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Turkey 7/19/91 [OA 8325] [2]
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Turkey 7/19/91 [OA 8325] [2]
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Speech Backup Chronological Files
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This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
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Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
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OA/ID Number:
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Folder Title:
Turkey 7/19/91 [OA 8325] [2]
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G
26
21
5
3
AE5
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
.E5
1982
VIH
The New
to
Encyclopædia
#
Britannica
in 30 Volumes
MACROPÆDIA
Volume 13
Knowledge in Depth
FOUNDED 1768
15 TH EDITION
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
William Benton, Publisher, 1943-1973
Helen Hemingway Benton, Publisher, 1973-1974
Chicago/Geneva/London/Manila/Paris/Ronme
Seoul/Sydney/Tokyo/Toronto
19
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the 771
the
Ottoman Empire and Turkey,
whelmed Byzantium after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071
in
and came to occupy eastern and central Anatolia during
che
y/
History of the
the 12th century. The gazis fought against the Byzantines
est,
A term without ethnic significance, "Ottoman" is a dynas-
and then the Mongols, who invaded Anatolia following
um
tic application derived from the Arabic "Uthmän," for
the establishment of the Il-Khanid Empire in Iran and
ris-
Turkish Osman, who is regarded as the founder of the
Mesopotamia starting in the last half of the 13th century.
hn
empire that spanned six centuries and came to an end
Following the Mongol defeat of the Seljuq army in 1293,
of
only in 1922, when Turkey was proclaimed a republic.
Osman I emerged as prince (amir) of the border principal-
illy
This empire, centred in Anatolia, varied greatly in extent
ity of Bithynia, in northwestern Anatolia, and was in
>int
during its history. At its height it included modern Al-
command of the gazis leading the fight against the Byzan-
it
bania, Greece, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Romania, and the
tines in that area. With the disintegration of Seljuq power
ory.
islands of the eastern Mediterranean; parts of Hungary
and its replacement by Mongol suzerainty, independent
also
and Russia; Iraq, Syria, Palestine, the Caucasus, and
Turkmen principalities emerged in parts of Anatolia not
rgy
Egypt; North Africa as far west as Algeria; and parts of
occupied by the Mongols, among which was that led by
eri-
Arabia. For the previous history of the Turkish tribes, see
Osman. Hemmed in on the east by the more powerful
ally
SELJUQS; and for the history of the area of modern Turkey
Turkmen principality of Germiyan, Osman and his im-
t of
before the Ottomans, see ANATOLIA, ANCIENT.
mediate successors concentrated their attacks on Byzan-
apa-
This article is divided into the following sections:
tine territories bordering the Bosporus and the Sea of
ac-
Marmara. The Ottomans became the main focus for the
va-
I. The period of growth and world power
mass of nomads and urban unemployed then searching
The Ottoman state to 1481: the age of expansion
per-
Interest
Origins and expansion of the Ottoman state, c.
for means to gain their livelihoods and to fulfill their
t in
in
1300-1402
religious desire to spread Islãm. The Ottomans were able
ent
Restoration of the Ottoman Empire, 1402-81
to take advantage of the opportunity offered by the decay
non-
He
Ottoman institutions in the 14th and 15th centuries
of the Byzantine Empire (q.v.) and, starting under Osman
Christine
the
The peak of Ottoman power, 1481-1566
I and continuing under his successors Orhan (ruled 1324-
religions
Domination of southeastern Europe and the Near
gion
60) and Murad I (ruled 1360-89), took over Byzantine
East
territories, first in western Anatolia and then in southeast-
om-
Classical Ottoman society and administration
be-
ern Europe. It was only under Bayezid I (ruled 1389-
Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1566-1807
this
Internal problems
1402) that the wealth and power gained by this initial
ious
External relations
expansion were used to assimilate the Anatolian Turkish
S on
Reforms
principalities to the east.
tudy
Military defeats, 1683-1792
By 1300 Osman ruled an area stretching from Eskişehir
ie as
Imperial decline in the 18th and early 19th
(Dorylaeum) to the plains of İznik (Nicaea), having de-
centuries
r art
feated several organized Byzantine efforts to curb his
II. European domination and the establishment of a
d be
expansion, and the emperor's use of mercenary troops
Turkish national state
from western Europe caused more damage to his own
The empire from 1807 to 1920
mar-
Mahmud II (ruled 1808-39)
territory than to that of the Turks. At the time, however,
and
The Tanzimat (1839-76)
the Ottomans lacked effective siege equipment and were
ove-
The 1875-78 crisis
unable to take the major cities of Bithynia. Nor could
its at
The constitution, 1876
they move against their increasingly powerful Turkmen
" or
Abdulhamid II (ruled 1876-1909)
neighbours at Aydin and Karasi, in southwestern Ana-
After
Dissolution of the empire
tolia. Orhan's capture of Bursa in 1324 provided the first
Capture
The War of Independence, 1919-23
1 not
means for developing the administrative, financial, and
of Bursa
Turkey since 1920
military power necessary to make the principality into a
Kemalism, 1922-38
orbed
World War II and the postwar era, 1938-50
real state and to create an army. It was Orhan who began
trsuit
Turkey under the Democrats, 1950-60
the military policy of employing Christian mercenary
ct as
The National Unity Committee, 1960-61
troops, thus lessening his dependence on the nomads as
lions.
Period of transition, 1961-65
well as providing better fighting forces. Orhan soon was
rude
Political development, 1965-71
able to capture the remaining "Byzantine towns in north-
Political development from 1971
western Anatolia: Nicaea (Iznik; 1331), Nicomedia (Iz-
1. To
Economic and social development from 1960
mit; 1337), and Scutari (Üsküdar; 1338).
ome-
Foreign policy after 1950
He then moved against his major Turkmen neighbours
art a
sive-
In this article the most recent research into contempo-
to the south. Taking advantage of internal conflicts he
rary Ottoman sources is used to fix the major dates of the
annexed Karası in 1345 and gained control of the area
gain
first century of Ottoman expansion. These replace dates
between the Gulf of Edremit and Kapi Dağı (Cyzicus),
this
traditionally accepted on the basis of inadequate non-
reaching the Sea of Marmara. He thus put himself in a
nt in
Ottoman sources or limited research into conflicting Otto-
position to end Aydin's lucrative monopoly in providing
and
man documents.
mercenary troops to competing Byzantine factions in
Nev-
Thrace and Constantinople. In 1346 Orhan replaced Ay-
and
I. The period of growth and world power
din as the principal ally of the Byzantine emperor John VI
y or
Cantacuzenus. The consequent entry of Ottoman troops
him.
THE OTTOMAN STATE TO 1481: THE AGE OF EXPANSION
into Europe gave them a direct opportunity to see the
The first period of Ottoman history was characterized by
possibilities for conquest offered by the decline of Byzanti-
S In-
almost continuous territorial expansion, during which the
um. The collapse of Aydin following the death (1348) of
raph-
Ottoman dominion spread out from a small northwestern
its ruler, Umur Bey, left the Ottomans alone as the
of his
Anatolian principality to cover an empire encompassing
leaders of the gazis against the Byzantines. Orhan helped
, the
southeastern Europe, Anatolia, and the Arab world. At
Cantacuzenus take the throne of Byzantium from John V
other
the same time, the political, economic, and social institu-
Palaeologus and as reward secured the right to ravage
0," in
tions of the Middle East were amalgamated with those
Thrace and to marry the emperor's daughter Theodora.
!book
inherited from Byzantium and the great Turkish empires
Ottoman raiding parties began to move regularly through
eriza-
of central Asia and re-established in new forms that were
Gallipoli into Thrace. Huge quantities of captured booty
udolf
to be characteristic of the area into modern times.
xperi-
strengthened Ottoman power.
1), a
Origins and expansion of the Ottoman state, c. 1300-1402.
Starting in 1354, Orhan's son Suleyman transformed
orma-
In their initial stages of expansion, the Ottomans were
Gallipoli, on the European side of the Dardanelles, into a
Gallipoli
Otto,"
gazis
leaders of the Turkish gazis, or fighters for the faith of
base for expansion into Europe and refused to leave,
as base for
967),
Islãm, against the shrinking Christian Byzantine state. The
despite the protests of Cantacuzenus and others. From
expansion
nt of
ancestors of Osman, the founder of the dynasty, were
this base, his bands moved into the Balkans, up the
members of the Kayı tribe who had entered Anatolia
Maritsa River, raiding as far as Adrianople. Cantacuzenus
E.M.)
along with a mass of Oğuz Turkmen nomads who over-
soon fell from power, at least partly because of his
772 Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
RUSSIA
FRANCE
AUSTRIA
Vienna
HUNGARY
SPAIN
ITALY
BALKANS
Istanbul
1453
GREECE
ALGERIA
MOROCCO
IRAN
14
TUNISIA
SYRIA
CRETE
MESOPOTAMIA
CYPRUS
PALESTINE
TRIPOLI
Ottoman Turks, 1300
ARABIA
Acquisitions, 1300-59
EGYPT
Acquisitions, 1359-1451
Acquisitions, 1451-81 (Mehmed II)
Mecca
Acquisitions. 1512-20 (Selim I)
for
Acquisitions, 1520-66
(Süleyman the Magnificent)
Acquisitions, 1566-1683
Boundary of the Ottoman Empire
0
250
500 mi
&
at its greatest extent. 1683-99
0
250
500
750 km
Expansion of the Ottoman Empire.
From S. Fischer, The Middle East: A History (1960); Alfred A. Knopf
cooperation with the Turks, and Europe began to be
vassals in Europe. He retained local native rulers, who in
Creation
aware of the extent of the Turkish danger.
return accepted his suzerainty, paid annual tributes, and
of
It was only under Orhan's son Murad I that Gallipoli
provided contingents for his army when required to do
Europeas
was used for permanent conquests. Constantinople itself
so. This policy enabled the Ottomans to avoid a great
vassals
was bypassed because its thick walls and well-organized
deal of local resistance to conquest by assuring rulers and
defenses, despite the weakness and disorganization of its
subjects alike that their lives, properties, traditions, and
defenders, remained too strong for the rudimentary Otto-
positions would be preserved if they peacefully accepted
man army. Murad's initial conquests were northward into
Ottoman rule. It also enabled the Ottomans to govern the
Thrace, culminating with the capture in 1361 of Adriano-
newly conquered areas without building up a vast admin-
ple-the second city of the Byzantine Empire; renamed
istrative system of their own or maintaining occupation
Edirne, the city became the new Ottoman capital, provid-
garrisons.
ing the Ottomans with a centre for the administrative and
Moving rapidly to consolidate his empire south of the
military control of Thrace. As the main fortress between
Danube, Murad captured Macedonia (1371-87), central
Constantinople and the Danube, it controlled the princi-
Bulgaria (including Monastir (1382), Sofia (1385), and
pal invasion road through the Balkan mountains, as-
Nis (Nish) (1386), and Serbia, all culminating in the
sured Ottoman retention of their European conquests,
climactic defeat of the Balkan allies at the Battle of Koso-
and gave them the means for further expansion to the
vo (Kosovo Polje) in 1389. South of the Danube, only
north. Murad then moved through the Maritsa Valley and
Walachia, Bosnia, Albania, Greece, and the Serbian fort
captured Philippopolis (Filibe) in 1363. Control of the
of Belgrade remained outside Ottoman rule, and to the
main sources of Constantinople's grain and tax revenues
north, Hungary alone was in a position to resist further
enabled Murad to force the emperor to accept his suzer-
Muslim advances.
ainty. The death of the Serbian emperor Stefan Dusan in
Murad was killed during the Battle of Kosovo. His son
1355 left his successors too divided and weak to defeat the
and successor Bayezid I was unable to take advantage of
Ottomans, despite an alliance with King Louis the Great
his father's victory to achieve further European conquest,
of Hungary and Tsar Shishman of Bulgaria in the first Eu-
and was, in fact, compelled to restore the defeated vassals
ropean crusade against the Ottomans. The Byzantine em-
and return to Anatolia to face the rising threat of the
peror John V tried to mobilize European assistance by
Turkmen principality of Karaman, created on the ruins
uniting the churches of Constantinople and Rome, but
of the Seljuq Empire of Anatolia, with its capital at Kon-
only further divided Byzantium without assuring any con-
ya. Bayezid's predecessors had avoided forceful annexa-
crete help from the West. Murad was thus able to rout the
tion of Turkmen territory in order to concentrate on
allies at Chirmen, on the Maritsa in 1371, increasing his
Europe. They had, however, expanded by such peaceful
own confidence and demoralizing his smaller enemies,
means as marriage alliances and the purchase of territories.
who rapidly accepted his suzerainty without further resis-
The acquisition of territory in central Anatolia from the
tance. Murad next inaugurated an Ottoman empire of
amirates of Hamid and Germiyan had brought the Otto-
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the 773
mans into direct contact with Karaman for the first time.
pire as Sultan Mehmed (Muhammad) I. He was to reign
Murad had been compelled to take some military action
from 1413 to 1420.
to prevent Karaman from occupying his newly acquired
Under Mehmed and Murad II (ruled 1421-51), there
territories, but once this was accomplished he had turned
was a new period of expansion in which Bayezid's empire
back to Europe leaving the unsolved problem to his suc-
was restored and new additions made. Mehmed restored
cessor son. Karaman willingly cooperated with Serbia in
the vassal system in Bulgaria and Serbia and promised
stirring opposition to Ottoman rule among Murad's vas-
the vassal princes that he would not undertake new Euro-
sals in both Europe and Anatolia. It had strengthened the
pean adventures and would restore his position within the
Balkan Union that was routed by the Ottomans at Koso-
state. Murad II was also compelled to devote most of the
vo, and had stimulated a general revolt in Anatolia that
early years of his reign to internal problems, and particu-
Bayezid was forced to meet by an open attack as soon as
larly to the efforts of the gazi commanders and Balkan
he was able to do so. By the end of 1390, Bayezid had
vassal princes in Europe, as well as the Turkmen vassals
overwhelmed and annexed all the remaining Turkmen
and princes in Anatolia, to retain the autonomy and even
principalities in western Anatolia. He attacked and de-
independence gained during the decade following the Bat-
feated Karaman in 1391, annexed several Turkmen states
tle of Ankara. In 1422-23, Murad suppressed the Balkan
in eastern Anatolia, and was preparing to complete his
resistance and put Constantinople under a new siege that
conquest in the area when he was forced to turn back to
ended only after the Byzantines had provided him with
AN
Europe to deal with a revolt of some of his Balkan vas-
huge amounts of tribute. He then restored Ottoman rule
sals, encouraged and helped by Hungary and Byzantium.
in Anatolia and eliminated all of the Turkmen principali-
Bayezid quickly smashed the rebels (1390-93), occupied
ties left by Timur with the exception of Karaman and
Bulgaria and put it under direct Ottoman administration
Candar (Jandar), which he left autonomous though trib-
for the first time, and put Constantinople under siege. In
utory so as not to excite the renewed fears of Timur's
response, Hungary organized a major European crusade
successors in the east. Murad then inaugurated the first
Outbreak
against the Ottomans. The effort was beaten back by
Ottoman war with Venice (1423-30), which had main-
of
Bayezid at Nicopolis (Nigbolu) on the Danube in 1396.
tained friendly relations with the sultans in order to de--
Venetian
Europe was terrorized and Ottoman rule south of the
velop a strong trade position in the Ottoman dominions
War
Danube was so assured, and Bayezid's prestige in the
and the Black Sea area. Venice, however, had accepted
Islãmic world was so extended that he was given the title
Salonica from Byzantium in order to prevent Ottoman
of sultãn by the shadow 'Abbasid caliph of Cairo-this
expansion across Macedonia to the Adriatic, which it
despite the opposition of the caliph's Mamluk masters,
considered to be a Venetian lake. The war was indecisive
31A
the rulers of Egypt, Syria, and the Holy Cities, who
for some time; Venice was diverted by conflicts in Italy,
wanted to retain the title only for themselves.
and the Ottomans needed time to build a naval force suf-
Turning back to Anatolia to complete the conquests
ficient to compete with that of the Venetians. In addition,
aborted by his move against the crusaders, Bayezid thor-
Murad was diverted by an effort of Hungary to establish
oughly overran Karaman, the last Turkmen principality,
its rule in Walachia, between the Danube and the Tran-
fir
with
in 1397. His advances, however, now attracted the at-
sylvanian Alps, a move which inaugurated a series of
"our
tention of Timur (Tamerlane), who had been building a
Ottoman-Hungarian conflicts that were to occupy much
powerful Tatar empire in Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan,
of the remainder of his reign. Murad finally built a fleet
and Mesopotamia, and whose invasion of India in 1398
strong enough to blockade Salonica and enable his army
had been halted by his fear of the rising Ottoman power on
to take it (1430), after which Ottoman naval raids
his western flank. Encouraged by several Turkmen
against Venetian ports in the Adriatic and the Aegean
princes who had fled to his court when their territories
compelled Venice in 1432 to make a peace in which it
were taken by Bayezid, Timur decided to destroy Bay-
abandoned its efforts to prevent the Ottoman advance to
ezid's empire before resuming his campaigns in India
the Adriatic, and was allowed to assume a role as the
and thus invaded Anatolia. As Bayezid and Timur moved
leading commercial power in the sultan's dominions.
toward battle, the former's Turkmen vassals and Muslim
Murad, who had been put on the throne by Turkish
)
in
Creatice
followers deserted him because he had abandoned the
notables who had joined the Ottoman state during the
and
of
old Ottoman gazi tradition of advancing against the in-
first century of its existence, soon began to resent the
do Europeae
fidel. Left only with forces provided by his Christian vas-
power they had gained in return as well as in consequence
reat
vassals
sals, Bayezid was decisively overwhelmed by Timur at
of the great new estates they had built up in the con-
and
the Battle of Ankara in 1402. Taken captive by the victor,
quered areas of Europe and Anatolia. To counteract their
Organiza-
and
he died within a year.
power, he began to build up the power of various non-
tion of the
ted
Restoration of the Ottoman Empire, 1402-81. Timur's
Turkish groups in his service, particularly those com-
Janissary
the
objective in Anatolia had not been conquest, and he
posed of Christian slaves and converts to Islãm, whose
in-
corps
followed his victory by retiring from Anatolia after
military arm was organized into a new infantry organiza-
ion
restoring to power the Turkmen princes who had joined
tion called the Janissary corps. To strengthen this group,
him. Even Bayezid's sons were able to assume control
Murad began to distribute most of his new conquests to its
the
over the family's former possessions in western Anatolia,
members, and to add new supporters of this sort he de-
tral
and the Ottoman Empire in Europe was left largely un-
veloped the famous devşirme system by which Christian
and
touched. At this time a strong European crusade might
youths were drafted from the Balkan provinces for con-
the
have pushed the Ottomans out of Europe altogether,
version to Islãm and life service to the sultan. With their
so-
but weakness and division south of the Danube and
revenues and numbers increasing, the devşirme men and
nly
diversion in other matters to the north left an opportu-
their supporters achieved considerable political power.
ort
nity for the Ottomans to restore what had been torn
Because the new European conquests were being used by
the
asunder without significant loss.
the sultan to build up the devşirme relative to the Turkish
her
But internal divisions were to hinder Ottoman efforts to
notables, the former wanted them to continue and ex-
sputed
restore their power. Bayezid's four sons fought for the
pand, while the latter opposed them. Murad, wanting to
son
ession
right of succession. His eldest son Süleyman assumed
return to aggressive policies of European expansion in
of
control in Europe, with his capital at Edirne, and gained
order to help the devşirme reduce the power of the Turk-
est,
the support of the Christian vassals and those who had
ish notables, renewed the struggle with Hungary in Serbia
sals
stimulated Bayezid to turn toward conquest in the East.
and Wallachia starting in 1434. He took advantage of the
the
The descendants of the Turkmen notables who had as-
death in 1437 of the Hungarian king Sigismund to reoc-
ins
sisted the early Ottoman conquests in Europe supported
cupy Serbia, excepting Belgrade, and to ravage much of
on-
the claims of Mehmed, who with the additional support
Hungary, and he then annexed Serbia in 1439, beginning
xa-
of the Anatolian Muslim religious orders and artisan
a policy of replacing the vassals with direct Ottoman rule
on
guilds was able to defeat and kill his brothers Mûsa Bey,
ful
throughout the empire. Hungarian control of Belgrade
who had established his capital at Bursa, and Isa Bey of
ies.
was now the major bar to large-scale advances north of
Balikesir, in southwestern Anatolia, as well as Süleyman,
the
the Danube. Ottoman attacks on it and raids on Tran-
and so assume undisputed possession of the entire em-
to-
sylvania failed to move the Hungarians, largely because
774 Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
of the leadership of János Hunyadi (q.v.), originally a
even though the lands of the old caliphate still remained
leader of the Walachian border resistance to the gazis in
in the hands of the Mamlüks of Egypt and Timur's
1440-42. Although Murad finally defeated Hunyadi at
successors in Iran. Moreover, it was not long before pos-
the Battle of Zlatica (Izladi) in 1443, the increased in-
session of Constantinople stimulated Mehmed to nourish
fluence of the Turkish notables at Murad's court led the
an ambition to place under his dominion not merely the
sultan to agree to the Peace of Adrianople in 1444. By its
Islãmic and Turkic worlds but also a re-created Byzan-
terms Serbia regained its autonomy, Hungary kept Wal-
tine Empire and, perhaps, the entire world of Christen-
lachia and Belgrade, and the Ottomans promised to end
dom.
their raids north of the Danube. In 1444 Murad also
To pursue these objectives, Mehmed II developed vari-
made peace with his main Anatolian enemy, Karaman,
ous bases of power. Domestically, his primary objective
and retired to a life of religious contemplation, voluntari-
was to restore Istanbul as the political, economic, and
Restons
tion
ly passing the throne to his son Mehmed II who, still very
social centre of the area that it formerly had dominated.
young, already showed the qualities of leadership that
To this end, he worked to repopulate the city, not only
Istanb_
were later to distinguish his long reign. The Byzantines
with its former inhabitants but also with elements of all
and the pope sought to use the opportunity created by the
the conquered peoples of the empire, whose residence and
existence of a youthful sultan to push the Ottomans out
intermingling there would provide a microcosm for a
New
of Europe, organizing a new crusade joined by Hungary
similar process that Mehmed hoped would weld the
European
and Venice when the pope assured them that they were
entire empire into a powerful and integrated whole. Spe-
crusade
not bound to honour the peace treaty they had signed
cial tax concessions were established to encourage the
with Muslim infidels. A crusader army moved through
most active and skilled of his subjects to settle in the
Acult
Serbia across the Balkan Mountains to the Black Sea at
capital. The major religious groups were allowed to es-
Varna, where it was to be supplied and transported to
tablish their own self-governing communities, called mil-
Constantinople by a Venetian fleet, which was to sail
lets, under the leadership of their religious chiefs, each
through the Straits, at the same time using its power to
retaining its own civil laws, traditions, and language under
prevent Murad from returning from Anatolia with the
the general protection of the sultan. Mehmed also worked
bulk of the Ottoman army. Though the crusaders reached
to restore the physical aspects of the city. Old buildings
Varna, a Serbian decision to remain loyal to the sultan,
were repaired; streets, aqueducts, and bridges were con-
combined with Venetian reluctance to fulfill its part of
structed; sanitary facilities were modernized; and a vast
the agreement for fear of losing its trade position should
supply system was set up to provide for the city's inhabi-
the Ottomans win, left the crusaders stranded. Further
tants. Great attention was paid to restoring Istanbul's
quarrels among the crusade leaders gave Murad time to
industry and trade, with special concessions to attract
return from Anatolia and organize a new army. The
merchants and artisans from all parts of the empire.
Turkish victory at Varna on November 10, 1444, ended
Mehmed also devoted much time in expanding his do-
the last important European crusading effort against the
minions in Europe and Asia in order to establish his
Ottomans. Murad now reassumed the throne and brought
claim to world leadership. To this end, he eliminated the
back to power with him the devşirme party, whose insis-
last princes who might dispute his claims to be legitimate
tent demands for conquest led him to spend the remain-
successor to the Byzantine and Seljuq dynasties, and
der of his reign eliminating the vassals and establishing
replaced the remaining vassal princes with direct, Otto-
direct rule in much of Thrace, Macedonia, Bulgaria, and
man administration. In addition, he extended Ottoman
Greece. In the process, he divided the newly acquired
rule far beyond the territories inherited from Murad II;
lands into estates the revenues of which further increased
from 1454 to 1463, he concentrated mainly on southeast-
the power of the devşirme at the expense of the Turkish
ern Europe, annexing Serbia (1454-55), conquering the
notables. Only Albania was able to resist because of the
Morea (1458-60), and eliminating in the process the last
leadership of its national hero, Skanderbeg (George Kas-
major claimants to the Byzantine throne. When Venice
Second
trioti). He was routed by the sultan at the second Battle
refused to surrender its important forts on the Aegean
Venetize
of Kosovo (1448). By the time of Murad's death in
coast of the Morea, Mehmed inaugurated the second
war
February 1451, the Danube frontier was secure, and it
Venetian-Ottoman war (1463-79). At the same time he
seemed that the Ottoman Empire was in Europe to stay.
annexed Trebizond (1461) and the Genoese commercial
Whereas the victory at Varna brought new power to the
colonies that had survived along the Black Sea coast of
devşirme party, the grand vizier Candarli Halil Paşa was
Anatolia, including Sinop and Kafa, and began the process
able to retain a dominant position for the Turkish nota-
by which the Crimean Tatar khäns were compelled to
bles whom he led by keeping the confidence of the sultan
accept Ottoman suzerainty. In 1463 he occupied and an-
and by successfully dividing his opponents. Prince
nexed Bosnia, helped by the native Bogomils, an evangel-
Mehmed therefore became the candidate of the devşirme,
ical Christian sect that had been badly treated by the
and it was only with his accession that they were able to
Catholic Hungarians. When Albania continued to hold
achieve the political and military power made possible by
out, helped by supplies sent by sea from Venice, Mehmed
the financial base built up during the previous two de-
sent in large numbers of Turkmen irregulars, who in the
cades. Under Sultan Mehmed II (1451-81), the devşirme
process of conquering Albania settled there and formed a
increasingly came to dominate, and to press their desire
Muslim community. Whereas the papacy and Venice were
for new conquests in order to take fuller advantage of the
unable to raise a new crusade, they were able to divert
Final
situation created at Varna. Constantinople became their
Mehmed by encouraging attacks by his Eastern enemies,
attack on
first objective. To Mehmed and his supporters, the Otto-
the Turkmen principality of Karaman and the Tatar
Constan-
man dominions in Europe could never reach their full
Ak Koyunlu ("White Sheep") dynasty, which under the
tinople
extent or be molded into a real empire so long as their
leadership of Uzun Hasan, had replaced Timur's de-
natural administrative and cultural centre remained out-
scendants in Iran. Mehmed, however, skillfully used
side their hands. The grand vizier (the sultan's chief advis-
dynastic divisions to conquer Karaman in 1468, extend-
er) and other Turkish notables bitterly opposed the at-
ing direct Ottoman rule in Anatolia to the Euphrates.
tack, ostensibly because it might draw a new crusade, but
When Uzun Hasan responded by invading Anatolia in
in fact because of their fear that the capture of the Byzan-
the company of many Turkmen princes, Venice intensi-
tine capital might bring about a final triumph of the
fied its attacks in the Morea, Hungary moved into Serbia,
devşirme. The siege (April 6-May 29, 1453) and con-
and Skanderbeg attacked Bosnia. Mehmed, however, was
quest of Constantinople and its transformation into the
able to defeat these enemies, one after the other. In 1473
Ottoman capital of Istanbul marked an important new
he routed Uzun Hasan, who acknowledged Ottoman rule
state in Ottoman history. Internally, it saw the end of
in all of Anatolia and returned to Iran. This brought the
power and influence for the old Turkish nobility, whose
Ottomans into conflict with the Mamluk empire in Syria,
leaders soon were executed or exiled and whose proper-
which Mehmed neutralized, though he could not defeat
ties were confiscated, and the triumph of the devşirme
it. He then turned to Venice, and several naval raids
and their supporters. Externally, the conquest made
along the Adriatic coast finally led to a peace in 1479
Mehmed II the most famous ruler in the Muslim world,
whereby Venice surrendered its bases in Albania and the
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the 775
ined
Morea and agreed to pay a regular annual tribute in re-
vailed. In such a situation, the idea of rule was very
!ur's'
turn for restoration of its commercial privileges.
limited; administration was conceived mainly in financial
pos-
Mehmed then used his new naval power to send a large
terms, with each clan or family or tribe accepting Otto-
trish
force that landed at Otranto in southern Italy in August
man military leadership largely for the financial rewards
the
1480, and to attack Rhodes. Success seemed within sight
it could bring. Ottoman chiefs collected the booty in
zan-
when his premature death in 1481 brought his effort to
conquered lands, and following the conquest had the
ten-
an end. But he had, indeed, laid the foundations for Otto-
right to collect taxes from lands left in their possession.
man rule in Anatolia and southeastern Europe that was to
The only advantage that the bey had over the chiefs
vari-
survive for the next four centuries.
surrounding him was, as tribal war leader, the right called
ctive
In addition to conquering a large empire, Mehmed
pençik, to collect an extra fifth of the booty taken by his
and
Resides
worked to consolidate it and to codify the political, ad-
followers. Because the bey was dependent for his power
tion
ated.
of
ministrative, religious, and legal institutions developed
and revenues on the assent of his followers, his authority
only
Istamine
during the previous century in a series of law codes
was limited in scope and in time.
f all
called kanun-names. The immensity of the task, however,
But as the territory of the Ottoman principality expand-
and
and his diversion in numerous campaigns delayed the
ed, and the Ottomans fell heirs to the administrative
or a
process to such an extent that it was completed only
apparatus left by the Byzantines, this simple tribal or-
the
during the mid-16th century. Nor was Mehmed overly
ganization was replaced by a more complex form of
Spe-
&
successful in building the economic and social bases of
government, so that by the time the Ottoman rulers be-
the
Aculties
his empire. His most important problem was securing
came sultans, they already had far more extensive power
the
sufficient money to finance his military expeditions and
and authority than had been the case a half-century ear-
, es-
the new apparatus of government and society. The tax
lier. The simple tribal organization of the Ottoman bey
mil-
systems inherited from his predecessors did not provide
could suffice only for so long as the state was small
each
the required money, particularly because most of the con-
enough for the individual tribal leaders to remain on
ander
quered lands were turned into estates whose taxes went
their lands and fight the nearby enemy at the same time.
orked
entirely to their holders in return for military and admin-
But as the principality expanded and the frontiers and
dings
istrative services. Mehmed therefore turned to a number
enemies became further removed from previously con-
con-
of expedients that achieved their immediate objectives,
quered territory, the financial and administrative func-
vast
but at the cost of grave economic and social difficulties.
tions at home had to be separated from the military.
habi-
He regularly withdrew all coins from circulation and
Taxes had to be collected to exploit the conquered terri-
ibul's
issued new ones with a larger proportion of base metal
tories and support the officers and soldiers while they
ttract
alloys. To enforce acceptance of the new issues, he sent
were away. The treasury of the sultan had to be sepa-
armed bands around the empire with the right to con-
rated from that of the state so that each would have an
S do-
fiscate without compensation all of the older and more
independent income and organization. Throughout the
h his
valuable coins that had not been voluntarily exchanged
14th and 15th centuries, the Ottoman state gradually
d the
for the new. The debasement of the coinage soon caused
evolved its institutions of government and the army
imate
a rapid inflation, and this in turn greatly disturbed the
to meet the needs of administering and defending an
and
industry and trade that the sultan had hoped to assist. In
expanding empire. As this was done, it was natural
Influences
Otto-
addition, in his search for revenues, Mehmed created
that it should be influenced by those states that had
of early
oman
monopolies over the production and use of essential
preceded it, not only in the areas it came to rule, but
states
ad II;
goods, distributing them among the highest bidders, who
also in the lands of its ancestors. So it was that the
heast-
in turn charged excessive prices and created artificial
developing Ottoman state was influenced by the tradi-
g the
scarcities to secure their profits. Finally, Mehmed estab-
tions of the nomadic Turkic empires of Central Asia,
e last
lished the principle that all revenue-producing property
particularly in military organization and tactics. It was
'enice
Second
belonged to the sultan. In pursuance of this, he con-
also influenced heavily by the classical High Islãmic civi-
egean
Venetixe
fiscated much private property and religious foundation
lization of the 'Abbasids, as passed through the hands of
econd
war
lands, creating tremendous resentment and opposition
the Seljuqs, particularly in the development of orthodox
ne he
among those who lost their revenues, including members
Islãm as the basis of its institutions of administration,
ercial
of the religious 'ulamã' class, the Turkish notables, and
religion, law, and education, and in the development of
ast of
even some devşirme men, whose discontent threatened to
the mukataa as the basic unit of its administrative and
rocess
undermine both state and sultan. It was only by playing
financial systems. In the court hierarchy, the central
led to
these groups off against each other that Mehmed was able
financial structure, and the tax and administrative organi-
id an-
to maintain his own position and power and to continue
zations developed in the European provinces, the Otto-
angel-
his conquests.
mans were influenced by the Byzantines and, to a lesser
y the
Ottoman institutions in the 14th and 15th centuries.
extent, by the Serbian and Bulgarian empires. Whereas
hold
Ottoman dynasts were transformed from simple tribal
conversion to Islãm was not demanded of those conquered
hmed
leaders to border princes (uc bey) and gazi leaders under
at this time, many Christians and Jews voluntarily convert-
in the
Seljuq and then Il-Khanid suzerainty in the 13th and
ed to secure full status in the new empire. Most, however,
ned a
early 14th centuries. With the capture of Bursa, Orhan
continued to practice their old religions without restric-
were
had been able to declare himself independent of his
tion. A particularly important source of Christian in-
divert
suzerains and assume the title of bey, which was re-
fluence during the 14th century came from the close mar-
emies,
tained by his successors until Bayezid I was named sultan
riage ties between the Ottoman and Christian courts.
Tatar
by the shadow 'Abbasid caliph of Cairo following his
Sultan Orhan married Theodora, daughter of Byzantine
er the
victory over the Christian crusaders at the Battle of Ni-
emperor John VI Cantacuzenus. Theodora was the
's de-
*Thers of
copolis (1396). These title changes were not immaterial
mother of Murad I, who in turn married Byzantine and
used
toman
in the position of the Ottoman ruler within the state and
Bulgarian princesses, whereas Bayezid I married Despina,
ktend-
this
in the organization of the state itself. As uc bey and even
daughter of the Serbian prince Lazar. Each of these mar-
irates.
bey, the Ottoman leader remained little more than a trib-
riages brought Christian followers and advisers into the
lia in
al chief, sharing administrative and military leadership
Ottoman court, and it was under their influence that
tensi-
with the Turkmen chiefs surrounding him. Like the trib-
Bayezid I in particular abandoned the simple nomadic
erbia,
al chiefs, he had the right to the loyalty and obedience of
courts and practices of his predecessors and isolated
r, was
his followers only so long as he led them to victory, and
himself behind elaborate court hierarchies and ceremo-
1473
only in relation to his military functions. Beyond this, he
nials borrowed primarily from the Byzantines. At the
n rule
was only one among equals in the councils that decided
same time, the Greek and Serbian languages tended to
ht the
general internal policies; the tribes and clans remained au-
dominate Ottoman court life, and to a lesser extent
Syria,
tonomous in their internal affairs. The bey was accessible
its administration.
defeat
to the tribe and clan leaders as well as to their followers.
