Ask the Scholar
Document scope · 1 page
Scholar
Ask about this object, its catalog metadata, its source description, or the page inventory.
For page-specific OCR and visual context, open one of the page chats.
Scholar Source Context
Document identity
localId
323153319
label
Koivisto of Finland 5/7/91 [OA 8322]
core
doc
dtoType
document
citationUrl
pageCount
1
Source metadata
id
323153319
contentType
document
title
Koivisto of Finland 5/7/91 [OA 8322]
citationUrl
identifierLocal
13754-011
collections
Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Speech Backup Chronological Files
imageCount
1
hasImages
yes
source
import
hasTranscription
no
Source extras
naId
323153319
levelOfDescription
fileUnit
recordType
description
ocrSource
nara-archive
Single page context
seq
1
pageIndex
0
type
document
mediaId
02bbd9dd0df75cf9
ocrText
Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
Subseries:
Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13754
Folder ID Number:
13754-011
Folder Title:
Koivisto of Finland 5/7/91 [OA 8322]
Stack:
Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
G
26
21
3
7
PRESIDENT KOIVISTO OF FINLAND DEPARTURE STATEMENT
SOUTH PORTICO \ TUESDAY, MAY 7, 1991 \ 1:15 P.M.
PRESIDENT KOIVISTO, "TERVETULOA" [TARE-VAY-TA-LOA]
["WELCOME"]. WELCOME AGAIN TO THE UNITED STATES. It's
A PLEASURE TO RETURN THE HOSPITALITY YOU SHOWED
PRESIDENT GORBACHEV AND ME IN HELSINKI LAST SEPTEMBER.
OUR MEETING TODAY WAS ONLY THE LATEST OF MANY EXCHANGES
WE HAVE SHARED.
- 2 -
It's BEEN NEARLY A DECADE SINCE WE FIRST MET -- AND
TODAY, AS ALWAYS, I GREATLY VALUE YOUR VIEWS ON WORLD
EVENTS, AND YOUR EFFORTS OVER MANY YEARS TO BUILD THE
EXCELLENT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND
FINLAND.
THIS VISIT ALSO GAVE ME AN OPPORTUNITY TO THANK YOU
PERSONALLY FOR FINLAND'S CONSTRUCTIVE POLICY IN THE
MIDDLE EAST.
- 3 -
YOUR COUNTRY'S STRONG LEADERSHIP ON THE U.N. SECURITY
COUNCIL AND THE IRAQI SANCTIONS COMMITTEE LAST FALL --
AND YOUR GENEROUS AID TO PEOPLE SUFFERING FROM IRAQI
OPPRESSION -- REPRESENT FINLAND'S FINE TRADITION OF
ACTIVE PARTNERSHIP IN THE COMMUNITY OF NATIONS.
THIS SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY LED FINLAND, WITHIN A
YEAR OF ITS ADMISSION TO THE U.N., TO SERVE AS PART OF
THE U.N. EMERGENCY FORCE IN 1956, FOLLOWING THE SUEZ
CRISIS.
- 4 -
FINNS HAVE SERVED BRAVELY IN VIRTUALLY EVERY
PEACEKEEPING FORCE SINCE THEN, CONTRIBUTING MORE TROOPS
THAN ANY OTHER COUNTRY. YOUR NATION CONTINUES THIS
PROUD TRADITION IN THE CURRENT U.N. OBSERVER FORCE IN
KUWAIT AND IRAQ.
FINLAND AND THE UNITED STATES ENJOY A LONG AND
HEALTHY TRADE RELATIONSHIP. TODAY WE TOUCHED ON SOME
NEW ECONOMIC ISSUES, INCLUDING THE ADVANTAGES THAT
COULD COME FROM A FINNISH PURCHASE OF OUR ADVANCED
AIRCRAFT.
- 5 -
WE ALSO DISCUSSED THE NEW EUROPE -- FROM ECONOMIC
INTEGRATION TO ARMS CONTROL -- FROM NEW CHALLENGES TO
THE CSCE TO THE CONTINUING ROLE, OF NATO IN EUROPEAN
SECURITY.
THE UNITED STATES AND FINLAND SHARE A DEEP INTEREST
IN EVENTS IN THE SOVIET UNION. I HAVE ALWAYS VALUED
THE OPPORTUNITY TO EXCHANGE VIEWS WITH PRESIDENT
KOIVISTO, WHO IS A KNOWLEDGEABLE AND PERCEPTIVE
OBSERVER OF THE U.S.S.R.
- 6 -
WE DISCUSSED THE COMPLEX SITUATION IN THE BALTIC
STATES. I REAFFIRMED THE POLICY OF THE U.S. To SUPPORT
A PROCESS OF CHANGE THROUGH CONSTRUCTIVE AND FAIR
NEGOTIATIONS. WE AGREED ON THE INADMISSABILITY OF THE
USE OF FORCE -- AND THE IMPORTANCE OF PRAGMATISM -- BY
ALL PARTIES IN THE SEARCH FOR A SOLUTION TO THIS
PROBLEM.
THE UNITED STATES AND FINLAND WILL CONTINUE To
SUPPORT THE PROCESS OF REFORM IN THE U.S.S.R., WHICH
WAS INITIATED BY PRESIDENT GORBACHEV.
- 7 -
WE WANT TO SEE THAT PROCESS CONTINUE AND BE
STRENGTHENED -- AND WE WILL BE READY TO ASSIST THE
SOVIET AND REPUBLIC GOVERNMENTS IN ATTAINING THE TWIN
GOALS OF DEMOCRATIZATION AND MARKET ECONOMIC REFORM.
FINALLY, WE DISCUSSED ANOTHER ISSUE OF MAJOR
IMPORTANCE TO BOTH OF OUR COUNTRIES -- THE TRANSITION
TO FREE MARKETS AND LIBERAL POLITICAL SYSTEMS BY THE
NEW DEMOCRACIES OF EASTERN EUROPE.
- 8 -
WE ARE DETERMINED TO MAKE EVERY EFFORT TO ASSIST THEM
IN THEIR HISTORIC QUEST TO REMAKE THEMSELVES AND FIND A
SECURE PLACE IN THE NEW EUROPE. THIS MUST BE A
PRIORITY FOR ALL WESTERN COUNTRIES.
As DEMOCRATIC PEOPLES, FINNS AND AMERICANS SHARE
MANY SPECIAL BONDS OF FRIENDSHIP, AND FINNS HAVE LONG
ADDED TO THE AMERICAN EXPERIENCE. MR. PRESIDENT, YOUR
COUNTRYMEN WERE AMONG THE FIRST TO SETTLE IN THIS
COUNTRY -- THREE HUNDRED AND FIFTY YEARS AGO --
ESTABLISHING NEW LIVES IN THE DELAWARE RIVER VALLEY.
- 9 -
OVER A CENTURY LATER, JOHN MORTON -- A FINNISH-AMERICAN
DELEGATE TO OUR CONTINENTAL CONGRESS -- CAST THE
DECIDING VOTE FOR THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. THE
IDEALS THAT LED HIM -- LIBERTY AND SELF-GOVERNMENT --
REMAIN DEAR TO BOTH OUR NATIONS: JUST LOOK TO
PHILADELPHIA, 1776, AND HELSINKI, 1917.
- 10 -
SINCE THAT TIME, WE HAVE ENJOYED OVER SEVENTY YEARS
OF WARM DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS -- AND I LOOK FORWARD TO
CONTINUING THIS FRIENDSHIP. MAY GOD BLESS THE PEOPLE
OF FINLAND AND THE UNITED STATES.
#
#
#
To
Cawley/Grant
April 26, 1991
a:koivisto - 1
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: DEPARTURE OF PRESIDENT KOIVISTO
TUESDAY, MAY 7
1:15 P.M. (?)
DIPLOMATIC ENTRANCE (?)
(VAY?)
President Koivisto, "TERVETULOA" [tare-VEH-ta-loa]
["welcome"]. Welcome again to the United States. It's a
pleasure to return the hospitality you showed to President
Gorbachev and me in Helsinki last September. Our meeting today
was only the latest of many exchanges we have shared in the
decade since we first met --- and today, as always, your views on
world events are of great value to me.
This visit also gave me an opportunity to thank you
personally for Finland's constructive policy in the Middle East.
Your country's strong leadership on the U.N. Security Council and
the Iraqi Sanctions Committee last fall -- and your generous aid
to people
those peoples countries suffering from Iraqi oppression --
represent Finland's tradition of active partnership in the
community of nations.
This sense of responsibility led Finland, within a year of
its admission to the U.N., to serve as part of the U.N. Emergency
Force in 1956 and Finns have bravely served in virtually every
peacekeeping force since then, contributing more troops than any
Your nation
other country. Finland continues this proud tradition by
participating in the current Observer Force in northern Kuwait.
Finland and the United States enjoy a long and healthy
trade relationship. Today we touched on some new economic
that williams your buying
issues as I outlined the advantages of a Finnish purchase of
Some of our recently proven military equipment 1 -- including two
outstanding versions of U.S. aircraft.
We also discussed our evolving relations with Europe --
from trade relations to arms control, from the new challenges to
the CSCE to the continuing role of NATO in European security. We
continued
WE folbedabest
were able to carry forward our dialogue on the Baltics and
developments in the Soviet Union. At times our perspectives may
we
differ, but they share a common commitment to democracy, free
markets, and an enduring peace.
Finns and Americans share many special bonds of friendship,
and Finns have long added to the American experience. Mr.
President, your countrymen were among the first to settle in this
country -- three hundred and fifty years ago - establishing new
lives in the Delaware River Valley. Over a century later, John
Morton -- a Finnish-American delegate to our Continental
Congress -- cast the deciding vote for the Declaration of
Independence. The ideals which that led him -- liberty and self-
remain
government -- are dear to both our nations: just look to
Philadelphia, 1776, and Helsinki, 1917.
Since that time, we have enjoyed over seventy years of warm
diplomatic relations -- and I look forward to continuing this
friendship. May God Bless the people of Finland.
#
#
#
04/24/91 14:01
202 363 8233
EMBASSY FINLAND
1
001/002
EMBASSY OF FINLAND
Press section
TELEFAX-MESSAGE
3216 New Mexico Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C. 20016
91 APR 24 P3: 20
Tel. (202) 363 2430
Fax (202) 363 8233
Date: 24.4.1991
TO: Ms. Carolyn Cawley
The White House
FAX: 456 6218
FROM: Pekka Karhuvaara
PAGES: 2
Dear Carolyn,
As per our telephone conversation this morning I am pleased to send
you the following information.
1) Perhaps the most notable American with Finnish roots was John
Morton who signed the last and crucial signature on the Declaration
of Independence in 1776. His ancestor was Martti Marttinen of
Rautalampi, Finland. First Finns settled in the Delaware River
Valley in 1638.
2) The fundamental message of the Finnish national epic KALEVALA is
for peace and friendship. The following excerpt is from Runo 1;
21-28. You might be able to use a part of it.
Strike we now hand into hand,
Fingers into curve of fingers,
So that we may sing good songs,
Voice the best of all our legends
For the hearing of our loved ones,
Those who want to learn them from us,
Those among the rising young ones
of the growing generation.
3) There are not many single-word salutations in Finnish. The most
common good will salute is TERVEYDEKSI (- for your health). The
word is used both when toasting and sometimes as a general
Finns when toasting to a friend.
salutation. A more folksy version KIPPIS (= cheers) is used by
Some other words: KIITOS (= thank you); YSTAVA (- a good friend);
04/24/91 14:01
202 363 8233
EMBASSY FINLAND
5
002/002
TERVETULOA (- welcome) ; NAKEMIIN (- good bye).
I will be happy to assist with the pronunciation as well as with
any further questions you might have.
Sincerely,
Plue Press Pekka Karhuvaara counselor bee trung
Historical Setting
in Turku, the University of Turku was moved to Helsinki in 1827.
The University of Helsinki soon became the center of the Finnish
nationalist movement. Finnish-language nationalism, or the Fen-
noman movement, became the most powerful political force in
nineteenth-century Finland. A famous phrase of uncertain origin
that was coined in the early nineteenth century summed up Fin-
nish feelings as follows: "We are no longer Swedes; we cannot
become Russians; we must be Finns."
The leading Finnish nationalist spokesman was Johan Vilhelm
Snellman (1806-81), who saw increasing the use of the Finnish lan-
guage as a way for Finland to avoid assimilation by Russia.
Snellman stressed the importance of literature in fostering national
consciousness; until the nineteenth century, however, there had
been almost nothing published in Finnish except for religious works.
GRAND
RUSSIA
The publication in 1835 of the Kalevala, the Finnish folk epic, filled
DUCHY
the void, and in the late twentieth century the Kalevala continued
OF FINLAND
to be the single most important work of Finnish literature. Its author
was a country doctor named Elias Lönnrot, who, while practicing
medicine along Finland's eastern border, compiled hundreds of folk
ballads that he wove together into an epic poem of nearly 23,000
lines. In the years following the publication of the Kalevala, numer-
ous other works of Finnish literature were published. Of special
importance was the work of the Swedish-language poet Johan Lud-
Viipuri
vig Runeberg (1804-77), who authored a collection of poems called
Porvoo
The Tales of Ensign Stål. The first poem of the cycle, called "Our
Land," was soon set to music, and it became the national anthem
Helsinki
Petersburg/
of Finland.
Petrograd
The growth of the militant and increasingly powerful Fennoman
movement threatened the traditional dominance of the Swedish
speakers in Finland, who reacted by forming a Swedish-speaking
nationalist countermovement, the Svecoman movement. The main
idea of the Svecomans was that the Swedish-speakers of Finland
RUSSIA
were a separate nation from the Finnish-speakers and needed to
preserve their Swedish language and culture. The Svecomans
Boundary between
became a small but powerful political movement that won the back-
Finland and Russia
ing of much of the Swedish-speaking community in Finland.
State boundaries
A third political faction at this time was the short-lived Liberal
0 50 100 150 200 Kilometers
0
50
100
Party. This party sought to obtain reforms for Finland, especially
150
200
Miles
freedom of the press, greater self-government, and increased eco-
nomic freedom. It was split, however, by the growing language
tson, The Russian Empire 1801-1917,
controversy, and most of its members were absorbed into either
the Fennomans or the Svecomans.
Emerging as a debate among educated Finns, the nationalist
-1917
movement reached ever wider circles of the Finnish people in
19
IM Memorial Blag.
Phil Museum
215
Historical : 215 597 7123c 215/597 7127
Spect
16bl
1991
1776
-1638
-1638
-1776 215 353 138
ABBREVIATIONS PAGE 77
atoga, race track and build-
ography, 1795; The American Gazeteer, 1797; A
MORTON, George, colonist; b. nr. Scrooby, Eng.,
FOR SUPPLEMENTAL BIOGRAPHIES SEE TABLE OF CC
nd lost several fortunes on
New Gazeteer for the Eastern Continent, 1802; co-
1585; S. Anthony Morton; m. Juliana Carpenter,
N.Y., May 1, 1878.
author A Compendious History of New England,
July 23, 1612, 4 children including Nathaniel.
an original mem. Mass. Superior Ct., 1859-69; jus- franc
1804; True Reasons on which The Election of a
senator, gov. Ohio; b. Gettys-
Converted to Puritanism as a youth by William
tice Mass. Supreme Jud. Ct., 1869, chief justice, he
W
Hollis Professor of Divinity in Harvard College
1; S. John and Mary (Lock-
Brewster; became financial mainstay of Pilgrims
1882-90. Died Andover, Mass., Feb. 10, 1891.
vince
Was Opposed by the Board of Overseers, 14 Feb-
hill, Feb. 19, 1799, 6 chil-
while at Leyden, circa 1612-23; went as agt. to
London to negotiate with mehts. for a charter for
MORTON, Nathaniel, colonist, author; b. Ley-
anaes
ruary, 1805, 1805; A Report to the Secretary of
Territory (now Ohio), 1795;
War-On Indian Affairs, Comprising A Narrative
colonization, 1619; an organizer of voyage of ships
den, The Netherlands, 1613; S. George and Juliana
hosps
0. of Reps., 1801-02, mem.
of a Tour Performed in the Summer of 1820, 1822.
Anne and Little James on which he came with wife
(Carpenter) M.; m. Lydia Cooper, Apr. 29, 1635;
ods
mem. U.S. Ho. of Reps.
m. 2d, Ann (Pritchard) Templar, 1674. Came to
the
Died New Haven, June 9, 1826.
I
26th-27th congresses, 1803-
and children to Am., 1623; published 1st writings
sent from Am. under title A Relation or Journal
Plymouth, Mass., 1623; sec. of colony, keeper of
by
In
Ho. of Reps., 1820, 35;
MORSE, Leopold, congressman; b. Wachenheim,
records, Plymouth, 1647-85, entrusted with most
the N
Bavaria, Aug. 15, 1831; attended common schs.,
of the Beginnings and Proceedings of the English
Ohio, 1813-19; Ohio canal
of routine work of govt., drafted most of laws of
Physi
nio, 1822-26; became DIES.
Wachenheim. Came to U.S., 1849, settled in Sand-
Plantation Settled at Plimoth in New England
wich, N.H.; moved to Boston, employed in a cloth-
London, printed for John Bellamie, 1622, Died
colony, statute book probably largely his work, tax
Superi
1836. Died Twenty-Mile-
ing store, later became owner; del. Democratic nat.
June 1624.
collector, assessor, constantly mem. coms. to survey
Mass.
352; buried Union Cemetery,
convs., St. Louis, 1876, Cincinnati, 1880; mem. U.
land, determine boundaries, lay out roads, settle
MORTON, George, architect; b. Edinburgh, Scot-
MO
S. Ho. of Reps. (Dem.) from Mass., 45th-48th,
disputes; mem., sec. council of war to conduct cam-
land, 1790; ed. Edinburgh. Came to U.S., cirea
zig, I
ressman. Mem. U.S. Hc. of
50th congresses, 1877-85, 87-89: elected pres. Post
paigns against King Philip, 1671; town clk. of Ply-
1815, settled in Pitts.; moved to St. Louis, 1823,
guages
th congresses, 1805-09.
Publishing Co., 1884. Died Boston, Dec. 15, 1892;
mouth, 1674-79; sec., compiler records, prominent
Halle
became partner (with Joseph Laveille) in archtl. firm
buried Mt. Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Mass.
mgmt. and affairs of Pilgrim Ch.; prepared New
Morton & Laveille. Works include (with Laveille):
Joseph
aughan, pioneer in eclectic
Englands Memorial, painted Cambridge, Eng.,
MORSE, Oliver Andrew, congressman; b. Cherry
1st Court House (no longer standing), 1825; old
43; 0
y., Apr. 14, 1804; S. Thom-
1669, which remains only authority for list of sign-
Germal
han) M.; attended Transyl-
Valley, N.Y., Mar. 26, 1815; grad. Hamilton Coll.,
Jefferson Barracks, 1825; Episcopal Ch., 1825; Ro-
ers of the Compact in 1620, for the name of Speed-
I. Coll. of N.Y.; m. Isabel
Clinton, N.Y., 1833; studied law. Admitted to N.Y.
man Catholic Cathedral (Greek Revival style, most
tory (
well, also for many minor biog. details, and period
ing m
of. materia medica, obstet-
bar, began practice in Cherry Valley; mem. U.S.
noteworthy work), 1834 (all St. Louis). Died 1865.
after 1646; author Symposium of Church History
establi
ice of medicine Reformed
Ho. of Reps. (Republican) from N.Y., 35th Con-
MORTON, Jackson, senator; b. nr. Fredericksburg,
of Plymouth, 1680; also some of earliest verse in
contbr
830-39; organized Reformed
gress, 1857-59; writer, translator. Died N.Y.C., Apr.
Va., Aug. 10, 1794; grad. Washington Coll. (now
Am. Died Plymouth, June 16, 1685.
trolling
i, 1842, became Cincinnati
20, 1870; buried Cherry Valley Cemetery.
Washington and Lee U.), Lexington, Va., 1814, Coll.
weekly
1845, dean, treas., prof.
William and Mary, 1815. Moved to Pensacola, Fla.,
MORSE, Samuel Finley Breese, inventor, artist;
MORTON, Oliver Hazard Perry, senator, gov. Ind.;
started
and theory and practice,
1820, engaged in lumber bus.; mem. Fla. Legisla-
b. Charlestown, Mass., Apr. 27, 1791; S. Rev.
b. Salisbury, Ind., Aug. 4, 1823; S. James Throck
eclectic system of medi-
purchas
Jedidiah and Elizabeth (Breese) M.; grad. Yale,
tive Council, 1836-37, pres., 1837; del. Fla. Constl.
:hs. of that cult in West;
and Sarah (Miller) M.; grad. Miami U., Oxford,
issued
1810, LL.D. (hon.); attended Royal Acad., Lon-
Conv., 1838; Navy agt. at Pensacola, 1841-45; Whig
1. Assn., 1848; wrote arti-
0., 1845; m. Lucinda Burbank, May 15, 1845,
Press
estern Med. Reformer and
don, Eng., 1811-15; m. Lucretia Walker, Sept.
presdl. elector, 1848; mem. U.S. Senate (Whig) from
5 children. Admitted to Ind. bar, 1847; practiced
Died Cincinnati, July 16,
29, 1818; m. 2d, Sarah Griswold, Aug. 9, 1848; 8
Fla., 1849-55; dep. to Provisional Congress of Con-
in Centerville, Ind., 1847-60; judge 6th jud. circuit
publish
Jewish
emetery, Cincinnati.
children. Painter in Eng.; noteworthy works in-
federate States Am., 1861; mem. Confederate Con-
of Ind., 1852; lt. gov. Ind., 1860-61; gov. Ind., Age,
clude: Hercules, 1812 (recipient gold medal), The
gress from Fla., 1862-65. Died "Mortonia" Dr.
1861-67, an active supporter of Civil War efforts, Diction
chitect; b. 1818. Practiced
Dying Hercules, 1813, The Judgment of Jupiter,
Milton, Fla., Nov. 20, 1874; buried "Mortonia."
dissolved state legislature after Peace Democrats
1883.
R.I., more than 30 years;
1815; engaged in portrait painting in U.S., 1815-
MORTON, James St. Clair, army officer, engr.,
won control in 1862 elections, ran state without
ik Bldg. (with G. A. Hall),
29, best-known were two portraits of Lafayette,
calling legislature, 1863-65; del. from Ind. to Nat.
MOS
at Brown U., 1862, R.I.
author; b. Phila., Sept. 24, 1829; S. Dr. Samuel
1821, 22, also The Old House of Representatives;
Rep. Conv., 1872, 76; mem. U.S. Senate from
so de 1
1. (with Hall), 1868, Sayre
a founder N.A.D., 1st pres., 1826-42, also pres.,
George and Rebecca Grellet (Pearsall) M.; grad.
81 (all Providence); built
largely responsible for ratification 15th Amendment
Ind., 1867-77, a radical reconstructionist in Senate,
U.S. Mil. Acad., 1851. Asst. engr. in constrn. de-
MOS
1861; made trip to Europe for artistic study,
50's; mem. A.I.A., 1st pres.
1829-31; prof. painting, sculpture N.Y.U., 1832;
fenses of Charleston harbor, S.C., 1851-52; commd.
Nov. 25, 1893.
invented electro-magnetic recording telegraph; in-
2d lt., 1854, asst. prof. engring. U.S. Mil. Acad.;
race; mem. Electoral Commn. apptd. to determine of
which prohibits laws against suffrage because
Haddan
studied
vented sending and receiving apparatus, code
promoted 1st lt., 1856; charge Potomac Water
outcome contested presdl. election in several states,
in East
arlow, congressman, diplo-
(Morse Code), by 1832; worked out system of
Works, 1859-60; engr. in charge Chiriqui Expdn. to
1876. Died Indpls., Nov. 1, 1877; buried Crown
1804;
19, 1807; S. William and
electro-magnetic relays to be placed in the tele-
C.Am. of Washington Aqueduct, 1860-61; capt.
Hill Cemetery, Indpls.
state's
Nancy Leavitt, Apr. 21,
graph line weak points, 1836; Congress voted
engrs., 1861; chief engr. Army of the Ohio, 1862;
MORTON, Samuel George, physician, naturalist;
Regt.,
loyed as ship-carver, Bath;
$30,000 for an exptl. line from Washington, D.C.
brig. gen. U.S. Volunteers, 1862; chief engr. Army
b. Phila., Jan. 26, 1799; S. George and Jane (Cum-
(Federa
;. (Whig), 1840, 41, 43,
to Balt., 1843, line completed, May 24, 1844;
of the Cumberland, 1862-63; brevetted lt. col.
of Reps. from Me., 28th,
mings) M.; M.D., U. Pa., 1820; M.D., U. Edin-
21; mo
Morse's rights to profits from his invention were
engrs. in regular army, 1863; maj. Corps Engrs.,
burgh, 1823; m. Rebecca Pearsall, Oct. 23, 1827, 7
Saginaw
1843-45, 57-61; mayor
upheld in the courts; electrician for Cyrus W.
1863; brevetted col., 1863; supt. defenses of Nash-
tended Peace Conv., Wash-
children including James St. Clair. Became mem.
MOSI
ville, Murfreesboro, Clarksville, Ft. Donelson, 1863-
S. consul, London, Eng.,
Field's Co., engaged in laying Transatlantic Cable,
Acad. Natural Scis. Phila. circa 1820, recording
Whitesb
869-70; became Brit. citi-
1857-58; a founder Vassar Coll., 1861. Died
64; asst. to chief engr., Washington, D.C., 1864;
brevetted brig. gen., 1864. Author: Memoir on the
see., 1825-29, corr. sec., 1831, v.p., 1840, pres.,
studied
rey, Eng., Feb. 5, 1891;
N.Y.C., Apr. 2, 1872; buried Greenwood Ceme-
1849-51; prof. anatomy Pa. Med. Coll., 1839-43;
mitted
Ditton, Surrey, Eng.
tery, Bklyn.
Dangers and Defences of New York City, 1858;
collected large number human skulls for compara-
N.Y. As
Memoir on American Fortification, 1859. Died
MORSE, Sidney Edwards, editor, inventor; b.
the study, concluded that races of man were of
U.S. Ho
n, diamond cutter; b. Bos-
Petersburg, Va., June 17, 1864; buried Laurel
Hazen and Lucy (Cary) M.;
Charlestown, Mass., Feb. 7, 1794; S. Jedidiah and
diverse origin; credited with describing new species
Elizabeth (Breese) M.; A.B., Yale, 1811; attended
of hippopotamus. Author: Synopsis of the Organic
gresses,
Hill Cemetery, Phila.
Forest I
1849; 4 children. Partner
unnewell & Morse, Boston,
Litchfield (Conn.), Law Sch., then Andover Theol.
MORTON, Jeremiah, congressman; b. Fredericks-
Remains of the Cretaceous Group of the U.S., 1834;
Iorse Diamond Cutting Co.,
Sem., 1817-20; m. Catharine Livingston, Apr. 1,
burg, Va., Sept. 3, 1799; attended Washington
Illustrations of Pulmonary Consumption, 1834;
MOSE
1841, 2 children. A founder, Recorder (1st re-
Coll. (now Washington and Lee U.), 1814-15; grad.
Crania Americana, 1839; Crania Egyptiaca, 1839;
many, N
um technique of diamond-
ligious newspaper in Boston), 1816; a founder
Coll. William and Mary, 1819; studied law. Ad-
Human Anatomy, Special, General and Micro-
and Luc
nents which revolutionized
saving machinery for sawing
N.Y. Observer, 1823, sr. editor, propr., 1823-58;
mitted to Va. bar, practiced in Raccoon Ford:
scopic, 1849. Died Phil.., May 15, 1851.
Orch. un
cut 1st modern brilliants
editor (with father) A New System of Modern
engaged in farming; mem. U.S. Ho. of Reps.
MORTON, Sarah Wentworth Apthorpe (pseudonym
ganist at
ers of refraction; cut Dewey
Geography
Accompanied by an Atlas, 1822;
(Whig) from Va., 31st Congress, 1849-51; trustee
Philenia), poetess; b. Boston, Aug. 1759; d. James
condr. N
patentee (with brother Samuel) flexible piston
Theol. Sem. of Va., Alexandria; mem. Va. Seces-
with 1st
fany No. 2 diamond, 125
carats in cutting (largest
pump; inventor process "cerography" (map of
sion Conv., 1861. Died "Lessland," Orange Countr.
Feb. and Sarah (Wentworth) Apthorp; m. Perez Morton,
years, 2
in U.S.). Died Jamaica
Conn. was first example), 1839; patentee (with
Va., Nov. 28, 1878; buried "Morton Hall," Orange
letts 24, 1781, 5 children. Contbr. to Massachu-
N.Y.C.,
88.
son) bathometer, 1866. Author: The New States,
County.
Mag., 1789-93; enjoyed great popularity in
or a Comparison of the Northern and Southern
time, style widely copied and imitated; there is
MOSS,
congressman; b. Attakap-
States: With a View to Expose the Injustice of
MORTON, John, Continental congressman;
question as to whether she authored earliest
ville, Pa.
; attended Norwich (Vt.)
Erecting New States at the South (collection of
Ridley, Pa., circa 1724; S. John and Mary (Mr
d, 1829; studied law. Ad-
reprinted articles), 1813; An Atlas of the United
cher) M.; m. Anne Justice, 1754, 8 children. Sur-
Quabi, or the Virtues of Nature, an Indian Tale, Colleague
novel, The Power of Sympathy; works include: (Calvin)
ced in New Orleans and St.
States, 1823; Cerographic Atlas of the United
veyor of land, Delaware County, Pa., before 1757:
1792; Boston, 1790; The African Chief (verses), ic Engras
iem. La. Senate, 1842-44;
States, 1842-45; A System of Geography for the
justice of peace, Delaware County, 1757-67; mem.
ps. (Demccrat) from La.,
Use of Schools, 1844. Died Dec. 23, 1871.
Pa. Gen. Assembly; 1756-66, 69-75, speaker, 1771-
1846. Descriptive, 1797. Died Quincy, Mass., May 14, N.Y.C.,
Beacon Hill, a Local Poem, Historical and graving
(
C. 2, 1844-51; del. Dem.
75; mem. Stamp Act Congress, 1765; high sheriff
comml. b
MORTIMER, Mary, educator; b. Trowbridge,
; atty. gen. La., 1853-55;
Delaware County, 1766-70; judge Delaware County
Eng., Dec. 2, 1816; d. William and Mary (Pierce)
MORTON, Thomas, pioneer; b. England. Came to
N.Y.C., A
New Granada to negotiate
Ct. Common Pleas, 1770-74; asso. judge Supreme
Mortimer; attended Geneva (N.Y.) Sem., 1838-
Ct. Appeals of Pa., 1774; mem. Continental Com-
Quincy, Am. for a year, 1622, returned, 1625, settled nr.
MOTLE
fficers of U.S. across Isth-
40. Came to U.S. with family, 1821; pioneer in
:W Orleans, Feb. 11, 1866;
gress from Pa., 1774-77, cast deciding vote for
name Mass.; moved to Merry Mount, Mass., be-
higher edn. of women in period before and after
ery, New Orleans.
Civil War; inaugurated (with Catharine Beecher)
Declaration of Independence, also signer. Died Rid- St.
fur trader; sold guns to Indians; chastized Dorchester
sured Pilgrims who cut down his maypole, 1627, cap- U.
Anna (Lo
a college system of instrn. for young women, Milw.,
ley Park, Delaware County, Apr. 1777; buried
clergyman, geographer; b.
23, 1761; S. Jedidiah and
1st prin. Milw. Female Coll. (merged with Downer
establish tried; returned to Am., 1629, tried to re- Ho. Benjamin, of Re
be by Capt. Miles Standish, 1628, sent to Eng. Berlin
Paul's Churchyard, Chester, Pa.
