditions that favored leadership and
t a brief respite. In 1801
bringing with it a questioning of materialistic
the realization of the ideals of a group, thereby
uisiana for France, th
values and a heightened sense of social justice,
animating the growth of each with the spirit of
he entire territory, with
more sympathetic attitude and a growing curi-
initiative and achievement. Diversity in England
000, more than half of
csity for the Spanish culture began to develop.
made for diversity in America.
ates (see LOUISIANA
With this came the gradual awareness that the
The strong English emphasis on individual
ation the French Loust
history and traditions of the Spanish colonial ex-
enterprise, together with the freedom of action
aquered or consulted
perience were part of an American heritage that
permitted to private groups, did not mean that
ish subject, then brie
was richer than had previously been realized.
the national government stood wholly apart from
ally an American citizen
W. J. ECCLES, University of Toronto
the merchants and religious leaders who wished
Vithin the next few
Bibliography
to found colonies in the New World. The voy-
Louisiana were swampod
Jannon, John Francis, The Spanish Borderlands Frontier,
age of John Cabot in 1497 to Nova Scotia, New-
of the Americans, Its
1513-1821 (1970; reprint, Univ. of N.M. Press 1973).
Eccles, W. J., France in America (Harper 1972).
foundland, or Labrador had invested the English
peoples whose language
Fiske, John, Italians, French, British and Dutch in the Col-
sovereign with a title to the land of all North
m their own. In isolated
onization of North America (Am. Classical College Press
America, with the right to govern his subjects re-
ed as a spoken language
1985).
Calloway, Patricia Kay, and Rowland, Dunbar, eds., Missis-
siding there, and with the right to regulate all
a made to strengthen
sippi Provincial Archives: French Dominion, 1749-
the trade that they might carry on.
of the old colonial archi-
1763, vol. V (La. State Univ. Press 1983).
Before private enterprisers could prudently
ed and restored, and In
Giraud, Marcel, A History of French Louisiana: vol. 1, The
Reign of Louis XIV, 1698-1715 (La. State Univ. Press
start a colony in America, it was necessary that
end of French and Afric
1974).
they obtain the approval of the king. This he
these are mere vestigos
Jaenen, Cornelius J., Friend and Foe: Aspects of French-
gave by granting a royal charter or patent to the
American Cultural Contact in the 16th and 17th Centu-
re, pressed into the ser-
ries (Columbia Univ. Press 1976).
colonizers, conferring upon them a title to a de-
try.
McDermott, John Francis, ed., The Spanish in the Missis-
fined tract of land, the right to govern their set-
sippi Valley (Univ. of Ill. Press 1974).
tlement, and the right to trade with it, usually
Sauer, Carl, Sixteenth-Century North America: The Land
and People as Seen by Europeans (Univ. of Calif. Press
on a privileged basis. Such a patent bestowed
1971).
on the promoters and their colonies something
Woods, P., French-Indian Relations in the Southern Fron-
of the prestige and dignity of the crown.
tier, ed. by R. Berkhofer (UMI Res. Press 1980).
By 1570, Spain had acquired a great empire
The English Colonies in America
in the West Indies and in Central and South
America. Treasure from Mexico and Peru enabled
England prepared itself for colonization over-
the Spanish king, Philip II, to become Europe's
seas during long intervals of peace, between 1485
military master and to endanger England's na-
and 1640. The nation then freed itself from mil-
tional prosperity and independence, as he threat-
tte and Jolliet, guided
by
itarism and foreign military adventures, forged
ened to impose his personal rule and the Roman
discover the Mississippi
ahead of most of its European rivals in industry
Catholic faith upon the island kingdom. In the
1 1673. France hoped
and trade, and developed sea power as its chief
ensuing conflict, which was fought mainly on the
h a vast inland empires
means of defense. It escaped the evils of an op-
seas, the English endeavored to destroy Spain's
ould encompass the Great
pressive absolute monarchy and retained a rep-
sources of wealth and power in the New World.
ind the Mississippi Valley.
resentative parliament as an important part of its
This urge impelled the English to think of col-
government. It achieved religious independence
onies for themselves-outposts abroad from which
by rejecting the power of the papacy over the
English raiders might despoil the centers of
English parishes in favor of the authority of the
Spanish wealth and trade in the Caribbean Sea.
sovereign, who was designated the supreme
American colonies would also supply England
governor of a newly established national church.
with riches comparable to those of Spain.
The growth of industry and trade brought
into the foreground a class of aggressive mer-
EARLY COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA
chants who energetically strove to sell English
Sir Walter Raleigh failed in several efforts to
goods, especially woolen cloth, in all parts of the
colonize "Virginia" in the late 16th century.
world. Because England concentrated upon mar-
Then, in 1606, James I issued a patent to two
ions, ALBERT H. CANTRIL and CHARLES W. ROLL, JR., Hopes
HARRY M. CAUDILL, Night Comes to the Cumberlands (1963),
and Fears of the American People (1971); for history of the
a historical survey of the development of poverty in the
era of mass immigration, 1860-1920, OSCAR HANDLIN, The
southern Appalachians; and ROBERT C. COLES on rural poor
Uprooted (1951); and for an examination of contemporary
and effects of their migrations to the city. For social statistics
American minority groups, NATHAN GLAZER and DANIEL P.
see the Statistical Abstracts of the United States (annual).
MOYNIHAN, Beyond the Melting Pot, 2nd ed. (1970).
Cultural life: A good way to begin the study of cultural
The Economy: General surveys of the U.S. economy in-
life and institutions in the United States is through MARSHALL
clude SHEPHARD B. CLOUGH and THEODORE F. MARBURY, The
MCLUHAN, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man
Economic Basis of American Civilization (1968); EDWARD F.
(1964). Although McLuhan's works have been highly contro-
DENISON, The Sources of Economic Growth in the United
versial, no writer has done more to stimulate awareness of the
States and the Alternatives Before Us (1962); CHARLES H.
role of media in modern culture. A broad introduction to the
HESSION, The Dynamics of the American Economy (1956);
"counter culture" is THEODORE ROSZAK, The Making of a
UNITED STATES ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION,
Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society
Regional Economic Development in the United States
and Its Youthful Opposition (1969). Information about mi-
(1967); EMMA WOYTINSKY, Profile of the U.S. Economy: A
nority cultures and movements must be found primarily in
Survey of Growth and Change (1967). Trends in produc-
their polemical writings. Interesting discussions of all phases
tion and employment are analyzed in CLOPPER ALMON, The
of contemporary literature, including nonfiction, journalism,
American Economy to 1975: An Interindustry Forecast
and the theatre, as well as poetry and fiction, appear in
(1966); EDITORS OF FORTUNE, Markets of the Seventies: The
ELIZABETH JANEWAY (ed.), The Writer's World (1969). A
Unwinding U.S. Economy (1968); NATIONAL INDUSTRIAL
useful survey of Pop art is LUCY R. LIPPARD et al., Pop Art
CONFERENCE BOARD, The Consumer of the Seventies (1969);
(1966); while two books by MICHAEL KIRBY cover multimedia
UNITED STATES BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS, Patterns of U.S.
experiments, Happenings (1965) and The Art of Time: Essays
Economic Growth: 1980 Projections of Final Demand, Inter-
on the Avante-Garde (1969). Rock music is explored in
industry Relationships, Output, Productivity, and Employ-
CARL BELZ, The Story of Rock (1969). A valuable study of the
ment (1970); and the UNITED STATES NATIONAL GOALS RE-
television industry is LES BROWN, Television: The Business
SEARCH STAFF, Toward Balanced Growth: Quantity with Qual-
Behind the Box (1971); while a more historical treatment of
ity (1970). Issues of economic policy are treated in GEORGE
radio and television is ERIK BARNOUW, A History of Broad-
L. BACH, Making Monetary and Fiscal Policy (1971); COM-
casting in the United States, 3 vol. (1966-70). The magazine
MITTEE FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, Fiscal and Monetary
Saturday Review (weekly), provides a broad survey of social
Policies for Steady Economic Growth (1969); WALTER W.
and cultural aspects of American life.
HELLER, New Dimensions of Political Economy (1966);
(W.Ze./P.F.L./T.K.F./Jo.N./W.O./J.T.H./R.Sk.)
ARTHUR M. OKUN, The Political Economy of Prosperity
(1970); MELVILLE J. ULMER, The Welfare State, U.S.A.: An
Exploration in and Beyond the New Economics (1969); and
United States, History of the
the PRESIDENT'S TASK FORCE ON ECONOMIC GROWTH, Policies
for American Economic Progress in the Seventies (1970).
The United States of America grew from a group of En-
Various points of view are in NEIL W. CHAMBERLAIN (ed.),
glish colonies established along the east coast of North
Contemporary Economic Issues (1969); and WALTER W.
America in the 17th and early 18th centuries. This
HELLER (ed.), Perspectives on Economic Growth (1968).
article begins with the history of those colonies and is
Transportation: WILFRED OWEN, EZRA BOWEN, and the
divided into the following sections:
EDITORS OF LIFE, Wheels (1967), a book on the technolo-
gical development of transport throughout history and on
I. Colonial America to 1763
proposed scientific innovations to help solve future prob-
The European background
lems; WILFRED OWEN, The Metropolitan Transportation Prob-
Settlement
lem, rev. ed. (1966), an analysis of the transportation prob-
Imperial organization
lems and traffic congestion of American cities concluding
The growth of provincial power
that future solutions lie to a major degree in the design of
Cultural and religious development
the city and urban region; GEORGE M. SMERK (ed.), Readings
America, England, and the wider world
in Urban Transportation (1968), a varied collection of es-
II. The establishment of the nation
says by widely known authors in the field.
The American Revolution and the formative period,
1763-89
Administration and social conditions: The contemporary
National politics, 1789-1816
political and social milieus are analyzed in an avalanche of
The War of 1812
publications expressing every conceivable philosophy of gov-
III. The United States from 1816 to 1850
ernment and social management; few have yet been able to
The era of mixed feelings
achieve the necessary distance, in time or sentiment, for
The economy
unaffected analysis of the structure or functioning of U.S. gov-
Social developments
ernment, politics, or social dynamics. A few, however, can
Jacksonian democracy
provide a valuable beginning. In government and politics,
An "age of reform"
the United States Government Organization Manual (annu-
Expansionism and political crisis at midcentury
al), offers a broad overview of the federal structure; while
IV. Civil War, Reconstruction, and the New South, 1850-
the Congressional Record and the Congressional Quarterly
1900
provide closer views of the public record of the federal legis-
Prologue to war, 1850-60
lature. Other basic books on government include AARON
Secession and Civil War, 1860-65
WILDAVSKY and NELSON W. POLSBY (eds.), American Govern-
Reconstruction, 1865-77
mental Institutions (1968); PETER WOLL, American Govern-
The New South, 1877-90
ment: Readings and Cases, 2nd ed. (1965); and ROBERT A.
V. The transformation of U.S. society, 1865-1900
GOLDWIN (ed.), A Nation of States (1963). Among the more
National expansion
penetrating insights into the complexities of politics are
Industrialization of the U.S. economy
JOSEPH R. FISZMAN (ed.), The American Political Arena, 2nd
National politics
ed. (1966); FRED I. GREENSTEIN, The American Party Sys-
VI. Imperialism, the Progressive Era, and the rise to world
tem and the American People (1963); the series by THEODORE
power, 1896-1920
WHITE begun with The Making of the President, 1960 (1961)
American imperialism
and continued to cover subsequent presidential elections;
The Progressive Era
RICHARD M. SCAMMON and BEN. J. WATTENBERG, The Real
The rise to world power
Majority: How the Silent Center of the American Electorate
VII. The United States from 1920 to 1945
Chooses Its President (1970), based on studies of voting be-
The character of the postwar Republican adminis-
haviour in 1968; and SHIRLEY CHISHOLM, Unbought and Un-
trations
bossed (1970). The U.S. military is studied in terms of its
The New Deal
politics in ADAM YARMOLINSKY, The Military Establishment
The impact of World War II
(1971). The political and social structures are bridged in
VIII. The United States since 1945
C. WRIGHT MILLS, Power Elite (1956); while other studies
The peak Cold War years, 1945-60
probing special areas of politico-social concern include BAR-
The 1960s and 1970s
BARA and JOHN EHRENREICH, American Health Empire: Pow-
er, Profits, and Politics (1970); MICHAEL HARRINGTON, The
I. Colonial America to 1763
Other America (1962), a study of poverty in the U.S.; JANE
THE EUROPEAN BACKGROUND
JACOBS, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961),
an inquiry into the structuring and destruction of the city;
The English colonization of North America was but one
United States, History of the
947
chapter in the larger story of European expansion
to settle in the New World in order to limit Spanish
throughout the globe. The Portuguese, beginning with a
expansion. Once it was proven that America was a suit-
voyage to Porto Santo off the coast of West Africa in
able place for settlement, some Englishmen would travel
1418, were the first Europeans to promote overseas ex-
to those particular colonies that promised to free them
ploration and colonization. By 1487 the Portuguese had
from religious persecution. There were also Englishmen,
travelled all the way to the southern tip of Africa, estab-
primarily of lower and middle class origin, who hoped
lishing trading stations at Arguin, Sierra Leone, and El
the New World would provide them with increased
Mina. In 1497 Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of
economic opportunity in the form of free or inexpensive
Good Hope and sailed up the eastern coast of Africa,
land. These last two motives, while they have been given
laying the groundwork for Portugal's later commercial
considerable attention by historians, appear not to have
control of India. By 1500, when Pedro Álvares Cabral
been so much original motives for English colonization
stumbled across the coast of Brazil en route to India,
as they were shifts of attitude once colonization had be-
Portuguese influence had expanded to the New World as
gun.
well.
Though initially lagging behind the Portuguese in the
SETTLEMENT
arts of navigation and exploration, the Spanish quickly
Virginia. The leaders of the Virginia Company of
closed that gap in the decades following Columbus' (see
London, a joint-stock company in charge of the James-
COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER) voyages to America. First in
town enterprise, were for the most part wealthy and well-
the Caribbean and then in spectacular conquests of New
born commercial and military adventurers eager to find
Spain and Peru, they captured the imagination, and the
new outlets for investment. During the first two years of
envy, of the European world.
its existence, the Virginia colony, under the Charter of
French
France, occupied with wars in Europe to preserve its
1607, proved an extraordinarily bad investment. This
settlement
own territorial integrity, was not able to devote as much
was principally due to the unwillingness of the early col-
time or effort to overseas expansion as Spain and Portu-
onizers to do the necessary work of providing for them-
gal. Beginning in the early 16th century, however, French
selves and to the chronic shortage of capital for supply
fishermen established an outpost in Newfoundland, and
of the venture.
in 1534 Jacques Cartier began exploring the Gulf of St.
A new charter in 1609 significantly broadened member-
Lawrence. By 1543 the French had ceased their efforts to
ship in the Virginia Company, thereby increasing tempo-
colonize the northwest portion of the New World. In the
rarily the supply of capital at the disposal of its directors;
last half of the 16th century, France attempted to found
but most of the settlers continued to act as though they
colonies in Florida and Brazil; but each of these efforts
expected the Indians to provide for their existence, a
failed, and by the end of the century Spain and Portugal
notion that the Indians fiercely rejected. As a result, the
remained the only two European nations to have estab-
enterprise still failed to yield any profits and the number
lished successful colonies in America.
of investors again declined.
The English, although anxious to duplicate the Spanish
The crown issued a third charter in 1612 authorizing the
and Portuguese successes, nevertheless lagged far behind
company to institute a lottery to raise more capital for
in their colonization efforts. The English possessed a theo-
the floundering enterprise. In that same year John Rolfe
retical claim to the North American mainland by dint of
harvested the first crop of a high-grade and therefore
the 1497 voyage of John Cabot off the coast of Nova
potentially profitable strain of tobacco. At about the
Scotia, but in fact they had neither the means nor the de-
same time, with the arrival of Sir Thomas Dale in the
The
sire to back up that claim during the 16th century. Thus it
colony as governor in 1611, the settlers gradually began
adminis-
was that England relied instead on private trading compa-
to practice the discipline necessary for their survival,
tration of
nies, which were interested principally in commercial rath-
though at an enormous personal cost.
Sir Thomas
er than territorial expansion, to defend its interests in the
Dale carried with him the "Laws Divine, Morall and
Dale
expanding European world. The first of these commercial
Martial," which were intended to supervise nearly every
ventures began with the formation of the Muscovy Com-
aspect of the settlers' lives. Each person in Virginia, in-
pany in 1554. In 1576-78 the English mariner Martin
cluding women and children, was given a military rank,
Frobisher undertook three voyages in search of a North-
and his duties were spelled out in minute detail. Penalties
west Passage to the East. In 1577 Sir Francis Drake made
imposed for violating these rules were severe: those who
his famous voyage around the world, plundering the
failed to obey the work regulations were to be forced to
The
western coast of South America en route. A year later Sir
lie neck and heels together all night for the first offense,
voyages
Humphrey Gilbert, one of the most dedicated of Elizabe-
whipped for the second, and sent to a year's service in the
of Sir
than imperialists, began a series of ventures aimed at
galleys for the third. The settlers could hardly protest
Humphrey
establishing permanent colonies in North America. All of
against the harshness of the code, for that might be
Gilbert
his efforts met with what was, at best, limited success.
deemed slander against the company-an offense punish-
Finally, in September 1583, on what would prove to be
able by service in the galleys or by death.
his final voyage, Gilbert, with five vessels and 260 men,
Dale's Code brought order to the Virginia experiment,
disappeared in the North Atlantic. With the failure of
but it hardly served to attract new settlers. To increase
Gilbert's voyage, the English turned to a new man, Sir
incentive the company, beginning in 1618, offered 50
Walter Raleigh, and a new strategy-a southern rather
acres of land to those settlers who could pay their trans-
than a northern route to North America-to advance
portation to Virginia and a promise of 50 acres after
England's fortunes in the New World. Raleigh's efforts
seven years of service to those who could not pay their
to found a permanent colony off the coast of Virginia,
passage. Concurrently, the new governor of Virginia, Sir
although they did finally fail with the mysterious destruc-
George Yeardley, issued a call for the election of repre-
tion of the Roanoke Island colony in 1587, awakened
sentatives to a House of Burgesses, which was to convene
popular interest in a permanent colonizing venture.
in Jamestown in July 1619. In its original form, the House
During the years separating the failure of the Roanoke
of Burgesses was little more than an agency of the gov-
colony and the establishment in 1607 of the English set-
erning board of the Virginia Company, but it would later
tlement in Jamestown, English propagandists worked
expand its powers and prerogatives and become an im-
hard to convince the public that a colony in America
portant force for colonial self-government.
would yield instant and easily exploitable wealth. Even
Despite the introduction of these reforms, the years
men like the English geographer Richard Hakluyt were
from 1619 to 1624 proved fatal to the future of the
not certain that the Spanish colonization experience
Virginia Company. Epidemics, an Indian massacre in
could or should be imitated but hoped nevertheless that
1622, and internal disputes took a heavy toll on the colo-
the English colonies in the New World would prove to be
ny. In 1624 the crown finally revoked the charter of the
a source of immediate commercial gain. There were, of
company and placed the colony under royal control. The
Virginia
course, other motives for colonization. Some hoped to
introduction of royal government into Virginia, while it
made a
discover the much sought after route to the Orient in
was to have important long-range consequences, did not
crown
North America. English imperialists thought it necessary
produce an immediate change in the character of the col-
colony
final
GREEK INDEPENDENCE DAY: A NATIONAL DAY OF
CELEBRATION OF GREEK AND AMERICAN DEMOCRACY, 1991
BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
A PROCLAMATION
The peoples of the United States and Greece enjoy a rich
friendship based on strong ties of kinship and culture -- ties
fortified by our common devotion to the ideals of freedom and
democracy. Our shared values and mutual interests make the
celebration of Greek independence on March 25 a significant
event for all Americans.
Although we celebrate on this occasion events that took
place just 170 years ago, the values shared by the peoples of
Greece and the United States are rooted far deeper in history.
Indeed, it was the ancient Greeks who, with their profound
observations of human nature and their seminal experiments
in civil order and justice, enkindled the light of democratic
thought among men. Our Nation's Founders were well-schooled
in classical languages and Greek literature, and the ideas
of Solon, Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers and
statesmen greatly influenced their own. Indeed, in his historic
treatise on the Rights of Man, Thomas Paine wrote: "What Athens
was in miniature, America will be in magnitude. The one was
the wonder of the ancient world; the other is becoming the
admiration and model of the present." His words reflect the
inspiration and insight that this Nation's Founders derived from
the ancient Greek city-states as they worked to establish an
enduring representative democracy in America.
Widely regarded as the "cradle of democracy," Greece stands
today as a strong ally of the United States, aligned with us by
its commitment to freedom and human rights. As partners in the
NATO Alliance, we have worked together to defend democratic
ideals and to promote the collective security of Europe.
2
Recently Greece also cooperated with the United States and
other nations in the historic coalition effort to uphold the
rule of law and to liberate Kuwait from ruthless aggression.
The people of Greece can take pride in their country's role in
this endeavor, carried out in enforcement of resolutions of the
United Nations Security Council.
Today, as we join in commemorating the 170th anniversary
of Greek independence, we celebrate the continued friendship
between the Greek and American peoples. We also give thanks,
knowing that the light of democratic ideals continues to grow
in strength and brilliance around the world.
In recognition of the 170th anniversary of Greek
Independence, the Congress, by Senate Joint Resolution 59,
has designated March 25, 1991, as "Greek Independence Day: A
National Day of Celebration of Greek and American Democracy"
and has authorized and requested the President to issue a
proclamation in observance of this day.
NOW, THEREFORE, I, GEORGE BUSH, President of the
United States of America, do hereby proclaim March 25, 1991,
as Greek Independence Day: A National Day of Celebration of
Greek and American Democracy. I urge all Americans to join in
appropriate ceremonies and activities in honor of the Greek
people and Greek independence.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this
day of
, in the year of our
Lord nineteen hundred and ninety-one, and of the Independence
of the United States of America the two hundred and fifteenth.
THE WHITE HOUSE
Office of the Press Secretary
For Immediate Release
GREEK INDEPENDENCE DAY: A NATIONAL DAY OF
CELEBRATION OF GREEK AND AMERICAN DEMOCRACY, 1991
BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
A PROCLAMATION
The peoples of the United States and Greece enjoy a rich
friendship based on strong ties of kinship and culture -- ties
fortified by our common devotion to the ideals of freedom and
democracy. Our shared values and mutual interests make the
celebration of Greek independence on March 25 a significant
event for all Americans.
Although we celebrate on this occasion events that took
place just 170 years ago, the values shared by the peoples of
Greece and the United States are rooted far deeper in history.
Indeed, it was the ancient Greeks who, with their profound
observations of human nature and their seminal experiments
in civil order and justice, enkindled the light of democratic
thought among men. Our Nation's Founders were well-schooled
in classical languages and Greek literature, and the ideas
of Solon, Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers and
statesmen greatly influenced their own. Indeed, in his historic
treatise on the Rights of Man, Thomas Paine wrote: "What Athens
was in miniature, America will be in magnitude. The one was
the wonder of the ancient world; the other is becoming the
admiration and model of the present." His words reflect the
inspiration and insight that this Nation's Founders derived from
the ancient Greek city-states as they worked to establish an
enduring representative democracy in America.
Widely regarded as the "cradle of democracy," Greece stands
today as a strong ally of the United States, aligned with us by
its commitment to freedom and human rights. As partners in the
NATO Alliance, we have worked together to defend democratic
ideals and to promote the collective security of Europe.
Recently Greece also cooperated with the United States and
other nations in the historic coalition effort to uphold the
rule of law and to liberate Kuwait from ruthless aggression.
The people of Greece can take pride in their country's role in
this endeavor, carried out in enforcement of resolutions of the
United Nations Security Council.
Today, as we join in commemorating the 170th anniversary
of Greek independence, we celebrate the continued friendship
between the Greek and American peoples. We also give thanks,
knowing that the light of democratic ideals continues to grow
in strength and brilliance around the world.
In recognition of the 170th anniversary of Greek
Independence, the Congress, by Senate Joint Resolution 59,
has designated March 25, 1991, as "Greek Independence Day: A
National Day of Celebration of Greek and American Democracy"
and has authorized and requested the President to issue a
proclamation in observance of this day.
more
(OVER)
2
NOW, THEREFORE, I, GEORGE BUSH, President of the
United States of America, do hereby proclaim March 25, 1991,
as Greek Independence Day: A National Day of Celebration of
Greek and American Democracy. I urge all Americans to join in
appropriate ceremonies and activities in honor of the Greek
people and Greek independence.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand this
day of
,
in the year of our
Lord nineteen hundred and ninety-one, and of the Independence
of the United States of America the two hundred and fifteenth.
GEORGE BUSH
# # #
2/2/-
His Eminence, Arch
Primate of 00 Archdiocuse &
TALKING POINTS: GREEK INDEPENDENCE DAY PROC. SIGNING Not
ROOSEVELT ROOM \ MARCH 25, 1991 \ 11:30 A.M.
5Am
Yock Yock-6-vuse vose
It is a pleasure to welcome Archbishop Iakavos
ZACHARAKIS [2AK-uh-rack-
[ocka-VOSE] as well as Ambassador SOMEGREEKNAME to
iss]
the White House this morning. Secretary Derwinski.
Distinguished members of Congress " I am especially
pleased that so many esteemed Greek-Americans could
join me today as I sign the this proclamation
officially designating March 25th -- Greek
Independence Day.
Zah Zah-ha-rah-kees
Order 785. of CARDING 9284 AHEPA savidis
- 2 -
o
March 25th marks several turning points in history.
And just as Americans and Greeks share many common
values, we each hold this date in special revernce
for the strides we made in the name of freedom. It
American
Almanoc of Dates
was in the Spring of 1584 that the first/colonists
by Millgate, P. "3/25"
set sail from England to escape religious
persecution. 170 years ago -- Easter Sunday Day of
Holidays Anniversaries
1821 -- the Greek flag was first raised in the
of the world by
Banner of
Mossman p. P 230
revolt
Greece : A country Study
Foreign Area Studies, p.19
American unive
successful revolt against oppressive domination of
the Ottoman Empire.
o
The shared significance of this date is more that a
coinidence. It is just once example of the common
ideals and values the people of Greece and America
hold so dear -- freedom, democracy, human rights,
and justice. And under the current leadership of
Prime Minister Mitsotakis, with whom I had the
Nit Mit-soh- tock ees
- 4 -
pleasure of meeting with last June, the
relationship between our two countries continues to
flourish.
o I would like to take a moment to thank the people
WASHINGTO TO
of Greece for their support and cooperation inzthe
THE WHITE HOUSE HO H
X
historic coalition effort to liberate Kuwait from
NSC-Nick Burns
X 6849
ruthless aggression. The people of Greece can take
state - John Long
647- 6112
protecting r.o.l.? the
- 5 -
our
great pride in their country's role in joint effort
to protect the rule of law.
o
Now it is my pleasure to put pen to paper and
proclaim National Greek Independence Day.
#
#
#
disk questions
will are get tourite year
issue /team assignments
inclusion in meetings
raising research
come
update
1231
tass
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UNCLASSIFIED
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF STATE
07
OFFICE OF SOUTHERN EUROPEAN AFFAIRS
FACSIMILE NUMBER (202) 647-5087
OFFICE NUMBERS (202) 647-6112/13/14
ROOMS 5509, 5511
AGENCY & OFFICE: White House
NAME
Caroline Cawley
TELEPHONE #
FAX # 456-6218
ROOM #
Message Description:
Country Notes for Greece
FROM John Long
REMARKS: Caroline: We just received these from the printer. Regarding
at contact on Greek-Americans, you may wish to phone Prof. Ted Perros
at GWU. His phone # is 994-6120.
Page
of
pages (including cover sheet)
UNCLASSIFIED
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background
notes
Greece
United States Department of State
December 1990
Bureau of Public Affairs
mortality rate-13.8/1,000. Life expect-
Economy
ancy-men 72 yrs., women 75 yrs. Work
Bleck
force (1988): Agriculture-29%. Industry-
GDP: $53.8 billion (1989).
See
Annual Growth Rate: -0.5% (1987); 2.4%
27%. Services— 43%.
(1988); 2.8% (1989)
Inflation (1989): 14.8%.
GREECE
Government
Natural Resources: bauxite, lignite,
magnesite, oil.
Type: Presidential parliamentary republic.
Agriculture (12.8% of GDP, 1989):
-
Independence: 1827.
Products: grains, fruits (especially olives,
Constitution: June 1975, amended March
olive oil, and raisins), vegetables, wine,
CYPRUS
1986.
tobacco, cotton, livestock, dairy products.
Mediterranach See
Branches: Executive-president (chief of
Industry (including mining, electricity and
state), elected May 1990 for 5 years; prime
construction): Manufactured goods (30% of
minister (head of government). Legisla-
GDP, 1989)-processed foods, shoes,
tive-unicameral parliament (Vouli) elected
textiles, metals, chemicals, electrical
April 1990; parliamentary system with 4
equipment, cement, glass, transport
year (maximum) term. Judicial-supreme
equipment, petroleum products, construc-
Official Name:
court (Areios Pagos).
tion, electrical power; Services (57% of
Hellenic Republic
Major Political parties: New Democracy
GDP, 1989)-transportation, communica-
(ND), Panhellenic Socialist Movement
tions, trade, banking, public administration,
(PASOK), Left Alliance (Synaspismos)-
defense.
PROFILE
coalition of communist and leftist parties,
Trade: Emports (1989)-$6 billion: textiles,
principally the Communist Party of Greece
metal products, cement, chemicals, pharma-
(KKE) and the Greek Left (EAR).
ceuticals. Major Markets (1988)-EC 64.2%,
Geography
Suffrage: Universal, 18 and over.
Middle East and North Africa 8.2%, USSR
Administrative Subdivisions: 51 prefec-
and Eastern Europe 4.3%, US 6.3%.
Area: 181,957 sq. km. (51,148 sq. mi.)
tures (noma), 13 regional districts (periferi-
Imports (1989)-$15 billion: petroleum,
including islands; roughly the size of
archies).
machinery, transport equipment, chemicals,
Alabama. Cities: Cupital-(greater)
Central Government Budget (1988
mest and animals. Major Suppliers (1988) -
Athens (8 million). Other cities-
projected): $25.3 billion.
EC 65.5%, Middle East and North
Thessaloniki (705,000), Patras (154,600),
Defense (1988 projected): approximately
Africa 4.2%, USSR and Eastern Europe
Iraklion (111,000). Terrain: Largely
11% of central government budget, 5% of
5.1%, US 4% (taken from Greek customs
mountainous interior, with coastal plains;
GDP.)
statistics, which exclude military equipment
many islands. Climate: Temperate.
Flag: Four white and five blue alternating
imports).
horizontal stripes, with a white cross on the
Exchange Rate: 150 drachmas = $1 US
upper staff corner.
People
(1990).
US Economic and Security Assistance
Nationality: Noun and adjective-
(1946-1989): $9.3 billion.
Greek(s). Population: 10 million (1990 est.).
Ethnic Groups: Greek 98%, other 2%.
Religions: Greek Orthodox 97%, Muslim
Membership In
2%, Other 1%. Language: Greek. Educa-
International Organizations
ilon: Years compulsory-S. Literacy-men
UN, EC, NATO, OECD, INTELSAT,
96%, women 89%. Health (1984): Infant
Council of Europe.
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BLACK
SEA
Dréme
Xanthi
Sérral
Komotini
Kilkis
DEPARTMENT
Kavala
Edhease
Florina
Alexandroupolis
SEA
OF
MARMARA
Meassionik
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THASOS
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Katerinl
MOUNT
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40
LEMNOS
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Insumentas
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Karpenislon
LESBOS
Levkes
Lamia
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Amflesa
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Mascionsione
Leyadhia
Khies
Argostollon
Petral
Corinth
THENS
SÁMOS
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Pirgos
Corinth Canel
advrion
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IONIAN
CYCLADES
SEA
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GREECE
RHODES
35
International boundery
36
*
National capital
SEA OF CRETE
4
Refireed
Road
KARPATHOS
International airport
Kaställion
Khanis
Rethimnen
reklion
0
25
50
75 Miles
0 25 00 75 Kilometers
CRETE
Aylos
Nikolaos
20
240
28
PEOPLE
despite the changes wrought by urbaniza-
Education is highly esteemed in
tion and industrialization.
Greece, not only because it transmits
In ancient times Greece was a mosaic of
From earliest times, Greeks have
culture and knowledge but also because it
ethnically similar small city-states. During
migrated across the country and across the
contributes to social and cultural mobility.
the migrations and invasions of the Byzan-
Mediterransan, eventually creating Greek-
Orthodox Christianity is the estab-
tine and Ottoman periods (4th-19th
speaking communities all over the globe.
lished religion. The Greek Orthodox Church
centuries AD), Greece's ethnic composition
Emigration has been on such a scale that,
is self-governing under the spiritual
lost its homogeneity. Since independence
by one count, there are more than
guidance of the Ecumenical Patriarch,
(1827) and the exchange of populations with
3 million people of Greek heritage in the
resident in Istanbul, Turkey. During the
Turkey in 1923, however, Greece has
United States alone. Over the past two
centuries of Ottoman domination, the church
reforged a national identity whose roots
decades, however, migration within Greece
preserved the Greek language, values, and
date back to the 13th century BC. Greece's
from rural to urban centers has been more
national identity and became an important
pride in these Hellenic roots is reflected in
extensive than emigration abroad. The 1961
rallying point in the struggle for Indepen-
its official name, Hellas or the Hellenic
census showed an urban population of 43%
dence. The church is under the protection
Republic; the name "Greece" derives from
compared to & rural and semiurban popula-
and partial control of the state, which pays
the Latin name. Greek society retains its
tion of 57%. By 1971, the urban population
the clergy's salaries.
traditional Mediterranean values of family,
had grown to 58% and by 1981 to 58%.
The Muslim minority, concentrated in
education, and personal honor (philotimo),
About one-third of Greece's total population
western Thrace, was given legal status by
lives in the greater Athens area.
provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923
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and is Greece's only officially recognized
power, and as militaristic society. In the fifth
chose a prince of the Danish House of
minority
century BC, Persian invasions united the
Glucksberg as his successor. He became
The Greek language dates back at least
cities briefly, mainly under the military
George I, King of the Hellenes.
3,500 years, and modern Greek preserves
leadership of Athens. The subsequent
The Megali Idsa (Great Idea), the
many features of its classical predecessor.
"Golden Age" (BC 446-431) of Pericles, an
vision of uniting all Greeks of the declining
In the 19th century, after Greece's war of
Athenian leader, reflected an explosion of
Ottoman Empire within the newly indepen-
independence, an effort to rid the language
cultural and intellectual achievements which
dent Greek State, exerted a strong influence
of Turkish and Arable borrowings and to
has had a profound influence on Western
on Greek political consciousness. At
make It close again to the language of
civilization.
independence, Greece had an area of 47,515
Homer's Odyssey and Iliad, led to a version
The conflicting ambitions of Athens and
square kilometers (18,346 eq. mi.), and its
known as Katharevousa. However, this
Sparta led to the Peloponnesian ware (BC
northern boundary extended from the Gulf
never became the everyday language of
431-404), which Athens lost. The war
of Volos to the Gulf of Arts. The Ionian
most Greeks, and in 1976, it was abolished
caused suffering throughout Greece but did
Islands were added in 1864; Thessaly and
as the language of high school instruction
not immediately diminish Athenian cultural
part of Epirus in 1881; Macedonia, Crete,
and of the government. Today, spoken
achievements. A weakened Greece later fall
Epirus, and the Aegean Islands in 1913;
Greek is generally termed Demotiki; a more
under the domination of the Macedonians.
western Thrace in 1918; and the Dodecanese
recent reform movement has given rise to
Alexander the Great, whose tutor was the
Islands in 1947.
Neo Demotiki, the version that is now
great philosopher Aristotle, spread Greek
Greece entered World War I in 1917 on
considered standard Greek for everyday
culture as he marched east to conquer the
the side of the Allies and at the war's
usage and for contemporary literature.
world, but he also adopted much from the
conclusion, took part in the Allied occupa-
Persian Empire he defeated. The fusion of
tion of Turkey, where many Greeks still
Greek and Persian cultures created the
lived. In 1922, the Greek army marched
HISTORY
Hellenistic civilization of Asia Minor, which
from its base in Smyrna, now Izmir, toward
later was an important influence in the
Ankara but was forced to withdraw. At the
The eastern Mediterranean is one of the
culture of the Roman Empire and on
end of the war with the exchange of
"cradles of civilization." Greece was
Christianity and subsequent Western
populations, more than 1.3. million Greek
inhabited as early as the Paleolithic period,
thought.
refugees from Turkey poured into Greece,
and by BC 3000 had become home, in the
Rome conquered Greece in BC 146 and
posing enormous problems for the Greek
Cycladic Islands, to 8 culture whose art
eventually ruled over the entire Hellenistic
economy and society.
remains evocative. Early in the second
world. As Rome's power declined, one of its
A continuing feature of Greek politics,
millennium BC, the island of Crete nurtured
emperors, Constantine, split the empire by
particularly between the two World Wars,
the sophisticated maritime empire of the
establishing his Greek-speaking capital,
was the struggle for power between
Minoans, evidence of whose trade stretches
later called Constantinople, at the site of the
monarchists and republicans. Greece was
from Egypt to Sicily. The Minoans were
ancient Greek city of Byzantium in AD 330.
proclaimed a republic in 1924, but George II
challenged and eventually supplanted by
Although Rome was overrun by
returned to the throne in 1985, and a
mainland Mycenseans, who spoke # dialect
migrating tribes and the western part of the
plebiscite in 1946 reconfirmed the monar-
of Greek. Homer's Iliad and Odyessy,
empire fragmented in the fifth century AD,
chy. It was finally abolished by referendum
composed probably around BC 800, draw on
the eastern part flouriahed as the Byzantine
on December 8, 1974, when, by a two-thirds
memories of the Mycenaeans, whose
Empire. Greek in language and culture, the
vote, the Greeks supported the establish-
divilization collapsed around BC 1100,
empire was Roman in law and administra-
ment of B republic.
shortly after the Trojan war. This collapse
tion. The people called themselves Romans
Greece's entry into World War II was
left Greece, except the fortified citadel of
and tended to set aside the ancient Greek
precipitated by the Italian invasion on
Athens, open to migrating Dorian tribes
culture because it was pagan. Christianity
October 28, 1940. That date is celebrated in
from the north.
was the official religion, and the empire was
Greece by the remembrance of the one-word
During the next few hundred years of
seen as ecumenical, embracing all Chris-
reply-ochi (no)-given by the prime
political instability, the Greek polis or city-
tiens. By the 11th century, the Latin-
minister to a series of demands made by
state came into existence. The polis
speaking and the Greek-speaking churches
Mussolini. Despite Italian superiority in
included the city and its surrounding
split in the Grest Schism, which still
numbers and equipment, determined Greek
territory, its institutions, its way of life, and
continues. Attacks by fellow Christians
defenders drove the invaders back into
the unique values of its citizens. When the
during the Crusades and increasing
Albania. Hitler was forced to divert
cities sent their excess population to found
pressure from Central Asian peoples
German troops to protect his southern flank
colonies around the eastern and western
weakened the Byzantine Empire. It
and attacked Greece in early April 1941. By
Mediterranean and in the Black Sea, the
collapsed finally with the fall of Constanti-
the end of May, the Germans had overrun
colonies remained linked to the mother city
nople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The
most of the country, although Greek
by common values and traditions. Despite
patriarch of Constantincple (subsequently
resistance was never entirely suppressed.
their differences and frequent conflicts, the
renamed Istanbul), the capital of the
German forces withdrew in October 1944.
separate city-states shared the epics of
Ottoman Empire, then became both the
With the German withdrawal, the
Homer and other postry; the Olympic and
head of the Orthodox Church and the
principal Greek resistance movement, which
other games; and the same mythology,
temporal leader of all Greek and many
was controlled by the communists, sought to
religion, and language which unified the
Orthodox subjects of the Sultan.
take control of the country and undertook a
Greek world. They were conscious of their
The Gresk war of independence began
siege of the British forces in Athens during
common identity and called non-Greeks
in 1821, and the country obtained indepen-
the winter of 1944-45. When the siega was
"barbarians."
dence in 1827. Under the tutalage of
defeated, an unstable coalition government
Eventually two city-states emerged to
England, France, and Russia, a monarchy
was formed. Continuing tensions led to the
dominate Greece-the Ionian city of Athens,
was established with a Bavarian prince,
dissolution of that government and the
E democracy and a sea power, and the
Otto, named king in 1833. He was deposed
outbreak of Civil War in 1946. First the
Dorian city of Sparta, an oligarchy, a land
30 years later, and the European powers
United Kingdom, and later the United
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States, gave extensive military and
In January 1981, Greece became the
contested seat originally claimed by PASOK
economic aid to the Greek government.
