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State Dinner Toast, Athens 7/18/91 [OA 8325]
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GREECE
State Dinner Toast
Athens
Nick Burns, NSC- x 6849
John Long, State- 647-6114
John Klekas, Embassy Politial Division X 390
call through signal
07/09/91
03:02
CIDR-DUKE UNIVERSITY
001
HAS
DUKE UNIVERSITY
OWO
91 JUL 8 P3:04 P3:
214 Old Chemistry Building
4875 DUKE STATION
INSTITUTE OF POLICY SCIENCES
DURHAM. NORTH CAROLINA 27706
AND PUBLIC AFFAIRS
(919)684-6612
FACSIMILE TRANSMITTAL FORM
DATE AND TIME:
91
2:57 p.m.
TO:
(Name) CAROL BLYMYRE
202-456-6218
(Fax Number)
(City/State) WASHINGTON, D.C.
FROM:
BAUCE Kuniholm
(Name)
(Address/Location) 214 OLD CHemistry
(919) 684-2861
CHARGE CODE:
457-1023-6980-14100
COMMENTS:
This document consists of of pages including this cover sheet. If you need to contact the
sender please call (919) 684-6612.
07/09/91
03:03
CIDR-DUKE UNIVERSITY
002
THE
DUKE UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF POLICY SCIENCES
GWO
AND PUBLIC AFFAIRS
# 919-684-2861
BRUCE R. KUNIHOLM. Director
4875 DUKE STATION
Chairman of the Department of Public Policy Studies
DURHAM, NORTH CAROLINA 27706
Professor of Public Policy Studies and History tel 202456-7750
(919) 684-5026/6612
Carol Blymyre
fax & 202-456-6218
July 8, 1991
Speechwriter
White House
Dear Carol:
Attached are the two pages of talking points for Ozal's
visit to Duke along with the anecdote that I mentioned to you on
the phone. If you are interested in background, I could send you
more material, but its hard to know exactly what you want. Below
are listed some of the articles and/or books I have written about
Turkey which you can get access to through the Library of
Congress or which I could send to you if you are interested (if
you had a clearer idea of what you would like to emphasize I
would be happy to help you; it would probably be a lot easier
than wading through all of this stuff yourself)
1. The Origina of the Cold War in the Near East: Great Power
Conflict and Diplomacy in Iran, Turkey, and Greece (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1980), 485 PP-
2. "Turkey and NATO: Past, Present, and Future," ORBIS, Vol.
27, No. 2 (Summer 1983), PP. 421-445.
3. The Near East Connection: Greece and Turkey in the
Reconstruction and Security of Europe, 1946-1952 (Brookline,
Mass.: Hellenic Press, 1984, 50 pp.
4. "Rhetoric and Reality in the Aegean: U.S. Policy Options
Toward Greece and Turkey," SAIS Review, Winter-Spring 1986/Vol.
6, No. 1, pp. 137-157.
5. "Turkey and the West," Foreign Affairs, Spring 1991, Vol.
70, No. 2, PP. 34-48. (This article is the most recent one.)
My basic suggestion would be to emphasize the US-Turkish
connection that goes back to 1945-46 and to note that it has
weathered the adversities that confront all alliances. It's
important to mention the reciprocal notion of the alliance: that
each side has both given something to it and received something
from it and that, while it hasn't been perfect, it has stood the
test of time and been beneficial to both sides.
18000
07/09/91
03:03
CIDR-DUKE UNIVERSITY
003
Kuniholm. 1
President Ozal, Mrs. Ozal, Ambassador Kandemir, Ambassador
Toperi, Consul General Bozkir, Distinguished Guests, Ladies, and
Gentlemen
on behalf of the Institute of Policy Sciences and Public Affairs
I would like to welcome today to Duke University
President Turgut Ozal,
the eighth president of the republic of Turkey
a NATO ally with a population of close to 60 million people.
President Ozal has had a distinguished career:
an electrical engineer with a master's degree
from Istanbul Technical University
he has served as Deputy General of the
State Electrical Authority
overseeing projects on the electrification of Turkey
including Turkey's main hydroelectric power stations
as Undersecretary of the State Planning Organization
he was responsible for developing the Turkish economy
and implementing major infrastructural projects
as Deputy Prime Minister and Prime Minister
he helped see the country through very difficult times
when terrorist deaths reached over 25 a day
and threatened to engulf the country in a civil war
subsequently, he encouraged the lifting of martial law,
all the while encouraging the opening of the Turkish economy to
trade and competition,
and as the WSJ noted on Friday
creating a new Turkish revolution.
Anyone who has been in Turkey over the years can see the changes,
the most striking of which is the massive multi-billion Southeast
Anatolia project.
As President (since 1989) he has had the vision to be creative
about Turkey's role in the post Cold-War era, advocating
trade and direct investment links with the nations of the Black
Sea, a subject which he discussed with President Gorbachev,
and proposing the so-called Peace Pipeline,
an imaginative suggestion to bring water from the Turkish
mountains down to the eastern Mediterranean and Persian Gulf.
The recent war in the Gulf has underscored the value of water
there, and the Middle East peace process, if it is ever to get
underway, will require that the short supply of water be
augmented. The interdependence that could be fostered by such a
project could make an important contribution to peace.
There will be a major meeting to discuss the subject in Turkey
this November.
07/09/91
03:04
CIDR-DUKE UNIVERSITY
004
Kuniholun 2
During the current Gulf crisis, Turkey, at a cost of $10 billion,
was a steadfast ally and President Ozal in particular, at
considerable political risk, was unwavering in his support of UN
principles and the coalition's policies. He:
--stopped the flow of oil in the Iraqi pipeline
--supported the UN sanctions
--extended the DECA agreement with the US
--deployed forces along his border with Iraq (100, 000)
--and allowed allied troops to use Turkish bases
Turkey is the only Muslim country in the Near East that is
secular and democratic, and it serves as an important model to
other countries in the region striving to transform their
structures for political participation. This is no easy task,
and in light of the potential hostility from its neighbors,
Turkey is keenly aware of who its allies are: it is loyal to its
responsibilities, and it expects the same from its partners.
This is best illustrated by a story, once told to me by an
official in the foreign ministry. Teams of analysts from a
number of European countries in the NATO alliance, the story
goes, were assigned to write on a typically arcane subject--in
this case elephants--and labored--again typically--for eighteen
months on the project. The French team wrote a modest volume on
the love life of elephants. The British team wrote a two-volume
work on elephants and their role in the expansion and decline of
the British empire. The German team wrote ten ponderous volumes
that served as an introduction to the study of elephants. The
Turkish team wrote a very thin volume that was titled, simply,
"Elephants: For or Against Turkey."
The bottom line, of course, is what diplomatic relations are all
about, and Turkey was there when we needed her. President Ozal
was there when we needed him. This was most recently recognized
at the White House last Saturday where President Bush,
after returning from Camp David with him, thanked President Ozal
for--and I quote-- "the best communications any two countries
could possibly have had, for his advice, and for his steadfast
adherence to principle from DAY ONE.' The Turkish government, he
went on to say, "never waivered one inch." For that we have
President Ozal to thank, and I would like you all to give him a
very special welcome here at Duke, where he has come to talk to
us about US-Turkish relations and Turkey's role in the new world
order.
--President Ozal will take questions directly from the floor. I
ask you only to make your questions clear and to the point, so
that as many of you as possible will have the opportunity to ask
questions.
ADDRESS BY PRESIDENT BUSH
TO THE GREEK PARLIAMENT
TS
MR. SPEAKER:
I APPEAR BEFORE THIS EXTRAORDINARY SESSION OF PARLIAMENT WITH A
GREAT SENSE OF HONOR.
THE LAST HEAD OF STATE WHO SPOKE TO THIS CHAMBER WAS THE GREAT
FRENCH STATESMAN CHARLES DE GAULLE. AND FOUR YEARS BEFORE THAT
PRESIDENT DE GAULLE, ONE OF AMERICA'S MOST BELOVED PRESIDENTS,
DWIGHT DAVID EISENHOWER HAD THE PRIVILEGE OF STANDING HERE.
GREEK DEMOCRACY, OF COURSE, HAS A SPECIAL STANDING IN THE
WORLD. IN HIS DECEMBER 15, 1959 ADDRESS TO THIS ASSEMBLY,
PRESIDENT EISENHOWER REMARKED: "IN THIS CITY OF ATHENS, MORE
THAN A SCORE OF CENTURIES AGO, DEMOCRACY - IN ITS PRINCIPLES
AND IN ITS PRACTICES - FIRST WON THE HEARTS AND MINDS OF MEN.
THIS HOUSE OF FREE REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT SYMBOLIZES THE
VIGOR OF MODERN DEMOCRACY IN ITS ANCIENT BIRTHPLACE;
DEMONSTRATES THAT THE WILL OF MEN TO BE FREE IS IMPERISHABLE."
ONE MAN WHO WAS ACTUALLY PRESENT ON THAT COLD WINTER MORNING TO
HEAR PRESIDENT EISENHOWER'S WORDS IS ALSO HERE TODAY. HE IS A
MAN WHO LED HIS PEOPLE THROUGH THE DANGERS AND CHALLENGES OF
THOSE SAME YEARS. ONE WHO LATER RESTORED DEMOCRACY TO GREECE,
AND THEN BROUGHT HIS COUNTRY INTO THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC
COMMUNITY. THAT GREAT STATESMAN IS, OF COURSE, YOUR PRESIDENT,
THEN PRIME MINISTER -- CONSTANTINE KARAMANLIS.
-2-
(TURN TO ADDRESS KARAMANLIS) TO HONOR YOU AND OUR FRIEND AND
ALLY WHOSE PRESIDENT YOU ARE, I WOULD LIKE TO INVITE YOU TO
WASHINGTON IN 1992. I HOPE YOU WILL ACCEPT, AND LOOK FORWARD
TO RECEIVING YOU IN OUR CAPITAL.
PRIME MINISTER KARAMANLIS AND PRESIDENT EISENHOWER CHAMPIONED
THE CAUSE OF DEMOCRACY AND FREEDOM DURING PERILOUS TIMES. BUT
THE U.S. AND GREECE HAVE A LONGSTANDING RECORD OF FIGHTING
TOGETHER ON THE SIDE OF THOSE SACRED PRINCIPLES. WE HAVE
SHARED A UNITY OF PURPOSE IN ALL OF THE MAJOR CONFLICTS IN THIS
CENTURY. WORLD WAR I. WORLD WAR II. THE KOREAN WAR. WHILE
ALL WERE TERRIBLE STRUGGLES, THE FORCES OF JUSTICE AND RIGHT
TRIUMPHED EACH TIME.
WE WERE VICTORIOUS ONCE AGAIN OVER AGGRESSION WHEN SADDAM
HUSSEIN ATTEMPTED TO ANNEX HIS NEIGHBOR, KUWAIT. THE
INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ROSE UP TOGETHER TO DEFEAT THIS
TYRANT. IT WAS AN AWESOME COLLECTIVE EFFORT. AND PRIME
MINISTER MITSOTAKIS RESPONDED JUST AS I EXPECTED HE WOULD. HE
KNEW WHAT WAS AT STAKE. HE GAVE THE FULL, UNSTINTING SUPPORT
OF HIS GOVERNMENT TO THAT NOBLE CAUSE. I HAVE TOLD HIM, BUT
WISH NOW TO ALSO SAY TO ALL OF YOU HOW MUCH WE APPRECIATED
GREECE'S HELP IN MAKING IT POSSIBLE TO MOVE US FORCES AND
EQUIPMENT QUICKLY TO THE REGION. WE WILL REMEMBER THIS.
-3-
AS I STAND HERE NOW, I AM REMINDED OF THE GOALS WE SHARE AS
PARTIES TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY. TO SAFEGUARD THE
FREEDOM, COMMON HERITAGE AND CIVILIZATION OF OUR PEOPLES. OF
THE FOUNDATION WHICH THOSE GOALS REST -- THE PRINCIPLES OF
DEMOCRACY, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY AND THE RULE OF LAW. SINCE 1949
THESE IDEAS HAVE GUIDED THE ALLIANCE IN STANDING FIRM AGAINST
THE FORCES OF AGGRESSION AND TOTALITARIANISM. WE HAVE
PERSEVERED. AND WE HAVE SUCCEEDED. THE WARSAW PACT IS NO
MORE. GREECE IS NOT ONLY MORE SECURE, BUT WE ARE WITNESSING IN
EASTERN EUROPE AND THE USSR THE EMERGENCE OF DEMOCRATIC
INSTITUTIONS AND FREE MARKETS. FRAGILE IN SOME CASES BUT
NURTURED BY THE LONG SUPPRESSED HOPES OF MILLIONS.
GREECE AND THE UNITED STATES WORKED CLOSELY TOGETHER FOR ALL
THESE EPOCHAL CHANGES. WE WERE NATO PARTNERS. WE WERE GOOD
FRIENDS. OUR WORK IS NOT FINISHED . WE MUST AND CAN MEET THE
NEW CHALLENGES OF PEACE JUST AS WE DID THE OLD -- BY WORKING
TOGETHER CLOSELY.
THE FACE OF EUROPE -- ITS INSTITUTIONS AND ITS STRUCTURES --
ARE CHANGING ALMOST DAILY. CHANGE REPRESENTS NEW
OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES, AND HORIZONS FOR THE PEOPLES OF
EUROPE. WE DISCUSSED MANY OF THESE DEVELOPMENTS AT THE
ECONOMIC SUMMIT IN LONDON FROM WHICH I HAVE JUST COME. I WANT
TO MENTION A FEW OF WHAT SEEM TO ME TO BE THE MOST IMPORTANT
POINTS FROM THAT MEETING TO YOU NOW.
-4-
INSERT SUMMIT POINTS
WE ARE HEADING, I BELIEVE, TOWARD A NEW WORLD ORDER THAT HAS AS
A CENTRAL COMPONENT A TRANS-ATLANTIC COMMUNITY WHICH STRETCHES
FROM VANCOUVER TO VLADIVOSTOK. A COMMUNITY BASED ON THE
CENTRAL VALUES OF INDIVIDUAL POLITICAL RIGHTS AND ECONOMIC
LIBERTY WHICH UNDERPIN DEMOCRATIC, FREE MARKET SOCIETIES. A
COMMUNITY FREE AND AT PEACE.
GREECE HAS A ROLE TO PLAY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THIS NEW
ORDER. MANY OF YOUR NEIGHBORS IN THE BALKANS ARE VALIANTLY
STRUGGLING -- SOME FOR THE FIRST TIME EVER -- TO IMPLEMENT
DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS AND TO RESTRUCTURE THEIR POLITICAL AND
LEGAL SYSTEMS.
-5-
BUT THERE IS YET MORE WHICH GREECE CAN DO. THE BALKANS HAVE
BEEN AN HISTORICALLY TROUBLED REGION. AND NOW, RESURGENT
ETHNICITY AND NATIONALISM ONCE AGAIN THREATEN STABILITY AND
PEACE. THESE FORCES UNDERMINE THE ONGOING ATTEMPTS TO NURTURE
STILL INFANT DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS. WE LOOK TO GREECE TO
SERVE AS A FORCE FOR STABILITY IN THE BALKAN REGION.
I HAVE BEEN TREMENDOUSLY IMPRESSED WITH THE ABILITY OF STATES
IN THE NEW TRANS-ATLANTIC COMMUNITY WHICH IS UNFOLDING BEFORE
US TO PUT OLD ENMITIES BEHIND THEM. THE UNITED STATES ENJOYS
GREATLY IMPROVED RELATIONS WITH THE SOVIET UNION. THE ALLIANCE
SUCCESSFULLY NEGOTIATED A TREATY ON CONVENTIONAL ARMED FORCES
IN EUROPE. GERMANS HAVE SET ASIDE THE BITTER DIVISIONS OF THE
COLD WAR YEARS AND REUNITED THEIR COUNTRY. GERMANY AND POLAND
HAVE AGREED ON THE DEMARCATION OF THEIR BORDER. THE EASTERN
EUROPEAN STATES HAVE EXPRESSED A STRONG INTEREST IN AFFILIATION
WITH THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY. WE ARE WITNESSES TO ONE OF THE
GREATEST REVOLUTIONARY CHANGES FOR THE GOOD THAT MODERN MAN HAS
EVER SEEN.
TOMORROW I WILL TRAVEL TO CRETE. WHILE THERE, I WILL LAY A
WREATH AT THE TOMB OF ONE OF GREECE'S GREAT MODERN STATESMAN --
ELEUTHERIOS VENIZELOS. I WILL STOP THERE TO HONOR THE MEMORY
OF HIS GREAT ACHIEVEMENT OF 1930 -- THE TREATIES OF FRIENDSHIP
AND COMMERCE WITH TURKEY. THIS HISTORIC MILESTONE WAS ACHIEVED
-6-
BECAUSE VENIZELOS' VISION OF THE FUTURE WAS SHARED BY THE
FOUNDER OF MODERN TURKEY -- KEMAL ATATURK. THEIR PERSONAL
FRIENDSHIP, AND THE PEACE THEY ESTABLISHED BETWEEN GREECE AND
TURKEY, REMAIN AS PROUD LEGACIES TODAY.
IT IS MY FERVENT HOPE THAT THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF 1930 MAY TODAY
INSPIRE THESE TWO GREAT COUNTRIES, BOTH VALUED FRIENDS AND
ALLIES OF THE UNITED STATES, TO INVOKE THAT SAME SPIRIT OF
COOPERATION AND PEACE. I BELIEVE THAT BOTH COUNTRIES SHARE THE
ASPIRATION FOR SUCCESS IN THIS REGARD. IT IS A DEVELOPMENT
WHICH WOULD BE WARMLY WELCOMED NOT ONLY BY THE UNITED STATES,
BUT THROUGHOUT EUROPE. YOU HAVE MY EVERY WISH FOR SUCCESS.
IN THIS CONTEXT I ALSO SHOULD BRIEFLY MENTION CYPRUS. WE ARE
ACTIVELY WORKING TO SUPPORT THE UNITED NATIONS
SECRETARY-GENERAL IN HIS GOOD OFFICES MISSION. ALL INTERESTED
PARTIES MUST ACCEPT THAT COMPROMISE AND GOOD-WILL ARE ESSENTIAL
COMPONENTS OF ANY SOLUTION. AND ANY SOLUTION MUST, OF COURSE,
PROVIDE FOR A JUST AND LASTING SETTLEMENT. SUCH A SOLUTION
NEEDS TO BE FOUND SOON AND CAN BE. WE WILL DO WHAT WE CAN TO
HELP, BUT IN THE END, THE SOLUTION MUST BE NEGOTIATED BY THE
PARTIES INVOLVED.
THESE ISSUES ARE AMONG THE ONES WHICH I EXPECT TO DISCUSS WITH
PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS WHEN WE MEET LATER TODAY. I WAS
-7-
PLEASED TO MEET HIM IN WASHINGTON WHEN HE VISITED THERE IN JUNE
1990. SINCE THAT TIME WE HAVE DEVELOPED A CLOSE RELATIONSHIP,
EXCHANGING IDEAS OVER THE PHONE AND BY LETTER. I LOOK FORWARD
TO RENEWING OUR PERSONAL ACQUAINTANCESHIP IN ATHENS, AND WHEN I
VISIT HIS HOME IN CHANIA. I WILL HAVE THE OPPORTUNITY TO
RETURN HIS HOSPITALITY WHEN HE VISITS WASHINGTON THIS FALL FOR
AN OFFICIAL VISIT.
I BELIEVE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND GREECE HAVE
NEVER BEEN BETTER. WE ENJOY GOOD COMMUNICATION, EXCELLENT
COOPERATION, AND MUTUAL TRUST. PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS AND
MEMBERS OF HIS GOVERNMENT HAVE WORKED CLOSELY WITH US TO FIND
WAYS OF IMPROVING EVEN FURTHER THE MUTUAL RESPECT AND BENEFIT
WHICH CHARACTERIZES OUR RELATIONSHIP.
OF COURSE, PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS AND I HAVE HAD MANY
ADVANTAGES IN THIS ENDEAVOR. THERE IS A LONG HISTORY OF
FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN OUR PEOPLES. AMERICANS OF GREEK DESCENT ARE
AN ACTIVE ETHNIC GROUP IN THE PLURALISTIC MELTING-POT WHICH IS
AMERICAN SOCIETY. WE ALSO HAVE OUR PARTNERSHIP IN THE
ALLIANCE. FINALLY, WE SHARE A COMMITMENT TO THE BASIC
PRINCIPLES WHICH UNDERLIE OUR SOCIETIES AND GOVERNMENTS, AND A
DESIRE TO SEE THESE PROSPER AND FLOURISH THROUGHOUT EUROPE.
JUN 25 '91 14:59
96475087 PAGE
-8-
WE OWE YOUR ANCESTORS A GREAT DEBT. THEIR CONCEPTION AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES SHOWN AS A LIGHT WHICH
WAS NEVER EXTINGUISHED, EVEN DURING THE DARKEST MOMENTS OF
HUMAN HISTORY. GREECE WILL BE CELEBRATING THE 2500TH
ANNIVERSARY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF THOSE PRINCIPLES IN ATHENS
THIS FALL. FREE PEOPLES EVERYWHERE WILL WISH YOU WELL IN
THIS. FOR WE ALL ENJOY THE LEGACY YOUR ANCIENT FORBEARERS
LEFT AS A GIFT FOR ALL MANKIND.
BUT GREECE TODAY IS NOT A SIMPLE REFLECTION OF ITS PAST. IT IS
A VIBRANT SOCIETY WITH A GOVERNMENT WHICH IS EXPANDING ITS
DIPLOMACY AND ITS INTERESTS. WE WELCOME THAT PROCESS AND LOOK
FORWARD TO COOPERATING WITH YOU TO STRENGTHEN FURTHER THE TIES
BETWEEN OUR COUNTRIES. MAY THE FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN OUR PEOPLES
NOURISH RELATIONS BETWEEN US. AND MAY OUR COMMON DEVOTION TO
THE PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY, AND MARKET
ECONOMIES HASTEN THE EMERGENCE OF A NEW INTERNATIONAL ORDER OF
PEACE AND PROSPERITY WHERE FREE MEN DETERMINE THEIR OWN
DESTINIES.
WE HAVE MUCH TO ACCOMPLISH. LET US NOT DELAY.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959
324
Eisenhower also expressed interest in the steps His Imperial Majesty is
taking to promote social progress. The President said that the United
States intends to continue to assist Iran in the mutual interest of both
nations.
The President took the opportunity to express the admiration of the
people of the United States for the brave stand of the Iranian people
and Government in the face of outside pressure.
NOTE: This joint statement was released in Tehran.
323
g
Remarks at the Mehrabad Airport,
Tehran, Upon Leaving for Greece.
December 14, 1959
Your Majesty, Ladies and Gentlemen:
During my brief hours here in Iran, I have learned much. First of all,
I have learned about the hospitality and cordiality of the Iranian people
and their leaders. I appreciate and am grateful for every greeting from
every citizen that I saw all along the route.
I am particularly grateful to His Majesty for his many courtesies this
morning to me and my party.
I should like to say a special word of farewell to the Diplomatic Corps.
I should like to greet you again personally, but the hour grows late for
my departure, and I must leave. I am sorry, and I want to apologize to
this beautiful country and all its citizens because I didn't and couldn't
stay longer. I would like to stay as many days as I have hours.
Thank you until we can meet again. Goodbye.
NOTE: Following the luncheon at the airport accompanied by the Shah of Iran.
Marble Palace, the President left for the
324
9
Remarks Upon Arrival at Hellinikon
Airport, Athens. December 14, 1959
Your Majesty, Ladies and Gentlemen:
It is a great privilege to be welcomed to this city for the first time in
7 years. I come back to a country that is responsible for much that
belongs to Western culture and civilization.
855
JUN 6 '91 12:00
96475087 PAGE.001
Q 324
Public Papers of the Presidents
When I came here 7 years ago, I found this nation to be one-
in its courage, in its hardihood, in its adherence to principle-truly as
great as those Greek city states that we learned to love and admire from
the days when as little boys we learned our ancient history.
So I assure you again that the welcome from His Majesty, the audience,
and the people-individuals here, it means much to me, and I hope as
I have my talks with His Majesty, His Majesty's Government, that we
will find much that we can exchange between ourselves that will be
fruitful for the solution of any problems between us.
Thank you very much.
NOTE: The President spoke at 4:47 p.m.
manlis, Greek officials, U.S. Ambassador
He was met by King Paul, the Crown
Ellis O. Briggs, and members of the U.S.
Prince, Prime Minister Constantine Kara-
Embassy.
325
q
Address to the Members of the Parliament
of Greece. December 15, 1959
Mr. Speaker, Mr. Prime Minister, Your Beatitude, Excellencies, Ladies
and Gentlemen, Honorable Representatives of the Hellenes:
I am greatly honored that I have been invited to speak before this
distinguished Parliament.
Greatness and grandeur are all about us; greatness and grandeur of
ideas and ideals that were born and first enunciated nearby; of men
forever memorable who walked and lived here, of a people whose valor
and vitality and wisdom are written large on the human record. Your
present Government and its leaders, your distinguished Prime Minister,
are producing a record of achievement that makes them worthy suc-
cessors to their illustrious predecessors.
I represent in this place 180 million men and women who with you
of Greece share the golden legacy of culture and civilization bequeathed
by your forebears to the Western World. We Americans, with you
Greeks, are fellow-heirs to the glory of Greece.
In this city of Athens, more than a score of centuries ago, democracy-
in its principles and in its practices-first won the hearts and minds of
men. This house of free representative government symbolizes the vigor
of modern democracy in its ancient birthplace; demonstrates that the
will of men to be free is imperishable.
856
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959
325
In our common dedication to the ideals of democracy our two coun-
tries-America and Greece-feel a basic kinship. An American can
feel as much at home here as in Washington or Abilene, my own village,
or Brooklyn-just as Greeks quickly find themselves at home in those
three places in America.
To this Parliament, I come with a message of admiration and respect
from the American people to the Greek people, and for the light of
inspiration that shone out, in our own day, to all the free world from
this land and its islands.
You have proved yourselves fearless of defense in your independence;
tireless in your attack on the evils of hardship and privation; ready for
sacrifice that your children might enjoy a brighter day. And, beset with
hardship and difficulty at home, you joined in cooperation with the
other countries of the Atlantic Alliance for mutual defense and security.
Your Expeditionary Force to Korea, by its valor and heroism, helped
sustain the rule of law and the United Nations in that divided nation.
The American people-and I am sure all the free peoples of the
world-salute you, valiant and worthy heirs to the Greek traditions.
And now, briefly, permit me to speak on a cause close to my heart;
close, I hope, to the hearts of all who believe in the brotherhood, the
dignity, the divine origin and destiny of man as a child of God, created
in His image.
The cause is: peace and friendship in freedom.
The Greek and American peoples share a common and deep devotion
to peace. We share further the conviction that we must sustain the condi-
tions under which the goal of peace may be pursued effectively.
We must be strong militarily, economically-but above all, spiritually.
By developing and preserving such strength-by forever repudiating the
use of aggressive force-we shall win the sort of peace we want; with
friendship in freedom.
I mean peace that is creative, dynamic, fostering a world climate that
will relieve men and their governments of the intolerable burden of
armaments; liberate them from the haunting fear of global war and
universal death.
I mean friendship that is spontaneous and warm, welling up from a
deep conviction that all of us are more concerned with the bettering of
our circumstances; giving our children wider opportunity and brighter
promise-than in destroying each other.
857
I mean freedom in which, under the rule of law, every human will
have the right and a fair chance to live his own life; to choose his own
path; to work out his own destiny; that nations will be free from mis-
givings and mistrust, able to develop their resources for the good of their
people.
To this cause of peace and friendship in freedom, Greeks are contribut-
ing all their hearts and minds and energies. Joined with the free men
of the world they can help mankind at long last to enjoy the fullness of
life envisioned by the sages of ancient Greece.
Honorable Members of Parliament, I want to assure you again of the
very deep sense of distinction that I feel in the invitation to address you.
I feel that here I am with men who, like myself and all other Americans,
love peace and freedom and want to work with you for it.
NOTE: The President spoke at 10:19 a.m.
the unicameral parliament, Constantine
His opening words "Mr. Speaker, Mr.
Karamanlis, Prime Minister, and Arch-
Prime Minister, Your Beatitude" referred
bishop Theoklitos, Primate of Greece.
to Constantine Rodopoulos, Speaker of
326 q Toast by the President at a Luncheon
Given in His Honor by King Paul.
December 15, 1959
Your Majesty:
My heartfelt thanks are extended to the people of Greece for the
warm welcome they have accorded me. This welcome reflects the
friendship between our two peoples-a friendship cemented in war and
in our common effort to preserve and to amplify the concept of liberty,
a heritage from the ancient Greeks.
Your Majesty has spoken eloquently of the mission of my country.
I believe that the essential element in the alliance of people dedicated
to freedom, including those sharing the responsibilities of NATO, is
that we are equals who respect each other's interest.
Our alliance is based upon single will to maintain human dignity.
This alliance of ours is a union of like-minded peoples, each contributing
to the limit of their capacity. The devotion of the Greek people to this
common ideal is nowhere more amply attested than in the settlement of
the Cyprus problem.
858
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959
9 327
I agree with Your Majesty that we in the free world today confront
& great challenge.
How we shall meet it depends in large measure upon our determina-
tion, patience, and strength in union. In this test, I have no doubt
that the heroic Greek people, who for thousands of years have guarded
their independence with fierce decisiveness, will stand in the vanguard.
And SO I raise my glass to His Majesty, the King, stalwart standard-
bearer of the unquenchable spirit of Hellenism, and to the people of
Greece, whose steadfast allegiance to right inspires the admiration of
the American people. In union, and with the guidance of the Almighty,
may we forge ahead to peace, justice, and prosperity for all mankind.
NOTE: The President proposed this toast at a luncheon at the royal palace.
327 9 Joint Statement Following Discussions
With Prime Minister Karamanlis.
December I5, 1959
ON THE occasion of his official visit to Greece on the fourteenth and
fifteenth of December, the President of the United States Mr. Dwight
Eisenhower concluded talks with the Prime Minister of Greece Mr. Con-
stantine Karamanlis. Present at the talks were the American Ambassador,
Mr. Ellis O. Briggs, and the Under Secretary of State Mr. Robert Murphy,
and on the Greek side the Deputy Prime Minister, Mr. Panayotis Kanel-
lopoulos, and the Acting Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Constantine
Tsatsos.
The President expressed his warm appreciation of the hospitality ex-
tended by Their Majesties King Paul and Queen Frederika, and of all
the Greek people.
The talks covered a wide range of general and specific topics of common
interest to both countries.
Both countries affirmed their faith in the principles of the Charter of the
United Nations and their staunch support of the objectives of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization which based on the solidarity of its mem-
bers, aim at the firm establishment of security, and at peace with justice.
The relaxation of world tensions was discussed in this spirit.
The Greek Prime Minister expressed his deep appreciation for the great
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endeavor for peace undertaken by President Eisenhower. Both agreed
that the consolidation of world peace must be pursued in such a way as to
guarantee the independence of all nations and the freedom of the
individual.
Historic instances in which both countries stood side by side in hard
struggles were recalled, and in this context the importance of Greece in
the common defense effort was recognized.
Opinions were exchanged concerning those parts of the world of par-
ticular interest to Greece. Careful account was taken of her special posi-
tion in the Balkans and the general situation in this area as well as in the
Eastern Mediterranean, was examined. It was agreed that the two gov-
ernments should exchange views on matters of mutual concern involving
these areas. The prospective emergence of an independent Cyprus State
was hailed with special satisfaction.
The Greek Prime Minister expressed the gratitude of the Greek people
for the enduring interest and help being extended by the American people.
He also explained to the President the problems the country faces in seek-
ing to raise the standard of living of the Greek people and maintaining
the obligations and responsibilities of its position in the defense structure
of the Free World.
President Eisenhower, recognizing the special economic and social
conditions of Greece, expressed his admiration for the improvement
being accomplished by the country and reaffirmed the interest of the
American people in the security and economic development of Greece.
Generally it was recognized that improvement in the standard of
living in the economically less developed countries constitutes a vital
element in the consolidation of international peace.
The conversations were held in an atmosphere of deep sincerity and
warm cordiality such as have traditionally characterized the relations
of the two countries, and which were so happily confirmed by the visit
to Greece of the President of the United States.
NOTE: This joint statement was released
dium for departure by helicopter for the
in Athens,
U.S.S. Des Moines, the flagibip of the
The President took leave of Their Maj.
Sixth Fleet. The President spent 2 days
esties at the royal palace. Prime Minister
aboard the Des Moines en route to
Karamanlis accompanied him to the sta-
Tunisia.
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NOTE: Prior to making these remarks the
lege for the airport, where he was met by
President "attended services at St. Paul's
Premier Antonio Segni, Foreign Minister
Protestant Episcopal Church and visited
Glusepps Pella, Manlio Brosio, Italian
Pope John XXIII at the Vatican. He
Ambassador to the United States, and
then left by helicopter from the grounds
James D. Zellerbach, U.S. Ambassador to
of the North American Ecclesiastical Col-
Italy.
295
9
Remarks Upon Arrival at Esenboga
Airport, Ankara. December 6, 1959
Mr. President, Citizens of Turkey:
President Bayar, from my heart I thank you and your people for your
welcome for my party and myself.
Almost 8 years have passed since my last visit to Ankara. In those years
the bonds of friendship and partnership between the Turkish and Ameri-
can peoples have grown stronger. So I return to the capital of this sister
republic, hopeful that my visit here will be fruitful for the good of both
nations.
My purpose in returning to Turkey is twofold: first, I have wanted to
take advantage of a long-standing invitation to visit this nation once again
and see all the developments that have taken place since I was here in
the spring of 1952.
Second, in my official capacity as President of the United States, I
return the visit which you, President Bayar, so graciously paid America.
This visit will permit me to discuss with the leaders of your govern-
ment some of the problems that confront free nations today. We shall
take also the opportunity to talk about opportunities that present them-
selves to achieve a world of plenty in which all nations can live-inde-
pendent and prosperous, at peace with their neighbors. I want you to
know that we in America greatly respect and highly regard our staunch
friend and ally, Turkey. We know that you will be strong and per-
sistent and dedicated in all efforts for peace and friendship in freedom:
President Bayar, I am delighted to be here once again among my
Turkish friends, and I know that I speak for all the members of my
party when I respond to your warm words of welcome by saying, some-
what haltingly I fear, but nevertheless sincerely, "Hos bulduk. Cok
tesekkur ederim" [We are happy to be here. I thank you very much].
804
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959
9 296
NOTE: The President spoke at 3:15 p.m.
the diplomatic corps, and by U.S. Am-
He was met by President Bayar, Turkish
bassador Fletcher Warren.
civilian and military officials, members of
296
g
Remarks by the President at a Dinner
Given in His Honor by President Bayar.
December 6, 1959
Mr. President, distinguished guests:
On this visit, as on my first more than 7 years ago, the unmatched
hospitality of our Turkish allies and friends has been for the members
of my party and myself a most heartwarming experience. The leaders
and people of Turkey have extended to us a welcome that makes us feel
more like friends returning to pleasant and well-remembered scenes
rather than like strangers in this land.
For myself, it is in truth a return to a land I cannot forget. In March
of 1952, I came here to inspect the troops which Turkey had committed
to the common defense of the Atlantic nations. Here through a 3-day
visit, along with the encouragement and inspiration I got from your
armed forces and your leaders, I absorbed evidence of the beauty, the
progress, the growth of Turkey. I developed a real admiration for both
your military and civil leaders and for the great people they represented.
As tenacious defenders of your land and independence, you of Turkey
have achieved a worldwide reputation. From two experiences with you,
I can testify that you deserve an equal prestige as gracious hosts. For
all of my party, it is indeed a high honor to be welcomed as partners of
your nation.