Yale, 1783; studied the-
Coll. to form present-day Milw. Downer Coll.,
MORTON, Marcus, gov. Mass., congressman;
Burned fur trade; captured by Puritans (who tion at
1783-85; S.T.D. (hon.)
1895); 1851, head coll., 1850-57, 66-64; formed
Freetown, Mass., Feb. 19, 1784; S. Nathaniel
returned his trading post), sent to Eng. for trial; tria, 1861 St
d), 1794; m. Elizabeth
(with Catharine Beecher) Am. Woman's Ednl.
Mary (Cary) M.; grad. Brown U., 1804; attended
and to Plymouth, again banished, 1643; arrest- ton's Hop
11 children including Sam-
Assns. at home of Harriet Beecher Stowe; prin.
Litchfield, (Conn.) Law Sch.; m. Charlotte Hodges
ey Edwards, Richard. Li-
sem. Baraboo, Wis., 1857-66; initiated and organ-
Dec. 23, 1807, 12 children including Marcus.
Author: New English Canaan, 1637. Died Me.
held prisoner in Boston, 1644-45; moved to the Massa
ized Woman's Club of Wis. Died Milw., July 14,
mitted to Mass. bar, 1806; clk. Mass. Senate, 1811:
Dutch Rep
regational Ch., 1785, or-
1877
Charlton, MORTON, William Thomas Green, dentist; b. United
Ne
pastor 1st Congregational
mem. U.S. Ho. of Reps. (Democrat) from Mass
15th-16th, 18th congresses, 1817-21, 24-25; 1825-
Mass., Aug. 9, 1819; S. James and Re-
N.Am. R
1789-1819; proponent of
MORTON, Charles, clergyman, educator; b. Pen-
(Needham) M.; studied dentistry Coll. Den-
shire, Eng
mem. bd. overseers Harv-
davy, Eng., 1627; S. Rev. Nicholas and Francis
gov. Mass., 1823; judge Mass. Supreme Ct.,
Surgery, Balt., 1840-42; also studied dentistry
Cemetery,
The Mercury and New Eng-
(Kestell) M.; B.A., Wadham Coll., Oxford, 1649,
40; gov. Mass., 1840, 41, 43, 44; collector of
founder, editor The Pan-
M.A., 1662; m. Joan Morton, 1 child. Set up New
toms, Boston, 1845-49; del. Mass. Constl. Cool
der, Gen. Assn. of Mass.,
ington Green, most famous of Dissenter's academies
Medicine, Balt.; m. Elizabeth Whitman, May N.J., MOTT,
Med. Sch.; M.D. (hon.), Washington U.
1853; mem. Mass. Ho. of Reps., 1858. Died Tast
808, Park St. Ch., Bos-
nr. London, 1666; landed in Boston, July 1686;
ton, Mass., Feb. 6, 1864; buried Mt. Pleasant
rimenting with mesmerism and nostrums be-
4 children including William James. While der) M.; Apr. II
act Soc., 1814, Am. Bible
minister, Charlestown, Mass.; fellow Harvard, 1692,
tery, Taunton.
Bd. Commrs. for Fgn. Mis-
1st v.p., 1697; wrote Compendium Physicae and
Apr.
involved with sulfur ether which he later con-
Enlisted f
by sec. war to study con-
System of Logic, used as textbooks at Harvard
MORTON, Marcus, jurist; b. Taunton, Mass.,
tions, 1820, published re-
into 18th century; best known work The Spirit
Beta Kappa; known as
of Man. 1693; founded assn. of 22 leading min-
grad. Brown U., 1838, Harvard Law Sch., 1840;
1846; 1844, extracted a tooth with this method, 2d battle
tooth, drops as local anaesthetic during filling of town Volunteers, (N.J
in and linked to use in dental anaesthesia; used
commd. 2d
8, 1819; S. Marcus and Charlotte (Hodges)
Geography. Author: Ge-
isters from Boston vicinity, 1690; 1st minister
Abby B. Hoppin, Oct. 19, 1843, 8 children.
784 (1st published Am.
in New Eng. to perform marriages; began ceremony
removed vascular tumor from left side of neck, Volunteers,
etherized a patient from whom Dr. John War-
mitted to Suffolk (Mass.) bar, 1841; mem.
an Geography, 1789; The
of "installation" among Congregationalists. Died
Constl. Conv., 1853; mem. Mass. Ho. of
Rept.
1858
applied for patent to protect his rights, re- gen. 1865; payn
graphy; Elements of Ge- Apr. 11, 1698.
1858; judge Superior Ct. of Suffolk County,
patent for 14 years, 1846; issued weekly keeper N.J. N.J.
Morton's Letheon, 5 editions, under his Com. of N
1846; awarded Montyon prize of 5,000 Mott, iron
Morton
Morton
Morton
Hook Fort (Fort Hancock), N. J. Fol-
fences of New York City (1858) ; Memoir on
and in 1770 a judge for the trial
this assignment, from 1858 to 1859, he
American Fortification (1859). These are ana-
also served for a time as preside
ghthouse engineer of the third district
lytical studies of European fortifications, and of
court of general sessions and C(
Gooseberry Point, Mass., to Squam Inlet,
American fortification as it should have been.
his county, and became in Apri
Next he was in charge of the Potomac
Written in the days when cannon had a maximum
ciate judge of the supreme court
Works (1859-60), then engineer in
range of less than 5,000 yards, their value today
In 1765 he was one of the fou
of the Chiriqui Expedition to Central
is entirely in their historical interest. His Mem-
delegates to the Stamp Act Cong
a, and from 1860 to 1861 of the Wash-
oir of the Life and Services of Captain and Brevet
delegate to the Continental CC
Aqueduct.
Major John Sanders, of the Corps of Engineers,
1774 until early in I777. In the
vas promoted captain of engineers Aug.
U. S. Army (1861) is an appreciation of the
1776, his vote together with thos
Later that year he became superin-
work of a great military engineer.
Franklin and James Wilson place
engineer of the construction of Fort Jef-
[G. W. Cullum, Biog. Reg. Officers and Grads. U. S.
on the side of independence by a n
Dry Tortugas, Fla., and in 1862 was in
Mil. Acad. (1891), vol. II; War Dept. records; F. B.
Heitman, Biog. Reg. and Dict. U. S. Army (1903), vol.
While in Congress Morton serve
of repairs at Fort Mifflin, Pa. From June
I; Clarence Pearsall, Hist. and Geneal. of the Pearsall
portant committees and was chairr
to 27, 1862, he was chief engineer of the
Family in England and America (1928), vol. II.]
mittee of the whole on the adoption
E the Ohio. He was appointed brigadier-
J.W.L.
of Confederation finally ratified
United States Volunteers, Nov. 29, 1862.
MORTON, JOHN (c. 1724-April 1777),
death. After the battle of Lexingt
ct. 27, 1862, to Aug. 22, 1863, and from
signer of the Declaration of Independence, was
offered the colonelcy of a volui
to Nov. 14, 1863, he was chief engineer
born after his father's death in Ridley, Chester
Pennsylvania, but he declined the
rmy of the Cumberland and from Nov.
(now Delaware) County, Pa., the son of John
of his other duties.
V. 7, 1863, commanded the pioneer bri-
Morton and Mary Archer. His great-grand-
Morton was essentially a self-
ached to the XIV Corps of that army.
father, Morten Mortenson, had sailed from
pleasant social and domestic qual
cipated in the Tennessee campaign and
Gothenburg, Sweden, in 1654, a member of the
judgment, and modest in manner.
nt and meritorious services in the battle
Tenth Swedish Expedition under Johan Classon
is revealed in his unrelenting star
River, Dec. 31, 1862-Jan. 2, 1863, was
Rising, the last governor of New Sweden. Young
colonial freedom, in a state where
1 lieutenant-colonel of engineers of the
Morton received only three months of public
matter was seriously divided. A
Army. Until June 1863 he was engaged
schooling, but he was efficiently educated at home
Swedish-American interests erec
ing Nashville and Murfreesboro, Tenn.
in all common branches of learning by his foster
delphia has been named the John
promoted major, corps of engineers,
father, John Sketchley, an Englishman of excel-
morial Building.
863, and participated in the advance on
lent training and a surveyor by profession, who
la, June 24 to July 4, and in the cross-
had married the widowed Mrs. Morton and had
[Sources include: Minutes of the Pro
of Pa., vols. IX and X (1852); Pa. Arc
e Cumberland Mountains and the Ten-
taken an affectionate interest in her son. Pos-
(1880) M. A. Leach, "John Morton,
sessed of an alert, mature mind, great industry,
navian Rev., July-Aug. 1915; J. H. 1
ver, Aug. I5 to Sept. 4 of that year. He
(and Its Vicinity), Delaware County, i
ided in the battle of Chickamauga and
and a fondness for precision, the stepson was
Geo. Smith, Hist. of Delaware County,
20, 1863, was brevetted colonel for gal-
soon able to share the work of his teacher, so
D. Paxson, Sketch and Map of a Trip
Tinicum Island, Delaware County, Pa.
meritorious services at that battle.
that his early employment consisted in surveying
are brief biographies of Morton in the
tember to November of the same year
lands and cultivating his "patrimonial farm."
on the Signers, though they are for the 1
igaged in fortifying Chattanooga, and
Many tracts on Tinicum Island were surveyed
eulogies of character. Since there wer
temporaries by the same name, no portr
7 was mustered out of the volunteer
by Morton. In 1754 he married Ann Justice (or
the Signer, is considered authentic. His
Justis), a descendant of the Delaware Swedes,
St. Paul's churchyard at Chester, Pa. an
; superintending engineer of the de-
and had by her three sons and five daughters,
his memory in the Independence Chambe
House in Philadelphia give 1724 as the
Nashville, Murfreesboro, Clarksville,
who survived him. Their descendants are nu-
but it may have taken place early in 17.
Donelson, Nov. 14, 1863, to Jan. 30,
merous and many have attained distinction.
n he became assistant to the chief en-
Morton was early called into public life and
MORTON, JULIUS STERLIN
Washington, D. C. On May 18, 1864,
served his state and country with unusual faith-
1832-Apr. 27, 1902), agriculturist,
ointed chief engineer of the IX Army
fulness. Elected a member of the Provincial
Adams, Jefferson County, N. Y., of
I participated during the Richmond
Assembly from Chester County in 1756, he was
land lineage, the son of Julius Dewe
in the battles of North Anna, May 24,
reëlected to the same office for ten consecutive
line (Sterling) Morton. In 1834 Ju
potomoy, May 28-29, 1864; Bethesda
years. In February 1767 his position was filled
followed the tide of emigration int
ay 30, 1864; and the assault of Peters-
by another-apparently because of political dis-
locating first at Monroe, Mich., and
June 17, 1864, where he was killed
agreements with the views of Morton-but he
troit, where he became a well-know
ing the attack. On the same day he
was returned to the Assembly in 1769 and served
perous citizen. Young Julius Sterli
ted brigadier-general, United States
seven more terms, acting after Mar. I5, 1775, as
who showed signs of mental alertness
gallant and meritorious service. He
speaker of that body. Beginning in October
age, was given excellent educational
in Laurel Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia.
1766, he held for three years the position of high
ties. He spent two years at the U1
the author of a Memoir on Fortifica-
sheriff of Chester County. In 1757 he had been
Michigan, but, owing to his independ
); Memoir on the Dangers and De-
chosen justice of the peace for Chester County
constituted authorities, he was expe
256
Morton
Morton
and in 1770 a judge for the trial of negroes. He
senior year. Although he was apparently never
also served for a time as president judge of the
in residence at Union College, Schenectady, N.
court of general sessions and common pleas of
Y., he received the A.B. degree there in 1856.
his county, and became in April 1774 an asso-
In 1858 the Regents of the University of Michi-
ciate judge of the supreme court of the province.
gan voted to confer the A.B. degree as of the
In 1765 he was one of the four Pennsylvania
class of 1854. On Oct. 30, 1854, he was married
delegates to the Stamp Act Congress and was a
to Caroline Joy French, the daughter of Hiram
delegate to the Continental congresses from
Joy and the adopted daughter of David and
1774 until early in 1777. In the session of July
Cynthia French of Detroit. The wedding trip
1776, his vote together with those of Benjamin
was the journey to a new home in Nebraska,
Franklin and James Wilson placed Pennsylvania
then much advertised by reason of the discussion
on the side of independence by a majority of one.
Douglas' Kansas-Nebraska Act had aroused.
While in Congress Morton served on many im-
After a short stay at Bellevue, Neb., he located
portant committees and was chairman of the com-
at Nebraska City, where for a number of years
mittee of the whole on the adoption of the Articles
he edited a pioneer newspaper, the Nebraska City
of Confederation finally ratified after his own
News, writing, as he was also accustomed to
death. After the battle of Lexington he had been
talk, vigorously and with small regard for the
offered the colonelcy of a volunteer corps in
consequences.
Pennsylvania, but he declined the honor because
He early interested himself in territorial poli-
of his other duties.
tics. As a member of the territorial legislature,
Morton was essentially a self-made man, of
the second assembly, 1855-56, and the fourth,
pleasant social and domestic qualities, sound in
1857-58, he opposed the efforts of Omaha and
judgment, and modest in manner. His character
the North Platte country to dominate the affairs
is revealed in his unrelenting stand in favor of
of the territory, and he fought valiantly against
colonial freedom, in a state where opinion on the
the numerous wild-cat banking projects then so
matter was seriously divided. A museum of
generally approved by local speculators. In 1858
Swedish-American interests erected in Phila-
his leadership in territorial affairs was recog-
delphia has been named the John Morton Me-
nized when he was appointed by President
morial Building.
Buchanan to be secretary of the territory, an
[Sources include: Minutes of the Provincial Council
office he held until 1861. For several months of
of Pa., vols. IX and x (1852) Pa. Archives, 2 ser. IX
that time he also served as acting-governor. He
(1880) M. A. Leach, "John Morton," Am. Scandi-
navian Rev., July-Aug. 1915; J. H. Martin, Chester
was a Democrat, and as such he was repeatedly
(and Its Vicinity), Delaware County, in Pa. (1877)
a candidate for office. Twice he ran for terri-
Geo. Smith, Hist. of Delaware County, Pa. (1862); H.
torial delegate to Congress, and four times he
D. Paxson, Sketch and Map of a Trip from Phila. to
Tinicum Island, Delaware County, Pa. (1926). There
was his party's nominee for governor. Many
are brief biographies of Morton in the various works
times, also, he received the Democratic vote of
on the Signers, though they are for the most part mere
the legislature for United States senator. In
eulogies of character. Since there were several con-
temporaries by the same name, no portrait of Morton,
the days when the railroads figured largely in
the Signer, is considered authentic. His tombstone in
Nebraska politics, he was regarded as the espe-
St. Paul's churchyard at Chester, Pa. and the tablet to
his memory in the Independence Chamber of the State
cial friend of the Chicago, Burlington &
House in Philadelphia give 1724 as the year of birth,
Quincy Railroad. His highest political honor
but it may have taken place early in 1725, N.S.]
came in 1893, when he was appointed secretary
A.B.B.
of agriculture by President Cleveland, a post in
MORTON, JULIUS STERLING (Apr. 22,
which he distinguished himself by his emphasis
1832-Apr. 27, 1902), agriculturist, was born at
upon economy. Among other things he elimi-
Adams, Jefferson County, N. Y., of New Eng-
nated temporarily the free distribution of seeds
land lineage, the son of Julius Dewey and Eme-
by congressmen, in his opinion a sheer waste of
line (Sterling) Morton. In 1834 Julius Morton
money.
followed the tide of emigration into the west,
Cleveland's appointment came to Morton not
locating first at Monroe, Mich., and later at De-
merely because of his political record and his
troit, where he became a well-known and pros-
low-tariff, hard-money views but also because of
perous citizen. Young Julius Sterling Morton,
his standing as an agriculturist. He was a
who showed signs of mental alertness at an early
student of agriculture; he owned and lived upon
age, was given excellent educational opportuni-
a quarter-section of land adjacent to Nebraska
ties. He spent two years at the University of
City, and he esteemed it his duty to instruct the
Michigan, but, owing to his independence of the
people of the state in the subject of farming by
constituted authorities, he was expelled in his
precept, perhaps, even more than by example.
257
background
notes
Finland
United States Department of State
August 1990
Bureau of Public Affairs
Finns, Swedes, Lapps, Gypsies, Tartars.
(pork and beef), grain (wheat, rye, barley, oats),
Religions (1987): Lutheran 88.7%, Orthodox
dairy products, potatoes, rapeseed.
1.1%. Languages: Finnish 93.6%, Swedish 6%.
Industry (27% of GDP): Types-metal and
Norwegian
Education: Years compulsory-9. Atten-
steel, forest, foodstuffs, textile and clothing.
Sea
dance-almost 100%. Literacy-almost 100%.
Trade (1989): Exports-$23.2 billion: paper
Health (1989): Infant mortality rate-6/1,000.
and paperboard, machinery and equipment,
Life expectancy-males 71 yrs., females 79 yrs.
OSWEDEN
ships, lumber, woodpulp, chemicals. Major
Work force (1989, 2,559,000): Agriculture-
markets-USSR 14.5%, Sweden 14.4%, UK
FINLAND
8.7%. Industry, commerce, and finance-
12%, FRG 10%, US 6.4%. Imports-$24.6
53.3%. Services (public and personal)-24.7%.
NORWAY
Helsinki
billion: fuels and lubricants, machinery and
a
Government-5.4%. Transport (storage and
equipment, including motor vehicles, basic
communication)-7.1%.
manufactures, chemicals; foodstuffs. Major
SOVIET UNION
suppliers-FRG 17.3%, Sweden 13.6%, USSR
Baltic
11.4%, US 6.3%.
Sea
Government
Official exchange rate (1989): 4.295
Finnmarks=US$1.
Type: Constitutional republic. Constitution:
Fiscal year: Calendar year.
July 17, 1919. Independence: December 6,
1917.
Official Name:
Branches: Executive-president (chief of
Republic of Finland
Membership in
state), prime minister (head of government),
Council of State (cabinet). Legislative-
International Organizations
Unicameral parliament. Judicial-Supreme
UN and some of its specialized and related
PROFILE
Court, regional appellate courts, local courts.
agencies, including the International Bank for
Subdivisions: 12 provinces, provincial
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD),
self-rule for the Aland Islands.
International Monetary Fund (IMF), General
Geography
Political parties: Four largest, in order:
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
Social Democratic Party (SDP), National
International Finance Corporation (IFC),
Area: 337,113 sq. km. (130,160 sq. mi.); about
Coalition (Conservative) Party, Center Party,
International Development Association (IDA);
the size of New England, New Jersey, and
Leftist Alliance.
Bank for International Settlements (BIS);
New York combined. Cities: Capital-
Central government budget (1989):
Asian Development Bank; Inter-American De-
Helsinki (pop. 484,399). Other cities-Tampere
$28.91 billion.
velopment Bank (IDB); Council of Europe;
(167,335), Turku (163,655). Terrain: Low but
Defense (1989): 1.4% of GDP.
Nordic Council; European Free Trade
hilly, more than 70% forested, with more than
Flag: Light blue cross on a white field.
Association (EFTA); European Community
60,000 lakes. Climate: Cool; mean annual
(EC)-free trade agreement; Organization for
temperature in Helsinki (1977-86) +5°C (41 °F);
Economic Cooperation and Development
July +17 °C (63 °F); January -6 °C (21 °F).
Economy
(OECD); INTELSAT.
GDP (1989): $114.9 billion. Annual growth
People
rate: 5% (GDP). Per capita Income (1989
est.): $23,153. Inflation rate (1989): 6.6%.
Nationality: Noun-Finn(s). Adjective-
Natural resources: Forests, minerals
Finnish. Population (1989): 4,971,844. Annual
(copper, zinc, iron), farmland.
growth rate (1989): 0.4%. Ethnic groups:
Agriculture (3% of GDP): Products-meat
16
20
24
28
32
36
NORWEGIAN-
wry
SEA
Kistrand
FINLAND
ru
International boundary
*
My
Nordmannvik
Tenojoki
National capital
+
Railroad
NORWAY
Road
+
International airport
0
25
50
75
100 Miles
apoluonją
Ivalo
o 25 50 75 100 Kilometers
68
Kandalaksha
Ounasjoki
Kemijarvi
Lulealu
Rovaniemi
SWEDEN
Kemijoki
Kuusamo
Tornio
Kemi
Lulea
Skeliefteato
Oulu
Kem'
Raahe
BOTHNIA
64
64
Kajaani
Umea
Kokkola
&
U.S. . S. R.
lisalmi
Vaasa
GULF
Kuopio
Joensuu
Jyväskylä
Kyronjoki
V
Savonlinna
VA
M
Mikkeli
THE
5Th
Poti
Tampere
0
Rauma
Lappeenranta Limatra
Laht
LAKE
lameenlinna
Kouvola
LADOGA
Vyborg
Turku
o
Kotka
Marienamh
60
60
01
HELSINKI
0
Leningrad
BALTIC SEA
Hango
CULF OF FINLAND
The United States Governmenthas not recognized
the incorporation Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania*
20
into the Soviet Union. Names and boundary
28
32
representationfare not Inecessarily authoritative
2
PEOPLE
Finland enjoys complete religious
freedom as well as free education through
The origins of the Finnish people are still a
the university level. An extensive social
matter of conjecture, although most
welfare system, constituting about one-
scholars agree that their original home
fifth of the national income, includes a
was in what is now west-central Siberia.
variety of pension and assistance pro-
The Finns arrived in their present
grams and a comprehensive health
territory thousands of years ago, pushing
insurance program.
the indigenous Lapps into the more
In the mid-1970s, the educational
remote northern regions.
system was reformed with the goal of
The Finnish language is Finno-Ugric,
equalizing educational opportunities.
of the Uralic language family (of which
Beginning at age 7, all Finnish children
Hungarian and Estonian also are a part)
are required to attend a "basic school" of
and not Indo-European. Lappish, the
nine grade levels. After this, they may
language of the small Lapp minority, also
elect to continue along an academic
is Finno-Ugric.
(lukio) or vocational (ammattikoulu)
Swedish became the dominant
line. However, most pursue vocational
language following Finland's incorporation
studies. About one child in four receives a
into Sweden in the 12th century. Finnish
higher education in this highly competi-
recovered its predominance after a
tive system. The number of openings in
resurgence of Finnish nationalism in the
higher educational institutions is less than
19th century. Today, although 94% of the
the demand.
Finnish folkdancing.
people speak Finnish as a first language,
both Finnish and Swedish are official
languages.
HISTORY
Finland, and other territory along the
The population is ethnically homogene-
former eastern border. Another provi-
ous with no sizable immigrant population.
Finland's nearly 700-year association with
sion, terminated in 1956, leased the
Few tensions exist between the Finnish-
the Kingdom of Sweden began in 1154
Porkkala area near Helsinki to the USSR
speaking majority and the Swedish-
with the introduction of Christianity by
for use as a naval base and gave free
speaking minority.
Sweden's King Eric. During the ensuing
access to this area across Finnish
Finns are highly literate, and poetry
centuries, Finland played an important
territory. The peace treaty also called for
has played a key role in Finnish history.
role in the political life of the Swedish-
Finland to pay to the Soviet Union
Publication in 1835 of the Finnish national
Finnish realm, and Finnish soldiers often
reparations of 300 million gold dollars
epic, The Kalevala, a collection of tradi-
predominated in Swedish armies. Finns
(amounting to an estimated $570 million
tional myths and legends, first stirred the
also formed a significant proportion of the
in 1952, the year the payments ended).
nationalism that led to independence in
first "Swedish" settlers in 17th-century
The United States was not a signatory to
1917.
America.
the treaty because it had not been at war
An important theme in Finnish
In 1809, Finland was conquered by
with Finland.
literature is humanity's unity with nature,
the armies of Czar Alexander I and
which identifies human fate with imper-
thereafter remained an autonomous
sonal forces and which gives Finnish
grand duchy connected with the Russian
GOVERNMENT
literature a somber, sometimes tragic,
Empire until the end of 1917. On Decem-
sometimes heroic, tone. Another theme is
ber 6, 1917, shortly after the Bolshevik
Under the Finnish constitution, political
the importance of the common people-the
Revolution in Russia, Finland declared its
power is divided between the Eduskunta
Finnish folk. One of the country's major
independence. In 1918, Finland experi-
(parliament) and the president of the
writers, Frans Emil Sillanpaa, received
enced a brief but bitter civil war that
republic, with the highest executive
the Nobel Prize for literature in 1939.
colored domestic politics for many years.
power vested in the president.
Finland is one of the most active
During World War II, Finland fought
Elected for a 6-year term, the
publishing countries in the world. Al-
the Soviet Union twice-in the Winter
president:
though major literary works have been
War of 1939-40 and again in the Continu-
translated into English, Finnish
ation War of 1941-44. This was followed
Handles foreign policy, except for
music, because it does not require transla-
by the Lapland War from 1944-45 when
certain international agreements and
decisions of peace or war, which must be
tion, is better known. This is especially
Finland fought against the Germans as
true of the works of Jean Sibelius who,
they withdrew their forces from northern
submitted to parliament;
Is commander in chief of the armed
along with many other Finnish artists, was
Finland.
profoundly influenced by The Kalevala.
The Treaty of Peace, signed at Paris
forces and has wide decree and appointive
Finns also are outstanding in other
on February 10, 1947, limited the size of
powers;
artistic fields; their jewelry, textile, glass,
Finland's defense forces and provided for
May initiate legislation, block
and furniture designs have gained promi-
the cession to the Soviet Union of the
legislation by pocket veto, and call ex-
nence throughout the world.
Petsamo area on the Arctic coast, the
traordinary parliamentary sessions; and
Karelian Isthmus in southeastern
Appoints the cabinet.
3
A view of Helsinki's neoclassic center.
The Council of State is made up of the
The judicial system is divided
recently by the Act on Aaland Self-
prime minister and ministers for the
between courts with regular civil and
Government of 1951. The islands are
various departments of the central
criminal jurisdiction and special courts
further distinguished by the fact that
government as well as an ex-officio
with responsibility for litigation between
they are entirely Swedish speaking. Gov-
member, the Chancellor of Justice.
the public and the administrative organs
ernment is vested in the provincial
Ministers are not obliged to be members
of the state. Finnish law is codified.
council, which consists of 30 delegates
of the Eduskunta and need not be
Although there is no writ of habeas
elected directly by Aaland's citizens.
formally identified with any political
corpus or bail, the maximum period of
party.
pre-trial detention was recently reduced
Constitutionally, the 200-member,
to 4 days. The Finnish court system
Principal Government Officials
unicameral Eduskunta is the supreme
consists of local courts, regional appellate
President-Mauno Koivisto
authority in Finland. It may alter the
courts, and a supreme court.
Prime Minister- Harri Holkeri
constitution, bring about the resignation
Finland's 12 provinces are divided
Foreign Minister-Perti Paasio
of the Council of State, and override
into cities, townships, and communes ad-
Ambassador to the United States-Jukka
presidential vetoes; its acts are not
ministered by municipal and communal
Valtasaari
subject to judicial review. Legislation
councils elected by proportional represen-
Ambassador to the United Nations—
may be initiated by the president, the
tation once every 4 years. The 11 main-
Klaus Tornudd
Council of State, or one of the Eduskunta
land provinces are administered by
members.
provincial boards composed of civil
Finland maintains an embassy in the
The Eduskunta is elected on the basis
servants and each headed by a presiden-
United States at 3216 New Mexico
of proportional representation. All
tially appointed governor. The boards are
Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20016
persons 18 or older, except military
responsible to the Ministry of the Interior
(tel. 202-363-2430).
personnel on active duty and a few high
and play a supervisory and coordinating
judicial officials, are eligible for election.
role within the provinces.
The regular parliamentary term is 4
The island province of Aaland is
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
years; however, the president may
located near the 60th parallel between
dissolve the Eduskunta and order new
Sweden and Finland. It enjoys local
Finland's proportional representation
elections at any time.
autonomy by virtue of an international
system encourages a multitude of political
convention of 1921, implemented most
parties and has resulted in many coalition
governments.
4
Political activity by communists was
legalized in 1944. Although four major
parties have dominated the postwar
political arena, none has a majority
position. The largest is the Social Demo-
cratic Party (SDP), which commands the
support of nearly 25% of the electorate,
mainly among the urban working class
but also with some support among small
farmers, white-collar workers, and
professionals. The SDP's rival on the left
is the Leftist Alliance, formed in May
1990, which replaces the People's Demo-
cratic League (SKDL), the parliamentary
group in the Eduskunta that represented
the Finnish Communist Party. The
SKDL's parliamentary effectiveness and
potential participation in government
were impaired, however, by the deep split
in the Communist Party between its
"moderate" majority and "hardline"
minority.
The two other major parties are the
Center Party, traditionally representing
the 1980s, Finland's economic growth rate
rural interests, and the Conservative
was one of the highest of industrialized
Party, which draws its major support
countries. Exports contribute more than
from the business community and urban
20% of the gross domestic product (GDP);
professionals.
combined exports of goods and services
In the February 1988 election, Presi-
amount to about 25% of GDP. Exports
dent Koivisto won a new 6-year term.
and imports of goods total about 40% of
Parliamentary elections in March 1987 led
GDP. Timber and steel are the main
to the formation of a "red-blue" coalition
industries, but other industries produce
government that includes both the SDP
manufactured goods ranging from
and the National Coalition (Conservative)
electronics to motor vehicles. Finnish-
Party.
designed consumer products such as
textiles, porcelain, and glassware are
world famous.
ECONOMY
Finland is self-sufficient in dairy
products and meats, as well as in grains in
Finland has a dynamic industrial economy
good harvest years, but it imports large
based on abundant forest resources,
amounts of fruits and vegetables. Farms
capital investments, and technology. In
tend to be small, but sizable timber stands
littala Glassworks are famous worldwide.
are harvested for supplementary income
Classic designs capture the atmosphere of
in winter.
Finland's clear, cold waters.
Except for timber and several
Political Parties
minerals, Finland depends on imported
DEFENSE
raw materials, energy, and some compo-
In order of respective seating placement
nents for its manufactured products.
Finland's active duty defense forces are
Traditionally, Finland is a net importer of
Democratic Alternative
4
limited by the 1947 Treaty of Peace to
Leftist Alliance
capital to finance industrial growth.
16
41,900 troops (army 34,400, navy 4,500, air
Social Democrats
56
Finland imported 70% of its energy in
force 3,000). The country has military
Rural Party
8
1989. Oil imports met 31% of Finnish
conscription under which all young men
Free Democrats
1
requirements while nuclear power
serve from 8 to 11 months. A reserve
Center Party
40
provided 15%, coal 11%, and natural gas
force of about 700,000 ensures readiness
National Coalition Party
53
6%. Domestic energy sources include
Swedish People's Party
13
as one means of deterring involvement in
hydroelectric power, peat, and wood
Greens
4
war. The basic tenet of Finnish security
Christian League
5
products.
policy is that, while foreign policy is
important, the nation's ability to defend
itself is a prerequisite for a successful
policy of neutrality.
5
FOREIGN RELATIONS
In April 1948, Finland signed an
Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation,
Further Information
Finland's basic foreign policy goal since
and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet
1944 has been to avoid great-power
Union, under which Finland is obligated
Available from the Superintendent of Docu-
conflicts and to build mutual confidence
(with the aid of the Soviet Union, if
ments, US Government Printing Office,
with the Soviet Union. Although the
necessary) to resist armed attacks by
Washington, DC 20402:
country is culturally, socially, and politi-
Germany or its allies against Finland, or
cally Western, Finns realize they must
against the USSR through Finland. At
American University. Area Handbook for
live in peace with the USSR and take no
Finland. 1974.
the same time, the agreement recognizes
US Department of Commerce. "Finland."
action that might be interpreted as a
Finland's desire to remain outside great-
Foreign Economic Trends and Their
security threat.
power conflicts. This agreement was
Implications for the United States. Inter-
The principal architect of the post-
renewed for 20 years in 1955, again in
national Marketing Information Series:
1944 foreign policy was J.K. Paasikivi,
1970, and most recently in 1983 to the
Published annually.
who was president from 1946 to 1956.
year 2003.
