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Djibouti Departure 4/24/91 [OA 6897]
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323153294
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Djibouti Departure 4/24/91 [OA 6897]
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13752-013
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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Speech Backup Chronological Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
Subseries:
Chron Files, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13752
Folder ID Number:
13752-013
Folder Title:
Djibouti Departure 4/24/91 [OA 6897]
Stack:
Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
G
26
21
3
5
staffed
4:00 fulday
Grant/Cawley
April 18, 1991
12 noon / Draft two
A:GOULED
DEPARTURE STATEMENT: VISIT OF PRESIDENT GOULED
REPUBLIC OF DJIBOUTI
DIPLOMATIC ENTRANCE
WEDNESDAY, APRIL 24, 1991
1:15 P.M.
There come times when nations must decide whether to allow
aggression to go unchallenged. The decision is never easy for
any country, large or small. Today, I want to thank one small
nation which took up a very large challenge in the Persian Gulf
war -- the Republic of Djibouti ((ji-BOOT-ee))
Tiny in size, lacking in resources, and vulnerable to
retaliation, Djibouti saw Saddam Hussein's aggression as an
intolerable precedent for small nations everywhere. And so
Djibouti joined the chorus of condemnation, voting with the Arab
League and the United Nations. It joined the coalition of forces
against Saddam Hussein. By opening its airfields, seaports and
territorial waters to the allies, Djibouti enabled allied forces
to liberate Kuwait quickly and efficiently. President Gouled
((goo-LED)), your personal support was invaluable.
Djibouti's response to the Gulf crisis, however, came as no
surprise to us. Djibouti has long been a model of stability and
moderation in a region which is no stranger to violence and
extremism. This deep and abiding desire for peace is a chief
characteristic of what I call "the new world order" -- it is the
responsibility imposed by our successes. It refers to new ways
2
of working with nations like yours to deter aggression -- and to
achieve stability, to achieve prosperity, and above all, to
achieve peace.
Together, we look forward to the day when the nations of the
world, large and small, cooperate peacefully to settle disputes
and deter aggression. We are glad to have the opportunity to
express our hopes directly to President Gouled, and we anticipate
many long years ahead in our relationship.
As an old Navy man, I want to thank you again, your
Excellency, for the warm welcome which Djibouti has always
extended to our Navy. Your support for United States soldiers,
sailors, airmen, Marines and Coast Guardsmen was essential to the
coalition's success. We thank you.
# # #
DT3
C35
WH
t:
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of
AFRICA
General Editors
Roland Oliver
Professor of the History of Africa
School of Oriental and African Studies
University of London
Michael Crowder
Editor, History Today
Research Professor
Lagos University Centre for Cultural Studies
1975-8
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge London New York New Rochelle
Melbourne Sydney
CONTEMPORARY AFRICA
Africa since Independence
I Abdallah returned from his Paris exile after a European
timber and agricultural products, mainly to France. Oil exports
ary invasion eliminated Ali Soilih in May 1978, and became
boomed in 1974, but by 1975 production had fallen off because of
president of the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros. He
technical problems and the oil companies' reactions to Ngouabi's
thed links with conservative Arab oil-producing states and
nationalization proposals, and other exports declined in the face of
d French aid to an economy entirely agriculture-based but
the general world recession. By 1976-77 the Congo, overcommitted
ing barely half the food requirements of its 300000
to development projects, faced a balance of payments deficit of US
ants, plus some export crops-copra, vanilla, cloves and
$160 million. The oilfields are small and will be exhausted by the early
e oils. France also now provides military assistance although
1980s; nevertheless, the rest of the economy has stagnated and in
blem of Mayotte remain unsolved.
A.P.H.
1978 (after an upturn in production) crude oil constituted 69 per cent
of exports. Nguesso's intervention may imply a shift back to the
relatively leftist policies of Ngouabi which had been diluted by
Opango: this was certainly the tenor of the new regime's public
go
pronouncements. By late 1979, however, Nguesso had shown no
signs of taking a rigorously socialist path in practice. The mix of
342000
'socialist' and 'pro-Western' policies continued. In June 1979, for
tion 1980 (UN projection)
1532000
example, the Congo opened negotiations with Western-oriented
Zaire aimed at increasing cooperation between the two countries; in
er capital 1977 (US$)
500
November a visit by Nguesso to Paris to seek French aid coincided
Brazzaville.
with the announcement that 600 Congolese children had been sent to
2
CFA franc
Cuba for education.
M.S.
igo gained full independence from France on 15 August
ie first President, Abbé Fulbert Youlou, leader of the Union
Djibouti
tique pour la Défense des Intérêts Africans followed policies of
ion with France and support for the Western bloc. In August
wever, urban unemployment, anti-trade union government
Area (km²)
21783
S, ethnic favouritism, and plans for the establishment of a
Population 1980 (UN projection)
119000
litical party stimulated an uprising which led Youlou to
GNP per capita 1977 (US$)
Not available
was succeeded by a government which advocated Marxist-
Capital
Djibouti
socialism under the direction of a new political party, the
Currency
Djibouti franc
nt National Révolutionnaire (MNR). The MNR, however,
and political conflict, and opposition to its position as the
Before and since independence, Djibouti has been dominated by its
ical party. After disturbances and anti-government con-
neighbours and their links with its two main ethnic groups: Ethiopia
the army, led by its commander-in-chief, Marien Ngouabi,
with the Afars, and Somalia with the Issas. Independence was
d in 1968 and took over power, maintaining avowedly
delayed until June 1977 because of these tensions and was
olicies under the direction of the Parti Congolais du Travail
immediately followed by the Ethiopia-Somalia war in the Ogaden.*
le 1970s saw a continuing struggle for power among the
For Djibouti the war was a catastrophe. The Afar/Issa balance was
eaders. In March 1977 Ngouabi was assassinated and was
upset and Afar members of President Hassan Gouled's government
1 by Colonel Joachim Yhombi-Opango; in February 1979
resigned in 1978, claiming that their community was being
vas eased out of power by pressure from the left-whose
persecuted. Thousands of refugees flooded across the border into
I accusations against him of corruption and high-living led
Djibouti and the economy, based almost entirely on port trade,
risonment in August-and was replaced by Colonel Denis
slumped following a breakdown of the rail link to Addis Ababa,
guesso.
which is vital to both countries. However, a large French military
ngo's heavy dependence on primary product exports has
presence provides political stability, and Ethiopian successes in the
it all the military/PCT regimes have, to a lesser or greater
Ogaden led to both the beginning of a restoration of the old ethnic
mpered socialist policies with 'pragmatism'. Until the
balance and a reopening of the railway line, which gave promise of an
of offshore oilfields the Congo depended on the export of
economic revival.
C.S.
229
country. Political changes among the Afar popul
lation led to increased pressure for indeper
dence from that quarter also.
In 1977 the territory became formally inde.
pendent, with the neutral name Republic of Dji:
bouti. The new republic was led by the veteran
Issa moderate Hassan Gouled Aptidon. Empha
sizing traditional links with the Arab world.
became a member of the Arab League; and
depended for much of its finance on Saudi Arabi
and other Arab countries. Somali nationalist as
pirations remained unsatisfied, but the Somali
Republic formally denied any territorial claims
bouti. France retained a military base in the port of Dji,
In 1978-1979, the problems of the new state
were aggravated by the influx of perhaps 50,000
refugees, mainly Somalis escaping from the con.1
flict between Somalia and Ethiopia in the latter
Ogaden region. International aid provided for
© PAT MILLER/MONKMEYER PRESS
the refugees temporarily, and a plan for their
Men discuss local affairs at a curbside get-together in Dji-
repatriation to Ethiopia was readily accepted by
bouti. Custom excludes women from such gatherings.
the Ethiopian and Djiboutian governments.
However, it proved hard to implement.
Djibouti today has problems as a trading state
tribespeople in the gulf area. Because of the
situated in a strategically sensitive area of the
inadequacy of Obock's harbor, the French began
globe. In order to survive, it must keep a bal
to develop the hitherto uninhabited site of Dji-
ance between the rival claims of its two major
bouti on the opposite side of the gulf. In 1896,
ethnic groups, between the neighbor states of
Djibouti town was made the capital of the newly
Ethiopia and the Somali Republic, and among
constituted colony of French Somaliland (Côte
France, the Arab countries, and the superpow
Française des Somalis). The frontiers drawn be-
ers.
tween the colony and Ethiopia on the one hand,
VIRGINIA LULING
and the then British Somaliland Protectorate on
Author of "A Somali Sultanate
the other, had the effect of dividing the territo-
Further Reading: Nelson, Harold D., Somalia: A Coun
ries of both the Afar and the Issa Somalis.
try Study (American Univ. 1982); Tholomier, Robert, Dji.
A treaty between France and Ethiopia,
bouti, Pawn of the Horn of Africa (Scarecrow 1981); Thomp
son, Virginia, and Adloff, Richard, Djibouti and the Horn of
signed in 1897, designated Djibouti the official
Africa (Stanford Univ. Press 1968).
outlet for Ethiopian trade. The railroad from
Addis Ababa was completed in 1917.
DJIBOUTI, ji-boo'te, the capital of the Republic of
During World War II the French authorities.
Djibouti, in northeastern Africa. The city is a
in Djibouti declared for the Vichy government,
port on Gulf of Tadjoura, an inlet of the Indian
and the port suffered an Allied blockade that
Ocean just south of the entrance to the Red Sea
brought extreme hardship to the population. Af-
It was built during the French colonial period,
ter the war, moves were made toward autonomy
largely in semi-Arab style. Unlike other ports on
for the colony: in 1946 it acquired a representa-
the coast, it has no "old town" or ancient monu-
tive council and returned a deputy to the French
ments.
National Assembly, though indigenous voting
The population, estimated at 180,000 in 1981,
rights remained restricted. Universal suffrage
is mixed. Its chief components are the two
was introduced in 1957. Meanwhile, the tide of
indigenous groups of the area, the Afar (Danakil)
Somali nationalism had begun to rise. As inde-
and the Issa Somalis; other Somalis; Yemeni
pendence and merger of the British and Italian
Arabs; and a small but important French commu-
Somali territories came into view, independence
nity.
for the French colony seemed likely to mean its
Although Djibouti has some light industry, its
joining the "greater Somalia." Such an outcome
economy depends on trade and financial ser-
was unacceptable to Ethiopia as to France. In
vices. The city is a free port and a center for
general, it was also unacceptable to the Afar, who
transshipment. The railroad joining Djibouti to
had previously shown little modern political con-
Addis Ababa makes the port Ethiopia's principal
sciousness but now began to play a dominant
outlet to the sea, apart from Eritrea. The inter-
part on the national scene. In a referendum held
national airport is becoming increasingly impor-
in 1967, with the balloting strictly controlled by
tant as a center for air freight. Djibouti also is
the French authorities, the Afar vote along with
the main French naval base on the Indian
the French carried the day in favor of continued
Ocean.
union with France. The country was then re-
The port was built in 1892 by the French,
named the French Territory of the Afars and
chiefly as a station on the Suez Canal route to the
Issas.
East, corresponding to the British port of Aden.
Hardliners among the Somali nationalists
It became the official outlet for the trade of Ethi-
went underground, and several terrorist episodes
opia and grew rapidly. In 1896 it became the
took place. Desire for independence within the
capital of French Somaliland, later called the
territory increasingly was supported by the Orga-
French Territory of the Afars and Issas. In 1977
nization of African States and world opinion,
the territory gained independence as the Repub-
while France's loss of its Eastern empire and the
lic of Djibouti, with the city as its capital.
uncertain situation of the Suez Canal made Dji-
VIRGINIA LULING
bouti port less essential to the metropolitan
Author of "A Somali Sultanate"
220
Holidays
Bangladesh
Bengali New Year
Bolivia (Tarija)
Public Holiday
Niger
Assumption of Power by the
April 15
Supreme Military Council, 1974.
North Korea
Kim Il-Sung's Birthday
Birthdates
1452
Leonardo da Vinci, Italian artist, archi-
1817
Benjamin Jowett, British theologian, clas-
tect, musician, scientist; considered one of
sical scholar, and educational reformer; re-
the most versatile talents of all time, the
nowned for his translations of Plato and
ultimate Renaissance man. [d. May 2, 1519]
Aristotle. [d. October 1, 1893]
1469
Nanak, founder of Sikhism, an Indian reli-
1820
Mariano Melgarejo, Bolivian ruler; Presi-
gious sect. [d. 1538]
dent, of Bolivia, 1864-71. [d. November 23,
1646
Christian V of Denmark and Norway. [d.
1872]
August 25, 1699]
1832
Wilhelm Busch, German poet, painter;
1672
Etienne (Geoffroy) Saint-Hilaire, French
originator of the comic strip. [d. January 9,
naturalist; published first table of chemical
1908]
affinities, 1718. [d. June 19, 1744]
1843
Henry James, U.S.-British novelist, re-
1707
Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician;
nowned for his prose style; became natu-
established many of the mathematical no-
ralized British citizen, 1915. [d. February
tations used today. [d. September 18, 1783]
28, 1916]
1741
Charles Wilson Peale, U.S. painter; best
1856
Jean Moréas (Ioannes Papadiamanto-
known for portraits of American Revolu-
poulos), French symbolist poet, born in
tionary figures. [d. February 22, 1827]
Greece; organized École Romane. [d.
March 30, 1910]
1793
Friedrich Georg Wilson von Struve, Ger-
man-Russian astronomer; pioneer in the
1858
Emile Durkheim, French sociologist; one
study of binary stars. [d. November 23,
of founders of modern sociology. [d. No-
1864]
vember 15, 1917]
1797
Louis Adolphe Thiers, French statesman,
1874
Johannes Stark, Germah physicist; Nobel
historian; a founder and the first president
Prize in physics for discoveries concerning
of the Third Republic, 1871-73. [d. Septem-
electricity and light, 1919. [d. June 21, 1957]
ber 3, 1877]
1880
Max Wertheimer, U.S. psychologist; co-
1800
Sir James Clark Ross, British polar ex-
founder, Gestalt movement, 1912. [d.
plorer; the first to explore Antarctica,
October 12, 1943]
1839. [d. April 3, 1862]
1887
(Helen) Violet Bonham Carter, British
1801
Edouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte
public official; wrote Winston Churchill as I
Lartet, French paleontologist; regarded as
Knew Him, 1965. [d. February 19, 1969]
one of the founders of paleontology. [d.
1889
Thomas Hart Benton, U.S. painter, mural-
January 28, 1871]
ist; created an American artistic style
1809
Hermann Günther Grassmann, German
called Regionalism. [d. January 19, 1975)
mathematician, Sanskritist; laid foundation
Asa Philip Randolph, U.S. labor leader; a
of modern vector analysis. [d. September
pioneer in the unionization of blacks in
26, 1877]
America. [d. May 16, 1979]
290
Religious Calendar
St. Ruadan of Lothra, abbot, monastery founder;
one of the Apostles of Ireland. Also called Ruadhan.
The Saints
[d. c. 584]
SS. Basilissa and Anastasia, martyrs. [d. C. 65 A.D.]
St. Hunna, matron. Also called the Holy Washerwo-
St. Padarn, Bishop in Ceredigion; missionary and
man, Huva. [d. c. 679]
monastery founder. Also called Patern. [d. C. 5th-
6th centuries]
1890
Wallace Reid, U.S. actor; leading man in
1933
Roy Linwood Clark, U.S. singer, songwri-
silent films. [d. January 18, 1923]
ter, musician.
1892
Corrie Ten Boom, Dutch author, lecturer;
Elizabeth Montgomery, U.S. actress;
sentenced to a concentration camp for
known for her role as Samantha on televi-
hiding Jews during World War II; wrote The
sion series, Bewitched, 1964-72.
Hiding Place, 1971. [d. April 15, 1983]
1938
Claudia Cardinale, Italian actress.
1894
Bessie Smith (The Empress of the Blues),
1940
Jeffrey Howard Archer, British author,
U.S. singer; legendary blues singer of
politician; Member of Parliament, 1969-74;
1920s-1930s. [d. September 26, 1937]
wrote Kane and Abel, 1979, and First Among
1896
Nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov, Russian
Equals, 1984.
physical chemist; Nobel Prize in chemistry
1944
Dave Edmunds, Welsh musician, produ-
for study of kinetics of chemical reactions
cer; member of the rock group, Rockpile.
(with C. N. Hinshelwood), 1956.
1957
Evelyn Ashford, U.S. track athlete; Olympic
1903
Waverley L(ewis) Root, U.S. writer, jour-
gold medalist, 1984, 1988.
nalist; best known as author of The Foods
of France, 1958, and Contemporary French
Cooking, 1962. [d. October 31, 1982]
Historical Events
1907
Nikolaas Tinbergen, British ethologist;
Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for
1450
French defeat English at Formigny (Hun-
research in ethology (with K. Z. Lorenz and
dred Years' War).
K. von Frisch), 1973.
1861
U.S. President Abraham Lincoln calls for
1912
Kim Il-Sung, Korean political leader; organ-
75,000 volunteers to serve for three months
ized Korean People's Revolutionary Army in
in the Union Army (U.S. Civil War).
Korean struggle against Japan; President of
1891
North Korea, 1972-
Katanga Company is formed in Brussels
to develop and settle the Katanga area in
1916
Alfred S. Bloomingdale, U.S. business
Central Africa.
executive; founded Diner's Club Credit
1892
Card Co., 1950. [d. August 20, 1982]
General Electric Co. is incorporated in
New York.
1922
Harold Washington, U.S. politician; Mayor
1904
The National Child Labor Committee
of Chicago, 1983-87. [d. November 27, 1987].
(NCLC) is organized to reform U.S. child
1924
Neville Marriner, British conductor, musi-
labor laws.
cian.
1912
Titanic, largest passenger liner afloat, sup-
1930
Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, Icelandic politi-
posedly unsinkable, strikes an iceberg and
cian; President of Iceland, 1980- ; first
sinks on its maiden voyage; over 1500
woman to hold that position.
drown.
(Continues. .)
291
Albert Einstein, during a lecture at Co-
York City and assemble before the United
lumbia University on his theory of relativi-
Nations in protest against the Vietnam
ty, speaks of time as the Fourth Dimension.
War.
1927
Chiang Kai-Shek and conservative mem-
1968
Two unmanned Russian satellites in earth
bers of the Kuomintang split with the
orbit find each other by radar, maneuver
Communists at Hankow.
together, and dock automatically.
1971
Yugoslav Ambassador to Sweden Vladimir
1938
Gen. Francisco Franco's forces capture
Lolovic dies of gunshot wounds received a
Vinaroz (Spanish Civil War).
week earlier in an attack by Croatian sepa-
1942
The entire population of Malta is awarded
ratists.
the George Cross of Great Britain for gal-
1974
Hamani Diori, President of Niger, is de-
lantry under heavy fire (World War II).
posed.
1945
Prisoners of war in Belsen, a German con-
1985
A U.S. grand jury indicts 23 members of the
centration camp, are liberated by the Brit-
neo-Nazi group, The Order, on crimes
ish Second Army.
ranging from racketeering to involvement in
1947
Rudolf Hoess is executed at Auschwitz, the
the murder of radio personality, Alan
Berg.
concentration camp which he had directed
during World War II.
The South African government announces
1952
Salah Eddine Baccouche becomes pre-
that it will legalize interracial marriage.
mier of Tunisia after French authorities
1987
The Stanford Linear Collider, a device
depose Mohammed Chenik.
that splits atoms, is unveiled by scientists at
1953
Stanford University.
Nikos Kazantakis's novel, Zorba the Greek,
is published in New York.
1963
About 70,000 persons participate in a Ban
the Bomb rally in London, during which
the British government's secret emergency
plan is circulated.
1965
West Germany finishes paying reparations
to Israel for crimes committed against Jews
during the Nazi era.
1967
Peace demonstrators numbering over
100,000 march through the streets of New
292
Holidays
Denmark
Queen Margrethe's Birthday
Celebrates the queen's birth,
1940.
Puerto Rico
de Diego's Birthday
Commemorates the birthday of
April 16
José de Diego, poet and
statesman, 1867.
Religious Calendar
The Saints
SS. Optatus and his companions, and St.
(Continues. .)
Birthdates
1319
John II (the Good) of France, acceded to
1854
Jacob Sechler Coxey, U.S. reformer; lead-
the throne 1350. [d. April 8, 1364]
er of the 1894 march of the unemployed on
1646
Jules Hardouin-Mansart, French archi-
Washington, D.C. called Coxey's Army. [d.
tect; designed the Galerie de Glaces at
May 18, 1951)
Versailles. Building superintendent and
1856
Albert Blake Dick, U.S. inventor of mime-
architect of Louis XIV. [d. May 11, 1708]
ograph process and machines; founder
1660
Sir Hans Sloane, English physician, natu-
of A. B. Dick Co. [d. August 15, 1934]
ralist; his museum and library formed the
1865
Grace Livingstone Hill, U.S. author; wrote
nucleus of the British Museum. [d. 1753]
April Gold, 1936. [d. February 23, 1947]
1661
Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax,
1867
Wilbur Wright, U.S. aviation pioneer; with
English politician and poet; first Lord of
his brother Orville (August 19) made first
Treasury and Prime Minister. [d. 1715]
powered, controlled, sustained airplane
1728
Joseph Black, Scottish chemist; evolved
flight on December 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk,
theory of latent heat. [d. December 6,
North Carolina. [d. May 30, 1912]
1799]
1871
1786
Sir John Franklin, English naval officer,
John Millington Synge, Irish dramatist,
explorer; lost in the Arctic while searching
poet; noted for his portrayal of primitive
for the Northwest Passage. [d. June 11,
life. [d. March 24, 1909]
1847]
1881
Edward Wood, Earl of Halifax, British
1821
Ford Madox Brown, British romantic
statesman, diplomat; Viceroy of India,
painter; teacher of Dante Gabriel Rosset-
1925-31; British Foreign Secretary, 1938-40.
ti. [d. October 11, 1893]
[d. December 23, 1959)
1838
Ernest Solvay, Belgian industrial chemist;
1889
Charlie (Sir Charles Spencer) Chaplin,
patented the Solvay ammonia process
English comedian, producer, director; the
for the manufacture of sodium carbonate,
beloved Little Tramp of the silent-film era.
1861. [d. May 26, 1922]
[d. December 25, 1977]
1844
Anatole France (Jacques Anatole Thi-
1904
Lily Pons (Alice Josephine Pons), U.S.
bault), French novelist, poet, critic; Nobel
operatic soprano. [d. February 13, 1976]
Prize in literature, 1921. [d. October 13,
1924]
1915
Walter Washington, U.S. politician, lawyer;
1850
Herbert Baxter Adams, U.S. historian; a
Mayor of Washington, D.C., 1975-79.
founder and first secretary of American
1918
Terence Alan (Spike) Milligan, British
Historical Association. [d. July 30, 1901]
director, author.
(Continues. .)
Encratis, virgin, martyrs. St. Encratis also called
Engratia. [d. 304]
St. Turibius, Bishop of Astorga. [d. c. 450]
St. Paternus, Bishop of Avranches. Also called Pair.
[d. 564]
St. Fructuosus, Archbishop of Braga. (d. 665]
St. Magnus of Orkney, martyr. Son of king of
April 16
Continued
Orkneys. Patron saint of fishmongers. Also called
Mans. [d. 1116)
St. Drogo. Patron of shepherds. Invoked against
ruptures, hernias, and unpleasant births. Also called
Drugo, Druon. [d. 1189]
St. Contardo, the pilgrim. [d. 1249]
1919
Merce Cunningham, U.S. dancer, choreog-
Historical Events
rapher.
1175
Treaty of Montebello is signed between
1921
Peter (Alexander) Ustinov, British actor,
Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, and
producer, writer.
the Lombard League.
1922
Kingsley Amis, British author.
1712
The Peace of Constantinople ends war
between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.
1923
Arch Alfred Moore, Jr., U.S. politician;
1746
Battle of Culloden, in Scotland, results in
Governor of West Virginia, 1969-77, 1985-89.
final defeat of Jacobites by the English.
1924
Henry Mancini, U.S. composer.
1853
The first Indian railway, from Bombay to
1929
Edie Adams (Elizabeth Edith Enke), U.S.
Tannah, is opened.
singer, actress; known for her role in It's a
1883
Paul Kruger, Boer leader, is elected Presi-
Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, 1963.
dent of the South African Republic.
1912
Harriet Quimby becomes first woman to
1930
Herbie Mann (Herbert Jay Solomon),
fly across the English Channel.
U.S. jazz musician.
1917
The Second Battle of the Aisne opens be-
1933
Ike Pappas, U.S. broadcast journalist;
tween Soissons and Reims (World War I).
correspondent, CBS News, 1965-
1922
The Treaty of Rapallo is signed by Germa-
1934
Robert C. Stigwood, Australian producer;
ny and the Soviet Union resulting in re-
Tony Award for Evita, 1980.
sumption of diplomatic relations and re-
1935
Stanley Robert (Bobby) Vinton, U.S.
nunciation of reparations for World War I.
singer; known for his song, Blue Velvet.
1941
German raider Atlantis attacks and sinks
1939
Dusty Springfield (Mary Isobel Cather-
an Egyptian passenger liner with 138
ine O'Brien), British singer.
Americans aboard, arousing great anti-Ger-
man sentiment in the U.S. (World War II).
1940
Margrethe II of Denmark; acceded to
throne January 14, 1972; first woman to
1945
U.S. troops land on Ie Shima in Ryuku Is-
rule Denmark.
lands (World War II).
1952
1947
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (Ferdinand Lewis
Victor Paz Estenssoro becomes president
of Bolivia after his followers overthrow the
Alcindor, Jr.), U.S. basketball player; six
Most Valuable Player titles; highest scorer
country's military junta.
and most games played in the National
1972
Two giant pandas, given to the U.S. by Chi-
Basketball Association; retired after 1988-89
na in return for a pair of musk oxen, arrive
season.
at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C.
294
St. Benedict Joseph Labre, mendicant. Patron of
displaced persons. Also called the Beggar of Rome.
[d. 1783]
St. Bernadette, virgin and visionary. [d. 1879]
The Beatified
Blessed Joachim of Siena. [d. 1305]
Blessed William of Polizzi, mendicant religious;
patron of Castelbuono. [d. C. 1317]
Blessed Archangelo of Bologna. [d. 1513)
1986
The Philippine government charges former
president, Ferdinand Marcos, with em-
bezzlement and misappropriation of
funds.
1987
The U.S. Department of Commerce permits
the patenting of new forms of animal life
developed through gene splicing and gen-
etic engineering. Such patents are not
extended to human applications.
1988
Khalil Walid, military head of the Palestine
Liberation Organization, is assassinated
in Tunisia, by alleged Israeli commandos.
295
Holidays
American
Flag Day
Samoa
Commemorates signing of
Instrument of Cession, 1900,
and establishment of Samoan
constitutional government,
1960.
Burma
New Year's Day
April 17
Japan
Children's Protection Day
Commemorates passage of laws
protecting juveniles.
Syria
Evacuation Day or
Independence Day
Commemorates withdrawal of
French troops, 1946.
Birthdates
1586
John Ford, English playwright. [death
1859
Walter (Chauncey) Camp, U.S. football
date unknown]
player, coach, athletic director; called the
Father of American Football. [d. March 14
1622
Henry Vaughan, Welsh mystic poet, trans-
1925]
lator. [d. 1695]
1676
Frederick I of Sweden, 1720-51; his rule
1866
Ernest Henry Starling, British physiolo
superseded by a powerful parliament. [d.
gist; with W. M. Bayliss, discovered hor-
March 25, 1751)
mone secretin, 1902. [d. May 2, 1927]
1741
Samuel Chase, U.S. jurist, lawyer; signer of
1874
Charles Hungerford Mackay, U.S. finan-
the Declaration of Independence; U.S.
cier, art patron. [d. November 12, 1938)
Supreme Court Justice, 1796-1811. [d. June
1880
Sir Charles Leonard Woolley, British ar
19, 1811]
chaeologist; excavated Ur of the Chal
1806
William Gilmore Simms, U.S. poet; wrote
dees. [d. 1960]
numerous histories of the American South.
1885
Isak Dinesen (Baroness Karen Chris-
[d. June 11, 1870)
tentze Blixen), Danish author; known for
1837
John Pierpont Morgan, U.S. financier,
her memoirs of life in Kenya, Out of Africa,
philanthropist; controlled one of the most
1937. [d. September 7, 1962]
prosperous and powerful financial em-
pires in the world. [d. March 31, 1913]
1886
Alfonso XIII, King of Spain. [d. February 28,
1941]
1842
Charles Henry Parkhurst, U.S. clergy-
man; remembered for denunciation of
1894
Nikita Khrushchev, Russian Communist
crime in New York City government. Presi-
leader; Premier of the Soviet Union, 1958-
dent of Society for the Prevention of
64. [d. September 11, 1971]
Crime. [d. September 8, 1933]
1897
Thornton (Niven) Wilder, U.S. playwright,
1845
Isabel Barrows, U.S. editor; early penolo-
and novelist. [d. December 7, 1975]
gist. [d. October 25, 1913]
1915
Rebekah (West) Harkness, U.S. philan-
1849
William Rufus Day, U.S. judge; Supreme
thropist, patron of dance; President and
Court Justice, 1903-22. [d. July 9, 1923]
Director of William Hale Harkness Founda-
1851
(Adrian) Cap Anson, pioneer U.S. baseball
tion; supported Robert Joffrey Ballet and
player. (d. April 14, 1922]
Jerome Robbins Ballet; President and Artis-
296
Religious Calendar
St. Stephen Harding, Abbot of Citeaux; co-founder
of Cistercian Order. [d. 1134]
The Saints
St. Anicetus, pope and martyr. Elected 155. [d. C.