All Americans who know you have a tremendous respect for your
courage and your vision of a Republic dedicated to the good of its people,
their freedom and their prosperity. You Turks, by your own efforts
and by deliberate decision, resolved a generation ago to build a modern
nation, free from aggressive intent on its neighbors, at peace with all
nations of good will, but resolved never to be cowed by any threat.
Under the outstanding and farsighted leadership of the founder of
Modern Turkey, Kemal Ataturk, you of this country have wrought revo-
lutionary changes. In government, customs, and traditions these
changes were breathtaking in scope. They were remarkable for the
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swiftness of their achievement. They are an inspiration and a guiding
light to all newly independent nations, determined on progress, prosperity,
and peace.
No nation of today encounters greater obstacles to progress than you
faced when you made your great national decision. You had just
emerged from the ruin and devastation of the first World War. On every
side, you were plagued with problems that seemed beyond solution. But
you were rich in your spirit and in the idealism and vitality of your
leaders. In them you had a wealth and strength beyond money and
machines.
You, the people of Turkey forged steadily ahead on the path to indus-
trial development and social progress. You made your country a modern
proving ground that democracy and stout hearts are a people's best
instruments for the achievement of greatness.
Much, I know, remains to be achieved. But I am impressed-even
amazed-as I return to Turkey to see all around me the results of the
past 7 years' progress and the evidences of determination and of dynamic
growth.
The United States is proud of your achievements-very proud of our
increasingly close friendship and associations. The American people
understand your desire for progress and for higher standards of living.
They are happy that they can provide some measure of assistance to help
you realize the goals you yourselves have established.
I am confident that the United States, with other friends and allies,
will continue to help in your economic development and security. And
no power on earth, no evil, no threat, can frustrate a people of your
spirit.
We of America as you in Turkey are much concerned today with the
economic progress and political stability of the world's newly emerging
nations. We believe that all free nations should cooperate in a great
combined effort to achieve increased levels of free world economic
strength. But alongside this purpose and because both of us are also
concerned with our security and that of our friends we are joined with
others in NATO to insure the safety of all of us. Here, my friends, I
might as well have brought in CENTO, but since Turkey and ourselves
are both full partners of NATO, and we are merely an associate of
CENTO, I confine my remarks to NATO.
NATO is a defensive alliance, solely and simply for our mutual
806
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959
9
297
security. We know that we are building defenses only against the possi-
bility of an emergency, an aggression, a catastrophe which will never be
of our making. Those who say otherwise speak for their own ulterior
motives.
The peoples of Turkey and the United States seek peace. But the
peace we are striving to achieve, as free, God-fearing nations, must be a
just and enduring peace based upon individual freedom and human
dignity. These values, the Koran and the Bible teach us, are fundamental
to man's life on earth. We will not deviate from our goal nor compromise
our principles.
We will continue in our search for peace and in our efforts to reach
mutually enforceable agreements with the leaders of the world Communist
movement.
With steadfast adherence to our principles, and with faith in Almighty
God, we will do our best to achieve the goal we are seeking.
To all our Turkish friends, I express again on behalf of the American
people and the members of my party my deep appreciation and sincere
thanks for your exceptional welcome and hospitality. In closing I should
like to say:
Long live Turkish-American friendship.
Long live the Turkish and American Republics.
Long live world peace, justice, and human freedom.
And in this spirit I propose a toast to your distinguished Head of State
President Bayar.
NOTE: The dinner was held at President Bayar's palace.
297 9 Joint Statement Following Discussions
With President Bayar. December 7, 1959
PRESIDENT EISENHOWER visited Turkey on December 6 through
December 7, 1959- The sincere rejoicing of the Turkish Nation and the
outstanding reception extended to President Eisenhower and to his party
during this brief but meaningful visit reaffirmed in the most impressive
way the existing strong friendship and close cooperation between the
Governments and peoples of Turkey and the United States. The visit
demonstrated anew the desire of both countries to continue this fruitful
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10
cooperation in their mutual interest as well as in that of the community
of free nations to which they both belong.
In the course of this visit talks were held at President Bayar's residence
on Sunday evening between the two Presidents with the participation of
Prime Minister Menderes and Foreign Minister Zorlu, Under Secretary
of State Murphy, Secretary General Esenbel and Ambassador Warren.
During the talks a full and friendly exchange took place on a wide range
of problems of common interest.
The alliance and partnership of Turkey and the United States within
the defense organization of NATO and active association in CENTO,
together with their common participation in the actions of the United
Nations for the preservation of peace, influenced the nature and the scope
of the talks. Turkish cooperation in the United Nations Command,
Korea, was recalled in this connection.
On the vital question of the creation of an atmosphere that would lead
to establishment of a true detente in the whole world, the two Presidents
agreed that such a detente, in order to be effective, should be based on
justice and equality and provided with the essential safeguards. Since
it is not possible to divide the many problems at present separating East
and West into separate compartments, they recognized that detente like
peace had to be considered as an indivisible entity. It was understood that
an efficient, controlled system of disarmament is necessary.
In the course of the discussions particular attention was paid to existing
areas of tension and danger throughout the world. President Bayar and
President Eisenhower jointly expressed strong conviction that at this point
in history the future of humanity depended above all on the degree of
solidarity in thought and action which the free nations can master in
meeting their common problems. They agreed that cooperation and
continuing consultation between the two countries both on a bilateral
basis and within NATO and CENTO were paramount.
President Bayar expressed his sincere appreciation of the admirable
efforts made by President Eisenhower in order to reduce international
tensions and both Presidents voiced the hope that these efforts would bear
fruit for the benefit of the whole world. Particular attention was paid to
the question of subversive activities in the Middle East and the situation
was appraised in the light of an eventual atmosphere of detente.
Economic aspects of the Turkish-American relations, as well as the
808
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1959
297
broader problem of the assistance to underdeveloped countries, were con-
sidered. President Bayar stressed the importance of securing a sufficient
raising of the living standard of the Turkish people in order to enable
Turkey to assume adequately the responsibilities which her geographic
position imposes upon her. He outlined the economic progress achieved
in the last ten years in Turkey and expressed appreciation for the generous
assistance given by the American people to Turkey.
President Eisenhower expressed his appreciation of the economic and
social goals met by the Turkish Nation. He expressed confidence that
the United States will continue to support, in concert with other friends
and allies, the economic development and security efforts of Turkey. He
expressed his belief that such efforts would be successful.
The two Presidents recognized that improvement in the standard of
living of the less developed countries is a necessary ingredient to the
achievement of peace and security in the world. They expressed the
view that coordinated action is desirable and that any aid extended
would prove most effective when providing and receiving countries were
united through a dedication to common goals.
The economic collaboration realized after the war constitutes a re-
markable example in the field of economic assistance. The hope was
expressed as well that European efforts in this field could be directed to
the assistance of the less developed areas of the European continent, like
Turkey.
The initiative of Turkey to be an associate member of the European
Common Market was also examined and the hope was expressed that
such association would foster solidarity among these countries.
In concluding their talk the two Presidents reiterated their dedication
to the ideals enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations. They ex-
pressed their determination to marshal all their efforts to the attainment
of a lasting peace embracing full security and justice for all.
NOTE: This joint statement was released in Ankara.
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g
Remarks at Esenboga Airport, Ankara,
Upon Leaving for Pakistan. December 7, 1959
Mr. President, Prime Minister Menderes, Members of the Government,
Citizens of Turkey:
Through you, President Bayar, and your government, I should like
to express to the Turkish people my very warm thanks for the extraordi-
nary reception they accorded to my party and me as we went through
Ankara yesterday.
I have been deeply touched. I take their demonstration as a symbol
of the true affection that exists between the peoples of America and of
Turkey.
For the second time I say goodbye to this country-both times real-
izing that the visit that I have made is far too short.
This country takes hold of my heart. I should like to stay here and
mingle with the people a far longer time than my official duties will
permit me to do. But I do assure you that I leave with the greatest
expression of appreciation and affection.
Our two countries have been friends for a long time. I think that
they have been growing stronger and firmer friends, every year, every
month, every day. I am confident this will continue to be so.
We stand together on the major issues that divide the world. And I
can see no reason whatsoever that we shouldn't be two of the sturdiest
partners standing together always for freedom, security, and the pursuit
of peace.
Permit me, as I say Godspeed, good luck to you, to again attempt
another Turkish expression, this time: Allah'a ismarladik. [I commend
you to Allah.]
NOTE: The President spoke at 9:45 a.m.,
salute was fired as President Eisenhower
following his arrival by helicopter from
filed through lines of members of the
the Guest House in Ankara. He was
diplomatic corps and Turkish government
accompanied to the airport by President
officials, shaking hands with each on his
Bayar. The farewell ceremonies were
way across the ramp to his aircraft.
held in the airport building. A 21-gun
810
CAROL
PRESIDENT BUSH'S ARRIVAL STATEMENT
ATHENS, GREECE
TRIP SPEECH-
MR. PRESIDENT - -- I AM GREATLY HONORED TO HAVE YOU WELCOME ME
HERE TODAY, AND TO SEE PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS AND OTHER
DISTINGUISHED MEMBERS OF THE GOVERNMENT. AS SOME OF YOU MAY
KNOW, I VISITED ATHENS ONCE BEFORE IN THE EARLY 1960'S AS A
PRIVATE BUSINESSMAN. I COME NOW AS THE REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
AMERICAN PEOPLE, WHO TAKE GREAT PRIDE IN THEIR LONGSTANDING
TIES OF FRIENDSHIP WITH THE PEOPLE OF GREECE.
DWIGHT EISENHOWER WAS THE LAST U.S. PRESIDENT TO VISIT GREECE,
IN DECEMBER OF 1959. THE WORLD WAS A VERY DIFFERENT PLACE
THEN. TENSIONS BETWEEN EAST AND WEST WERE ESCALATING. THE
RESOLVE OF THE ALLIANCE IN UPHOLDING THE CAUSE OF FREEDOM AND
DEMOCRACY WAS BEING TESTED. AND THE LIGHT OF LIBERTY IN MANY
COUNTRIES WAS ALREADY EXTINGUISHED BY TOTALITARIAN RULE.
DURING PRESIDENT EISENHOWER'S VISIT, OUR TWO COUNTRIES
REAFFIRMED THEIR SUPPORT FOR THE OBJECTIVES OF NATO. TO UNITE
FOR THE COLLECTIVE DEFENSE AND FOR PRESERVATION OF PEACE AND
SECURITY. TO DEFEND THE PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY, INDIVIDUAL
LIBERTY, AND THE RULE OF LAW. THE ALLIANCE ROSE TO MEET EVERY
CHALLENGE TO ITS MEMBERS AND ITS BELIEFS. IT HAS PROSPERED AND
FLOURISHED. TOTALITARIANISM HAS BEEN ERODED BY ITS DEFEATS AND
COLLAPSED UNDER ITS OWN UNSUSTAINABLE WEIGHT.
-2-
I HAVE JUST COME FROM THE ECONOMIC SUMMIT MEETING IN LONDON.
WE BELIEVE THAT THE FUTURE OF THE WORLD COMMUNITY HOLDS MORE
PROMISE THAN EVER BEFORE. I SEE EVERY REASON FOR HOPE. EVERY
REASON TO JOIN IN BUILDING A WORLD ORDER FOUNDED ON THOSE SAME
TRIED AND TRUE ALLIANCE PRINCIPLES. AND ONE REASON I AM HERE
TODAY IS TO DISCUSS THAT FUTURE WITH GREECE'S LEADERS.
I AM ALSO HERE TO AFFIRM AMERICA'S INTEREST IN A STRONG AND
MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN OUR TWO COUNTRIES. AND
TO HONOR THE COUNTRY WHICH GAVE BIRTH TO DEMOCRACY IN THIS VERY
CITY 2,500 YEARS AGO.
DWIGHT EISENHOWER WAS HERE IN A COLD WINTER OF THE COLD WAR. I
AM FORTUNATE TO BE WITH YOU IN THE SUN-WASHED SUMMER OF GREECE
AND A NEW AGE. PERHAPS YOUR OWN NOBEL PRIZE-WINNING POET
GEORGE SEFERIS SAID IT BEST: "A LITTLE FARTHER -- WE WILL SEE
ALMOND TREES BLOSSOMING -- THE MARBLE GLEAMING IN THE SUN --
THE SEA BREAKING INTO WAVES. A LITTLE FARTHER -- LET US RISE A
LITTLE HIGHER."
LET US RISE TOGETHER. THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
ADDRESS BY PRESIDENT BUSH
TO THE GREEK PARLIAMENT
MR. SPEAKER:
I APPEAR BEFORE THIS EXTRAORDINARY SESSION OF PARLIAMENT WITH A
GREAT SENSE OF HONOR.
THE LAST FOREIGN HEAD OF STATE WHO SPOKE TO THIS CHAMBER WAS
THE GREAT FRENCH STATESMAN CHARLES DE GAULLE. AND FOUR YEARS
BEFORE THAT, ONE OF AMERICA'S MOST BELOVED PRESIDENTS, DWIGHT
DAVID EISENHOWER, HAD THE PRIVILEGE OF STANDING HERE.
GREEK DEMOCRACY, OF COURSE, HAS A SPECIAL STANDING IN THE
WORLD. IN HIS DECEMBER 15, 1959 ADDRESS TO THIS ASSEMBLY,
PRESIDENT EISENHOWER REMARKED: "IN THIS CITY OF ATHENS, MORE
THAN A SCORE OF CENTURIES AGO, DEMOCRACY - IN ITS PRINCIPLES
AND IN ITS PRACTICES - FIRST WON THE HEARTS AND MINDS OF MEN.
THIS HOUSE OF FREE REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT SYMBOLIZES THE
VIGOR OF MODERN DEMOCRACY IN ITS ANCIENT BIRTHPLACE;
DEMONSTRATES THAT THE WILL OF MEN TO BE FREE IS IMPERISHABLE."
ONE MAN WHO WAS ACTUALLY PRESENT ON THAT COLD WINTER MORNING TO
HEAR PRESIDENT EISENHOWER'S WORDS IS ALSO HERE TODAY. HE IS A
MAN WHO LED HIS PEOPLE THROUGH THE DANGERS AND CHALLENGES OF
THOSE SAME YEARS. ONE WHO LATER RESTORED DEMOCRACY TO GREECE,
AND THEN BROUGHT HIS COUNTRY INTO THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC
COMMUNITY. THAT GREAT STATESMAN IS, OF COURSE, YOUR PRESIDENT,
THEN PRIME MINISTER -- CONSTANTINE KARAMANLIS.
-2-
(TURN TO ADDRESS KARAMANLIS) TO HONOR YOU, AND OUR FRIEND AND
ALLY WHOSE PRESIDENT YOU ARE, I WOULD LIKE TO INVITE YOU TO
WASHINGTON IN 1992. I HOPE YOU WILL ACCEPT, AND LOOK FORWARD
TO. RECEIVING YOU IN OUR CAPITAL.
PRIME MINISTER KARAMANLIS AND PRESIDENT EISENHOWER CHAMPIONED
THE CAUSE OF DEMOCRACY AND FREEDOM DURING PERILOUS TIMES. BUT
THE U.S. AND GREECE HAVE A LONGSTANDING RECORD OF FIGHTING
TOGETHER ON THE SIDE OF THOSE SACRED PRINCIPLES. WE HAVE
SHARED A UNITY OF PURPOSE IN ALL OF THE MAJOR CONFLICTS IN THIS
CENTURY. WORLD WAR I. WORLD WAR II. THE KOREAN WAR. WHILE
ALL WERE TERRIBLE STRUGGLES, THE FORCES OF JUSTICE AND RIGHT
TRIUMPHED EACH TIME.
WE WERE VICTORIOUS ONCE AGAIN OVER AGGRESSION WHEN SADDAM
HUSSEIN ATTEMPTED TO ANNEX HIS NEIGHBOR, KUWAIT. THE
INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ROSE UP TOGETHER TO DEFEAT THIS
TYRANT. IT WAS AN AWESOME COLLECTIVE EFFORT. AND PRIME
MINISTER MITSOTAKIS RESPONDED JUST AS I EXPECTED HE WOULD. HE
KNEW WHAT WAS AT STAKE. HE GAVE THE FULL, UNSTINTING SUPPORT
OF HIS GOVERNMENT TO THAT NOBLE CAUSE. I HAVE TOLD HIM, BUT
WISH NOW TO ALSO SAY TO ALL OF YOU HOW MUCH WE APPRECIATED
GREECE'S HELP IN MAKING IT POSSIBLE TO MOVE US FORCES AND
EQUIPMENT QUICKLY TO THE REGION. WE WILL REMEMBER THIS.
-3-
AS I STAND HERE NOW, I AM REMINDED OF THE GOALS WE SHARE AS
PARTIES TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY. TO SAFEGUARD THE
FREEDOM, COMMON HERITAGE AND CIVILIZATION OF OUR PEOPLES. OF
THE FOUNDATION ON WHICH THOSE GOALS REST -- THE PRINCIPLES OF
DEMOCRACY, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY AND THE RULE OF LAW. SINCE 1949
THESE IDEAS HAVE GUIDED THE ALLIANCE IN STANDING FIRM AGAINST
THE FORCES OF AGGRESSION AND TOTALITARIANISM. WE HAVE
PERSEVERED. AND WE HAVE SUCCEEDED. THE WARSAW PACT IS NO
MORE. GREECE IS NOT ONLY MORE SECURE, BUT WE ARE WITNESSING IN
EASTERN EUROPE AND THE USSR THE EMERGENCE OF DEMOCRATIC
INSTITUTIONS AND FREE MARKETS. FRAGILE IN SOME CASES BUT
NURTURED BY THE LONG SUPPRESSED HOPES OF MILLIONS.
GREECE AND THE UNITED STATES WORKED CLOSELY TOGETHER FOR ALL
THESE EPOCHAL CHANGES. WE WERE NATO PARTNERS. WE WERE GOOD
FRIENDS. OUR WORK IS NOT FINISHED WE MUST AND CAN MEET THE
NEW CHALLENGES OF PEACE JUST AS WE DID THE OLD -- BY WORKING
TOGETHER CLOSELY.
THE FACE OF EUROPE -- ITS INSTITUTIONS AND ITS STRUCTURES --
ARE CHANGING ALMOST DAILY. CHANGE REPRESENTS NEW
OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES, AND HORIZONS FOR THE PEOPLES OF
EUROPE. WE DISCUSSED MANY OF THESE DEVELOPMENTS AT THE
ECONOMIC SUMMIT IN LONDON FROM WHICH I HAVE JUST COME. I WANT
TO MENTION A FEW OF WHAT SEEM TO ME TO BE THE MOST IMPORTANT
POINTS FROM THAT MEETING TO YOU NOW.
-4-
INSERT SUMMIT POINTS
WE ARE HEADING, I BELIEVE, TOWARD A NEW WORLD ORDER THAT HAS AS
A CENTRAL COMPONENT A TRANS-ATLANTIC COMMUNITY WHICH STRETCHES
FROM VANCOUVER TO VLADIVOSTOK. A COMMUNITY BASED ON THE
CENTRAL VALUES OF INDIVIDUAL POLITICAL RIGHTS AND ECONOMIC
LIBERTY WHICH UNDERPIN DEMOCRATIC, FREE MARKET SOCIETIES. A
COMMUNITY FREE AND AT PEACE.
GREECE HAS A ROLE TO PLAY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THIS NEW
ORDER. MANY OF YOUR NEIGHBORS IN THE BALKANS ARE VALIANTLY
STRUGGLING -- SOME FOR THE FIRST TIME EVER -- TO IMPLEMENT
DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS AND TO RESTRUCTURE THEIR POLITICAL AND
LEGAL SYSTEMS.
-5-
BUT THERE IS YET MORE WHICH GREECE CAN DO. THE BALKANS HAVE
BEEN AN HISTORICALLY TROUBLED REGION. AND NOW, RESURGENT
ETHNICITY AND NATIONALISM ONCE AGAIN THREATEN STABILITY AND
PEACE. THESE FORCES UNDERMINE THE ONGOING ATTEMPTS TO NURTURE
STILL INFANT DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS. WE LOOK TO GREECE TO
SERVE AS A FORCE FOR STABILITY IN THE BALKAN REGION.
I HAVE BEEN TREMENDOUSLY IMPRESSED WITH THE ABILITY OF STATES
IN THE NEW TRANS-ATLANTIC COMMUNITY WHICH IS UNFOLDING BEFORE
US TO PUT OLD ENMITIES BEHIND THEM. THE UNITED STATES ENJOYS
GREATLY IMPROVED RELATIONS WITH THE SOVIET UNION. THE ALLIANCE
SUCCESSFULLY NEGOTIATED A TREATY ON CONVENTIONAL ARMED FORCES
IN EUROPE. GERMANS HAVE SET ASIDE THE BITTER DIVISIONS OF THE
COLD WAR YEARS AND REUNITED THEIR COUNTRY. GERMANY AND POLAND
HAVE AGREED ON THE DEMARCATION OF THEIR BORDER. THE EASTERN
EUROPEAN STATES HAVE EXPRESSED A STRONG INTEREST IN AFFILIATION
WITH THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY. WE ARE WITNESSES TO ONE OF THE
GREATEST REVOLUTIONARY CHANGES FOR THE GOOD THAT MODERN MAN HAS
EVER SEEN.
TOMORROW I WILL TRAVEL TO CRETE. WHILE THERE, I WILL LAY A
WREATH AT THE TOMB OF ONE OF GREECE'S GREAT MODERN STATESMEN --
ELEUTHERIOS VENIZELOS. I WILL STOP THERE TO HONOR THE MEMORY
OF HIS GREAT ACHIEVEMENT OF 1930 -- THE TREATIES OF FRIENDSHIP
AND COMMERCE WITH TURKEY. THIS HISTORIC MILESTONE WAS ACHIEVED
-6-
BECAUSE VENIZELOS' VISION OF THE FUTURE WAS SHARED BY THE
FOUNDER OF MODERN TURKEY -- KEMAL ATATURK. THEIR PERSONAL
FRIENDSHIP, AND THE PEACE THEY ESTABLISHED BETWEEN GREECE AND
TURKEY, REMAIN AS PROUD LEGACIES TODAY.
IT IS MY FERVENT HOPE THAT THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF 1930 MAY TODAY
INSPIRE THESE TWO GREAT COUNTRIES, BOTH VALUED FRIENDS AND
ALLIES OF THE UNITED STATES, TO INVOKE THAT SAME SPIRIT OF
COOPERATION AND PEACE. I BELIEVE THAT BOTH COUNTRIES SHARE THE
ASPIRATION FOR SUCCESS IN THIS REGARD. IT IS A DEVELOPMENT
WHICH WOULD BE WARMLY WELCOMED NOT ONLY BY THE UNITED STATES,
BUT THROUGHOUT EUROPE. YOU HAVE MY EVERY WISH FOR SUCCESS.
IN THIS CONTEXT I ALSO SHOULD BRIEFLY MENTION CYPRUS. WE ARE
ACTIVELY WORKING TO SUPPORT THE UNITED NATIONS
SECRETARY-GENERAL IN HIS GOOD OFFICES MISSION. ALL INTERESTED
PARTIES MUST ACCEPT THAT COMPROMISE AND GOOD-WILL ARE ESSENTIAL
COMPONENTS OF ANY SOLUTION. AND ANY SOLUTION MUST, OF COURSE,
PROVIDE FOR A JUST AND LASTING SETTLEMENT. SUCH A SOLUTION
NEEDS TO BE FOUND SOON AND CAN BE. WE WILL DO WHAT WE CAN TO
HELP, BUT IN THE END, THE SOLUTION MUST BE NEGOTIATED BY THE
PARTIES INVOLVED.
THESE ISSUES ARE AMONG THE ONES WHICH I EXPECT TO DISCUSS WITH
PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS WHEN WE MEET LATER TODAY. I WAS
-7-
PLEASED TO MEET HIM IN WASHINGTON WHEN HE VISITED THERE IN JUNE
1990. SINCE THAT TIME WE HAVE DEVELOPED A CLOSE RELATIONSHIP,
EXCHANGING IDEAS OVER THE PHONE AND BY LETTER. I LOOK FORWARD
TO RENEWING OUR PERSONAL ACQUAINTANCESHIP IN ATHENS, AND WHEN I
VISIT HIS HOME IN CHANIA. I WILL HAVE THE OPPORTUNITY TO
RETURN HIS HOSPITALITY WHEN HE VISITS WASHINGTON THIS FALL FOR
AN OFFICIAL VISIT.
I BELIEVE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND GREECE HAVE
NEVER BEEN BETTER. WE ENJOY GOOD COMMUNICATION, EXCELLENT
COOPERATION, AND MUTUAL TRUST. PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS AND
MEMBERS OF HIS GOVERNMENT HAVE WORKED CLOSELY WITH US TO FIND
WAYS OF IMPROVING EVEN FURTHER THE MUTUAL RESPECT AND BENEFIT
WHICH CHARACTERIZES OUR RELATIONSHIP.
OF COURSE, PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS AND I HAVE HAD MANY
ADVANTAGES IN THIS ENDEAVOR. THERE IS A LONG HISTORY OF
FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN OUR PEOPLES. AMERICANS OF GREEK DESCENT ARE
AN ACTIVE ETHNIC GROUP IN THE PLURALISTIC MELTING-POT WHICH IS
AMERICAN SOCIETY. WE ALSO HAVE OUR PARTNERSHIP IN THE
ALLIANCE. FINALLY, WE SHARE A COMMITMENT TO THE BASIC
PRINCIPLES WHICH UNDERLIE OUR SOCIETIES AND GOVERNMENTS, AND A
DESIRE TO SEE THESE PROSPER AND FLOURISH THROUGHOUT EUROPE.
-8-
WE OWE YOUR ANCESTORS A GREAT DEBT. THEIR CONCEPTION AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES HAVE SHOWN AS A LIGHT
WHICH WAS NEVER EXTINGUISHED, EVEN DURING THE DARKEST MOMENTS
OF HUMAN HISTORY. GREECE WILL BE CELEBRATING THE 2500TH
ANNIVERSARY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF THOSE PRINCIPLES IN ATHENS
THIS FALL. FREE PEOPLES EVERYWHERE WILL WISH YOU WELL IN
THIS. FOR WE ALL ENJOY THE LEGACY YOUR ANCIENT FORBEARERS
LEFT AS A GIFT FOR ALL MANKIND.
BUT GREECE TODAY IS NOT A SIMPLE REFLECTION OF ITS PAST. IT IS
A VIBRANT SOCIETY WITH A GOVERNMENT WHICH IS EXPANDING ITS
DIPLOMACY AND ITS INTERESTS. WE WELCOME THAT PROCESS AND LOOK
FORWARD TO COOPERATING WITH YOU TO STRENGTHEN FURTHER THE TIES
BETWEEN OUR COUNTRIES. MAY THE FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN OUR PEOPLES
NOURISH RELATIONS BETWEEN US. AND MAY OUR COMMON DEVOTION TO
THE PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY, AND MARKET
ECONOMIES HASTEN THE EMERGENCE OF A NEW INTERNATIONAL ORDER OF
PEACE AND PROSPERITY WHERE FREE MEN DETERMINE THEIR OWN
DESTINIES.
WE HAVE MUCH TO ACCOMPLISH. LET US NOT DELAY.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
STATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT
AT SOUDA BAY, CRETE
PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS, CAPTAIN AND CREWS OF THE LEMNOS AND
USS
, DISTINGUISHED GUESTS:
I CAN'T IMAGINE A MORE GLORIOUS SETTING FOR HONORING THE
SERVICEMEN -- AND WOMEN -- OF GREECE AND THE UNITED STATES THAN
THIS MAGNIFICENT HARBOR. I WAS, AS SOME OF YOU KNOW, A NAVAL
PILOT DURING WWII. IT IS THEREFORE ALWAYS A SPECIAL PLEASURE
FOR ME TO VISIT A U.S. NAVY SHIP. I ALSO WANT TO THANK THE
GREEK NAVY, AND IN PARTICULAR ADMIRAL LAGARAS, FOR MAKING IT
POSSIBLE FOR ME TO PAY MY FIRST VISIT TO A GREEK NAVAL VESSEL.
THE PRESENCE OF THE LEMNOS CALLS TO MIND THE RECENT VICTORY OF
THE COALITION FORCES OVER THE BLATANT AGGRESSION OF SADDAM
HUSSEIN. HOW THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ROSE TO DEFEAT THAT
TYRANT. THIS VESSEL'S PARTICIPATION IN THAT GREAT ENDEAVOR IS
TRIBUTE TO GREECE'S STRONG SUPPORT FOR THE COLLECTIVE EFFORTS
WHICH INEVITABLY PREVAILED OVER SADDAM. OFFICERS AND CREW OF
THE LEMNOS AND YOUR SISTER SHIP IN THE GULF EFFORT, THE ELLI,
-- I SALUTE YOU.
THE BOW-TO-BOW MOORING OF THESE TWO SHIPS SYMBOLIZES, FOR ME,
THE CLOSENESS OF OUR SECURITY RELATIONS. THE BILATERAL
SECURITY RELATIONSHIP BENEFITS BOTH OUR COUNTRIES. THAT
RELATIONSHIP -- IN CONCRETE TERMS -- IS NOW BASED ON THE
-2-
1990 MUTUAL DEFENSE COOPERATION AGREEMENT. THAT AGREEMENT
PROVIDES FOR USE OF OUR FACILITY AT THIS SPLENDID BAY, AND OF
OUR COMMUNICATIONS STATION AT IRAKLION.
FOR OUR PART, WE HAVE A COMMITMENT TO GREECE TO ASSIST IN
MODERNIZING YOUR MILITARY FORCES. LET ME SAY THAT WE FULLY
INTEND TO ABIDE BY THAT PLEDGE. GREECE'S ABILITY TO DEFEND
ITSELF AND CARRY OUT ITS NATO ROLE ARE IMPORTANT TO US. PART
OF THAT COMMITMENT IS FULFILLED THROUGH PROVISION OF MILITARY
ASSISTANCE. THESE FUNDS HELP YOU PURCHASE U.S. MILITARY
EQUIPMENT. (THE GREEK GOVERNMENT RECENTLY ANNOUNCED THAT IT
INTENDED TO PURCHASE 20 ADDITIONAL F-16 AIRCRAFT. IT WILL PAY
FOR THOSE AIRCRAFT BY DRAWING ON OUR MILITARY ASSISTANCE
FUNDS. I CAN THINK OF NO BETTER EXAMPLE THAN THIS OF THE
VITALITY OF OUR SECURITY RELATIONSHIP.) THIS, AND OTHER LIKE
SALES, ARE PROOF POSITIVE OF THE DYNAMISM OF OUR BILATERAL
SECURITY TIES.
U.S. MILITARY ASSISTANCE TAKES SEVERAL FORMS. THE TRANSFER OF
EXCESS DEFENSE ARTICLES HAS BEEN ANOTHER IMPORTANT WAY THAT WE
HAVE TRIED TO ASSIST WITH THE MODERNIZATION OF YOUR MILITARY.
SINCE OUR FISCAL YEAR 1990, WE HAVE TRANSFERRED EXCESS DEFENSE
ARTICLES VALUED AT OVER $81 MILLION FOR USE BY YOUR MILITARY
SERVICES. THIS PROGRAM IS A KEY COMPONENT OF OUR OVERALL
-3-
ASSISTANCE PACKAGE. AND I HAVE SOME NEWS WHICH I THINK GEN.
STATHIAS WILL BE HAPPY TO HEAR. I AM PLEASED TO ANNOUNCE THAT
WE HAVE BEEN ABLE TO ACCELERATE THE DELIVERY SOME OF THE 28F-4E
AIRCRAFT YOU ARE SCHEDULED TO RECEIVE UNDER THIS PROGRAM. TEN
WILL NOW BE AVAILBLE ON JULY
?
AS FOR THE NAVY, YOU ALREADY KNEW, OF COURSE, THAT WE WILL BE
LEASING YOU FOUR CHARLES F. ADAMS-CLASS DESTROYERS. WE HAVE
KNOWN FOR SOME TIME OF YOUR STRONG INTEREST IN OBTAINING
FRIGATES. OUR OWN NAVY, ESPECIALLY DURING DESERT STORM, NEEDED
THOSE FRIGATES AND NONE WERE AVAILABLE FOR LEASE. AS AN
EX-NAVY MAN, I TAKE PARTICULAR PRIDE IN INFORMING YOU THAT WE
ARE NOW ABLE TO LEASE YOU THREE KNOX-CLASS FRIGATES. I BELIEVE
ADMIRAL LAGARAS WILL AGREE THAT THESE VESSELS WILL GREATLY
ENHANCE THE GREEK NAVY'S ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE CAPABILITIES.
I KNOW YOU WILL USE THEM WELL IN CARRYING OUT YOUR ALLIANCE
MARITIME ROLE )
OUR SECURITY TIES ARE STRONG. THEY ARE HEALTHY. AS WE LOOK
TOWARD THE FUTURE, I SEE SECURITY COOPERATION CONTINUING TO
REFLECT THE CLOSENESS OF RECENT YEARS. I FEEL CONFIDENT THAT
THE GREEK GOVERNMENT SHARES THIS VIEW. I HAVE NO DOUBT THAT WE
WILL CONTINUE TO PROGRESS ON THE BASIS OF MUTUAL BENEFIT AND
UNDERSTANDING.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
PRESIDENT'S REMARKS ON
THE ACROPOLIS
I WISH THAT EVERYONE COULD VISIT THIS ANCIENT PLACE BY GREECE'S
FABLED MORNING LIGHT. CENTURIES AFTER ITS CONSTRUCTION, THE
PARTHENON REMAINS THE UNIVERSALLY-RECOGNIZED SYMBOL OF ONE OF
THE PROUDEST PERIODS IN WESTERN CIVILIZATION.
ATHENS WILL CELEBRATE THIS AUTUMN THE TWO THOUSAND FIVE
HUNDREDTH ANNIVERSARY OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF ITS DEMOCRATIC
INSTITUTIONS. THIS WILL BE AN HISTORIC OCCASION FOR THE
MILLIONS OF PEOPLE TODAY WHO ENJOY THE RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES
GUARANTEED BY DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT.
ARISTOTLE, IN HIS POLITICS, WROTE, "DEMOCRACY AROSE FROM MEN'S
THINKING THAT IF THEY ARE EQUAL IN ANY RESPECT, THEY ARE EQUAL
ABSOLUTELY." THE INFLUENCE OF GREECE'S ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS ON
THE GREAT THINKERS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT DIRECTLY AFFECTED THE
BELIEFS OF OUR FOUNDING FATHERS. OUR CONSTITUTION RESTS ON THE
FOUNDATION OF DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES FIRST ESTABLISHED HERE.
THOMAS JEFFERSON, GREAT POPULIST AND THIRD PRESIDENT OF THE
UNITED STATES WROTE, "IT IS AN AXIOM IN MY MIND THAT OUR
LIBERTY CAN NEVER BE SAFE BUT IN THE HANDS OF THE PEOPLE
THEMSELVES." LET US CHERISH OUR RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES. AND MAY
DEMOCRACY PROSPER HERE IN ITS FIRST HOME -- AND AROUND THE
GLOBE.
FACTCHECK COPY FACT CHECK
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BRIEF REMARKS: STATE DINNER TOAST
ATHENS, GREECE
THURSDAY, JULY 18, 1991
one
Thank you, Mr. President, for that warm welcome and those
very kind words. I cannot tell you how happy I am to return to
Greece, a land "at the crossroads" -- at the point where Europe,
Africa and the East converge, and a time in which ancient
principles, the medieval challenges, and the modern aspirations
meet.
At the center of these three roads lies Greece, "the cradle
of democracy." Some 25 centuries ago, the democratic idea was
born here in Athens. You kept the idea alive and inspired our
founding fathers to begin the American experiment. And while
this year we celebrate the 200th anniversary of our Bill of
Rights, you celebrate the 2,500th anniversary of the democratic
government.