Urho Kekkonen, president from 1956
Finland joined the United Nations
until 1981, further developed this policy,
and the Nordic Council in 1955, is a full
stressing that Finland should be an active
member of the European Free Trade
trade agreements with Czechoslovakia,
rather than a passive neutral. This policy
Association, and in 1973 signed a free
Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and the
is now popularly known as the "Paasikivi-
trade agreement with the European
German Democratic Republic; a 15-year
Kekkonen Line."
Community. It also has entered into free
economic cooperation agreement with the
6
Soviet Union, last extended in 1980; and a
The US educational exchange
cooperation agreement with the Council
Travel Notes
program in Finland, comparatively large
for Mutual Economic Assistance.
for a West European country of Finland's
Finland also emphasizes cooperation
Climate and clothing: Helsinki's winter
size, is financed in part from a trust fund
with the other Scandinavian countries
climate is similar to Boston's; summer
established in 1976 from Finland's final
and has been a member of the Nordic
temperatures rarely exceed +24 °C (75 °F).
repayment of a US loan made in the
Council since 1955. Under the council's
Northern and parts of interior southern
Finland sometimes experience Arctic
aftermath of World War I.
auspices, the Nordic countries have
conditions in mid-winter. Buildings are well-
created a common labor market and
heated. Bring warm outdoor clothing during
have abolished immigration controls
late autumn, winter, and early spring.
Principal US Officials
among themselves. The council also
Sweaters and raincoats are recommended
for other seasons.
Ambassador-John Giffen Weinmann
serves to coordinate social and cultural
Deputy Chief of Mission-Max N.
policies of the participating countries and
Health: Public health standards are similar
Robinson
has promoted increased cooperation in
to those in the United States. Tapwater is
potable. Medical facilities are good.
Public Affairs Officer-William P. Kiehl
many fields.
Chief, Political Section-William Kushlis
In recent years, Finland has empha-
Telecommunications: Telephone and
telegraph services are efficient and
Chief, Administrative Section-William J.
sized its participation in international
organizations. In proportion to its popula-
available to most parts of Finland and the
Burke, Jr.
world. Helsinki is seven time zones ahead
Defense and Air Attache-William A.J.
tion, Finland is well represented in the
of eastern standard time.
Mackie
UN civil service. Finnish troops have par-
Transportation: Bus and taxi service is
Chief, Economic Section-Lawrence E.
ticipated in UN peacekeeping activities
available in most cities as well as tram and
Butler
since 1956 and Finns now serve with UN
subway service in Helsinki. At least one
Commercial Attache-Richard Newquist
forces in the Middle East and with the
US carrier provides US-Finland flights 5
Consul-Robert O. Tatge
UN good offices mission in Afghanistan.
days a week. Finnair flies to New York
Finland has hosted major interna-
daily and offers flights to Los Angeles
several days a week. Flights to many
The US Embassy in Finland is at
tional meetings such as the first and final
European cities depart Helsinki daily.
Itainen Puistotie 14 B, Helsinki 14
stages of the Conference on Security and
Finland's domestic air network is one of
(tel. 171931). The public affairs section is
Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). The
the best in Europe. The country also has
summit-level CSCE meeting in July and
efficient rail and long-distance bus service.
located at Kaivokatu 10 A, Helsinki 10
August 1975 brought 35 heads of state
Roads are well maintained; nearly all major
(tel. 176599).
highways ,and most important secondary
from Europe and North America to
roads are paved.
Helsinki for a conference unique in
diplomatic history. Finland also hosted a
Tourist attractions: With many islands
and lakes, evergreen forests, and granite
10th anniversary CSCE commemorative
outcroppings, Finland's countryside is
meeting in the summer of 1985 and will
striking. Many tourists enjoy cruises on
Published by the United States Department
host the next CSCE review meeting in
stately historic steamers that travel on
of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
Office
1992.
Finland's biggest lake, Saimaa. Lapland,
of Public Communication
Editorial Divi-
with its flora and reindeer, also is popular.
sion
Washington, DC
August 1990
Editor: Juanita Adams
US-FINNISH RELATIONS
Department of State Publication 8262
and economic ties with the West. Eco-
Background Notes Series
This material is
Relations between Finland and the
nomic and trade relations between
in the public domain and may be reprinted
without permission; citation of this source
United States are cordial. It has been
Finland and the United States are active.
is appreciated.
longstanding US policy to support
President Reagan proclaimed 1988 the
Finnish neutrality while maintaining and
Year of US-Finnish Friendship.
For sale by the Superintendent of Docu-
reinforeing Finland's historic, cultural,
ments, US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402.
7
NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL
TO: CAROLYN CAWLEY
FROM: NICK BURNS
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
Presidential Departure Statement for Koivisto Visit
President Koivisto, I am delighted to have the opportunity to
welcome you to Washington and to return the hospitality you
gave me and President Gorbachev last September in Helsinki.
This meeting today was only the latest of the many exchanges I
have had with my good friend, the Finnish President, whose
views on world events have been of great value to me through
many years.
This visit also gave me an opportunity to thank President
Koivisto in person for Finland's very constructive policy in
the Middle East. Finland's strong leadership on the Security
Council and Iraq Sanctions Committee last fall, its generous
humanitarian and economic aid to countries hurt by Iraqi
aggression, and its offer of observer and peacekeeping troops
to the United Nations are in the best Finnish tradition as an
activist, responsible member of the world community.
We also touched on our economic ties. I underlined the
economic and military advantages of a Finnish purchase of our
recently proven military equipment, including two very fine
versions of U.S. military aircraft.
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
- 2 -
Our very fruitful talks today allowed us to carry forward our
dialogue on the Middle East, the Baltics, developments in the
Soviet Union, and the "new architecture" of Europe -- including
CSCE, arms control negotiations, EC-EFTA relations, and NATO's
continuing role in European security. At times our
perspectives may differ, but they have a common basis in our
two nations' commitment to free market democracy, Western
values, and enduring peace.
LIMITED OFFICIAL USE
Drafted: EUR/NE: EDKeeton
7-6071, 4/19/91
SENE 4019, "FI: Koivisto Departure Statement"
Cleared:
P:AWolff
E:MSeiber
C:MFoulon
S/P: DWagner Dek
PA:RBoucher
EUR/NE: EMHeaphy
m
EUR: RRJohnson
Robert Sweet (pilet) beaten
19 AF days,
dinner Ellison into
wave
Cheney
powell
Schwarskapb
Ken Walsh Marcur
Lenkday
Pop
j. award de
/
To
Carolyn
Date
4/26
Time 11:40
WHILE YOU WERE OUT
M
Bill Brookver
of
Indeps Nat' Hist, Park
Phone 215-597- 7104
Area Code
Number
Extension
TELEPHONED
PLEASE CALL
CALLED TO SEE YOU
WILL CALL AGAIN
WANTS TO SEE YOU
URGENT
RETURNED YOUR CALL
Message
Has some answers
call bach after 13.00
Operator
AMPAD
EFFICIENCY®
23-023
CARBONLESS
P.K. : since
1
(not congo, not
C.Am.)
# most men of all
(V. Canada
1989-1,050 1989 050
only C Ner 1000
25,000 all
7 observers
Cawley/Grant
Staffed
Factcheck COPY
April 30, 1991
a:koivisto - 1
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS:
PRESIDENT KOIVISTO OF FINLAND
DEPARTURE STATEMENT
TUESDAY, MAY 7, 1991
President Koivisto, "TERVETULOA" [tare-VAY-ta-loa]
Welcome again to the United States. It's a
pleasure to return the hospitality you showed President Gorbachev
and me in Helsinki last September. Our meeting today was only
the latest of many exchanges we have shared in the decade since
OVP report travel
we first met -- and today, as always, your views on world events
are of great value to me.
This visit also gave me an opportunity to thank you
personally for Finland's constructive policy in the Middle East.
Your country's strong leadership on the U.N. Security Council and
NSCI
state
the Iraqi Sanctions Committee last fall -- and your generous aid
to people suffering from Iraqi oppression -- represent Finland's
tradition of active partnership in the community of nations.
innish Embassy
This sense of responsibility led Finland, within a year of
its admission to the U.N., to serve as part of the U.N. Emergency
Force in 1956. Finns have served bravely in virtually every
Embassy
peacekeeping force since then contributing more troops than any
Embossy
other country
Your nation continues this proud tradition in the
current Observer Force in northern Kuwait.
Ecketon
Finland and the United States enjoy a long and healthy trade
Ed Keeton
Desk
relationship.
Today we touched on some new economic issues. I
Our meeting today
was only the latest
of many exchanges
we have shared. It's
been as decade
nearly a decade
since we first met=-
and today, as
always, your views
outlined the advantages that will come from your buying some of
stak
our recently proven military equipment -- including two
draft
outstanding versions of U.S. aircraft.
We also discussed our evolving relations with Europe -- from
trade relations to arms control -- from new challenges to the
CSCE to the continuing role of NATO in European security. We
continued our dialogue on the Baltics. We talked about
developments in the Soviet Union. At times our perspectives may
differ, but we share a common commitment to democracy, free
markets, and an enduring peace.
Finns and Americans share many special bonds of friendship,
and Finns have long added to the American experience. Mr.
X from
President, you countrymen were among the first to settle in this
Embassy
+
tate country
country -- three hundred and fifty years ago -- establishing new
notes+
lives in the Delaware River Valley. Over a century later, John
nnish Emb.
Morton -- a Finnish-American delegate to our Continental Congress
ax
Imerican
-- cast the deciding vote for the Declaration of Independence.
Biographies
ill Brookover
The ideals that led him -- liberty and self-government -- remain
independence
Nt'l Park (PA)
215-597-7104 dear to both our nations: just look to Philadelphia, 1776, and
inland- a
Helsinki, 1917.
country
study,p.26.29
Since that time, we have enjoyed over seventy years of warm
id Keeton,
diplomatic relations -- and I look forward to continuing this
tate Desk
Fficer
friendship. May God Bless the people of Finland and the United
States.
#
#
#
April 24, 1991
MEMORANDUM
TO:
MARY KATE GRANT
FROM:
CAROLYN CAWLEY
RE:
FINLAND DEPARTURE
Draft to TS:
Monday, April 29
Event:
Departure of President Koivisto [koi-VEES-toe]
of Finland -- official working visit
Date:
Tuesday, May 7
Time:
TBD (Probably early afternoon, per usual)
Place:
TBD (Probably Diplomatic Entrance, per usual)
Conversation with Ed Keeton, Finland Desk Officer -- State
Koivisto is coming at the personal invitation of the
President. They are old friends from POTUS' UN days --
at that time; Koivisto was the Governor of the Bank of Finland
and a prominent politico in his country (former prime
minister among other things.)
" I will contact Don Rhodes about personal anecdotes ))
The reason/s for the visit include:
-- they are friends; POTUS really likes him and wants
to meet with him privately. They are in frequent
telephone contact.
-- POTUS and Koivisto share their views regarding the
Soviet Union and the Baltic States
-- to thank Koivisto/Finland for their hospitality
during the September meeting between Bush and
Gorbachev
-- On the Gulf:
Finland is officially a neutral country, and
steadfastly sticks to this position, as they are
nestled on the Soviet border. In the Gulf, however,
since the Soviets did not block our efforts, neither
did the Finns -- in fact they were very helpful.
They sat on the UN Security Council and backed us
on all the resolutions until the seat expired on
January 1.
They do not use military forces in any situation,
except under UN auspices -- so, they provided no
military help in the war. Presently, however, they
will participate in the UN peacekeeping force and will
be providing humanitarian aid inside Iraq.
NOTE: Finnish forces have taken part in every UN
peacekeeping mission since the early 1960's. (( I
guess this means Beirut, then -- If you want to use
this fact, I can find out if any Finns died when our
barracks were blown up. I know Frenchmen died
there. ))
State has a suggested draft which they are sending to
NSC today -- we should get it from them tomorrow.
NOTES FROM ON FINLAND
The signal achievement of Finland has been its survival
against great odds: against a harsh climate
physical and cultural isolation
international dangers
In 1987 Finland celebrated the 70th anniversary of its
national independence, which was a hard-won achievement.
-- Independence was threatened at the start by a bloody
civil war in 1918 between Finnish leftists (Reds) and
rightists (Whites). A Red victory could have meant
absorption by the USSR -- as a result, political
extremism in Finland was more pronounced than in other
European countries. It was eventually neutralized,
however, and Finnish democracy is now firmly rooted.
-- For most of Finland's history, the country lived on
the perphery of world events, but for a few weeks
during the winter of 1939, Finland stood at the center
of the world stage. Their stand against Soviet
aggression aroused the world's admiration.
During World War II, the Finns twice faced attack by
overwhelming Soviet force. They fought heroically
but were defeated both times. Having come so close
to Soviet occupation, the Finns have sought and
achieved reconciliation with the Soviets and they
have tenaciously pursued a policy of neutrality.
-- Since its present system of government was established
in 1919, Finland has been one of the more fortunate
members of the community of democratic nations. The
country was only moderately affected by the turmoil
of the inter-war period; it passed through WWII
relatively unscathed; and although it is right on the
line that divided Europe in two hostile blocs, it
survived as an independent nations with its democratic
instituitions intact.
Foreign Relations
-- Geographic realities -- having the USSR as a neighbor,
and defeat in WWII led Finland to adopt a postwar
national security policy of neturality. As the
official political doctrine, nonalignment has helped
to establish friendly relations with other nations
regardless of their political systems.
President Mauno Koivisto
-- He was born in 1923, the son of a carpenter, and
fought bravely during WWII.
A major change occurred in domestic politics in
January 1982 when the Social Democratic politician
Mauno Koivisto was elected President. He was the
first member of the SDP to reach this position and his
election meant a full integration of social democrats
into public life.
He had been a leading public figure since the late
1960's, when he served as Prime Minister for 2 years.
During the 1970's, as the governor of the Bank of
Finland, and for a short time, as Minister of Finance,
he worn respect for accurate economic forecasts. His
personality won him considerable popularity across
party lines.
full dessition come bio State today.
GB + Koivisto
met when GB was @ UN ; friends ever since
- - 1983: GB visited Finland
Koivisto state visit to US w/ Reagan
- - 1990: Helsinki hosted GB/Gorbacher summit
OTHER NOTES OF INTEREST
Looking back at past Presidential remarks (IE: Reagan etc)
it seems that the gist of them is "Friendly relations".
Nothing of importance in any of the remarks.
Notes on Finns
-- EERO SAARINEN and his father ELIEL, Architects
One of Eliel's most famous works in Finland is the
magnificent Helsinki railway station -- a sort of
national symbol in that country.
Later, they emigrated to the US in 1923 from Kyrkslatt,
Finland. Together they designed the giant stainless
steel arch that rises 630 feet above the city of St.
Louis, MO as part of the Jefferson National Expansion
Memorial -- today it is one of the visible symbols
associated with America.
Lines from Kalevala to come.
Finns in US history to come.
From Embassy,
A toast/expression of goodwin to come.
THE SIGNAL ACHIEVEMENT OF FINLAND has been its
survival against great odds-against a harsh climate, physical and
cultural isolation, and international dangers. Finland lies at higher
latitudes than any other country in the world, and the punishing
northern climate has complicated life there considerably. Geographi-
cally, Finland is on the remote northern periphery, far from the
mass of Europe, yet near two larger states, Sweden and Russia-
later the Soviet Union, which have drawn it into innumerable wars
and have dominated its development (see fig. 1).
At the beginning of its recorded history, in the eleventh century
A.D., Finland was conquered by its powerful neighbor, Sweden.
Christianization and more than 600 years of Swedish rule (c.
1150-1809) made the Finns an essentially West European people,
integrated into the religion, culture, economics, and politics of
European civilization. The Finns have, however, maintained their
own language, which is complex and is not related to most other
European languages.
The centuries of Swedish rule witnessed Finland's increasing in-
volvement in European politics, particularly when the country
served as a battleground between Sweden on the west and Russia
on the east. Over the centuries, Russia has exerted an especially
persistent and powerful pressure on Finland. Many wars were
fought between Swedes and Finns on the one side and Russians
on the other. Eventually, Russia conquered Finland and incorpo-
rated it into the Russian Empire, where it remained for more than
a century, from 1809 to 1917.
Until the nineteenth century, the Finns were, like many other
peoples of Europe, a subject nation seemingly without a culture
or a history of their own. The national awakening of the nineteenth
century brought recognition of the uniqueness of the Finnish peo-
ple and their culture, and led to Finland's independence in 1917.
Complicating the emergence of the Finnish people into national
consciousness, however, was the split between the majority of Fin-
nish speakers and a powerful and influential minority of Swedish
speakers. Only during the twentieth century was this conflict gradu-
ally resolved.
In 1987 Finland celebrated the seventieth anniversary of its na-
tional independence, which was a hard-won achievement. Indepen-
dence was threatened at the start by a bloody civil war in 1918
S in Savonlinna
between Finnish leftists (Reds) and rightists (Whites); a victory by
3
Historical Setting
The new border caused some
submarine flotilla visited Helsinki, and it was greeted warmly by
the city and the vital naval
the people and by the government. In April and in May 1938, the
the Finns' heavy artillery.
Finnish government presided over two great celebrations, mark-
Jnion had been problematic
ing the twentieth anniversary of the entry of German troops into
ns' strong historical distrust
Helsinki and of the entry of Mannerheim's forces into Helsinki,
bility of the two political sys-
respectively, events that numerous prominent Germans attended.
cupying an exposed outpost
The Finns were also indiscreet in allowing a German naval squad-
at was well expressed in a
ron to visit Helsinki. Soviet suspicions were fuelled again by the
the verse:
visit to Finland in June 1939 of the German army chief of staff,
General Franz Halder, who was received by the government in
Helsinki and who viewed Finnish army maneuvers on the Karelian
Isthmus. In summation, Finnish foreign policy between the wars
was genuinely unaggressive in relation to the Soviet Union, but
it lacked the appearance of unaggressiveness, a deficiency that Fin-
land since World War II has been at pains to remedy.
; had been strengthened by
With German help, Finland established regular armed forces in
y the Bolsheviks' participa-
1918 to 1919, using the army of the Whites as a foundation.
continued Soviet efforts to
Beginning in the 1920s, conscription was introduced, and most Fin-
Soviet viewpoint, the Greater
nish males were trained for military service. Finnish military doc-
ideological anticommunism
trine presumed an essentially defensive war in which Finland's
= Soviet Union and Finland
forests, lakes, and other geographical obstacles could be exploited
t, which, however, did not
to advantage. The Defense Review Committee, in its report of 1926,
d in part by the Soviets' ces-
called for the establishment of a Finnish army of thirteen divisions,
intries in 1934-that was to
equipped with the most modern arms, as the surest means of
deterring a possible Soviet invasion. Because of budget restraints,
Finland was unable to find
however, these recommendations were instituted only in part, so
ght assistance first from the
that when the Soviet Union did attack in November 1939, Fin-
2 an agreement was signed
land had only nine available divisions, and their equipment was
d. The Finns soon realized,
generally inadequate. Beginning in 1931, however, General Man-
I help would be forthcoming
nerheim had contributed ably to Finnish military preparations from
pon sought support through
his position as chairman of the Defense Council, and thousands
Nations. The breakdown of
of citizens spent the summer of 1939, without pay, strengthening
inns to seek security through
the Mannerheim Line of fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus.
rdic states, but that arrange-
The line later proved to be the anchor of Finland's defenses in this
ht to the Soviets. The more
important area.
take a major interest in the
World War II, 1939-45
ish ruling circles had been
For most of Finland's history, the country had lived on the
large part as a result of the
periphery of world events, but for a few weeks during the win-
developed the suspicion that
ter of 1939-40, Finland stood at the center of the world stage.
its territory as a base from
Finland's stand against Soviet aggression aroused the world's ad-
Although Soviet fears were
miration. The Winter War, however, proved to be only a curtain-
ly them. In 1937 a German
raiser for Finland's growing entanglement in World War II.
41
Finland: A Country Study
The Winter War
The underlying cause of the Winter War was Soviet concern
about Nazi Germany's expansionism. With a population of only
3.5 million, Finland itself was not a threat to the Soviet Union,
but its territory, located strategically near Leningrad, could be used
as a base by the Germans. The Soviets initiated negotiations with
Finland that ran intermittently from the spring of 1938 to the sum-
mer of 1939, but nothing was achieved. Finnish assurances that
the country would never allow German violations of its neutrality
were not accepted by the Soviets, who asked for more concrete
guarantees. In particular, the Soviets sought a base on the north-
ern shore of the Gulf of Finland, from which they could block the
Gulf of Finland from hostile naval forces. The Finnish government,
however, felt that accepting these terms would only lead to fur-
ther, increasingly unreasonable, demands.
The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of August 1939, by bring-
ing together these former archenemies, revolutionized European
politics. The secret protocol of the pact gave the Soviet Union a
sphere of influence that included Finland, the Baltic states, and
parts of Eastern Europe. When the Germans won a stunningly quick
Sovi
victory over Poland in September 1939, the Soviets hastened to
loss
take control in their sphere of influence. In addition to the land
ing
taken from Poland in September, the Soviets quickly turned the
of tl
three Baltic states into quasi-protectorates. Finland followed these
step
events closely; thus, when, on October 5, the Soviets invited Fin-
tive
land to discuss "concrete political questions," the Finns felt that
lan
they were next on the Soviets' agenda. Finland's first reaction was
T
to mobilize its field army on October 6, and on October 10 Fin-
Sov
land's reservists were called up in what amounted to a general
twc
mobilization. The following day the two countries began negotia-
vi,
tions that were to last until November 8.
sioi
In the negotiations, the main Soviet demand was that the Finns
dip
cede small parcels of territory, including a naval base on the Gulf
eve
of Finland that the Soviets wanted to help them protect Leningrad.
the
In exchange, the Soviets offered to cede to Finland about 8,800
Un
square kilometers of Karelia along the Finnish border, or about
Co
twice the amount of land to be ceded by Finland. Unlike the previ-
lon
ous negotiations, these talks were conducted in the public eye, and
nat
the Finnish people, like the government, were almost unanimous
nis
in rejecting the Soviet proposals. The ostensible reasons for Fin-
hav
land's refusal were to protect its neutral status and to preserve its
tha
territorial integrity. In addition, moving the Finnish border on the
wa
Karelian Isthmus away from Leningrad would have given the
ne:
42
Finnish machine gunners during the Winter War (1939-40)
Courtesy Embassy of Finland, Washington
Soviets possession of much of the line of Finnish fortifications, the
loss of which would have weakened Finland's defenses. Underly-
ing the hardline Finnish negotiating position were a basic mistrust
of the Soviets and a feeling that the Soviet offer was merely a first
step in subjugating Finland. In this suspicion of an ulterior mo-
tive, the Finns were matched by the Soviets, who believed that Fin-
land would willingly assist Germany in a future war.
The Finnish government appears to have underestimated the
Soviet determination to achieve these national security goals. The
two main Finnish negotiators, Väinö Tanner and Juho Paasiki-
vi, vainly urged the Finnish government to make more conces-
sions, because they realized that Finland was completely isolated
diplomatically and could expect no support from any quarter if
events led to war. General Mannerheim also urged conciliating
the Soviets, because Finland by itself could not fight the Soviet
Union. When he was ignored, he resigned from the Defense
Council and as commander-in-chief, saying that he could no
longer be responsible for events. Mannerheim withdrew his resig-
nation when war broke out, however, and served ably as the Fin-
nish military leader. Some historians suggest that the war could
have been prevented by timely Finnish concessions. It appears
that both sides proceeded from a basic mistrust of the other that
was compounded by mutual miscalculations and by the willing-
ness to risk war.
43
Finland: A Country Study
The Soviets attacked on November 30, 1939, without a decla-
ration of war. The Soviet preparations for the offensive were not
especially thorough, in part because they underestimated the Fin-
nish capabilities for resistance, and in part because they believed
that the Finnish workers would welcome the Soviets as liberators.
However, almost no Finns supported the Soviet puppet govern-
ment under the veteran communist Otto Kuusinen. In addition,
in one of its last significant acts, the League of Nations expelled
the Soviet Union because of its unprovoked aggression against
Finland.
The task facing the Finnish armed forces, to obstruct a vastly
larger enemy along a boundary of about 1,300 kilometers, appeared
impossible. Geography aided the Finns, however, because much
of the northern area was a virtually impassable wilderness contain-
ing a few, easily blocked roads, and Finland generally presented
difficult terrain on which to conduct offensive operations. Thus the
Finns were able to use only light covering forces in the north and
to concentrate most troops in the crucial southeastern sector, com-
prising the Karelian Isthmus and the area north of Lake Ladoga,
that protected the isthmus from rear assault. The position on the
isthmus was strengthened considerably by the Mannerheim Line.
An additional Finnish advantage lay in the Finns' unorthodox mili-
tary doctrine. They were trained in the use of small, mobile forces
to strike at the flanks and the rear of road-bound enemies. By means
of the so-call motti tactic (the name is taken from the Finnish word
for a cord of firewood), they sought to break invading columns into
small segments, which were then destroyed piecemeal. The final
advantage of the Finns was their phenomenally high morale; they
knew they were fighting for their national survival. Finland's main
disadvantage lay in the glaring, fifty-to-one disparity between its
population and that of the Soviet Union. The Finnish hope was
to hold out until help could arrive from the West, a forlorn hope
as events turned out.
Most observers expected an easy Soviet victory. The Soviets sim-
ply advanced all along the front with overwhelming forces, appar-
ently intending to occupy all of Finland. Thanks to the foresight
the Soviets had shown in previous years by constructing bases and
railroads near the Finnish border, they were able to commit much
larger forces than the Finns had anticipated. The main Soviet assault
on the Mannerheim Line was stopped, though, in December 1939.
Farther north along the line, the Finns were able to employ their
motti tactics with surprising effectiveness. At the most famous of
these engagements, the Battle of Suomussalmi, two Soviet divi-
sions were virtually annihilated. By the end of December 1939,
44
Historical Setting
thout a decla-
the Finns had dealt the Soviets a series of humiliating defeats. For
nsive were not
a few weeks, the popular imagination of the outside world was cap-
nated the Fin-
tured by the exploits of the white-clad Finnish ski troops gliding
they believed
ghostlike through the dark winter forests, and in general by the
S as liberators.
brave resistance of the "land of heroes."
uppet govern-
The Soviet invasion brought the Finns together as never before.
1. In addition,
In an act that only a few years before would have been unthinka-
tions expelled
ble, on Christmas Eve in December 1939, middle-class Finns placed
ession against
lighted candles on the graves of Finnish Red Guards who had died
in the civil war. The magnificent courage displayed by Finnish sol-
struct a vastly
diers of all political persuasions during the Winter War of 1939-40
ters, appeared
led Mannerheim to declare afterwards that May 16 would no longer
because much
be celebrated, but that another day would be chosen to com-
erness contain-
memorate "those on both sides who gave their lives on behalf of
ally presented
their political convictions during the period of crisis in 1918.
ions. Thus the
The defeats and the humiliations suffered by the Soviet Union
the north and
made it even more determined to win the struggle. The military
n sector, com-
command was reorganized, and it was placed under General S.
Lake Ladoga,
K. Timoshenko. The Soviets made intensive preparations for a
osition on the
new offensive, assembling masses of tanks, artillery, and first-class
nerheim Line.
troops. On February 1, 1940, the Soviet offensive began, and this
orthodox mili-
time it was confined to the Karelian Isthmus. Soviet tactics were
, mobile forces
simple: powerful artillery bombardments were followed by repeated
nies. By means
frontal assaults, using masses of tanks and infantry. The Finnish
= Finnish word
defenders were worn down by the continual attacks, the artillery
g columns into
and the aerial bombardments, the cold, and the lack of relief and
eal. The final
of replacements. On February 11, 1940, the Soviets achieved a
h morale; they
breakthrough in the Mannerheim Line that led to a series of Fin-
Finland's main
nish retreats. By early March, the Finnish army was on the verge
ity between its
of total collapse. Finland was saved only by agreeing quickly to
nish hope was
Soviet terms, which were encompassed in the Peace of Moscow,
a forlorn hope
signed on March 13, 1940.
By the terms of the Peace of Moscow, Finland ceded substantial
he Soviets sim-
territories: land along the southeastern border approximately to
forces, appar-
the line drawn by the Peace of Uusikaupunki in 1721, including
0 the foresight
Finland's second-largest city, Viipuri; the islands in the Gulf of
cting bases and
Finland that were the object of the negotiations in 1938-39; land
commit much
in the Salla sector in northeastern Finland (near the Murmansk
n Soviet assault
Railroad); Finland's share of the Rybachiy Peninsula in the Pet-
December 1939.
samo area; and the naval base at Hanko on the Gulf of Finland,
0 employ their
which was leased for thirty years. The ceded territories contained
nost famous of
about one-eighth of Finland's population; virtually all of the in-
vo Soviet divi-
habitants moved over to Finnish territory, thereby losing their
ecember 1939,
homes and livelihoods (see fig. 7).
45
SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT of its present system of govern-
ment in 1919, Finland has been one of the more fortunate mem-
bers of the Western community of democratic nations. Compared
with other European states, the country was only moderately af-
fected by the political turmoil of the interwar period; it passed
through World War II relatively unscathed; and, although right
on the line that divided Europe into two hostile blocs after the second
half of the 1940s, it survived as an independent nation with its
democratic institutions intact.
This enviable record was achieved against formidable odds.
Although the constitutional basis of their government grew out of
long-established institutions, Finns had never been fully free to
govern themselves until late 1917 when they achieved national in-
dependence. Swedish and Russian rulers had always ultimately
determined their affairs. Finnish society was also marked by deep
fissures that became deeper after the brief civil war (1918), which
left scars that needed several generations to heal. In addition to
class and political divisions, the country also had to contend with
regional and linguistic differences. These problems were eventu-
ally surmounted, and by the 1980s the watchword in Finnish politics
was consensus.
A skillfully constructed system of government allowed Finns to
manage their affairs with the participation of all social groups
(although there were some serious lapses in the interwar period).
Checks and balances, built into a system of modified separation
of powers, enabled the government to function democratically and
protected the basic rights of all citizens. The 200-member parlia-
ment, the Eduskunta, elected by popular vote, was sovereign by
virtue of its representing the Finnish people. An elected president
wielded supreme executive power and determined foreign policy.
Although not responsible politically to the Eduskunta, the presi-
dent could carry out many of his functions only through a cabinet
government, the Council of State, which was dependent upon the
support of the Eduskunta. An independent judiciary, assisted by
two legal officials with broad independent powers-the chancellor
of justice and the parliamentary ombudsman-ensured that govern-
ment institutions adhered to the law.
Working within this system during the 1980s were a variety of
political parties, an average of about a dozen, ranging from sect-
like groups to large, well-established parties, the counterparts of
217
Finland: A Country Study
which were to be found all over Western Europe. The socialist wing
consisted of a deeply split communist movement and a moderate
Finnish Social Democratic Party that by the late 1980s was a pre-
eminent governing party. The center was occupied by an agrari-
an party, the Center Party, which had been in government almost
continuously until 1987; the Swedish People's Party; and a for-
merly right-wing protest party, the Finnish Rural Party. The right
was dominated by the National Coalition Party, which was fairly
moderate in its conservatism. In the 1970s and the 1980s, the main-
stream parties, and even a good part of the Communist Party of
Finland, had moved toward the center, and the political spectrum
as a whole was slightly more to the right than it had been in previ-
ous decades.