The Beatified
165]
Blessed Eberhard of Marchthal, abbot. [d. 1178)
SS. Mappalicus and his companions, martyrs. [d.
Blessed James of Cerqueto, Augustinian monk. [d.
c. 250]
1367]
St. Innocent, Bishop of Tortona. [d. c. 350]
Blessed Clare of Pisa, widow and prioress. [d. 1419]
SS. Donnan and his companions, monks and
Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha. [beatified 1980]
martyrs. [d. 618)
St. Robert of Chaise-Dieu, abbot; founder of Bene-
dictine abbey in Auvergne. Also called Robert de
Turlande. [d. 1067]
tic Director, Harkness Ballet, 1970-75. [d.
1555
Spaniards capture Siena and sell it to
June 17, 1982]
Cosimo de Medici.
1916
Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Ceylonese
1711
Josef I, Holy Roman Emperor, dies and
stateswoman; first woman to hold position
is succeeded by Charles VI.
of Prime Minister, 1960-65, 1970-77.
1895
The Sino-Japanese Treaty of Shimono-
1918
William Holden (William Beedle), U.S. ac-
seki is signed, ending warfare and recog-
tor. [d. November 16, 1981]
nizing the independence of Korea.
1923
Harry Reasoner, U.S. television news cor-
1916
The American Academy of Arts and Let-
respondent.
ters is chartered by an act of Congress.
1934
Don Kirshner, U.S. publisher.
1922
Dom Miguel of Portugal renounces suc-
1946
Georges J. F. Kohler, German immunolo-
cession in favor of Dom Duarte Nuna.
gist; Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine
1923
for development of the production of anti-
The Chicago Motor Coach Co. (later The
bodies (with Cesar Milstein), 1984.
Hertz Corp.) is incorporated.
1941
1951
Olivia Hussey, British actress; known for
Yugoslavia surrenders unconditionally to
her role as Juliet in Romeo and Juliet,
Germany (World War II).
1969.
Yugoslavian army surrenders to invading
Germans (World War II).
Historical Events
1942
The first issue of the U.S. army newspaper,
1194
Second coronation of Richard I of Eng-
Stars and Stripes, is published.
land takes place upon his return from the
1946
Syria gains independence.
Third Crusade.
1961
Bay of Pigs, attempted invasion of Cuba
1492
Christopher Columbus receives his com-
by American-backed troops, begins.
mission from the Spanish monarchy to ex-
plore the western ocean.
The U.S. Supreme Court rules that restau-
rants conducting business on publicly-
1521
Martin Luther is excommunicated by Di-
owned property cannot refuse service to
et of Worms.
blacks.
(Continues. .)
297
1965
Demonstrators from throughout the U.S.
march on Washington in protest against the
Vietnam War.
1969
Alexander Dubcek is replaced as First
Secretary of the Czechoslovakian Commu-
nist Party by Gustav Huzak.
Sirhan Bishara Sirhan is convicted by a
Los Angeles jury of first-degree murder for
the slaying of Senator Robert F. Kennedy.
1972
Nina Kuscsik outruns women contestants
in the first Boston Marathon open to
women runners.
1974
Nigerois army, under Chief of Staff Lieu-
tenant Colonel Seyni Kountche, takes
power in Niger.
1975
War in Cambodia ends with the takeover
of Phnom Penh by Khmer Rouge troops.
1977
Women vote in Liechtenstein for the first
time.
1980
Zimbabwe, formerly Rhodesia, gains its
independence.
1982
Queen Elizabeth II proclaims Constitution
Act, supplanting British North America Act
of 1867 and bringing Canada solely under
its own jurisdiction.
1985
The last South African combat troops with-
draw from southern Angola, ending 10
years of military intervention in that
region.
298
Holidays
Zimbabwe
Independence Day
Commemorates end of white
April 18
minority rule, 1980.
(Continues. .)
Birthdates
1480
Lucrezia Borgia, Duchess of Ferrara, Ital-
Cuban ties with the Soviet Union. [d. July 6,
ian noblewoman; her name, long associat-
1982]
ed with vice and crime, has recently been
1911
Maurice Goldhaber, Austrian-U.S. physi-
vindicated. [d. June 24, 1519]
cist; responsible for breakthroughs in
1740
Sir Francis Baring, English banker, mer-
study of neutron physics and nuclear re-
chant; director of East India Company. [d.
actor technology.
1810]
1918
Frederika (Louise), consort of Paul I, King
1759
Thomas Thorild, Swedish poet, critic, and
of the Hellenes, mother of former King
philosopher; sympathizer with revolution-
Constantine of Greece and Queen Sofia of
ary leaders in France. [d. October 1, 1808]
Spain. [d. February 6, 1981]
1789
John Young Mason, U.S. politician, jurist,
1934
George Shirley, U.S. operatic tenor.
diplomat; U.S. Congressman, 1831-37; U.S.
1937
Robert Hooks, U.S. actor; founder, Negro
Secretary of the Navy, 1844-45; 1846-49;
Ensemble Co.
U.S. Attorney General, 1845-46. [d. October
3, 1859]
1940
Joseph L(eonard) Goldstein, U.S. physi-
1817
George Henry Lewes, British critic, phi-
cian; Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine
for research in cholesterol metabolism (with
losopher; associated with Marian Evans
(George Eliot). [d. November 28, 1878)
Michael S. Brown), 1985.
1842
Antero de Quental, Portuguese poet, phi-
1946
James Augustus (Catfish) Hunter, U.S.
losopher; known for his extremely pessi-
baseball player.
mistic works. [d. September 11, 1891)
Hayley (Catherine Rose Vivian) Mills, Brit-
1857
Clarence (Seward) Darrow, U.S. labor
ish actress; Oscar Award for Pollyanna,
and criminal lawyer; served as defense
1960.
counsel in many notable trials. [d. March
1947
James Woods, U.S. actor; known for his
13, 1938]
roles in Onion Field, 1979, and Videodrome,
1864
Richard Harding Davis, U.S. author, jour-
1983.
nalist; best-known and most influential
U.S. reporter of his era. [d. April 11, 1916]
Historical Events
1882
Leopold Stokowski, British-U.S. conduc-
1328
tor. [d. September 13, 1977]
Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV of Bava-
ria deposes Pope John XXII for heresy
1902
Giuseppe Pella, Italian economist, legisla-
and lese majesty.
tor; Prime Minister of Italy, 1953-54 (for five
1775
Paul Revere, American patriot, makes his
months); his administration marked by cri-
famous midnight ride to warn colonists of
sis with Yugoslavia over Trieste. [d. May 31,
advance of British troops.
1981]
1847
U.S. General Winfield Scott wins Battle of
1905
George Hitchings, U.S. biochemist; Nobel
Cerro Gordo (Mexican War).
Prize in physiology or medicine (with Ger-
trude Elion and Sir James Black), 1988.
1897
Greece declares war on Turkey:
1907
Rául Roa y García, Cuban government of-
1906
San Francisco is destroyed by the most
ficial, lawyer; responsible for strengthening
devastating earthquake in U.S. history.
(Continues. .)
299
Religious Calendar
SS. Eleutherius and his companions, martyrs
[death date unknown)
The Saints
St. Apollonius, the Apologist, martyr. [d. c. 185)
The Beatified
St. Laserian, Bishop of Leighlin. Also called Lais-
Blessed James of Lodi, Franciscan priest. [d. 1404]
ren, Molaisre, or Molaisse. [d. 639]
Blessed Andrew Hibernon, layman. [d. 1602]
St. Deicola, Abbot of Bosham. Also called Dicuill,
Blessed Mary of the Incarnation, widow. Helped
Dicul. [d. 7th century]
establish the Ursuline and Oratorian orders in Paris
St. Idesbald, Abbot of Our Lady of the Dunes Abbey,
and introduced the Teresian Carmelites to France
in France. [d. 1167]
[d. 1618]
St. Galdinus, Archbishop of Milan and Cardinal;
patron of Milan. [d. 1176)
1909
Joan of Arc is beatified in ceremony held
religious conflict force the resignation of
at St. Peter's in Rome.
Khwaja Nazimuddin.
1916
Russians capture port of Trebizond on
1954
Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser succeeds
the Black Sea from the Turks (World War
General Mohammed Naguib as premier of
I).
Egypt.
1922
Vilna is incorporated into Poland.
1955
The Bandung Conference of Asian and
1923
Yankee Stadium opens in New York City.
African states begins in Indonesia. During
1927
Chiang Kai-shek inaugurates moderate
the week-long meeting, delegates condemn
Nationalist government of China at Nan-
colonialism and lay the groundwork for the
king.
nonaligned nations movement.
1942
Sixteen American bombers under the com-
1960
Tangier is reintegrated financially and ec-
mand of Col. James Doolittle successfully
onomically with Morocco.
attack Tokyo, Yokohama, and Nagoya
1963
Successful transplants of human nerves
(World War II).
are reported by James B. Campbell of the
Pierre Laval takes the title premier of
New York University Medical Center.
France and forms a new cabinet in which he
1975
U.S. President Gerald Ford initiates the
is recognized as leader of the Vichy govern-
American Revolution Bicentennial, a na-
ment.
tionwide celebration, on the 200th anniver-
1945
League of Nations votes to dissolve, trans-
sary of Paul Revere's famous ride.
ferring its material property to the United
1978
U.S. Senate ratifies second Panama Canal
Nations.
Treaty providing for operation and de-
fense of the canal until 1999.
1949
Eire breaks its allegiance to the British
crown and its association with the Com-
1986
The South African government rescinds its
monwealth of Nations, becoming the Re-
Pass Law, that required blacks to carry
public of Ireland.
identification and obtain authorization to
enter white-designated areas.
1951
France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the
Netherlands, and Luxembourg sign a trea-
1987
Amintore Fanfani is inaugurated as pre-
ty establishing a single market for coal and
mier of Italy.
steel; this constitutes an important first
step in the direction of European eco-
nomic union.
1953
Mohammed Ali takes office as prime minis-
ter of Pakistan after food shortages and
300
Holidays
Sierra Leone
Republic Anniversary Day
Commemorates the founding of
the Republic, 1971.
Swaziland
King's Birthday
April 19
Uruguay
Landing of the 33 Orientales, or
33 Immortals
Commemorates landing of 33
patriotic exiles in 1825, an event
that ultimately resulted in
independence of Uruguay from
Brazil.
(Continues. .)
Birthdates
1721
Roger Sherman, U.S. statesman, lawyer,
ation, which led to the establishment of
surveyor; signer of the Declaration of Inde-
the National Health Service; 1948. [d. Feb-
pendence, the Articles of Association, the
ruary 4, 1980]
Articles of Confederation, and the Consti-
1903
Eliot Ness, U.S. government agent; headed
tution; the only person who signed all four
investigation of Al Capone, notorious Chi-
documents. [d. July 23, 1793]
cago gangster, 1929-32. [d. May 7, 1957]
1772
David Ricardo, English political econo-
mist; founder of the classical school of eco-
1912
Glenn T. Seaborg, U.S. nuclear chemist,
nomics. [d. September 11, 1823]
physicist; Nobel Prize in chemistry for iso-
1793
Ferdinand I, Emperor of Austria. [d. June
lating and identifying elements heavier
than uranium (with E. M. McMillan), 1951.
29, 1875]
1795
Christian Ehrenberg, German naturalist;
1921
Yitzhak Navon, Israeli statesman; Presi-
founder of protozoology. [d. 1876]
dent, 1978-83.
1832
José Echegaray y Eizaguirre, Spanish
1927
Don Adams (Donald James Yarmy), U.S.
dramatist, mathematician; Nobel Prize in
actor, comedian; known for his role as
literature, 1904. [d. September 14, 1916]
Maxwell Smart on television series, Get
1836
Augustus D. Juilliard, U.S. merchant, phi-
Smart, 1965-70.
lanthropist; founded Juilliard School of
1932
Jayne Mansfield (Vera Jayne Palmer),
Music. [d. April 25, 1919]
U.S. actress; sex symbol of the 1950's. [d.
June 29, 1967]
1865
May Robson (Mary Robison), U.S. charac-
ter actress. [d. October 20, 1942]
1933
Dick Sargent, U.S. actor; known for his role
as Darrin on television series, Bewitched,
1877
Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, U.S. sculp-
1969-72.
tor; conceived and financed Whitney Mu-
seum of American Art, 1931. [d. April 18,
1935
Dudley Stuart John Moore, U.S. actor,
1942]
musician; known for his starring roles in 10
and Arthur.
1883
Getulio Dorneles Vargas, Brazilian lead-
er; President, 1930-45, 1951-54. [d. August
1937
Elinor Donahue, U.S. actress; known for
24, 1954]
her role as Betty Anderson on television
series, Father Knows Best, 1954-62.
1900
Richard Hughes, British novelist. [d. April
28, 1976]
1949
Paloma Picasso, French designer; designs
jewelry for Tiffany and Co.; daughter of
1901
Edith (Clara) Summerskill, Baroness
Pablo Picasso.
Summerskill, British politician, physician;
a founder of the Socialist Medical Associ-
1962
Al Unser, Jr., U.S. auto racer.
(Continues. .)
301
Venezuela
Independence Day
Commemorates the birth of the
Republic, 1830.
Religious Calendar
The Saints
April 19
Continued
St. Ursmar, abbot and bishop. [d. 713]
St. Geroldus, recluse. [d. 978]
St. Alphege, Archbishop of Canterbury and martyr
Also called Aelfheah, or Elphege. [d. 1012]
St. Leo IX, pope. Elected 1049. Originator of the
Crusades. [d. 1054]
Historical Events
1012
In England, Danes murder Archbishop
1917
The Second Battle of Gaza ends in British
Elfheah and are bought off by King Ethel-
failure to dislodge the Turks (World War
red.
I).
1428
Peace of Ferrara is signed, in which Mi-
The first American shot of World War I is
lan cedes Brescia and Bergamo to Ven-
fired from the steamer Mongolia in repuls
ice.
ing a German submarine attack.
1539
Truce of Frankfort between Holy Roman
1919
Jozef Pilsudski and Polish army drive Bol
Emperor Charles V and his rebellious
sheviks out of Vilna.
Protestant subjects is signed.
1928
Oxford English Dictionary is completed
1587
Sir Francis Drake of England attacks Ca-
1932
diz, destroying 33 Spanish vessels and es-
The U.S. officially abandons the gold stan-
dard.
caping unscathed.
1945
1713
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, issues
U.S. troops liberate Buchenwald, a Nazi
Pragmatic Sanction, giving females the
concentration camp near Weimar, Ger-
right of succession in Hapsburg posses-
many.
sions.
Rodgers' and Hammerstein's Carousel
1770
Captain James Cook sights the eastern
premieres in New York.
coast of Australia.
1950
The first successful use of cardiac mas-
1775
The American Revolution begins with the
sage to treat heart attack victims is demon-
battles of Lexington and Concord.
strated at St. John's Episcopal Hospital in
Brooklyn, New York.
1839
Treaty of London is signed, establishing
recognition of Kingdom of Belgium by all
1951
General Douglas MacArthur delivers his
the states of Europe.
"old soldiers never die" speech to the U.S.
Congress after being relieved of duty by
1850
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between U.S. and
President Harry Truman.
Great Britain is signed, providing that
neither country may obtain exclusive con-
1956
Samuel Beckett's play, Waiting for Godot,
trol over proposed interoceanic canal in
opens on Broadway.
Central America.
1960
Pho Preung is chosen to succeed Prince
1853
Russia claims protectorate over Turkey in a
Norodom Sihanouk as premier of Cambo-
prelude to the Crimean War.
dia.
1861
Blockade of Confederate ports is pro-
1961
U.S. soldiers officially assume positions as
claimed by Union forces (U.S. Civil War).
advisors to Laotian army.
1901
The Philippine rebellion against U.S. forces
1970
Gustavo Rojas Pinilla is defeated in Colom-
is ended by proclamation.
bian presidential election.
302
The Beatified
Blessed Bernard the Penitent. [d. 1181)
Blessed Conrad of Ascoli, Franciscan and papal
legate. [d. 1289]
Blessed James Duckett, martyr. Patron of booksell-
ers and publishers. [d. 1602)
1971
Sierra Leone declares itself a republic
within the British Commonwealth.
1984
A U.S. court rules that Standard Oil Com-
pany and its subsidiaries are responsible
for damages incurred when the super-
tanker, Amoco Cadiz, broke apart off of the
French coast in 1978.
1985
The People's Republic of China
announces plans to reduce their armed
forces by one million troops.
1987
Biologists capture the last wild condor in
California. The bird is on the endangered
species list and will join other captured
condors in a breeding program.
303
Religious Calendar
The Saints
April 20
St. Marcellinus, first bishop of Embrun. (d. C. 374]
St. Marcian, monk. Also called Marian. [d. C. 488]
St. Caedwalla, King of the West Saxons. [d. 689]
Birthdates
121
Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor. [d. A.D.
1903
Gregor Piatigorsky, U.S. cello virtuoso
180]
born in Russia. [d. August 6, 1976)
1492
Pietro Aretino, Italian man of letters, no-
1904
Edward Louis Bartlett, U.S. politician,
torious libertine. [d. October 21, 1556]
gold miner, newspaperman. [d. December
1745
Philippe Pinel, French physician; primary
11, 1968]
founder of psychiatry; first to call insanity
1905
Harold Stanley Marcus, U.S. retailer; Pres-
a disease rather than result of possession
ident of Nieman-Marcus Co., 1950-72.
by demons. [d. October 26, 1826)
1910
Robert (Ferdinand) Wagner, Jr., U.S. pol-
1786
Marc Séguin, French engineer; inventor of
itician, diplomat; Mayor of New York City,
the wire-cable suspension bridge and the
1954-66.
tubular steam-engine boiler. [d. February
1918
Kai M. Siegbahn, Swedish physicist; Nobel
24, 1875]
Prize in physics for his work in spectros-
1807
Louis Jacques Napoleon Bertrand (Alo-
copy, 1981.
ysius), French writer of prose poems. [d.
1920
John Paul Stevens, U.S. jurist; Associate
April 29, 1841]
Justice of Supreme Court, 1975-
1808
Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon), Emperor
1924
Nina Foch, Dutch actress.
of France, 1852-70. [d. January 9, 1873]
1941
Ryan O'Neal, U.S. actor; known for his
1839
Carol I, first king of Romania; ruled 1866-
starring role on television series, Peyton
1914. [d. October 10, 1914]
Place, and in the movie, Love Story, 1970.
1850
Daniel Chester French, U.S. sculptor; cre-
1947
Andrew Tobias, U.S. author, business exec-
ated statue of Lincoln in the Lincoln Me-
utive; wrote The Funny Money Game, 1971.
morial. [d. October 7, 1931]
1949
Jessica Lange, U.S. actress; Oscar Award
1868
Charles Maurras, French writer, philoso-
for Tootsie, 1983.
pher; founder of Action Française. [d.
1951
1952]
Luther Vandross, U.S. singer, musician.
1961
1880
Sol Harry Goldberg, U.S. manufacturer.
Don(ald Arthur) Mattingly, U.S. baseball
[d. June 4, 1940]
player; American League Most Valuable
Player, 1985.
1882
Holland McTyeire (Howlin' Mad) Smith,
U.S. Marine Corps general during World
War II. [d. January 12, 1967]
Historical Events
1889
Adolf Hitler, German politician; leader of
1534
Jacques Cartier, French explorer, reaches
the National Socialist Workers' (Nazi) Party,
Labrador.
1921-45; dictator of Germany, 1933-45. [d.
1653
In England, Oliver Cromwell expels Long
April 30, 1945]
Parliament for attempting to pass Perpet-
1893
Harold Lloyd, U.S. comedian, actor. [d.
uation Bill which would have kept parlia-
March 8, 1971]
ment in the hands of only a few members.
1657
Spanish West Indian fleet is destroyed by
Joan Miró, Spanish Surrealist painter. [d.
the English under Admiral Robert Blake
December 25, 1983]
in the harbor of Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
1900
Norman Norell, U.S. clothing designer. [d.
1792
France declares war on Austria, Prussia,
October 25, 1972]
and Sardinia.
304
St. Hildegund, virgin. [d. 1188)
Blessed Simon of Todi, Augustinian prior. [d. 1322]
St. Agnes of Montepulciano, virgin and founder of
Blessed James Bell and Blessed John Finch, mar-
Dominican nunnery at Montepulciano. [d. 1317]
tyrs. [d. 1584]
The Beatified
Blessed Robert Watkinson and Blessed Francis
Page, priests and martyrs. [d. 1602]
Blessed Hugh of Anzy, prior. [d. c. 930]
1890
The Haka Road connecting Burma and In-
at Playa Giron near the original landing
dia is completed.
point of the Bay of Pigs invasion.
1902
French scientists Pierre and Marie Curie
1969
Terrorists attack nine post offices and a
succeed in isolating pure radium.
bus station in a weekend of violence
Decree for separation of church and state
among Roman Catholics, Protestants, and
1911
in Portugal is issued.
police in Northern Ireland.
1978
The Armenians revolt against Turkish
A South Korean Boeing 707 is shot down,
1915
atrocities and seize the fortress at Van in
killing two persons and injuring 13, when
the Caucasus (World War I).
the plane strays into Russian territory.
1979
1916
The French counter-attack German posi-
Palace of the Senators on Capitoline Hill
tions on the east bank of the Meuse at the
in Rome is bombed by a neo-Fascist organ-
Battle of Verdun (World War I).
ization and a previously unknown group,
the Italian Popular Movement.
Sir Roger Casement lands in Ireland to
1982
incite rebellion against British involvement
Spain reopens its border with British-
in World War I; subsequently, he is
owned Gibraltar after a lapse of 12 years.
hanged as a traitor.
1984
Foreign Secretary Sir Geoffrey Howe
1920
Montenegro becomes part of Yugoslavia.
announces that Great Britain will withdraw
from Hong Kong when its 99-year lease
1935
The weekly radio program, Your Hit
expires in 1997.
Parade, begins regular broadcasts. It ranks
the most popular songs, based upon sheet
1987
Karl Linnas, accused of heading an Esto-
music sales and radio air play.
nian concentration camp during World War
II, is deported from the U.S. to stand trial for
1939
Radio Corp. of America offically reveals
war crimes in the Soviet Union.
the modern system of television broadcast-
ing at the New York World's Fair.
1989
Dissident physicist Andrei Sakharov is
elected to the Soviet Congress of People's
1941
German troops occupy Belgrade, Yugosla-
Deputies.
via (World War II).
1941
King George II of Greece becomes premier
following the suicide of Alexander Kori-
zis.
1943
Germans massacre Jews in Warsaw ghet-
to.
1944
W. Somerset Maugham's novel, The Razor's
Edge, is published.
1947
King Christian X of Denmark dies and is
succeeded by his son, Frederick IX.
1951
Australia completes its trials of Japanese
citizens charged with war crimes (World
War II).
1961
Fidel Castro proclaims a victory after last
of the Cuban rebel invaders are captured
305
Holidays
Brazil
Independence Hero Tiradentes
(Tiradentes Day)
Commemorates the execution
of Joaquim José de Silva Xavier,
April 21
conspirator in revolt against
Portugal, 1789.
Indonesia
Kartini Day
A day of tribute to Baden
Adjeng Kartini, leader in the
emancipation of Indonesian
women.
Birthdates
1488
Ulrich von Hutten, German author, hu-
1882
Percy Williams Bridgman, U.S. physicist;
manist, and soldier. [d. September 1523]
philosopher of science; Nobel Prize in
1555
Ludovico Carracci, Italian painter; a pio-
physics for development of high pressure
neer of Italian baroque painting. [d. No-
chambers for study of matter at extreme
vember 13, 1619]
pressure, 1946. [d. August 20, 1961]
1634
Jan van Riebeeck, Dutch surgeon; found-
1889
Paul Karrer, Swiss chemist; Nobel Prize in
er of Cape Town, South Africa.
chemistry for investigations into chemistry
1729
Catherine the Great (Catherine II), Em-
of carotenoids, flavins, and Vitamins A
press of Russia. [d. November 6, 1796]
and B₂, 1937. [d. June 18, 1971]
Charlotte (Currer Bell) Brontë (Mrs. A.
1905
(Edmund Gerald) Pat Brown, U.S. politi-
1816
B. Nicholls), British novelist, poet; best
cian, lawyer; Governor of California, 1958-
known as the author of Jane Eyre; sister of
66. Father of Edmund G. (Gerry) Brown, Jr.
Ann (January 17) and Emily Brontë (July
(July 7).
30). [d. March 31, 1855]
1911
Leonard Warren (Leonard Vaarenov),
Hippolyte Adolphe Taine, French literary
U.S. operatic baritone. [d. March 4, 1960]
1828
critic, historian, positivist philosopher. [d.
1915
Anthony (Rudolph) Quinn, U.S. actor; a
March 5, 1893]
specialist in ethnic roles.
1837
Fredrik Bajer, Danish statesman, writer;
1926
Elizabeth II, Queen of Great Britain and
Nobel Peace Prize for his work in helping
Northern Ireland, 1952-
found the International Peace Bureau,
1932
Elaine May (Elaine Berlin), U.S. actress,
1908. [d. January 22, 1922)
director.
1838
John Muir, U.S. naturalist; primary force
1935
Charles Grodin, U.S. actor, director, writer;
behind U.S. land conservation movement.
known for his roles in The Heartbreak Kid,
[d. December 24, 1914]
1972, and The Woman in Red, 1984.
1843
Walther Flemming, German anatomist;
1941
David Lyle Boren, U.S. politician; Governor
discovered chromosomes and process of
of Oklahoma, 1975-79; Senator, 1979-
mitosis. [d. August 5, 1905]
Max Weber, German sociologist; founder
1942
Anne McGill Gorsuch Burford, U.S. law-
1864
of modern sociology. [d. June 14, 1920]
yer, government official; administrator,
Environmental Protection Agency, 1981-
1865
Frederick Albert Cook, U.S. physician,
83.
Arctic explorer; claimed to have been the
first person to reach the North Pole. [d.
1949
Patti LuPone, U.S. actress; Tony Award for
August 5, 1940]
Evita, 1980.
1872
Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel, German edu- 1951
Tony Danza, U.S. actor, boxer; known for
cator; founder of the kindergarten sys-
his starring roles on television series, Taxi,
tem. [d. June 21, 1952)
1982-85 and Who's the Boss?, 1985-
306
U.S. (Texas)
San Jacinto Day
St. Malrubius, abbot. Also called Maelrubha. [d.
Commemorates the Battle of
722]
San Jacinto, 1836.
St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury and Doctor
of the Church. Also called Anselem, Father of Scho-
Religious Calendar
lasticism. [d. 1109] Optional Memorial.
St. Conrad of Parzham, Capuchin lay-brother. [d.
The Saints
1894]
SS. Simeon Barsabae, Bishop of Seleucia-Ctesi-
phon, and his companions, martyrs. [d. 341]
St. Anastasius I, Patriarch of Antioch. [d. 599]
St. Beuno, Abbot of Clynnog. Also called Beunor.
[d. C. 640]
Historical Events
1408
Ladislaus, King of Naples, seizes Rome
1967
George Papadopoulos stages a coup
for the first time in attempt to conquer
d'état, gaining control of the government of
Italy.
Greece.
1509
Henry VII of England dies and is succeed-
1969
The U.S. Supreme Court rules that resi-
ed by Henry VIII.
dency requirements for welfare recipients
are unconstitutional.
1538
John Calvin, Protestant religious reformer,
is banished from Geneva, Switzerland.
1970
Bruno Kreisky is sworn in as Chancellor
of Austria.
1836
Texans under General Sam Houston de-
feat the Mexican forces of Santa Anna at
1972
U.S. Apollo 16 astronauts Charles M.
San Jacinto.
Duke, Jr. and John W. Young walk on
surface of moon and collect 214 pounds of
1912
Tibet becomes a province of China.
lunar rocks and soil.
1914
U.S. Marines occupy port of Veracruz,
1975
South Vietnamese president Nguyen Van
Mexico in effort to prevent German ship
Thieu resigns after ten years in office.
from unloading munitions there. The inci-
1977
Annie, by Martin Charnin and Charles
dent nearly causes war between Mexico
Strouse, premieres in New York.
and the U.S.
General Ziaur Rahman is inaugurated as
1918
Manfred von Richthofen, the Red Baron
president of Bangladesh.
German air ace, dies in battle over France
(World War I).
1979
United African National Council wins
Rhodesia's first universal suffrage elec-
1922
Civil war begins in China between the War
tions; Bishop Abel Muzorewa is elected
Lord of Manchuria and the War Lord of the
prime minister.
Yangtze.
1983
Members of the Ku Klux Klan and Ameri-
1927
Fascist Charter of Labor is promulgated
can Nazi Party are indicted on charges of
by Benito Mussolini of Italy.
conspiring to disrupt a 1979 demonstration
1945
U.S. forces capture Nuremberg, Germany
in North Carolina. Five people had been
(World War II).
killed in the confrontation.
1960
Brasilia, the new city in Brazil's interior, is
1984
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control
proclaimed the national capital.
announce that French researchers at the
Pasteur Institute have identified the AIDS
1963
Bruno M. Pontecorvo, atomic scientist
virus.
who defected from Britain to the U.S.S.R. in
1950, is named a winner of the Lenin Prize
in science.
1966
Opening of the British Parliament is tele-
cast for the first time.
307
Holidays
Spain
Queen Isabella Day.
Honors the birth of the Spanish
queen who sponsored
Christopher Columbus's voyage
to the New World.