Mr. President, we speak often of democratic principles,
individual liberties and the rule of law. Together, we have
stood strong so that democracy would survive in Europe. Greece
was the first country to repel fascism when you fought
Mussolini's army in 1940. And you were also the first to stop
Soviet expansionism in Europe after World War II.
Now, our North Atlantic Alliance supports those same guiding
principles, principles that inspire nations all around the world.
2
Today, the human spirit vanquishes the evils of totalitarianism.
The spark of freedom ignites the fires of the soul in virtually
every corner of Europe.
You, Mr. President, have played a tremendously important
role in preserving the flame of democracy. Many world leaders
have served within democratic governments -- but only a gallant
few have risen to the call of reversing autocracy and restoring
democratic principles to government and society.
You are a beacon in that small, very distinguished group:
You fought oppression in the Second World War. You fought
communism afterward. And you helped restore democracy to Greece
in 1974. Your success in this profound endeavor was a victory
for Greece and for the world.
It was an Athenian, Thucydides, who wrote that "the bravest
are surely those who have the clearest vision of what is before
Bartient's P. Heits
them, glory and danger alike, and yet notwithstanding X go out and
meet it. " Twice Prime Minister of Greece, and now twice
President, you inspire the people of Greece, the people of the
United States, and free men and women everywhere.
Ladies and gentlemen, please join me in a toast
...
to the
good fortune of President Karamanlis, to the many times
throughout history our two countries have inspired and supported
each other, and to the deep friendship between our peoples. May
God bless us all.
####
State/NSC
RETURN TOAST TO KARAMANLIS
STATE DINNER -- JULY 18
THANK YOU, MR. PRESIDENT, FOR THAT WARM WELCOME AND THOSE KIND
WORDS. I CANNOT TELL YOU HOW PLEASED I AM TO BE IN GREECE ONCE
AGAIN AFTER so LONG A TIME.
MR. PRESIDENT, WE OFTEN SPEAK OF THE FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE OF
DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES, INDIVIDUAL HUMAN LIBERTIES AND THE RULE
OF LAW. THE NORTH ATLANTIC ALLIANCE IS GROUNDED ON RECOGNITION
OF THOSE PRINCIPLES. MANY OTHER COUNTRIES LONG AGO BASED THEIR
GOVERNMENTS ON THESE IDEAS. AND WE ARE NOW WITNESSING THE
TRIUMPH OF THE HUMAN SPIRIT OVER TOTALITARIANISM AS THE SPARK
OF DEMOCRACY FLICKERS AND CATCHES IN VIRTUALLY EVERY CORNER OF
EUROPE.
WITH THE REFORMS OF CLEISTHENES, SOME 2,500 YEARS AGO,
DEMOCRACY WAS FIRST BORN HERE IN ATHENS. GREECE WILL BE
CELEBRATING THAT SEMINAL OCCASION THIS FALL, AND I WISH YOU
EVERY SUCCESS AND CONGRATULATIONS.
YOU, MR. PRESIDENT, HAVE PLAYED A TREMENDOUSLY IMPORTANT ROLE
IN PRESERVING THE FLAME OF DEMOCRACY. IT WAS YOU WHO RESTORED
DEMOCRACY TO GREECE IN 1974. MANY WORLD LEADERS HAVE WORKED
WITHIN AN OPERATING DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM. BUT ONLY A GALLANT FEW
HAVE FACED THE CHALLENGE OF REVERSING AUTOCRACY AND RETURNING
-2-
DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES TO GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY. YOU ARE A
BEACON IN THAT SMALL, VERY DISTINGUISHED GROUP. YOUR SUCCESS
IN THIS PROFOUND ENDEAVOR WAS A VICTORY FOR GREECE AND FOR US
ALL.
TWICE PRIME MINISTER OF GREECE, AND NOW TWICE PRESIDENT YOU ARE
AN INSPIRATION NOT ONLY TO YOUR PEOPLE, BUT TO ME AND MANY
OTHERS.
LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, I ASK YOU TO RISE AND JOIN ME IN A TOAST
TO THE HEALTH OF PRESIDENT KARAMANLIS, TO THE ENDURING TIES OF
ALLIANCE AND FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND THE
HELLENIC REPUBLIC, AND TO THE IDEALS FOR WHICH WHICH WE STAND.
LONG MAY THEY PROSPER.
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4
8TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright (c) 1990 Federal Information Systems Corporation;
Federal News Service
JUNE 6, 1990, WEDNESDAY
SECTION: FROM THE WHITE HOUSE
LENGTH: 997 words
HEADLINE: CB
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS WITH
PRIME MINISTER CONSTANTINE MITSOTAKIS OF GREECE
THE WHITE HOUSE DRIVEWAY
WASHINGTON, DC
KEYWORD:
WH DRIVEWAY/MITSOTAKIS 06/06/90
BODY:
PRIME MINISTER MISOTAKIS: (In English.) I have to make a statement in the
beginning, and then I would answer to questions in Greek.
It is deeply significant to me that President Bush and I have met on June 6th,
D-Day, a date no European can forget. It is an annual reminder to us of how
much America contributed to the defeat of fascism and later to helping us
rebuild our countries. This has a special significance to me personally,
because I was twice sentenced to death by the Nazis for participating in the
Greek Resistance Movement.
Small as Greece is, however it can share your country's pride in helping
democracy survive in Europe. Greece was the first country to dramatize to the
world that fascism was not invincible when we decisively brought back
Mussolini's much larger army of invaders in 1940. We were also the first to
stop Soviet expansionism in Europe after World War II, an effort that never
[would] have succeeded without American support.
Visiting Washington and speaking to President Bush on this historic day, was
forcefully reminded to me how many bonds join our two countries. Your founding
fathers took inspiration from the ancient Greek example of democracy and
representative government. The Greek-inspired architecture of your government
buildings and this beautiful city are physical reminders on that fact. And the
cordiality and hospitality that I received today from President Bush reminded
me of the many times throughout history our two countries have served as
inspiration and support for each other.
I hope that two days' meeting is just one of many that will revitalize and
strengthen the historic bonds between us.
Q (In Greek.)
Q [May we have] the question translated, please, too.
INTERPRETER: What was the main issue of your talks with Mr. Bush?
(At this point, the Prime Minster begins speaking through an interpreter.)
PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS: We reviewed mainly bilateral relations but general
issues also.
We reviewed the problems of our region, attributing particular significance to
the Cyprus issue.
We spoke of the two issues that interest both sides very much, namely, narcotics
and terrorism.
On behalf of the President of the Greek Republic, Mr. Karamanlis, I
officially invited President Bush to visit Greece, which he gladly
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accepted. And Mr. Bush, in his turn, invited me to visit officially
Washington in the near future. I believe this was a very useful meeting which
inaugurates a new period of relations between the two countries.
Q Mr. Prime Minister, did you ask him to pressure Turkey to withdraw some troops
from Cyprus?
PRIME MIN. MITSOTAKIS: I asked him to use all his influence in order to help
settle the Cyprus issue. And I told him that presently we are at a dead end,
and some gesture acting like a catalyst should be made from the Turkish side.
Q The President requested the extradition of Mohammed Rasheed. Did you give the
President assurance that he will be extradited, and if yes, when?
PRIME MIN. MITSOTAKIS: I said to the President that the matter is of interest to
us, we're looking into it, and that WE will decide before September.
Q (In Greek.)
Q Translation?
INTERPRETER: The representaive -- the spokesman --
Q Fitzwater.
INTERPRETER: -- Fitzwater excluded the eventuality of an initiative from the
American side for the Cyprus issue, and said that this is a matter to be settled
between the United Nations.
PRIME MIN. MITSOTAKIS: I can't comment on a statement that I haven't heard.
What I can say though is that we all mean that we want a solution to be
implemented within the framework of the procedure of the United Nations, a
solution to be found within that procedure. However, since we have reached a
dead end, this initiative should be further assisted. And I believe that the
United States can play a very important role in this direction.
Q Did President Bush make any commitments towards that end?
PRIME MIN. MITSOTAKIS: I think that he was highly interested in the matter, and
I really believe that it is to the interest of all parties to find a settlement
of the Cyprus issue. It is definitely to the interest of Greece, it is for
the benefit of NATO, for the benefit of the US, but mainly it's beneficial to
Turkey to find a settlement.
Q Mr. Prime Minister, under the previous government, the United States was not
convinced that Greece was doing all it could to fight terrorism. Have you
today convinced President Bush that you will stand arm in arm with him against
terrorists?
PRIME MIN. MITSOTAKIS: I don't want to comment on what previous governments did.
I think I was pretty convincing when I told the President that, both as a human
being and as a politician, I'll do my very best to combat terrorism.
Q Did you talk about the summit talks between President Bush and President
Gorbachev? And if so, did you have any views ---- did you exchange any views on
what the new role of Greece is going to be in view of the developments
occurring in the Eastern part of Europe more particularly?
PRIME MIN. MITSOTAKIS: Yes, we spoke about the last summit. We talked also
about German unification and the participation of the unified Germany in NATO.
More particularly, we discussed the developments in the Balkans. We discussed
also developments in the Eastern European countries, in the Soviet Union. And
I'm convinced that Greece can play an important role in our region, that is,
the Balkans and the Eastern Mediterranean, as a member of united Europe but also
as a friendly and allied country of the United States.
Q (In Greek.)
INTERPRETER (after the Prime Minister answers): It was on Cyprus again -- the
question, and the Prime Minister answered that it was made clear that President
Bush is interested in promoting a solution.
Q (In Greek.)
PRIME MIN. MITSOTAKIS: The climate was very good -- the ambience. And I think
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6
(c) 1990 Federal Information Systems Corporation, June 6, 1990
there will be real results for this meeting.
Q Thank you.
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choose the time and place 101 applying umc relativery
small but excellent forces of the Greek congress.
ward in the summer of 479 to the northern foothills of
Plataca
The first decision, to hold the narrow Vale of Tempe
Mt. Cithaeron near Plataea, where difficulties of supply
and
between Macedonia and Thessaly; was abandoned when
forced the Greek army of 110,000 men to withdraw dur-
Mycale
it was realized that the position could easily be turned.
ing the night. The withdrawal was disorderly and dawn
On news of this the Athenians voted, on the proposal of
found the army scattered. Mardonius at once attacked a
Themistocles, to entrust themselves to "the wooden wall"
group of 11.500 Spartan and Tegean hoplites who had
of their ships in accordance with an utterance of the
halted on hilly ground. Their commander,: Pausanias,
Delphic oracle, and plans were made for evacuating the
undismayed by the swarms of Persian infantry, led his
noncombatants. Next the Greeks occupied the still nar-
men downhill in close formation, charged at the double,
rower pass of Thermopylae with 6,000 or 7,000 hoplites
and overwhelmed the enemy When the Athenians came
Ther-
and stationed 271 ships at Artemisium in northern
up after defeating the Thebans, the Greeks stormed the
Euboea. The positions were linked by communication be-
camp and the survivors of the-Persian army fled. Mean-
tween the Spartan commanders, King Leonidas at Ther-
while, the Greek fleet had passed to the offensive at
mopylae and Eurybiades at Artemisium, who intended
Mycale on the Asiatic coast opposite Samos. The Per-
to halt and damage the Persian forces. Meanwhile, Xerxes
sians refused battle, beached their ships, and joined a
was advancing slowly. He made no use of separate
large supporting army, but the Spartan king Leotychidas
columns, and his fleet suffered heavy losses in a storm
landed his men farther north and attacked with complete
when it was convoying supply ships along the coast. It
success. The victories of Plataea and Mycale ended the
was already August when Xerxes began the operations,
Persian invasion.
which extended over three days.
Greek offensive (478-448 BC). The Greek triumph was
On the first day he sent a detachment of 200 ships, un-
due to Spartan leadership, Athenian loyalty, and Greek
seen by the Greeks, to sail round Euboea and close the
fighting power. The Spartans, however, had no desire to
narrows of the Euboean Channel; and he also attacked
campaign in Asia, whereas the Athenians were ready to
with his best infantry at Thermopylae, where the Greeks
deploy their fleet in support of the Ionians. Hence arose
inflicted heavy casualties. During the afternoon the Greek
the Delian League, formed by Athens as executive leader
fleet, having learned about the Persian detachment from
and by many Greek states on the islands and Asiatic
a deserter, engaged the main Persian fleet with some suc-
coast, to defend Greek liberty and exact retribution from
cess. The Greeks intended to sail south that night and de-
Persia. A series of successful operations culminated C.
stroy the detachment next day, but a tremendous storm
466 in victory at the Eurymedon River in Pamphylia,
kept the Greeks at Artemisium and wrecked the 200 Per-
where an allied force of 300 ships defeated a Persian
sian ships off south Euboea. On the second day news of
army and navy. In 460 the Athenians and their allies
the Persian disaster was brought up by a reinforcing
supported Egypt in a successful revolt. But the Persian
squadron of 53 Athenian ships. Xerxes attacked again
army returned to the attack; Egypt made a separate
with no success at Thermopylae, and the Greeks sank
peace, and the Greeks, overconfident in their sea power,
some Cilician vessels off Artemisium. That evening a
were trapped on the Nile and annihilated in 454. By this
Greek traitor, Ephialtes, offered to guide the Persians
time the Athenians were at war with Sparta, but a truce
along a mountain path and turn the position at Ther-
on the Greek mainland enabled them to launch success-
mopylae. The Persians' best infantry, called the "Immor-
ful attacks on Cyprus in 450-449. A treaty of peace was
tals," were entrusted to him. At dawn on the third day
concluded, probably in 448, by the Athenians, their al-
they began to descend toward the plain behind the Greek
lies, and Artaxerxes I of Persia that recognized the lib-
position. Leonidas retained the troops of Sparta, Thes-
erty of the Greek states in Europe and Asia and kept the
piae, and Thebes and sent the remainder south. He then
Persian fleet out of the Aegean Sea.
advanced. Except for the Thebans, who surrendered, he
BIBLIOGRAPHY
and his men fought to the death. Meanwhile the Persian
Translation: AUBREY DE SELINCOURT, Herodotus: The His-
fleet attacked at noon. Both sides suffered heavy losses
tories (1954).
and the Greeks realized that they could only succeed in
General accounts: The Cambridge Ancient History, vol.
narrower waters. That evening, when the fall of Ther-
4, The Persian Empire and the West, ch. 1, 7-10 (1926) and
mopylae was known, the Greek fleet withdrew down the
vol. 5, Athens. ch. 2-3 (1927), somewhat dated and lacks
Euboean Channel and took station in the narrow Strait of
references to ancient sources; ANDREW R. BURN, Persia and
Salamis.
the Greeks: The Defence of the West, C. 546-478 B.C. (1962),
In September, Xerxes, joined by many Greeks north of
the most detailed, up-to-date account; N.G.L. HAMMOND, A
Attica, burned Athens. The city was almost deserted, for
History of Greece to 322 B.C., 2nd ed., pp. 176-286 (1967),
gives references to ancient sources.
the evacuation had been completed. The Greek congress
Special topics: GEORGE B. GRUNDY, The Great Persian War
decided to fortify the isthmus and keep the fleet forward
and Its Preliminaries (1901, reprinted 1969), an original and
at Salamis. This decision caused dissension among the
important work; CHARLES HIGNETT, Xerxes' Invasion of Greece
ship captains. Many wished to retire to the Argolic Gulf.
(1963), critical of ancient literary sources, not strong in mat-
As a stratagem, Themistocles informed Xerxes of their
ters of topography; P.A. BRUNT, "The Hellenic League Against
desire; Xerxes, who saw the end of the campaigning sea-
Persia," Historia, 2:135-163 (1953); N.G.L. HAMMOND, Studies
son close at hand, sent 200 ships that night to cut the
in Greek History (1973), includes discussions of the battles of
Greek line of retreat and posted the main fieet, numbering
Marathon and Salamis and of the Athenian Alliance of 478-
probably 1,207 ships, off the eastern exit of the Straits of
477 BC; B.D. MERITT, H.T. WADE-GERY, and M.F. MCGREGOR, The
Athenian Tribute Lists, 4 vol. (1939-53).
Salamis. During the night the Greeks learned of his dis-
(N.G.L.H.)
positions and intentions. Putting to sea at dawn they
feigned a retreat, actually sending a detachment north-
Greece
ward to look out for the 200 Persian ships, and their
A constitutional monarchy until 1974-though the reign-
manoeuvres led the enemy to advance incautiously into
ing monarch fled the country in 1967 as part of a series of
the narrow waters where superior numbers were of little
events that continues to mold the nation-Greece is a
effect. Within the narrows the Greek ships, stoutly built
European republic stretching across the tip of the Balkan
for ramming, had room to manoeuvre against the con-
Peninsula from the Ionian Sea to the Aegean and includ-
gested stream of Persian ships, which, designed for
ing islands in both seas. Its area-50,960 square miles
boarding tactics, proved less handy under oar and fell
(131,986 square kilometres)-is about that of Czecho-
foul of one another. The result was a complete triumph
slovakia or North Korea, and its neighbours (clockwise
for Greek seamanship. The Persians fied in confusion.
from the northwest) are Albania, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria,
Soon afterward their fleet, still superior in numbers but
and Turkey; its insular possessions stretch as far south as
not in morale, set sail for Asia.
the major Mediterranean island of Crete (Kríti). Its capi-
That winter, while Xerxes departed to Asia, a large
tal is Athens (Athínai).
There is about Greece a vitality, all too often undisci-
plined, that makes many another European country seem
and inlets, which are often separated by the rocky spines
tame, even dull, by comparison. This is evident im-
of peninsulas that thrust back into the sea and are con-
mediately on sailing into a Greek port or crossing a Greek
tinued in the arcs and clusters of beautiful islands across
border: sounds, smells, movements, colours-the very
its surface. Only a small, wedge-shaped portion of the
interior of modern Greece is more than 50 miles from the
tempo of things-conspire to heighten sensibilities and
intensify expectations. But alongside all this is the serene
sea. Mountains are the second major element in Greek
The
/
coolness, even aloofness, of what remains in Greece from
topography. They cover about three-quarters of the coun-
try's surface, forming a ribbed, interlaced network, trend-
elements
classical antiquity, the visible monuments of which con-
stantly stand as a challenge to (if not even a rebuke of)
ing generally from northwest to southeast, and enclosing
pograge
numerous small basins. The basins-together with nar-
contemporary endeavours.
The vitality of Greece and Greeks can be said to stem
row valleys, small plains (spreading more extensively
about river mouths), and a thin, broken coastal strip—
from the heady mixture over centuries of many peoples
form the third element in the relief, the lowland.
and ways of life. That land, now the home of about
The
In their combination and interaction, these three ele-
9,000,000 persons, has long been "at the crossroads"-
ments have been of immense significance in shaping na-
cross-
that place in the Balkans where "three roads meet,"
tional development: the rich soils of the basins nurtured
roads
where Europe, Africa, and the East converge, and at that
agriculture and the first stirrings of civilization, but the
point in time where the ancient, the medieval, and the
mountains (while often serving as a barrier against in-
modern coexist and conflict. The Greek is familiar with
vaders) constricted this social development to small,
the Middle East: his language and food, to say nothing of
fiercely independent areas and impeded communications
his religion and history, are marked by exotic and even
between them. The sea-as both history and the ancient
oppressive elements from Turkey, the Holy Land, Egypt,
stories attest-made for contact between the separate
and beyond. But he is familiar as well with the more
communities and stimulated contacts farther afield, al-
sober West, with the Europe to which the young go for
though it also exposed the coastal regions to external at-
training and for work, with the Americas and Australia
tack. For the geographer these three elements, in local
to which SO many have gone for a new home. Greeks, like
combination, are a convenient basis for a division of the
the Jews whom they resemble in so many ways, have long
contemporary Greek landscape into six natural regions.
been able to adjust themselves as merchants in many
The Pindus Mountains. The core region in Greek to-
climes and to many ways of life. But, also like the Jews,
pography is unquestionably the rugged Pindus Mountains
they have preserved in their heart of hearts a vital mem-
(Píndhos Óros) area of the northwest interior. Following
ory of the homeland to which they yearn to return.
the general northwest-southeast trend of the mountains
This homeland is as much a state of mind as it is a
of the Balkan Peninsula, the Pindus sweep down in a se-
place to be found on maps. The yearning to "return,"
ries of rugged, roughly parallel ridges from the Albanian
then, is almost as strong among those who have never
and Yugoslavian frontier and are structurally a part of
left Greek soil as among those who find themselves
the Dinaric mountain system of those countries. This sys-
abroad. Perhaps it is a yearning to attain that which has
tem of young fold mountains was created relatively late
never been but which has always been aspired to. It is a
in geological time, and earthquakes continue to afflict the
yearning evident in the melancholy of Greek music, the
region as the mountain structures settle down. The high-
nostalgia that can be heard even in the lively tunes and
est point in this region is Smólikas Óros (óros, plural
ballads sung on festive occasions. It is a yearning that can
óri, "mountain"), 8,651 feet (2,637 metres) high. The
be heard as well in interminable conversations, especially
mountain scenery, with jagged granitic peaks, wild
those with which Greeks refresh themselves through the
gorges, and a succession of magnificent views glimpsed
long cool nights that follow blistering summer days. And
from winding roads, is justly famed.
it is a yearning that can be seen in the faces and deeds of
Macedonia and Thrace. A number of topographic re-
the Greeks, a yearning that makes it impossible for them
gions surround this mountainous core and are often pene-
"to leave well enough alone." A perpetual restlessness,
trated by extensions of it. The northernmost division,
much like that which was said to characterize the political
roughly the regions of Macedonia and Thrace (Thráki),
life of ancient Athens, is evident, a restlessness that can
extends in a long, narrow east-west band between the
continue subterraneanly despite surface conformity to the
north Aegean coast and the frontier with Yugoslavia
tyranny of the moment.
and Bulgaria. It is bounded on the east by the Ma-
Indeed, there have been many tyrannies in Greece,
ritsa River (Évros Potamós; potamós, "river"), which
tyrannies that are as much a part of the much-discussed
marks the Turkish frontier, and consists of hills and
"Greek experience" as (if not even the most frequent
forest-clad mountains interpenetrated by valleys, river
result of) their volatile democracies. Perhaps, it might
basins, and alluvial plains. Along the Bulgarian border
even be said, memories of tyrannies remind Greeks of
and beyond it rise the ancient crystalline rock structures
the unpredictability of human things, of the disaster that
of the Rhodope Mountains (Rodhópi Óri), against which
can follow upon prosperity, of the trials that even the
the newer mountains of the Pindus were crushed during
most successful encounter from time to time. Life can be
their formation. In the west, the three-pronged peninsula
The
expected to be as hard, as unyielding, and as toughening
of Khalkidhikí (Chalcidice) forms a distinctive feature as
kidhiki
as the soil and the sea from which Greeks have for
it thrusts out into the Aegean. On the easternmost prong,
penins
centuries wrested their livelihood. But it can also be as
Áyion Óros (Holy Mountain), is located Mt. Áthos, the
and
N°
enriching and as exciting as the landscape and the light
site of the famous monastic community.
Áthos
for which Greece has always been celebrated and that
The peninsula is separated from the rest of the coastal
can be seen, if not at this moment or place, then surely
region by a fault line of structural weakness, marked by
in a little while or down the road a few kilometres.
the lakes Korónia and Vólvi. Just to the west extends
The following article surveys contemporary Greece. Ad-
a large plain drained by the Vardar (Axiós) and Aliák-
ditional information may be found in the articles on AE-
mon rivers, whose swampy deltas are slowly pushing out
GEAN CIVILIZATIONS: AEGEAN SEA: ATHENS; BALKANS, HIS-
into the nearby Thermaïkós Kólpos (kólpos, "gulf"). The
TORY OF THE: BYZANTINE EMPIRE: CRETE: GREEK CIVILIZA-
forested Vérmion Óros and. beyond it, the barren inland
TION. ANCIENT: and the appropriate sections of VISUAL
basins around lakes Vegorrítis and Kastorías mark the
ARTS. WESTERN, and LITERATURE. WESTERN.
boundary with the Pindus proper. Farther east is a suc-
cession of plains. often swampy: that of Sérrai, around
THE LAND
the lower Struma (Strimón), and the deltaic plain of the
Topography. The Greek landscape is conspicuous not
lower Néstos are most significant. Inland basins of struc-
only for its beauty but also for its complexity and its va-
tural origin include that of the Pedhiás Drámas.
riety. The dominant iniluence-as noted by Strabo, the
Central Greece. Central Greece lies to the south of
great geographer of classical antiquity, and confirmed by
Macedonia and Thrace and is lent character by four spurs
a glance at the man-is sea. An ever-present factor.
that thrust out from the main Pindus mass. following the
the sea presses deep into the land in a host of arms
northwest-southeast trend of that region. A number of
coast Or une nermaikos Kol-
The Aegean Islands (Nísoi Aiyaiou). Just as ridgelike
pos and continues south to form the peninsula bounding
The
extensions of the Pindus interpenetrate the basins and
this
one side of the Órmos Vólou (órmos, "bay"). One of its
clements
coastal plains of mainland Greece, island groups, which
peaks is Mt. Olympus (Óros Ólimbos)-the mythical seat
in the
are often further extensions of the same mountain chains,
of the gods, whose often cloud-topped summit rises to
form distinct regional clusters in the Aegean Sea. In the
9,570 feet (2,917 metres), the highest point in Greece-
Regional
northeast, the island region forms the most extensive-
clusters of
and also the equally fine peaks of Óssa and Pílion (Pelion).
and, visually, perhaps the most attractive-of the physio-
islands
The next spur on the west is the Óros Óthris range, which
graphic divisions of Greece: In the north, off Thrace
continues across the narrow Dhíavlos Oreón (Oreón
(Thráki), lie Thásos (an oval block of ancient mineral
Channel) in the northern sector of the long, narrow island
rocks similar in composition to neighbouring blocks on
of Évvoia (Euboea). Between the two spurs lie the ancient
the mainland) and harbourless Samothráki (Samothrace),
basins (formerly the site of lakes) of Thessalía (Thessaly),
an island of volcanic origin. Límnos, situated midway be-
Tríkkala (Tríkala); and Lárisa, drained by the Piniós.
tween Asia Minor and Áyion Óros, is almost cut in two by
Just to their south, the basin of Almirós, of similar origin,
the northern Órmos Pourniá and the deep southern har-
lies around the Órmos Vólou.
bour afforded by the Kólpos Moúdhrou.
To the southwest, the third spur leaving the Pindus is
To the southeast, the rocky but sheltered islands of Lés-
that of the Oíti, continued in the Ókhi Óros of southern
vos (Lesbos), Khíos (Chios), and Sámos lie close to the
Évvoia. Just before the Oíti reaches the sea, near the head
Turkish coast and are extensions of peninsulas on the
of the Maliakós Kólpos, lies the pass of Thermopylae
coast of Asia Minor. Across the central Aegean, near
(Thermopílai), scene of the famous battle of antiquity.
northern Évvoia (Euboea), lie the Northern Sporades
The last (and perhaps the most important) of the four
(Voríai Sporádhes), or "scattered" islands; their crystal-
spurs thrusting down into central Greece is that curving
line rocks are similar to those of the Greek mainland. Far-
away to the southeast through the twin-peaked mass of
ther south, in the heart of the Aegean, lie the Cyclades
Mt.
Mt. Parnassus (Parnassós). This mountain rises to 8,061
(Kikládhes), "islands in a circle." These roughly centre on
Parnassus
feet (2,457 metres) and was held to be the home of the
Dhílos (Delos) and represent the tips of drowned moun-
and its
muses. The view from its summit at sunrise, with a broad
tain ridges continuing the structural trends of Évvoia and
regional
expanse of the heart of Greece gradually unfolding, is
the region around Athens.
context
regarded as one of the finest in the world. The range con-
Between the Cyclades and the Turkish coast, the Dodec-
tinues as the backbone of the peninsula lying between the
anese (Dhodhekánisos) group, with Rhodes (Ródhos) the
Vórios Evvoïkós Kólpos and the Gulf of Corinth (Ko-
largest of a dozen major islands, have a varied geological
rinthiakós Kólpos), and it reaches as far as Párnis Óros,
structure ranging from the gray limestones of Kálimnos,
just to the north of Athens. To its north lie the plains of
Sími, and Khálki to the complete ancient volcanic cone
Fokís (Phocis) and Voiotía (Boeotia) and around its
that forms Nísiros. Finally, the long, narrow shape of
southern tip lie the depressions of Attica (Attikí), hotter
Crete stands at the entrance of the Aegean in the extreme
and more arid but with a strategic importance that helps
southern portion of Greek territory. Its harsh, rugged
to explain the rise of Athens.
landscapes mark yet another extension of the fold moun-
The Pelopónnisos. The entire southern portion of
tains of the Balkan Peninsula.
mainland Greece forms a peninsula lying to the south of
Climate and drainage. The basically Mediterranean
the Gulf of Corinth. Technically, this region, the Pelo-
climate of Greece is subject to a number of regional and
pónnisos, or Peloponnese, also known as the Morea, is
even local variations occasioned by the country's physical
now an island, for the 3.9-mile (6.3-kilometre) Dhiórix
diversity. In winter the belt of low pressure disturbances
Korínthou (Corinth Canal) cuts across the narrow neck
moving in from the North Atlantic shifts southward,
of land formerly separating the Gulf of Corinth from that
bringing with it warm, moist, westerly winds. Squalls and
of Aíyina (Aegina). The Pelopónnisos consists of an oval-
spells of rain ruffle the Aegean, but sunshine often breaks
shaped mass with mountains rising to 7,800 feet and four
through the clouds. As the low pressure areas enter the
peninsular prongs pushing out southward toward Crete.
Aegean region, they may draw in cold air from those
The limestone mass of the plateau of Arkadhía (Ar-
eastern regions of the Balkans that, sheltered by the Di-
cadia), where streams disappear underground in the solu-
naric mountain system from western influences, are open
ble rocks, forms the heart of this mass, with the barren
to climatic extremes emanating from the heart of Eurasia.
land of Taïyetos Óros (rising 7,897 feet, or 2,407 metres)
This icy wind is known as the boreas. Partly as a result,
extending southward to form the backbone of one of the
Thessaloníki (Salonika) has an average January temper-
subsidiary peninsulas. This mountainous core is sur-
ature of 43° F (6° C), while Athens has 50° F (10° C).
rounded by a thin fringe of fertile coastal plain in the
Shilok, or warm winds, are similarly drawn in from the
north and west and by the larger alluvial depressions of
south. The western influences bring plentiful rain to the
Lakonía (Laconia), Messinía (Messenia), and Árgos,
The Khar
Ionian coast and the mountains behind it; winter rain also
which head the inlets between the peninsulas to the south.
kidhilí
starts early, and snow lingers into spring. At Kérkira
The coast is indented and offers some fine harbours, and
penins
(Corfu), January temperatures average 50° F (10° C),
the whole region is noted for its wild beauty.
and ML
and the island's average annual rainfall is 52 inches (1,300
The western uplands and islands. The western side of
Áthos
millimetres), compared with the Athens total of 16 inches
the Greek mainland north of the Gulf of Corinth to the
(400 millimetres).
Albanian frontier and the offshore islands (the Ionian Is-
In summer, when the low pressure belt swings away
lands; Iónioi (Nísoi) possess their own distinctive topog-
again, the climate is hot and dry almost everywhere, with
raphy and regional character. This effect has been en-
the average July sea-level temperature approaching 80° F
hanced by the fact that the mountainous barrier of the
(27° C), although heat waves can push the temperature
Pindus lying inland and the ameliorating climatic influ-
up over the 100° F mark for a day or so. Topography is
ences from the west have led to historic isolation from the
again a modifying factor: the interior northern moun-
rest of Greece. Fertile basins are not as well developed as
tains continue to experience some rainfall, while all along
in some other parts of Greece because they are constricted
the winding coast the afternoon heat is eased slightly by
by the parallel ranges of coastal mountains, but the moun-
sea breezes. In other regions the hot, dry summers are ac-
tain regions themselves, being adequately supplied with
centuated by the parching etesian winds, which become
rainfall; are not so barren as elsewhere. Kérkira (Corfu),
drier and drier as they are drawn southward.
the island lying opposite the Albanian frontier, is the
In all seasons-perhaps especially in summer-the qual-
The
northernmost of the seven major Ionian Islands. It is
ity of the light is one of Greece's greatest treasures. Al-
quality of
fertile and well watered. The other islands, Paxoí (Paxos),
though the larger cities have not escaped the pernicious
Greek
Levkás (Leucas), Skorpiós, Itháki (Ithaca), Kefallinía
effects of industrial and vehicular pollution, the Greek
light
(Cephalonia), and Zákinthos (Zacynthus), lie farther
atmosphere is generally pure and clear. The interplay of
south. Lack of rainfall accentuates their gaunt, broken
light and varied landscape is remarkable. The harsh white
Greece
317
MAP INDEX (continued)
Sámos, island
37:48n 26.44e
spectacular gorges. Finally, the irregular, deeply pene-
Samothráki
trating coastline makes for short river courses. The over-
Maléa, Ákra,
(Samothrace),
cape
36-26n 23.12e
40-30n 25.32e
all effect is to produce short rivers with an erratic season-
island
Maliakós Kólpos
Saronikos
al flow, virtually useless for navigation and limited for ir-
(Gulf of Lamia) 38-52n 22.3Se
Kölpos, bay
37.54n 23-12e
rigation purposes. The Vardar, Struma, and the Néstos,
Mediterranean
Seritos, island
37.11n 24-31e
Sea
36-00n 21.00e
Sidheros, Ákra,
which crosses Macedonia and Thráki to enter the north-
Merambéllou,
cape
35.19n 26-19e
ern Aegean, are the major rivers-but only because they
Kólpos, bay
35-14n 25.47e
Sifnos, island
36.59n 24:40e
drain large regions beyond the Greek frontier. A host of
Mesarás, Kólpos,
Sikión. ruins
37-59n 22.44e
bay
34.58n 24-36e
Sikinos, island
36-39n 25-06e
small and medium-sized rivers drain the rest of the coun-
Messini, ruins
37-11n 21.57e
Simi, island
36'35n 27:52e
try: the Aliákmon, the Piniós (running. east across the
Messiniakós
Singitikos
Kólpos, bay
40-12n 24-03e
main peninsula), and the Evrótas of the Pelopónnisos are
Kólpos (Gulf of
Messini), bay
36-58n 22.00e
Síros, island
37.26n 24-54e
noteworthy.
Meteora,
Sithoniá.