10th member of the European Community.
to ND, bringing ND's total to 152 seats.
Communist successes in 1947-48 enabled
In parliamentary elections, held in October
them to move freely over much of mainland
1981, Greece elected its first socialist
Greece, but with extensive reorganization
government when the Panhellenic Socialist
GOVERNMENT AND
and American material support, the Greek
Party (PASOK), led by Andreas
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
national army under Marshal Papages
Papandreou, won 172 of 300 seats with 48%
eventually was able to gain ascendancy.
of the popular vote.
The 1975 constitution, which describes
Yugoslavia closed its borders to the
On March 9, 1985, Prime Minister
Greece as a "presidential parliamentary
insurgent forces in 1949 after Marshal Tito
Papandreou announced that PASOK would
republic," is similar to the 1952
of Yugoslavia broke with Stalin and the
not support President Karamanlis for a
constitution but has more extensive and
Soviet Union. Hostilities ceased in the fall
second term and nominated Supreme Court
precise guarantees of civil liberties and
of 1949 with some 80,000 Greeks killed.
Justice Christos Sartzetakis. On March 29,
vests the powers of the head of state in a
Twenty-five thousand more were either
1985, Sartzetakis was elected President by
president elected by parliament and advised
voluntarily or forcibly evacuated by the
the Greek Parliament, receiving the
by the Council of the Republic.
Greek communists to Eastern Bloc coun-
minimum 180 votes required on the third
On balance, the Greek governmental
tries, and there were 700,000 refugees.
ballot.
structure is similar to that found in most
Greece sought, after the Civil War, to
Greece witnessed two rounds of
Western European countries and has been
join the Western democratic alliance. In
parliamentary elections in 1989. In June,
described as a compromise between the
1952, Greece joined the North Atlantic
New Democracy won 146 of the 300 seats -
French and German models. As in most of
Treaty Organization (NATO). From 1952 to
not enough to form a government. The
Western Europe, the prime minister and
late 1963, Greece was governed by conser-
centrist-conservative party joined forces
parliament play central roles in the political
vative parties (The Greek Rally of Marshal
with the newly-formed coalition of commu-
process, but the Greek president also
Papagos and its successor, the National
nist and leftist parties called the Left
performs certain governmental functions in
Radical Union (ERE) of Constantine
Alliance to form an interim coalition
addition to ceremonial duties. The extent of
Karamanlis). In 1963, the Center Union
government under Prime Minister Tzannis
the president's influence in the political
Party of George Papandreou won the
Tzannetakis (ND). The Tzannetakis
process depends to a large degree on
election and governed until July 1965. It
government's mandate was limited to a
personal qualities and leadership.
was followed by a succession of unstable
program of national "catharsis," or cleans-
coalition governments.
ing. The focus was parliamentary investiga-
On April 21, 1967, just before sched-
tions into crimes allegedly committed by
Presidential Powers
uled elections, a group of colonels led by
ministers of the previous government,
Col. George Papadopoulos seized power.
including former Prime Minister Papan-
Elected by parliament to a 5-year term, the
Civil liberties were suppressed, special
dreou, himself. Following months of
president can be reelected once. The
military courts established, and political
hearings, parliament voted to lift the
president has the power to declare war and
parties dissolved. Several thousand
parliamentary immunity of most of the
to conclude agreements of peace, alliance,
opponents were imprisoned or exiled to
ministers incriminated, including
and participation in international organiza-
remote Greek islands. Papadopoulos'
Papandreou, and the Tzannetakis govern-
tions; a three-fifths parliamentary majority
associate, Gen. Dimitries Toannides, took
ment resigned, turning the country over to
is required to ratify such agreements or
power in November 1973. Ioannides'
an interim government in preparation for
treaties. The president can also exercise
decision in July 1974 to attempt to over-
new Parliamentary elections in November.
certain emergency powers, which must be
throw Archbishop Makarios, the President
The November elections were, if
countersigned by the appropriate minister.
of Cyprus, and install a client regime on
anything, even more inconclusive, with ND
On March 7, 1986, parliament amended
Cyprus brought Greece to the brink of war
and PASOK (with Papandreou at the helm)
11 articles of the constitution, limiting many
with Turkey, which, in response to the coup,
both picking up additional seats at the
of the president's political powers. The
militarily intervened and occupied almost 40
expense of the Left Alliance. This time ND
president may no longer dissolve parlia-
percent of the island.
won 46% of the vote but still came up three
ment, dismiss the government, suspend
Senior Greek military officers then
seats short of & parliamentary majority.
certain articles of the constitution, or
withdrew their support from the junta.
The stalemate led to the formation of a
declare & state of siege. To call a referen-
Leading citizens persuaded Karamanlis to
short-term, all-party coalition government
dum, he must obtain approval from parlia-
(
return from exile in France to establish at
tasked with addressing the growing crisis in
ment. Restricting presidential authority
government of national unity until elections
the Greek economy under Prime Minister
has given more power to the parliament and
could be held. Karamanlis' newly organized
Xenophon Zolotas, an internationally-
prime minister. Prime Minister
party, New Democracy (ND), won elections
respected economist. The pressures of
Papandreou's majority party (PASOK)
held in November 1974, and he became
economic reform proved too much for the
supported the amendments.
prime minister.
fragile coalition; the party leaders withdrew
Following the 1974 referendum which
their support in February 1990, and
Parliament
resulted in the rejection of the monarchy, &
elections were held on April 8.
new constitution was approved by parlia-
New Democracy won 150 seats in the
Parliamentary deputies are elected by
ment on June 19, 1975, and parliament
April 1990 election. With the cooperation of
direct, secret ballot for a maximum of 4
elected Constantine Teatsos President of
the single deputy elected from the centrist
years, but elections can be called earlier.
the Republic. In the parliamentary
DIANA party, A New Democracy govern-
Greece uses a complex, reinforced
elections of 1977, New Democracy again
ment headed by ND leader Constantine
proportional electoral system. That system
won 8 majority of seats. In May 1980,
Mitsotakis won a vote of confidence in
has discouraged splinter parties and made a
Prime Minister Karamanlis was elected to
Parliament. The DIANA deputy subse-
parliamentary majority possible even if the
succeed Tsatsos as president. George Rallis
quently changed his affiliation to ND, and
leading party fell short of 51% of the popular
(
was then chosen party leader and succeeded
a special Greak electoral court awarded a
vote. However, the constitution makes it
Karamanlis as prime minister.
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possible for Parliament to re-write the
ECONOMY
Growing public sector deficits were
electoral law virtually at will. Prior to the
financed by direct borrowing. This was
June 1989 elections, the PASOK-majority
The Greek economy began modernizing in
either domestic, crowding out the private
parliament wrote a new electoral law that
the late 19th and early 20th centuries with
sector, or in foreign markets, adding to the
took a big step toward simple proportional
the adoption of social and industrial
country's debt position. By mid-1985, the
representation, giving more power to the
legislation and protective tariffs, along with
government was faced with rising inflation,
smaller parties and making it more difficult
the creation of the first industrial enter-
a ballooning public sector deficit, and
for any one party to win a majority in
prises larger than artisan shops. Industry
growing balance-of-payments problems.
Parliament. In November 1990, parliament
at the turn of the century was based
Greece turned to the EC for help. In
revised the electoral law again, lowering the
primarily on food processing, shipbuilding,
October 1985, supported by an ECU 1.75
percentage of the popular vote needed to
textiles, and simple consumer products.
billion loan from the EC, the government
win an absolute majority in parliament.
Greek economic progress was severely
implemented a 2-year "atabilization"
affected from the 1920s to the 1950s by an
program with limited success. Incomes
Political Parties in the
influx of refugees from Asia Minor, the
policy bore the brunt of the effort, and real
Greek Parliament
(April 1990)
global depression, Axis occupation, and civil
wages fell by 13% in 1986-87. PSBR was cut
war. Recovery began in 1958 with a drastic
from 18% of GDP in 1985 to 13% in 1987.
Party
Seats
currency devaluation and reduction in
Tighter monetary policy cut the growth of
government spending which brought
bank credit, pushed the public sector to
New Democracy (ND
152
greater price stability and increased
borrow more from non-bank sources, and
Panhellenic Socialist Party
exports. From 1955 to 1963, under Prime
gradually established positive real interest
Minister Karamanlis, Greece's gross
rates on deposits and loans. The current
(PASOK)
124
domestic product (GDP) almost doubled.
account deficit fell from $3.3 billion in 1985
Left Alliance
21
Greece achieved high rates of growth in the
to $1.2 billion in 1987, and non-debt capital
late 1960s and early 1970s, which also saw
inflows (plus the EC loan) almost entirely
Muslim Independent (GUVEN)
2
some major foreign investments in Greece.
financed the deficit, halting the growth of
Since the 1970s, however, Greece has
external debt.
Ecologists/Alternatives
1
suffered a decline in its rate of GDP growth
Inflation remained a problem, and GDP
Total
300
of output, ratio of investment to GDP, and
growth remained aluggish. Inflation fell
productivity of investment. Between 1963
from 25% in 1985 to 16% in 1987, well above
and 1988:
the target of 12%, and very high compared
Local Administration
to EC norms. Real GDP growth lagged and
Real GDP growth fell from 10% to
was less than 1% during 1986 and 1987.
Greece is divided into 51 prefectures
less than 4% per year;
Nonetheless, by December 1987, a good
(nomi), each headed by & prefect (nomarch)
Investment as a share of GDP fell
start had been made. Profits, private
appointed by the minister of the interior; 18
from 27% to 16%; and
investment, and non-debt capital inflows all
regional governments (periferiarchis) were
The productivity of investment
increased; net external borrowing ceased;
established in 1987, headed by regional
(inverseof incremental capital output
and real interest rates were positive.
governors (periferiarchs), appointed by the
ratio) fell from an average of 0.36
External factors favored these improve-
minister of the interior. Although munici-
to .08 in the 1980s.
ments.
palities and villages have elected officials,
There were several reasons for this.
However, the good results did not last
they do not have an adequate independent
Beginning in the mid-1970s, real labor costs
long, mainly because the program did not
tax base and must depend upon the central
and oil prices rose. In 1981, falling protec-
address underlying structural problems.
government for a large part of their
tive barriers as Greece entered the Euro-
Public sector inefficiencies and excessive
financial needs and are subject to numerous
central government controls.
pean Community (EC) hurt company
spending continued to strain the economy.
profitability and private investment.
And, in 1988 the government relaxed
Government policies also created structural
incomes and financial policies.
Principal Government Officials
supply-side problems which hampered
The results were unfortunate. Real
development. The government elected in
wages grew by 5%, twice the target rate.
President Constantine
1981 at first pursued expansionary policies,
PSBR hit 16 percent of GDP due to high
which in the face of supply-side constraints,
public spending and revenue shortfalls.
Karamanlis
caused inflation and balance-of-payments
Government borrowing was above target
Prime Minister Constantine
problems rather than growth in output or
and, by the end of 1988, total public sector
Mitsotakis
employment. Between 1980 and 1985:
debt exceeded 100% of GDP. The money
Foreign Minister Andonis
supply grew by 23%, and the drachma
Samaras
Net public-sector borrowing
appreciated in real terms as exchange rate
Ambassador to the United States
requirement (PSBR) on A cash basis
policy was used to dampen inflation. In the
rose from 8% to 18% of GDP;
short term, this expansionary policy
Christos Zacharakis
The current account deficit went
brought growth. Domestic demand soared
Ambassador to the United Nations
from 5.5% to 10% of GDP; and
and real GDP grew by 4.3%. Total invest-
Antonios Exarchos
Inflation accelerated from an annual
ment increased by 9.3% in real terms, with
average of 13% percent during the
public investment up 1.6% and private by
Greece maintains an embassy in the
1970s to over 20% percent between
12% (although investment was low by
United States at 2221 Massachusetts
1981 and 1985.
historical standards).
Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 [tel.
Non-debt capital inflows also fell and
But over the longer term, the economy
(202) 667-3168]. There are consulates
external debt increased from 15% to 48% of
was to suffer significantly. Strong inflation-
general in San Francisco, Chicago, and New
GDP. This economic performance compared
ary pressures remained during 1988. Unit
York, and consulates in New Orleans,
poorly with the rest of the EC.
labor costs rose more than the GDP
Boston, and Atlanta.
5
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deflator, eroding profit margins. Based on
businesses will have to adjust to the strong
Lignite, a soft, coal-like fuel widely available
relative labor costs, the drachma appreci-
competition of large EC firms, while the
in Greece, provides about three-quarters of
ated by 8.5%, hurting competitiveness. The
government will need to liberalize its
the country's electricity.
current account deficit fell to 2% of GDP
economic and commercial practices. Also,
between 1987 and 1988, but this improve-
the Greek agricultural sector has had to
ment was due entirely to lower world oil
adjust to the lower intervention price set by
Tourism
prices. The non-oil trade deficit as &
the EC for Mediterranean products.
percentage of GDP reverted to its pre-1985
Overall, however, Greece has been E net
Tourism is a major source of foreign
peak, and the current account deficit,
beneficiary of the EC budget. Net pay.
exchange earnings. More than 8.4 million
excluding oil, widened by 0.6% of GDP.
ments to Greece increased from $550 million
tourists visited Greece in 1989, injecting
Greece continues to rely on foreign
by the end of 1982 to $1.4 billion in 1986 and
more than $2 billion into the Greek
borrowing to finance its balance-of-
to a $2.5 billion in 1989. The European
economy. US tourists (315,000 in 1989)
payments deficit. Total external debt was
Investment Bank has provided development
covered about 4% of total tourist arrivals.
$21.5 billion by the end of 1989, and may top
financing of approximately $300 million
Although US tourism increased in the last
323.5 billion by the end of 1990. This is 40%
annually. Together, these funds contribute
8 years, it is still far behind the 1979 levels
and 42% of GDP respectively. Greece faces
significantly to Greece's current account
(600,000 arrivals from the US).
a heavy repayment burden over the next 5
balance, reduce the state budget deficit, and
years.
provide resources for investment-
Commerce
The decrease in consumption caused by
primarily in the public sector.
the stabilization program limited the rate of
The EC's integrated Mediterranean
Greece's location, maritime tradition,
economic growth to 1.4% in 1986. In order
programs (IMP), announced in 1985, in part
proximity to the Middle East and continuing
to encourage third country investment, the
to meet Greek objections to the entry of
unrest in that area have attracted regional
Bank of Greece in July 1986 significantly
Spain and Portugal into the EC, will
marketing offices to Athens. The Greek
liberalized repatriation regulations for
increase the flow of development funds to
government provides incentives to foreign
dividends and profits for all new investment
less developed regions of the community,
enterprises conducting business exclusively
in "productive" activities made by US and
including approximately $1.4 billion in
outside of Greece (so-called "Law 89
other non-EC investors. However, EC
grants for Greece over 7 years. Currently,
companies"). Greece remains a net im-
investors still receive more favorable
Greece cannot fully draw on available EC
porter, in part because of its petroleum
treatment
structural funds, which require matching,
needs, but exports are significant, constitut-
The Greek economy is characterized by
because of a shortage of public funds.
ing about 11.6% of GNP, In 1989, Greece
a strong services sector (56% of GDP) and a
imported $15 billion worth of goods, while it
relatively large, inefficient agricultural
exported $6 billion. Leading exports were
sector (12% of GDP) which represents 26%
Energy
textiles, metal products, cement, chemicals,
of the labor force. Principal agricultural
Petroleum is Greece's largest single import.
petroleum products and pharmaceuticals.
products are olive oil, fruits and vegetables,
More than 60% of Greece's trade is with
cereals, tobacco, and wines. Agricultural
Based on import statistics for the last 5
years (1984-89), Greece imports an average
other EC countries. EC membership has
output increased by 1.5% in 1989 but is
expected to decline in 1990 due to adverse
of about 10 million tons of crude oil per year.
obliged Greece to eliminate or adjust many
weather conditions. The manufacturing,
About 75% of imported crude is
of its tariffs and quotas, making Greek
mining, electricity, and construction sector
processed by the two state-owned refiner-
businesses compete more directly with their
ies: Aspropyrgos and EKO, and the
EC counterparts.
(30% of GDP) represents 20% of the labor
remaining 25% by the 2 privately owned
The Middle East (including North
force and accounts for 45% of Greece's
refineries: Motoroil and Petrola (mainly
Africa) is an important trading partner for
exports-primarily textiles, cement, basic
metals, petrochemicals and pharmaceuticals.
export-oriented). The 4 Greek refineries
Greece, due to Greece's reliance on foreign
Manufacturing output rose by 2% in 1989,
produced about 16 million tons of petroleum
petroleum. In 1986 14% of its imports came
and is expacted to show a small increase in
products in 1988, of which about 2 million
from Middle Eastern oil-producing nations
1990. Construction registered 8 10%
tons were exported.
which purchased 11.7% of Greek exports.
increase in 1990. About half of the labor
Greece's main suppliers of crude are
Greek firms continue to be involved in major
force is self-employed.
Saudi Arabia, Libya, the Soviet Union, and
projects in the Middle East. However,
Kuwait. Greece began pumping oil from a
depressed oil prices have reduced
modest ofl field off the island of Thassos in
Greece's exports to the Middle East.
EC Membership
the northern Augean Sea in 1981 and is
In 1989, the United States supplied
exploring and developing oil reserves found
about 4% of Greece's non-military imports,
Greece is being forced to gradually
in the Ionian Sea. In 1988, Greece produced
led by machinery and transport equipment,
align itself with EC economic and commer-
1 billion tons of crude oil from its own fields.
coal, tobacco, corn, soybeans, fur skins, and
cial practices during an extended transition
Agreements on future purchases of
iron and steel scrap, and purchased about
period that began in 1981 following an 18-
natural gas are being negotiated with the
6% of its exports, with tobacco, petroleum
year period of associate membership.
Soviet Union and Algeria. The Soviet
products, antiques, iron and steel products,
Greece has been granted derogations from
natural gas project will require the con-
and fur apparel the major items.
certain aspects of the 1992 single-market
struction of B pipeline to be completed in
program, which means delays in full
10 years at E cost of about $1 billion.
liberalization until at least 1995.
Shipping
Algerian liquefied natural gas could be used
EC membership is affecting all aspects
in the Athens region by 1992. Greece also
Greece is traditionally a seafaring nation
of the Greek economy. Small Greek
plans to expand its use of hydroelectric
and has built 8 successful shipping industry
power and lignite burning in power plants.
6
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due to its geographic location and the
issues dividing Greece and Turkey center on
Karamanlis to Moscow in 1979. Prime
entrepreneurial ability of its shipowners.
the Aegean, involving delineation of the
Minister Papandreou visited the Soviet
In the 1980s, Greek shipowners began
continental shelf, territorial waters,
Union in February 1985, but a reciprocal
to abandon their national flag in favor of
territorial airspace, air traffic control,
visit by Soviet President Gorbachev has yet
flags of convenience to cut costs and to avoid
NATO command and control arrangements,
to take place. Trade with Central and
rigid government policies. The Greek flag
and military forces in the area. Greek and
Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union
fleet shrank from 3,896 ships displacing 42.5
Turkish officials held meetings in the 1970s
accounted for about 4.3% of Greek exports
million gross tons in 1981 to 2,002 ships and
to discuss differences on Aegean questions,
and 5% of its imports in 1989. The Tikhonov
20.6 million gross tons in February 1990.
but Greece discontinued these discussions in
visit concluded with the signing of a 10-year
The Greek fleet thus dropped from first to
the fall of 1981. In 1983, Greece and Turkey
economic and technical cooperation agree-
fifth in the world league table.
held talks on trade and tourism, but these
ment, including Soviet assistance in
Greek shipping does not play a central
were suspended by Greece when Turkey
financing and building a $500 million
role in the domestic economy in that it
recognized the Turkish-Cypriot declaration
alumina plant in Greece. The Soviet Union
trades internationally and is only marginally
of independence of November 15, 1988.
will purchase the plant's entire planned
taxed on ship size and not on income
After a dangerous dispute in the Aegean in
annual production of 600,000 tons for a
generated. Nonetheless, It provides
March 1987 concerning oil-drilling rights,
period of 10 years. The plant is scheduled to
employment, and brings in invisible
the prime ministers of Greece and Turkey
be in operation by 1992. In June 1987 the
earnings which help Greece's balance-of-
exchanged messages exploring the possibil-
Soviet Union and Greece agreed in principle
payments problems.
ity of resolving the dispute over the
to the construction of a $1 billion gas
Gresce's membership gives the EC 15%
continental shalf. Greace argues for an
pipeline through which the Soviets would
of the world's tonnage. The Greek fleet is
International Court of Justice decision.
supply 80% of Greece's natural gas needs.
the largest in the EC, with a third of the
Turkey proposes bilateral political discus-
The two countries also signed a shipping
community's vessels and about 5% of the
sions. In early 1988 the Turkish and Greek
protocol agreement in May 1987.
world's total tonnage.
prime ministers met at Davos in Switzer-
land and later in Brussels and agreed on
various measures to reduce bilateral
Middle East Policy
FOREIGN RELATIONS
tensions and encourage cooperation. The
Greece has a special interest in the Middle
Mitsotakis government has initiated a
East because of its geographic position and
In addition to belonging to the European
revitalization of the Greek-Turkish dialogue.
its economic and historic ties to the area.
Economic Community, Greece is a member
Greece maintained relations with Israel at &
of NATO and, thus is a defense partner of
the United States. Historically, Greece's
Central and Eastern Europe
level just below that of full diplomatic
representation since 1948, until May 1990,
foreign policy has focused on the eastern
Greece maintains full diplomatic, political,
when full recognition was extended. In
Mediterranean, particularly relations with
and economic relations with its eastern
December 1981, the Greek government
Turkey, Cyprus, and the Balkans.
European neighbors. Efforts to promote
raised the status of the office of the
multilateral Balkan cooperation and
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in
Greece, Turkey, and Cyprus
understanding began in the mid-1970s, and
Athens to a similar level. Greece cooper-
the Papandreou government supported a
ated-with the United States and other
The 1974 coup against Cypriot President
Balkan nuclear-free zone in these talks.
countries in the PLO evacuation from
Makarios, inspired by the Greek military
Greece generally has had good relations
Beirut in 1982 and from Tripoli in 1983.
junta in Athens, and the subsequent Turkish
with Yugoslavia since the early 1950s.
military intervention in Cyprus, led to the
Diplomatic relations with Bulgaria were
junta's downfall, the creation of a large
restored in 1965, after & 24-year break,
DEFENSE
Cypriot refugee population, and a divided
when Bulgaria renounced its claim to Greek
island. The Greek Cypriot community elects
Thrace and Macedonia, an obstacle to
The Greek armed forces number about
the government of the Republic of Cyprus,
Greek-Bulgarian cooperation since World
185,000 active duty personnel, of which
which is recognized by most other countries;
War I. Diplomatic relations were restored
142,000 serve in the army, 19,500 in the
only Turkey recognizes the regime in the
with Albania in 1971, but the Greek
navy, and 28,500 in the air force. The army
Turkish-occupied territory north of the UN-
government did not lift the declared state of
includes 1 armored division, 1 mechanized
controlled buffer zone.
war with Albania until September 1987. In
division, 11 infantry divisions, 1 parachute/
The UN Secretary General has a
early 1990, relations between Greece and
commando division, and a variety of smaller
mandate from the Security Council to use
Albania were strained by reports of
specialized formations. The navy has 10
his "good offices" to help the Greek and
mistreatment of the ethnic Greek minority
submarines, 14 destroyers, 7 frigates, 27 fast
Turkish Cypriot communities reach a
in Albania and an incident in which Albanian
attack craft, and other vessels. There are
mutually beneficial negotiated settlement to
police reportedly entered the Greek
almost 300 combat aircraft in the air force.
the Cyprus problem.
embassy in Tirana and foreibly removed an
All Greek males must serve approximately 2
The Republic of Cyprus has received
asylum seaker.
years of military service, depending on the
strong support from Grauce in international
Greek governments in recent yours
branch.
fora. Greece has a military contingent on
have pursued improvements in Greek-
The United States has had 4 major and
Cyprus, and Greek officers fill some key
Soviet relations. Soviet Prime Minister
12 secondary defense facilities in Greece
positions in the Greek Cypriot national
Tikhonov's 1988 visit to Greece reciprocated
which serve important missions, including
guard. Greece and Turkey enjoyed good
an official visit by then Prime Minister
strategic airlift, training, naval support for
relations in the 1980s, but relations began to
the US Sixth Flest, reconnaissance, storage
deteriorate in the late 1950s, sparked by the
of reserve materials, and communications.
Cyprus independence struggle. Other
Some 3,700 US servicemen are stationed at
7
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Greek government, in protest, withdrew
Principal US Officials
TRAVEL NOTES
from NATO's military wing but remained &
member of the alliance. In October 1980, an
Ambassador-Michael G. Sotirhos
arrangement with NATO provided for
Climate and clothing: Lightweight
Deputy Chief of Mission-James A.
Greece's reentry into the alliance's military
clothing May-September; woolens
Williams
structure. Nevertheless, Greek-Turldsh
October-April.
Chief, Military Advisory Group-
differences led Athens to withdraw from
Customs: Greek visas are required of
BG Edmond Solymosy
NATO exercises in the Aegean.
Counselor for Political Affairs-
holders of official and diplomatic US
Samuel C. Fromowitz
passports, but not of visitors holding US
Counselor for Political Military
US-GREEK RELATIONS
tourist passports and intending to stay
less than 2 months. Visitors wishing to
Affairs-Laurel M. Shea
Counselor for Economic Affairs-
The United States and Greece have
extend their stay must submit an
longstanding historical, political, and
application 20 days before the expira-
J. Michael Cleverley
Counselor for Commercial Affairs-
cultural ties based on a common heritage
tion of the 2-month period. No special
and shared values. Following World War II,
inoculations are required, but health
Jerry K. Mitchell
Counselor for Consular Affairs-
when Greece was threatened by the
requirements change. Travelers should
communist-led civil war, the United States
check the latest Information.
Danny Root
Counselor for Administrative
proclaimed the Truman doctrine and began
a period of substantial financial and military
Telecommunications: Telephone
Affairs-Peter Flynn
aid: more than $8.5 billion in economic and
service within Athens is satisfactory,
Counselor for Public Affairs---
Arthur Guiliano
security assistance since 1946. Economic
and calls to the US may be made
programs were phased out by 1962, but
easily. Athens is 7 standard time zones
Regional Security Officer-Art
military assistance has continued. In FY
ahead of the eastern US.
Manuel
Defense Attache-Stanley
1987, Greece was the fifth largest recipient
Transportation: Streets and highways
Kozlowski
of US security assistance, receiving $343
In Greece are hard-surfaced; smaller
Labor Affairs Officer-John L.
million in foreign military sales credits.
roads are sometimes rough and
Relations between the United States
Klekas
ungraded. Tourists wishing to drive
Consul General, Thessaloniki-
and Greece were strained at times during
must have an international driver's
Larry c. Thompson
the Papandrecu/PASOK years. As Prime
license. The International car Insur-
Minister, however, Papandreou signed a
ance card is valid if Greece is listed on
new Defense and Economic Cooperation
the card. Intercity and local public
The US Embassy le located at: 91
Agreement with the United States in 1983
transportation is adequate, Inexpen-
Vasillisis Sophias Avenue, Athens 101
allowing for the continued operation of US
sive, and crowded at rush hours. Taxis
60 (tel. 721-2951). The Consulate
bases in Greece and was negotiating toward
are numerous In Athens, but because
General is at: 59 Leoforos Nikla (Nikis
a new one when talks were recessed in May
they are relatively Inexpensive they are
Avenue), Thessaloniki (tel. 266-121).
1989 for Greek elections. Prime Minister
difficult to find during rush hours.
Mitsotakia, shortly after taking office in
April 1990, told parliament that his
these facilities, primarily at Hellenikon Air
government would attach "particular
Published by the United States Department
Base in Athens, the Nea Makri Communica-
importance to the normalization of relations
tions Station at Marathon, and Souda Air
with the United States." He added that the
of State Bureau of Public Affairs Office
conclusion of a new defense agreement
of Public Communication Washington,
Base and the Iraklion Communications
Station on the island of Crete. As part of a
would be mutually beneficial. US-Greek
DC December 1990 Editor: Peter A.
negotiators signed a new mutual defense
Knecht
worldwide structural readjustment, in early
1990 the US announced plans to withdraw
cooperation agreement in July. This
Department of State Publication 8198
from Nea Makri in 1990 and to close
entered into force in November 1990.
Background Notes Series
This material is
Hellenikon in 1991.
in the public domain and may be reprinted
Greece joined NATO in 1952. Border-
without permission; citation of this source is
ing on the Warsaw Pact and strategically
appreciated.
located along the air and the sea lanes of the
For sale by the Superintendent of Docu-
eastern Mediterranean, Greece plays & key
ments, US Government Printing Office,
role in the defense of the alliance's southern
Washington, DC 20402.
flank. Following the 1974 Cyprus crisis, the
DII
.M54
WHRC
t:
THE ALMANAC
OF DATES
EVENTS OF THE PAST FOR
OF DATES
EVERY DAY OF THE YEAR
vents
e Past
very Day
LINDA MILLGATE
Year
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
New York and London
a republic
1882
Tuberculosis germ discovery announced by
al holiday)
Dr. Robert Koch
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, poet, died
1898
First American-made gas carriage (automobile)
Palm
sold
1900
Work begun on New York City's subway system
1902
New York governor and Presidential candidate,
Thomas E. Dewey, born
1903
Bankers' Trust Company of New York City
incorporated
1905
Jules Verne, author, died
1916
Steamer Sussex torpedoed in the English
Channel
nd fair
1919
King Charles I of Austro-Hungary exiled
tinence
1927
U.S. and British consulates in China were
to under-
looted
1934
Philippine Islands granted independence,
ay;
effective 1945
ages)
1937
National Gallery of Art established by an Act
xpedi-
of Congress
ern
1938
Paul L. Haworth, historian-educator, died
1939
Madrid, Spain, surrendered to the insurgents
1953
Queen Mary, wife of King George V of England,
born
died
1955
San Francisco Mint turned out its last coin,
a penny
1956
Woolly bear caterpillars gave up weather
predicting
found
1959
Ferry service ended between New York City and
a
Weehawken, New Jersey
1964
First U.S. John F. Kennedy 50¢-pieces issued
aper,
1918, 1929, 1991, 2002, 2013, 2024, 2086, 2097 Palm
Sunday
S
1967, 1978, 1989, 2046, 2062, 2073, 2084 Good Friday
1940 Easter
on
eath
March 25th
by
roke
Annunciation or Lady Day (Protestant and
Eastern Orthodox)
ife,
Feast of the Virgin (Greece)
English Quarter Day - rents due; move in or
rail-
out
New Year's Day for Medieval Christians
Canyon,
708 AD
Constantine elected Pope
1133
King Henry II of England born
1252
Conrad the Younger, King of Jerusalem and
ilippe,
Sicily, born
lied
1255
Manfred, self-appointed King of Sicily,
of
excommunicated
1347
St. Catherine of Siena born
1555
Valencia, Venezuela, founded
1584
First American colonists set sail from England
1388
Construction of
1634
Lord Calvert's colonists landed in Maryland
Eng
(Maryland Day)
1649 OS
John Winthrop, f
1668
First recorded horse race in America
col
(Hempstead, N.Y.)
1804
Louisiana became
1687
Episcopal Church established in Boston's Old
1812
La Guaira, Venezu
South Meeting House
1821
Northwest Compan
1700
Second Partition Treaty of the Spanish Empire
Bay
signed
1826
John VI, King of
1751
Last time this date started the legal year in
1827
Ludwig von Beeth
England
1845
Daniel W. Harmon
1861
Savage's party, chasing Indians, were first to
1856
First trolley li
enter the Yosemite Valley,
ope
California
Yakima Indian at
1863
Philadelphia Public Leger, newspaper, founded
in
1867
Arturo Toscanini, orchestra conductor, born
1863
Daniel W. Harmon
1898
Hillsdale, New Jersey, incorporated
The Bakers set O
1899
Baron de Reuter, founder of the news agency,
the
died
1868
Fuad I, King of
1911
Triangle Shirtwaist factory fire, New York
1874
Conde Nast, publ
City
1875
Robert Frost, po
1914
Aline Saarinen, television newswoman, born
1881
Carol proclaimed
1915
U.S. submarine F-4 sank off Honolulu harbor
1892
Walt Whitman, po
1921
Queen Alexandra of Yugoslavia born
1896
New Jersey state
1924
Greek Assembly exiled its royalty (Greek
1902
Cecil Rhodes, Af
Independence Day)
1908
Betty MacDonald,
1950
Frank Buck, animal collector, died
1914
General William
1951
MacArthur threatened China with naval and
1917
Joseph Stalin re
air attacks (Korean War)
yea
1954
From Here to Eternity won the Oscar for Best
1918
Foch became Supr
Picture
Kentucky state f
1957
"Euromarket" began
Claude Debussy,
1961
U.S. launched Explorer 10
1923
Vermont state fl
Russia launched Sputnik 10 with a dog aboard
Sarah Bernhardt,
1965
Four-day civil rights march reached Montgomery
1928
Pennsylvania Art
from Selma, Alabama
1929
Nevada state fla
1969
Waffle Day in Sweden
1930
"Wild Mary Sudik
1970
Start of Holiday for Everybody exhibit at
1953
Height of the Ma
Herning, Denmark
Afr
1971
Civil war erupted in East Pakistan
Salk polio vacci
1923, 1934, 1945, 1956, 2018, 2029, 2040 Palm Sunday
1954
Russia declared
1910, 1921, 1932, 1005, 2016 Good Friday
Spanish ship Gua
1951, 2035, 2046 Easter
sto
1961
Sputnik 10 and i
1961, 1972, 2051, 2056 P
March 26th
1932, 1937, 1948, 2027, 2
1967, 1978, 1989, 2046, 2
Kuhio Day, holiday in Hawaii
Last day of Clitheroe, Lancashire, England, fair
651 AD St. Braulio died (Feast Day)
March 27th
809
St. Ludger died (Feast Day)
1027
Conrad II crowned Holy Roman Emperor
Frankmason Day (
1144
St. William of Norwich died (Feast Day)
Ancient Roman pr
mot
Ref.
ISSN 1045-2621
D11
G34
1990
WH
Holidays and
Anniversaries
of the World
A Comprehensive Catalogue Containing Detailed Information
on Every Month and Day of the Year, with Coverage of 23,000 Holidays,
Anniversaries, Fasts and Feasts, Holy Days, Days of the Saints, the Blesseds,
and Other Days of Heortological Significance, Birthdays of the Famous,
Important Dates in History, and Special Events and Their Sponsors
SECOND EDITION
Jennifer Mossman, Editor
Gale Research Inc.
DETROIT
NEW YORK
FORT LAUDERDALE
LONDON
Holidays
San Marino
Universal Vote Day or Anniver-
Religious
sary of the Arengo
Great Britain
Lady Day or Quarter Day
Solemnitie
A day marking the end of the
Uganda
Public Holiday
The Annu
first quarter of the year
Commemorates the formation
(calculated from Christmas);
of the Ugandan National
Virgin Mar
Lutheran fe
also commemorates the
Liberation Front (UNLF).
appearance of the Angel Gabriel
U.S.
Maryland Day
to the Virgin Mary announcing
The Saint
March 25
(Maryland)
Commemorates the landing of
that she would be the mother
Lord Baltimore and the first
The Good
of Christ.
colonists on St. Clement's
Christ; patr
Greece
Independence Day
Island, 1634.
tas, or Titu
Commemorates the day when
the Greek flag was first raised in
revolt against Ottoman
domination, 1821.
Birthdates
1252
Conradin (also called Conrad V), Holy Ro-
1887
Raymond Gram Swing, U.S. radio com-
1925
(Mary) Flannery O'Connor, U.S. short-
1634
Le
man Emperor; King of Jerusalem and Sici-
mentator. [d. December 22, 1968]
story writer, novelist. [d. August 3, 1964]
la
ly, 1266-68; last of the German Hohenstau-
no
1891
Byron Price, U.S. journalist, public official;
fen dynasty; executed. [d. October 29, 1268]
1928
James Arthur Lovell Jr., U.S. astronaut;
U.S. Director of Censorship, 1941-45; Assis-
aboard Gemini 12 space mission.
1799
A
1767
Joachim Murat, French cavalry leader;
tant Secretary General of UN, 1947-54. [d.
o
marshal with Napoleon; King of Naples,
August 6, 1981)
1934
Gloria Steinem, U.S. feminist, writer, lec-
1808-15; known as the Dandy King. [d. Oc-
Ed(ward James) Begley, U.S. actor;
turer; founder and editor of Ms. magazine.
1821
U
1901
tober 13, 1815]
n
Academy Award for The Unsinkable Molly
John Winebrenner, U.S. clergyman;
1937
Tom Monaghan, U.S. businessman; owner,
a
1797
Brown, 1964. [d. April 28, 1970]
founder of the Church of God denomina-
Detroit Tigers, 1984-, and Domino's Pizza.
1900
W
tion. [d. September 12, 1860]
John Earl Fetzer, U.S. baseball executive,
businessman; started Fetzer Broadcasting,
1938
Hoyt Wayne Axton, U.S. singer, songwriter,
A
1839
William Bell Wait, U.S. educator; devised
actor; sold over twenty-five million records
W
1930; owner, Detroit Tigers, 1956-83.
an embossing machine for printing books
in twenty years.
S)
for the blind. [d. October 25, 1916)
1908
David Lean, British director; two Oscar
Awards for Bridge on the River Kwai and
1940
Anita Bryant, U.S. singer.
1904
A
1862
William Eugene Johnson (Pussyfoot
Lawrence of Arabia.
1942
Paul Michael Glaser, U.S. actor; known for
p
Johnson), U.S. reformer; militant Prohibi-
Emil John (Dutch) Leonard, U.S. baseball
his role as Starsky on television series,
1909
1911
F
tionist. [d. February 2, 1945)
player; won 191 Major League games in
Starsky and Hutch, 1975-79.
и
1863
Simon Flexner, U.S. pathologist, bacteriol-
twenty years of pitching.