A constitutional system that was conservative in nature had
allowed these parties to work together, yet within constraints that
permitted no single group to usurp the rights of another. Neverthe-
less, the variety of parties had made it very difficult to put together
coalitions that could attain the strict qualified majorities needed
to effect fundamental changes. Only since the second half of the
1960s had it been possible, though at times difficult, to find a broad
multiparty consensus.
Powerful interest groups were also involved in Finnish politics,
most noticeably in the negotiation and the realization of biannual
income policy settlements that, since the late 1960s, had affected
most Finnish wage-earners. Interest groups initially negotiated the
terms of a new wage agreement; then it was, in effect, ratified by
coalitions of parties in government; and finally the Eduskunta
passed the social and economic legislation that underlay it. Some
observers complained that government's role had become overly
passive in this process and that the preeminence of consensus
actually meant that Finnish politics offered the populace no real
alternatives. Yet most Finns, remembering earlier years of indus-
trial strife and poverty, preferred the new means of managing public
affairs.
There was also broad agreement about Finnish foreign policy.
The country was threatened with extinction as an independent
nation after World War II, but presidents Juho Paasikivi and Urho
Kekkonen, both masters of realpolitik, led their countrymen to a
new relationship with the Soviet Union. The core of this relation-
ship was Finland's guarantee to the Soviet Union that its north-
western border region was militarily secure. Controversial as the
so-called Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line was initially, by the 1980s the
vast majority of Finns approved of the way Finland dealt with its
218
Government and Politics
The socialist wing
large neighbor and were well aware, too, of the trade advantages
nt and a moderate
the special relationship had brought to their country.
te 1980s was a pre-
Working in tandem with good Finnish-Soviet relations was the
ipied by an agrari-
policy of active and peaceful neutrality, the backbone of Finnish
government almost
foreign policy. Advocating, as a neutral state, the settlement of dis-
$ Party; and a for-
putes through peaceful, legal means was a role Finns adopted will-
:al Party. The right
ingly. A high point of this policy was the part the country played
y, which was fairly
in planning and in hosting the 1975 Conference on Security and
he 1980s, the main-
Cooperation in Europe. Another facet of active neutrality was a
ommunist Party of
committed membership in the United Nations, most notably in
= political spectrum
the organization's peacekeeping forces.
: had been in previ-
Constitutional Framework
tive in nature had
Finland's government structure has remained largely unchanged
hin constraints that
since it was established in 1919 with the passage of the Constitu-
another. Neverthe-
tion Act (see The Establishment of Finnish Democracy, ch. 1).
icult to put together
Building on a combination of old institutions from both the Swed-
1 majorities needed
ish and the Russian periods, this law, together with three others
: second half of the
also of constitutional status, has given Finland a system that has
cult, to find a broad
been remarkably successful in allowing a once deeply divided na-
tion to govern itself.
in Finnish politics,
Constitutional Development
lization of biannual
Finland, although independent of foreign rule only since 1917,
1960s, had affected
has traditions of self-government extending back into the Middle
tially negotiated the
Ages. Because their country belonged to the dual kingdom of
in effect, ratified by
Sweden-Finland for more than 600 years, Finns had long enjoyed
ally the Eduskunta
the common Nordic right to manage local affairs by themselves.
t underlay it. Some
Beginning in 1362, Finns took part in the election of the Swedish
had become overly
king, and they thus became involved in the government of the realm
nence of consensus
as a whole. This role was increased after 1435, when they began
he populace no real
sending representatives to the kingdom's governing body, the Diet
trlier years of indus-
of the Four Estates (Riksdag).
S of managing public
The Swedish Diet Act of 1617 and the Form of Government Act
of 1634 formalized the Finnish tradition of estates, whereby lead-
nish foreign policy.
ing members of the country, representatives not only of regions
as an independent
but of social classes as well, met to decide matters of common con-
) Paasikivi and Urho
cern. Although the acts restricted local government somewhat, they
eir countrymen to a
brought Finns more than ever into the management of the king-
core of this relation-
dom's affairs. At regular intervals a Finn presided over the nobili-
Jnion that its north-
ty, the most important of the four estates of the Diet; consisting
Controversial as the
also of the estates of the clergy, burghers, and peasantry, the Diet
lly, by the 1980s the
continued to be Finland's representative governing body until early
"inland dealt with its
in the twentieth century.
219
Finland: A Country Study
Royal power was strengthened by the constitution of 1772, forced
Th
on the Diet by King Gustav III. This constitution, in effect in Fin-
land until 1919, long after it had been abrogated in Sweden, gave
tio
the king final say about the decisions of the Diet. The king's power
tar
was further augmented by the Act of Union and Security of 1789,
an
which gave him exclusive initiative in legislative matters.
the
Ceded by Sweden to Russia in 1809, Finland was not incorpo-
wir
rated fully into the empire by Tsar Alexander I, but retained its
fin
own legal system (see The Russian Grand Duchy of Finland,
Th
1809-1917, ch. 1). A small body, the Senate, was established to
m
administer the country. Its two sections, finance and justice, later
list
became the basis of independent Finland's cabinet and supreme
courts. The Senate's head, the governor general, the highest offi-
ta,
19
cial in Finland, was a Russian appointed by the tsar. An indica-
R
tion of the country's relative autonomy, however, was that all other
bil
officials of the Grand Duchy of Finland were native Finns.
The tsar, who had the right to determine when the Diet met,
an
dissolved the assembly in 1809, and it did not meet again until 1863
ar
when recalled by Alexander II, the Tsar Liberator. Thereafter the
Diet met regularly, and in the late 1860s it ushered in the "Gold-
als
en Age" of Finnish legislation, a period of several decades during
19
which the country's laws were modernized and were brought into
of
harmony with the legal codes of Western Europe. It was during
this period, too, that political parties appeared, emerging first from
in
the campaign to give the Finnish language its rightful place in the
ba
country, then from the growing resistance to Russian rule, and
ar
finally from the question of how to contend with the coming of
er
industrialization and labor strife.
The aggressive Russification campaign that began in the 1890s
ni
sought to end the relative autonomy Finland had enjoyed under
in
tsarist rule (see The Era of Russification, ch. 1). A military defeat
W
in East Asia weakened the Russian empire and gave Finns a chance
th
for greater freedom. The Diet unanimously dissolved itself in 1906,
W
and a parliament, the Eduskunta, a unicameral body elected by
su
universal suffrage, was created. Finland became in one step a
b
modern representative democracy and the first European nation
lo
to grant women the right to vote.
The tsarist regime allowed the assembly few of its rights, however,
T
and only after the collapse of the Russian Empire and the Bolshe-
St
vik Revolution of 1917 were the Finns able to secure their indepen-
le
dence. A civil war and bitter political debates about whether the
country should be a monarchy or a republic preceded the passage
of the Constitution Act of 1919, which established the present sys-
tem of government in Finland.
q
220
Finland: A Country Study
that as few as one-sixth of the Eduskunta's members can prevent
the passage of amendments. The large number of Finnish politi-
cal parties makes attaining qualified majorities nearly impossible,
unless an amendment has widespread support. This protects the
rights of minorities.
The individual rights of Finnish citizens are delineated in Sec-
tion II of the Constitution Act, Article 5 through Article 16, and,
with a single addition, they have remained unchanged since their
adoption in 1919. The additional amendment, enacted in 1972,
promises all Finns the opportunity for gainful employment, to be
provided by the state if necessary. The list of rights is, of necessity,
rather general. How they are exercised, protected, and limited is
set out in ordinary laws. The state reserves for itself the right to
limit them "in time of war or rebellion."
First and foremost, all citizens are equal under the law, with a
constitutional guarantee of their rights to life, honor, personal free-
dom, and property. The reference to honor provides for protec-
tion against false and slanderous charges and reflects the importance
of reputation in Finnish tradition. The protection of property and
the requirement for full compensation if it is expropriated for public
needs indicate the conservative nature of the Finnish Constitution.
The right of freedom of movement encompasses residence, pro-
tection from deportation, and guaranteed readmittance into Fin-
land. Only in special cases, such as convictions for criminal activity,
are these freedoms abridged. Complete freedom of religious wor-
ship and association is guaranteed, as is freedom from religion.
Finnish citizens are guaranteed free speech and the right of
assembly, as well as the right to publish uncensored texts or pic-
tures. The inviolability of the home is promised, and a domicile
can be searched only according to conditions set by law. Privacy
of communications by mail, telegraph, or telephone is likewise
provided for. A Finn may be tried only in a court having prescribed
jurisdiction over him. The safeguarding of the cultural affinities
of the country's citizens is regarded as a fundamental right, and,
as a consequence, the two languages spoken by native-born Finns,
Finnish and Swedish, both enjoy the status of official language.
The act stipulates that a Finn may use either of these two languages
in a court of law and may obtain in that language all pertinent
legal or official documents. Finally, in accordance with its nature
as a republic, Finland grants no noble or hereditary titles.
Governmental Institutions
The four acts that make up the Finnish Constitution provide for
222
Government and Politics
e-
to the government. The system had long been used in the region
ey
to gather a range of opinions on public matters. It consisted of com-
n-
mittees, both temporary ad hoc organs formed to deal with a sin-
:r-
gle question and permanent statutory bodies created to handle broad
d
issues, that were composed of experts and representatives of affected
ed
interests. Thus, advocates of labor and business, experts from local
li-
and national government, and, when appropriate, single-issue
ly
groups, could argue their cases. A committee report, if there was
one, could be sent for review to concerned parties, and thereafter
a-
to a ministry, where its findings might figure in a government
nt
ordinance or in a legislative proposal.
er
is
The Presidential Election of 1982 and Koivisto's Presidency
ne
A major change occurred in Finnish domestic politics in Janu-
as
ary 1982, when the social democratic politician, Mauno Koivisto,
on
was elected president. He was the first member of the SDP to be
ng
elevated to the country's highest post, and his election meant the
ng
full integration of social democrats into Finnish public life and an
er,
end to the postwar dominance of Kesk.
0-
Koivisto had been a leading public figure since the late 1960s,
e.
when he had served as prime minister for two years. During the
S,
1970s, as governor of the Bank of Finland and, for a short time,
ir
as minister of finance, he had won the public's respect for the
c-
accuracy of his economic forecasts. His personality and consider-
he
able media astuteness also won him a very considerable personal
d
popularity across party lines. Born in 1923 in Turku, the son of
ir
a carpenter, he fought bravely during World War II. After the war
he returned to his native city, and through years of part-time study,
sts
earned a doctorate in sociology in 1956. He was active within the
IS.
moderate wing of the SDP, yet did not seek an elective office. He
re
began his banking career by directing a large employees' savings
he
bank in Helsinki.
a-
Summoned again in 1979 to serve as prime minister, Koivisto
as
retained the public's esteem and became a strong potential candi-
en
date for the presidential election scheduled for 1984. Seen by Kesk
on
politicians as a threat to their party's hold on the presidency after
I's
Kekkonen's inevitable retirement, Koivisto was pressured to resign
ist
in the spring of 1981. He refused, telling Kekkonen that he would
)r-
continue as prime minister until a lack of parliamentary support
re
for his government was shown. Koivisto's survival despite Kek-
u-
konen's challenge was seen by some observers as the end of an era
in which the president had dominated Finnish public life.
n-
In the fall of 1981, failing health forced Kekkonen to resign the
vn
presidency, and Koivisto assumed the duties of the office until the
263
Finland: A Country Study
presidential election set for January 1982, two years ahead of sched-
ule. He won handily, taking 43 percent of the votes-from the high
turnout of 87 percent-and 145 of the electors. With the support
of some electors pledged to the SKDL candidate, he won, with 167
ballots, in the first vote of the electoral college. His popularity
remained high during his first term, and he easily won reelection
in 1988.
In his years in office, Koivisto has adhered to the Paasikivi-
Kekkonen Line, renewing in 1983 the FCMA treaty, for exam-
ple. In addition, he has supported the traditional policy of neu-
trality, has spoken often of the danger of the arms race, and has
encouraged international trade. One innovation he introduced was
allowing greater policy roles to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
the Eduskunta's Foreign Affairs Committee, and other institutions
concerned with foreign policy.
On the domestic front, he has been more restrained than his
predecessor. He has preferred to let day-to-day politics run its
course, and he has tended to see the presidency as an office from
which he could direct the nation's attention to long-term goals. At
times, however, delphic presidential statements have confused the
public about his intentions. On occasion, too, he has been harsh,
berating the press for its irresponsible coverage of foreign policy
issues, or striking down politicians he thought too meddlesome in
international affairs. Overall, Koivisto's presidency has marked
a coming of age for the Finnish polity, an emergence from the harsh
tutelage of the Kekkonen years, and the increasing resemblance
of Finnish political life to that of other successful Western
democracies.
The Parliamentary Election of 1983
As is customary in Finland after a presidential election, the
government resigned after Koivisto's victory in January 1982. It
was re-formed the next month with the same four-party coalition
(the SDP, Kesk, the SKDL, and the SFP) and many of the same
ministers, with veteran SDP politician Kalevi Sorsa as prime
minister. Two devaluations in October 1982, amounting to a 10
percent fall in the value of the Finnish mark, caused complaints
by the SKDL that low-income groups were the main victims of
this measure designed to enhance Finnish competitiveness abroad.
The cabinet fell at the end of the year, when Sorsa dissolved it after
the SKDL ministers refused to support a government defense
proposal. Immediately asked by the president to form a new govern-
ment, Sorsa did so, but with LKP participation and without the
SKDL. The government's slender majority of 103 votes in the
264
Finland: A Country Study
War II, it was ineligible for charter membership in the UN in 1945.
Finland applied for membership in 1947, but Cold War disagree-
ments among the great powers on UN admissions policies delayed
Finland's entry until 1955.
Finland had not been very enthusiastic about membership in the
UN in the 1945 to 1955 period. The country tried to pursue the
Paasikivi policy of passive and cautious neutrality and feared that
joining the UN would be incompatible with its nonaligned status.
A strict interpretation of the UN charter made membership in it
incompatible with neutrality. According to Article 25 of the chart-
er, members of the UN are obliged to follow the decision of the
Security Council in applying economic or military sanctions against
other member states.
Since becoming a member, however, Finland has been a com-
mitted and active participant in accordance with its official foreign
policy of a peaceful and active neutrality. In the late 1960s, it was
a member of the Security Council, and one of its UN officials, the
diplomat and historian Max Jakobson, was a strong contender for
the post of secretary general. His candidacy is said to have failed
because of reservations on the part of the Soviet Union. In the fall
of 1988, Finland was reelected to the Security Council for a two-
year term, and it was expected to assume the council's chairman-
ship in 1990.
There have been two main lines of Finnish policy in the UN.
The first is that Finland avoids any political or economic confron-
tation in which the interests of the superpowers are directly involved.
This policy explains why Finland has refrained over the years from
condemning Soviet actions, most recently the Soviet military
presence in Afghanistan. Finnish officials hold that their country
can be more effective on the international level if it has good rela-
tions with all countries. (They commonly explain that Finland wish-
es to work as a doctor rather than as a judge.) The second current
of Finland's UN policy is that country's role as part of the Nordic
bloc within the organization. Finland consults and collaborates close-
ly with other Nordic members, generally voting with them, par-
ticipating with them in aid projects to the Third World through
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), or being
part of the UN forces sent to troubled areas. Finnish forces have
taken part in every UN peacekeeping mission since the early 1960s.
In addition, the country maintains a permanent military force avail-
able to the organization (see United Nations Peacekeeping Activi-
ties, ch. 5). Finnish aid to the Third World has not been so extensive
as that of the other Nordic countries. Finland, for example, has
never met the goal of contributing 0.7 percent of its gross national
286
Government and Politics
cide if a jour-
in the Life of Ivan Denisovich," based on the eponymous novel
ted. Although
by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. Several films from the German
n embarrass-
Democratic Republic (East Germany) were banned after having
upon to com-
been judged potentially offensive to the Federal Republic of Ger-
; and the lack
many (West Germany).
all countries,
some "self-
Foreign Relations
t Union, but
Finnish foreign policy is aimed at preserving the nation's politi-
ecades. Since
cal and territorial integrity and safeguarding the continuity of its
occasionally
national existence. Geographical reality-having the Soviet Union
orting on for-
as a neighbor, and defeat in World War II led Finland to adopt
oivisto in his
a postwar national security policy of maintaining its freedom of
e mid-1980s,
action by dissociating itself from the conflicts of major powers. The
n democratic
main feature of contemporary Finnish policy, therefore, is neu-
trality. As the official political doctrine, nonalignment has helped
controls. The
in the establishment of friendly relations with other countries regard-
one who held
less of their political systems.
incorrect or
Within the framework of Finnish neutrality, there are three
njured party
important policy orientations: a special relationship with the Soviet
t of the state-
Union; a traditional policy of close collaboration with the other
uld also turn
Nordic countries-Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland; and
osto-JSN),
an active policy as a member of the UN.
CS. This body
on its merits.
Neutrality
undred quer-
Finland, independent only since 1917, does not have a long tra-
commended
dition of neutrality. In the interwar period, it declared itself neu-
ted rejoinder
tral, but its foreign policy was not neutral enough to satisfy the
security concerns of the Soviet Union, and Finland was drawn into
ling to a law
World War II. The years immediately after the war were taken
rocedure re-
up by the country's struggle to survive as an independent nation.
he Constitu-
The treaties of 1947 and 1948, which confirmed the existence of
ment of the
a Soviet military base on Finnish territory and created a defensive
W dealt only
alliance with the Soviet Union, seemed to preclude Finnish neu-
rbade those
trality (see The Cold War and the Treaty of 1948, ch. 1).
ous to men-
The Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance
defense, or
(FCMA) of 1948 mentioned in its preamble, however, Finland's
e Film Cen-
desire to remain outside the conflicts of the great powers and to
its decisions
maintain peace in accordance with the principles of the UN. A first
e Court. Of
example of the Finnish policy of avoiding entanglements in super-
27 were for-
power disputes was the decision in early 1948 not to participate
cted for rea-
in the European Recovery Program, also known as the Marshall
nd 2 percent
Plan. Finnish rejection of the much-needed aid was caused by Soviet
e most noted
contentions that the program was an effort on the part of the United
, "One Day
States to divide Europe into two camps.
275
Finland: A Country Study
In the late 1940s, Finland joined the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT-see Glossary) and the World Bank (see
Glossary), participating in their economic programs, but avoid-
ing any political implications of membership that could be seen
by the Soviets to link the country to the West. Finland also stayed
out of the discussions of the period about the formation of a Nor-
dic defense union.
During these early years after World War II, there were few offi-
cial Finnish statements about neutrality, but in a speech in 1952
Prime Minister Kekkonen held that the FCMA treaty presupposed
a kind of neutrality for his country. In 1955 a major impediment
to Finnish neutrality was removed by the closing of the Soviet mili-
tary base located near Helsinki, and in the following years leading
Soviet officials praised the neutrality of their neighbor. In 1955,
too, Finland was able to join the UN and the Nordic Council, acts
that reduced its isolation and brought it more fully into the com-
munity of nations.
By the early 1960s, Finnish neutrality was recognized by both
the West and the East, and the country entered a more confident
period of international relations when it began practicing what came
to be officially termed an active and peaceful policy of neutrality.
Finland participated in local and in global initiatives aimed at creat-
ing conditions that allowed nations to avoid violence in their rela-
tions with one another. As President Kekkonen noted in 1965 in
an often-quoted speech, Finland could "only maintain its neutrality
on the condition that peace is preserved in Europe."
An essential element of Finland's active neutrality policy was
the concept of a Nordic Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zone (Nordic
NWFZ), first introduced by Kekkonen in May 1963 against the
background of a Europe increasingly armed with nuclear weapons.
The Finnish president proposed the creation of a zone consisting
of Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland. Their de facto
nuclear-weapons-free status was to be formalized by the creation
of a Nordic NWFZ that would remove them somewhat from the
strategic plans of the superpowers. The zone idea was based on
the supposition that, as these countries had no nuclear weapons
in their territories, they might avoid nuclear attacks from either
of the two alliances, whereas the presence of nuclear weapons would
certainly invite such attacks.
The Nordic NWFZ idea was not realized at the time it was ini-
tially proposed. A major impediment was the membership of Den-
mark and Norway in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) and hence their pledge to consider the deployment of
nuclear weapons on their territories in a time of crisis. Despite its
276
nent on
ank (see
t avoid-
be seen
0 stayed
f a Nor-
few offi-
in 1952
upposed
ediment
viet mili-
leading
In 1955,
icil, acts
he com-
by both
President Koivisto with President Ronald Reagan at the White House,
onfident
September 1983
at came
Courtesy The White House (Pete Souza)
utrality.
at creat-
eir rela-
lack of success, the zone proposal remained part of Finnish for-
1965 in
eign policy, and in 1978 it was reintroduced in an altered form
eutrality
in the light of new developments in weapons technology. In Kek-
konen's opinion, the cruise missile made the use of nuclear weapons
licy was
in war more likely. His new Nordic NWFZ proposal contained
(Nordic
the concept of a negative security guarantee, according to which
ainst the
the superpowers would bind themselves to refrain from attacking
veapons.
with nuclear weapons those countries belonging to the zone.
onsisting
The zone proposal has since become a permanent part of secu-
de facto
rity discussions in Nordic Europe, with support from a variety of
creation
quarters. President Koivisto declared his firm support for the zone
from the
proposal in a speech at the UN in 1983, and in 1985 a Nordic
based on
parliamentary group convened in Copenhagen to discuss the idea
weapons
and to set up a commission to study it.
m either
In addition to the problem of Danish and Norwegian member-
ns would
ship in the Atlantic Alliance, other problems continued to prevent
the zone's realization. A central question was how, and to what
was ini-
extent, the Baltic and Barents seas and the adjacent areas of the
) of Den-
Soviet Union would be included. The Soviet Union, the only power
mization
of northern Europe that had nuclear weapons in its arsenal, always
ment of
welcomed the zone proposal but left its participation in the zone
espite its
uncertain. Finnish officials seemed content to hold continued talks
277
Finland: A Country Study
about the zone. Foreign affairs specialists occasionally commented
that Helsinki was more interested in using discussion of a Nordic
NWFZ as a means of emphasizing the existing stability of north-
ern Europe than in the realization of such a zone.
Another core element of Finland's active policy of neutrality was
the country's participation in arms control and disarmament
initiatives. In 1963 Finland signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty,
prohibiting nuclear testing underwater, above ground, and in outer
space; and in 1968 it approved the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation
of Nuclear Weapons. It was the first country to form an agree-
ment with the International Atomic Energy Agency concerning the
peaceful use of nuclear power. In 1971 Finland signed the treaty
banning the placement of nuclear weapons on the world's seabed,
and in 1975 it joined in the prohibition of the development, produc-
tion, and stockpiling of biological weapons. Since the early 1970s,
Finnish scientists have been developing technology for the detec-
tion of chemical weapons, and since the mid-1970s, they have been
engaged in perfecting a global seismic verification station system.
Helsinki was the site for some of the Strategic Arms Limitation
Talks (SALT), and in 1973 and 1975 Finland was the driving force
behind the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
(CSCE) and the host of its first and third meetings. The signing
of the Final Act of the CSCE in Helsinki in 1975 was the high point
of the country's policy of active neutrality. The signed document
recognized the legitimacy of neutrality as a foreign policy, a point
demonstrated by Finland's hosting the conference. The country
has continued to work as a member of the neutral and nonaligned
group at later CSCE meetings, where the emphasis has been on
the formation of confidence-building and security-building mea-
sures (CSBM). The fourth CSCE meeting was scheduled to take
place in Helsinki in the spring of 1992.
Soviet Union
Two hard-fought wars, ending in defeat and in the loss of about
one-tenth of Finland's land area, convinced some leading Finnish
politicians by the end of World War II that the interwar policy of
neutral distance from the Soviet Union had been mistaken and must
be abandoned if the country were to survive as an independent
nation (see The Cold War and the Treaty of 1948, ch. 1). Juho
Paasikivi, Finland's most prominent conservative politician and
its president from 1946 to 1956, came to believe that Finnish for-
eign policy must center on convincing Soviet leaders that his country
accepted, as legitimate, Soviet desires for a secure northwestern
278
Government and Politics
ccasionally commented
border and that there was no reason to fear an attack from, or
: discussion of a Nordic
through, Finland.
sting stability of north-
The preliminary peace treaty of 1944, which ended the Con-
h a zone.
tinuation War, and the Treaty of Paris of 1947, which regulated
policy of neutrality was
the size and the quality of Finland's armed forces, served to pro-
trol and disarmament
vide the Soviets with a strategically secure area for the protection
iclear Test Ban Treaty,
of Leningrad and Murmansk. The deterioration of superpower
ve ground, and in outer
relations, however, led the Soviets to desire a firmer border with
on the Non-Proliferation
the gradually emerging Western bloc. In February 1948, Finnish
ntry to form an agree-
authorities were notified by Soviet officials that Finland should sign
/ Agency concerning the
a mutual assistance treaty with the Soviet Union.
inland signed the treaty
The treaty that Finnish and Soviet negotiators worked out and
S on the world's seabed,
signed in April 1948 differed from those the Soviets had conclud-
e development, produc-
ed with Hungary and Romania. Unlike those countries, Finland
S. Since the early 1970s,
was not made part of the Soviet military alliance, but was obliged
echnology for the detec-
only to defend its own territory if attacked by Germany or by coun-
d-1970s, they have been
tries allied with that country, or if the Soviet Union were attacked
ification station system.
by these powers through Finnish territory. In addition, consulta-
rategic Arms Limitation
tions between Finland and the Soviet Union were required if the
and was the driving force
threat of such an attack were established. According to the FCMA
Cooperation in Europe
treaty, Finland was not bound to aid the Soviet Union if that coun-
1 meetings. The signing
try were attacked elsewhere, and the consultations were to be be-
1 1975 was the high point
tween sovereign states, not between military allies. Just what
V. The signed document
constituted a military threat was not specified, but the right of the
Finns to discuss the posited threat and how it should be met, that
a foreign policy, a point
is, to what extent military assistance would be required, allowed
onference. The country
Finnish officials room for maneuver and deprived the treaty of an
: neutral and nonaligned
automatic character.
e emphasis has been on
Since its signing, the treaty has continued to be the cornerstone
1 security-building mea-
of Finnish relations with the Soviet Union; that both found it satis-
ng was scheduled to take
factory was seen in its renewal and extension in 1955, 1970, and
1983. For the Soviet Union, the FCMA treaty meant greater secu-
rity for the strategically vital areas of Leningrad and the Kola Penin-
sula. Any attack on these areas through Finland would meet first
it and in the loss of about
with Finnish resistance, which many observers believed would slow
:ed some leading Finnish
an offensive appreciably. The prohibition of Finnish member-
at the interwar policy of
ship in an alliance directed against the Soviet Union meant hostile
1 been mistaken and must
forces could not be stationed within Finland, close to vital Soviet
rvive as an independent
installations.
ty of 1948, ch. 1). Juho
Finland's neutral status had an effect on the Nordic area as a
nservative politician and
whole. Its special relationship with the Soviet Union reduced pres-
believe that Finnish for-
sure on Sweden and eased that country's burden of maintaining
iet leaders that his country
its traditional neutrality. The consequent lowering of tensions in
or a secure northwestern
the region allowed Norway and Denmark NATO membership,
279
Finland: A Country Study
although each of these countries established certain restrictions on
the stationing of foreign troops and the deployment of nuclear
weapons on their soil. The interdependence of security postures
in northern Europe, sometimes referred to as the Nordic Balance,
has removed the region somewhat from the vagaries of the Cold
War over the last few decades. The Soviets have closely monitored
developments in the area, but their basic satisfaction with the secu-
rity situation that has prevailed there has allowed Finland to sur-
vive as an independent country, bound to some degree to the Soviet
Union in defense matters, but able to maintain its democratic
institutions and its membership in the Western community of
nations.
During the years immediately following the signing of the FCMA
treaty, the Finns complied with their obligation to pay reparations
to the Soviet Union; the last payment was made in 1952. The
preceding year the two countries had signed a treaty setting up trade
between them on the basis of a barter arrangement, which has been
renewed every five years since then. In 1954 Finland became the
first capitalist country to sign a scientific and technical agreement
with the Soviet Union.
Despite the provisions of Article 6 of the FCMA treaty, which
enjoined each contracting party from interfering in the domestic
affairs of the other, Soviet comments on Finnish domestic politics
were often quite harsh. Soviet attitudes toward Finland softened,
however, with the death of Joseph Stalin and the advent of better
relations with the Western powers in the mid-1950s; consequent-
ly, no objections were raised to the 1955 decisions to admit Fin-
land to the Nordic Council and to the UN (see Nordic Europe,
this ch.). Late in the same year, the Soviets gave up their base at
Porkkala in exchange for an extension of the FCMA treaty, due
to expire several years after Paasikivi's scheduled retirement in
1956. Soviet uncertainty about the conduct of his successor made
Moscow anxious for the treaty's renewal.
The departure of Soviet troops from Finnish territory removed
an obstacle to Finland's full sovereignty and to its achievement of
neutrality. In 1956 Nikita Khrushchev, first secretary of the Com-
munist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), spoke for the first time
of Finnish neutrality. Soviet tributes to Finland's neutrality and
nonaligned status grew common in the next few years.
Finnish-Soviet relations were shaken by two crises-the Night
Frost Crisis of 1958-59 and the more serious Note Crisis of 1961
(see Domestic Developments and Foreign Politics, 1948-66, ch.
1). The Note Crisis was a watershed in Finnish-Soviet relations
in that Kekkonen, whose successful resolution of the crisis made
280
Government and Politics
him the virtual master of Finnish foreign policy, and others real-
ized that in the future Finnish foreign policy ought to be formulat-
ed only after its effects on Soviet interests had been carefully
weighed. Another effect of the crisis was that it led to the inaugu-
ration of a policy of active and peaceful neutrality (see Neutrality,
this ch.).
Finnish-Soviet relations since the Note Crisis have been stable
and unmarked by any serious disagreements. Trade between the
two countries has remained steady since the 1951 barter agreement.
In 1967 Finland became the first Western country to set up a per-
manent intergovernmental commission with the Soviet Union for
economic cooperation. A treaty on economic, technical, and in-
dustrial cooperation followed in 1971, as did a long-term agree-
ment on trade and cooperation in 1977 that, in 1987, was extended
to be in effect until the turn of the century. The first joint venture
agreements between Finnish and Soviet firms were also arranged
in 1987. In 1973 Finland was the first capitalist country to cooper-
ate closely with the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
(CMEA, CEMA, or Comecon-see Glossary) (see Regional Eco-
nomic Integration, ch. 3).
The Soviet Union has carefully monitored Finland's adherence
to the FCMA treaty, and Finland's awareness of this scrutiny has
influenced Finnish policy. For example, Finland refrained from
full membership in the European Free Trade Association (EFTA)
and instead joined the body through an associate membership in
1961. The entry into a free-trade relationship with the European
Economic Community (EEC-see Glossary) in 1973 occurred only
through a carefully orchestrated preliminary plan that included for-
mal links with Comecon and a special re-election of Kekkonen in
1974 to assure the Soviets of continuity in Finnish foreign policy.