The triumph of Sultan Mehmed I in 1413 was due at
raids
He could intervene in disputes among the clans, but juris-
least in part to the support of the Turkish notables and
1479
diction was limited indeed. Muslim law and jurists had
Muslim religious orders of Anatolia who strongly re-
nd the
little influence, whereas Turkish tribal law and custom pre-
sented the Christian predominance in Bayezid's court and
776 Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
attributed his abandonment of the gazi tradition and at-
standing army of hired mercenaries paid by salary rather
tacks in Turkish Muslim Anatolia to their influence. As a
than booty or by timar estates. Those mercenaries orga-
result, Turkish and Muslim influences dominated the Ot-
nized as infantry were called yayas, those organized as
toman court during the 15th century, although the hierar-
cavalry, müsellems. Although the new force included
chies, institutions, and ceremonies introduced in the pre-
some Turkmen who were content to accept salaries in
vious century remained largely without change.
place of booty, most of its men were Christian soldiers
Growth of
The same process that isolated the sultans from their
from the Balkans who were not required to convert to
adminis-
subjects also removed them from the daily administration
Islãm as long as they obeyed their Ottoman commanders.
tration
of government. Formal institutions of administration
As Murad I had conquered more and more of southeast-
therefore had to be evolved to take their place, with the
ern Europe these forces had become mainly Christian,
rulers delegating more and more of their duties to execu-
and as they came to dominate the Ottoman army, the
tive ministers, to whom the Seljuq title vezir (vizier) was
older Turkmen cavalrymen were maintained mainly as
given. The continued close connections of the Ottoman
irregular shock troops, called akincis, who were compen-
family with the urban guilds and orders of Anatolia, many
sated only by booty. As the yayas and müsellems expand-
of the members of which were descendants of officials of
ed in numbers, their salaries became too burdensome for
the Great Seljuq and II-Khãnid empires, as well as the em-
the Ottoman treasury, so in most cases the newly con-
pire of the Seljuqs of Konya, provided continuity with
quered lands were assigned to their commanders in the
the Islãmic Turkish traditions of government. With them
form of timars. It was this new regular army that de-
Grown
came the basic unit of Islãmic administrative and finan-
veloped the techniques of battle and siege used to achieve
If
a regular
cial organization, the mukataa, which intimately associ-
most of the 14th-century Ottoman conquests, but because
army
ated each office with a source of revenues and made each
it was commanded by members of the Turkish notable
official the collector of his own salary, at the same time
class, it became the major vehicle for their rise to pre-
that it circumscribed his administrative powers within
dominance over the sultans, whose direct military sup-
those tasks directly involved with the financial function.
porters were limited to the vassal contingents.
It was relatively simple for the Ottomans to preserve
Only late in the 14th century did Murad I and Bayezid I
previous methods of taxing on the local levels in different
attempt to build up their personal power by building a
parts of the empire while weaving them into a united
military slave force for the sultan under the name kapi-
whole through the veneer provided by the mukataa units
kulu (pl. kapikullari), or slaves of the Porte. Murad
in which the resulting tax revenues were assigned to Otto-
based the new force on his right to a fifth of the war
man officials.
booty, which he interpreted to include captives taken in
As the central administration was divided into function-
battle. As these men entered his service, they were con-
al departments, a vizier was appointed to direct each.
verted to Islãm and trained as Ottomans, gaining the
Most of the early viziers were former Turkmen princes
knowledge and experience required for service in the gov-
who had entered Ottoman service, though some, particu-
ernment, as well as the army, while remaining in the
larly under Bayezid I, were Christians and Christian con-
sultan's personal service. During the late 14th century,
verts. State policy was discussed and decided in a council
this force became the most important element of the
(divan) of these viziers, who were joined by religious,
Ottoman army, particularly its infantry branch, called
judicial, and military leaders under the direction and
yeniçeri ("new soldiers"), or the Janissary corps. The
chairmanship of the sultan. As the duties of the state
provincial forces provided by the timar holders com-
became more extensive and complex, the individual viziers
prised the Ottoman cavalry and were called sipahis, while
gained increased financial and political power, and as
the irregular akincis and salaried yayas and müsellems
the Byzantine influence caused the sultan to isolate him-
were relegated to rear-line duties and lost their military
self, it was inevitable that the viziers would come to
and political importance. But when Bayezid I abandoned
dominate. As if to emphasize his removal from the daily
the gazi tradition and moved into Anatolia, he lost the
Office of
affairs of state, the sultan began to appoint one of his
support of the Turkish notables and their sipahis before
grand
viziers as his chief minister, or grand vizier. From 1360 to
his new kapikulu army was fully established. He thus had
vizier
the conquest of Constantinople, this powerful position
to rely only on the Christian vassal forces in the Battle of
was reserved for members of the Çandarlı family, which
Ankara, and whereas they demonstrated considerable val-
came to lead and represent the powerful and assertative
our and fighting ability, they were not alone sufficient to
Turkmen notable families, who thus benefitted most from
resist Timur's powerful army.
the 14th-century expansion of the empire.
When the Ottoman Empire was restored under sultan
The first Ottoman army had been composed entirely of
Mehmed I, the Turkish notables, in order to deprive the
ncilia
Turkmen nomads, who had remained largely under the
sultan of the only military force he could use to resist
of
command of their own tribe and clan leaders, and under
their control, required him to abandon the kapikulu as
-kish
the influence of the şeyhs of the heterodox and mystic
contrary to the Islãmic tradition that Muslims could not
religious orders that had converted most of them to Is-
be kept in slavery. The European and Anatolian revolts
lãm. Armed with bows and arrows and spears, these no-
that arose early in the reign of Murad II were at least
madic cavalrymen had lived mostly on booty, but those
partly stimulated and supported by members of the
assigned as gazis to border areas or sent to conquer and
kapikulu as well as the Christian slaves and vassals who
raid Christian lands had also been given more permanent
had been losing their power to the Turkish notables. But
revenues in the form of taxes levied on the lands they
as soon as Murad II was established, he resumed earlier
garrisoned. These revenue holdings were formalized as
efforts to make the sultanate more independent, building
mukata'as, with the tribal leaders and gazi commanders
up the strength of the Janissaries and their associates and
holding them and collecting their revenues to feed, sup-
playing them off against the notables. He distributed most
ply, and arm their followers. It was this type of mukataa
of his conquests to members of the kapikulu force, occa-
that developed into the Ottoman form of fief called
sionally as timars, but more often as tax farms (ilti-
timar, that was the basis of Ottoman military and admin-
zams), so that the treasury could obtain the money it
istrative organization as the European portions of the
needed to maintain the Janissary army entirely on a sal-
The
empire were conquered from the vassals in the 15th cen-
aried basis. In addition, in order to man the new force,
devşirme
tury and placed under direct Ottoman administration.
Murad developed the devşirme system of recruiting the
system
These troops had predominated through Orhan's reign
best Christian youths from southeastern Europe.
until he had seen that such mounted and undisciplined
Whereas Mehmed II used the conquest of Constantinople
men were of limited use in besieging and taking large
to destroy the major Turkish notable families, and build
cities. In addition, once he had established his state, he
up the power of the devşirme, he sought only to establish
had found it difficult to maintain order with such an
a balance of power and function between the two groups
army because the nomads still preferred to maintain them-
so that he could use and control both for the benefit of
selves by the traditional forms of looting, in the lands of
the empire. So it was that he enlarged the concept of
their commander as well as in those of the enemy. To
kapıkulu to include members of the Turkish nobility and
replace the nomads, Orhan had organized a separate
their Turkmen followers as well as the products of the
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the 777
ther
devşirme. Now only persons accepting the status of slaves
system in which expenditures were balanced against reve-
of the sultan could hold positions in the Ottoman govern-
nues on a regular basis.
rga-
1 as
ment and army. Persons of Muslim and non-Muslim ori-
Culturally, Bayezid stimulated a strong reaction against
gin could achieve this status, so long as they accepted the
the Europeanizing trends of the previous half century.
ded
S in
limitations involved, namely absolute obedience to their
The Turkish language and Muslim traditions were em-
liers
master and the devotion of their lives, properties, and
phasized. He worked to develop and establish the institu-
t to
families to his service. After this time, all important min-
tions of orthodox Islãm in order to save the empire from
isters, military officers, judges, governors, timar holders,
the increasing menace of heterodox Shi'ism among the
ers.
tax farmers, Janissaries, sipahis, and the like were made
tribes of eastern Anatolia, until, late in his life, his own
ast-
ian,
members of this class and attached to the will and service
tendency toward mystic Süfism led him largely to aban-
the
of the sultan. The salaried Janissary corps remained the
don the effort.
y as
primary source of strength of the devşirme class whereas
Though Bayezid preferred to maintain peace so as to
pen-
the sipahis and the timar system remained the bases of
have the time and resources to concentrate on internal
and-
power of the Turkish notables.
development, he was forced into a number of campaigns
for
Mehmed II thus avoided the fate of the great Middle
by the exigencies of the time and the demands of his more
Eastern empires that had preceded that of the Ottomans,
militant devşirme followers. In Europe, he rounded off
con-
the
in which rule had been shared among members of the
the empire south of the Danube and Sava by taking Her-
Extension
de-
ruling dynasty and with others, and rapid disintegration
cegovina (1483), leaving only Belgrade outside Ottoman
of the
ieve
Gross
4
had resulted. The Ottomans established the principle of
control. The Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus (ruled
empire
a
use
regular
indivisibility of rule, with all members of the ruling class
1458-90) was interested mainly in establishing his rule
army
able
subjected to the absolute will of the sultan. To assure this,
over Bohemia and agreed to peace with the Ottomans
pre-
Mehmed II began the process of developing a firm law of
(1484), and after his death, struggles for succession left
sup-
succession, beginning the practice of executing all the
this front relatively quiet for the remainder of Bayezid's
brothers of the reigning sultan so that succession would
reign. To the northeast, the sultan pushed Ottoman terri-
tid I
be limited to one of his sons, preferably the ablest one.
tory north of the Danube, along the shores of the Black.
ng a
Sea, capturing (1484) the ports of Kilia and Akkerman,
THE PEAK OF OTTOMAN POWER. 1481-1566
apt-
which controlled the mouths of the Danube and Dniester,
irad
Domination of southeastern Europe and the Near East.
thus giving the Ottomans control over the major entre-
war
During much of the century that followed the reign of
pôts of northern Europe's trade with the Black Sea and
n in
Mehmed II, the Ottoman Empire achieved the peak of
Mediterranean. Bayezid was there able to compel Molda-
con-
its power and wealth. New conquests extended its do-
via to accept his suzerainty-an important step toward
the
main well into central Europe and throughout the Arab
the incorporation of the Romanian principalities in his
gov-
portion of the old Islãmic caliphate; and a new amalgam
empire. Because these advances conflicted with the ambi-
the
of political, religious, social, and economic organizations
tions of Poland, war followed (1483-89) until the diver-
ury,
and traditions was institutionalized and developed into a
sion of Poland by the threat of Muscovy under Ivan the
the
living, working whole.
Great (ruled 1462-1505) left this front quiet also after
illed
Bayezid II (ruled 1481-1512). The reign of Mehmed
1484.
The
II's immediate successor, Sultan Bayezid II, was largely a
Bayezid then turned to the East, where previous con-
om-
period of rest. The previous conquests were consolidated,
quests as far as the Euphrates had for the first time
thile
and many of the political, economic, and social problems
brought the Ottomans up to the Mamlük Empire. Con-
ems
caused by Mehmed's internal policies were dealt with,
flict over control of the small Turkmen principality of
tary
leaving a firm foundation for the conquests of the 16th-
Dulkadir (Dhü al-Qadr), which controlled much of Cili-
ned
century sultans.
cia and the mountains south of Lake Van, and an Otto-
the
The economic stringencies imposed to finance Mehmed
man desire to share in the control of the Muslim holy
fore
II's campaigns had led during the last year of his reign to
cities of Mecca and Medina, led to an intermittent war
had
a virtual civil war encouraged and participated in by the
(1485-91); but there were no concrete results, and Baye-
e of
major factions in Istanbul-the devşirme party and the
zid's disinclination to commit major forces to the endeav-
val-
Turkish aristocracy. Bayezid was put on the throne by the
our led to dissention and criticism on the part of his mili-
it to
Janissaries because of their military domination of the
tant followers. To counter this, Bayezid tried to use
capital, whereas his more militant brother Cem fled to
Hungarian internal dissention to take Belgrade; but he
Itan
Anatolia, where he led a revolt initially supported by the
failed, and raiding forces sent into Transylvania, Croa-
the
recilia-
Turkish notables. Bayezid managed to conciliate the lat-
tia, and Carinthia were turned back.
esist
of
ter, however, by exposing to them his essentially pacific
In the same year that Cem died (1495) a new peace
, as
tish
plans, which he concealed from the Janissaries. Left
with Hungary left Bayezid's objectives unfulfilled, so he
not
tables
without major support, Cem fled into exile to Mamluk
turned toward his other major European enemy, Venice,
olts
Syria in the summer of 1481. He returned the next year
to rebuild his reputation. Venice had been encouraging
east
with the help of the Mamluks and the last Turkmen ruler
revolts against the sultan in the Morea, Dalmatia, and
the
of Karaman, but his effort to secure the support of the
Albania, which it had ceded to the Ottomans in 1479. It
vho
Turkmen nomads failed because of Bayezid's heterodox
also gained control of Cyprus (1489), where it built a
But
religious policies. Cem remained in exile, first at Rhodes,
major naval base, which it refused to allow Bayezid to
flier
then with the pope in Rome, until his death in 1495. Eu-
use against the Mamlüks, thus pointing up the strategic
ing
ropean efforts to use him as the spearhead of a new cru-
importance of Cyprus to the sultan. Bayezid also hoped
and
sade effort against Istanbul were unsuccessful.
to conquer the last Venetian ports in the Morea to estab-
lost
In the meantime, however, the threat that Cem might
lish the bases for complete Ottoman naval control of the
:ca-
lead a foreign attack compelled Bayezid to concentrate
eastern Mediterranean. All these objectives except con-
ilti-
on internal consolidation. Most of the property expropri-
trol of Cyprus were achieved in the war that followed
it
ated by his father was restored to its original owners.
(1499-1503). The Ottoman fleet emerged for the first
sal-
The
Equal taxes were established around the empire so that
time as a major Mediterranean naval power, and the Otto-
rce,
devsirer
all subjects could fulfill their obligations to the govern-
mans became an integral part of European diplomatic
the
system
ment without the kind of disruption and dissatisfaction
relations.
that had characterized the previous regime. Particularly
Bayezid never was able to use this situation to make new
'ple
important was the establishment of the avâriz-i divaniye
conquests in Europe because the rise of revolts in eastern
tild
(war chest) tax, which provided for the special expendi-
Anatolia occupied much of his attention during the last
ish
tures of war without special confiscations or heavy levies.
years of his reign. There the old conflict resumed between
ups
The value of the coinage was restored, and Mehmed II's
the autonomous, uncivilized nomads and the stable, set-
of
plans for economic expansion were at long last brought
tled Middle Eastern civilization-the Turkmen nomads
of
to fruition. The vassal system was replaced by direct
resisted the efforts of the Ottomans to expand their ad-
and
Ottoman administration throughout the empire. For the
ministrative control to all parts of the empire. In reac-
the
first time the central government was given a budget
tion to the orthodox Muslim establishment, the nomads
778
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
showed a fanatical attachment to the leaders of the Süfi
dynasties in eastern Anatolia (1515-17) and to establish
and Shi'ah mystic orders, of whom the most successful
a strong strategic position relative to the Mamluk Em-
The
were the Safavids of Ardabil, who at this time used a
pire, which was falling into internal decay and was ripe
apansion
Safavids
religious-military appeal to conquer most of Iran. Under
for conquest by either the Ottomans or the Safavids.
Europe
Shãh Esmã'il (ruled 1502-24), the Safavids sent mis-
With Shãh Esmã'il still busy restoring his army, Selim I
sionaries throughout Anatolia, spreading a message of
was able to overwhelm the Mamlüks in a single year's
religious heresy and political revolt, not only among the
campaign during the summer and winter of 1516-17. The
tribesmen but also to cultivators and some urban ele-
Mamluk army fell easily to the well-organized and disci-
ments, who began to see in this movement the answers to
plined Ottoman infantry and cavalry, supported by ar-
their own problems. A series of revolts resulted, with
tillery. The conquest was aided by the support of many
Bayezid, because of his involvements in Europe, able to
Mamluk officials, who betrayed their masters in return
do little to suppress them. Finally, at the start of the 16th
for important positions and revenues promised by the
century, a general Anatolian uprising forced Bayezid into
conquerors. In addition, most of the major populated
a major expedition (1502-03), which pushed the $afa-
centres of Syria and Egypt turned out their Mamluk gar-
vids and many of their Turkmen followers back into
risons, preferring the security and order offered by the
Iran; there the Ottomans turned from Süfism to Shi'ism
Ottomans to the anarchy and terror of the prior century
as a means of gaining the loyalty of the Persians to a
of Mamlük dominion.
Turkish dynasty. Shãh Esmã'il continued, however, to
Thus in a single sweep, Selim doubled the size of his
empire, adding to it all of the lands of the old Islãmic
Contro
spread his message as Sufi leader in Anatolia, leading to
a second major revolt of his followers against the Otto-
caliphate with the exception of Iran, which remained
the Ane
world
mans (1511). All the grievances of the time coalesced
under the Safavids, and Mesopotamia, which was later
into what was basically a religious uprising against the
taken by his successor. These acquisitions were of im-
central government, and only a major expedition led by
mense importance to the Ottomans. Under an efficient
the grand vizier Ali Paşa could suppress it. But the condi-
administration, the Arab world provided Istanbul with
tions that had caused the uprising remained a major
new revenues that solved the financial problems left from
problem for Bayezid's successor. In the end, Bayezid's
the 15th century and made the empire into one of the
increasingly mystical and pacific nature led the Janis-
most powerful and wealthy states in the 16th century.
saries to dethrone him in favour of his militant and active
Acquisition of the holy places of Islãm cemented the
son, Sultan Selim I.
position of the sultan as the most important ruler of
Selim I (ruled 1512-20). Whereas Bayezid, despite his
Islãm. The Ottomans had gained direct access to the
pacific nature, had been put on the throne by the Janissar-
intellectual, artistic, and administrative heritage of high
ies, Selim I was their candidate because he shared their
Islãmic civilization, previously transmitted to them only
desire to return to an aggressive policy of conquest. But
indirectly. Now from the Arab world there came to Istan-
Selim did not wish to be dependent on, or under the
bul the leading Muslim intellectuals, artisans, administra-
control of, those who had brought him to power; he
tors, and artists of the time. They penetrated every facet
killed not only his brothers but also all seven of their sons
of Ottoman life and made the empire much more of a
and four of his own five sons, leaving only the ablest,
traditional Islãmic state than it ever had been before.
Süleyman, as the sole possible heir to the throne. This
Finally, the Ottomans replaced the Mamluks in control
deprived potential opponents of alternative leaders
of the Middle Eastern trade routes-part of the old inter-
around whom they could coalesce. Selim was then able to
national routes between Europe and the Far East.
leave the devşirme in control of the government; but
One of the major reasons for the Mamluk decline had
vege of
with a single heir, and with the sultan establishing his
been Portuguese discoveries in India and the establish-
Genna
personal control over the Janissaries, it was he who
ment of an all-water route around southern Africa in
:529)
dominated, rather than the devşirme.
place of that through the Middle East. It now remained
Selim's ambitions encompassed Europe as well as Asia;
for the Ottomans to restore the full prosperity of their
but Bayezid had left the European fronts relatively
Arab dominions by countering Portuguese naval activi-
quiet, so the new sultan turned first to the East, and chose
ties in the Eastern seas. The Ottoman conquests in the
the $afavids of Iran as his initial victims. Selim first
East, combined with the $afavid survival in Iran, ended
launched a vigorous campaign against the $afavid sup-
the long period of political vacuum and anarchy that had
porters in eastern Anatolia, massacring thousands of
followed the collapse of the universal 'Abbasid Empire,
tribesmen and missionaries and espousing a strict defense
starting in the 11th century. Order and security finally
of Islãmic orthodoxy as a means of regaining political
were re-established, and the stability of Middle Eastern
control. In the summer of 1514 he launched a major ex-
society was restored under the guidance and protection of
pedition against the Safavids, hoping to add Iran to his
powerful imperial orders. But the Islãmic world was left
empire and finally to eliminate the threat of heterodoxy.
permanently divided, with Iran and Transoxania, once
Esmã'il employed a scorched-earth policy, retiring into
centres of the Islãmic caliphates, separated from the
central Iran and hoping that winter would force the Otto-
Arab world, to which Anatolia and southeastern Europe
mans to retire without a battle. But the militant Kizilbâş
were for the first time added as integral parts of the
(Kizilbash) followers of the Safavids forced the shãh to
Middle East.
accept battle by intercepting the Ottomans before they
Süleyman I (ruled 1520-66). Selim I's last years were
Defeat
entered Azerbaijan. The Ottoman and $afavid armies
spent in Istanbul solidifying the supremacy of the sultan,
of the
clashed at Chäldirän, on the eastern side of the Euphrates
exploiting the prestige and revenues resulting from his
$afavids
(August 23, 1514), and the Safavids were routed by Ot-
Eastern victories. It was therefore only during the long
toman superiority in weapons and tactics (particularly
reign of his son and successor Süleyman I (ruled 1520-
because of Selim's use of cannons and gunpowder, in con-
66)-called the Magnificent in Europe and the Law-
trast to $afavid reliance on spears and arrows). Though
giver among the Ottomans-that the foundations left
Azerbaijan was occupied, the Ottoman victory led to nei-
by Selim were fully used to establish the classical Otto-
ther the conquest of Iran nor to the collapse of the Safa-
man state and society and to make important new con-
vid empire. The Ottoman army became increasingly dis-
quests in East and West. Süleyman assumed the throne
contented under the impact of $afavid propaganda
with a position unequalled by any sultan before or after
among the already-heterodox Janissaries and because of
him. He was without opposition and with a great deal
a relative lack of booty and supplies compared to cam-
of control over the devşirme class as well as over the
paigns in Europe. Selim was compelled to retire, and the
remnants of the Turkish notables. The conquest of the
$afavids regained their lost province without resistance.
Arab world had doubled the revenues of the treasury
The major result of the Chãldirãn battle was to convince
without imposing important additional financial obliga-
Shãh Esmã'il and his successors to avoid open conflict
tions, leaving Süleyman with wealth and power unparal-
with the Ottomans at all costs-a policy followed for the
leled in Ottoman history. Although Süleyman never took
next century. This preserved the $afavid army, but it
full advantage of the opportunities left him and, in fact,
enabled Selim to overcome the last independent Turkmen
began a process of Ottoman decline, his reign still marked
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the 779
the peak of Ottoman grandeur, and it has always been
continuous border conflict; diversions on both sides, how-
blish
regarded as the Golden Age of Ottoman history.
ever, prevented long periods of open warfare.
Em--
The chief battlefields of Ottoman expansion in Europe
Many historians have accused Francis I of France
ripe
gransion
now were Hungary and the Mediterranean. The weak
(ruled 1515-47) of encouraging Ottoman expansion into
Europe
southeastern European enemies of Süleyman's predeces-
central Europe to relieve Habsburg pressure on him. But
lim I
sors had been replaced by the powerful Habsburg Em-
the Ottoman advances were due less to any French over-
'ear's
pire, bolstered by the appeals of the pope against the
tures than to Süleyman's own ambitions, together with
The
menace of Islãm. Süleyman's main European ally was
his fears of a possible alliance among the Habsburgs, the
disci-
France, which sought to use Ottoman pressure in the East
Hungarians, and the $afavids and of Habsburg rule in
y ar-
to lessen the pressure of the Habsburgs.
Hungary. The sultan regarded the French king largely as
nany
The land war with the Habsburgs centred in Hungary
a supplicant for commercial favours, which were granted
etum
and was fought in three main stages. From 1520 to 1526
in the Capitulations of 1536-an agreement by which
the
the independent Hungarian kingdom bore the direct
French subjects were given the freedom to travel and
lated
brunt of the Ottoman attack and acted as a buffer be-
trade in the sultan's dominions, and subjects of other
gar-
tween the two great empires; but a weak king, Louis II
states wishing to do the same were required to secure
y the
(ruled 1516-26) and feudal anarchy and misrule made a
French protection as a condition of the necessary permis-
ntury
united defense impossible. A split among Hungarian no-
sion. French and other merchants and travellers in the
bles over the question of accepting Habsburg rule, com-
Ottoman Empire were allowed to remain under French
of his
lãmic
Complete
bined with the social and national divisions stimulated by
laws and courts in cases concerning themselves and to
the
the Reformation, further weakened the opposition to Ot-
have special privileges when involved with Ottoman law.
ained
Ass
later
work
toman attack, and, as a result, Süleyman was able to take
Thus was established the foundation of the French pre-
f
Belgrade in August 1521, opening the way for a large-
dominance in the Levant, which remained to modern
scale advance north of the Danube. The only real army
times. The Capitulations served as a model for later trade
the Hungarian notables could muster was routed at the
agreements between the Ottomans and the other Europe-
ler of
to the
ntury. cient Istan- from with only high im-
Battle of Mohács (August 29, 1526), and the death of
an powers, who subsequently used them, during the cen-
of the
Louis II ended the last hope for Hungarian unity and
turies of Ottoman weakness, as means to dominate com-
independence.
merce within the Ottoman dominions and thus prevent
The second period of Ottoman-Habsburg relations
the rise of a native commercial class.
di the
(1526-41) was characterized by Hungarian autonomy
The stalemate between the Ottomans and Habsburgs in
under the anti-Habsburg prince of Transylvania, John
Hungary led their conflict to shift periodically from the
f
Zápolya (ruled 1528-40), who accepted the suzerainty of
land to the sea, with the Ottomans emerging as a major
The Medi-
the sultan in return for the right to continue native ad-
1
naval power for the first time. The decline of the Vene-
terranean
ministration and military defense. The Habsburg prince
tian navy led Charles V to try for complete control of the
front
nistra-
Ferdinand, brother of the Emperor Charles V (ruled
Mediterranean, enlisting as his naval commander a great
facet
1519-58), occupied the northern areas of Hungary with
Genoese seaman, Andrea Doria, and thus securing the
e of a
the support of the Hungarian nobles who desired Habs-
support of the powerful Genoese fleet. Süleyman re-
before.
burg aid against the Turks, and for all practical purposes
sponded by driving the Knights Hospitallers-a Christian
ontrol
he annexed them to Austria before, in 1527-28, under-
religious and military order-from Rhodes (1522), but
inter-
taking an effort to conquer the remainder of Hungary. In
Charles then established them on Malta (1530) and cap-
response Süleyman returned from Anatolia; drove the
tured Tunis (1535). While Süleyman was busy Anato-
ne had
if
of
Habsburgs from all of Hungary; and besieged Vienna
lia, Doria captured a number of ports in the Morea (Pel-
ablish-
Kena
(1529), an effort that failed due to the difficulty of sup-
oponnese) and began to raid the Ottoman coasts, largely
rica in
29)
plying a large force so far from the major centres of
severing the sea lines of communication between Istanbul
nained
Ottoman power. Vienna thus was the chief remaining
and Alexandria. To counter this, Süleyman in 1533 en-
f their
European bulwark against further Muslim advance. Un-
rolled in his service as grand admiral Barbarossa (Khayr
activi-
der the existing conditions of supply, transport, and mili-
ad-Din), a Turkish captain who had built a major pirate
in the
tary organization, the Ottomans had reached the limit of
fleet in the western Mediterranean and had used it to
ended
their possible expansion in the West from a winter base
capture Algiers (1529) and other North African ports.
at had
that had to be maintained in Istanbul because of the con-
The Ottomans annexed Algiers to the empire, but as a
impire,
stant threat of possible military needs in the East.
special province permanently assigned to the grand admi-
finally
The siege of Vienna had important benefits for the Otto-
ral to support the fleet. Ottoman land troops were sent to
Eastern
mans-it secured Süleyman's rule of Hungary, and it
defend Algiers against Habsburg attacks-probably the
tion of
prevented Ferdinand from launching a new attack against
main reason Barbarossa agreed to join the sultan.
as left
Zápolya for some time to come. Although the siege
Barbarossa built a powerful Ottoman fleet, able to meet
once
frightened the other states of Europe sufficiently for them
the Habsburgs on equal terms. In 1537 he launched a
m the
to agree to a temporary Catholic-Protestant truce
major attack on southern Italy, expecting a promised
Europe
(1532), the result was only temporary, and Ferdinand
French attack in the north, with the objective of a joint
of the
never was certain of the support of the independent Ger-
conquest of Italy. But France, fearing a hostile European
man princes and of other European rulers who promised
reaction to its alliance with the infidel, withheld the diver-
S were
him help. Even Charles V was too preoccupied with the
sion. Doria then organized and led an allied European
sultan,
problems of the Reformation and with France to devote
naval force against the Ottomans; but it was routed at the
om his
much attention to the Ottomans. Thus, when Süleyman
Battle of Preveza (September 25-28, 1538), off the Al-
ie long
went on a second Austrian campaign (1532), he was
banian coast. Venice then surrendered its last possessions
1520-
unable to draw the imperial army into conflict and had to
in the Aegean, the Morea, and Dalmatia, thus assuring
Law-
content himself with devastating large parts of the Habs-
Ottoman naval supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean,
ns left
burg realm.
which remained unbroken for the next three decades.
1 Otto-
By the peace of 1533 Ferdinand abandoned his claims to
Süleyman failed to pursue his ambitions in Europe after
W con-
central Hungary and recognized Zápolya's rule there as
1541, largely because of his increasing preoccupation
throne
Ottoman vassal, whereas Süleyman agreed to accept Ferdi-
with problems in the East. He ruthlessly suppressed Sa-
The
r after
nand as ruler of northern Hungary in return for the
favid propagandists and supporters in eastern Anatolia
eastern
at deal
payment of an annual tribute. This arrangement lasted
and stimulated the Turkmen Özbek Empire of Transox-
front
er the
until 1540, when Zápolya died and left his dominions to
ania to attack Iran from the East. Iran fell into disorder
of the
Ferdinand in defiance of his agreement with the sultan.
following the death of Shah Esmã'il and the accession of
reasury
When Ferdinand tried to assume his heritage by force,
his infant son Tahmasp I (ruled 1524-76), but Süleyman
obliga-
Süleyman occupied and annexed Hungary (August
was able to use this situation only during periods of peace
nparal-
1541) under the guise of championing the cause of Zápo-
in Europe. He personally led three campaigns into north-
er took
lya's infant son, John Sigismund Zápolya. Thus began the
western Iran-in 1534-35, 1548-50, and 1554-but al-
in fact,
third and final period of Ottoman-Habsburg relations,
though he captured Safavid territories in the southern
marked
with the two great powers in direct contact and almost
Caucasus, Azerbaijan, and Iraq on each occasion, he
780
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
never was able to catch the Iranian army to defeat it; and
tutions as well as for the entire Ottoman system; the
supply problems invariably compelled him to retire to
Military (Seyfiye) Institution was in charge of expanding
Anatolia during the winter months, allowing the Persians
and defending the empire and keeping order and security
to regain their territories with little difficulty. Süleyman
within the sultan's dominions; the Administrative (Kale-
finally despaired of defeating his elusive enemies, so he
miye) Institution, organized as the Imperial Treasury
agreed to the Peace of Amasya (May 29, 1555), by which
(Hazine-i Amire), was in charge of collecting and spend-
he retained Iran and eastern Anatolia but renounced
ing the imperial revenues; and the Religious/Cultural
Ottoman claims to Azerbaijan and the Caucasus and
(Ilmiye) Institution, which included the 'ulamã' (all Ot-
agreed to allow Shiah Persian pilgrims to visit Mecca
tomans expert in the religious sciences), was in charge of
and Medina as well as their own holy places in Iraq. Thus
organizing and propagating the faith and maintaining
the same geographical problems that had limited Otto-
and enforcing the religious law (Shariah), its interpreta-
man conquests in central Europe made western Azer-
tion in the courts, its expounding in the mosques and
baijan the viable limit of Ottoman expansion in the East;
schools, and its study and interpretation.
preventing the final elimination of the $afavid danger.
To cover the areas of life not included within the scope
Süleyman was somewhat more successful in restoring
of the ruling class, members of the subject class were
the old international trade routes through his Middle
allowed to organize themselves as they wished. As a natu-
East possessions. To counteract the Portuguese fleet, sup-
ral manifestation of Islãmic society their organization
plied by the $afavids from their Persian Gulf ports, he
was determined largely by religious and occupational dis-
built major naval bases-at Suez (1517) and, as soon
tinctions. The basic class divisions within the subject class
as he took Iraq, at Basra (1538)-establishing garrisons
were determined by religion, with each important group
and fleets that not only resisted the Portuguese naval at-
organizing into a relatively self-centred autonomous
tacks but also went out against them in the Eastern seas.
community called a millet, under its own laws and forms
The
As a result the old trade route regained some of its for-
of internal organization, directed by a religious leader
miles
mer volume in the 16th century; the Ottomans never
who was responsible to the sultan for the fulfillment of
were able to fully restore it, however, because Portugal
the duties and responsibilities of the millet members, par-
still was able to pay higher prices in the East and sell at
ticularly those of paying taxes and security. In addition,
lower prices in Europe because of their use of a sea route,
each millet cared for the many social and administrative
which avoided the duties and local charges levied on
functions not assumed by the Ottoman state, concerning
goods sent through Ottoman territory. (It should be noted
such matters as marriage, divorce, birth and death,
that it was the Ottomans who fought to keep the old
health, education, internal security, and justice.