Plant and animal life. Like other Balkan countries,
monastery
39-46n 21-36e
peninsula
35.12n 26-07e
Mikinai, ruins
37-44n 22-45e
Skiathos, island 39-12n 23-28e
Greece is open to influences from several major biogeo-
Míkonos, island
37.29n 25-25e
Skópelos, island
39.10n 23.40e
graphic zones, with the major Mediterranean influences
Mikrá Préspa,
Skorpios, island
38.41n 20-45e
supplemented by plants and animals stemming from the
Lake
40-46n 21-04e
Smólikas,
Mílos, island
36-41n 24.15e
mountain
40-06n 20-52e
central European interior. Hence, local topographic and
Mirtóön Pélagos,
Soúnion, Akra,
climatic conditions also occasion great variety. On the
sea
36.51n 23-18e
cape
37.39n 24-02e
Mistrás, ruins
37.04n 22-21e
Spatha, Ákra,
mountain flanks, and in the north generally, the central
Morea, see
cape
35-42n 23-44e
European types of vegetation prevail. In central and
Peloponnesus
Sporádhes, see
southern regions and in narrow belts along the valleys of
Moúdhrou,
Dhodhekánisos
Strimón
the mountains, about half the land is under scrub of
Kólpos
(Moúdhros),
(Struma), river
40.47n 23.51e
various kinds; and maquis, the classic Mediterranean
gulf
39-49n 25-14e
Strimonikós
scrub complex-with oleander, bay, evergreen oak, olive,
Mount Olympus,
Kólpos, bay
40-40n 23-50e
see Olimbos
Taínaron, Akra,
and juniper-is particularly well developed in the Pelo-
Náxos, island
37.02n 2535e
cape
36-22n 22.30e
pónnisos. Evergreen trees and shrubs and herbaceous
Néstos, river
40.41n 24-44e
Talyetos Oros,
Nisiros, island
36-35n 27.10e
mountains
37.16n 22.12e
plants are found in the lowlands, with the flowers offering
Oiti, mountain
38.49n 22.17e
Teyea, ruins
37-29n 22-24e
brilliant patterns in springtime. Pines, planes, and poplars
Okhi Óros,
Thásos, island
40.41n 24-47e
line the rivers, the higher slopes, and the coastal plains.
mountain
38-05n 24-25e
Thásos, ruins
40-46n 24-33e
Olimbía, ruins
Thermaikós
Oak, chestnut, and other deciduous trees are found in the
37-38n 21-41e
Ólimbos (Mount
Kóplos (Gulf of
north, giving way at higher altitudes to coniferous forests
Olympus),
Saloniki), bay
40-23n 22.47e
dominated by the Grecian fir, in which clearings are
mountain
40-05n 22-21e
Thermopilai
Ossa, mountain
39.49n 22-42e
(Thermopylae),
carpeted in spring and summer with irises, crocuses, and
Othonoi, island
39-50n 19-26e
balllefield
38-48n 22-33e
tulips. Forests and scrub are found at the highest levels:
Othris, Óros,
Thessalia
the black-pine forests coating Mt. Olympus are particu-
mountains
39.05n 22.45e
(Thessaly)
Pagasitikós
historic region
39-30n 22-00e
larly noteworthy.
Kólpos (Gulf of
Thira, island
36.24n 25-29e
The forested zones, especially in the north, harbour such
Volos), bay
39.15n 22-51e
Thrace (Thráki),
Palaia Kórinthos,
historic region
41.15n 26.15e
European animals as wildcat, martin, brown bear, roe
ruins
37.54n 22.56e
Thrakikon
deer, and, more rarely, wolf, wild boar, and lynx. Ani-
Parnassós,
Pélagos, sea
40-15n 24-28e
mals of the Mediterranean regions include jackals, wild
mountain
38-32n 22.35e
Tilos, island
36-25n 27-25e
Párnis,
Tinos. island
37-38n 25-10e
goats, and porcupines, all adapted to lack of moisture and
mountain
38.11n 23.42e
Tirins, ruins
37-35n 22-48e
to the heat. Birds include pelicans, storks, and herons,
Parnon,
Trikhonis, Limni,
while many varieties winter in Greece from farther north.
mountains
37.18n 22.35e
lake
38-34n 21.28e
Páros, island
37-08n 25.12e
Vardar, see
Reptile and fish life is rich and varied.
Pátmos, island
37-20n 26-33e
Axiós
The human imprint. The large number of monuments
Patraikós
Vardhoúsia Óri,
dotted across Greece are testimony of the antiquity of
Kólpos (Gulf of
mountains
38.44n 22-07e
Patras), bay
38-14n 21.15e
Vegorritis, Límni,
man's attempts to wrest a living from this sometimes
Paxoí, island
39-12n 20.12e
lake
40.41n 21-44e
harsh environment. Contemporary patterns of settle-
Pélla, ruins
40-45n 22-33e
Vérmion Oros,
ment, especially in the rural areas, bear the marks of
Peloponnesus
mountain
40.39n 21-53e
(Morea).
Voïviïs, Limni,
long centuries of development.
historic region
37.30n 22-00e
lake
39-32n 22-45e
Village life remains a powerful influence. It neverthe-
Petalión, Kólpos,
Volos, Gulf of,
bay
37.59n 24.02e
less has a cosmopolitan nature-seen especially in the
see Pagasitikós
Pilion, mountain
39-28n 23-02e
Kólpos
village-square discussions-and the modern cities have
Pindhos Oros
Vólvi, Límni,
something of the village in their character. The rural
(Pindus
lake
40-41n 23-23e
Mountains)
39-49n 21.14e
Voriai Sporádhes,
communities themselves range from the little communi-
Piniós, river
39.54n 22-45e
islands
39-17n 23.23e
ties of the northern mountain interior, reminiscent of
Prespa, Lake
40-50n 21-02e
Vórios Evvoïkós
central Europe, to the sun-beaten villages of Crete, which
Psará, island
38-35n 25.37e
Kólpos, bay
38-40n 23-15e
Rhodes, see
Yiáros, island
37-38n 24-44e
are almost African in appearance. Although rural settle-
Ródhos
Zákinthos
ment patterns reflect the vagaries of physical geography
Rhodope
(Zante), island
37.52n 20-44e
mountains
41-30n 24-30e
and the changing currents of history in a particular re-
Zakinthou,
Ródhos (Rhodes),
Porthmós,
gion, the tiled roofs, low, whitewashed walls, long, nar-
island
36.10n 28.00e
strait
37-50n 21-00e
row windows, the central church, and the traces of forti-
Saloniki, Gulf of,
see Thermaïkos
fications are frequent features of village communities.
Kólpos
Between villages, the ancient stone walls and winding
roads add their own character to the landscape.
limestone crags of the islands, contrasting with the deep
Yet town and city life is becoming increasingly impor-
blue of the Aegean waters and an equally powerful sky;
tant, and more than half of the people were classified
the dusty green olive groves, the burnt-orange tiled roofs,
as urban in the early 1970s. The metropolitan sprawl
and dazzling whitewashed walls of coastal communities;
centred on Athens (home of over 2,500,000 people) is
and the ever-present weathered stones of the country's
one of the great urban complexes of the Mediterranean,
great number of ancient monuments all add their own
complete with industrial and port facilities. The port of
tones.
Thessaloníki, with a metropolitan population close to
The drainage pattern of Greece is significantly influ-
550,000, is the second major urban centre. There is then
enced by the porosity and solubility of the rocks of the
something of a gap, for the next half dozen or SO major
limestone regions; hence, seasonal downpours are often
centres-often ports-have populations generally falling
immediately lost through seepage and runoff. Much rain-
between 50,000 and 100,000. Urbanization and the mod-
fall is also lost in rugged terrain of the geologically young
ernization of the economy-especially improvements
northern mountains, where there is a tortured network of
aimed at the influx of tourists-are also leaving their
rushing mountain streams, often falling into narrow,
mark on the traditional Greek landscape.
Linguistic, ethnic, and religious background. Despite
area
population
the great variety of influences that have shaped modern
Greece, and the marked differences among the many iso-
sq mi
sq km 1961 census 1971 census
lated regions, a sense of community binds the Greeks to-
Regions (dhiamerismata)
gether, especially in a national emergency, such as World
Aegean Islands
of
War II. A common religion, a great heritage, and a com-
Departments (nomoí)
Cyclades
993
2,572
100,000
86,000
mon popular tongue (variations in regional dialects not-
Dodecanese
1,044
2,705
123,000
121,000
withstanding) tend to make all Greeks feel that they are
Khíos
349
904
62,000
54,000
somehow one-people equal to each other in important re-
Lésvos
832
2,154
140,000
115,000
Sámos
300
778
spects. Combined with this sense of equality is the interest
52,000
42,000
in, and appetite for, political discussion.
All but-about 5 percent of the populace adheres to the
Central Greece and Evvoia
Departments
Greek Orthodox Church (see EASTERN ORTHODOXY). This
Aitolía and Akarnanía
2,103
5,447
238,000
229,000
body appoints its own ecclesiastical hierarchy and is head-
Attiki*
1,303
3,375
205,000.
258,000
ed by a synod of 12 metropolitans under the presidency
Evritanía
790
2,045
40,000
30,000
Evvoia
of the archbishop of Athens. The Greek Church has links
1,509
3,908
166,000
165,000
Fokís
819
2,121
48,000
41,000
in dogma with the other Orthodox churches. The Muslim
Fthiótis
1,686
4,368
160,000
155,000
minority, just over 1 percent of the populace, is mainly
Voiotía
1,240
3,211
114,000
115,000
Turkish and is concentrated in western Thráki and the
Dodecanese. Roman and Greek Catholics (concentrated
Crete
in Athens and the western islands formerly under Italian
Departments
Iráklion
sway) account for less than 0.5 percent, and there are a
1,020
2,641
208,000
210,000
Khania
917
2,376
131,000
120,000
few thousand adherents of Protestant churches, the Gre-
Lasithi
702
1,818
74,000
66,000
gorian Rite of the Eastern Church (mostly Armenians),
Rethimni
578
1,496
70,000
61,000
and Judaism, the last named being much reduced in num-
bers by the German genocide of World War II.
fpiros
In terms of ethnic composition, Greeks again make up
Departments
Árta
622
1,612
83,000
78,000
all but 5 percent of the total, the remainder being com-
Ioánnina
1,927
4,990
155,000
135,000
posed of Macedonians, Turks, Albanians, and Romani-
Préveza
419
1,086
63,000
57,000
ans. Except in Cyprus, southern Albania, and Turkey,
Thesprotía
585
1,515
52,000
41,000
there are no major enclaves of Greeks in nearby foreign
Greater Athenst
167
countries, although Greek communities play a distinctive
433
1,853,000
2,540,000
role in Europe, the Western Hemisphere, and Australia.
Demographic trends. The Greek population has never
Ionian Islands
Departments
displayed the high rates of growth attributed to it by some
Kefallinía
361
935
46,000
37,000
analysts, although-despite grievous losses in a succes-
Kérkira
247
641
102,000
93,000
sion of wars and constant emigration as a result of poor
Levkás
125
325
29,000
25,000
Zákinthos
economic conditions-it has usually shown a regular in-
157
406
36,000
30,000
crease since the first census, in 1828. Most of its growth
in the years since it gained its independence from the
Macedonia
Turks resulted from two factors-annexations of sur-
Departments
Dráma
1,339
3,468
121,000
91,000
rounding areas (the Ionian Islands; Thessalía [Thessaly]
Flórina
719
1,863
67,000
52,000
and Árta; Ípiros [Epirus], Macedonia, and Crete; Thráki
Grevená
903
2,338
43,000
35,000
Imathía
[Thrace]; and the Dodecanese) and the influx of more
656
1,699
115,000
118,000
Kastoria
651
1,685
47,000
46,000
than 1,000,000 Greek refugees from Asia Minor in the
Kavála
814
2,109
141,000
122.000
1920s. Emigration continues to be a limiting factor, the
Khalkidhikit
1,267
3,281
83,000
75,000
most active periods having been 1911-15 when nearly
Kilkis
1,003
2,597
103,000
84,000
Kozáni
1,375
3,562
153,000
136,000
130,000 persons left, 1956-60 (160,000), and the decade
Pélla
968
2,506
133,000
126,000
of the 1960s (830,000). The commonest destinations of
Piería
598
1,548
98,000
92,000
the emigrants are the United States, Canada, Australia,
Sérrai
1,539
3,987
248,000
203,000
Thessaloniki
1,375
3,560
544,000
710,000
and, most recently, West Germany, which has also at-
tracted the largest number of the 300,000 Greeks work-
ing temporarily in western Europe. Vital statistics are
Pelopónnisos
Departments
comparable to those of the developed countries of Europe
Akhaia
1,239
3,209
239,000
240,000
-deaths are 8.5 and births 16.1 per 1,000 annually, giv-
Argolis
855
2,214
90,000
89,000
ing a natural increase of 7.6 per 1,000. Higher birth rates
Arkadhía
1,706
4,419
135,000
111,000
Ilía
after World War II. however, have produced a youthful
1,035
2,681
189,000
165,000
Korinthía
884
2,289
113,000
113,000
population: about 25 percent are less than 15 years of age
Lakonía
1,404
3,636
119,000
96,000
and 45 percent less than 30. Along with population
Messinia
1,155
2,991
212,000
173,000
growth, urbanization has been a most important factor,
especially since World War II. The rural component has
Thessalia
shrunk to about one-third of the total. All these factors
Departments
Kardhitsa
995
2.576
153,000
134,000
have had important social and political implications. The
Lárisa
2,067
5,354
231,000
232,000
average density of population is about 175 per square
Magnisia
1,018
2,636
164,000
161,000
mile (68 per square kilometre), although the variation
Trikala
1,289
3.338
143,000
133,000
in natural conditions makes the average rather meaning-
less. It is perhaps more significant to note that more than
Thraki
eight out of every 10 Greeks live on the main peninsula,
Departments
Evros
and in 1971 more than one Greek in four lived in the
1,638
4.242
158,000
139,000
Rodhopi
982
2.543
109,000
108,000
Greater Athens area.
(G.An.)
Xanthi
692
1.793
90.000
$3,000
Total Greece
50.960$
131,986$
8,389,000$
8,769,000$
THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
Although Greece is a Balkan country, its principal eco-
"Attiki Department excludes area and population of Greater Athens,
nomic links are with the United States, the European
shown separately. Constitutes part of Attiki Department. Includes
area and population of Ayion Oros (Mt. Athos). an autonomous
Economic Community (EEC; Common Market). of which
administration. Detail does not add to total given because of rounding.
it is an associate member, and the Organization for Ec-
Source: Official government figures.
onomic Cooperation and Development (OECD). of which it
is a member. Trade with the Socialist bloc and with Yo-
Greece 319
goslavia has increased, however, and by 1974 about 16
either to other employment in Greece or to work abroad.
percent of Greece's annual exports were going to those
In the period from 1961 to 1971 employment in agricul-
countries; they account, however, for only 5 percent of
ture declined at an average annual rate of 1.4 percent.
imports into Greece. With a population of only about
Productivity, nevertheless, has been growing faster in this
9,000,000 and a relatively low annual income per capita,
sector than in industry and in the services sector. As a
Greece is not an important country industrially or in in-
result, agricultural production actually increased on aver-
d
of
COM
ternational trade. In the world of international shipping,
age by nearly 3 percent a year in the period from 1965 to
munist
however, Greek owners occupy an important place. If
1970, notwithstanding its decline as a proportion of total
tonnage actually controlled by Greek nationals (as op-
national output. Despite the comparatively more rapid
posed to tonnage flying the Greek fiag) is considered, the
growth of productivity in⁻ agriculture, however, its level
Greek fleet of about 4,380 ships, aggregating about 43,-
of productivity is still a good deal lower than that of the
630,000 tons gross by 1976, was the second largest in the
average in other sectors-a factor experienced by the
world (after Liberia). The fleet flying the Greek fiag ranks
agricultural workers themselves as poverty. In an attempt
fifth in the world, with more than 2,740 vessels aggregat-
to alleviate this, the government has tried to shift the em-
ing 22,530,000 tons.
phasis away from excess production of wheat and tobacco
Govern-
The extent and distribution of resources. Mineral re-
to more profitable crops, notably cotton. Wheat subsidies
ment in-
sources. Greece's total mineral and quarry deposits are
were abolished in favour of a system of intervention price
tervention
estimated at between 5,000,000 and 10,000,000 tons.
that sets a minimum selling price guaranteed by the gov-
in
There are important reserves of bauxite, lignite, and
ernment, which will buy wheat if prices fall below it and
agriculture
chromiferous iron, while the main quarry products are
sell such purchases at free market prices. Farmers have
ceramic clays, gypsum, asbestos, and the famous Greek
also been compensated for loss of income by the waiving
marble: Oil has been drilled for in several parts of the
of debts and by grants to help pay for seeds, fertilizers,
country, but commercially exploitable fields have not
and agricultural machinery.
been found except in the northern Aegean Sea, and these
Mining and quarrying. The mining and quarrying sec-
have led to disputes with Turkey.
tor employs about 0.6 percent of the total labour force
Greece is one of the main bauxite-producing countries
and accounts for just over 1 percent of the GDP. Accord-
in Europe. Proved reserves in mainland Greece amount
ing to the industrial census of 1969, the number of mines
to 40,000,000 tons, and probable deposits are estimated at
and quarries (including quarries of building materials)
more than twice as much. Output (mainly for export)
and of solar-evaporation salt plants was 1,604, and aver-
doubled in the 1960s to approach 2,000,000 tons a year.
age annual employment was 22,600 workers. In 1973 the
A substantial and increasingly larger portion is used in the
value of the mining output was equivalent to 5.6 percent
local production of alumina and aluminum metal. Total
of total industrial output. In volume terms, more than
lignite (brown coal) reserves are estimated at 1,000,000,-
one-half of the total output is accounted for by lignite
000 tons. About three-quarters of the lignite mined is used
production. The mining of bauxite is playing an increas-
by power stations, the remainder for the manufacture of
ingly important part in the economy, though if produc-
chemical fertilizers and domestic fuels. Ordinary iron
tion of aluminum reaches the level planned for the mid-
ores and ores with a chrome and nickel content are pres-
1970s, bauxite may have to be imported.
ent, but only the latter are exploited.
Manufacturing. Manufacturing output has tended to
Biological resources. About 30 percent of the total
expand at a rate of about 10 percent per annum, but,
area of Greece is arable land, about 40 percent is rough
largely because of the rapid growth of the services sec-
pasture land, 20 percent is forest, and the remainder is
tor, manufacturing output as a proportion of the GDP
either unsuitable for cultivation or is unexploited.
remained around the level of 16 percent during the early
In spite of the natural poverty of the soil and a system
1960s; by the mid-1970s, however, it had risen to more
that leads to excessive fragmentation of the land (the
than 25 percent of the GDP. Employment in the industrial
average parcel is only about 1.4 acres, or 0.56 hectare),
sector as a whole (including building, mining, power
Greece is still essentially an agricultural country, about
production, and manufacturing) grew in the 1960s at an
half the working population being directly engaged in
average annual rate of just over 4 percent, and over the
farming and related activities. Agricultural products ac-
latter half of this period productivity grew at the rate of
count for more than half the total exports, though Greece
4.3 percent a year.
also imports substantial amounts of food.
The main branches of industry are food processing, tex-
Principal
The chief crops are wheat, cotton, tobacco, currants and
tiles, chemicals, steel, aluminum, and handicrafts. Athens
crops
seedless raisins, grapes, olives, and citrus fruit, production
and Thessaloníki are the main industrial centres, but
of which grew rapidly in the 1960s, partly owing to Unit-
government policy is to encourage industry to develop in
ed States aid. Attempts are being made to improve dairy
other areas as well. The main change in the pattern of
and meat production. Forestry is not important, though
industry, however, has been the establishment of large
progress has been made in restoring the forests that were
industrial complexes, notably the huge Esso-Pappas com-
severely depleted during World War II. The very long
plex at Dhiavatá, near Thessaloníki, which started pro-
coastline and numerous islands help nourish an important
duction in 1966. Steel production is about 600,000 tons
Products
fishing industry. With the modernization of the fishing
a year. The French-owned Pechiney complex at Dhírfis
of industry
fleet and the extension of refrigeration and processing
(Delphi) produces large quantities of aluminum for ex-
facilities, output has increased; the once-important
port. Another important industry, located at Elevsis
sponge-diving industry, on the other hand, has declined
(Eleusis), near Athens, is shipbuilding and ship refitting.
in the face of competition from synthetic products.
Energy. Electricity and gas production accounts for 2
Power resources. Waterpower and lignite are the most
percent of the GDP. In 1950, when 665,000,000 kilowatt-
important power resources in Greece, about 70 percent
hours of electricity were produced, only 823 towns and
of the electric power being derived from them. A power
villages in Greece were supplied with electricity; the Ath-
station at Megalópolis in the Pelopónnisos successfully
ens area accounted for 84 percent of the country's total
utilizes lignite of remarkably low calorific value and high
consumption. In that year was founded the Public Power
moisture content. This plant has interested specialists in
Corporation, on the initiative and with the aid of the
other countries dependent upon low-grade lignite de-
United States; its first plant started operating in 1953. By
posits. Surveys are still being carried out (with United
1970 a further 6,657 remote villages were receiving elec-
Nations aid) with the aim of developing more hydroelec-
tricity, and the output was 9,000,000,000 kilowatt-hours;
tric stations, and the establishment of a nuclear generat-
Athens then accounted for only 40 percent of consump-
ing plant has been under consideration.
tion. Greece is still heavily dependent on imports for fuel
Sources of national income. Agriculture, forestry, and
supplies.
fishing. The agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector ac-
Financial services. The central bank is the Bank of
counted for 31 percent of the gross domestic product
Greece, founded in 1928. The bank is privately owned,
(GDP) in 1958, but thereafter it declined steadily. The de-
but the governor is appointed by the government, and
cline was caused by the drift of workers from the land,
the state has a share in the profits. The Bank of Greece
is also the sole bank of issue, and it supervises all bank-
Trade unions and employer associations. The military
ing operations in the country, implementing the decisions
government dissolved most trade unions and deported
made by the Currency Committee. Consisting of the gov-
many union leaders soon after it came to power in 1967.
ernor of the bank and the ministers of coordination, fi-
After the fall of that government, trade union activity re-
nance, agriculture, and industry and commerce, this body
vived. The interests of employers are promoted by the
formulates all monetary, credit, and foreign-exchange
Federation of Greek Industries, founded in 1907, and by,
policy.
the Federation of Shipowners and Industrialists. There
There are eight commercial banks, which are private
are chambers of commerce in Athens, Piraiévs (Piraeus),
competitive institutions. In addition to undertaking short-
and Thessaloníki.
term financing, they extend long-term loans to industry
Economic policies. The broad aim of economic policy
and trade and sometimes take up shares in the equity
is to secure growth through augmenting the share of in-
capital of industrial firms. Two of the commercial banks
dustry in national output, while keeping prices as stable
have also set up special investment banks. There are also
as possible. Since 1967 great emphasis has been put on
an agricultural and a mortgage bank. The latter, besides
the latter objective, and prices were held down by ad-
granting housing loans, arranges for loans to public cor-
ministrative measures for three years. Beginning in 1970,
porations and to the tourist sector of the economy. Long-
however, prices began to edge upward. In agriculture, the
term industrial development is also promoted by the
aim is to raise productivity through switching to more
Hellenic Industrial Development Bank, which is wholly
profitable crops, and the government no longer subsidizes
state owned and endowed with government funds. The
the growing of wheat and tobacco at uneconomic prices.
capital market is still relatively underdeveloped, though a
Under the first Five-Year Plan of the military regime of
number of measures have been introduced to improve
1967-74, investment in infrastructure, in tourist facilities,
matters. There is one stock exchange, located in Athens,
and in industry was meant to be considerably increased,
in which there is active trading in about 30 banking and
and the primary source of finance for the projected in-
commercial shares.
vestments was intended to be found in domestic budget-
Foreign trade. Over the 1960s exports more than
ary savings.
doubled, as did imports. Exports also increased at a
At the same time, however, great efforts were made to
somewhat faster rate than imports; however, because
encourage private foreign investment. This was done not
imports were generally about three times as large as ex-
only in order to supply much-needed investment capital
The
ports, the trade gap grew steadily throughout the decade,
and technical and managerial expertise but also to bal-
widening
until it was equivalent to more than 18 percent of na-
ance the external-payments account by meeting the cur-
trade gap
tional income. An encouraging feature of trade trends in
rent deficit with a large inflow of capital. The government
the second half of the 1960s was the growth in exports of
also did all it could to promote tourism and shipping,
industrial and handicraft products; exports of aluminum
which are major sources of earnings.
were particularly important. Exports of tobacco, once
In October 1975 a flexible Five-Year Plan (1976-80)
Greece's largest export earner, declined, and the market
was outlined, aiming at a 6 to 7 percent annual growth
appears to be saturated. Items of capital equipment and
rate during the plan period and providing for fuller use
fuel accounted for an increasing share of imports, but
of domestic energy resources, exploitation of mineral re-
imports of manufactured consumer goods (and also food)
sources, and more active solicitation of foreign invest-
also expanded, in spite of government attempts at restric-
ment involving export industries.
tion. The resulting inflation contributed to the fall of the
The chief economic problem for Greece is the age-old
military junta in 1974.
one of lack of natural resources. The structure of em-
Resour
Although the Greeks have expressed dissatisfaction
ployment and of the national income shows Greece's
scarcits
from time to time at the effects of their association (as
great dependence on secondary economic activities: only
associate member) with the EEC, trade with this area has
about 25 percent of the working population is engaged
grown steadily since 1964, when EEC countries absorbed
in manufacturing and construction, and very nearly
38 percent of Greek exports and supplied 42 percent of
half of the GDP is generated in the services sector. This
imports. West Germany is Greece's main trading part-
leads to a persistent balance-of-payments problem, and
ner, taking about 19 percent of the country's exports and
foreign indebtedness has grown steadily.
supplying 20 percent of its imports.
(E.I.U./Ed.)
Although Greece has a persistent and increasing trade
Transportation. Not unexpectedly, the Greek land-
deficit, the balance of payments is helped by a steady sur-
scape and seascape have had immense effects on the de-
plus on invisible services, notably shipping, foreign tour-
velopment of transportation patterns in the country and
ism, and funds sent back home by workers who have
perhaps help to account for the pre-eminence of Greek
emigrated to other countries.
names in the world of international shipping. The needs
Management of the economy. Private enterprise and
of tourism, military and political considerations, and
the role of the government. The Greek economy remains
the general economy have helped stimulate the develop-
predominantly one of private enterprise, with the state
ment of a modern national transport system.
limiting its intervention to the field of tax incentives,
Sea transport. The importance of Greek (and Greek-
cheap finance, and its own or bank guarantees to overseas
owned) shipping fleets in national and international trade
suppliers (and then only for large projects). With the ex-
was noted above. Partly as a result, there has been strong
ceptions of electric power, railways, telecommunications,
emphasis on port development. Piraíevs (Piraeus), the
and broadcasting, the state produces neither goods nor
port of Athens, is the major centre, followed by Pátrai,
services, and its policy is to refrain from activities that
Préveza, Iráklion, Kaválla, and Vólos, among others.
can be undertaken effectively by private firms.
There is a developed steamer service to the various is-
It has been official policy to aim at a surplus on the
lands, and car ferries ply across many of the straits and
ordinary budget and to use this surplus to finance part of
inlets. Cruise ships and private vessels add to the demand
the deficit on the public investment budget, the rest of this
for service facilities at ports.
deficit being met by domestic issues of bonds and interest-
Road transport. About 50 percent of the road network
bearing treasury bills and by borrowing abroad. Direct
remains unpaved. and many of the smaller rural roads,
Taxation
taxes contribute about 20 percent of the total revenues of
especially in the mountain regions. still leave much to be
the Greek fiscal system; between 1957 and 1966 direct
desired. The Athens-Párrai, Athens-Lamia, and Athens-
taxes on households rose by more than 8 percent annual-
Thessaloniki highways are modern roads. and the total
lv. Over the same period net indirect taxes rose on aver-
amount of paved road tripled during the 1960s. There is
age by more than 13 percent. and their share in the total
also an extensive network of rural bus routes.
gross national product at market prices rose from 9.7
Railway transport. Extensive modernization has been
percent in 1957 to nearly 14 percent 10 years later. In
effected in the Greek railway system. the aims being to
the 1970s policy appeared 10 aim at more efficient collec-
improve the existing tracks. to standardize differing
tion of existing direct taxes instead of alteration of the
metric gauges, to forge links with western Europe. and 10
fiscal structure as such.
coordinate development with that of the roads. The
Greek topography and a late start (railways date only
Political parties. After the downfall of the military
from the 1880s, and Greece was one of the last European
junta in 1974 and the restoration of democratic govern-
countries to develop them) have made this modernization
ment, two decrees, published on September 23, 1974,
costly and difficult.
authorized the resumption of party political activities in
Air transport. Air transport is operated by the govern-
Greece. Four major new parties emerged:
ment-owned Olympic Airways, which took over the fi-
The Centre Union-New Forces Party, a merger of the
nancially troubled Greek National Airlines (founded
Centre Union and the Movement of New Political Forces.
1951) in 1957. Increasing tourist traffic has resulted in a
The Centre Union represented the rump of the Greek
major expansion of facilities. Athens has a modern air
liberal movement, the Centre Union Party (founded
terminal, regional facilities have been improved, and
in 1961) of Georgios Papandreou. The new Move-
there are new airstrips on some of the islands. (G.An.)
ment of New Political Forces was founded to campaign
for policies of "democratic socialism."
ADMINISTRATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS
The New Democracy Party, founded by Konstantinos
Structure of government. The constitution. The mili-
Karamanlis. It was pledgèd to work for the establishment
tary junta (1967-74) ruled under a constitution approved
of democracy in Greece through political, economic, and
in 1968 by a referendum held under martial law and
social reforms.
preceded by a vigorous campaign in its behalf in the
The Pan-Hellenic Socialist Movement (Pasok), incor-
censored press. Political activity was prohibited, and the
porating two resistance organizations and founded by
junta ruled by decree.
Andreas Papandreou, son of Georgios Papandreou. Its
The
On June 1, 1973, the junta decreed that the monarchy
platform called for a non-aligned foreign policy (opposed
republic
was abolished and replaced by a republic. This was con-
to both the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the
firmed by popular referendum on July 29, but the validity
EEC) and nationalization of private enterprises.
of this referendum was challenged. After the fall of the
The United Left, a union of the United Democratic Left
junta and the restoration of democratic government, an-
(EDA) and the two factions of the Communist Party of
other referendum was held, on December 8, 1974, and
Greece (KKE). The EDA had been founded originally in
69.2 percent of those voting chose "uncrowned democ-
1951.
racy."
There were also a number of smaller parties represent-
On August 1, 1974, the prime minister, Konstantinos
ing various right-wing groups and groups that favoured
Karamanlis, announced that the constitution of 1952
the restoration of the monarchy.
would be reintroduced as a provisional measure until, in
Parliamentary elections were held on November 17,
his words, "the country acquires a charter fully approved
1974, the first since 1964. The New Democracy Party of
New
by the people."
Karamanlis won 54 percent of the votes cast and a very
Democ-
The powers of head of state were to be exercised by the
large majority of the seats in Parliament; the next largest
racy
president of the republic. The word king in the constitu-
number of seats went to the Centre Union-New Forces
Party in
tion was replaced by the word president. Under the con-
Party (20 percent of the vote). On December 9, 1974, the
power
stitution of 1952 the government had full control over
Greek Parliament met for the first time in seven years.
the armed forces, and the judiciary was free.
The draft of a new constitution was published on De-
J. Allan Cash
cember 23, 1974, after endorsement by the full Cabinet.
It provided for Greece to be a parliamentary republic,
Resours
with a president as head of state and supreme commander
scarcity
of the armed forces. Legislative power was to be exer-
cised jointly by the president and Parliament, the latter
a unicameral body composed of 200 to 300 deputies (the
exact number to be determined by Parliament itself)
elected for five-year terms. The freedom to form political
parties was guaranteed.
The president was to be elected by Parliament for a
five-year (later reduced to four-year) term, and he was
eligible for a second term.
The president was to appoint as prime minister the
leader of the party with an absolute majority in Parlia-
ment; if such did not exist, other methods were pre-
scribed. The draft constitution would also create an ad-
visory body, the Council of the Republic, to consist of
elder statesmen and the current leaders.
Administration. The Cabinet is composed of the prime
minister and ministers of foreign affairs, national de-
fense, coordination and planning, public order, culture
and science, justice, national education and religion, em-
ployment, social services, interior, finance, agriculture,
The port of Palaiá Epidhavros (Epidaurus), Greece.
industry, commerce, public works, transportation and
communication, and mercantile marine. There are also a
Justice. The Supreme Court consists of four sections;
minister for northern Greece and a minister to the prime
three civil and one criminal. There are 11 courts of ap-
minister.
peal, having jurisdiction in cases of criminal and civil law
Dhiameris-
Officially, Greece is divided administratively into 10
of second degree; in exceptional cases they may also ad-
meta
and
dhiamerismata (regions), although only four (and part of
judicate in cases of first degree. Below these are the 58
comol
a fifth) have their own governments. A further subdivi-
courts of first instance, which function also as criminal
sion is into more than 50 nomoí (departments; singular
courts. They have jurisdiction in cases of first degree
nomós); special arrangements are provided for the Great-
and, in exceptional cases, second degree.. Criminal
er Athens area, and the peninsula of Áyion Óros (Mt.
and juvenile courts exist in towns where courts of first in-
Áthos) is a self-governing monastic community with a
stance sit. Some towns also have tax courts. There are
civil governor, appointed by the government, who is re-
many courts of justices of the peace throughout Greece,
sponsible for public order outside the monasteries.
and also magistrates' (police) courts. District attorneys
Municipal government, with elected mayors and urban
function in all courts except justices of the peace and
and rural councils, was established in Greece in the mid-
magistrates'; in magistrates' courts the duties of district
19th century. Local authorities may levy certain taxation,
but, in general, provincial services are supported by the
attorney are carried out by a public prosecutor.
Procedure in the courts follows the French model; i.e.,
national government.
the investigating magistrate examines the evidence and
that
there
IS
a
from investments made by the insuring agency also help
prima-facie case, refers it 10 the public prosecutor, who
pay for social insurance.
decides whether or not a charge shall is brought. Judges
Education. Education is the responsibility, of the state,
of the higher courts are appointed 1v life, and others
through the Ministry of National Education and Religion,
may be removed only if convicted of criminal offense.
policy being formulated by a Supreme Board of Educa-
In addition to the regular courts, they is a State Coun-
tion. In 1964 a new Education Act introduced radical
cil; having jurisdiction over administrative disputes, ad-
changes, making school attendance compulsory till the
ministrative contraventions of law, and revision of dis-
age of 15 and covering both primary school (six years)
ciplinary procedure on permanent servants.
and part of secondary school (three years). If also made
Police. There are two main bodies If police, the city
demotic Greek (the colloquial language) the main- lan-.
police (in Athens; Piraiévs, Pizzi, and Kérkira) and the
guage of instruction throughout the-school system. The
gendarmerie, the latter a paramilitary force with re--
military junta in 1967 practically abolished the act of
sponsibility for the whole country outsde the four cities.
1964, requiring attendance at school for only six years
Both forees are administered by the "inister of the in-
and reinstating Katharevusa (the literary language) as the
terior. The police forces were reorgatized by a British
principal teaching medium.
mission after World War IL The genermerie and city
Junior secondary schools offer a three-year program,
police provide personnel for the touris police. In addi-
either a general academic course or a more technically
tion, there are small forces of farm police, customs
oriented course, the former intended for students who
guards, and forest police and = Harbour Corps.
plan either to end their education with secondary school
Armed forces. The Greet armed forces consist of an
or to continue in higher education, the latter for those
army, navy, and air force recruited on he basis of com-
planning to enter higher technical or vocational schools.
pulsory military service for = male citzens aged 21, for
Beyond the junior secondary schools are the advanced
a period of two years. There is also a National Guard re-
secondary schools, also offering a three-year program.
cruited from reservists for local security duties in frontier
For higher studies there are universities at Athens (Na-
Univer.
districts.
tional Capodistrian University of Athens, founded in
sities
In 1967 a clique of army officers, mainly colonels,
1837, and National Technical University of Athens,
seized power in Greece by means of a coup d'etat. After
founded in 1836) and at Thessaloníki (Aristotelian Uni-
the restoration of parliamemary government in 1974,
versity of Thessaloníki, founded in 1925). The University
Prime Minister Karamanlis stated (Desember 11), in a
of Ioánnina (1964) and the University of Pátrai (1966)
policy announcement, that the aim o! the government
are newer institutions. Athens also has a number of
would be to modernize the anited force and ensure that
higher schools with university status: the Higher School
they "recovered their concord and discipline." A gradual
of Fine Arts (1836), the Athens Graduate School of Eco-
review of all members of the armed Pinces was begun,
nomics and Business Science (1920), the College of Agri-
and in March 1975 a reorganization got under way.
culture (1920), the Graduate School of Industrial Studies
Clearly, it would be some time before the government
(1938), the American School of Classical Studies at
could be confident of the loyalty of the military services.