April 22
U.S.
Arbor Day
(Delaware,
Commemorates birthday of J.
Nebraska)
Sterling Morton, Nebraska
politician and agriculturist.
U.S.
Oklahoma Day
(Oklahoma)
Commemorates the opening of
the Oklahoma Territory for
settlement, 1889.
Birthdates
1451
Isabella I, Queen of Castile, 1474-1504; pa-
the inner ear, 1914. [d. April 8, 1936]
tron of Christopher Columbus. [d. No-
O(le) E(dvart) Rolvaag, U.S. novelist, edu-
vember 26, 1504]
cator, born in Norway; author of Giants in
1707
Henry Fielding, English novelist, play-
the Earth. [d. November 5, 1931]
wright; among his best known works are
1881
Aleksandr Feodorovich Kerenski, Rus-
Tom Jones and Joseph Andrews. [d. Octo-
sian revolutionary leader; prime minister
ber 8, 1754]
of post-revolutionary Russia; overthrown
1711
Eleazar Wheelock, U.S. educator; founder
by Bolsheviks. [d. June 11, 1970]
of Hanover, New Hampshire, and of
1887
James Hall, U.S. novelist, short-story writ-
Dartmouth College; first president of
er; collaborator with C. B. Nordhoff (Febru-
Dartmouth, 1770-79. [d. April 24, 1779]
ary 1) on Mutiny on the Bounty and Pit-
1724
Immanuel Kant, German philosopher;
cairn's Island. [d. July 5, 1951]
one of foremost thinkers of the Enlighten-
1891
Nicola Sacco, U.S. radical, factory worker;
ment. [d. February 12, 1804]
with Bartolomeo Vanzetti (July 11), was
1766
Anne Louise Germaine, Baroness of
tried, convicted, and executed for a 1920
Staël-Holstein (Madame de Staël), French
robbery and shooting; became martyrs
novelist, critic; an enemy of Napoleon; ex-
representing an aggrieved Italian-American
iled during French Revolution. [d. July 14,
community. They were pardoned in 1977
1817]
by proclamation of the Governor of Massa-
1832
Julius Sterling Morton, U.S. politician, ag-
chusetts. [d. by electrocution August 23,
riculturist; responsible for establishment of
1927]
Arbor Day in several U.S. states.
1899
Vladimir Nabokov, U.S. novelist, short-
1854
Henri La Fontaine, Belgian lawyer, politi-
story writer, born in Russia; gained inter-
cian; Nobel Peace Prize for establishing
national attention with his 1950s novel
Permanent Court of International Jus-
Lolita. [d. July 2, 1977)
tice, 1913. [d. May 14, 1943]
1904
J. Robert Oppenheimer, U.S. physicist;
1861
Count Nobuaki Makino, Japanese states-
headed Los Alamos, New Mexico laborato-
man; Japanese representative at Paris
ries during development of first atomic
Peace Conference, 1919. [d. January 25,
bombs. [d. February 18, 1967]
1949]
1914
Jan Deltartog, Dutch author; Tony Award
1874
Ellen Glasgow, U.S. novelist. [d. November
for The Fourposter, 1952.
21, 1945]
1916
Yehudi Menuhin, U.S. violin virtuoso.
1876
Robert Bárány, Austrian otologist; Nobel
1919
Donald J. Cram, U.S. chemist; Nobel Prize
Prize in physiology or medicine for his
in chemistry (with C.J. Pedersen and J.M.
work on the physiology and pathology of
Lehn), 1987.
308
U.S.
Earth Day
St. Leonides, martyr. [d. 202]
Sponsored by Environmental
St. Agapitus I, pope. Elected 535. Also called
Action, Inc., Washington, D.C.
Agapetus. [d. 536]
U.S.S.R.
V.I. Lenin Memorial Day
St. Theodore of Sykeon, Bishop of Anastasiopolis.
Commemorates the leader of
[d. 613]
the revolutionary movement in
St. Opportuna, virgin and abbess. [d. c. 770)
Russia.
The Beatified
Religious Calendar
Blessed Wolfhelm, abbot. [d. 1091)
The Saints
Blessed Francis of Fabriano, Franciscan friar. First
SS. Soter and Caius, popes and martyrs. Elected,
Franciscan to form a library. [d. C. 1322)
respectively, C. 173 and 283. Caius also called Gaius.
Blessed Bartholomew of Cervere, martyr. [d. 1466]
[d. 174 and 296]
SS. Epipodius and Alexander, martyrs. [d. 178]
1922
Charles Mingus, U.S. jazz musician; a ma-
Spain, supporting Isabella II of Spain
jor figure in jazz of the 1950s and 1960s. [d.
against the pretender, Don Carlos.
January 12, 1979]
The island of Saint Helena is placed
1925
Aaron Spelling, U.S. producer; known for
under the direct administration of the Brit-
his production of television series, Charlie's
ish government.
Angels, Dynasty, and Hotel.
1884
The U.S. becomes the first nation to recog-
1926
Charlotte Rae (Charlotte Rae Lubotsky),
nize the International Association of the
U.S. actress; known for her starring roles on
Congo as a federal state.
television series, Diff' Strokes and Facts
of Life.
1889
Unoccupied land in Oklahoma, formerly
in Indian hands, is opened to white set-
1938
Glen Campbell, U.S. country-rock singer.
tlers.
1939
Jason Miller, U.S. playwright, actor.
1900
French are victorious over the Muslims in
1950
Peter Frampton, British born singer,
the battle for control of Chad.
songwriter; his album, Frampton Comes
Alive! sold over twelve million copies, 1976.
1915
The first use of poison gas (chlorine) as a
battle weapon is instituted by the Germans
1954
Joseph Bottoms, U.S. actor.
against French colonial troops in the Sec-
ond Battle of Ypres (World War I).
Historical Events
1918
Women in Denmark vote for the first time.
1124
Alexander I of Scotland dies and is suc-
1920
Leningrad becomes the new name of Pet-
ceeded by David I.
rograd (formerly St. Petersburg).
1500
Pedro Alvarez Cabral reaches the coast of
1953
J.O. Bowers becomes the first black Roman
Brazil and claims the territory for Portugal.
Catholic bishop in the U.S.
1529
Treaty of Saragossa defines Spanish-Por-
1960
American Lutheran Church is formed in
tuguese frontier in Pacific; Spain gives up
Minneapolis by the merger of three major
Molucca Islands.
Lutheran denominations-Evangelical Lu-
1793
George Washington, U.S. president, is-
theran, American Lutheran, and United Ev-
sues proclamation of neutrality in effort to
angelical Lutheran churches.
keep the U.S. from becoming embroiled in
1963
Lester Pearson is inaugurated as prime
war between Britain and France.
minister of Canada.
1834
The Quadruple Alliance is formed be-
1969
Doctors in Houston, Texas perform the first
tween Great Britain, France, Portugal, and
total human eye transplant.
(Continues. .)
309
Holidays
Bermuda
Peppercorn Day
Commemorates payment of one
peppercorn to Bermuda
governor for use of Old State
April 23
House by Masonic Lodge, 1816.
Cyprus,
National Sovereignty Day
Turkey
Commemorates inauguration of
Grand National Assembly, 1923.
(Continues. .)
Birthdates
1484
Julius Caesar Scaliger, Italian-French lit-
1853
Alphonse Bertillon, French criminologist;
erary critic. [d. October 21, 1558]
founded a system for identifying people
William Shakespeare, England's most
through bodily measurements (anthro-
1564
renowned playwright. [d. April 23, 1616]
pometry). [d. February 13, 1914]
1697
George Anson, English admiral; effected
1856
Arthur Twining Hadley, U.S. economist,
reforms in naval administration, raising na-
educator; President of Yale University,
vy to high efficiency. [d. June 6, 1762]
1899-1921. [d. March 6, 1930]
1720
Elijah Ben Solomon, Hebrew religious
1858
Max (Karl Ernst Ludwig) Planck, German
writer born in Lithuania. [d. October 17,
physicist; Nobel Prize in physics for devel-
1797]
opment of quantum theory, 1918. [d. Oc-
1775
J(oseph) M(allard) W(illiam) Turner, Eng-
tober 3, 1947]
lish romantic painter; best known for im-
1861
Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st
pressionistic landscapes and seascapes. [d.
Viscount Allenby of Megiddo, British field
December 19, 1851]
marshal; led Egyptian Expeditionary Force
1791
James Buchanan, U.S. lawyer; 15th Presi-
in World War I. [d. May 14, 1936]
dent of the United States, 1857-61; the only
bachelor president. [d. June 1, 1868)
1867
Johannes A. G. Fibiger, Danish patholo-
1804
Maria Taglioni, Italian ballet dancer born
gist; Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine
in Sweden; popularized dancing sur les
for his work in cancer research, 1926. [d.
pointes. [d. April 24, 1884]
January 20, 1928]
1891
1813
Stephen (Arnold) Douglas, U.S. politician,
Serge Prokofiev, Russian composer;
known especially for Peter and the Wolf. [d.
lawyer; a distinguished orator noted for his
March 5, 1953]
debates with Abraham Lincoln during the
1858 Senate campaign. [d. June 3, 1861]
1897
Lucius Clay, U.S. army general; Command-
er in Chief of U.S. Forces in Germany, 1945-
1839
James Bartlett Hammond, U.S. inventor;
49; administered Berlin airlift, 1948-49. [d.
developed the modern typewriter key-
board, patented 1880. [d. January 27, 1913]
April 16, 1978]
Lester (Bowles) Pearson, Canadian
1844
Sanford Ballard Dole, U.S. lawyer, politi-
cal leader; President, Republic of Hawaii,
statesman, diplomat; president of U.N.
1894-1900; Governor, Territory of Hawaii,
General Assembly; Nobel Peace Prize for
his role in settlement of the Suez Crisis,
1900-03. [d. June 9, 1926]
1957. [d. December 27, 1972]
1852
Edwin Charles Markham, U.S. poet, lec-
turer; known for his poem Man with the
1899
Dame Ngaio Marsh, New Zealand novel-
Hoe, which became a standard statement
ist; known especially for mysteries featur-
of exploitation of the working classes. [d.
ing Inspector Roderick Alleyn of Scot-
March 7, 1940]
land Yard. [d. February 18, 1982]
(Continues. .)
311
England
St. George's Day
Celebrates St. George, patron
saint of England.
Religious Calendar
April 23
Continued
The Saints
SS. Felix, Fortunatus, and Achilleus, martyrs. (d.
212]
St. George, martyr. Protector of the Kingdom of
England; patron of Portugal, soldiers, and Boy
1909
Rita Levi-Montalcini, Italian embryologist;
1943
Herve Jean Pierre Villechaize, French
Nobel Prize in chemistry for her discovery of
actor; known for his role as Tattoo on
a natural substance that promotes the
television series, Fantasy Island, 1978-83.
growth of nerve cells (with Stanley Cohen),
1944
Anthony James (Tony) Esposito, Cana-
1986.
dian hockey player; set National Hockey
1921
Warren Spahn, U.S. baseball player.
League record for number of shutouts in a
season with 15, 1969-70.
1926
J(ames) P(atrick) Donleavy, U.S.-Irish
novelist.
1947
Bernadette (Josephine) Devlin (McAlis
key), Irish civil rights leader; youngest
1928
Shirley Temple Black, U.S. actress, diplo-
woman ever elected to British Parlia
mat; child film star; U.S. representative to
ment.
the United Nations, 1969-70; Ambassador
to Ghana, 1974-76.
1960
Valerie Bertinelli, U.S. actress, producer;
known for her role as Barbara on television
1932
James Fuller Fixx, U.S. author, runner;
series, One Day at a Time, 1975-84.
wrote best-selling book, Complete Book of
Running; collapsed and died while jogging.
[d. July 20, 1984]
Historical Events
1932
(Roy) Halston (Frowick), U.S. fashion de-
1014
Brian Borormke, King of Ireland, defeats
signer.
Danes at Clantarf but is himself slain.
1936
Roy Orbison, U.S. country-rock musician,
1348
Order of the Garter, oldest and most fa-
singer. [d. December 6, 1988]
mous order of British knighthood, is estab-
lished by Edward III.
1938
Steven Douglas Symms, U.S. politician;
Senator, 1981-
1616
William Shakespeare dies.
1940
David Edwin Birney, U.S. actor; known for
1625
Maurice of Nassau dies and is succeeded
his starring role on television series, Bridget
by Frederick Henry as stadholder (ruler
Loves Bernie, 1972.
of the Netherlands).
Lee Majors (Harvey Lee Yeary), U.S. actor,
1633
League of Heilbronn is established, creat-
producer; known for his starring roles on
ing a union of South German Protestants
television series, The Big Valley, The Six
with Sweden and France.
Million Dollar Man, and The Fall Guy.
1661
Charles II of England, (the Merry Mon-
1942
Sandra Dee (Alexandra Zuck), U.S. act-
arch), is crowned.
ress, singer; known for her starring roles in
1795
Warren Hastings is acquitted of charges
Gidget, 1959, and Tammy Tell Me True,
of high crimes and misdemeanors during
1961.
his term as governor of Bengal.
312
Scouts. Invoked against skin diseases. [d. C. 303]
Optional Memorial.
St. Ibar, Bishop of Beggery. Also called Ivor. [d. 5th
century]
St. Gerard, Bishop of Toul. [d. 994]
St. Adalbert, Bishop of Prague, martyr and founder
of the Abbey of Brevnov in Prague. [d. C. 997]
The Beatified
Blessed Giles of Assisi, Franciscan and companion
to St. Francis of Assisi. [d. 1262]
Blessed Helen of Udine, widow. [d. 1458]
1850
Alfred Lord Tennyson becomes British
1952
The High Court of Parliament is created
poet laureate.
by the government of South Africa. The new
1860
Savoy is annexed to France by its own
court can overrule decisions made by the
vote.
Supreme Court which had recently found
an apartheid law unconstitutional.
1895
Tongoland is annexed by Great Britain.
1964
Official celebration of the four hundredth
1896
The first motion picture to be commer-
anniversary of William Shakespeare's
cially exhibited is shown in New York City.
birth begins at Stratford-on-Avon, Eng-
1904
American Academy of Arts and Letters
land, his birthplace.
is founded by National Institute of Arts
1969
Sirhan Beshara Sirhan is sentenced to
and Letters, with membership limited to
death in the gas chamber for the murder of
50 chosen from among members of the In-
Robert F. Kennedy.
stitute.
1970
The Gambia is proclaimed a republic
1909
Villages of Benevente and Samora in Por-
within the British Commonwealth.
tugal are destroyed by an earthquake.
James Dickey's novel, Deliverance, is
Theodore Roosevelt sails for Africa on a
published.
scientific expedition under the auspices of
1984
U.S. researchers at the National Cancer
the Smithsonian Institution.
Institute identify the AIDS virus, and reveal
1910
Mount Etna, on the island of Sicily, erupts.
a test to detect the virus in blood. French
scientists had announced a similar dis-
1923
The Second Lausanne Conference
covery two days earlier.
opens, between the Allied Powers and Tur-
1988
key to settle disputes in the Mid-East and
Kanellos Kanellopoulos sets two flight
Turkey.
records when he pedals the Daedalus 88, a
human-powered aircraft, from Crete to San-
1941
Greek army surrenders to Germany (World
torini.
War II).
1944
George Papandreou is named premier of
Greece following the resignation of Sopho-
cles Venizelos.
1945
U.S. uses guided missiles for only time in
World War II as two BAT missiles are re-
leased at Balikiapen, Borneo.
1950
Hainan Island is abandoned to Chinese
Communist troops by Nationalist forces.
313
Holidays
Sweden
Vega Day
Commemorates first successful
navigation of Northeast Passage
by Nils Adolf Nordenskjöld on
April 24
ship Vega, 1880.
Togo
Victory Day
U.S.S.R.
International Youth Day
U.S.A.
General Federation of Women's
Clubs Day
Sponsored by General
Birthdates
216
Manes (Mani, Manichaeus), Persian reli-
1882
Hugh Caswall Tremenheere Dowding,
gious leader; founder of Manichaean sect.
1st Baron Dowding, British general; head
[d. C. 274]
of Royal Air Force fighter command, 1936-
40. [d. February 13, 1970]
1533
William I, the Silent, Prince of Orange and
1902
Count of Nassau; founder of the Dutch Re-
Halldor Kiljan Laxness, Icelandic novel-
public which proclaimed its independ-
ist, poet, playwright; a major figure in Ice-
landic literature.
ence in 1581. [d. July 1584]
1904
1703
José Francisco Isla, Spanish novelist, sat-
Willem DeKooning, Netherlands-born art-
irist; known for his scathing satires on pul-
ist; known for his distorted portraits of
women.
pit oratory; his works were banned by the
Inquisition. [d. November 2, 1781]
1905
Robert Penn Warren, U.S. novelist, poet,
1719
Giuseppe Marc'antonio Baretti, Italian
critic, educator; Pulitzer Prize in fiction,
1947; Pulitzer Prize in poetry, 1958, 1979.
writer, critic, lexicographer; intimate of Dr.
1934
Johnson, Burke, and Garrick in England.
Shirley Maclaine (Shirley Beaty), U.S.
[d. May 5, 1789]
dancer, actress, author.
1936
1743
Edmund Cartwright, English clergyman;
Jill Ireland, British-born actress; leading
lady of the 1950's; wife of Charles Bronson.
invented the power loom, 1785. [d. Octo-
ber 30, 1823]
1942
Richard M. Daley, U.S. lawyer, politician;
Mayor of Chicago, 1989- ; son of Mayor
1815
Anthony Trollope, British novelist; known
Richard J. Daley.
for his novels of Victorian life. [d. December
6, 1882]
Barbra (Joan) Streisand, U.S. actress,
singer.
1845
Carl Friedrich George Spitteler (Felix
1954
Vince Ferragamo, U.S. football player.
Tandem), Swiss poet, novelist; Nobel Prize
in literature, 1919. [d. December 29, 1924]
1856
Henri (Philippe Omer) Pétain, French ar-
Historical Events
my marshal, chief of state; his defense of
Verdun in 1916 made him a national hero;
1558
Mary, Queen of Scots marries Dauphin
Premier of unoccupied France, 1940-44;
Francis of France.
later convicted of conspiring with the ene-
1704
The Boston News-Letter begins publica-
my; sentence commuted from death to life
tion, the first successful newspaper in the
imprisonment. [d. July 23, 1951]
American colonies.
1876
Erich Raeder, German admiral; Naval
1800
U.S. Library of Congress is established.
Commander-in-Chief, 1928-43. [d. Novem-
1898
Spain declares war on U.S. (Spanish-
ber 6, 1960]
American War).
314
Federation of Women's Clubs,
St. William Firmatus of Tours, hermit. [d. C. 1090]
Washington, D.C.
St. Fidelis of Sigmaringen, martyr. [d. 1622]
Optional Memorial.
Religious Calendar
St. Mary Euphrasia Pelletier, virgin and founder of
the Institute of Our Lady of Charity of the Good
The Saints
Shepherd. [d. 1868)
St. Mellitus, Archbishop of Canterbury. Built St.
St. Ivo, bishop; patron of lawyers, civilians, and of St.
Mary's Church at Canterbury. [d. 624]
Ive, England. Also called Ive, Ivia, or Yves. [death
St. Egbert, bishop. [d. 729]
date unknown]
1916
Sinn Fein rebellion (Great Easter Rebel-
1980
U.S. attempt to rescue its hostages in Iran
lion) begins in Ireland, with rebels declar-
is aborted because of malfunctioning heli-
ing the establishment of a republic.
copters.
1921
The Tyrol region votes for union with Ger-
1989
Richard M. Daley, son of former Mayor
many.
Richard J. Daley, is inaugurated as mayor of
1945
Dachau, German concentration camp, is
Chicago.
liberated by Allies (World War II).
Russian troops enter Berlin (World War
II).
1950
The state of Jordan is formed by union of
Jordanian-occupied Palestine and the
Kingdom of Transjordan.
1954
The stage revival of Sir J. M. Barrie's Peter
Pan premieres.
1960
Riots break out in Biloxi, Mississippi after
blacks attempt to swim at city's beaches.
1962
The first television pictures ever to be trans-
mitted by a satellite are relayed by Echo I
from California to Massachusetts.
1965
All foreign-owned enterprises in Indone-
sia are seized by the Sukarno government.
1968
Mauritius is admitted to the United
Nations.
1970
The Gambia Constitution is promulgated.
China launches its first earth satellite.
1971
Soyuz 10, Soviet spacecraft carrying three
cosmonauts, docks in space with Salyut, a
previously launched space station.
1975
Terrorists attack the West German embas-
sy in Stockholm, killing the military attaché
and demanding the release of 26 anar-
chists in West Germany.
1979
Manhattan, a film starring Woody Allen and
Diane Keaton, premieres in New York.
315
Holidays
Australia, New
ANZAC Day (Australia, New
Zealand,
Zealand Army Corps)
Samoa,
Marks the day on which the
Tonga
combined Army Corps landed
at Gallipoli during World War I,
1915.
April 25
Italy
Liberation Day
Celebrates the Allied Victory of
World War II, 1945.
Papua New
Remembrance Day
Guinea
Birthdates
1214
Louis IX (Saint Louis) of France. [d. Au-
1906
William Joseph Brennan, Jr., U.S. jurist,
gust 25, 1270]
lawyer; Associate Justice of U.S. Supreme
Court, 1956-
1228
Conrad IV, Holy Roman Emperor, 1250-
54; lost lower Italy to Charles of Anjou. [d.
1908
Edward R(oscoe) Murrow, U.S. broadcast
May 21, 1254]
journalist; Director, U.S. Information
1284
Edward II of England, 1307-27; lost power
Agency, 1961-64. [d. April 27, 1965]
to baronial committee; overthrown and im-
1914
Marcos Perez Jiminez, Venezuelan politi-
prisoned by Roger de Mortimer, protégé
cian; president of Venezuela, 1953-58.
of Queen Isabella; forced to resign throne,
1327; murdered. [d. September 1327]
1918
Ella Fitzgerald, U.S. jazz singer.
1599
Oliver Cromwell, English statesman, sol-
1923
Melissa Hayden (Mildred Herman), Ca-
dier; led the parliamentary forces in the
nadian ballerina.
English Civil War; installed as Lord Protec-
Arnold Ray Miller, U.S. labor leader. [d. July
tor of England, Scotland, and Ireland,
12, 1985]
1653-58. [d. September 3, 1658]
1925
Alhaji Shehu Shagari, Nigerian statesman;
1769
Sir Marc Isambard Brunel, U.S. engineer,
President of Nigeria, 1979-83.
inventor born in France; solved the prob-
1930
Paul Mazursky, U.S. director, writer.
lem of underwater tunnelling with his in-
vention of the cast iron tunnel shield, 1818.
1932
Meadow George (Meadowlark) Lemon,
[d. December 12, 1849]
III, U.S. basketball player; center, Harlem
1825
Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, Mexican law-
Globetrotters, 1954-78.
yer, statesman; President of Mexico, 1872-
1939
Patrick Lichfield (Earl Thomas Patrick
76. [d. April 21, 1889]
John Anson), British photographer; cousin
1873
Walter de la Mare, British poet. [d. June
of Queen Elizabeth II.
23, 1956]
1940
Al Pacino, U.S. actor.
1874
Guglielmo Marconi, Italian physicist; in-
1946
Talia Shire, U.S. actress.
ventor of the radio. [d. July 20, 1937]
1891
Sid Richardson, U.S. oil executive. [d. Sep-
tember 29, 1959]
Historical Events
1900
Wolfgang Pauli, U.S. physicist born in Aus-
1284
Edward Plantagenet (later King Edward
tria; Nobel Prize in physics for explaining
II), son of Edward I of England, is born at
the behavior of a class of atomic particles,
Caernarvon Castle, Wales and is pro-
1945. [d. December 15, 1958]
claimed the first Prince of Wales.
316
Portugal
Portugal Day or Liberty Day
The Saints
Commemorates seizing of
St. Anianus, Bishop of Alexandria. [d. 1st century)
power by Portuguese Armed
St. Heribald, Bishop of Auxerre. [d. C. 857]
Forces and establishment of
provisional military
The Beatified
government, 1974.
Blessed Robert Anderton and Blessed William
Swaziland
National Flag Day
Marsden, priests and martyrs. [d. 1586]
Blessed Peter de Betancur. [beatified 1980]
Religious Calendar
Feasts
St. Mark, evangelist and martyr; patron of Venice,
lawyers, and glaziers. Invoked against sudden and
unexpected death. [d. c. 74] [minor festival, Lutheran
church; major holy day, Episcopal Church]
1792
Guillotine is first used in France (French
1953
DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid) structure
Revolution).
is first presented in the British publication
Nature in an article by U.S. scientist James
1859
Work is started on the Suez Canal.
Dewey Watson and British geneticist
1867
Edo (Tokyo) is opened to foreign trade by
Francis H. C. Crick.
Japan.
1961
U.S. and West Germany exchange notes ef-
1903
First stone of new Campanile at Venice is
fecting a $587 million partial settlement of
laid.
Germany's post-World War II debt to the
U.S.
1905
Jean Sibelius conducts the premiere per-
1964
formance of chamber-orchestra version of
General Paul Harkins is replaced by Lieute-
nant General William Westmoreland as
Valse Triste.
leader of the U.S. Military Assistance Com-
1910
Charles Evans Hughes is appointed asso-
mand in South Vietnam.
ciate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.
1965
Civilian government in the Dominican
1915
Australian-New Zealand troops make first
Republic collapses, leaving army factions
invasion of Turkey, beginning Gallipoli
struggling for control.
Campaign (World War I).
1974
In military coup in Portugal, Dr. Marcelo
Caetano is overthrown and General
1920
The Supreme Council of the Paris Peace
Conference mandates Syria to France and
Antonio de Spinola becomes president.
Iraq and Palestine to Great Britain.
1975
Prince Norodom Sihanouk, head of a
government-in-exile since 1970, is named
1926
Reza Shah Pahlavi is crowned Shah of
chief of state for life by the Khmer Rouge's
Persia at Teheran.
Royal Government of National Union of
1944
The United Negro College Fund is
Cambodia.
founded in New York.
1976
New constitution of Portugal goes into ef-
1945
U.S. and Soviet troops, advancing from
fect.
opposite directions, meet at Torgau on the
Vietnamese elect joint National Assembly
banks of the Elbe River, cutting Germany in
to seal the reunification of the two
half (World War II).
Vietnams into one country.
1950
U.S. government orders Rumania to close
1980
Liberia is taken over by a 17-member Peo-
its commercial attaché office in New York
ple's Redemptive Council, and the consti-
City.
tution is suspended.
(Continues. .)
317
1982
Israel returns the Sinai, captured in 1967,
to Egypt as part of the 1979 Camp David
agreement.
British troops retake South Georgia Is-
land from Argentina in first military action
in battle over Falkland Islands.
1983
Portugal's Social Democrat Party, led by
former Prime Minister Mario Soares, wins
national elections.
Pioneer 10, U.S. space probe launched on
March 2, 1972, hurtles past the orbit of the
planet Pluto, becoming the first man-made
object to reach such a distance from the
earth.
1986
Prince Makhosetive Dlamini, 18, is made
King Mswati III of Swaziland after four
years of preparation for his accession fol-
lowing his father's death.
1989
More than a quarter of the Soviet Commu-
nist Party Central Committee, including
former President Andrei Gromyko, resign
their posts under pressure from reformers.
Japanese prime minister Noboru Takesh-
ita announces that he will resign after he is
implicated in a government bribery scan-
dal.
318
Holidays
Egypt
Sinai Liberation Day
Tanzania
Union Day
Commemorates the unification
of Zanzibar and Tanganyika,
April 26
1964.
U.S. (Florida,
Confederate Memorial Day
Georgia)
(Continues. )
Birthdates
1564
Christening date of William Shakespeare,
founded British newspaper empire. [d. No-
England's most renowned playwright. [d.
vember 26, 1940]
April 23, 1616]
1875
Syngman Rhee, Korean statesman; Presi-
1661
Daniel Defoe, British author; wrote Robin-
dent of Korean provisional government in
son Crusoe, 1719. [d. April 26, 1731]
exile, 1919-39; first president of the Re-
David Hume, Scottish philosopher; devel-
public of Korea (South Korea). [d. July 19,
1711
oped philosophy of skepticism. [d. August
1965]
25, 1776]
1879
Sir Owen Willans Richardson, British
1718
Esek Hopkins, American Revolutionary
physicist; Nobel Prize in physics for study
naval commander; first Commander-in-
of electron emissions from heated bodies,
Chief of American Navy. [d. February 26,
1928. [d. February 15, 1959]
1802]
1880
Michel Fokine, U.S. dancer, choreogra-
1774
Leopold von Buch, German geologist, ge-
pher, born in Russia; called the Father of
ographer; noted for early research on vol-
Modern Ballet. [d. August 22, 1942]
canic processes. [d. March 4, 1853]
1886
William L. Dawson, U.S. Congressman,
1785
John James Audubon (Jean Rabine),
1943-70. [d. November 9, 1970]
U.S. naturalist, painter, born in Santo Dom-
ingo; renowned for his ornithological illus-
Ma Rainey (Gertrude Melissa Nix Pridg-
trations. [d. January 27, 1851]
ett), U.S. musician, jazz singer. [d. Decem-
ber 22, 1939]
1798
Eugene Delacroix, French Romantic
painter; recognized as a leader in the de-
1889
Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein, Brit-
velopment of Romanticism in France. [d.
ish philosopher, born in Austria; early stu-
August 13, 1863]
dent of logical positivism; known for stud-
ies of philosophical significance of ordina-
1812
Alfred Krupp, German armaments manu-
facturer; considered the Father of Modern
ry language. [d. April 19, 1951]
Armaments. [d. July 14, 1887]
1893
Anita Loos, U.S. screenwriter, novelist; au-
1822
Frederick Law Olmsted (or Olmstead),
thor of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. [d. Au-
U.S. landscape architect; designer of New
gust 18, 1981]
York's Central Park. [d. August 28, 1903]
1894
(Walther Richard) Rudolf Hess, German
1828
Martha Finley, U.S. novelist; wrote novels
Nazi official; Hitler's deputy and second in
for young girls, including the Elsie Dins-
line of succession to Hitler, until his defec-
more stories. [d. January 30, 1909)
tion in 1941; imprisoned for life after World
1834
Charles Farrar Browne (Artemus Ward),
War II. [d. August 17, 1987]
U.S. humorist, lecturer. [d. March 6, 1867]
1896
Jules (Caesar) Stein, U.S. businessman;
1868
Harold Sidney Harmsworth, Viscount
founder and president of Music Corpora-
Rothmere, Irish newspaper publisher;
tion of America, 1924-46; fought for crea-
(Continues. .)