Middle Eastern trade route open; the route was closed
Within the millets, just as in Ottoman society as a whole,
only when the Cape route was taken over from the Portu-
there was a social mobility, with persons moving up and
guese by the much more powerful fleets of Great Britain
down the ladder according to ability and luck. Individ-
and Holland.)
uals could pass from one millet to another if they wished
Classical Ottoman society and administration. During
to convert, but because all the millets were extremely an-
the 16th century the institutions of society and govern-
tagonistic toward those who left them to convert to another
ment that had been evolving in the Ottoman dominions
religion, the state discouraged such action as much as
for two centuries reached the classical forms and patterns
possible to preserve social harmony and tranquility, the
that were to characterize them until modern times.
main object of the system. The millet system succeeded
Social
The basic division in Ottoman society was the tradition-
for 500 years by keeping the different peoples of the
divisions
al Middle Eastern distinction between the small group of
empire as much apart as possible, thus reducing to a
rulers who formed the ruling class, and the large mass of
minimum the possible sources of conflict and keeping
subjects. Possession of three attributes was essential for
social order in a highly heterogeneous state.
membership in the Ottoman ruling class: (1) profession
All of the classes, institutions, and communities de-
of loyalty to the sultan and his state; (2) acceptance and
scribed above were, in essence, means by which the slaves
practice of the Muslim religion and the system of thought
and subjects of the sultan were divided and organized so
and action that was an integral part of it; and (3) knowl-
as best to fulfill their functions. But there also were
edge and practice of the complicated system of customs,
means by which they were related to one another and
behaviour, and language known as the Ottoman Way.
united into the whole of Ottoman society. The principal
Those who lacked any of these attributes were considered
cement was the sultan, the keystone of the system who
to be members of the subject class, reayas (rayahs), the
alone was the common focus of loyalty of the ruling and
"protected flock" of the sultan. There was a system of so-
ruled subjects alike. But such loyalty was an abstract; it
cial mobility based on the possession of these definable
could not have held Ottoman society together without the
and attainable attributes; reayas able to acquire them
help of the artisan and religious guilds, which cut across
could rise into the ruling class, and Ottomans who came
the boundaries and made members of different groups
to lack any of them would become members of the sub-
brothers in common organizations based not on class,
ject class.
rank, or religion but on mutually shared values and be-
Members of the Ottoman ruling class were considered
liefs, economic activities, and social needs. Through con-
fual
to be the sultan's slaves, and thus acquired their master's
tact and cooperation in such guilds, members of the dif-
social status. As slaves, however, their properties, lives,
ferent groups of Ottoman society were cemented into a
and persons were entirely at his disposition; and he could
common whole, performing many of the social and eco-
do with them as he wished. Their basic function was to
nomic functions outside the scope of the ruling class and
preserve the Islãmic nature of the state and to rule and
of the millets, particularly those functions associated
defend the empire. By Ottoman theory, the main attri-
with economic regulation and social security, and re-
bute of the sultan's sovereignty was the right to possess all
ceiving a more personal religious experience than that
sources of wealth in the empire together with the authori-
provided by the established religious organizations,
ty necessary to exploit them. The function of enlarging,
whether Muslim or non-Muslim.
protecting, and exploiting that wealth for the benefit of
Within the Ottoman ruling class, the most important
the sultan and his state, therefore, was the main duty of
unit of organization and action was the mukata'a, in
The
the ruling class. The primary duty of the reayas was to
which a member of the ruling class "cut off" a portion of
mukati:
produce the wealth-by farming the land or engaging in
the sultan's revenues and had sufficient authority to ex-
trade and industry-and then paying a part of the result-
ploit it for purposes determined by the sultan. The exact
ing profits to the ruling class in the form of taxes.
nature of the mukata'a depended on the extent to which
The Ottoman state encompassed organizations and hier-
the holder remitted his revenues to the treasury and what
archies developed by the ruling and subject classes to
portion he retained for himself. The timar type of muka-
carry out their functions in Ottoman society. The ruling
ta'a, traditionally described as a fief, only marginally
class divided itself into four functional institutions: the
approached the concept of feudalism as it was known in
Imperial (Mülkiye) Institution, led by the Sultan himself,
Europe because it was part of a centralized system and
provided the leadership and direction for the other insti-
did not involve the kind of mutual rights and obligations
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the 781
characteristic of Western feudalism. In return for services
1; the
Strictly speaking, the 'ulamã' members had the right to
nding
to the state, the timar holder was given the full profits of
invalidate any law they felt contradicted the Shariah, but
curity
the source of revenue for his personal exploitation and
they rarely did this because, as part of the ruling class,
Kale-
profit, which were independent of, and in addition to,
they were under the authority of the sultan and could be
those connected with the exploitation of the timar itself.
asury
removed from their positions. The sultan therefore was
pend-
For many military and administrative positions, timars
relatively free to legislate changes in Ottoman institutions
Itural
normally were given in lieu of salaries, thus relieving the
and practices to meet the needs of the time; this was a
II Ot.
treasury of the trouble and expense of collecting reve-
major factor in the long survival of the empire, even
ge of
nues and disbursing them to its employees as salaries.
during centuries of decline. It must be noted, however,
tining
Almost all the 14th- and 15th-century Ottoman conquests
that with the restricted scope of the Ottoman ruling class
preta-
in southeastern Europe were distributed as timars to mili-
and state and the large areas of power and function left to
S and
tary officers, who in return performed the tasks of admin-
the religious communities and guilds as well as to the
istration in peacetime and provided soldiers and military
Ottoman officials who held the different kinds of muka-
scope
leadership for the Ottoman army in war. Many of the
ta'as, the sultans were never as autocratic as has been
were
officers of the central government also were rewarded
commonly assumed. It was only in the 19th century that
natu-
with timars in place of, or in addition to, salaries paid by
Ottoman reformers centralized government and society
tation
the treasury.
on Western lines and restricted or ended the traditional
d dis-
The second principal form of the mukata'a was the
autonomies, which had done so much to decentralize
class
emânet (trusteeship), held by the emin (trustee, agent).
power in the previous centuries.
group
In contrast to the situation of the timar holder, the emin
turned all his proceeds over to the treasury and was com-
DECLINE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, 1566-1807
mous
forms
pensated entirely by salary, thus being the closest Otto-
The
Internal problems. The reign of Süleyman the Mag-
eader
enflace
man equivalent to the modern government official. The
nificent marked the peak of Ottoman grandeur, but
ent of
legal basis for this arrangement was that the emin did no
elements of weakness crept in and began the slow but
3, par-
more than administer the mukata'a; he undertook no ad-
steady decline that followed. An important factor of de-
dition,
ditional service, and so had no right to share in the profits
cline was the increasing lack of ability and power of the
rative
of the mukata'a that he held. This was the least common
sultans themselves. Süleyman tired of the long military
Decline
erning
type of administrative position in Ottoman times, for the
campaigns and arduous duties of administration concen-
of the
death,
most part used for urban custom houses and market po-
trated in his person, and withdrew more and more from
sultans
lice, which were very close to, and under the supervision
public affairs to devote himself to the pleasure of his har-
vhole,
and control of, the central government and its agents, and
em. To take his place, the office of grand vizier was built
p and
which did not need the profit motive in order to assure
up to become second only to the sultan in authority and
divid-
efficiency on the part of the holders.
revenue, including the right to demand and obtain abso-
vished
The most common kind of mukata'a, and therefore the
lute obedience. But while the grand vizier was, indeed,
ly an-
most prevalent type of administrative unit in the Ottoman
able to replace the sultan in official functions, he could
nother
system, was the tax farm (iltizam), which combined ele-
not take his place as the focus of loyalty for all the dif-
ich as
ments of both the timar and emânet. As in the former, the
ferent classes and groups in the empire. The resulting
y, the
tax farmer (mültezim) could keep a part-but only a
separation of political loyalty and central authority led to
reeded
part-of the tax he collected, and, like the emin, had to
a decline in the government's ability to impose its will.
of the
deliver the balance to the treasury. This was because his
Triumph of the devşirme. The mid-16th century also
: to a
service consisted only of his work in administering the
saw the triumph of the devşirme over the Turkish nobili-
ceping
mukata'a, for which he was given a share of his collection
ty, which lost almost all of its power and positions in the
instead of the emin's salary. The tax farmer thus was
capital and returned to its old centres of power in south-
es de-
given the inducement of profit to be as efficient as possi-
eastern Europe and Anatolia. In consequence, many of
slaves
ble. Most of Anatolia and the Arab provinces were ad-
the timars formerly assigned to the notables to support
zed so
ministered in this way because they were conquered at a
the sipahi cavalry were seized by the devşirme and trans-
were
time when the government's need for cash to pay the
formed into great estates, for all practical purposes as
:r and
salaried Janissary infantry and to supply an increasingly
private property, thus depriving the state of their services
ncipal
lavish court required the treasury to seek out all the
as well as of the revenue they could have produced if they
1 who
revenues it could find. As the timar-based sipahi cavalry
had been transformed into tax farms. Whereas the sipahis
ig and
became less important, and as the Turkish notables who
did not entirely disappear as a military force, the Janis-
act; it
held most of the timars lost most of their political power
saries and the associated artillery corps became the most
ut the
during the time of Süleyman, the estates gradually fell
important segments of the Ottoman army.
cross
into the hands of the devşirme class.
Corruption and nepotism. Because the sultans no longer
roups
The legal and customary bases of organization and ac-
could control the devşirme by playing the Turkish nota-
class,
tion in Ottoman society depended on a dual system of law
bles off against them, the devşirme gained control of the
id be-
-the Shariah or religious law, and the kanun, or civil
sultans and used the government for its own benefit rath-
1 con-
sal
law. The former, the basic law of Ottoman society, as it
er than for that of the sultan or his empire. In conse-
he dif-
was of all Muslim communities, was considered to be a
quence, the evils of corruption and nepotism took hold at
into a
divinely inspired corpus of political, social, and moral
all levels of administration. In addition, with the chal-
1 eco-
regulations and principles, which were supposed to cover
lenge of the notables gone, the devşirme class itself broke
S and
all aspects of life for Muslims. But it was highly de-
into countless factions and parties, each working for its
ciated
veloped only in the fields of personal behaviour covered
own advantage by supporting the candidacy of one or
d re-
in detail in the early Muslim community and reflected in
another of the imperial princes and each in close alliance
1 that
the Qur'ãn and early Muslim tradition. It never was de-
with corresponding palace factions led by the mothers,
tions,
veloped in detail in matters of public law, state organiza-
sisters, and wives of each prince. Following Süleyman,
tion, and administration. Its general principles left room
therefore, accession and appointments to positions came
ortant
for interpretation and legislation on specific matters by
less as the result of ability than as a consequence of the
'a, in The
secular authorities; and the Muslim judges of the Otto-
political manoeuvrings of the devşirme-harem political
on of
mukeis's
man Empire recognized the right of the sultan to legislate
parties. Those in power found it more convenient to con-
to ex-
in civil laws, so long as he did not conflict with the
trol the princes by keeping them uneducated and inexpe-
exact
Shariah in detail or principle. The Shariah, therefore,
rienced, and the old tradition by which young princes
which
provided the principles of public law, and covered mat-
were educated in the field, was replaced by a system in
what
ters of personal behaviour and status in the Muslim millet
which all the princes were isolated in the private apart-
nuka-
in the same way that the members of the Christian and
ments of the harem and limited to the education its per-
inally
Jewish millets were subject to their own religious codes.
manent inhabitants could provide. In consequence, few
wn in
The Shari'ah was interpreted and enforced by members
of the sultans after Süleyman had the ability to exercise
1 and
of the Cultural Institution-the 'ulamã'-just as the laws
real power even when circumstances might have enabled
ations
of each non-Muslim millet were enforced by its leaders.
them to do so.
782 Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
But the lack of ability did not end the sultans' desire for
as new sources of revenue, without performing any mili-
power; because they lacked the devices developed by their
tary services in return. Thus it was that the Ottoman
predecessors to achieve this end, they developed new
armies came to be composed primarily of fighting con-
ones. Selim II (ruled 1566-74), known as the Sot, and
tingents supplied by the vassals of the sultan (particularly
Murad III (ruled 1574-95) both gained power by play-
the Crimean Tartar khans), together with whatever rab-
ing off the different factions and by weakening the office
ble could be dragged from the streets of the cities when-
of grand vizier, the main administrative vehicle for fac-
ever required by campaigns. The Ottoman army still
tional and party influence in the declining Ottoman state.
remained strong enough to curb the most pressing pro-
As the grand viziers lost their dominant position follow-
vincial revolts; but the latter proliferated through the
ing the downfall of Mehmed Sokollu (served 1560-79),
centuries of decline, making effective administration out-
power fell first into the hands of the women of the harem,
side the major cities still under the government's control
during the "Sultanate of the Women" (1570-78), and
almost impossible. In many ways the substratum of Otto-
then into the grasp of the chief Janissary officers, the
man society-formed by the millets and various econom-
ağas who dominated from 1578 to 1625. But no matter
ic, social and religious guilds and buttressed by the orga-
who controlled the apparatus of government during this
nization of the Ottoman 'ulamã-cushioned the mass of
time, the results were the same-a growing paralysis of
the people and the ruling class itself from the worst ef-
administration throughout the empire and a pulling apart
fects of this multisided disintegration.
of the different groups into separate and hostile commun-
External relations. Despite these difficulties, the inter-
ities.
nal Ottoman weakness was evident to only the most dis-
Economic difficulties. Under such conditions, it was
cerning Ottoman and foreign observers during much of
inevitable that the Ottoman government could not meet
the 17th century. Most Europeans continued to fear the
the increasingly difficult problems that rose to plague the
Ottoman army much as it had been feared two centuries
empire in the 16th and 17th centuries. Economic dif-
before; and whereas its ability was reduced, it remained
ficulties began in the late 16th century when the Dutch
strong enough not only to prevent the provincial rebels
and British were able to completely close the old interna-
from assuming complete control but also to make a few
tional trade routes through the Middle East. As a result,
more significant conquests in both East and West. Where-
the prosperity of the Arab provinces declined and, in
as the empire now suffered defeats for the first time, it still
addition, the Ottoman economy was upset by inflation,
retained reserve strength sufficient for it to recoup when
started by the influx of precious metals into Europe from
needed and to prevent the loss of any integral parts of the
the Americas and by an increasing imbalance of trade
empire. Although the Ottoman navy was destroyed by the
Superies
between East and West. As the treasury lost more of its
fleet of the Holy League at the Battle of Lepanto (1571),
of
Ottoms
revenues to the depredations of the devşirme, it began to
it was yet able to rebuild and regain naval mastery in the
navy
vine
to
meet its obligations by debasing the coinage, heavily in-
eastern Mediterranean through most of the 17th century,
HEAT
new
creasing taxes, and resorting to confiscations-all of
taking Tunis from the Spanish Habsburgs (1574), Fez
Europe
which further worsened the situation. All those persons
from the Portuguese (1578), and Crete from Venice
depending on salaries found themselves underpaid, and
(1669). In consequence, so long as Europe continued to
the result was further theft and corruption. Holders of
fear the Ottomans, no one tried to upset the precarious
the timars and tax farms started using them as sources of
peace treaties concluded in Süleyman's later years; and
revenue to be milked as rapidly as possible, rather than as
the Ottomans were shielded from the results of their own
long-term holdings whose prosperity had to be main-
weakness.
tained to provide for the future; political influence and
Military campaigns. Despite the upsets then disturbing
corruption also enabled them to transform these holdings
the Ottoman body politic, the Porte undertook new cam-
into private property, either as life holdings (malikâne)
paigns. When the rising Principality of Moscow con-
or as religious endowments (vakf), without any further
quered the last Mongol states in Central Asia and reached
obligations to the state. Inflation also hit the traditional
the Caspian, thus posing a threat to the Ottoman position
industries and trades. Functioning under strict price regu-
north of the Black Sea and in the Caucasus, Murad II
lations; the guilds were unable to provide quality goods at
conquered the Caucasus and, taking advantage of anarchy
prices low enough to compete with the cheap European
in Iran following the death of Shãh Tahmäsp I in 1576,
manufactured goods that entered the empire without re-
seized the long-coveted Azerbaijan. He thus brought the
The decline
striction due to the capitulations agreements. In conse-
empire to the peak of its territorial extent and added
quence, traditional Ottoman industry fell into rapid de-
wealthy new provinces whose revenues, for a half centu-
of Ottoman
cline.
ry at least, rescued the Ottoman treasury from the worst
industry
Social erosion. These conditions were exacerbated by
of its financial troubles and gave the empire a respite in
a large increase of population during the 16th and 17th
which it could at least try to remedy its worst problems.
centuries-part of the general population rise that oc-
Reform efforts in the 17th century were undertaken by
curred in much of Europe at this time. The amount of
sultans Osman II (ruled 1618-22) and Murad IV (ruled
subsistance available was not only unable to expand to
1623-40) and by a famous dynasty of Köprülü grand
meet the needs of the rising population, but in fact fell as
viziers who served under Sultan Mehmed IV (ruled
the result of the political and economic conditions then
1648-1687)-Mehmed Köprülü (served 1656-61) and
prevalent in the Ottoman Empire; social distress in-
Ahmed Köprülü (served 1661-76). Each of these early
creased, and upset resulted. Landless and jobless peasants
reformers rose as the result of crises and military defeats
fled from the lands as did cultivators subjected to con-
that threatened the very existence of the empire. Each
fiscatory taxation at the hands of timariots and tax collec-
was given the power needed to introduce reforms because
tors, thus reducing food supplies even more. Many of
of the fears of the ruling class that the empire, on which
them fled to the cities, where they added to the problem
its privileges depended, was in mortal danger.
of food supply and reacted against their troubles by rising
Exposure of Ottoman weakness. In a war between the
against the established order; many more remained in the
Ottomans and the Habsburgs (began 1593) the Austrians
countryside and joined rebel bands, known as levends and
were able to take much of central Hungary and Romania,
Jelãlis (Celâlis), which took what they could from those
and only an accidental Ottoman triumph in 1596 enabled
who remained to cultivate and trade.
the Sultan to sufficiently recoup so that the Habsburgs
The central government became weaker; and as more
agreed to the Treaty of Zsitvatorok (1606), by which
peasants joined rebel bands, they were able to take over
agreement Ottoman rule of Hungary and Romania was
large parts of the empire, keeping all the remaining tax
restored. The treaty itself, however, like the events that
revenues for themselves and often cutting off the regular
led up to it, for the first time showed Europe the extent of
food supplies of the cities as well as of the Ottoman
Ottoman weakness and so exposed the Ottomans to con-
armies still guarding the frontiers. Under such conditions,
siderable new dangers in subsequent years. In the East,
the armies themselves broke up, with most of the salaried
anarchy in Iran was brought to an end by Shãh 'Abbãs I
positions in the Janissary corps and other corps falling
(ruled 1587-1629), who not only restored Iranian power
into the hands of urban investors, who used them simply
but drove the Ottomans out of Azerbaijan and the Cauca-
Ottornan Empire and urkey, History or the 783
sus (1603), conquered Iraq (1624), and threatened to
1711 it fought Russia again and at the Treaty of the
nili-
take the entire Ottoman Empire. Though Murad IV was
Pruth (1711) regained some territories previously lost.
man
able to retake Iraq (1638), Iran remained a major threat.
The war of 1714-18 with Venice and Austria was con-
con-
Finally, a long war with Venice (1645-69), occasioned
cluded by the Treaty of Passarowitz (1718); and three
arly
by Ottoman efforts to capture Crete, exposed Istanbul to
wars with Russia and Austria-in 1736-39, 1768-74, and
rab-
a major Venetian naval attack. Although finally pushed
1787-92-culminated in the treaties of Belgrade (1739),
hen-
back in a naval campaign culminating in the Ottoman
Küçük Kaynarca (1774), and Jassy (1792). As a result
still
conquest of Crete (1669), the Venetians still posed a
of these wars, the Ottomans lost Hungary, the Banat of
pro-
major threat, which, like those that had occurred earlier
Temisvar, Transylvania, and Bukovina in Europe, estab-
the
in the century, stimulated the ruling class to accept need-
lishing their boundary on the Danube, where it had last
out-
ed reforms.
been early in the 16th century. To Russia they lost all
Loss of
itrol
Reforms. The Ottoman reforms introduced during the
their possessions on the northern coasts of the Black Sea
Otto-
territory
17th century were too limited in nature and scope to
from the principalities to the Caucasus, including Bessa-
.om-
permanently arrest the Ottoman decline. Basically, they
rabia, Podolya, and the Crimea, the soldiers of which had
'rga-
were no more than efforts to restore to the state the
provided the strongest element in the Ottoman army dur-
S of
inherited system of government and society that had op-
ing the previous century. In addition, the Ottomans were
ef-
erated successfully in the past. Corrupt officials were exe-
compelled to allow the Russians and Austrians to inter-
cuted. Efforts were made to restore the timar and tax-
vene legally on behalf of the sultan's Christian subjects in
nter-
dis-
farm systems as the basis of the administration and army.
a manner that opened the way to an increased European
Provincial revolts were suppressed, peasants were forced
influence in internal Ottoman affairs.
h of
back to the lands, and cultivation was increased. Debased
Imperial decline in the 18th and early 19th centuries.
the
tries
coins were replaced by coins of full face value. Industry
The manifestations of decline were only continuations
ined
and trade were encouraged, and corruption and insubor-
and elaborations of earlier conditions. But a new factor
dination were driven out.
bels
of decline was added-the weakness of the central gov-
Such reforms were sufficient to end the immediate dif-
ernment resulted in the loss of control of most of the
few
ficulties. But they were successful only for the moment
provinces to local rulers, called notables (a'yan), who
here-
still
because the reformers were allowed only to act against
took more or less permanent control of large areas, creat-
vhen
the results of the decay and not its cause-the selfish rule
ing a situation that in many ways resembed European
of the ruling class-which continued. As soon as the
feudalism much more than the traditional Ottoman timar
the
worst consequences of decay had been alleviated, the old
system ever did.
y the
Supervers
71),
groups returned to power and resumed their old ways.
Rise of local rulers. These notables were able to build
of
-
a the
to
Moreover, the reformers really did not understand that
up their power and maintain control not only because the
navy
tury,
new
the Europe now faced by the Ottomans was far more
Sultan's government lacked the military resources to sup-
Fez
powerful than that which the great sultans of the past had
press them but also because the local populations them-
enice
defeated; thus even if the reforms had been more perma-
selves preferred the notables' rule to that of the corrupt
ed to
nently successful, they could not have corrected the in-
and incompetent Ottoman officials of the time. In the
rious
creasing Ottoman weakness relative to the powerful na-
Balkans and Anatolia, local rulers solidified their posi-
and
tion-states then rising in Europe. Such an understanding
tions by taking advantage of currents of local nationalism
was to come to the Ottoman reformers only in the 19th
that were arising among the Balkan Christians and the
own
century.
Muslim Turks. The notables formed private armies of
rbing
Military defeats, 1683-1792. The traditional 17th-
mercenaries and slaves, with which they sometimes pro-
century reforms did, however, produce at least a sem-
vided important contributions to the Ottoman armies in
cam-
con-
blance of revival. By 1681 the Ottoman army seemed so
return for recognition of their autonomy by the sultans.
ched
strong that Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Paşa (served
These rulers were able to exercise almost complete au-
sition
1676-83), brother-in-law of Ahmed Köprülü, was em-
thority, collecting taxes for themselves and sending only
ad II
boldened to move again into central Europe and besiege
nominal payments to the treasury, thus further increasing
archy
Vienna (July-September 1683). His effort quickly over-
its problems. The central government maintained its posi-
1576,
extended the fragile bases of the Ottoman revival.
tion by playing off the local rebels against each other,
it the
Anti-Ottoman coalition. The aroused defenders, stim-
using the leverage of Ottoman support to its own advan-
dded
ulated by the Polish king Jan Sobieski (ruled 1674-96),
tage, and securing considerable payments of cash and
entu-
not only held out but also built a major European coali-
military contributions when needed. The treasury, there-
worst
tion that moved to bring destruction to the Ottoman Em-
fore, did not suffer as much from these provincial revolts
ite in
pire during the subsequent century: the Habsburgs set out
as might be imagined; but the revolts did disrupt the
ns.
to reconquer Hungary, Serbia, and the Balkans; Venice
established food supplies of the empire sufficiently for
n by
hoped to regain its naval bases on the Adriatic and in the
large-scale famines to arise in the major cities on a regu-
ruled
Morea and to resume its naval and commercial power in
lar basis. In response, the urban populace became a rest-
Urban
rand
the Levant; Russia worked to extend its lands to the open
less, misruled, and anarchic mass that broke loose at the
anarchy
ruled
seas. Only the enemies of the coalition in Europe, led by
slightest provocation, responding to unemployment, fam-
and
France and Sweden, tried to support the Ottomans; neu-
ine, the plague, and the like with riots and summary
early
tral Britain and Holland, to guard the commercial privi-
executions of the officials considered responsible. Such
feats
leges they had secured from the sultan through the Ca-
violence, while manifesting Ottoman difficulties, did not
Each
pitulations, worked to prevent any nation from gaining
remedy them and, in fact, made things worse. Remedy
cause
control of the entire Ottoman Empire and from becom-
lay only in the hands of the ruling class; but its reaction
which
ing, thereby, preponderant in Europe.
was quite different.
Russia and Austria fought the Ottomans not only by
Resistance to change. Most Ottomans saw little need
n the
direct military attack but also by fomenting dissatisfac-
for the empire to change because they actually benefitted
rians
tion and revolt on the part of the non-Muslim subjects of
financially from the existing anarchy and lack of control
ania,
the Sultan. Against such an attack, the Ottomans could
by the sultan. In addition, the ruling class was completely
abled
only conciliate their subjects where possible and repress
isolated from developments outside its own sphere; it
burgs
them when conciliation was rejected, taking advantage, at
assumed that the remedies to Ottoman decline lay entire-
which
every opportunity, of every rivalry that arose between the
ly within Ottoman practice and experience. This resulted
was
Habsburgs and Russians for predominance in the Balkan
from the basic belief of Ottoman society in its own supe-
that
provinces of the empire.
riority over anything the infidel could possibly produce
nt of
European wars. In consequence of this situation, the
-a belief that had far more basis in the 16th century,
con-
Ottoman Empire was at war with European enemies for
when it was developed, than in the 18th century. All of
East,
41 years between the second siege of Vienna (1683) and
the developments in industrial and commercial life, in
bãs I
the Treaty of Jassy (1792). From 1683 to 1699 it fought
science and technology, and particularly in political and
ower
the armies of the Holy League in a disastrous war culmi-
military organization and techniques that had occurred in
auca-
nating in the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699). In 1710 and
Europe since the Reformation were simply unknown to
784 Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
the Ottomans. The only direct Ottoman contacts with
reforms elsewhere. Important reforms introduced into
Europe were on the battlefield, where most Ottomans still
the army under Grand Vizier Halil Hamid Paşa (served
assumed that their military reverses were caused not by
1782-85), with the help of Western technicians, were
the superiority of Western armies as such but rather by
limited to new corps especially created for the purpose,
Ottoman failure to apply fully the techniques that had
while the bulk of the Ottoman army continued to remain
worked so well in the past. So the 18th-century reforms
without change.
largely paralleled those of the traditional Ottoman re-
Selim III (ruled 1789-1807). These 18th-century re-
formers of the 17th century, with only occasional efforts
form efforts culminated during the reign of Sultan Selim
to add new military organizations and to make use of
III, who is thought by some to have been the originator
specific European weapons and techniques of undeniable
of modern reform in the Ottoman Empire. While still a
superiority.
prince, Selim developed plans for modernizing the Otto-
Moden
Contacts with the West. For a few Ottomans this isola-
man/army. He came to the throne during the 1787-92
reform
tion was at least partially broken down when some chan-
war with Austria and Russia and had to postpone serious
nels of contact opened with the West during the 18th
reform efforts until its completion. Early efforts to mod-
century-a few Ottoman ambassadors went to Europe to
ernize the Janissary corps created such opposition that
participate in negotiations and sign treaties; more and
Selim thereafter concentrated on creating a new Europe-
more European merchants, travellers, and consuls came
an-style army, called the nizam-i cedid ("new order"),
into the Ottoman Empire; a very few Ottoman men of
using the modern weapons and tactics developed in Eu-
science and philosophy began to correspond with their
rope. This new force, never numbering more than 10,000
Western counterparts; members of the Ottoman minori-
active soldiers, was trained in Istanbul and in certain
ties entered into correspondence with their relatives in the
Anatolian provincial centres by officers and military ex-
West. But such contacts had very limited effects; only a
perts sent by the different European powers that were
small number of Ottomans experienced them, and even
competing for the sultan's support at the time. So as not
when they did learn something, the effect was quite
to disturb the established Ottoman institutions, it was
superficial because the resulting information did not fit
financed by an entirely new treasury, called the irad-i
into the patterns of thought of even the most educated
cedid ("new revenue"), whose revenues came from taxes
Ottomans. Those few who did understand something of
imposed on previously untaxed revenue sources and from
what they heard usually were only voices in the wilder-
the confiscation of some timars whose holders were not
ness, and their efforts to apply and spread what they knew
fulfilling their military and administrative duties to the
had little overall effect.
state. Under the guidance of European technicians, facto-
Such contacts did lead to changes in the modes of living
ries were constructed to manufacture modern weapons
of a few upper class Ottomans and to some military
and ammunitions, and technical schools were opened to
innovations, but to nothing more. Starting in the so-called
train Ottoman officers. Limited efforts also were made to
The Tulip
Tulip Period (1717-30; see below) some Ottomans un-
rationalize the Ottoman administrative machinery, but
Period
der the influence of Grand Vizier Ibrahim Paşa began to
largely along traditional lines.
dress like Europeans, and the palace began to imitate
The older military corps, however, remained intact and
European court life and pleasures. Sultan Ahmed III
hostile to the new force, and Selim was therefore com-
(ruled 1703-30) built several lavish summer residences
pelled to limit its size and use. At the same time, much of
on the Bosporus and the Golden Horn (an inlet that
his energy was diverted by the rise of powerful autono-
forms the harbour of Istanbul), and these were imitated
mous notables in southeastern Europe, Anatolia, and the
by members of his immediate entourage, who held fre-
Arab provinces, as well as by a French Expedition to
quent garden parties in imitation of the pleasures of Ver-
Egypt (1798-1801), which eventually drew him into al-
reserva
sailles. The sultan and his ministers were no longer con-
liances with Great Britain and Russia. The rise of nation-
rule
fined behind the walls of the palace; and the new era was
alism among Ottoman subject peoples stimulated by
celebrated by Nedim, the court poet, who reflected a
agents of Russia, Austria, and Revolutionary France, and
considerable awareness of his environment and an
culminating in the beginning of a Serbian revolution
appreciation of nature. Growing tulips, as a mark of
(1804) and a new war with Russia (1806-12) also made
westernization, became an obsession with rich and poor
it impossible for Selim to resist the wishes of the Janissar-
alike, and the flower gave its name to the period. In 1727
ies, who still formed the bulk of his army. Finally, the
Turkish language books were printed for the first time in
sultan's personal weakness, which led him to desert the
the empire by a Hungarian convert named Ibrahim Mü-
reformers and the new army whenever opposition became
teferrika; and while the press was closed by the govern-
strong, left him with little significant support in 1807,
ment at times, during the remainder of the century it
when he was attacked and overthrown by a conservative
provided a number of books on history and geography
coalition. While Selim was imprisoned in the palace, a
that further opened the minds of those who saw and read
conservative reaction under Sultan Mustafa IV (1807-
them.
08) ended the reforms and massacred most of the re-
Military reforms. As a result of contact with European
formers. An effort to restore Selim led by the Bulgarian
armies and the influence of European renegades in Otto-
notable Bayrakdar Mustafa Paşa led to Selim's death
man service, a few attempts were made during the centu-
and, after the short rule of Mustafa IV, the accession of
ry to adopt Western-type uniforms, weapons, and tactics.
his reforming cousin, Mahmud II (ruled 1808-39). Sel-
Because the members of the established military corps
im's reforms were largely abandoned for some time. But
could not and would not surrender their old ways, entire-
the greatly increased knowledge of the West in the Otto-
ly new corps were formed to handle the new weapons
man Empire, made possible by the schools established for
under the direction of European instructors. But the new
the nizam-1 cedid as well as by the increased numbers of
corps had no effect at all on the Janissaries and the other
Westerners present in Istanbul during the era of the
older corps that continued to form the bulk of the army;
French Revolution, began the process by which the old
the latter accurately saw that the new ways were threats
Ottoman isolation was finally and definitively broken. This
to their privileges and security. The new corps were,
set the stage for more significant reforms, which trans-
therefore, no more than special mercenary bodies built
formed the empire during the remainder of the 19th cen-
up under the stimulus of individual Ottomans, lasting
tury.
(S.J.S.)
only so long as the latter remained in power. The most
successful and lasting Ottoman military reform during
II. European domination and the establishment
this time came in the navy, which was modernized by
of a Turkish national state
Grand Admiral Gazi Hasan Paşa (served 1770-89), with
THE EMPIRE, FROM 1807 TO 1920
the support and encouragement of Sultan Abdülhamid I
The triumph of the antireform coalition, which had
(ruled 1774-89); this success came largely because the
overthrown Selim III, was interrupted in 1808 when the
Ottoman naval establishment was wiped out at the Battle
surviving reformers within the higher bureaucracy found
of Çeşme (1770) by a Russian fleet, and there was no
support among the a'yan (local notables) of Rumelia
such inbred resistance as that which stifled significant
(Ottoman possessions in the Balkans), who were worried
Ottoman Empire and turkey, History or the 185
nto
ved
AUSTRIA
Losses 1807-29
HUNGARY
RUSSIA
ere
Diala
DOB
se,
Losses 1830-78
HERCEGOVINA
Dnepr
ain
(to Austria-Hungary 1878,
Odessa
annexed 1908)
Oil
Losses 1879-1915
SERBIA
re-
(to Russia
(aut
1830,
WALCHA-BOMANIA
CRIMEA
1829)
1878,
1878)
Losses 1916-23
lim
Anapa
Becherest &
tor
ABKHAZIA
Turkey in 1924
la
Moder
(to Russia 1829)
:to-
reform
MONTENEGRO
RUMELIA
(ind. 1918-20)
878, to
-92
Bolgaria 1885)
POTI
(to Russia 1829)-
Rion
ous
ALBANIA
BATUM
CAUCASUS
Adnanople (Edime)
Tiffis
(ind) 1913)
od-
(to Russia 1878)
San Stefano
Unkiar Skelissi
Samsun
ACHALZICH
ITALY
MACEDONIA
(to Russia 1829)
hat
Istanbul (Constantinople)
Imbros
Halys
Prebibond
w
pe-
Dardanelles
Sakarya
Tenedos
Ankara
Erzurum
BREEGS
Sivas
ARMENTA
TURKEY
Eu-
(British sphere
Izmir
Bitits
influence after W.W.I)
000
(Smyrna)
ANATOLIA
(French sphere of
ain
Navarino
Konya
influence after W.W.I)
AZERBAIJAN
(Italian sphere of
Lake
ex-
influence after W.W.I)
Urmia
CILICIA
ere
CRETE
CHATAY-
Tehran
not
(to Britain 1878,
Rhodes
aut. 1897)
Aleppo
Kirkuk
was
Spinalonga
Cyprus
IRAN
Nicosia
SYRIA
ad-i
axes
LEBANGN
rom
Damascus
Beghdad
not
Acre
IRAQ
Haifa
the
PALESTINE:
Jerusalem
TRANS
cto-
ARABIA
Alexandria
JORDAN
cons
CYRENAICA
d to
EGYPT
0
75
150
225
300
mi
KUWAIT
:e to
but
0
150
300
450 km
The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, 1807-1924.
and
Adapted from R. Treharne and H. Fullard (eds.), Muir's Historical Atlas: Ancient, Medieval and Modern,
9th edition (1965); George Philip & Son Ltd., London
com-
h of
yet-
by possible threats to their own position. These were led
Meanwhile Napoleon, through the agreements of Tilsit
ono-
I the
scion
by Bayrakdar (Standard Bearer) Mustafa Paşa. The
(July 7, 1807) and Erfurt (October 12, 1808), had not
forces of Mustafa and the grand vizier Çelebi Mustafa
only abandoned active opposition to Russia but had ac-
n to
o al-
deserva-
Paşa together recovered Istanbul; deposed Mustafa IV;
cepted its occupation of the Principalities.
tion-
rule
set up Mahmud II, the son of Abdülhamid I; and re-
The preoccupation of the European powers with other
I by
commenced some of the reforming policies that had been
interests helped the Ottomans mend the international
initiated by Selim.
problems. Britain made peace on January 5, 1809 (Peace
and
ition
The a'yan took care to protect their own interests by
of the Dardanelles); and Russia, on May 28, 1812
nade
securing in the Covenant of Union (Sened-i Ittifak) a
(Treaty of Bucharest), by which the Principalities were
definition and guarantee of their own rights against the
returned to Ottoman rule although Russia retained most
ssar-
central government. Their victory, however, was short-
of Bessarabia.
the
t the
lived. A further Janissary uprising in November 1808 led
Internal reform. Mahmud II was then able to concen-
to the death of the Bayrakdar and to the re-establishment
trate on internal reform. The basic element in Mahmud's
came
of conservative rule.