Athens (1881), the Panteios School of Political Sciences
Social conditions. Wages i- Greece be low by reason
(1930), and Pierce College (1875). The Graduate School
of chronic rural underemployze: and secause the low
of Industrial Studies at Thessaloníki (1958) also has
agricultural income leads many young ceasants to seek
university standing.
(Ed.)
employment in the towns and there swall the ranks of
unskilled labour. Minimum wages are Exed by the Min-
CULTURAL LIFE
istry of Employment.
The physical remains of the culture of ancient Greece,
The Workers' Housing Organization, T11 agency of the
whether preserved in situ, in the fine network of mu-
national government, constructs housing and also pro-
seums, or (as a result of past activities) in the museums
vides technical assistance and loans for home building.
of other countries, are an ever-present reminder of the
Its projects are largely financed by a national lottery.
country's classical heritage. It continues as an important
Health. After World War I the government took the
element in the culture of contemporary Greece and plays
lead in combatting disease, establishing modern health
services and facilities. Malaria once a strurge, has been
Graphic House, Inc.
virtually eradicated, and standards of bygiene and sani-
tation have been greatly improved. In the larger cities
and towns the water supply is generally safe, though the
same claim cannot be made for rural areas. Health mea-
sures taken in conjunction with the World Health Organi-
zation have been responsible for 2 great fecline in deaths
from infectious diseases. The main causes of death are
cancer, cerebrovascular disease and senility.
The Ministry of Social Services is responsible for the
maintenance of hygiene, malaria control establishment
and financing of health and medical care centres and
pharmacies, and for providing drugs, maternal and child
care, and mental care. The large hospitals are concen-
trated in Athens, Thessaloniki and Pátra).
Social insurance. In 1968 the government unified the
complex social insurance schemes. which are now con-
trolled and supervised by the Ministry of Social Services
Social
through the Social Insurance Institution (IKA), the Unem-
Insurance
ployment Insurance Organization the Parm Insurance
Institution
Organization, and several separate main and auxiliary
(IKA)
semi-public funds. The IKA insures workers in govern-
ment. business. and industry, size agricultural workers,
nonfarm self-employed persons. and domestic workers.
The main and auxiliary funds :der insurance programs
by occupation-e.g., a fund for seamen, fund for news-
boys in Thessaioníki.
Social insurance costs are largely financed by contribu-
tions paid into IKA by employees. = the form of payroll
deductions, and by matching receibutions from em-
ployers. Taxes on manufactured and income
The Acropolis (background), in Athens.
Greece
343
kelp
a major role, through its attraction to tourists, in the
significance are often obscure but always present. Their
economy. In addition, the deep religious traditions of the
very language constantly reminds Grecks both of what
gion,
country-which found rich expression in the medieval
they have been and of what they have aspired to. The
luca-
icons and in the mosaics and frescoes that made the 14th
ramifications of old influences go deep and are unpre-
dical
century one of the triumphant eras of Byzantine art-
dictable; they seem to make permanent solutions impos-
the
continue to provide a fertile cultural source, generating
sible, so long as Greece retains its identity. Perhaps it. is
ears)
a great variety of contemporary folk art and religious
true for all peoples that there are no "permanent solu-
rade
festivals. These are at their most vigorous in the rural
tions" and that most of what can be done in the present
lan-
areas generally and in the remoter regions in particular.
depends intimately on what has happened in centuries
The
Easter is the major event in- the Orthodox calendar, and
past. But these limitations upón self-determination are
of
the sombre processions of Good Friday are followed by
much more evident in Greece than in most other coun-
the festivities-including roasting of lambs and dancing
:ars
tries. After all, the light of Greece has long been known
the
in traditional costume-celebrating Easter Sunday. Other
to make many things clearer there than they are likely:to
religious ceremonies occur throughout the year, begin-
be elsewhere.
(G.An.)
ning with the New Year blessing of the sea at Piraiévs
im,
illy
(Piraeus) and elsewhere. The summer months are re-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most comprehensive single-volume
work on Greece in all its aspects is vol. 10 of the Megali
'ho
nowned for international music and drama festivals,
elleniki enkyklopaideia, Ellas, rev. ed. (1965), with bibliog-
bol
particularly at Athens and Palaiá Epídhavros (Epi-
raphies that are numerous and extensive but that often do
daurus). A revival of Byzantine iconography may be
ose
not incorporate works more recent than the early 1930s.
>ls.
seen in the work of such artists as Fotos Contoglou and
A comprehensive and less dated guide to sources is J.E. BAXE-
Stathis Trabanatzis as well as in the restoration of medie-
VANIS, Modern Greece: A Bibliography (1964). The two most
ed
val frescoes and mosaics. The traditional Karankiózis
extensive works on the geography of Greece are ALFRED
puppet theatre is preserved by such masters as Panayioti
PHILLIPSON, Die griechischen Landschaften, 4 vol. (1950-59),
Univer.
Mixopoulos.
and the two-volume study Synchroni geografia (1965) by
in
sities
P. RHODAKIS and K. TRIANTAPHYLLOS. In English, the BRITISH
is,
Mcdern
Modern Greek poetry is considered by many to be
ADMIRALTY NAVAL INTELLIGENCE DIVISION, Greece, 3 vol.
ii-
Greek
among the best of the 20th century. Poets of interna-
(1944), is still the best summary of conditions to that time;
arilers
tional renown include Constantine Cavafy (who spent
later events and trends may be studied in JOHN CAMPBELL and
6)
most of his life in Egypt), George Seferis (who won the
PHILIP SHERRARD, Modern Greece (1968). For publications
of
Nobel Prize for Literature in 1963), Angelos Sikelianos,
providing the statistical basis for analysis of Greece's popula-
of
Odysseus Elytis, and Yannis Ritsos. Another remarkable
tion, society, and economy, see works published by the
writer was Nikos Kazantzakis, who experimented with
SOCIAL SCIENCES CENTRE (Athens), the CENTRE OF ECONOMIC
several forms of expression. Contemporary Greek litera-
RESEARCH (Athens), the NATIONAL BANK OF GREECE, and the
NATIONAL STATISTICAL SERVICE OF GREECE (chief of which is
ture is fortunate in its English translators, especially the
the annual Statistical Yearbook of Greece) and the publica-
Americans Kimon Friar, Edmund Keeley, Themis Vasils,
tions of various European organizations, especially the OR-
and Theodora Vasils.
GANIZATION FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The Greek character is reflected in the opening verses of
(OECD).
the "Hymn to Liberty" written by the 19th-century poet
The land. In addition to the general geographical works
S
Dhionísios Solomós. These lines, set to the stirring music
cited above, reference should be made to Geological and
of N. Manzaros as the national anthem of Greece, read
Physicogeographical Bibliography of Greece (Géologiki kai
(in a prose translation by Theodora Vasils),
fisikogeografiki vivliografia tis Ellados (1961), by D. HARA-
LAMBOUS; specific publications dealing with individual aspects
I know you by the sword's dread cutting edge, I know you
of the landscape include E.G. MARIOLOPOULOS, Klimatografia
by the look that with vigour measures the earth. Out of
ton diaforon periochon tis Ellados (1960), a comprehensive
the sacred bones of the Hellenes you issue valiant as
discussion of climate; there is, however, only a very meagre
before, hail o hail, Liberty! You dwelt therein, sorrowful,
literature on Greece's animal and plant life. Soils are covered
withdrawn, waiting for a mouth to tell you, "Come again."
in D.S. KATAKOUSINOS, Les Sols de Grèce (1963).
That day was long in coming, and all were silent, cowering
under the terror and the crush of slavery.
The people. The monograph Greece (1974) prepared by
D. TRICHOPOULOS and G. PAPAEVANGELOU for the World Popu-
The other great "national" song of the Greeks is the fer-
lation Year 1974 gives an authoritative picture of Greece's
vent Resurrection hymn attributed to an 8th-century
population both currently and in historical perspective; other
monk, St. John of Damascus,
useful studies include B. KAYSER, Géographie humaine de la
Christ has risen from the dead, by death trampling upon
Grèce (1964), and D. PENTZOPOULOS, The Balkan Exchange
death, and has upon those in the tombs life bestowed.
of Minorities and Its Impact upon Greece (1962). Publica-
tions of the censuses of 1961 and 1971 provide both basic
The music of these two hymns, a millennium apart in
data and analysis.
composition, is both joyful and haunting. The listener is
The national economy. Characteristics of Greece's people
reminded of Greek nostalgia, of the deepest fears and
and economy are illuminated in B. KAYSER and K. THOMPSON,
hopes of the Greeks and indeed of all mankind.
Economic and Social Atlas of Greece (1964), and in H. HOCH-
Greek musicians with international followings include
HOLZER, Industrial Atlas of Greece (1966). Greece's economy
Manos Hadjidakis and Mikis Theodorakis. After the fall
is surveyed regularly in the publications of the OECD, COM-
of the military regime in 1974 there was a revival in
MERCIAL BANK OF GREECE, NATIONAL BANK OF GREECE, and
Athens of an irreverent political theatre as well as of the
ATHENS CHAMBER OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY as well as in
film industry. It remains to be seen what effect a decade
those of the national government and various ministries. The
five-year plans provide a general overview and analysis. Other
of suppression will have on young literary talent. It also
useful surveys include Problems of Greek Regional Develop-
remains to be seen what effect the constantly growing
ment (1962), by BENJAMIN WARD, and Long-Term Prospects
tourist industry will have on the cultural integrity of
for the Greek Economy: A Forecast of Development in the
the country.
Next 15 Years (1968), issued by the ROYAL HELLENIC RE-
SEARCH FOUNDATION.
THE OUTLOOK
Social conditions. Changing Greek social conditions as well
The future of Greece remains in serious question, and
as the relatively unchanging Greek countryside, people, and
in the decades ahead the fundamental alternatives facing
customs are described in PATRICK L. FERMOR, Mani: Travels in
the Greeks may be the exciting dangers of Balkan and
the Southern Peloponnese (1958); TIMOTHY WARE, The Or-
eastern Mediterranean politics or the complacent pros-
thodox Church (1963); ERNESTINE FRIEDL, Vasilika: A Village
in Modern Greece (1962); JOHN K. CAMPBELL, Honour, Fam-
perity of a closer association with the European com-
ily and Patronage: A Study of Institutions and Moral Values
munity. Forces may already be at work among the
in a Greek Mountain Community (1964); BERNARD KAYSER,
Greeks that compel them toward further urbanization
PIERRE-YVES PECHOUX, and MICHEL SIVIGNON, Rural Exodus
and industrialization and toward greater exposure to the
and Urban Attraction in Greece (1971); GEORGE ANASTAPLO,
homogenizing (if not demoralizing) "culture" of the
The Constitutionalist (1971), includes citations to 10 of the
international mass media.
author's articles on contemporary Greek affairs republished
Continuity with the past, a very long past, remains
in the Congressional Record, and his Human Being and
Greece's burden as well as its glory. The past and its
Citizen (1975) has discussion of Greek affairs and character.
(Ed.)
BERNARD G. SILBERSTEIN, FROM RAPHO
The centuries-old Parthenon, crowning the ancient Acropolis, overlooks the modern city of Athens.
In world politics Greece is a member of
Western bloc. A member of the Council of is 1
rope, Greece joined the North Atlantic Tirato
Organization (NATO) in 1952 and the European
Economic Community (EEC), or Common Mrs.
ket, as an associate member in 1962. In its in
lations with its immediate neighbors, Stice
World War II Greece has experienced periods
of strain. With its three Communist neighize
to the north, who helped the Communists
Greece during the Greek civil war of 1944-1947 E
the strain has been ideological. But there have
also been long-standing territorial issues. Creen
still claims northern Epirus, or southern Albana
Yugoslavia has cast longing eyes on Greek Mare
donia; and Bulgaria has claimed Thrace as will
as Macedonia. Nonetheless, since 1948, reis.
tions with Yugoslavia have ranged from proper
to cordial, and in 1965 diplomatic relations with
Bulgaria were fully restored. Turkey, a membe
of the Western bloc, is formally allied W.D
Greece as a comember of NATO. But in time
Coat of Arms of Greece
mid-1950's the issue of the status of Cypra
revived historic Greco-Turkish hostility, and ~
two occasions after that almost precipits:-
CONTENTS
war. Due to the sizable Greek communities =
the Middle East and the influence of the Greys
Section
Page
Section
Page
Orthodox Church there, Greece maintains cordia
Modern Greece
Ancient Greece
relations with both Israel and the Arab states
1. The People
362
8. History of Greece
2. The Land and Natural
to 330 A. D.
389
Geographical Influences. Geography has always
Resources
364
9. Archaeology
404
had a great influence on the Greeks and is it.
3. The Economy
366
10. Art and Archi-
sponsible for many of the continuities of the
4. Education
370
fecture
409
5. Sites of Tourist
11. Literature
418
long history. The mountains that chop up the
Interest
371
12. Classical Music
425
Greek lands have contributed to localism and
6. History and Govern-
13. Science
426
have been a major barrier to national unity. The
ment Since 330 A. D. 372
14. Religion and
7. Modern Culture
380
Mythology
429
difficulties of communication by land and the
presence of the sea have made mariners out of
some Greeks in every age. The limited natural
GREECE is a small country located in the south-
resources of the Greek lands have always ensured
ern part of the Balkan Peninsula. One of the
a steady flow of Greeks to richer lands. Finally
world's greatest civilizations once flourished there.
the position of the Greek lands in the easterr
The modern state occupies not only the south-
Mediterranean basin, in close proximity to Ass
ern end of the Balkan Peninsula but also the
and Africa, has made them a bridge between
Ionian Islands, lying off its west coast; the large
east and west, north and south.
island of Crete, to the south; and, except for
The natural land bridges are two. The later-
Imbros (Turkish Imroz) and Tenedos (Turkish
route, along which the Romans once built i:-
Bozcaada), all the main Aegean islands, including
famous Via Egnatia, runs from the Albanian
Rhodes.
of Durrës (Durazzo) on the Adriatic coast =
360
GREECE
361
Jlonika (Thessaloniki) and then along the north-
TI) Aegean coast to Istanbul (formerly Constan-
INFORMATION HIGHLIGHTS
cople). The vertical route runs from Athens
and points farther south, in the Peloponnesus,
through the eastern part of the Greek mainland,
Official Name: Hellenic Republic.
atersects the lateral route at Salonika, and fol-
Head of State: President.
lows the Axios-Vardar-Morava river valley to
Head of Government: Premier.
the Danube River and thence into central Eu-
Area: 50,960 square miles (131,986 sq km).
upe. In addition to the land routes, the sea
Boundaries: North, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Bul-
constitutes a natural highway, with the numerous
garia; east, Turkey; southeast, Aegean Sea;
slands serving as stepping-stones, especially in
south, Mediterranean Sea; and west, Adriatic
the Aegean. These natural routes, along which
Sea.
armies, merchants, goods, and ideas could travel,
have served as channels through which the
Highest Point: Mt. Olympus (9,573 feet, or 2,917
Greeks could extend their influence or, alter-
meters).
actively, receive the influence of others.
Population: (1981 census) 9,740,151; (1971 census)
Cultural Influences. Because of their curiosity,
8,768,641.
ingenuity, and gregariousness, as well as for
Capital: Athens (population, 1981 census: 885,136;
this basic geographic reason, the Greeks as a
Athens Metropolitan Area, 3,027,331).
people have never developed in isolation from
Major Language: Greek (official).
the outside world. Their long and distinguished
Major Religious Groups: Eastern Orthodox (97%);
story has always been tied to that of other
Muslim (1.3%).
eoples and cultures, with periods of cultural
Monetary Unit: Drachma (1 drachma equals 100
orrowing alternating with periods of cultural
lepta).
Ending.
Weights and Measures: Metric system.
During the 2d millennium B. C. the Greeks
absorbed the influences of the older Mesopota-
Flag: White cross extending full length and height
of the
of Eu-
mian and Egyptian civilizations through the
of the flag on a light blue field (adopted June
Minoan society of Crete and produced the
1975 to replace flag with nine white stripes).
Treat
Mycenaean civilization that was celebrated in
National Anthem: Ethnikos Hymnos (Hymn of
ropeas
the Iliad and the Odyssey. After absorbing the
Liberty), written by Dionysios Solomos, set to
n Mar-
Dorian conquerors who descended from the north
music By Nicholas Mantzaros.
its re-
around 1100 B. c., the Greeks colonized western
since
periods
Asia Minor (Ionia), the Black Sea coast, Sicily,
and points farther west in the Mediterranean. In
ighbos
this expanded Greek world, they developed the
European countries. It achieved independence in
ists =
lassical civilization that culminated in the
1830, after a decade of revolution, but with
1949.
achievements of 5th century Athens. Under
only about one third its present territory and
e have
Alexander the Great in the 4th century B. C. the
with a majority of Greeks still under Ottoman
Green
Greeks acquired an empire extending to India.
rule. Relatively poor in natural resources, it
Ibanu
Subsequently, the Greeks fell under the west-
has had a stormy history ever since. Until the
Mace
as well
m domination of Rome, but culturally they took
years immediately following World War I, irre-
reb-
their conquerors captive. During this same Ro-
dentism preoccupied the people, limited internal
man period, they fell under the eastern spiritual
development of the country, and poisoned Greek-
prope:
cominion of Christianity, but gave it a Greek
Turkish relations.
is
with
hilosophical formulation that has remained im-
member
Since independence, political disunity and
with
cortant ever since. To Byzantium, the con-
financial crises have been endemic in Greece,
the
":nuation of the Eastern Roman Empire after the
leading to continuous interference and domina-
in
th century A. D., they gave their language and
tion by one or more of the world powers. Though
Cyprs
(is
zood part of their cultural heritage. Through
Greece has been a monarchy, except for the
and
pitated
evzantium, they radiated the Greek Orthodox
period 1925-1935, the first dynasty was deposed
m of Christianity, a modified Greek alphabet
in 1862, and in the 20th century three kings,
ities
Greet
Cyrillic), and other cultural influences to the
including King Constantine in 1967, suffered
cordis
(Russians, Bulgarians, and Serbs).
exile at some point in their reigns. Coups d'etat
states
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Greeks
in response to political crises have not been
mage conquered from the east by the Ottoman
infrequent.
:rks, but in the process Greeks fleeing west-
Peace and prosperity have seldom been en-
is
the
and brought to the Renaissance West whatever
joyed by modern Greece for long. In the 20th
assical Greek learning the West had not already
century the country was almost continuously at
up
sorbed. The long period of Ottoman domina-
war from 1912 to 1923 and again from 1940 to
m
TX
continued the flow of Oriental influences
1949. It fought on the Allied side in World Wars
nd
had also taken place in Byzantine times.
I and II. Between the two wars, Greece was
out
owever, in the 18th century, while still under
especially unstable. The struggle between mon-
natural
#toman rule, the Greeks began to feel the first
archists and republicans was bitter; the country
insured
pact of modern Western civilization. It gave
faced the immense task of assimilating more than
Finalh
a new appreciation of their classical heri-
one million Greek refugees from Turkey and
easters
and intensified their desire for national in-
Bulgaria; and population growth outstripped
to
Acs
....ks Tradence. Thus, since the 15th century, the
economic progress. The Greeks suffered severe
otwers
have been in one of their receiving
hardships under Axis occupation during World
of history. Modern Greek history has
War II and barely escaped Communist domina-
lateral
the attempt of the Greeks to Westernize
tion during the long and bitter civil war of
lilt
A
remaining true to themselves.
1944-1949. Only since the 1950's have the
of
bast
-stion-state, is much younger than many other
Independent Greece. Greece, as an independent
an
Greeks enjoyed relative peace and a degree of
prosperity.
362
GREECE: 1. The People
Modern Greece
1. The People
Muslims, who from
sory
The names "Hellas" and "Hellenes," by which
1923: t.
the Greeks refer to the country and themselves,
originally designated. a small district and tribe
mans who settled there in the 14th century, Oh.
the Pomaks, descendants of pre-Ottoman c,
in Phthiotis. The name "Hellenes" was not ap-
plied to the Greek people as a whole until the
tants who converted to Islam during the Otton inha
post-Homeric period. The word "Greek" is de-
period. Bulgarian. The latter speak a dialect akin
rived from the Latin term "Graecus."
What defines a Greek historically is his lan-
Language. Greek is an Indo-European
guage using a 24-letter alphabet. The
Le
guage and the culture it expresses, not his race.
Racially, the Greek people are a composite of the
Greek on the Greek mainland goes back use to is
early 2d millennium B.C. Modern Greek the
various peoples who have settled in the region
over the centuries. That was probably true of
out of the popular Byzantine language, which 210g
the classical Greeks, who were separated from
turn stemmed from the common language (Koup
the original Greek-speaking inhabitants of the
used throughout the Greek world at the time
region by at least 1,000 years. It is certainly
Alexander the Great. Turkish, Slavic, Albanu."
the case with the Greeks of today. In the 6th
Italian, and French words enriched the idice
and the following centuries A. D., the Slavs set-
The spoken form of the language (demotx
tled in the Greek lands, as place-names in
has become a rich and forceful literary mediu-
Greece attest. They were followed in the Middle
Alongside it there exists a purist form Kath
Ages by Latins and Franks, Albanians and Turks.
revusa (Katharevousa), reconstructed at the b.
But because of the remarkable ability of Greek
ginning of the 19th century to accord mor.
culture to assimilate intruders, by the dawn of
closely with ancient Greek. The latter is the
official language of state and is used by the
the modern era the overwhelming majority of
government, press, and universities.
-
those living in Greece still spoke Greek and
Religion. The Eastern Orthodox faith is the
wat
identified themselves as Greeks.
official religion of Greece, though other faithe
Greece today is linguistically one of the
are tolerated. The Orthodox faith is profess
most homogeneous nations of the world. Virtually
by 97% of the population. Orthodoxy has trad-
the entire population speaks Creek. There are,
tionally commanded the loyalty of Greeks fu
however, various bilingual groups which together
spiritual reasons but also as a badge of national
make up almost 3% of the population. These in-
ity. Under Ottoman rule the Orthodox Church
clude Albanian-speaking people in Epirus and
headed by the patriarch of Constantinople, exe:-
repul
Attica, a few Bulgarian-speaking Slavs on the
cised civil as well as spiritual powers. When tir
Macedonian border, and some nomads speaking a
Greeks achieved independence in 1830, the
dialect of Rumanian called Vlach. These groups
church in Greece withdrew from the control of
are all Orthodox Christian in faith. In Greek
the patriarch and became self-governing, (r
curtin
Thrace there are two distinct ethnic groups of
autocephalous. Ever since, it has been adminis
Bx
tered by a holy synod of bishops, subject to its
control of the state, but it has maintained da.
HYDRA, an island in the Aegean Sea, has o sheltered
trinal unity with all other Orthodox churches
harbor that was once the center of a flourishing trade.
The chief primate of Greece is the archbishop of
GEORGE HOLTON. FROM PHOTO RESEARCHERS
Athens. There is a married clergy, though only
celibate priests may hold ranking positions with::
the hierarchy.
Among the religious minorities are the alread:
mentioned Muslims of Greek Thrace, constitut-
ing about 1.3% of the population. There ar
also small communities of Roman Catholics
mostly remnants of Venetian times; Protestant-
products of 19th century missionary activity
Armenian Monophysites; and Jews.
Population. The population of Greece, includ-
ing the Greek islands, totaled 9,740,151 in the
1981 census. Since independence in 1830, it has
multiplied more than 12 times, whereas the area
of land has increased less than three times. The
population density in 1981 was 191 persons per
square mile (74 persons per sq km) of the tota!
area, including the islands.
Greece suffered acutely from overpopulation
in the years following World War I. More than
Sin
one million refugees from Turkey and Bulgaria
had to be absorbed. Also. foreign immigration
restrictions cut off the emigration that had beer.
taking place since the beginning of the century
Since World War II, Greece has been spare
the population explosion that has characterize
many developing nations. But its low annua
population growth was attributable in large part
to renewed emigration. The number of emigrant.
compul-
urkey in
of Otto-
tury, and
n inhabi-
Ottoman
akin to
OUTDOOR CAFÉS along the
ean lan-
waterfront of Mykonos provide
use of
cheerful welcome for tourists
k to the
from the mainland of Greece, as
ek grew
well as for foreign visitors.
which in
(Koine
time of
Albanian.
ie idiom
demotic
PETER THROCKMORTON, FROM NANCY PALMER
medium
1 Katha-
e until the mid-1970's and then declined
Social Structure. Social mobility has been a
the be-
sharply. The chief recipients were the United
marked feature of modern Greek society. There
rd more
States, Canada, Australia, and West Germany.
is no hereditary aristocracy. Wealth, education,
r is the
Urbanization. Concurrently, there has been a
and personal achievement have been the chief
by the
massive internal movement of people from the
determinants of social class. In the rural areas
countryside to the cities. The chief recipients
there are no fully formed social classes. The
h is the
of rural emigrants have been Athens and Salonika.
major social division is that between landowning
PT faiths
Many other smaller cities have absorbed their
and landless peasants. But most villagers own
professed
share as well. As a result, in 1981, greater Athens,
at least some land, and disparities of wealth and
as tradi-
mcluding the port of Piraeus, contained 31% of
education are much less pronounced than in the
eeks for
the country's total population, as compared with
cities.
national-
only 6% in 1920. Approximately half of the Greek
In urban Greece, social classes are distinguish-
Church
population is now classified as urban, compared
able. The upper class consists of shipowners,
le, ever-
with slightly less than one third in 1928. A fre-
bankers, industrialists, and large-scale merchants.
"hen the
actic building boom has taken place to house the
It also includes- men of influence who may not
30. the
urban residents. Glistening, ultramodern
be wealthy, such as leading politicians, senior
ontrol of
of spartment buildings have transformed parts
military officers, and leaders in the professions
ing. or
Athens and Salonika.
and the arts, as well as self-made men who may
admins-
Both population movements affected the dis-
not be educated. The middle class, a majority
t to the
tribution of the rural population between the
of the urban population, has two distinct parts.
ed doc-
afertile hills and the fertile plains. Before the
The upper part includes professional people,
hurches
war. hill villages had been overpopulated and
businessmen, officials, and senior executives. The
ishop of
defore contained the most poverty-striken
lower middle class is made up of clerks, junior
gh onn
Twent of Greek society. Most of the postwar
civil servants, small merchants and shopkeepers,
>
with
modus to the cities or to foreign countries took
craftsmen, and skilled workers. Finally, there
stace from the hill villages where the land was
is the lower class of unskilled, factory workers,
already
onstitut-
marginal. = The population of the plains, where
drivers, and domestic servants.
land was amenable to mechanization, re-
Each social class has its own life-style. At
ere ST
named fairly stable.
least the educated and second-generation mem-
atholies
Besides drawing off a portion of the rural
restants
ababitants, the city has also extended its in-
bers of the upper class generally speak English
backet into the countryside through radio, news-
or French fluently. They possess a cosmopolitan
activity.
culture and indulge in conspicuous consumption.
include
and a road system that reaches practically
The middle classes tend to be thrifty and ac-
the villages. The decline of rural isolation
the
count for the remarkable growth of bank savings
in
0. it has
such Most villages now produce
which began before the war,
in Greece since World War II. The lower class,
of limited education and often of recent rural
the
ares
The
profit rather than for mere subsistence, and
origin, tends to be much closer to the rural areas
S.
ons total
&
storm. rely on the city to absorb their sur-
in their style of life.
Villagers, preferring standardized ma-
Social Values and Way of Life. The family plays
signor homemade clothes and household items,
made goods to their often aesthetically
a crucial role in Greek society. A closely knit
julaboe
unit, extending beyond a married couple and
the
Since pendent on the city for many essentials.
their children to include relatives as well, it
re
Bulgars
$
most villagers have relatives in the
commands a loyalty that overrides duty to other
grate
or abroad, their mental horizon transcends
groups. Only the nation, and that only in time
here
immediate surroundings. They no longer
of crisis, can elicit equal devotion. Confidence
J
entury
/
poverty as an act of God and accordingly
and trust, self-sacrifice, and even friendship are
spare
more However, since the cities
usually restricted to the circle of one's family.
terms
absorbing rural immigrants
Among Greeks who are not kinsmen, social obli-
anness
/
dwellers generally maintain
gations tend to be negative and marked by dis-
part
has ties with the village of their origin, the
trust. Cultivation of land or the running of a
igrano
past.
retained at least some continuity with
business tends to be a family enterprise because
it allows men to pool their resources while sparing
363
ISLA
LOCAL CRAFTS
shoppers to an
irea
market in Sparta,
lies just south of the
ruins of the ancient
HENRI CARTIER-BRESSON, FROM MAGNUM
them the necessity of working for nonkinsmen or
squares, parks, and boulevards for a walk,
investing in larger enterprises beyond family con-
freshment, window-shopping, or just to see
and
trol.
is going on.
out
The family is not just concerned with the up-
European-style clothing has universally
munt
bringing of the children. Its ultimate concern
placed the traditional Greek garb, except is
is their marriage and honorable establishment.
ceremonial and tourist purposes. Traditions
Daughters generally receive dowries. Sons re-
dances, with several persons linked in a chas
ceive equal portions of what remains either
or with two dancing opposite each other, 7
during the lifetime of the father or through in-
prevail in the countryside and some have bee
heritance. Family solidarity is a protective
revived in the dine-and-dance places (tatems
device against threats from the state or rival
of the cities. Some characteristically Green
groups. However, it inhibits cooperative ven-
items of diet are egg-lemon soup (augolemona
The
tures between unrelated families, such as com-
stuffed vine leaves, various sorts of lamb dishes
munity action, labor unions, or farm cooperatives,
a soft white cheese (feta), honeyed pastry of
and makes it difficult for the state to mobilize
various types, a white resinated wine (retsine
the population as a whole for the pursuit of
an anise-flavored liqueur (ouzo), and demitas
national goals.
coffee with a thick bottom of sediment.
Concern for honor and desire for social repu-
Standard of Living. Following World War II
tation are deeply engrained attitudes among the
there was a general rise in the standard of
Greeks, as they were in Homeric times. In the
living. Real per capita income rose from $15
past, desire for social approval elicited the de-
in 1955 to more than $500 in 1966. To be sur
gree of conformity that permitted the Greeks
inequalities among regions as well as group
to retain their heritage under adverse conditions.
continue. Income levels in greater Athens an
In more recent times, however, it has been in-
far greater than those in the provinces. Ye
Pinc
strumental in making Greeks adaptable to rapid
no important segment of Greek society has bee:
social change, once those with prestige have
excluded from this general improvement.
shown the way. The Greeks as a whole have
The rising standard of living is perhaps be
always been quick-witted and curious, freedom
reflected in dietary and health conditions, whit:
loving, and egalitarian in spirit. They admire
before World War II were among the lower
personal achievement, disdain manual labor, and
in Europe. However, the composition of tin
have a keen taste for intellectualism, discussion,
average Greek diet, though now more varied an:
and politics.
nutritional, still leaves much to be desired. Tir
pro-
In spite of Westernization, the rhythm of
average life expectancy is about 69 years, an
daily life in Greece still bears distinctive features.
the country is free from endemic diseases.
Due to underemployment, the Greek farmer
JOHN A. PETROPULOS, Amherst Colles.
enjoys a great deal of leisure time, especially
To
during certain seasons of the year. He spends
2. The Land and Natural Resources
rich
most of it among exclusively male company in
Within Greece there are wide variations (5)
Me
the village coffee house (cafeneion), talking,
climate. The northern areas have the hard winter
playing backgammon, or just observing. Though
and torrid summer of southern continental Eu-
rural women have less time for leisure, they do
rope; the peninsula and the islands have the
the
spend some of it in public, apart from the men,
short mild winter and long dry summer of the
at the village fountain or in the village church-
Mediterranean area. Also, the western areas an
yard.
much wetter than the eastern areas; thus Cort:
In the cities, too, Greeks spend most of their
is much greener than Chios. Within each district
apital.
leisure time out-of-doors and in public. The
the mountains and the sea provide minor vana
workday starts early in the morning and extends
tions of climate, so that occupations and food-
into the early evening, but it is interrupted
stuffs are varied.
The
by a long siesta in the early afternoon, when
Greece is divisible into the mainland an.
offices and stores close. In the evening, after
the islands, and into highlands, hill country
work, Greeks come out in full force to the public
and plains, each of which plays a differe:
364
THE ISLAND OF CORFU
1 CRAFTS attrac
the northwestern coast
ers to on outdoor
Greece is one of the
it in Sparta, which
country's most beautiful
ist south of the scanty
alonds. Its fertile soil
of the ancient city
produces olives and fruits.
ALLAN CASH. FROM RAPHO GUILLUMETTE
Is for a walk, -
part in the country's economy. Capital, indus-
Agrinion, where fine tobacco is grown and pro-
15 just to see what
r. and urban population are concentrated on
cessed. The southern coast facing the Gulf of
the mainland at Athens and Salonika, situated
Corinth is generally rugged; Naupaktos and Itea
as universally &
maritime plains, whereas Greek shipping is
are its chief ports.
garb, except for
manned chiefly by islanders. The highlands pro-
The Peloponnesus is entered via Megara, a
oses. Traditional
nde timber, fodder, and pasture, especially for
wine-producing area. Corinthia, Achaea, and
linked in a chain
sheep; the plains are rich in cereals, tobacco,
Elis grow most of the grapes for the currant
each other, still
and rice; and the hill country provides olives,
and sultana raisins that Greece exports. The
I some have been
wine, figs, vegetables, maize, apples, pears,
Isthmus Canal being little used, Corinth has be-
places (tatemer)
peaches, nuts, pasture, and charcoal. The seas
teristically Grees
weed fish, especially the tunny, in great numbers.
up augolemonor
The Mainland. The mainland consists of north-
TERRACED HILLSIDES on the island of Aegina en-
ts of lamb dishes
- Creece, central Greece, and the Peloponnesus.
able crops to be raised on otherwise unusable land.
noneyed pastry of
Thrace, Macedonia, and Epirus, constituting
ERICH HARTMANN, FROM MAGNUM
d wine (retsing).
morthern Greece, are relatively rich in basic food-
), and demitas
walls and large in population. Thrace and
liment.
Macedonia have large plains and coastal flats that
ig World War II
Dow excellent cereals, cotton, and tobacco, and
the standard of
samtain cattle, while their mountains are forested
" rose from $180
high levels with pine, fir, beech, and chestnut,
1966. To be sure
and at lower levels with mixed deciduous timber.
well as group
Apples, pears, and peaches are increasingly pro-
eater Athens
asced for export. Epirus, on the western side of
provinces. You
Pindus range, has fewer plains and more pas-
society has been
dects,
It produces cattle, sheep, maize, milk pro-
rovement.
Steep
and, at Arta, olives, citrus fruits, and rice.
g is perhaps be
graze in the mountains in the summer and
conditions, which
the lowlands in the winter.
mong the lower
In central Greece, Thessaly is the richest
imposition of and the
woon. Cereals are grown and stock pastured on
/ more varied
three large plains, while the mountains and
be desired.
The
produce timber, fruit, nuts, and olives, and
nt 69 years.
pasture. Trikkala and Larissa are the
diseases.
centers inland; Volos on the Gulf of Volos
Amherst College
To gasai) is the chief port.
the south the plains of Phocis and Boeotia
purces
nch in wheat. Attica, with its light soil
vide variations
re the hard wintes
climate, is suitable for the
small; its indented coast is well wooded
its cereal-producing plains
I continental
islands have
the small Mediterranean pine. The Athens-
y summer of
metropolitan area, linking plain and
western areas
ithin each distract
treas; thus Corts
nation in Greece. The political and cultural
together, is by far the largest center of
vide minor food -
specifice lies at the focal point of seaborne
and overland traffic between northern
ations and
The and the Peloponnesus.