Since the Note Crisis, Soviet interference in Finnish domestic
concerns has been limited to occasional critical comments in the
Soviet press and from official spokesmen. Clarification about Soviet
policy toward Finland could be obtained from Soviet officials them-
selves, or from articles published in authoritative newspapers or
journals. Since the 1970s, a frequent source of enlightenment about
the Kremlin's attitudes toward Finland, and about Nordic Europe
in general, were articles written under the name of Komissarov,
many of which were commonly believed to have been written by
Iurii Deriabin, a well-placed and knowledgeable Soviet specialist
on Finnish affairs. As valued indicators of Soviet attitudes, the ar-
ticles were examined line by line in Finland. Komissarov articles,
for example, disabused Finnish foreign affairs specialists of the no-
tion, which they had entertained for a time, that Finland had the
281
Finland: A Country Study
right to determine on its own whether consultations according to
Article 2 of the FCMA treaty were necessary. A Komissarov arti-
cle that appeared in January 1984 in a Helsinki newspaper expressed
the disquieting Soviet view that the passage of cruise missiles
through Finnish airspace might conceivably mean the need for con-
sultations.
Two examples may indicate the restraint exercised by the Soviets
in their dealings with Finnish affairs since the early 1960s. In 1971
the Soviet ambassador was recalled from Helsinki after he had be-
come involved in the internal feuds of the Communist Party of Fin-
land (Suomen Kommunistinen Puolue-SKP). A suggestion in
1978 by a Finnish communist newspaper, which was repeated by
the Soviet chief of staff General Dmitri Ustinov, that Finnish mili-
tary forces should hold joint maneuvers with Soviet forces was quick-
ly dismissed by Finnish officials as incompatible with their country's
neutrality; there was no Soviet rejoinder.
Finnish foreign policy vis-à-vis the Soviet Union enjoyed
widespread support from the Finnish people. Polls in the 1980s con-
sistently measured an approval rate of over 90 percent. Another
proof of the acceptance of the Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line was that
foreign policy played virtually no part in the parliamentary elec-
tions of 1983 and 1987. From the Soviet side, comments on these
elections were neutral, with no hints of preferred victors.
Nordic Europe
Finland is an integral part of Nordic Europe. With the excep-
tion of a small Swedish-speaking minority, the country is ethni-
cally distinct from the Scandinavian countries, but the 700 years
that Finland was part of Sweden gave it a Nordic inheritance that
survived the century during which Finland was an autonomous
state within the Russian Empire. During the interwar period, it
entered into numerous agreements with the other states of Nordic
Europe. After World War II, relations resumed, but with caution
owing to the tensions of the Cold War. Finland could undertake
no initiatives in international relations that might cause the Soviet
Union to suspect that Finland was being drawn into the Western
camp.
The gradual relaxation of superpower tensions meant that in 1955
Finland could join the Nordic Council, three years after its foun-
dation. The Nordic Council was an organization conceived to fur-
ther cooperation among Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland.
Meeting once a year for a week in one of the capitals of the mem-
ber countries, the council was an advisory body, the decisions of
which were not binding; it did carry considerable weight, however,
282
Government and Politics
as the delegates at the annual meetings were frequently leading
politicians of the countries they represented. At the insistence of
Finland, security matters were not to be discussed, and attention
was directed rather to economic, social, and cultural issues. Unlike
the European Community (EC-see Glossary), the Nordic Coun-
cil was not a supranational organization, and membership in the
council affect-Finland's status as a neutral nation.
The Treaty of Helsinki of 1962 gave birth to the Nordic Con-
vention on Cooperation, which defined the achievements and goals
of the regional policy of increased interaction. This agreement was
followed by the formation in 1971 of the Nordic Council of
Ministers, which instituted a formal structure for frequent meet-
ings of the region's cabinet ministers. The issue at hand determined
which ministers would attend. In addition to these larger bodies,
numerous smaller entities existed to fürther Nordic cooperation.
A study of the second half of the 1970s found more than 100 such
organizations. The efforts of these bodies and the many formal and
informal meetings of Nordic politicians and civil servants stopped
short of full integration, but they yielded numerous agreements
that brought Finland and the other Nordic countries closer together.
This so-called "cobweb integration" has given the citizens of Nordic
Europe many reciprocal rights in one another's countries Finns
were able to travel freely without passports throughout Nordic
Europe, live and work there without restrictions, enjoy the full social
and health benefits of each country, and since 1976, vote in local
elections after a legal residence of two years. Citizenship in another
of the Nordic countries could be acquired more easily by a Finn
than by someone from outside the region.
Economic cooperation did not proceed so smoothly. Nordic
hopes, in the mid-1950s, of establishing a common market were
disappointed, and EFTA was accepted as a substitute. An attempt
in 1969 to form a Nordic customs union, the Nordic Economic
Union (NORDEK), foundered when Finland withdrew from the
plan. The withdrawal may have been caused by Soviet concerns
that Finland could be brought into too close a relationship with
the EEC via Denmark's expected membership in the Community.
This setback was mitigated, however, when the Nordic Investment
Bank began operations in 1976 in Helsinki. The bank's purpose
was to invest in financial ventures in the Nordic region.
In the second half of the 1980s, Finland continued working with
its Scandinavian neighbors, being a part, for example, of the Nor-
dic bloc in the UN and participating in Nordic Third World
development projects. Finland's Nordic NWFZ proposal was being
studied and furthered by an inter-Nordic parliamentary committee,
283
Finland: A Country Study
and Finland was always present at the semiannual meeting of Nor-
dic foreign ministers.
Western Europe
Finland had to adjust its foreign policy after World War II to
the changed international environment; however, it continued to
enjoy good relations with West European countries, particularly
in the field of economic cooperation. The country joined economic
projects such as GATT and the International Monetary Fund.
(IMF-see Glossary), but, wary of arousing Soviet apprehensions
about potential political ties to the West, did not seek membership
in the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC).
Through a clever device, however, Finland did manage to partici-
pate in the trade benefits provided by the OEEC's European Pay-
ments Union: in 1957 Finland formed its own body, the Helsinki
Club, which was subsequently joined by all OEEC countries. In
1961, for imperative economic reasons, Finland worked out a spe-
cial relationship with EFTA after complex negotiations. Finland's
relationship, an associate membership in the body, became feasi-
ble after the Soviet Union agreed that it was compatible with the
Finnish policy of neutrality and after tariff arrangements ensured
the continuity of Finnish-Soviet economic cooperation. A more sta-
ble world meant that in 1969 Finland was able to join the OEEC's
successor, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD). In 1973 Helsinki, in a balancing effort,
signed agreements with both the EEC and Comecon and was given
a special status with both organizations.
Another subtle act of diplomatic balancing was Finnish treat-
ment of the thorny question of what kind of relations it should have
with the two German states. To recognize either would antagonize
one of the superpowers. The Finnish solution was to establish two
separate trade missions, one in each of the Germanies. This
arrangement allowed diplomatic relations and alienated no one.
Once the two German states recognized each other in 1972, Fin-
land was able to establish normal diplomatic relations with each
of them.
The years since the early 1970s have seen a steady normaliza-
tion of Finland's relations with Western Europe. In the 1980s, Fin-
nish trade with the region accounted for about 60 percent of its
exports; the country participated in European economic and
research endeavors like Eureka and the European Space Agency
(ESA); and 1986 saw full Finnish membership in EFTA. In addi-
tion, by the end of 1988 all obstacles appeared cleared for Finland's
284
Government and Politics
al meeting of Nor-
membership in the Council of Europe (see Glossary) the following
year.
The increasing integration of the EC, however, presented
problems for Finland and for EFTA's other neutral states. The
World War II to
supranational character of the EC, which was always incompati-
:r, it continued to
ble with Finnish neutrality, became even more so with the signing
tries, particularly
in 1985 of the EC's Single European Act. The act aimed at for-
y joined economic
eign policy cooperation among members, and it therefore made
Monetary Fund
Finnish membership in the EC inconceivable. Exclusion from the
iet apprehensions
EC, however, could threaten Finland's export-based economy if
seek membership
the "internal market" that the EC hoped to have in place by 1992
led to trade barriers directed against nations outside the Commu-
peration (OEEC).
nity. The late 1980s and the early 1990s were certain to be a time
nanage to partici-
of intensive Finnish dicussion on how this challenge was to be met.
's European Pay-
ody, the Helsinki
United States
EC countries. In
The United States recognized Finland as an independent state
worked out a spe-
in 1919. In that year, the United States assisted Finland with deliv-
iations. Finland's
eries of food through an organization led by Herbert Hoover. Since
dy, became feasi-
then assistance has been in the form of loans, all of which have
mpatible with the
been repaid. This has contributed to the development of friendly
agements ensured
relations between the countries. The American public expressed
ation. A more sta-
great sympathy for Finland during the Winter War, and, although
) join the OEEC's
the United States ambassador was recalled in June 1944 after Fin-
Co-operation and
land's decision to continue the war against the Soviet Union, the
balancing effort,
United States did not declare war on Finland (see The Winter War,
con and was given
ch. 1). In the postwar period, Finnish-American relations have been
exceedingly cordial. Even though political considerations did not
vas Finnish treat-
allow Finland to participate in the Marshall Plan after World War
ons it should have
II, in the immediate postwar years, Finland received about US$200
would antagonize
million in credits from the United States to help rebuild its indus-
trial base.
as to establish two
Germanies. This
Both Kekkonen and Koivisto paid state visits to the United States,
alienated no one.
and United States presidents have occasionally expressed their sup-
ther in 1972, Fin-
port for Finnish neutrality. In early 1983, however, the supreme
elations with each
commander of NATO forces in Europe, United States general Ber-
nard Rogers, expressed uncertainty about the Finns' desire to
defend themselves. His press conference remarks caused much con-
steady normaliza-
sternation in Finland. Other military officials have since praised
In the 1980s, Fin-
Finland's defense readiness; among them was United States admiral
: 60 percent of its
William Crowe, who paid Finland an official visit in 1986 as chair-
in economic and
man of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
an Space Agency
n EFTA. In addi-
United Nations and the Third World
ared for Finland's
Because Finland had fought with the Axis powers during World
285
Government and Politics
product (GNP-see Glossary) to Third World development, and
critics have charged that Finland gets a "free ride" from the
achievements and good reputations of Sweden, Norway, and Den-
mark. Efforts were underway in the 1980s, however, to come closer
to this figure. The foreign aid programs in which Finland was
involved were not only multilateral, but, with regard to a few
selected countries, were carried out on a one-to-one basis. Finland's
record as a provider of asylum for refugees did not always match
the records of the other Nordic countries. A quota system institut-
ed in 1985 provided for the acceptance of 100 refugees a year. Criti-
cism of this figure led to the quota's increase to 200 a year in 1987,
and in mid-1988 Finnish officials decided to admit 300 refugees
that year. As of late 1988, there were about 1,200 refugees in Fin-
land, nearly all of them from the Third World.
An excellent introduction to Finnish political life is David Art-
er's Politics and Policy-Making in Finland. The same author's The Nordic
Parliaments presents in great detail the workings of the Eduskunta,
the Landsting, and the Nordic Council. Somewhat dated, but still
useful, is Jaakko Nousiainen's classic The Finnish Political System.
The second edition of The Finnish Legal System, edited by Jaakko
Uotila, will meet the needs of many readers on this subject; in ad-
dition, it has expert surveys of various Finnish political institutions.
Small States in Comparative Perspective: Essays for Erik Allardt, edited
by Risto Alapuro et al, contains a number of valuable articles. Klaus
Törnudd's Finland and the International Norms of Human Rights ex-
amines Finnish legal protections for human rights and provides
much information about law and the media.
Stimulating brief accounts of Finland's unique international po-
sition are George Maude's The Finnish Dilemma: Neutrality in the
Shadow of Power and Max Jakobson's Finnish Neutrality. Roy Alli-
son's more recent Finland's Relations with the Soviet Union, 1944-84
is also very useful. Foreign Policies of Northern Europe, edited by Bengt
Sundelius, treats the Nordic region as a whole, yet it will help the
reader seeking more specific information about many aspects of
Finnish foreign relations. The Nordic quarterly Cooperation and Con-
flict often contains excellent articles that deal with Finnish foreign
relations, as does the Yearbook of Finnish Foreign Policy, published
by the Finnish Institute of Foreign Affairs. (For further informa-
tion and complete citations, see Bibliography.)
287
E184
A1347 A1
WH
t:
THE ETHNIC
ALMANAC
by Stephanie Bernardo
Dolphin Books
Doubleday & Company, Inc.
Garden City, New York
1981
492
APPENDICES
ETHNIC GROUPS
BELGIAN
ESTONIAN
Steuben Society of Amer
Suite 2003
Belgian American Educational Foundation
Estonian Educational Society
369 Lexington Avenue
Graybar Building
Estonian Student Association in the U.S.A.
New York, NY 10017
420 Lexington Avenue
World Association of Estonians
Members are America
New York, NY 10017
243 East 34th Street
tion; publishes monthly s
American organization concerned with ex-
New York, NY 10016
The Society for German
change fellowship program for Belgian and
These three organizations of Americans of Es-
204 Franklin Drive
American scholars having a master's degree or
tonian descent seek to spread "culture and
Berea, OH 44017
working for a Ph.D.
friendship between the United States and Es-
Organization devoted
tonia" and to preserve Estonian culture in
American history, lingu
America.
ogy, literature, music an
vention at Baldwin-Wa
BYELORUSSIAN
202/363-2430 Embassy
OH.
FINNISH
503
Society for the History
Byelorussian-American Association in the
land
U.S.A. and
Finnish-American Historical Society of the West
231 St. Paul Place
P.O. Box 3515
Byelorussian-American Youth Organization
Baltimore, MD 21202
Portland, OR 97208
166-34 Gothic Drive
Jamaica, NY 11432
Collects and preserves history of Finns in
Pennsylvania German S
American West.
R.D.1
2,400 members in both divisions promote lec-
tures and celebrations to preserve Byelorussian
Finnish Consultate General
Breinigsville, PA 1803
culture in America. Maintains library of 4,000
540 Madison Avenue
German Society of Per
volumes; publishes monthly Byelorussian jour-
New York, NY 10022
611 Spring Garden Str
nal, Bielarus, and quarterlies.
League of Finnish-American Societies
Philadelphia, PA 1912
USA office, c/o Ms. Leena Korhonen
Suite 200
GR
Erik B. Paulsson, Inc.
151 West 51st Street
Greek American Prog
CHINESE
New York, NY 10019
3600 Fifth Avenue
Pittsburgh, PA 15213
Chinese Information Service
10,000 members, a
159 Lexington Avenue
New York, NY 10016
FRENCH
birth, belong to 150 lo
publishes Tribune five
China Institute of America
Committee of French-Speaking Societies
125 East 65th Street
11 West 42nd Street
New York, NY
New York, NY 10036
HIS
Lectures and exhibits on Chinese art and cul-
Sponsors celebrations of French holidays in
ture.
America.
The Hispanic Society
613 West 155th Stree
Union Saint Jean Baptiste
New York, NY 1003
One Social Street
Founded in 1904 a
Woonsocket, RI 02895
library dedicated to p
CZECHOSLOVAKIAN
Fraternal benefit life insurance society of al-
The museum collectic
most 50,000 members.
ture, and decorative
Czechoslovak Society of America
Iberian Peninsula cu
2138 S. 61st Street
to present day. The li
Cicero, IL 60650
GERMAN
umes, and is a center
Fraternal benefit life insurance society.
Portuguese art, litera
German American National Congress
Founded: 1854
Sells publications
4740 N. Western Avenue
Membership: 52,000
the mail.
Chicago, IL 60625
Also known as the Deutsch-Amerikanischer
El Museo del Barrio
National Kongress (DANK); some 20,000
1945 Third Avenue
members of German ancestry promote German
New York, NY
DANISH
language, customs and culture in the United
Museum devoted
States.
cultural traditions c
Danish Information Service
Hispanic enclave. I
German Society of the City of New York
280 Park Avenue
folk art, and a small
150 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10017
New York, NY
Institute for the Stu
Danish Brotherhood in America
Aids German immigrants with counseling, wel-
in U.S. Life and Hi
3717 Harney Street
fare services, medical care and employment op-
4340 Birchlake Ct.
Omaha, NE 68171
portunities.
Alexandria, VA 22
442
AN ETHNIC WHO'S WHO
MUSIC, ART AND
ran a lumberyard, where Louise Berliawsky
concrete and steel, to which he added bits
JOSEPH BAE
first learned to appreciate the beauty that
of tiles, bottles, dishes, seashells and other
t
might be sculpted from a plain block of
objects he could scavenge, simple because
Bridg
virgin wood.
"he wanted to build something big for
After marrying Charles Nevelson, Louise
America."
Born in
Baermann designed t
moved to New York in 1920 to study paint-
MARK ROTHKO (1903-1970) Mar-
ing, drawing, voice and dramatics. She also
cus Rothkowitz journeyed from his na-
studied at the Art Students League, but it
tive Russia with his mother and sister in
of its day. First open
wasn't until 1933 that she began to exhibit
1913 to join his father, a Jewish pharmacist
the Golden Gate cos
her sculptures. Nevelson has made liberal
who had already established a business in
described as the mo
use of "found" objects over the years-
Portland, Oregon.
that decade. The bo
such items as wheels, chair backs, furniture
Rothko entered Yale in 1921, dropped
so pleased, they ga
legs and the like. The reason? "I always
out in 1923, and ended up at New York
pass which entitled 1
wanted to show the world that art is every-
City's Art Student's League. After his
to the bridge for the re
where." Another "reason for my use of
first exhibition in 1929, this basically
SAUL STEINI
'found' materials is that I never could afford
self-taught painter turned more and more
makes his comments
much else."
toward abstraction-large canvasses char-
pen and ink drawing
I. M. PEI (1917- ) When Pei de-
acterized by diffuse rectangles of color.
the cover of the N
signed the National Gallery's new East
One critic wrote of Rothko's art, "I know
Born in Rimnicu-Sar:
Building in Washington, D.C., his main cri-
that many people only find it an insult to
emigrated to Americ
terion was that it take no more than 45 min-
their intelligence; but if by some miracle,
eight. Although he
utes to see the exhibits. "In forty-five min-
Rothko's attitude to painting were to pre-
granted a commissio
utes one doesn't get bored, one's feet don't
vail, we should all be on the way to becom-
1943 and later becam
hurt, and one comes away with a sense of
ing converts to Zen Buddhism." (Architec-
In addition to his
accomplishment." Born in China of well-to-
tural Review, Oct. 1957, R. Melville)
berg's watercolors h
do parents, Pei studied at MIT and Harvard
Rothko committed suicide in 1970, leav-
galleries and museu
under the tutelage of Walter Gropius, the
ing behind 798 unsold paintings; their sale
including New Yor
founder of Bauhaus. In addition to the $95
during the early 1970s erupted into a major
seum of Art and th
million gallery, Pei has designed Syracuse's
scandal in the art world.
Art. Steinberg serv
Everson Museum of Art; National Airlines'
EERO SAARINEN (1910-1961) and his
dence" at the Smit
terminal at JFK Airport in New York and
architect father, ELIEL (1873-1950), emi-
1966 to 1968.
Boston's John Hancock building. He be-
grated to the United States in 1923 from
MINORU YA
came a naturalized citizen in 1954.
Kyrkslatt, Finland. Together they designed
A Japanese-Americ:
PETER RINDISBACHER (1806-
the giant stainless steel arch that rises 630
masaki designed the
1834) Although he is not as well-known as
feet above the city of St. Louis, Missouri, as
that dominate the sk
George Catlin and other artists who painted
part of the Jefferson National Expansion
tan. The World Tra
the American West in the early nineteenth
Memorial. They are also the creators of the
number of stories
century, he was one of the first to paint na-
TWA terminal at Kennedy Airport in New
tive Americans. A Swiss immigrant who
York.
came to America at the age of fifteen, Rin-
PAOLO SOLERI (1919-
) is an Ital-
disbacher died at the age of twenty-eight-
ian-born architect famous for his "earth
some say it was cholera, others claim that
homes" structures that are half in the
he inadvertently poisoned himself by his
earth and half out, with soil roofs covered
NICK ADAM
habit of putting paintbrushes in his mouth to
with concrete. Soleri coined the word
Nicholas Adamch
give them a better "point." Although his life
"arcology" to describe his marriage of
American actor had
was short, he left 187 known watercolor
"architecture and ecology."
nominated by the A
paintings that depict life on the American
EDWARD STEICHEN (1879-1973),
ture Arts and Sci
prairies in the early 1800s.
one of the photographic geniuses of all time,
Award as best supp
SIMON RODIA (1879-1965), an Italian
the man behind the 1955 Family of Man ex-
in Twilight of Ho
immigrant, began constructing Los Angeles'
hibit and best-selling book of the same
members of the A
most unusual artistic tourist attraction, the
name, was born, as few American immi-
before it was read
Watts Towers, in 1921. Threatened by de-
grants have been, in the picturesque Grand
aters. By the time
molition, the towers were saved by art buffs,
Duchy of Luxembourg. Steichen was direc-
distribution, Adam
who call the columns one of the most signif-
tor of the department of photography of the
chances for the 0
icant achievements of twentieth-century
Museum of Modern Art between 1947 and
completely from th
folk art. Rodia constructed the towers from
1962.
Tom Jones won th
Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1983 / Sept. 27
ress economi-
Remarks of President Reagan and President Mauno Koivisto of
1 this highest
onal dignity,
Finland Following Their Meetings
timately their
September 27, 1983
of ours is all
President Reagan. President Koivisto and
and friendly, between our two countries.
God bless you
I have just completed a cordial and fruitful
Our talks have given me a very ample
discussion about relations between Finland
opportunity to gain insights into the policies
and the United States and about the cur-
of the United States. Naturally, I have also
10:10 a.m. in
rent international situation. And it's a pleas-
expressed our own views and aspirations
eraton Wash-
ure to say that we did not discuss problems
with regard to the international situation.
neeting of the
in the Finnish-American relationship, be-
Finland's foreign policy is based, in the first
the Interna-
cause there are no bilateral problems be-
place, on good relations and confidence
n and Devel-
tween Finland and the United States. Our
with regard to our neighboring countries.
International
relations are excellent and have been for a
In accordance with our policy on neutrality,
t the Interna-
long time.
we want to have good relations with all
nations of the world.
? President re-
The United States supports Finland's posi-
aging Director
tion of internationally recognized neutrali-
Finland's impact on world affairs is un-
derstandably limited. However, we remain
of Executive
ty, and we value their perspective on world
determined to make whatever contribution
nal Monetary
problems.
we can to restrain international conflicts
I welcome this chance to hear President
and promote peaceful solutions.
Koivisto's views and expressed our own
Finland recognizes with deep apprecia-
commitment to international cooperation
tion the friendship she has always received
and world peace. Americans have always
from the people of the United States, for
the
had a warm place in their hearts for the
whom we have the greatest respect and af-
Finnish people, and it's been a pleasure to
fection.
tion
welcome their President to our country
today. Thank you, and thank you, sir, for
Note: President Reagan spoke at 1:06 p.m.
being here.
to reporters assembled at the South Portico
to enjoy the
President Koivisto. I appreciate very
of the White House.
h as they seek
much this opportunity to meet with Presi-
Earlier, the two Presidents met privately
dent Reagan here in Washington today. It
in the Oval Office and held a working
confirms a longstanding tradition of good
luncheon, together with U.S. and Finnish
relations and personal contacts, both warm
officials, in the State Dining Room.
LD REAGAN
unced that the
? with Dennis
fending yacht
Letter to Congressional Leaders on United States Participation in
to discuss the
the Multinational Force in Lebanon
September 27, 1983
m follows the
release.
Dear Mr. Speaker:
particularly important. At a crucial point,
I know you were as gratified as I with
your agreement and the supporting com-
Sunday's announcement of a cease fire in
mittee actions expressed a commitment to
bipartisanship in U.S. foreign policy. Please
Lebanon. While there were many things
accept my thanks.
that contributed to the cease fire, it is my
Let me also take this opportunity to clari-
belief that your agreement to advance the
fy an issue with respect to the interpreta-
compromise resolution on war powers-and
tion of the compromise resolution. The
the favorable action by the Foreign Affairs
compromise resolution refers to the re-
and Foreign Relations Committees-were
quirements of section 4(a) of the Lebanon
1367
Full Moon - Flower Moon, Milk Moon
First Monday - Wool and Cattle Fair at Tenterden, Kent,
England
First Friday - Arbor Day in Rhode Island
First Friday after May 1st - Arbor Day in Idaho
First Saturday - Kentucky Derby Horse Race at
Churchill Downs
First Sunday (of every year ending in 0 - First of the
season's Passion Plays at Oberam-
mergau, Germany
2nd Sunday - Mother's Day
Diaper Day at Jacksonville Beach, Florida
Third Saturday - Armed Forces Day
Last Monday - Memorial Day observances (as of 1971)
First week - Bangtail Muster Festival at Alice Springs,
Australia
May 1st
International Worker's Day in Venezuela
May Day (Political celebrations in Communist
countries; Morris Dancers in Eng-
land)
Feast of St. Joseph the Worker (Malta)
Feast of Sts. Philip and James
Loyalty Day in U.S.
Start of Festival of St. Efisio at Pula, Sardinia
Dedication Day of the Good Goddess's temple on
the Avantine in Rome
Tivoli Gardens, Copenhagen, opens for the sea-
son
St. George's Day in Greece
Race of the Old Man in Arachova, Greece
Fair at Penryn, Cornwall, England
Feast of St. Brieuc
Lei Day in Hawaii
Labor Day in Aruba, Bulgaria, Burundi, Costa
Rica, Dahomey, Honduras, Iceland,
Kenya, Malagasy Republic, Philip-
pines, Poland, Uganda, Yugoslavia
305 AD
Roman Emperor Diocletian abdicated
686
St. Ultan died (Feast Day)
1308
King Albert of Germany murdered by his disin-
herited nephew
1316
Edward Bruce crowned King of Ireland
1345
St. Peregrine Laziosi died (Feast Day)
1572
Pope Pius V died
1625
King Charles I of England married Henrietta
Marie of France by proxy
1693
Weekly postal service begun between Portsmouth,
N.H. and Virginia
1703
Czar Peter the Great founded St. Petersburg
(Leningrad), Russia
1704
First American newspaper advertisement ap-
peared (Boston News-letter)
1778
Third and unbreakable chain strung across the
Hudson River at West Point
1784
New York University established
1792
Rufus Porter, founder of Scientific American
magazine, born
1795
U.S. flag changed to 13 red and white stripes
plus 15 white stars on a blue field
1815
Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.,
founded
1841
First emigrant train for California left
Independence, Mo.
1851
Great Exposiiton, Crystal Palace, opened in
London
1854
Construction of Great Eastern steamship began
186
First patent issued for a shaving mug to
Thomas E. Hughes
1861
Erie Railroad began operating a ferry between
New York and New Jersey
1862
General Butler, Union, took control of New
Orleans
1867
Treaty of London guaranteed neutrality of
Luxembourg
1871
First U.S. postal card issued
1873
inia
International Exposition opened in Vienna
David Livingstone, African explorer, died
1885
First skyscraper, 10 stories, with a steel
skeleton, begun (Chicago)
1893
Columbian Exposition, Chicago, opened
1896
Nasr-ed-Din, Shah of Iran, assassinated
1898
Admiral Dewey was victorious at Manila Bay,
sinking 7 Spanish ships
1901
Pan-American Exposition opened (Buffalo, New
York)
1904
Anton Dvorak, composer, died
1909
Kate Smith, singer, born
1912
Winthrop Rockefeller, Arkansas governor, born
1915
German ads in American newspapers warned that
ships flying the British flag were
subject to being sunk
1916
Irish revolt leaders imprisoned
1917
Glenn Ford, actor, born
Carranza became legal president of Mexico
1918
City of Athens involved in a collision off
Delaware
Jack Parr, television personality, born
1920
Princess Margaret of Sweden died
1931
Empire State Building completed and dedicated
1936
Haile Selassie, Ethiopian emperor, escaped
Italian advance
1941
Howard Johnson, songwriter ("When the Moon Comes
Over the Mountain"), died
1948
People's Republic of Korea formed (Communist
North Korea)
1958
Memorial to the People's Heroes completed in
Peking, China
1960
U.S. U-2 reconnaisance plane shot down by the
USSR
1963
James W. Whittaker became the first American
to reach the top of Mt. Everest
2011, 2095 Quasimodo or Low Sunday
May 2nd
Adoration of the Cross (Venezuela)
373 AD
St. Athanasius died (Feast Day)
903
Boris I, Tsar of Bulgaria and Orthodox Saint,
died
1459
St. Antoninus died
1519
Leonardo da Vinci, artist-inventor, died
1670
Hudson Bay Fur Company chartered
1729
Catherine the Great, Russian Empress, born
1740
Transit of Mercury
1780
French set sail to support the Americans
in the Revolution
1791
British man-of-war Alligator became the first
British ship to salute the U.S.
flag
1813
Battle of Lutzen (Prussia and Russia against
Napoleon)
1814
King Louis XVIII entered Paris, his capital
1840
The Log Cabin, weekly campaign paper for
William Henry Harrison, begun
W
1842
Fremont set out on his expedition to the Rocky
Mountains
1863
Gen. "Stonewall" Jackson shot at Chancellors-
ville, Va.
rn
1865
$100,000 reward offered for the capture of
at
Jefferson Davis
ere
1880
Columbia became the first steamboat with
electricity (San Francisco to
Portland, Oregon)
1885
Good Housekeeping magazine first published
1890
Oklahoma became a U.S. territory
1903
Dr. Benjamin Spock, pediatrician-writer,
born
1904
Bing Crosby, singing actor, born
1917
First Liberty Loan subscriptions started
ed
1923
First non-stop transcontinental flight made
1926
"Man-eating leopard of Rudraprayag," credited
with 125 deaths, killed
Comes
1927
Alaskan territorial flag adopted
1931
First televised wedding performed
:
1932
Congress accepted Theodore Roosevelt Island
1935
King Faisal III of Iraq born
1945
Russian troops captured Berlin
1952
First jet plane passenger service began (London
le
to Johannesburg, South Africa)
1960
Caryl Chessman executed, 12 years after being
convicted of robbery and
kidnapping
1964
Mt. Gosaintham in Tibet climbed by a Chinese
team who set a bust of Mao Tse
Tung on the mountaintop
1965
Early Bird television satellite first used
1969
Israeli Independence Day
Wawona Tunnel Tree, a sequoia in Yosemite
National Park, was discovered to
have fallen
19
Labor Day in the Cameroons
San Gennaro Festival in Naples, Italy
1971
Buddha's Birthday in Hong Kong
1972
J. Edgar Hoover, head of the FBI since its
inception, died
1943, 2038 Quasimodo or Low Sunday
t
May 3rd
Japanese Constitution Day
Feast of St. Alexander
Bury, Lancashire, England fair
Invention of the Holy Cross
Beginning of 3 days of kite battles at Hama-
matsu, Japan
Girls' Festival (Doll Displays) in Japan
IOI the Cross of Christ at Jerusale
died
died (Feast Day)
1074
St. Theodosius of the Caves died (Feast Day)
1270
King Bela IV of Hungary died
1469
Mathias I, King of Hungary, elected
King of Bohemia
Machiavelli, Italian statesman-writer, born
1471
Battle of Tewkesbury ended the War of the
Roses (England)
1679
James Sharp, Scotch Episcopalian archbishop,
beaten to death
1772
Christian Indians, founders of the New Phila-
delphia, Ohio, arrived there
1786
Transit of Mercury
1810
Lord Byron, the poet, swam the Hellespont
1814
King Louis XVIII installed on the French throne
1826
Beginning of a general strike in England
1833
Mormons adopted the name Latter-day Saints
1851
America's Cup yacht America christened in East
Boothbay, Maine
1887
Tombstone, Arizona, rocked by an earthquake
1895
Rhodesia named by proclamation
1898
Golda Meir, Israeli Prime Minister, born
1907
Earl Wilson, columnist, born
1913
William Inge, playwright, born
1919
Airplane passenger service began
1921
"Sugar Ray" Robinson, boxer, born
1926
Beginning of a general strike in England
1933
Nellie Taylor Ross named first woman director
of the U.S. Mint
1952
First commercial jet plane went into service
First plane landed at the geographic North Pole
1965
El Salvador rocked by an earthquake
1967
Replica of the America's Cup yacht America
christened in East Boothbay, Maine
1970
Corn Dance at Cochiti Pueblo, New Mexico
Ceremonial races and corn dance at Taos Pueblo,
New Mexico
Third Annual Flowering Crabapple Festival at
Canfield, Ohio
Tenth anniversary of Brasilia celebrated
(Brazil)
Old Dover Day, Dover, Delaware
Florida Folk Festival at White Springs
Santa Cruz Feast, Peumo, Chile
May 4th
Primary Election Day in Ohio
Rhode Island Independence Day (1776; declared
itself free from England)
Youth Festival in Communist China
salem
End of the 6-day festival honoring Flora,
Roman goddess
1)
Feast of St. Florian (patron of Austria;
invoked against fire)
387 AD
St. Monica died (Feast Day)
1038
St. Gothard died (Feast Day)
1
1244
Catholic hierarchy captured by Pisa in a dis-
pute between Pope Gregory IX
and the Holy Roman Emperor
1483
King Edward V of England arrived in London
1493
Columbus was given a Spanish coat of arms
1626
Peter Minuit, purchaser, landed on Manhattan
Island
1769
Sir Thomas Lawrence, English artist, born
1780
First English Derby horse race run at Epsom
rone
Downs
1796
Horace Mann, educational reformer, born
1800
Napoleon proclaimed Emperor of France
ast
1803
John H. B. Latrobe, artist-philanthropist,
born
1807
Russia defeated by France at the battle of
Friedland
1824
Rufus Putnam, "father of Ohio," died
1826
Frederick Church, artist, born
1827
John Speke, discoverer of the source of the
Nile, born
Georges Karaiskakis, Greek independence leader,
killed in action
or
1849
Battle of Mestre (Austria-Hungary)
1850
Part of San Francisco destroyed by fire
e
1851
Start of a fire that destroyed 3/4 of San
Pole
Francisco
3/4 of St. Louis, Missouri destroyed by fire
1873
William H. McGuffey, educator and founder of
ne
the Eclectic Reader, died
1886
Haymarket labor rioting broke out in Chicago
lo,
1880
Francis, Cardinal Spellman, born
Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua organized
1896
The Daily Mail, London newspaper, founded
1897
Disastrous fire in a Paris motion-picture
theater
1927
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
formed
1930
Roberta Peters, opera singer, born
1945
German troops began to surrender
1969
Clam Prix at Ocean Shores, Washington
1970
Labor Day on Antigua
May 5th
a
Children's Day, a Japanese Holiday Feast of
Banners for boys
Boys' Day in Communist China (reed-wrapped
cumplings eaten)
Korean Festival of Tano (youth activities)
449 AD
St. Hilary of Arles died (Feast Day)
884
Pope Marinus I died (Feast Day)
1045
Gregory VI elected Pope
1260
St. Jutta died (Feast Day)
1292
Adolph of Nassau became King of Germany
1352
Rupert, King of Germany, born
1474
Cornerstone laid for Magdalen College,
Oxford, England
1572
Pope St. Pius V died (Feast Day)
1606
Jean Nicot, French diplomat who brought
tobacco back to his country,
died
1617
Nicholas Hilliard named English royal artist
1673
England recaptured St. Helena Island
1705
Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor and King of
Germany, died
1747 1707, 1753, 1832, 1957 Transits of Mercury
Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, born
1760
Earl of Ferrer hanged for murder, the last
English nobleman to die a felon
1778
George Washington announced France's alliance
with the U.S.