319
Religous Calendar
The Saints
SS. Cletus and Marcellinus, popes and martyrs
Cletus, elected 76. Marcellinus elected 296. Cletus
also called Anacletus, or Anencletus. [d. c. 91 and
April 26
304]
Continued
St. Peter, Bishop of Braga; patron of Braga, Portugal.
[d. c. 350]
St. Richarius, abbot. Also called Riquier. [d. C. 645]
St. Paschasius Radbertus, Abbot of Corbie. [d. c.
860]
tion of National Eye Institute. [d. April 29,
1936
Carol Burnett, U.S. comedienne.
1981]
1942
Bobby Rydell (Robert Ridarelli), U.S.
1897
Cass Canfield, U.S. publishing executive;
singer.
Senior Editor, Harper & Row. [d. March 27,
1943
Gary Wright, U.S. musician; member of the
1986]
rock band, Spooky Tooth.
1898
Vicente Aleixandre, Spanish poet; Nobel
1955
Prize in literature, 1977. [d. December 14,
Michael Warren (Mike) Scott, U.S. baseball
1984]
player.
1900
Charles Francis Richter, U.S seismologist;
developed method of measuring earth-
Historical Events
quake intensity; the Richter scale is named
for him. [d. September 30, 1985]
1798
Geneva, Switzerland is annexed by
France.
1902
Jonathan (Worth) Daniels, U.S. journalist,
author, government official; member of U.S.
1819
The first U.S. Independent Order of Odd
President Franklin D. Roosevelt's adminis-
Fellows lodge is established at Baltimore,
tration; later wrote biographies of
Maryland.
Roosevelt, disclosing his love affair with
1849
Civita Vecchia is occupied by French
Lucy Page Mercer. [d. November 6, 1981]
forces.
1914
Bernard Malamud, U.S. novelist, short-
1865
John Wilkes Booth, assassin of Abraham
story writer; Pulitzer Prize in fiction, 1966.
Lincoln, is shot by federal troops at a farm-
[d. March 18, 1986]
house near Washington, D.C.
1916
Morris (Langlo) West, Australian novelist;
1915
Italy signs a secret treaty with the Allies in
author of The Naked Country and The
London, gaining territorial concessions at
Shoes of the Fisherman.
the expense of Austria-Hungary and Tur-
1917
I(eoh) M(ing) Pei, U.S. architect, born in
key and joining the Allies (World War I).
China; known for innovative modernist
1922
The U.S. recognizes the newly indepen-
structures.
dent state of Egypt.
1930
Bruce Friedman, U.S. novelist, short-
1937
story writer, playwright; author of
German planes begin bombing Guernica,
Steambath.
Spain. Immortalized in a painting by Pablo
Picasso, the event becomes a symbol of the
1933
Arno Allan Penzias, U.S. physicist; Nobel
Republican cause (Spanish Civil War).
Prize in physics for discovery of cosmic
microwave background radiation, lend-
1943
U.S. task force bombards Japanese installa-
ing support to Big Bang theory (with R. W.
tions at Attu in the Aleutians (World War
Wilson), 1978.
II).
320
St. Franca of Piacenza, virgin and abbess. [d. 1218)
St. Stephen, Bishop of Perm; linguist; translated the
liturgy and scriptures into Russian. [d. 1396]
The Beatified
Blessed John I, Bishop of Valenca. [d. 1146]
Blessed Dominic and Blessed Gregory, Domini-
can missionaries. [d. 1300]
Blessed Alda, widow and visionary. Also called
Aldobrandesca. [d. 1309]
1962
First international satellite, carrying Brit-
ish experiments and propelled aloft by a
U.S. rocket, is launched from Cape Canav-
eral.
1964
Tanganyika and Zanzibar unite to form the
United Republic of Tanganyika and Zan-
zibar; it is renamed Tanzania on October
29, 1964.
1966
Aleksandr Pushkin, the first Soviet transat-
lantic liner, arrives in Quebec on her maid-
en voyage.
1977
Tanzanian Constitution is promulgated.
1986
The Chernobyl nuclear power reactor in
the Soviet Union experiences a hydrogen
explosion and core meltdown. Dangerous
amounts of radiation are released into the
atmosphere causing 23 deaths and requir-
ing the evacuation of 100,000 local resi-
dents.
321
t: Djibouti
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of
AFRICA
General Editors
Roland Oliver
Professor of the History of Africa
School of Oriental and African Studies
University of London
Michael Crowder
Editor, History Today
Research Professor
Lagos University Centre for Cultural Studies
1975-8
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge London New York New Rochelle
Melbourne Sydney
es
1d.
rat
th
sse
tin
Contributors
late
ult
bri
A.A. Anthony Atmore
ve
Centre of International and Area Studies, University of London
con
A.D.B. Anthony D. Buckley
Ulster Folk and Transport Museum
Afri
A.D.R. Dr A.D. Roberts
rati
School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
A.O'C.
ese:
Dr Anthony O'Connor
University College. University of London
ent
A.P.H. Adrian P. Hewitt
tior
Overseas Development Institute, London
lim.
A.R. Alan Rake
Editor, African Business
th A.
A.W.
Dr Andrew Warren
University College, University of London
ig tr
B.L.
Bernard Lanne
nom
Centre l'Etudes et de Documentation sur l'Afrique et l'Outre-Mer, Paris
rpre
B.W. Dr Brian Wood
ight
University College. University of London
B.W.H. Professor B. W. Hodder
oun
School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
Editorial Director: James R. Clark
eve:
C.F. Christopher Fyfe
Managing Editor: Barbara Horn
Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh
Executive Editor: Roger G. Thomas
C.S. Dr Christopher Stevens
rativ
Designer: Terry Smith
Overseas Development Institute, London
Maps: Swanston and Associates
been
Drawings: Rod Sutterby
C.S.C. Dr Christopher Clapham
University of Lancaster
eade
Diagrams: Martin Causer
Index: Marion Johnson
D.B.B. Professor David Birmingham
by t]
University of Kent
sive i
Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge,
D.B.C. David B. Coplan
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, CB2 1RP
ext g
D.C.O'B.
Dr Donal B. Cruise O'Brien
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School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
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Created, designed and produced by
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© Trewin Copplestone Books Limited. 1981
D.H. Dr David Hilling
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All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any means. electronic or
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First published by Cambridge University Press 1981
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Library of Congress catalogue card number: 79-42627
E.D. Dr Elizabeth Dunstan
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
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The Cambridge encyclopedia of Africa
1. Africa-Dictionaries and encyclopedias
G.A. Guy Arnold
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96 9
4
THE AFRICAN PAST
The Struggle for Independence
The Horn of Africa
During the 1940s and 1950s the Horn largely stood outside the
mainstream of African nationalism. In Ethiopia, which regained its
independence from Italian occupation in 1941, the Emperor Haile
Selassie* re-established his control and created a centralized regime
which allowed little scope for political participation. One chamber of
parliament-the Chamber of Deputies-became popularly elected
under a revised constitution introduced in 1955; the Senate remained
appointive. The Chamber of Deputies, however, lacked control over
an executive still directly appointed by the Emperor, and exercised
little influence, and no political parties were formed. The principal
pressures came in the 1940s and early 1950s from dissatisfied
members of the traditional ruling class, graduates returning from
education abroad and officers in the armed forces. A combination of
Aden Abdullah Osman
Abdar-Rashid Ali Shermarke
these pressures erupted in a brief abortive coup in December 1960.
The former Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somalia, administered
had no single dominant leader, its principal personalities being Aden
by Britain after 1941, were disposed of by the UN; Eritrea was
Abdullah Osman and Abdar-Rashid Ali Shermarke.
federated with Ethiopia in 1952 while Somalia became an Italian-
In British Somaliland nationalist activity scarcely started until
administered UN Trust Territory in 1950. In Eritrea, where about
1954, when political consciousness was aroused by the transfer to
half of the population initially favoured union with Ethiopia, initial
Ethiopian administration of grazing lands used by Somali nomads,
goodwill was dissipated by Ethiopian actions designed to reduce any
and the first elections did not take place until February 1960. All
regional autonomy, and the political parties formed in the 1940s were
parties, including the dominant Somaliland National League led by
suppressed. In Somalia, the Italian trusteeship was initially opposed
Mohamed Haji Ibrahim Egal, favoured union with Somalia, which
by the principal party, the Somali Youth League (SYL), which had
was achieved when the two territories united as the independent
been founded in 1943 and represented most Somalis other than the
Somali Republic in July 1960. No significant nationalist movement
sedentary groups of the Juba basin. However, the SYL came to
developed in the French Somali Coast (known after independence as
cooperate with the trusteeship administration, and comfortably won
Djibouti*), which voted heavily to remain associated with France in
the 1958 French colonial referendum.
C.S.C.
the elections held in 1956 and 1959. Unlike most nationalist parties, it
Haile Selassie
a government bank. Confronted by Italian
Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974
invasion in 1935 he appealed to the League
Haile Selassie (né Tafari Makonnen) was
of Nations, which imposed ineffective sanc-
born in 1892, the son of Emperor Menelik's*
tions against Italy. His own forces engaged
cousin Ras Makonnen. Tafari succeeded his
the Italian army in March 1936, but were
father as governor of Harar province, a
defeated, and Haile Selassie escaped to lay
position that gave him considerable wealth.
Ethiopia's case before the League in
After the deposition of Menelik's grandson
Geneva, after which he went into exile in
Iyasu in 1916, he became Regent for
Britain. Italy's entry into the European war
Menelik's daughter Zawditu, and heir to the
in 1940 made Haile Selassie an ally of the
imperial throne. On Zawditu's death in 1930
British, who helped him liberate Ethiopia in
he was crowned Emperor, adopting the
1941. After his restoration he was much
name Haile Selassie ('Power of the Trinity').
concerned with post-war reconstruction,
Continuing Menelik's modernizing work,
and development, and later with pan-
he established ministries, schools and hospi-
African politics. He was deposed in 1974 and
tals, issued anti-slavery decrees, and set up
died a prisoner in 1975.
R.K.P.P.
204
CONTEMPORARY AFRICA
Africa since Independence
dallah returned from his Paris exile after a European
timber and agricultural products, mainly to France. Oil exports
nvasion eliminated Ali Soilih in May 1978, and became
boomed in 1974, but by 1975 production had fallen off because of
ident of the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros. He
technical problems and the oil companies' reactions to Ngouabi's
links with conservative Arab oil-producing states and
nationalization proposals, and other exports declined in the face of
ench aid to an economy entirely agriculture-based but
the general world recession. By 1976-77 the Congo, overcommitted
barely half the food requirements of its 300000
to development projects, faced a balance of payments deficit of US
plus some export crops-copra, vanilla, cloves and
$160 million. The oilfields are small and will be exhausted by the early
S. France also now provides military assistance although
1980s; nevertheless, the rest of the economy has stagnated and in
1 of Mayotte remain unsolved.
A.P.H.
1978 (after an upturn in production) crude oil constituted 69 per cent
of exports. Nguesso's intervention may imply a shift back to the
relatively leftist policies of Ngouabi which had been diluted by
Opango: this was certainly the tenor of the new regime's public
pronouncements. By late 1979, however, Nguesso had shown no
signs of taking a rigorously socialist path in practice. The mix of
342 000
'socialist' and 'pro-Western' policies continued. In June 1979, for
1980 (UN projection)
1532000
example, the Congo opened negotiations with Western-oriented
Zaire aimed at increasing cooperation between the two countries; in
apita 1977 (US$)
500
November a visit by Nguesso to Paris to seek French aid coincided
Brazzaville
with the announcement that 600 Congolese children had been sent to
CFA franc
Cuba for education.
M.S.
gained full independence from France on 15 August
rst President, Abbé Fulbert Youlou, leader of the Union
Djibouti
le pour la Défense des Intérêts Africans followed policies of
with France and support for the Western bloc. In August
ver, urban unemployment, anti-trade union government
Area (km²)
21783
thnic favouritism, and plans for the establishment of a
Population 1980 (UN projection)
119000
ical party stimulated an uprising which led Youlou to
GNP per capita 1977 (US$)
Not available
as succeeded by a government which advocated Marxist-
Capital
Djibouti
cialism under the direction of a new political party, the
Currency
Djibouti franc
National Révolutionnaire (MNR). The MNR, however,
and political conflict, and opposition to its position as the
Before and since independence, Djibouti has been dominated by its
al party. After disturbances and anti-government con-
neighbours and their links with its two main ethnic groups: Ethiopia
e army, led by its commander-in-chief, Marien Ngouabi,
with the Afars, and Somalia with the Issas. Independence was
in 1968 and took over power, maintaining avowedly
delayed until June 1977 because of these tensions and was
licies under the direction of the Parti Congolais du Travail
immediately followed by the Ethiopia-Somalia war in the Ogaden.*
1970s saw a continuing struggle for power among the
For Djibouti the war was a catastrophe. The Afar/Issa balance was
ders. In March 1977 Ngouabi was assassinated and was
upset and Afar members of President Hassan Gouled's government
by Colonel Joachim Yhombi-Opango; in February 1979
resigned in 1978, claiming that their community was being
is eased out of power by pressure from the left-whose
persecuted. Thousands of refugees flooded across the border into
accusations against him of corruption and high-living led
Djibouti and the economy, based almost entirely on port trade,
isonment in August-and was replaced by Colonel Denis
slumped following a breakdown of the rail link to Addis Ababa,
lesso.
which is vital to both countries. However, a large French military
go's heavy dependence on primary product exports has
presence provides political stability, and Ethiopian successes in the
all the military/PCT regimes have, to a lesser or greater
Ogaden led to both the beginning of a restoration of the old ethnic
npered socialist policies with 'pragmatism'. Until the
balance and a reopening of the railway line, which gave promise of an
of offshore oilfields the Congo depended on the export of
economic revival.
C.S.
229
Ref.
A464 W6
Djibout,
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Affirmative Action (1978)
514
World History - Rising Expectations; Disillusionment
World History - Disillusionment
5
1968
Rising Expectations: 1960-69
Economy sluggish. The 1960s boom faltered in the 1970s; a severe recession in the U.S. and Europe
1974-75 followed a huge oil price hike Dec. '73. Monetary instability (U.S. cut ties to gold Aug. '71), the
1980
Economic boom. The longest sustained economic boom on record spanned almost the entire decade in
decline of the dollar. and protectionist moves by industrial countries (1977-78) threatened trade. Business
the capitalist world: the closely-watched GNP figure doubled in the U.S. 1960-70. fueled by Vietnam
investment and spending for research declined. Severe inflation plagued many countries (25% in Britain
War-related budget deficits. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 1967. stimulated West
1975: 18% in U.S. 1979).
European prosperity. which spread to peripheral areas (Spain, Italy, E. Germany). Japan became a top
China picks up pieces. After the 1976 deaths of Mao and Chou. a power struggle for the leadership
Sino-Soviet fighting
Men on moon
economic power ($20 billion exports 1970). Foreign investment aided the industrialization of Brazil.
succession was won by pragmatists. A nationwide purge of orthodox Maoists was carried out and the
Woodstock festival
Soviet 1965 economic reform attempts (decentralization. material incentives) were limited: but growth
"Gang of Four" led by Mao's widow Chiang Ching was arrested.
The new leaders freed over 100,000 political prisoners, and reduced public adulation of Mao. Political
continued. Reform and radicalization. Pres. John F. Kennedy. inaugurated 1961. emphasized youthful idealism,
and trade ties were expanded with Japan. Europe, and U.S. in the late 1970's. as relations worsened with
First Earth Day
vigor; he was assassinated Nov. 22. 1963. A series of political and social reform movements took root in
Russia. Cuba, and Vietnam (4-week invasion by China 1979). Ideological guidelines in industry. science.
the U.S., later spreading to other countries with the help of ubiquitous U.S. film and television programs
education, and the armed forces, which the ruling faction said had caused chaos and decline. were
and heavy overseas travel (2.2 million U.S. passports issued 1970). Blacks agitated peaceably and with
reversed (bonuses to workers Dec. 77; exams for college entrance Oct. '77). Severe restrictions on
cultural expression were eased (Beethoven ban lifted Mar. '77).
Iran-Iraq War begins
Solidarity founded
invades Lebanon -U.S. hostages held-
Pentagon Papers published
partial success against segregation and poverty (1963 March on Washington, 1964 Civil Rights Act): but
some urban ghettos erupted in extensive riots (Watts. 1965: Detroit. 1967: King assassination. Apr. 4.
Europe. European unity moves (EEC-EFTA trade accord 1972) faltered as economic problems
1968). New concern for the poor (Harrington's Other America. 1963) led to Pres. Johnson's "Great
appeared (Britain floated pound 1972: France floated franc 1974). Germany and Switzerland curbed
guest workers from S. Europe. Greece and Turkey quarreled over Cyprus (Turks intervened 1974).
ERA defeated
Society" programs (Medicare. Water Quality Act. Higher Education Act. all 1965). Concern with the
environment surged (Carson's Silent Spring. 1962). Feminism revived as a cultural and political
Aegean oil rights.
U.S. SST barred
All non-Communist Europe was under democratic rule after free elections were held in Spain June 76.
Bangladesh indep.
movement (Friedan's Feminine Mystique. 1963. National Organization for Women founded 1966) and a
movement for homosexual rights emerged (Stonewall riot. in NYC. 1969). Pope John XXIII called
7 months after the death of Franco. The conservative. colonialist regime in Portugal was overthrown
Vatican II. 1962-65. which liberalized Roman Catholic liturgy.
Apr. '74. In Greece, the 7-year-old military dictatorship yielded power in 1974. Northern Europe. though
S. Africa gives voice to Coloureds, Asians
U.S. Congress out
Opposition to U.S. involvement in Vietnam. especially among university students (Moratorium protest
ruled mostly by Socialists (Swedish Socialists unseated 1976. after 44 years in power). turned
Nov. '69) turned violent (Weatherman Chicago riots Oct. 69). New Left and Marxist theories became
conservative. The British Labour government imposed wage curbs 1975, and suspended nationalization
Wade abortion ruling
popular. and membership in radical groups swelled (Students for a Democratic Society. Black Panthers).
schemes. Terrorism in Germany (1972 Munich Olympics killings) led to laws curbing some civil liberties.
Maoist groups, especially in Europe. called for total transformation of society. In France. students
French "new philosophers" rejected leftist ideologies and the shaky Socialist-Communist coalition lost a
1978 election bid.
sparked a nationwide strike affecting 10 million workers May-June '68, but an electoral reaction barred
Religion back in politics. The improvement in Moslem countries' political fortunes by the 1950s (with
revolutionary change.
Arts and styles. The boundary between fine and popular arts were blurred by Pop Art (Warhol) and
the exception of Central Asia under Soviet and Chinese rule) and the growth of Arab oil wealth. was
followed by a resurgence of traditional picty. Libyan dictator Qaddafy mixed strict Islamic laws with
U.S. invades Grenada
rock musicals (Hair, 1968). Informality and exaggeration prevailed in fashion (beards. miniskirts). A
non-political "counterculture" developed. rejecting traditional bourgeois life goals and personal habits,
socialism in his militant ideology, called for an eventual Moslem return to Spain and Sicily. The illegal
U.S. mines
Moslem Brotherhood in Egypt was accused-of violence. while extreme Moslem groups bombed theaters.
Nicaragua ports
Nixon in Peking
and use of marijuana and hallucinogens spread (Woodstock festival Aug. '69). Indian influence was felt in
1977. to protest secular values.
music (Beatles). religion (Ram Dass), and fashion.
Science. Achievements in space (men on moon July '69) and electronics (lasers. integrated circuits)
In Turkey. the National Salvation Party was the first Islamic group to share power (1974) since
encouraged a faith in scientific solutions to problems in agriculture ("green revolution" ). medicine (heart
secularization in the 1920s. Religious authorities. such as Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, led the Iranian
transplants 1967) and other areas. The harmful effects of science, it was believed. could be controlled
revolution and religiously motivated Moslems took part in the insurrection in Saudi Arabia that briefly
(1963 nuclear weapon test ban treaty. 1968 non-proliferation treaty).
seized the Grand Mosque in Mecca 1979. Moslem puritan opposition to Pakistan Pres. Bhutto helped
China. Mao's revolutionary militance caused disputes with Russia under "revisionist" Khrushchev,
(Bangladesh) from declaring independence. Dec. '71. after a bloody civil war.
lead to his overthrow July '77. However. Moslem solidarity could not prevent Pakistan's castern province
starting 1960. The two powers exchanged fire in 1969 border disputes. China used force to capture areas
Gorbachev made USSR Gen-Secy
Nixon resigns
disputed with India 1962. The "Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution" tried to impose a utopian
Moslem and Hindu resentment against coerced sterilization in India helped defeat the Gandhi
egalitarian program in China and spread revolution abroad: political struggle, often violent. convulsed
government. which was replaced Mar. '77 by a coalition including religious Hindu parties and led by
devout Hindu Desai. Moslems in the southern Philippines, aided by Libya, conducted a long rebellion
Israel-Arab 6-Day War
China 1965-68.
Indochina. Communist-led guerrillas aided by N. Vietnam fought from 1960 against the S. Vietnam
against central rule from 1973.
Achille Lauro terrorism
Worldwide recession
Indochina War ends
government of Ngo Dinh Diem (killed 1963). The U.S. military role increased after the 1964 Tonkin Gulf
Evangelical Protestant groups grew in numbers and prosperity in the U.S. A revival of interest in
Challenger explodes
150 min Africans near famine
incident. U.S. forces peaked at 543,400. Apr. '69. Massive numbers of N. Viet troops also fought. Laotian
Orthodox Christianity occurred among Russian intellectuals (Solzhenitsyn). The secularist Israeli Labor
and Cambodian neutrality were threatened by communist insurgencies. with N. Vietnamese aid. and U.S.
party, after decades of rule. was ousted in 1977 by conservatives led by Begin. an observant Jew; religious
militants founded settlements on the disputed West Bank. part of Biblically-promised Israel. U.S. Reform
intrigues. Third World. A bloc of authoritarian leftist regimes among the newly independent nations emerged in
Judaism revived many previously discarded traditional practices.
political opposition to the U.S.-led Western alliance. and came to dominate the conference of nonaligned
The Buddhist Soka Gakkai movement launched the Komeito party in Japan 1964, which became a
nations (Belgrade 1961. Cairo 1964. Lusaka 1970). Soviet political ties and military bases were
major opposition party in 1972 and 1976 elections.
Reagan landslide re-election
established in Cuba, Egypt, Algeria. Guinea. and other countries. whose leaders were regarded as
Old-fashioned religious wars raged intermittently in N. Ireland (Catholic vs. Protestant 1969- )
Lebanon (Christian vs. Moslem 1975-
and
revolutionary heros by opposition groups in pro-Western or colonial countries. Some leaders were ousted and
) while religious militancy complicated the Isracl-Arab dispute
in coups by pro-Western groups-Zaire's Lumumba (killed 1961), Ghana's Nkrumah (exiled 1966).
(1973 Israel-Arab war). In spite of a 1979 peace treaty between Egypt and Israel which looked forward
1 min. in Cambodia
Indonesia's Sukarno (effectively ousted 1965 after a Communist coup failed).
unlikely. to a resolution of the Palestinian issue. increased religious militancy on the West Bank made a resolution
U.S. Tax Reform Law
Middle East. Arab-Israeli tension erupted into a brief war June 1967. Israel emerged as a major
regional power. Military shipments before and after the war brought much of the Arab world into the
Latin America. Repressive conservative regimes strengthened their hold on most of the continent. with
Soviet political sphere. Most Arab states broke U.S. diplomatic ties. while Communist countries cut their
the violent coup against the elected Allende government in Chile, Sept. 73, the 1976 military coup in
ties to Israel. Intra-Arab disputes continued: Egypt and Saudi Arabia supported rival factions in a bloody
Argentina, and coups against reformist regimes in Bolivia, 1971 and 1979, and Peru, 1976. In Central
Yemen civil war 1962-70: Lebanese troops fought Palestinian commandos 1969.
America, increasing liberal and leftist militancy led to the ouster of the Somoza regime of Nicaragua in
East Europe. To stop the large-scale exodus of citizens. E. German authorities built a fortified wall
1979 and civil conflict in El Salvador.
U.S. stock market crash
Nicaragua cease-fire
U.S. bombs Libya
Iran-contra scandal
Mao d.
Franco d.
across Berlin Aug. '61. Soviet sway in the Balkans was weakened by Albania's support of China (USSR
Indochina. Communist victory in Victnam. Cambodia. and Laos by May '75 did not bring peace.
broke ties Dec. '61) and Romania's assertion of industrial and foreign policy autonomy 1964.
Attempts at radical social reorganization left over one million dead in Cambodia 1975-78 and caused
Liberalization in Czechoslovakia. spring 1968. was crushed by troops of 5 Warsaw Pact countries. West
hundreds of thousands of ethnic Chinese and others to flee Vietnam ("boat people" 1979). The
German treaties with Russia and Poland. 1970. facilitated the transfer of German technology and
Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia swelled the refugee population and contributed to widespread
starvation in that devastated country.
confirmed post-war boundaries.
Russian expansion. Soviet influence. checked in some countries (troops ousted by Egypt 1972) was
Disillusionment: 1970-79
projected further afield. often with the use of Cuban troops (Angola 1975-89, Ethiopia 1977-88) and
aided by a growing navy, merchant fleet. and international banking ability. Detente with the West
iran-iraq cease
Khomeini gvt. in Iran
Egypt-Israel treaty
U.S.: Caution and neoconservatism. A relatively sluggish economy, energy and resource shortages
1972 Berlin pact. 1972 strategic arms pact (SALT) gave way to a more antagonistic relationship in the
late 1970s. exacerbated by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 1979.
USSR withdraws from Alghanistan
J.S. hostages taken in Iran
3 Mile Island
USSR invades Alghanistan
(natural gas crunch 1975, gasoline shortage 1979) and environmental problems contributed to a "limits of
Africa. The last remaining European colonies were granted independence (Spanish Sahara 1976,
18% inflation rate in U.S.
growth" philosophy. Suspicion of science and technology killed or delayed major projects (supersonic
Djibouti 1977) and, after 10 years of civil war and many negotiation sessions, a black government took
fed by the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor accident Mar. '79.
Mistrust of big government weakened support for government reform plans among liberals. School
thousands of Cuban troops was denounced by some African leaders as neocolonialism. Ethnic or tribal
"evolutionary change" S. Africa
free election
transport dropped 1971. DNA recombination curbed 1976, Seabrook A-plant protests 1977-78) and was
over Zimbabwe (Rhodesia) 1979: white domination remained in S. Africa. Great power involvement in
Tiananmen Sq. protesis crushed
local wars (Russia in Angola, Ethiopia; France in Chad, Zaire, Mauritania) and the use of tens of
busing and racial quotas were opposed (Bakke decision June '78); the Equal Rights Amendment for
clashes made Africa the chief world locus of sustained warfare in the late 1970s.
women languished; civil rights for homosexuals were opposed (Dade County referendum June '77).
Arts. Traditional modes in painting. architecture. and music. pursued in relative obscurity for much of
Berlin Wall opens
Eastern European
Completion of communist forces' takeover of S. Vietnam (evacuation of U.S. civilians Apr. 75%
revelations of Central Intelligence Agency misdeeds (Rockefeller Commission report June '75). and
the 20th century. returned to popular and critical attention in the 1970s. The pictorial emphasis in
neorealist and photorealist painting. the return of many architects to detail. decoration. and traditional
1980
Watergate scandals (Nixon quit Aug. '74) reduced faith in U.S. moral and material capacity to influence
world affairs. Revelations of Soviet crimes (Solzhenitsyn's Gulag Archipelago from 1974) and Russian
natural materials. and the concern with ordered structure in musical composition were. ironically. novel
1990
experiences for artistic consumers after the exhaustion of experimental possibilities. However. these more
intervention in Africa aided a revival of anti-Communist sentiment.
conservative styles coexisted with modernist works in an atmosphere of variety and tolerance.
SENT BY:STATE DEPT AF/RA/E/EPS; 4-12-91 1:29PM ;
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United States Department of State
Washington, D.C. 20520
91 APR 12 Pl: 44
OFFICE OF EAST AFRICAN AFFAIRS AP/E, AF/RA, AF/EPS
Telecopier Transmittal
DATE: April 12, 1991
NUMBER OF PAGES (including cover) Nine (9)
TO: Carolyn Cawley
White House (Spaechwriting)
TELECOPIER NUMBER:
456-775 56-77 456-6218 456-6218
FROM: Herb Thomas
Phone: 647-5684
COMMENTS:
The Background notes 2nd unclassified
bio of Hassan Gouled, as you requested.