/
western part of central Greece is much
ie
mountainous. Parts of Acarnania and
ds,
IS
are harren tracts of limestone; the popula-
plays a
relatively thin, except in the plain of
365
THE VILLAGE OF
lies in a lush valley
OLYMP
site of the ancient sand neor
Here were held the
Olympic Games of
J. ALLAN CASH, FROM RAPHO GUILLUMETTE
come a provincial town. Patras in Achaea is the
The largest Greek island, Crete, forms
main center of export from the Peloponnesus.
southern side of the Aegean basin. Its mountry
Elis, a rich farmland, has only one port, Kata-
once forested with cypress, cedar, pine,
kolon. In the south the alluvial basins of Kala-
oak, are now mostly bare, but the rich arain =
mata and Sparta are very fertile, but water for
plains and the fertile hillsides give it a favoration
irrigation is in short supply. In the center,
balance of trade. Its better ports face the Aegess
Arcadia's limestone mountains have meager pas-
N. G. L. HAMMON
tures and pockets of arable land, the largest of
University of Bring
which is in the area around Tripolis. To the
3. The Economy
east, Argolis and Epidaurus resemble Attica in
climate and products, but the population is rural.
As a result of foreign occupation during Was
The Peloponnesus, so nearly an island, has an
War II and the long civil war that followe
ethos of its own; life is hard but sunny, and a
(1944-1949), economic recovery started later
diet of bread, cheese, olives, garlic, and wine
Greece than in most war-torn countries. Yes 1
seems to suffice.
thanks to massive U.S. economic aid, it had bees
The Islands. The islands fall into groups. The
achieved by 1950-1951 and the basis laid to
Z
western, Ionian islands, enjoying more rainfall,
economic expansion. In 1953 the Greek gover
are more productive and more wooded than
ment devalued the currency by 50%, initiating
rhalonia
those east of the mainland; thus Corfu (Kerkira),
the monetary stability that lasted until the ean
which has the densest rural population in Greece,
1960's. It also removed many import control
is able to export olives, fruit and wine. These
making it easier to acquire equipment and me
Zant
islands control the coasting trade, Corfu having
chinery. United States aid declined rapidly after
special importance as the key to the Adriatic.
1952, and direct assistance ceased in 1961
East of the mainland, Cythera (Kithira),
The rapid expansion of the Greek econom
Aegina, and Euboea controlled the coastal trade
after 1950 was apparent in an annual growth no
at various times in history, but not today. Only
of the gross domestic product that averaged is
Euboea is rich in its own right: it has timber,
between the mid-1940's and the mid-1960's and
pasture, cereals, olives, and vines; it trades with
about 5% by the mid-1970's.
the mainland opposite; and its channel offers
By tradition an agricultural country, Green
shelter to small ships.
experienced a significant change at the beginnz
Between Euboea and the Dardanelles, the
of the 1970's, when manufacturing began to a
Northern Sporades have good harbors, little soil,
count for a greater share of the gross domest
and some olive groves, while Lemnos, having
product than did agriculture. While agricultura
better soil, produces timber, cattle, cereals, and
production accounted for more than 90% of tx
wine. Lemnos' harbor is magnificent. Well-
country's exports in 1960, it dropped to above
wooded Thasos, and Samothrace with its granite
36% by 1974. At the same time, the increased D
peak, like the three prongs of the peninsula of
dustrial production accounted for nearly 645 3
Chalcidice on the mainland, have more rainfall
the exports by 1974. In the mid-1970's, indo
and are more fertile than the outlying islands.
trial production was increasing at a rate of above
In the central Aegean the Cyclades are simi-
10% annually.
lar to Attica in climate and olive production,
An adverse balance of trade existed after
and the people engage in seafaring. Eastward
the pre-World War II period despite a fourfois
the largest islands off Turkey-Lesbos, Chios, and
increase in exports between 1963 and 1973. The
Samos-are relatively rich in olives, wine, figs,
deficit was offset in part by a remarkable in
fruit, and mastic gum. To the southeast the
provement in invisible receipts from shipping
Dodecanese include small, almost waterless is-
tourism, and emigrants' remittances.
lands, where men live mainly from the sea; two
Economic expansion led to a serious proble-
larger islands, Kos and Karpathos, produce olives,
of inflation. By the late 1970's, with the annus
wine, and fruit. Rhodes lies at the southeastern
inflationary rate at 15%, the government "I
gate of the Aegean basin. Once famous for its
forced to take emergency actions.
forests, Rhodes still exports olives, wine, fruit,
Greece's principal trading partner has been
vegetables, and honey.
European Economic Community (EEC), in where
366
GREECE
TOPOGRAPHY
0
75
150 Mi.
0
75
150 Km.
LAGE OF OLYMPIA
lush valley near the
he ancient sonctuory
re held the famous
Games of antiquity
Nates
Strumb
Thasos
Samothrace
Crete, forms the
asin. Its mountains
cedar, pine, and
tympus
Lemnos
ut the rich arable
9,570
give it a favorable
rts face the Aegess
N.G.L. HAMMON
Lesbos
niversity of Bristol
Corlo
ation during World
Skyros
war that followed
ery started later
is
Chios
rn countries. Yet
Euboea
nic aid, it had bees
Samos
the basis laid for
Z
Corin
the Greek gover
Cephalonia
Andros
by 50%, initiating
sted until the earl
ly import controls
S
quipment and
Zante
Naxos
clined rapidly after
ceased in 1962
DODECANESE
he Greek economy
annual growth
that averaged
he mid-1960's
Rhodes
al country, Greest
e at the beginniss
C. Matapan
Cythera
began to
Karpathos
Crete
re than 90% of about
dropped to
e, the increased
for nearly 645 index
! at a rate of
mid-1970's, about
rade existed
163 and 1973.
despite a The
a remarkable
its from shipp
ances. a serious problem anter
S, government with the w
100 m.
200 m.
500 m.
1,000 m.
2,000 m.
Below
Sea
5,000 m.
Level
328 ft.
656 ft.
1,640 ft.
3,281 ft.
6,562 ft.
16,404 ft.
ions. artner has
:y (EEC), been
c Copyright HAMMOND INCORPORATED Mapleweed N.J.
ATHANASIOS TSAGRIS, FROM PHOTO RESEARCHAM
Greece, where almost half of the population subsists by farming, is a land of small, individually owned farmsteads
One
of
(
it attained associate membership in 1962.
Between 1953 and 1963 its output doubled. to
Greece's relationship with the European Econom-
annual rate of growth averaged 9% between
Though
ic Community, or Common Market, involved
1948 and 1964 and reached as high as 11.7%
be 1
mutual reduction of tariffs over a 20-year period
1965-1966. Textiles, food processing, chemical =
Extaine
and led to western European, especially German,
metals, cigarettes, paper products, cement, and
111 bee
replacement of the United States as the major
steel are major industries. The building coe
--intar
source of public loans to Greege. Greece was
struction industry has grown considerably since
Agrie
admitted to full membership in 1979, effective in
the civil war that ended in 1949.
di sin
1981 after completion of all necessary ratifi-
Developing out of small artisan businesses
-
cations.
manufacturing is still largely a matter of smal
ever th
Power. Before World War II, Greece's per
family enterprises engaged in inefficient, not-
-
capita production of electricity was the lowest in
specialized, small-scale production. Yet relatives
IT25.
Europe. Recognizing that industrialization de-
few firms account for the bulk of production
: vield
pended on the availability of electric power, the
and industry is still concentrated in the area a.
thon. I
Greek state embarked on a nationwide electrifica-
Athens and Salonika. Some economists complair
to late
tion program. Between 1966 and 1971, electric
that too small a portion of available capital 2
...'e' or
power production was nearly doubled as both
being invested in manufacturing as compare:
Whe
hydroelectric and coal-fueled plants were added.
with other sectors of the economy. All agree the
renal G
Virtually all of Greece's public power system is
there is a serious shortage of factory manages
put in
state owned.
Protected by a high tariff wall until 1953, Greel
week p
Fuel and power resources remain inadequate.
manufacturing has concentrated almost exch.
the
High-grade coal is lacking and nine tenths of its
sively on the domestic market.
- the
lignite (brown coal) is used to generate electric
Yet large-scale industry, operating efficient:-
which
power. In February 1974 the Greek government
with modern machinery and adequate power. =
rower.
announced that oil and gas had been struck in
being developed, much of it built by foreir
-- vide
commercial quantities in the Aegean, a few miles
private investment. Two such enterprises are the
::ld W
off the island of Thasos.
great aluminum refinery on the Corinthian Gui
Agricultu
Mining and Metallurgy. There is a wide variety
and the Esso-Pappas complex of petroleur.
the mos
of minerals available in Greece, such as bauxite,
metallurgical, and chemical factories near Sale-
. trus. ta
lignite, chromiferous iron, barite, sulfur, magne-
nika. Thanks to them, Greece is exporting alumi-
A" but t
site, iron, emery, chromite, and marble. The basic
num, nickel, iron products, and liquid fue.
*ance sin
metal industry of Greece produces such items as
Fertilizer production and shipbuilding were als
The
iron reinforcing bars, magnesite, and lead, as
new industries. Association with the Commos
the crop
well as steel, aluminum, and copper sheets. Yet
Market has made further modernization a nece-
and toba.
the mining industry provides only a small percent-
sity. It means that Greek industry will have to
*:tput of
age of the national income and labor force. In
compete with the more efficient industry of
and livest
the 1970's the minerals industry expanded con-
western Europe to sell its goods, even within
in fruits.
siderably, as to both exploration for new ore
Greece.
require n
deposits and building of new ore-processing
Agriculture. Only about 29% of the land sur-
and brin.
facilities. Most mines are privately owned, but
face of Greece is arable. Yet almost one half the
*:R produ
the government's policy aims at development of
population depends on farming for a livelihood
underemp
the mineral industry through better mechaniza-
As a result of government division of large estate
rmfits. T
tion, financing, transportation, and exploration.
before World War II, and of the practice of
and the &
Manufacturing. The Greek manufacturing in-
dividing the land among all the children of ,
I'm still u
dustry originated at the very end of the 19th
landowner, Greece is a land of small, individual
meat.
century and gained steadily between World Wars
owned farmsteads. These are almost all sut-
he imp
I and II. Since then it has made striking gains.
divided into a number of widely dispersed plots
more
= dem
368
PHOTO RESEARCHEM
/ owned formsteads
PETER THROCKMORTON, FROM NANCY PALMER
One of Greece's many small fishing fleets, which for centuries have plied the surrounding seas for their catch.
put doubled. Its
ged 9% between
Though holdings are too small and fragmented
The cattle population is relatively small, fodder is
high as 11.7% is
to be farmed efficiently, the government has
scarce, and natural pastures have contracted as
essing, chemicak
abstained from forced collectivization, and there
cultivation has expanded.
:cts, cement, and
has been little response to its legislation for
International Trade. Between the late 1930's
he building con-
voluntary land consolidation.
and the mid-1970's, Greek foreign trade increased
onsiderably since
Agricultural productivity has increased mark-
by nearly 340%. Imports rose by more than 400%
:9.
edly since World War II, though the annual
and exports by more than 240%. Thus an increas-
rtisan businesses
growth rate has been somewhat sporadic and
ingly adverse balance of trade became a regular
matter of small
lower than that of industry. A good deal of this
feature of the Greek economy for many years.
inefficient, now
growth resulted from the extension of cultivated
The excessive rise in imports was partly a con-
on. Yet relatively
areas. Much also came from improvements in
sequence of modernization, which necessitated
k of production d
the yield of already cultivated land, through irri-
the purchase abroad of tractors, industrial ma-
d in the area
the nation, better seed, and fertilizer. However, by
chinery, and transportation equipment, and partly
nomists complete
little late 1970's, agriculture contributed only a
because of increased purchases of consumer goods.
ailable capital
over one third of the country's exports.
In 1970, industrial products accounted for
ng as compared
Wheat, olives, and vines, the basis of tradi-
more than half of Greek exports. Within about
y. All agree that
tional Greek agriculture, still play an important
five years, exports were divided roughly into two
actory manager
part Creek in meeting the nutritional needs of the
thirds industrial and one third agricultural prod-
intil 1953, Greet
for
people. In 1957, Greek farmers succeeded,
ucts. Greece's continuing problem was that some
d almost exch
the first time, in growing enough wheat to
of its exports were largely in the luxury or semi-
the nation's need for bread. Olive trees,
luxury category, the demand for which drops in
rating efficient
which Greece is the third- or fourth-largest
Brower, satisfy the nation's demand for oils. Vines
times of recession, while a sizable portion of
equate power.
imports consisted of essentials.
built by foreign
the domestic market with wine. Since
About half of Greece's trade is with the EEC
terprises are
Corinthian
Apricultural (de commodities for export are tobacco
Forld War II rice has become an important cΓop.
countries, of which West Germany commands the
greatest share. The United States and Britain
of petroleus Sele
eftrus, 43 table grapes, and other fruits, and cotton.
most important), currants and other raisins,
also remain important trading partners. Although
but the first two have assumed their impor-
the Communist countries play a far smaller role
in the country's foreign trade, Greece has a
and also
since World War II.
The government has attempted to diversify
higher export dependence on them than do other
tilding were
members of the EEC.
th the Common nece
and cTop pattern through a decrease in wheat
Transportation and Communications. The main
nization
a
and an increase in the
ds, industride
THE The cotton, sugar,
highways and railroads of Greece follow natural
stry will have
historic routes. The railways system, rebuilt after
ent
foreign demand
World War II to its prewar extent, has given way
meane vegetables, and cotton. These products
to roads as the chief means of transportation.
bring greater monetary rewards than does
more intensive labor for their production
Great advances have been made in roadbuilding.
of the land
The main highways were widened and improved.
nost half
wheat. Thus they reduce rural
Even more important, the construction of second-
for
and bring farmers greater
ary roads has ended the centuries-old isolation
n
of
and of livestock, dairy farming,
of many villages.
the practice
which
Maritime transportation and shipping have
e
children individ
to provide
always been important in Greece. Among the
almost all
imported to meet the nation's demand for
and sugar that now have
many ports of Greece, Piraeus (the port of
dispersed
nk*
Athens), Salonika, and Patras are the most im-
/
diet. As yet, the principles of
portant. Piraeus is one of the chief ports of the
animal husbandry are little practiced.
Mediterranean and handles 60% of all Greek
369
Sites of To
Street Struct The follow
other Erechtheun class the
Roman Agora, Odi
Dionysus, D a
The
Busse. one of the
THE
NUCLEAR
REACTO
was
built
b
at Democritos, the
CAPE
Sounion.
research center
the Attic pe
Athens, is illustrative
temple ded:
the advances being
(armth. B 1.857 fe
The
in all phases of Greek
the Acroco
theater, stc
the spring
Lechaeum.
MARGOT $. GRANITSAS, FROM PHOTO RESEARCHERS
Drtphi. Impre
Apollo, the
shipping. Salonika is the outlet for other Balkan
War II, the number of schools and teachers,
mund build
countries as well as for Greece's northern prov-
well as the proportion of the young people
Athens, an
"
states. Mt.
inces. Ferries connect Patras with the western
school, has increased. One indicator of this is
mainland and with Brindisi, Italy. The Greek
rise in literacy from 39% of the population aged
meters) ove
merchant fleet ranks fifth in the world in ton-
10 years or older in 1907 to 88% in 1972.
Helicon We
nage (more than 25 million tons in 1976). Greek-
Elementary education covers six years
Fleusis. Locate
study between the ages of 6 and 12. Secondar
Eleusis was
owned vessels flying foreign flags totaled over
23 million tons in that year. Receipts from
school education has been divided, since 196;
of Greece.
shipping constitute one of the major sources of
into two successive 3-year cycles, the gymnasics
of initiation
invisible earnings.
and the lyceum. Higher education is provided
Great Prop.
by five universities in Athens, Salonika, Patrz
Epidaurus. Th
Olympic Airways, a private company pri-
Jannina, and Komotini, and by more than a doze
to Asclepiu:
marily owned by Greeks, has maintained a mo-
a tholos, ba
nopoly on Greek air transport since 1952. From
other schools with university status, each spt
theater (4t
Athens airport, it maintains regular air services
cializing in a separate field. Besides these three
with all parts of Greece and the rest of the world.
basic cycles, there is also preschool and voct
Greece has nationwide telephone and telegraph
tional education. Nine years of education became
systems, both of them government/controlled. By
compulsory by 1980 under the constitution adops
the constitution of 1975, radio and television
ed in 1975.
broadcasting also were placed under government
The role of private education in the total
control.
educational system varies according to the leve
Tourism. Because of its antiquities, mild
ol education. At the primary level, privat
climate, and scenic beauty, Greece has long been
schools are few except in Athens. At the second
a land of tourism. But only after World War II
ary level, they are important throughout the
was there a concerted attempt to have tourism
country. Higher educational institutions D
play a vital part in the economy. This effort
mostly state financed.
included the building of roads, the construction
The percentage of the student populato
SELECTED ANC'
of modern hotels, the organization of coach tours,
completing secondary school in Greece great-
exceeds that of several Western European come
SITES ON MAII
cruises, and drama and music festivals, and the
establishment of information offices abroad. By
tries, while the proportion of university graduat-
GREECE
the late 1970's, over 4 million tourists vis-
runs equal to or slightly greater than theirs. Ho-
ited Greece annually. Tourism has become one of
ever, the quality of education in Greece does BC
the major sources of invisible earnings.
equal the numbers educated. There are too for
teachers and schools for the number of students
mop shows
4. Education
Teaching methods are outmoded and textbook
eary reminders
Greeks have long treasured education as a
deficient. In terms of educational needs, too smal
- which Romc
channel of social mobility, as a means of recov-
a portion of the national budget is spent on edo
Testern, civilizat
ering their glorious past, and as a way to achieve
cation. The curriculum is overwhelmingly "dr
national progress. The modern revival of educa-
sical" and deficient in technical subjects. As
tion started in the 18th century under Ottoman
result, there is an excess of lawyers and CR:
rule and played a vital role in stimulating the
servants, while engineers, economists, technician
desire for national independence. After inde-
and business managers are in short supply. 0
pendence the state adopted the principle of free,
the thousands of Greek students who annual
compulsory, public education. But because of
study in foreign universities, a large percents
limited resources, implementation of this principle
concentrate in scientific and technical fiels
came very slowly. Only in 1929 was education
In spite of its shortcomings, the education
made compulsory at the primary level, and the
system is contributing to social mobility. Fs
length of compulsory education has never been
instance, as far back as 1961. nearly half of ,
permanently extended since then. Only in 1964
students at Athens and Salonika universities CI
was education made free at all levels. Since
from families of farmers and other labor
World War I, but at a greater pace since World
JOHN A. PETROPULOS°, Amherst Colux
370
GREECE: 5. Sites of Tourist Interest
371
Sites of Tourist Interest
Marathon. The plain where the Athenians de-
The following sites are of major interest:
feated the Persians in 490 B. C. lies 20 miles
Athens. Structures on the Acropolis include the
(32 km) northeast of Athens; the mound for
Propylaea, the temple of Athena Nike, the
the Athenian dead can be seen.
Erechtheum, and the Parthenon. Among
Mycenae. The capital of the legendary Agamem-
other classical remains in the city are the
non is situated high above the plain of Argos.
Agora, the reconstructed stoa of Attalus, the
The court and megaron of the palace of the
Roman Odeum of Atticus and the Theater of
Atridae have been partially restored. Other
Dionysus, and the temple of Hephaestus.
remains of the Mycenaean period include the
Bassae. The Doric temple of Apollo Epicurius is
Lion Gate, cyclopean walls, Grave Circles A
one of the best-preserved Greek temples. It
and B, the house of the oil merchant, the
was built by Ictinus.
Treasury of Atreus (a royal tomb of about
E NUCLEAR REACTO
Cape Sounion. On this cape at the eastern tip of
1300 B. c.) and the so-called tomb of
Democritos, the nuclear
the Attic peninsula stand remains of the Doric
Clytemnestra.
earch center outside
temple dedicated to Poseidon, god of the sea.
Olympia. Beginning in 776 B. C., the Olympic
hens, is illustrative
Corinth. The acropolis (Acrocorinth) of the city
Games were held here for almost 1,000 years.
advances being mode
is 1,857 feet (566 meters) high. Ruins near
Extant remains include the entrance to the
all phases of Greek life
the Acrocorinth include a temple of Apollo, a
stadium, the temples of Zeus and Hera, and
theater, stoas, an odeum hewn out of rock,
the foundations of several 6th century B. C.
the spring of Pirene, and part of the road to
treasuries.
Lechaeum.
Sparta. There remains only a low hill, which was
Delphi. Impressive ruins include the Temple of
the acropolis for a group of separate villages
Apollo, the theater and stadium, a tholos or
-there was no central city of monumental
ools and teachers, x
round building, the reconstructed treasury of
structures.
the young people
Athens, and treasuries of several other city-
Thermopylae. Recession of the shoreline has en-
ndicator of this is the
states. Mt. Parnassus looms 8,062 feet (2,457
larged the narrow pass between the moun-
the population aged
meters) over Delphi; it and neighboring Mt.
tains and the Malian Gulf, where Xerxes and
Helicon were the home of the Muses.
) 88% in 1972.
the Persians defeated the Spartans in 480 B. C.
covers six years of
eusis. Located 12 miles (29 km) west of Athens,
Visitors can see the "burial mound of
; and 12. Secondary
Eleusis was one of the most sacred sites in all
Leonidas" and the springs from which the
divided, since 1964
of Greece. It contains the ruins of a great hall
pass derives its name.
vcles, the gymnasium
of initiation into the cult of Demeter, and the
Tiryns. Cyclopean circuit walls and the ruins of
ducation is provide
Creat Propylaea, built about 170 A. D.
a Mycenaean palace are situated near the sea
ns, Salonika, Patra
pidaurus. The ruins of this complex dedicated
on a rock 263 feet (80 meters) high.
to Asclepius include the Temple of Asclepius,
For additional ancient sites on Crete and
y more than a dozes
ty status, each spr-
a tholos, baths, and a gymnasium. The great
the other Greek islands see articles on the
Besides these three
theater (4th century B. c.) is still used.
individual islands.
preschool and voca
of education became
he constitution adopt
ication in the tool
cording to the level
MACEDONIA
mary level, private
hens. At the second
ant throughout
al institutions
student populative
SELECTED ANCIENT
EPIRUS
SITES ON MAINLAND
THESSALY
AEGEAN
I in Greece greate court
ern
er than
n in Greece does
Thermopylae
There are too
oded and textbook
number of stude
Mt.
S.E.A
nop shows some of the
Delphi
Parnassus
reminders of a culture
onal needs. too
which Roman, and later
!get is spent on
civilizations evolved.
IONIAN
Marathon
Eleusis
erwhelmingly
Athens
As
Corinthe
nical subjects.
Mycenae
nomists. technic
Epidaurus
Olympia
Cape
N
Sounion
in short supply.
lents who percents
Bassae
d technical
Sparta
1gs, the education
cial mobility.
nearly half of
Scale
ka
0
50
100 Mi
SEA OF
and
0
50
100
150 Km
CRETE
380
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
7. Modern Culture
of ancient times. During the immediate
revolutionary period,
Bead
Among the many factors that have shaped the
songs reached its
cultural life of modern Greece, two of the most
klephtika, or songs about outlaws in the
important are the history of the country and its
-
IS
tains who lived a life like Robin Hood new
defied Turkish rule. Epic and symbolic
er
geographical location.
5+1
From the historical point of view, modern
and moving, these songs told of the hard E
Greek culture is both old and new. It is old not
the Klephts and of their
great
only because it developed in an environment of
They were both a their heroism demunciate
-
ancient marbles, Byzantine churches, and count-
-
and
tyranny and a hymn to freedom.
lonian School. Two poets who stood far
-
Ty
less monuments, but also because, in the people's
songs, in folk art, and in popular customs, ele-
their contemporaries in the new period that
$
sexten
with the revolution of 1821 were Andreas
-
a
ments still exist that go back to Homer's day.
(1796-1869) and Dionysios Solomos
S
-
Past eras, indigenous developments, and the in-
(I.A.
solom
fluence of the peoples who conquered or came in
1857). Kalvos was educated in Italy, where
arrature
contact with Greece have been integrated in the
met his compatriot from the island of
(Zakynthos), Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827), ute 20
-
cultural patterns of the present-day Greeks. At
bis
who
the same time, modern Greek culture is young
spired him with a love of the classics and they
=
because Greece became independent only in 1829,
him the technique of poetry. In 1824, King
health
after almost four centuries of Turkish rule. Born
published his Lyra, 10 odes in Greek, which
when romanticism was at its peak in Europe,
followed by 10 more in 1826. The greatness
cen'
Greece accepted it, as well as the reactions
his poetry lies in his genuine lyricism and in
against it, and all the currents that followed. It
powerful expression of the lofty ideals of me
Brue
to
is notable, however, that modern Greeks have in-
and freedom. His work shows the influence
-ster
herited from their forefathers a tendency to be
neoclassicism in its solemn and balanced
455 mir
selective in their cultural borrowings. They adopt
pression, but its tone reveals a slight tender
and
the
only those foreign patterns that are suitable, and
toward romanticism. Its language is a mixture
capit
then assimilate and develop them until they bear
archaic and modern expressions, accentuating
a genuine and unmistakable Greek stamp.
neoclassical character of the odes. Kalvos
Geography has played as important a role as
fluenced modern poetry, particularly that WTC.
history in the cultural life of the nation. From
after 1900.
that
very ancient times, Greece, located at the junc-
Dionysios Solomos also was born on Zzz
tion of East and West, developed two cultural
He studied law at the University of Pavis a
characteristics. One is the Apollonian: clear, full
Italy, but he soon abandoned it for literate
libe
of light, well defined, rational. The other is the
The conflict between romanticism and classic
Dionysian: dim, passionate, instinctive, mystical.
the doctrines of the philosophes, and the idea
Both elements have existed side by side, at times
of the French Revolution aroused his interes
moc
clashing with each other and causing serious
Like Kalvos, he wrote his first poems in Italiz
at
cultural problems.
In 1818, Solomos returned to Zante, and his in
Rize
poems in Greek were on Greek subjects and
LITERATURE
flected a deep romantic feeling. The revolutes
The revolution of 1821 opened a new era in
of 1821 provided him with fresh poetic inspect
tion. In 1823 he composed his Hymn to Liben
old
Greek literature. The same problems and currents
then prevalent in most European countries found
which was set to music in 1828 and in 1864
expression in the poetry and prose of the infant
came the national anthem of Greece. In 182
nation. The new literary production, however,
Solomos left Zante for the neighboring island
owed much to the indigenous literary and cultural
Corfu, where, after a lonely life of study XV
achievements of the 17th and 18th centuries.
writing, he died in 1857. His brilliant images
These included a greater quantity and higher
tion, sincere emotion, masterly technique, B
quality of literary production; the development of
pure lyricism, combined with an ardent liberabs
individualism in writing; a more widespread use
and love of freedom, made him the greates:
of the vernacular as a literary medium; the
the poets of modern Greece. His poetry. CI
development of a body of literary criticism that
sisting at first of simple and emotional hn
reevaluated existing aesthetic principles; and the
became, after his contact with German roma:
growth of a wider audience for literature. The
philosophy, lofty and idealistic. Freedom, be
17th and 18th centuries also saw the influence on
death, and life took on deeper meanings for to
literature of the ideals of humanism and of the
and Solomos, without becoming a philosoph
Enlightenment, and the replacement of Italy by
poet, endeavored to get at the absolute esser
France as the chief foreign literary influence.
of his subjects. He was always concerned we
Crete, Cyprus, Rhodes, and the Ionian Islands
the conflict between romanticism and classics
were the principal centers of literary activity
and finally managed to achieve in his poetry 5'
during this period.
admirable balance of sentiment and thought.
During the prerevolutionary period, there was
In prose, Solomos left few works. His to
ROMA
continued development of a folk poetry whose
main contributions are his Dialogue, white
sometime between 1823 and 1825, and To
hope
origins dated back to the Homeric period. This
Woman of Zante (1826). The Dialogue, the to
Athens,
poetry had come down through the ages, contin-
for mc
ually being enriched with new experiences, and
serious piece of criticism in modern Greek br
reached the 19th century with all its freshness
ature, is an eloquent and inspired defense of >
classic
and genuineness unspoiled. It was a masterly ex-
vernacular, written in the form of a dialos?
pression of the Greek soul and an inexhaustible
The Woman of Zante, a satiric work writter
source of inspiration for each succeeding genera-
a masterly vernacular, is a strong condemnstion
tion. Set to music, it sang of every phase of the
of the ugliness the writer found in contempor
people's life: work, love, war, and death. It sang
society and a diatribe against those who did
also of the beauties of nature and of the events
sympathize with the struggle for freedom.
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
381
Besides Kalvos and Solomos, the school of the
Shallow and highly colored, with little technical
nian Islands included in its first period (until
or aesthetic value, the poetry of this period,
nout 1880) several other literary figures. Some
written mostly in the pure language, provided an
j the more important were Antonios Matesses
outlet for buoyant patriotism, melodramatic love,
1794-1875), known especially for his. Vassilikos
and everyday politics. Some of the most dis-
about 1830), a remarkable play written in the
tinguished poets of this school were Demetrios
emacular; Iakovos Polylas (1826-1896), a fine
Paparregopoulos (1843-1873); Spyridon Vasili-
net and serious critic, influenced by Solomos;
ades (1845-1874); Georgios Paraschos (1822-
:lius Typaldos (1814-1883), whose poetry is
1886); and his brother, Achilles Paraschos (1838-
haracterized by a deep religious and mystical
1895), who was widely read, exercised a great
-ling; and Georgios Kalosgouros (1849-1902),
influence, and is considered the best representa-
has
nown especially for his translations into Greek
tive of this period.
i Solomos' Italian poems and of other Italian
Meanwhile, a reaction against the excesses of
Rerature. After the middle of the 19th century,
the romanticists developed into a general demand
yroup of new authors continued the tradition of
for higher quality and new forms in literature.
this school, but by then stronger ties existed
This reaction was stimulated by contact with
-tween the literary production of the Ionian
literary men from the Ionian Islands, like
:Cands and that of the mainland.
Georgios Tertsetes (1800-1874), a sensitive poet
Early Athenian Writers. In Athens, in the early
with a strict devotion to the tradition of the
th century, a group from Phanar, the famous
Ionian school; Brailas Armenes (1812-1884),
"rek quarter of Constantinople, gave a different
aesthetician and philosopher; Georgios Zalokostas
- to literary expression. When the Phanariots
(1805-1858), a lyricist; Aristoteles Valaoritis
migrated to the newly liberated Athens, their
(1824-1879), a dynamic, eloquent poet who fol-
perior education and broader background en-
lowed his Ionian compatriots in the use of the
.ed them to dominate the intellectual life of
vernacular and the folk songs as prototypes, but
"x capital. Deeply influenced by the French
the Athenian school in his technique and ro-
manticists and the glories of antiquity and
mantic style; and Andreas Laskaratos (1811-
stached to the "pure" language as opposed to
1901), a liberal writer noted for his criticisms of
-macular Greek, they created a different climate
contemporary social conditions.
from that of the Ionian Islands. Among the most
The prose of the second half of the 19th cen-
tstinguished of these writers were Alexandros
tury is on a lower level than the poetry. Some
watsos (1803-1863), best known as a satirist
notable exceptions are the few prose writings of
ature
th liberal tendencies and a great facility in
Solomos and the memoirs and autobiographies of
icis=
"ming verse; his brother, Panayiotes Soutsos
some of the leaders of the revolution. The most
ideas
(%06-1868), whose patriotic and love poems
important of the latter is the Memoirs of the
terex
**re modeled after those of the French roman-
revolutionary hero John Makriyiannes (1797-
talias
sts: and Alexandre Rizos Rangabé (Alexan-
1864). His narrative is vivid and possesses the
is
No. Rizos Rhangaves, 1810-1892), who left a
finest qualities of folk art; his Memoirs is one of
nd
inminous body of work in all literary genres.
the masterpieces of Greek literature. The best
plutes
Old School of Athens. The road to romanticism
novels of the period were Thanos Vlekas by Pav-
esper
now open, and the next generation, known as
los Kalligas (1814-1896) and The Heroine of
old school of Athens, between 1850 and
the Greek Revolution by Stephanos Xenos (1821-
61
-40 developed romanticism to its highest point.
1894).
1500
and
GREEK NATIONAL TOURIST OFFICE
1X
=
erainer
that
(Y)
lyner
mine
the
n.
or
A
isopire
dray
ed
etr.
ght
His
ROMAN ODEUM, on
nd
smens, provides the set-
time of the Acropolis,
the
et
be modern productions
dassical Greek dramas.
disks
rittre
emnage
382
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
Another exception to the generally low level
many obsolete words, was the pride of the
of prose during this period is Pope Joan, written
nant groups in every segment of Greek
I
bularies
in
in 1866 by Emanuel Rhoides (1835-1904). This
The spoken language of the people was society
style.
son
witty and articulate novel is significant because,
and those few who persisted in using despond it
His image-
For
though its story takes place in the Middle Ages
literary works were considered radicals. The
&
telling
use
and its author pretends that he is writing a ro-
language, an artificial and dead tongue, was
mantic novel of the Walter Scott type, it contains
only an inadequate means of expression, but
a great protest against the excesses of con-
temporary romanticism and introduces into Greek
a serious handicap to the country's educations
original sensualism mys
development. Vigorous protests were freque
prose a new emphasis on rationalism and realism.
made, and the Ionian school, beginning
Christ Orphist and
The example of Rhoides, who was also a re-
Solomos, established the vernacular as the literan
B
spected critic, encouraged the younger generation
language. Nevertheless, the pure language
him are but
to find new media of expression. In 1879 the
mained in use because it was intimately connect
one thing.
novel Loukis Laras by Demetrios Bikelas (Vikelas,
with the ruling system of Greece.
During the IS
1835-1908) showed some of the results of this
old site of D
Psichari was the first to shake the foundation
of repres
encouragement. Its simplicity, grace, and form
of the pure language. With his fighting
reveal striking divergences from the works of the
Athenian romanticists.
profound linguistic knowledge, out the trease spice
personality, he not only pointed
a
New School of Athens. The last two decades
of the vernacular, but placed
a
of the 19th century in Greece were a period of
of language on a national
increasing social differentiation, economic bank-
Psichari's preaching had a strong impact,
gontry. which is
ruptcy, and political corruption, culminating in
the catastrophe of the Greco-Turkish War of
cially on young writers, whom it liberated from
seed Lyric Life.
the shackles of convention and precedent.
do in which
1897. It was in this period of contrasts and con-
novel My Journey (1888) became a milestone
embolism he vie
flicts, when out of frustration and disappointment
modern Greek literature.
scal reform, expression if
a demand for a national rebirth began to arise,
Another important figure of this new school
that there appeared the generation of the 1880's,
was Nicholas Polites (1852-1921), who devol
pertic stace them on th.
known as the new school of Athens. It was a
his life to revealing the riches of Greek folldom
soduction. Constantine C
small group of enlightened men, most of them
In so doing, he started one of the most creating
young, who, challenging the standards of their
movements in modern Greek culture and inspiral
its
in Alexandri.
day and utilizing everything valuable in the
literary men, composers, artists, and scholer
spect of his tim-
the fate of t
Greek tradition, endeavored to express a new
Polites' work is of inestimable value
spirit.
significance.
Buse who are un
unmoved by th
Their leader was the poet Kostes Palamas
The year 1903 was marked by an important
dos, but simply
(1859-1943), who was the dominant figure on
literary event, the founding of the magazine
presses only the t
the Greek literary scene for more than 60 years.
Noumas. Around it were grouped the new
are involved
His work is distinguished by profound thought
ers who strove for the establishment of
azlities but by p.
and inspiration and by a complete mastery of met-
vernacular and the renovation of Greek letter
describes wit:
rical technique. He embraced the Psichari move-
The new school of Athens included sever
awom projects h
ment for the use of the vernacular, broke with
good poets: Georgios Drosines (1859-1951),
smally allowing }
the romanticists, honored folk poetry, and empha-
tender and elegant lyricist; Georgios Vizyeam
greak for him.
sized the significance of the Ionians, especially
(1849-1896), who wrote with simplicity
Inman problems
Solomos and Kalvos. By 1900, Palamas' purpose
sensitivity; Aristomenes Provelengios (1850-1939
chations in mind
was clear: to express the continuity of the
gentle and idealistic; loannes Polemes (1882-
most of his poem-
Hellenic spirit from ancient times to his own day.