807,
reforms was the reconstruction of the army to make it a
Recon-
ative
Mahmud II (ruled 1808-39). The Ottoman situation
fit instrument for preserving the Ottoman Empire against
struction
at the end of 1808 appeared desperate. Within the empire
both the encroachments of European powers and the
of the
ce, a
307-
the authority of the central government was minimal.
centrifugal ambitions of local potentates. This policy
army
Control of North Africa had long since faded. In Egypt,
brought him into head-on collision with the Janissaries.
re-
rian
the Ottoman Viceroy Muhammad 'Ali (q.v.) was laying
In 1826 Mahmud set out his proposals for a new Europe-
eath
the foundations for independent power. In Iraq the Geor-
an style army; on June 15 the Istanbul Janissaries muti-
n of
gian Mamlük pashas paid only lip service to the authority
nied in protest and were promptly and efficiently massa-
Sel-
of the Porte, as did various independent local governors in
cred by the sultan-an episode known to later Ottoman
But
Syria. In Arabia the Wahhãbis mocked Ottoman preten-
historians as "The Auspicious Incident."
Otto-
sions. In all Anatolia only two provinces were really
As a tactician, Mahmud proved to be superior to Selim.
1 for
under central control, while in the European provinces
He had the support of most of the higher 'ulamã'.
rs of
power had fallen into the hands of such formidable local
Whereas in 1807 the Janissaries had enjoyed the approv-
the
notables as Ali Paşa, who controlled southern Albania,
al of the population of Istanbul, in 1826 only two guilds
old
and Osman Pasvanoğlu, who had dominated northern
gave them active help. Mahmud had built up a cooper-
This
Bulgaria until his death in 1807. Serbia under the leader-
ative group among the Janissary officers and had care-
rans-
ship of George Petrović (Karageorge) had been in revolt
fully arranged to have loyal troops at hand. Perhaps
cen-
since 1804; at first the Serbs had risen in desperation
most important of all, Mahmud presented his proposals
J.S.)
against the terrorist policies of the Janissaries, who had
not as dangerous and infidel innovations but as a res-
usurped the power of the local governor, but they had
toration of the military system of the Ottoman golden
subsequently demanded autonomy and, in 1807, allied
age.
with Russia.
The destruction of the old army was completed in 1831
The external threat to the empire was no less ominous.
by the final abolition of the feudal (timar) system. The
Selim III had hoped to enlist French aid in order to
remaining fiefs were resumed by the government. Al-
had
1 the
recover territory lost to Russia; as a result, the Ottomans
though the new army was dressed, equipped, and trained
ound
found themselves at war with both Russia, which invaded
in the style of European armies and helped by a succes-
nelia
the Principalities in November 1806, and Britain, which
sion of European advisers (including the future chief
rried
attempted to seize the Dardanelles with a naval force
of the German General Staff, Helmuth von Moltke), it
(February 1807) and invaded Egypt (March 1807).
differed from the former army in its greater loyalty to the
786 Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
sultan. It thus became an instrument of political centrali-
ponnese (October 20, 1827) prevented the Muslims from
zation, and it provided the major motive for moderniza-
supplying their armies and made Greek independence
tion. The continuing need to pay and equip the army and
inevitable. The Ottomans were forced to recognize first
to train its officers and other specialized personnel in a
Greek autonomy (1829), and then independence (1832).
sustained, but ultimately vain, attempt to keep pace with
Similarly, Ottoman efforts to regain control of Serbia
the European powers, stimulated reform of the political
and the Principalities were obstructed by Russian opposi-
and economic institutions of the Ottoman Empire. The
tion, leading to the Russo-Ottoman War (1828-29). By
modernization of higher education began with the need to
the Treaty of Edirne (Adrianople) on September 14,
train officers, army doctors, and veterinary surgeons; that
1829, the Ottomans ceded to Russia the mouth of the
of the taxation system began with the need to pay the
Danube and important territories in eastern Asia Minor
army; that of the administration, with the need to collect
and conceded new privileges to the Principalities and
the taxes, and so on. Ultimately the entire system of min-
Serbia. Serbian autonomy was recognized in 1830 and
imal government-by which political, economic, and so-
was extended over the full area of the state in 1833.
cial decisions were left to local organizations-was re-
By the death of Mahmud II (July 1, 1839) the Ottoman
placed by one in which the state came to centralize deci-
Empire was diminished in extent; it was more consolidat-
sions in its own hands.
ed and powerful but increasingly subject to European
Changes in the
Move toward centralization. Mahmud began by curb-
pressures, with Russia supporting and Britain opposing
empire
ing the power of rival claimants. He undermined the in-
separatist movements and the other powers oscillating
fluence of the 'ulamã' and of popular religious organiza-
between. The cure, however, had begun. Mahmud had
tions. He created a new directorate of evkâf (charitable
established the "respectability of change," and its symbol
endowments) in 1826, hoping to gain control of the hith-
was the replacement of the turban with the fez (1828).
erto independent financial base of 'ulamã' power. To
The Tanzimat (1839-76). The "Tanzimat" is the name
make his power more effective, he built new roads and,
given to the series of Ottoman reforms promulgated dur-
in 1834, inaugurated a postal service.
ing the reigns of Mahmud's sons Abdülmecid I (ruled
Adminis-
The central administration was reorganized. New Euro-
1839-61) and Abdülaziz (ruled 1861-76). The best
trative
pean-style ministries were created to replace the ancient
known of these reforms are the Hatt-1 Șerif of Gülhane
reorgani-
bottleneck of power caused by the universal administra-
(Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber; November 3, 1839)
zation
tive responsibility of the grand vizier. New councils were
and the Hatt-1 Hümayun (Imperial Edict, February 18,
established to assist in long term planning; one-the Su-
1856).
preme Council of Judicial Ordinances (1838)-subse-
Purpose of the Tanzimat. The Tanzimat has been the
quently became the principal legislative body. Bureau-
subject of much controversy. Many Western writers have
crats were given greater security by abolishing the prac-
dismissed the promises of reform as an Ottoman desire to
tice of confiscating their property at death, while the
win European diplomatic support at critical moments,
opening of a translation bureau (1833) and the reopen-
and some features of the Tanzimat appear to support
ing of embassies abroad gave some the opportunity to
such a view. The promises of equality for Christian sub-
learn European languages and encounter European ideas.
jects were not always implemented-for example, it was
The reformed army and administration became the
proposed in 1855 to end the poll tax paid by non-Muslims
agents by which the sultan extended his authority over
and to allow them to enter the army; but the old poll tax
the semi-independent governors, local notables, valley
was merely replaced by a new exemption tax levied at a
lords (derebeys), and other groups, that had wielded
higher rate, and Christians were still excluded from the
political power in various parts of the empire. This pro-
army. It is also true that the timing of reform announce-
cess had begun immediately after 1812. The Serbian re-
ments coincided with crises-the 1839 edict came when
volt had been temporarily suppressed in 1813, although it
the Ottomans needed European help against Muhammad
broke out again in 1815. Firm Ottoman governmental
'Ali; the 1856 edict when the Ottomans needed European
control was established over Anatolia, Iraq, and much of
acceptance in the wake of the Crimean War; and the
Rumelia.
1876 constitution when European pressure for reforms
The only local ruler who succeeded in asserting his own
was mounting.
authority, unaided against the Porte, was Muhammad
This view of the Tanzimat is based, however, upon a
'Ali of Egypt, who was carrying through a still more
misconception of its purpose. Europeans, who were prin-
radical program of modernization. In 1831 Egyptian
cipally concerned with winning better conditions for Ot-
forces invaded Syria, routed the Ottomans at Konya (De-
toman Christians, looked first at those elements of the
cember 27, 1832) and threatened Istanbul. Mahmud was
Tanzimat that appeared to be directed toward this goal
forced to seek Russian aid, and on July 8, 1833, he signed
(e.g., a proclamation in the 1839 edict of the principles of
the Treaty of Hünkâr Iskelesi (Unkiar Skelessi); Mu-
individual liberty, freedom from oppression, and equality
hammad 'Ali was, for a time, left in possession of Syria,
before the law and a substantial section of the 1856 edict
but Mahmud had not abandoned his claims. In 1839 he
that was concerned with the rights of Christians). But to
attacked the Egyptians; once more the Ottomans were
the Ottomans the purpose of reform was to preserve the
defeated (June 24, 1839). With the help of the European
Ottoman state. While it was necessary to make some
powers (except France) through the Treaty of London
concessions to European powers and to their own non-
(July 15, 1840), the Ottomans recovered Syria and even-
Muslim subjects, and, although some Tanzimat statesmen
tually consolidated their authority there; but Muhammad
saw equality as an ultimate goal, it was preservation that
'Ali obtained recognition as hereditary ruler of Egypt
required the mobilization of resources for moderniza-
(1841).
tion. The central reforms, therefore, were in the army
Attempts to extend Ottoman control in the European
(notably major reorganizations of 1842 and 1869, the
provinces, notably in Greece, Serbia, and the Principali-
latter following the pattern of the successful Prussian
ties, were frustrated. The Greek revolt was the product of
conscript system); in the administration, both at the cen-
the economic prosperity of the Napoleonic Wars, expo-
tre and in the provinces; and in society, through changes
sure to western European ideas, and a reaction against
in education and law.
Ottoman centralization. It had two sources. The first lay
Reform in education. Before the reforms, education in
in the opposition of peasants and bandits; the second, in
the Ottoman Empire had not been a state responsibility
the plots of certain intellectuals organized through the
but had been provided by the various millets; education
Philikí Etairía (a political society) and led by Alexander
for Muslims was controlled by the 'ulamã' and was di-
Ypsilantis, who invaded Moldavia in March 1821. Ypsi-
rected toward religion. The first inroads into the system
lantis was defeated, but a rising began in the Peloponne-
had been made with the creation of naval (1773), mili-
sus. A stalemate developed; but the Ottomans were rein-
tary (1793), engineering, medical (1827), and military
forced, in 1825, by Egyptian troops and threatened to put
science (1834) colleges. In this way specialized Western-
down the revolt. The destruction of the combined Otto-
type training was grafted onto the traditional system to
man and Egyptian fleets by Russian, French, and British
produce specialists for the army. Similar institutions for
naval forces at Navarino, in the southwestern Pelo-
diplomats and administrators were founded, including
OF
use
/0/
the translation bureau (1833) and the civil service school
taxation had been aggravated by the Ottoman problems
rom
(1859); the latter was reorganized in 1877 and eventually
of debt repayment. The first Ottoman foreign loan was in
ence-
became the faculty of political science in the University
1854; by 1875 the nominal public debt was £200,000,000
first
of Ankara (1950) and the major training centre for
with annual repayments and amortization taking
32).
higher civil servants.
£12,000,000, or more than half the national revenue, but
rbia
In 1846 the first comprehensive plan for state education
the Ottomans could pay only half the interest due because
osi-
By
:mpre-
was made. It provided for a complete system of primary
a world financial crisis in 1873 had made new credit
and secondary schools leading to university, all under the
difficult to obtain.
14,
resive
exation
Ministry of Education. A still more ambitious education-
Balkan discontent was fanned by nationalist agitation
the
al plan, inaugurated in 1869, provided for free and com-
supported by Serbia and by émigré Slav organizations. It
inor
pulsory primary education. Both schemes progressed
culminated in risings largely of Christian peasants against
and
slowly because of a lack of money, but they provided a
Muslim lords in Bosnia and Hercegovina (July 1875)
and
framework within which development toward a systemat-
and in Bulgaria (August 1876). Ottoman efforts to sup-
ic, secular pattern could take place.
press the risings led to war with Serbia and Montenegro
man
By 1914 there were more than 36,000 Ottoman schools,
(July 1876) and to attempts by European powers to force
dat-
Changes
although the great majority were small, traditional pri-
Ottoman reforms.
pean
in the
mary schools. The development of the state system was
Agreement among the European powers proved impos-
sing
empire
aided by the example of progress among the non-Muslim
sible; and when the Ottomans rejected its demands, Rus-
iting
millet schools, in which the education provided was more
sia decided to act alone and declared war (April 24,
had
modern than in the Ottoman schools; by 1914 these in-
1877). The war ended in defeat for the Ottomans, but
Russo-
nbol
cluded more than 1,800 Greek schools with about 185,-
their unexpected resistance at Plevna (modern Pleven,
Turkish
000 pupils and some 800 Armenian schools with more
Bulgaria; July-December 1877) allowed other European
War,
ame
than 81,000 pupils. Non-Muslims also used schools pro-
powers, led by Britain, to intervene. According to the
dur-
1877-78
vided by foreign missionary groups in the empire; by
Treaty of San Stefano (March 3, 1878), the Ottomans
uled
1914 there were 675 U.S., 500 French Catholic, and 178
were to recognize the independence of Romania, Serbia,
best
British missionary schools, with more than 100,000 pu-
and Montenegro and cede territory to them; to concede
hane
pils among them. These foreign schools included such
autonomy to an extensive new state of Bulgaria; to cede
839)
famous institutions as Robert College (founded 1863),
territory to Russia in the Dobruja (west of the Black Sea)
y 18,
the Syrian Protestant College (1866; later the American
and eastern Asia Minor; and to introduce various admin-
n the
University of Beirut), and the Université Saint-Joseph
istrative reforms and pay an indemnity.
(1874).
Diplomatic pressure from other European powers led to
have
are to
Reforms in law. Law too, to a large extent, had been
the modification of these terms at the Congress of Berlin
the responsibility of the various millets. The Capitula-
(June-July 1878). The major changes concerned autono-
ents,
tions exempted foreigners and those Ottoman citizens on
mous Bulgaria, which was substantially reduced in size
pport
whom foreign consuls conferred protection from the ap-
and divided into two parts-the northern part to have
sub-
plication of criminal law. The Tanzimat reformers had
political and the southern (eastern Rumelia) to have
t was
slims
two objects in the reform of law and legal procedure-to
administrative autonomy. The independence of Serbia,
make Ottoman law acceptable to Europeans so that the
Montenegro, and Romania was recognized, but their ter-
11 tax
1 at a
capitulations could be abolished and sovereignty recov-
ritorial gains were much reduced. Russia retained its ac-
ered, and to modernize the traditional Islãmic law. Their
quisitions of Kars and Batum in Asia Minor. Austria-
n the
efforts resulted in the promulgation of a number of codes
Hungary was given control of Bosnia and Hercegovina
unce-
when
-a commercial code (effective in 1850), a commercial
and the strategic district of Novi Pazar, in Yugoslavia.
nmad
procedure (1861), a maritime code (1863), and a penal
By a separate convention Cyprus was put under British
code (1858). French influence predominated in these, as
rule.
opean
di the
it did in the civil code of 1870-76. Increasingly, the laws
The settlement was a major defeat for the Ottomans.
forms
were administered in new state courts, outside the control
Eastern Rumelia was soon lost, when it united with Bul-
of the 'ulamã'. Although they failed to achieve the pur-
garia in 1885. The Ottoman territories in Europe were
poses intended, they provided the basis for future success.
reduced to Macedonia, Albania, and Thrace, and Europe-
pon a
prin-
Obstructions to reforms. The Tanzimat reforms moved
an influence had attained new dimensions. Britain now
or Ot-
steadily in the direction of modernization and cen-
proposed to supervise governmental reforms in the Asian
of the
tralization. The reformers were handicapped by lack
provinces, although this was skillfully frustrated by Ab-
$ goal
of money and skilled men; and they were opposed by
dülhamid II (ruled 1876-1909). In addition, the Otto-
les of
traditionalists, who argued that the reformers were de-
mans were soon forced to accept new financial controls.
uality
stroying the empire's fundamental Islãmic character and
By the Decree of Muharrem (December 1881) the Otto-
edict
who often halted the progress of reform. Centralization,
man public debt was reduced from £191,000,000 to
But to
ropean
meanwhile, was slowed by European interference, which
£106,000,000, certain revenues were assigned to its ser-
at-
e the
obstructed the Ottoman attempt to recover power in Bos-
vice, and a European-controlled organization (the Otto-
rence
nia and Montenegro in 1853; forced the granting of au-
man Public Debt Administration-OPDA) was set up to
some
tonomy to Mount Lebanon in 1861; and considered, but
collect them.
non-
eventually rejected, intervention to prevent the Ottomans
The OPDA subsequently played an important part in Ot-
esmen
a that
from suppressing a Cretan revolt of 1868. Although
toman affairs, acting as agent for the collection of other
rniza-
Britain and France helped the Ottomans resist Russian
revenues and as an intermediary with European com-
pressure during the Crimean War (1853-56), the Otto-
panies seeking investment opportunities. Its influence
army
9, the
mans derived no real benefits from the peace settlement;
should not, however, be exaggerated. It remained under
ussian
and new arrangements helped to bring about the uni-
Ottoman political control, and its existence even enabled
fication of the Principalities (1859) and paved the way
the Ottomans to add to the debt at the annual rate of
e cen-
for the emergence of independent Romania.
£3,000,000 throughout the reign of Abdülhamid; nor was
langes
The very success of the Tanzimat reformers revealed a
the burden of repayments a major drain on the country's
novel weakness. The effect of centralization removed the
ion in
resources. But taken in conjunction with the activities of
ibility
checks on the power of the sultan. After the death of Ali
European-controlled banks and with the tariff limitations
cation
Paşa, Abdülaziz so abused his unrestrained authority as
imposed on the Ottomans by the capitulations, the result
as di-
to produce a major crisis in 1875-78.
was a distinct restriction on Ottoman ability to guide the
,ystem
The 1875-78 crisis. Drought in 1873 and floods in
allocation of resources.
mili-
1874 produced widespread discontent and even famine
The constitution, 1876. Perhaps more significant than
ilitary
among an Ottoman peasantry already disturbed by its
external changes were the internal political developments
increased burdens under a landholding system that had
estern-
that brought about the first Ottoman constitution, De-
em to
spread in the Balkans in the 19th century and by in-
cember 23, 1876. The Tanzimat had produced three types
ns for
creased taxation and greater liability to conscription as a
of criticism within the Muslim community. The first was
luding
result of the 1869 military reorganization. The burden of
a simple traditionalist opposition. The second was a more
788
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
sophisticated critique elaborated by certain intellectuals,
Abdülhamid II (ruled 1876-1909). The reign of Ab-
Th
many of whom had bureaucratic training and some
dülhamid II is often regarded as having been a reaction
dent
knowledge of Western ideas. The third was a determina-
against the Tanzimat; but, insofar as the essence of the
as t
tion to depose the sultan (see below).
Tanzimat reforms was centralization rather than liberali-
Tur
The
The intellectuals were known as the Young Ottomans.
zation, Abdülhamid may be seen as its fulfiller rather
3rd
Young
Although some had taken part in a secret society (the
than its destroyer. The continued development of the
inde
Ottomans
"Patriotic Alliance") in 1865 and had some similarity of
army and administration, the formation of a gendarmer-
(CU
background, the Young Ottomans were not an organized
ie, the growth of communications-especially the tele-
acy
political party; they are considered as a group largely
graph and railways-and the formation of an elaborate
cen
through the accident of their assembly in Paris and Lon-
spy system enabled the sultan to monopolize power and
vidu
don in 1867-71. Their political views ranged from secu-
crush opposition. His brutal repression of the Armenians
in ]
lar, cosmopolitan revolutionism to profoundly Islãmic
in 1894-96 earned him the European title red sultan.
pre:
traditionalism. Because his views occupied a middle
But Abdülhamid's reign also made positive advances in
(18
ground among these intellectuals and because of his lu-
education (including the foundation of the University of
gat
cidity of expression, Namik Kemal (1840-88) has often
Istanbul in 1900); in legal reform, led by his grand vizier
low
been regarded as the representative figure, although he is
Mehmed Said Paşa; and in economic development,
the
no more representative than the others. His views, how-
through the construction of railways in Asia Minor and
to S
ever, had the greatest effect on later reformers.
Syria with foreign capital and of the Hejaz Railway from
Un
Kemal criticized the Tanzimat reformers for their indis-
Damascus to Medina with the help of international Mus-
ann
criminate adoption of Western innovations. While admir-
lim subscriptions.
TI
ing much of Western civilization, he believed that the
Pan-Islämism. The Hejaz Railway constituted one ele-
of
the
principles underlying its best institutions were to be found
ment in Abdülhamid's Pan-Islamic policies. Political
pre
in Islãm. In particular he derived from early Islãmic
Pan-Islämism had made its first appearance in Ottoman
idia
precept and practice the idea of a representative assembly
policy at the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) with Rus-
ing
that could check the unbridled power of the sultan and
sia, when the Ottoman sultan had put forward claims to
pro
his ministers. He helped to form and popularize the idea
religious jurisdiction over Muslims outside his territories
hav
of a constitution and of loyalty to the Ottoman father-
(particularly those in the Crimea). Some years later the
soc
land. Like others, he was assisted by the development of
theory was elaborated by the addition of the baseless
der
an Ottoman press, which had its origins in the 1830s but
legend that in 1517 the 'Abbasid caliphate had been trans-
the
began to express opinions, occasionally critical of the
ferred to the Ottoman sultan. With the extinction of
for
government, in the 1860s, which saw the establishment
many independent Muslim states and their absorption
effe
of the Tercüman-1 Ahval (1860) and the Tasvir-i Efkâr
into the empires of European powers, this myth of the
we
(1862), both of which, along with later newspapers, be-
caliphate became a useful weapon in the Ottoman diplo-
Powe:
rea
came the vehicles for Young Ottoman ideas.
matic armoury and was exploited by Abdülhamid as a
the my
Ir
But it was the third line of criticism that was most
means of deterring European powers from pressing him
of the
(ki
important. Arising within the higher Ottoman bureaucra-
too hard, lest he create dissension within their own terri-
caliphz-
Ma
cy itself, it was led by Midhat Paşa. Midhat and others
tories. In addition, stress on popular Islãm through the
at
became convinced by their own exclusion from power
press and other publications and through the Sultan's
tin:
and by the disastrous results of Abdülaziz's policies that
patronage of dervish orders served to rally Muslim opin-.
ari
some check was needed upon the sultan's power. The
ion within the empire behind him.
leg
traditional check was deposition, and this was accom-
Preservation of the empire. Abdülhamid had reason-
wh
plished (May 30, 1876) following a riot by theological
able success in preserving the empire after 1878. Apart
COI
students and the removal of the hated grand vizier Mah-
from eastern Rumelia, no further territories were lost,
an
mud Nedim Paşa. A new Cabinet was formed, which
until 1908 (Ottoman authority in Tunisia, occupied by
spi
included Midhat and other partisans of reform. A new
France in 1881, and that in Egypt, occupied by Britain in
Ist
sultan, Murad V (ruled 1876), with a reputation for
1882, was already insignificant). In Crete the Ottomans
do
liberalism was installed; but Murad became insane and
suppressed revolts and defeated Greece when it inter-
ma
was deposed in August and replaced by Abdülhamid II.
vened in 1897 in support of the Cretans. The European
D
The experience convinced Midhat of the necessity of a
powers, however, forced Abdülhamid to concede auton-
an
permanent check upon the power of the sultan, such as
omy to Crete. He was more successful in obstructing the
of
could be provided by a representative assembly that
efforts of the powers to force the introduction of substan-
re:
would give ministers a basis of support independent of
tial reforms in Macedonia. In Arabia the Ottomans con-
Se
the sultan. Accordingly, Abdülhamid was persuaded to
tinued the expansion of their power that had begun in the
R
agree to a constitution.
early 1870s.
po
Although earlier documents had had constitutional im-
The Young Turk Revolution, 1908. Several conspira-
me
plications and although the development of councils-
cies took place against Abdülhamid. In 1889 a conspiracy
It
particularly provincial councils with their elected ele-
in the military medical college spread to other Istanbul
CO
ments-had had parliamentary aspects, the December 23
colleges. These conspirators came to call themselves
U1
document was the first comprehensive Ottoman constitu-
Union and Progress (Ittihad ve Terakki). When the plot
ot!
First
tion and, except for a Tunisian organic law of 1861, the
was discovered, some of its leaders went to reinforce
m:
first in any Islãmic country. The constitution was derived
Ottoman exiles in Paris, Geneva, and Cairo, where they
m
Ottoman
consti-
entirely from the will of the ruler, who retained full ex-
helped to prepare the ground for a revolution by develop-
of
tution
ecutive power and to whom ministers were individually
ing a comprehensive critique of the Hamidian system.
Ju
responsible. In legislation the sultan was assisted by a
The most noteworthy among these were Murad Bey,
th
two-chamber Parliament-the lower indirectly elected and
Ahmed Riza, and Prince Sabaheddin. As editor of Mizan
]
the upper nominated by the ruler. Rights of ruler and
("Balance"), published first in Istanbul (1886) and later
in
ruled were set out, but the system it established might
in Cairo and Geneva, Murad Bey preached liberal ideas
gr
best be described as attenuated autocracy. Midhat has
combined with a strong Islãmic feeling; this last may
ar
been criticized for accepting certain amendments demand-
have contributed to his defection and return to Istanbul in
fo
ed by Abdülhamid, including the then notorious article
1897. Ahmed Riza in Paris edited Meşveret ("Consulta-
me
P:
113, which gave the sultan the right to deport persons
tion"), in which he set out ideas of reform, strongly
ho
harmful to the state; but it is clear that the majority of
flavoured by positivism. His advocacy of a strong central
Ent
as
Midhat's colleagues were content with these amendments,
government within the Ottoman Empire and the exclu-
ce
and that the amendments made little difference, so great
sion of foreign influence led to a major split within the
un
were the sultan's powers within and outside the constitu-
Young Turk exiles at the 1902 Paris Congress; Ahmed
1
tion. The Parliament summoned under the constitution in
Riza clashed with Sabaheddin, who, with Armenian sup-
Y
March 1877 was dissolved in less than a year and was not
port, favoured administrative decentralization and Euro-
in
recalled until 1908. The liberals were exiled; some, incud-
pean assistance to promote reform. Sabaheddin set up the
F
ing Midhat, were put to death.
League of Private Initiative and Decentralization.
ci
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the 789
b.
The émigrés could supply literary sustenance to dissi-
although by European standards the central Ottoman
dents, but Abdülhamid could not be overthrown so long
on
government remained relatively weak, particularly in the
he
as the army remained loyal. The real origin of the Young
provinces distant from Istanbul. The burden of taxation
li-
Turk Revolution of 1908 lay in the discontent within the
was well below that of European powers.
er
3rd Army Corps in Macedonia, where officers acted quite
The Young Turks were the first Ottoman reformers to
he
independently of the Committee of Union and Progress
promote industrialization, with a Law for the Encourage-
:r-
(CUP) in Paris. It is still unclear if a coordinated conspir-
ment of Industry (1909, revised 1915). Although they
le-
acy existed in Macedonia or if a number of separate
had little success, they did build a framework for later
ite
centres of disaffection, linked haphazardly through indi-
state-directed economic planning. Considerable attention
nd
viduals, dervish orders, Freemason lodges, etc., coalesced
was given to education, especially to the neglected area of
ins
in July 1908 under the banner of the CUP through the
primary education. The process of secularization of the
in.
pressure of events. On July 3, 1908, Maj. Ahmed Niyazi
law was carried much further. A major development in
in
(1873-1912), apparently fearing discovery by an investi-
national journalism took place, and the position of wom-
of
gatory committee, decamped from Resne with 200 fol-
en improved. The whole period was one of intense social
ier
lowers, including civilians, leaving behind a demand for
and political discussion and change.
nt,
the restoration of the constitution. The Sultan's attempt
Turkish nationalism. The basic ideologies of the state
nd
to suppress this rising failed, and rebellion spread rapidly.
remained Ottomanism and Islãm, but a new sense of
om
Unable to rely on other troops, on July 24 Abdülhamid
Turkish identity began to develop. This new concept was
us-
announced the restoration of the constitution.
fostered by educational work of the Turkish Society
The young officers who had made the revolution, like
(1908) and the Turkish Hearth (1912). A political twist
le-
of
their civilian supporters, were primarily concerned with
was given by the adherents of Pan-Turkism and Pan-Tur-
cal
preserving the Ottoman Empire; they feared that Ham-
anianism. Pan-Turkism, which aimed at the political
Pan-
an
idian policies and European interventions were endanger-
union of all Turkish-speaking peoples, began among
Turkism
us-
ing its existence. Personal grievances concerned with pay,
Turks in the Crimea and on the Volga. Its leading expo-
and Pan-
to
promotion, etc., also played a part. Though some writers
nent was Ismail Bey Gasprinski (Gaspirali; 1851-1914),
Turanian-
ries
have argued that a new type of officer of lower than usual
who attempted to create a common Turkish language.
ism
the
social origins influenced this discontent, there is little evi-
Many Pan-Turkists migrated to Ottoman lands, especial-
less
dence to support such a theory. It is clear, however, that
ly after 1905. One of them, Yusuf Akçuraoğlu, argued in
ins-
the officers had not thought much beyond their demand
Uç tarz-t siyaset (1903; "Three Kinds of Policy") that
of
for the restoration of a constitution that had proved in-
Turkism provided a better basis for the Ottoman Empire
ion
effectual in 1877-78. They had no program of action and
than either Islãm or Ottomanism. Pan-Turanianism devel-
the
were content to leave government to the established bu-
oped from a now much-disputed 19th-century theory of
plo-
Pose
reaucrats.
the common origin of Turkish, Mongol, Tungus, Finnish,
:S a
the
In April 1909, however, an army mutiny in Istanbul
mys
Hungarian, and other languages; in certain very limited
him
of the
(known because of the Julian calendar as the "31st
circles it looked forward to a great political federation of
erri-
california
March Incident") exposed the weakness of the CUP and
speakers of these languages, extending from Hungary to
the
at the same time gave it a new opportunity. The mu-
the Pacific.
an's
tiny resulted from the discontent of ordinary soldiers
These ideas, however, found little support within the
pin-
arising from their conditions and their neglect by col-
Ottoman government. The accusation that the Young
lege-trained and politically ambitious officers, and from
Turks pursued a deliberate policy of Turkification within
son-
what they regarded as infidel innovations. They were en-
the empire so as to alienate non-Turks and promote the
part
couraged by a religious organization-the Mohammed-
rise of Arab and Albanian nationalism is an oversimpli-
lost
an Union. Government weakness allowed the mutiny to
fication. The extension of government activity inevitably
i by
spread; and although order was eventually restored in
brought with it the language of government-Turkish.
n in
Istanbul and more quickly elsewhere, a force from Mace-
This produced some reaction from speakers of other lan-
.ians
donia (the Action Army) led by Mahmud Sevket Paşa
guages, but the evidence suggests that it did not override
nter-
marched on Istanbul and occupied the city (April 24).
basic feelings of Muslim solidarity, except among some
bean
Dissolution of the empire. Abdülhamid was deposed
small minorities. It was among the Christian groups that
ton-
and replaced by Sultan Mehmed V (ruled 1909-18), son
distinct separatist ideas were developed.
the
of Abdülmecid. The constitution was amended to transfer
Foreign relations. The foreign relations of the Otto-
tan-
real power to the Parliament. The army, and particularly
man Empire under the Young Turks led to disaster. The
con-
Sevket Paşa became the real arbiters of Ottoman politics.
1908 revolution provided an opportunity for several pow-
1 the
Rise of the CUP. Although the removal of many of its
ers to press home their designs upon the empire. On
political opponents had allowed the CUP to move into a
October 5, 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia and Hercegovi-
ira-
more prominent position in government, it was still weak.
na and Bulgaria proclaimed its independence. Italy seized
acy
It had a core of able, determined men but a much larger
Tripoli and occupied the Dodecanese, a group of Aegean
ibul
collection of individuals and factions that wore the
islands; by the Treaty of Lausanne (October 18, 1912)
Ives
Unionist label so lightly that they easily merged into
Italy retained the former but agreed to evacuate the Do-
plot
other parties. Although the CUP won an overwhelming
decanese. In fact, however, it continued to occupy them.
orce
majority in the election of April 1912, its support rapidly
The two Balkan Wars (1912-13) almost completed the
they
melted away following military losses to Italy. Evidence
destruction of the Ottoman Empire in Europe. In the first
-lop-
of army hostility finally forced the CUP out of office in
(October 1912-May 1913), the Ottomans lost almost all
tem.
July 1912, to be succeeded by a political coalition called
of their European possessions, including Crete, to Bulgar-
Bey,
the Liberal Union.
ia, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and the newly created
izan
The Liberal Union, too, lost support following defeats
state of Albania (Treaty of London, May 30, 1913). In
later
in the Balkans. This provided the opportunity for a small
the second (June-July 1913), fought between Bulgaria
deas
group of CUP officers and soldiers to stage a coup (Janu-
and the remaining Balkan states, including Romania,
may
ary 23, 1913), known as the Sublime Porte Incident, to
over the division of Macedonia, the Ottomans intervened
ul in
force the resignation of the grand vizier Mehmed Kâmil
against Bulgaria and recovered part of eastern Thrace
ulta-
Paşa and establish a new cabinet under Sevket. Sevket,
including Edirne (Adrianople). The Ottomans had lost
ngly
however, was not a Unionist and it was only after his
83% of the territory and 69% of the population of their
ntral
assassination (June 11, 1913) that the CUP at last suc-
European provinces.
<clu-
ceeded in establishing a Unionist-dominated government
The people. In 1914 the total population of the Otto-
1 the
under Said Halim Pasa.
man Empire was approximately 25,000,000, of which
med
Internal developments. The disastrous results of the
about 10,000,000 were Turks; 6,000,000, Arabs; 1,500,-
sup-
Young Turks' external policies have overshadowed the
000 each, Kurds and Greeks; and between 1,000,000 and
luro-
Popula-
important internal developments of the years 1908-18.