I'll fax the Pentagon's congratulatory message
after lunch, if 5 can find 17.
Regards.
Hest-Thomes Stert
Telecopier Number: (202) 647-0810
Time Sent: 1325
SENT BY:STATE DEPT AF/RA/E/EPS; 4-12-91
1:30PM ;
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Hassan GOULED Aptidon
DJIBOUTI
(Phonetic: GOOLed)
President (since 1977)
Addressed as: Mr. President
As President since Djibouti gained
independence from France in 1977, Hassan Gouled
Aptidon has played a leading role in shaping the
government. He has attacked his country's
economic and ethnic problems by seeking foreign
investment and balancing clan rivalries. These
measures have preserved stability despite political
and military turmoil in neighboring Ethiopia and
Somalia that threatens to spill over into his small
nation. Pursuing a policy of positive neutrality, he
has maintained Djibouti's integrity as an
independent state, and he has expressed a strong
interest in contributing to the peaceful resolution of regional problems. In 1986 Gouled
hosted a six-nation conference to set up the regional Intergovernmental Authority on
Drought and Development that brought together Ethiopian and Somalian heads of state for
the first time since the countries went to war in 1977. Gouled maintains close economic and
military links with France, but, as the leader of a Muslim nation, he believes Djibouti's roots
are in the Arab world.
Gouled was born on 5 October 1916. Largely self-educated, he worked for a shipping
company before entering politics. He represented French Somaliland (now Djibouti) in the
French Senate from 1952 to 1958 and in the French National Assembly during 1959-62. He
subsequently served as Minister of Education (1963-67). Gouled was active during the next
decade in his country's campaign for independence and emerged as its most fervent
spokesman. He helped found the African People's League for Independence (LPAI) in 1973.
In 1982 he established the People's Rally for Progress (RPP), a successor to the LPAI, as the
sole legal party in Djibouti. As chairman, Gouled selects the political bureau, which directs
the activities of the RPP. He was reelected to six-year terms as President in 1981 and 1987.
The President is a member of the politically dominant Issa Mamassan clan. He is a
Muslim and has made several pilgrimages to Mecca. He speaks Arabic, French, Somali, and
Afarinya. Gouled's wife, Aisha, is a leading feminist in Djibouti.
29 October 1990
SENT BY:STATE DEPT AF/RA/E/EPS; 4-12-91
1:30PM ;
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background
notes
Djibouti
United States Department of State
February 1988
Bureau of Public Affairs
PROFILE
(total est. 4,500). In addition, some 4,000
Bed $aa
French troops from the three armed serv-
ices are tasked with defense assistance in
Geography
the event of external attack.
Area: 23,310 sq. km. (9,000 sq. mi.); about
National holiday: June 27.
the size of New Hampshire. Cities:
Flag: A white triangle, with a five-
Capital-Djibouti. Other cities-Dikhil,
pointed red star within, extending from
Ali-Sabieh, Obock, Tadjoursh. Terrain:
the staff side. The remaining area has a
Coastal desert. Climate: Torrid and dry.
broad, light blue band over a broad, light
green band.
People
Economy
Nationality: Noun and adjective-Djibou-
tian(s). Population (1987 est.): 387,000.
GDP (1985 est.): $339 million. Adjusted
Annual growth rate: 5.1%. Ethnic groups:
per capita income: $450.
Somalis (Issas), Afars, French, Arab,
Natural resources: None.
Ethiopian, Italian. Reliable statistical data
Agriculture (10% of GDP): Products-
Official Name:
regarding the relative size of tribal popula-
livestock, limited commercial crops, includ-
Republic of Djibouti
tions are not currently available.
ing fruits and vegetables. Agricultural
Religions: Muslim 94%, Christian 6%.
land-2%. Land under cultivation-0%.
Languages: French (official): Somali, Afar,
Industry: Types-banking (49% of
Arabic all widely used. Education:
GDP), public administration, construction.
Literacy-20%. Health: Infant mortality
manufacturing, agriculture.
rate-114/1,000. Life expectancy-50 yrs.
Trade (1985): Imports represented an
Work force: Small number of semiskilled
estimated 68% of GDP. Exports. including
laborers at port. 3,000 railway workers
re-exports (1986)-$137 million: hides and
organized.
skins, transit of coffee container port ac-
tivity. Imports (1985, excluding special
Government
transactions)-$280 million. Major mar-
kets-France, Ethiopia, Mediterranean
Type: Republic. Constitution: Partial con-
regional countries.
stitution-ratified Jan. 1981 by National As-
Official exchange rate: 177 Djibouti
sembly. Independence: June 27, 1977.
francs= US$1.
Branches: Erecutive-president.
Fiscal year: Calendar year.
Legislative-66-member parliament, cabi-
net, prime minister. Judicial-French law
Membership in International
system applies.
Organizations
Subdivisions: 6 cercles (districts).
Political parties: Rassemblement Pop.
UN, Organization of African Unity, Arab
ulaire Pour is Progres (RPP), established
League. Nonaligned Movement, Organiza-
in 1987. All other parties banned in 1981.
tion of the Islamic Conference (OIC), In-
Suffrage: Universal:
tergovernmental Authority for Drought
Defense: The Djiboutian Armed
and Development (IGADD).
Forces consist of a small army supple-
mented by & smaller navy and air wing
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HISTORY
Djibouti
The Republic of Djibouti, which gained
International Scendary
its independence on June 27, 1977, is
-
the successor to the French Territory
Wathread
-
of the Afars and Issas, which was cre-
- awart
ated as a result of French interest in
the Horn of Africa and dates back to
as
.
-
the first half of the 19th century.
*
Mites
Rochet d'Hericourt's exploration
into Shoa (1889-42) marked the begin-
ning of French interest in the African
shores of the Red Sea. Further obser-
vations by Henri Lambert, French
Consular Agent at Aden, and Captain
Derra
Fleuriot de Langle led to B treaty of
friendship and assistance between
Balho
France and the sultans of Raheita, Tad-
Check
jourah, and Gobaad, from whom the
French purchased the anchorage of
Obock.
Technurg
Growing French interest in the
area took place against a backdrop of
'Ase'
British activity in Egypt and the open-
ing of the Suez Canal in 1869. In
1884-85, France expanded its protecto-
Arta*
rate to include the shores of the Gulf of
Chandity
Tadjourah and the hinterland, designat-
ing the area French Somaliland. Bound-
Holhol
aries of the protectorate, marked out in
1897 by France and Emperor Menelik
II of Ethiopia, were affirmed further
All Gabily
by agreements with Emperor Haile
Abbe Bao
Chick
Selassie I in 1945 and 1954.
AS ELs
The administrative capital was
moved from Obock to Djibouti in 1896.
Djibouti, which has a good natural har-
bor and ready access to the Ethiopian
highlands, attracted trade caravans
crossing East Africa as well as Somali
settlers from the south. The Franco-
Ethiopian railway, linking Djibouti to
the heart of Ethiopia, was begun in
1897 and reached Addis Ababa in June
GEOGRAPHY
the northeast, temperatures average
1917, further facilitating the increase of
33 °C (92 °F), although they have been
trade.
The Republic of Djibouti is located in
recorded as high as 45 °C (113 °F). Hu-
During the Italian invasion and oc-
northeast Africa, bounded by the Gulf
midity is high all year, and the area is
cupation of Ethiopia in the 1930s and
of Aden, the Somali Democratic Re-
prone to earthquakes.
during World War II, constant border
public, and Ethiopia. The republic has
skirmishes occurred between French
three principal regions: the coastal
and Italian forces. From the fall of
plain, less than 200 meters (650 ft.)
PEOPLE
France until 1942, the area was ruled
above sea level; mountains, about 1,000
by the Vichy (French) government. In
meters (3,280 ft.) above sea level, with
The indigenous population of the Re-
December 1942, French Somaliland
occasional peaks rising to 1,500 meters
public of Djibouti is divided between
forces broke a Vichy blockade to join
(5,000 ft.); and the plateau behind the
the majority Somalis (predominantly of
the Free French and the Allied forces.
mountains, rising from 300 to 1,500
the Issa tribe with minority Ishaak and
A local battalion from Djibouti partici-
meters (1,000-5,000 ft.). The land is
Gadaboursi representation) and the
pated in the liberation of France.
bare, dry, and desolate, marked by
Afars and Danakils. All are Cushitic-
On July 22, 1957, the colony was
sharp cliffs, deep ravines, burning
speaking peoples, and nearly all are
reorganized to give the people a consid-
sands, and thorny shrubs.
Muslim. Among the 15,000 foreigners
erable degree of self-government. On
The climate is torrid, and rainfall is
residing in Djibouti, French and Arabs
the same day, a decree, applying the
sparse and erratic. From May to Oc-
are by far the most numerous. How-
Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of
tober, when the monsoon blows from
ever, the small foreign community also
June 23, 1956, established a Territorial
includes Greeks, Indians, and Italians.
Assembly that elected eight of its mem-
Although French is the official lan-
bers to an Executive Council. Members
guage, Somali, Afar, and Arabic are
of the Executive Council were responsi-
all widely used.
2
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ble for one or more of the territorial
March 1967 referendum, 60% chose to
services and carried the title of minis-
continue the territory's association with
ter. The council advised the French-
France.
appointed governor general.
A July 1967 directive from Paris
In a September 1958 constitutional
formally changed the name of the ter-
referendum, French Somaliland opted
ritory from French Somaliland to the
to join the French community as an
French Territory of Afars and Issas.
overseas territory. As a result, it was
The directive also reorganized the gov-
entitled to representation by one dep-
ernmental structure of the territory,
uty and one senator in the French Par-
making the senior French represen-
liament and one counselor in the
tative, formerly the governor general, a
French Union Assembly. Upon the
high commissioner. The Executive
demise of the assembly, the territory
Council also was redesignated as the
was assigned a seat on the Economic
Council of Government, with nine
and Social Council.
members.
On November 23, 1958, the first
In 1975, the French Government
elections to the Territorial Assembly
began to accommodate increasingly in-
were held under a system of propor-
sistent demands for independence. In
tional representation. In the next as-
June 1976, the territory's citizenship
sembly elections in 1963, a new
law, which had favored the Afar minor-
electoral law, enacted by the French
ity, was revised to reflect more closely
National Assembly. abolished propor-
the weight of the Issa Somali. In a May
tional representation in favor of a sys-
1977 referendum, the electorate voted
tem of a straight plurality vote based
for independence, and the Republic of
on political lists submitted in seven des-
Djibouti was inaugurated on June 27,
ignated districts by political parties.
1977.
Ali Aref Bourhan, an Afar, was se-
lected to be president of the executive
council.
GOVERNMENT
French President Charles de
Gaulle's August 1966 visit to Djibouti
In January 1981, the National Assembly
was marked by 2 days of public demon-
passed nine articles of a constitution
strations by Somalis demanding inde-
and elected Hassan Gouled as the first
pendence. On September 21, 1966,
president under the new constitution.
Louis Saget, appointed governor gen-
Preindependence laws and decrees re-
eral of the territory after the demon-
main in effect, except where specifi-
strations, announced that the French
cally amended.
Government had decided to hold & ref-
On April 24, 1987, President
erendum to determine whether the peo-
Gouled was re-elected, unopposed, to a
ple wished to remain within the French
second and final 6-year mandate with
Republic or become independent. In a
89.88% of the vote. On the same day,
Above: Djiboutian nomad.
Left: A volcano in the Lac Assal area.
This salt lake is the second lowest point
on Earth-471 feet below sea level.
3
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Ministers
Justice and Islamic Affairs-Hellaf
Orbie Ali
Foreign Affairs and Cooperation-
Moumin Bahdon Farah
Interior, Posts, and Telecommunica-
tions-Youssouf Ali Chirdon
Defense-Houssein Barkat Siraj
Finance and National Economy-
Mohamed Djama Elabe
Port and Maritime Affairs-Bourhan
Ali Warki
Commerce, Transportation, and Tour-
ism-Moussa Bouraleh Robleh
National Education-Souleman Farah
Lodon
Public Health and Social Affairs-
Ougfoureh Hassan Ibrahim
Labor and Social Security-Ahmed
Abdi Ibrahim
Civil Service and Administrative
Reforms-Ismail Ali Youssouf
Public Works, Urbanism, and Hous-
ing-Ahmed Aden Youssouf
Industry and Industrial Development-
Salem Abdo Yahaya
Agriculture and Rural Development-
ВЕРОДИТ
Mohamed Moussa Chehem
Youth, Sports, and Cultural Affairs-
Omar Chirdon Abass
Governor, Central Bank-Luc Aden
Abdi Mohamed
Ambassador to the United Nations
and the United States-Robleh
Olhaye Oudine
Djibouti's mission to the United
Nations is located at 866 UN Plaza,
Suite 4011, New York, NY 10017.
ECONOMY
Djibouti's economy rests on a large for-
eign expatriate community, the mar-
Local mosques reflect the country's Arab-African-French culture.
itime and commercial activities of the
Port of Djibouti, the airport, and the
No women are in senior government or
operation of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti
the unopposed 65-member National As-
railroad-all important elements in the
sembly list was elected with 87.42%.
party positions, but a fledgling women's
Since 1981, one political party has
organization is active.
country's fledgling economy. Only a few
existed, the Rassemblement Populaire
In Djibouti, the right to own prop-
mineral deposits exist in the country,
Pour le Progres (RPP); other parties
erty is respected, as is freedom of re-
and the arid soil is unproductive-89%
ligion and organization of labor. The
is desert wasteland. 10% is pasture,
were outlawed that year following polit-
Ical disorders. Political power is shared
government has established a national
and 1% is forested. Djibouti has no in-
by a Somali president and an Afar
union under its control.
dustry; services and commerce provide
prime minister. with cabinet posts
Djibouti has its own armed forces,
most of the gross domestic product.
including a small army; however, the
The Djibouti franc is pegged to a fixed
roughly divided. However, political
country's security also is assured by the
exchange rate with the dollar-about
competition between the minority Afars
and the majority Somali Issas, who
continued presence of some 4,000
177 Djibouti francs to the dollar in
dominate the government, civil service,
French troops, which includes a unit of
mid-1987.
armed forces, and the single party, has
the French Foreign Legion.
Djibouti's economy, stagnant since
independence, is affected by recurring
ied to two cabinet crises and changes of
drought, which aggravates the peren-
prime minister since independence.
Principal Government Officials
nial problem of scarce water. Foreign
Women in Djibouti enjoy a higher
public status than in some other Isla-
President-Hassan Gouled Aptidon
mie countries, but women's rights and
Prime Minister, in charge of regional
family planning are not high priorities.
and national development-Barkat
Gourad Hamadou
4
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Travel Notes
Climate and clothing: Light-weight
clothing is recommended year round. Al-
though rainfall is rare, it can be heavy.
Customs: Visas must be obtained. prior to
arrival, either from a Djiboutian Embassy,
where one exists, or from 8 French Em-
bassy. U.S. currency can be exchanged in
Djibouti.
Health: Djibouti is free of many of Africa's
liseases. Malaria, however, is prevalent.
Infected wounds are difficult to cure. No
mmunizations are required for entry, but
nalaria suppressants are recommended.
Be careful of food and drink. Although
officials maintain that well water from the
Ambouli Oasis is pure at the source, the
city water system is prone to multiple
breaks and penetrations that make tap-
water unsafe. Drink bottled mineral water.
available in all local hotels and restaurants.
Djibouti has few doctors, and the one
civilian hospital has less than adequate
facilities.
Transportation: Djibouti's railroad links
Djibouti Harbor with Addis Ababa, Ethi-
opia. Tourists, however, are allowed to ride
the railway only as far as the border town
of All Sabieh. Also, one hard-surfaced road
links Djibouti with the Assab-Addis Ababa
Highway in Ethiopia. All other roads are
merely tracks, often impassable because of
volcanic activity and otherwise only usable
by four-wheel-drive vehicles.
Djibouti has three flights a week to
France. two weekly flights to Addis
Ababa. and other scheduled flights. Local
taxis are plentiful.
Telecommunications: International tele-
phone and telegraph services are generally
reliable. Djiboutl is eight standard time
zones ahead of eastern standard time.
Tourist attractions: Lake Assal. a body of
saltwater 128 km. (80 mi.) west of the city
of Djibouti. is the lowest point in Africa
and the second lowest point on Earth. Do
not travel outside the capital city without
an experienced guide and vehicles
equipped for rough terrain. Djiboutians
are heirs to a tradition of individuality, in-
dependence, and hospitality. They are
proud of their nation and are friendly to
Americans.
Above left: Colorful Djiboutian market.
Bottom left: To the outsider, this typical
countryside scene-goats feeding In des-
ert trees-would require a double take.
5
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Djibouti lies on the west side of the
Bab-el-Mandeb, which connects the
Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Its port
is becoming an increasingly important
container shipment and transshipment
point on the shipping lanes transiting
the Red Sea and the Suez Canal and
also functions as a bunkering port and
small French naval facility. The railroad
maintenance and machinery repair
shops, docks, import-export houses,
and urban service industries in the city
of Djibouti provide most jobs. This
modern commercial economy, however,
has little effect on small towns and
nomadic herdsmen.
Djibouti's improved natural harbor
consists of a roadstead and outer and
inner harbors. The roadstead is par-
tially protected by reefs and the config-
uration of the land. The inner harbor
(1.2 SQ. km.-0.5 sq. mi.) is well pro-
tected and has five outer berths and six
inner berths for large vessels.
The Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad
is the only line serving central and
southeastern Ethiopia. It was cut dur-
ing the 1977 war but has since been
reopened. The single-track railway oc-
cupies a prominent place in Ethiopia's
internal distribution system for domes-
tic commodities such as cement, cotton
textiles, sugar, cereals, and charcoal.
Expected improvements in the railroad
will influence to a great extent Ethi-
opia's continued use of Djibouti's port.
15
The city of Djibouti has the only
paved airport in the republic. Its im-
proved and lengthened runway is capa-
ble of handling all equipment used by
the international airlines. Air Djibouti
is the national airline.
Djibouti has an AM radio transmit-
ter, and television was introduced in
1967.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
Djibouti is a member of the United Na-
tions, the Organization of African
Unity, the Arab League, Organization
of the Islamic Conference, and the In-
tergovernmental Authority for Drought
grants reached 2 peak in the period im-
exports, and most of its imports come
and Development. France, the United
mediately following independence but
from France. The country's unfavorable
States, the U.S.S.R., the People's Re-
declined sharply after a few years.
balance of trade is offset partially by
public of China, Egypt, Libya, Saudi
Most imports are consumed in
invisible earnings such as transit taxes,
Arabia, the People's Democratic Re-
Djibouti, while the remainder goes to
harbor dues. and, in the past, railway
public of Yemen, the Yemen Arab Re-
Ethiopia and northern Somalia. Prin-
profits. However, the decision by the
public. Somalia, Ethiopia, Iraq, Sudan,
cipal exports from the region transiting
Saudi Arabian Government to improve
Oman. and the Palestine Liberation Or-
Djibouti are coffee, salt, hides. dried
its own port facilities at Jeddah and
ganization maintain resident missions in
beans. cereals, other agricultural prod-
Ethiopia's decision to promote its port
Djibouti. The Djibouti Ambassador to
ucts, wax, and salt. Djibouti has few
at Assab have. in recent years. de-
the United Nations was accredited to
creased the volume of economic activity
the United States in June 1981. Ambas-
for the Port of Djibouti.
sadors are resident in Mogadishu,
6
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Addis Ababa, Jidda, Paris, Cairo, and
1979, with increased U.S. naval pres-
Tunis. In addition to the 15 diplomatic
Further Information
ence in the Indian Ocean, that access
missions in Djibouti, there are 7 resi-
has become even more important. The
dent honorary consuls and 28 nonresi-
These titles are provided as a general indi-
Djiboutian Government generally
dent ambassadors accredited to the
cation of the material published on this
adopts positions consonant with U.S.
country. The Department of State does not
and Western interests.
republic.
endorse unofficial publications.
Military and economic agreements
with France provide for continued se-
Diehi, Jean Pierre. Le Regard Colonial.
Principal U.S. Officials
curity and economic assistance. Links
Paris: Plon. 1986.
with the Arab states also have been
Drysdale. J. "The Problem of French
Ambassador
Robert
S.
Somaliland." Africa Report. November
Barrett IV
welcomed, and Saudi Arabia has inau-
1966.
gurated a major economic aid program
Deputy Chief of Mission-John-Eg
Englebert, V. "The Danakil: Nomads of
MeAteur
Ethiopia's Wasteland." National Geo-
Jay
Dehmlow
for Djibouti.
Djibouti's relations with Somalia
Political Officer-Mark Dembro
graphic. February 1970.
and Ethiopia are especially delicate be-
Kaplan, Marion. "Djibouti, Tiny New Na-
Administrative and Consular Officer-
tion on Africa's Horn." National Geo-
Sharon Lavorel
cause each of these two traditional en-
graphic. October 1978.
Economic and Commercial Officer-
emies fears that the other will gain a
dominant position in the republic. As a
Oberle, Philippe. Afars et Somalis, Le
Tom Innamorato
result, ties to other states and organi-
Dossier de Djibouti. Paris: Presence
AID Representative-John A.
Africaine, 1971.
antions more removed from the tensions
Lundgren
Said, Yauf Abdi. "The Mini-Republic of
of the Horn of Africa are particularly
Djibouti: Problems and Prospects."
The U.S. Embassy in Djibouti is
valued.
Horn of Africa. April/June 1978.
located at Villa Plateau du Serpent
Saint-Veran, Robert. A Djibouti avec les
Blvd., Marechal Joffre (Boite Postal
Afars et les Issas. Cagnes s/mer: P.
185), Djibouti (tel. 35-39-95).
U.S.-DJIBOUTIAN RELATIONS
Thomomier, 1977.
Thompson, V. and R. Adloff. Djibouti and
the Horn of Africa. Stanford: Stanford
Published by the United States Department
The United States established a consu-
late general in Djibouti in April 1977
University Press, 1968.
of State Bureau of Public Affairs Office
of Public Communication Editorial Divi-
and raised its status to an embassy,
sion Washington, D.C. February 1988
headed by a resident charge d'affaires,
editor: Juanita Adams
at independence. The first U.S. Ambas-
sador accredited to the Republic of
the 1977-78 Somall-Ethiopian war, the
Department of State Publication 8429
United States provides about $3 million
Background Notes Series This material is
Djibouti arrived in October 1980. In ad-
in economic support funds annually.
in the public domain and may be reproduced
dition to PL 480 (Food for Peace) ship-
ments, provided in part to relieve the
Djibouti has permitted the U.S.
without permission; citation of this source
Navy access to its modern and well-
would be appreciated.
burden of an influx of refugees during
located seaport and airport. Since late
For sale by the Superintendent of Docu-
ments, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402
7
VOLUME 9
Desert to Egret
Djibouti
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
AMERICANA
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FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1829
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SHOSTAL ASSOCIATES
The minaret of Hammoudi Mosque is a landmark of Djibouti, the capital of the Republic of Djibouti.
DJIBOUTI, ji-boo'tē, a small country on the north-
tion of 180,000; the remainder, in the towns of
east coast of Africa, facing the strait of Bab el-
Dikhil, Ali Sabieh, Tadjoura, and Obock.
Mandeb at the southern end of the Red Sea.
The two main ethnic groups, both indigenous
Measuring only 8,410 square miles (21,783 sq
to the area, are the Afar (Danakil), constituting
km), it is wedged between Somalia and Ethiopia
about 35% of the population, and the Issa (a
in the strategic region that is known as the Horn
branch of the Somali people), some 40%. The
of Africa.
two have in common their traditional life-style of
The Republic of Djibouti, formerly the
nomadic pastoralism and their Muslim religion.
French Territory of the Afars and Issas, gained
They speak related languages and are ethnically
its independence on June 27, 1977. As a politi-
similar. Large numbers of both groups live out-
cal unit it dates from 1896, after the French had
side the borders of Djibouti. The Afar, who
founded the port town of Djibouti to provide
occupy the northern part of the country, have
their overseas empire with a coaling station on
probably twice as many members in Ethiopia;
the route to the East. Much of the town's later
the Issa, who inhabit the southern half of Djibou-
prosperity was due to its becoming the terminus
ti, have perhaps an equal representation in So-
of the railroad from Addis Ababa and hence Ethi-
malia (the Somali Democratic Republic). Soma-
opia's main trade outlet. Having no ethnic iden-
lis belonging to clan groups other than the Issa
tity and almost no natural resources of its own,
have migrated into Djibouti town since its foun-
the Republic of Djibouti owes its existence in
dation, in search of employment. Government
the modern world to the competing commercial
estimates put these, together with the Arab pop-
and strategic interests of other nations.
ulation, at 25% of the population. The Arab im-
The Land. The republic covers the land to a
migrants, mainly from the Yemen. are traders
perimeter of about 55 miles (90 km) around the
with a small number of market gardeners.
Gulf of Tadjoura, a long inlet running westward
The French population is estimated at 12,000
from the Gulf of Aden (Indian Ocean). The ter-
of whom about a third are government and mili
rain is volcanic in origin and largely desert. It
tary personnel. Other small foreign groups in
consists mainly of plateaus broken by deep rift
valleys and wide sunken plains, with salt lakes
such as those of Assal and Alol, which lie below
INFORMATION HIGHLIGHTS
sea level. Pasture is sparse, and hardly any land
Official Name: Republic of Djibouti.
is arable.
Name of Nationals: Djiboutians.
There are no permanent watercourses on the
Head of State: President.
surface, but several subterranean rivers, and irri-
Head of Governent: Premier.
Legislature: Chamber of Deputies (unicameral).
gation is possible by tapping the water table.
Area: 8,410 square miles (21.783 sa km).
The only permanent vegetation is found on the
Boundaries: Northeast, Bab el-Mandeb (strait);
basaltic mountain range north of the Gulf of Ta-
east, Gulf of Aden (Indian Ocean): southeast,
Somalia: south, west. and northwest. Ethiopia.
djoura, where peaks reach elevations of more
Elevations: Highest-Moussa Ali (6,768 feet. or
than 5.000 feet (1,500 meters).
2,063 meters): lowest, Lake Assai (509 feet, or
The climate is among the hottest and driest in
155 meters. below sea level).
Population: (1960-1961 census) 81,200; (1983 est.)
the world. The temperature averages 85° F
330,000.
(29° C) and can rise to 125° F (52° C). Annual
Capital and Largest City: Djibouti.
rainfall is less than 5 inches (125 mm), though
Major Languages: French (official), Somali, Afar, Ar-
abic.
occasional rains can be extremely heavy and
Major Religious Group: Muslims.
cause flooding.
Monetary Unit: Djibouti franc (= 100 centimes).
The People. The population was estimated at
Flag: Two horizontal stripes. light blue over light
green, extending from a white triangle at the
330,000 in 1983. Nearly half of the people are
hoist: centered in the triangle, a five-pointed rec
nomadic pastoralists. Most of the settled portion
star. See also FLAG.
live in Djibouti town. the capital. with a popula-
218
BRAHIM
4601
clude Greeks, Italians, and Indians. To these
were added, in 1978-1979, some 45,000 to
50,000 refugees, mostly Somalis from the Ethio-
pian region of Ogaden.
Relations between the Afar and Somalis in
precolonial times were conditioned by competi-
tion for scarce water and grazing, which often led
to violent conflict. This rivalry was exacerbated
during the colonial era and remains a problem of
the independent state.
The literacy rate of the indigenous population
is estimated at less than 9%, and expansion of
education is a pressing concern of the govern-
ment. The language of instruction is French,
with Arabic gaining in importance.
Government. The president of the republic is
elected by universal suffrage for a six-year term
and may serve no more than two terms. The
PAT MILLER MONKMEYER PRESS
cabinet, headed by a premier, is called the Coun-
Donkey cart, auto, and bicycle all have a place in Djibou-
cil of Ministers. The unicameral legislature, the
ti's urban economy. The sign advertises groceries.
Chamber of Deputies, is elected every five
years.
The only legal political party, since 1981, is
ports of domestic origin, although the develop-
the Popular Rally for Progress (Rassemblement
ment of fisheries has considerable potential.
Populaire pour le Progrès, or RPP), which con-
The extraction of salt from abundant local
trols the selection of candidates for both the leg-
deposits may again become economic. Exploita-
islature and the presidency. Political life is
tion of geothermal energy is promising, and ma-
shaped largely by the country's ethnic tensions
jor investment in this activity began in 1984.
and their interaction with the commercial and
Industrial plants process food. bottle mineral
strategic interests of foreign powers. The para-
water. and make electrical and plastic items.
mount concern of both the colonial and indepen-
Imports vastly exceed exports in value. The
dence governments was to balance these factors.
visible trade deficit is offset by services and by
For instance. the list of candidates for election to
foreign aid, mainly from France and Saudi Ara-
the Chamber of Deputies is designed to reflect in
bia. The chronically high rate of unemployment
its proportions the ethnic composition of the
remains a serious problem.
population.