1924), who sang of commonplace subjects
toward the begin
But his eyes were also turned to contemporary
simple lyrics; Kostas Krystalles (1868-1894), uto
(C) characterized
realities. The age of science evoked from him
used folk songs as prototypes and succeeded h
westhetic sophistic.
deep admiration and great hopes. The social
re-creating the atmosphere of peasant life in
to and declini!
conflicts made him an advocate of the weak and
mountains; Alexandros Palles (1851-1935),
nature of the verr:
the oppressed. The national adventures, and espe-
poet of real talent and a warm fighter for the
notributes to his
cially the catastrophe of the Greco-Turkish War,
vernacular, in whose lyricism is reflected
emosphere. Cava
filled him with grief and despair, but he con-
passion for Greece's regeneration; Argyris Efo
and figure in (
tinued to express his faith in a better future for
liotis (1849-1923), another disciple of Psichr.
I influence or.
his country. Palamas left a voluminous body of
who left a varied literary output; and John 1
-tical period of
work consisting of many collections of poetry,
Grypares (1872-1942), who wrote some of &
mmediately after.
several fine volumes of literary criticism, and an
best sonnets in modern Greek and made SOCIAL
Kostas Varnale-
exceptionally fine play, Trisevyene (1903).
masterly translations of classical tragedies. To
social conflict.
Gathered about Palamas was a galaxy of out-
the same generation belong a number of poell
poor laborers, the
standing literary figures. Among the most im-
who wrote with feeling and warmth, but did of
supression. Thous
portant was Jean Psichari (Ioannes Psychares,
contribute anything new to the literature of their
reld easily lead
1854-1929), who became a bold and inspired
times-Zacharias Papantoniou (1877-1940), Kor-
detoric, he infuse:
advocate of the vernacular, and who was the first
stantinos Hadzopoulos (1868-1921), Miltiade
the and emphasi:
to emphasize the importance of the linguistic
Malakases (1870-1943), Lambros Porphym
ensitive perception
problem. He studied in Germany and France
(1879-1932), and Soteres Skipes (1881-1952).
opecially the coll
and later taught for many years in the School of
Early 20th Century Writers. At the beginnist
1933), he emerge
Modern Oriental Languages of the University of
of the 20th century, literary production continued
b country. His (
Paris. In 1866, when he returned to Greece, the
along the paths already opened by the DES
irony mixed with
linguistic problem was acute. Daily newspapers,
school of Athens. Three major poets emerged
has one of the mo
literary works, and all classes from grammar
Angelos Sikelianos (1884-1951); Konstantina
letters.
school to university used the pure language. This
Kavafis (1863-1933), who is better known in de
During this pe:
language, based on the grammar of the ancient
United States as Constantine Cavafy; and Kate
subuted greatly to
Attic dialect, purged of all foreign words-even
Varnales.
them was Nikos K
those that had been imported and Hellenized
Angelos Sikelianos was a dynamic lyric pas
through a long historical process-and including
with a powerful imagination, one of the riches
be wrote a few highly
to translate
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
383
ide of the domi-
socabularies in modern Greek poetry, and a
(1912). Kostas Karyotakes (1896-1928) im-
f Greek society.
grand style, sometimes tightly knit, sometimes
pressed his contemporaries by his pessimism,
le was despised
free. His images are vivid, and he makes espe-
irony, and sarcasm and by his criticism of the
in using it
cially telling use of the contrast and resolution of
conventionality of his society.
dicals. The pure
opposing elements. For example, his deep feeling
Meanwhile the Ionian Islands with their
tongue, was not
for nature is both Apollonian in its immediacy
great literary tradition continued to produce
ression, but also
and sensualism and Dionysian in its search for
some remarkable poets, among them Gerasimos
try's educations
the "original mystic value" of all things. He also
Markoras (1826-1911) and Lorentzos Mabiles
were frequently
reconciles Orphism with Christianity, Dionysus
(1860-1912), who combined deep thought and
beginning with
with Christ, and reason with mysticism, which
warm feeling with his lyricism.
ar as the literary
for him are but different and revealing aspects
From the appearance of the new school of
re language re-
one thing.
Athens until the end of World War I, Greek
nately connected
During the 1920's he endeavored to create on
prose failed to reach the high standards of Greek
the old site of Delphi a spiritual center for the
poetry, but the contribution of a few authors,
the foundations
meeting of representatives from all the countries
especially short story writers, is notable. Among
fighting spirit
of the world in the interest of universal peace
them are two writers from the island of Skiathos
and impressive
and brotherhood. Only two Delphic festivals
-Alexandros Papadiamantes (1851-1911) and
out the treasures
naterialized, however, one in 1927 and another
Alexandros Moraitides (1851-1929), close friends
whole question
2 1930. Sikelianos' works, besides his lyric
whose lives and work were very similar. They
d social basis
poetry, which is gathered in three volumes en-
(especially Papadiamantes) wrote with a deep
g impact, espe-
otied Lyric Life, consist of a few inspired trag-
understanding of human nature, with sincerity,
t liberated from
-dies, in which with a deep insight and strong
and with religious feeling. Georgios Vizyenos is
precedent. Hs
"mbolism he views social conflict and advocates
noted for the introduction of psychological themes
e a milestone a
social reform, if not revolution. Their powerful
in his prose. Demetrios Kambouroglou (1852-
poetic expression and genuine dramatic elements
1933) wrote graceful stories chiefly about histori-
this new school
place them on the highest level of Greek literary
cal subjects. loannes Vlahoyiannes (1868-1945)
), who devoted
production.
divided his efforts between writing short stories
Greek folklore
Constantine Cavafy, who spent most of his
and doing historical research. loannes Kondylakes
le most creative
life in Alexandria, Egypt, expresses a different
(1861-1920,) is noted mainly for his psycho-
ure and inspired
aspect of his time. He writes of the tragedy of
logical novel Patouhas (1916), and Andreas
and scholars
life, the fate of the weak, of the unsatisfied, of
Karkavitsas (1866-1922) for his short stories.
ole value and
those who are unable to react. It is not that he
Kostas Theotokes (1872-1923) was the first
unmoved by the brave, the virtuous, the lofty
Greek to write well-organized novels with a
by an imported
ethos, but simply that he passes them by and
social content. They include The Convict (1912)
the magazine
Presses only the tragic side of the story in which
and The Slaves in Their Chains (1922), which,
di the new will
they are involved. He is attracted not by gen-
with their strong psychological analysis, human
ishment of
eralities but by particulars, by isolated cases that
feeling, and vivid description, are two of the best
f Greek letters
be describes with a superb sensitiveness. He
in Greek literature. Konstantinos Christomanos
ncluded sevent
midom projects himself into his poems, instead
(1887-1911) was an author of great talent, who
(1859-1951).
socially allowing historical or fictitious persons to
wrote both in a genteel style, as in The Diary of
orgios Vizyens
Beak for him. Though he deals with deeply
the Empress Elisabeth (1907), and with sensual
ios simplicity (1850-1936)
Saman problems and probably has contemporary
realism, as in the Doll of Wax (1911). Petros
Quations in mind, he sets the historical scene of
Apostolides (1866-1937) wrote in a sincere and
'olemes (1868-
most of his poems in the late Hellenistic period
graceful manner, under the pseudonym Pavlos
ace subjects
(toward the beginning of the Christian era), an
Nirvanas. Gregorios Xenopoulos (1867-1951),
368-1894), d succeeded
characterized by intellectual brilliance and
the best of the prose writers, left a voluminous
verthetic sophistication as well as by disintegra-
production of powerful short stories and novels
isant life in
Sco and declining values. His language, a
that analyzed the psychology and customs of
1851-1935).
Disture of the vernacular and the archaic, greatly
contemporary society.
fighter for
extributes to his re-creation of the Hellenistic
Drama. After the liberation of Greece in
is reflected
Crosphere. Cavafy became the most contro-
1821, plays appeared in abundance but, with
merrial figure in Greek letters and exercised a
Exp influence on the younger writers of the
some notable exceptions, were mediocre. Besides
Matesses and Rangabé, the playwrights include
t; and John
ite some of
andiately after.
World War I and the years
Demetrios Byzantios-Aslanes (1770-1853), De-
B
metrios Vernardakis (1834-1907), and Spyridon
and
made
Lostas Varnales was the first Greek poet of
Vasiliades. In the movement to rejuvenate the
umber tragedies of
pode
for laborers, the victims of social injustice and
social conflict. He sings of the humble, the
Greek theater, Gregorios Xenopoulos took the
apression. Though he deals with subjects that
lead. His plays have a fast-paced dramatic
,th, but did
action and lively dialogue; his well-defined
erroricasily lead to the use of commonplace
characters move and act naturally; and the con-
- infuses his poems with a high lyric
struction of his scenes achieves a remarkable
ensitive With his later work, and
and emphasizes the human element with
excellence. Spyros Melas, Demitris Bogres,
Theodoros Synadinos, Panteles Horn (1881-1941),
the
The Light That Burns
and several other playwrights also contributed to
action the continued the
as the chief Marxist poet of
the repertory of the modern Greek theater.
country. His clear and powerful lyrics and
Literature After World War 1. A new period in
poets ement } by
1
mony mixed with a sense of the tragic made
Greek literature opened with the third decade of
one of the most influential figures of Greek
the 20th century. After the defeat in Asia Minor
'I known and Kome is
During this period several other poets con-
and the catastrophe of 1922, disillusion, skepti-
cism, and loss of faith dominated the younger
afy;
greatly to literary development. Among
writers, while the older ones continued on their
were was Nikos Karvounes (1880-1947), who
well-defined paths. Post-World War I literature,
amic the ne ne no
to a few highly dramatic verses and was the
reflecting the new critical times, developed
of
translate Walt Whitman into Greek
interesting modes of expression. In poetry there
384
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
arose a negative attitude toward Palamas' reason
I (1940), Log Book II (1944), Log Book
and intellectualism, and a shift in emphasis from
content to form as a result of an inner spiritual
(1955), and others, have been by American
cellent English translations
such
mu
vacuum. New literary movements in the rest of
British poets.
Broughout
Europe were readily adopted and assimilated by
the younger Greek poets. Surrealism, especially,
Odysseus Elytes, who began as
There were other important poets, inclust
Trated at at
had a strong appeal for them.
whose poetry has a sparkling Greek
Two poets of this period stand out-Nikos
loannes Ritsos and Nicephoros Vrettakos are
i
posts. segular we
Kazantzakis (1885-1957) and George Seferis.
more of the numerous poets of the second hat
Des
With their superb poetic quality, profound
the 20th century.
-
-
to
a:
humanity and power of expression, they con-
tributed more than any others to bringing Greek
The prose of this period reached new heig
-
SOI
literature before an appreciative international
in the face of the human drama that reveal solemn
In the novels there is a seriousness and
-
S
public. Their works, translated into many
authors' deep awareness. Strates Myriveles
texterist:
languages, are in the mainstream of world
Photes Kontoglou (1895-1965), though of
Mo
literature. Kazantzakis was one of the last great
older generation, may be included among
= mo<
romantics. His poetry reflects both the dynamic
writers of this new prose. The former has
air (So:
flights of Nietzsche's philosophy and the implica-
tributed much with his novel Life in the Tom
chromat.
tions of Bergsonism. However, Kazantzakis was
(1923), a cry against war written with descript
j. In:
also profoundly influenced by the Upanishads and
power and a fine mastery of the vernacila
and
his
the Buddhist scriptures, and by a classical
Kontoglou tried to revive folk literature
rationalism and an inborn Greek zest for life.
wrote warmly and expressively, influenced
numental - F.E. giv.
His main poetic work (dates are of original pub-
Oriental mysticism and a passion for advent
with
lication), The Odyssey (1938), a modern sequel
Angelos Terzakes is epic in his conceptions
canse the
to the Homeric epic, written in 33,333 iambic
with his strong talent for narration, re-creates
- meloc
17-syllable lines, epitomizes his philosophy. But
atmosphere of past eras. Georgios Theoting
see
songs
his great themes-human existence, the meaning
(1905-1966) is a deep, thoughtful author,
and
sor.
reflects the search for solid foundations in
:
of freedom, the relationship of man to man and
1
comm-
man to God, and particularly the constant
uncertainty of the years after World Ww
and
3
struggle of man for a soul-are explored not only
Panteles Prevelakes-epic, powerful, and descre
Dr: possib.
in his Odyssey, but also in his principal novels.
tive-was attracted by the historical past of
41 The
Through the English translations of such works
native Crete. Elias Venezes is one of the Est
exading no
as The Greek Passion (1938), Zorba the Greek
significant novelists of this era; his works
sourth.
(1946), The Last Temptation of Christ (1951),
characterized by lyricism, a profound bucae
5! Fre
Freedom or Death (1953), and The Saviors of
tone, and lively dialogue and description.
quarter
God (1954), and the dramatizations for the stage
In the closing years of the 1960's, liters
action
and
and cinema of a number of them, Kazantzakis
criticism reached a high level. The critics Ele
price. make
became the best-known Greek author in the
P. Voutierides, Photos Politis, Ioannis M. Panas
entern almo
English-speaking world.
topoulos, Emil Hourmouzios, and Petros Her
6: Mos
In 1963, George Seferis (the pseudonym of
continued to write, and new authors appears
Sen. howe
whose systematic and scholarly works succession
esed to kg
George S. Seferiades) won the Nobel Prize for
literature for his "outstanding lyric poetry which
attempted an appraisal of modern Greek
and or to
inspires a profound feeling ,for the Hellenic
ature. The most significant of these studies
mre textu:
world of culture." His stream-of-consciousness
those of Constantine T. Demaras and
a ano
Polites, which offered a historical backgrous
This is t]
poetry is rich in symbols, metaphors, associations,
and a penetrating analysis of the literary develop
=: during t:
and allusions derived from the deepest, centuries-
old Hellenic veins. His statements are direct; his
ment of modern Greece.
isis and th
words are carefully chosen for their immediacy,
In the second half of the 20th century
ung.
When Gr
beauty, and semantic value; his verse is free and
literary generation in Greece was working hare
in other
of a superb musical quality. While still young,
reconstruct and create. They wished to express
Seferis became aware of the tragic element in the
their controversial and dramatic times; &
rexland. br
culti
history of the Greek people, and later this aware-
strove for perfection, utilized a rich local tras
seal tradi
ness, extended to include all humanity, found its
tion, assimilated contemporary currents, stre
The
way into his poetry. War, the tragedy of the up-
critically before their own attainments, and a
deavored to make their own contribution
import
rooted and exiled, destruction, death, and a
sing of E
cosmic corruption of matter are the themes with
worthy part of contemporary literature.
and musicia
which he deals in a grand manner. The influence
of T.S. Eliot, whose poetry Seferis translated
MUSIC
a
Germany
into Greek, has often been overemphasized. The
In no cultural aspect of modern Greece is
watries, the
coexistence and conflict of Apollonian and Do
many mus
main difference between the two poets does not
sextras. choi:
lie in the poetic forms but in their attitude
nysian-or, from another point of view, Orients
toward fundamental issues. Where Eliot absolves
and Western elements-so clear as in its muses
presentation
the valueless in modern life with his profound
life. This dualistic character goes back to
availability
tiquity and through the centuries has taken "
asseeded ove
religiousness, Seferis views with awe, if not with
musical c
a helpless despair, the meaning of existence and
ous forms. Contemporary Greece possesses
of man as part of an inescapable cosmic corrup-
the one hand an autochthonous music with
1
wheless.
tion. This was the closest a modern Greek poet
own aesthetics and principles, and on the oder
accured to
42T) still sar
had ever come to the view of moira (fate) of
so-called western European music.
the classical tragic poets. The universal character
Historical Background. By 1821, when
The coexis
of his themes, despite their "Greek" outlook,
Greeks revolted, they had both a rich security
different ir.
makes Seferis a contemporary poet who does not
music and an old, uniform, and well-estable
other indi
norlem Greek
belong to Greece alone. Most of his poetic
ecclesiastical music which was Byzantine in
gin and had been transmitted unchanged through
Composers
collections, such as Turning Point (1931), Myth-
II
Greek
the centuries thanks to the early Byzantine
C(
istorema (1935), The Thrush (1942), Log Book
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
385
944), Log Book II
tation (see BYZANTINE MUSIC). This was the
Islands, where they were dominated by Italian
en rendered into 6
church music enjoyed on every religious occasion
traditions. The leading figure was Nicholas
by American and
throughout the country. The single exception
Mantzaros (1796-1873) from Corfu. Others were
was the Ionian Islands, where, because of the
Pavlos Karrer (1829-1896), Spyros Samaras (Spiro
tant poets, including
repeated and long occupations by western Euro-
Samara, 1863-1917), and Dionysios Lavrangas
1 as a surrealist an
peans, composers followed the musical develop-
(1864-1943). Almost all of them ignored the
kling Greek color
ment of western Europe, particularly of Italy.
treasures of their local culture and patterned their
Secular music consisted of the admirable folk
music on the Italian romantic music of the early
os Vrettakos are the
of the second half &
songs. Despite their difference in color from one
19th century, to which they had become ac-
region to another and their great variety in type
customed in the Ionian Islands and which they
reached new height
(dance songs, songs of the table, klephtika,
had studied in Italy.
isness and solemnio
mourning songs), they possess certain common
The last quarter of the 19th century, which
ama that reveal the
characteristics:
in literature brought the inspired generation of
rates Myriveles and
(1) They are monodic.
the 1880's, also had its impact on musical pro-
65), though of
(2) Most are modal, based on the eight By-
duction. The composers of this period endeav-
a
zantine modes, as well as on the ancient Greek
ored to reflect the new nation in their music.
ncluded among the
modes. (Some songs are based instead on Orien-
Three of them distinguished themselves in this
he former has COB
w chromatic scales.)
direction: George Lambelet (1875-1945), Mano-
1 Life in the Toms
ten with descript"
(3) In some categories (klephtika, table songs,
lis Kalomiris (1883-1962), and Marios Varvoglis.
of the vernacular
pic and historical songs, and others) the rhythm
George Lambelet, though a native of Corfu
folk literature ax
, free, giving the singers great opportunity for
who had studied in Italy, was attracted by Greek
vely, influenced is
mamental improvisation. These songs usually
folk songs and emphasized the need for a new
ad with refrains that, with a fast rhythm,
national music based on them. Manolis Kalomiris,
ssion for adventure
hange the musical climate produced by the
a native of Smyrna, went to Greece after long
his conceptions and
ation, re-creates the
main melody. Other categories (most of the
periods of study in other parts of Europe and
love songs and dance songs, songs of work, and
used his talent to create Greek national music.
Georgios Theotoca
satirical songs) have a variety of rhythms, the
His basic romanticism and Wagnerian orchestra-
ightful author, who
foundations in the
most common of which are 2/4, 7/8, 6/8, 5/8,
tion, however, were unaffected by the Greek
ter World War 1
9/8, and 3/4, as well as 6/4 and 5/4, with all
subjects he chose. The quality of his operas and
their possible variations.
symphonies is high, but his chief influence in
verful, and descrip
storical past of
(4) Their range is often limited, sometimes
the creation of a national music lay in his appeal
is one of the mot
extending no more than the interval of a fifth or
to his contemporaries. Marios Varvoglis reacted
fourth.
against the romantic tendencies, appreciated
era; his works
(5) Frequently there are intervals of a half
deeply the beauty of the folk music, and finally
profound humas
a quarter of a tone, which together with By-
evolved his own style, influenced by French neo-
description.
rantine and Oriental practices transmitted in folk
classicism.
the 1960's, literal
1. The critics Ehe
music, make its notation in the modern Western
All three of these composers, however, failed,
loannis M. Panage
system almost impossible.
in their main goal of creating a Greek national
and Petros Hard
(6) Most of the songs are unaccompanied.
music based on the prototypes of the folk songs.
authors appeare
hen, however, they have an accompaniment, it
In their works the impact of the baroque, of
works successful
used to keep the rhythm, especially in dance
classicism, romanticism, and neoclassicism, and
odern Greek liter
longs, or to form a rich and complicated har-
of impressionism and other modern movements is
these studies WE
monic texture, completely independent of the
easily traced in form, technique, and spirit. Their
'maras and Line
monody, and always improvisatory.
problem lay in trying to express the periodic folk
torical background
This is the music that the Greeks were sing-
song with a notation system inadequate for the
he literary develop
during the time of their liberation from the
purpose and in alien European idiom. The out-
Tarks and that the majority of Greeks continued
come, while perhaps good music, was of a dif-
b sing.
ferent character from Greece's real national mu-
e 20th century
as working hard
When Greece became free, many Greeks liv-
sic. This continued to be the main problem of
wished to expers the
in other parts of Europe returned to their
modern Greek composition.
homeland, bringing with them their European
More successful in this regard was Petros
natic times;
a rich local trat stard
vical culture. The contact with the rich
Petridis. Instead of transplanting and harmon-
musical tradition of the Ionian Islands became
doser. The new leaders of Greece established
izing folk melodies, he used Byzantine and an-
y currents,
ainments, and
cient modes and tried to reproduce the musical
n contribution
boods, imported the first pianos, introduced the
atmosphere of the folk songs. Other composers
riled baching of European music in schools, and in-
were influenced by impressionism, which they
literature.
musicians from the Ionian Islands, Italy,
applied to music of an Oriental character. Émile
and Germany. Closer relations with European
Riadis (1890-1935), a pupil of Maurice Ravel's;
dern Greece is
enuntries, the introduction of opera, the founding
Georgios Ponirides (Georges Poniridy); and De-
ollonian and
of view, Oriend
rhestras, choirs, and musical societies, and, later,
many music schools, the organization of or-
metrios Levidis (1886-1951) were among the
best of this school.
r as in its musical
presentation of musical stage productions and
A dynamic group of young composers ap-
goes back to 184
increeded over several generations in changing
availability of the phonograph and the radio
peared immediately after World War II and
ies has taken
startled the conservative concert-going audience
musical consciousness of the urban centers.
of Athens with the new sound of their avant-
eece
ertheless, the churches, with few exceptions,
garde music. Their works, performed by the sym-
us
and on the
to use Byzantine music, and the vil-
phony orchestras of various European capitals,
dafferent in character.th different in che of thesh one imported and
The two kinds of music
still sang their folk songs.
soon made them internationally known. Born in
usic. 1821,
th rich stated
the 1920's and 1930's, these composers followed
the road that had been opened to them by
d well-establist
became a real problem in
Nicholas Skalkotas (1905-1949), a brilliant pupil
Byzantine through
Composers of the 19th and 20th Centuries. The
Greek composition.
of Arnold Schönberg's. Skalkotas' music was well
Greek composers appeared in the Ionian
known to European audiences and was intro-
nchanged thre
duced to the United States by the Greek-Amer-
386
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
ican conductor Dimitri Mitropoulos (1896-1960),
Dounias (1900-1960), has made great
himself a composer of the Schönberg school.
One of the best representatives of this new
Byzantine and folk music was
while the collection and systematic study strides strid
movement was Iannis Xenakis. A mathematician
and engineer, he used an electronic computer and
Karras, and Melpo Merlier.
by the scholarly works of K.A. greatly enry Simed Sinra
applied calculus and the probability theory in
After World War II, popular music took
writing his music. He attempted to produce, as
new turn when versatile composers utilized
he once stated, "a spray of sounds, a sonorous
uine popular instrumentalization, as well as in
radiation, a stream of musical electrons." The
lar modes of musical expression. Two
quality of his music impressed specialists and
became internationally known-Manos
audiences at international contests, and his com-
primarily because of his music
positions were introduced into the United States
on Sunday (1960), and Mikis
by Leonard Bernstein and the New York Phil-
harmonic. Xenakis, a leader in the avant-garde
cause (1964). of his music for the film Zorba the Greet to
BODERN
GREEK
costume:
movement and a resident of Paris, often traveled
port
in
o
liv
to the United States to lecture and conduct, and
ART
in 1968-1969 taught as a visiting professor at
Folk art was almost the only Greek art 4
the University of Indiana. Some of his best-
tween the classical age and the revolution
known compositions are Metastasis (1955),
1821. It was collectively produced over
Pithoprakta (1957), Achorripsis (1958), Morsima-
centuries by large groups of people, from whom may
Amorsima (1962), and Stratégie (1964).
work and needs it sprang. It consisted of
Another of the same group, Iannis Christou,
blending of ancient and Byzantine feature.
held a degree in philosophy from Cambridge
Oriental and Western influences, and later
University. Through the use of a variety of
tochthonous developments, resulting in a product
the great V
contemporary techniques, he endeavored to ex-
that represents the most genuine expression
to experience
press the deepest meaning of life, which he found
main types were evolved, the common people's too
Greek artistic consciousness. In architecture,
&
seded in the
in the perpetual conflict of opposing elements.
ovaded by the
After composing atonal music as well as music
homes (monospita) and the houses of the
with the Byzan
in the manner of the postserialists, who succeeded
tables (archontika), both admirably fitting
Creece. the Ion
Anton Webern, Christou finally decided to write
their natural landscapes. Painting was connected into
under range o
music that relied heavily upon chance. With
with the architecture of churches, where the
& use of chia
conflicting musical colors, with subtle melodic
artists followed Byzantine patterns, or will
The island of Z
statements woven into a rich and unusual har-
houses, where they freely used their own imag
reduction, whi
monic texture, and with abrupt explosions of
ination on a variety of subjects. Paintings of the
actury. The n
sound, he created extremely powerful effects.
latter type were either murals (frescoes)
nets Doxaras
Patterns and Permutation (1962), Phoenix Music
paintings in tempera on woodwork. They WER
Douras (1690
(1950), and Enandioromia, which was given its
spontaneous and primitive, characterized by vivid
ded 1728), N
world premiere by the Oakland (Calif.) Sym-
colors and strong naturalistic features. Populs
and Nicholas K
phony Orchestra in 1969, are among his most
verses often were inscribed on paintings.
E art school "
significant compositions.
Sculpture and woodcarving were also CODE
Paul Prosalente
Theodore Antoniou, one of the youngest in
nected with architecture. Marble or special store
sught and exer
this movement, composed both serial music and
was extensively used on gates, stairs, fountain
19th Century
music based on a 12-tone row. His works are
fireplaces, and pillars of homes and churches
lberation of Gr
lyric and often humorous. They received a num-
Furniture and utensils were skillfully carved b
T the developn
ber of awards in Germany, Austria, and Greece.
wood. This minor sculpture was remarkable to
portunity offere
He conducted American orchestras during a tour
the sensitiveness expressed in the patterns.
to study in Mu:
in 1966, and in 1969 he was a visiting professor
wood carving, abstract designs usually covering
cent. in 1838,
the whole surface presented a harmonious balance
*chneion. Mos'
at Stanford University. Other distinguished mem-
bers of the same movement are George Sicilianos,
and symmetry.
Munich ignored
Iannis Papaioannou, Ioannis Ioannidis, Stephanos
Among handicrafts, pottery was developed 0
wording to the
-3-19th centur
Gazouleas, and Arghyris Koundis.
pecially on the islands and in southern Greece
rished were N
In no other branch of artistic expression of
and included both purely decorative objects and
his restrain
contemporary Greece can one find so many artists,
those for everyday use. The forms were simp-
and ones of such talent, as in music. While the
and graceful, and the designs, including both the
the use of CO.
with his I:
post-World War II generation of Greek com-
naturalistic and the abstract, were executed wit
posers constituted part of an international move-
great dexterity. Handicrafts in copper, bronze
ressiveness o:
ment that tried to express the agonizing com-
iron, silver, and other metals often replaced
bring Constanti:
snown for his
plexity of modern life, its members felt happier
pottery in northern Greece, and to some extent
saying it in Greek." The Hellenic past, however,
throughout the country. Silver and gold were
1858-1932), W
actness in his
came to them as a poetic memory, which went
used especially in a highly developed jewelry
Most of the
deeper than in the superficial romantic revivals
art, not only for the embellishment of women
ad in Munich. 1
of the older generations. There was, indeed, a
apparel, but also for the decoration of firearms
great affinity between Xenakis' work and the
swords, knives, pins for men's clothes, and the
pes. which han
500 for classical
Pythagorean approaches to music, between Chris-
like. Costumes, varying greatly with the occasion
Lossos (1823?-1
tou's compositions and Heraclitus' concepts, and
and the locale, preserved very old patterns is
3511. John Vits
between the work of all others and everything
their design, material, and decoration. Woves
fine in the Greek tradition. Their relationship to
materials of silk, cotton, linen, or wool, made 08
1840-1901), an
the Greek past consisted of a similarity of ap-
looms of various types, reached an exceptional
1920) may be C
proach, a reliance upon a cosmic view, and a
high quality as did embroidery, laces, stamped
& was Giannou
restless search for fresh and appropriate media.
materials, leatherwork, and other branches of
mfortunately spt
It is for this reason they call themselves com-
exution, but w}
folk art.
posers of stohastic (contemplative) music.
The Ionian Islands, which had escaped the
neces of moderr.
Turkish occupation, developed, in addition to folk
and grace of his
Musical analysis and history, which was
established with the serious work of Minos
art, a remarkable school of painting influence
material, plac
matemporary nec
ular music took
osers utilized
&
n, as well as pope-
n. Two composen
Manos Hadjidaki
for the film New
S Theodorakis be
DERN GREEKS, dressed in
1 Zorba the Greek
ful costumes and masks,
part in a lively folk dance.
nly Greek art be
the revolution 1
duced over man
eople, from whose
It consisted of &
GREEK NATIONAL TOURIST OFFICE
zantine features
es, and later AU
the great Venetian masters and enriched by
20th Century Painting and Sculpture. By 1900,
Iting in a product
experience of the Cretan painters who had
several good painters appeared, whose work,
tine expression of
and in the Ionian Islands when Crete was
though academic in character and still influenced
architecture, tue
anded by the Turks in 1669. In comparison
by the Munich school, showed a slight tendency
common people's
with the Byzantine art existing in other parts of
toward impressionism. Most important among
iouses of the
Creece, the Ionian paintings have a freer design,
them were the landscape painters Odysseus
irably fitting into
wider range of colors, naturalistic elements, and
Phocas, George Hadzopoulos, Nikolaos Othonaios,
ng was connected
&
use of chiaroscuro in the Venetian manner.
Epaminondas Thomopoulos, and the portrait
rches, where the
The island of Zante was the center of this artistic
painter Spyros Vikatos.
atterns, or with
production, which reached its peak in the 18th
Impressionism was introduced into Greece by
their own imag
Paintings of the
emetury. The most important artists were Pana-
Konstantinos Parthenes (1879-1965), rightly
plates Doxaras (1662-1729), his son Nicholas
considered one of the greatest modern Greek
ils (frescoes)
Docaras (1690?-1775), Hieronymos Plakotos
painters. The main characteristics of his work
work. They west
acterized by vivid
(died 1728), Nicholas Koutouzes (1741-1819),
were an abundance of light, soft colors, simplic-
features. Populs
and Nicholas Kantounes (1767-1834). In 1805
ity, elegance of forms, a subtle classical spirit,
art school was established on Corfu, where
and a deep understanding of chromatic problems.
paintings.
No Prosalentes, a pupil of Antonio Canova,
The influence of modern European currents con-
were also cost
Enight and exercised a great influence.
tinually increased, and by the mid-20th century,
e or special stom
stairs, fountains
19th Century Painting and Sculpture. After the
Greece could boast of a whole group of mod-
es and churches
certion of Greece, a great impulse was given
ernists, the most distinguished of whom were
the development of art in Athens by the op-
the expressionists George Gounaropoulos, Con-
illfully carved
32
Pertunity offered by King Otto I to young men
stantine Bouzianes, and the internationally known
is remarkable
study in Munich, and also by the establish-
Hadji-Kyriakos Ghikas and Iannis Spyropoulos.
the patterns.
usually covering
in 1838, of an art school called the Poly-
Other painters tried surrealism and cubism, but
behneion. Most of the artists who studied in
with less success.
rmonious balance
Mannich ignored their native tradition and painted
There were two other categories of painters:
recording to the school of thought prevailing in
the conservatives, who tried to give a realistic
vas developed
southern Greece
century Germany. The most distin-
picture of what they saw, such as Vassilios Ger-
ashed were Nicephoros Lytras (1832-1904),
menes, Loukas Gerales, Pericles Byzantios, and
ative objects
his restrained romanticism and sensitiveness
Achilles Varvaressos; and those who took their
rms were simp
the
cluding both
use of color; and Nicholas Gyzes (1842-
inspiration from folk art, such as Spyros Vasiliou,
re executed
with
with his masterly design and elegance and
Iannis Tsarouches, and Photes Kontoglou, who
copper, broase
Mang pressiveness of line. To the same generation
successfully revived the spirit and technique of
often replace esta
Constantine Volonakes (1837-1907), well
Byzantine art. Many of these painters, however,
for his seascapes, and George Iacovides
did not belong solely to one school of thought
I
actoss in his paintings.
who introduced more realism and
but tried several paths.
Architecture. Architecture developed rather
Most of the sculptors of the period also stud-
slowly after 1821. Village homes were built ac-
ent of
tion of firear
Munich. They followed neoclassical proto-
cording to folk art patterns, but in the towns a
clothes, and
which harmonized with their own admira-
neoclassical style was introduced for public build-
with the occasion
for classical antiquity. Among them, John
ings, mostly by foreign architects who were com-
(1823?-1872), Leonidas Drosis (1842-
missioned to design them. The private urban
old patterns
John Vitsares (1843-1892), George Vitales
homes of the 19th century had many romantic
120, and Demetrios Philippotes (1840-
features. In the 20th century contemporary
may be considered the best. Greatest of
Western architecture influenced urban building,
Halepas (1854-1938), who
while some efforts were made to adapt folk archi-
er branches
many years in a mental in-
tecture to the building of private homes.
Dies whose works remain the master-
A significant contribution to the field of city
escaped
F
of modern Greek sculpture. The warmth
planning was made after World War II by Con-
ad
B
vace of his works, and his power in handling
stantinos Doxiades. His bold architectural con-
place him far above the level of his
cepts were applied in the many settlements and
neoclassicists.
towns he has built in various parts of the world.
387
388
GREECE: 7. Modern Culture
THEATER
19th Century Theater in Greece. The
tory of the theater in Greece proper
After the American playwright Maxwell An-
naturally into two periods, the first from Lub
derson visited Greece in 1947, he wrote: "I felt
to 1900, and the second from 1900 on. lbd
a surprise when I noted that the dramatic art
Aegean island of Syros founded a theater T6
in Athens stands on a higher level than in New
1830. Six years later, Athens established its
York." Exaggerated though this may seem, it is
theater, an open-air and poorly equipped
5.
a fact that the Greek theater by the middle of
Its all-male companies produced several
the 20th century had reached an extraordinarily
plays, as well as French and Italian plan Com
high level. It was not only the number of ex-
cellent actors and producers and the careful
selection of plays from the world repertory that
opera had become so there
Greek translation. By strong that the the
closed. Many attempts were made to revive
gave this impression, but also the fact that, in
theater, but until 1900 the various companies
Athens at least, there was a theatrical ferment
formed only sporadically in Athens.
expressed in the divergent tendencies of the vari-
Theater After 1900. The turn of the
mis.
on
Aeg
ous companies, ranging from classicism to the
was marked by two important events. In Comp. 19A
o
scene
most advanced modern currents.
after efforts that had lasted 20 years, the Ross
Howeve
This development, however, came late. Be-
Theater was built in Athens with donations be
produced th
may
have
hind it lay a century of struggles and disappoint-
Greeks abroad. It operated regularly for alsos
ments, experiments and hopes, during which the
seven years, and on its stage were presented 16
-
Minoan
modern Greek theater passed through four stages.
plays, including 27 by Greek authors. It
The first centered in the Greek communities in
badly organized, however, and the production "
Odessa, Russia, and Bucharest, Rumania; the sec-
were poor, the actors were free to act as in
ond in the Ionian Islands; and the remaining
wished, and all the plays were given in the
two in Greece proper.
language. In 1901 the return of Konstanting Pm
Greek Theater in Odessa and Bucharest. A
Christomanos from Vienna gave a new impets
Greek theater appeared in Bucharest in 1810,
to the theater. He established the Nea Sken
but it was only after 1814 that the theater
(New Stage), where he produced, according
played an important part in the life of the Greek
the most advanced dramatic conceptions, mode.
community of that city and of Odessa. The
German, Russian, and Greek plays, as well
Philike Hetairia (Society of Friends), which was
those of Henrik Ibsen. The translations were
the vernacular, the casts were carefully select #
History of
preparing for revolution against Turkish rule,
made use of the theater to promote national con-
and directed with masterly skill, and the scenen
The history
sciousness. The plays were given at first in
and costumes were well conceived. The is
private homes, but soon were presented in public
Skene was active until 1906 and marked a Due
suided into t
B.