1,500,000 Armenians. The population of the empire (ex-
tion
P the
Further administrative reforms, particularly of provin-
cluding such virtually independent areas as Egypt, Ro-
of the
cial administration in 1913, led to more centralization,
mania, and Serbia) in the period immediately prior to the
empire
790
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History or the
losses of 1878 is estimated to have been about 26,000,-
The Russian withdrawal in 1917 and postwar bargaining
000. Natural increases and Muslim immigration from
led to some modifications of these agreements, and the
Russia and the Balkans virtually made up the losses, and
Allied terms were not finally presented until 1920. By the
in 1914 the population was more homogeneous in re-
Treaty of Sèvres (August 10, 1920) the Ottomans re-
ligion and, though less so, in language.
tained Istanbul and part of Thrace, but lost the Arab
World War I, 1914-18. The Ottoman entry into
provinces and a large area of Asia Minor to a newly cre-
World War I resulted from an overly hasty calculation of
ated Armenian state with access to the sea, surrendered
likely advantage. German influence was strong, but not
the islands of Imroz and Bozcaada to Greece, and accept-
decisive; Germany's trade with the Ottomans still lagged
ed arrangements that implied the eventual loss of Izmir to
behind that of Britain, France, and Austria and its invest-
Greece. The Straits were internationalized, and strict Eu-
ments, which included the Baghdad railway, were smaller
ropean control of Ottoman finances was established. An
than those of France. A mission to Turkey led by the
accompanying tripartite agreement between Britain,
German military officer Otto Liman von Sanders in 1913
France, and Italy defined the extensive spheres of in-
Iish
was only one of a series, and Liman's authority was much
fluence of the latter two powers. The treaty was ratified
more limited than contemporaries supposed. Except for
only by Greece and was abrogated by the Treaty of Lau-
the interest of Russia in Istanbul and the Straits, no Eu-
sanne (July 24, 1923) as the result of a determined strug-
ropean power had really vital interests in the Ottoman
gle for independence waged under the leadership of the
Empire. The Ottomans might have remained neutral, as
outstanding Ottoman wartime general Mustafa Kemal,
a majority of the cabinet wished to do, at least until the
later known as "Atatürk."
situation became clearer. But the opportunism of the min-
The War of Independence, 1919-23. Although the le-
ister of War Enver Paşa, early German victories, friction
gal Ottoman government in Istanbul, under the 36th,
with the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and Great Brit-
and last, Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI Vahideddin (ruled
ain) arising out of the shelter given by the Ottomans to
1918-22) had decided that resistance to Allied demands
German warships, and basic hostility to Russia combined
was impossible, pockets of resistance remained in Asia
to produce an Ottoman bombardment of the Russian
Minor after the armistice. These included bands of irreg-
Black Sea ports (October 28, 1914) and a declaration of
ulars and deserters, certain intact Ottoman forces, and
war by the Entente against the Ottoman Empire.
various societies for the defense of rights. Resistance was
The Ottomans made a substantial contribution to the
stimulated by the Greek occupation of Izmir (May 15,
Central Powers' war effort. Their forces fought in eastern
1919). At this time Mustafa Kemal was sent on an official
Asia Minor, Azerbaijan, Mesopotamia, Syria and Pales-
mission to eastern Asia Minor, landing at Samsun on
tine, and at the Dardanelles, as well as on European
May 19. He immediately began to organize resistance,
fronts, and they held down large numbers of Entente
despite official Ottoman opposition. Through the Asso-
Congress
troops. In September 1918 they dominated Transcauca-
ciation for the Defence of the Rights of Eastern Anatolia
at
sia. During the war the Young Turks also took the oppor-
(founded March 3, 1919), he summoned a congress at
Erzuruz
tunity to attack certain internal problems-the Capitula-
Erzurum (July-August), followed by a second congress
tions were abolished unilaterally (September 1914), the
at Sivas (September) with delegates representing the
autonomous status of Lebanon was ended, a number of
whole country. A new Association for the Defence of the
Arab nationalists were executed in Damascus (August
Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia was established, and an
1915 and May 1916), and the Armenian community in
executive committee with Mustafa Kemal as chairman
eastern Asia Minor and Cilicia was massacred or deport-
was created to conduct resistance.
ed as part of a deliberate policy of eliminating one cause
The official government yielded to Kemalist pressure.
of European interference. Possibly a million Armenians
The unpopular grand vizier, Damad Ferid Paşa, resigned
either fled or were killed (principally by Kurdish irregu-
and was replaced by the more sympathetic Ali Riza Pasa.
lars) or deported.
Negotiations with the Kemalists were followed by the
From the end of 1916 army desertions took place on a
election of a new parliament, which met in Istanbul in
massive scale, and economic pressures became acute. The
January 1920. A large majority in parliament was op-
surrender of Bulgaria (September 28, 1918), which
posed to the official government policy and passed the
severed direct links with Germany, was the final blow.
"National Pact," which embodied the political aims of
The CUP Cabinet resigned on October 7, and a new gov-
independence roughly within the October 1918 armistice
ernment was formed under Ahmed Izzet Paşa (1864-
lines and which had been formulated at Erzurum and
1937) on October 9. On October 30 the Ottomans
Sivas. The Allies countered by extending the occupied
signed the Armistice of Mudros.
area of Istanbul (March 16, 1920) and by arresting and
Allied war aims and the proposed peace settlement.
deporting many deputies. Damad Ferid became grand
Entente proposals for the partition of Ottoman territo-
vizier again on April 5 and, with religious support, set out
Partition
ries were formulated in a number of wartime agreements.
to crush the Kemalists.
of
By the Istanbul Agreements (March-April 1915) Russia
The Kemalists were now faced with local risings, official
Ottoman
was promised Istanbul and the Straits; and France, a
Ottoman forces, and the Greeks. The first necessity was
territories
sphere of influence in Syria and Cilicia. Britain had al-
to establish a legitimate basis of action. A parliament
ready annexed Cyprus and declared a protectorate over
(the Grand National Assembly) met at Ankara on April
Egypt. By the Anglo-French Sykes-Picot Agreement
23 and asserted that the sultan's government was under
(January 3, 1916) the French sphere was confirmed and
infidel control and that it was the duty of Muslims to
extended eastward to Mosul in Iraq. A British sphere in
resist foreign encroachment. In the Fundamental Law of
Mesopotamia as far north as Baghdad, control of Haifa
January 20, 1921, the assembly declared that sovereignty
and Acre, and a linking sphere of influence were recog-
belonged to the nation and that the assembly was the
nized. Palestine was to be placed under an international
"true and only representative of the nation." The name of
régime. In compensation, the Russian gains were extend-
the state was declared to be "Turkey" ("Türkiye"); and
ed (April-May 1916) to include the Ottoman provinces
executive power was entrusted to an executive council,
of Trabzon, Erzurum, Van, and Bitlis in eastern Asia
headed by Mustafa Kemal, who could now concentrate
Minor. By the London Agreement (April 26, 1915) Italy
on the war.
was promised the Dodecanese and a possible share of
Asia Minor. By the Agreement of St.-Jean-de-Maurienne
TURKEY SINCE 1920
(April 1917) Italy was promised a large area of south-
The uprisings and Ottoman forces were both defeated,
western Anatolia, including Izmir (Smyrna) and a fur-
principally by irregular forces, who at the end of 1920
ther sphere to the north. Britain made various promises
were brought under Kemal's control. In 1920-21 the
of independence to Arab leaders, notably in the Husayn-
Greeks made major advances, almost to Ankara, but
MacMahon correspondence, 1915-16, and, in the Bal-
were defeated at the Battle of the Sakarya River (August
four Declaration (November 2, 1917), promised to sup-
24, 1921) and began a long retreat that ended in the
port the establishment of a national home for the Jewish
Turkish occupation of Izmir (September 9, 1922).
people in Palestine.
The Kemalists had already begun to gain European rec-
OF
we
191
ing
ognition. On March 16, 1921, the Soviet-Turkish Treaty
ber 17, 1924; dissolved, June 5, 1925) had only 29 mem-
gave Turkey a favourable settlement of its eastern fron-
the
bers and was suppressed because Kemal feared that its
the
tier by restoring Kars and Ardahan. Domestic problems
leading members, who included some of his most notable
induced Italy to begin withdrawal from the territory it
associates in the war of independence, might have too
re-
rab
occupied; and, by the Treaty of Ankara (Franklin-Bouil-
much influence in the army; the short-lived Liberal Re-
lon Agreement, October 20, 1921), France agreed to
publican Party (August 12-December 18, 1930) was an
cre-
evacuate Cilicia. Finally, by the Armistice of Mudanya
red
abortive attempt by Kemal to organize a moderate oppo-
the Allies agreed to Turkish reoccupation of Istanbul and
sition to his own party. Otherwise Kemal ruled quite auto-
pt-
eastern Thrace.
cratically. A plot against his life in 1926 gave him the
to
Eu-
A comprehensive settlement was eventually achieved at
chance to deal with his rivals, who were tried by a special
An
the Lausanne Conference (November 1922-July 1923).
court and many of them sentenced to death, imprison-
The Turkish frontier in Thrace was established on the
ain,
ment, or exile. Opposition outside the assembly, of which
Maritsa River, and Greece returned the islands of Imroz
in-
the most dangerous were the Kurdish revolts of 1925,
fied
and Bozcaada. A compulsory exchange of populations
1930, and 1937, was suppressed vigorously.
was arranged, as a result of which an estimated 1,300,000
au-
Kemalist policies. The bases of Mustafa Kemal's poli-
Greeks left Turkey in return for 400,000 Turks. The
cies were enshrined in the Republican People's Party pro-
ug-
the
question of Mosul was left to the League of Nations,
gram of 1931 and subsequently (February 1937) written
hal,
which in 1925 recommended its retention by Iraq. The
into the Turkish constitution. These were the six princi-
Lausanne Treaty also provided for the apportionment of
ples of republicanism (the creation of the republic), na-
Mustafa
le-
the Ottoman Public Debt, for the gradual abolition of
tionalism, populism, statism (devletçilik), secularism,
Kemal's six
6th,
the Capitulations (Turkey regained tariff autonomy in
and revolution. Revolution was implicit in the whole rad-
principles
led
1929), and for an international régime for the Straits.
ical reorganization of the political, social, and economic
nds
Turkey did not recover complete control of the Straits
systems. Populism was the effort to mobilize popular sup-
until the 1936 Montreux Convention.
sia
port from the top through such characteristic devices as
The result of the war and the peace settlement created a
the People's Houses (1931-51), which spread the new
reg-
and
state in which the great majority spoke Turkish. Though
concept of a national culture in provincial towns, and the
there has been a tendency to see this as the almost inevita-
village institutes, which performed the same educational
was
15,
ble consequence of the rise of Turkish and Arab national-
and proseletyzing role in the countryside. The creation of
cial
isms, it seems in fact to have been the accident of war
a sense of nationalism was encouraged by changes in
that broke off the Arab provinces. Whatever the views of
school curricula, by the rewriting of history to glorify the
on
Mustafa Kemal himself, it is clear that the majority of his
Turkish past, by the "purification" of the language by a
nce,
followers thought of themselves primarily as Muslims; in
reduction of the number of words of foreign origin
SSO- Congres
olia
the elaborate religious ceremony that preceded the open-
(sometime later, this effort appeared to be redundant in
at
S
at
ing of the Grand National Assembly there was no word
the light of a promulgation that all languages were de-
Erzures
of Turks or Turkey but only of the need to save "reli-
scended from Turkish), and by the renunciation of Pan-
ress
the
gion's last country." The creation of a sense of Turkish
Islãmic, Pan-Turkish, and Pan-Ottoman goals in foreign
the
nationhood was the product of a long effort in which
policy.
1 an
Mustafa Kemal played the dominant role.
Statism was the movement toward state-controlled eco-
nan
Kemalism, 1922-38. Construction of a new political
nomic development; the shortage of skilled labour and
system began with the abolition of the sultanate and the
entrepreneurs (particularly owing to the reduction of the
ure.
declaration of a republic. Loyalty to the Ottoman dynas-
Greek and Armenian communities, which in 1914 had
ned
ty was strong even among Kemalists; but Vahideddin's
controlled 80% of Ottoman finance, industry, and com-
aşa.
identification with the Allies weakened his support.
merce), the lack of capital, and the intense nationalist
the
Abolition of the sultanate and caliphate. An Allied in-
desire for industrial self-sufficiency that would banish
1 in
vitation to the sultan to nominate representatives to Lau-
foreign influence, all stimulated a movement in the 1930s
op-
sanne aided Kemal-a split Turkish delegation would be
towards state ownership or control. This was achieved
the
self-defeating. With a brilliant mixture of threats and
through investment banks, monopolies, state industrial
S of
persuasion, Kemal was able, therefore, to induce the As-
enterprises, and planning. A five-year plan was instituted
stice
sembly to abolish the sultanate (November 1, 1922).
in 1934. Although the immediate results were disappoint-
and
Vahideddin left Turkey, and his cousin Abdülmecid
ing, the policy of state-inspired economic growth was
pied
(died 1944) was installed as the first and last Ottoman
important for future economic advance.
and
caliph who was not also sultan. The caliphate was finally
Under secularism is included the reform of law, involv-
rand
abolished on March 3, 1924, and all members of the
ing the abolition of religious courts and schools (1924)
out
Ottoman dynasty were expelled from Turkey. Before that
and the adoption of a purely secular system of family
the assembly had declared Turkey to be a republic and
law. The substitution of Latin for the Arabic alphabet in
cial
had elected Mustafa Kemal as first president (October 29,
writing Turkish was a significant step toward secularism
was
1923). A full republican constitution was adopted on
and made learning easier; other measures included the
ent
April 20, 1924; it retained Islãm as the state religion, but
adoption (1925) of the Gregorian calendar that had been
pril
in April 1928 this clause was removed and Turkey be-
jointly used with the Hijri calendar since 1917; the re-
ider
came a purely secular republic.
placement of Friday by Sunday as the weekly holiday
S to
Kemal's government. The assembly was the instru-
(1935); the adoption of surnames (1935); and, most
Y of
ment of Kemal's will. The first assembly had contained
striking of all, the abolition of the fez (1925). The wear-
gnty
large factions hostile to his policies, including religious
ing of clerical garb outside places of worship was forbid-
the
conservatives, merchants, and former members of the
den in 1934.
e of
CUP. In opposition to his 197 acknowledged supporters,
These changes, coupled with the abolition of the cali-
and
who were known as the "First Group," there were 118
phate, and the elimination of the dervish orders after a
icil,
opponents, members of a "Second Group." The first As-
Kurdish revolt in 1925, dealt a tremendous blow to Is-
rate
sembly was dissolved on April 16, 1923, and Mustafa
lam's position in social life, completing the process begun
Kemal took care to keep his opponents out of the second
in the Tanzimat. With secularism there came a steady
assembly; only three of the Second Group were returned.
improvement in the status of women, who were given the
Kemal's own party, which became the Republican Peo-
right to vote and to sit in the parliament.
ted,
ple's Party (RPP), dominated all assemblies until 1950;
Vital as the changes made were, in many cases they were
920
this period saw a heavy preponderance in the Assembly
primarily matters of appearance and style. Structural
the
of urban professional men and of officials with university
changes in society took longer. At the first census, in
but
education. With an outlook different from that of the il-
1927, the population was put at 13,600,000, of which
gust
literate Turkish peasant they carried out a revolution
24% was urban. In 1940 the population was 17,800,000,
the
from the top.
but the urban percentage was almost unchanged. In 1938
Opposition. There was little opposition to Mustafa
the per capita income and literacy were both below com-
rec-
Kemal-the small Progressive Party (founded, Novem-
parable figures for developed countries.
792 Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
Foreign policy was subordinated to internal change. The
Other restrictions on political freedom, including press
loss of Mosul was accepted (June 5, 1926). Hatay, how-
censorship, were relaxed. The period saw the establish-
ever, was recovered. It was given internal autonomy by
ment of the first mass circulation, independent newspa-
France in 1937, occupied by Turkish troops in 1938, and
pers. Trade Unions were permitted in 1947, although
incorporated into Turkey in 1939. Turkey followed a
they were not given the right to strike until 1963. A
Neutralist
neutralist policy, supported the League of Nations, which
far-reaching measure of land redistribution was passed in
policy
it joined in 1932, and sought alliances with other minor
1945, although little was done to implement it before
powers, leading to the Balkan Entente (1934) and the
1950. Other political parties were established including
Sa'dãbãd Pact with Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan (1937).
the conservative National Party (1948); Socialist and
World War II and the postwar era, 1938-50. Atatürk's
Communist activities, however, were severely repressed.
autocratic, dominating, and inspiring personality had di-
In the more open atmosphere the DP was able to orga-
rected and shaped the Turkish republic. At this death in
nize in the villages. The RPP, despite its Village Insti-
1938, his closest associate Ismet Inönü (born 1884) was
tutes, had always been the government party and had had
elected president. With the approach of war, foreign
little real grass-roots organization. The Democrats were
affairs assumed greater importance. An alliance with
much more responsive to local interests. The DP won a
Britain and France (October 19, 1939) was not imple-
massive victory in the 1950 elections, claiming 54% of
mented because of Germany's early victories. After Ger-
the vote and 396 out of 487 seats. The RPP won 68 seats;
many's invasion of Russia (June 22, 1941), there was
the National Party, one. The DP victory has been attribut-
popular support for an alliance with Germany, which
ed variously to U.S. influence, to social change, to a de-
seemed to offer prospects of realizing old Pan-Turkish
sire for economic liberalization, to better organization, to
aims. Although a nonaggression pact was signed with Ger-
religious hostility to the RPP, and to a bad harvest in
many (June 18, 1941), Turkey clung to neutrality until
1949. Perhaps the basic reason was that in 27 years the
an Axis defeat was seen to be inevitable, when it entered
RPP had made many enemies.
the war on the Allied side (February 23, 1945). The great
Turkey under the Democrats, 1950-60. In the DP
expansion of Soviet power exposed Turkey, in June 1945,
government Celâl Bayar became president; Adnan Men-
to demands that control of the Straits be given to Black
deres, prime minister (a post which for the first time
Sea powers and for the cession of territory in eastern Asia
came to surpass that of the president in importance).
Minor. It was also suggested that a large area of north-
The economy. The Democrats were pledged to a pro-
eastern Anatolia be ceded to Soviet Georgia and a more
gram of economic growth, to be achieved through a
democratic government established in Turkey. This caused
reduction of state interference. At first they had much
Turkey to seek U.S. assistance; it received U.S. military
success; in 1950-53 Turkey's average annual rate of eco-
aid beginning in 1947 (providing the basis for a large and
nomic growth was 6%, and annual per capita income
continuing flow of military aid) and economic assistance
rose at a rate of 3%. Good harvests in 1950 and
beginning in 1948.
1953 and the Korean War boom assisted. But problems
Economic problems. The war also brought changes in
appeared after 1953. In 1954 a poor harvest obliged Tur-
domestic policy. The army had been kept small through-
key to import wheat again. A shortage of foreign ex-
out the Atatürk period, and defense expenditure had been
change limited the purchase of essential materials and
reduced to 28% of the budget. The army was rapidly
parts, which handicapped industry. After a sudden fa-
expanded in 1939, and defense expenditures rose to be-
vourable surge in the early 1950s, the terms of trade
tween 50% and 60% of the budget for the duration of the
moved steadily against Turkey. Inflation, which averaged
war. Substantial deficits were incurred, imposing a severe
15% or more annually, became a serious problem. The
economic strain, which was aggravated by shortages of
government attempted unsuccessfully to check the price
raw materials. By 1945 agricultural output had fallen to
rise by legislation, but its policies contributed to inflation
70% of the 1939 figure; per capita income, to 75%.
as the result of a continued rise in public expenditure.
Inflation was strong; official statistics show a rise of
Despite the problems, the DP achieved considerable suc-
354% between 1938 and 1945, but this probably under-
cess over the decade 1950-60. The proportion of the
states the fall in the value of money, which in 1943 was
gross national product going to investment was raised
less than one-fifth its 1938 purchasing power. One means
(with overseas aid) from about 10% to between 12%
chosen by the government to raise money was a capital
and 15%, and annual growth averaged 5%.
levy introduced in 1942, arranged to fall with punitive
Political repressions. The political fortunes of the
force upon the non-Muslim communities and upon the
Democrat government closely reflected the economic
Dönmes (Jewish converts to Islãm). The war did provide
changes. In the 1954 elections-the Democratic peak-
some stimulus to industry, however, and enabled Turkey
the DP took 57% of the vote and gained 503 out of 541
to build up substantial foreign credits, which could be
seats; the RPP took 35% and 31 seats. Subsequent eco-
used to finance postwar economic development.
nomic difficulties led to mounting criticism within and
Political changes. The most notable change in the post-
outside the DP, to which the government replied with
war years was the liberalization of political life. The
increasing repression. In 1953 much of the property of
investment in education was beginning to show some re-
the RPP was confiscated, forcing the closure of the Peo-
Political
turn, and literacy had risen to 29% by 1945. A growing
ple's Houses. The RPP newspaper presses in Ankara were
Sc:
liberali-
class of professional and commercial men demanded
seized. In 1954 the National Party was dissolved because
of
zation
more freedom. The Allied victory had made democracy
of its opposition to Kemalist principles (it was immedi-
new
more fashionable; accordingly, the government made
ately reformed as the Republican Nation's Party and
prese
concessions allowing new political parties, universal suf-
united in 1958 with the Peasants' Party to form the Re-
frage, and direct election.
publican Peasants' Nation Party). Laws passed in 1954
From a split within the Republican People's Party
provided for heavy fines on journalists who damaged the
(RPP), the Democrat Party (DP) was founded in 1946
prestige of the state or the law; several prominent jour-
and immediately gathered support. Despite government
nalists were prosecuted under this law, which was made
interference, the DP won 61 seats in the 1946 general
more severe in 1956, in which year other laws substantial-
election. Some elements in the RPP, led by the prime
ly abridged the independence of civil servants (including
minister Recep Peker (served 1946-47), wished to sup-
university teachers) and judges. In October 1955 critics
press the DP, but they were prevented by Inönü. In his
within the DP were expelled; these critics subsequently
declaration of July 12, 1947, Inönü stated that the logic
formed the Freedom Party (December 1955), which lat-
of a multiparty system implied the possibility of a
er (1958) merged with the RPP. In 1956 limitations were
change of government. Prophetically, he renounced the
placed upon public meetings.
title of "National Unchangeable Leader," which had been
The DP'S loss of popularity was reflected in the elections
conferred upon him in 1938. Peker resigned and was
of October 1957, when they won only 48% of the vote
succeeded by more liberal prime ministers in Hasan Saka
and 424 out of 610 seats. The RPP took 41% and 178
(served 1947-49), and Semseddin Günaltay (served
seats. The three opposition parties had attempted to form
1949-50).
an electoral coalition, but a law passed that September
ling press
had declared such coalitions illegal. The combined oppo-
others, including Bayer, had their death sentences com-
sition vote was 52% of the total, and many persons be-
muted to life imprisonment.
establish-
lieved that this government action had deprived them of
Work on the new constitution began immediately after
newspa-
victory. Opposition attacks upon the DP became strong-
the coup, when a committee of five law professors was
although
er, and it was accused of unconstitutional action. At the
appointed to prepare a draft. This was submitted to the
1963. A
same time, the Democrats, fearing a revolution, redou-
National Unity Committee on October 18. The Commit-
passed in
bled control. In December 1959 an alleged plot (the so-
tee appointed a second committee to redraft the constitu-
it before
called Nine Officers' Plot) was unearthed; some of the
tion; the new draft was presented to a Constituent Assem-
including
accused were so clearly innocent that punishment fell
bly, which met in January 1961. The constitution was
ialist and
upon the accuser, but it appears that there had been a
completed in May and approved by 61% of the voters at
repressed.
conspiracy of some sort.
a referendum in July.
: to orga-
A charge on which the RPP laid great stress was that the
The new constitution established a two chamber parlia-
age Insti-
di had had
DP was reversing the principles of secularism and favour-
ment-consisting of the Senate and the National Assem-
ing conservative religious organizations. The DP had re-
bly. A separate electoral law provided for proportional
rats were
laxed some of the secularist policies of pure Kemalism,
representation. The president was elected by the Senate
DP won a
following in the steps of the RPP in the years 1945-49.
and National Assembly together. The constitution also pro-
; 54% of
Religious instruction in schools had been extended and
vided for a Constitutional Court and a State Planning Or-
68 seats;
the organization of religious schools permitted. Arabic
ganization. The first elections were held in October 1961.
1 attribut-
had been reinstated for the call to prayer, and radio
The army then withdrew from direct political involvement,
to a de-
readings of the Qur'an had been allowed. These, how-
although the members of the National Unity Committee
zation, to
ever, were modest concessions in themselves, and the
retained some influence as life members of the Senate.
harvest in
Democrats had clearly demonstrated their unwillingness
Period of transition, 1961-65. No party won a majori-
years the
to tolerate religious influence in politics by suppressing
ty in October 1961. The RPP won 38% of the votes and
the activities of dervish orders in 1950-52.
173 of the 450 Assembly seats. The newly formed Justice
1 the DP
The years 1958-60 saw a further worsening of the eco-
Party (JP), led by retired general Rağip Gümüspala,
nan Men-
nomic situation as the government reluctantly introduced
received 35% and 158 seats. The remaining seats were
first time
of
restrictive measures. Returns on new investment fell and
divided between two smaller parties-the Republican
ice).
inflation continued. Serious problems of housing, unem-
Peasants' Nation Party, which took 54 seats, and the
to a pro-
ployment, etc., were emerging in the large towns, whose
liberal New Turkey Party, which gained 65. The results
through a
population had been growing annually at the rate of
demonstrated the enduring popularity of the old Demo-
had much
about 10%, so that by 1960 the proportion of urban
crat Party. Its votes had been divided among the three
ite of eco-
ta income
population to the whole had risen, to 32%. RPP attacks
smaller parties, the majority of them going to the Justice
1950 and
became more bitter, and the government's response
Party, which had also emerged as the largest party in the
stronger. In April 1960 the government ordered the army
Senate. The RPP had failed to hold all its 1957 vote and
problems
liged Tur-
to prevent İnönü from campaigning in Kayseri and fol-
had suffered by identification with the army coup.
lowed this by forming a committee to investigate the
The new Grand National Assembly elected General
breign ex-
affairs of the RPP. It was widely believed that the next
Gürsel as president. The RPP leader Inönü formed a
erials and
action would be to close the RPP. Student demonstrations
coalition government with the JP, but the coalition sur-
udden fa-
followed, and martial law was declared on April 28. The
vived only until June 1962, when it broke up over the
$ of trade
army had been brought directly into the political arena.
question of an amnesty for the imprisoned Democrats.
1 averaged
Military takeover. Relatively neglected from 1923 to
After some delay and splits within the parties (which led
blem. The
the price
1939, the army during the war had undergone a rapid
to the formation of the Nation Party by dissidents who
expansion and a considerable modernization subsequently
withdrew from the Republican Peasants' Nation Party),
o inflation
with the aid of U.S. advisers. Many officers feared that
the RPP formed a coalition with the two smaller parties.
penditure.
the DP threatened the principles of the secular, progressive
This accelerated the tendency for former Democrat vot-
:rable suc-
Kemalist state. Some younger officers saw the army as the
ers to turn to the JP.
on of the
direct instrument of unity and reform. On May 3, 1960,
In the local elections of 1963 the JP made extensive
was raised
the commander of the land forces, Gen. Cemal Gürsel, de-
gains at the expense of the two smaller parties. This led to
veen 12%
manded political reforms, and resigned when they were
the breakup of the coalition, and because the JP was
refused. On May 27 the army acted; an almost bloodless
unable to form a government, Inönü formed a minority
es of the
coup was carried out by officers and cadets from the
government from his own party alone, but with voting
economic
Istanbul and Ankara War colleges. The leaders estab-
support from the New Turkey Party. The RPP govern-
tic peak-
lished a 38-man "National Unity Committee" with Gür-
ment resigned after a defeat on the budget in February
out of 541
sel as chairman. The Democrat leaders were impris-
1965 and was replaced by a coalition of all the other
quent eco-
/ithin and
oned.
parties under the leadership of an independent, Suat Hay-
plied with
The National Unity Committee, 1960-61. From the
ri Urgüplü; this coalition acted as caretaker until the
outset, a clear division existed among the officers who
elections of October 10, 1965.
roperty of
had carried out the coup. One group, predominantly of
In December 1964 a new electoral law had introduced
£ the Peo-
ikara were
Seitz
younger officers, believed that to restore national unity
the principle of "the national remainder," by which a
The
ed because
of
and carry out major social and economic reforms it was
certain number of seats were distributed to parties ac-
national
S immedi-
necessary to retain power for some years; this group
cording to their proportion of the vote. The law had been
remainder
included both those who supported a nationalistic and
intended to operate in favour of the smaller parties and
principle
Party and
presses
Islämist policy and those who favoured accelerated secu-
against the JP, but in the election the JP won a surprising
m the Re-
larization. Another group, which included most of the
majority with 53% of the votes and 240 seats. The RPP
d in 1954
maged the
senior officers, wanted to withdraw the army from poli-
received 29% and 134 seats; and the smaller parties, 76
nent jour-
tics as soon as possible. In November 1960 the dispute
seats. The new JP leader Süleyman Demirel, a former
was decided against the first group, and 14 were expelled
engineer, was able to form a government.
was made
from the committee and and sent into diplomatic exile.
Political moderation had triumphed in the years
ubstantial-
(including
The main work of the National Unity Committee was to
1961-65. The army had stood aloof while power came
955 critics
destroy the DP and to prepare a new constitution. Sub-
gradually to a party that drew its main support from the
bsequently
stantial purges took place-5,000 officers including 235
same groups and areas as the Democrats and that es-
which lat-
out of 260 generals were dismissed or retired; 147 univer-
poused a similar philosophy. Attempts to restore army
tions were
sity teachers left their jobs; 55 wealthy landowners were
rule had failed. Intervention proposed by senior officers
banished from eastern Anatolia, their lands confiscated.
in October 1961 had been rejected by others. Two pro-
e elections
The DP was abolished (September 29, 1960), and many
jected coups had been foiled in February 1962 and May
of the vote
Democrats were brought to trial at Yassi Ada (October)
1963. In December 1962, 11 air force officers were re-
; and 178
on charges of corruption, unconstitutional rule, and high
moved for their radical views. Members of another secret
ed to form
treason. Of 601 tried, 464 were found guilty. Three for-
society within the army-the Young Kemalists-were ar-
September
mer ministers, including Menderes, were executed; 12
rested in April 1963. Criticism of the 1960 revolution was
794 Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
made illegal in 1962; army leaders contented themselves
election of 1965 sharpened divisions between the radicals
with occasional warnings.
(led by Bulent Ecevit) and the conservatives (led by
The political trends were liberal: the Democrat prisoners
Turhan Feyzioglu). The party leader, Inönu, favoured the
were released in 1962-64; the labour law of 1963 made
Ecevit group, and in 1967 Feyzioglu and others seceded
strikes legal and promoted a great expansion of trade
to found the Reliance Party (renamed National Reliance
unionism; workers became more active in politics through
Party in 1969). Many conservatives remained in the RPP,
the left-wing Confederation of Reformist Workers'
however, and the conflict broke out again after the party's
Unions, or DISK, and through the Marxist Turkish Work-
defeat in 1969; it was brought to a head by the army's
ers (or Labour) Party (TWP; founded in 1961).
intervention in March 1971. Ecevit opposed Inönu's
Political development, 1965-71. The victory of the Jus-
acceptance of the army's action and in May 1972 defeated
tice Party in 1965 did not lead to strong government
the veteran leader in a battle for control of the party.
mainly because the JP was itself a coalition of disparate
(Inönü died December 25, 1973.) Other conservatives now
elements-modernizers and traditionalists, secularists and
left to form a Republican Party, which merged with the
religious conservatives. Prime Minister Demirel showed
National Reliance Party in March 1973 to form the
considerable skill in balancing factions and holding his
Republican Reliance Party (RRP). The RPP had largely
party to a moderate line. He established good relations
shed its eastern and central Anatolian landowner element
with the new president (1966-73), the former chief of staff
and could now present itself as a social democratic party.
Cevdet Sunay. Demirel concentrated on fostering rapid
No party secured a majority at the general election in
economic growth through foreign investment (thus avoid-
October 1973, but the RPP emerged as the largest single
ing the need for tax reform) and on suppressing the
party, with a third of the vote and 185 seats. The right-
increasingly violent hostility of the radical left, notably of
wing vote was much larger (more than 60 percent) but
the Federation of the Revolutionary Youth of Turkey
was divided among several parties, mainly the JP (29.8
(Turkiye Devrimci Gençlik Federasyonu; short form, Dev
percent and 149); the DP (11.9 percent and 45); the
Genç), a Marxist student organization founded in 1969,
religiously based National Salvation Party (NSP), founded
which adopted terrorist methods. The leftists clashed with
in October 1972 in succession to the banned National
the newly emerging radical right.
Order Party and led by Necmettin Erbakan (11.8 percent
In the election of 1969 the JP won with a reduced
and 48); the RRP (5.3 percent and 13); and the National
Election
majority. The national remainder system, which had fa-
Action Party (NAP), until 1969 the Republican Peasants'
of 1969
voured the smaller parties, was dropped in favour of
Nation Party, a right-wing nationalist party led by Alpar-
simple proportional representation. The result was that
slan Turkes (3.4 percent and 3).
the two major parties, JP and RPP, increased their share
An uneasy coalition government was eventually formed
of the seats in the National Assembly, although they
by the RPP and NSP in January 1974 with Ecevit as prime
secured a smaller share of the vote. The JP won 47
minister. In September 1974 it was dissolved by Ecevit.
percent of the vote and 256 seats; the RPP 27 percent and
Instead there followed a long ministerial crisis and an
143. The extremist parties of left and right performed
above-party caretaker government under Sadi Irmak
poorly.
(November 1974-March 1975). This was succeeded by a
The loss of votes weakened Demirel's hold on the JP.
right-wing coalition of JP, NSP, RRP, and NAP (the Nation-
Nationals
His power was challenged by the rightists, led by his chief
alist Front) led by Demirel. In this period the internal
Fron:
rival Sadettin Bilgiç. Excluded from the new Cabinet, they
security situation again deteriorated; there were conflicts
coalince
retaliated by defeating Demirel's government in February
in universities between leftists and rightists (notably the
1970. Demirel was reappointed prime minister, but his
NAP youth commandos known as Gray Wolves) and
authority was considerably weakened; some rightists se-
clashes between security forces and guerrillas in eastern
ceded from the JP in December 1970 to form the Demo-
Turkey.
cratic Party (DP), led by Ferruh Bozbeyli. The Demirel
At the National Assembly election in June 1977, the
government was evidently unable to deal with the increas-
swing to the smaller parties that had characterized the
ing disorders in Turkey. The army leaders became dis-
elections of 1973 was reversed. The RPP gained 41.4
turbed by the situation and by their own identification
percent of the vote and 213 seats, the JP 36.9 percent and
with Demirel's policies. On March 12, 1971, possibly to
189 seats. Only two of the smaller parties secured more
anticipate a takeover of government by more radical
than 2 percent of the vote: the NSP (8.6 percent and 24)
junior officers, the senior military commanders, led by the
and the NAP (6.4 percent and 16). The DP was virtually
chief of staff, Gen. Memduh Tağmaç, presented a memo-
obliterated, and the reformed Turkish Workers Party
randum calling for the resignation of the government on
gained only 0.1 percent of the vote. Yet no party had a
the grounds that it had proved itself incapable of dealing
clear majority, and Demirel's ineffective coalition returned
with the crisis that threatened civilization in Turkey.
to office until the end of the year. The economic situation
Demirel immediately resigned.
deteriorated with rapidly rising inflation and unemploy-
Political development from 1971. From 1971 Turkey
ment, and internal security worsened. In January 1978
was governed by coalition governments-led successively
Ecevit formed a new coalition with the RRP, DP, and
by Nihat Erim (March 1971-April 1972), Ferit Melen (to
independents, mainly defectors from the JP.
April 1973), and Naim Talu (to January 1974)-claiming
By contrast with the years 1922-60, the years after 1960
to be above party and including several technocrats and
have been characterized by weak governments, political
bureaucrats as well as politicians, enjoying the support of
instability, fluid political loyalties, increasing political vio-
the army leaders and obtaining the consent of the Nation-
lence, the rise of radical groups of the left and right, and
al Assembly. Their main aim was to restore law and
army intervention in politics. At the same time they
order. On April 26, 1971, martial law was established in
revealed much greater popular interest in political issues,
11 provinces; there were many arrests and trials before
the moderation and skill of the senior army commanders
military courts and armed clashes between the security
and of the main political leaders (especially Inönü and
forces and the radical guerrillas (the so-called Turkish
Demirel), and a significant reordering of political demar-
People's Liberation Army). The Islãmic-based National
cations to replace traditional loyalties with clearer ideo-
Order Party (founded January 1970) was suppressed in
logical differences between the main political groups.