History. Trading along the Red Sea coast goes
The Economy. The national economy depends
back to classical times and before. The Somali
on service industries, since the country has little
and Afar peoples, though their earlier history
primary production or manufacturing. Djibouti
remains controversial, have been in the area for
port and airport and the railroad from Addis Aba-
over a thousand years. Links with the Arab
ba make the capital a transshipment center.
world have always been strong, and the introdue-
Banking is increasing in importance, and govern-
tion of the Muslim religion, beginning in the 9th
ment policy is to maximize that sector through an
century, was crucial to the development of both
open economy.
peoples. The Afar are directly linked with the
The port's prosperity was hit by the closure of
medieval Sultanate of Adal. and during the 19th
the Suez Canal in 1967-1975, and its subsequent
century they were organized in three minor sul-
recovery was hampered by competition from oth-
tanates. which at least formally still exist. The
er ports, such as Jidda in Saudi Arabia. The
Somali traditionally have had a looser and less
future is seen in containerization, and an en-
hierarchical form of social organization.
larged modern container terminal was completed
The presence of the French on the coast be-
in the mid-1980's. Djibouti has been a free port
since 1981.
gan in 1862. when they occupied the small port
of Obock on the northern shore of the Gulf of
The railroad from Addis Ababa, though re-
Tadjoura. During the 1880's they entered into
maining the basis for Ethiopia's interest in
treaties of protection with the Afar and Issa
Djibouti. is a precarious avenue of trade. In
1977-1978 it was put out of action by political
dissidents in Ethiopia, and it remains vulnerable
to such attacks. In 1981 a new company for its
RED
YEMEN
ARAB
REP.
management was formed by the governments of
SEA
REPUBLIC
Ethiopia and Djibouti, which bought out the
DEM.
shares owned by the French government in the
N
PEOPLE'S
TOMEN
E
previous company. A modernization program
MOUSSA
ALI
el
Aden
was then begun.
Djibouti airport gained in importance as in-
Mandeb
land African countries increasingly air-freighted
goods there for reexport.
Assa Obock
GULF
Djibouti
but only 400 acres (100 hectares) are irrigated.
Agriculture in Djibouti requires irrigation,
OF
Plans are to increase that total by boring more
Abbe
ADEN
wells. The pastoralists herd camels, cattle,
sheep, and goats. mainly for subsistence. How-
S
ever, they supply some live animals, meat, and
4
0
skins for export to Arab countries, France. and
0
50 Mi.
M
A
Italy. These products are Djibouti's only ex-
0
50
L
100
Km.
A
219
lation led to increased pressure for Afar popen-
country. Political changes among the
dence from that quarter also.
In 1977 the territory became formally inde-
pendent, with the neutral name Republic of Dji.
bouti. The new republic was led by the veteran
Issa moderate Hassan Gouled Aptidon. Empha-
became a member of the Arab League; and it
sizing traditional links with the Arab world,
depended for much of its finance on Saudi Arabia it
and other Arab countries. Somali nationalist as.
pirations remained unsatisfied, but the Somali
Republic formally denied any territorial claims.
bouti. France retained a military base in the port of Dji.
In 1978-1979, the problems of the new state
were aggravated by the influx of perhaps 50,000
refugees, mainly Somalis escaping from the con-
flict between Somalia and Ethiopia in the latter's
Ogaden region. International aid provided for
PAT MILLER MONKMEYER PRESS
the refugees temporarily, and a plan for their
Men discuss local affairs at a curbside get-together in Dji-
repatriation to Ethiopia was readily accepted by
bouti. Custom excludes women from such gatherings.
the Ethiopian and Djiboutian governments.
However, it proved hard to implement.
Djibouti today has problems as a trading state
tribespeople in the gulf area. Because of the
situated in a strategically sensitive area of the
inadequacy of Obock's harbor, the French began
globe. In order to survive, it must keep a bal.
to develop the hitherto uninhabited site of Dji-
ance between the rival claims of its two major
bouti on the opposite side of the gulf. In 1896.
ethnic groups, between the neighbor states of
Djibouti town was made the capital of the newly
Ethiopia and the Somali Republic, and among
constituted colony of French Somaliland (Côte
France, the Arab countries, and the superpow-
Française des Somalis). The frontiers drawn be-
ers.
tween the colonv and Ethiopia on the one hand,
VIRGINIA LULING
and the then British Somaliland Protectorate on
Author of "A Somali Sultanate"
the other, had the effect of dividing the territo-
Further Reading: Nelson, Harold D., Somalia: A Coun-
ries of both the Afar and the Issa Somalis.
try Study (American Univ. 1982); Tholomier, Robert, Dji-
A treaty between France and Ethiopia,
bouti, Pawn of the Horn of Africa (Scarecrow 1981); Thomp-
son, Virginia, and Adloff. Richard, Djibouti and the Horn of
signed in 1897. designated Djibouti the official
Africa (Stanford Univ. Press 1968).
outlet for Ethiopian trade. The railroad from
Addis Ababa was completed in 1917.
DJIBOUTI, ji-boo'te, the capital of the Republicof
During World War II the French authorities
Djibouti, in northeastern Africa. The city is a
in Djibouti declared for the Vichy government.
port on Gulf of Tadjoura, an inlet of the Indian
and the port suffered an Allied blockade that
Ocean just south of the entrance to the Red Sea.
brought extreme hardship to the population. Af-
It was built during the French colonial period,
ter the war, moves were made toward autonomy
largely in semi-Arab stvle. Unlike other ports on
for the colony: in 1946 it acquired a representa-
the coast, it has no "old town" or ancient monu-
tive council and returned a deputy to the French
ments.
National Assembly, though indigenous voting
The population, estimated at 180,000 in 1981,
rights remained restricted. Universal suffrage
is mixed. Its chief components are the two
was introduced in 1957. Meanwhile. the tide of
indigenous groups of the area, the Afar (Danakil)
Somali nationalism had begun to rise. As inde-
and the Issa Somalis; other Somalis: Yemeni
pendence and merger of the British and Italian
Arabs; and a small but important French commu-
Somali territories came into view. independence
nity.
for the French colony seemed likely to mean its
Although Djibouti has some light industry, its
joining the "greater Somalia." Such an outcome
economy depends on trade and financial ser-
was unacceptable to Ethiopia as to France. In
vices. The city is a free port and a center for
general, it was also unacceptable to the Afar, who
transshipment. The railroad joining Djibouti to
had previously shown little modern political con-
Addis Ababa makes the port Ethiopia's principal
sciousness but now began to play a dominant
outlet to the sea, apart from Eritrea. The inter
part on the national scene. In a referendum held
national airport is becoming increasingly impor
in 1967, with the balloting strictly controlled by
tant as a center for air freight. Djibouti also is
the French authorities, the Afar vote along with
the main French naval base on the Indian
the French carried the day in favor of continued
Ocean.
union with France. The country was then re-
The port was built in 1892 by the French,
named the French Territory of the Afars and
chiefly as a station on the Suez Canal route to the
Issas.
East, corresponding to the British port of Aden.
Hardliners among the Somali nationalists
It became the official outlet for the trade of Ethi-
went underground, and several terrorist episodes
opia and grew rapidly. In 1896 it became the
took place. Desire for independence within the
capital of French Somaliland, later called the
territory increasingly was supported by the Orga-
French Territory of the Afars and Issas. In 1977
nization of African States and world opinion,
the territory gained independence as the Repub-
while France's loss of its Eastern empire and the
lic of Djibouti, with the city as its capital.
uncertain situation of the Suez Canal made Dji-
VIRGINIA LULING
bouti port less essential to the metropolitan
Author of "A Somali Sultanate
220
A26
1991
WH
AFRICA
South of the
Sahara
1991
TWENTIETH EDITION
12/5/90
EUROPA PUBLICATIONS LIMITED
DJIBOUTI
Physical and Social Geography
I. M. LEWIS
Republic of Djibouti (known formerly, after its two main
Cushitic-speaking peoples with a traditionally nomadic econ-
tribal
groups, as the French Territory of the Afars and the
omy and close cultural affinities, despite frequent local rivalry.
and previously as French Somaliland) became indepen-
The Afars inhabit the northern part of the country, the Somalis
Issas, on 27 June 1977. The terrain is arid, consisting mostly of
the southern, and both groups span the artificial frontiers
dent voleanic rock-strewn desert wastes, with occasional patches of
separating the Republic of Djibouti from Ethiopia and Somalia.
arable land, and spectacular salt lakes and pans. The climate
Indeed, Asaita, the seat of the leading Afar sultanate, lies in
torrid, with high tropical temperatures and humidity during
the Awash valley on the Ethiopian side.
monsoon season. The average annual rainfall is less than
Since the development of the port of Djibouti in the early
mm. Only in the upper part of the basaltic range north of
1900s, the Issas, who are the major locally-based Somali clan,
Gulf of Tadjourah, where the altitude reaches more than
have been joined by immigrants from the adjoining regions of
above sea-level, is there continuous annual vegetation.
Somalia. The Afars have generally more restricted patterns of
Mangroves grow in places along the coast, and there are doum
nomadic movement than the Somalis, and a more hierarchical
palms in some of the inner plains: their fibres are used to
traditional political organization. While they formed a number
make mats and utensils.
of small chiefdoms and sultanates, these were linked by the
This barren area of some 23,200 sq km (8,958 sq miles) con-
tained in 1987 an estimated population of 483,000, including
pervasive cleavage running throughout the Afar population
refugees and other resident non-nationals. The capital town,
between the 'noble' Asaimara (or 'red') clans and the less
Djibouti, whose port and rail-head constitute the territory's
prestigious Asdoimara (or 'white') clans. In addition to the
mison d'être, had a population of about 200,000. The indigenous
indigenous Afars and Somalis, there is a long-established Arab
population is almost evenly divided between Somalis and Afars,
trading community. European expatriates are mainly French,
the former having a slight predominance. Both are Muslim
mostly in government employment and the armed forces.
Recent History
IDRIS DIRIE
Based on an earlier article by MARGARET DOLLEY
Relations with France date from 1859, when the centre of
Somalia into Djibouti (despite the government's efforts to
interest in the territory was the small port of Obock. As Anglo-
prevent this by circling the town with electrified fencing)
French rivalry developed later in the century, interest shifted
increased the Somali population and led to further tension with
to the new port of Djibouti, developed by the French as a
the Afars. Nevertheless, despite growing pressure from the
counterweight to British Aden, and the construction (begun in
OAU for France to grant full independence to Djibouti, Ali
1897 and completed in 1917) of the Franco-Ethiopian railway
Aref was, for a time, able to retain power. Meanwhile, the
to carry Ethiopia's trade through the French port. Ethiopian
official opposition party within the territory, the Somali-domi-
economic involvement is strengthened by the geographical
nated Ligue populaire africaine pour l'indépendance (LPAI),
distribution of the Afars and Issas outside Djibouti. The inter-
was growing in strength and pressing for self-determination
est of Somalia follows directly from the powerful local Somali
with the external encouragement of the Somali Democratic
element and the attraction of Djibouti as an employment centre
Republic. The 1974-75 drought in Somalia brought a fresh
for immigrant workers from other neighbouring Somali groups.
wave of Somali immigrants into the territory. Further and
Djibouti was thus, inevitably, a focus of contention between
violent agitation came from the banned Front de libération de
the two neighbouring states. Somalia's policy was to campaign
la Côte des Somalis (FLCS).
for independence for the territory, Ethiopia's to support con-
These pressures led to a decisive change in French policy:
tinuance of the French connection.
independence would be granted and a more harmonious
Because of their greater numbers in the town of Djibouti,
relationship sought between the two ethnic groups. The RDA
the economic and political hub of the country, the Somali
was rapidly losing support to the LPAI. Aref was replaced in
population long dominated the territory's politics, as was
July 1976 by the former cabinet secretary-general, Abdullah
reflected in its original title French Somaliland (Côte française
Mohamed Kamil, an Afar married to a Somali, who was
des Somalis). However, the less urbanized and more neglected
appointed head of a new government containing leading repre-
Afar population, with French encouragement, reversed this
sentatives of both Afar and Somali.
situation in the referendum held in March 1967 to decide the
territory's future. A majority of those who succeeded in voting,
POST-INDEPENDENCE TENSIONS
mainly Afar, opted for the maintenance of the French connec-
With this new coalition, the French Territory of the Afars and
tion, while most of those Somalis who were permitted to vote
the Issas was steered to independence on 27 June 1977, with
sought independence. This outcome left a legacy of inter-ethnic
the veteran Somali politician and LPAI leader, Hassan Gouled
bitterness. The supremacy of the Afars was consolidated in
Aptidon, becoming the first president of the newly-proclaimed
the 1968 elections for the new chamber of deputies, when the
Republic of Djibouti; Ahmed Dini, an Afar and the secretary-
Afar leader, Ali Aref, and his Regroupement démocratique
general of the LPAI, was chosen as prime minister, with Kamil
afar (RDA) won 26 of the 32 seats. In subsequent years,
as minister of foreign affairs. President Gouled emphasized the
the return of expelled Somalis and further immigration from
republic's 'Arab' identity, thus stressing the common Islamic
435
DJIBOUTI
Recent
History
allegiance of the Afars and Somalis, and appealing to the
Political tensions were renewed within Djibouti during
powerful Arab states across the Red Sea, whose support would
weeks preceeding the April 1987 presidential election, not
be necessary to safeguard Djibouti's future. The continuance
by a bomb explosion at a Djibouti café used by French
of the French military presence, which afforded immediate
in which 11 were killed, including eight foreigners. The
protection for the fragile state, would obviously depend on the
however, was discovered to have been carried out by
policy of future French governments.
extremist group opposed to France's military presence in
Political stability proved difficult to maintain. The Afars
Horn of Africa. Gouled, the sole candidate in the election
the
complained of discrimination and were accused of being respon-
re-elected with the endorsement of just over 90% of
sible for several violent incidents; when 600 Afars were
electorate. At the same time, 65 candidates for the chamber the
arrested after one such incident, in December 1977, Ahmed
of deputies, presented on a single list approved by the RPP
Dini and four other Afar ministers resigned in protest. Kamil
were endorsed by 87% of the electorate. In November Pred.
took up the premiership again but was replaced in September
dent Gouled dissolved the government and appointed
1978 by another Afar, Barkad Gourad Hamadou, formerly
enlarged council of ministers comprising 16 members. A presid
minister of health, who declared that the government would
ential tour of remote areas of Djibouti in February 1988
follow a policy of 'rapid detribalization' to strengthen national
claimed to have reinforced national unity. In the same month Was
unity. In March 1979 Gouled announced the replacement of
however, an attack on the border town of Balho was attributed
the LPAI by a new political party, the Rassemblement popu-
to the MPL and was widely seen as a sign of increasing ethnic
laire pour le progrès (RPP), whose politburo was to be chosen
tensions. In November a new RPP politburo was formed
and presided over by himself. In June Mohamed Kamil
which included three new appointees among its 15 members
announced the formation of an underground opposition to be
In April 1989 inter-tribal hostilities erupted in Djibouti city
known as the Front démocratique pour la libération de Djibouti
and the Afar town of Tadjourah, reportedly leading to the
(FDLD). This was the result of a merger between two Afar-
deaths of more than 10 people. Tension increased in Afar
dominated pre-independence parties, the Mouvement populaire
inhabited areas in May, and in a speech to mark the end
of
de libération (MPL) and the Union nationale pour l'indépen-
the Muslim period of Ramadan President Gouled instructed
dance (UNI), which had been banned since 1977. Kamil critic-
the army to deal firmly with tribal disturbances. At the same
ized Gouled's regime for excessive dependence on France and
time he announced that measures were to be taken against
for favouring pro-Somalia policies.
illegal refugees, who were not only an economic burden on the
country, but also a source of instability.
RPP SUPREMACY
In June 1989 President Gouled made an official visit
to
France during which he described relations with France as
of
In February 1981 the national assembly approved a new
an 'exceptional quality' and praised the stabilizing influence of
electoral law allowing for the direct election of the president.
the French military presence in Djibouti. While it was reported
The first presidential election was held in June; Hassan Gouled,
that the French president, François Mitterrand, had assured
as the sole candidate, received 84% of votes cast and was thus
Gouled that France's military commitment to Djibouti would
elected for a further six-year term. The FDLD rejected the
be maintained, although no new economic agreement was then
results of the presidential election and, from its base in Addis
forthcoming to replace the 10-year agreement which was due
Ababa, demanded a return to democracy and the release of
to expire at the end of 1989.
political prisoners. Soon afterwards, a new opposition party-
In October violent clashes occurred between members of
the Parti populaire djiboutien (PPD)-was formed under the
rival clans in Balbala, Djibouti city. Ten people were believed
leadership of ex-premier Ahmed Dini. The leadership was
to have been killed and more than 100 injured. Security forces
arrested in September and the party banned, and in October
subsequently arrested several hundred people, some of whom
constitutional laws were adopted to enable the provisional
were stated to have been deported to Gesdir, a remote border
establishment of a one-party state, whereupon the PPD leaders
region between Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia. Sizeable num
were released.
bers of these deportees were later reported to have been killed
At legislative elections held in May 1982, 90% of the elector-
by the Somali National Movement (SNM) and Issa militia men.
ate endorsed the single list of candidates presented by the
In January 1990 the FDLD, the MNDID and independent
RPP. A new government, formed in June, differed little from
members of the opposition merged to form a new opposition
its predecessor, and Gourad Hamadou continued in the post of
party, the Union de mouvements démocratiques (UMD). The
prime minister. One potential source of dissent was removed
group's declaired aim was to 'unite all the ethnic groups
when, in September, members of the MPL and UNI returned
and different political persuasions' and to resolve 'the chaotic
from exile in Ethiopia under the terms of an amnesty.
situation' pertaining in the country.
Since then, continuity has provided the main theme of Dji-
bouti's internal political life. At the third RPP congress, held
THE REFUGEE PROBLEM
in March 1985, only 14 non-incumbent candidates were elected
A source of international discontent has been the substantial
to the party's 123-member central committee. Two months
flow of refugees from the Eritrean and Ogaden conflicts in
later, a new RPP politburo was formed; of its 14 members,
Ethiopia (see below), which has greatly added to Djibouti's
only one had not been included in the predecessor body. There
economic problems, and, in particular, to unemployment; in
was, however, a minor contretemps in June 1985, when Gouled
1983 it was reported that only 10% of the active population
abruptly dismissed the minister of defence, Habib Loita, one
was engaged in formal employment. The seriousness of the
of his most trusted political allies. A more serious incident
refugee problem was recognized at a Pan-African conference
occurred in January 1986, when, following a visit to Djibouti
on refugees in May 1979, when it was acknowledged 'that
by President Siad Barre of Somalia, a bomb was exploded at
the OAU's preferred policy of absorbing refugees into the
the headquarters of the RPP, killing two people. The bombing
indigenous population could not be applied without major
and the subsequent assassination of a prominent local business-
difficulty in so small a country as Djibouti. An amnesty for
man were followed by intensive security operations, in which
refugees returning to Ethiopia, announced in 1980, had little
more than 1,000 people were arrested. Although most of the
immediate effect, and by 1981 there were an estimated 50,000
detainees were later released, more than 300 of them were
displaced persons living in Djibouti, of whom about one-half
deported to their 'countries of origin'.
were Eritreans living in or near the capital, with the remainder
Evidence of open opposition to President Gouled received
being mainly women and children from the Ogaden, living,
wider international attention in May, when Aden Robleh Awal-
under the auspices of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees
leh, a former minister of commerce, transport and tourism.
(UNHCR). in a desert camp in the Djibouti hinterland.
was charged with conducting 'massive propaganda campaigns'
By December 1984 about 16,000 refugees had been repatri-
against the RPP, and was expelled from the party. Aden
sted under the auspices of UNHCR, although subsequent
Robleh promptly fled to Ethiopia and announced the formation
drought and the political situation in Ethiopia caused some
of a new opposition group, the Mouvement national djiboutien
refugees to flee once again. A second voluntary repatriation
pour l'instauration de la démocratie (MNDID), with the stated
scheme. launched in August 1986, was much less successful
aim of restoring a multi-party parliamentary democracy.
with only 1.500 refugees volunteering to return to Ethiopia
436
DJBOUTI
Recent History, Economy
threat by the Djibouti government to withdraw refugee
bouti's part since Ethiopian asylum was granted in 1986 to
and from those remaining was lifted only after substantial
Aden Robleh and the MNDID.
status international pressure. In June 1987 it was estimated that
As a result of Gouled's wish to reconcile the vying factions
'official' refugees (i.e. those holding documents
in the Horn of Africa, Djibouti took an important role in
thouthe UNHCR) remained in Djibouti. The burden that they
promoting the creation, in February 1985, of the six-nation
from imposed on the economy has been exacerbated by an
Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development
influx have of 'illegal' immigrants from Somalia and Ethiopia, and
(IGADD), with a permanent secretariat in Djibouti. IGADD's
June 1987 the government imposed tighter controls on
first summit meeting, in January 1986, brought both the
and identity papers. In January 1989 illegal
Ethiopian and Somali heads of state to Djibouti, marking a
were alleged to have taken part in a violent
significant step towards an eventual settlement of regional
a a forces and inhabitants of
conflicts. In April 1988, following a further meeting in Djibouti,
Balbala, a close to Djibouti
between the two leaders, Ethiopia and Somalia agreed to re-
in which four people died and 100 were injured.
establish diplomatic relations, to withdraw troops from their
dty. In December 1989 the government agreed to collaborate
common border and to exchange prisoners of war.
the UNHCR to provide food aid for some 30,000-40,000
Relations with Somalia deteriorated following an attack by
Somali with refugees in Djibouti. However, the government remains
the SNM on border posts along the Somali-Djibouti border.
reluctant host and was believed to have accepted the
The Somali government had always regarded with suspicion
UNHCR's food aid plan only after international pressure-the
Djibouti's declared neutrality in respect of the Somali-Ethio-
U.S.A. has declared its advocacy of the full recognition of
pian conflict, and, following the outbreak of armed insurgency
Somali immigrants as refugees.
in northern Somalia, it accused Djibouti of openly supporting
EXTERNAL RELATIONS
the SNM. It was reported in early 1990 that elders of the Issa
and Issac clans had agreed to join their forces to those opposed
Following the Ogaden war of 1977-78, Djibouti maintained a
to Siad Barre's regime in Somalia. In March 1990, when inter-
strict neutrality between the opposing forces of Ethiopian and
tribal conflict erupted into heavy fighting in Loya Adde and
Somali nationalism, banning sales of military equipment to
Zeila on the Somali side of the border with Ethiopia, Somalia
factions on both sides and offering to act as a peace mediator.
accused Djibouti of waging armed aggression in its territory.
Conflict between these two countries, with its attendant dan-
A denial by the Djibouti government did not prevent a further
gers for the stability of Djibouti, continued in the form of
deterioration in relations.
incipient guerrilla warfare. A vital consideration in government
Djibouti's relations with Iraq have improved and in May
policy was the necessity of maintaining Djibouti's share in
1990 a delegation led by the Iraqi chief of staff visited Djibouti
the transport of Ethiopian trade, which was intermittently
and agreed to supply patrol boats and other equipment to
disrupted by Somali opposition forces after Djibouti attained
Djibouti, which had hitherto relied entirely on France for
independence. The Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway line was shut
military supplies for its small army.
down during the Ogaden war, but reopened in June 1978,
Relations with Egypt, interrupted since President Sadat's
following successful Djiboutian representations to Ethiopia.
Guerrilla action continued to interrupt traffic on the line, and
rapprochement with Israel in 1979, were restored in September
in July 1985 an independent railway company was created in
1986. A contretemps with the People's Democratic Republic
of Yemen, which led to the severence of relations for four
an attempt to resolve this problem.
During 1979 Djibouti concluded agreements with both Ethi-
months after an Air Djibouti aircraft was forced by fighter
opia and Somalia for closer co-operation in transport, communi-
planes to land at Aden, had also been resolved by November.
cations and trade. Regular meetings of frontier boundary
In December 1987 the French president, François Mitterrand,
commissioners were proposed with Ethiopia in that year, and
made an official visit to Djibouti, the first such visit by a
official visits to Djibouti by high-ranking Ethiopian delegations
French head of state since 1977.
took place in 1980 and again in 1983. In May 1985 the two
Djibouti embarked on a policy of 'diplomatic diversification'
countries concluded a trade and development co-operation
in 1989, applying for membership of the Gulf Co-operation
agreement, although relations have been less cordial on Dji-
Council (GCC) and seeking financial aid from Turkey.
Economy
MARGARET DOLLEY
Revised for this edition by IDRIS DIRIE
The economy is based on trade through the international port
programme to develop fishing was started in 1980, supported
of Djibouti, and the country's economic future depends on the
by the International Fund for Agricultural Development, and
the
success of its developing service sector. In addition to the
it was hoped to increase catches to 1,200 metric tons per year
expanding port, there is a railway, which links Djibouti to Addis
by 1990. More than one-half of the population are pastoral
for
Ababa in Ethiopia, and a modern airport that is capable of land-
nomads, herding goats, sheep and camels; this sector will
ing large jet-engined aircraft. The banking sector is growing in
benefit from the construction of an abattoir and fodder mill,
100
importance, aided by the stable and freely convertible Djibouti
on which work started in mid-1986.
franc and the absence of exchange controls. Towards the end of
The development of underground water supplies for irrig-
1989 an Islamic Bank, the Al Baraka Bank, began operations in
ation is being studied, and deep-water wells have been sunk
Djibouti bringing the number of private banks in the country to
in an attempt to alleviate the effects of periodic drought.
six. The Al Baraka Bank, which was established with a capital
In May 1987 the African Development Bank agreed to lend
of 300m. Djibouti francs, operates on Islamic banking principles.
US $16.1m. to Djibouti to finance a project to supply water to
A substantial share of the country's receipts derive from the
the towns of Djibouti, Ali-Sabieh, Tadjourah and Obock. During
provision of services to the French military garrison (with about
1984 Djibouti was seriously affected by drought, and was
3,900 men in 1988) and other expatriates.
granted $215,000 in famine relief aid from the EEC. Ironically,
There is little arable farming in Djibouti, as the land is
in April 1989, eight people were killed and 150,000 were
mainly volcanic desert, one of the least hospitable and most
estimated to have been made homeless by flooding which
unproductive terrains in Africa, and the country is able to
destroyed parts of the capital and damaged infrastructure.
produce only about 3% of its food requirements. A 10-year
France, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and the Federal Republic of
437
DJIBOUTI
Econom
Germany responded promptly with donations of emergency
by Ethiopia of container facilities at Assab port could
aid.
unwelcome competition for Djibouti in the future.
Industry is limited to a few small-scale concerns. Regional
Several other developments in communications infrast
political uncertainties and high labour costs have discouraged
in the 1980s have enhanced Djibouti's competitiveness
the creation of new industries, despite the existence of a free
trading routes. These have included the inauguration in 1985
zone and the major liberalization of investment legislation in
of a second earth station
February 1984, and almost all consumer goods have to be
tions network of the
imported. A power station feeding a mineral-water bottling
ation, the laying of an undersea telecommunications cable
factory at Tadjourah, the first major industrial project outside
Saudi Arabia, and the commissioning in October 1985 of
to
international telephone exchange enabling international direct
5
the capital, was commissioned in 1981, and a dairy plant (on
the outskirts of Djibouti town), a government printing press
dialling to 30 countries. In 1986 work was due to begin
and an extension to the Boulaos power station were all opened
a project, costing an estimated $21m., to upgrade Ambouli on
in 1984-85. Work also commenced in 1986 on a major geother-
international airport, with finance provided by Arab donors
mal exploration project, financed by foreign aid, in the Hanle
However, the project was subsequently delayed; its budgeted
Gaggade area. Conditions there proved to be unsuitable for
cost was reduced to $14m., and by May 1989 it was still not
the development of this form of energy, but more favourable
clear when work would begin.
results were reported after tests had been conducted in the
The government's first Development Plan (1982-84)
Goubet-Lac-Assal region in 1987. The object of this scheme is
undertaken to channel foreign aid into a cohesive development
to make Djibouti self-sufficient in energy, and possibly able to
strategy. Potential has been constrained, however, by the lack
export gas to neighbouring countries. Italy has donated $22m.
of infrastructure, of trained labour and of natural resources.
towards the purchase of equipment for the first phase of the
Nevertheless, a highly successful conference of aid donors was
project, the total cost of which has been estimated at $38.04m.
held in Djibouti in November 1983, when most of the funds
France is also participating in the project, which is cofinanced
that the country needed for its 1984-89 Development Plan
by the World Bank, OPEC and the UNDP. Djibouti's first oil
(which envisaged total expenditure of $570m.) were raised.
refinery, to be built with the help of Saudi private sector
including more than $100m. from Arab sources. Development
assistance, is expected to become operational by 1992. The
projects that have already started include construction by a
$750m. refinery is expected to produced 100,000 barrels of
Yugoslav contractor of a 114-km 'unity' highway linking Dji.
Saudi non-OPEC quota per day. The bulk of this production will
bouti to Tadjourah, due for completion in 1988, and a four
have to be exported as it far exceeds Djibouti's consumption of
year programme to improve living conditions in Djibouti. There
6,000 barrels per day. Some progress was made towards the
are also plans for an improved road through Loyada into
northern Somalia.
establishment of a tourist industry with the opening of a 200-
Djibouti remains heavily dependent on foreign assistance
room hotel in 1981.