C.
The
places that could accommodate larger audiences.
step forward for the Greek theater. When boe
about 100
At the outset the casts were all male, but women
the Royal Theater and the Nea Skene ceased
esteal materi
were added shortly, a step that was taken in
operate, other companies were formed with 6
-stams.
and
S
Greece proper only after the middle of the 20th
actors from both theaters.
wedle and L.
century. The repertory consisted mostly of
The greatest progress was made in 193
in: in Crete a:
baroque tragedies, which were the most effective
when, with government support, the National
- civilizat
for arousing the audience's passion for freedom.
Theater was established. With fine casts, inspurer
of the M;
Using classical examples, they denounced tyranny
directors, and a modern and thoroughly equipper
(., left a rie
and extolled the ideals of heroism and of sacri-
stage, its productions rose to a high level I
and an extensi
fice for the country. Thus there were performed
staged some of the best plays of the work,
in Greek translation the plays of Alfieri, Metas-
repertory. Other companies that contributed 1
PREHIST
tasio, Voltaire, and Racine; the ancient Greek
the development of theater in Greece after 193
The prehist
tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides; and a few
included those of Marika Kotopoule and Katena
The No
plays written by contemporary Greeks (Nicholas
Andreade, Charles Coon's Theatro Technes (A.
B. C. to I
Piccolos, George Lasanes, Ioannes Zambelios, and
Theater), and the short-lived United Artists
rest of the
Iakovos Rizos Neroulos) on neoclassical models.
E.P. PANAGOPOLLO
Bronze Age
Audiences received all these plays with great
BEATA MARIA PANAGOPOCIA
**apons and to
enthusiasm. The revolution of 1821 brought an
San Jose State College, Car
steral phases
end to the theater in these cities.
Bibliography
sheally the
Greek Theater in the lonian Islands. The
Andrewes, Antony, The Greeks (Norton 1978).
:.:and Greed
Ionian Islands boasted an old theatrical tradition
Doumanis, M., Mothering in Greece (Academic be
sed Hellad
when the revolution broke out in 1821. On the
1983).
and Cyclad:
island of Zante plays had been performed since
Friar, K., Modern Greck Poetry (Heinman 1985).
Gavin, Frank S., Some Aspects of Contemporary Gree
areas II't
1571, either in private homes by the sons of
Orthodor Thought (1923; reprint, AMS Press 1973
inze Age, Cr
prominent families, or on open-air stages by the
Geldart, Edmund M., ed., Folklore of Modern Greece Co
and in th
people. The first theater was built in 1750, and
don Press 1976).
Holloway, R. Ross, A View of Greek Art (Univ. Press of
name the dor
shortly thereafter three Greek comedies were
England 1973).
In the preh
performed on its stage. In Corfu the first theater
Miller, Julia E., Modern Greek Folklore: An Annoise
the Near
was built in 1690, but it presented only Italian
Bibliography (Garland 1985).
Politis, Linos, A History of Modern Greek Literature (Order
with the amal
operatic companies. The first Greek play, Poly-
1973).
uncal Greek cu
xene, by Iakovos Rizos Neroulos (1778-1849),
Trypanis, Constantine A., Greek Poetry from Home
than that of
was performed there in 1817. After the revolu-
Seferis (Univ. of Chicago Press 1982).
Tsirpanlis, Constance N., Studies in Byzantine Histon
me did no
tion the struggle between theater and opera,
Modern Greek Folklore, vol. 1 (EO Press 1980).
and the T
which was later to hamper theatrical develop-
Vidal-Naquet, Pierre, The Black Hunter: Forms
100 Greece 11
ment in Greece proper, began in the Ionian Is-
Thought and Forms of Society in the Greek World
Hopkins Univ. Press 1986).
the north.
lands. The predominance of opera was so great
Vlachos, Evan, Modern Greek Society: Continuity
Neolithic Per
that only a few theatrical companies had the op-
Change (1969; reprint, AMS Press 1977).
ned in Greece
portunity to give either contemporary Greek plays
Von Boethmer, Dietrich, Greek Art of the Aegean Islem
(Braziller 1979).
the 7th mill
or Greek translations of foreign plays.
Wright, A., Greek Social Life (1925; AMS Press 1970
betury have be
AEGEAN
66 HELLAS
GREECE
IONIAN
SEA
SEA
Athens *
MEDITERRANEAN
SEA
Adoption of a definitive national
flag-the same design in use to-
day-took place following the proc-
lamation of Greek independence on
13 January 1822. The flag was stated
to symbolize the wisdom of God,
freedom, and country. The blue is
generally seen as a reminder of the
STATE ARMS
sea and sky, white indicating the
Officially
hoisted
March 1822;
reestablished
22 December
1978.
2:3
purity of the independence struggle.
The cross in the canton is a reminder
of Greek religious faith, while the
nine stripes of the flag correspond to
Greece has frequently used a flag
the nine syllables in the war cry of
of blue with a white cross ex-
independence: Freedom or Death.
The shade of blue has varied over the
tending to the four edges of the
flag. That flag was flown on land
years, sometimes unofficially and
by private citizens (except in
sometimes to indicate political and
seaports) until abolished in 1970.
dynastic associations. For example, in
Reinstated in 1975 as the sole
the 19th century the Greek royal
official flag for all purposes, in
dynasty was of Bavarian origin and a
practice it was not used on ships,
medium blue was employed. The mil-
which continued to display the
itary junta which ruled Greece from
striped flag. The latest flag
1967 to 1974 insisted on a very dark
law reverts to the situation of
blue, while the latest flag law speaks
1970-1975, the striped flag
of "light blue' without giving any
scientific definition to the term.
being official for all purposes on
land and at sea.
99
JENNIFER
TRIP
PRESIDENT BUSH'S ARRIVAL STATEMENT
ATHENS, GREECE
SPEECHES
MR. PRESIDENT -- I AM GREATLY HONORED TO HAVE YOU WELCOME ME
HERE TODAY, AND TO SEE PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS AND OTHER
DISTINGUISHED MEMBERS OF THE GOVERNMENT. AS SOME OF YOU MAY
KNOW, I VISITED ATHENS ONCE BEFORE IN THE EARLY 1960'S AS A
PRIVATE BUSINESSMAN. I COME NOW. AS THE REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
AMERICAN PEOPLE, WHO TAKE GREAT PRIDE IN THEIR LONGSTANDING
TIES OF FRIENDSHIP WITH THE PEOPLE OF GREECE.
DWIGHT EISENHOWER WAS THE LAST U.S. PRESIDENT TO VISIT GREECE,
IN DECEMBER OF 1959. THE WORLD WAS A VERY DIFFERENT PLACE
THEN. TENSIONS BETWEEN EAST AND WEST WERE ESCALATING. THE
RESOLVE OF THE ALLIANCE IN UPHOLDING THE CAUSE OF FREEDOM AND
DEMOCRACY WAS BEING TESTED. AND THE LIGHT OF LIBERTY IN MANY
COUNTRIES WAS ALREADY EXTINGUISHED BY TOTALITARIAN RULE.
DURING PRESIDENT EISENHOWER'S VISIT, OUR TWO COUNTRIES
REAFFIRMED THEIR SUPPORT FOR THE OBJECTIVES OF NATO. TO UNITE
FOR THE COLLECTIVE DEFENSE AND FOR PRESERVATION OF PEACE AND
SECURITY. TO DEFEND THE PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY, INDIVIDUAL
LIBERTY, AND THE RULE OF LAW. THE ALLIANCE ROSE TO MEET EVERY
CHALLENGE TO ITS MEMBERS AND ITS BELIEFS. IT HAS PROSPERED AND
FLOURISHED. TOTALITARIANISM HAS BEEN ERODED BY ITS DEFEATS AND
COLLAPSED UNDER ITS OWN UNSUSTAINABLE WEIGHT.
-2-
I HAVE JUST COME FROM THE ECONOMIC SUMMIT MEETING IN LONDON.
WE BELIEVE THAT THE FUTURE OF THE WORLD COMMUNITY HOLDS MORE
PROMISE THAN EVER BEFORE. I SEE EVERY REASON FOR HOPE. EVERY
REASON TO JOIN IN BUILDING A WORLD ORDER FOUNDED ON THOSE SAME
TRIED AND TRUE ALLIANCE PRINCIPLES. AND ONE REASON I AM HERE
TODAY IS TO DISCUSS THAT FUTURE WITH GREECE'S LEADERS.
I AM ALSO HERE TO AFFIRM AMERICA'S INTEREST IN A STRONG AND
MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN OUR TWO COUNTRIES. AND
TO HONOR THE COUNTRY WHICH GAVE BIRTH TO DEMOCRACY IN THIS VERY
CITY 2,500 YEARS AGO.
DWIGHT EISENHOWER WAS HERE IN A COLD WINTER OF THE COLD WAR. I
AM FORTUNATE TO BE WITH YOU IN THE SUN-WASHED SUMMER OF GREECE
AND A NEW AGE. PERHAPS YOUR OWN NOBEL PRIZE-WINNING POET
GEORGE SEFERIS SAID IT BEST: "A LITTLE FARTHER -- WE WILL SEE
ALMOND TREES BLOSSOMING -- THE MARBLE GLEAMING IN THE SUN --
THE SEA BREAKING INTO WAVES. A LITTLE FARTHER -- LET US RISE A
LITTLE HIGHER."
LET US RISE TOGETHER. THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
ADDRESS BY PRESIDENT BUSH
TO THE GREEK PARLIAMENT
MR. SPEAKER:
I APPEAR BEFORE THIS EXTRAORDINARY SESSION OF PARLIAMENT WITH A
GREAT SENSE OF HONOR.
THE LAST FOREIGN HEAD OF STATE WHO SPOKE TO THIS CHAMBER WAS
THE GREAT FRENCH STATESMAN CHARLES DE GAULLE. AND FOUR YEARS
BEFORE THAT, ONE OF AMERICA'S MOST BELOVED PRESIDENTS, DWIGHT
DAVID EISENHOWER, HAD THE PRIVILEGE OF STANDING HERE.
GREEK DEMOCRACY, OF COURSE, HAS A SPECIAL STANDING IN THE
WORLD. IN HIS DECEMBER 15, 1959 ADDRESS TO THIS ASSEMBLY,
PRESIDENT EISENHOWER REMARKED: "IN THIS CITY OF ATHENS, MORE
THAN A SCORE OF CENTURIES AGO, DEMOCRACY - IN ITS PRINCIPLES
AND IN ITS PRACTICES - FIRST WON THE HEARTS AND MINDS OF MEN.
THIS HOUSE OF FREE REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT SYMBOLIZES THE
VIGOR OF MODERN DEMOCRACY IN ITS ANCIENT BIRTHPLACE;
DEMONSTRATES THAT THE WILL OF MEN TO BE FREE IS IMPERISHABLE."
ONE MAN WHO WAS ACTUALLY PRESENT ON THAT COLD WINTER MORNING TO
HEAR PRESIDENT EISENHOWER'S WORDS IS ALSO HERE TODAY. HE IS A
MAN WHO LED HIS PEOPLE THROUGH THE DANGERS AND CHALLENGES OF
THOSE SAME YEARS. ONE WHO LATER RESTORED DEMOCRACY TO GREECE,
AND THEN BROUGHT HIS COUNTRY INTO THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC
COMMUNITY. THAT GREAT STATESMAN IS, OF COURSE, YOUR PRESIDENT,
THEN PRIME MINISTER -- CONSTANTINE KARAMANLIS.
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(TURN TO ADDRESS KARAMANLIS) TO HONOR YOU, AND OUR FRIEND AND
ALLY WHOSE PRESIDENT YOU ARE, I WOULD LIKE TO INVITE YOU TO
WASHINGTON IN 1992. I HOPE YOU WILL ACCEPT, AND LOOK FORWARD
TO RECEIVING YOU IN OUR CAPITAL.
PRIME MINISTER KARAMANLIS AND PRESIDENT EISENHOWER CHAMPIONED
THE CAUSE OF DEMOCRACY AND FREEDOM DURING PERILOUS TIMES. BUT
THE U.S. AND GREECE HAVE A LONGSTANDING RECORD OF FIGHTING
TOGETHER ON THE SIDE OF THOSE SACRED PRINCIPLES. WE HAVE
SHARED A UNITY OF PURPOSE IN ALL OF THE MAJOR CONFLICTS IN THIS
CENTURY. WORLD WAR I. WORLD WAR II. THE KOREAN WAR. WHILE
ALL WERE TERRIBLE STRUGGLES, THE FORCES OF JUSTICE AND RIGHT
TRIUMPHED EACH TIME.
WE WERE VICTORIOUS ONCE AGAIN OVER AGGRESSION WHEN SADDAM
HUSSEIN ATTEMPTED TO ANNEX HIS NEIGHBOR, KUWAIT. THE
INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ROSE UP TOGETHER TO DEFEAT THIS
TYRANT. IT WAS AN AWESOME COLLECTIVE EFFORT. AND PRIME
MINISTER MITSOTAKIS RESPONDED JUST AS I EXPECTED HE WOULD. HE
KNEW WHAT WAS AT STAKE. HE GAVE THE FULL, UNSTINTING SUPPORT
OF HIS GOVERNMENT TO THAT NOBLE CAUSE. I HAVE TOLD HIM, BUT
WISH NOW TO ALSO SAY TO ALL OF YOU HOW MUCH WE APPRECIATED
GREECE'S HELP IN MAKING IT POSSIBLE TO MOVE US FORCES AND
EQUIPMENT QUICKLY TO THE REGION. WE WILL REMEMBER THIS.
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AS I STAND HERE NOW, I AM REMINDED OF THE GOALS WE SHARE AS
PARTIES TO THE NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY. TO SAFEGUARD THE
FREEDOM, COMMON HERITAGE AND CIVILIZATION OF OUR PEOPLES. OF
THE FOUNDATION ON WHICH THOSE GOALS REST -- THE PRINCIPLES OF
DEMOCRACY, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY AND THE RULE OF LAW. SINCE 1949
THESE IDEAS HAVE GUIDED THE ALLIANCE IN STANDING FIRM AGAINST
THE FORCES OF AGGRESSION AND TOTALITARIANISM. WE HAVE
PERSEVERED. AND WE HAVE SUCCEEDED. THE WARSAW PACT IS NO
MORE. GREECE IS NOT ONLY MORE SECURE, BUT WE ARE WITNESSING IN
EASTERN EUROPE AND THE USSR THE EMERGENCE OF DEMOCRATIC
INSTITUTIONS AND FREE MARKETS. FRAGILE IN SOME CASES BUT
NURTURED BY THE LONG SUPPRESSED HOPES OF MILLIONS.
GREECE AND THE UNITED STATES WORKED CLOSELY TOGETHER FOR ALL
THESE EPOCHAL CHANGES. WE WERE NATO PARTNERS. WE WERE GOOD
FRIENDS. OUR WORK IS NOT FINISHED . WE MUST AND CAN MEET THE
NEW CHALLENGES OF PEACE JUST AS WE DID THE OLD -- BY WORKING
TOGETHER CLOSELY.
THE FACE OF EUROPE -- ITS INSTITUTIONS AND ITS STRUCTURES --
ARE CHANGING ALMOST DAILY. CHANGE REPRESENTS NEW
OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES, AND HORIZONS FOR THE PEOPLES OF
EUROPE. WE DISCUSSED MANY OF THESE DEVELOPMENTS AT THE
ECONOMIC SUMMIT IN LONDON FROM WHICH I HAVE JUST COME. I WANT
TO MENTION A FEW OF WHAT SEEM TO ME TO BE THE MOST IMPORTANT
POINTS FROM THAT MEETING TO YOU NOW.
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INSERT SUMMIT POINTS
WE ARE HEADING, I BELIEVE, TOWARD A NEW WORLD ORDER THAT HAS AS
A CENTRAL COMPONENT A TRANS-ATLANTIC COMMUNITY WHICH STRETCHES
FROM VANCOUVER TO VLADIVOSTOK. A COMMUNITY BASED ON THE
CENTRAL VALUES OF INDIVIDUAL POLITICAL RIGHTS AND ECONOMIC
LIBERTY WHICH UNDERPIN DEMOCRATIC, FREE MARKET SOCIETIES. A
COMMUNITY FREE AND AT PEACE.
GREECE HAS A ROLE TO PLAY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THIS NEW
ORDER. MANY OF YOUR NEIGHBORS IN THE BALKANS ARE VALIANTLY
STRUGGLING -- SOME FOR THE FIRST TIME EVER -- TO IMPLEMENT
DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS AND TO RESTRUCTURE THEIR POLITICAL AND
LEGAL SYSTEMS.
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BUT THERE IS YET MORE WHICH GREECE CAN DO. THE BALKANS HAVE
BEEN AN HISTORICALLY TROUBLED REGION. AND NOW, RESURGENT
ETHNICITY AND NATIONALISM ONCE AGAIN THREATEN STABILITY AND
PEACE. THESE FORCES UNDERMINE THE ONGOING ATTEMPTS TO NURTURE
STILL INFANT DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS. WE LOOK TO GREECE TO
SERVE AS A FORCE FOR STABILITY IN THE BALKAN REGION.
I HAVE BEEN TREMENDOUSLY IMPRESSED WITH THE ABILITY OF STATES
IN THE NEW TRANS-ATLANTIC COMMUNITY WHICH IS UNFOLDING BEFORE
US TO PUT OLD ENMITIES BEHIND THEM. THE UNITED STATES ENJOYS
GREATLY IMPROVED RELATIONS WITH THE SOVIET UNION. THE ALLIANCE
SUCCESSFULLY NEGOTIATED A TREATY ON CONVENTIONAL ARMED FORCES
IN EUROPE. GERMANS HAVE SET ASIDE THE BITTER DIVISIONS OF THE
COLD WAR YEARS AND REUNITED THEIR COUNTRY. GERMANY AND POLAND
HAVE AGREED ON THE DEMARCATION OF THEIR BORDER. THE EASTERN
EUROPEAN STATES HAVE EXPRESSED A STRONG INTEREST IN AFFILIATION
WITH THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY. WE ARE WITNESSES TO ONE OF THE
GREATEST REVOLUTIONARY CHANGES FOR THE GOOD THAT MODERN MAN HAS
EVER SEEN.
TOMORROW I WILL TRAVEL TO CRETE. WHILE THERE, I WILL LAY A
WREATH AT THE TOMB OF ONE OF GREECE'S GREAT MODERN STATESMEN --
ELEUTHERIOS VENIZELOS. I WILL STOP THERE TO HONOR THE MEMORY
OF HIS GREAT ACHIEVEMENT OF 1930 -- THE TREATIES OF FRIENDSHIP
AND COMMERCE WITH TURKEY. THIS HISTORIC MILESTONE WAS ACHIEVED
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BECAUSE VENIZELOS' VISION OF THE FUTURE WAS SHARED BY THE
FOUNDER OF MODERN TURKEY -- KEMAL ATATURK. THEIR PERSONAL
FRIENDSHIP, AND THE PEACE THEY ESTABLISHED BETWEEN GREECE AND
TURKEY, REMAIN AS PROUD LEGACIES TODAY.
IT IS MY FERVENT HOPE THAT THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF 1930 MAY TODAY
INSPIRE THESE TWO GREAT COUNTRIES, BOTH VALUED FRIENDS AND
ALLIES OF THE UNITED STATES, TO INVOKE THAT SAME SPIRIT OF
COOPERATION AND PEACE. I BELIEVE THAT BOTH COUNTRIES SHARE THE
ASPIRATION FOR SUCCESS IN THIS REGARD. IT IS A DEVELOPMENT
WHICH WOULD BE WARMLY WELCOMED NOT ONLY BY THE UNITED STATES,
BUT THROUGHOUT EUROPE. YOU HAVE MY EVERY WISH FOR SUCCESS.
IN THIS CONTEXT I ALSO SHOULD BRIEFLY MENTION CYPRUS. WE ARE
ACTIVELY WORKING TO SUPPORT THE UNITED NATIONS
SECRETARY-GENERAL IN HIS GOOD OFFICES MISSION. ALL INTERESTED
PARTIES MUST ACCEPT THAT COMPROMISE AND GOOD-WILL ARE ESSENTIAL
COMPONENTS OF ANY SOLUTION. AND ANY SOLUTION MUST, OF COURSE,
PROVIDE FOR A JUST AND LASTING SETTLEMENT. SUCH A SOLUTION
NEEDS TO BE FOUND SOON AND CAN BE. WE WILL DO WHAT WE CAN TO
HELP, BUT IN THE END, THE SOLUTION MUST BE NEGOTIATED BY THE
PARTIES INVOLVED.
THESE ISSUES ARE AMONG THE ONES WHICH I EXPECT TO DISCUSS WITH
PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS WHEN WE MEET LATER TODAY. I WAS
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PLEASED TO MEET HIM IN WASHINGTON WHEN HE VISITED THERE IN JUNE
1990. SINCE THAT TIME WE HAVE DEVELOPED A CLOSE RELATIONSHIP,
EXCHANGING IDEAS OVER THE PHONE AND BY LETTER. I LOOK FORWARD
TO RENEWING OUR PERSONAL ACQUAINTANCESHIP IN ATHENS, AND WHEN I
VISIT HIS HOME IN CHANIA. I WILL HAVE THE OPPORTUNITY TO
RETURN HIS HOSPITALITY WHEN HE VISITS WASHINGTON THIS FALL FOR
AN OFFICIAL VISIT.
I BELIEVE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND GREECE HAVE
NEVER BEEN BETTER. WE ENJOY GOOD COMMUNICATION, EXCELLENT
COOPERATION, AND MUTUAL TRUST. PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS AND
MEMBERS OF HIS GOVERNMENT HAVE WORKED CLOSELY WITH US TO FIND
WAYS OF IMPROVING EVEN FURTHER THE MUTUAL RESPECT AND BENEFIT
WHICH CHARACTERIZES OUR RELATIONSHIP.
OF COURSE, PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS AND I HAVE HAD MANY
ADVANTAGES IN THIS ENDEAVOR. THERE IS A LONG HISTORY OF
FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN OUR PEOPLES. AMERICANS OF GREEK DESCENT ARE
AN ACTIVE ETHNIC GROUP IN THE PLURALISTIC MELTING-POT WHICH IS
AMERICAN SOCIETY. WE ALSO HAVE OUR PARTNERSHIP IN THE
ALLIANCE. FINALLY, WE SHARE A COMMITMENT TO THE BASIC
PRINCIPLES WHICH UNDERLIE OUR SOCIETIES AND GOVERNMENTS, AND A
DESIRE TO SEE THESE PROSPER AND FLOURISH THROUGHOUT EUROPE.
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WE OWE YOUR ANCESTORS A GREAT DEBT. THEIR CONCEPTION AND
IMPLEMENTATION OF DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES HAVE SHOWN AS A LIGHT
WHICH WAS NEVER EXTINGUISHED, EVEN DURING THE DARKEST MOMENTS
OF HUMAN HISTORY. GREECE WILL BE CELEBRATING THE 2500TH
ANNIVERSARY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF THOSE PRINCIPLES IN ATHENS
THIS FALL. FREE PEOPLES EVERYWHERE WILL WISH YOU WELL IN
THIS. FOR WE ALL ENJOY THE LEGACY YOUR ANCIENT FORBEARERS
LEFT AS A GIFT FOR ALL MANKIND.
BUT GREECE TODAY IS NOT A SIMPLE REFLECTION OF ITS PAST. IT IS
A VIBRANT SOCIETY WITH A GOVERNMENT WHICH IS EXPANDING ITS
DIPLOMACY AND ITS INTERESTS. WE WELCOME THAT PROCESS AND LOOK
FORWARD TO COOPERATING WITH YOU TO STRENGTHEN FURTHER THE TIES
BETWEEN OUR COUNTRIES. MAY THE FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN OUR PEOPLES
NOURISH RELATIONS BETWEEN US. AND MAY OUR COMMON DEVOTION TO
THE PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY, INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY, AND MARKET
ECONOMIES HASTEN THE EMERGENCE OF A NEW INTERNATIONAL ORDER OF
PEACE AND PROSPERITY WHERE FREE MEN DETERMINE THEIR OWN
DESTINIES.
WE HAVE MUCH TO ACCOMPLISH. LET US NOT DELAY.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
RETURN TOAST TO KARAMANLIS
STATE DINNER -- JULY 18
THANK YOU, MR. PRESIDENT, FOR THAT WARM WELCOME AND THOSE KIND
WORDS. I CANNOT TELL YOU HOW PLEASED I AM TO BE IN GREECE ONCE
AGAIN AFTER so LONG A TIME.
MR. PRESIDENT, WE OFTEN SPEAK OF THE FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE OF
DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES, INDIVIDUAL HUMAN LIBERTIES AND THE RULE
OF LAW. THE NORTH ATLANTIC ALLIANCE IS GROUNDED ON RECOGNITION
OF THOSE PRINCIPLES. MANY OTHER COUNTRIES LONG AGO BASED THEIR
GOVERNMENTS ON THESE IDEAS. AND WE ARE NOW WITNESSING THE
TRIUMPH OF THE HUMAN SPIRIT OVER TOTALITARIANISM AS THE SPARK
OF DEMOCRACY FLICKERS AND CATCHES IN VIRTUALLY EVERY CORNER OF
EUROPE.
WITH THE REFORMS OF CLEISTHENES, SOME 2,500 YEARS AGO,
DEMOCRACY WAS FIRST BORN HERE IN ATHENS. GREECE WILL BE
CELEBRATING THAT SEMINAL OCCASION THIS FALL, AND I WISH YOU
EVERY SUCCESS AND CONGRATULATIONS.
YOU, MR. PRESIDENT, HAVE PLAYED A TREMENDOUSLY IMPORTANT ROLE
IN PRESERVING THE FLAME OF DEMOCRACY. IT WAS YOU WHO RESTORED
DEMOCRACY TO GREECE IN 1974. MANY WORLD LEADERS HAVE WORKED
WITHIN AN OPERATING DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM. BUT ONLY A GALLANT FEW
HAVE FACED THE CHALLENGE OF REVERSING AUTOCRACY AND RETURNING
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DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES TO GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY. YOU ARE A
BEACON IN THAT SMALL, VERY DISTINGUISHED GROUP. YOUR SUCCESS
IN THIS PROFOUND ENDEAVOR WAS A VICTORY FOR GREECE AND FOR US
ALL.
TWICE PRIME MINISTER OF GREECE, AND NOW TWICE PRESIDENT YOU ARE
AN INSPIRATION NOT ONLY TO YOUR PEOPLE, BUT TO ME AND MANY
OTHERS.
LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, I ASK YOU TO RISE AND JOIN ME IN A TOAST
TO THE HEALTH OF PRESIDENT KARAMANLIS, TO THE ENDURING TIES OF
ALLIANCE AND FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND THE
HELLENIC REPUBLIC, AND TO THE IDEALS FOR WHICH WHICH WE STAND.
LONG MAY THEY PROSPER.
STATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT
AT SOUDA BAY, CRETE
PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS, CAPTAIN AND CREWS OF THE LEMNOS AND
USS
, DISTINGUISHED GUESTS:
I CAN'T IMAGINE A MORE GLORIOUS SETTING FOR HONORING THE
SERVICEMEN -- AND WOMEN -- OF GREECE AND THE UNITED STATES THAN
THIS MAGNIFICENT HARBOR. I WAS, AS SOME OF YOU KNOW, A NAVAL
PILOT DURING WWII. IT IS THEREFORE ALWAYS A SPECIAL PLEASURE
FOR ME TO VISIT A U.S. NAVY SHIP. I ALSO WANT TO THANK THE
GREEK NAVY, AND IN PARTICULAR ADMIRAL LAGARAS, FOR MAKING IT
POSSIBLE FOR ME TO PAY MY FIRST VISIT TO A GREEK NAVAL VESSEL.
THE PRESENCE OF THE LEMNOS CALLS TO MIND THE RECENT VICTORY OF
THE COALITION FORCES OVER THE BLATANT AGGRESSION OF SADDAM
HUSSEIN. HOW THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ROSE TO DEFEAT THAT
TYRANT. THIS VESSEL'S PARTICIPATION IN THAT GREAT ENDEAVOR IS
TRIBUTE TO GREECE'S STRONG SUPPORT FOR THE COLLECTIVE EFFORTS
WHICH INEVITABLY PREVAILED OVER SADDAM. OFFICERS AND CREW OF
THE LEMNOS AND YOUR SISTER SHIP IN THE GULF EFFORT, THE ELLI,
-- I SALUTE YOU.
THE BOW-TO-BOW MOORING OF THESE TWO SHIPS SYMBOLIZES, FOR ME,
THE CLOSENESS OF OUR SECURITY RELATIONS. THE BILATERAL
SECURITY RELATIONSHIP BENEFITS BOTH OUR COUNTRIES. THAT
RELATIONSHIP -- IN CONCRETE TERMS -- IS NOW BASED ON THE
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1990 MUTUAL DEFENSE COOPERATION AGREEMENT. THAT AGREEMENT
PROVIDES FOR USE OF OUR FACILITY AT THIS SPLENDID BAY, AND OF
OUR COMMUNICATIONS STATION AT IRAKLION.
FOR OUR PART, WE HAVE A COMMITMENT TO GREECE TO ASSIST IN
MODERNIZING YOUR MILITARY FORCES. LET ME SAY THAT WE FULLY
INTEND TO ABIDE BY THAT PLEDGE. GREECE'S ABILITY TO DEFEND
ITSELF AND CARRY OUT ITS NATO ROLE ARE IMPORTANT TO US. PART
OF THAT COMMITMENT IS FULFILLED THROUGH PROVISION OF MILITARY
ASSISTANCE. THESE FUNDS HELP YOU PURCHASE U.S. MILITARY
EQUIPMENT. (THE GREEK GOVERNMENT RECENTLY ANNOUNCED THAT IT
INTENDED TO PURCHASE 20 ADDITIONAL F-16 AIRCRAFT. IT WILL PAY
FOR THOSE AIRCRAFT BY DRAWING ON OUR MILITARY ASSISTANCE
FUNDS. I CAN THINK OF NO BETTER EXAMPLE THAN THIS OF THE
VITALITY OF OUR SECURITY RELATIONSHIP.) THIS, AND OTHER LIKE
SALES, ARE PROOF POSITIVE OF THE DYNAMISM OF OUR BILATERAL
SECURITY TIES.
U.S. MILITARY ASSISTANCE TAKES SEVERAL FORMS. THE TRANSFER OF
EXCESS DEFENSE ARTICLES HAS BEEN ANOTHER IMPORTANT WAY THAT WE
HAVE TRIED TO ASSIST WITH THE MODERNIZATION OF YOUR MILITARY.
SINCE OUR FISCAL YEAR 1990, WE HAVE TRANSFERRED EXCESS DEFENSE
ARTICLES VALUED AT OVER $81 MILLION FOR USE BY YOUR MILITARY
SERVICES. THIS PROGRAM IS A KEY COMPONENT OF OUR OVERALL
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ASSISTANCE PACKAGE. AND I HAVE SOME NEWS WHICH I THINK GEN.
STATHIAS WILL BE HAPPY TO HEAR. I AM PLEASED TO ANNOUNCE THAT
WE HAVE BEEN ABLE TO ACCELERATE THE DELIVERY SOME OF THE 28F-4E
AIRCRAFT YOU ARE SCHEDULED TO RECEIVE UNDER THIS PROGRAM. TEN
WILL NOW BE AVAILBLE ON JULY
?
AS FOR THE NAVY, YOU ALREADY KNEW, OF COURSE, THAT WE WILL BE
LEASING YOU FOUR CHARLES F. ADAMS-CLASS DESTROYERS. WE HAVE
KNOWN FOR SOME TIME OF YOUR STRONG INTEREST IN OBTAINING
FRIGATES. OUR OWN NAVY, ESPECIALLY DURING DESERT STORM, NEEDED
THOSE FRIGATES AND NONE WERE AVAILABLE FOR LEASE. AS AN
EX-NAVY MAN, I TAKE PARTICULAR PRIDE IN INFORMING YOU THAT WE
ARE NOW ABLE TO LEASE YOU THREE KNOX-CLASS FRIGATES. I BELIEVE
ADMIRAL LAGARAS WILL AGREE THAT THESE VESSELS WILL GREATLY
ENHANCE THE GREEK NAVY'S ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE CAPABILITIES.
I KNOW YOU WILL USE THEM WELL IN CARRYING OUT YOUR ALLIANCE
MARITIME ROLE .)
OUR SECURITY TIES ARE STRONG. THEY ARE HEALTHY. AS WE LOOK
TOWARD THE FUTURE, I SEE SECURITY COOPERATION CONTINUING TO
REFLECT THE CLOSENESS OF RECENT YEARS. I FEEL CONFIDENT THAT
THE GREEK GOVERNMENT SHARES THIS VIEW. I HAVE NO DOUBT THAT WE
WILL CONTINUE TO PROGRESS ON THE BASIS OF MUTUAL BENEFIT AND
UNDERSTANDING.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
PRESIDENT'S REMARKS ON
THE ACROPOLIS
I WISH THAT EVERYONE COULD VISIT THIS ANCIENT PLACE BY GREECE'S
FABLED MORNING LIGHT. CENTURIES AFTER ITS CONSTRUCTION, THE
PARTHENON REMAINS THE UNIVERSALLY-RECOGNIZED SYMBOL OF ONE OF
THE PROUDEST PERIODS IN WESTERN CIVILIZATION.
ATHENS WILL CELEBRATE THIS AUTUMN THE TWO THOUSAND FIVE
HUNDREDTH ANNIVERSARY OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF ITS DEMOCRATIC
INSTITUTIONS. THIS WILL BE AN HISTORIC OCCASION FOR THE
MILLIONS OF PEOPLE TODAY WHO ENJOY THE RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES
GUARANTEED BY DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT.
ARISTOTLE, IN HIS POLITICS, WROTE, "DEMOCRACY AROSE FROM MEN'S
THINKING THAT IF THEY ARE EQUAL IN ANY RESPECT, THEY ARE EQUAL
ABSOLUTELY." THE INFLUENCE OF GREECE'S ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS ON
THE GREAT THINKERS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT DIRECTLY AFFECTED THE
BELIEFS OF OUR FOUNDING FATHERS. OUR CONSTITUTION RESTS ON THE
FOUNDATION OF DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES FIRST ESTABLISHED HERE.
THOMAS JEFFERSON, GREAT POPULIST AND THIRD PRESIDENT OF THE
UNITED STATES WROTE, "IT IS AN AXIOM IN MY MIND THAT OUR
LIBERTY CAN NEVER BE SAFE BUT IN THE HANDS OF THE PEOPLE
THEMSELVES." LET US CHERISH OUR RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES. AND MAY
DEMOCRACY PROSPER HERE IN ITS FIRST HOME -- AND AROUND THE
GLOBE.