May 1971 and the TWP in July. In September 1971 the
Economic and social development from 1960. Despite
constitution was amended to reduce' personal freedoms.
grave difficulties-caused by deteriorating terms of trade,
Martial law was not lifted finally until September 1973,
continual deficits in the balance of trade made much
when the military courts were replaced by special security
worse by the oil price increases of 1973-74, permanent
courts. Retired Adm. Fahri Koruturk was chosen as
inflation (more than 20 percent in 1975 and 1976 and
president in 1973.
rising to nearly 50 percent in 1977) necessitating frequent
The crisis of 1971 accelerated an important change in the
devaluations of the currency, unemployment rising from
RPP. Its failure to attract popular support after 1961 had
1,000,000 in 1962 to more than 3,000,000 at the end of
led to a re-examination of its policies and the adoption in
1977 (made worse by population growth at 2 percent
1965 of a "left of centre" policy. The party's failure in the
annually, although this had fallen from 3 percent in the
Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the 795
Is
1950s), and frequent predictions of imminent collapse-
prus. In July 1974, however, occurred a major crisis
Turkey maintained a remarkable rate of economic growth
when, following a coup against President Makarios of
e
proomic
during this period. Its average annual rate of growth
ed
Cyprus that had been supported by the Greek govern-
during the 1960s was more than 6 percent and in the
ment, Turkish forces occupied the north of the island.
1970s more than 7 percent. This was chiefly attributable
Turkey's action led to an embargo on military aid to
to the expansion of industrial output, financed especially
Turkey, imposed by the U.S. Congress from February
by overseas aid and investment; a consortium to provide
1975 (relaxed in October 1975 and May 1977). In retalia-
aid to Turkey was formed by western European countries
tion Turkey denounced the U.S.-Turkish defense agree-
in 1962, aid was received from the United States, credits
ed
ment of 1969 and closed U.S. defense installations on July
were given by the Soviet Union, and much private foreign
25, 1975. A new defense agreement was negotiated
investment took place in the 1960s. The remittances of
(March 26, 1976) by which the bases passed under Turk-
)W
he
about a million Turkish workers in Europe were also
ish control and the U.S. guaranteed $1,000,000,000 mili-
he
valuable sources of foreign exchange. Domestic savings
tary aid to Turkey over four years. In September 1978 the
also increased from 15 percent of the gross national
:ly
arms embargo was lifted, and the next month Turkey
product (GNP) in the early 1960s to nearly 20 percent in
nt
responded by giving the U.S. permission to reopen four
1970, though it had declined to less than 15 percent again
installations.
y.
by the late 1970s. An important role in directing develop-
in
The Cyprus dispute and indifferent relations with the
ment was played by the State Planning Organization
gle
U.S. were important factors in Turkey's decision to re-
(established 1960), which devised three five-year plans
it-
spond to Soviet overtures for friendship, which had been
(1962-67, 1967-72, and 1972-77), although the main em-
frequently repeated since 1953. In 1964 the Turkish for-
ut
phasis has been on private initiative.
'.8
eign minister visited Moscow in the first of a series of
he
Turkey's sustained economic expansion produced impor-
high-level visits that led to economic and cultural agree-
Soviet-
tant structural changes in the economy: a major shift of
ed
ments and, on June 23, 1978, a political agreement
Turkish
population to the towns and a decline in the contribution
nal
couched in broad terms of friendship. Turkey also set out
accords
of agriculture to GNP and a rise in that of industry. The
to improve relations with the Balkan states (other than
ent
nal
problem of land reform, evaded by many governments,
Greece), which had languished since the Balkan Entente
its'
was finally attacked in a bill passed in 1973. This estab-
(Greece, Yugoslavia, and Turkey) of 1954. Relations with
lished maximum family landholdings of 80 acres (32 hec-
Greece suffered not only from the Cyprus problem but
ar-
tares) irrigated and 250 acres (101 hectares) unirrigated
also from disputes over rights in the Aegean Sea bed and
ed
and provided for 8,000,000 acres (3,238,000 hectares)
overflying rights in that area.
(6,000,000 state and 2,000,000 private) to be redistributed
me
Turkey also endeavoured to improve its relations with
vit.
to 500,000 peasants over 15 years.
other states. China was recognized (1971), and gestures
Significant social changes also took place. By 1968 the
were made to the Arab countries. A movement toward
an
hak
percentage of literates had risen to 49, and the great
the Arab position in the dispute with Israel and the
pressure on institutions of higher education contributed to
cultivation of Islãmic bonds led to better relations with
a
student discontent in the late 1960s. Industrialization and
the Arab world. Relations with Iran and Pakistan
on-
Nations
the labour law of 1963 led to a rise in trade-union
nal
Front
(through Cento and the Regional Cooperation for Devel-
icts
membership from 300,000 in 1963 to more than a million
opment) were always close. Turkey's overall commitment
coalition
the
in 1968. Urbanization produced large shantytowns (gece-
to the West, however, was evidenced by its close ties with
and
kondu) around the major cities.
western European countries and by its ambition to join
Foreign policy after 1950. Until about 1964 Turkish
the EEC. By the Ankara agreement of 1963, a timetable
ern
foreign policy was wholly based upon the Western al-
for Turkey's membership was drawn up. After a prepara-
the
liance. Turkey sent troops to Korea, joined NATO (1952),
tory period Turkey was given associate status, and it was
the
joined the Baghdad Pact, later Central Treaty Organiza-
planned (optimistically, in the view of most observers)
41.4
tion, or Cento (1955), joined the Organization for Euro-
that over the period 1973-95 Turkey would abolish all
and
pean Economic Co-operation and the Council of Europe,
economic barriers between itself and the EEC. It was this
and applied for membership in the European Economic
ore
ambitious drive for economic equality with Europe that
24)
Community (1959). This policy was based on fear of the
helped to sustain Turkey's determination to maintain its
ally
Soviet Union, on dependence upon U.S. military and
startling rate of economic growth.
(M.E.Y.)
irty
economic aid, and on the conviction that Turkey's destiny
d a
was as a secular European state. From 1960 the suitabili-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ned
ty of this policy was increasingly questioned, and from
General studies: For the nonspecialist, LORD KINROSS, The
ion
1964 Turkish policy, while retaining its Western inclina-
Ottoman Centuries (1977), is a very readable general history;
tion, was more attuned to Turkey's own regional interests.
KEMAL H. KARPAT (ed.), The Ottoman State and Its Place in
oy-
978
The principal causes of this change were the general
World History (1974), contains seven stimulating and wide-
East-West détente, which encouraged NATO countries to
ranging essays; a comprehensive history is STANFORD J. SHAW
and
seek to improve their relations with those of eastern
and E.K. SHAW, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern
Europe; the growing importance of Middle Eastern coun-
Turkey, 2 vol. (1976-77), which has an excellent bibliography,
960
as has L.S. STAVRIANOS, The Balkans Since 1453 (1958), for the
ical
tries; and discontent with the fruits of Turkey's cultiva-
European provinces. Two classic histories are J.F. VON HAM-
vio-
tion of the U.S. Turkish doubts were brought to a head
MER-PURGSTALL, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches, 10 vol.
and
by the problem of Cyprus.
(1827-35, reprinted 1963; French trans., 18 vol., 1835-43),
hey
During the 1950s Greek Cypriot demands for indepen-
and J.W. ZINKEISEN, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches in
dence from Britain and union with Greece led to strife
Europa, 7 vol. (1840-63, reprinted 1962), the first based large-
ues,
involving the Turkish Cypriot community, which looked
ly on Turkish, the second on European sources.
lers
and
to Turkey for help. Tension between Turkey and Greece
The rise of the Ottoman Empire to 1566: PAUL WITTEK, The
ensued, although this was reduced by the Zurich and
Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1938, reprinted 1965), is a classic
ar-
leo-
London agreements of 1959, providing for the indepen-
study of Ottoman origins; CLAUDE CAHEN, Pre-Ottoman Tur-
dence of Cyprus under certain conditions. Disputes be-
key (1968), based on extensive research in Turkish and Greek
sources, emphasizes the economic and social background;
pite
tween Greek and Turkish Cypriots in independent Cyprus
HALIL INALCIK, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300-
ide,
led to civil war in December 1963, and Turkish public
1600 (1973), is a scholarly survey of the early period; on the
uch
opinion demanded intervention in support of the Turkish
15th century an important study is FRANZ BABINGER, Mehmed
ent
Cypriots. A letter from U.S. Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson in
der Erober und seine Zeit, 2nd ed. (1959; Eng. trans., Mehmed
and
June 1964 warning Turkey against intervention, and ap-
the Conqueror and His Time, 1978), which is based mainly on
ent
parently threatening to refuse to defend Turkey against
European sources; D.M. VAUGHAN, Europe and the Turk: A
rom
the Soviet Union, caused great resentment in Turkey. The
Pattern of Alliances, 1350-1700 (1954), describes diplomatic,
crisis passed, but in November 1967 Turkey again threat-
economic, and cultural relations between the Ottoman Em-
1 of
pire and Europe; the excellent articles in the New Cambridge
cent
ened military intervention. War was then averted by U.S.
Modern History relating to the Ottoman Empire are conve-
the
and UN pressure, which procured the withdrawal of
niently assembled in M.A. COOK (ed.), A History of the Otto-
Greek regular forces that had been introduced into Cy-
man Empire to 1730 (1976); S.N. FISHER, The Foreign Relations
796 Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the
of Turkey, 1481-1512 (1948), considers Ottoman relations
is an illuminating and detailed analysis of the membership of
with Venice, Hungary, the papacy, and Iran; G.W.F. STRIPLING,
the Grand National Assembly. For the 1960 military coup,
The Ottoman Turks and the Arabs, 1511-1574 (1942, reprinted
see W.F. WEIKER, The Turkish Revolution, 1960-1961 (1963);
1968), describes the Ottoman conquest of Egypt and Syria;
for the period from 1961-65, C.H. DODD, Politics and Govern-
and S.A. FISCHER-GALATI, Ottoman Imperialism and German
ment in Turkey (1969); and for the postwar period generally,
Protestantism, 1521-1555 (1959), describes the effect of the
FEROZ AHMAD, The Turkish Experiment in Democracy, 1950-
Ottoman threat on the development of the Reformation. A
1975 (1977). On recent political movements see JACOB M.
very wide-ranging study of the whole Mediterranean area in
LANDAU, Radical Politics in Modern Turkey (1974), and ERGUN
the 16th century is FERNAND BRAUDEL La Méditerranée et le
OZBUDUN, Social Change and Political Participation in Turkey
monde méditerranéen à l'époque de Philippe II, 2nd rev. ed., 2
(1977). The chronologies by G. JASCHKE are very useful for
vol. (1966; Eng. trans., The Mediterranean and the Mediter-
Turkish history since 1918; the earlier ones appeared mostly
ranean World in the Time of Philip II, 2 vol., 1972-73). See also
in Die Welt des Islams and subsequent are Die Türkei in den
PAUL COLES, The Ottoman Impact on Europe (1968); and R.C.
Jahren 1935-1941 (1943), Die Türkei in den Jahren 1942-1951
ANDERSON, Naval Wars in the Levant, 1558-1853 (1952). On
(1955), and Die Türkei in den Jahren 1952-1961 (1965). For
Ottoman administration and society, see ALBERT HOWE LYBY-
economic developments see M.W. THORNBURG, GRAHAM SPRY,
ER, The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Sulei-
and GEORGE SOULE, Turkey: An Economic Appraisal (1949); z.
man the Magnificent (1913); A.D. ALDERSON, The Structure of
Y. HERSHLAG, Turkey: The Challenge of Growth (1968); and
the Ottoman Dynasty (1956); and, at a more popular level,
ANNE O. KRUEGER, Foreign Trade Regimes and Economic Devel-
BERNARD LEWIS, Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman
opment, vol. 1, Turkey (1974). A wide-ranging collection of
Empire (1963), and RAPHAELA LEWIS, Everyday Life in Otto-
articles is NERMIN ABADAN-UNAT, Turkish Workers in Europe,
man Turkey (1971).
1960-1975 (1976). For education, see A.M. KAZAMIAS, Educa-
The Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1566-1807: A good
tion and the Quest for Modernity in Turkey (1966). A fine study
of Turkish foreign relations is KEMAL H. KARPAT et al., Tur-
study of social organization is H.A.R. GIBB and HAROLD BOWEN,
Islamic Society and the West, 1 vol. in 2 pt. (1950-57, reprint-
key's Foreign Policy in Transition, 1950-1974 (1975). There are
ed 1965), which deals primarily with the 18th century but
good bibliographies of works in Turkish in the books by
includes material from earlier periods. An exhaustive study of
Lewis, Karpat, Dodd, Ahmad, and Hershlag.
Ottoman political, economic, and social life in the 17th cen-
(S.J.S./M.E.Y.)
tury is ROBERT MANTRAN, Istanbul dans la seconde moitié du
XVIIe siècle (1962). T.M. BARKER, Double Eagle and Crescent
(1967), is a detailed study of the Eastern question in the late
Ou-yang Hsiu
17th century; LAVENDER CASSELS, The Struggle for the Ottoman
The Chinese poet, historian, and statesman Ou-yang Hsiu
Empire, 1717-1740 (1966), discusses a similar topic in reada-
(in Pin-yin romanization, Ou-yang Xiu) reintroduced the
ble fashion. On internal events, W.L. WRIGHT, JR., Ottoman
unadorned "ancient style" in literature and as a statesman
Statecraft (1935), is an analysis of 17th-century Ottoman
sought to reform political life through adherence to Clas-
imperial decline; LADY MARY WORTLEY MONTAGU, The Com-
plete Letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, ed. by ROBERT
sical Confucian principles. He was born in 1007 in what
HALSBAND, 3 vol. (1965-66), is a travel classic as well as an
is today Mien-yang, Szechwan Province, where his father
amusing description of Ottoman life during the early 18th
was a judge. His father died when he was three, and he
century. M.L. SHAY, The Ottoman Empire from 1720 to 1734
and his mother went to live with his uncle in Hupeh.
(1944, reprinted 1968), is a description of Ottoman life during
Although the story that the family was so poor that he
the Tulip Period, based on the reports of Venetian consuls in
had to learn writing in the sand with a reed is apocryphal,
Istanbul. S.J. SHAW, Between Old and New: The Ottoman Empire
they probably lived in straitened circumstances. In 1030
Under Sultan Selim III, 1789-1807 (1971), is a detailed study
he placed first in the doctoral examinations and was
of the Ottoman reform program with an account of the
diplomatic problems of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic
appointed a judge at the western capital, Lo-yang. He
period.
was already known as a brilliant young writer, and at
Lo-yang he befriended the renowned essayist Yen Shu and
The Ottoman Empire and Turkey (from 1807 to the present):
the poet Mei Yao-ch'en. These friendships not only en-
The best general history covering this period is B. LEWIS, The
Emergence of Modern Turkey, 2nd ed. (1968). N. BERKES, The
hanced Ou-yang's status but, more important, reinforced
Development of Secularism in Turkey (1964), covers similar
his strong preference for the simplicity and clarity of the
ground but concentrates on the development of ideas. R.E.
"ancient style." Some years before, he had read the works
WARD and D.A. RUSTOW (eds.), Political Modernization in Ja-
of Han Yu, the great master of Tang dynasty literature,
pan and Turkey (1964), has valuable essays on general
whose pure and easy "ancient style," free of outworn
themes. For diplomacy the best outline is M.S. ANDERSON, The
metaphors and allusions, had greatly impressed him.
Eastern Question, 1774-1923 (1966). Useful for the European
Eventually, his leadership and advocacy of that style
provinces is L.S. STAVRIANOS, The Balkans Since 1453 (1958),
paved the way for a new literary movement.
which has an excellent bibliography. For the Tanzimat, see
R.H. DAVISON, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876
In 1034 he was appointed a collator of texts in the
(1963). Although old, E.P. ENGELHARDT, La Turquie et Le Tan-
Imperial library at the capital, K'ai-feng. Two years later,
zimat, 2 vol. (1882-84), is still a valuable source of informa-
when Fan Chung-yen, a government official, was ban-
tion. R. DEVEREUX, The First Ottoman Constitutional Period: A
ished, at the insistence of an Imperial counsellor, for
Study of the Midhat Constitution and Parliament (1963), is a
speaking out against certain official practices and institu-
careful study of the 1876 crisis and the establishment of the
tions, Ou-yang did not hesitate to attack the counsellor in
first Ottoman Parliament. For the Young Ottomans, see S.
writing. As a result, he, too, was banished and demoted
MARDIN, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (1962); and
to low judicial office in Hupeh and Hunan provinces,
for the Young Turks, E. RAMSAUR, The Young Turks: Prelude
to the Revolution of 1908 (1957); and F. AHMAD, The Young
where he wrote the Hsin Wu-tai shih ("New History of
Writing
the Five Dynasties"), a period of political chaos lasting
of the
Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics,
1908-14 (1969). DAVID KUSHNER, The Rise of Turkish National-
through almost the entire 10th century. Ou-yang's strong
"New
ism, 1876-1908 (1977), considers ideological aspects. The Ot-
sense of fairness led him to devote separate sections to
History of
toman public debt is considered in D.C. BLAISDELL, European
political outcasts such as martyrs, rebels, and traitors, a
the Five
Financial Control in the Ottoman Empire (1929). AHMED EMIN,
radical departure from previous dynastic histories.
Dynastes
Turkey in the World War (1930), is still the only account,
Highly recommended by Fan Chung-yen, who was back
although relations with Germany can be followed in U.
at the capital, and other high officials, Ou-yang was
TRUMPENER, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 1914-1918
recalled to the capital in 1043 to become Imperial coun-
(1968).
Several books consider aspects of Allied war aims in the
sellor. When Fan and others were dismissed for forming
Near East. Although outdated in parts, H.N. HOWARD, The
a private group of political reformers, Ou-yang, in a
Partition of Turkey: A Diplomatic History, 1913-1923 (1931,
notable essay on partisanship, defended associations of
reprinted 1966), is comprehensive. On the Kemalist move-
gentlemen as politically constructive. His courage and
ment, see E.D. SMITH, Origins of the Kemalist Movement and the
forthright opinions earned the respect of the emperor,
Government of the Grand National Assembly, 1919-1923 (1959).
Sung Jen Tsung, and he was commissioned to record Jen
LORD KINROSS, Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation (1964), is a
Tsung's daily life and to draft edicts. His frank opinions
good biography. On political developments in Turkey and
and severe criticisms of others created many enemies,
particularly the rise of the Democrat Party, see K.H. KARPAT,
Turkey's Politics (1959). R.D. ROBINSON, The First Turkish
and in 1045 he was accused of and tried for having had
Republic (1963), is a good general account, strongest on
illicit relations with his niece many years before-a
economic aspects. F.W. FREY, The Turkish Political Elite (1965),
charge to which his romantic life with women and wine,
DINNER
5-600
gate
PALACE
It
11
1/
gate
(843-1856
Imp leumonial Hall
chandelies 41/2 tons
750 light builes
4000 lift hulbs in hall
atatust a Jamb
anation w/at conditions of
w/wnfettered souresignty -
Har
HAKIMIYET KAYITSIZ SARTSIZ
MiLLETiNDiR
leading to tomle -sign)
Samet iNONU - 2nd Pres.
litatest's deputy
His is can now leader of only
in Parliament.
Music opens
Peace at home, peace in the world
(inthe country) atatuk
Sher - an / fay - Chens
(to your honor)
Essinhower - NATO town
ankara march 1952
State Dinnes - daman
umarks ?
Pink Palace 3-5 min
Bob -
this is the
1968
women who can
Ataturk died here 1939
get you info on
D. Palace -
here R other random
Greece of Turkey
Munir Nurettin Selcrik
atulf Regard
Metal Selcule
USIS 1512589
(Maytral 5p(-chock) pronun.
de yaulle in 1968
last neeption heldthere for
ISTANBUL
A poet writing fourteen centuries age described Istanbul
as being surrounded by a garland of water, and the city
still owes much of its spirit and beauty to the waters
that bind and divide it. The former capital of three
world empires, the the world
which stands=upon two scontinants. The main part of the
city ligs in Europe and 18 separated from its Asian
suburbs by the Bosphorus. The Golden Horn divides the
European city into two parts, the old imparial town of
Stamboul on the south bank and the more modern town of
Galata on the north.
Tradition says that the original settlement of Byzantium
was established where the Topkapi Palace now stands, in
the seventh century B.C., although the actual date was
probably much Garlier. Known from the beginning as an
important center of trada.and.commeroa, during its first
millennium Byzentium had much the same history as other
cities in the region. This changed when Constantine the
Great, fresh from reuniting the Roman Empire under his
control, decided to reconstitute the Empire with Byzantium
as its capital. In 330 A.D. the city was rededicated as
New Rome, which soon changed to Constantinople. For the
next eleven centuries Constantinople served as the
imperial and religious capital of the Byzantine Empire.
This first golden age of the city is symbolized by the
magnificent Haghia Sophia church, which was considered the
center of the orthodox Christian world.
The combination of the Bosphorus, the Golden Horn and the
great land walls built by the early rulers protected
Constantinopie from numerous sieges. Indeed, the city was
taken by force only twice by the armies of the Fourth
Crusade in 1204 and by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
The city takan by Mohmet the Conqueror was a pale shadow
of the former Imperial Byzantine capital. The Ottomans
repeopled and rebuilt 1t, making it by the beginning of
the sixteenth century a thriving and populous metropolis,
once again the capital of a vast empire. The Ottoman
empire reached its peak during the reign of Sulayman the
Magnificent, who ruled from 1520 to 1560. This second
golden age of the city is symbolized by the great
Sulsymaniye Mosque built in 1557.
when the Ottoman empire foundered at the end of the First
World War, Istanbul was occupled by the victorious allied
armies. Kemal Atatora, leader of the Turkish nationalist
forces, decided to make a clean break with the imperial
past of the city, and placed the capital of the new
Turkish Republic-in Ankars: Its imparial past reflected
in the unforgettable skyline of the city, Istanbul today
remains a vast matropolis that continues to sarve as the
economic, industrial and cultural heart of Turkey.
HAGHIA SOPHIA
AYA SOFYA
The history and erchitacture of Hanhla Sookle molse 1+
JUN 18 '91 17:24
96475087 PAGE. 002
the church of the Divine Wisdon, was dedicated wy will
Emperor Justinian on December 26 in the year A.D. 537,
For nearly a thousand years 't served as the cathedral of
Constantinople and was the center of the religious life of
the Byzantine Empire. For almost five centuries after the
Turkish Conquest in 1453 it ranked pirst among the
imperial mosques of Istanbul under the name of Aya So*ya
Camii. In 1935, during the early years of the Turkish
Republic, Haghia Sophia was converted into a museum. The
architectural genius of the building is most evident in
its magnificant dome, which was pictured by the anciants
as being suspended from heaven by a golden chain.
JUN 18 '91 17:25
96475087
PAGE. 003
SULTAN AHMET CAMII
THE BLUE MOSQUE
Not far from Heghia Sophia, the Sulten Ahmet Camil,
commonly known as the Blue Mosque, is a splendid example
of Ottoman imperial architecture. It forms one of the
principal landmarks of the Istanbul skyline, with its
graceful cascade of domes and semidomes, its six slender
minarets and the lovely gray color of the stone set off by
the gilded ornaments on domes and minarets. The Blue
Mosque was Pounded by Sultan Ahmet I and constructed
between 1609 and 1616. The mosque is celebrated for the
light that streams in from its 260 windows as well as for
the splendor of the tiles used in the interior--hence the
name "Blue Mosque."
TOPKAPI SARAYI
TOPKAPI PALACE
Topkapi Sarayi, the Great Palace of the Ottoman Sultans,
1.6 the most extensive and fascinating monument of Ottoman
civil architecture in existance. It served as the seat of
Ottoman power POL over 400 years. Perched on n hill
JUN 18 '91 17:25 health 440 Golden Hare and the Boanhorus
96475087 PAGE.004
Constantinopis, Fatin Suiten manmer,
1465, It served not only as the private residence of the
Sultan, his Haram and his court, but was also the boat of
the supreme executive and Judicial council of the Ottoman
empire, known ao the Divan, as wall as the home or the
iargest and most select training school for the imperial
civil service, The Palace 19 divided into four courts and
ourrounded on its slopes by gardens and parks. It also
houses a museum with superb collections of porcelsins,
armor, fabrics, jewels, illuminated manuscripts, and
calligraphy.
JUN 18 '91 17:26
96475087 PAGE 005
DOLMASAHCE SARAYI
DOLMABAHCE PALACE
Dolmabachce Palace stretches for 600 meters along the
shore of the Bosphorus mear where the 4581 tosphorus
bridge (1974) links Europal It was built in 1853
by Sultan Abdul Macit who found Topkapi too old
fashioned. After completion, it served as the chief
residence of the Sultans until the end of the Empire.
Ataturk stayed there when in Istanbul and died there on
November 10, 1938. Predominantly Mastern in style,
Dolmabahce Palace is most noted for the baroque
extravagance of its decor. It houses, among other things,
an incredible crystal staircase and an alabaster
bathroom.
JUN 18 '91 17:26
96475087 PAGE. 006
ROBERT COLLEGE
Located on a hill overlooking the Bosphorus in Arnavutkoy,
Robert College is a private American coeducational high
school founded in 1871 as the American College for Girls.
It was the first modern high school of its kind in Turkey
and produced many women who played & leading part in the
life of thair country. In 1971, on the occasion of its
centennial, it was combined with the boy's high school of
the old Robert Collage, taking the latter's name. (The
original boys' school, located a short distance to the
north on the Bosphorus, today houses Bosphorus University
(Bogazioi Universitesi), one of Turkey's most prestigious
institutions of higher learning.) Robert College is still
considered by many the best high school in Turkey, and its
graduates continue to occupy prominent positions In all
walks of Turkish life.
JUN 18 '91 17:27
96475087 PAGE 007
AE5
E5
1982
WH
The New
Encyclopædia
Britannica
in 30 Volumes
MACROP/EDIA
Volume 2
Knowledge in Depth
FOUNDED 1768
15 TH EDITION
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
William Benton, Publisher, 1943-1973
Helen Hemingway Benton, Publisher, 1973-1974
Chicago/Geneva/London/Manila/Paris/Rome
Seoul/Sydney/Tokyo/Toronto
Atatürk, Kemal 255
For many years in the 19th century, the desert was the
mal went on to the military high school in Manastir,
source of conflicts between Chile, Bolivia, and Peru be-
where, observing with hatred the continuous attacks of
cause of its valuable resources, particularly sodium ni-
the Christian Macedonian anarchists on the Turkish pop-
152 of
trate deposits located northeast of Antofagasta and in-
ulation, he became, like most of his fellow cadets, an
land from Iquique. Much of the area belonged to Bolivia
ardent nationalist.
not
and Peru, but the mining industry there was controlled
In 1899 Mustafa Kemal entered the Military Academy
meeral
by Chilean interests, which were strongly supported by
in Istanbul. There he came to take a close interest in
incurres
the Chilean government. From the War of the Pacific
politics; he and his fellow students read secret pamphlets
(1879 to 1883) between the three countries, Chile
attacking the despotic rule of Sultan Abdülhamid II. He
emerged victorious. The resulting Treaty of Ancon (1884)
was especially influenced by the patriotic and liberal
gave Chile permanent ownership of sectors previously
thinking of the poet Namik Kemal Bey. He also read
controlled by Peru and Bolivia, the latter losing its whole
books on the French Revolution and developed an ad-
Pacific coastline.
miration for Napoleon.
The area proved to be one of the chief sources of Chile's
In 1902 Mustafa Kemal graduated from the Military
wealth until World War I. Nitrate deposits in the central
Academy and entered the General Staff College, where
depression and in several basins of the coastal range were
his interest in politics continued. After finishing the col-
systematically mined after the middle of the 19th cen-
lege with the rank of captain, he was appointed to the
tury. Ports were built at Iquique, Caldera, Antofagasta,
cavalry regiment in Damascus. There, together with
Taltal, Tocopilla, Mejillones, and, farther north, Pisagua,
some of his friends, he founded a secret society called
and railroads penetrated the mountain barriers to the in-
"Fatherland and Freedom," which, however, failed to
terior. Prior to World War I, Chile had a world monop-
make much progress. On his return to Salonika, Mustafa
oly on nitrate; in some years 3,000,000 tons were ex-
Kemal, like many of his fellow officers, joined the secret
tracted, and the taxes on its export amounted to half the
"Committee of Union and Progress," which spread its
government's revenues. The development of synthetic
revolutionary activities throughout the armed forces and
S
methods of fixing nitrogen have since reduced the market
caused the proclamation of the Constitution of 1908.
to a regional one, and only 780,000 tons per year were
Mustafa Kemal devoted all his time and energy to his
produced in the late 1960s. Once, 120,000 nitrate work-
profession in the following years. In 1911, when the
ers were employed; now there are fewer than 10,000.
Italians attacked Tripoli, an Ottoman province at that
Whole towns were abandoned, and the port of Pisagua
time, he hurried there together with some of his officer
had fewer than 25 inhabitants in 1970.
friends and, forming troops of the natives, launched suc-
Some sulfur is still mined in the high Cordillera. The
cessful guerrilla raids on the enemy. In the same year
region's chief source of revenue, however, is copper min-
Mustafa Kemal was promoted to major. In the Balkan
ing at Chuquicamata in the Andes and at Paposo on the
War of 1912 he was charged with the defense of the
1
coast. The industry developed with the entry of U.S. cap-
Gallipoli Peninsula-a task that gave him an excellent
ital and technical skill in the early part of the 20th cen-
opportunity to study the strategic position of this im-
tury. The deposits are abundant, and the government
portant area. In 1913 he was sent to Sofia as military at-
(1964-70) of Pres. Eduardo Frei (Montalva) had an am-
Topogra-
taché, and during his stay there he acquired a good
bitious development program. The succeeding govern-
phy of the
knowledge of the Western standards in taste, the arts,
ment of Pres. Salvador Allende (Gossens) nationalized
Atacama
and the relations between men and women in polite so-
g
all U.S.-owned copper companies.
ciety. He made good use of this knowledge later when he
Some farming is done in the desert, but this supports
set about reforming social life in his country. While still
only a few thousand people. Lemons are grown at Pica,
in Sofia, Mustafa Kemal was promoted to lieutenant
and a variety of products are cultivated on the shores of
colonel.
the salt marshes at San Pedro de Atacama. At Calama,
d
When World War I broke out, Mustafa Kemal was ap-
Activities
near Chuquicamata, water from the Río Loa irrigates
pointed to the command of the 19th Division at Çanak-
during
e
potato and alfalfa fields.
kale. He defeated the British at Gallipoli twice and
World
Atacama had become a region of declining population,
d
gained for himself in the Turkish press the title of "the
War I
despite the presence of the copper industry. The develop-
Saviour of Istanbul." And he was promoted to colonel.
ment of fishing and the establishment of canning fac-
2
In 1916, serving on the eastern front, he stopped the ad-
tories, especially at Iquique, provided employment for
vance of the Russian forces to the south and was pro-
e
relatively few. So far had the decline of population gone
0
moted to brigadier general.
that government programs for afforestation and sheep
h
In 1917 Mustafa Kemal accompanied the crown prince,
breeding were faced with a lack of mánpower.
1
Vahideddin, on a state visit to Germany. During a tour
(J.-L.-F.T.)
)
of the German Western Front he did not hesitate to ex-
press openly his view about the vulnerability of the front
Atatürk, Kemal
and Germany's position in the war. On his return to
Istanbul Mustafa Kemal fell ill, and for treatment he
Kemal Atatürk, a distinguished Turkish soldier, reform-
y
went to Vienna and Carlsbad (now Karlovy Vary, Czech-
er, and statesman, was the founder of the Republic of
1
oslovakia) where he had a further opportunity to observe
Turkey and its first president. His successful struggle for
1
European civilization.
the liberation of Turkey against the powers of the En-
e
In 1918 Mustafa Kemal was appointed to command the
tente (an alliance of Britain, France, and Russia) after
7th Army in Palestine; when he took up his duties, how-
Turkey's defeat in World War I has inspired many em-
ever, the fight with the British had all but ended, and the
bryonic states in Asia and Africa to fight for their in-
enemy was advancing northward without meeting any re-
dependence.
sistance. The Arab guerrillas too were launching attacks
Early life and career. Kemal Atatürk, born in 1881 in
S
on the Turkish army. To avoid the capture of the whole
Salonika, Greece, of a Turkish family of humble origin,
7th Army, Mustafa Kemal withdrew his forces to the
was named Mustafa. His mother was Zübeyde Hanim,
1
north of Aleppo. When, after the Armistice of Mudros
his father Ali Riza, a minor government employee. When
(Moúdhros), the German officers and commanders serving
Mustafa was still in the primary school he lost his father,
in Turkey returned to their country, Mustafa Kemal as-
Education
and his mother took the boy to live in the country with
sumed the command of all the forces of the southeastern
her brother. Returning to Salonika later, Mustafa finished
y
front. Disagreeing with the British over the enforcement
primary school and entered the military secondary
r
of the terms of the Armistice, however, he was appointed
school in that town in order to become an officer in the
to a post in the Ministry of War. On his arrival in Istan-
d
Ottoman army. It was at this school that one of his
bul he found the fleet of the Entente anchored in the har-
teachers, who admired the boy for his skill in mathe-
e
bour. The terms of the Armistice were hard enough, but
matics and who was also called Mustafa, suggested he
information was now received about a secret agreement
should call himself Mustafa Kemal (maturity and per-
reached by the states of the Entente for the partition of
fection). After finishing secondary school, Mustafa Ke-
the Ottoman territories. Moreover, the minorities in Is-
256
Atatürk, Kemal
tanbul and elsewhere had seized the opportunity to or-
opened the National Congress in Sivas, and he was again
ganize themselves against the Turks. The Turkish people
elected president of the congress. The National Congress
looked for a means of redress; in some parts of the coun-
adopted all the decisions taken by the Congress of Erzu-
try they formed organizations called "the Society for the
rum and rejected decisively the idea of placing Turkey
Defence of Rights" to fight against them.
under American mandate. Resisting a motion for estab-
Activities after World War I. In Istanbul there were
lishing a new state in Anatolia, Mustafa Kemal proposed
two main ideas about Turkey's future: the Sultan and
the joining of all local Societies for the Defense of Rights
his supporters were thinking of placing the country under
into one society to be called "the Society for the Defence
English protection, while some well-known Turkish jour-
of Rights in Anatolia and Rumelia." The proposal was
Marriage
nalists and intellectuals were spreading propaganda for
accepted, and so the prototype of a political party was
placing Turkey under an American mandate. In both
formed. The Ottoman cabinet of Ferid Paşa and suc-
cases the aim was to maintain the Ottoman Empire in its
ceeding Ottoman governments continued to view the na-
cosmopolitan structure. Mustafa Kemal, however, per-
tional movement as an act of rebellion and Mustafa
sisted in the idea of an independent Turkish nation living
Kemal's activities as illegitimate.
within its national boundaries and believed that this could
Role in the founding and reform of modern Turkey.
be achieved if the nation was prepared for a new struggle.