1947
Elton John (Reginald Kenneth Dwight),
n
ogist; discoverer of the serum to treat
Norman E. Borlaug, U.S. agronomist;
British singer, songwriter; known for his
S
1914
meningitis. [d. May 2, 1946]
Nobel Peace Prize for his work in develop-
outrageous stage costumes.
tl
1867
ing new varieties of high-yield cereals,
n
Arturo Toscanini, U.S. conductor, born in
1948
Bonnie Bedelia (Bonnie Culkin), U.S. act-
to
Italy; one of the best known modern con-
1970; U.S. Medal of Freedom, 1970.
ress, singer, dancer; known for her starring
ductors. [d. January 16, 1957]
1920
Howard Cosell (Howard William Cohen),
role in They Shoot Horses, Don't They?,
1919
T
1871
Gutzon Borglum (John Gutson de la
1969.
n
U.S. sportscaster.
Mothe Borglum), U.S. sculptor; famed for
Paul Mark Scott, British author; wrote The
1949
Nick Lowe, British singer, musician; known
n
his presidential sculptures on Mt.
G
Raj Quartet, 1976. [d. March 1, 1978]
for song, Cruel to Be Kind.
Rushmore, South Dakota. [d. March 6,
l
1941]
1921
Simone Signoret (Simone-Henriette-
1935
P
Charlotte Kaminker), French actress. [d.
Historical Events
1881
Béla Bartók, Hungarian composer, pianist;
B
September 30, 1985)
recognized as the father of contemporary
1306
Robert Bruce is crowned Robert I, King
c
Hungarian music. [d. September 26, 1945]
1922
Eileen Ford, U.S. business executive.
of Scotland.
a
230
231
Holidays
San Marino
Universal Vote Day or Anniver-
Religious Calendar
Great Britain
Lady Day or Quarter Day
sary of the Arengo
Solemnities
A day marking the end of the
Uganda
Public Holiday
first quarter of the year
The Annunciation of Our Lord to the Blessed
Commemorates the formation
(calculated from Christmas);
of the Ugandan National
Virgin Mary. [Also major Episcopal Holy Day; minor
also commemorates the
Lutheran festival.)
Liberation Front (UNLF).
appearance of the Angel Gabriel
U.S.
Maryland Day
to the Virgin Mary announcing
Commemorates the landing of
The Saints
that she would be the mother
(Maryland)
Lord Baltimore and the first
The Good Thief, the thief who was crucified with
of Christ.
colonists on St. Clement's
Christ; patron of thieves. Also called Dismas, Ges-
Greece
Independence Day
Island, 1634.
tas, or Titus. (d. 29 A.D.]
Commemorates the day when
the Greek flag was first raised in
revolt against Ottoman
domination, 1821.
(Continues.
VI, Holy Ro-
1887
Raymond Gram Swing, U.S. radio com-
m and Sici-
1925
1634
mentator. (d. December 22, 1968)
(Mary) Flannery O'Connor, U.S. short-
Lord Baltimore's settlers arrive in Mary-
Hohenstau-
story writer, novelist. (d. August 3, 1964]
land, establishing the foundation of the
1891
er 29, 1268]
Byron Price, U.S. journalist, public official;
new colony.
U.S. Director of Censorship, 1941-45; Assis-
1928
James Arthur Lovell Jr., U.S. astronaut;
alry leader;
aboard Gemini 12 space mission.
1799
Austrians defeat French at Stokach in War
tant Secretary General of UN, 1947-54. (d.
of Naples,
of the Second Coalition.
August 6, 1981]
King. (d. Oc-
1934
Gloria Steinem, U.S. feminist, writer, lec-
1901
Ed(ward James) Begley, U.S. actor;
turer; founder and editor of Ms. magazine.
1821
Uprising occurs. in the Greek Pelopon-
clergyman;
Academy Award for The Unsinkable Molly
nesus, initiating a decade of revolution
denomina-
Brown, 1964. (d. April 28, 1970]
1937
Tom Monaghan, U.S. businessman; owner,
against the Turks and civil war in Greece.
Detroit Tigers, 1984-, and Domino's Pizza.
John Earl Fetzer, U.S. baseball executive,
1900
Warfare breaks out anew between the
businessman; started Fetzer Broadcasting,
1938
tor: devised
Hoyt Wayne Axton, U.S. singer, songwriter,
Ashantis of West Africa and the British
ting books
1930; owner, Detroit Tigers, 1956-83.
actor; sold over twenty-five million records
when the British seize the Golden Stool, a
16)
1908
David Lean, British director; two Oscar
in twenty years.
symbol of Ashanti royalty.
Awards for Bridge on the River Kwai and
1940
Anita Bryant, U.S. singer.
(Pussyfoot
1904
Armida, the last opera of Antonin Dvorák,
Lawrence of Arabia.
nt Prohibi-
1942
Paul Michael Glaser, U.S. actor; known for
premieres in Prague.
1909
Emil John (Dutch) Leonard, U.S. baseball
his role as Starsky on television series,
1911
Fire in the Triangle Shirtwaist Co., near
player; won 191 Major League games in
Starsky and Hutch, 1975-79.
t, bacteriol-
Washington Square, New York City, kills
twenty years of pitching.
n to treat
1947
Elton John (Reginald Kenneth Dwight),
more than 150 persons, mostly young
1914
Norman E. Borlaug, U.S. agronomist;
British singer, songwriter; known for his
seamstresses who are unable to escape;
Nobel Peace Prize for his work in develop-
outrageous stage costumes.
the tragedy awakens New Yorkers to the
tor, born in
ing new varieties of high-yield cereals,
misery and dangers of the sweatshop sys-
odern con-
1948
Bonnie Bedelia (Bonnie Culkin), U.S. act-
1970; U.S. Medal of Freedom, 1970.
tem.
ress, singer, dancer; known for her starring
1920
Howard Cosell (Howard William Cohen),
role in They Shoot Horses, Don't They?,
1919
The Peace Conference of World War I is
son de la
U.S. sportscaster.
1969.
reduced to a Council of Four for decision
famed for
on Mt.
Paul Mark Scott, British author; wrote The
1949
Nick Lowe, British singer, musician; known
making: Clemenceau of France, Lloyd
March 6,
Raj Quartet, 1976. [d. March 1, 1978]
for song, Cruel to Be Kind.
George of Britain, President Wilson of the
U.S., and Orlando of Italy.
1921
Simone Signoret (Simone-Henriette-
er, pianist:
Charlotte Kaminker), French actress. [d.
1935
Paul Van Zeeland becomes premier of
Historical Events
temporary
September 30, 1985)
Belgium and is given decree powers for
26, 1945]
1922
1306
Eileen Ford, U.S. business executive.
Robert Bruce is crowned Robert I, King
one year to cope with the nation's desper-
of Scotland.
ate financial situation.
230
(Continues, ,
231
St. Barontius, monk and hermit. [d. C. 695]
Holidays
The Beatified
St. Hermenland, abbot. [d. C. 720]
Blessed Thomasius, hermit. Also called Thomas.
Banglades
St. Alfwold, Bishop of Sherborne. [d. C. 1058)
[d. 1337]
St. Lucy Filippini, virgin. [d. 1732]
Blessed James Bird, layman and martyr. [d. 1593)
St. Ermelandus, abbot. [death date unknown]
Spain
March 26
U.S. (Hav
Birthdates
1957
The Treaty of Rome is signed, establish-
imbalances in the workforce through
1516
Konrad von Gesner, Swiss naturalist: his
1874
ing the European Economic Community
affirmative action programs for women.
Historiae Animalium is considered the ba-
(Common Market). Members are Belgium,
It is the first time that the court specifically
sis of modern zoology. (d. December 13,
France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg,
addresses such programs for women.
1565)
and the Netherlands.
1988
1965
About 25,000 civil rights demonstrators
Representatives from the Sandinista govern-
1749
William Blount, U.S. politician: one of first
ment and contra forces sign a ceasefire
two senators of Tennessee; expelled from
1879
end a five-day march from Selma, to Mont-
accord in Sapoa, Nicaragua. The pact
the Senate for attempting a conspiracy to
gomery, Alabama, with a rally demanding
equal rights for blacks.
provides for a 60-day truce, a general
increase illegally the value of western land.
amnesty, and continuing negotiations.
[d. March 21, 1800]
1966
U.S. Supreme Court declares the poll tax to
1880
be unconstitutional for all elections.
1753
Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rum-
ford, American-English physicist; respon-
1972
Agreement to coordinate efforts to control
1884
sible for bringing Watt's steam engine into
the trade in narcotic drugs is signed by
36 countries in Geneva.
general use. [d. August 21, 1814)
1975
King Faisal of Saudi Arabia is assassinated
1773
Nathaniel Bowditch, U.S. mathematician,
in Riyadh by his nephew, Prince Faisal ibn
navigator, astronomer. [d. March 16, 1838]
1891
Musad, who is subsequently beheaded
1819
Louise Otto, German writer; founder of
publicly. Crown Prince Khalid, brother of
the feminist movement in Germany. (d.
the king, succeeds to the throne.
March 13, 1895)
1892
1983
Prince Bhekimpi Dlamini replaces Prince
1840
George Smith, British Assyriologist; deci-
Mabandla Dlamini as prime minister of
phered many cuneiform scripts. [d. August
Swaziland.
1893
19, 1876)
1984
The first round of national elections is held
1850
Edward Bellamy, U.S. author; wrote Look-
in El Salvador. The centrist Christian Dem-
ing Backward, a utopian novel which gave
ocratic Party candidate, Jose Napoleon
rise to Nationalist Clubs throughout the
Duarte, wins an absolute majority.
U.S. devoted to achieving the ideals ex-
1985
Vernon Walters replaces Jeane Kirkpat-
pressed in the novel. (d. May 22, 1899]
rick as U.S. ambassador to the United
1859
A(lfred) E(dward) Housman, British poet,
1909
Nations.
classical scholar. [d. April 30, 1936]
1986
Canadian officials announce the introduc-
1868
Ahmed Fuad Pasha, Fuad I, King of
tion of a one dollar coin planned to replace
Egypt, 1922-1936. (d. June 1936)
the Canadian paper dollar by 1989.
1873
Sir Gerald du Maurier, British theatrical
1987
The U.S. Supreme Court rules that an
manager and actor; father of novelist
employer may voluntarily act to redress
Daphne du Maurier. [d. April 11, 1934]
233
232
DF717
A46
1985
WH
Greece :
a country study
Foreign Area Studies
The American University
Edited by
Rinn S. Shinn
Research completed
April 1985
any Am's go to fight?
GA today politic
other heroes?
me the principal
tion. Greek philosophers, dramatists, and poets laid the foun-
ir independence
dation for the cultural, intellectual, and spiritual development
of succeeding European civilizations. Aeschylus, Aristophanes,
derlined its abid-
and Aristotle only begin the long list of the greatest figures of
en the world was
the age. In the plastic arts sculptural masterpieces were creat-
at was perceived
ed-conceptions of the idealized human in form and content.
: Union and such
In architecture the Acropolis in Athens and other sites provid-
L, and Yugoslavia,
ed models that would endure for centuries.
In the years after
Despite the wars and conquests in which Greece subse-
added Turkey as
quently became embroiled, the growth and spread of Greek art
Turkey was per-
and learning continued apace. Alexander the Great, son of
security, especial-
King Philip of Macedonia and conqueror of Greek city-states,
brought Greek culture to all corners of the lands he occupied.
sible for the coun-
In the second century B.C. the Romans, who had subdued the
S few natural re-
Macedonians and made Greece a Roman province, adopted the
ave been enthusi-
mantle of Greek civilization. When the Roman Empire was
lishing colonies in
later divided, the ruling elite of the eastern portion-the By-
ave ranged far and
zantine Empire (330-1453)-eagerly embraced the Greek lan-
lia, Canada, South
guage, literature, and culture. Constantinople (present-day Is-
decades Greek job
tanbul, Turkey), the capital of the Byzantine Empire, became
n Europe in great
the flourishing center of Greco-Roman culture.
is and daughters of
The 1,000-year reign of the Byzantines came to an end in
ing the pace, upon
1453, when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks. For
ange in a nation of
more than 350 years thereafter the Greeks would languish in
980s by about 10
obscurity under the Ottomans, while retaining a social and
being Greek-speak-
cultural identity of their own by adhering to their Orthodox
Christianity; in time this identification provided the basis for
as 3000 B.C., when
the Greek concept of motherland and nationalistic stirrings.
outhern Balkan Pe-
Contemporary Greece remains predominantly Orthodox,
r. In ensuing centu-
its established religion under the Constitution being defined as
nd Mycenaean cul-
the Easter Orthodox Church of Christ. The church and the
Mycenaeans were
state are separate, nonetheless. The church, which depends on
tive Hellenic tribes
the state for financial and legal support, is the most important
ar-long Greek "dark
social institution, and orthodoxy permeates the life of the peo-
d turmoil that many
ple in varying degrees of religiosity, despite gradual tenden-
rominent being Ath-
cies toward secularization. Attendance at services in both rural
ing and forming alli-
and urban parishes has been declining, limited largely to wom-
were generally unit-
en, children, and older men.
y as Hellenes. Such
Greece is linguistically homogeneous; however, through-
ound for the Greek
out the twentieth century the country has been rent by dis-
'stage for Greece's
putes over the various forms of Greek to be used for different
banned roughly from
purposes. School-children were bedeviled by the necessity of
learning one form of Greek for everyday speech and reading,
; of Hellenic civiliza-
another for learned discourse and classical literature, a third
xxvii
Greece: A Country Study
The Ottoman Occupation
century, probably resulting
from direct control of the
The fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks
the Sublime Porte) and the
was the culmination of a gradual dismemberment of the Byzan-
and court intrigue. Most of
tine Empire. Initially, the Orthodox Greeks welcomed to the
prices, tenure was short,
Muslim Ottomans, finding them less offensive religiously than
amassing as much wealth a
the Roman Catholics. However, in contrast to the Venetians,
ic decay in administration
who encouraged cultural development and served as the con-
retreat, starting with the fa
duit for influences from the West, the Ottoman occupation
The gradual decline unde:
closed access to Europe and imposed strict isolation on Greece.
economic foundations of
For the next 300 years little of note happened while Greece
military expansion and col
settled into the patterns of subjugation.
During this period a S
Western historians have tended to underrate the severity
nariots, gained a privilege
of the Ottoman occupation. For all but the elite among the
Ottoman Empire weaker
Greek population, life was hard, and much of the intense ani-
forced to negotiate with 1
mosity between Greeks and Turks has its origins here. Greece
Greek interpreters, the P
was partitioned by the Turks along military lines. The principal
tions and gradually hand
task of the administrators was to oversee the collection of taxes
thority in many spheres
from the sultan's non-Muslim subjects. Greeks kept the use of
century the Phanariots,
their land, but they paid a fixed part of the revenue from it
Constantinople, exerted 1
(with no dispensation during bad years) for the upkeep of
range of issues and ever
Turkish soldier-landlords. A particularly onerous form of taxa-
prince, of the Danubian
tion levied by the Turks was the conscription of Christian chil-
lachia in present-day Rom
dren for the corps of janissaries, or soldiers. Every four
Simultaneously, a lar
years-until 1676-one out of every five young Christian
a commercial network sp:
males in the European provinces was sent to Constantinople to
sands of Greeks migrated
be reared as a Muslim and serve in the sultan's bodyguard.
set up families and busin
As early as 1480, armed resistance to these harsh taxes
Europe, and as far as the
arose in the mountainous areas. Bandits; or klephts, attacked
Greek traders dominated
tax collectors and other Ottoman authorities in what a promi-
profits, much of which
nent historian, Richard Clogg, has called "2 vimitive form of
provide funds for educ
national resistance." Their targets were not limited to Turks,
Greece.
however, and in many cases their activities were indistinguish-
Despite centuries of
able from common bandits. Nevertheless, their exploits were
survived, but it was difl
recorded in ballads and became a part of the folklore, helping
identified Greeks could
to inspire nationalist rebellion in the eighteenth and nine-
graphic definitions were
teenth centuries. To combat the klephts, the authorities estab-
guage had not been chal
lished irregular troops, the armatoloi, recruited from the
selves Greek no longe:
Greek population. Distinguishing the two groups was difficult
language of their new }
from the beginning, for men switched back and forth between
fore, provided the prin
them according to their relative profitability; but as the Otto-
nationality. The Porte :
man Empire slipped into decline, these two armed groups
autonomy and often adr
played a central role in the fight for independence.
tions, the most importar
Signs of decay were apparent as early as the seventeenth
Religion and nationality
16
Historical Setting
century, probably resulting from the withdrawal of the sultans
from direct control of the affairs of the government (known as
453 to the Ottoman Turks
the Sublime Porte) and the consequent increase in corruption
nemberment of the Byzan-
and court intrigue. Most offices were sold at ever more inflated
Greeks welcomed to the
prices, tenure was short, and great effort was expended in
offensive religiously than
amassing as much wealth as possible in a short time. The chron-
contrast to the Venetians,
ic decay in administration was matched by a steady territorial
ent and served as the con-
retreat, starting with the failure of the siege of Vienna in 1683.
the Ottoman occupation
The gradual decline undermined both the ideological and the
strict isolation on Greece.
economic foundations of the empire, which were based on
e happened while Greece
military expansion and colonization.
on.
During this period a small Greek elite, known as the Pha-
to underrate the severity
nariots, gained a privileged position within the Porte. As the
I but the elite among the
Ottoman Empire weakened, the sultans found themselves
d much of the intense ani-
forced to negotiate with the Western powers. They relied on
as its origins here. Greece
Greek interpreters, the Phanariots, to conduct these negotia-
ilitary lines. The principal
tions and gradually handed over to them decisionmaking au-
rsee the collection of taxes
thority in many spheres of foreign policy. By the eighteenth
ets. Greeks kept the use of
century the Phanariots, drawn originally from 11 families in
art of the revenue from it
Constantinople, exerted more and more influence on a broad
years) for the upkeep of
range of issues and even acquired the post of hospodar. or
larly onerous form of taxa-
prince, of the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wal-
scription of Christian chil-
lachia in present-day Romania.
or soldiers. Every four
Simultaneously, a large Greek mercantile class developed
ery five young Christian
a commercial network spanning the empire and beyond. Thou-
S sent to Constantinople to
sands of Greeks migrated in what is known as the diaspora and
e sultan's bodyguard.
set up families and businesses throughout Asia Minor, Central
ance to these harsh taxes
Europe, and as far as the Black Sea. By the eighteenth century,
ndits, or klephts, attacked
Greek traders dominated commerce in the Aegean, and their
thorities in what a promi-
profits, much of which returned to the mainland, helped to
alled "2 primitive form of
provide funds for education and cultural development in
vere not imited to Turks,
Greece.
tivities were indistinguish-
Despite centuries of Ottoman rule, a Greek "nation" had
neless, their exploits were
survived, but it was difficult to define clearly. Because self-
art of the folklore, helping
identified Greeks could be found over half the globe. geo-
the eighteenth and nine-
graphic definitions were inadequate. Although the Greek lan-
phts, the authorities estab-
guage had not been challenged, many of those who felt them-
toloi, recruited from the
selves Greek no longer spoke Greek, having adopted the
e two groups was difficult
language of their new homes. The Orthodox religion, there-
ed back and forth between
fore, provided the principal criterion for determining Greek
fitability; but as the Otto-
nationality. The Porte allowed a significant amount of local
these two armed groups
autonomy and often administered through preexisting institu-
ndependence.
tions, the most important of which was the Orthodox Church.
S early as the seventeenth
Religion and nationality were inextricably tied for both Greeks
17
Greece: A Country Study
and Turks. To be an Orthodox Christian was to be a Greek, just
in 1797, and a successful re
as a Greek who converted to Islam thereby became a Turk.
first time both the Porte'
The sultan's Orthodox Christian, or Greek, subjects were re-
possibility of revolt.
garded as a separate nation, or "millet," having a degree of
autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. The patriarch of Con-
stantinople was recognized not only as the head of the Ortho-
The War of Independenc
dox Church but also as the temporal leader of the Orthodox
Christian millet. He bore the title "ethnarch" and was respon-
The crucial element in
sible for the civil administration of the people through a sepa-
lion against the Porte was
rate system of courts having distinct laws and customs based on
collapse. Although an inc
the Roman Law of the Byzantine Empire. Local government
growing for sometime, the
operated under the clergy and the landowners, who were the
weak to take on the Otto
leaders of the Greek communities. Ironically, the Turks re-
coordinate their efforts wit
ferred to the Greek Christian millet as the Roman Nation.
The effort failed, but uprisi
The gradual but steady internal collapse of the Ottoman
with an invasion of the Da
Empire allowed a nationalist movement to emerge out of these
rebel, Alexander Ypsilantis.
threads by the mid-eighteenth century. Its first stirrings were a
lion spread rapidly, and on
cultural revival. The church itself increasingly came under
bishop of Old Patrai, offi
criticism because of its corruption and open collaboration with
throwing the church's formi
the Turks. Although dissatisfaction never evolved into full-
the rebels.
blown anticlericalism as in Western Europe and the church
Leaders came from
maintained its influence among the majority of the population,
armatoloi, pirates and merc
the secularization opened Greece up to new ideas. As educa-
all over the mainland. Neith
tion became more widespread, owing to funds donated by
the merchant class, genera
prosperous merchants of the diaspora, West European ideas
had associated themselves
became current. Many of the teachers in the newly created
prior to the outbreak of hc
academies had studied in Western Europe and brought with
join the rebellion because of
them a reverence for classical Greek history. It came as some-
After the initial rash of
thing of a surprise to the Greeks that their own history, ne-
drawn-out contest of end
glected in Greece because of the church's policy, was consid-
Greek rebels set up three
ered the touchstone of Western civilization. Recapturing the
liberated areas. And just as
past glories of Greece became an obsession with many intellec-
the new institutions and a
tuals, and the revitalization of the Greek language was seen as
plaguing the rebellion for th
a critical step in awakening a spirit of nationalism in the peo-
A constitution, strongly influ
ple. A new language, katharevousa, was created to purge
Revolution, was written in
Greek of contamination from other languages. The reform
central government failed to
served only to complicate matters, and language remained an
ing much of 1823 and 1824
issue well into the twentieth century (see Language, ch. 2).
war against the Turks. The
The late eighteenth century was a time of revolutionary
and confused, and historians
ferment throughout Europe. The French Revolution, with its
were. There were a number
slogans of liberty, equality, and fraternity, was especially taken
gies involved, and frequent
to heart, and many Greeks began to talk openly of rebellion
complicated the political atm
against the Porte. Growing unrest followed Napoleon's cap-
As in any revolutionary
ture of the Ionian Islands from Venice, the occupation of Corfu
the strategy and tactics of fig
18
Historical Setting
be a Greek, just
in 1797, and a successful revolt by the Serbs in 1804. For the
became a Turk.
first time both the Porte and the Greeks took seriously the
ubjects were re-
possibility of revolt.
ing a degree of
atriarch of Con-
ad of the Ortho-
The War of Independence, 1821-29
of the Orthodox
and was respon-
The crucial element in the evolution of a successful rebel-
through a sepa-
lion against the Porte was clearly the empire's own internal
ustoms based on
collapse. Although an independence movement had been
cal government
growing for sometime, the Greeks considered themselves too
i, who were the
weak to take on the Ottoman Empire alone. They tried to
, the Turks re-
coordinate their efforts with revolts by Serbs and Bulgarians.
an Nation.
The effort failed, but uprisings in the Peloponnesus coincided
of the Ottoman
with an invasion of the Danubian principalities by the Greek
rge out of these
rebel, Alexander Ypsilantis, in the spring of 1821. The rebel-
stirrings were a
lion spread rapidly, and on March 25 (Easter Day) Germanos,
ly came under
bishop of Old Patrai, officially proclaimed the revolution,
laboration with
throwing the church's formidable symbolic force on the side of
lved into full-
the rebels.
Patross
nd the church
Leaders came from the lower clergy, klephts and
the population,
armatoloi, pirates and merchant captains, and irregular troops
leas. As educa-
all over the mainland. Neither the church, the landowners, nor
ds donated by
the merchant class, generally prosperous under the empire,
European ideas
had associated themselves with the independence movement
newly created
prior to the outbreak of hostilities, but they were moved to
I brought with
join the rebellion because of its obvious popular support.
came as some-
After the initial rash of violence the war settled into a long,
/n history, ne-
drawn-out contest of endurance. Almost immediately the
y, was consid-
Greek rebels set up three regional assemblies to govern the
ecapturing the
liberated areas. And just as quickly internal conflicts between
many intellec-
the new institutions and among political factions emerged,
ge was seen as
plaguing the rebellion for the duration of the war and beyond.
m in the peo-
A constitution, strongly influenced by the ideals of the French
ted to purge
Revolution, was written in 1822, but attempts to establish a
The reform
central government failed to resolve the factional strife. Dur-
e remained an
ing much of 1823 and 1824 a virtual civil war undermined the
ge, ch. 2).
war against the Turks. The situation was extremely complex
revolutionary
and confused, and historians still debate what the actual issues
ution, with its
were. There were a number of competing groups and ideolo-
pecially taken
gies involved, and frequently shifting coalitions among them
V* of rebellion
complicated the political atmosphere.
poleon's cap-
As in any revolutionary period there were conflicts over
ation of Corfu
the strategy and tactics of fighting the war and over the nature
19
Greece: A Country Study
of the postrevolutionary system. To some extent these two sets
Christians, declared war
of issues overlapped. There was a fundamental difference be-
pushed to the outer defer
tween those who wanted to pursue the war using the tradition-
Treaty of Adrianople Rus
al klephtic methods of guerrilla war and relying on religious
the independence of Gre
fervor as the motivating force and those, especially those edu-
claimed by the Greeks, we
cated in the West, who preferred the European model, using
To counter Russia's C
regular armies and set-piece tactics, motivated by a conscious
Britain forced a renegotia
nationalism. The former, known as the "military" party (head-
out in the first London I
ed by the klephtic leader Theodore Kolokotronis), also hoped
cance, the European po'
to retain the basic oligarchical structure of society, substituting
recognition. Greek leade
themselves for the Ottoman authorities while maintaining the
nearly 4 million Greeks i
central role of the church. The rival "civilian party", or Wes-
under Turkish rule, and (
ternizers, wanted to transform Greece into a secular, liberal,
Kapodistrias, rejected th
constitutional state. Regional rivalries exacerbated the situa-
made domestic enemies 1
tion.
and to centralize the rep
The European powers, meanwhile, looked upon the Greek
in 1831, plunging the cou
rebellion as a threat to the balance of power, only recently
The European powe
reestablished by the Congress of Vienna after the Napoleonic
second London protocol,
wars. The demise of the Ottoman Empire would leave a vacu-
monarchy under joint Br
um, and it was obvious that there would be three rivals to fill it:
It was further decided th
Russia, Britain, and France. Until mid-1823, therefore, the
avoid identification of t
powers maintained strict neutrality. By then the three powers'
factions. Although some
commercial interests in the region had begun to suffer. Simul-
dominance inherent in th
taneously, the Greek rebellion caught the imagination of many
the violent end of Kapod
of the European intellectual elite, who agitated for support of
ed to the terms.
the effort and in many cases went to Greece to fight (most
notably British poet Lord Byron, who died of fever in 1824).
The rebellion had shown surprising strength, but it was clear
The Kingdom of Gree
that foreign intervention would be required to tip the balance.
Between 1823 and 1825 the three powers maneuvered to
Otto I, 1831-62
place themselves in the best position to guarantee influence
The "protecting" p
beyond the war. As it became increasingly obvious that the
the 17-year-old younge
powers would eventually intervene, rebel factions, or parties,
reached the age of ma
tied to the powers grew up, further complicating the internal
Greek government fell
situation. The turning point came in 1825 with the sultan's
Joseph von Armansperg
request for aid from Egypt, a tributary state. Because Egyptian
put into place. The nev
control of the Peloponnesus was unacceptable to the powers,
European, at least in it
they began the process of negotiating an end to the war, rec-
imposed a complicated
ommending an autonomous status for Greece within the Otto-
ria, ignoring a long his
man Empire. In 1827 when the Turks, flushed with a series of
the traditional decentra
recent military successes, refused mediation, a joint naval
ited from the Ottoman
force dispatched by the three powers destroyed the Turco-
reaucracy that the Gre
Egyptian fleet in the Bay of Navarino. Tsar Nicholas I of Rus-
The Orthodox church V
sia, acting in his self-appointed role as protector of Orthodox
independent, in 1833, t
20
Historical Setting
me extent these two sets
Christians, declared war on Turkey, and a Russian army
damental difference be-
pushed to the outer defenses of Constantinople. By the 1829
war using the tradition-
Treaty of Adrianople Russia compelled Turkey to recognize
nd relying on religious
the independence of Greece, but Crete and Thessaly, though
e, especially those edu-
claimed by the Greeks, were left in Turkish hands.
European model, using
To counter Russia's claim to be sole protector of Greece,
otivated by a conscious
Britain forced a renegotiation of the border settlement, spelled
"military" party (head-
out in the first London protocol in 1829. Of greater signifi-
lokotronis), also hoped
cance, the European powers also gave Greece their formal
of society, substituting
recognition. Greek leaders protested that 80 percent of the
while maintaining the
nearly 4 million Greeks in the Ottoman Empire had been left
civilian party", or Wes-
under Turkish rule, and Greece's pro-Russian president, John
into a secular, liberal,
Kapodistrias, rejected the settlement. Kapodistrias, who had
exacerbated the situa-
made domestic enemies by his attempts to disarm the kelphts
and to centralize the republic's government, was assassinated
looked upon the Greek
in 1831, plunging the country into anarchy.
power, only recently
The European powers convened once again and in the
a after the Napoleonic
second London protocol, agreed to in 1831, declared Greece a
ire would leave a vacu-
monarchy under joint British, French, and Russian protection.
be three rivals to fill it:
It was further decided that a foreign monarch was required to
I-1823, therefore, the
avoid identification of the executive with one of the native
then the three powers'
factions. Although somewhat rankled by the degree of foreign
begun to suffer. Simul-
dominance inherent in these protocols, many Greeks, recalling
ne imagination of many
the violent end of Kapodistrias' presidency, nevertheless yield-
agitated for support of
ed to the terms.
Greece to fight (most
died of fever in 1824).
ength, but it was clear
The Kingdom of Greece
red to tip the balance.
powers maneuvered to
Otto I, 1831-62
O guarantee influence
The "protecting" powers gave the Greek crown to Otto,
ingly obvious that the
the 17-vear-old younger son of the king of Bavaria. Until he
el factions, or parties,
reached the age of majority, however, the direction of the
nplicating the internal
Greek government fell to a regency council headed by Count
825 with the sultan's
Joseph von Armansperg. The Greek Westernizers' vision was
tate. Because Egyptian
put into place. The new state was designed to be thoroughly
eptable to the powers,
European, at least in its institutional structure. The regents
n end to the war, rec-
imposed a complicated judicial code, modeled on that of Bava-
reece within the Otto-
ria, ignoring a long history of customary law. They replaced
lushed with a series of
the traditional decentralized forms of local government, inher-
diation, a joint naval
ited from the Ottoman period, with a modern, centralized bu-
destroyed the Turco-
reaucracy that the Greeks considered alien and unworkable.
'sar Nicholas I of Rus-
The Orthodox church was declared to be "autocephalous," or
protector of Orthodox
independent, in 1833, though in practice it was firmly subordi-
21
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UNCLASSIFIED
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF STATE
91 MAR 20 P5: 34
OFFICE OF SOUTHERN EUROPEAN AFFAIRS
FACSIMILE NUMBER (202) 647-5087
OFFICE NUMBERS (202) 647-6112/13/14
ROOMS 5509. 5511
AGENCY & OFFICE: White House
NAME Caroline Cawley
TELEPHONE #
FAX # 456-6218
ROOM #
Message Description:
Info oñ Greece
FROM John Long
REMARKS:
Page 1
of 8
pages (including cover sheet)
UNCLASSIFIED
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Caroline,
Here are some materials to get you started.
The Greek word for "democracy" is "dimokratia," "freedom" is "eleftheria."
The country notes we have is from 1990 and is very long. Tell me
after you look over this material whether you want us to send it to
you and we will be happy to do so.
I am going to get you a name or two to talk to in the Greek-American
community.
John Long
647-6113
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Has
UNCLASSIFIED
UNDER SECRETARY BARTHOLOMEW'S TESTIMONY BEFORE SFRC
23(b). U.S. RELATIONS WITH MITSOTAKIS GOVERNMENT
a:
How have our relations evolved with Greece since the
Mitsotakis government assumed power?
A:
o
In response to Mitsotakis' interest in improving
relations with the U.S., we enjoy a much more positive
and cordial relationship with Greece.
1
Mitsotakis paid a well-received visit to
Washington in June 1990, FM Samaras was here in
January of this year, and Defense Minister
Varvitsiotis is expected in Washington in April.
o
We share Mitsotakis' interest in continuing to work
together to further enhance and broaden ties in areas
like investment and tourism.
o
In his letter of January 31 to FM Samaras, Secretary
Baker also noted we would work together to strengthen
a new European order. We are working with Greece and
other Allies on developing a new security architecture
for Europe, and share Greece's concern over
instability in the Balkans.
o
We have a close and ongoing program of cooperation on
counter-terrorism with the GOG. We are also satisfied
that the GOG is serious about its prosecution of
Rashid. DOJ has worked closely with the GOG to
develop its case against Rashid. We expect a trial
date soon.
0
On security relations, we successfully concluded
negotiations for a new Mutual Defense and Cooperation
Agreement in May 1990.
1
The Mitsotakis government cooperated fully with
the U.S. during the Gulf crisis, including
permission to station U.S. logistical support
aircraft in Greece. Greece also sent a frigate
to the multinational naval force.
(if needed) The relationship has not been entirely
untroubled as is true with all friends and allies from
time to time. The GOG was unhappy with our recent
Human Rights Report for Greece and with the travel
advisory issued on February 6 for Greece and Turkey.
-
What is important is that both sides be willing
to work through these kinds of issues and move
forward. We enjoy that kind of relationship with
the Mitsotakis government.
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GREECE
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The eastern Mediterranean is one of the "cradles of
civilization." Greece was inhabited as early as the
Paleolithic period, and by 3000 B.C. had become home, in the
Cycladic Islands, to a culture whose art remains among the most
evocative in world history. The Mycenaeans of the Greek
mainland inspired Homer's Iliad and Odvssey around 800 B.C.
Their civilization collapsed around 1100 B.C., shortly after
the Trojan War, leaving Greece, except the fortified citadel of
Athens, open to migrating Dorian tribes from the north.
Eventually the city-states of Athens and Sparta came to
dominate Greece. In the fifth century B.C., Persian invasions
united the cities briefly, mainly under the military leadership
of Athens. The subsequent "Golden Age" (446-431 B.C.) of
Pericles in Athens reflected an explosion of cultural and
intellectual achievements which has had a profound influence on
Western civilization.
The conflicting ambitions of Athens and Sparta led to the
Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 B.C.) in which Athens was
defeated. A weakened Greece fell under the domination of the
Macedonians. Alexander the Great fused Greek and Persian
cultures to create the Hellenistic civilization of Asia Minor.
Rome conquered Greece in 146 B.C. Although Rome was
overrun by migrating tribes and the western part of the empire
fragmented in the fifth century A.D., the eastern part,
including Greece, flourished as the Byzantine Empire until the
fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
Nearly 400 years later Greece obtained independence from
Turkey in 1827 after 6 years of war. Under the tutelage of
England, France, and Russia, a monarchy was established,
although for many years there was a struggle for power between
monarchists and republicans. (The monarchy was finally
abolished by referendum on December 8, 1974.)
Greece fought with the Allies in both World Wars. The
Germans occupied Greece from Spring 1941 until October 1944.
With the German withdrawal, the Communists, who formed the core
of the principal Greek resistance movement, sought to take
control of the country, eventually leading to Civil War. With
American material support, the Greek National Army eventually
prevailed, and hostilities ceased in the fall of 1949. Greece
joined NATO in 1952.
On April 21, 1967, just before scheduled elections, a group
of colonels led by Col. George Papadopoulos seized power in a
coup d'etat. Civil liberties were suppressed, special military
courts established, and political parties dissolved. The
junta's attempt to install a client regime on the island of
Cyprus in 1974 led to its downfall and the restoration of
democracy.
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GREECE: POLITICAL/ECONOMIC/MILITARY SITUATION
Following the restoration of democracy in 1974, Greece held a
referendum which resulted in the rejection of the monarchy. A
new constitution was approved by Parliament in June 1975, which
provided for a President as chief of state and Prime Minister
as head of government. The Conservative Party, led by
Constantine Karamanlis (the current President of Greece), won
the first two pariamentary elections in 1974 and 1977. In
October 1981, Greece elected its first socialist government led
by Andreas Papandreou and his Panhellenic Socialist Party
(PASOK). PASOK held a majority in Parliament until the summer
of 1989 when it was voted out of power.
In fact, none of Greece's three major political parties (PASOK,
conservative New Democracy, or the Left Alliance) achieved a
majority in the summer 1989 elections, nor in the elections
that followed in November of the same year. The Papandreou
government was succeeded by a series of coalition governments
with no mandate to govern. It was not until April 1990 that
the conservative New Democracy Party (ND) obtained a razor-thin
majority, bringing Constantine Mitsotakis to power as Prime
Minister. Mitsotakis moved quickly to improve relations with
the United States and increase Greece's profile within European
fora.
After the swift resumption of the long-stalled U.S.-Greek base
negotations resulted in a favorable new agreement, PM
Mitsotakis paid a highly successful visit to Washington in June
1990. Subsequent actions taken by the Mitsotakis government
have demonstrated a serious, long-term interest in broadened
relations with the U.S. Greece fully supported U.S. requests
for facilitative assistance in moving U.S. troops and materiel
to the Gulf region during Desert Storm, and sent a frigate to
participate in the multinational naval force. Mitsotakis has
been criticized by Papandreou and the opposition press for his
policy of seeking a closer relationship with the U.S.
Security/defense issues are high on the Government's agenda.
As indicated above, the U.S. and Greece completed a Mutual
Defense Cooperation Agreement (MDCA), which went into effect in
November 1990, replacing the previous 1983 agreement. Before
negotiations on the new agreement were complete, Secretary
Cheney announced that the U.S. would be closing two of its
installations in Greece -- Hellenikon Airbase in Athens, and
the U.S. Naval Communications Station at Nea Makri. The MDCA
provides for the continuing operation of the remaining U.S.
facilities, principally Souda Airbase and Iraklion
Communications Station, both on Crete.
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The United States provides Foreign Military Financing (FMF) to
Greece for the modernization of its military forces, which have
a continuing NATO role. The FY 91 allocation of $350 million
plus additional prior year monies, will be used by the Greek
government to purchase new equipment and armament for all three
branches of its armed forces.
Since 1984, Greece's official defense doctrine has identified
the main threat to Greece as emanating from the east (i.e.,
Turkey) rather than from the Warsaw Pact. With the dissolution
of military ties among Warsaw Pact members, good relations
between Greece and Bulgaria, and the increased prominence of
Turkey as a result of its role in Desert Storm and key position
on NATO's southeastern flank, Greek perceptions of a Turkish
"threat" have not diminished. Turkey and Greece remain at odds
over Cyprus, Greek militarization of certain Aegean islands,
and command and control authorities for NATO forces in the
Aegean.
The most serious near-term problem which Mitsotakis faces at
present is not military but economic. His government has been
forced to implement a far-reaching domestic economic reform
program which will require severe belt-tightening across the
board. Greece currently has an inflation rate of 22 percent, a
net public sector borrowing requirement (PSBR) of almost 20
percent, and foreign debt repayments of in excess of 20 billion
through the first half of the 1990's. The EC recently granted
Greece a 3 billion US dollar loan, on the condition that the
government carry out a reform program to lower the inflation
rate to 7 percent, cut the PSBR to 1.5 percent, reduce public
sector employment by 10 percent and broaden the tax base by
taxing farmers and reducing tax evasion.