1818
Karl Marx, founder of Communism, born
1821
Napoleon Bonaparte died on St. Helena Island
1826
Eugenie, wife of Napoleon III of France, born
1827
Andrew Johnson, U.S. President, married
Eliza McCardle
1831
Detroit Free Press newspaper founded
1842
Great fire burned in Hamburg, Germany
1846
National Medical Association founded (U.S.)
1847.
American Medical Association founded out of
the National Medical Association
1851
San Francisco's fire put out, but 3/4 of the
city destroyed
1262
Battle of Williamsburg, Virginia
1864
Battle of the Wilderness
Confederate ironclad Albemarle defeated Union
sidewheeler Sassacus
1868
Memorial Day established for May 30 by the Grand
Army of the Republic
1871
Cochise and the Apaches defeated the 3rd Cavalry
at Bear Springs
1883
Rev. Josiah Henson, the original Uncle Tom, died
1884
Start of two days of financial panic in New
York City
1890
Christopher Morley, poet-novelist, born
1902
Bret Harte, author, died
1906
Freer Gallery of Art given to the Smithsonian
Institution
1912
Pravda, Russian newspaper, first published
1914
Tyrone Power, actor, died
1925
John Scopes arrested for teaching theory of
evolution
1936
Italian Premier Mussolini announced annexation
of Ethiopia
1938
French Lafayette burned in drydock at Le Havre
1941
Haile Selassie returned to Addis Ababa, Ethio-
pia (Liberation Day National
Holiday)
1954
Netherlands Carillon installed in a temporary
tower in Washington, D.C.
1955
West Germany became a sovereign state
1960
Netherlands Carillon permanently installed and
dedicated
1961
Alan B. Shepherd in Mercury's Freedom 7 made the
first U.S. manned space flight
t
1962
"Bo" Belinsky pitched a no-hitter and Los
Angeles beat Baltimore 2-0
1967
New York World Journal Telegram ceased
publication
1970
Coronation Anniversary in Thailand
n
May 6th
ce
Fair at Walsall, Staffordshire, England
Feast of St. John of Damascus
1
2348 BC
Noah's ark grounded on Mt. Ararat, according to
in
Blair and Usher
1491
Moses climbed Mt. Sinai
973 AD
Henry II "the Saint, Holy Roman Emperor, born
1092
Lincoln, England, cathedral consecrated
1210
Rheims, France, cathedral destroyed by fire
1211
New Rheims cathedral begun
1501
British brig Speedy captured Spanish frigate
El Gamo
1527
Duke of Bourbon killed after sacking Rome with
the Lutheran Army
1536
Jacques Cartier's third expedition left Canada
for France
n
1542
St. Francis Xavier arrived in Goa, India
1545
King Henry VIII's Primer henceforth to be used
rand
in all English churches
1634
Beacon set on Beacon Hill, Boston
alry
1682
King Louis XIV of France moved into Versailles
1697
Trinity Church founded in New York City
died
1758
Robespierre, French politician, born
1781
Battle of Newport, Rhode Island
1808
First ocean-going steamboat completed its
maiden voyage (Hoboken, New
Jersey, to Philadelphia)
1
1835
New York Herald began publication
1840
First postage stamp, "black penny," issued in
England with adhesive on it
Father Gallitzin, "apostle of the Alleghanies,"
died
1851
John Gorrie received the patent for basic
modern refrigeration method
1856
Sigmund Freud, psychologist, born
Robert E. Peary, Arctic explorer, born
1859
Gregory gold mine discovered in Colorado
Alexander von Humboldt, explorer, died
1861
Arkansas seceded from the Union
1862
Henry David Thoreau, naturalist-philosopher,
died
1870
Sir James Young Simpson, anesthesia pioneer,
died
1877
Crazy Horse, Sioux Indian, surrendered
1878,
2003 Transits of Mercury
1882
William, last Crown Prince of Germany, born
1884
New York Produce Exchange opened
1889
Universal Exposition at Paris, with the
Eiffel Tower, opened
1895
Rudolph Valentino, actor, born
1896
Samuel P. Langley tried to fly his experi-
mental plane
1908
Manoel became King of Poland
1910
King Edward VII of England died
1915
Orson Wells, actor, born
Theodore H. White, journalist-author, born
1916
First telephone conversation with a ship at
sea took place
1919
Frank Baum, creator of The Wizard of Oz, died
1931
Willy Mays, baseball great, born
1937
Hindenberg zeppelin exploded and burned
(Lakehurst, N.J.)
1941
Stalin succeeded Molotov as Premier of USSR
Igor Sikorsky first showed his helicopter
1942
Corregidor surrendered to the Japanese
1951
Cliff Chambers pitched a no-hitter and Pitts-
burgh beat Boston 3-0
1953
"Bobo" Holloman pitched a no-hitter and St.
1954
Louis beat Philadelphia 2-0
Roger Bannister ran the first sub-4-minute
mile (3:59.4)
1960
Princess Margaret Rose of England married
Anthony Armstrong Jones,
photographer
1970
Procession of St. Martin de Porres, first black
saint, in Peru
1972
Coronation Day Anniversary, holiday in Thailand
Start of a weekend of Turtle Races at Joshua
Tree, Calif.
!s,"
May 7th
685 AD
Marwan, Moslem caliph, died
721
St. John of Beverly died (Feast Day)
973
Otto I, "the Great," Holy Roman Emperor,
died
1577
Queen Elizabeth I forbade Puritan meetings in
England
1655
England took the island of Jamaica from Spain
1665
Great festival held at Versailles, France
1718
Mary of Modena, widow of King James II of
England, died
1724
Catherine I crowned Empress-consort of Russia
1777
U.S.S. Suprise captured H.M.S. Prince of Orange
in the English Channel
1739
First U.P. Presidential inaugural ball held
(New York City)
1799, 1924 Transits of Mercury
1800
Indiana became a U.S. Territory separate from
the Ohio Territory
1812
Robert Browning, poet, born
1826
Varina (Mrs. Jefferson) Davis, first lady of
the Confederacy, born
1833
Johannes Brahms, composer, born
1834
Coorg Province of India annexed to the terri-
tory of the British East India
Company
1840
Peter I. Tchaikovsky, composer, born
1842
Disastrous fire in Hamburg, Germany, finally
put out
1847
City College of New York chartered
1873
Salmon P. Chase, U.S. statesman, died
1875
Schiller wrecked off the Scilly Islands
1884
End of two days of financial panic in New
York City
1891
First successful photographs of solar flares
taken
1892
Archibald MacLeish, poet, born
1901
Gary Cooper, actor, born
1915
Lusitania sunk off Ireland by a German sub-
marine; 1,198 died
1919
Japan was given control of former German Paci-
fic Islands north of the Equator
1923
Anne Baxter, actress, born
k
1933
Johnny Unitas, football player, born
1939
Italy and Germany announced their military
d
and political alliance
1945
Germany surrendered unconditionally to the
Allies at Reims, France
1963
Telstar II, communications satellite, launched
1969
Cunard liner, Queen Elizabeth II, sailed
into New York
1970
Holy Blood Procession at Bruges, Belgium
Ascension Day in Dahomey
Sardinian Cavalcade (Folk Festival) held at
Sassari (& 1971)
1971
Mohammed's Birthday in Malaysia
May 8th
Helston, Cornwall, England holiday
Fair at Sherborne, England
Feast of St. Victor
615 AD
Pope Boniface IV died
1147
St. Peter of Tarentaise died (Feast Day)
1222
Henry VII crowned King of Germany
1429
Seige of Orleans, France, raised (100 Years'
War)
1444
St. Michael, one of the Azores Islands,
discovered
1521
St. Peter Canisius born
1541
Hernando DeSoto discovered the Mississippi
River
1559
Act of Supremacy made the Anglican (Episco-
palian) Church the state religion
of England with the ruler as head
of the Church
1660
Monarchy restored in England with proclamation
of Charles II as King
1758
Pope Benedict XIV died
1769
New York Chronicle newspaper founded
1806
Robert Morris, signer of the Declaration of
Independence, died
1819
Kamehameha, King of Hawaii, died
1820
Act of Congress created the U.S. Botanical
Gardens
1823
"Home, Sweet Home" first heard, in the produc-
tion of Clari, or the Maid of
Milan opera
828
Jean Henri Dunant, Swiss philanthropist and
founder of the Red Cross, born
(Red Cross Day)
1844
Echigo, Japan, rocked by an earthquake
1845,
1970
Transits of Mercury
1861
Richmond, Virginia, became the capital of the
Confederacy
1862
Confederate forces evacuated Pensacola,
Florida
1869
Religious freedom proclaimed in Spain
1879
George B. Selden applied for the first
U.S. automobile patent
1884
Harry S. Truman, 33rd U.S. President, born
1895
Thomas B. Costain, author, born
Fulton J. Sheen, Roman Catholic clergyman
and writer, born
1899
Boundary between Mexico and Guatemala set
1902
Mt. Peelee volcano on the island of Martinique
erupted, wiping out St. Pierre
and 30,000 people
1905
First U.S. transcontinental auto race began
1906
Roberto Rossellini, filmmaker, born
1929
Jan Mayen, Arctic island, annexed to Norway
1942
U.S. carrier Lexington sunk in the Battle of
the Coral Sea but the Japanese
were defeated
1945
Germany surrendered (V-E Day)
1954
Dien Bien Phu, Vietnam fell to the Communist
forces
1968
Jim Hunter pitched a perfect game and Oakland
beat Minnesota, 4-0
1970
Last Day of week-long Bangtail Muster Festival
at Alice Springs, Australia
Inferno Slalom Ski race held at Tuckerman's
Ravine, N.H.
May 9th
ion
ead
National Liberation Day (Czechoslovakia)
Feast of St. Christopher (Orthodox)
ion
389 AD
St. Gregory of Nazianzus died (Feast Day)
1204
Baldwin I elected Emperor of Rumania
1216
Droitwich, England fair held
1386
Treaty of Windsor allied England and Portugal
1476
Charles, Duke of Burgundy, reviewed his troops
near Lausanne, Switzerland
1502
Columbus left Spain on his last voyage
1598
King Henry IV of France entered Rennes,
Brittany in state
1C-
1671
England's royal jewels stolen from the Tower
of London
1689
Free government restored in Connecticut with the
recovery of the Oak Tree Charter
1754
First newspaper cartoon appeared (Philadelphia
Gazette)
1763
Pontiac and the Ottowa Indians attacked Detroit
1781
Pensacola, Florida, captured by the Spanish and
le
French from the British
1791
Francis Hopkinson, signer of the Declaration of
Independence, died
1800
John Brown, abolitionist-raider, born
1859
First mail coach of the Leavenworth and Pike's
Peak Express Line reached Denver,
Colorado
1865
Jefferson Davis was captured by the U.S.
Cavalry
1879
Fort Assinniboine established in Montana
1881
Phoenix, Arizona, adopted its seal
Mt. Haltia
Inari
4,343
OHONIN
Ounas
Tornio
Ylikitka
TOPOGRAPHY
0
100
200Mi.
100
SOTRIA
Oulujarvi
0
200 Km.
GULF
Saimaa
okemaki
Sea
100 m.
200 m.
500 m.
1,000 m.
Below
2,000 m.
5,000 m.
Level
328 ft.
656 ft.
1,640 ft.
3,281 ft.
6,562 ft.
16,404 ft.
ALAND
C Copyright HAMMOND INCORPORATED. Maplemood, N.I.
IS.
Total Population, 4,706,000
Juuka, 110,424
F 4
Pello, 17,050
D 2
Ylivieska, 10,616
D3
Jyväskylä, 54,834
D 4
Pieksämäki, 12,605
E 4
Kajaani, 18,724
E 3
PROVINCES
Pietarsaari (Jakobstad),
OTHER FEATURES
Kalajoki, 17,242
C 3
18,158
C 4
Karhula, 22,179
E5
Piippola, 11,956
E 3
Aland (isls.), 21,054
Ahvenanmaa. 21,054
A 5
Karis (Karjaa), 5,305
C5
Pokka
01
Bothnia (guif)
6
Hame, 621,677
D5
Karkkila, 5,557
C5
Pori. 70,858
B 5
Finiand (guif)
E
Keski-Suomi, 247,137
D 4
Karunki, 12,455
D3
Porkkala
D 6
Hailuoto (is).), 1,180
D
Kuopio, 267.523
E 4
Kasko (Kaskinen), 1,375
B 4
Porvoo (Borga), 15,139
D5
Haltia (mt.)
B
Kymi, 349,376
F 5
Kauliranta
D2
Posio, 17,454
F 2
Hangoudd (prom.)
C
Lappi, 218,458
E 2
Kauttua
B5
Pudasjärvi, 115,622
E 3
Hauki (lake)
F
Mikkeli, 229,117
E 5
Kelloselkä
F 2
Puolanka, t6,825
E 3
II (river)
D
Oulu, 424,495
E 3
Kemi, 29,771
D3
Pyhäjärvi, 19,449
E 4
Inan (lake)
E
Pohjois-Karjala,
Kemijarvi, 6,444
E 2
Raahe, 7,226
D 3
Ivalo (river)
E
196,708
F 4
Kerava, 12,995
D5
Ranua, 17,294
E 3
Juo (lake)
F
Turku-Pori, 676,156
C 5
Kiiminki, 12,857
E 3
Rauma, 24,798
B 5
Kala (river)
D1
Uusimaa, 978,352
D 5
Kittilä, 18,285
D 2
Riihimäki, 22,036
D 5
Kalla (lake)
E
Vaasa, 449,402
C 4
Kokemaki, 19.008
C 5
Ristijärvi, +3,531
F 3
Karlo (Hailuoto) (isl.), 1,180
Kokkola, 20,284
C 4
Rovaniemi, 26,868
D 2
Keitcle (lake)
D
Kolari, +5,718
D 2
Saarijärvi, 111,586
F2
CITIES and TOWNS
D 4
Kemi (lake)
Kontiomaki
F 3
Salo, 16,628
C 5
Kianta (lake)
F
Korsnas, 13,237
B 4
Savonlinna, 17,291
F 5
Kilpisjärvi (lake)
B
Aänekoski, 7,812
D 4
Kotka. 33.557
E 5
Savukoski, 12,392
F 2
Kitinen (river)
E
Abo (Turku). 146.619
C 5
Kouvola, 24,521
E5
Seinäjoki, 19,621
C 4
Kivi (lake)
04
Ahtäri, 18,205
C 4
Kristinestad (Kristiinankaupunki)
Sideby (Siipyy), 11,946
B 4
Koilere (lake)
6
Alavus, 111,422
C 4
2,620
C 4
Simola
E 5
Kokemaki (river)
B5
Borga, 15,139
D5
Kuhmo. 114,829
F 3
Sippola, f16,500
E 5
Kuusamo (lake)
F1
Ekenäs. 6,314
C5
Kuivaniemi, 13,436
D3
Sodankyla, 11.745
E 2
Langelma (lake)
D
Enontekiö. 12,531
C 1
Kultala
E 1
Sotkamo, t14,127
F 3
Lapland (region)
D
Espoo. 85,224
D5
Kuopio, 55,020
F 4
Suolahti, 5.348
D 4
Lappa (lake)
D4
Forssa. 12,790
C 5
Kurikka, 11,612
B 4
Suomussalmi, +15.507
F 3
Lapuan (river)
C
Haapajärvi, 8,847
D 4
Kuusamo. 120,913
F 3
Suonenjoki, 10,120
E 4
Lesti (lake)
D
Haapamaki
D 4
Lahti. 85,547
D5
Taivalkoski, t6,543
E 3
Lokka (res.)
F
Hailuoto. f1,180
D 3
Lappajarvi. 15,329
D 4
Tammisaari (Ekenäs), 6,314
C 5
Lotta (river)
Hameenlinna. 36,828
D 5
Lappeenranta, 50,238
E5
Tampere, 150,983
C 5
Muo (lake)
6
Hamina, 10,790
E 5
Lieksa, 4,740
G 4
Tanhua
E 2
Muonio (river)
B
Hängo (Hanko), 9,345
C 6
Loimaa, 6.361
C 5
Tapiola
D5
Näsi (lake)
D5
Harjavalta, 8,041
B 5
Lovisa, 6,630
E5
Tervola, f7,187
D 2
Onkivesi (lake)
E
Haukipudas, 19,656
D 3
Luiro
E 2
Teuva, 18,280
C 4
Orihvesi (lake)
Heinola, 13,617
E 5
Mänttä. 7,289
D5
Toijala, 7,598
C 5
Oulu (lake)
E3
Helsinki (capital),
Mariehamn (Maarianhamina),
Törmänen
F 1
Ouiu (river)
D
522,307
D5
8,072
B 6
Tornio, 6,943
D 3
Ounas (river)
D2
Helsinki, *696.000
D5
Mikkeli, 24,292
E5
Turku, 146,619
C 5
Päijänne (lake)
D
Himanka, +3,334
C 4
Muonio. +3,324
D2
Turtola
D 2
Pasvik (river)
Huutokoski
E4
Naantali, 6,542
B5
Ulvila, +7,800
C 5
Pielinen (lake)
Hyrynasalmi, 15,670
F3
Nivala, +11.081
D 4
Utajärvi, 15,608
m
3
Puru (lake)
Hyvinkää. 25,447
D5
Nokia, 18,935
C5
Utsjoki, 1,436
E 1
Puuta (lake)
E
lisalmi, 7.554
E 4
Nurmes. 2,504
F 4
Uusikaarlepyy (Nykarleby),
Pyha (lake)
B
Ikaalinen, 610
C 5
Nykarleby, 1,342
C 4
1,342
C 4
Pyna (lake)
D
llomantsi. t12,232
G 4
Outainen, 7.847
D3
Uusikaupunki, 5,924
B 5
Saimaa (lake)
Imatra. 35.223
F 5
Oulu. 84,379
D 3
Vaala, 16,675
D
E3
Siika (river)
Inari, +7,637
E1
Outokumpu, 10,993
F 4
Vaasa (Vasa). 48.262
E2
B 4
Simo (lake)
Isojoki, 14,393
B 4
Paavola, 15,079
D3
Valkeakoski, 15,965
03
C 5
Simo (river)
Ivalo
E 1
Parainen, 10.551
B5
E
Vammala, 5,908
C 5
Teno (river)
Jakobstad, 18.158
C 4
Parikkala, 17,253
F 5
02
Varkaus, 24,116
F 4
Tornio (river)
Joensuu, 34.591
G 4
Parkano, 18,686
C5
Vuotso
6
E 1
Vallgrund (isl.), 1,651
Jomala, +2,032
A 5
Pelkosenniemi, 12,655
E 2
Ylitornio, 19,605
D 2
Ylikitka (lake)
*City and suburbs. Population of commune.
Total pop.-1970 off. est.; other pops-1968 off. est.
Mt. Haltia
Inari
4,343
own
Ivalo
Ounas
FINLAND'S highest moun-
Tornio
tains are found near Lake
Kilpisjärvi, in the extreme
northwestern corner, well
Ylikitka
beyond the Arctic Circle.
FINNISH TOURIST ASSOCIATION
Oulujärvi
Patianne
okemäkt
Saimaa
KEMIJÄRVI, in Lapland, is
one of many small towns
that were built by Finnish
D2
settlers as they moved north
Ylivieska, 10,616
E4
D3
along the river valleys.
),
C 4
OTHER FEATURES
E3
Aland (isls.). 21,054
D1
Bothnia (gulf)
A5
B5
Finland (gulf)
B4
D6
E6
Hailuoto (isl.), 1,180
D5
Haltia (mt.)
D3
F 2
B
Hangoudd (prom.)
E3
C 6
Hauki (lake)
FINNISH TRAVEL ASSOCIATION
E3
F4
li (river)
E 4
D3
Inari (lake)
D3
E1
Ivalo (river)
villages of central and eastern Europe are not
E1
saunas to satisfy the national passion for dry-
E3
Juo (lake)
characteristic of Finland.
B5
F 4
heat bathing.
Kala (river)
D5
D3
Kalla (lake)
E4
Except for differences in types of dwellings,
Social Structure. The social structure of Fin-
F 3
D2
Karlo (Hailuoto) (isl.), 1,180
D3
however, life in town and life in the country are
Keitele (lake)
land has changed considerably since World
D 4
D4
Kemi (lake)
quite similar. There are no major variations in
C5
F 2
War II, and the 1960's were a period of espe-
Kianta (lake)
F 5
F 3
food, drink, or dress. Rapid improvement in
Kilpisjärvi (lake)
cially rapid transformation. During its half cen-
F 2
B1
Kitinen (river)
E2
communications and the spread of cars, radios,
tury of independence, Finland made the trans-
C 4
Kivi (lake)
D4
B 4
and television have helped to standardize cus-
Koitere (lake)
ition from an agrarian country to a modern
G 4
E5
Kokemäki (river)
B5
toms and tastes, reducing istinctions between
industrial and commercial society. Agriculture
E5
Kuusamo (lake)
F 3
E2
various provinces and regionstas well as between
Längelmä (lake)
and forestry together provided work and a
D5
F3
Lapland (region)
D1
town and country. This same process has also
livelihood for most Finns before 1940, but by
D 4
Lappa (lake)
D4
F3
tended to weaken efforts led by the youth
Lapuan (river)
1966 the percentage had fallen to less than one
C 4
E 4
Lesti (lake)
D4
societies to activate rural life by putting on plays
E3
and reviving interest in folk dances and old
third. Within the same period, 1940 to 1966,
Lokka (res.)
F1
314
C5
Lotta (river)
F1
customs.
the percentage of the work force employed in
C5
Muo (lake)
G3
industry doubled and that in commerce and
E 2
Muonio (river)
B
In some forms, however, folk culture has been
D5
Näsi (lake)
D5
well preserved in Finland. The Finnish folk-
the service occupations-the fastest growing
D 2
Onkivesi (lake)
E4
fields of employment-increased more than four
C 4
Orihvesi (lake)
F4
lore archives are probably the largest collection
C5
times.
Oulu (lake)
E3
F1
Oulu (river)
D3
in the world. National costumes are occasion-
D3
Ounas (river)
ally worn on festive days. Wood carvings and
These changes, combined with the general
D2
C5
Päijänne (lake)
D5
D2
Pasvik (river)
F1
various types of woven goods, such as ryijy rugs,
availability of higher education. have brought
about greater social mobility in Finland. At the
C5
Pielinen (lake)
F4
E3
are the main handicraft products.
Puru (lake)
F5
E 1
E4
A national interest in outdoor life and sports
turn of the century class distinctions were sharp
Puula (lake)
Pyhä (lake)
makes the lives of most Finns fairly similar both
and difficult to overcome, and some attitudes of
B5
C 4
Pyhä (lake)
D4
Saimaa (lake)
all in winter and summer. In the winter practically
an earlier period survive even today, such as the
B5
F5
E3
D
the people, from three-vear-olds to grand-
strong concern for occupational, professional, and
Siika (river)
B4
Simo (lake)
academic titles.
E
C5
Simo (river)
D3
parents, ski cross-country through the woods.
The middle class has continued to grow-
C 5
Teno (river)
E1
4
Tornio (river)
E1
Vallgrund (isl.), 1,651
hockey and ski jumping. In the summer the
The older Finnish children are active fans of ice
F
D2
from an estimated 11% of the population in
B4
D2
Ylikitka (lake)
2
exodus from town to country is repeated, as hun-
1940 to about 30% in 1960. At the same time,
dreds of thousands of Finns flock to the lakes
the working class diminished from 62% to 51%
the and coast to the summer cottages and saunas,
of the population and the farmers from 24%
Finnish steam baths. There are some 500,000
to 16%.
Women form an important part of the Finn-
223
PHOTO
TRENDS
Helsinki, the national capital, is Finland's largest city as well as its commercial center and busiest port.
ish work force. Over one third of the industrial
corner of Finland, where the population density
workers and civil servants in Finland are women,
per square mile is sometimes 50 times greater
although they generally receive lower salaries
than in the northland.
than men who have corresponding positions and
Large-scale resettlement had to be started
training. Women are also strongly represented
immediately after World War II, when Finland
in some of the professions, such as dentistry.
had to find new homes for 425,000 refugees, or
Finland's high standard of living makes it
about 12% of its population, who had fled from
one of the more prosperous countries in the
the Karelian region lost to the Soviet Union.
world, although it has areas of poverty in the
The largest number of refugees resettled in the
north and in the east. In the national income
southern areas of Finland, which have continued
per capita it ranks 15th in the world and 11th
to attract people from other parts of the country.
in Europe. The growth rate of its national in-
Finland has not been able to provide ade-
come has been among the highest in Europe,
quate employment for its whole population, and
averaging about 5% a year.
this, combined with the high standard of living
The major social problems of Finland are
in neighboring Sweden and the freedom of move-
related to regional discrepancies in the distribu-
ment, has encouraged considerable emigration.
tion of wealth. The northern and eastern parts
An estimated 200,000 Finns have moved to
of the country are econo hically depressed and
Sweden since World War II, and there has also
seem continually to fall behind the rest of Fin-
been some emigration to Canada and Australia
land. These regions have the highest birthrate
Before World War I, Finnish emigration reached
in the country, but, faced with unemployment at
a peak of 159,000 in the first decade of the 20th
home, the young people emigrate in search of
century. During this period the greatest number
a better life.
of Finns resettled in the United States.
Population Changes. After World War II there
Religion. The Evangelical Lutheran Church
was a baby boom in Finland, but more recently
to which 92% of the population belongs, is by
the birthrate has been falling, to 16.5 per 1,000
far the largest church in Finland. The Greek
inhabitants in 1967. The death rate has been
Orthodox Church is second in size. with a mem-
dramatically reduced during the 20th century
bership of 1.4% of the total population. There
and the rate of infant mortality is the fourth
is freedom of worship in Finland. but in practice
smallest in the world. Life expectancy in Fin-
the Evangelical Lutheran Church enjoys a privi-
land has reached 65.4 years for men and 72.6
leged position as the former state church. It
years for women. Finland's population density is
is now often called the People's Church and
39.4 per square mile, but its distribution has
still retains close ties to the state. with the presi-
been undergoing considerable change since
dent of Finland as its supreme head.
World War II.
Traditionally, the Lutheran Church has been
Movement to the urban centers is one of the
a conservative element in Finland. The working
two basic population trends in Finland. Urban-
class and the socialist movement. especially in
ization has been rapid, and almost half the
the past. have viewed it with some resentment had
population now lives in urban communities, as
and suspicion. Such attitudes, however, have
opposed to 26.84 in 1940 and only 12% in
1900. The second basic trend is the increasing
whelming majority An over.
little effect on church membership.
concentration of population in the southernmost
in the church, and
224
FINLAND: 2. The Land and Natural Resources
225
universally accepted by the membership. But
Abo), the earliest town, was founded there.
attendance at church services and an active par-
Turku was the capital of Finland during the
ticipation in church affairs are not common.
centuries of Swedish rule, and though devastated
a the cities.
a a the as a social
by fire several times, it still contains monuments
that show its ancient origin. A medieval castle
2. The Land and Natural Resources
overlooks the harbor, and a 13th century cathe-
dral, on the tree-lined shores of the Aura River,
Most of Finland is low lying, with elevations
stands at the center of the city. Finland's first
averaging between 200 and 400 feet (60-120
university was established in Turku in 1640. The
meters). The hills generally increase in size to-
city continues to be a center of learning, with
ward the northeast, but the highest elevations
both a private Finnish and a private Swedish
are found in the extreme northwest of Finland.
university. With its population of over 150,000,
Many hollows in the surface soil have filled with
Turku competes with Tampere for the title of
water to form a myriad of interconnected shallow
second-largest city in Finland.
lakes, which create the long, complex waterways
Helsinki (Swedish, Helsingfors), the capital
characteristic of Finland.
city of Finland, is situated on a peninsula roughly
Finland is a land of ancient granite bedrock,
in the middle of the southern coast. With a pop-
mostly covered by glacial debris and postglacial
ulation of over 530,000, it is Finland's largest
marine deposits. Retreating glaciers left morainic
city. It is also Finland's main business and
ridges, eskers, hills, and mounds of boulder clay.
cultural center and busiest port, and the region
The long, pine-covered morainic ridges of Sal-
around the capital is the fastest-growing district
pausselkä, in the southern part of Finland, are
in the country. Helsinki has never been a heavily
the most notable example of this debris.
industrialized city, though it is now the hub of
Geographical Regions. Finland can be divided
Finnish manufacturing. The city developed in
into four basic regions: the coastal lowlands of
the 19th century as an administrative center. and
the south and west: the lake-studded central
its neoclassical buildings give a pleasing unity to
plateau, or lake district, of the interior: the up-
the historical heart of the city.
lands of the north and east: and the archipelago,
While small hills and valleys are character-
PHOTO
TRENDS
or belts of coastal islands, which are broadest in
istie of the southern coastal lowlands, the coastal
commercial center and busiest port.
the southwest. These regions differ quite clearly
plains of Ostrobothnia in western Finland are
in their dominant physical characteristics and
relatively flat. The two largest towns in Ostro-
natural conditions, though they do not coincide
bothnia are Vaasa (Swedish, Vasa) and Oulu,
nd, where the population density
with historical or political divisions.
where the northernmost university in the world
e is sometimes 50 times greater
Coastal Lowlands. The coastal lowlands in-
is situated.
thland.
clude some of the most fertile areas of the
Central Plateau. The lake district of central
resettlement had to be started
country and have a more settled look than the
Finland, the second geographical region, is a
er World War II, when Finland
other regions. There are more fields and plains
labyrinth of waterways. Tens of thousands of
V homes for 425,000 refugees, or
and fewer forests than elsewhere, and the hills
lakes, with thousands of little islands, are con-
ts population, who had fled from
and lakes are small. The southwestern corner of
nected in numerous water systems, some hun-
egion lost to the Soviet Union.