On December 27 Mustafa Kemal transferred the seat of
Before deciding on a course of action, he had talks with
the national struggle to Ankara, thinking it a more con-
many Turkish and foreign notables, including the Sultan
venient location for his purposes. In the meantime, at
and his ministers. Then he discussed it with his friends,
the general elections of members for the Ottoman Cham-
all commanders who were bitterly disillusioned over the
ber of Deputies in- Istanbul, Mustafa Kemal's supporters
abolition of the Ottoman army by the terms of the
won an overwhelming majority and succeeded in getting
Armistice, and saw the solution in starting a war of in-
the chamber to proclaim as its own decision the principles
dependence in Anatolia.
of the National Covenant. They also secured the cancel-
An excellent opportunity for this presented itself soon:
lation of the government's former decree about Mustafa
the powers of the Entente were putting pressure on the
Kemal's dismissal from the army. Alarmed at these in-
Turkish government to take measures against riots likely
dications of change in the Ottoman policy, the British
to break out in the eastern provinces. The Sultan ap-
occupied Istanbul officially on March 16, 1920, and dis-
pointed Mustafa Kemal as Inspector of the Third Army
solved the Chamber of Deputies. Mustafa Kemal vehe-
in Erzurum, endowing him with power over military and
mently protested the British government's action; but,
civilian authorities. On May 15, 1919, immediately be-
in fact, the occupation of the Ottoman capital and es-
fore Mustafa Kemal's departure for Erzurum, the Greeks
pecially the dissolution of the chamber were extremely
occupied Izmir.
useful to his aims because they removed the legal ob-
After a secret interview with the Sultan, Mustafa Kemal
stacle that Istanbul presented to his plan of forming a
national government in Anatolia. So, after a new elec-
&:forms
left Istanbul with a large suite of staff officers and set
Mustafa
foot in Samsun on May 19. In Amasya, with the approval
tion of deputies, he opened on April 23 in Ankara the
Kemal's
of local corps commanders, he issued a secret circular
first Grand National Assembly of Turkey, and he was
secret
dated June 22 in which he described the dangers that the
elected its president. At Mustafa Kemal's proposal, a
circular
country faced: how the government in Istanbul had
constitutional law was passed changing the name of the
yielded weakly to the forces of occupation and how the
state to Turkey and stipulating that sovereignty and ex-
only hope of salvation lay in the nation's own struggle
ecutive powers would be used on its behalf by the Grand
for its liberation. Such a struggle, he added, had already
National Assembly. Accordingly, as president of the as-
begun, and to make it the decision of the nation itself a
sembly Mustafa Kemal took upon himself the offices of
national congress would be convoked in Sivas with the
the prime minister and of the president of the state. Thus
participation of three delegates from each province. He
ended the Islãmic form of government that had existed in
ordered all unit commanders to strengthen their forces,
Turkey since the Middle Ages; and, as in the French Rev-
disregarding the terms of the Armistice about the de-
olution, the Turkish people passed suddenly from rule of
mobilization of the Turkish army. Finally, he warned
absolutism and the caliphate to a regime based on na-
both the military and civilian authorities that henceforth
tional sovereignty. This important change caused serious
they would take their orders from him alone.
uprisings in some regions, but they were quickly sup-
Mustafa Kemal's demands were fervently complied with
pressed by the national forces.
by the military because his demands meant saving the
Mustafa Kemal now busied himself with the work of
Struggle
army from extinction. The army took under its control
gaining control of such parts of the country as were then
consolica
under occupation. First, in the east, the Armenians and
the
all postal and telegraphic communications in Anatolia
and forced into obedience those civil administrators who
the Georgians were defeated, and through the mediation
country
tried to resist Mustafa Kemal's orders.
of Soviet Russia, a treaty was signed with them that re-
In all the towns and cities he called at on his way to
gained for Turkey even the territories she had lost in
Sivas, Mustafa Kemal met the leading citizens and ex-
1878. After extensive guerrilla warfare, the French in
plained to them his views on a national struggle for in-
the south evacuated Turkish territories and withdrew to
dependence. He arrived in Sivas amid warm demonstra-
Syria and recognized the legitimacy of the National Gov-
tions of support by the people, and after important talks
ernment in Ankara. Ignoring Ankara altogether, the Brit-
with the notables of the city, he proceeded to Erzurum,
ish got the Ottoman government to sign the Treaty of
ignoring all orders given by the Sultan's government, un-
Sèvres. The National Government proclaimed that it did
der pressure from the states of the Entente for his im-
not recognize as legitimate a treaty of such terms, where-
mediate return to Istanbul. In Erzurum a congress was
upon the Greek army extended its area of occupation,
to be convened on July 23 by the Society for the Defense
advancing within 50 kilometres of Ankara. At this time
of Rights in Eastern Anatolia. In the meantime the mili-
of great anxiety the National Assembly appointed Mus-
tary and civilian authorities of Erzurum received an or-
tafa Kemal the commander in chief with extraordinary
der for Mustafa Kemal's arrest and transport to Istanbul.
powers. Indeed, on August 26, 1922, after an all-out of-
Although this order went unheeded, Mustafa Kemal re-
fensive planned and directed personally by the Com-
signed his commission in the army, deeming it necessary
mander in Chief, the Greek army was defeated and
to have more freedom as the leader of the national strug-
forced within two weeks to leave Anatolia completely.
Participa-
gle he had started. Thus he entered the congress as a
Upon this decisive victory and with the mediation of the
tion in
mere delegate and was elected its president. At his sug-
states of the Entente, an armistice was signed with the
nationalist
gestion the congress accepted the National Covenant,
Greeks according to which they evacuated all Turkish
congresses
which was in the nature of an oath requiring the in-
territories. The British ceded Çanakkale and Istanbul to
divisibility of the fatherland and the successful comple-
the National Government. Vahideddin, the last Ottoman
tion of the national movement. In addition, a Standing
sultan, fled abroad, and upon a motion by Mustafa Ke-
Committee of nine members was elected of which Mus-
mal the National Assembly terminated the 600 years of
tafa Kemal was chosen president. On September 4 he
Ottoman rule in Turkey. The Treaty of Lausanne, signed
Athanasius, Saint
257
on July 24, 1923, established the integrity of Turkey's
tionalizing all foreign firms and companies. On the ques-
national frontiers and its complete independence. All
tion of Turkey's industrialization, he placed his hope on
privileges granted to the European countries by the Ot-
private domestic capital for a while, but discovering its
tomans were cancelled. Thus, Mustafa Kemal realized
insufficiency, he decided to encourage etatism (state so-
his dream of founding a completely independent and na-
cialism). In neither case, however, did he achieve any
tional Turkish state in place of the Ottoman Empire, that
important success. If one or two items of foreign policy
"sick man of Europe" that had been for a long time a
are excepted, there was a gradual slowing down in the
subject of strife among the great powers of Europe.
last five years of Atatürk's life, and his final year passed
Marriage
In 1922 Mustafa Kemal married Latife Hanim, the
in serious illness. He died on November 10, 1938, in
well-educated daughter of a wealthy family in Izmir. The
Istanbul, where he had gone to rest.
marriage was contracted in the modern manner, not in
Atatürk made major reforms in Turkey in the field of
the tradition of Islãm. In order to show the Turkish peo-
politics, law, and culture that only affected, however,
ple that the place of women in society was by the side of
bureaucrats and a minority of well-to-do people in the
their men, he took his wife with him on his trips around
cities. The poorer part of the population, and especially
the country. His marriage did not last long, however.
the peasants who still subsisted in an agricultural order
During his long years of single life he had developed an
of the medieval type, continued to live much the same as
independent habit of living that he found difficult to give
before. Nevertheless, the Western view of life had gained
up and that his wife could not tolerate.
enough power among the educated classes to make a re-
On one occasion as early as 1917, Mustafa Kemal had
turn to the old way of life impossible.
remarked that, had he the power and the authority, he
would change social life in Turkey at one blow. This op-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a complete bibliography, see J.P.D.
portunity had now presented itself, and he launched on a
KINROSS, Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation (1964); B. LEWIS,
The Emergence of Modern Turkey (1961); and UNESCO,
program of reforms. In place of the Society for the De-
Atatürk (Eng. trans. 1963). Additional information may be
fense of Rights in Anatolia and Rumelia, he founded the
found in the SOCIETE POUR L'ETUDE D'HISTOIRE TURQUE, His-
People's Republican Party and became its leader. With
toire de la république Turque (1935), written under the pa-
the general elections held immediately after the signing
tronage of Atatürk.
of the Treaty of Lausanne, this party, as Turkey's only
(M.Ak.)
political party, took complete control of government. On
October 29, 1923, Mustafa Kemal proclaimed the Re-
Athanasius, Saint
public and was elected its first president. In 1924 he
St. Athanasius, theologian, ecclesiastical statesman, and
abolished the caliphate. In the meantime, a group of his
Egyptian national leader, was the chief defender of
friends who were against his drastic methods of reform
Christian orthodoxy in the 4th-century battle against
and who believed in gradual progress over a period of
Arianism, the heresy that asserted that the Son of God
Reforms
time founded the Progressive Republican Party. Mustafa
was a creature of like but not the same substance as God
Kemal went on carrying out his program of reform: he
the Father. His two-part work of apologetics, Against
closed down all institutions based on the Muslim canon
the Heathen and The Incarnation of the Word of God,
law, all monasteries, and religious orders. "Science is the
completed about AD 335, was the first great classic of de-
most reliable guide in life," he remarked, and abolishing
veloped Greek Orthodox theology. In Athanasius' sys-
the traditional system of education, which was mainly
tem, the Son of God, the eternal Word through whom
religious, he established secular schools of the modern
God made the world, entered the world in human form
type. The whole Ottoman legal system was modernized,
to lead men back to the harmony from which they had
and a new civil and penal code was adopted. The Oriental
fallen away. Athanasius reacted vigorously against Ari-
forms of dress that carried a religious significance were
anism, for which the Son was a lesser being, and wel-
discarded in favour of European dress. Dances, balls,
comed the definition of the Son formulated at the Coun-
and other forms of entertainment involving both men
cil of Nicaea in AD 325: "consubstantial with the Father."
and women were encouraged, and the enlightened classes
Athanasius was born at Alexandria, Egypt, about 293
Life and
adopted the European way of life.
and received his philosophical and theological training
major
Mustafa Kemal's reforms did not go unchallenged. In
there; in 325 he attended Bishop Alexander of Alexan-
works
Eastern Anatolia a man called Şeyh Said stirred up a
dria as deacon at the Council of Nicaea. A recognized
rebellion to restore the Muslim canon law; in Izmir prep-
theologian and ascetic, Athanasius was the obvious can-
Struggle
arations for a plot to assassinate Mustafa Kemal were
didate to succeed Alexander when the latter died in 328.
reportedly discovered; and there were said also to be
consolid
The first years of his episcopate were devoted to visita-
the
some local attempts at rebellion against the use of hats.
tion of his extensive patriarchate, which included all of
Mustafa Kemal punished severely all the leaders of these
Egypt and Libya. During this time he established impor-
country
movements, closed down the Progressive Party, and,
tant contacts with the Coptic monks of Upper Egypt and
reverting to the former authoritarian regime, he pursued
their leader Pachomius. Soon began the struggle with im-
his program of reform. Setting aside all the old laws and
perialist and Arian churchmen that occupied much of his
traditions that held women inferior to men, he established
life. He used political influence against the Meletians,
complete equality between the sexes, including the right
followers of the schismatic bishop Meletius of Lycopolis,
of electing and being elected. In 1928 he substituted
who had gone back on the plans made at Nicaea for their
Roman characters for the Arabic that had been used in
reunion with the church; but he refuted specific charges
Turkey for centuries. He endeavoured to popularize
of mistreatment of Arians and Meletians before a hostile
Western classical music and the theatre in Turkey. In
gathering of bishops at Tyre (in modern Lebanon) in 335,
1930 he made a second attempt at introducing a multi-
which he refused to recognize as a general council of
party regime by allowing the creation of the Free Repub-
the church. When both parties met the emperor Con-
lican Party; but, as this party soon became a centre for
stantine at Constantinople in 336, Athanasius was ac-
antireformist ideas and activities, it met the same fate
cused of threatening to interfere with the grain supply
as the Progressive Republican Party. Mustafa Kemal
from Egypt, and without any formal trial Constantine
also launched a large-scale program of research in the
exiled him to the Rhineland.
fields of Turkish language and history. By this means he
The Emperor's death in 337 allowed Athanasius to re-
wanted to strengthen in society the ties of national feel-
turn to Alexandria, but Constantine's son Constantius,
ing in place of the old ties of religion. In 1933 a law was
emperor in the East, renewed the order of banishment in
passed to make the use of family names compulsory, and
338. Athanasius took refuge at Rome under the protec-
the National Assembly gave Mustafa Kemal the name
tion of Constantius' brother Constans, emperor in the
Atatürk ("Father of Turks"), which soon became so
West. An Arian bishop, Gregory, was installed at Alex-
popular as to supersede his previous name and titles.
andria; Athanasius, however, kept in touch with his flock
Atatürk's foreign policy can be summed up by his mot-
through the annual Festal Letters announcing the date of
to: "Peace at home, and peace in the world." In econ-
Easter. Pope Julius I wrote in vain on his behalf, and the
omy, he followed a policy of national economy, na-
general council called for AD 343 was no more successful
1084
1085
Introduction
28
Turkey
Turkey is one place to which the term "East meets West" really
applies, both literally and figuratively. It is in Turkey's largest
city, Istanbul, where the continents of Europe and Asia meet,
separated only by the Bosphorus, which flows 29 kilometers (18
miles) from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara.
Although most of Turkey's land mass is in Asia, Turkey has
faced West politically since 1923, when Mustapha Kemal, bet-
ter known as Atatürk, founded the modern republic. He
transformed the remnants of the shattered Ottoman Empire
into a secular state with a Western outlook. So thorough was
this changeover, culturally, politically, and economically, that
in 1987, 49 years after Atatürk's death, Turkey applied for full
membership to the European Community (EC). It has been a
member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
since 1952.
For 16 centuries Istanbul, originally known as Byzantium,
played a major part in world politics, first as capital of the East-
ern Roman Empire, when it was known as Constantinople;
then, as capital of the Ottoman Empire, the most powerful Is-
lamic empire in the world, it was renamed Istanbul. Atatürk
moved the capital to Ankara at the inception of the Turkish Re-
public.
The legacy of the Greeks, Romans, Ottomans, and numerous
other civilizations has made the country a vast outdoor muse-
um. The most spectacular of the reconstructed classical sites
are along the western Aegean coast and the southwest Medi-
terranean coast, which are lined with magnificent sandy
beaches and sleepy little fishing villages, as well as busy holi-
day spots with sophisticated tourism facilities.
For those with more time, an extra five to seven days, an excur-
sion inland to central Anatolia and the eroded lunar valleys of
the Cappadocia area will show some of the enormous diversity
of the landscapes and people of Turkey.
Turkey remains solidly Islamic. Of its 52 million people, 99%
are Muslim; primarily these are rural people whose lives are
deeply rooted in tradition. You can drive through areas where
peasants still pick cotton by hand or collect hay with a pitch-
fork, while smoke rises from a nearby campsite-scenes that
have barely changed over the centuries.
Before You Go
When to Go The height of the tourist season runs from April through Octo-
ber. July and August are the busiest and warmest months.
They are also the best time to visit central and eastern Anatolia
in Asia Minor, which can be extremely cold in winter, with
roads and mountain passes closed by snow. April through June
and September and October are the best months to visit ar-
chaeological sites or Istanbul and the Marmara area because
the days are cooler and the crowds are smaller. Istanbul is hot
in the summer and cold in the winter.
Climate The Mediterranean and Aegean coasts have mild winters and
hot summers. You can swim in the sea from late April through
October. The Black Sea coast is mild and damp, with a rainfall
1086
Before You Go
1087
of 228 centimeters (90 inches) a year. Summer brings hot and
dry weather to eastern Anatolia, but evenings are cool.
Q
SOVIET
NOINN
MI. Arargt
Van
300
The following are the average daily maximum and minimum
Karst
Dogubayazit
Ercis
Hakkari
temperatures for Istanbul.
Jan.
46F
8C
May
69F
21C
Sept.
76F
24C
Karaköse
Lake
Van
37
Cizre
3
53
12
Bitlis Tolvan
61
16
Feb.
47F
9C
June
77F
25C
Oct.
68F
20C
36
2
60
16
55
13
Mus
Mar.
51F
11C
July
82F
28C
Nov.
59F
15C
38
3
Erzurum
65
18
48
9
Dicle
OMardin
Apr.
60F
16C
Aug.
82F
28C
Dec.
51F
11C
45
7
Murat
66
19
41
5
Hazar
Currency The monetary unit is the Turkish lira (TL), which comes in
Trabzon
Diyarbakir
bank notes of 1,000, 10,000, 20,000, and 50,000. Although there
are coins of smaller denominations, they are seldom used. At
Keban
Malatya
Urfa
press time (spring 1990), the exchange rate was 2,600 TL to the
Elazia
dollar and 4,680 TL to the pound sterling. Major credit cards
and traveler's checks are widely accepted in hotels, shops, and
Gaziantep
expensive restaurants in cities and resorts, but rarely in vil-
Ordu
lages and small shops and restaurants.
Sivas
Golbasi
Olslahiyo
SY R R I
Be certain to retain your original exchange slips when you con-
Kahramanmaras
vert money into Turkish lira-you will need them to reconvert
Samsun
the money. Because the Turkish lira is worth a lot less than the
dollar or most foreign currencies, it's best to convert only what
Bafra
Kizilimak
Kayseri,
you plan to spend.
Sinop
Adana
Iskenderun
Antakya
What It Will Cost Turkey is the least expensive of the Mediterranean countries.
Although inflation hovers between 50% and 70%, frequent
small devaluations of the lira keep prices fairly stable when
Black Sea
measured against foreign currencies. Prices in this chapter are
Osmancik
Kirikkale
Aksaray
Tarsus
Silifke
quoted in dollars, which indicate the real cost to the tourist
Mersin
more accurately than do the constantly increasing lira prices.
Eregli
Sample Prices
Coffee can range from about 30c to $2.50 a cup, depending on
Karabuk
Lake
Tuz
whether it's the less expensive Turkish coffee or American-
Ankara
Konya
style coffee and whether it's served in a luxury hotel or a café;
Polatli
tea, 20c to $2.50 a glass; local beer, $1-$3; soft drinks, $1-$4;
Duzce
Emir Dagi
Beysehir
TAURUS
Anamur
lamb shish kebab, $1.50-$7; taxi, $1 for 1 mile; prices are 50%
higher between midnight and 6AM.
Zonguldak
Eregli
Eskisehir
Antalya
Alanya
Customs
Turkish customs officials rarely look through tourists' luggage
Adapazori
On Arrival
Alyon
on arrival. You are allowed to take in 400 cigarettes, 50 cigars,
Sakarya
Isparta
200 grams of tobacco, 1.5 kilograms of coffee, 500 grams of tea,
Kutahya
L)Egridir
and 2.5 liters of alcohol. An additional 600 cigarettes, 100 ci-
Bosphorus
Usak
Mediterranean Sea
gars, or 500 grams of tobacco may be imported if purchased at
Beykoz
Olskudar
Bursa
the Turkish duty-free shops on arrival. Register all valuable
Denizli,
personal items in your passport on entry. Turkey has duty-free
shops in airports for international arrivals. Items are usually
Demirkoy
Lüleburgaz
tstanbulC
less expensive than in duty-free shops in European airports or
Sea of
than what's offered in-flight.
Dardanelles Marmara
Balikesir
Turgutlo Salihli
Büyük Menderes
Fethiye
On Departure
You must keep receipts of your purchases, especially items
Tekirdog
Bergama
Ephesus
such as carpets, as proof that they were bought with legally ex-
BULGARIA
rklareli
Edime
Canakkate
changed currency. Also, it cannot be emphasized strongly
Truva
Manisa
E
enough that Turkey is extremely tough on anyone attempting
Kesan
(Troy)
7.
Izmir
to export antiques without authorization or on anyone caught
Gallipoli
Aegean
R
with illegal drugs, regardless of the amount.
Sea
&
Turkey
1088
Staying in Turkey
1089
Language
In 1928, Atatürk launched his sweeping language reforms that,
way fares. There are 10% student discounts and 30% discounts
over a period of six weeks, replaced Arabic script with the
for groups of 24 or more. In railroad stations, buy tickets at
Latin-based alphabet and eliminated many difficult and obtuse
windows marked "Bilgisayar Giseleri."
Arabic and Persian words from the Turkish language. The re-
sult has been dramatic: The literacy rate today is 75%,
By Bus Buses, which are run by private companies, are much faster
than trains and provide excellent, inexpensive service. Buses
compared with 9% before the reforms.
are available, virtually around the clock, between all cities and
English and German are widely spoken in hotels, restaurants,
towns. They are fairly comfortable and some are air-con-
and shops in cities and resorts. In the villages or in remote are-
ditioned. Companies have their own fixed fares for different ro-
as, you'll have a hard time finding anyone who speaks anything
utes. Istanbul to Ankara, for instance, varies from $7 to $12,
but Turkish. Try learning a few basic Turkish words; the Turks
Istanbul to Izmir varies from $10 to $15. Su (bottled water) is
will love you for it.
included in the fare. You can purchase tickets at stands in a
town's octogar (central bus terminal). All seats are reserved.
Getting Around
Fares don't vary much among the competing companies, but
there's often a great deal of difference between the age of the
By Car Turkey has excellent roads-25,000 miles of well-maintained,
buses and their comfort level. Whether you end up on a new bus
Road Conditions
paved highways-but signposts are few and marked poorly,
or a rattling old'one is simply a matter of luck. For very short
lighting is scarce, and city traffic is chaotic. City streets and
trips, or getting around within a city, take minibuses or a
highways are jammed with vehicles operated by high-speed lu-
dolmuş (shared taxi). Both are inexpensive and comfortable.
natics and drivers who constantly blast their horns. In
Istanbul, it's safer and faster to drive on the modern highways.
By Plane Turkish Airlines (THY) operates an extensive domestic net-
Avoid the many small one-way streets, since you never know
work. There are nine flights daily on weekdays between
when someone is going to barrel down one of them in the wrong
Istanbul and Ankara. During the summer, many flights be-
direction. Better yet, leave your car in a garage and use public
tween the cities and coastal resorts are added. Try to arrive at
transportation or take taxis. Parking is a big problem in the cit-
the airport at least 45 minutes before your flight because secu-
ies and larger towns.
rity checks, which are rigidly enforced without exception, can
be time-consuming. Checked luggage is placed on trolleys on
Rules of the Road The best way to see Turkey is by car, but be warned that it has
the tarmac and must be identified by boarding passengers be-
one of the highest accident rates in Europe. In general, Turk-
fore it is put on the plane. Unidentified luggage is left behind
ish driving conforms to Mediterranean customs, with driving
and checked for bombs or firearms.
on the right and passing on the left. But watch out for drivers
passing on a curve or on the top of a hill. Other hazards are
THY offers several discounts on domestic flights: 10% for fami-
peasant carts, which are unlit at night, and motorcycles weav-
ly members, including spouses; 50% for children aged 12 and
ing in and out of traffic, even though they may be carrying an
under; 90% for children under two; and 50% for sports groups of
entire family.
seven or more. The THY sales office is at Sishane terminal, tel.
144-0296 or 145-4238; reservations by phone, 573-3515-40 (26
Gasoline Throughout the country Mobil, Shell, and British Petroleum,
lines).
as well as two Turkish oil companies, have gas stations which
are open 24 hours on the main highways. Others are open from
By Boat Turkish Maritime Lines operates car ferry and cruise services
6 AM to 10 PM.
from Istanbul. Cruises are in demand, SO make your reserva-
tions in advance, either through the head office in Istanbul
Breakdowns Before you start out, check with your hotel or a tourist infor-
(Rihtim Cad. 1, Karaköy, tel. 1/144-0207) or through Sunquest
mation office about how, in case of an emergency, to contact one
Holidays Ltd. in London (Aldine House, Aldine St., London
of the road rescue services available on some highways. Turk-
W128AW, tel. 081/749-9933). One of its cruises is the 10-day
ish mechanics in the villages will usually manage to get you
Mediterranean Cruise from Istanbul to Alanya, with ports of
going again, at least until you reach a city for full repairs. In the
call at resorts along the way. The cruises, from May through
cities, entire streets are given over to car repair shops-one re-
September, depart every 15 days. Round-trip fares vary be-
pairs radiators; another, electrical fittings; another, steering
tween $155 and $1,100 including all meals and land tours.
wheels. Each shop is run by a team of experts. Prices are not
high, but it's good to give a small tip to the person who does the
The Black Sea Ferry sails from May through September from
actual repair work. If you're not in the shop during the repairs,
Istanbul to Samsun and Trabzon and back, from Kabatas or
take all the car documents with you.
Sarayburnu Dock in Istanbul. One-way fares to Trabzon are
about $15 for a reclining seat, $20 to $75 for cabins, and $26 for
By Train Although there are express trains in Turkey, the term is usual-
cars. The Istanbul to Izmir car ferry departs three days a
ly a misnomer. These trains ply several long-distance routes,
week. The price of a one-way ticket with no meals included var-
but they tend to be slow. The best trains are Mototren,
ies between $15 and $37, and $22 for a car.
Ekspres, and Mavi. Dining cars on some trains have waiter
service and serve surprisingly good and inexpensive food.
Staying in Turkey
Overnight expresses have sleeping cars and bunk beds.
Fares Train fares tend to be less expensive than bus fares. Seats on
Telephones Most pay phones are yellow, push-button models, although a
the best trains, as well as those with sleeping berths, should be
few older, operator-controlled telephones are still in use. Mul-
booked in advance. Round-trip fares are cheaper than two one-
tilingual directions are posted in phone booths.
Turkey
1090
Staying in Turkey
1091
Local
Calls Public phones use jetons (tokens), which can be purchased for
(5-7); lunchtime (noon-1, when the sun is directly overhead);
150 TL at post offices and street booths. For a local call, deposit
afternoon (3-4); sunset (5-7); bedtime (9-10). Prayers last 30-
the token, wait until the light at the top of the phone goes off,
40 minutes.
then dial the number. If you need operator assistance for long-
distance calls within Turkey, dial 031. For intercity automatic
Museums. Museums are generally open Tuesday-Sunday,
calls, dial 9, wait for a buzzing sound, then dial the city code and
9:30-4:30, and closed Monday. Palaces, open the same hours,
the number. Jetons are available for 750 TL and 2250 TL for
are closed Thursday.
long-distance calls.
Shops. Most shops are closed daily from 1 PM to 2 PM and all day
International Calls For all international calls dial 9, wait for the buzz, dial 9, again,
Sunday. Generally they're open Monday-Saturday, 9:30-1 and
then dial the country code, area or city code, and the number.
2-7. There are some exceptions in the resort areas, where shops
You can use the higher-price jetons for this, or reach an inter-
stay open until 9 PM and are often open Sunday.
national operator by dialing 032.
National Holidays
January 1; April 23 (National Independence and Children's
If you must make a call abroad, you're better off calling from a
Day); April 15 (sunset) to April 18 (sunset): Seker Bayrami
phone booth and using jetons or a telephone credit card; hotels
(sugar feast), three-day feast marking the end of Ramadan, a
in Turkey, as elsewhere, have hefty service charges for inter-
month-long Islamic observance that includes daytime fasting;
Ramadan is based on the Muhammadan lunar calendar and var-
national calls.
ies yearly; May 19 (Atatürk's Commemoration, Youth and
Mail Post offices are painted bright yellow and have PTT (Post, Tele-
Sports Day); June 22 (sunset) to June 26 (sunset): Kurban
graph, and Telephone) signs on the front. The major ones are
Bayrami (sacrificial feast), Turkey's most important religious
open Monday-Saturday, from 8 AM to 9 PM, Sundays from 9 to
holiday, celebrates Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son
7. Smaller branches open Monday-Saturday 8:30-5.
to God; the holiday varies yearly according to the lunar calen-
Receiving Mail If you're uncertain where you'll be staying, have mail sént to
dar; August 30 (Victory Day); October 29 (Republic Day).
Post Restante, Merkez Postanesi (central post office) in the
Dining Turkish cuisine is one of the best in the world. The old cliché
town of your choice.
about it being hard to find a bad meal in Paris more aptly de-
Shopping
The best part of shopping in Turkey is visiting the bedestans
scribes Istanbul, where the tiniest little hole-in-the-wall place
Bargaining
(bazaars), all brimming with copper and brassware items,
serves delicious food. It's also an extremely healthful cuisine,
hand-painted ceramics, alabaster and onyx goods, fabrics, and
full of fresh vegetables, yogurt, legumes, and grains, not to
richly colored carpets. The key word for shopping in the
mention fresh seafood, roast lamb, and shish kebab made of
bazaars is "bargain." You must be willing to bargain, and bar-
lamb, beef, or chicken. Because Turkey is predominantly Mus-
gain hard. It's great fun once you get the hang of it. As a rule of
lim, pork is not readily available. But there's plenty of alcohol,
thumb, offer 50% less after you're given the initial price and be
including local beer and wine, which are excellent and inex-
prepared to go up by about 25% to 30% of the first asking price.
pensive. Particularly good wines are Villa Doluca and
It's both bad manners and bad business to grossly underbid or
Kavaklidere, available in beyaz (white) and kirmizi (red). The
to start bargaining if you're not serious about buying. Outside
most popular local beer is Efes Pilsen. The national alcoholic
the bazaars, prices are usually fixed, although in resort areas
drink, raki, is made from grapes and aniseed. Turks mix it with
some shopkeepers may be willing to bargain if you ask for a
water or ice and sip it throughout their meal or serve it as an
"better price." Part of the fun of roaming through the bazaars
aperitif.
is having a free glass of cay (tea), which vendors will offer you
whether you're a serious shopper or just browsing. Beware of
Hotel restaurants have English-language menus and usually
antiques: Chances are you will end up with an expensive fake,
serve a bland version of Continental cuisine. Far more adven-
but even if you do find the genuine article, it's illegal to export
turous and tasty are meals in restorans and in lokantas
antiques of any type.
(Turkish restaurants). Most lokantas do not have menus be-
cause they serve only what's fresh and in season, which varies
VAT Refunds
Value-added tax (VAT) is nearly always included in the price.
daily. At lokantas, you simply sit back and let the waiter bring
You can claim back the VAT if you buy articles from shops au-
food to your table, beginning with a tray of mezes (appetizers).
thorized to refund VAT. The net total value of articles subject
You point to the dishes that look inviting and take as many as
to VAT on your invoice must be over $22 (50,000 TL) and these
you want. Then you select your main course from fresh meat or
articles must be exported within three months of purchase.
fish-displayed in glass-covered refrigerated units-which is
The invoice must be stamped by customs. If the VAT to be re-
then cooked to order, or from a steam table laden with casse-
funded is less than 50,000 TL you can obtain it from a bank
roles and stews. For lighter meals, there are kebabcis, tiny
outside customs boundaries where the dealer has an account.
restaurants specializing in kebabs served with salad and yo-
Otherwise, mail back the stamped invoice to the dealer within
gurt, and pidecis, selling pides, a pizzalike snack on flat bread,
one month of departure and the dealer will send back a check.
topped with butter, cheese, egg, or ground lamb, and baked in
Opening and
Banks. Banks are open weekdays, 8:30-noon and 1:30-5.
a wood-fired oven.
Closing Times
Mosques. Most mosques are open to the public, except during
Mealtimes Lunch is generally served from 12 to 3, and dinner from 7 to 10.
prayer hours (namaz), which are observed five times a day.
In the cities, you can find restaurants or cafés open virtually
These times are based on the position of the sun, SO they vary
any time of day or night, but in the villages, finding a restau-
through the seasons between the following hours: sunrise
rant open at odd hours can be a problem.
1092
Turkey
Istanbul
1093
Dress Except for Very Expensive restaurants, where formal dress is
Moderate
$50-$100
appropriate, informal dress is acceptable at restaurants in all
$66-$105
Inexpensive
price categories.
under $50
under $66
Precautions Tap water is heavily chlorinated and supposedly safe to drink
in cities and resorts. It's best to play it safe, however, and drink
Credit Cards The following credit card abbreviations are used: AE, Ameri-
bottled mineral water (maden suyu) or bottled water (sişe
can Express; DC, Diners Club; MC, MasterCard; V, Visa.
suyu), which is better tasting and inexpensive.
Tipping Except at inexpensive restaurants, a 10% to 15% charge is
Ratings Prices are per person and include an appetizer, main course,
added to the bill. Since the money does not necessarily find its
and dessert. Wine and gratuities are not included. A service
way to the waiter, leave an additional 10% on the table or hand
charge of 10%-15% is added to the bill; waiters expect another
it to the waiter. In the top restaurants, waiters expect tips of
10%. Best bets are indicated by a star *.
between 10% and 15%. Hotel porters expect between $2 and $5,
and the chambermaid, about $2 a day. Taxi drivers don't expect
Category
Major Cities
Other Areas
tips, although they are becoming accustomed to foreigners giv-
ing them something. Round off the fare to the nearest 100 TL.
Very Expensive
over $30
$17
At Turkish baths, the staff that attends you expects to share a
$19-$30
$11-$17
tip of 30% to 35% of the bill. You won't miss them, they'll be
Expensive
lined up expectantly on your departure.
Moderate
$8-$19
$6.50-$11
Inexpensive
under $8
under $6.50
Istanbul
Credit Cards The following credit card abbreviations are used: AE; Ameri-
Arriving and Departing
can Express; DC, Diners Club; MC, MasterCard; V, Visa.
Lodging Hotels are officially classified in Turkey as HL (luxury), H1 to
By Plane All international and domestic flights arrive at Istanbul's
H5 (first- to fifth-class); motels, M1 to M2 (first- to second-
Atatürk Airport. For information on times, call the individual
class); and P, pansiyons (guest houses). The classification is
lines). airline or the airport's information desk (tel. 1/574-7300; 20
misleading because the lack of a restaurant or a lounge auto-
matically relegates the establishment to the bottom of the
Between the
Shuttle buses run between the airport's international and do-
ratings. A lower-grade hotel may actually be far more charm-
Airport and
ing and comfortable than one with a higher rating. There are
Downtown
mestic terminals to the Turkish Airlines (THY) terminal in
downtown Istanbul, at Mesrutiyet Caddesi, near the Galata
also many local establishments that are licensed but not in-
Tower. Buses depart for the airport at the same address, every
cluded in the official ratings list. You can obtain their names
hour from 6AM to 11PM. After that, departure time depends on
from local tourist offices.
the number of passengers. Allow at least 45 minutes for the bus
Accommodations range from international luxury chains in Is-
ride. Plan to be at the airport two hours before your international
tanbul, Ankara, and Izmir to comfortable, family-run pan-
flight because of the lengthy security and check in procedures.
siyons. Plan ahead for the peak summer season, when resort
The ride from the airport into town takes from 30 to 40 minutes,
hotels are often booked solid by tour companies. Turkey does
depending on traffic. Taxis charge about $9.
not have central hotel reservations offices.
By Train Trains from the west arrive at Sirkeci station (tel. 1/527-5984)
Rates vary from $10 to more than $200 a night for a double
in Old Istanbul. Eastbound trains to Anatolia depart from
room. In the less expensive hotels, the plumbing and furnish-
side. Haydarpasa station (tel. 1/337-8724 or 336-4470) on the Asian
ings will probably leave much to be desired. You can find very
acceptable, clean double rooms with bath for between $20 and
By Bus Buses arrive at Topkapi terminal (not to be confused with the
$70, with breakfast included. Room rates are displayed in the
area around the Topkapi Palace) just outside the city at the
reception area.
Cannon Gate. The smaller Trakya Otogari terminal is used for
It is accepted practice in Turkey to ask to see the room in ad-
buses serving cities and villages on the European side of Tur-
vance. Your room probably will be much more basic than the
key. The Anadolu Otogari serves Anatolian Turkey and Euro-
well-decorated reception area. Check for noise, especially if the
pean destinations. A few buses from Anatolia arrive at Harem
terminal, on the eastern shore of the Bosphorus. Some bus
room faces a street.
companies have minibus services (servis arabasi) to the hotel
Ratings Prices are for two people in a double room, including VAT and
areas of Taksim Square and Aksaray. There are local buses (no.
service charge. Best bets are indicated by a star *.