The Mitsotakis government has also proposed a wide-scale
program of privatization of state-owned industries. While
potentially this could be a significant source of savings for
the government, the program is moving forward very slowly.
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OLICY CONSIDERATIONS
Greece, under the New Democracy government of Prime Minister Constantine Mitsotakis since
elections in April 1990, has strengthened ties with the United States and reinvigorated its role within
NATO. Greece solidified its security relationship with the U.S. by ratifying in July 1990 anew eight-
year Mutual Defense Cooperation Agreement which entered into force on November 6, 1990. The
agreement provides for continued United States use of facilities at Souda Bay and Iraklion on Crete, and
the orderly phasing out of other facilities. The agreement stipulated that the U.S. would seek
appropriate levels of defense support to assist in the modernization of the Hellenic Armed Forces
(HAF). Provision of U.S. security assistance fulfills that pledge. It also encourages Greece to focus
military procurement programs on U.S. equipment and to join in cooperative programs with other
NATO countries.
Greece fully supported U.S. deployments to Operation Desert Storm to respond to Iraq's invasion
of Kuwait. Greece granted us blanket overflight clearance, offered contingency hospital support,
authorized basing of U.S. aircraft at facilities in Greece, and sent a frigate to the multinational naval
force in the Persian Gulf. Greek cooperation was instrumental in the rapid movement of troops and
equipment to the region and remains important for our armed forces in the Gulf. Greece quickly and
fully enforced U.N. sanctions against Iraq.
A common NATO strategy remains key to a coordinated response by the Alliance to the dramatic
changes in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. U.S. security assistance ensures that Greece will be
able to continue to perform its NATO role during this period. The FMF program supplements Greek
national funds in implementing its five year HAF modernization program. FMF also helps Greece to
protect itself-and helps preserve regional stability, if necessary-should long-suppressed ethnic
differences that threaten to destabilize the Balkans erupt into conflict. Ongoing FMF help with HAF
modernization will be important to encourage Greek cooperation in meeting future extra-regional crises.
NATO's infrastructure program and West European allied aid to the Southern Region complements
FMF for Greace.
Greece relies on FMF as an integral element of its HAF modernization program. Faced with an
inflation rate of over 18 percent, a public sector borrowing requirement of 22 percent, and external debt
totalling $24 billion, Greece would be unable to continue modernization without our assistance.
Greece's domestic financial difficulties makes some grant aid important.
PROGRAM-DESCRIPTION
Objectives
Support a continuing strong bilateral defense relationship
Encourage Greece's continued active participation in NATO
Encourage Greece's participation in multilateral forces such as the one in the Gulf
Enhance Greece's ability to defend its sovereignty in a region of potential unrest
157
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Constantine MITSOTAKIS
GREECE
(Phonetic: meetsoTAHkees)
Prime Minister (since April 1990)
Addressed as: Mr. Prime Minister
Leader of the conservative New Democracy
Party (ND) and longtime aspirant to the prime-
ministership, Constantine Mitsotakis leads a
government that relies on the support of one
centrist Democratic Renewal Party deputy for its
parliamentary majority. He is an experienced
legislator and has held a variety of Cabinet-level
portfolios, including finance (1963-64) and foreign
affairs (1980-81).
Mitsotakis was born on 18 October 1918 on
the island of Crete. He holds degrees in law and
political science from the University of Athens. During World War II he was active in the
Cretan resistance and was jailed briefly by the Nazis, narrowly escaping execution. He has
been a member of parliament since the mid-1940s. When the military took over the
government in 1967, Mitsotakis and his family went into exile in Paris. He returned to
Greece in the early 1970s and in 1977 founded the moderate and short-lived New Liberal
Party. He joined ND shortly thereafter.
Mitsotakis has visited the United States several times, most recently in early June
1990. He speaks fluent French and German; he understands and speaks English but often
prefers to use an interpreter. He and his wife, Marika, have three daughters and a son.
20 June 1990
GV721
is
H45
1981
AN APPROVED
WH
HISTORY
OF THE
OLYMPIC
GAMES
opp
BY BILL HENRY
THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA COMMITTEE
FOR THE OLYMPIC GAMES
Los Angeles Times
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
lage, I.O.C. President.
CHAPTER 2
The Ancient (
THE ANCIENT OLYMPIC GAMES
sourceful, wheedled from the King t
herds should he be successful in hi
Alpheus and Peneus from their cour
Gentlemen, can you possibly believe that similar / unsporting]
his wager from him. Augeas then mac
incidents are not spread across the chronicles of the Olympic,
Heracles his reward, whereupon that 1
Pythian, Nemean games-all the great sporting events of ancient
of his day, slew Augeas and his fami
history? One would have to be naive indeed to pretend that
herds of his erstwhile employer,
celebration of what he no doubt regal
this is the case.
BARON PIERRE DE COUBERTIN*
This account is only one of many
of them very well substantiated. One
that the games in their early days ha
reason to believe that they were a
The ancient Olympic games could never deny their modern offspring. They,
common sacrifice by neighboring (
too, were beset by sectionalism, professionalism, jealousies, and wars.
emerged from the pugnaciousness of
In spite of all, they survived.
According to a more believable V
For nearly twelve hundred years, despite never-ending threats of invasion
and the interminable internal squabbles that culminated in the Peloponnesian
giver, about 820 B.C. joined with Ip
oracle, to restore the festival. Their
War, and finally surviving even the loss of Greek independence, the Olympic
of their names jointly upon a discu
games were held every four years without interruption.
the Temple of Hera in the second
The spirit of the Golden Age of Greece, handed down to us in the dramas
of Sophocles and Euripides, the philosophies of Pythagoras and Socrates. the
It is certain that at some time, 1
of the fertile northwestern coast O
fragmentary marbles of Phidias and Praxiteles, was as truly typified in the
ancient Olympic games. The high ideals of true sportsmanship that were the
southward from the Gulf of Cori
real basis of their success furnished the inspirational power as the Olympic
Olympia. This town was located ir
games reached their zenith in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.; and the
were Elis, boasting an acropolis on a
momentum gained during the Golden Age carried them on for hundreds of
in which was located Pylos, the city
years, even though the decadence that eventually cost Greece her independ-
In all probability the games OI
ence likewise undermined the true spirit of the games and destroyed the basic
Pisatans, but the Eleans and Spar
ideals that had been responsible for their popularity.
management the games quickly asst
At their height, the games were the embodiment of all that made Greece
Herodotus tells how the Eleans, vis
the mistress of the Mediterranean. The simple religious festival in which they
the games and declared that not eve
had their beginning developed into a seven-day carnival of culture and athletic
istration. The Egyptians contented
prowess with all the color and pageantry of those classic days. Kings raced
was room for improvement in a
side by side with common soldiers at Olympia, the prize a simple wreath of
permitted to compete in contests ju
olive. The victor found his name inscribed with the immortals. Writers,
dition that has had its counterpart i
sculptors, and artists came to be inspired. "Solemn embassies coming to the
However, it is pretty generally
shores of the Alpheus and to the foot of Parnassus in their splendid chariots
Olympic games was businesslike
or to the Delos in their gilded vessels with sails of Tyrian purple" made of
commencement of a new Olymp
Olympia a spectacle that was more than a mere athletic carnival.
preceding which Elean heralds pro
It was the Golden Age of Greece in flesh and blood.
God" and sounded the "Call to the
The origin of the games is shrouded in the mystery of the period when
The Eleans enforced their opini
myth and legend were inextricably tangled with the beginnings of Hellenic
It is recorded that on one occasio
history. One story told by Pindar traces the origin of the games back to that
given control of the games to the
legendary time when Heracles, doing penance for his misdeeds, was given the
were fined the equivalent of $40,0
unpleasant task of cleansing, in a single day, the stables in which Augeas, king
of Zeus. Those who robbed pilgrir
of Elis, maintained his magnificent herds. Heracles, as canny as he was re-
wise sternly punished by the Elear
hv the founder and life honorary president of the Olympic games at a
of the statutes gave the games a fine
of the games of the
The first definite record of Olyn
herds should he be successful in his task, and promptly turned the rivers
Alpheus and Peneus from their courses to flow through the stables and win
ve that similar unsporting]
his wager from him. Augeas then made his second mistake: He refused to pay
chronicles of the Olympic,
Heracles his reward, whereupon that worthy, with the rough and ready justice
t sporting events of ancient
of his day, slew Augeas and his family, made himself a present of the entire
ve indeed to pretend that
herds of his erstwhile employer, and instituted the Olympic games in
celebration of what he no doubt regarded as a fine piece of work.
ON PIERRE DE COUBERTIN*
This account is only one of many versions of the origin of the games, none
of them very well substantiated. One thing, however, seems certain, and that is
that the games in their early days had religious significance; and there is some
reason to believe that they were a gradual development of the custom of
ny their modern offspring. They,
common sacrifice by neighboring communities, which prevailed as Greece
lism, jealousies, and wars.
emerged from the pugnaciousness of the heroic age.
e never-ending threats of invasion
According to a more believable version, Lycurgus, the great Spartan law-
t culminated in the Peloponnesian
giver, about 820 B.C. joined with Iphetus, king of Elis, on the bidding of the
Greek independence, the Olympic
oracle, to restore the festival. Their act was immortalized by the inscription
terruption.
of their names jointly upon a discus, of which we have record as hanging in
, handed down to us in the dramas
the Temple of Hera in the second century A.D. at the time of Pausanias.
es of Pythagoras and Socrates, the
It is certain that at some time, many centuries before Christ, the people
teles, was as truly typified in the
of the fertile northwestern coast of the Peloponnesian peninsula, stretching
true sportsmanship that were the
southward from the Gulf of Corinth, were celebrating a great festival at
aspirational power as the Olympic
Olympia. This town was located in Pisatis, the near-by neighbors of which
id fourth centuries B.C.; and the
were Elis, boasting an acropolis on a hill five hundred feet high, and Triphylia,
carried them on for hundreds of
in which was located Pylos, the city of Nestor.
ntually cost Greece her independ-
In all probability the games originally were under the control of the
the games and destroyed the basic
Pisatans, but the Eleans and Spartans took joint charge, and under their
pularity.
management the games quickly assumed vast importance. The great historian
bodiment of all that made Greece
Herodotus tells how the Eleans, visiting Egypt, boasted of their handling of
iple religious festival in which they
the games and declared that not even the Egyptians could better their admin-
day carnival of culture and athletic
istration. The Egyptians contented themselves with pointing out that there
of those classic days. Kings raced
was room for improvement in a situation wherein Elean athletes were
npia, the prize a simple wreath of
permitted to compete in contests judged solely by their fellow citizens, a con-
bed with the immortals. Writers,
dition that has had its counterpart in the modern games.
"Solemn embassies coming to the
However, it is pretty generally admitted that the Elean control of the
Parnassus in their splendid chariots
Olympic games was businesslike and fair. Each fourth year marked the
h sails of Tyrian purple" made of
commencement of a new Olympiad and was celebrated by the games,
ere athletic carnival.
preceding which Elean heralds proclaimed throughout Greece the "Truce of
and blood.
God" and sounded the "Call to the Games."
1 the mystery of the period when
d with the beginnings of Hellenic
The Eleans enforced their opinions, regardless of where the lash might fall.
e origin of the games back to that
It is recorded that on one occasion when the Spartans, who had practically
nce for his misdeeds, was given the
given control of the games to the Eleans, failed to observe the truce, they
', the stables in which Augeas, king
were fined the equivalent of $40,000, the sum being spent for bronze images
Heracles, as canny as he was re-
of Zeus. Those who robbed pilgrims en route to or from the games were like-
wise sternly punished by the Eleans, whose strict and impartial enforcement
president of the Olympic games at a
of the statutes gave the games a fine reputation through the then known world.
ng the celebration of the games of the
The first definite record of Olympic victors commences in the year 776 B.C.
with the name of Coroebus of Elis, a cook, and continues in unbroken
12
History of the Olympic Games
The Ancien
succession until 394 A.D. when Theodosius, emperor of Rome, abolished the
games by imperial edict, leaving as the last victor of the ancient games one
to guarantee an unbiased hearing
Varastad, an Armenian.
performers, their opinion being CO1
Following hot on the heels of Coroebus, the first listed winner, came the
evidence, that the boat transporting
Syracuse sank en route, this disaste
names of eleven other citizens of Elis; but by this time the games, which still
consisted of a single race the length of the stadium (about two hundred yards),
the poor quality of the composition
had attracted athletes from other parts, and the list of Elean victors was
Peace was declared a year later;
what modern sports writers would
broken for the first time at the thirteenth Olympiad.
and more impressive delegation, full
At the games of the fourteenth Olympiad a second race, two lengths of
but minus any songs or poems. The
the stadium, was added to the program; and four years later, at the games of
the fifteenth Olympiad, a still longer race gave a chance to those whose
tives of the hated Dionysius was en
this feeling was fanned to fever }
endurance was greater than their fleetness of foot.
The influence of the warlike Spartans began to make itself felt more
Caulonia in Sicily who had captured
now appeared and repeated his vic
strongly about this time, and with the dawn of the eighteenth Olympiad the
representing Syracuse, thus becomi
pentathlon, an all-around contest consisting of five events, was initiated and
This was the last straw, and amid
was designed obviously for the warrior-athlete.
It was an elimination contest, according to some accounts, in which all
Athenian orator, harangued the crov
wealth torn from Greek sufferers an
entrants first took part in a broad-jumping contest. Those who cleared a
volumes for the Elean control of the
certain distance qualified for the second event, a spear-throwing contest. Only
However, the chariots that had be
the four best in this predecessor of our modern javelin-throwing event
survived to participate in the sprint of one length of the stadium. One more
honors all fell apart-a fact that may
light of the popular feeling against hi:
athlete was eliminated here, and the best three sprinters whirled the discus,
It is quite clear that by this tin
the two having the best throws engaging in the grand finale of this grueling
importance that far transcended ot
competition, a wrestling match to a finish.
small honor to have such poets as Pi
Truly, that was a Spartan test of skill, courage, and endurance.
praises of the winners or to have a P
Boxing was added with the games of the twenty-third Olympiad, four-
More than the olive wreath rewar
horse chariot racing at the near-by hippodrome at the twenty-fifth games, and
the games of the sixty-first Olympi
the pankration, a fierce combination of wrestling and boxing, in the thirty-
statues in their own honor in Olym
third games. By this time interest in the games had become so widespread and
won three times that the statues CO
the demand for a wider variety of contests so great that the program was
winner was greeted on his return to hi
continuously expanded, until at the time of the seventy-seventh Olympiad
a victorious warrior, sometimes being
the period of the games was stretched from a single day to five, with two
the walls. In warlike Sparta he was re'
additional days devoted to religious ceremonies.
Royalty, as we have seen, had be
The extension of the program to more than one day was doubtless
chariot events, where the wealth of t.
occasioned by the great stimulation of Panhellenic feeling caused by the
the excellence of his team. Pausanias
expulsion of the Persians early in the fifth century B.C. People came from
among the winners, as are Kings Ge
communities bordering the Mediterranean from Marseilles to Trebizond.
Agregentum, and Archelaus of Maced
Africa, Sicily, Italy, and Asia Minor sent their representatives to compete and
could do was to tie for victory in a fi
erected sanctuaries and treasure houses at Olympia.
plishment and meant more than a vi
During the eighty-eighth and eighty-ninth Olympiads, Athens was at war
great team of horses.
with Sparta; but at the ninetieth Alcibiades, the great Athenian statesman,
Respect for Olympic victors was
himself appeared with seven chariots, the political significance of the event
Dorieus, the son of Diagoras, fought
being the demonstration that the long war had not impoverished Athens.
captured, was released without ransom
Alcibiades did not content himself with merely making a show, however, as
for he had won three times in suc
his great teams took first, second, and fourth places in the chariot race.
Olympic victor, was killed in an at
Dionysius the Elder, tyrant of Syracuse and a social climber of his day,
reputation that his own enemies erected
determined to impress the Greeks with his learning and talents and sent a
Cimon, father of the great Miltiade:
large chorus to the ninety-eighth games to recite his poems and sing songs of
mares that he drove to victory in the
his composition. The feeling of the Greeks toward Dionysius was not such as
the tyrant Peisistratus, whose political
The Ancient Olympic Games
13
Rome, abolished the
to guarantee an unbiased hearing to his works. The audience hissed his
: ancient games one
performers, their opinion being confirmed by Diodorus, who adds, as further
evidence, that the boat transporting the poems, songs, and performers back to
ed winner, came the
Syracuse sank en route, this disaster being attributed in no small measure to
he games, which still
the poor quality of the compositions.
two hundred yards),
Peace was declared a year later; and Dionysius, who appears to have been
f Elean victors was
what modern sports writers would call a glutton for punishment, sent a larger
and more impressive delegation, fully equipped with tents of purple and gold,
race, two lengths of
but minus any songs or poems. The appearance of the magnificent representa-
ater, at the games of
tives of the hated Dionysius was enough to rouse the ire of the Greeks, but
nce to those whose
this feeling was fanned to fever heat when Dicon, the great runner from
Caulonia in Sicily who had captured the Olympic dash in the previous games,
ake itself felt more
now appeared and repeated his victory of four years before but this time
teenth Olympiad the
representing Syracuse, thus becoming the first "tramp athlete" in history.
ts, was initiated and
This was the last straw, and amid scenes of wild confusion Lysias, the great
Athenian orator, harangued the crowds, denouncing Dionysius for displaying
counts, in which all
wealth torn from Greek sufferers and accusing Sparta of treachery. It speaks
hose who cleared a
volumes for the Elean control of the games that open hostilities did not result.
rowing contest. Only
However, the chariots that had been expected to bring the tyrant further
velin-throwing event
honors all fell apart-a fact that may or may not have had significance in the
: stadium. One more
light of the popular feeling against him.
S whirled the discus,
It is quite clear that by this time the Olympic games had achieved an
inale of this grueling
importance that far transcended other activities of the period. It was no
small honor to have such poets as Pindar, Simonides, and Euripides sing the
durance.
praises of the winners or to have a Phidias or a Praxiteles carve their statues.
hird Olympiad, four-
More than the olive wreath rewarded the triumphant athlete. As early as
enty-fifth games. and
the games of the sixty-first Olympiad, the victors were permitted to erect
boxing, in the thirty-
statues in their own honor in Olympia, although it was not until they had
ne so widespread and
won three times that the statues could bear their likeness. Frequently the
hat the program was
winner was greeted on his return to his home city with all the honor accorded
ty-seventh Olympiad
a victorious warrior, sometimes being permitted to enter through a breach in
lay to five, with two
the walls. In warlike Sparta he was rewarded with the post of honor in battle.
Royalty, as we have seen, had begun to seek honors, particularly in the
e day was doubtless
chariot events, where the wealth of the owner could make itself felt through
eeling caused by the
the excellence of his team. Pausanias and Demaratus, Spartan kings, are listed
C. People came from
among the winners. as are Kings Gelon and Hiera of Syracuse, Theron of
seilles to Trebizond.
Agregentum, and Archelaus of Macedon. The best that Alexander the Great
atives to compete and
could do was to tie for victory in a foot race, but this was a personal accom-
plishment and meant more than a victory due solely to the ownership of a
Is, Athens was at war
great team of horses.
Athenian statesman,
Respect for Olympic victors was acknowledged throughout the world.
nificance of the event
Dorieus, the son of Diagoras, fought for Sparta against Athens and, when
impoverished Athens.
captured, was released without ransom in recognition of his Olympic victories,
; a show, however, as
for he had won three times in succession. Philipus of Croton, another
S in the chariot race.
Olympic victor, was killed in an attack on Sicily, but so great was his
al climber of his day,
reputation that his own enemies erected a shrine over his grave.
nd talents and sent a
Cimon, father of the great Miltiades, was the owner of a splendid team of
ems and sing songs of
mares that he drove to victory in the chariot race. Banished from Athens by
nysius was not such as
the tyrant Peisistratus, whose political accomplishments were greater than his
14
History of the Olympic Games
The An
Olympic reputation, Cimon was restored to citizenship when he repeated his
The Greek devotion to a
victory in the chariot race and permitted the name of Peisistratus to appear
methods of the athletes, if hi:
in the list of victors in place of his own. When Cimon died some years later
their word. According to Gale
after winning his third Olympic chariot race with the same team, his
of bread, half baked and slight
magnificent horses were buried with him.
and digest their food and th
It was pretty difficult for those who had no understanding of the basic
punishing exercise that carried
character of the Olympic games to comprehend the motives that prompted
and sometimes went on into th
the Greeks to take such pride in their Olympic accomplishments, as, for
But dinner-ah, there was a
instance, when Alcibiades, setting forth his services to the state, placed first
are to believe the chroniclers
his victory at Olympia and the prestige he had won for Athens by his
Crotona, according to the rin
magnificent display.
writers, ate an entire OX at OI
Cicero, with Roman contempt for Greek frivolity, cynically reported
outdone, duplicated the feat.
that an Olympic victor received more honors than a triumphant general at
meat was a very ordinary port
Rome, and told of the Rhodian Diagoras, who, having won the Olympic
he describes an athlete namec
prize himself and then seen his two sons crowned victors on the same day,
a single sitting.
was addressed by a Laconian in these works: "Die, Diagoras, for thou hast
While these meals are suffi
nothing short of divinity to desire."
turn white as he reads of them,
Herodotus chronicles a similar feeling expressed by the officers of Xerxes,
the Grecian trainers agreed W.
who, after the battle of Thermopylae, questioned surviving Greeks regarding
topics was permitted to be ba
the prizes offered at Olympia. When told that the winner received only a
strain being regarded as a certai
wreath of wild olive, Tigranes expressed the surprise of all concerned with
Liquor was taken in small
the remark: "What manner of men are these we are fighting? It is not for
Olympic athletes were total at
money they contend but for the glory of achievement."
boiled foods and cold drinks
Olympia was situated at the spot where the rivers Alpheus and Cladeus
baths and rubbing and massa;
converge in western Peloponnesus, The Altis, or sacred grove of Zeus,
All contestants had to SWe
occupied a space approximately in the shape of a rectangle. Low hills
blood, that neither they nor tl
bounded it on the north, the Alpheus and Cladeus were to the south and the
outlawry or sacrilegious act, a
west, while at the eastern boundary was the hippodrome, site of the
unfair means. All were require
equestrian events.
varying according to the event
The stadium itself, in which the running races and other athletic contests
absolutely nude.
were held, was about 210 yards long and 35 yards wide. Entrance to the field
Not only the athletes but al
of the stadium was reserved for the judges, the competitors, and the heralds.
long period of preparation fc
The audience, to the number of probably forty thousand, took points of
chosen from among the Eleans,
vantage on the sloping hillsides.
Elean magistrates. Their autho:
Not much is really known about the hippodrome now, as the rivers have
decisions was to the Elean sena
run wild over the site and destroyed the marks by which its exact limits
the special seats reserved for ti
could be measured, but it is generally agreed that it was probably about
most imposing sight.
eight hundred yards in length.
Historians disagree about tl
Numerous buildings, most of them treasure houses or structures with a
more than one or two judges
religious significance, were located in and about the Altis. The most important
but one event was contested.
of these undoubtedly was the Olympium, which contained the gigantic statue
take in many events and last fo
of Zeus by Phidias. The statue, the figure of Zeus being of ivory and his
although there seems to be no
robes of gold, was more that forty feet high and was regarded as one of the
celebration of the games.
Seven Wonders of the World.
In the original race of one
The two buildings chiefly devoted to athletics were the gymnasium, with
the stadium, the runners dashe
a long covered colonnade equal in length to the stadium track, which was
and in later years when longe:
used by the athletes in their training, and the palestra, roughly two hundred
certain number of lengths, th
feet square, in which the wrestlers, boxers, and gymnasts practiced under the
equivalent of the modern 1,50
eyes of the judges for the month immediately preceding the contests.
although some authorities say
es
The Ancient Olympic Games
15
ip when he repeated his
The Greek devotion to a cause at all costs was evident in the training
f Peisistratus to appear
methods of the athletes, if historians of those early days are to be taken at
n died some years later
their word. According to Galen, the athletes rose and partook of a breakfast
h the same team, his
of bread, half baked and slightly fermented. They took plenty of time to eat
and digest their food and then embarked on a program of ceaseless and
lerstanding of the basic
punishing exercise that carried through the afternoon with no stop for lunch
motives that prompted
and sometimes went on into the night.
:complishments, as, for
But dinner-ah, there was a meal. The Greek idea of a good dinner, if we
o the state, placed first
are to believe the chroniclers of the day, was meat and plenty of it. Milo of
/on for Athens by his
Crotona, according to the ringside account of one of these ancient sports
writers, ate an entire ox at one sitting, and Theagenes of Thasos, not to be
lity, cynically reported
outdone, duplicated the feat. Galen tells us that six and one-half pounds of
a triumphant general at
meat was a very ordinary portion for the he-man athletes of those days, and
aving won the Olympic
he describes an athlete named Aegon who tossed off eighty pastry cakes at
ictors on the same day,
a single sitting.
Diagoras, for thou hast
While these meals are sufficient to cause the hair of a modern trainer to
turn white as he reads of them, at least in the matter of topics of conversation
y the officers of Xerxes,
the Grecian trainers agreed with those of today, for none but the lightest
rviving Greeks regarding
topics was permitted to be bandied among the athletes at mealtime, mental
winner received only a
strain being regarded as a certain source of dyspepsia and headaches.
e of all concerned with
Liquor was taken in small quantities by some, but the majority of the
e fighting? It is not for
Olympic athletes were total abstainers, at least during training; and fried and
boiled foods and cold drinks were absolutely forbidden. Various types of
rs Alpheus and Cladeus
baths and rubbing and massage were regular parts of the training routine.
sacred grove of Zeus,
All contestants had to swear that they were freemen, of pure Hellenic
a rectangle. Low hills
blood, that neither they nor their immediate relatives had been guilty of any
ere to the south and the
outlawry or sacrilegious act, and that they did not propose to win by any
ppodrome, site of the
unfair means. All were required to have undergone a long period of training,
varying according to the event in which they were to contest. They competed
d other athletic contests
absolutely nude.
de. Entrance to the field
Not only the athletes but also the judges, called hellanodikes, underwent a
petitors, and the heralds.
long period of preparation for the ancient games. The judges, who were
housand, took points of
chosen from among the Eleans, were instructed for a period of ten months by
Elean magistrates. Their authority was great, and the only appeal from their
now, as the rivers have
decisions was to the Elean senate. Dressed in their purple robes and occupying
y which its exact limits
the special seats reserved for them on the floor of the stadium, they were a
it was probably about
most imposing sight.
Historians disagree about the number of the judges, but apparently not
ses or structures with a
more than one or two judges officiated at the early Olympic games, where
Altis. The most important
but one event was contested. When the athletic program was expanded to
tained the gigantic statue
take in many events and last for five or more days, the number was increased,
being of ivory and his
although there seems to be no record of more than ten judges at a single
IS regarded as one of the
celebration of the games.
In the original race of one stade, or, as the name implies, one length of
ere the gymnasium, with
the stadium, the runners dashed from one wall to another at the opposite end,
tadium track, which was
and in later years when longer races were added, ran back and forth for a
ra, roughly two hundred
certain number of lengths, the first long race apparently being about the
hasts practiced under the
equivalent of the modern 500-meter run or about seven eighths of a mile,
ing the contests.
although some authorities say it was more than twice that distance. Foot
16
History of the Olympic Games
The Ancient Oly
races in heavy armor were held during some of the games and were highly
closely resembled the modern practices
recommended by the warlike Spartans for their military character.
true of the running races, while in the jur
Wrestling was one of the sports that was added to the Olympic program
the custom to use halteres, or weights, W
early in the life of the games, and it was extremely popular with the spectators.
backward at the proper moment, adde
It was a combination of strength, agility, science, and grace, brute force being
One Greek athlete by the name of Phayl
of little account because of the nature of the rules. The wrestlers endeavored
fifty feet, which seems incredible to us.
to remain upright during the contests, the object being to secure a fall by a
of the nineteenth century in England ac
quick and graceful movement rather than by wallowing on the ground. The
use of weights, one individual having a
instant one of the contestants touched the ground with any part of his body
cleared six feet in the standing high ju
from the knee up, a fall was awarded to his opponent. Milo of Crotona was the
together. The information regarding the p
most famous wrestler of ancient times, as well as an eater of great reputation.
however, is so contradictory that it is har
Boxing, like wrestling, was a popular Olympic sport and was conducted
comparisons with the records made by pre
very much along the lines of the nineteenth-century bare-knuckle fights, no
Victors in the ancient games autom
ring being used and the contest being continued until one boxer decided that
Athletae, a pioneer athletic association, W
he had had enough-or his opponent decided it for him. The hands of the
gymnasium where they trained for contes
boxers were wrapped in some kind of covering the exact nature of which
to the athletic world.
changed from time to time during the history of the games.
The disintegration of the games may b
Apparently in both boxing and wrestling there were no weight divisions,
rather than to a basic weakness in the S
and there is no record of any attempt in any of the other Olympic contests to
As long as the high moral and religious na
overcome the handicaps imposed by nature. All contestants in the races had
they grew in popularity and successfully
an even start, and with the same principle applied to boxing and wrestling,
their noble character. It was only when t
these two events quickly became practically the exclusive field of the heavy-
the wealthy was permitted to make itself
weights. Despite this fact, there was a premium on cleverness; this was a
the athletes began to think not of the wre:
quality much appreciated by the spectators.
had. When the Olympic games were ultim
The ancient games had one contest, introduced about the thirty-third
Theodosius of Rome, they had long since
Olympiad, that was regarded as a supreme test of courage, resourcefulness,
carried them to the heights.
skill, and strength, but which, if the vivid descriptions given by the historians
The Olympic games after twelve hund
are correct, more closely resembled a gutter brawl than an athletic event. It
went officially out of existence in 394 A.I
was a combination of boxing and wrestling, with kicking and other fancy
the historic city of Olympia commenced,
tricks tossed in as a side line, and was called the pankration.
carried off to Constantinople, where it wa
Philostratus, who apparently occupied a ringside seat at these ancient
Theodosius II, seeking to continue the wo
contests, tells us that "the pankrationists practice a hazardous style of
responsible for officially ending the games
wrestling. They must employ backward falls, which are not safe for wrestling,
A.D. for the destruction of all pagan te
and grips in which victory must be obtained by falling. They must have skill
Olympia were placed in this classification.
in various methods of strangling. They also wrestle with an opponent's ankle
completed the work of destruction, and t
and twist his arm, besides hitting and jumping on him, for all these practices
of the games.
and Cladeus soon buried beneath a layer
belong to the pankration, only biting and gouging being excepted. The
Spartans admit even these practices, but the Eleans and the laws of the games
There Olympia lay for centuries until
exclude them, though they commend strangling."
Chandler in 1766 first uncovered some of t
Obviously the pankration was no place for weaklings; and it is quite clear
work of excavation, but in 1820 the Frenc
from the accounts as well as from murals and sculptures depicting the contest
had left off, only to let the work die after b:
that in the heat of battle the contestants sometimes forgot that there were
In 1876 the German government started
one or two practices, such as attempting to gouge out their opponents' eyes,
see that what could be found at Olympia, and to
that were forbidden. To prevent contestants from thus forgetting how to
behave, the judges were provided with an emblem of office in the form of a
without found. any attempt on the part of the G
six years of hard labor and thousands
rod, which not only identified them as people with authority but could be
used with great effect on the head of a contestant who stooped to forbidden
varying stages of disrepair were dug up. 0 I
determine their nature and their size, and
No less than fifty monumental structure
methods.
In a general way the early field events, such as javelin and discus throwing,
lympic Games
The Ancient Olympic Games
17
g some of the games and were highly
closely resembled the modern practices in athletics, and the same thing is
or their military character.
true of the running races, while in the jumping contests it seems to have been
it was added to the Olympic program
the custom to use halteres, or weights, which, carried in the hand and tossed
extremely popular with the spectators.
backward at the proper moment, added greatly to the distance covered.
1, science, and grace, brute force being
One Greek athlete by the name of Phayllus was credited with a leap of over
of the rules. The wrestlers endeavored
fifty feet, which seems incredible to us. However, the professional jumpers
the object being to secure a fall by a
of the nineteenth century in England achieved remarkable results with the
ian by wallowing on the ground. The
use of weights, one individual having a well-authenticated record of having
the ground with any part of his body
cleared six feet in the standing high jump, his feet actually being bound
his opponent. Milo of Crotona was the
together. The information regarding the performances of the ancient athletes,
as well as an eater of great reputation.
however, is so contradictory that it is hardly worth while to attempt to make
ar Olympic sport and was conducted
comparisons with the records made by present-day athletes.
eenth-century bare-knuckle fights, no
Victors in the ancient games automatically became members of the
ontinued until one boxer decided that
Athletae, a pioneer athletic association, whose members maintained a sort of
decided it for him. The hands of the
gymnasium where they trained for contests and discussed matters of interest
covering the exact nature of which
to the athletic world.
istory of the games.
The disintegration of the games may be laid at the door of human nature
stling there were no weight divisions,
rather than to a basic weakness in the structure of the games themselves.
1 any of the other Olympic contests to
As long as the high moral and religious nature of the games remained intact,
iture. All contestants in the races had
they grew in popularity and successfully survived every effort to debauch
ciple applied to boxing and wrestling,
their noble character. It was only when the influence of the politicians and
ically the exclusive field of the heavy-
the wealthy was permitted to make itself felt that corruption crept in, and
a premium on cleverness; this was a
the athletes began to think not of the wreath of olive but of cash prizes to be
tors.
had. When the Olympic games were ultimately banned as pagan festivals by
st, introduced about the thirty-third
Theodosius of Rome, they had long since lost all the characteristics that had
reme test of courage, resourcefulness,
carried them to the heights.
vid descriptions given by the historians
The Olympic games after twelve hundred years of unbroken celebration
gutter brawl than an athletic event. It
went officially out of existence in 394 A.D. Shortly afterward the looting of
estling, with kicking and other fancy
the historic city of Olympia commenced, the colossal statue of Zeus being
illed the pankration.
carried off to Constantinople, where it was later destroyed in the great fire.
bied a ringside seat at these ancient
Theodosius II, seeking to continue the work of his namesake, who had been
onists practice a hazardous style of
responsible for officially ending the games, issued orders in the fifth century
d falls, which are not safe for wrestling,
A.D. for the destruction of all pagan temples. Some of the buildings at
lained by falling. They must have skill
Olympia were placed in this classification. A hundred years later earthquakes
also wrestle with an opponent's ankle
completed the work of destruction, and the muddy waters of the Alpheus
umping on him, for all these practices
and Cladeus soon buried beneath a layer of silt the last vestiges of the site
ig and gouging being excepted. The
of the games.
t the Eleans and the laws of the games
There Olympia lay for centuries until the inquisitive pick of Richard
rangling."
Chandler in 1766 first uncovered some of the ruins. He could not finance the
ace for weaklings; and it is quite clear
work of excavation, but in 1820 the French government picked up where he
Is and sculptures depicting the contest
had left off, only to let the work die after barely getting started.
ints sometimes forgot that there were
In 1876 the German government started in thorough Teutonic fashion to
ng to gouge out their opponents' eyes,
see what could be found at Olympia, and to their great credit it must be said
testants from thus forgetting how to
that six years of hard labor and thousands of dollars were spent on the task
an emblem of office in the form of a
IS people with authority but could be
without found. any attempt on the part of the Germans to appropriate what they
1 contestant who stooped to forbidden
No less than fifty monumental structures were uncovered sufficiently to
determine their nature and their size, and one hundred and thirty statues in
ts, such as javelin and discus throwing,
varying stages of disrepair were dug up. It was necessary to build a large
IOC
18
History of the Olympic Games
CI
museum at Olympia to house the veritable treasure of thousands of coins,
THE G
bits of pottery, and other objects, each one of which helped to piece together
the tragic story of the great games of the Golden Age and the sordid com-
mercialism that brought about their downfall.
Such, then, was the great religious, athletic, and artistic festival that led
Vainly, perfidious outsia
Pindar to write: "The Gods love the games." Regardless of the hearsay nature
the modern games had an
of much of the evidence produced by the ancient writers, it must be admitted
development has been a su
that the ancient games were one of the outstanding Greek contributions to
the hazard of circumstan
history and that they played a tremendous part in spreading Greek culture
Olympism was born full
and ideals throughout the ancient world.
complete and its scope like
Today, fragments of sculpture, bits of history, odes, orations, dramas, and
All Games, All Nations.
other mute evidences of the glory that was Greece exist in abundance; but the
only one you will find outside a museum, a theater, or a book is the Olympic
games.
Young Pierre de Coubertin had r
taken him not only to near-by
modern land of promise, the U
reading had taken him still fart
When, after his visit to Rugby
that the way to a better individua
exposure to competitive modern
growing conviction that he mu
preferably in the friendly competi
As he began the campaign that
persons whom he felt he could i
humanity, he wrote, talked, argue
proposal. He found that progress и
"It is hard for anyone to realiz
the International Olympic Commi
after the beginning of the centur
around me with much indifference
there was none. No help could CO
has been said that Olympism was 'i
or other. It was not. It was born
according to ordinary methods.
remains a little of that needed toda
As we look back now across ha
sometimes difficult to realize how
of the nineteenth century each CO
own native sports, its own rules i
between athletes of even neighbori
the obvious difficulties of lack of
was a gap of understanding, too.
Coubertin found himself talking
of the possibilities that lay ahead, ]
of Lausanne, June 23, 1934, on the occasi
Address by the founder and life
the re-establishment of the Olympic ga
From a letter written to the author I
PERICLES
703
hance Corinthian pres-
PERICLES, per'a-klēz, Athenian statesman of the
ations at Olympia and
5th century B.C., whose name is closely associat-
was a man of few scru-
ed with the great age of Athenian democracy and
ife and quarreled with
culture, the Athenian Empire, and the Pelopon-
h and never returned.
nesian War.
noderate taxation, they
He was born about 495 B.C, son of Xanthip-
which ended with his
pus, a well-known political figure during the pe-
arsh and repressive.
riod of the Persian Wars, and Agariste, of the Alc-
niversity of Minnesota
meonid family, one of the most prominent in
Athens. Although little is known of his youth,
di'tis, inflammation of
two men seem to have played an important role
nat surrounds the heart.
in his education: Damon, primarily a musician,
e acute or chronic and
but one also interested in philosophy and poli-
sorder or secondarily as
tics; and the rationalist philosopher Anaxago-
ic disorder. For exam-
ras.
caused by a viral, bac-
His first marriage produced two sons before
n, or it may arise as a
ending in divorce, and he spent the last 15 years
umatic fever or various
of his life in the company of the Milesian-born
kidney or thyroid mal-
Aspasia. He was guardian of Alcibiades, who
a trauma to the chest.
was raised in his home. Pericles had a brother
arditis, the layers of the
and a sister of whom little is known.
creasingly fibrinous (fi-
Political Emergence. Pericles' rise to promi-
ecome fused (adhesive
nence is not easy to trace, but efforts to connect
forms (pericardial effu-
him with all that happened at Athens for 40 or
luid may exude into the
more years are ill founded. He played a leading
ween layers of the peri-
role in the prosecution of Cimon, a conservative
le separation between
politician who was tried in 463-462 and acquit-
yers of the pericardium.
ted on charges of accepting bribes. But Pericles'
il changes can seriously
alleged cooperation with the radical Ephialtes in
on. The symptoms and
introducing legislation that stripped the aristo-
depend on its cause and
cratically dominated Areopagus of much of its
ALINARI/SCALA
that occurs.
power seems unlikely.
A Roman copy of a 5th century B. C. bust of Pericles.