Finland is well cultivated, and its climate is the
dreds of miles long. Lakes cover about 9% of
nber of refugees resettled in the
mildest in the country. It was the first area to
the total territory of Finland, but in the lake
of Finland, which have continued
be permanently settled, and Turku (Swedish,
district they occupy 20% to 50% of the area.
e from other parts of the country.
not been able to provide ade-
EDITORIAL PHOTOCOLOR ARCHIVES
ent for its whole population, and
with the high standard of living
Sweden and the freedom of move-
ouraged considerable emigration.
200,000 Finns have moved to
Vorld War II, and there has also
gration to Canada and Australia.
Var I, Finnish emigration reached
00 in the first decade of the 20th
g this period the greatest number
ed in the United States.
e Evangelical Lutheran Church,
of the population belongs, is by
church in Finland. The Greek
:h is second in size, with a mem-
c of the total population. There
SAVONLINNA CASTLE, a 15th
orship in Finland, but in practice
century stronghold, stands on
Lutheran Church enjoys a privi-
an island in Lake Saimaa, the
as the former state church. It
largest of Finland's many lakes.
called the People's Church and
e ties to the state, with the presi-
as its supreme head.
/, the Lutheran Church has been
element in Finland. The working
socialist movement, especially in
viewed it with some resentment
Such attitudes, however, have had
church membership. An over-
rity of marriages are celebrated
nd christenings and confirmations
BOB AND IRA SPRING
Most farms in Finland consist of small, isolated homesteads, such as this one at Imatra, near the Soviet border.
Lakes and forests dominate the landscape. Most
Archipelago. The islands along the coasts
of the arable land in the lake district lies to the
make up the fourth geographical region. Thev
southwest, the location of the earliest settlement
are barren in comparison with the rest of the
in the area.
country. Although some of the larger islands
Rivers flowing from the lakes generate much
have rich flora, their stern granite base is visible
of Finland's electric power. Some of the rapids
almost everywhere, and the smallest islands are
in the lake district were the sites of early in-
only bald cliffs. Except as summer retreats and
dustrial centers, such as Tampere. An industrial
bases for a dwindling number of fishermen, the
town situated between two lakes, Tampere is
islands have little economic importance. Aland
also a cultural center, with a university and well-
(Finnish, Ahvenanmaa) in the extreme south-
known theaters.
west is the largest single island and a shipping
Lahti, situated on the southern edge of the
center.
lake district, is a rapidly growing modern town.
Climate. The climate of Finland is more hos-
It is a center for winter sports, especially skiing.
pitable than the climates of Alaska and Green-
The city of Lappeenranta, on the shores of
land, which are located at the same latitudes.
Saimaa, Finland's largest lake, is the gateway to
Finland's average temperature in January is sim-
the Saimaa Canal connecting the rivers of the
ilar to that of the Great Lakes region in North
eastern part of the lake district with the Gulf of
America. However, snow covers the land about
Finland. Savonlinna, a center of lake traffic in
five months of the year in the south, and seven
the Saimaa area, is the site of a handsome 15th
months in Lapland, the northernmost district.
century castle. Kuopio, the largest town in
The climate is mildest in the southwestem
eastern Finland and the seat of the archbishop
part of the country, which is the most densely
of the Finnish Orthodox Courch, is on the north-
populated and most prosperous region.
ern edge of the lake region.
Uplands. The third district, the uplands of
3. The Economy
the north and east, covers about 40% of Fin-
Finland's economy since the 1920's has shown
land's territory but does not play a role in the
substantial progress and growth, although eco-
nation's economy commensurate with its size.
nomic development slowed during the depression
The climate is harsher, the soils poorer, and the
of the early 1930's. World War II brought a
vegetation sparser than in the other areas. To
period of absolute decline in production, and
the north the forests and hills become inter-
Finnish recovery during the period of reconstruc-
spersed with large swamps, bogs, and marsh-
tion was slower than from the depression. With
lands. Stunted pines still grow here and there
the armistice that ended the fighting, Finland lost
but gradually give way to small Arctic birches,
roughly one tenth of its productive capacity and
willows, and finally the tundra, a treeless plain.
resources and had to pay war reparations to the
The largest rivers of Finland traverse this
Soviet Union from its diminished national output.
area, and meager farming settlements spread
Since 1957 the economy has displayed an accel-
northward along the river valleys. The rivers are
erated rate of growth. By 1965. Finland's do-
not easily navigable, but their energy is harnessed
mestic product was four times larger than in
by power stations. The mineral potential of the
1926.
region has not been exactly determined. but
World War II accelerated significant changes
the Outokumpu copper mines in eastern Finland
in the structure of the Finnish economy. Before
are the most important known source of mineral
the war Finland still had a predominantly agri-
wealth. The forests in the northern and eastern
cultural economy. Agriculture and forestry ac-
uplands region are not so valuable as those of
counted for about 34% and manufacturing for
the lake district, since they replace themselves
only 25'; of the domestic product, but the
more slowly and are less accessible.
relative share of agriculture-forestry was already
226
FINLAND: 3. The Economy
227
declining. During the period of postwar recon-
in northern Finland, where farming has not
manufacturing and construction de-
proven successful, and problems of overprodue-
veloperies rapided to meet the reparations de-
The metal and shipbuilding
tion have led to the practice of soil banking
(leaving land uncultivated) and reforestation
service sectors have become
of recently cleared land.
growing part of the economy.
Forestry. Forests are Finlands most impor-
and construction have held on
tant source of natural wealth and are still the
shares of the domestic product,
base for its national economy. Pine constitutes
while to agriculture and forestry have continued to
46% of the growing stock, spruce 3692, and
decline, amounting to about 15% of the national
birch 16%. Over 60% of the forests are pri-
output in 1968. A still higher degree of indus-
vately owned, mainly by farmers who receive a
trialization is probably the key to increasing
large share of their cash income from selling
Finland's economic well being.
timber and from working as loggers in the winter.
The Finnish economy is based mainly on
The state owns almost one third of the forest
private enterprise. The public sector accounts
land, but its share of the total annual growth
for about 25% of the domestic product and has
amounts to only 16%, largely because the state-
been expanding. The state has a monopoly on
owned forests are mainly in northern Finland.
railroad, radio, mail, and telegraph services, and
where the growing season is short. Forest hold-
on the sale of alcoholic beverages. It also domi-
ings of corporations are small, and their aequisi-
nates television.
tions are limited by law. Generally speaking, the
The Finnish government is involved in many
share of privately owned forests has increased
industries, frequently sharing the ownership of
during the decades of independence and espe-
companies with private individuals. Often the
cially since World War II. when many new
government's involvement has been necessary
farms for refugees were established on public
808 AND IRA SPRING
because of the scarcity of capital in the country,
land.
he at Imatra, near the Soviet border.
which caused the government to intervene in the
Forestry has counterbalanced seasonal the-
power, communications, and mining industries.
tuations of employment and income in agricul-
The islands along the coasts
Agriculture. Finland comes close to being
ture, but increasing mechanization and rational-
ourth geographical region. They
self-sufficient in agriculture. It now produces
ization have been reducing the demand for
comparison with the rest of the
almost all the bread grain it consumes. The
human labor in forestry. This has brought hard-
ugh some of the larger islands
country has long been self-sufficient in dairy
ship to the small lumber farmers who have been
their stern granite base is visible
products, eggs, and meat, and also exports these
accustomed to earning extra income by working
iere, and the smallest islands are
foods. The climate and soils of Finland and the
in the forests. The number of people exclusively
Except as summer retreats and
small family farms with their ample labor sup-
dependent on forestry for a living is very small.
indling number of fishermen, the
ply favor dairy and livestock production, which
Industry. Finland's manufacturing industries
ttle economic importance. Aland
amounts to about 80% of the value of the
have produced mainly for domestic markets, but
manmaa) in the extreme south-
agricultural output. Wheat and rye are the main
gest single island and a shipping
grain crops in southwestern Finland. The grow-
ing season there is 210 to 220 days, while in
LUMBER, Finland's most important natural resource, is
climate of Finland is more hos-
northern Finland it is reduced to 120 to 150
being pulled in large floats to a mill near Tampere.
e climates of Alaska and Green-
days. Spring and fall frosts may sharply in-
HENLE. PHOTO RESEARCHERS
e located at the same latitudes.
fluence crop yields.
це temperature in January is sim-
Small family farms dominate Finnish agri-
the Creat Lakes region in North
culture. The average farm has only 22 acres (9
ever, snow covers the land about
hectares) of arable land, and 79% of the farms
the year in the south, and seven
have fewer than 24 acres (10 hectares) and 53%
and, the northernmost district.
fewer than 12 acres (5 hectares) of arable land.
is mildest in the southwestem
The average size of farms has diminished since
intry, which is the most densely
the prewar years because of the need to dis-
most prosperous region.
tribute land to Karelian Wefugee farmers, who
fled from the Soviet-occupied areas in the east.
ly
Mechanization of farming was rapid. espe-
onomy since the 1920's has shown
cially during the 1950's, and the number of
gress and growth, although eco-
tractors well surpasses the number of horses.
nent slowed during the depression
Mechanization and increased use of fertilizers
930's. World War II brought a
have contributed to a rise in productivity, with
lute decline in production, and
the largest increases in vields per acre occurring
y during the period of reconstruc-
in grain and fodder production.
than from the depression. With
Though agricultural productivity has been
at ended the fighting, Finland lost
improving, output per worker has increasingly
th of its productive capacity and
lagged behind that in other segments of the
ad to pay war reparations to the
economy. This has necessitated heavy subsidiza-
om its diminished national output
tion of agriculture to prevent the standard of
economy has displayed an accel-
living of the farming population from falling
growth. By 1965, Finland's do-
drastically behind. Future improvements in the
was four times larger than in
farmers' standard of living will probably depend
on increased efficiency, which would necessitate
II accelerated significant changes
increasing the size of the average farm while
of the Finnish economy. Before
reducing the total number of farms.
d still had a predominantly agri-
In the 1950's new farms were set up and land
ny. Agriculture and forestry ac-
reclaimed at a considerable rate, and by 1958
out 34% and manufacturing for
enough new arable land had been cleared to
the domestic product, but the
agriculture-forestry was already
Soviet Union. Much of the new land was cleared
compensate for the loss of farm acreage to the
are increasingly exporting their products. By
1967 manufacturing amounted to 30% of the
keep the harbors of the southwestern coast
passenger traffic abroad goes by sea. Icebreake
gross national product, and construction to 10%.
in winter. The inland waterways are of open
Woodworking, paper, and pulp industries tradi-
importance in transportation.
tionally have dominated the Finnish industrial
The gauge of the Finnish railroads
economy, but their share of the industrial work-
ing force has been decreasing. However, they
same as that of the Soviet Union but differe is
from that of the rest of Europe, and this
still have the largest share of the country's ex-
reduced the importance of railroads for
ports and accounted for 27.3% of the gross
trade. Railroad transport has
value of industrial output in 1967. Within the
but there are plans to develop
forest-based industries, the manufacturing of pa-
tem in Finland.
per and pulp has since the 1920's exceeded the
Finland has been served by international
other sectors in value. The plants and mills of
lines since 1924, but domestic routes were
the forest industry are located along water
routes, since much of their raw materials is
started until the late 1930's. Both services hay
expanded rapidly since the 1950's.
floated to them.
Trade. Both wholesale and retail trade
Metal and engineering industries are the most
divided between private enterprises and
rapidly expanding industries in Finland, They ac-
operatives, although private enterprises have
counted for 21.9% of the gross value of industrial
largest share. Cooperatives handle about
production in 1967 and have become the largest
third of the retail trade.
source of industrial employment. The demands
Like other small European countries, Finland
of wartime and of reparations to the Soviet
is very dependent on foreign trade. Paper, pulp
Union encouraged the growth of the metal in-
and wood products account for about two third
dustry, though its sources of raw materials are
of Finnish exports. Machinery, ships, and othe
rather poor. Mining plays an insignificant part
highly processed goods have become increasing
in the national economy. Its main product is
important export items. In 1967 industrial good
copper, which is also exported.
accounted for 94% of the total value of exports
Wood and hydroelectric power are the main
Finland's international trade position has bee
sources of energy. Finland lost one third of its
enhanced by an influx of foreign tourists. As
electric power capacity to the Soviet Union, but
1968 the country's income from foreign visitors
the harnessing of rivers and rapids in northern
exceeded the expenditures of Finnish tourists
Finland has compensated for the losses. There
abroad. Raw materials and fuels are the mo
are no deposits of coal, oil, or natural gas in
important items imported by the Finns.
Finland, and these fuels must be imported in
Most of Finland's foreign trade is conducted
increasing amounts to meet the demands for
with other European countries. In 1961, Finlan
power. An atomic energy plant is to be built as
became an associate member of EFTA (Euro-
an additional source of power.
pean Free Trade Association), which is the
Labor. In 1967 two sectors of the Finnish
regional economic bloc most important to
economy, manufacturing and agriculture-forestry,
trade. Finnish trade with EEC (European Eco-
each employed 25% of the labor force, with
nomic Community) countries surpasses its
farm owners making up about 90% of the num-
changes with COMECON ( Eastern bloc) coun-
ber employed in agriculture. Trade, banking,
tries. Britain traditionally absorbs the larges
insurance, and other services employed 28% of
single share of Finland's trade, and West Ger
the labor force, construction 10%, communica-
many, the Soviet Union, and Sweden are its
tions 7%, and public administration and de-
other principal markets. Trade between Finland
fense 5%.
and the Soviet Union has greatly increased since
Finnish labor unions grew rapidly in mem-
the prewar period. Today Russia is a major
bership and strength after World War II, but
market for Finland's metal products, while the
political disagreements between the Social Dem-
Western countries absorb the traditional pape
ocrats, Left Socialists, and Communists have
and wood products.
weakened their unity. In 1960 the SAK (Cen-
tral League of Finnish Trade Unions) split into
4. Government
two rival organizations.
A republican constitution was adopted
Collective bangaining between unions and
Finland in 1919. The parliament and the presi-
employers' organiz came into general prac-
dent exercise legislative power, while executive
tice during World War II and now cover almost
power is vested in the president and in the
all labor. Disputes and interpretations of agree-
council of state (cabinet), which must enjoy the
ments have been handled by official mediators
confidence of the parliament. The president
since 1925 or by a labor court, set up in 1947.
term of office is six years, and he is elected in
The frequency of strikes and the number of
directly through an electoral college of 300 mem
people involved in them have been somewhat
bers chosen by popular vote. The president has
higher in Finland than in the Scandinavian
extensive powers. He can temporarily veto bills
countries. The purchasing power of both blue-
passed by parliament and may also dissolve
and white-collar Finnish workers has increased
and call for new elections. The president makes
from the prewar period.
all appointments to higher offices in the state,
Transportation. In net value of operations,
including the cabinet. He conducts foreign pol-
road transport is the leading form of transporta-
icy and is the commander in chief of the armed
tion in Finland, followed in order by maritime
forces.
shipping, railroads, and air services. The road
The president's powers clearly exceed those
network expanded rapidly and was much im-
of the prime minister, but the prime minister has
proved during the 1960's. Major roads now have
an important role in the formation of a cabinet
a hard-top covering, which has reduced the ad-
and its general program, and he acts as its
verse effects of the climate on them.
spokesman. His defeat or resignation results in
About 90% of the country's foreign trade and
the dissolution of the cabinet.
abroad goes by sea. Icebreakers
The parliament, whose term is normally four
Paris Peace Treaty of 1947 limits the strength
of the southwestern coast open
consists of a single chamber of 200 mem-
of the Finnish- armed forces to 41,900 men.
ansportation. inland waterways are of little
years, bers. Finland's system of proportional repre-
Military service is compulsory for all able men.
sentation favors a multiparty system. Since inde-
The period of initial service varies from 270 to
of the Finnish railroads is the
pendence no party has received an absolute
330 days, depending on the branch of the armed
the Soviet Union but different
e rest of Europe, and this has
majority in the parliament; therefore the cabinets
forces and the level of training.
portance of railroads for foreign
have been either coalition or minority govern-
Radio broadcasting is a state monopoly, but
Finland has both a state-owned and a com-
transport has
ments. There are eight political parties in the parlia-
mercial television station. Radio and television
lans to develop
ment. Most of them tend to represent the
broadcasts are in both Finnish and Swedish.
economic interests of particular groups. The
Most of the Finnish newspapers are associ-
been served by international air-
but domestic routes were not
Social Democratic party has generally been the
ated with, or support, a political party. Helsingin
late 1930's. Both services have
largest. It is predominantly a left-center party
Sanomat, an independent newspaper, has the
y since the 1950's.
and attracts mainly the votes of workers and
largest circulation. Other leading papers are the
the lower-middle class. In the past it has been
conservative Uusi Suomi and the Swedish-lan-
wholesale and retail trade are
averse to cooperation with the Communists, but
guage Hufvudstadsbladet.
n private enterprises and CO-
this policy changed after the elections of 1966.
ugh private enterprises have the
The Center party (before October 1965, the
5. Education
Cooperatives handle about one
Agrarian party) traditionally has been the key
The Finns have a long tradition of literacy.
il trade.
force in Finnish politics, due to its position at
As early as the 17th century they had to prove
nall European countries, Finland
the center of the political spectrum and to its
their reading ability before they were allowed
it on foreign trade. Paper, pulp,
size. Since independence, it has been the largest
to marry. The basic outline of the present edu-
ets account for about two thirds
non-socialist party. It represents the farmers'
cational system was developed in the 1860's,
ts. Machinery, ships, and other
interests, but as the size of the agricultural popu-
though primary school attendance did not be-
goods have become increasingly
lation has declined, it has tried to continue as a
come compulsory until 1921. Primary education
items. In 1967 industrial goods
major political force by also appealing to other
is publicly financed, and every child must attend
% of the total value of exports.
groups. The Communist-dominated People's
school for at least eight years. There are no fees;
tional trade position has been
Democratic League, which grew up after World
pupils receive textbooks, one hot meal a day,
influx of foreign tourists. As of
War II, is now the third-largest party in Finland.
and medical and dental care free of charge, as
y's income from foreign visitors
Its support comes from workers and small farm-
well as clothing if needed.
spenditures of Finnish tourists
ers who are seasonal laborers.
Following four years in primary school, the
aterials and fuels are the most
The National Coalition party is closely as-
majority of students enter secondary school after
imported by the Finns.
sociated with business and receives support from
taking competitive entrance examinations. The
and's foreign trade is conducted
middle- and upper-middle-class professional
number going on to secondary school is steadily
ean countries. In 1961, Finland
groups. The Liberal party also appeals to these
increasing, whereas previously only a small per-
ciate member of EFTA (Euro-
economic and social groups. The Swedish Peo-
centage of children had this opportunity. Sec-
le Association), which is the
ple's party is a middle-of-the-road party that
ondary education is provided by private, com-
ic bloc most important to its
does not appeal to any particular social or eco-
munal, or state schools. All students receive state
ade with EEC (European Eco-
nomic group alone, but represents the cultural
subsidies, which cover most of their expenses,
ty) countries surpasses its ex-
interests of Finland's Swedish-speaking minority.
but they also have small tuition fees, which are
MECON ( Eastern bloc) coun-
The Social Democratic Union of Workers and
highest in the private schools.
aditionally absorbs the largest
Small Farmers is a small splinter group of the
Finnish secondary schools are divided into
Finland's trade, and West Ger-
Social Democratic party, while the Small Farm-
two sections-the 5-grade middle school and the
it Union, and Sweden are its
ers' party is a splinter group of the Center party.
3-grade upper-secondary school. Emphasis is
arkets. Trade between Finland
The cabinet members, the ministries and the
placed on the academic subjects, particularly in
nion has greatly increased since
central boards that are subordinate to them are
the three upper grades. Although the students
od. Today Russia is a major
responsible for general administration. For pur-
have a choice of concentrating either on mathe-
nd's metal products, while the
poses of local administration, Finland is divided
matical subjects and natural sciences or on lan-
S absorb the traditional paper
into provinces and communes. The state admin-
guages and humanities, the basic curriculum is
cts.
isters the provinces, but the communes govern
inflexible and the same for all. During their last
themselves.
spring in secondary school, students take nation-
The Finnish constitution guarantees the in-
ally administered graduation examinations. Those
constitution was adopted in
dependence of the judiciary from the other
who pass may apply for admission to universities
The parliament and the presi-
branches of the government. By a unanimous
or other similar institutions.
islative power, while executive
decision a jury can the judge. The
The Finnish school system is undergoing
in the president and in the
supreme court and the supreme administrative
radical changes. A new type of school is being
cabinet), which must enjoy the
court are the highest judicial authorities.
created that combines the curriculum and func-
e parliament. The president's
The largest amount of government funds is
tions of the present primary and middle schools.
six years, and he is elected in-
spent on welfare and health, followed in order
in electoral college of 300 mem-
by education and cultural activities, public debt,
The aim of the new system is to provide a similar
basic education for all Finnish children irrespec-
opular vote. The president has
transportation and communications. and agricul-
He can temporarily veto bills
ture. National expenditures for social welfare in
tive of economic situation or geographical loca-
tion.
ment and may also dissolve it
Finland have continually increased. Through
Finland has seven universities and many
elections. The president makes
social welfare legislation, an elaborate structure
to higher offices in the state,
that attempts to provide security for families and
other specialized institutions of higher educa-
inet. He conducts foreign pol-
individuals of all ages has been set up. Pro-
tion. The oldest and largest of them is the
mmander in chief of the armed
vision is made for old age and disability insur-
University of Helsinki, which has over 20,000
students. It was founded in Turku in 1640 and
ance, and health, accident, and unemployment
insurance. Various family allowance acts give
transferred to Helsinki in 1828. Renamed the
's powers clearly exceed those
ster, but the prime minister has
child and maternity benefits. The government
Imperial University of Alexander, it received its
in the formation of a cabinet
maintains most hospitals, and patients are ex-
present name after independence. It is a state
program, and he acts as its
pected to pay only 13% of their expenses.
institution, and instruction is given in both Finn-
ish and Swedish. Tuition fees are small or non-
defeat or resignation results in
for defense is one of the lowest in Europe. The
The share of Finland's national income spent
the cabinet.
existent in Finnish institutions of higher educa-
tion, even the private ones.
230
FINLAND: 6. History
Children who do not transfer from primary
It had taken little over a century and
schools to secondary schools, or who do not
continue in the upper-secondary schools, may
for Finland to become part of the kingdom half
enter various kinds of vocational schools and
Sweden. This development brought a wave (§
Swedish settlers to Finland, where they is
colleges. Finland also provides public adult
centrated along the southern and western com
education in many forms, including people's and
workers' colleges, institutes, and study circles,
with the exception the
For the first time the
which offer instruction in a wide variety of sub-
jects. Together their enrollment exceeds by far
united under the same administrative authority
the combined enrollment of the academic insti-
in the election of Swedish kings, and this
In 1362 the Finns gained the right to participate
tutions of higher learning.
cession signified that Finland had become con-
6. History
equal of the other provinces of Sweden and was the
considered an integral part of the realm.
The first known homeland of the Finns was
probably in the area between the middle Volga
Until the end of the Middle Ages, Finland
was in a sense under dual authority. There
region and the Ural mountains. The ancestors
of the Finns migrated from there to the north-
first the Swedish crown and its highest repre- was
west, reaching the eastern coast of the Baltic
sentatives, the lords of the castles. Then there
about 3,500 years ago. Eventually, they settled
were also the bishops of Turku (Swedish, Abo).
who headed the Finnish Church and were fre-
in southwestern Finland and gradually spread
eastward, reaching Karelia about 800 A. D. Ka-
quently the most influential men in the country.
relia also received settlers from the southeast.
Most of the medieval Finnish bishops were
The new arrivals gradually pushed the small
cultured men who had studied abroad, usually
at the Sorbonne in Paris, and two of them even
population of Lapps then living in the area
served as rectors there. One bishop of Turku
northward, to their current home in Lapland.
Mikael Agricola (1510-1557), made Finnish 2
The early Finns were divided into three
literary language and encouraged the Lutheran
loosely organized tribes. In the southwest, or
reformation in Finland.
Finland proper. lived the Suomalaiset, who gave
The Swedish King Gustav I Vasa (reigned
their name to Finland (Finnish, Suomi). Inland,
1523-1560), a contemporary of Agricola, ended
around the southwestern part of the lake district,
Danish supremacy over the Swedish realm, includ-
was Hame, the heartland of the Hämäläiset
ing Finland. Gustav also broke off relations with
(Tavastians). Farthest east lived the Karjalaiset
the Roman Catholic Church. He encouraged the
(Karelians). Large areas of wilderness separated
Finnish settlement of Finland toward the north
these three regions, and only a few scattered
and east, which led to further conflicts and
Lapp hunters occupied the vast forests to the
lengthy warfare with the Russians. The latter
north. The new Finnish settlers introduced
half of the 16th century was a restless period
agriculture as they spread inland, but hunting,
both for Sweden and Finland, when the sons
trapping, and fishing were very important in
and grandson of Gustav Vasa struggled for the
their economy. Furs were perhaps their major
throne. Finland's internal troubles culminated in
export and exchange item.
a widespread rebellion in 1596-1597, known as
The Finnish tribal groups lacked any national
the War of Clubs, against the rule of Klaus
political organization and were frequently hostile
Fleming, a Finnish nobleman who had been
toward one another. They were slower to orga-
the country's actual master.
nize themselves in political groups than their
During the 17th century Sweden became
western and eastern neighbors, the Swedes and
great power, development that had significant
the Russians, who by the 11th, 12th, and 13th
consequences for Finland. The early part of the
centuries were striving to extend their influence
century was a period of renewed warfare with
over Finland. Territorial aspirations of these
Russia, until the Swedish King Gustavus Adol-
neighbors were mixed with religious motives.
phus (reigned 1611-1632) concluded the Peace
The Swedes tried to convert the Finns to the
of Stolbova in 1617. This treaty moved the
Roman Catholic Church, while the Russians at-
eastern boundary of the Swedish realm farther
tempted to bring them into the Eastern Orthodox
east to include much of the shore of Lake La-
Church. This rivalry between east and west
doga and the province of Ingria, where St.
foreshadowed Finland's destiny for many cen-
Petersburg was to be built a century later. After
turies.
his successful campaigns in the east, Gustavus
Swedish Domination. Most Finns eventually be-
Adolphus became involved in the Thirty Years
came Roman Catholics and fell under Swedish
War and Continental politics. Participation in
domination. Individual Roman Catholic mission-
the war was costly in men and treasure, and
aries worked in southwestern Finland as early as
Finland suffered its share of the losses.
the 11th century. About 1155, King Eric of
Other characteristics of the age were in-
Sweden made the first crusade to Finland to
creased administrative centralization, the rapidly
strengthen the hold of the new faith. The sec-
ond Swedish crusade (1238 or 1249) consoli-
growing wealth and power of the nobility, and the
religious zeal and bigotry. Centralization of
dated the new order in Hame. By the end of
administration tied Finland more closely to
the
the 13th century the Swedes had extended their
rest of the Swedish kingdom and weakened its
power into Karelia by building the castle of
distinct identity. The nobles benefited from the
Vyborg (Finnish. Viipuri) in 1293. However, in
prolonged warfare, gaining land grants and tax
Karelia the Swedes were entering territory that
concessions from the Swedish crown as rewards
the Russian state of Novgorod considered its
for their services. This development tended to
own. This resulted in intermittent fighting until
impoverish and weaken the position of the peas
a peace treaty was concluded in 1323. díviding
ants. However, during the latter part of the 17th
Karelia between Sweden and Russia and formally
century there was a reclaiming of lands granted
establishing the eastern boundary of Finland for
earlier to the nobles. which prevented the devel-
the first time.
opment of feudalism in Finland.
ken little over a century
to become part of the
Religious bigotry brought about efforts to
Greek Orthodox Karelians
is development brought a wave
tlers to Finland, where they of
mg the southern and con-
a a a a convert territories that been won from Russia.
of the Ortho-
time the
dox Karelia replaced them. Some
population into Russian territory, and Luth-
sception of
the same administrative authority
aspects eran of Lutheran sternness were valuable,
on of Swedish kings, and participate
Finns gained the right to
however, since the church saw to it that the
fied that Finland had become con-
peasants learned to read.
was a severe famine in Finland in
n integral part of the realm.
other provinces of Sweden and was the
Sweden. of Charles XII (reigned 1697-
1695-1697, during the reign of Charles XI of
se under dual authority. There
end of the Middle Ages, Finland
1718) began with the Great Northern War of
1700 to 1721. This war, in which the Swedes
edish crown and its highest repre- was
fought all of their neighbors, cost Sweden its
ne lords of the castles. Then there
eastern possessions, including Ingria and south-
e bishops of Turku (Swedish, Abo),
eastern Finland, as well as its position as a great
the Finnish Church and were fre-
power. During the war Russia occupied Finland
most influential men in the country
for eight years (1713-1721) and devastated the
e medieval Finnish bishops were
country thoroughly, a period known to the Finns
n who had studied abroad, usually
as the Great Wrath. In the next war with
nne in Paris, and two of them even
Russia (1741-1743) the Russian Empress Eliza-
etors there. One bishop of Turku
beth tried to turn the Finns against Sweden by
cola (1510-1557), made Finnish
suggesting the creation of an autonomous Fin-
uage and encouraged the Lutheran I
land under Russian protection. However, nothing
in Finland.
came of the plan, and Russia annexed another
dish King Gustav I Vasa (reigned
slice of Finland.