Djibouti's establishment as a free port in 1981 has not yet
which, because of the country's strategic position, is readily
managed to halt the decline in total port business, which,
forthcoming. The main donors are France and Saudi Arabia,
while co-operation agreements have been signed with Pakistan
affected by competition from rising Arab ports nearby, was
the People's Republic of China, the Republic of Korea and
virtually stagnant in 1985, when a total of 775,000 tons were
Uganda. The Saudi Fund for Development will provide funds
handled-20,000 tons less than in 1983. The completion in
for the revamping of Djibouti's port facilities, and will also
1985 of a deep-water container terminal, with 'roll-on, roll-off"
finance housing projects and road construction. Saudi assist-
facilities and a refrigerated warehouse, capable of handling
ance in education is also planned, but this may prove controver:
40,000 tons, has helped to restore Djibouti's competitiveness,
sial because of the way it will change the traditionally French.
and traffic volume was almost doubled in 1986. Work was
oriented education system. A $4m. Islamic Institute is due to
nearing completion in 1988 on the rehabilitation of two of the
be inaugurated at the end of 1990, and this will accelerate
port's berths, and a further phase of the project, including
the 'Arabisation' policy sought by Djibouti's Arab donors,
dredging and reclamation work, was due to begin. As Djibouti
Meanwhile, France has provided funds for a more modest
already had good bunkering and watering facilities and is well
training scheme, costing $600,000 to construct the new Teacher
placed for transhipment, it was hoped that the addition of
Training Centre for State Education. The centre, which is due
these facilities would help the port to regain some of the
to open in October 1990, will provide pedagogic training for
business that it lost during the closure of the Suez Canal from
students who will gradually replace the 227 French teaching
1967 to 1975, and to increase its competitiveness with the
personnel in Djibouti. Djibouti is a member of the ADB, the
expanding Arab ports.
IMF, the Islamic Development Bank, the World Bank and the
The conflict between Somalia and Ethiopia has also had a
IFC, and thus receives considerable financial support. Since
serious effect upon Djibouti's economy. During the Ogaden
1984, however, there has been a reduction in foreign aid which,
war of 1977-78, the railway linking Djibouti with Addis Ababa
by 1989, had combined with stagnating government receipts
was closed, denying the port its vital Ethiopian trade. This,
to create serious financial problems. In 1989, France, the
together with the influx of some 50,000 refugees as a result of
provider of most of Djibouti's financial support, urged the
the fighting, produced very high unemployment. For many
government to improve the collection of taxes in order to
years, the Djibouti government has been anxious about its
reduce the budget deficit. The government, for its part, has
lack of control over the railway; 660 km of the line's 778 km
begun to seek alternative sources of financial assistance.
pass through the territory of Ethiopia, which employs more
The overall balance of payments was healthily in surplus
than three-quarters of the railway staff. The signing of a
during the period 1978-80, with large deficits on visible trade
new railway agreement with Ethiopia in 1981 brought some
more than offset by net receipts from services and by official
improvement, which was further enhanced in July 1985, when
unrequited transfers. However, a 20% increase in imports in
a joint ministerial meeting between the two countries decided
1981 more than outstripped the 17% rise in exports, causing a
to grant autonomous status to the railway company, with the
trade deficit of SDR 78m., equivalent to almost 26% of gross
aim of improving its profitability. A major programme for the
domestic product (GDP). The current account deficit was much
replacement of rolling stock and the rehabilitation of track was
smaller-at SDR 3.5m., or 1% of GDP-because of substantial
begun in 1986, with funding from the EEC. A trade agreement
earnings from transport and other services, while gains in the
with Ethiopia, signed in April 1985, has also allayed some of
value of foreign exchange earnings enabled the overall balance
Djibouti's fears that its Ethiopian trade is eroding (the pro-
of payments to register a surplus of almost SDR 5m. In 1981,
portion of Ethiopian goods handled by the port having fallen
according to estimates by the World Bank, Djibouti's gross
from 60% to 8% in recent years). Ethiopia has agreed to
national product (GNP), measured at average 1979-81 prices,
increase its use of Djibouti port, as part of measures to correct
was $180m., equivalent to $480 per head. In 1987 this was
the trade balance that is currently in Ethiopia's favour. Traffic
estimated to have risen to $600. The level of GNP per head
generated by Ethiopia has subsequently risen sharply, and the
has undoubtedly been bolstered by the large expatriate com-
total volume of containerized traffic passing through the port
munity, which numbered more than 10,000 in 1987. Djibouti's
increased by 21% in 1985. However, the planned development
disbursed and undisbursed debt amounted to $149.8m. at the
438
DJIBOUTI
Economy, Statistical Survey
end of 1983, with debt servicing forecast to rise steadily from
inflation emerged as a problem for the first time since Djibou-
the $4.2m. recorded in that year.
ti's independence, reaching 22.5% in the year to June 1986.
Disbursed and undisbursed debt accelerated sharply in 1984
Current budgetary aid for 1989 totalling 37.5m. French francs
and 1985, when total liabilities rose, by over 70%, to $244m.
(compared with ordinary and extraordinary budget aid of
Long-term repayments due in 1986 totalled $33m., reflecting
85m. French francs in 1988) was promised by the French
the government's requirements for loan finance to underwrite
government. The aid was provided under the terms of an
a chronic budgetary deficit. External debt reportedly totalled
agreement signed in 1980 and due to expire in 1989. At the
$152.4m. at the end of 1987, and had risen to an estimated
seventh session of the France-Djibouti joint committee, held
$300m. (73% of Djibouti's GNP) by the end of 1988. Debt
in 1989, France signalled a change of policy with regard to
servicing accounted for 1,000m. Djibouti francs in that year,
budgetary aid to Djibouti: aid would no longer extend over a
5% of total budgeted expenditure. In the 1988 budget, expendi-
10-year period, but would be fixed annually. At the same
ture was fixed at 23,267m. Djibouti francs, an increase of 4.8%
time, officials from the French ministry of co-operation were
over 1987, due to raised provisions for external public debt,
reported to have requested Djibouti to reduce its public expen-
personnel and administrative costs. In an attempt to maximize
diture and intensify its revenue-raising efforts. Current budget-
revenue, the government planned in January 1988 to introduce,
among other measures, a tax on profits from public industrial
ary aid for 1990 remained at the same level as in 1989: 37.5m.
Franch francs.
and commercial establishments and on companies; and a surtax
on qat (a narcotic shrub), alcohol and tobacco. In the 1989
It was planned to substantially increase public investment
budget expenditure was fixed at 24,300m. Djibouti francs,
in 1990. A total of 10,788m. Djibouti francs was to be invested
while revenue was fixed at 23,900m. Djibouti francs. At the
in projects in the communications, agricultural and fisheries
same time new tax laws were adopted, which sought to improve
sectors, and in social, environmental and urban improvement
the collection of government revenues and thus assist in the
schemes. Almost 40% of total expenditure on public projects
reduction of the budgetary deficit. The 1990 budget fixed
(about twice the level of 1989) was allocated to projects in the
ordinary government expenditure at 25,200m. Djibouti francs,
communications sector. It was also proposed to invest 2,058m.
while total revenue was fixed at 24,000m. Djibouti francs. The
Djibouti francs in agriculture and fisheries. Capital expenditure
Djibouti franc has, since early 1986, depreciated in value, along
in 1991 was fixed at 13,850m. Djibouti francs, most of which
with the US dollar, to which it is linked. During that year
would, again, be directed towards the communications sector.
Statistical Survey
Source (unless otherwise stated): Ministère du Commerce, de l'Industrie, des Transports et du Tourisme,
BP 1846, Djibouti; tel. 35331.
AREA AND POPULATION
bouti francs): Expenditure 23,919.2; 1990 (estimate, million Djibouti
Area: 23,200 sq km (8,958 sq miles).
francs): Expenditure 23,987.
Population: 220,000 (1976 estimate), including Afars 70,000, Issas
International Reserves (US $ million at 31 December 1989): IMF
and other Somalis 80,000, Arabs 12,000, Europeans 15,000, other
special drawing rights 0.27; Reserve position in IMF 1.24; Foreign
foreigners 40,000; 483,000 (including refugees and resident foreig-
exchange 57.20; Total 58.71. Source: IMF, International Financial
Statistics.
ners) at mid-1987 (official estimate).
Principal Towns: Djibouti (capital), population 200,000 (1981);
Money Supply (million Djibouti francs at 31 December 1988):
Dikhil; Ali-Sabieh; Tadjourah; Obock.
Currency outside banks 8,439; Demand deposits at commercial
banks 17,386. Source: IMF, International Financial Statistics.
AGRICULTURE, ETC.
Gross Domestic Product by Economic Activity (million Djibouti
Principal Crops ('000 metric tons, 1988): Vegetables 16.
francs at current prices, 1983): Agriculture, hunting, forestry and
fishing 2,580; Manufacturing 4,910; Electricity, gas and water
Livestock (FAO estimates, '000 head, year ending September
1,914; Construction 4,550; Trade, restaurants and hotels 9,410;
1988): Cattle 70, Sheep 414, Goats 500, Asses 8, Camels 58.
Transport, storage and communications 5,900; Finance, insurance,
Livestock Products: (FAO estimates, metric tons, 1988): Meat
real estate and business services 6,630; Government services
-7,000, Goatskins 438.
16,200; Other community, social and personal services 920; Sub-
Fishing (metric tons, live weight): Total catch 380 in 1985; 410 in
total 53,014; Import duties 10,713; Less bank service charges 3,730;
1986; 440 (FAO estimate) in 1987 (Source: FAO, Yearbook of
GDP in purchasers' values 59,997. Source: UN, National Accounts
Fishery Statistics).
Statistics.
Gross Domestic Product (million Djibouti francs at current pur-
INDUSTRY
chasers' values): 60,234 in 1984.
1987. Electric energy (million kWh): 164 in 1985; 171 in 1986; 172 in
Balance of Payments (million Djibouti francs, 1982): Exports f.o.b.
(incl. re-exports) 20,830, Imports c.i.f. -38,523, Trade Balance
-17,693; Services, port 847, Unrequited transfers (net) 8,909,
FINANCE
Current Balance -4,366; Capital movements 1,942, Changes in
Currency and Exchange Rates: 100 centimes = 1 Djibouti franc.
reserves -2,424.
Coins: 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 Djibouti francs. Notes: 500, 1,000
and 5,000 Djibouti francs. Sterling and Dollar Equivalents (31
EXTERNAL TRADE
March 1990): £1 sterling = 292.795 Djibouti francs; US $1 =
177.721 Djibouti francs; 1,000 Djibouti francs = £3.415 = $5.627.
Principal Commodities (million Djibouti francs, 1983): Imports:
Machinery and electrical equipment 4,301, Textiles 4,713, Food
Exchange Rate: Fixed at US $1 = 177.721 Djibouti francs since
7,488, Qat 3,550, Petroleum and derivatives 3,708, Road vehicles
February 1973.
4,749; Total (incl. others) 39,307. Exports: Live animals 592, Food
Budget (million Djibouti francs, 1986): Revenue: Taxation 17,041,
356; Total (incl. others) 1,919.
Non-tax current revenue 1,727, Grants 1,662, Repayment of loans
54, Transfers from reserve fund 3,639, Advances from the Treas-
Total imports (million Djibouti francs): 39,425 in 1984; 35,670 in
1985; 33,475 in 1986.
by 170, Total 24,494; Expenditure: General administration 9,908,
efence' 4,632, Education 1,651, Health 1,631, Economic services
Total exports (million Djibouti francs): 2,362 in 1984; 2,488 in 1985;
1341, Debt servicing 968, Other current expenditure 1,694, Total
3,628 in 1986.
133. 1988 (provisional, million Djibouti francs): Revenue 25,498
Principal Trading Partners (million Djibouti francs, 1984):
acl. grants received 1,400); Expenditure 22,234 (Source: IMF,
Imports: Benelux 2,214, Ethiopia 4,926, France and Monaco 22,044,
ternational Financial Statistics); 1989 (provisional, million Dji-
Italy 2,915, United Kingdom 1,592; Total (incl. others) 47,832.
439
DJIBOUTI
Statistical Survey, Directory
Exports: France and Monaco 1,704, Italy 89, Somalia 179, Spain
COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA
and Portugal 2, United Kingdom 23; Total (incl. others) 3,306.
Radio Receivers (1987): 33,000 in use.
Television Receivers (1987): 18,000 in use.
TRANSPORT
Telephones (1987): 4,452 in use.
Railways (Djibouti-Ethiopian Railway, 1987): Freight traffic ('000
metric tons): 291.7; Passengers 1.3m.
EDUCATION
Road Traffic ('000 motor vehicles, 1984): Passenger cars 18.4;
Commercial vehicles 6.7 (Source: UN, Statistical Yearbook).
Primary (1986/87): 59 schools (52 state schools, 7 private schools)
Shipping (Djibouti port, 1986): Vessels entered 1,723; Goods loaded
27,136 pupils (24,606 at state schools, 2,530 at private schools); 559
teachers (state schools only).
155,000 metric tons; Goods unloaded 466,000 metric tons.
Secondary and Technical (1986/87): 21 schools (8 state schools,
Civil Aviation (Djibouti airport, 1987): Freight loaded 1,612 metric
private schools); 7,895 pupils (6,203 at state schools, 1,692 at private 13
tons; Freight unloaded 6,036 metric tons; Passenger arrivals
schools); 302 teachers (state schools only).
67,856; Passenger departures 61,518.
Teacher Training (1987/88): 117 pupils; 13 teachers.
Directory
The Constitution
MINISTRIES
Office of the Prime Minister: BP 2086, Djibouti; tel. 351494;
In February 1981 the National Assembly approved the first consti-
telex 5871; fax 355049.
tutional laws controlling the election and terms of office of the
President, who is elected by universal suffrage for six years and
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development: BP 453, Dji
bouti; tel. 351297; telex 5871.
may serve for no more than two terms. Candidates for the presi-
dency must be presented by a regularly constituted political party
Ministry of the Civil Service: BP 155, Djibouti; tel. 351464; telex
and represented by at least 25 members of the Chamber of
5871.
Deputies.
Ministry of Commerce, Transport and Tourism: BP 121, Dji.
Deputies are elected for five years from a single list of candidates
bouti; tel. 352540; telex 5871.
proposed by the Rassemblement populaire pour le progrès.
Ministry of Defence: BP 42, Djibouti; tel. 352034; telex 5871.
In October 1984 a new constitutional law was proposed, specify-
ing that, when the office of President falls vacant, the President
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports: BP 2102, Djibouti;
tel. 351689; telex 5871.
of the Supreme Court will assume the power of Head of State for
a minimum of 20 days and a maximum of 35 days, during which
Ministry of Finance and National Economy: BP 13, Djibouti;
period a new President shall be elected.
tel. 353331; telex 5871.
Laws approving the establishment of a single-party system were
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: BP 1863, Djibouti;
adopted in October 1981.
tel. 352471; telex 5871.
Ministry of Health and Social Affairs: BP 296, Djibouti; tel.
353331; telex 5871.
The Government
Ministry of Industry and Industrial Development: BP 175, Dji-
bouti; tel. 350137; telex 5871.
HEAD OF STATE
Ministry of the Interior: BP 33, Djibouti; tel. 350791; telex 5871.
President and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces: HAS-
Ministry of Justice and Islamic Affairs: BP 12, Djibouti; tel.
SAN GOULED APTIDON (took office 27 June 1977; re-elected June
351506; telex 5871.
1981 and April 1987).
Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare: BP 170, Djibouti; tel.
350497; telex 5871.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
Ministry of Ports and Maritime Affairs: BP 2107, Djibouti; tel.
(August 1990)
350105; telex 5871.
Prime Minister and Minister of Planning and Land Develop-
Ministry of Public Works and Housing: BP 11, Djibouti; tel.
ment, and of Ports and Maritime Affairs: BARKAD GOURAD
350006; telex 5871.
HAMADOU.
Ministry of Telecommunications: Djibouti; tel. 350971; telex
5871.
Minister of the Interior, Posts and of Telecommunications:
KHAIREH ALLALEH HARED.
Minister of Justice and Islamic Affairs: ELAF ORBISS ALI.
Legislature
Minister of Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: MOUMIN BAHDON
FARAH.
CHAMBRE DES DÉPUTÉS
Minister of Defence: HUSSEIN BARKAD SIRAJ.
Elections for the 65-seat Chamber of Deputies were held on 24
Minister of Commerce, Transport and Tourism: MOUSSA Bou-
April 1987. A single list of candidates, which was claimed to reflect
RALE ROBLE.
the traditional balance between different ethnic groups and clans,
Minister of Finance and National Economy: MUHAMMAD DJAMA
was presented by the Rassemblement populaire pour le progrès.
ELABE.
All candidates were elected unopposed.
President of the Chamber: ABDOULKADER WABERI ASKAR.
Minister of the Civil Service and Administrative Reform: ISMAIL
ALI YOUSSOUF.
Minister of Industry and Industrial Development: SALEM
ABDOU.
Political Organizations
Minister of Labour and Social Welfare: AHMED IBRAHIM ABDI.
Rassemblement populaire pour le progrès (RPP): Djibouti; f.
Minister of Education: SULEIMAN FARAH LODON.
1979 to succeed the Ligue populaire africaine pour l'indépendance;
sole legal party since 1981; 15-mem. Political Bureau; Pres. HASSAN
Minister of Public Works and Housing: AHMED ADEN
GOULED APTIDON; Sec.-Gen. MOUMIN BAHDON FARAH.
YOUSSOUF.
The following organizations are banned:
Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development: MUHAMMAD
MOUSSA CHEHEM.
Front de libération de la Côte des Somalis (FLCS): f. 1963; Issa-
supported; based in Mogadishu, Somalia; Chair. ABDULLA WABERI
Minister of Health and Social Affairs: OUGOURE HASSAN
KHALIF; Vice-Chair. OMAR OSMAN RABEH.
IBRAHIM.
Mouvement populaire de libération (MPL): Afar-supported;
Minister of Youth, Sports and Cultural Affairs: OMAR CHIRDON
based in Ethiopia; reported to have resumed activities in 1988,
ABASS.
following attack on border post.
440
DJIBOUTI
Directory
supported, based in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia; Leader SHEHEM DAOUD.
la libération de Djibouti (MLD): f. 1964; Afar-
The Press
Parti populaire djiboutien: f. 1981; mainly Afar-supported; Leader
Carrefour Africain: BP 393, Djibouti; fax 354916; fortnightly;
MOUSSA AHMAD IDRIS.
publ. by the Roman Catholic mission; circ. 500.
Union de mouvements démocratiques (UMD): f. 1990 by merger
Djibouti Aujourd'hui: Djibouti; f. 1977; monthly; Editor ISMAEL
the fmr Front démocratique pour la libération de Djibouti
OMAR GUELLEH.
and of the Mouvement national djiboutien pour l'instauration de la
démocratie; Leader ADEN ROBLEM AWALLEH.
La Nation de Djibouti: place du 27 juin, BP 32, Djibouti; tel.
352201; weekly; Dir ISMAEL H. TANI; circ. 4,000.
NEWS AGENCIES
Diplomatic Representation
Agence Djiboutienne de Presse (ADP): BP 32, Djibouti; tel.
350201; telex 5871.
EMBASSIES IN DJIBOUTI
China, People's Republic: Djibouti; tel. 352246; telex 5926;
Foreign Bureau
Ambassador: Xu CHENGHUA.
Agence France-Presse (AFP): BP 97, Djibouti; tel. 352294; telex
Egypt: BP 1989, Djibouti; tel. 351231; telex 5880; Ambassador:
5863; Correspondent HAIDAR KHALID ABDULLAH.
(vacant).
Ethiopia: BP 230, Djibouti; tel. 350718; Ambassador: BERHANU
Radio and Television
DINKA.
France: 45 blvd du Maréchal Foch, BP 2039, Djibouti; tel. 350963;
There were an estimated 33,000 radio receivers and 18,000 tele-
telex 5861; Ambassador: CLAUDE SOUBESTE.
vision receivers in use in 1987. In 1980 Djibouti became a member
Iraq: BP 1983, Djibouti; tel. 353469; telex 5877; Ambassador:
of the Arab Satellite Communication Organization, and opened an
ABDEL AZIZ AL-GAILANI.
earth station for radio, television and telecommunications; a second
Libya: BP 2073, Djibouti; tel. 353339; telex 5874; Ambassador:
earth station was inaugurated in June 1985.
JALAL MUHAMMAD AL-DAGHELY.
Radiodiffusion-Télévision de Djibouti (RTD): BP 97, Djibouti;
Oman: BP 1996, Djibouti; tel. 350852; telex 5876; Ambassador:
tel. 352294; telex 5863; f. 1956; state-controlled; programmes in
SAOUD SALEM HASSAN AL-ANSI.
French, Afar, Somali and Arabic; 24 hours radio and 5 hours
television daily; Dir MUHAMMAD DJAMA ADEN.
Saudi Arabia: BP 1921, Djibouti; tel. 351645; telex 5865; fax
352284; Chargé d'affaires: MOWAFFAK AL-DOLIGANE.
Somalia: BP 549, Djibouti; tel. 353521; telex 5815; Ambassador:
MUHAMMAD SHEK MUHAMMAD MALINGUR.
Finance
Sudan: Djibouti; tel. 351483; Ambassador: TAG EL-SIR MUHAMMAD
(cap. = capital; p.u. paid up; dep. = deposits; m. = million;
ABASS.
res = reserves; br. = branch; amounts in Djibouti francs)
USSR: BP 1913, Djibouti; tel. 352051; telex 5906; Ambassador:
VIKTOR ZHURAVLEV.
BANKING
USA: Villa Plateau du Serpent, blvd Maréchal Joffré, BP 185,
Central Bank
Djibouti; tel. 353995; Ambassador: ROBERT S. BARRETT.
Banque Nationale de Djibouti: BP 2118, Djibouti; tel. 352751;
Yemen Arab Republic: BP 194, Djibouti; tel. 352975; Ambassador:
telex 5838; f. 1977; bank of issue; Gov. LUC A. ADEN.
MUHAMMAD ABDOUL WASSI HAMID.
Commercial Banks
Yemen, People's Democratic Republic: BP 1932, Djibouti; tel.
353704; Chargé d'affaires: AWAD SALEM BAABAD.
Bank of Credit and Commerce International: 10 ave Pierre
Pascal, BP 2105, Djibouti; tel. 351741; telex 5810; fax 352030; Man.
Dir CHRISTIAN HOLLANDER.
Judicial System
Banque de Djibouti et du Moyen Orient SA: 6 rue de Marseille,
BP 2471, Djibouti; tel. 351133; telex 5943; fax 355828; f. 1983; 55%
owned by Middle East Bank; cap. 300m. (Dec. 1987); Man. Dir IAN
The cour suprême was established in October 1979. There is a
J. MITCHELL
tribunal supérieur d'appel and a tribunal de première instance in
Djibouti; each of the five administrative districts has a tribunal
Banque Indosuez (Mer Rouge) (France): 10 place Lagarde, BP
coutumier.
88, Djibouti; tel. 353016; telex 5829; fax 351638; f. 1908; cap.
and res 1,650m., dep. 17,873m. (Dec. 1989); Chair. and Man. Dir
FRANÇOIS GRIFFE; 5 brs.
Religion
Banque pour le Commerce et l'Industrie (Mer Rouge): place
Lagarde, BP 2122, Djibouti; tel. 350857; telex 5821; fax 354260;
f. 1977; 51% owned by Banque Nationale de Paris Intercontinen-
ISLAM
tale; cap. and res. 3,020m., dep. 25,684m. (Dec. 1988); Pres. JEAN-
Almost the entire population are Muslims.
CLAUDE CLARAC; 7 brs.
Qadi of Djibouti: MOGUE HASSAN DIRIR, BP 168, Djibouti; tel.
British Bank of the Middle East (Hong Kong): place Lagarde,
352669.
BP 2112, Djibouti; tel. 353291; telex 5826; Man. CHRISTOPHER
REDDINGTON.
CHRISTIANITY
Commercial and Savings Bank of Somalia: BP 2004, Djibouti;
The Roman Catholic Church
tel. 351282; telex 5879; Dir ABDULKADIR HASSAN EGAL.
Djibouti comprises a single diocese, directly responsible to the
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia: rue de Marseilles, BP 187, Dji-
Holy See. There were an estimated 8,500 adherents in the country
bouti; tel. 352101; telex 5835; f. 1980; Man. ASSEBEWORK ZEGEYE.
at 31 December 1988.
Development Bank
Bishop of Djibouti (vacant): Apostolic Administrator: Fr GEORGES
PERRON, Evêché, blvd de la République, BP 94, Djibouti; tel.
Caisse de Développement de Djibouti: rue de l'Ethiopie, BP 520,
350140.
Djibouti; tel. 353391; f. 1983; 51% govt-owned; cap. 500m. (Dec.
1988); Pres Luc ADEN; Dir NOUH OMAR MIGUIL.
The Anglican Communion
Banking Association
Within the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East,
Djibouti lies within the jurisdiction of the Bishop in Egypt.
Association Professionnelle des Banques: c/o Banque pour le
Commerce et l'Industrie (Mer Rouge), place Lagarde, BP 2122,
Djibouti; tel. 350857; Pres. MUHAMMAD ADEN.
Other Christian Churches
Eglise Protestante: blvd de la République, BP 416, Djibouti; tel.
INSURANCE
351820; f. 1957; Pastor PASCAL VERNIER.
Greek Orthodox Church: blvd de la République, Djibouti; tel.
Assurances Générales de France (AGF): 3 rue Marchand, Dji-
bouti; tel. 352339.
351325; C. 350 adherents; Archimandrite STAVROS GEORGANAS.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is also represented in Djibouti.
State Insurance Co of Somalia (SICOS): BP 50, Djibouti; tel.
352707; telex 5819; all classes of insurance.
441
DJIBOUTI
Directory
DJIBOU
About 10 European insurance companies maintain agencies in
OCL, Beacon and other shipping and forwarding cos; Dir FAHMY
Djibouti.
SAID CASSIM.
Société d'Armement et de Manutention de la Mer Rouge
(SAMER): BP 10, Djibouti; agents for Pacific International Line,
Trade and Industry
Cunard Brocklebank, Wilhelm Wilhelmsen Co, Pakistan Shipping
Lines, Aktiebolaget Svenska Ostasiatiska Kompaniet, Texaco,
Chambre Internationale de Commerce et d'Industrie: place
Chevron Shipping Co, Kie Hock Shipping Co, Barber Lines,
Cassanelli
Lagarde, BP 84, Djibouti; tel. 351070; telex 5957; f. 1906; 24 mems;
Supreme Shipping Co, Scandutch; Chair. JOHN COLLINS; Man. Dir
the Histor
12 assoc. mems; Pres. SAID ALI COUBECHE; First Vice-Pres.
VINCENT ELL'AQUILLA.
vania Uni
MUHAMMAD ADEN.
Société Maritime L. Savon et Ries: ave Saint-Laurent du Var, BP
Chailley,
Djibouti Labour Federation: Pres. IDRIS OMAR.
2125, Djibouti; fax 351103; agents for Chargeurs Réunis, NCHP.
Paris, Aca
Sudcargos, Svedel Line, Lloyd Triestino, Hellenic Lines, Messina,
Laudouze,
Polish Ocean Lines; Dir M. AARSTAD.
thala, 198
Transport
Lewis, I.
CIVIL AVIATION
the Horn
RAILWAYS
The international airport is at Ambouli, 6 km from Djibouti, and
Compagnie du Chemin de Fer Djibouti-Ethiopien: BP 2116,
there are six internal airports.
Djibouti; tel. 350353; telex 5953; POB 1051, Addis Ababa; tel.
Air Djibouti (Red Sea Airlines): BP 505, rue Marchand, Djibouti:
447250; telex 21414; f. 1908, adopted present name in 1981; jtly-
tel. 352651; telex 5820; fax 354363; f. 1971, when Air Somalie took
owned by govts of Djibouti and Ethiopia; plans to grant auton-
over the fmr Air Djibouti (f. 1963); the Djibouti govt holds 62.5%
omous status were announced by the two govts in July 1985;
781 km of track (100 km in Djibouti) linking Djibouti with Addis
of shares, and Air France 32.3%; internal flights connecting the six
major centres and international services to the Yemen Republic,
Ababa; Pres. Y. AHMED; Vice-Pres. MOUSSA BOURALE ROBLE.
Somalia, the United Arab Emirates, France, Italy, Egypt, Kenya,
ROADS
Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia and Uganda; Gen. Man. PAUL BOTBOL
fleet of 2 Twin Otter and 2 DC-9-30.
In 1987 there were 3,037 km of roads, of which over 400 km were
bitumen-surfaced, including the 185-km road along the Ethiopian
frontier. Of the remainder, 1,000 km are serviceable throughout
the year, the rest only during the dry season. Half the roads are
Tourism
usable only by lorries. In 1981 the 40-km Grand Bara road was
Djibouti's principal attraction is the desert scenery of the interior
opened, linking the capital with the south.
In 1987 a total of 21,790 tourists stayed in hotels in Djibouti.
SHIPPING
Office National du Tourisme et de l'Artisanat: place du 27 juin;
Djibouti was established as a free port in 1981.
BP 1938, Djibouti; tel. 352800; telex 5938.
Port Autonome International de Djibouti: Djibouti; Dir ADEN
AHMED DOUALE.
Defence
Principal Shipping Agents
Compagnie Générale Maritime: Immeuble Plein Ciel, BP 182,
Djibouti provides France with its main naval facilities in the Indian
Djibouti; tel. 353825; telex 5817; agents for Mitsui OSK,
Ocean. In June 1989 there were about 4,000 French military
CGM/Svedel, CGM, SNC, Hapaglloyd and Seal Lines.
personnel stationed in Djibouti. The total armed forces of Djibouti
Compagnie Maritime Auxiliaire d'Outre-Mer: ave des Messager-
itself, in which all services form part of the army, numbered 2,870
ies Maritimes, BP 89, Djibouti; tel. 352022; telex 5825; agents for
(including 60 naval and 100 air force personnel), together with'a
Adriatic Red Sea Line, British Petroleum, Compagnie Générale
paramilitary force of 1,200 gendarmes.