Precisely when he first held elective office is
r'dē-am, the membra-
uncertain. The first year for which certain evi-
the heart. The pericar-
dence exists is 454-453, when he was chosen
empire while simultaneously trying to wage war
kinds of membranes: an
one of ten generals elected annually at Athens.
against Sparta and its allies as well as Persia seri-
ous pericardium) and an
Thereafter his prestige grew steadily, and he was
ously overextended Athenian resources, Pericles
e fibrous tissue.
elected to the office of general (strategos) many
was instrumental in securing a treaty of peace
um in turn is composed
times, including 15 years in succession from
with the Persians in 449. In the following year
e inner membrane, the
443-442 until his death in 429.
he invited all Greek states to send representa-
picardium), covers the
The general was the most important magis-
tives to Athens to discuss matters of common
'he outer membrane, or
trate in the democratic government of Athens.
interest: the rebuilding of temples destroyed by
es the fibrous sac. The
The office carried both military and political re-
the Persians 30 years earlier, freedom of move-
normally are separated
sponsibilities. As a military commander, Peri-
ry small space, the peri-
cles was known more for caution than daring, but
ment on the seas, and peace. When the Spartans
ity contains just enough
he did serve competently on numerous cam-
refused to participate, nothing came of the plan,
to make the surfaces
but Pericles in 446 secured a 30-year peace with
paigns against Athens' enemies. In his first
1 it provides room for the
Sparta that acknowledged the existence of the
known command, in 454-453, he led a fleet that
Athenian Empire.
contraction and relax-
sailed around the Peloponnesus and inflicted
damage on the allies of Sparta. Ironically, his
Peace with Persia and Sparta allowed the
ium, which encloses the
last command, when he was well over 60 years of
Athenians a free hand in dealing with the cities
dium, is a tough layer of
of the empire. Ironically, Pericles, who favored
age, in 430, involved a similar mission.
ce of this tissue is con-
Domestic and Foreign Policy. Pericles' fame does
the extension of democracy at home, supported
igaments to surrounding
the policy of maintaining autocratic control over
not derive from his ability as a military man,
breastbone and the dia-
however, but from his discharge of the political
the empire by any force necessary, including the
responsibilities of the office of general. Though
establishment of Athenian citizens to perform
an aristocrat, his sympathies lay with the more
garrison duty and the armed suppression of any
ul, an operetta (opéra
radical element in Athens that supported the cur-
city that attemped to revolt. He personally com-
he French composer Jac-
tailment of aristocratic power and the extension
manded forces that curbed a revolt on Euboea in
erformed in Paris at the
of the benefits of democracy to Athenian citizens
446 and at Samos in 440-439.
Oct. 6, 1868. The libret-
of all classes. His most important measure in
Cultural Patronage. Pericles played a leading
and Ludovic Halévy is
this regard was the introduction of a law that pro-
role in turning Athens into the architectural
by Prosper Merimée.
vided for state payment to citizens serving as
showpiece of the ancient world. He is some-
of Offenbach's typical-
jurors in Athenian courts. This practice was lat-
times credited with advocating the construction
ne lodious scores, is a witty
all er extended to most other officials, thus enabling
of the Long Walls, a system of fortification that
iring the
counts the Second Employes adventures win
citizens, rich and poor, to hold office.
surrounded the city and extended all the way to
In matters of foreign policy, Pericles was in-
the coast and included the port city of Piraeus.
nger, who
tent on making Athens the dominant state in
But it is doubtful if he was politically prominent
singer. The libertine and
Greece. Although no direct evidence links him
enough when construction began about 461 to
cted to La Périchole
to the expansionist foreign policy pursued by
have been the driving force behind the project.
lo forsake her and marry
lesigns and at the end
ole dissuades the viceroy is
Athens in the early years of the 450's, he fully
From 448 onward, however, he did foster the
supported the transformation of the Delian
policy of using funds involuntarily extracted
When it became clear that efforts to build an
League into the Athenian Empire after 455-454.
from cities of the empire to rebuild the temples
that had lain in ruins since the Persians sacked
Piquillo.
the city in 480, as well as other buildings.
704
PERICLES-PERICLES, PRINCE OF TYRE
Among the most important projects he supported
dedicated to the well-being of the Athenian
state. Blessed with a rational mind and
daughter, Marina, to be
were the construction of the Parthenon, designed
wife orders Marina mur
to be the largest temple in Greece at the time of
nowned as one of the foremost orators of his day, re-
derer can strike, Marina
its erection; the elaborate entrance to the Acrop-
he was without peer in his ability to sway the
and sold into a brothel.
olis known as the Propylaea; and the odeon, or
Athenian electorate. According to the historian
reported to Pericles. H
concert hall, in the agora, where musical compe-
Thucydides, a younger contemporary and avow.
aimlessly and is miracul
tition, said to have been instituted by Pericles,
ed admirer, Pericles came to occupy a unique
rina, whose virtue has
was held in connection with the Panathenaic fes-
place in Athenian democracy. Because he was
ment. Prompted by a di
tival. Pericles' close friend Phidias wrought the
more a leader of the people than a follower, what
to Ephesus, where they
ivory and gold statue of Athena that stood in the
was in name a democracy became, in truth, a
the temple of Diana.
Parthenon and was overseer of the magnificent
government of its first citizen, Pericles.
CHARLES A. HALLET
sculpture that adorned the building's exterior.
Though he faced little open resistance after
Pericles' policy of rebuilding and beautifying
443, an undercurrent of opposition continually
PERIDOTITE, pe-rid'a-tit,
Athens with tribute collected from cities of the
vented itself against his friends and associates.
rich igneous rock consisti
empire was opposed vigorously by the conserva-
The sculptor Phidias, the philosopher Anaxago-
al olivine, (Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄,
tive Thucydides, son of Melesias, who was ostra-
ras, and his mistress Aspasia all were charged
orthopyroxene, (Mg,Fe)
cized in 444-443. Thereafter Pericles faced lit-
with impiety, and his teacher Damon was ostra-
Ca(Mg,Fe)Si₂O₆. The fre
tle serious political opposition.
cized.
vellow color typical of
As a result of the peace with Persia and Spar-
Aftermath. Pericles' policies carried Athens to
surfaces are usually rusty
ta, the smooth functioning of democracy at home
the height of its glory, and after his death the
tion of the iron. Peridoti
and imperialism throughout the empire, and the
leadership he had provided for more than a quar-
(1) as large intrusive bodie
elaborate building projects that were underway,
ter of a century was sorely missed. As the Pelo-
ters in extent, usually ea
the years until 431 were the most prosperous in
ponnesian War raged, politicians who were less
poor vegetation on their in
all Athenian history. Athenian power and pres-
dedicated to Athens and more interested in serv.
nodules in basaltic lava flc
tige grew steadily, but as they did, fear and
ing their own ends rose to prominence.
occurrence suggests that
apprehension arose in Sparta. In the 430's the
THOMAS KELLY
principal constituent of the
two states drifted closer to war.
University of Minnesota
This is supported by geopl
Pericles and the Peloponnesian War. It would be
Bibliography
density and elastic proper
going too far to say that Pericles actively sought
Bowra, Cecil M., Periclean Athens (Dial Press 1971).
Hanson, William P., and Haney, John, eds., Pericles (Chel-
Peridotite nodules are
to provoke hostilities, but it is no exaggeration to
sea House 1987).
of gem-quality olivine, kn
say that he did little to allay Spartan fears. In
Holden, H., Plutarch's Life of Pericles (Bolchazy-Carducel
the rock name), as at San (
433, Athens entered into a defensive alliance
Pub. 1984).
with Corcyra, and shortly thereafter ordered the
Michael, Nancy, Pericles (Garland 1986).
ing of large peridotite bodi
Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War (various English trans-
ores, as in New Caledoni
Potidaeans to raze their fortifications and receive
lations).
there contains a few tent
no additional magistrates from Corinth. Both
which on weathering form
actions seriously strained relations between Ath-
PERICLES, PRINCE OF TYRE, per'e-klēz, tir, the
ed nickel silicate.
ens and Corinth, Sparta's most important ally,
first of Shakespeare's late romances. The play
BRIAN MASON, Sn
and it is difficult to imagine the Athenian assem-
seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity
bly voting for such measures without the full
in its own day, but it went into eclipse early in
PÉRIER, pã-ryã', Casimir
support of Pericles. He personally proposed the
the 18th century and has remained so ever since.
banker and politician, wh
"Megarian Decree," which was aimed at curtail-
Its place in the Shakespeare canon has always
1831 and resisted attempts
ing the commercial activity of Megara, also an
been in question because of the strange history
gime established by the Re
important ally of Sparta, throughout the Athenian
of its printing. Written in 1608, it appeared in
was born on Oct. 21, 1777,
Empire.
print the following year. The version, however,
When the differences separating Athens and
was so poor that it must represent a memorial
ing family in Grenoble, F
Sparta could not be resolved by negotiation, the
reconstruction rather than an edition set from a
briefly in the French army
bank in partnership with hi
to Paris and in 1801 esta
Peloponnesian War broke out in 431 and contin-
manuscript. Nevertheless, all subsequent print-
ued until Athens was completely defeated in
ings derive directly from this faulty source. Per-
404, long after Pericles' death. Until he died in
icles was omitted inexplicably from the First Fo-
he sat with the liberals but
Elected to the Chamber
429, the Athenians followed the strategy he de-
lio (1623) and first appeared as part of Shake-
speare's collected works in the second edition of
fiercest of the opposition's
vised for waging the war. Realizing that Athe-
nian superiority rested in its navy, this strategy
the Third Folio.
king's policies, Périer did
Despite the vehemence of
when the reactionary Char
called for the Athenians to refuse to meet the
Pericles is the only Shakespeare play for
Spartans in a land battle, where Sparta's superi-
which no authoritative text survives. Few schol-
ority lay, but to withdraw the population of Attica
ars attribute the entire play to Shakespeare.
tion in in 1830 and remained 1
behind the city's fortification walls. Supplies
Many of those who do so admit that it is probably
a halfhearted reworking of an earlier play; For
emment, insisting that
He then joined
could be brought into the port of Piraeus by ship
them, the figure of the poet Gower is a device used
place, only a change of no lead r
and moved overland to Athens without enemy
interference. Meanwhile the Athenian navy
to unify the similarly episodic
Chamber of Deputies. Afte
He with the Right-
reminiscent of the Chorus that
could maintain control of the seas and conduct
turned
harassing raids against Sparta and its allies in the
Peloponnesus.
throughout condemn the play as worse than epi-
who are less inclined to see
With the citizens from the countryside crowd-
removed from office, tried and fined, but was
speare ought not to STATE
sodic-it breaks in two. In their
ber uprisi
ed into the city, a plague broke out. Pericles was
the 1831). Satisfied with fr:
ill-conceived first
L wealthy, he opposed a at
reelected general again in the following year.
that Shakespeare is the author of the final and
plot to kill Pericles. More are willing to three
He fell ill with the plague that claimed thou-
sands of other Athenians, including his sister and
both his legitimate sons, and he died in 429.
the plot, with its theme of death and rebirth.,The
acts. The poetry there is of a higher order,
new ence. Although he sent was an t
His foreign policy
Characterization. Although pompous and aloof,
reminiscent of Shakespeare's later romances
1831, Belgian against th
to aid the
Pericles enjoyed a reputation for absolute incor-
Winter's Tale and The Tempest.
ruptibility. Patriotic to the core and intensely
cles wins through his courage, dies whom ildbirth
Plot of Acts III-V. Thaisa, the wife Peri-
help who had I
The Fre
proud of his native city and the democracy by
which it was governed, he was beyond question
during a tempest at sea. Pericles leaves
after A
the Papal States to re
E184
A1347
WH
ti
THE ETHNIC
ALMANAC
by Stephanie Bernardo
Dolphin Books
Doubleday & Company, Inc.
Garden City, New York
1981
104
FROM THE OTHER SIDE
TO THE PROMISED LAND
EVERYONE COMES FROM
is Frank Perdue, the man who brought
French aerialist Philippe Petit enter-
"brand-name chickens" to the poultry
tained crowds that gathered below the
Between 1891 and 1920,
cases of America. A descendant of Henri
World Trade Center in 1974 as he tee-
367,000 Greeks entered the Ur
Perdeux, a French Huguenot who came
tered on a thin cable slung between the
Thirty years earlier, between
to America in 1657 to escape religious
twin 110-story buildings for over 45 min-
1890, the number of Greek im
persecution, Frank let himself in for some
the United States had been
utes.
"persecution" during the early 1970s when
13,000.
Letters: Henry David Thoreau; John P.
his slogan, "Is your husband a breast man
Marquand (1894-1960), a 1937 Pulitzer
Most of the immigrants wh
or a leg man?" attracted the ire of wo-
America at the turn of the ce
Prize winner for his novel The Late
men's groups.
George Apley; Oliver La Farge, a 1929
young, single men. They came h
Politics: John Jay was a French Hugue-
Pulitzer Prize winner for his first novel
sole intent of earning enough mc
not, as was Paul Revere, the famous mid-
could return to Greece at a later
about American Indians, Laughing Boy;
night rider. Revere's father, also a silver-
R. H. Dana, Jr., an American of Hugue-
"nest egg" to use toward buildi
smith, was named Apollon Rivoire. Pierre
not ancestry, who wrote Two Years Be-
purchasing farmland or starting
Salinger, former press secretary to Pres-
fore the Mast. John Greenleaf Whittier's
business. Like so many other
ident Kennedy, is of French descent on
mother was French (her maiden name
though, the Greeks became ca
his mother's side. Mike Gravel (1930-
was Feuillevert. French for "green
America. They put down roots
), U.S. Senator from Alaska, is of
ried, had children and became
leaf"). Stephen Vincent Benét won a
French-Canadian. descent; William
citizens.
1929 Pulitzer Prize for his epic poem,
Simon (1927- ), former Secretary of
John Brown's Body. Will Durant, the his-
When strict immigration quota
the Treasury, is the grandson of French
effect in the 1920s, Greek i
torian, is of French-Canadian ancestry.
immigrants; Anne Armstrong (1927-
Science: Alexis Carrel, 1915 Nobel Prize
plummeted sharply, and from 19
), former U.S. Ambassador to Great
winner in Medicine and Physiology;
an average of only 900 Greek
Britain, is of French-Creole ancestry on
André Cournand, 1956 Nobel Prize win-
came to our shores each year.
her paternal side.
ner in same field. René Dubos (1901-
migration quotas were lifted il
Entertainers: French-born Claudette Col-
), microbiologist.
1960s, immigration from Gre
bert settled in the U.S. in 1910; Rod
Beauty: French-born beauty expert Ni-
once again to more than 122,000
Steiger (1925- ) is of French, Scot-
cole Ronsard made cellulite a household
als between 1966 and 1975.
tish and German ancestry; Joan Craw-
word among diet-conscious Americans in
Many of these new immigrants
ford (1908-1977) was of French and
the early 1970s when she introduced her
ical school graduates, engineers
Irish extraction. Charles Boyer (1899-
exercise regimen, designed to eliminate
professionals who found the p
1978) was a famous "imported" leading
this purported by-product of fat from the
mate of their native land oppress
man born in France.
body.
believed there was more opportu
reer advancement in the Uni
Along with the droves of we
Greeks were scores of uneduca
dwellers who managed to carve
the American dream for themsel
THE GREEKS IN AMERICA
ning successful businesses. In th
one third-generation Greek
The first Greek to explore America was
which they believed could flourish in the
whose family owns four large su
probably a sailor named Theodore who
warm Florida sun. New Smyrna did not
in northern New Jersey, "My I
sailed with a Spanish expedition to Florida
turn out to be the agricultural paradise that
came here in 1919 with nothing
in 1637. Some scholars claim there may
Turnbull had hoped. Instead of lush or-
aged to build up his business with
have been Greek sailors aboard Co-
and brains."
chards and fat, juicy grapes, the settlers
lumbus's ship on his first voyage to the New
Like Americans from almost e
found only hardship, hostile Indians and
World, while other scholars contend that
unyielding Florida swampland. Ten years
group, the Greeks have found tl
Columbus was not Italian, but Greek!
after New Smyrna was founded the last of
ier to make your way in Ameri
One of the first Greek settlements in the
own boss. For that reason it
the 600 remaining colonists departed,
New World was the Colony of New
searching for greener pastures and more
Greeks have a monopoly on the
Smyrna, Florida, established in 1767 by
profitable farmland.
ettes, diners and even pizza par
Andrew Turnbull and his Greek wife. Turn-
Greek immigration to the United States
Northeast, where they serve SC
bull named the colony after his wife's home-
did not begin on a large scale until the
gyro sandwiches along with Itali
town of Smyrna, and the couple recruited
1890s, when political oppression, economic
ties. There aren't any hard facts C
almost 1,400 destitute Greeks and Italians
hardship, crop failures and droughts forced
ber of Greek-owned food stores
to cultivate vineyards and olive orchards,
thousands of Greeks to flee their homeland.
rants, but in one suburban county
York City, there are at least
IVS
h aerialist Philippe Petit enter-
Between 1891 and 1920, more than
rowds that gathered below the
markets, 6 diners and 5 restaurants owned
rade Center in 1974 as he tee-
367,000 Greeks entered the United States.
by Greeks within a 10-mile radius.
a thin cable slung between the
Thirty years earlier, between 1861 and
-story buildings for over 45 min-
1890, the number of Greek immigrants to
the United States had been fewer than
Henry David Thoreau; John P.
13,000.
The first Greek newspaper, Atlantis, was
d (1894-1960), a 1937 Pulitzer
Most of the immigrants who came to
established in New York in 1894 by Solon
inner for his novel The Late
America at the turn of the century were
John Vlasto (1852-1927). Atlantis was the
Apley; Oliver La Farge, a 1929
young, single men. They came here with the
first paper in the world to use typesetting
Prize winner for his first novel
sole intent of earning enough money so they
machinery for the Greek alphabet.
could return to Greece at a later date with a
merican Indians, Laughing Boy;
Greeks were greeted with the same open
ana, Jr., an American of Hugue-
"nest egg" to use toward building a home,
arms that "native" Americans (those who
purchasing farmland or starting their own
stry, who wrote Two Years Be-
had been here for two or three generations)
Mast. John Greenleaf Whittier's
business. Like so many other immigrants,
extended to every new ethnic group. In
was French (her maiden name
though, the Greeks became caught up in
1909, the Greek community of Omaha,
America. They put down roots here, mar-
uillevert, French for "green
Nebraska-some 1,200 men, women and
ried, had children and became American
Stephen Vincent Benét won a
children-were driven out of town. Anti-
citizens.
ilitzer Prize for his epic poem,
Hellenic sentiments of the townsfolk turned
When strict immigration quotas went into
own's Body. Will Durant, the his-
to violence, a riot ensued and much of the
$ of French-Canadian ancestry.
effect in the 1920s, Greek immigration
Greek community's property was de-
plummeted sharply, and from 1930 to 1950
Alexis Carrel, 1915 Nobel Prize
stroyed.
in Medicine and Physiology;
an average of only 900 Greek immigrants
In Greece, life revolves to a great extent
Cournand, 1956 Nobel Prize win-
came to our shores each year. When im-
around the Church. By the end of World
ame field. René Dubos (1901-
migration quotas were lifted in the early
War I, there were 130 Greek Orthodox
1960s, immigration from Greece soared
hicrobiologist.
churches in the United States. attesting to
once again to more than 122,000 new arriv-
French-born beauty expert Ni-
the deep roots of the Greek community.
als between 1966 and 1975.
nsard made cellulite a household
One of the most famous of the Greek Or-
long diet-conscious Americans in
Many of these new immigrants were med-
thodox churches is Annunciation Church in
1970s when she introduced her
ical school graduates, engineers and other
Milwaukee. which was designed by archi-
regimen, designed to eliminate
professionals who found the political cli-
tect Frank Lloyd Wright.
ported by-product of fat from the
mate of their native land oppressive, or else
Although it was only performed once,
believed there was more opportunity for ca-
New York opera buffs were able to see the
reer advancement in the United States.
Greek opera Perouze, by Theodore Sakel-
Along with the droves of well-educated
larides, in 1925.
Greeks were scores of uneducated village
Maria Anna Cecilia Sofia Kalogero-
dwellers who managed to carve a piece of
poulos (1923-1977), better known as Maria
the American dream for themselves by run-
ERICA
Callas, was a beloved opera star both here
ning successful businesses. In the words of
and abroad. The daughter of a Greek im-
one third-generation Greek-American
migrant druggist, Callas grew up on the
whose family owns four large supermarkets
y believed could flourish in the
streets of Hell's Kitchen. a tough New
in northern New Jersey, "My grandfather
rida sun. New Smyrna did not
York City neighborhood. She later re-
be the agricultural paradise that
came here in 1919 with nothing, and man-
nounced her American citizenship. Callas
aged to build up his business with hard work
ad hoped. Instead of lush or-
made her debut in Athens in the leading role
and brains."
di fat, juicy grapes, the settlers
of Santuzza in Cavalleria Rusticana at the
Like Americans from almost every ethnic
y hardship, hostile Indians and
age of fifteen. At the peak of her career,
group, the Greeks have found that it's eas-
Florida swampland. Ten years
Callas's voice was able to stretch almost
Smyrna was founded the last of
ier to make your way in America as your
three octaves. Of her early start in opera
own boss. For that reason it seems that
remaining colonists departed,
Maria once complained. "The worst thing
Greeks have a monopoly on the luncheon-
for greener pastures and more
in the world is a child prodigy. I had to sing
farmland.
ettes. diners and even pizza parlors in the
and take care of the family. I feel I have
Northeast. where they serve souvlaki and
mmigration to the United States
been robbed of my youth."
egin on a large scale until the
gyro sandwiches along with Italian special-
During the "brain drain" of the early
ties. There aren't any hard facts on the num-
en political oppression, economic
1960s, almost one-third of all Greek medi-
ber of Greek-owned food stores and restau-
crop failures and droughts forced
cal school students, and 20% of Greek engi-
of Greeks to flee their homeland.
rants, but in one suburban county near New
neering students were seeking employment
York City, there are at least 12 super-
in the United States after graduation.
106
FROM THE OTHER SIDE
TO THEPROMISEDLAND
EVERYONE COMES FROM SO
The only privately operated Greek Or-
Like other illegal aliens in the New York
Facts About Greek-American
thodox school in the United States is St.
City area, the brothers were earning a living
Andrew's Academy in Queens, New York.
in America as housepainters (or, in this
Immigration to the U.S. (1820-197.
St. Andrew's has an enrollment of more
case, monument painters)-their non-union
Peak Decade (1911-1920):
than 500 pupils, ranging in age from nursery
wages, no doubt, enabling the contractor to
Recent Immigration (1966-1975)
school level to high school.
bid low for the job of painting Miss Liberty.
Spiro Agnew was the first American
Unfortunately, that television show proved
1970 Census
Vice-President of Greek descent. How-
to be the brothers' undoing. for Maurice F.
Foreign-born Greeks
177.2
ever, many Greek-Americans looked upon
Kiley, District Immigration Officer, spotted
Native-born. 2nd generation
257,2
him as primarily "American": 1) His
them and became suspicious. As it turned
Estimated Greek-American popul
mother was a Virginian; 2) he converted to
out, both were in the country on the sly-
Main Ethnic Epicenters:
1
Episcopalianism from Greek Orthodoxy;
Athanasios had jumped ship in 1969 and his
and 3) he could not speak the language of
brother had entered the United States on a
New York
90,886
his father- Greek. Spiro was only a second-
visitor's permit in 1971 and never left. As a
Illinois
48,669
generation Greek-American (his father emi-
result of their television debut, the brothers
California
43,645
I
grated to the United States in 1897) but in
were arrested and faced deportation back to
Massachusetts
39,669
I
one short generation he had lost many of the
Greece.
New Jersey
25,703
I
old-world ways. Still, when he was elected
Places With Greek Names Ypsilanti,
on the Nixon ticket in 1968, he was
Michigan, is named after General Demetrios
promptly dubbed "Zorba the Veep" in
Ypsilanti (1793-1832), a hero of the Greek
Who's Greek?
honor of his Greek heritage.
war of independence. The Straits of Juan de
Done In By Miss Liberty In 1975 a TV
Fuca, between Washington state and Van-
Entertainers Telly Savalas bec
news team featured a story on the redec-
couver, Canada, are named after a Greek
household word in the early 1970s
orating that was going on inside the Statue
navigator who sailed for Spain. Juan de
lollipop-sucking cop, Kojak. He W
of Liberty. There in the background, paint-
Fuca discovered the sea passage in 1592
in Garden City, New York. His
ing the walls of the national monument, were
and named it after himself, believing that it
was a former Miss Greece, and
was a connecting waterway between the
himself contributed a lot to the V
two Greek brothers- Athanasios and
Georgios Plessias.
Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
"beauty" by proving that "bald
beautiful." John Cassavetes, act
director; George Maharis; Georg
kiris; Betty White; Spyros Skou
founder of 20th Century-Fox; Ale
Pantages, theater owner.
Facts About the Other Side:
Country:
GREECE
Official Name:
Elliniki Dimokratia (Hellenic Republic)
Capital:
Athens
Official Language:
Greek
National Anthem:
"Imnos pros tin Eleftherian" (The Hymn to Liberty) The Greek na-
tional anthem, written by the poet, Solomos, has 158 verses. Most
Greeks only know the first four, and the first two are sung at official
gatherings. The music for the anthem was composed by Matzoros.
National Flag:
The Greek flag, adopted in 1822, consists of five blue and four white
horizontal stripes, interrupted in the upper left-hand corner by a
white cross on a blue field.
Coat of Arms:
Adopted in 1973, the phoenix symbolizes the rebirth of Greece as a
republic after the abolishment of the monarchy.
Major Religion:
Over 95 percent of the population belongs to the Greek Orthodox
Church, the official state religion. The church is supported by govern-
ment funds and religion is taught in public schools, although freedom
of worship is guaranteed by the constitution.
TO THE PROMISED LAND
EVERYONE COMES FROM SOMEWHERE
107
her illegal aliens in the New York
Facts About Greek-Americans:
the brothers were earning a living
ca as housepainters (or, in this
Immigration to the U.S. (1820-1975): 629,349
ument painters)-their non-union
Peak Decade (1911-1920):
184,201
doubt, enabling the contractor to
Recent Immigration (1966-1975):
128,924
r the job of painting Miss Liberty.
ately, that television show proved
1970 Census
brothers' undoing, for Maurice F.
Foreign-born Greeks
177,275
strict Immigration Officer, spotted
Native-born, 2nd generation
257,296
became suspicious. As it turned
Estimated Greek-American population: 3 million
were in the country on the sly-
os had jumped ship in 1969 and his
Main Ethnic Epicenters:
U.S. Cities with Most Greeks:
ad entered the United States on a
New York
90,886
New York
79,131
ermit in 1971 and never left. As a
Illinois
48,669
Chicago
45,014
heir television debut, the brothers
California
43,645
Boston
23,137
sted and faced deportation back to
Massachusetts
39,669
Lost Angeles
16,219
With Greek Names Ypsilanti,
New Jersey
25,703
Detroit
14,047
is named after General Demetrios
(1793-1832), a hero of the Greek
Who's Greek?
dependence. The Straits of Juan de
ween Washington state and Van-
Entertainers Telly Savalas became a
Sports Baseball's Milt Pappas; Gus
Canada, are named after a Greek
household word in the early 1970s as that
Triandos; and football's Alex Karras, an
who sailed for Spain. Juan de
lollipop-sucking cop, Kojak. He was born
All-American defensive tackle with the
covered the sea passage in 1592
in Garden City, New York. His mother
Detroit Lions.
ed it after himself, believing that it
was a former Miss Greece, and Savalas
Politics Spiro Agnew (former Governor
onnecting waterway between the
himself contributed a lot to the world of
of Maryland and Vice-President of the
and Pacific oceans.
"beauty" by proving that "bald can be
United States), whose immigrant father
beautiful." John Cassavetes. actor and
changed his name from Anagnos-
director; George Maharis; George Cha-
topoulos; Michael Dukakis, Governor of
kiris: Betty White: Spyros Skouras, co-
Massachusetts; Peter Peterson (a.k.a. Pe-
founder of 20th Century-Fox; Alexander
tropoulos), U.S. government official.
Pantages, theater owner.
Fashion Designers George Stavropoulos
and James Galanos; Christie Brothers
furriers.
Advertising George Lois.
Science Nicholas Christofilos, nuclear
physicist.
public)
Medicine George Papanicolaou (1895-
1963).
Food Industry John Zervas, onetime "hot
: Hymn to Liberty) The Greek na-
dog king" of New York City who owned
et, Solomos, has 158 verses. Most
the concession rights for 60 vending sites
and the first two are sung at official
in Central Park. He employed recent
Greek immigrants to sell pretzels, hot
hem was composed by Matzoros.
dogs and soda.
consists of five blue and four white
the upper left-hand corner by a
nbolizes the rebirth of Greece as a
the monarchy.
on belongs to the Greek Orthodox
The church is supported by govern-
"I think in time the people will come to
n public schools, although freedom
know what a warm, sweet, lovable person I
constitution.
really am." - Spiro Agnew, 1971. (Courtesy:
Culver Pictures)
222
CONTRIBUTIONS
OR EVERYONE GAVE SOMETHING
CUSTOMS AND TRADI
spring. Soon, the practice of planting trees on a special day in the springtime spread
takes its name from the I
throughout the nation and in 1885, when the legislature decided to make Arbor Day a
mand, descended upon th
legal holiday in Nebraska, they chose Morton's birthday, April 22.
passing over the homes of
25 Anzac Day in Australia to honor war dead
During their hasty flight
26 Tanzania Union Day
and therefore had to eat un
29 Annual Fair, Focsani, in Romania
bread consumed by Jews a.
Hirohito's Birthday, Japanese national holiday
Hispanic Festival During th
multi-cultural heritage wit
themes.
MOVABLE FEASTS
Easter The traditions associated with Easter in America, such as the Easter bunny,
Easter ham and egg-rolling contests come to us from the English and German settlers.
1 May Day
Egg rolls This custom, which came from England may be symbolic of the
Although maypoles seen
stone that was rolled away from Christ's tomb on Easter morning. The most famous
egg-roll in America is the one held each year on the White House lawn. President
there was a time when y
dance around a pole fest
James Madison started the tradition when he invited the nation's children to roll eggs
there in 1809.
The first recorded may
English Anglican, who li
Easter bunny The rabbit who hops down the bunny trail with his baskets full of
his men dancing and frol
eggs and candy is a native of Germany, brought to America by immigrants from the
ordered the pole to be ct
Palatinate. Their children would build nests for the bunny. where he would "lay" col-
trumped-up charges of St
ored eggs for them to find on Easter Sunday morning.
Ham and all the trimmings Americans eat turkey on Thanksgiving and ham on
Easter Sunday. The tradition of dining on cured pork meat originated out of spite. The
Mother's Day, First Sunday ir
English originally consumed a gammon of bacon on Easter as a display of contempt for
Although an American, Ai
the Jewish practice of abstaining from pork. William the Conqueror (1027-1087)
idea of Mother's Day, the h
preferred ham to bacon, and when he conquered England, he had the customary Easter
as "Mothering Sunday."
meal changed to suit his taste.
At the time of her death,
(Easter varies between late March and mid-April. In 1981, Easter Sunday falls on
that had overtaken the hol
March 29; in 1982, April 11; in 1983, April 3; in 1984. April 22; in 1985, April 7.)
cards and gifts, Jarvis would
Easter, Greek Style On Holy Saturday, Greeks attend midnight Mass and after services
lish custom of taking over r
gather at the home of friends for a late-night supper. During the religious service. a flame
family Sunday dinner.
is passed from one candle to another, held by the parishioners, until the entire church is
ablaze with light. Everyone receives a red Easter egg as they leave the church to signify
the start of a new life- symbolic of the arrival of spring and the resurrection of the Lord.
Dutch May is tulip time, and
The traditional meal which breaks the Lenten fast is Mageritsa, a soup made with
tulip festivals each year. 7
the intestines, heart, liver and stomach of the baby lamb which has been slaughtered in
known, has been drawing A
preparation for Easter Sunday's meal. Thick with egg and lemon sauce and seasoned
years. In addition to the tuli
with dill and scallions, the soup represents both the suffering of Christ and the joyful-
factory, a Netherlands mus
ness of his resurrection.
Although tulips are grown
Easter, Eastern European Style Pysanky is the Ukrainian tradition of painting Easter eggs,
to be made on the tulip mai
but the custom is practiced in most other Eastern European and Baltic countries, too.
Constantinople in the 1500
Hot wax is applied in designs to certain areas of the egg, and then removed after the egg
overcome with a desire to
is dipped into the first color. Successive layers of wax protect "yellow" from becoming
Holland between 1634 and
"green" when the egg is dipped into blue dye, and as a result the egg emerges with an in-
ings in rare bulbs, much as
tricate network of lines and colors.
and lost on the tulip market
Why do Ukrainian women practice this tedious custom each year? Aside from the
trade of flowering bulbs.
beauty of the eggs and their value as an art form, legend claims that the fate of the world
French Port Arthur, Texas, h
depends upon the maintenance of this custom. If the tradition ever ceases, a chained
to celebrate the heritage of
monster will be unleashed upon the earth to devour us all.
German McCook, Nebraska.
Passover This Jewish celebration, which occurs on the 15th day of the Hebrew month
rate the town's heritage. Otl
Nisan, commemorates the liberation of the Hebrew people from Egyptian bondage. It
Missouri, and Brenham, Tex
Goethe to Hearst
VOLUME 13
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
AMERICANA
INTERNATIONAL EDITION
COMPLETE IN THIRTY VOLUMES
GROLIER INCORPORATED
International Headquarters: Danbury, Connecticut 06816
Salonika
-
em Aege:
Emple). and poin
through t
lows intersects the
the Danu
rope.
In
constitute!
slands se
the Aege:
armies, m
have ser
Creeks C
natively,
Culture
ingenuity,
this basic
people ha
the outsid
history ha
BERNARD G. SILBERSTEIN, FROM RAPHO GUILLUMENT
peoples a
The centuries-old Parthenon, crowning the ancient Acropolis, overlooks the modern city of Athens.
borrowing
lending.
During
In world politics Greece is a member of the
absorbed
Western bloc. A member of the Council of En-
mian and
rope, Greece joined the North Atlantic Treaty
Minoan
Organization (NATO) in 1952 and the European
Mycenaea
Economic Community (EEC), or Common Mar.
the Iliad
ket, as an associate member in 1962. In its re-
Dorian CO
lations with its immediate neighbors, since
around 11
World War II Greece has experienced periods
Asia Min
of strain. With its three Communist neighboo
and points
to the north, who helped the Communists
this expar
Greece during the Greek civil war of 1944-1949
classical
the strain has been ideological. But there have
achieveme
Mexander
also been long-standing territorial issues. Greece
Creeks ac
still claims northern Epirus, or southern Albanit
Yugoslavia has cast longing eyes on Greek Mace
Subsequ
em domin
donia; and Bulgaria has claimed Thrace as with
their conc
as Macedonia. Nonetheless, since 1948, rela-
man perio
tions with Yugoslavia have ranged from proper
dominion
to cordial, and in 1965 diplomatic relations with
philosophi
Bulgaria were fully restored. Turkey, a member
portant e
of the Western bloc, is formally allied with
tinuation (
Greece as a comember of NATO. But in the
6th centu:
Coat of Arms of Greece
mid-1950's the issue of the status of Cyprus
revived historic Greco-Turkish hostility, and OR
a Byzantium good pa
two occasions after that almost precipitated
form of C
CONTENTS
war. Due to the sizable Greek communities is
the Middle East and the influence of the Gred
(Cyrillic),
Section
Page
Section
Orthodox Church there, Greece maintains cordin
Slavs (Rus
Page
Modern Greece
In the
Ancient Greece
1. The People
relations with both Israel and the Arab states
362
8. History of Greece
were conc
2. The Land and Natural
to 330 A. D.
389
Geographical Influences. Geography has always
Turks, bu
Resources
364
9. Archaeology
404
had a great influence on the Greeks and is It
ward brou
3. The Economy
366
10. Art and Archi-
4. Education
370
tecture
409
sponsible for many of the continuities of ther the
5. Sites of Tourist
11. Literature
418
long history. The mountains that chop up
classical absorbed. G
Interest
371
Greek lands have contributed to localism
are
12. Classical Music
425
6. History and Govern-
The
tion conti
13. Science
426
ment Since 330 A. D. 372
14. Religion and
have been a major barrier to national unity.
Mythology
difficulties of communication by land and
the
7. Modern Culture
380
429
that However, had
presence of the sea have made mariners out
Ottoman
some Greeks in every age. The limited ensured natural
impact of I
GREECE is a small country located in the south-
a steady flow of Greeks to richer lands. Finally
resources of the Greek lands have always
them a ne
ern part of the Balkan Peninsula. One of the
tage and
world's greatest civilizations once flourished there.
the position of the Greek lands in the easters Asi
The modern state occupies not only the south-
Mediterranean basin, in close proximity to
Creeks dependenc ha
ern end of the Balkan Peninsula but also the
and Africa, has made them a bridge between
periods of
Ionian Islands, lying off its west coast; the large
east and west, north and south.
The natural land bridges are two. The laters H.
been the
island of Crete, to the south; and, except for
while rem
Imbros (Turkish Imroz) and Tenedos (Turkish
route, along which the Romans once built
Indepen
Bozcaada), all the main Aegean islands, including
famous Via Egnatia, runs from the Albanian
Eation-stat
Rhodes.
of Durrës (Durazzo) on the Adriatic coast
360
GREECE
361
a the Constan- north-
INFORMATION HIGHLIGHTS
em runs Athens
from
through eastern part mainland, and fol-
farther south, of in the the Greek Peloponnesus,
Official Name: Hellenic Republic.
the lateral route at Salonika,
Head of State: President.
intersects Axios-Vardar-Morava river valley to
Head of Government: Premier.
the Danube River and the thence land into central the Eu-
Area: 50,960 square miles (131,986 sq km).
a a stepping-stones, to highway, natural routes, with routes, the especially along numerous which sea in
Boundaries: North, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Bul-
garia; east, Turkey; southeast, Aegean Sea;
south, Mediterranean Sea; and west, Adriatic
Sea.
have served as channels through which the
armies, merchants, goods, and ideas could travel,
the
Highest Point: Mt. Olympus (9,573 feet, or 2,917
meters).
Greeks could extend their influence or, alter-
natively, receive the influence of others.
Population: (1981 census) 9,740,151; (1971 census)
Cultural Influences. Because of their curiosity,
8,768,641.
ingenuity, and gregariousness, as well as for
Capital: Athens (population, 1981 census: 885,136;
this basic geographic reason, the Greeks as a
Athens Metropolitan Area, 3,027,331).
people have never developed in isolation from
Major Language: Greek (official).
the outside world. Their long and distinguished
Major Religious Groups: Eastern Orthodox (97%);
history has always been tied to that of other
Muslim (1.3%).
peoples and cultures, with periods of cultural
Monetary Unit: Drachma (1 drachma equals 100
D G. SILBERSTEIN, FROM RAPHO GUILLUMETTE
the modern city of Athens.
borrowing alternating with periods of cultural
lepta).
lending. During the 2d millennium B. C. the Greeks
Weights and Measures: Metric system.