The experiences of these two wars and the
a contemporary of Agricola, ended
macy over the Swedish realm, includ-
growing power of Russia caused the Finns to
doubt Sweden's ability to protect them from the
Gustav also broke off relations with
hardships of war in the future. This pessimism
Catholic Church. He encouraged the
caused some Finnish officers, during a new war
ement of Finland toward the north
with Russia (1788-1790), to conspire to create
EDITORIAL PHOTOCOLOR ARCHIVES
thich led to further conflicts and
an autonomous Finnish state that was to be
fare with the Russians. The latter
Turku's cathedral was the seat of Finland's first bishop.
under Russian protection. The conspiracy failed,
16th century was a restless period
but it was an indication of the growing feeling
eden and Finland, when the sons
among Finns that Finland had an identity apart
n of Gustav Vasa struggled for the
had grown in size, and had developed from being
from Sweden. The new mood was exemplified
and's internal troubles culminated in
an integral part of the Swedish kingdom into an
in the studies and activities of Henrik Gabriel
1 rebellion in 1596-1597, known as
autonomous state. These conditions, combined
Porthan (1739-1804), a professor at the Uni-
Clubs, against the rule of Klaus
with the new ideas of romanticism and national-
versity of Turku, who encouraged his students
Finnish nobleman who had been
ism sweeping Europe, encouraged the develop-
to study the past and the potential of their
actual master.
ment of a national identity in Finland. The first
homeland.
he 17th century Sweden became a
clear signs of a distinct Finnish nationalism ap-
Russian Domination and the Rise of Finnish Na-
development that had significant
peared about 1820 at the University of Turku,
tionalism. In 1808 a war broke out between
for Finland. The early part of the
when Adolf Ivan Arwidsson, a young teacher,
Sweden and Russia. While the war was still in
a period of renewed warfare with
suggested improvements in the position of the
progress, Alexander I of Russia (reigned 1801-
the Swedish King Gustavus Adol-
Finnish language. Over the centuries Swedish
1825) assembled a Finnish Diet in the town of
d 1611-1632) concluded the Peace
had become the sole language in Finland's ad-
Borgå (Finnish, Porvoo) in 1809 and promised
in 1617. This treaty moved the
ministration, law, and schools. as well as in most
to respect the existing constitution, laws, and
dary of the Swedish realm farther
of its cultural life. Of the educated people only
institutions of Finland. When a defeated Sweden
de much of the shore of Lake La-
the clergy were still proficient in Finnish.
ceded Finland to Russia in 1809, the Czar al-
he province of Ingria, where St.
There were no immediate changes in the
lowed Finland extensive autonomy instead of
as to be built a century later. After
integrating it into the of the Russian Em-
position of Finnish. However, after the publica-
1 campaigns in the east. Gustavus
tion of Kalevala (1835), an impressive collection
pire. Furthermore. Alexander agreed in 1812 to
came involved in the Thirty Years
of folklore gathered by Elias Lönnrot. interest in
return to Finland the Karelian territories that
ontinental politics. Participation in
had been annexed to Russia during the 18th
the language grew. Indirectly, this trend was en-
costly in men and treasure, and
couraged by the work of Johan Ludvig Rune-
century wars.
red its share of the losses.
berg, who wrote in Swedish but whose patriotic
aracteristics of the age were in-
Russian rule changed little in Finland except
the person of the ruler, with Alexander becom-
poetry idealized the common Finnish worker and
inistrative centralization, the rapidly
lth and power of the nobility, and
ing Grand Duke of Finland in place of the king
soldier. Johan Vilhelm Snellman, a publicist,
of Sweden. The Grand Duchy of Finland re-
philosopher. and statesman, demanded that the
and bigotry. Centralization of the
n tied Finland more closely to the
mained an entity apart from Russia. A governor-
educated class adopt Finnish as it language and
that Finnish be used in administration and schools.
iwedish kingdom and weakened its
general acted as the czar's personal representative
and as the highest administrative official in Fin-
When the Finnish Diet started meeting reg-
itv. The nobles benefited from the
land. The first to hold this office was Göran
ularly again in 1863. after being moribund for
arfare, gaining land grants and tar
Magnus Sprengtporten (1740-1819), a former
over 50 years. political parties gradually de-
rom the Swedish crown as rewards
vices. This development tended to
Finnish officer who had plotted for Finnish inde-
veloped along language lines. Their feuding and
pendence decades earlier and had left Swedish
rivalry were characteristics of the late 19th cen-
nd weaken the position of the peas-
for Russian service. After him the governors-
tury. Only gradually did Finnish gain ground in
er, during the latter part of the 17th
was a reclaiming of lands granted
nobles, which prevented the devel-
ministration remained in Finnish hands.
general Russians, but the rest of the ad-
schools, cultural life. and government. finally
reaching official equality with Swedish in 1902.
The period of Russian suzerainty started un-
Reaction Against Russia. By the turn of the
udalism in Finland.
der favorable auspices for Finland. The country
century both language groups were confronted
by the new threat of Russian nationalism, which
231
232
FINLAND: 6. History
aimed at the integration of Finland into the em-
began. The Russian provisional government
pire. Russian decrees revealing this goal turned
the Finns' loyalty to the czar into hatred.
stored Finnish autonomy, but this no longer
In trying to decide on proper tactics to meet
satisfied the Finns. In July 1917 the Socialist
dominated Finnish parliament assumed
Russian pressures, the Finns divided into three
basic groups. The Compliers argued that Fin-
power in the country, except in foreign supreme mili
land should go along with Russian demands to
situation was unacceptable to the Russian
tary affairs, which were left to Russia. This
some extent in order to maintain a certain in-
fluence over the course of events, gain time, and
ernment and it dissolved the parliament. New got
reduce the number of appointments of Russian
Socialists in the minority.
elections in the fall of 1917 put the embittered
officials. The Constitutionalists wanted to resist
Besides these political events, Finland
Russian violations of the Finnish constitution by
also troubled by rapidly increasing unemploy- was
refusing to obey such decress. The kind of
ment, food shortages, and unsolved social prob-
passive resistance advocated by the Constitu-
lems. The Bolshevik Revolution in Petrograd
tionalists required complete national unity to be
in November 1917 was followed by a general
effective, and the Compliers' views made this
strike in Finland, and radicalism and a revolu-
impossible. But passive resistance had some suc-
tionary mood quickly gained ground among the
cess, and young Finnish men failed to appear for
Finnish Socialists. The internal situation was
the Russian military draft. However, passive
becoming chaotic, and the presence of undis-
resistance in the long run did not work, and this
cipled Russian military forces added to the
caused the growth of the Activist movement,
confusion.
which made preparations for armed resistance
Independence and Civil War. The parliament
and rebellion.
proclaimed Finland independent from Russia on
Political Reform. The Russo-Japanese War and
Dec. 6. 1917, but the declaration did not at once
the abortive Russian revolutionary movement of
solve matters. In spite of the Bolsheviks' recog.
1905 brought a temporary end to russification
nition of Finnish independence, Russian troops
policies in Finland and opened the way for an
remained in the country. Furthermore, the gulf
important political reform. In 1906 the tradi-
separating non-Socialist Finns from the radical
tional Finnish Diet of four estates voted to
Socialists, who wanted a social revolution, con-
abolish itself in favor of a new unicameral par-
tinued to widen.
liament to be elected by universal and equal
Both groups wanted complete independence
suffrage. In the elections of 1907 the Socialists
from Russia but, suspicious of one another, had
captured 4062 of the seats, becoming the largest
been setting up separate armed units, which be
single party. Their success reflected the magni-
came known as the Red and White Guards.
tude of Finland's unsolved social problems and
In January 1918 the government of Pehr Evind
the existence of a large rural proletariat.
Svinhufvud, who was a former leader of the
However, the new parliament could do little
passive resistance movement, ordered the White
to solve these problems, since the ezarist regime
Guards commanded by Carl Gustaf Mannerheim
again took control of Finland. Russification was
to expel the Russian troops from the country and
renewed with fresh vigor in 1908 and by the
restore public order. The Whites started opera-
start of World War I the idea of an armed re-
tions against the Russian garrisons in westem
volt was gaining ground, especially in university
Finland. However, the Finnish Reds seized
circles. Young Finns had had no military train-
power in the south and the war of national
ing after disbandment of the Finnish Army
liberation turned into a civil war as well.
(1901-1905), and failure of the Russian military
The Germans and the Jägers, those young
draft. To overcome this handicap, students and
Finns who had gone to Germany for military
other young men started to slip into Germany
training, aided the Whites, while the Russians
for military training.
helped the Reds. The Whites were finally vic-
Before any Finnish revolt materialized. the
torious in the war, which ended in May 1918.
March Revolution of 1917 occurred in Russia,
After the war, Svinhufvud and Mannerheim
and a new period in Anish-Russian relations
acted as regents of Finland until a republic was
WIDE WORLD
WINTER WAR OF 1939 dis
played Finland's remarkable
military strength against the
invading forces from the USSR.
Russian provisional government
sh autonomy, but this no longer
innish parliament assumed
Finns. In July 1917 the Socialist
country, except in foreign supreme mili
which were left to Russia. This
unacceptable to the Russian
it dissolved the parliament. New gov.
the fall of 1917 put the embittered
the minority.
hese political events, Finland
I by rapidly increasing unemploy- was
hortages, and unsolved social prob-
Bolshevik Revolution in Petrograd
1917 was followed by a general
land, and radicalism and a revolu-
quickly gained ground among the
alists. The internal situation was
aotic, and the presence of undis-
an military forces added to the
ice and Civil War. The parliament
inland independent from Russia on
but the declaration did not at once
In spite of the Bolsheviks' recog.
mish independence, Russian troops
PHOTO TRENDS
the country. Furthermore, the gulf
Architect Alvar Aalto's skillful use of materials is evidenced in this Institute of Technology building at Otaniemi.
on-Socialist Finns from the radical
() wanted a social revolution, con-
len.
proclaimed in 1919. Kaarlo Juho Stählberg, who
Swedish-speaking population should be allowed
ips wanted complete independence
stood for reconciliation between the Reds and
a great degree of self-government. The Finnish-
out. suspicious of one another, had
the Whites, was elected the first president.
speakers were also displeased by lingering frus-
up separate armed units, which be-
Interwar Period. Independent Finland faced
trations and traces of past Swedish dominance,
as the Red and White Guards.
vexing problems in both its foreign and internal
particularly in cultural and business life. The
918 the government of Pehr Evind
affairs. Relations with Sweden and Russia were
language strife continued through the 1930's but
who was a former leader of the
tense. Sweden was claiming possession of the
quieted when, as international tensions increased,
ince movement, ordered the White
Aland Islands, off the Finnish coast, and had the
Finland sought closer relations with traditionally
anded by Carl Gustaf Mannerheim
support of the local Swedish-speaking popula-
neutral Scandinavia.
Russian troops from the country and
tion. After prolonged disputes the League of
Although the politics of the country had at
order. The Whites started opera-
Nations awarded the islands to Finland in 1921.
times been stormy, Finland's overall economic ad-
the Russian garrisons in western
Problems with Russia centered around East-
vance had been impressive during the two
wever, the Finnish Reds seized
ern Karelia, a border area largely inhabited by
decades of independence. An important land
south and the war of national
Finnish-related peoples but which was now in-
reform had taken place, which leveled class
ned into a civil war as well.
cluded in Russia. Many Finns wanted either to
distinctions by allowing tenant farmers to be-
ans and the Jägers, those young
annex Eastern Karelia to Finland or help the
come landowers. Thus, when the Soviet Union
ad gone to Germany for military
area gain independence. Expeditions to end up-
demanded islands and a naval base in the Gulf
d the Whites, while the Russians
risings in Eastern Karelia against Bolshevik rule
of Finland and part of the Karelian isthmus from
eds. The Whites were finally vie-
failed to achieve either aim. In 1919, however,
Finland in the fall of 1939, it confronted a uni-
war, which ended in May 1918.
a Finnish volunteer force helped the Estonians
fied nation. The Social Democrats and Agrarians
ar, Svinhufvud and Mannerheim
gain independence from Russia. Peace with Rus-
dominated the coalition government, which re-
its of Finland until a republic was
sia was concluded in 1920, but relations remained
fused to comply with Soviet demands and in-
strained throughout the interwar period, in spite
vited other parties to join it.
of the signing of a nonaggression treaty in 1932.
The Winter War and World War II. On Nov. 30,
In domestic affairs the rise of an anti-
1939 Russian troops invaded Finland, thus be-
Communist movement and a running feud be-
ginning the Winter War. Shortly afterward
tween Finnish-language enthusiasts and Swedish-
Soviet authorities set up a Finnish puppet gov-
speaking Finns disturbed the tranquillity of the
ernment composed of men who had fled from
republic. For a short interval in the early 1930's
Finland to Russia after the civil war in 1918.
hatred created by the civil war, Communist ac-
tivity, and economic depression contributed to
The Russians and the puppet government signed
the rise of the Lapua movement. This anti-
a treaty that joined most of eastern Karelia to
Communist, but eventually also antiparliamen-
Finland. However, the Russians encountered un-
tary, Fascist-style movement developed into a
expectedly strong Finnish resistance, based on
WINTER WAR OF 1939 dis
powerful pressure group. The Lapua movement
the Finn's wide use of highly mobile ski troops.
played Finland's remarkable
caused the outlawing of Communist organiza-
This, and the possibility that Britain and France
military strength against the
tions; but it lost its popularity after an attempted
would aid the Finns, persuaded the Soviets to
coup d'etat in 1932. Its successor IKL (People's
abandon the puppet regime and come to terms
invading forces from the USSR.
Patriotic Movement), which organized itself as
with Finland. In the peace concluded on March
12. 1940. Finland lost southern Karelia and
a political party, never gained a mass following.
The constitution had in principle placed the
Viipuri (Vyborg), the second-largest Karelian
Swedish a language on a level equal with Finnish,
city. The area ceded to the Soviet Union in-
provision that many Finnish-speaking people
cluded 12% of Finland's total population. In
view disliked. Their resentment was aroused by the
addition. the Finns had to leave Hangö (Fin-
held by some Swedish speakers that the
nish, Hanko) peninsula to the Russians as a
naval base.
233
234
FINLAND: 6. History
THE OLYMPIC STADIUM
Helsinki, with its statue
Paavo Nurmi, the Finnish
distance runner, reflects
national interest in sports.
SVEN SAMELIUS
Following the Winter War, Finland turned
(since 1965. the Center Party), and the Com-
toward Germany for protection in the face of
munists. Communist party efforts to dominate
Russia's continued pressure, its refusal to accept
the government failed, in spite of their tempo-
a Swedish-Finnish alliance, and its incorporation
rary control of the premiership and of the min-
of the three small Baltic republics (Estonia,
istry of the interior. After 1948 the Communist
Latvia, and Lithuania) into the Soviet Union in
were kept out of the government until 1966.
1940. When Germany invaded Russia on June
Mannerheim, who as president since 1944
22, 1941, Finland declared itself neutral in the
had led the country out of war, resigned in 1946
conflict. However, there were German troops in
and was succeeded by Juho Kusti Paasikivi
Lapland, and the Russians bombed Finland.
Paasikivi was the creator of Finland's postwar
The Finnish troops, commanded by Mannerheim,
foreign policy of neutrality. In order to gain
crossed the Russian frontier, recaptured lost
security, Finland cultivated close relations with
territories, and occupied Eastern Karelia. After
both the Soviet Union and the Scandinavian
that, the front remained stable until 1944.
countries. A treaty signed with the Soviet Union
In the summer of 1944 the Russians tried to
in 1948 stated that if Finland were attacked or
break Finnish resistance completely, but their
threatened by a third party, the two countries
advance was stopped near Vyborg in some of the
would negotiate about appropriate cooperation.
bloodiest battles on the Finnish front. An armis-
In 1955 the Soviet Union returned its military
tice with Russia was signed on Sept. 19. 1944.
base in Porkkala in exchange for a 20-year.
It was followed by fighting against the Germans,
renewal of the 1948 treaty.
who refused to leave northern Finland peace-
Finnish internal politics during most of the
fully and systematic levelled the area in their
1950's were dominated by the Agrarians and the
retreat. Throughout the war the democratic
Social Democrats. In 1956 the Agrarian leader
form of government was maintained in Finland,
Urho K. Kekkonen, by a narrow electoral vote of
and no measures were taken against the Jews,
151 to 149. succeeded the retiring Paasikivi as
who were treated like all other Finnish citizens.
president of the republic.
The wars were costly. Nearly 100.000 Finns
While attempting to pursue a policy of neu-
died. and 50.000 were permanently disabled.
trality in international relations, Finland was
These were almost exclusively battlefield casual-
subjected to recurring Soviet pressure. In 1958
ties. Although there were foreign troops in some
the Soviet Union succeeded in causing the disso-
parts of Finland, the country escaped foreign
lution of a Social Democrat-led coalition govern-
occupation. Again, Finland lost southern Karelia
ment by cutting off trade and recalling its am-
and other territories along its eastern border.
bassador. This pressure induced the Agrarian
including its corridor to the Aretic Ocean. It
members of the coalition to withdraw their sup-
also had to lease a military base to the Soviets
port from the government. and as a result it fell.
at Porkkala. less than 20 miles (32 km) from
For the next eight years the Agrarians kept their
Helsinki. The inhabitants of the lost territories,
distance from the Social Democrats, who were
over 420.000. were allowed to move to Finland,
excluded from the government on the grounds
where they received compensation for their
that they supposedly were unacceptable to the
property losses and were resettled. Finland also
Soviet Union.
had to pay war reparations amounting to about
The next notable of Soviet inter-
$445 million.
ference came during
The Postwar Era. The postwar era started with
a popular-front stvle government of the leftist
claimed that it feared a possible German attack
campaign in 1961.
parties-the Social Democrats. the Agrarians
and proposed military consultations with Fin
FINLAND: 7. Culture
235
Cooperathe Soviet Cooperation.Soviet basis of their Treaty of Friendship,
duced powerful novels. about war and rural life
Cand the Soviet Mutual Assistance. Appa-
in Finland.
rently leadership was disturbed also
The Finns are great theater enthusiasts.
the possibility of a change in leadership in
There are more than 35 publicly supported pro-
Finland. by Satisfied with the way Kekkonen im-
fessional theaters in Finland, four of which per-
plemented his policy of neutrality coupled with
form in Swedish. Towns with populations of
the Soviet Union, the Soviets
about 20,000 have professional theaters, and
his candidacy. The Social Dem-
ocrat candidate, Olavi Honka, withdrew from the
there are many amateur groups.
In music the figure of Jean Sibelius ( 1865-
race, Kekkonen was reelected in 1962, and the
1957) towers above all others. Sibelius wrote
call for a military consultation was forgotten.
symphonic poems based on the Finnish epic
The Social Democrats won a clear victory in
Kelevala. Many of his other works, such as the
the parliammentary ections.of 1966, and a coali-
famous Finlandia, were inspired by the land-
tion from several par-
scape of his country.
ties, including the Communists, was formed un-
Eliel Saarinen and Alvar Aalto are probably
der their leadership. In the years that followed,
inland's leading 20th century architects. One of
Finland generally was ruled by coalitions of the
Saarinen's most famous works is the Helsinki
THE OLYMPIC STADIUM in
left and center.
railroad station. He went to the United States in
Helsinki, with its statue of
On Oct. 27. 1981. Kekkonen resigned the
1923, where his ideas greatly influenced the
Paavo Nurmi, the Finnish long.
presidency, which he had held for over 25 years,
development of designs for skyscrapers. The
distance runner, reflects the
because of poor health. He was succeeded by
versatile Alvar Aalto, who introduced functional-
national interest in sports.
the Social Democrat premier, Mauno Koivisto,
ism to Finland, is well known for his building and
who won a clear majority of the electoral vote on
furniture designs and for his skillful use of nat-
Jan. 26, 1982. Koivisto. whose candidacy had
ural materials.
been neither opposed nor endorsed by the Sovi-
PEKKA KALEVI HAMALAINEN
ets, was Finland's first president to be drawn
University of California Santa Barbara
from the left of the political spectrum.
8. Language
7. Culture
With Karelian, Estonian, and several other
the Center Party), and the Com-
The existence of two major languages in Fin-
languages, Finnish (or Suomi) forms the western-
mmunist party efforts to dominate
land is reflected in its cultural traditions. Though
most. or "Baltic," subbranch of the Finno-Ugrian
ent failed, in spite of their tempo-
Finnish had been a literary language since the
branch of the Uralic family of languages (see
of the premiership and of the min-
16th century, it was little cultivated in written
FINNO-UGRIAN LANGUAGES). It is spoken by
nterior. After 1948 the Communists
form during the era of Swedish domination.
about 4.6 million people in Finland proper and in
t of the government until 1966.
Apart from folk traditions, Finland's cultural de-
adjacent counties, as well as overseas. Fin-
im, who as president since 1944
velopment was intimately connected with the
land is divided into two main dialect areas, East
ountry out of war, resigned in 1946
general development of Swedish culture. There
and West, but the literary language used in
cceeded by Juho Kusti Paasikivi.
were intellectuals particularly interested in Fin-
Finnish schools is known throughout the country.
the creator of Finland's postwar
nish culture, and some. like Henrik Gabriel
This dates from the 16th century and especially
y of neutrality. In order to gain
Porthan, made notable studies of the language,
from the writings of Mikael Agricola, the Fin-
and cultivated close relations with
geography, history, and economy of Finland.
nish Lutheran bishop and reformer.
viet Union and the Scandinavian
Finnish cultural life in the 19th century ac-
In the course of their history, speakers of
treaty signed with the Soviet Union
quired a more distinct character. Folklore col-
Finnish have come in contact with groups of
di that if Finland were attacked or
lections and publications revealed the wealth of
people speaking older forms of Baltic Latvian-
a third party, the two countries
ancient Finnish traditions, enriched the literary
Lithuanian), of Germanic, and of Slavic. Fin-
ate about appropriate cooperation.
language, and inspired the development of the
nish has borrowed vocabulary items from all of
Soviet Union returned its military
arts. One of the most important 19th century
these-for example, hammas ("tooth"), from
kala in exchange for a 20-year-
Finnish writers was the poet Johan Ludvig
Baltic: kuningas ("king"), from Germanic: risti
e 1948 treaty.
Runeberg, who wrote in Swedish. He won wide
("cross"), from Slavic. In addition, it has taken
ternal politics during most of the
renown in Scandinavia gained the stature
a few items from still older sources-such as
ominated by the Agrarians and the
of a national poet through his patriotic works on
sata ("100"), from an Indo-Iranian language-
rats. In 1956 the Agrarian leader
the 1808-1809 war with Russia. Another prom-
and many from more recent sources, including
onen, by a narrow electoral vote of
inent 19th century writer was Aleksis Kivi,
Swedish, Old Scandinavian, Low German, and
ucceeded the retiring Paasikivi as
author of popular plays and of the classic epic
others. Finnish is constantly being enriched by
he republic.
Seven Brothers. Minna Canth, who protested
neologisms in all fields of modern life, from gov-
mpting to pursue a policy of neu-
against social injustices and championed women's
ernment to psychiatry to rocket physics. Some
ernational relations, Finland was
rights, was another important playwright. In one
of his major works. Juha. Juhani Aho, a remark-
of these terms are international, but many are
ecurring Soviet pressure. In 1958
composed of Finnish roots: for example, Yhdys-
on succeeded in causing the disso-
able stylist. depicted the tensions between the
callat ("United States"), derived from yhty-
ial Democrat-led coalition govern-
western and eastern elements in the Finnish
ng off trade and recalling its am-
people.
("to be united from yksi ("one")
-and calta ("power"), with the plural suffix -t.
is pressure induced the Agrarian
Eino Leino. who is considered the greatest
The syntax of modern spoken Finnish re-
e coalition to withdraw their sup-
poet to write in Finnish in the 20th century,
sembles that of modern spoken Swedish. In the
government. and as a result it fell.
was strongly influenced by native folklore. But
ight years the Agrarians kept their
it remained for the Swedish-speaking poets
formal written style can be found complexities
the Social Democrats. who were
Edith Södergran and Elmer Diktonius to intro-
reminiscent of German syntax. Archaic features
duce modernism to Finland. The Nobel Prize-
can be encountered in folklore: the youth of
the government on the grounds
winner Frans Eemil Sillanpää, a 20th century
Helsinki favors racy words, often derived from
osedly were unacceptable to the
for Finnish author. became internationally known
English.
notable example of Soviet inter-
his lyrical of the Finnish country-
Finnish has 8 vowels-i. e, y ( as ii in Ger-
man). 6, ii (as a in English cat), 11. 0, and a-
during the presidential election
feared a possible German attack
a effects of industrializa-
Pekkanen wrote about
and 12 consonants-m. 11. ng. P. t, k. S, r, 1.1,
1961. The Soviet government
r. and h. It is a quantitative language: all vowels
international best sellers. and Väinö Linna pro-
Waltari's historical novels became
and consonants may be either short or long, ex-
military consultations with Fin-
cepting i, U. and h. which are always short.
236
FINLAND: 8. Language-FINLAND, GULF OF
Letters written double represent long sounds,
oneself up"), ant-el-ias ("generous"), ant-o
which are pronounced about twice as long or
location,' "credit"), ann-os ("a portion"),
twice as slowly as the corresponding shorts.
ime- ("a gift"), ann-iskele- ("to retail," "to
There are no consonant clusters (such as pr, str,
on the premises"), and ant-ee-ksi ("forgivenes
nt) at the beginnings or ends of native words;
"pardon"), all of which are derived from
thus koulu ("school") has lost the s, which began
verbal root anta- ("to give").
the word from which it was derived. Due to this
ROBERT AUSTERLI
avoidance of consonant clusters and to the rela-
Columbia University
tively small repertory of basic sounds, the stems
of Finnish nouns and verbs tend to be relatively
Bibliography
long (generally bisyllabic); examples are isä
("father"), käsi ("hand"), pilvi ("cloud"), jalka
Allison, Roy, Finland's Relation with the Societ Unio
1944-1984 (St. Martin's Press 1985).
("foot," "leg"), talo ("house"), and navetta
Berner, Orjan, Soviet Policies Toward the Nordic Country
("cowshed"). The stress in Finnish always falls
(Univ. Press of Am. 1986).
on the first vowel of the word.
Darby, H. C., The Changing Finland (Cambridge 1983
De Ullmann, Stephan, Epic of the Finnish Nation (Gordo
A typical feature of the phonology of Finnish
Press 1977).
is the phenomenon known as vowel harmony,
Erfurth, Waldemar, Last Finnish War (Univ. Pub. of
1977).
according to which no front vowel (ä, ö, y) may
Haavio-Mannila, E., ed., Unfinished Democracy: Wom
stand in the same word with any back vowel
in Nordic Politics (Pergamon 1985).
(a, o, u); thus halu ("desire," "eagerness") and
Irwin, John L., The Finns and the Lapps: How They LE
and Work (Holt 1973).
halussa ("in the desire") contrast with häly
Jones. Michael, Finland, Daughter of the Sea (Shoe Strin
("clamor," "tumult") and hälyssä ("in the
1977).
clamor"); note -ssa as opposed to -ssä.
Jutikkala, Eino, and Pirinen, Kauko, A History of Finland
rev. ed. (Praeger 1974).
Another typical feature is gradation, ex-
Kekkonen, Urho, A President's View (David & Charle
amples of which include vati ("basin") as op-
1982).
posed to vadissa ("in the basin") and kukka
Kivikoski, Ella Margareta, Finland: Ancient People
Places (Praeger 1967).
("Hower") as opposed to kukassa ("in the
Mazour, Anatole Grigorevich. Finland Between East
flower"). Gradation at times involves complex
West (1956; reprint, Greenwood Press 1976).
phenomena, as in laki ("law") and laissa ("in
Passivirta, Juhani, Finland and Europe: The Period of
tonomy and International Crises in 1808-1914, ed.
the law"), or hylje ("seal") and hylkeessä ("in
D. G. Kirby, tr. by Anthony F. Upton and Sirka B. Upto
the seal"). Both of these features are condi-
(Univ. of Minn. Press 1982).
tioned by the distribution of vowel and con-
Platt, Raye Roberts, ed., Finland and Its Geography
McCosh Bookstore 1955).
sonant sounds in Finnish words.
Polvinen, Tuomo, Between East and West, ed. by D. G.
Nouns and Verbs. Finnish nouns have 16
by and Peter Herring (Univ. of Minn. Press 1986).
cases, of which 12 are fully productive; 4 others
Rakjanen, Aini, Of Finnish Ways (Harper 1984).
Sansom, William, The Icicle and the Sun (1959; reprin
are only found sporadically. Examples include
Greenwood Press 1976).
the genitive, indicated by the suffix -n; the ines-
Screen, J. E. O., Finland (ABC-CLIO 1981).
sive, indicated by -ssa/-ssä ("in and the
Shirer, William L., The Challenge of Scandinavia: No
way, Sweden, Denmark and Finland in Our Time (1955
essive, indicated by -na/-nä ("as
..."). Each
reprint, Greenwood Press 1977).
case indicates the relation of the noun to the
Siikala, K., Finlandia (Heinman 1981).
other members of a phrase or sentence; for ex-
Thaden, E. C., ed., Russification in the Baltic Provinces
and Finland. 1855-1914 (Princeton Univ. Press 1980).
ample, isä-n talo-ssa, using the genitive and
Wuorinen, John Henry, A History of Finland (Columbia
inessive, means "in father's house.' Nouns can
Univ. Press 1965.)
also be modified By possessive suffixes: talo-ni
Finnish-Language Grammars
("my house"), talo-mme ("our house"), talo-
Austerlitz. Robert, Finnish Reader and Glossary, rev.
ssa-ni ("in my house"), talo-i-ssa-ni ("in my
(Res. Ctr. Lang. Semiotic 1966).
Flint. Aili. Say It in Finnish (Dover 1984).
houses"; here the suffix -i- is the plural marker of
Holman, Eugene, ed., Finnish Verb Handbook (A. Vanou
the stem, corresponding to the suffix -S of houses).
1984).
There are five possessive suffixes, meaning "my,"
Karlsson, Fred. Finnish Grammar, tr. by A. Chesterman
Vanous 1983).
"thy," "our," "your," and "his/her/its/their.'
Sebeok, Thomas A., Spoken Finnish (Spoken Lang. Serv
Finnish verbs have three persons in the sin-
1977).
gular-as in anna-n ("I give"), anna-t ("thou
Finnish-Language Dictionaries
givest"), and anta-a ("he gives") three in
Alanne, Vieno Severi, Finnish-English General Dictionary
(French & European Pub. 1984).
the plural. They have two tenses-present and
Hurme, R., and Pesonen. M., Finnish General Dictionary: Pub.
past-four moods, and a special device for in-
English-Finnish, 2d ed. (French & European
dicating an impersonal agent, comparable to
1984).
Riikon, E., and Tuomikowski. A., Finnish Dictionary:
man in German or on in French; thus annetaan
glish-Finnish, 10th ed. (A. Vanous 1979).
("one gives"), annettakoon ("may one give!").
There is also a negative verb, very much like
FINLAND, Gulf of, an arm of the Baltic Seal
don't in English, which is conjugated for person:
extending about 250 miles (400 km) from west
minä en anna ("I do not give"), sinä et anna
to east between Finland (north) and the Es-
("thou dost not give"), hän ei anna ("he/she
tonian republic of the USSR (south) to Leniny
does not give"). Finnish abounds in infinitives
grad. Its breadth at the widest part is about
and participles-for example. antaa ("to give"),
80 miles (128 km). The gulf is relatively shallow
antanut and annettu ("given"), antava ("giv-
and freezes over for three or more months dur
ing"), annettava ("which is to be given"),
ing the winter. It receives the Neva River 31
antaen ("while giving"), antaessa ("in the act
Leningrad, the Saimaa Canal at Vyborg, USSR
of giving"), antama ("which has been given"),
and the Narva River at the eastern border
and antaminen ("the activity of giving"). Most
Estonia. It is also connected by canal, via lakes
of these can be inflected, like any noun, for case
Ladoga and Onega, with the White Sea. It con the
and for person.
tains many islands, including Kotlin, site of
Finnish has many derivational suffixes that
Soviet naval base of Kronshtadt. Helsinki, cap+ Es
serve to enrich its vocabulary. Words exemplify-
ital of Finland, and Tallin, capital of the
ing this phenomenon include anta-utu- ("to give
tonian republic, are on its shores.