Maritime, Comp. Navale des Pétroles, Deutsche Ost Afrika Line,
Defence Expenditure: Estimated at 6,350m. Djibouti francs for
Djakarta Lloyd, Hapaglloyd, Hungarian Shipping Line, Jadranska
1988.
Line, Nedlloyd Line, Scandinavian East Africa Line, Shell Inter-
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces: Pres. HASSAN
national, Sovinflot; Gen. Man. L. J. HUGHES.
GOULED APTIDON.
Gellatly Hankey et Cie (Djibouti) SA: rue de Genève, BP 81,
Djibouti; tel. 352012; telex 5843; fax 353294; f. 1942; Lloyd's agents,
and shipping agents for Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Waterman Line, P
Education
& O, Cosco, Sinochart and others; Man. Dir ERIK VANDEN-
DRIESSCHE.
Education in Djibouti is not compulsory, but the system closely
J. J. Kothari & Co Ltd: BP 171, rue de Soleillet, Djibouti; tel.
follows the French system in its division into stages, its curricula
350219; telex 5860; fax 351778; agents for Bangladesh Shipping
and in the diplomas that are awarded. Primary education begins
Corpn, Pacific International Line, Ratnakar Shipping Co, Shipping
at six or seven years of age and lasts for six years. Secondary
Corpn of Saudi Arabia, United Thai Shipping Co, Shipping Corpn
education, beginning at the age of 12 or 13, lasts for a further
of India, Mogul Line, United Arab Maritime, Sudan Shipping Line,
seven years, comprising a first cycle of four years and a second of
Finland Steamship Co; also ship managers, stevedores, freight
three years. A private education sector is being developed, parallel
forwarders; Dirs S. J. KOTHARI, N. KOTHARI.
with the state system. Instruction is given in French, but Arabic
Mitchell Cotts Djibouti SARL: blvd de la République, BP 85,
is taught as the first language at primary and secondary schools)
Djibouti; tel. 351204; telex 5812; fax 355851; agents for Clan Line,
In the academic year 1987/88 there were 26,173 pupils enrolled at
Ellerman City Liners, Fearnley and Eger, Harrison Line, Iragi
primary schools, 6,327 at secondary schools and 117 at teacher
Maritime Transport Co, Maldivian National Trading Corpn, Farell
training facilities. As Djibouti has no university, students seeking
Lines, Central Gulf, Yemen Gulf Lines, Société Navale Caennaise,
further education go abroad to study, mainly to France.
442
1161
u55
991
Pjibouti
IWH
THE
UNIVERSAL
ALMANAC
1991
Edited by
161+1
JOHN W. WRIGHT
ANDREWS AND McMEEL
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NATIONS OF THE WORLD
the Treaty of Copenhagen (1660). Denmark
in 1979. Geographically huge but with a popu-
lost control of Norway at the Congress of
border of Ethiopia and French Somaliland
lation of under 60,000, the island bases its
Vienna (1815) and of Schleswig-Holstein after
economy on fishing, tourism, and revenues
the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in the 1930s. with
a civil war in 1864. Iceland, part of Denmark
from military bases.
During World War II, the territorial admin-
since the 14th century, was granted home rule
istration at first sided with the Vichy governo
in 1874, becoming independent in 1944.
ment but in December 1942 established ties
with the Free French and the Allies.
In the 19th century, Denmark was trans-
formed from a poor peasant society to one of
Djibouti
The colony was reorganized in 1957 and
Europe's richest agricultural nations by means
Republic of Djibouti
1958 became, by referendum, a French Over.
of reforms that established agricultural cooper-
(PREVIOUS NAME: FRENCH SOMALIA)
seas Territory. In July 1967 its name was
atives and emphasized intensive specialization
Geography Location: northeastern Af-
changed to the Territory of the Afars and Issas,
in the production of dairy products and pork.
rica. Boundaries: Red Sea to N, Gulf of Aden to
Growing nationalist sentiment led to a referen-
These products remain a mainstay of the Dan-
E, Somalia to SE, Ethiopia to S, W, and NW.
dum in favor of complete independence. The
ish economy.
Total land area: 8,958 sq. mi. (23,200 sq km).
Republic of Djibouti became independent 00
Denmark remained neutral during World
Coastline: 195 mi. (314 km). Comparative
June 27, 1977.
War I. In 1939 Denmark signed a 10-year non-
area: slightly larger than Massachusetts. Land
Djibouti's only significant natural resource
use: 0% arable land; 0% permanent crops; 9%
is its geothermal areas. Shipping provides
aggression pact with Germany, but Germany
meadows and pastures; negl. % forest and
some income in the port city of Djibouti, but
nevertheless invaded Denmark in April 1940;
the country surrendered without a fight. In
woodland; 91% other. Major cities: Djibouti
overall the economy depends heavily on French
1941 Denmark's ambassador in Washington
(capital) 200,000 (1981); Dikhil, Ali-Sabieh,
aid and on income derived from the French gar-
transferred defense of Greenland to the United
Tadjourah, Obock.
risons that remain stationed there.
States, and much of Denmark's merchant fleet
People Population: 328,758 (1989). Na-
joined the Allied war effort. Denmark was
tionality: noun-Djiboutian(s): adjective-
placed under German martial law in August
Djiboutian. Ethnic groups: 60% Somali (Issa),
Dominica
1943 and treated as an enemy nation. Danish
35% Afar, 5% French, Arab. Ethiopian, and
Commonwealth of Dominica
resistance succeeded in evacuating 7,000 Jews
Italian. Languages: French (official): Arabic,
Geography Location: island in eastern
to neutral Sweden. Denmark was liberated by
Somali, and Afar widely used. Religions: 94%
Caribbean Sea. between French overseas
British troops in May 1945.
Muslim, 6% Christian.
department of Guadeloupe to N and Martinique
Although Denmark was not technically a
to S. Boundaries: Dominica Passage to N,
participant on the Allied side in World War II,
Government Type: republic. Indepen-
Atlantic Ocean to E. Martinique Passage to S,
it received favorable treatment in the postwar
dence: June 27. 1977 (from France). Constitu-
Caribbean Sea to W. Total land area: 290 sq.
period, becoming a UN member in 1946 and a
tion: partial Constitution ratified Jan. 1981 by
mi. (751 sq km). Coastline: 92 mi. (148 km).
founding member of NATO in 1949. By the lat-
National Assembly. National holiday: June 27.
Comparative area: slightly more than four
ter year. the postwar recovery was complete,
Heads of government: Hassan Gouled Aptidon.
times size of Washington, D.C. Land use: 9%
with industrial levels exceeding those of the
president (since June 1977). Structure: execu-
arable land: 13% permanent crops; 3% mead-
prewar period. High taxes, unemployment, and
tive: legislative-65-member parliament (Na-
ows and pastures; 41% forest and woodland;
inflation remained problems, but the economy
tional Assembly); judiciary.
34% other: includes N.A. % irrigated. Major
was aided by the growth of trade with West
Economy Monetary unit: Djibouti franc.
ies: (1981 census) Roseau (capital) 8,279;
Germany, which was just beginning its "eco-
Budget: (1986 est. in percent of GDP) income:
Portsmouth 2,200.
nomic miracle."
33%; expend.: 46%. GDP: $333 mil., $1,067
People Population: 83,474 (1989). Na-
In 1953 the king assented to a constitutional
per capita (1986). Chief crops: livestock: lim-
tionality: noun-Dominican(s): adjective-
reform that abolished the upper house of the
ited commercial crops, including fruits and veg-
Dominican. Ethnic groups: mostly black, some
legislature, leaving the Folketing as the sole
etables. Livestock: goats, sheep, camels, cattle,
Carib-Indians. Languages: English (official).
legislative body. Proportional representation
asses. Natural resources: geothermal areas.
French patois widely spoken. Religions: 80%
meant that it was virtually impossible for any
Major industries: limited to a few small-scale
Roman Catholic. some Anglican and Metho-
political party to gain a parliamentary major-
enterprises. such as dairy products and min-
dist.
ity; Denmark is always governed by coalition
eral-water boiling. Labor force: small number
regimes. In the postwar period, these normally
of semiskilled workers at port; 3,000 railway
Government Type: independent state
have been led by the Social Democrats.
workers: 52% of population of working age
within commonwealth. Independence: Nov. 3,
In the 1950s Denmark adopted a charac-
(1983). Exports: $96 mil. (f.o.b., 1985 est.);
1978 (from UK). Constitution: Nov. 3, 1978.
teristically Scandinavian program of free
hides and skins and transit of coffee: a large
National holiday: Nov. 3. Heads of government:
enterprise, high taxes, and extensive social
portion consists of reexports to foreign resi-
Sir Clarence Seignoret, president (since Dec.
welfare systems. A high rate of economic
dents of Djibouti. Imports: $205 mil. (f.o.b.,
1983); Mary Eugenia Charles, prime minister
growth. spurred by agricultural exports, con-
1985 est.); foods. machinery, transport equip-
(since July 1980). Structure: executive-cabi-
tinued throughout the 1960s. Denmark joined
ment. chemicals. petroleum. Major trading
net headed by prime minister; legislative-31-
the EEC in 1972. The 1970s brought economic
partners: N.A.
member bicameral House of Assembly (1 ex-
difficulties. as Danish oil exploration in the
officio member. 9 appointed members, and 21
North Sea yielded disappointing results. and
Intl. Orgs. Arab League, FAO, G-77, IBRD,
popularly elected members): judicial-magis
inflation reached double digits annually.
ICAO, IDA, IFAD. IFC. ILO. IMF. IMO. INTER-
trate's courts and regional court appeals.
The elections of 1982 installed Denmark's
POL, ITU, NAM, OAU, UN, UPU, WHO, WMO.
Economy Monetary unit: East Caribbean
first Conservative government since 1905. A
This small, arid region on the Horn of Africa
(EC) dollar. Budget: (1986) income: $49.5 mil.:
Conservative four-party coalition formed in
near the southern mouth of the Red Sea became
expend.: $48.7 mil. GDP: $91 mil., $1,090
1984 has remained in office to the present. The
the object of British-French rivalry with the
capita (1985). Chief crops: bananas, citrus,
general revival of the world economy in the
opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. The French
coconuts, cocoa, yams, essential oils. Live-
1980s coupled with government austerity
sphere of influence, called French Somaliland,
stock: pigs, goats, cattle. sheep. Natural
measures have led to renewed growth and
was affirmed by agreements with Ethiopia in
resources: timber. Major industries: agri-
lowered inflation, with both figures now aver-
1897, 1945, and 1954. In the early 20th cen-
cultural processing. tourism. soap and other
aging 3 percent annually.
tury, the French constructed a railroad from
coconut-based products. Labor force: 25,000
The Faeroe Islands were granted self-rule n
Addis Ababa to Djibouti, adding to the colony's
(1984); 40% agriculture, 32% industry and
1948: the economy is based on fishing and
strategic value.
commerce, 28% services; 15-20% unemploy-
sheep-raising. Greenland was granted self-rule
French and Italian forces clashed at the
ment. Exports: $28.4 mil. (f.o.b., 1985);
THE WHITE house
WASHINGTON
expression of goodwill
Time: 1:15
Interp: return # by #
diplomatic entrance
Copy to TS
Grant/Cawley
April 16, 1991
3 p.m. Draft one
A:GOULED
DEPARTURE STATEMENT: VISIT OF PRESIDENT GOULED
REPUBLIC OF DJIBOUTI
WEDNESDAY, APRIL 24, 1991
TIME?
There come times when nations must decide whether to allow
aggression to go unchallenged. The decision is never easy for
any country, large or small. Today, I want to thank one small
nation which took up a very large challenge in the Persian Gulf
War -- the Republic of Djibouti. ((ji-BOOT-ee))
Tiny in size, lacking in resources, and vulnerable to
retaliation, Djibouti saw Saddam Hussein's aggression as an
intolerable precedent for small nations everywhere. And so
Djibouti joined the chorus of condemnation, voting with the Arab
League and the United Nations. It joined the coalition of forces
against Saddam Hussein. By opening its airfields, seaports and
territorial waters to the allies, Djibouti enabled allied forces
to liberate Kuwait quickly and efficiently. President Gouled,
your personal support was invaluable.
Djibouti's response to the Gulf crisis, however, came as no
surprise to us. Djibouti has long been a model of stability and
moderation in a region which is no stranger to violence and
extremism. This deep and abiding desire for peace is what I mean
by "the new world order" -- it is the responsibility imposed by
our successes. It refers to new ways of working with nations
2
like yours to deter aggression -- and to achieve stability, to
achieve prosperity, and above all, to achieve peace.
Together, we look forward to the day when the nations of the
world, large and small, cooperate peacefully to settle disputes
and deter aggression. We are glad to have the opportunity to
express our hopes directly to President Gouled, and we anticipate
many long years ahead in our relationship.
As an old Navy man, I want to thank you again, your
Excellency, for the warm welcome which Djibouti has always
extended to our Navy. Your support for United States soldiers,
sailors, airmen, Marines and Coast Guardsmen was essential to the
coalition's success. We thank you.
(Bien venue))
# # #
National Geographic, Oct. 1978
Djibouti, Tiny New Na
PICTU
27JUNE
LUST
myle OU
MUICE:
HE TEMPERATURE soars
tion
on Africa's Horn
T
above 100 degrees, and mug-
giness steams the senses. Yet
nothing saps the energy of the
crowd. Grinning men brandish
spears, seas of children wave
E STORY BY
MARION KAPLAN
banners and balloons, bejeweled
women flash curved daggers.
June 27, 1977, brings indepen-
dence to the French Territory of
the Afars and the Issas, and the
Republic of Djibouti is born. Its
flag bears a symbol that adorns
celebrators' caps (left)-"the star
we shall follow in our hope and
struggle," declares President
Hassan Gouled Aptidon.
This new African nation faces
a truly formidable struggle. The
Massachusetts-size land has vir-
tually no natural resources.
PER
Ninety percent of its quarter of a
million citizens are illiterate; 85
percent unemployment plagues
27.
Djibouti town, its sole major
city. And the country's popula-
tion is split between two histori-
cally antagonistic peoples, the
Afars and the Issas.
Yet the world's eyes are fo-
cused on Djibouti. The tiny na-
tion is an oasis of neutrality
among militant neighbors, So-
malia, Ethiopia, and Ethiopia's
breakaway province of Eritrea.
Djibouti also overlooks the strait
of Bab el Mandeb, or Gate of Sor-
row, navigated by 70 vessels a
day on the vital shipping route
between the Red Sea and the
Indian Ocean.
Although the French tricolor
flies no more over the last true co-
lonial outpost in Africa, about
5,000 French military and ad-
ministrative personnel remain to
keep the peace and buoy the
economy. Meanwhile, Djibou-
tians look to their only source of
livelihood-their location-to
give them a trade lifeline and at-
tract foreign aid to shore up their
stabilizing influence in the war-
ravaged Horn of Africa.
519
Djibouti, eye of the storm
0
KILOMETERS
50
0 STATUTE MILES
50
Amid swirling political turbulence, Djibouti
2,021 meters
stands as a neutral gatehouse on the Red Sea.
6,631 feet
The recent Somali-Ethiopian war interrupted
Ethiopia's trade via the port of Djibouti (facing
page). Formerly French
Balho
Somaliland, the colony in
DANAK
1967 became the French
Territory of the Afars and
Tadjour
the Issas.
Lake Assal
-156 meters
-512 feet
AREA: 8,494 sq mi (22,000 sq km). POPULATION: est.
250,000. Issas and other Somalis, 49%; Afars, 39%;
Arabs, 6%; Europeans, 4%. LANGUAGES: French,
DJIBOUTI-ETHIOP
Somali, Afar, Arabic. ECONOMY: Port and railroad,
RAILW
camels. cattle, goats, sheep. CAPITAL: Djibouti, pop.
Lake Abbe
160,000. RELIGION: Chiefly Muslim.
Ali Sabieh
Dikhil
For
GREECE
TURKEY
Crete
Cyprus
SYRIA
Beirut
IRAQ
Mediterranean Sea
LEBANON
Damascus
IRAN
*
ISRAEL
Baghdad
Jerusalem
Amman
O
KILON
JORDAN
0
STATL
Suez
30°
Cairo
*
DRAWN BY EI
Canal
KUWAIT
COMPILED
NATIONA
Nile
SAUDI ARABIA
LIBYA
EGYPT
BAHRAIN Persian Gulf
QATA
UNIT
Democratic Yemen (South Yemen),
EMIF
the Arab world's only Marxist
Mecca
state, supports Ethiopia's drive
*
against Eritrea and gives the Soviet
20°
Union access to its port and airfield
SUDAN
Red
at Aden and to the island of Socotra.
Sea
A 17-year-old secessionist rebellion
rages in Ethiopia's province of three
DEMOCRATIC
million Muslims and Christians. Many
Massawa
YEMEN
Eritrea
*
YEMEN
Arab states aid the rebels.
Sana
Aden
Gulf of Aden
DJIBOUTI
Bab el Mandeb
Ethiopia's Marxist regime has been
bolstered by thousands of Cuban
Addis
troops and massive Soviet military
Ababa
*
supplies. Last March the nation
expelled Somali troops from the
Haud
ETHIOPIA
Ogaden, but skirmishes continue.
Ogaden
w
Somalia has pled
peoples (their ap|
ZAIRE
S
is delineated by a
UGANDA
Soviet Union, So
Mogadishu
*
supporter, begar
30°F
40°
and condemned S
520
KENYA
invasion of the O
expelled its Sovie
ERITREA
(Italy)
RedSea
FRENCH
SOMALILAND
Obock
BOUNDARY
INDEFINITE
ETHIOPIA
BRITISH
1883
ETHIOPIA
1897
0
Djibou
SOMALILAND ITALIAN Indian
Ocean
Loya
BRITISH EAST
AFRICA
0
KM 300
0 MILES 300
Colonization of the Horn, 1897
European colonization was spurred by
ssamo
the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
Ethiopia repelled Italian invaders in
1896 and consolidated its territory.
ANGLO-
EGYPTIAN
SUDAN
RedSea
FRENCH
SOMALILAND
IS
500
ITALIAN
ILES
500
Addis
*
Ababa
BBAN AND DEWEY G. HICKS
ARGUERITE B. HUNSIKER
GRAPHIC ART DIVISION
EAST AFRICA
Lake
Rudolf
Indian
KENYA
Lake (U.K.)
Ocean
Victoria
AR/AB
Musc
Italian expansion, 1940
ES
*
Fascist Italy attacked Ethiopia in
1935 and by late 1940 occupied all the
OMAN
Horn except for the French enclave.
Britain defeated the Italians in 1941.
UNDARY
ANGLO-
DEFINED
EGYPTIAN
SUDAN
ERITREA
RedSea
FRENCH
SOMALILAND
Arabian Sea
ETHIOPIA
BRITISH
SOMALILAND
Addis*
tra
Ababa
Haud
EMOCRATIC YEMEN
Ogaden
SOMALIA
Lake
(Trust Territory. Italy)
Rudolf
Indian
KENYA
Lake (U.K.)
Ocean
Victoria
United Nations negotiations, 1952
to unify all Somali
Ethiopia was federated with Eritrea
cimate western limit
and had regained the Ogaden by 1952.
range border). The
la onetime
In 1955 it assumed complete control
ling Ethiopia in 1977
of the disputed Haud grasslands. The
alia's subsequent
former British and Italian colonies
en. Somalia then
became the Somali Republic in 1960.
disers.
"D
JIBOUTI is as helpless as a
goat that two lions are wait-
ing to pounce on. We guard
the goat,' a French naval of-
ficer remarked. Wary of Dji-
bouti's neighbors-Somalia and
Ethiopia-France bolsters its for-
mer colony's defenses. The gift of
a venerable military transport
plane (above) gets the republic's
air force off the ground, and a
French patrol boat changes hands
to inaugurate its navy (right).
As Ethiopian and Somali forces
fought it out in the Ogaden last
December, Lt. Mohammed Abro
Mohammed inspected a detach-
ment of the Groupement Nomade
Autonome at the fort of Assamo
the Afars. Before independence,
(left) preparing to patrol the
many Issas favored union with
southern border. Afars and Issas
Somalia.
march side by side-a sign of
Both peoples are traditionally
cooperation between the two
nomadic. Their enmity was born
peoples that their leaders hope
of fierce competition for scarce
will spread.
pastures and water holes amid
Djibouti's Afars, who occupy
Djibouti's barren landscape. For
three-fourths of the nation, are
each, the tribe "is a small repub-
related through centuries-old
lic, a living and indissoluble cell
sultanates to the Afars in Ethiopia
reinforced by Islam and a
and Eritrea. Within and without
common language," wrote one
Djibouti, however, the Afars are
observer. To help defuse tribal
politically fragmented. The Issas
hostility, the nation's government
of the southern plains, a Somali
is carefully balanced between
group, are more urbanized than
Afars and Issas.
Djibouti, Tiny New Nation on Africa's Horn
523
EVERED umbilical cord,
Born in the desert, President
S
the train from Djibouti
Hassan Gouled (above), an Issa,
town (above) heads for the
says, "We are a nation of shep-
southern border, end of the
herds, and proud of it. Unity of
line after Somalis cut the rails to
the people is integral to the solu-
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia's capital.
tion of our problems. We have
Djibouti's economy was de-
prepared many regional proj-
railed, losing half a million dol-
ects, but we will need help." In
lars a month in customs duties
one development plan at Lake
from the railway, which carried
Assal (left), a salt lake 512 feet
60 percent of Ethiopia's foreign
below sea level, two geothermal
trade. The railroad line has since
wells have been drilled to pro-
been reopened.
vide power.
525
ATER DICTATES our
"W
routes, our lives." To that
ageless refrain, a herds-
man slakes his camels'
thirst (left). Beneath the parched
soil of Djibouti lie abundant
pockets of water, but digging is
costly and often fruitless. Plan-
ners hope to increase the number
of permanent wells and convince
nomads that the desert can
bloom if they will farm it.
The dearth of agriculture con-
tributes to malnutrition, which
often breeds tuberculosis. Many
people take the edge off their
hunger by chewing kat, a
euphoria-inducing plant. To
nourish a healthier future, the
Roman Catholic Social Home for
African Women holds child-care
classes (below). Parents and
children alike often reflect a
handsome grace, like this girl on
Independence Day (right).
Djibouti, Tiny New Nation on Africa's Horn
527
IGILANT SILHOUETTES
V
of French Foreign Legion-
naires stalk the Somali fron-
tier (right). The legion
garrisons 1,500 men in Djibouti
because, as one bragged, "Ev-
erybody knows we're the best."
From across the border, thou-
sands of refugees fled into Dji-
bouti during the Ogaden war,
like those at Ali Sabieh (below).
The United States rushed shel-
ters, dubbed "Jimmy Cartair's
tents," plus food and vaccines.
529
Like lunar sand castles, limestone spires sculpted by bicark
530
ate springs
rear from the shore of Lake Abbe, on the fringe of the Great Rift Valley system.
531
ITH JOBS harder to find
W
than a cool drink, the Etab-
lissements Coubèche firm
is a magnet for workers,
who bottle Coca-Cola (right) and
deliver imported fruits, vegeta-
bles, and frozen meat.
Scarcer still are college gradu-
ates; Hassan Chehem (below,
right), one of a handful of nomads
who has made it, now teaches.
Typically, he grew up in an ex-
tended family of 20 people, all de-
pendent on their livestock herd.
"It takes a lot of will to make it
through school," he says. Beside
him stands his father, an Afar
Djibouti's Education Depart-
herdsman who leaves his flocks
ment. Her husband, Luc, is di-
once a month to visit his son. "I
rector general of the Treasury.
believe in the unity of our two
"Think of our country as a
peoples. Alas, many do not," he
baby born with a large head-
admits. "But I know we Afars
the city of Djibouti-on a frail
cannot lose our identity."
body," Luc suggests. "We must
Another family (left), one with
cure this. Then the baby takes its
Somali ties, shares such opti-
first steps, sometimes grabbing a
mism. Thérèse Aden heads
hand to hold. But that child will
the administrative branch of
walk on its own one day."
Djibouti, Tiny New Nation on Africa's Horn
533
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
PRESIDENTIAL STATEMENT
AT THE DEPARTURE OF PRESIDENT GOULED
APRIL 24, 1991
Today we are pleased to welcome the leader of a country
which stands strong and tall for what is right. Again, just
recently, with the Gulf crisis Djibouti has put principle
first. Although small in size, poor in resources, and fully
engaged with problems in its own corner in Africa, Djibouti
made its position clear on the issues of international law and
behavior at stake in the Gulf war. It also put its beliefs
into practice by keeping open its airfields, its ports, and its
waters to assist coalition forces operating in the Red Sea. I
am delighted to thank President Gouled personally for that
support.
Djibouti's response in the Gulf crisis came as no
surprise. It has always been a force for reason, stability,
and moderation in the troubled Horn of Africa. There, just as
in Iraq, we are witnessing today wrenching humanitarian
tragedies which are the result not of poverty or of natural
disaster but of misgovernment, and of wars between governments
and their own peoples.
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
- 2 -
In North East Africa, Djibouti and President Gouled are the
peacemakers, the statesmen, and the voices of humanitarian
concern. The United States and Djibouti see issues in the Horn
region the same way and with the same sense of urgency and
apprehension.
Thus it was particularly valuable to have had the
opportunity to discuss regional and humanitarian developments
with President Gouled today. Other consultations are scheduled
with the Presidential party, concerning joint activities in
various fields and we look forward to many more years of
cooperation.
As the President departs I want to express once again, this
time as a former Navy man, my appreciation to him for the
welcome and support which has always been extended to United
States forces in the Republic of Djibouti.
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
Drafted : AF/E: SLopez/HSThomas
Cleared: AF : JDavidow
04/17/91 7-6485
AF : IHicks
SEEB 2300
AF/E: JVLedesma
AF/P : LGarufi
S/P : WKansteiner
P:RNorland
C:RWilson
T: KSheehan
PM: SMartel
PA: : RBoucher
THE OFFICIAL WORKING VISIT
TO
DRAFT
WASHINGTON, D.C.
OF
HIS EXCELLENCY
HASSAN GOULED APTIDON
OF
THE REPUBLIC OF DJIBOUTI
APRIL 23 TO 25, 1990
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
TUESDAY
APRIL 23
9:20 am-
Greeted by Assistant Chief of Protocol Black, La
9:25 am
Guardia Airport, New York, New York.
9:25 am-
United States Presidential Aircraft to Andrews Air
10:15 am
Force Base, Maryland.
10:15 am-
Greeted by Deputy Chief of Protocol Fitzgerald and
10:20 am
Welcoming Committee, Andrews Air Force Base.
10:20 am-
United States Presidential Helicopters to Washington
10:30 am
Monument Grounds Reflecting Pool, Washington, D.C.
10:30 am-
Greeted by Acting Secretary Eagleburger,
10:35 am
Washington Monument Grounds Reflecting Pool.
10:40 am
Arrive Blair House.
Private luncheon, Blair House.
-5-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
TUESDAY
APRIL 23
(Continued)
3:15 pm-
Wreath-Laying Ceremony, Tomb of the Unknown
>
3:45 pm
Soldier, Arlington National Cemetery.
4:30 pm-
Welcoming Ceremony and Presentation of Key to the
5:00 pm
City by Mayor Dixon, Mayor's Office, District
Building.
7:00 pm-
Meeting with House Foreign Affairs Subcommitte on
7:30 pm
Africa Leadership, Blair House.
7:45 pm-
Dinner offered by President Gouled in honor of
9:45 pm
Congressional Black Caucus Leadership, Blair House.
Dress: Business suit.
Overnight: Blair House.
-6-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
WEDNESDAY
APRIL 24, 1991
Private breakfast, Blair House.
11:00 am-
Meeting with President Bush, Oval Office, The White
11:15 am
House.
11:15 am-
Expanded Meeting with President Bush, Cabinet
12:00 pm
Room, The White House.
12:10 pm-
Working Lunch with President Bush, Old Family Dining
1:10 pm
Room, The White House.
1:15 pm-
Departure Statements by President Bush and President
1:30 pm
Gouled, South Lawn, The White House.
>>
3:30 pm-
Meeting with House Select Committee on Hunger,
4:15 pm
Room 2162, United States Capitol.
4:30 pm-
Meeting with Assistant Secretary of State Cohen,
5:00 pm
Blair House.
7:30 pm-
Dinner offered by President Gouled in honor of
9:30 pm
invited Members of Congress and others, Blair House.
Dress: Business suit.
Overnight: Blair House.
-7-
SUMMARY SCHEDULE
THURSDAY
APRIL 25
9:00 am-
Working Breakfast with Senate Foreign Relations
10:15 am
Subcommittee on African Affairs, Room S-116, United
States Capitol.
10:30 am-
Meeting with House Foreign Affairs Committee, Room
11:15 am
2172, Rayburn House Office Building.
11:30 am-
Meeting with House Committee on Merchant Marine and
12:15 pm
Fisheries Chairman Jones, Room 241, Cannon House
Office Building.
Private luncheon, Blair House.
2:30 pm-
Meeting with Secretary of Defense Cheney, The
3:00 pm
Pentagon.
4:00 pm-
Meeting with senior officials from Department of
4:30 pm
Commerce and representatives of the private sector,
Blair House.
4:55 pm-
Farewell to Blair House staff, Blair House.
5:00 pm
5:00 pm-
Farewell Ceremony with Acting Secretary Eagleburger,
5:05 pm
Deputy Chief of Protocol Fitzgerald, and Farewell
Committee, Blair House.
5:05 pm-
Motorcade to Madison Hotel and resume private
5:10 pm
schedule.
-8-