Flag: White cross extending full length and height
tics Greece is a member of the
absorbed the influences of the older Mesopota-
member of the Council of Eu-
mian and Egyptian civilizations through the
of the flag on a light blue field (adopted June
Minoan society of Crete and produced the
1975 to replace flag with nine white stripes).
ned the North Atlantic Treaty
ATO) in 1952 and the European
Mycenaean civilization that was celebrated in
National Anthem: Ethnikos Hymnos (Hymn of
the Iliad and the Odyssey. After absorbing the
Liberty), written by Dionysios Solomos, set to
unity (EEC), or Common Mar-
Dorian conquerors who descended from the north
music by Nicholas Mantzaros.
ite member in 1962. In its Te-
around 1100 B. C., the Greeks colonized western
immediate neighbors, since
Asia Minor (Ionia), the Black Sea coast, Sicily,
Greece has experienced periods
and points farther west in the Mediterranean. In
its three Communist neighbors
this expanded Greek world, they developed the
European countries. It achieved independence in
ho helped the Communists in
classical civilization that culminated in the
1830, after a decade of revolution, but with
e Greek civil war of 1944-1949,
achievements of 5th century Athens. Under
only about one third its present territory and
en ideological. But there have
Alexander the Great in the 4th century B. C. the
with a majority of Greeks still under Ottoman
anding territorial issues. Greece
Greeks acquired an empire extending to India.
rule. Relatively poor in natural resources, it
ern Epirus, or southern Albania;
Subsequently, the Greeks fell under the west-
has had a stormy history ever since. Until the
ist longing eyes on Greek Mace-
em domination of Rome, but culturally they took
years immediately following World War I, irre-
aria has claimed Thrace as well
their conquerors captive. During this same Ro-
dentism preoccupied the people, limited internal
Nonetheless, since 1948, rela-
man period, they fell under the eastern spiritual
development of the country, and poisoned Greek-
lavia have ranged from proper
dominion of Christianity, but gave it a Greek
Turkish relations.
1 1965 diplomatic relations with
philosophical formulation that has remained im-
Since independence, political disunity and
lly restored. Turkey, a member
portant ever since. To Byzantium, the con-
financial crises have been endemic in Greece,
bloc, is formally allied with
tinuation of the Eastern Roman Empire after the
leading to continuous interference and domina-
nember of NATO. But in the
6th century A. D., they gave their language and
tion by one or more of the world powers. Though
issue of the status of Cyprus
a good part of their cultural heritage. Through
Greece has been a monarchy, except for the
Greco-Turkish hostility, and on
after that almost precipitated
Byzantium, they radiated the Greek Orthodox
period 1925-1935, the first dynasty was deposed
e sizable Greek communities in
form of Christianity, a modified Greek alphabet
in 1862, and in the 20th century three kings,
and the influence of the Greek
(Cyrillic), and other cultural influences to the
including King Constantine in 1967, suffered
1 there, Greece maintains cordial
Slavs (Russians, Bulgarians, and Serbs).
exile at some point in their reigns. Coups d'etat
oth Israel and the Arab states.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Greeks
in response to political crises have not been
nfluences. Geography has always
were conquered from the east by the Ottoman
infrequent.
Turks, but in the process Greeks fleeing west-
uence on the Greeks and is re
Peace and prosperity have seldom been en-
any of the continuities of their
ward brought to the Renaissance West whatever
joyed by modern Greece for long. In the 20th
e mountains that chop up the
classical Greek learning the West had not already
century the country was almost continuously at
ve contributed to localism and
absorbed. The long period of Ottoman domina-
war from 1912 to 1923 and again from 1940 to
or barrier to national unity. The
tion continued the flow of Oriental influences
that had also taken place in Byzantine times.
1949. It fought on the Allied side in World Wars
ommunication by land and the of
'sea have made mariners out
Ottoman rule, the Greeks began to feel the first
However, in the 18th century, while still under
I and II. Between the two wars, Greece was
especially unstable. The struggle between mon-
Greek lands have always ensured
every age. The limited natural
impact of modern Western civilization. It gave
archists and republicans was bitter; the country
them a new of their classical heri-
faced the immense task of assimilating more than
Greeks to richer lands. Finally,
one million Greek refugees from Turkey and
the Greek lands in the eastern Asia
asin, in close proximity to
THE their desire for national in-
Crendence incensified since the 15th century, the
Bulgaria; and population growth outstripped
economic progress. The Greeks suffered severe
made them a bridge between
periods been of history. Modern Greek history has
been in one of their receiving
hardships under Axis occupation during World
War II and barely escaped Communist domina-
orth and south.
and bridges are two. The lateral the
while the attempt of the Greeks to Westernize
tion during the long and bitter civil war of
ich the Romans once built of
remaining true to themselves.
Independent Greece. Greece, as an independent
1944-1949. Only since the 1950's have the
atia, runs from the Albanian $
razzo) on the Adriatic coast
nation-state, is much younger than many other
Greeks enjoyed relative peace and a degree of
prosperity.
362
GREECE: 1. The People
Modern Greece
1. The People
Muslims, who were exempted from the compul-
sory exchange of populations with Turkey in
The names "Hellas" and "Hellenes," by which
1923: the Turkish-speaking descendants of Otto-
the Greeks refer to the country and themselves,
mans who settled there in the 14th century, and
originally designated a small district and tribe
the Pomaks, descendants of pre-Ottoman inhabi-
in Phthiotis. The name "Hellenes" was not ap-
tants who converted to Islam during the Ottoman
plied to the Greek people as a whole until the
period. The latter speak a dialect akin to
post-Homeric period. The word "Greek" is de-
Bulgarian.
rived from the Latin term "Graecus."
Language. Greek is an Indo-European lan-
OUTDOOR CAFÉS along the
What defines a Greek historically is his lan-
guage using a 24-letter alphabet. The use of
waterfront of Mykonos provide
guage and the culture it expresses, not his race.
Greek on the Greek mainland goes back to the
0 cheerful welcome for tourists
early 2d millennium B. C. Modern Greek grew
from the mainland of Greece, as
Racially, the Greek people are a composite of the
well as for foreign visitors.
various peoples who have settled in the region
out of the popular Byzantine language, which in
over the centuries. That was probably true of
turn stemmed from the common language (Koine)
the classical Greeks, who were separated from
used throughout the Greek world at the time of
the original Greek-speaking inhabitants of the
Alexander the Great. Turkish, Slavic, Albanian
region by at least 1,000 years. It is certainly
Italian, and French words enriched the idiom
the case with the Greeks of today. In the 6th
The spoken form of the language (demotic)
and the following centuries A. D., the Slavs set-
has become a rich and forceful literary medium
tled in the Greek lands, as place-names in
Alongside it there exists a purist form Katha
rose until the mid-1970's a:
Greece attest. They were followed in the Middle
revusa (Katharevousa), reconstructed at the be
sharply. The chief recipients
Ages by Latins and Franks, Albanians and Turks.
ginning of the 19th century to accord more
States, Canada, Australia, and
But because of the remarkable ability of Greek
closely with ancient Greek. The latter is the
Urbanization. Concurrently,
culture to assimilate intruders, by the dawn of
official language of state and is used by the
massive internal movement 0
the modern era the overwhelming majority of
government, press. and universities.
countryside to the cities. Th
those living in Greece still spoke Greek and
Religion. The Eastern Orthodox faith is the
of rural emigrants have been A
identified themselves as Greeks.
official religion of Greece, though other faiths
Many other smaller cities ha
Greece today is linguistically one of the
are tolerated. The Orthodox faith is professed
share as well. As a result, in 19
most homogeneous nations of the world. Virtually
by 97% of the population. Orthodoxy has tradi-
including the port of Piraeus,
the entire population speaks Greek. There are,
tionally commanded the loyalty of Greeks for
the country's total population,
however, various bilingual groups which together
spiritual reasons but also as a badge of national-
only 6% in 1920. Approximate
make up almost 3% of the population. These in-
ity. Under Ottoman rule the Orthodox Church,
population is now classified a
clude Albanian-speaking people in Epirus and
headed by the patriarch of Constantinople, exer-
with slightly less than one thi
Attica, a few Bulgarian-speaking Slavs on the
cised civil as well as spiritual powers. When the
netic building boom has taken
Macedonian border, and some nomads speaking a
Greeks achieved independence in 1830, the
new urban residents. Gliste
dialect of Rumanian called Vlach. These groups
church in Greece withdrew from the control of
spartment buildings have
are all Orthodox Christian in faith. In Greek
the patriarch and became self-governing, or
of Athens and Salonika.
Thrace there are two distinct ethnic groups of
autocephalous. Ever since, it has been adminis.
Both population movemen
tered by a holy synod of bishops, subject to the
control of the state, but it has maintained doc-
tribution of the rural populs
infertile hills and the fertile
HYDRA, an island in the Aegean Sea, has a sheltered
trinal unity with all other Orthodox churches
war, hill villages had been
harbor that was once the center of a flourishing trade.
The chief primate of Greece is the archbishop of
therefore contained the me
GEORGE HOLTON, FROM PHOTO RESEARCHERS
Athens. There is a married clergy, though only
celibate priests may hold ranking positions within
legment of Greek society. M
nodus to the cities or to for
the hierarchy.
Among the religious minorities are the already
Rice from the hill villages W
mentioned Muslims of Greek Thrace, constitute
the marginal. The population of
ing about 1.3% of the population. There are
also small communities of Roman Catholics,
Bained fairly stable.
land was amenable to
mostly remnants of Venetian times; Protestants
shahitants, the city has als pc
Besides drawing off a
products of 19th century missionary activity
Armenian Monophysites; and Jews.
Population. The population of Greece, includ the
papers, is and a road that
the countryside tl
ing the Greek islands, totaled 9,740,151 in
& STATE Most vi
and
1981 census. Since independence in 1830, it his
by
multiplied more than 12 times, whereas the area THE
than for
of land has increased less than three times.
the city me to
population density in 1981 was 191 persons tool
square mile (74 persons per sq km) of the
preferring
to their
area, including the islands.
Greece suffered acutely from overpopulative the
in the years following World War I. More
S villagers city hav f
Sincendent on the a1
clothes
one million refugees from
restrictions cut off the the to
N
,
Set poverty as an act of G
scorpt immediate surrounding:
or abroad, their mental
had to be absorbed. Also,
taking place since the beginning of the
been more of life. Howev
Since World War II, Greece has
absorbir
the population explosion that has
dwellers
many developing nations. But its
population growth was attributable in large emigra.
past. retained at least so
the village
to renewed emigration. The number of
exempted from
and
14th century,
dants of pre-Ottoman inhabie atsi
to Islam during the
speak a dialect Ottomas by
is an Indo-European
OUTDOOR CAFÉS along the
etter alphabet. The use lan-
waterfront of Mykonos provide
mainland goes back to the of
cheerful welcome for tourists
n B. C. Modern Greek grew
tem the mainland of Greece, as
Byzantine language, which
well as for foreign visitors.
the common language (Koine) in
Greek
t. Turkish, Slavic,Albanianian
words
1 of the language (demotic)
PETER
THROCKMORTON,
FROM
PALMER
and forceful literary medium
exists a purist form Katha-
sa), reconstructed at the be-
rose until the mid-1970's and then declined
Social Structure. Social mobility has been a
h century to accord more
sharply. The chief recipients were the United
marked feature of modern Greek society. There
t Greek. The latter is the
States, Canada, Australia, and West Germany.
is no hereditary aristocracy. Wealth, education,
Urbanization. Concurrently, there has been a
and personal achievement have been the chief
state and is used by the
and universities.
massive internal movement of people from the
determinants of social class. In the rural areas
countryside to the cities. The chief recipients
there are no fully formed social classes. The
istern Orthodox faith is the
of rural emigrants have been Athens and Salonika.
Greece, though other faiths
major social division is that between landowning
Many other smaller cities have absorbed their
Orthodox faith is professed
and landless peasants. But most villagers own
share as well. As a result, in 1981, greater Athens,
lation. Orthodoxy has tradi-
at least some land, and disparities of wealth and
including the port of Piraeus, contained 31% of
I the loyalty of Greeks for
education are much less pronounced than in the
the country's total population, as compared with
cities.
also as a badge of national-
only 6% in 1920. Approximately half of the Greek
In urban Greece, social classes are distinguish-
rule the Orthodox Church,
population is now classified as urban, compared
arch of Constantinople, exer-
able. The upper class consists of shipowners,
with slightly less than one third in 1928. A fre-
spiritual powers. When the
bankers, industrialists, and large-scale merchants.
netic building boom has taken place to house the
adependence in 1830, the
It also includes men of influence who may not
new urban residents. Glistening, ultramodern
ithdrew from the control of
be wealthy, such as leading politicians, senior
apartment buildings have transformed parts
became self-governing, or
military officers, and leaders in the professions
of Athens and Salonika.
since, it has been adminis-
and the arts, as well as self-made men who may
Both population movements affected the dis-
xl of bishops, subject to the
not be educated. The middle class, a majority
tribution of the rural population between the
but it has maintained doc-
of the urban population, has two distinct parts.
Infertile hills and the fertile plains. Before the
Il other Orthodox churches.
The upper part includes professional people,
war, hill villages had been overpopulated and
businessmen, officials, and senior executives. The
Greece is the archbishop of
therefore contained the most poverty-striken
married clergy, though only
lower middle class is made up of clerks. junior
segment of Greek society. Most of the postwar
hold ranking positions within
civil servants, small merchants and shopkeepers,
exodus to the cities or to foreign countries took
craftsmen, and skilled workers. Finally, there
place from the hill villages where the land was
ous minorities are the already
is the lower class of unskilled, factory workers,
marginal. The population of the plains, where
drivers, and domestic servants.
of Greek Thrace, constitut-
the land was amenable to mechanization, re-
the population. There are
Each social class has its own life-style. At
mained fairly stable.
ities of Roman Catholics,
least the educated and second-generation mem-
Besides drawing off a portion of the rural
Venetian times; Protestants,
inhabitants, the city has also extended its in-
bers of the upper class generally speak English
century missionary activity:
fluence into the countryside through radio, news-
or French fluently. They possess a cosmopolitan
tes: and Jews.
culture and indulge in conspicuous consumption.
population of Greece, includ-
all the villages. The decline of rural isolation
papers, and a road system that reaches practically
The middle classes tend to be thrifty and ac-
ds, totaled 9,740,151 in the
and self-sufficiency, which began before the war,
count for the remarkable growth of bank savings
independence in 1830, it has
has been intensified. Most villages now produce
in Greece since World War II. The lower class,
n 12 times, whereas the area
for profit rather than for mere subsistence, and
of limited education and often of recent rural
d less than three times. The
therefore rely on the city to absorb their sur-
origin, tends to be much closer to the rural areas
n 1981 was 191 persons per
pluses. Villagers, preferring standardized
in their style of life.
sons per sq km) of the total
chine-made goods to their often aesthetically ma-
Social Values and Way of Life. The family plays
slands.
superior homemade clothes and household items,
a crucial role in Greek society. A closely knit
acutely from overpopulation
ig World War I. More than
are dependent on the city for many essentials.
unit, extending beyond a married couple and
Since most villagers have relatives in the
their children to include relatives as well, it
from Turkey and Bulganis
their cities or abroad, their mental horizon transcends
commands a loyalty that overrides duty to other
Also, foreign immigration
immediate surroundings. They no longer
groups. Only the nation, and that only in time
1e emigration that had been
le beginning of the century
have expect more of life. However, since the cities
accept poverty as an act of God and accordingly
of crisis, can elicit equal devotion. Confidence
and trust, self-sacrifice, and even friendship are
II, Greece has been spared
2nd because urstantly absorbing rural immigrants
usually restricted to the circle of one's family.
sion that has characterized
Among Greeks who are not kinsmen, social obli-
itions. But its low annual
close dwellers generally maintain
city ties with the village of their origin, the
gations tend to be negative and marked by dis-
as attributable in large part
the past. has retained at least some continuity with
trust. Cultivation of land or the running of a
n. The number of emigrants
business tends to be a family enterprise because
it allows men to pool their resources while sparing
363
THE ISLAND OF CORFU
LOCAL
CRAFTS
shoppers to an outdock affred
off the northwestern coast
of Greece is one of the
market in Sparta, which
country's most beautiful
lies just south of the scardy
alonds. Its fertile soil
ruins of the ancient
produces olives and fruits.
HENRI CARTIER-BRESSON, FROM MAGNUM
them the necessity of working for nonkinsmen or
squares, parks, and boulevards for a walk,
part in the country's economy.
investing in larger enterprises beyond family con-
freshment, window-shopping, or just to see what
try, and urban population are C
trol.
is going on.
the mainland at Athens and Sa
The family is not just concerned with the up-
European-style clothing has universally
to
in maritime plains, whereas Gre
bringing of the children. Its ultimate concern
placed the traditional Greek garb, except for
manned chiefly by islanders. The
is their marriage and honorable establishment.
ceremonial and tourist purposes. Traditional
vide timber, fodder, and pasture
Daughters generally receive dowries. Sons re-
dances, with several persons linked in a chals
sheep; the plains are rich in 0
ceive equal portions of what remains either
or with two dancing opposite each other, still
and rice; and the hill country
during the lifetime of the father or through in-
prevail in the countryside and some have been
wine, figs, vegetables, maize,
heritance. Family solidarity is a protective
revived in the dine-and-dance places (taverna)
peaches, nuts, pasture, and char
device against threats from the state or rival
of the cities. Some characteristically Greek
breed fish, especially the tunny, in
groups. However, it inhibits cooperative ven-
items of diet are egg-lemon soup (avgolemono)
The Mainland. The mainland C(
tures between unrelated families, such as com-
stuffed vine leaves, various sorts of lamb disber
fm Greece, central Greece, and th
munity action, labor unions, or farm cooperatives,
a soft white cheese (feta), honeyed pastry.
Thrace, Macedonia, and Epiru
and makes it difficult for the state to mobilize
various types, a white resinated wine (retsins):
northern Greece, are relatively riel
the population as a whole for the pursuit of
an anise-flavored liqueur (ouzo), and demitace
shiffs and large in population
national goals.
coffee with a thick bottom of sediment.
Macedonia have large plains and (
Concern for honor and desire for social repu-
Standard of Living. Following World War IL
gow excellent cereals, cotton, an
tation are deeply engrained attitudes among the
there was a general rise in the standard d
maintain cattle, while their mounta
Greeks, as they were in Homeric times. In the
living. Real per capita income rose from $160
at high levels with pine, fir, beech
past, desire for social approval elicited the de-
in 1955 to more than $500 in 1966. To be sure;
and at lower levels with mixed de
gree of conformity that permitted the Greeks
inequalities among regions as well as groups
Apples, pears, and peaches are in
to retain their heritage under adverse conditions.
continue. Income levels in greater Athens 10
duced for export. Epirus, on the
In more recent times, however, it has been in-
far greater than those in the provinces.
the Pindus range, has fewer plains
strumental in making Greeks adaptable to rapid
no important segment of Greek society has
bed
social change, once those with prestige have
ducts, and, at Arta, olives, citrus
thre It produces cattle, sheep, m
excluded from this general improvement.
shown the way. The Greeks as a whole have
The rising standard of living is perhaps bel
in Sheep graze in the mountains in t. 1
always been quick-witted and curious, freedom
reflected in dietary and health conditions, which
the lowlands in the winter.
loving, and egalitarian in spirit. They admire
before World War II were among the lowel
personal achievement, disdain manual labor, and
in Europe. However, the composition of,
Ty
Mb three large plains, while the
region 4 Cereals are grown and sto
In central Greece, Thessaly
have a keen taste for intellectualism, discussion,
average Greek diet, though now more varied
and politics.
nutritional, still leaves much to be desired.
provide produce timber, fruit, nuts, a
In spite of Westernization, the rhythm of
average life expectancy is about 69 years,
and I
daily life in Greece still bears distinctive features.
the country is free from endemic diseases.
JOHN A. PETROPULOS, Amherst Cone
Volos on the
Due to underemployment, the Greek farmer
To the chief port.
enjoys a great deal of leisure time, especially
during certain seasons of the year. He spends
2. The Land and Natural Resources
it Attica, with
the south the plains of Pho
most of it among exclusively male company in
Within Greece there are wide variations
climate, is
the village coffee house (cafeneion), talking,
climate. The northern areas have the hard
the its cereal-pr St
playing backgammon, or just observing. Though
rural women have less time for leisure, they do
rope; the peninsula and the islantinental
and torrid summer of southern
small Mediterranean coast
its indented is
spend some of it in public, apart from the men,
short mild winter and long
met area, linki pine
at the village fountain or in the village church-
Mediterranean area. Also, the
far the lar
yard.
much wetter than the eastern areas; district
is much greener than Chios. Within each
engital, The
In the cities, too, Greeks spend most of their
at the focal politic poir
leisure time out-of-doors and in public. The
the mountains and the sea provide minor and
overland traffic bet
workday starts early in the morning and extends
tions of climate, so that occupations
into the early evening, but it is interrupted
stuffs are varied.
the
western of central C
Peloponnesus.
by a long siesta in the early afternoon, when
offices and stores close. In the evening, after
Greece is divisible into the mainland &
Vida of
the islands, and into highlands,
is of limesto: /
work, Greeks come out in full force to the public
and plains, each of which plays a
relatively thin, except in
364
PETER THROCKMORTON, FROM NANCY PALMER
Det of Greece's many small fishing fleets, which for centuries have plied the surrounding seas for their catch.
Though holdings are too small and fragmented
The cattle population is relatively small, fodder is
be farmed efficiently, the government has
scarce, and natural pastures have contracted as
stained from forced collectivization, and there
cultivation has expanded.
been little response to its legislation for
International Trade. Between the late 1930's
clantary land consolidation.
and the mid-1970's, Greek foreign trade increased
Agricultural productivity has increased mark-
by nearly 340%. Imports rose by more than 400%
since World War II, though the annual
and exports by more than 240%. Thus an increas-
south rate has been somewhat sporadic and
ingly adverse balance of trade became a regular
secr than that of industry. A good deal of this
feature of the Greek economy for many years.
th resulted from the extension of cultivated
The excessive rise in imports was partly a con-
Much also came from improvements in
sequence of modernization, which necessitated
yield of already cultivated land, through irri-
the purchase abroad of tractors, industrial ma-
erion, better seed, and fertilizer. However, by
chinery, and transportation equipment, and partly
late 1970's, agriculture contributed only a
because of increased purchases of consumer goods.
tale over one third of the country's exports.
In 1970, industrial products accounted for
Wheat, olives, and vines, the basis of tradi-
more than half of Greek exports. Within about
ked Greek agriculture, still play an important
five years, exports were divided roughly into two
in meeting the nutritional needs of the
thirds industrial and one third agricultural prod-
sex people. In 1957, Greek farmers succeeded,
ucts. Greece's continuing problem was that some
the first time, in growing enough wheat to
of its exports were largely in the luxury or semi-
st the nation's need for bread. Olive trees,
luxury category, the demand for which drops in
which Greece is the third- or fourth-largest
times of recession, while a sizable portion of
satisfy the nation's demand for oils. Vines
resvide the domestic market with wine. Since
imports consisted of essentials.
About half of Greece's trade is with the EEC
World War II rice has become an important crop.
ricultural commodities for export are tobacco
countries, of which West Germany commands the
greatest share. The United States and Britain
most important), currants and other raisins,
also remain important trading partners. Although
more but the first two have assumed their impor-
U table grapes, and other fruits, and cotton.
the Communist countries play a far smaller role
since World War II.
in the country's foreign trade, Greece has a
The government has attempted to diversify
higher export dependence on them than do other
members of the EEC.
crop pattern through a decrease in wheat
Transportation and Communications. The main
THE cotton, sugar,
and an increase in the
highways and railroads of Greece follow natural
historic routes. The railways system, rebuilt after
foreign demand
World War II to its prewar extent, has given way
and cotton. These products
to roads as the chief means of transportation.
bring more intensive labor for their production
Great advances have been made in roadbuilding.
Froduction of monetary rewards than does
The main highways were widened and improved.
employment and bring farmers greater
wheat. Thus they reduce rural
Even more important, the construction of second-
the The dairy farming,
ary roads has ended the centuries-old isolation
of many villages.
THE which
a to provide
Maritime transportation and shipping have
always been important in Greece. Among the
sugar that now have
many ports of Greece, Piraeus (the port of
to meet the nation's demand for
varied diet. As yet, the principles of
Athens), Salonika, and Patras are the most im-
animal husbandry are little practiced.
portant. Piraeus is one of the chief ports of the
Mediterranean and handles 60% of all Greek
369
5. Sites of Tourist Interest
The following sites are of
Athens. Structures on the Acro]
Propylaea, the temple of A
Erechtheum, and the Par
other classical remains in t
Agora, the reconstructed sto:
Roman Odeum of Atticus an
Dionysus, and the temple of
Bassae. The Doric temple of Ap
one of the best-preserved G
THE NUCLEAR REACTO
was built by Ictinus.
at Democritos, the nuclear
Cape Sounion. On this cape at t
research center outside
the Attic peninsula stand rem
Athens, is illustrative
temple dedicated to Poseidon
the advances being may d
Corinth. The acropolis (Acrocori
in all phases of Greek
is 1,857 feet (566 meters) hi
the Acrocorinth include a ten
theater, stoas, an odeum he
the spring of Pirene, and par
Lechaeum.
MARGOT S. GRANITSAS, FROM PHOTO RESEARCHERS
Delphi. Impressive ruins include
Apollo, the theater and stadi
shipping. Salonika is the outlet for other Balkan
War II, the number of schools and teachers,
round building, the reconstru
countries as well as for Greece's northern prov-
well as the proportion of the young people
Athens, and treasuries of sev
inces. Ferries connect Patras with the western
school, has increased. One indicator of this is the
states. Mt. Parnassus looms 8
mainland and with Brindisi, Italy. The Greek
rise in literacy from 39% of the population aged
meters) over Delphi; it and 1
merchant fleet ranks fifth in the world in ton-
10 years or older in 1907 to 88% in 1972.
Helicon were the home of tl
nage (more than 25 million tons in 1976). Greek-
Elementary education covers six years
Eleusis. Located 12 miles (29 km)
owned vessels flying foreign flags totaled over
study between the ages of 6 and 12. Secondary
Eleusis was one of the most sa
23 million tons in that year. Receipts from
school education has been divided, since 1964
of Greece. It contains the ruin
shipping constitute one of the major sources of
into two successive 3-year cycles, the gymnasive
of initiation into the cult of D
invisible earnings.
and the lyceum. Higher education is provided
Great Propylaea, built about
Olympic Airways, a private company pri-
by five universities in Athens, Salonika, Patra
Epidaurus. The ruins of this con
marily owned by Greeks, has maintained a mo-
Jannina, and Komotini, and by more than a dozes
to Asclepius include the Temp
nopoly on Greek air transport since 1952. From
other schools with university status, each spe-
a tholos, baths, and a gymnas
Athens airport, it maintains regular air services
cializing in a separate field. Besides these three
theater (4th century B. c.) is
with all parts of Greece and the rest of the world.
basic cycles, there is also preschool and voca
Greece has nationwide telephone and telegraph
tional education. Nine years of education became
systems, both of them government controlled. By
compulsory by 1980 under the constitution adopt
the constitution of 1975, radio and television
ed in 1975.
broadcasting also were placed under government
The role of private education in the tab
control.
educational system varies according to the level
Tourism. Because of its antiquities, mild
of education. At the primary level, private
climate, and scenic beauty, Greece has long been
schools are few except in Athens. At the second
a land of tourism. But only after World War II
ary level, they are important throughout
to
was there a concerted attempt to have tourism
country. Higher educational institutions
15
play a vital part in the economy. This effort
mostly state financed.
included the building of roads, the construction
The percentage of the student populative
of modern hotels, the organization of coach tours,
completing secondary school in Greece great
SELECTED ANCIENT
cruises, and drama and music festivals, and the
exceeds that of several Western European com
SITES ON MAINLAND
establishment of information offices abroad. By
tries, while the proportion of university gradusts
GREECE
the late 1970's, over 4 million tourists vis-
runs equal to or slightly greater than theirs. Hot
ited Greece annually. Tourism has become one of
ever, the quality of education in Greece does
the major sources of invisible earnings.
equal the numbers educated. There are too
4. Education
teachers and schools for the number of student
Teaching methods are outmoded and textba
map shows some of the
Greeks have long treasured education as a
deficient. In terms of educational needs, too
5 many reminders of a culture
channel of social mobility, as a means of recov-
Waitern, civilizations evolved.
which Roman, and later
a portion of the national budget is spent on
ering their glorious past, and as a way to achieve
cation. The curriculum is overwhelmingly
national progress. The modern revival of educa-
sical" and deficient in technical subjects.
tion started in the 18th century under Ottoman
result, there is an excess of lawyers and
rule and played a vital role in stimulating the
servants, while engineers, economists, technic
desire for national independence. After inde-
pendence the state adopted the principle of free,
study in foreign the
and business managers are in
the thousands of
compulsory, public education. But because of
limited resources, implementation of this principle
concentrate in scientific and technical
came very slowly. Only in 1929 was education
In spite of its shortcomings, the education
made compulsory at the primary level, and the
system is contributing to social mobility. of
length of compulsory education has never been
instance, as far back as 1961, nearly half
permanently extended since then. Only in 1964
was education made free at all levels. Since
students at Athens and Salonika universities
from families of farmers and
World War I, but at a greater pace since World
JOHN A. PETROPULOS°, Amherst
370
374
GREECE: 6. History and Government Since 330 A.D.
burg empire, usually in cooperation, had inflicted
numerous defeats on the Ottoman Empire. The
interest of Russia in the fate of the Orthodox
ity, the Greek forces soon lost their early
As a result of this internal political instabe-
separated establi:
Christians under Ottoman rule, evident at this
vantage. In 1825 the Ottoman government, ad-
able to control the revolt with its own und
frontiers. the bound
time, was to be particularly significant for Greek
events. Henceforth Russia was the nation to
assistance. Crete and the Peloponnesus
called on the pasha of Egypt, Mehmet Ali, army for
Volos (Pa)
which the Orthodox Christians looked for assist-
promised him as a reward for The were
included (Ambracia il
ance. In 1770, Catherine the Great sent token
on the Peloponnesus. The
tian forces quickly The Creek revolution now
have a poI
forces to the Peloponnesus to encourage a revolt.
is many (
National Consciousness. At the end of the 18th
appeared doomed.
Indepen!
century Greek national consciousness went
through a period of reawakening. Members of
Foreign Intervention. By 1826 it was clear that
placed unc
the numerous and prosperous merchant class,
the Greeks could not succeed without foreign
and Russia
assistance. After the revolt had broken out
who were in close contact with the West, became
1821 the possibility of outside aid had appeared in
established in the inter
deeply influenced by the ideas of liberty and
slight. The Greeks had first turned to Russia
but they a
nationalism connected with the ideology of the
but Alexander I, because of his personal political
the form 0
French Revolution. Poets, scholars, writers, and
convictions, refused to support a rebellion against
offered to
revolutionary leaders, of whom Rhigas Pheraios
a legitimate ruler. In the next years the Greeks
declined it.
and Adamantios Korais were the most notable, ex-
turned to the Western nations, particularly Brit
King Louis
pressed these ideas and applied them to the situ-
ain. Here they were greatly aided by the move
of his 17-yt
ation of the Greeks under Ottoman control. They
ment of Philhellenism. Once it became apparent
King Otto I
recalled to the Greek people their glorious past,
that the Greek revolt would not be immediately
ditions in (
in particular the great age of ancient Greece,
suppressed, the struggle attracted widespread
should rule
and contrasted their position at that time with
sympathy and concern throughout Europe. Eu
Creek milit.
conditions under Ottoman rule.
ropean intellectuals identified the modern Greek
their place,
Armed Revolt. As a consequence of almost
with the ancient Greeks of their own classical
German, so
constant warfare and the continuing disintegra-
studies and pressed their governments to aid the
army of the
tion of the central government, conditions in
insurgents. The death of the poet Byron in 1824
be was accc
mainland Greece deteriorated further. In order
at Missolonghi and the involvement of other
varians-Cou
to crush the rebellion of 1770 the Ottoman Em-
Europeans in the war further aroused European
Heidegger,
pire dispatched Albanian troops to the Pelopon-
public opinion.
nome Phana
nesus; they ravaged the area for nine years. In
The Egyptian intervention and the sympathy
and Alexand
addition, certain provincial governors, of whom
of their citizens finally forced the European gov.
administratic
Ali Pasha of Janina was the most significant in
ernments to act. In 1826, Russia and Britaln
emment was
Greek affairs, were able to defy the authority of
signed the Protocol of St. Petersburg; and la
The rege
the central government. The inability of the
1827, France joined those two states in the
Helds, procee
Ottoman administration to keep order in its lands,
Treaty of London. The aim of these agreements
ministration,
together with the rise of Greek national feeling,
was to mediate the conflict and to secure the
that they th
prepared the stage for revolution. Much of the
establishment of an autonomous Greece. In Octo
law historian
population of the mainland was armed and orga-
ber 1827 a joint French, British, and Russies
legal code.
nized into either legal or illegal bands. Once
squadron on patrol in the Mediterranean de
instituted; in
the revolt began, the commercial fleets of the
stroyed a Turkish-Egyptian fleet at the Battle
founded. Th
Greek merchants and the islanders formed the
of Navarino. In subsequent months, as a result
the patriarch
basis of a navy.
of this event and of other disagreements, rela
regarded as
tions between Russia and the Ottoman Empire
The city of I
The Greek revolution was precipitated by the
worsened; war broke out in April 1828. After
remodeled to
actions of a secret society, the Philikè Hetairía
difficult campaign the Russian Army succeeded
Despite th
(Society of Friends), which was founded in
Odessa in 1814. The revolt broke out first in the
in coming within striking distance of Consta
sincere efforts
Danubian principalities, where Greek influence
tinople. At Adrianople in September 1829, Rus
government f:
sia negotiated a treaty with the Ottoman Empla
ans were dis
was strong. In March 1821, Prince Alexandros
Ypsilanti, an aide-de-camp to the Russian czar
that provided for an autonomous, tributary Grees
their measure
too costly foi
Alexander I, crossed the Pruth (Prut) River into
state.
During the Russo-Turkish War the Britis
1830's. I
Moldavia. His Greek forces were soon defeated
by Ottoman troops and by a Rumanian counter-
and French governments had secured an agree
ielves. More
ment with Mehmet Ali calling for the remoid
respectively san-now Failures name The
th
movement. At the same time, however, on
March 25, a parallel uprising occurred in the
of Egyptian forces from the Peloponnesus.
whose
em
Peloponnesus. This revolt was to inaugurate a
1827 a Greek government had been formed, forma her
decade of revolution and civil war in Greece.
ing at its head
At first the rebels were successful. They
foreign minister
Date ]
gained control of the Peloponnesus and some
ministration and to establish the
attempted to organize a strong, centralized.net
t]
land north of the Gulf of Corinth. That was to
be the limit of their field of activity; thereafter
ern state. His autocratic temperament and
the Peloponnesus remained the center of the
natural jealousies that his position and
revolution. Greek ships were also able to free
aroused caused deep divisions in the Greek
tating financia
some of the islands. Unfortunately, throughout
cal world. His assassination in 1831 threw
the revolution the Greek leadership was torn by
country into turmoil, but by that time the of
lution. In January 1822 a National Assembly
viding Greece with its first independent
inded galature Bavarian for
in
Twong the par
the
constant strife, and civil war was added to revo-
powers had already undertaken the task
to
pervided t
The
held at Epidaurus drew up a constitution and
ment.
elected the Phanariot Alexandros Mavrocordatos
and
with
as first president. This government, however, was
OTTO: 1833-1863
not able to function effectively or to unite the
In the Treaty of London of 1827 forms the
competing factions. Subsequent regimes were
signatory powers had agreed upon the
of an autonomous Greece; in 1830 they
monar
similarly unable to provide a united leadership.
380
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
7. Modern Culture
of ancient times. During the immediate
revolutionary period,
Among the many factors that have shaped the
songs reached its
Besides Ka
cultural life of modern Greece, two of the most
klephtika, or songs outlaws in the
Jonian Islands
important are the history of the country and its
tains who lived a life like Robin Hood's mount
about 1880)
geographical location.
defied Turkish rule. Epic and symbolic.
the more
From the historical point of view, modern
and moving, these songs told of the hard lyrical
Greek culture is both old and new. It is old not
(1794-1875);
the Klephts and of their
only because it developed in an environment of
They were both a
ancient marbles, Byzantine churches, and count-
tyranny and a hymn
and
less monuments, but also because, in the people's
lonian School. Two poets who stood far above
Julius characterized
songs, in folk art, and in popular customs, ele-
ments still exist that go back to Homer's day.
Past eras, indigenous developments, and the in-
with the revolution of 1821 were Andreas Kalvon
their contemporaries in the new period that began
feeling; and (
known especia
fluence of the peoples who conquered or came in
(1796-1869) and Dionysios Solomos (1798,
Solomos' I
1857). Kalvos was educated in Italy, where
literature. Aft
contact with Greece have been integrated in the
cultural patterns of the present-day Greeks. At
met his compatriot from the island of Zante
group of nev
(Zakynthos), Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827), who
this school, }
the same time, modern Greek culture is young
spired him with a love of the classics and taught
between the
because Greece became independent only in 1829,
him the technique of poetry. In 1824, Kalvon
Islands and th
after almost four centuries of Turkish rule. Born
published his Lyra, 10 odes in Greek, which were
Early Athen
when romanticism was at its peak in Europe,
followed by 10 more in 1826. The greatness
19th century,
Greece accepted it, as well as the reactions
his poetry lies in his genuine lyricism and in
Greek quarter
against it, and all the currents that followed. It
powerful expression of the lofty ideals of virtue
Lavor to literar
is notable, however, that modern Greeks have in-
and freedom. His work shows the influence
emigrated to
herited from their forefathers a tendency to be
neoclassicism in its solemn and balanced
superior educa
selective in their cultural borrowings. They adopt
pression, but its tone reveals a slight tendency
abled them to
only those foreign patterns that are suitable, and
toward romanticism. Its language is a mixture
the capital. ]
then assimilate and develop them until they bear
archaic and modern expressions, accentuating the
romanticists a
a genuine and unmistakable Greek stamp.
neoclassical character of the odes. Kalvos
attached to th
Geography has played as important a role as
fluenced modern poetry, particularly that written
vernacular Gre
history in the cultural life of the nation. From
after 1900.
from that of th
very ancient times, Greece, located at the junc-
Dionysios Solomos also was born on Zante
distinguished
tion of East and West, developed two cultural
He studied law at the University of Pavia
Soutsos (1803
characteristics. One is the Apollonian: clear, full
Italy, but he soon abandoned it for literature.
with liberal to
of light, well defined, rational. The other is the
The conflict between romanticism and classicism,
rhyming verse
Dionysian: dim, passionate, instinctive, mystical.
the doctrines of the philosophes, and the ideals
(1806-1868),
Both elements have existed side by side, at times
of the French Revolution aroused his interest
were modeled
clashing with each other and causing serious
Like Kalvos, he wrote his first poems in Italian,
ticists; and Al
cultural problems.
In 1818, Solomos returned to Zante, and his first
dros Rizos Rh
poems in Greek were on Greek subjects and file
voluminous bo
LITERATURE
flected a deep romantic feeling. The revolution
Old School (
The revolution of 1821 opened a new era in
of 1821 provided him with fresh poetic inspira
now open,
Greek literature. The same problems and currents
tion. In 1823 he composed his Hymn to Liberty,
the old schoo
then prevalent in most European countries found
which was set to music in 1828 and in 1864
1890 develope
expression in the poetry and prose of the infant
came the national anthem of Greece. In 1828
nation. The new literary production, however,
Solomos left Zante for the neighboring island
owed much to the indigenous literary and cultural
Corfu, where, after a lonely life of study
achievements of the 17th and 18th centuries.
writing, he died in 1857. His brilliant imagina
These included a greater quantity and higher
tion, sincere emotion, masterly technique,
quality of literary production; the development of
pure lyricism, combined with an ardent liberalism
individualism in writing; a more widespread use
and love of freedom, made him the greatest d
of the vernacular as a literary medium; the
the poets of modern Greece. His poetry, come
development of a body of literary criticism that
sisting at first of simple and emotional lyrica.
reevaluated existing aesthetic principles; and the
became, after his contact with German romantie
growth of a wider audience for literature. The
philosophy, lofty and idealistic. Freedom, love
17th and 18th centuries also saw the influence on
death, and life took on
literature of the ideals of humanism and of the
and Solomos, without
Enlightenment, and the replacement of Italy by
poet, endeavored to get at the with
France as the chief foreign literary influence.
of his subjects. He was always concerned
Crete, Cyprus, Rhodes, and the Ionian Islands
the conflict between romanticism and classicism
were the principal centers of literary activity
and finally managed to achieve in his poetry
during this period.
admirable balance of sentiment and thought.
During the prerevolutionary period, there was
In prose, Solomos left few works. His written
continued development of a folk poetry whose
main contributions are his Dialogue,
ROMAN O
origins dated back to the Homeric period. This
sometime between 1823 and 1825, and
The
slope of the
poetry had come down through the ages, contin-
Woman of Zante (1826). The Dialogue, the Liters
Athens, provid
ually being enriched with new experiences, and
the for modern
serious piece of criticism
classical
reached the 19th century with all its freshness
Gre
ature, is an eloquent and
and genuineness unspoiled. It was a masterly ex-
vernacular, written in the form
pression of the Greek soul and an inexhaustible
The Woman of Zante, a
source of inspiration for each succeeding genera-
tion. Set to music, it sang of every phase of the
people's life: work, love, war, and death. It sang
of the ugliness the writer found in contemporass
a masterly vernacular, is a
society and a diatribe against those
also of the beauties of nature and of the events
sympathize with the struggle for freedom.
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
381
eriod, one
es. During specific mmediate
the school of the
Shallow and highly colored, with little technical
its outlavelopment
in its first period (until
or aesthetic value, the poetry of this period,
ongs
1880) literary figures. Some
written mostly in the pure language, provided an
d a Robin Hood's TRANSIT
important were Antonios Matesses
outlet for buoyant patriotism, melodramatic love,
rule. Epic and symbolic
the more 1875), known especially for his Vassilikos
and everyday politics. Some of the most dis-
lese songs told of the hard life
remarkable play written in the
tinguished poets of this school were Demetrios
d of their
hymn
the a fine
Paparregopoulos (1843-1873); Spyridon Vasili-
th a
by Solomos;
ades (1845-1874); Georgios Paraschos (1822-
whose poetry is
1886); and his brother, Achilles Paraschos (1838-
1. Two poets who stood far
by a deep religious and mystical
1895), who was widely read, exercised a great
raries in the new period that about
and Georgios Kalosgouros (1849-1902),
influence, and is considered the best representa-
tion of 1821 were Andreas
ting; especially for his translations into Greek
tive of this period.
and Dionysios Solomos (179% Kalim
Salomos' Italian poems and of other Italian
Meanwhile, a reaction against the excesses of
was educated in Italy, where
After the middle of the 19th century,
sterature.of new authors continued the tradition of
the romanticists developed into a general demand
Igo Foscolo (1778-1827), who Zaute
atriot from the island of
for higher quality and new forms in literature.
A
Goup school, but by then stronger ties existed
This reaction was stimulated by contact with
1 a love of the classics and taugle
Stween as the literary production of the Ionian
literary men from the Ionian Islands, like
ique of poetry. In 1824, Kahen
Hands and that of the mainland.
Georgios Tertsetes (1800-1874), a sensitive poet
yra, 10 odes in Greek, which
Early Athenian Writers. In Athens, in the early
with a strict devotion to the tradition of the
I more in 1826. The greatness were 4.
19th century, a group from Phanar, the famous
Ionian school; Brailas Armenes (1812-1884),
ssion of the lofty ideals of virtue bis
in his genuine lyricism and in
Greek quarter of Constantinople, gave a different
aesthetician and philosopher; Georgios Zalokostas
Envor to literary expression. When the Phanariots
(1805-1858), a lyricist; Aristoteles Valaoritis
His work shows the influence 18
migrated to the newly liberated Athens, their
(1824-1879), a dynamic, eloquent poet who fol-
n its solemn and balanced
superior education and broader background en-
lowed his Ionian compatriots in the use of the
ts tone reveals a slight tendency a
abled them to dominate the intellectual life of
vernacular and the folk songs as prototypes, but
cism. Its language is a mixture X
Be capital. Deeply influenced by the French
the Athenian school in his technique and ro-
dern expressions, accentuating the
conanticists and the glories of antiquity and
mantic style; and Andreas Laskaratos (1811-
aracter of the odes. Kalvos in
sttached to the "pure" language as opposed to
1901), a liberal writer noted for his criticisms of
n poetry, particularly that written
sernacular Greek, they created a different climate
contemporary social conditions.
from that of the Ionian Islands. Among the most
The prose of the second half of the 19th cen-
iolomos also was born on Zantz
entinguished of these writers were Alexandros
tury is on a lower level than the poetry. Some
W at the University of Pavia to
Soutsos (1803-1863), best known as a satirist
notable exceptions are the few prose writings of
soon abandoned it for literature
with liberal tendencies and a great facility in
Solomos and the memoirs and autobiographies of
tween romanticism and classicles
dyming verse; his brother, Panayiotes Soutsos
some of the leaders of the revolution. The most
f the philosophes, and the ideals
(1806-1868), whose patriotic and love poems
important of the latter is the Memoirs of the
Revolution aroused his intered
were modeled after those of the French roman-
revolutionary hero John Makriyiannes (1797-
e wrote his first poems in Italian
ridsts; and Alexandre Rizos Rangabé (Alexan-
1864). His narrative is vivid and possesses the
IOS returned to Zante, and his first
dros Rizos Rhangaves, 1810-1892), who left a
finest qualities of folk art; his Memoirs is one of
k were on Greek subjects and ID
reluminous body of work in all literary genres.
the masterpieces of Greek literature. The best
romantic feeling. The revoluting
Old School of Athens. The road to romanticism
novels of the period were Thanos Vlekas by Pav-
ed him with fresh poetic inspira
was now open, and the next generation, known as
los Kalligas (1814-1896) and The Heroine of
e composed his Hymn to Liberty.
the old school of Athens, between 1850 and
the Greek Revolution by Stephanos Xenos (1821-
to music in 1828 and in 1864 be
1890 developed romanticism to its highest point.
1894).
nal anthem of Greece. In 1828
inte for the neighboring island of
GREEK NATIONAL TOURIST OFFICE
after a lonely life of study and
d in 1857. His brilliant imagins
motion, masterly technique, and
combined with an ardent liberalism
eedom, made him the greatest of
nodern Greece. His poetry, colr
of simple and emotional lyrics
his contact with German romants
ty and idealistic. Freedom, love,
took on deeper meanings for him
without becoming a philosopher-
ed to get at the absolute essend
He was always concerned with
tween romanticism and classicies
naged to achieve in his poetry "
nce of sentiment and thought.
olomos left few works. His the
tions are his Dialogue, written
THE ROMAN ODEUM, on
veen 1823 and 1825, and TW
slope of the Acropolis,
te (1826). The Dialogue, the first
$sg the for modern productions
Athens, provides the set-
f criticism in modern Greek liter the
of
quent and inspired defense of
classical Greek dramas.
itten in the form of a dialogue it
nacular, is a a
f Zante, a
the writer found in
diatribe against those
:h the struggle for freedom.
382
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
Another exception to the generally low level
of prose during this period is Pope Joan, written
nant groups in every segment of Greek
many obsolete words, was the pride of the dom:
secabularies in modern Greel
in 1866 by Emanuel Rhoides (1835-1904). This
The spoken language of the people was despised society
grand style, sometimes tightly
witty and articulate novel is significant because,
and those few who persisted in using it
free. His images are vivid, and
though its story takes place in the Middle Ages
literary works were considered radicals. The is
cially telling use of the contrast
and its author pretends that he is writing a ro-
language, an artificial and dead tongue, was pure
opposing elements. For example
mantic novel of the Walter Scott type, it contains
only an inadequate means of expression, but not
for nature is both Apollonian
a great protest against the excesses of con-
temporary romanticism and introduces into Greek
a serious handicap to the country's educational also
and sensualism and Dionysian
prose a new emphasis on rationalism and realism.
development. Vigorous protests were frequenth
the "original mystic value" of al
made, and the Ionian school, beginning with
reconciles Orphism with Chris
The example of Rhoides, who was also a re-
Solomos, established the vernacular as the literan
with Christ, and reason with I
spected critic, encouraged the younger generation
language. Nevertheless, the pure language
for him are but different and
to find new media of expression. In 1879 the
mained in use because it was intimately connected
of one thing.
novel Loukis Laras by Demetrios Bikelas (Vikelas,
with the ruling system of Greece.
During the 1920's he endeav
1835-1908) showed some of the results of this
Psichari was the first to shake the foundation
the old site of Delphi a spiritu
encouragement. Its simplicity, grace, and form
reveal striking divergences from the works of the
of the pure language. With his fighting spint
meeting of representatives from
Athenian romanticists.
profound linguistic knowledge, and impressive
of the world in the interest of
personality, he not only pointed out the treasures
and brotherhood. Only two 1
New School of Athens. The last two decades
of the vernacular, but placed the whole question
materialized, however, one in 1
of the 19th century in Greece were a period of
of language on a national and social basis
in 1930. Sikelianos' works, b
increasing social differentiation, economic bank-
Psichari's preaching had a strong impact, espe-
poetry, which is gathered in th
ruptcy, and political corruption, culminating in
cially on young writers, whom it liberated from
titled Lyric Life, consist of a fe
the catastrophe of the Greco-Turkish War of
the shackles of convention and precedent. His
edies, in which with a deep in:
1897. It was in this period of contrasts and con-
novel My Journey (1888) became a milestone in
symbolism he views social conflic
flicts, when out of frustration and disappointment
modern Greek literature.
social reform, if not revolution.
a demand for a national rebirth began to arise,
Another important figure of this new school
poetic expression and genuine dr
that there appeared the generation of the 1880's,
was Nicholas Polites (1852-1921), who devoted
place them on the highest level (
known as the new school of Athens. It was a
his life to revealing the riches of Greek folklors
production.
small group of enlightened men, most of them
In so doing, he started one of the most creative
Constantine Cavafy, who sp
young, who, challenging the standards of their
movements in modern Greek culture and inspire
We in Alexandria, Egypt, expre
day and utilizing everything valuable in the
literary men, composers, artists, and scholut
aspect of his time. He writes of
Greek tradition, endeavored to express a new
Polites' work is of inestimable value: 15
life, the fate of the weak, of the
spirit.
significance.
those who are unable to react. I
Their leader was the poet Kostes Palamas
The year 1903 was marked by an importes
à unmoved by the brave, the vir
(1859-1943), who was the dominant figure on
literary event, the founding of the magazine
rthos, but simply that he passes
the Greek literary scene for more than 60 years.
Noumas. Around it were grouped the new WE
presses only the tragic side of the
His work is distinguished by profound thought
ers who strove for the establishment of the
they are involved. He is attract
and inspiration and by a complete mastery of met-
vernacular and the renovation of Greek letter
gralities but by particulars, by iso
rical technique. He embraced the Psichari move-
The new school of Athens included several
to describes with a superb ser
ment for the use of the vernacular, broke with
good poets: Georgios Drosines (1859-1951),
Fldom projects himself into his
the romanticists, honored folk poetry, and empha-
tender and elegant lyricist; Georgios Vizyes
smally allowing historical or fictit
sized the significance of the Ionians, especially
(1849-1896), who wrote with simplicity
Solomos and Kalvos. By 1900, Palamas' purpose
sensitivity; Aristomenes Provelengios (1850-1936)
stutions in mind, he sets the his
kuman problems and probably ha
meak for him. Though he deal
was clear: to express the continuity of the
gentle and idealistic; Ioannes Polemes (18th
Hellenic spirit from ancient times to his own day.
1924), who sang of commonplace subjects
Evit of his poems in the late He
But his eyes were also turned to contemporary
simple lyrics; Kostas Krystalles (1868-1894),
in of the Chi
realities. The age of science evoked from him
used folk songs as prototypes and succeeded
intellectual
deep admiration and great hopes. The social
re-creating the atmosphere of peasant life in be
the sophistication well
conflicts made him an advocate of the weak and
mountains; Alexandros Palles (1851-1935)
Enture and declining values. as His as
the oppressed. The national adventures, and espe-
poet of real talent and a warm fighter for
cially the catastrophe of the Greco-Turkish War,
vernacular, in whose lyricism is reflected E
Enial termphere. Cavafy became of
exptributes to his re-creation
of the vernacular and the a
filled him with grief and despair, but he con-
passion for Greece's regeneration; Argyris
tinued to express his faith in a better future for
liotis (1849-1923), another disciple of Psich
his country. Palamas left a voluminous body of
citical influence on the an
desp figure in Greek letters the
who left a varied literary output; and Johs of
work consisting of many collections of poetry,
Grypares (1872-1942), who wrote some
ediately period after. of World younger War I
several fine volumes of literary criticism, and an
best sonnets in modern Greek and made
exceptionally fine play, Trisevyene (1903).
masterly translations of classical tragedies
the same generation belong a number of did
standing literary figures. Among the most im-
the the A
the first
Gathered about Palamas was a galaxy of out-
of th
who wrote with and but
portant was Jean Psichari (Ioannes Psychares,
he deals social with
1854-1929), who became a bold and inspired
lead to the
advocate of the vernacular, and who was the first
stantinos Hadzopoulos (1868-1921), Portent
westive the poems human
infusesizes use with of
to emphasize the importance of the linguistic
Malakases (1870-1943),
problem. He studied in Germany and France
(1879-1932), and Soteres Skipes (1881-158
and later taught for many years in the School of
(123), he collection The Ligh
perception. With his lat
Early 20th Century Writers. At the cord
Modern Oriental Languages of the University of
of the 20th century, literary production the
Paris. In 1866, when he returned to Greece, the
along the paths already opened by
trucy His clear and M
exentry. emerged as the chief
linguistic problem was acute. Daily newspapers,
school of Athens. Three major poets Konstonst
ene of mixed with a powerl
literary works, and all classes from grammar
Angelos Sikelianos (1884-1951);
school to university used the pure language. This
Kavafis (1863-1933), who is better known and
language, based on the grammar of the ancient
United States as Constantine Cavafy;
Discing greatly this period several
the most influential sense of figt the
Attic dialect, purged of all foreign words-even
Varnales.
those that had been imported and Hellenized
Angelos Sikelianos was a dynamic the lyni
Fas to Kateraunes develope
few Nikos
through a long historical process-and including
with a powerful imagination, one of
translately dramatic
Walt Whitman verses
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
383
ords, was the pride of
in modern Greek poetry, and a
(1912). Kostas Karyotakes (1896-1928) im-
very segment of Greek the
&
lage of the people was despiter SOCIETY
and His images are vivid, espe- of
sbularies style, sometimes tightly and knit, he makes sometimes
pressed his contemporaries by his pessimism,
irony, and sarcasm and by his criticism of the
who persisted in
re considered radicals. The
telling use of the contrast and his resolution deep feeling
conventionality of his society.
Meanwhile the Ionian Islands with their
ficial and dead tongue,
te means of expression was but
densualismystic For Apollonian value" Dionysian example, of all in in things. its its immediacy search He also for
great literary tradition continued to produce
some remarkable poets, among them Gerasimos
ap to the country's educations The
Markoras (1826-1911) and Lorentzos Mabiles
gorous protests
Christ him original mystism are but and different reason with with Christianity, and mysticism, revealing Dionysus aspects which
(1860-1912), who combined deep thought and
Ionian
warm feeling with his lyricism.
ned the
From the appearance of the new school of
theless, the litere)
Athens until the end of World War I, Greek
cause it was A
one thing.
ystem of
During the 1920's he endeavored to create on
prose failed to reach the high standards of Greek
;uage. With his the foundative
the first to shake
site of Delphi a spiritual center for the
poetry, but the contribution of a few authors,
from all the countries
especially short story writers, is notable. Among
interest of universal peace
them are two writers from the island of Skiathos
tic knowledge,
ot only pointed
brotherhood. Only two Delphic festivals
-Alexandros Papadiamantes (1851-1911) and
and in 1927 and another
Alexandros Moraitides (1851-1929), close friends
but placed the questions
1 besides his lyric
whose lives and work were very similar. They
a national and social basa.
three volumes en-
(especially Papadiamantes) wrote with a deep
ing had a strong impact, esps
writers, whom it liberated from
poetry, atted Lyric Life, consist of a few inspired trag-
understanding of human nature, with sincerity,
convention and precedent He
rdies, in which with a deep insight and strong
and with religious feeling. Georgios Vizyenos is
nmbolism he views social conflict and advocates
noted for the introduction of psychological themes
y (1888) became a milestone à
erature.
social reform, if not revolution. Their powerful
in his prose. Demetrios Kambouroglou (1852-
ortant figure of this new school
pretic expression and genuine dramatic elements
1933) wrote graceful stories chiefly about histori-
lites (1852-1921), who devoted
place them on the highest level of Greek literary
cal subjects. Ioannes Vlahoyiannes (1868-1945)
reoduction. Constantine Cavafy, who spent most of his
divided his efforts between writing short stories
ing the riches of Greek folklore
and doing historical research. Ioannes Kondylakes
started one of the most creative
de in Alexandria, Egypt, expresses a different
(1861-1920) is noted mainly for his psycho-
dern Greek culture and inspired
espect of his time. He writes of the tragedy of
logical novel Patouhas (1916), and Andreas
omposers, artists, and scholar
Le, the fate of the weak, of the unsatisfied, of
Karkavitsas (1866-1922) for his short stories.
is of inestimable value and
those who are unable to react. It is not that he
Kostas Theotokes (1872-1923) was the first
is timmoved by the brave, the virtuous, the lofty
Greek to write well-organized novels with a
)3 was marked by an important
ethos, but simply that he passes them by and
social content. They include The Convict (1912)
:he founding of the magazine
stresses only the tragic side of the story in which
and The Slaves in Their Chains (1922), which,
1 it were grouped the new writ-
they are involved. He is attracted not by gen-
with their strong psychological analysis, human
for the establishment of the
tralities but by particulars, by isolated cases that
feeling, and vivid description, are two of the best
the renovation of Greek letters
be describes with a superb sensitiveness. He
in Greek literature. Konstantinos Christomanos
tool of Athens included several
eldom projects himself into his poems, instead
(1887-1911) was an author of great talent, who
orgios Drosines (1859-1951),
usually allowing historical or fictitious persons to
wrote both in a genteel style, as in The Diary of
ant lyricist; Georgios Vizyenos
speak for him. Though he deals with deeply
the Empress Elisabeth (1907), and with sensual
,ho wrote with simplicity and
Luman problems and probably has contemporary
realism, as in the Doll of Wax (1911). Petros
menes Provelengios (1850-1936)
truations in mind, he sets the historical scene of
Apostolides (1866-1937) wrote in a sincere and
listic; Ioannes Polemes (1862-
most of his poems in the late Hellenistic period
graceful manner, under the pseudonym Pavlos
g of commonplace subjects is
(toward the beginning of the Christian era), an
Nirvanas. Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867-1951),
stas Krystalles (1868-1894), who
cra characterized by intellectual brilliance and
the best of the prose writers, left a voluminous
as prototypes and succeeded in
wisthetic sophistication as well as by disintegra-
production of powerful short stories and novels
tmosphere of peasant life in the
From and declining values. His language, a
that analyzed the psychology and customs of
andros Palles (1851-1935),
mixture of the vernacular and the archaic, greatly
ent and a warm fighter for the
contemporary society.
contributes to his re-creation of the Hellenistic
Drama. After the liberation of Greece in
whose lyricism is reflected 3
atmosphere. Cavafy became the most contro-
ce's regeneration; Argyris Efts
1821, plays appeared in abundance but, with
versial figure in Greek letters and exercised a
3), another disciple of Psichari
deep influence on the younger writers of the
some notable exceptions, were mediocre. Besides
ed literary output; and John N.
Matesses and Rangabé, the playwrights include
critical period of World War I and the years
-1942), who wrote some of the
Immediately after.
Demetrios Byzantios-Aslanes (1770-1853), De-
modern Greek and made some
Kostas Varnales was the first Greek poet of
metrios Vernardakis (1834-1907), and Spyridon
tions of classical tragedies. To
the social conflict. He sings of the humble, the
Vasiliades. In the movement to rejuvenate the
tion belong a number of poes
poor laborers, the victims of social injustice and
Greek theater, Gregorios Xenopoulos took the
feeling and warmth, but did not
ing new to the literature of their
appression. Though he deals with subjects that
lead. His plays have a fast-paced dramatic
Papantoniou (1877-1940) Koe-
rhetoric, he infuses his poems with a high lyric
could easily lead to the use of commonplace
action and lively dialogue; his well-defined
characters move and act naturally; and the con-
poulos (1868-1921), Miltiades
line and emphasizes the human element with
struction of his scenes achieves a remarkable
(0-1943), Skipes (1881-1953)
unsitive perception. With his later work, and
excellence. Spyros Melas, Demitris Bogres,
especially the collection The Light That Burns
Theodoros Synadinos, Panteles Horn (1881-1941),
id Soteres
entury Writers. At the beginnist
(1933), his he emerged as the chief Marxist poet of
and several other playwrights also contributed to
iry, literary production continued IF
the repertory of the modern Greek theater.
his country. His clear and powerful lyrics and
S already opened by the
S. emerged:
2m irony mixed with a sense of the tragic made
Literature After World War I. A new period in
Greek literature opened with the third decade of
nos The
letters. one of the most influential figures of Greek
the 20th century. After the defeat in Asia Minor
933), who is better
Constantine Cavafy; and Korts
During this period several other poets con-
and the catastrophe of 1922, disillusion, skepti-
cism, and loss of faith dominated the younger
them greatly to literary development. Among
writers, while the older ones continued on their
lianos was a dynamic the ne paxt
wrote was Nikos Karvounes (1880-1947), who
lot a few highly dramatic verses and was the
well-defined paths. Post-World War I literature,
imagination, one of
to translate Walt Whitman into Greek
reflecting the new critical times, developed
interesting modes of expression. In poetry there
418
GREECE: 11. Literature
period, the usual form was a stone for a ring set
11. Literature
Both
immobile in a metal hoop. Some extant stones
are of the highest quality, and bear the names of
Ancient Greek literature, both in intrinsic
textbooks The Iliaa
some outstanding artists (Epimenes in the archaic
period; Dexamenos in the classical). Contempo-
worth and in influence, is probably the greatest
body of literature in the world. Few other litera-
year of tl
rary authors wrote about distinguished sculptors
tures can offer even one or two authors in the
highly u
who also cut gemstones, as sculptors did in the
class of Homer, Sappho, Aeschylus, Sophocles
theme Achilles, of
Renaissance.
Euripides, Thucydides, Aristophanes, Plato, and
Artists relearned (from the East) the elabo-
Aristotle, and few others can support them with
pride wounded tha
rate techniques of making gold jewelry-filigree,
granulation, and the brazing together of compli-
such figures. a host of equally great or only slightly lesser
memnon,
his enemi
cated ornaments. Some of the most ornate were
Ancient Greece not only produced master-
be felt.
archaic, notably earring pendants with animal or
pieces, but provided the definitive models for
friend, P
monster heads. Classical jewelry was more re-
later ages to imitate in almost every type of
even con
strained, but in the 4th century, enamel inlays
written composition, including epic poetry, trag
Hector, W
were admitted; and with the Hellenistic period
edy, comedy, lyric poetry, historiography, philo
for the C
polished stones such as garnets were mounted in
sophical dialogues and treatises, oratory, biog.
imminent
gold. Bracelets with animal-head terminals were
raphy, and prose romance. Greek literature in
Typic
characteristic of the classical period; they owed
the widest sense is thus the foundation of
shrewdne
much to Persian taste. Few vessels worked in
Western culture.
hero of tl
gold or silver have survived. See also GOLDWORK
Nor should it be forgotten that the founds
fastness W
AND SILVERWORK.
tion of Greek literature, in turn, was the great
ments an
Among the minor arts, the most familiar prod-
fund of oral folk literature consisting of fables
tered in
ucts are fired clay figurines, which have sur-
and myths. Judging from its traces, one may con
home, wi
vived as well as vases. They were made in
jecture that no other body of mythology has ever
Conne
molds, but this ease of production did not pro-
been a match for the Greek in richness; profun-
composed
mote high standards of design. There were
dity, and sophistication. As is stated in Plato's
meric Hy
occasional original works of high decorative value
Republic, every Greek was familiar with these
probably
from Corinth and Rhodes, such as the archaic
stories from the nursery. It is not surprising
style, in
perfume flasks in the form of animals or heads.
then, that most Greek literature was based on
hymns, W
They have been found in houses, tombs, and
myth, that Greek science and philosophy in 1
are addre
sanctuaries, and some figures were clearly made
sense had their origins in the mythic world-view,
sus, Apol
deliberately for dedication.
and that Greek historiography took shape under
They are
After the archaic period, such color as the
the influence of mythic ideas.
achievem
figurines had was applied after firing and has
counting
seldom survived well. The so-called Tanagra
THE PRE-ATHENIAN PERIOD
A lost Ep
figurines of the Hellenistic period were elegant
Oral Composition and Epic Poetry. In the sec
flory of
studies of women; they had some pretense to
ond millennium B. C. at the courts of Mycenaes
after the
minor sculpture, and were sometimes well
kings and nobles it was the custom for profes
the same
colored. They were from mainland Greece, but
sional bards to improvise after the feasts, chant
The d
there were related schools in eastern Greece,
ing heroic songs on traditional subjects as they
tury B. C.
which also produced some fine gilt terra-cottas.
played a simple accompaniment on the harp
of oral p
Relief plaques were also made for decorative or
These bards memorized tens of thousands of
his self-ir
votive purposes. Of these there were important
metrical formulas-lines, half-lines, quarter-lines-
Ection.'
classical series from Melos (cutouts) and from
that they could put together at will to form any
especially
Locri in southern Italy, with religious scenes
number of dactylic hexameters, the traditions
and virtu
related to the worship of Persephone. See also
aoidos, or "singer," appears as the blind
six-foot lines of Greek heroic poetry. Such De 23
gods, hea
ARCHITECTURE; PAINTING; SCULPTURE; and the
order.
Index entry Greece: Art.
modocus in Book 8 of Homer's Odyssey.
Lyric I
JOHN BOARDMAN, Author of "Greek Art"
Homer himself, flourishing most probably on
a C., the
the Ionian coast of Asia Minor in the latter bill
the Myce
Bibliography
professional singer, the inheritor of centuries d
of the 8th century B. C., must have been such
1 struggle
Boardman, John, Greek Art, rev. ed. (Thames & Hudson
whle fam
1985).
experience in the art of improvisation. It will
L many
Buschor, Ernest, Greek Vase Painting, tr. by G. C. Richards
(Ares 1978).
in this way that he composed the Iliad and Odgr
rd supp
Carpenter, T. H., Dionysian Imagery in Archaic Greek Art:
sey, both the culmination of this art of oral COST
Paying d
Its Development in Black-Figure Vase Painting (Oxford
position. The very excellence of this art, however,
theses W
1986).
Fortunati, Romualdo, A Manual of Spontaneous Art with
also proved to be its ruin. First, the art suffered E
Eat they
Applications to the Art of the Greeks and of the Romans
because all subsequent Greek narrative and H
anly. As
(Gloucester Art 1986).
cursive poetry imitated the diction of the
Greenhalgh, Michael, The Classical Tradition in Art
(Harper 1982).
meric poems, often without grasping the essentiss WAS
Hampe, Roland, and Simon, Erika, The Birth of Greek Art
of the improvisatory technique. This diction property
the long
(Oxford 1981).
artificial to a high degree; it was not the
st short
Havelock, Christine M., Hellenistic Art: The Art of the
Classical World from the Death of Alexander the Great to
a dialect, but consisted of metrical phrases
34 also SI
the Battle of Actium, rev. ed. (Norton 1981).
were preserved and handed down because
folk
Haynes, Denys, Greek Art and the Idea of Freedom
their usefulness to the oral poet; hence
were now
(Thames & Hudson 1985).
Higgins, Reynold, Minoan: A Mycenaen Art (Thames &
sented a harvest gleaned from many technique
nd There chori
Hudson 1985).
Moon, Warren G., ed., Ancient Greek Art and Iconography
and several localities. Second, this oral Phoenical
h musica
(Univ. of Wis. Press 1983).
declined with the adaptation of the that
we inte
Robertson, Martin, History of Greek Art, 2 vols. (Cam-
alphabet for writing Greek, a process he
bridge 1976).
beginning in Homer's time. How far
witht be
Von Bothmer, Dietrich, Greek Art of the Aegean Islands
(Braziller 1979).
acquainted with writing and how still disport
the
Woodford, Susan, The Art of Greece and Rome (Cambridge
acquaintance affected his work are
Lesbos messes (1
1982).
points.
GREECE: 11. Literature
419
Homeric epics served, so to speak, as
in this kind of poetry. Two other masters of the
Both in ethical ideas for the later Greeks.
monodic ode were Simonides (died 468 B. c.)
influence, is probably the intritak
reek literature, both in
withooks covers only a few days in the tenth
and Anacreon (6th century B. c.), both of whom
The the Greek siege of Troy. However, in its
belonged to a kind of international society, mov-
ure in the world. Few other greates
even one or two authors liter in
wir of unified plot, hinging on the wrath of
ing from one noble patron to another. Few whole
er, Sappho, Aeschylus, Ea
Ageme frebly Achilles, of it leads hybris introduces a (hubris), hero the to typically destruction. the kind Greek of Achilles, tragic blind
poems of these poets are extant. All of them
wrote for choruses as well as for soloists.
icydides, Aristophanes, Sophoder
Most lyric poetry, as the name indicates, was
few others can support them 22°
stude that in his pride by his commander, Aga-
accompanied by the lyre. The elegiac couplet,
equally great or only slightly less wis
resigns from active duty and prays for
however, was performed to flute music, which
semnon, enemies to win so that his own absence may
gave it a meditative and melancholy effect. The
reece not only produced
:ovided the definitive models master-
255 felt. His prayer is answered, but his best
Athenian lawgiver Solon (early 6th century B. c.)
to Patroclus, is killed as a result, and not
used the form for poems of political reflection.
imitate in almost every type by d
friend, complete triumph over the noble Trojan
But elegy took a more characteristic direction in
sition, including epic poetry,
nen who had killed Patroclus, can compensate
the maxims and epigrams attributed to Theognis
lyric poetry, historiography, philo trag.
Elector, the consequent futility of Achilles' life and
(6th century B. c.). Another kind of personal
gues and treatises,
ose romance. Greek oratory, bing.
saminent for death.
lyric, the iambic poetry of satire and invective,
Typically Greek also is the emphasis on the
was said to have originated with Archilochus
ense re. is thus the foundation d
brewdness, and even trickiness of Odysseus, the
(7th century B. c.).
Lero of the Odyssey. More edifying is the stead-
The choric ode, or lyric, was intended to be
it be forgotten that the founds
tistness with which Odysseus conquers the allure-
performed by a chorus to the accompaniment of
literature, in turn, was the great
ments and dangers of the fantasy world encoun-
music and dancing. Sung by a trained chorus
olk literature consisting of fables
tered in his travels back to the reality of his
(literally "dancing group") of girls, boys, or men
dging from its traces, one may COO.
home, wife, and family.
to celebrate a religious occasion, it developed
other body of mythology has ever
Connected with Homer, but certainly not
into a rigid and complex pattern of strophe
for the Greek in richness, profun-
composed by him, are several dozen extant Ho-
(initial stanza), antistrophe (stanza matching
istication. As is stated in Plato's
arric Hymns in dactylic hexameter. Most were
the strophe syllable by syllable), and epode
y Greek was familiar with these
probably written by practitioners of the Homeric
(stanza of contrasting rhythm). Dithyrambs
he nursery. It is not surprising
style, in the 7th and 6th centuries B. C. The
(hymns to Dionysus) and paeans (hymns to
st Greek literature was based On
hymns, which are of varying length and interest,
Apollo) were special favorites. The greatest ex-
eek science and philosophy in I
are addressed to different gods, including Diony-
amples of choric poetry were achieved by Pindar
origins in the mythic world-view
sus, Apollo, Hermes, Demeter, and Aphrodite.
(died 438 B. c.) in his extant four books of epini-
historiography took shape under
They are generally laudatory, praising the deity's
cian odes composed to honor the victors of
if mythic ideas.
achievements and attributes, and occasionally re-
athletic games.
PRE-ATHENIAN PERIOD
counting feats associated with a particular god.
Pre-Socratic Philosophy. Hesiod, in his attempt
A lost Epic Cycle of heroic poems, detailing the
to trace the origin of things and to outline an
sition and Epic Poetry. In the sec-
story of the Trojan War before, between, and
order of the universe, was the precursor of Greek
a B. C. at the courts of Mycenaean
after the Iliad and the Odyssey, dates from about
science and philosophy. In the 6th century B. C.,
les it was the custom for profes-
the same period.
Thales of Miletus, in Ionia, the first Greek philos-
improvise after the feasts, chant.
The didactic poems of Hesiod (early 7th cen-
opher, introduced what was to become known as
gs on traditional subjects as they
tury B. c.) also belong to the declining tradition
the problem of the One and the Many. What is
de accompaniment on the harp.
of oral poetry. Hesiod differs from Homer in
the archē, the one persistent principle that under-
nemorized tens of thousands of
his self-imposed mission to present "truth, not
lies the many shifting appearances (phenomena)
as-lines, half-lines, quarter-lines-
Ection." Hesiod's Works and Days gives advice,
that we experience? The answers of the Milesian
1 put together at will to form any
especially to farmers, about leading a life of toil
school were materialistic: Thales himself said
ctylic hexameters, the traditional
and virtue; his Theogony tells of the Olympian
"Water"; his pupil Anaximander said "The
of Greek heroic poetry. Such an
gods, headed by Zeus, the guarantor of world
Boundless" (an indeterminate substance that by
ager," appears as the blind De
order.
the strife of opposites evolves into the world we
ok 8 of Homer's Odyssey.
Lyric Poetry. During the 7th to 5th century
know); Anaximander's pupil Anaximenes said
self, flourishing most probably on
B.C., the remnants of the royal-feudal society of
"Air." Meanwhile, in southern Italy, Pythagoras
st of Asia Minor in the latter half
the Mycenaean era disappeared, giving way to
and his followers were answering Thales' original
tury B. C., must have been such 1
struggle in the Greek city-states between the
ager, the inheritor of centuries of
question by saying, "No material substance at all,
soble families and the demos, or common people.
In many city-states the common people found
but numbers and number-relationships." And
the art of improvisation. It was
t he composed the Iliad and Odyr
back in Ephesus in Ionia, around 500 B. C., Her-
and supported champions who, while often em-
ploying dictatorial methods, provided the lower
aclitus apparently urged a compromise: "The
ulmination of this art of oral com-
ery excellence of this art, however,
classes with many privileges and opportunities
primal material is Fire, but underlying this and
be its ruin. First, the art suffered
that they had not been allowed to enjoy previ-
existent in every human soul is a rational prin-
sequent Greek narrative and dis-
ously. As a result of the humanizing aspects of
ciple, the Logos."
imitated the diction of the Ho-
iten without grasping the essentials
these changes, new importance was placed on
The notion of Heraclitean fire threw emphasis
individual expression. In the literature of that
on the incessant changefulness of the phenomenal
atory technique. This diction was
the time, long narrative poetry gave way to the lyric,
world. The Eleatic school of the 5th century
high degree; it was not properly
yet short song expressive of personal feeling and
B. C., represented by Parmenides and Zeno, argued
sonsisted of metrical phrases that of
that this phenomenal realm is not ultimately real,
1 and handed down because
and also suitable for ceremonial occasions. Hymns
to the oral poet; hence it repre-
were folk songs, which had always been popular,
but a realm of appearance only. They had much
to say about being and not-being. In approach-
est gleaned from many centuries
now given artistic and individual form.
alities. Second, this oral technique
There were two kinds of lyric poetry, monodic
ing the problem of not-being, however, they
b ad choric. Monodic lyrics were sung solo and
apparently did not always distinguish between it
the adaptation of the Phoenician
were musical accompaniment. Odes of this genre
in the sense of "not being the thing in question,"
riting Greek, a process that was was
that is, "being different' and simple "non-exis-
Homer's time. How far he
might intended for lyre accompaniment; they
fected his work are
h writing and how still disputed
take be skolia, or drinking songs, or they might
tence. Some of their contemporaries were pur-
suing the older materialism of the Milesian school
adresses the form of personal appeals to gods or
along the line of a plurality of first principles:
Leshos to friends. Sappho and Alcaeus of
Empedocles posited four-fire, air, earth, and
(both about 600 B. c.) were preeminent
water-while Leucippus and Democritus explained
420
GREECE: 11. Literature
sensible objects as combinations of invisible par-
The only trilogy to have survived is
role of the
ticles called atoms, or "indivisibles."
lus' Oresteia; even here the satyr
Middle Comedy
The realization was growing, however, that
lost. The Oresteia consists of
physis, or "nature," the sum total of things known
murder of the conqueror of Troy by his
between and the Ne
by sensory experience, may not be the whole of
Clytemnestra), The Libation-Bearers (the wife,
began in the 4th century B. C.
History. In the earlier days
reality. Anaxagoras, toward the middle of the 5th
century, was positing nous or "mind," as the ul-
ing murder of Clytemnestra by her son, Orestes) ensur
elsewhere, history was not unc
and The Eumenides (the acquittal of Orestes
timate principle. And physis as manifested in
modern sense. Events were not r
man, "human nature," began to be contrasted
of vengeance, into the Eumenides, guardians
Athens and the conversion of the Furies, spirits at
uniqueness, but were subsumed
of myth, the eternal cycle of birt
with nomos, "law, custom, convention." Hence
justice). The work reveals Aeschylus' concern of
Happenings in individual lives ar
the later 5th century saw the rise of the Sophists,
the worst of whom were complete skeptics, hair-
with the themes of human suffering and man's
the group were not analyzed as
splitters, and ethical relativists, professional teach-
relation to the divine powers that rule him. Of
and underlying principles, as in SC
the four remaining Aeschylean plays-out of
ophy, nor were they considered 1
ers of a crude opportunism to be furthered by
original 80-odd-the most interesting are The 20
rectional chain, as in historiograp
glibness in speechmaking. Perhaps superior to
Persians, about the Persian defeat at Salamis, and
and 5th centuries B. C., howeve
the rest were Protagoras, who said, "Man is the
Prometheus Bound, with its portrait of the god.
onthetic kind of thinking beg
measure of all things," and Gorgias, who founded
defying Titan, founder of technology and friend
analytical thought, and one of ma
the art of rhetoric.
of mankind.
lectual revolutions was inaugurate
THE ATHENIAN PERIOD
Sophocles was not so concerned as Aeschylu
to be interpreted as history and t
with justifying god to man. Instead, most of his
and heroes were looked on as }
The outstanding authors of Greece in the 5th
seven extant plays portray the kind of tragic hero
once and for all in the past.
and 4th centuries B. C. were virtually all Athenian
later commended by Aristotle-a hero of noble
noble families began to relate the
by birth or association. In those 200 years
stature brought to his doom by his own blindness,
and lineages to these primeval b
Athens produced a group of writers and thinkers
his hamartia. Among such heroes are Ajax, the
deeds. Hence there arose numero
that can scarcely be equalled by the rest of the
Homeric warrior unable to adapt to an age
of
mitted traditions and written chr
world in all its history. In addition several
changed ideals; King Oedipus, the riddle solver
ing to particular localities; in thes
literary genres first received their permanent
who disinterestedly solves his father's murder by
of myth and history was inextric
artistic character here.
unexpectedly uncovering himself as the killen
Such sources were used by He
Tragedy. The earliest form to mature was
and Creon in Antigone, who spreads disaster by
?425 B. c.), the "Father of Histo
tragedy; like other forms of Athenian drama, it
exalting man-made regulations above divine law.
to the material that he acquired
developed out of the choric ode connected with
Sophocles' perfection of form was most admired
Interviews and experiences in the
the cult of Dionysus. The name "tragedy" means
by Aristophanes, Aristotle, and later critics.
travels. Herodotus was Ionian by
"goat-song"; it may have been derived from the
Euripides (484?-?406 B. c.), the last of the
tually became an Athenian by ado
goatskins worn by some of the celebrants of the
three tragedians, was an innovator in both fons
the first successful attempt to
god Dionysus. According to tradition, a certain
and treatment. In Alcestis, he constructs a half
universal history. However, his I
Thespis in Athens around 535 B. C., while com-
farcical, half-tragic substitute for a satyr play
with-and often includes-myths t]
posing dithyrambs for the recently inaugurated
In Medea and Hecuba he originates a kind
be actual events in time, and he
Dionysian festival, differentiated the part as-
internal tragedy of moral destruction caused by
of his whole work to the concept
signed to the chorus leader from that of the rest
suffering. And in Helen and Ion he devises trag
itself came to him from myth by
of the chorus, thus giving the leader a kind of
comedies or tragic melodramas on the theme of
In order to explain the climactic
dramatic role.
appearance and reality, with happy endings and
ant part of his history, the Grec
The form was practically perfected by Aes-
plot motifs that anticipated New Comedy. Nine
of the early 5th century, he assum
chylus (524?-?456 B. c.), the first of the three
teen of his plays are extant.
Asiatic feud going back to the n
great Athenian tragedians. He added a second
Comedy. Performances of comedy did not be
tions of Io and Europa. From t
actor and also made it possible for two men to
come an official part of Athenian festivals und
digressions into the history, ethnc
impersonate several characters. Sophocles (495?-
well into the 5th century B. C. Etymologically
lore of such peoples as the Egyp
?405 B. c.), the second of the trio, brought in a
comedy is the "song of the kömos," and a komar
Seythians, Persians, and Greeks,
third actor; and this number remained standard.
was any procession of revelers in Dionysiac ritul
However, the part of the chorus was always re-
The particular type of comic drama that flow
Xerxes, his expedition
Barrate the impious enterprise of t
garded as the kernel of the drama. This is shown
ished in Athens throughout the 5th century
by the fact that a Greek tragedy was in structure
known as Old Comedy. Formally, an Old Cost is
Athenians lead defeats to the punishm
a series of choric odes interspersed with epi-
edy nearly always contained an address by
and Plataea.
that he suffe
sodes, or scenes of action and dialogue. Also,
chorus to the audience voicing the author's che one
many plays took their titles from the choristers:
of Herodotus' greatest
A similar tragic motif anima
The Eumenides, The Trojan Women, The Birds.
opinions, an elaborate debateical, loosely reare
acters, and a series of
Hes 455?-?400 B. c.). An Athenian successo
In Aeschylus' time it was customary for a
scenes toward the end. In content
tragic poet to write a tetralogy, consisting of a
tended to use unrealistic plots often suggested
tuy went into exile as a ge
clouds, and wasps, THE
sust the history of this war occupi
in mishap during the Peloponnes consequ
trilogy-three tragedies dealing with a succession
of events in the same myth cycle-followed by a
shorter fourth play, a satyr play. This last, a
myths, choruses FIRST as
died of his life; it still
restrained
Rd The climax of was the work unfin is t
farcical treatment of some part of the same cycle,
rary Athenians.
served to connect the whole tetralogy with Di-
The only surviving plays of Old Comedy
3. Syracuse, a failure that
of the Athen
onysianism and generally offered a chorus of
those by Aristophanes (450?-?385 B. c.). has
11, Athens' arrogance and ruti
satyrs, the mythical horselike, goatlike roisterers
11 of his 40 plays are extant. The best Socra
& tragedy, the collapse of mora
associated with the cult of Dionysus. The tetral-
of these are The Clouds, a satire on Soph
a deteriorating
ogy was then submitted to an Athenian official;
if he found it acceptable he produced it at state
Lysistrata, in which the women of Greece until
quite unfairly caricaturing him as a
rd and analyzes in
embodies Thucydides deepes proces
expense, usually as part of the Greater Dionysia
to have sexual relations with their men
spoken by real imag peoj
held every spring. At this festival three tetral-
Peloponnesian War is ended; The Birds, attack
historian is Xenopho
ogies were given, and they were awarded first,
on utopianism; and The Frogs, Aristopha
Creek works include A
second, and third prizes by a board of judges.
Euripides and his advanced ideas. intellect
After the time of Aeschylus the practice of con-
seems to have been a political and last
3 Empire after after a force's
structing one's whole tetralogy out of one myth
Education of Cyrus, which
cursory of Thu cam
a disastrous escape
Plutus, with its muted satire, direct
conservative and a hater of war. His parodr
cycle seems to have lapsed.
GREECE: 11. Literature
421
ogy to have survived
and of Middle Comedy, the transition
diminished role of the chorus, displays
model for many neoclassical books on "the edu-
en here THE and
cation of princes."
ia consists
acteristics Old Comedy and the New Comedy that
Philosophy. Xenophon's Memorabilia contains
conqueror
the 4th century B. C.
one of the most trustworthy portraits of Socrates
The
MSAN In the earlier days of Greece, as
(469?-399 B. c), who was the first to point a
ides (the acquittal Oresty
ytemnestra by her son, the
History. history was not understood in the
way out of the morass into which the Sophists'
sense. Events were not regarded in their
relativism and skepticism had led philosophy.
conversion of the
but were subsumed into the pattern
Probably a portrait even closer to the truth is to
to spice
eternal cycle of birth-death-rebirth.
be found in the earlier dialogues of Socrates'
ork
individual lives and in the life of
greatest disciple, Plato (428?-?347 B. c.). Soc-
of human suffering
not analyzed as to their causes
rates himself wrote nothing, but he appears as
ivine powers that rule
underlying principles, as in science or philos-
a principal interlocutor in most of the Platonic
ng Aeschylean plays-out of
nor were they considered links in a unidi-
dialogues. Hence has arisen the perennial prob-
-the most interesting are
e Persian defeat at Salamis, The
actional why, chain, as in historiography. In the 6th
lem of separating the purely Platonic from Soc-
5th centuries B. C., however, the mythic,
rates' own contributions.
id, with its portrait of the of
ad of thinking began to yield to
Since most later ancient schools of philosophy
under of technology and fried as
and one of man's major intel-
boasted of Socrates as their intellectual founder,
was inaugurated. Myths began
it seems likely that his contribution to Plato's
S not so concerned as Aeschy
be interpreted as history and the acts of gods
system was considerable and that the impulse
od to man. Instead, most of
53 and heroes were looked on as having occurred
and direction he gave to philosophical thought
1 by Aristotle-a hero of noble ben
S portray the kind of tragic be
ince and for all in the past. City-states and
were permanent and decisive. In the first place,
ble families began to relate their own activities
Socrates seems to have made clear the distinction
his doom by his own blindness
and lineages to these primeval beings and their
between studies aiming at exact knowledge and
nong such heroes are Ajax, the
seds. Hence there arose numerous orally trans-
studies dealing with ethical matters; in the
unable to adapt to an age d
witted traditions and written chronicles pertain-
latter he made no claim to sophia, or "wisdom,"
King Oedipus, the riddle solve
of to particular localities; in these the confusion
but only emphasized philosophia, "the love and
ly solves his father's murder by
myth and history was inextricable.
pursuit of wisdom." Secondly, in answer to the
covering himself as the killet
Such sources were used by Herodotus (485?-
question, "By what means and on whose author-
tigone, who spreads disaster h
2425 B. c.), the "Father of History," in addition
ity can we approach this wisdom?" he pro-
le regulations above divine law.
6) the material that he acquired from his own
claimed an unconquerable faith in a universal
tion of form was most admired
interviews and experiences in the course of his
reason that is inherent in language itself and
Aristotle, and later critics.
havels. Herodotus was Ionian by birth, but vir-
hence in the mind of every man. Therefore, he
34?-?406 B. c.), the last of &
mally became an Athenian by adoption. His was
constituted himself a "mental midwife" and by
was an innovator in both fors
the first successful attempt to put together a
skillful questioning helped ordinary men to bring
n Alcestis, he constructs a have
eniversal history. However, his narrative begins
to light the general ethical notions underlying
(ic substitute for a satyr pln.
with-and often includes-myths that are taken to
the surface of casual everyday pronouncements.
lecuba he originates a kind of
to actual events in time, and he owes the shape
"Man cannot not philosophize; his only choice is
of moral destruction caused by
x his whole work to the concept of hybris, which
to philosophize badly, that is unawarely, or well":
Helen and Ion he devises trag
foelf came to him from myth by way of tragedy.
this principle is implicit in the Socratic method.
C melodramas on the theme d
In order to explain the climactic and preponder-
Thirdly, by introducing these general ideas, Soc-
eality, with happy endings and
ant part of his history, the Greco-Persian Wars
rates perfected the method of definition, noting
nticipated New Comedy. Nine
of the early 5th century, he assumes a European-
both the resemblances and the differences and
are extant.
Asiatic feud going back to the mythical abduc-
insisting on purging an idea from its associations
rmances of comedy did not he
tions of Io and Europa. From this point, with
with particular examples and popular miscon-
part of Athenian festivals until
digressions into the history, ethnology, and folk-
ceptions.
1 century B. C. Etymologically
lore of such peoples as the Egyptians, Lydians,
Such midwifery was bound to expose preten-
ng of the kõmos," and a komas
Scythians, Persians, and Greeks, he proceeds to
tious ignorance and arouse unpopularity. Because
n of revelers in Dionysiac ritual
marrate the impious enterprise of the Persian king
of this and because Socrates was mistakenly iden-
pe of comic drama that flour.
Xerxes, his immense expedition to crush the
tified with the archconservative political faction,
hroughout the 5th century Was
Athenians, leading to the punishment of his pride
he was condemned in his old age to drink the
medy. Formally, an Old Com
in the great defeats that he suffered at Salamis
hemlock. This event caused a lasting revulsion
S contained an address by the
and Plataea.
against democracy in Plato; he abandoned all
lience voicing the author's OWN
A similar tragic motif animates the history
ambitions for public life and opened his own
rate debate between two cher-
of Herodotus' greatest successor, Thucydides
school, the Academy, devoted to mathematical
ies of farcical, loosely related
(455?-?400 B. c.). An Athenian general, Thucyd-
and philosophical speculation. As illustrations of
end. In content Old Comecs
has went into exile as a consequence of a mili-
Socrates' probing question-and-answer procedure,
ealistic plots often suggested by
tary mishap during the Peloponnesian War. Writ-
Plato began to compose his Dialogues.
fantastically garbed as goats,
ing the history of this war occupied him for the
The earliest specimens of the Dialogues sim-
S, and an abundance of un
rest of his life; it was still unfinished when he
ded. The climax of the work is the utter failure
ply demonstrate how the dialectic method is
1 gibes at notorious contempt
and annihilation of the Athenian expedition
efficient in disposing of misconceptions. Later,
more extended works such as The Symposium
iving plays of Old Comedy 1T
from Athens' arrogance and ruthlessness. The
***inst Syracuse, a failure that results directly
and The Republic present more positive doc-
lanes (450?-P385 B. c.). Only
S are extant. The best knowz
imer the tragedy, the collapse of morality that marks
trines. In these there are adumbrations of the
peculiar Platonic system, the theory of Ideas. To
Clouds, a satire on Socratis
ricaturing him as a Sophist
& retaliation, is Thucydides' deepest concern; this
end of a deteriorating process of reciprocal
the general notions that Socrates had been inter-
ested in defining, Plato attributed independent
ch the women of Greece refer is
Ed embodies and analyzes in imaginary speeches
existence in a world of being transcending the
ations with their men until
r is ended: The Birds, a satire a
dialogues spoken by real people.
space-time world of ordinary sensory experience.
advanced ideas. Aristophanes
man a Greek force's escape from the Per-
c.). His major works include Anabasis, about
historian is Xenophon (430?-?354
And not only are there ideas such as goodness,
nd The Frogs, attack
truth, and beauty, Plato thought, but each com-
en a political and intellect pist
Empire aftery a disastrous campaign; Hellen-
mon noun in the language names such a supra-
temporal idea: each actual bed in our sensory
a hater of war. His last
Ed a of Thucydides' work;
Education continuation which became the
experience, in the world of phenomena, of be-
nuted satire, direct parody
coming, is only an imperfect copy of the ideal
422
GREECE: 11. Literature
bed; each perceptible triangle is only an approxi-
mate reproduction of pure triangularity. These
rhetoric to the status of an art, they found
the satirical to everyday
ready supply of pupils.
and quietly
pure ideas can only be apprehended by reason,
Technical artifice and terminology
Subsequently the art was greatly elaborated
The characte
and they have greater reality than their inade-
quate counterparts in space-time, on the principle
so that it could be said that the Greeks hated
Comedy are
that if the idea of triangularity did not exist, no
word for every trick of diction or delivery.
the masks that were still work
actual triangle could exist, whereas the existence
nute attention was paid to
man, the good-humored old m
of triangularity does not depend on the existence
tion, enunciation, and
the young lover, the girl betr:
of any particular triangle or triangles.
old maidservant, the parasite
The Symposium and The Republic are pri-
the schools of rhetoric every man has
braggart soldier, the pimp, the
marily attempts to make ethical applications of
memorized a large repertory of stock arguments
the prostitute with a heart of
stereotyped descriptions, and devices for
this theory. The Symposium outlines a progress
shows how a young man is ab
of the soul from love of particulars to love of
menting, arranging, and adorning his subject aug-
loved thanks to some proof,
pure being. The Republic describes an ideal so-
matter. Literature was often used merely to fur
final scene, that she is the long
ciety ruled over by a rigorously trained philos-
nish material for oratory; in turn, both Greek and
respectable citizen, while in
Roman literature acquired a consciousness
boy's ally, a rascally but likal
opher-class, a society that reproduces in its
form and style that was not rediscovered in Eg
outraged father. Within the C
organization the structure of a well-balanced
rope until the Renaissance. Successful teacher
st-of-the-generations theme
human soul, in which prudence, temperance, and
of rhetoric became persons of immense influence
limited set of characters, the
fortitude are ordered by the supreme virtue of
and reputation, and successful speakers evoked
of New Comedy seem to h
justice. But even Plato sensed that the logical
degree of adulation that seems incredible today
achieve innumerable variations
gap between his static being and his evanescent
Not everyone could write a speech as well
spectators of Western films,
becoming was almost unbridgeable. In his Par-
deliver it; for such people there arose a group
wanted only minor variations
menides he makes that Eleatic philosopher voice
of professional speech writers, known as logos
kind of play was transferred in
stringent and unanswered criticisms of the Ideas,
raphers. The best known of these was Lysis
and Terence, from whose wor
and in the later dialogues, where Socrates dis-
(458?-?380 B. c.). Over 30 of the 200 orations
perience of New Comedy deri
appears as spokesman, there are efforts to counter
by him known in antiquity are extant; they
The only complete extant
the criticisms and modify the system.
hibit the purest of pure Attic style. A rhetorical
Creek is The Bad-Tempered 1
A totally different way of bridging the chasm
of another sort was Isocrates (436-338 B;
Menander (343?-?291 B. c.);
between being and becoming was embodied in
who kept a famous school for orators and issued
discovered in Egypt in the 19
the work of Plato's chief disciple, Aristotle (384-
his own speeches in the form of pamphlets. Isoci
in 1959. Dyskolos is delightful
322 B. c.), the founder of the Lyceum, or Peri-
rates' smoothness and skill have brought on his
ably does not represent Menar
patetic School. To replace Plato's divided and
the charges of superficiality and monotony, be
of which we have only some f:
static system, Aristotle begins with the dynamic
he deserves credit for consistently pleading the
ments. He came to be consi
premise that the world of actual experience is
cause of Greek unity.
New Comedy writer.
the real world and that in it potentialities realize
By far the most outstanding of political ore
Another popular type of dr.
themselves in actuality. Each object or individual
tors was Demosthenes (384-322 B. c.), universally
@ short farce of everyday life
can be viewed in terms of four aspects (the "four
considered the supreme model of eloquence.
1
trace of plot. Mime, or some
causes") -as material, as form, as a link in a
the opinion of ancient critics, his earnestness and
and flourished in Sicily and 01
chain of causation, and according to its purpose,
acuteness, and his technical mastery, lifted
the Greek world previously, bu
but the last-named is predominant in the case
orations to the height of sublimity. But his 14
rogue and best literary expre:
of living things, from plants to men, all of which
long battle to keep Athens and the other Greek
and Roman times.
are characterized by entelechy, "having the goal
city-states from falling under the domination
Postry. The only original
within," the goal being a perfection that strives
Macedonia ended in failure and suicide.
merge in this period was the ]
for its own realization.
kyl. This form was created b
This principle, probably inspired by Aris-
THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD
Theocritus (active about 280
totle's interest in biology, is most useful in ethics
The period from the death of Alexander the
(The Nicomachean Ethics), where happiness is
in private if not performed (
were actually literary mimes, i:
Great to the Roman conquest of the Greek work
shown to consist, not in such extrinsic things
roughly from 320 to 150 B. c., is called the Hd
East striking of these idyls are
as pleasure, prestige, or money, but in the de-
lenistic Age. Literary historians, however, afters
or Cos; the dialect is rustic,
velopment of the self toward its realization in
call it the Alexandrian Age, because of the into
ence of the library established at Alexandria The IN
are are shepherds who spend thei
terms of its own unique being. It appears again
in literary criticism (The Poetics), where em-
the Ptolemies, the Greek rulers of Egypt.
Dis pipes, and complaining of thei
another to singing contest:
phasis is placed on the organic unfolding of
Ptolemies and their appointed librarians sought
kind of theme had an exot
genre and plot.
obtain good texts of virtually every imports
appeal for the sophisticated A
The kernel of Aristotelianism is found, per-
Greek work. Much labor was devoted to edition
who Equallys of Callimachus are (c
sophisticated
haps, in Physics and Metaphysics, but a mere
classifying, criticizing, furnis
sampling of his titles-Politics, Rhetoric, On the
commentaries. It was
the astounding diversity of his interests. In addi-
the the the bulk
poeti
Heavens, On the Soul, Animal Generation-shows
ence, especially
physics, and the
on a
tion, his writings on logic established principles
procedures were
that were scarcely added to for 2,000 years.
Oratory. The 4th century B. C. was a golden
the sense that the age was traditional, interes
making available the Greek literary
in the perfection of technique, and unlikely of
The THE evil."
THE big
age for oratory. The Greeks appear to have al-
ways been fond of speeches, both as speakers and
surpass or even equal
Stictic another kind of
as listeners. Almost all Homer's characters are
past, it might earn the
Hesiod poet pt
eloquent and disputatious. A favorite scene in
originality in the romantic meaning of this is
often given it. However, the the
tragedies and comedies is the agón, the lengthy
and balanced debate. Both Herodotus and Thu-
and the age was hardly decadent if by or
my the
cydides took pains in composing the orations they
plied that it produced nothing excellent last
revised Age that we encounter
But it is
assigned to the protagonists in their histories.
New Comedy. New was the
such subj
The craze for frequenting the lawcourts in Athens
tinct literary genre to come
fishing,
was so intense that Aristophanes satirizes it in
emerged gradually from
which period the chorus all but grows
had wo
these
The Wasps. Hence, when many of the Sophists
at the end of the 5th century professed to raise
interest shifted from the mythical, the
of the Academ no o
426
GREECE: 13. Science
Harmonics. Among the theorists, Aristoxenus
13. Science
Thales'
C.
(4th century B. c.), a pupil of Aristotle, and
explain him.
Ptolemy (2d century A. D.), the famous astron-
In the course of the 8th and
the al
omer, are outstanding. Thanks to them and
B. C., Greek speculative thought
others, there is a great deal of. information about
the Greek theory of scales (harmonics), which
fundamental change. The mythopoeic view
the world, characteristic of all pre-Greek of
must be undifferent
argued that althou
has been much studied with conflicting results.
tures and still dominant in the Homeric cub.
emerged the object
It is doubtful whether so much attention would
gave way during this time to a poema
Not all materia
have been paid to this subject, were it not that
approach. There were radical
of a single physis.
Plato and Aristotle spoke of certain harmoniai or
language, in literary forms, in
mocritus of Abder
"tunings," bearing such ethnic names as Dorian,
Phrygian, and Mixolydian, to which they at-
and in the Greeks' view of and
tributed ethos (moral character). Both philoso-
the world around them. Most characteristic
perhaps the material parti
best ki
the new mentality was the appearance, in of
The different shap
phers regarded it as' a function of the political
6th century, of rational thought and philosophy the
particles accounted
theorist to identify styles of music to a well-
ordered state; Plato in particular placed great
Logic, metaphysics, theology, aesthetics, ethics,
their constant disso
emphasis on the moral and political importance
political theory, and natural science are all prod
the change evident
ucts of this Greek rationalism.
made the number (
of musical education.
finite but large. Fc
It is clear that the music of the 5th century
In the absence of much written evidence, this
change in mentality-the so-called "Greek miracle
Empedocles, by coi
and earlier exhibited styles of melody, some
of only four basic
Asiatic in Origin (though doubtless partly Hel-
-is difficult to explain. Perhaps the demand for
and fire-in varying
lenized); it is likely that this music was modal,
political stability among the diverse local cultures
The formalists-
and that harmonia differed from harmonia not
that fell under a spreading Greek hegemomy
lowers of the 6th C
only in scale but in various other respects, in-
posed the need for new forms of discourse among
-took the materia
cluding (like the Indian rag and the Arabian
proponents of opposing myths, and for analysis
granted and soug
of the political process itself. Perhaps also the
which this matter
maqam) the use of melodic formulas that placed
emergence of new religious cults that shifted
a modal emphasis on particular notes of the
world as a cosmos,
emphasis from the community to the individual
scale. It is probable that, with the cult of mod-
anced, organic sys
weakened the hold of traditional myths on the
form from numbers
ulation and the development of theory, the dif-
minds of their adherents.
binations. Pythago
ferences between harmoniai were progressively
Rational Scientific Thought. Science as the
23 science and hac
lost from the late 5th century onward; and it is
search for a rational explanation of natural pho
therefore rash to assume that the theoretical
but it bequeathed
nomena began, then, with the Greeks. The ven
mately became its (
treatises and the extant melodies illuminate the
concept of science is a Greek invention. "Science"
and expression: na
"classical" music and account for the "ethical"
(episteme) denoted a unified account of the phys
approach. The ethnic names do indeed survive
ical world based on a small number of meta
PLATC
in the later theory and from it they were taken
physical assumptions, from which statements
The separate st
over, with a confusing change of nomenclature,
about observable objects and events could be de
philosophy run tog
for the tones of Western plainchant. It is bad
rived logically. Through this concept, the Greek
(427?-?347) and I
enough that the Western plainchant mode identi-
raised inherited technical knowledge to a level
men disagreed funo
fied as Mixolydian is a G-mode, while the Mix-
of abstraction theretofore unachieved.
certainty of knowle
olydian of late Greek theory was a B-mode; it is
Greek science did not spring from a vacuum
many places in hi
worse that it cannot be proved to what extent
Contact with the civilizations of Mesopotamia
the Timaeus, Platc
the Mixolydian harmonia, regarded by the philos-
and Egypt brought with it acquaintance with the
prehension of the
ophers as fit for lamentation, was based on a
results achieved by these cultures in mathematics
lenses, we could n
scale that stretched from B to B. But it can be
astronomy, medicine, and technology. In the 60
edge of it was not
stated that the Dorian was an E-mode.
and 5th centuries these results formed the core
mind by the senses
But a simple interpretation of the harmoniai
of the Greeks' concrete knowledge of the world
a "likely story" to
in terms of diatonic octave-scales is rendered the
and they continued to influence Greek science
Timaeus goes on t
less likely by a distinction, fundamental to Greek
However, this knowledge played little or a
form of a "myth" t
theory, between diatonic, chromatic, and en-
role in the first attempts to achieve a fully
grean universe fro
harmonic types of melody. The Greek diatonic
rational understanding of the physical world
carmonic proportion
scale was similar to the modern diatonic scale;
For this the earliest Greek
Plato's eclectic
the chromatic scale involved two semitones in
applied their analytical powers to
limited influence C
combination with a minor third; the enharmonic
ily observable with the
own time. Howe
involved two quarter tones in combination with
general trend toward
of of the Timaeus, re
a major third. Though much is obscure, it is
thinkers of the
mathematics el
clear that the music of the classical period em-
those of Ionia-felt the need to answer
braced a variety of intervals, including intervals
basic questions: (1) What was the single funds
Exthagorean pedago
to empha
less than the semitone, and various sizes of semi-
mental reality underlying and unifying the
knowledge of th
tone, tone, and minor third. The employment of
parent diversity of nature? To use their
septimal intervals is well established.
term for it, what was the physis? (2) How
High The world
Aristotle held them
While Plato to
R.P. WINNINGTON-INGRAM, Author of
diversity arise from this fundamental unity?
"Mode in Ancient Greek Music"
What was the source and cause of motion,
END my world
change, in the world?
has abstractions o
Bibliography
Materialists and Formalists. The
Barker, A., ed., Greek Musical Writings (Cambridge 1984).
Georgiades, Thrasybulos, Greek Music, Verse and Dance
these questions varied with the men
(1955; reprint, Da Capo 1973).
categories: the materialist and the formalist
gated them, but they can be placed in two
scientifict the belief knowle domin 17t 1
Lippman, Edward A., Musical Thought in Ancient Greece
(1964; reprint, Da Capo 1975).
Williams, Charles F., Music of the Ancient Greek Drama
Thales of Miletus, in the early 6th cent
(1921; reprint, Longwood 1977).
proposed a material physis: water. That
Winnington-Ingram, R. P., "Greek Music (Ancient)," in
occurs naturally in three states of matter
Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. 3 (St.
Martin's Press 1954).
liquid, and solid) and that
Winnington-Ingram, R. P., Mode in Ancient Greek Music
dance of marine life made the
appear to be the source of life
world that that that C(
of taxono biol t
(1934; reprint, Coronet Bks. 1968).
GREECE: 13. Science
427
Thales' choice, but nothing more is
individuals. The scientist gains knowledge of
gradain about him. One of his pupils, further. Anaximan- He
these individuals by determining the character-
ourse of the 8th and
abstraction a step
istics that distinguish them, as well as the prop-
speculative
and was that material, from it
erties that they share with other individuals.
change. The
matter, it
These shared properties define classes, and the
Il dominant in the Homeric
:haracteristic of all pre-Greek
engerged the of sensible world.
classes encompass more individuals as the prop-
2/
ring this time to a
all materialists could accept the notion
erties become more general. For example, each
Not single physis. The atomists, 5th of whom De-
man has properties that differentiate him from
here were radical
8 of Abdera in the late the existence century of is
other men, but all men share in common the
literary forms, in
posited
property uniquely and essentially characterizes
Greeks view of themselves practice
moving in empty space.
application of this process of abstraction, man is
ound them. Most characteristic
itality was the
different shapes and combinations of the
finally placed in the far larger classes of animals
The variety of nature, and
and then of living things. In each case the sci-
of THE THE the
and recombination for
entist must consider carefully what common
y, and natural science are all prod
change evident in the world. Some atomists
property uniquely and essentially characterizes
Greek rationalism.
de the number of the particles infinite; others,
the members of the class.
rade Esite but large. For the 5th century philosopher
The scientist's goal, therefore, is to fill out
itality-the so-called "Greek mirade this
ence of much written evidence,
by contrast, the world was made up
the classificatory hierarchy of nature and thereby
basic elements-earth, water, air,
to arrive by induction at the most general state-
lity among the diverse for
0 explain. Perhaps the demand
and fire-in proportions.
ments that can be made about nature-that is,
ler a spreading
The formalists-foremost among them the fol-
the first principles. The first principles estab-
d for new forms
of the 6th century philosopher Pythagoras
lished by Aristotle himself formed his answers
opposing myths, and
Lywers look the material existence of the world for
to the three questions mentioned above. In re-
al process itself. Perhaps also the
granted and sought rather the principles by
gard to the physis, Aristotle held that the ob-
which this matter was organized. They saw the
servable world and all its individual objects
new religious cults that shifted
world as a cosmos, an ordered, harmonious, bal-
stem ultimately from a material substratum dif-
n the community to the individual
unced, organic system that took its order and
ferentiated and individualized by various prop-
hold of traditional myths on the
form from numbers and their properties and com-
erties, or forms. Neither the substratum nor the
r adherents.
binations. Pythagoreanism was as much religion
forms could exist separately. From this answer
cientific Thought. Science as the
as science and had a strong mystical tendency,
to the physis problem was derived Aristotle's
rational explanation of natural phe-
but it bequeathed to rational science what ulti-
overriding concern with the classification of
1, then, with the Greeks. The very
mately became its central vehicle of investigation
forms.
ence is a Greek invention. "Science"
and expression: namely, mathematics.
Aristotle's Theory of Motion. What distinguished
noted a unified account of the phys
Aristotle's view of science from that of his prede-
sed on a small number of mets.
PLATO AND ARISTOTLE
cessors was less his answers to the first two
imptions, from which statements
The separate strands of pre-Socratic natural
questions than his ingenious solution to the prob-
ble objects and events could be de
philosophy run together in the thought of Plato
lem of motion. By motion Aristotle understood
Through this concept, the Greeks
(427?-?347) and Aristotle (384-322). The two
change: change of size (growth), change of
ed technical knowledge to a level
men disagreed fundamentally on the nature and
quality (for example, color), or change of place
theretofore unachieved.
certainty of knowledge of the physical world. In
(local motion). Change, he noted, could only
nce did not spring from a vacuum
many places in his works, but particularly in
take place in an object's accidental properties-
the civilizations of Mesopotamis
the Timaeus, Plato argued that, since our ap-
that is, those properties that did not serve to
ought with it acquaintance with the
prehension of the world had its origin in the
characterize it essentially.
d by these cultures in mathematics,
tenses, we could never be sure that our knowl-
Aristotle held that physical existence was
edicine. and technology. In the 6th
edge of it was not illusory-a deception of the
itself characterized by constant change, and
iries these results formed the core
mind by the senses. One could at best hope for
"physics" (the study of nature in general) was
concrete knowledge of the world
"likely story" to account for the world. The
for him synonymous with the study of motion.
tinued to influence Greek science,
Timaeus goes on to relate such a story, in the
To understand motion, then, Aristotle demanded
this knowledge played little or DO
form of a "myth" that weaves a basically Pytha-
to know its causes, which he said were four in
first attempts to achieve a fully
Gorean universe from material that is divided in
number. According to his own example of a
rstanding of the physical world
harmonic proportion.
bronze statue, he said that bronze becomes a
earliest Greek natural philosophers
Plato's eclectic cosmogony and cosmology had
statue because: (1) bronze is malleable and can
analytical powers to the most read-
Emited influence on scientific thought in his
be shaped (material cause), (2) a sculptor forms
phenomena. In keeping with the
own time. However, the mathematical tone
it into a statue (efficient cause); (3) a sculptor
toward rational inquiry, certain
of of the Timaeus, reinforced by the importance
has a model to work from (formal cause); and
early 6th century-and particularly
mathematics elsewhere in Platonic episte-
(4) the sculptor wanted to make a statue (final
a-felt the need to answer three
mology and pedagogy, lent further weight to the
cause). Thus in addition to classifying the phe-
s: (1) What was the single funds
to Pythagorean emphasis on mathematics as the key
nomena of the physical world, the Aristotelian
underlying and unifying the ap-
knowledge of the physical world.
scientist must also give an account of the way
ty of nature? To use their OWN
While Plato totally distrusted the senses,
Aristotle held them to be the source of all knowl-
in which the phenomena change. In doing so,
hat was the physis? (2) How did
from this fundamental unity? (3)
edge. The world that we see and feel is the
he must determine the causes of each change.
Efficient and final causes took on special im-
source and cause of motion, or
from this abstractions of our experience of it. From
only world we can know, and our ideas derive
portance in the later development of Aristotelian
world?
science. Aristotle made a central distinction be-
and Formalists. The answers to
of central belief Aristotle constructed a theory
tween natural change and "violent" change. In
varied with the men who investi-
it they can be placed in two major
science that dominated Western natural philos-
scientific knowledge and a body of positive
natural change, the efficient cause of the change
materialist and the formalist.
ophy until the 17th century, and continued to
is the nature, or essence, of the object itself.
Miletus, in the early 6th century.
exercise influence even after that time.
For example, men naturally grow, and it is also
aterial physis: water. That water
Aristotle's primary interest as a scientist lay
in the nature of man as an animal that he may
lv in three states of matter (gx
the rected the of biology, and his theory of science
change his location. Stones, on the other hand,
lid) and that the teeming abur
move naturally in one direction only: they fall
ie life made the Mediterranean Sex
Science, according to Aristotle, means knowledge
taxonomist's approach to the world.
to earth. A stone moving in any other direction
he source of life itself may help
requires an agent moving it, that is, an external
a world that consists ultimately of discrete
efficient cause must be determined. Finding the
428
GREECE: 13. Science
efficient cause of a stone's motion after it has left
the hand of the thrower posed a difficult problem
mechanisms based on them, in terms of
parameters set forth in Aristotle's Physics.
shether COI
for Aristotle's followers, particularly those of the
later Middle Ages. Attempts at its solution
of Alexandria, in the 1st century B. c., Hear
1 at its
helped to point the way to the science of dy-
strong influence in the Middle Ages and
on this tradition, and his writings exercised carried
For exan
}
namics in the 17th century.
sance. On the other hand, Archimedes Renain
science I
The Teleological Approach. Aristotle's search for
more abstract, took
they never 1
the final cause, which he himself considered the
most important, serves to characterize his tele-
and hydrostatics. His treatises the
of [and. Di
of Planes and Floating
be them
ological approach to science as a whole. That is,
sources until the 17th century.
mals? Othe
Aristotle held that all motion, and indeed every-
Astronomy. The Greeks were the first to
social order:
thing in the physical world, must have a goal
tempt to fit planetary observations into a at.
exe. Unlik
toward which it is striving. The scientist's central
prehensive geometrical scheme. Plato is credited com-
imored the
concern is to determine in each case what the
with establishing the traditional guidelines of
edge. At pi
goal is. Aristotle's belief in final causes-a belief
that he shared with other Greek thinkers and
Greek mathematical astronomy by his insistence
definitive so
that his system of philosophy imposed on all its
that such a scheme ultimately must explain ob
N for the p
thought. A
followers-has helped to explain many Greek
served behavior in terms of the uniform motion
take cultura
scientific ideas, such as the finite universe and the
of planets along perfectly circular orbits. Is
from there.
seconding these conditions, Aristotle added an
Whateve
impossibility of a void.
This teleological approach also illustrates a
other one through his convincing (but erroneous)
science surv
Greek tendency to analyze and describe the
demonstration that the earth must lie motionles
the Middle
physical world in terms of human standards and
at the center of the universe. The two greatest
cumbed to t
astronomers of antiquity, Hipparchus (198?-120
on Europe.
goals. Criteria that in modern times are gen-
erally considered ultimately subjective, such as
B. c.) and Ptolemy (2d century A. D.), accepted
science pose
these restrictions. Their work resulted in
science must
harmony or goodness, served also as standards for
system, set down in Ptolemy's Almagest, that
1 rational u
judging nature. Reciprocally, nature served as a
gave results accurate enough to satisfy astron
source of human ethical values, since Greek
omers over the next 1,500 years.
science also aimed at establishing the basic
Medicine and Biology. Greek medicine, like
harmony of man and nature.
most Greek sciences, inherited the concrete to
Further R
sults of previous centuries of observation and
Science and S
GREEK SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENTS
shall, Greek Sc
practice. Under the particular influence of Hip:
1963); Farring
Although Aristotle's system dominated Greek
pocrates of Cos in the 5th century B. C., Great
1981); Lloyd, (
scientific thought from the end of the 4th cen-
physicians extended and organized this early
1973): id., Mag
Origin and D
tury B. C. onward, it did have competitors. The
knowledge. They also sought to fit this informa-
1979).
atomists continued to speak of a world made up
tion into a comprehensive system. To the In
of particles moving in a void. while the Stoic
herited recipes of medical practice they added
14. Religior
school preached a mechanistic world ungoverned
a theory of disease, and they sought to under
For the a
by final cause. None of these competitors, how-
stand disease and its cure in terms of scientife
were closely
ever, could offer as complete an account as Aris-
physiology and pharmacology.
haps best kr
totle, and it was largely within the context of the
The greatest of the physiologists, Galen, in
in Homer 8
Aristotelian system that the individual sciences,
the 2d century A. D., operated on the principles
gods of the (
discussed below, were pursued in Greece.
set forth by Aristotle and established a come
in form and
Mathematics. Hand in hand with the novel
prehensive, teleologically organized body of medi-
are known n
notion of a rational understanding of the uni-
cal science that guided thought until the 16th
later Roman
verse went the equally novel and important con-
and 17th centuries. Aristotle himself made his
Jupiter, Ares
cept of the logically rigorous proof in mathe-
greatest purely scientific contributions in the
Most of the
matics, and the invention of logic itself. The
realm of biology. His scientific methods best
been adopte
concept of proof has shaped Western mathe-
suited that field, and his classification of marine
and cultures
matics ever since. The Greeks. beginning par-
life, in particular, remained useful well into the
Creek religio
ticularly with the school of Pythagoras, appre-
modern era. His theories of biological reproduc-
years, from
ciated the sense of certainty that proved results
tion and embryological development, together
merger of G
gave to mathematics. Their search for a logically
with those of Galen, served as a starting point the for
consistent understanding of numbers and of
the work of William Harvey and others in
geometrical figures had its first culmination in
17th century.
Little is
the 4th century in the work of Eudoxus and in
except that
the Elements of Geometry of Euclid. The math-
DECLINE OF GREEK SCIENCE
sky-god, fatl
ematically more sophisticated research of men
4th and 3d centuries B. c., Greek science larges
Despite its splendor and sophistication in the
weather, and
like Apollonius and Archimedes, in the 3d cen-
teristics that
tury, attained a height not reached again until
ceased to develop further after the 1st century
riod Greek r
the 17th century in Europe.
B. C. Ptolemy and Galen serve as exceptions
adaptive and
Greek mathematics had an overwhelmingly
to, rather than refutations of, a general calcife
geometrical emphasis; even the originally arith-
troon the the of
rel
cation of Greek scientific thought in their time bees
metical algebra of the Babylonians was translated
Many explanations of this decline have
Minoan civil
into geometry. Diophantus of Alexandria, in the
3d century A. D., was one of the very few writers
who preserved any tradition of numerical algebra.
able ture offered, of institutional Greek including science, network, the failure and the the to nonutilitarian widespread establish a suit can the EF
theon of
Greek religio
From Greek geometry also sprang the funda-
cern with religious issues throughout and
mental principles of geometrical optics.
Mediterranean world in the 1st century B. C. and
Mechanics. Greek mechanical thought had two
thereafter. Probably all
Age back religion, ment earth") (c. to of 1580- the parti Gree ant hav
manifestations. On the one hand, Aristotelians
others besides, were at
sought to understand the workings of the five
However, it is difficult THE
Minoan influe
simple machines (lever, inclined plane, screw,
crete links between Greek
religion was
Re
wheel and axle, and pulley) and of more complex
contemporary social and economic