83, 71, 72, 73, and 76 to Taksim and no. 84, 89, 92, 93, and 94 to
Eminönü from Topkapi terminal) as well as shared taxis
Category
Major Cities
Other Areas
(dolmuşlar). If you arrive with baggage, it is much easier to
take a taxi, which will cost about $6 to Taksim from the bus ter-
Very Expensive
over $180
over $130
minals and about $3 to Old Istanbul.
Expensive
$100-$180
$105-$130
By Car If you drive in from the west, the busy and often hair-raising E5
highway, also called Londra Asfalti, leads from Edirne to Ata-
Turkey
1094
Istanbul
1095
türk Airport and on through the city walls at Cannon Gate
(Topkapi). E5 heading out of Istanbul leads into central Anato-
Emergencies Tourism Police: tel. 1/528-5369 or 1/527-4503. Ambulance: tel.
lia and on to Iran and Syria. An alternative to E5, when leaving
077. Doctors: For an English-speaking doctor, call the Ameri-
the city, is to take one of the numerous car ferries that ply the
can Hospital (Güzelbahçe Sok. 20, Nisantasi, tel. 1/131-4050/
Sea of Marmara and the Dardanelles from Kabatas Dock, or try
69) or Beyoglu Hospital (Kuledibi, Karaköy, tel. 1/151-5900).
the overnight ferry to Izmir, which leaves from Sarayburnu.
You may also find English-speaking doctors at the French Hos-
pital on Taksim Square, behind the Divan hotel (tel. 1/148--
Getting Around
4756). Pharmacies: There is one on duty 24 hours in every
neighborhood; tel. 011 for details. Consult the notice in the
The best way to get around all the magnificent monuments in
window of any pharmacy for the name and address of the near-
Sultanahmet in Old Istanbul is to walk. They're all within easy
est all-night shop. One that's centrally located is Pamuk in the
distance of each other, along streets filled with peddlers, shoe-
Taksim district (Tak-i Zafer Cad. 1, tel. 1/149-2252).
shine boys, children playing, and craftsmen working. To get to
English-Language
other areas, you can take a bus or one of the many ferries that
Bookstores
The most complete is Redhouse, near the Grand Bazaar (Riza
Paşa Yokuşu 50, Sultanhamam, tel. 1/527-8100), Others in-
steam between the Asian and European continents. Dolmuş
clude Haset Bookshop (Istiklah Cad. 469, tel. 1/143-1343);
and taxis are plentiful, inexpensive, and more comfortable than
Tünel, with several branches, including one in the Hilton and
city buses. There's no subway system, but there is the Tünel, a
the Sheraton hotels; and Net, publishers of tourism guides
tiny underground train that's handy for getting up the steep
(Yerebatan Cad. 15/3, Sultanahmet, tel. 1/520-8406).
hill from Karaköy to the bottom of Istiklal Caddesi. It runs ev-
Travel Agencies
ery 10 minutes and costs about 13c.
Most are concentrated along Cumhuriyet Caddesi, off Taksim
Square, in the hotel area. They include American Express (Hil-
By Bus Buy a ticket before boarding a bus. You can buy them individu-
ton Hotel, Cumhuriyet Cad., Harbiye, tel. 1/140-3939); Intra
ally or in books of 10, at ticket stands around the city.
(Halaskargazi Cad. 111, Harbiye, tel. 1/148-1406); Orion Tur
Shoeshine boys or men on the street will also sell them to you,
(Halaskargazi Cad. 287/1 Osmanbey, tel. 1/148-8014 or 148-
for a few cents more. Fares are about 22c per ride.
8437); Setur (Cumhuriyet Cad. 107, Harbiye, tel. 1/130-0336);
By Dolmuş These are shared taxis that stop at one of the red, black, and
and Vitur (Cumhuriyet Cad. 261, Harbiye, tel. 1/130-0895).
white dolmuş signs. The destination is shown either on a roof
Guided Tours
sign or a card in the front window. Many of them are classic
American cars from the '50s.
Tours are arranged through travel agencies (see Travel Agen-
By Taxi Taxis are inexpensive. Since most drivers do not speak English
cies, above). Choices include the "Classical Tour," either half-
and may not know the street names, write down the street you
or full-day. The half-day tour costs $25 and includes St. Sophia,
want, the nearby main streets, and the name of the area. Taxis
the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts, the Hippodrome,
are metered. Although tipping is not expected, you should
Yerebatan Sarayi, and the Blue Mosque; the full-day tour costs
round off the fare to the nearest 100 TL.
$50, and, in addition to the above sights, includes the Topkapi
By Boat For a fun and inexpensive ride, take the Anadolu Kavagi boat
Palace, the Süleymaniye Mosque, the Covered or Egyptian Ba-
along the Bosphorus to its mouth at the Black Sea. The boat
zaar, and lunch. The "Bosphorus Tour" costs $25 for a half day
leaves year-round from the Eminönü Docks, next to the Galata
or $50 for a full day, and includes lunch at Sariyer and visits to
Bridge on the Old Istanbul side, at 10:30 AM and 1:30 PM, with
the Dolmabahçe and Beylerbeyi palaces. The "Night Tour"
two extra trips on weekdays and four extra trips on Sundays
costs $50 and includes dinner and drinks at Kervansaray or
from April to September. The fare is $5.50 (round-trip). The
Galata, where there is a show. The full-day guided "Classical
trip takes one hour and 45 minutes one way. You can disembark
Tour" by private car costs between $60 and $90 per person.
at any of the stops and return by land if you wish. Regular fer-
Exploring Istanbul
ries depart from Kabatas Dock, near Dolmabahçe Palace on the
European side, to Usküdar on the Asian side; and also from
Eminönü Docks 1 and 2, near Sirkeci station.
Istanbul is a noisy, chaotic, and exciting city, where Asia meets
Europe and spires and domes of mosques and medieval palaces
Important Addresses and Numbers
dominate the skyline. At dawn, when the call to muezzin's
prayer rebounds from ancient minarets, many people are mak-
Tourist Official tourist information offices are at Atatürk Airport (tel.
ing their way home from the nightclubs and bars, while others
Information 1/573-7399 or 1/573-4136); the Hilton Hotel (tel. 1/133-0592);
are kneeling on their prayer rugs, facing Mecca.
Karaköy Yolcu Salonu, International Maritime Passenger Ter-
Day and night, Istanbul has a schizophrenic air to it. Women in
minal (tel. 1/149-5776); and in a pavilion in the Sultanamet
jeans, business suits, or elegant designer outfits pass women
district of Old Istanbul (Divan Yolu Cad. 3, tel. 1/522-4903).
wearing the long skirts and head coverings that village women
Consulates U.S.: Mesrutiyet Caddesi 104/8, Tepebasi, Beyoğlu, tel. 1/151-
have worn for generations. Donkey-drawn carts vie with old
3602. Canada: Büyükdere Caddesi 10773, Bengün Han, tel. 1/
Chevrolets and Pontiacs for dominance of the noisy, narrow
172-5174. U.K.: Mesrutiyet Caddesi 34, Tepebasi, Beyoğlu,
streets, and the world's most fascinating Oriental bazaar com-
tel. 1/144-7540.
petes with Western boutiques for the time and attention of both
tourists and locals.
Turkey
1096
Istanbul
1097
Ironically, Istanbul's Asian side is filled with Western-style
when he was listening, although occasionally he would pull the
sprawling suburbs, while its European side contains Old Istan-
curtain aside to comment.
bul-an Oriental wonderland of mosques, opulent palaces, and
crowded bazaars. The Golden Horn, an inlet 6½ kilometers
One of the most popular tours in Topkapi is the Harem, a maze
(four miles) long, flows off the Bosphorus on the European side,
of nearly 400 halls, terraces, rooms, wings, and apartments
separating Old Istanbul from New Town. The center of New
grouped around the sultan's private quarters on the west side
Town is Beyoglu, a modern district filled with hotels, banks,
of the second courtyard. Forty rooms have been meticulously
and shops grouped around Taksim Square. There are three
restored and are open to the public. Next to the entrance are
the quarters of the eunuchs and about 200 of the lesser concu-
bridges spanning the Golden Horn: the Atatürk, the Galata,
and the Halic. The Galata Bridge is a central landmark and a
bines, who were lodged in tiny cubicles, as cramped and un-
good place to get your bearings, although it will be replaced by
comfortable as the main rooms of the Harem are large and opu-
lent. Because only a limited number of visitors are allowed
a new bridge due to be completed this year. From here, you can
through the Harem each day, buy a ticket (88e)-at the en-
see the city's layout and its seven hills. The bridge will also give
you a taste of Istanbul's frenetic street life. It's filled with ped-
trance to the Harem-as soon as you enter the palace grounds.
Tours begin about every half hour.
dlers selling everything from pistachio nuts and spices to curly-
toed slippers fancy enough for a sultan; fishermen meanwhile
In the third courtyard is the Treasury (Hazine Dairesi), four
grill their catch on coal braziers and sell them to passersby.
rooms filled with jewels, including two uncut emeralds, each
None of this sits well with motorists, who blast their horns con-
weighing 3½ kilograms (7.7 pounds), that once hung from the
stantly, usually to no avail. If you want to orient yourself in a
ceiling. Here, too, you will be dazzled by the emerald dagger
quieter way, take a boat trip from the docks on the Eminönü
used in the movie Topkapi and the 84-carat "Spoonmaker" dia-
side of the Galata Bridge up the Bosphorus.
mond that, according to legend, was found by a pauper and
traded for three wooden spoons.
Numbers in the margin correspond with points of interest on
the Istanbul map.
Time Out Just past the Treasury, on the right side of the courtyard, are
Old
Istanbul The number one attraction in Istanbul is the Topkapi Palace
steps leading to a 19th-century Rococo Mecidiye pavilion, now
(Sultanahmet) (Topkapi Saray), located on Seraglio Point in Old Istanbul,
the Konyali Restaurant (tel. 1/513-9596), which serves excel-
known as Sultanahmet. The palace, which dates from the 15th
lent Turkish food and has a magnificent view of the scraglio
century, was the residence of a number of sultans and their har-
(sultan's household, including harem) and the Golden Horn. On
ems until the mid-19th century. In order to avoid the crowds,
a terrace below is an outdoor café, with an even better view. Go
try to get there by 9:30, when the gates open. If you're arriving
early or reserve a table to beat the tour-group crush. The res-
by taxi, tell the driver you want the Topkapi Saray (palace) in
taurant and café are open for lunch only.
Sultanahmet, or you could end up at the Topkapi bus terminal
on the outskirts of town.
In the fourth and last courtyard of the Topkapi Palace are
small, elegant summer houses, mosques, fountains, and re-
Sultan Mehmet II built the first palace in the 1450s, shortly af-
flecting pools scattered amid the gardens on different levels.
ter the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople. Over the cen-
Here you will find the Erivan Kiosk, also known as the Revan
turies, sultan after sultan added ever more elaborate architec-
Kiosk, built by Murat IV in 1636 to commemorate his capture of
tural fantasies, until the palace eventually ended up with more
Rivan in Caucasus. In another kiosk in the gardens, called the
than four courtyards and some 5,000 residents, many of them
Golden Cage (Iftariye), the closest relatives of the reigning sul-
concubines and eunuchs. Topkapi was the residence and center
tan lived in strict confinement under what amounted to house
of bloodshed and drama for the Ottoman rulers until the 1850s,
arrest. The custom began in the 1800s after the old custom of
when Sultan Abdül Mecit moved with his harem to the Euro-
murdering all possible rivals to the throne had been aban-
pean-style Dolmabahçe Palace farther up the Bosphorus coast.
doned. The confinement of the heirs apparently helped keep
In Topkapi's outer courtyard is the Church of St. Irene (Ava
the peace, but it deprived them of any chance to prepare them-
Irini), open only during festival days for concerts, and the
selves for the formidable task of ruling a great empire. Topkapi
3
Court of the Janissaries (Merasim Avlusu), members of the sul-
Palace. Admission: $4.40, harem 88¢. Open Wed.-Mon.
9:30-5.
tan's elite guard. Today, the area where the Janissaries once
prepared their meals in giant soup kettles is occupied by the
To the left as you enter the outer courtyard, a lane slopes down-
central ticket booth for entrance to the grounds, as well as a
4
hill to three museums grouped together: the Archaeological
parking lot for taxis and buses.
Museum (Arkeoloji Müzesi), which houses a fine collection of
Adjacent to the ticket office is the Bab-i-Selam (Gate of Saluta-
Greek and Roman antiquities, including finds from Ephesus
tion), built in 1524 by Süleyman the Magnificent, who was the
and Troy; the Museum of the Ancient Orient (Eski Sark Eser-
only person allowed to pass through it. From the towers on ei-
leri Müzesi), with Sumerian, Babylonian, and Hittite treas-
ther side, prisoners were kept until they were executed beside
ures; and the Tiled Pavilion (Cinili Köşkü), which houses
the fountain outside the gate in the first courtyard. In the sec-
ceramics from the early Seljuk and Osmanli empires. Muse-
ond courtyard, amid the rose gardens, is the Divan-i-Humayun,
ums. Admission: $2.20. Open Tues.-Sun. 9:30-5.
the assembly room of the council of state, once presided over by
Just outside the walls of Topkapi Palace is St. Sophia (Aya-
the grand vizir (prime minister). The sultan would sit behind a
sofya), one of the world's greatest examples of Byzantine
latticed window, hidden by a curtain SO no one would know
architecture. Built in AD 532 under the supervision of Emperor
1)
1098
1099
Archaeological
Museum, 4
Istanbul
Blue Mosque, 6
Church of St. Irene, 2
Yildi
Cistern Basilica, 9
Bulvari
Park
Court of the
Janissaries, 3
HALICIOGLU
Kulaksiz
TESVIKIYE
BESIKTAS
Dolmabahçe
Mosque, 16
Dolmabahçe Palace, 17
BYPOOS
Colone
Caddest
Egyptian Bazaar, 13
Flower Market, 15
Spor Cad.
Barbaros
HASKOY
Ciragan Cad.
Galata Tower, 14
Grand Bazaar, 10
Okmeydanic
YENESEHIR
bahce
Hippodrome, 7
KULAKSIZ
Museum of Turkish
MEZARLIGI
and Islamic Arts, 8
AYVANSARAY
16
St. Sophia, 5
Süleymaniye
Tariabasi
Meydani
Mosque, 12
Hasko
KASIMPASA
Topkapi Palace, 1
KABATAS
BALAT
15
University, 11
Halic
Melez
050dlys
Soking
FENER
Cod.
Caddesi
Promoted
(Golden
BEYOGLU
EDIRNEKAPI
Defierdar
(илон
cuzade
(Bosployus)
Coddent
14
ÜSKÜDAR
osod
Selim
ofolikeçiler
Cibali 1 Cod.
Alaturk Bridge
Tersone
Yorrido
Karadeni
Cad
GALATA
Cod.
Bogazici
Cad.
UNKAPANI
Rogie
CHARGE
Bridge
Galato
KUCUKPAZAR
Cod.
Cad.
Valipvela
EMINONU
12
13
Station Sirked Kennedy Caddesi
SIRKECI
Gulhane
CAGALOGLU
4
-
BEYAZIT
(10)-
2
Ordu Caddesi
ALEMDAR
eniçeriler
3
Divanyolu
5
Namik Kemal Cod
Mustafa Kemal Cad
Cod.
9
6
KUMKAPI
Cod.
8
N
Kennedy Caddesi
0
440 yards
Haydorpasa
Sea of Marmara
Stations
0
400 meters
1100
Istanbul
1101
Turkey
Justinian, it took 10,000 men and six years to complete. St. Sophia
houses the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts, which gives a
is made of ivory from Asia, marble from Egypt, and columns from
superb insight into the lifestyles of Turks of every level of socie-
the ruins of Ephesus. The dome, one of the most magnificent in
ty, from the 8th century to the present. Sifahane Sok, across
the world, was also the world's largest until the dome at St. Pe-
from the Blue osque, in line with the Serpentine Column. Ad-
ter's Basilica was built in Rome 1,000 years later. St. Sophia was
mission: $2.20. Open Tues.-Sun. 10-5.
the cathedral of Constantinople for 900 years, surviving earth-
Walk back along the length of the Hippodrome and cross the
quakes and looting Crusaders until 1453, when it was conver
busy main road, Divanyolu. Turn left onto Hilaliahmer
into a mosque by Mehmet the Conqueror. Minarets were added
Caddesi. On your left is the Cistern Basilica (Yerebatan Sar-
by succeeding sultans. St. Sophiao iginally had many mosaicsde-
ayi). This is an underground network of waterways first exca-
picting Christian scenes, which were plastered over by Süleyman
vated by Emperor Constantine in the 3rd century and then by
I, who felt they were inappropriate for a mosque. In 1935, Ata-
Emperor Justinian in the 6th century. It has 336 marble col-
türk converted St. Sophia into a museum. Shortly after that,
umns rising 8 meters (26 feet) to support Byzantine arches and
American archaeologists discovered the mosaics, which werere-
domes. The cistern was always kept full as a precaution against
stored and are now on display.
long sieges. Hilaliahmer Cad. Admission: $1.75 Open daily
According to legend, the Sacred Column, in the nor aisle of the
9-5.
mosque, "weeps water" that can work miracles. It's SO popular
that, over the centuries, believers have worn a hole through the
Time Out If you need some time out and want a real treat, spend an hour
marble and brass column. You can stick your finger in it and
in a Turkish bath. One of the best is Căgaloğlu Hamami, near
make a wish. Ayasofya Meydani. Admission: $4.40. Open
St. Sophia in a magnificent 18th-century building. Hilaliahmer
Cad. 34, tel. 1/522-2424. Admission: $4.40 for self-service
Tues.-Sun. 9:30-4:30.
bath, $11 for full service. Open daily 8AM-7PM for women;
Across from St. Sophia is the Blue Mosque (Sultan Ahmet
7 AM-9 PM for men.
Camii), with its shimmering blue tiles, 260 stained-glass win-
dows, and six minarets, as grand and beautiful a monument to'
10
The next grand attraction is the Grand Bazaar (Kapali Carsisi)
Islam as St. Sophia was to Christiandom. Mehmet Aga, also
about a quarter-mile northwest of the Hippodrome. You can
known as Sedefkar (Worker of Mother of Pearl) built the
walk to it in about 15 minutes or take a five-minute taxi ride.
mosque during the reign of Sultan Ahmet I in eight years, be-
The Grand Bazaar, also called the Covered Bazaar, is a maze of
ginning in 1609, nearly 1,100 years after the completion of St.
65 winding, covered streets, with 4,000 shops, tiny cafés, and
Sophia. His goal was to surpass Justinian's masterpiece, and
restaurants. Originally built by Mehmet the Conqueror in the
many in the world believe he succeeded.
1450s, it was ravaged by two modern-day fires, one in 1954 that
Turkey is one of the few Islamic countries that opens its
virtually destroyed it, and a smaller one in 1974. In both cases,
mosques to tourists. If you hear the muezzin calling the faithful
the bazaar was quickly rebuilt. It's a shopper's paradise, filled
to prayer, wait about a half hour before entering as a courtesy
with thousands of different items, including fabrics, clothing,
brass candalabra, furniture, and jewelry. Yeniçeriler Cad. and
to the worshippers.
Fautpasa Cad. Admission free. Open Apr.-Oct., Mon.-Sat.
Enter the mosque at the side entrance that faces St. Sophia.
8:30-7; Nov.-Mar., Mon.-Sat. 8:30-6:30.
You must remove your shoes and leave them at the entrance.
Immodest clothing is not allowed, but an attendant at the door
When you leave the bazaar, cross Fuatpasa Caddesi and walk
will lend you a robe if he feels you are not appropriately dres-
around the grounds of the university, which has a magnificent
sed. Blue Mosque. Admission free. Open daily 9-5.
gateway facing Beyazit Square. Follow Besim Omer Pasa Cad-
desi, the western border of the university, to the right to the
The Carpet and Kilim museums (Hünkar Kasri) are in the
12
16th-century Süleymaniye Mosque. The mosque was designed
mosque's stone-vaulted cellars and upstairs at the end of a
by Sinan, the architectural genius who masterminded more
stone ramp, where the sultans rested before and after their
than 350 buildings and monuments under the direction of
prayers. Admission: Joint ticket $1.32 and adults, 20¢ stu-
Süleyman the Magnificent. This is Sinan's grandest and most
dents. Open Tues.-Sun. 9AM-4:30 PM.
famous monument, and the burial site of both himself and his
The Hippodrome is a long park directly in front of the Blue
patron, Süleyman. Admission free. Open daily outside prayer
Mosque. As a Roman stadium with 100,000 seats, it was once
hours.
the focal point for public entertainment, including chariot
The Grand Bazaar isn't the only bazaar in Istanbul. Another
races and circuses. It was also the site of many riots and public
one worth visiting is the Egyptian Bazaar (Misir Carsiși). You
executions. What remains today are an Egyptian Obelisk
reach it by walking down Çarşi Caddesi to Çakmakçilar Yokuşu
(Dikilitas), the Column of Constantinos (Orme Sütun), and the
and Firincilar Sokak, and then into Sabunchani Sokak, where
Serpentine Column (Yilanli Sütun) taken from the Temple of
you will see the back of the bazaar. It was built in the 17th cen-
Apollo at Delphi in Greece. You'll also encounter thousands of
tury as a means of rental income for the upkeep of the Yeni
peddlers selling postcards, nuts, and trinkets.
Mosque. The bazaar was once a vast pharmacy, filled with bur-
On the western side of the Hippodrome is Ibrahim Paşa Palace,
lap bags overflowing with herbs and spices for folk remedies.
the grandiose residence of the son-in-law and grand vizir of
Today, you're more likely to see bags full of fruit, nuts, Royal
Süleyman the Magnificent. Ibrahim Paşa was executed when
Jelly from the beehives of the Aegean coast, and white sacks
he became too powerful for Süleyman's liking. The palace now
spilling over with culinary spices. It's a lively, colorful scene.
Turkey
1102
Istanbul
1103
Nearby are the fruit and fish markets, which are equally color-
waterfront, you can enjoy fish from the daily catch. A popular
ful. Yeni Cami. Open Mon.-Sat. 8-7.
restaurant on the wharf, with an excellent view of the minaret-
studded skyline, is Huzur (Iskele Cad. 20, tel. 1/333-3157).
Time Out Pandelli. Excellent food is served in this Ottoman-tiled, turn-
of-the-century restaurant, with its domed alcoves. It can be
Shopping
reached up two flights of stairs over the arched gateway to the
Egyptian bazaar. Misir Carsişi, Eminönü, tel. 1/522-5534.
Gift Ideas The Grand Bazaar (see Exploring Istanbul) is a treasure trove
AE, DC, MC, V. Lunch only. Closed Sun. Moderate.
of all things Turkish-carpets, brass, copper, jewelry, tex-
tiles, and leather goods.
New Town New Town is the area on the northern shore of the Golden
Horn, the waterway that cuts through Istanbul and divides
Stores Stores and boutiques are located in New Town on streets such
Europe from Asia. The area's most prominent landmark is the
as Istiklâl Caddesi, which runs off Taksim Square, and Rumeli,
14
Galata Tower, built by the Genoese in 1349 as part of their forti-
Halaskargazi, and Valikonagi Caddeleri, north of the Hilton
fications. In this century, it served as a fire lookout until 1960.
Hotel. Two streets in the Kadikoy area where there's good
Today it houses a restaurant and nightclub (see Nightlife, be-
shopping are Bagdat and Bahariye Caddeleri. Ataköy Shopping
low), and a daytime viewing tower. Büyük Hendek Cad.
and Tourism Center is a large shopping and leisure mall near
Admission: 75c. Open daily 9-8.
the airport. It's a good place for children, too.
North of the tower is the Flower Market (Ciçek Pasaji), off
Markets Balikpazari (fish market) is in Beyoglu Caddesi, off Istiklal
Istiklâl Caddesi, a lively blend of flower stalls, tiny restau-
Caddesi. Despite its name, you will find anything connected
rants, bars, and street musicians.
with food at this market. A flea market is held in Beyazit
Square, near the Grand Bazaar, every Sunday.
Next head for Dolmabahçe Mosque and Dolmabahçe Palace,
which are reached by following Istiklâl Caddesi to Taksim
Dining
Square and then taking Gümüssuyu Caddesi around the square
to a junction. You will see the Dolmabahçe Mosque on your
Istanbul has a wide range of eating establishments, with prices
right and the clock tower and gateway to Dolmabahçe Palace on
to match. Most of the major hotels have dining rooms serving
your left. The mosque is a separate building from the palace. It
rather bland international cuisine. It's far more rewarding to
was founded by Valide Sultan Bezmialem, mother of Abdul
eat in Turkish restaurants. For details and price category defi-
Mecit I, and was completed in 1853. Admission free. Open dai-
nitions, see Dining in Staying in Turkey.
ly outside prayer hours.
Very Expensive Bebek Ambassadeurs. Here you can dine on French and inter-
The Dolmabahçe Palace was also built in 1853 and, until the
national cuisine while enjoying the views over the Bosphorus
declaration of the modern republic in 1923, was the residence of
from the terrace. Cevdet Paşa Cad. 113, Bebek, tel. 1/163-
the last sultans of the Ottoman Empire. It was also the resi-
3002. Reservations advised. AE, DC, MC, V.
dence of Atatürk, who died here in 1938. The palace, floodlit at
Orient Express. This restaurant offers French cuisine amid de-
night, is an extraordinary mixture of Hindu, Turkish, and Eu-
cor styled after the famous train. Etap Marmara Hotel, Tak-
ropean styles of architecture and interior design. Queen Vic-
sim Square, tel. 1/151-4696. Reservations advised. AE, DC,
toria's contribution to the lavishness was a chandelier weigh-
MC, V. No lunch.
ing 4½ tons. Guided tours of the palace take about 80 minutes.
Restaurant 29. This popular restaurant serves French and
Gümüssuyu Cad. Admission: $4.40. Open Apr.-Oct. 9-4;
Nov.-Mar. 9-3. Closed Mon. and Thurs.
Turkish cuisine. After midnight there is a discotheque upstairs
until 2 AM. Nispetiye Cad. 29, Etiler, tel. 1/163-5411. Reserva-
Off the Beaten Track
tions required. AE, DC, MC, V. No lunch
Ziya. This restaurant features international cuisine amid ele-
The views of the Istanbul skyline at sunset are enough to war-
gant modern decor. Mim Kemal Oke Cad. 21/1, Nisantasi, tel.
rant a trip to this city. The best views are from Çamlica, the
1/147-1708. Reservations advised. AE, DC, MC, V.
highest hill on the Asian side of the city. The area has several
Expensive Cemal Balik. This is one of many excellent restaurants in the
pavilions where you can order tea and sit on cushions at low
Kumkapi area that serves a wide variety of fish dishes. Try the
brass tables, and outdoor booths where you can buy such
fish kebabs or pickled fish. Capariz Sok. 27, tel. 1/527-2288.
snacks as pancakes with honey or corn on the cob. At the
Reservations not necessary. DC, MC, V.
Çamlica café, you can dine by candlelight after the sun has set
Divan. You'll enjoy gourmet Turkish-French cuisine, elegant
and be served by waiters in traditional Turkish garb.
surroundings, and excellent service at this restaurant, located
Sefatepsesi, tel. 1/335-3301. Reservations not necessary. No
in the Divan hotel. Cumhuriyet Cad. 2, Elmadağ, tel. 1/131-
credit cards. Open Apr.-Oct., daily 9:30 AM-midnight; Nov.-
4100. Reservations advised. AE, DC, MC.
Mar., daily 9:30 AM-10:30 PM. Moderate.
Gelik. This restaurant, located in a two-story 19th-century vil-
Another great area for watching sunsets is Salacak, also on the
la, is usually packed, often with people who want to savor its
Asian side, opposite Leander's Tower. You can reach it by ferry
specialty: all types of meat cooked in deep wells. Sahil Yolu 68-
from Eminönü to Usküdar; then it's a 10-minute walk along the
70, tel. 1/572-0806. Reservations advised. AE, DC, MC, V.
waterfront. The area has open-air cafés and yalis (old wooden
Moderate Borsa Lokantasi. This unpretentious restaurant serves some of
houses) at water's edge. In the cafés and restaurants along the
the best food in Turkey. The baked lamb in eggplant puree and
Turkey
1104
Istanbul
1105
the stuffed artichokes are not to be missed. Yaliköskü Cad.
some of his personal belongings and is a popular attraction.
Yaliköskü Han 60-62, Eminönü, tel. 1/522-4173. Reserva-
Meşrutiyet Cad. 98, Tepebaşi, tel. 1/151-4560. 122 rooms with
tions not necessary. No credit cards. Lunch only. Closed Sun.
bath. Facilities: bar. AE, DC, MC, V.
Another branch at Halaskargazi Cad. 90/1, Osmanbey, tel. 1/
Ramada. The first international chain to open in Old Town, the
132-4200. AE, DC, MC, V.
Ramada is in a converted, four-story apartment block with
Dört Mevsim. Located in a large Victorian building, Dört
courtyards leading into it. Ordu Cad. 226, Laleli, Lel. 1/573-
Mevsim is noted for its blend of Turkish and French cuisine and
9300. 275 rooms with bath. Facilities: restaurant, bar, pool, ca-
for its owners, Gay and Musa, an Anglo-Turkish couple who
sino, AE, DC, MC, V.
opened it in 1965. On any given day, you'll find them in the
The Sheraton. Taksim Park provides a splendid setting for this
kitchen overseeing such delights as shrimp in cognac sauce and
hotel. All rooms have views of the Bosphorus or the square. For
baked marinated lamb. Istiklal Cad. 509, Beyoğlu, tel. 1/145-
a night's spree, try the rooftop restaurant and nightclub. Asker
8941. Reservations advised. DC, MC, V. Closed Sun.
Ocaği Cad., Taksim, tel. 1/131-2121. 437 rooms with bath. Fa-
Inexpensive Hacibaba. This is a large, cheerful-looking place, with a terrace
cilities: restaurant, bar, nightclub, pool, health and beauty
overlooking the Greek Orthodox churchyard. Fish, meat, and a
spa. AE, DC, MC, V.
wide variety of vegetable dishes are on display for your selec-
Expensive Ayasofia Pansiyons. These guest houses are part of an imagina-
tion. Before you choose your main course, you'll be offered a
tive project undertaken by the Touring and Automobile Club to
tray of appetizers that can be a meal in themselves. Istiklal
restore a little street of historic wooden houses along the outer
Cad. 49, Taksim, tel. 1/144-1886. Reservations advised. AE,
wall of Topkapi Palace. One of the houses has been converted
DC, V.
into a library and two into pansiyons, furnished in late Osmanli
Haci Salih. A tiny, family-run restaurant, Haci Salih has only
style, with excellent dining rooms. During the summer, tea and
10 tables, SO you may have to line up and wait-but it's worth
refreshments are served in the gardens to guests and non-
it. Traditional Turkish food is the fare here, with special em-
guests alike. Soğukçesme Sokak, Sultanahmet, tel. 1/513-
phasis on vegetable dishes and lamb. Alcohol is not served, but
3660. AE, DC, V.
you can bring your own. Anadolu Han 201, Alyon Sok, off
Divan. This is a quiet, small hotel with an excellent restaurant.
Istiklal Cad., tel. 1/143-4528. Reservations sometimes ac-
Cumhuriyet Cad. 2, Sisli, tel. 1/131-4100. 98 rooms with bath.
cepted. No credit cards. BYOB. Lunch only. Closed Sun.
Facilities: restaurant, bar, tea shop, beauty salon. AE, DC,
Kaptan. An animated, crowded fish restaurant near the
MC.
Bosphorus. It's worth taking a taxi here. Birinçi Cad. 53,
Yeşil Ev (Green House). This hotel is decorated in old-fashioned
Arnavutköy, tel. 1/165-8487. Reservations advised. V.
Ottoman style with lace curtains and latticed shutters. In the
Rejans. Founded by three Russian dancing girls fleeing the rev-
summer, you can dine on marble tables in a high-walled garden.
olution, this restaurant offers traditional East European decor
Kabasakal Sok. 5, Sultanahmet, tel. 1/511-1151. 20 rooms
and excellent Russian food and vodka, served by eccentric old
with bath. Facilities: restaurant and garden. AE, V.
waiters. Istiklal Cad., Olivo Geçidi 15, Galatasaray, tel. 1/144-
1610. Reservations required. AE, CB, DC, MC, V. Closed Sun.
Moderate Barin. Modern, clean, and comfortable, with good friendly
service, the Barin caters to business travelers as well as tour-
Lodging
ists. Fevziye Cad. 25, Sehzadebaşi, tel. 1/526-4440. 65 rooms
with bath. MC, V.
The top hotels are located mainly around Taksim Square in
Barut's Guesthouse. Quiet and secluded and in the heart of Old
New Town. Hotels generally include the 26.5% tax and service
Istanbul, Barut's has a roof terrace overlooking the Sea of Mar-
charge in the rate. Modern, middle-range hotels usually have a
mara. The owners, Hikmet and Füsun Barut, run this friendly,
friendly staff, which compensates for the generally bland ar-
pleasant establishment. The foyer has a modern art gallery.
chitecture and interiors. In Old Istanbul, the Aksaray, Laleli,
Ishakpaşa Cad. 8, Sultanahmet, tel. 1/516-0357. 23 rooms
Sultanahmet, and Beyazit areas have many conveniently lo-
with bath. MC, V.
cated, inexpensive small hotels and family-run pansiyons.
Büyük Londra. This is another old Victorian hotel, similar to
Istanbul has a chronic shortage of beds, S0 plan ahead. For de-
the Pera Palace, but not as grand, that has grown old graceful-
tails and price category definitions, see Lodging in Staying in
ly. Meşrutiyet Cad. 117, Tepebasi, tel. 1/145-0670. 42 rooms
Turkey.
with bath. AE, MC, V.
Very Expensive The Hilton. Lavishly decorated with Turkish rugs and large
Inexpensive Berk Guest House. Clean and exceptionally comfortable, this is
brass urns, this is one of the best Hiltons in the chain, and
run by an English-speaking couple, Gungor and Nevin
worth a visit even if you don't plan to stay. Ask for a room with a
Evrensel. Two rooms have balconies overlooking a garden.
view of the Bosphorus. Cumhuriyet Cad., Harbiye, tel. 1/131-
Kutlugün Sok. 27, Cankurtaran, Sultanahmet, tel. 1/511-
4646. 498 rooms with bath. Facilities: Turkish baths, beauty
0737. 7 rooms with bath. No restaurant. No credit cards.
and health spa, pool, rooftop bar and restaurant, tennis,
Plaza. This is an older-style, well-run hotel overlooking the
squash, shopping arcade. AE, DC, MC, V.
Bosphorus. Siraselviler Cad. Arslanyataği Sok. 19, Taksim,
Pera Palace. A grand hotel with a genuinely Turkish feel, the
tel. 1/145-3273. 18 rooms with bath. No credit cards.
Pera Palace was built in 1892 to accommodate guests arriving
on the "Orient Express." Although it has been modernized, it
has lost none of its original Victorian opulence. Ask to see the
room where Atatürk used to stay-it's been maintained with
Turkey
1106
The Aegean Coast
1107
The Arts
Regine (Cumhuriyet Cad. 16, Elmadağ, tel. 1/146-7449) is an
upscale disco-nightclub that is open from 10 PM to 4 AM.
Entertainment in Istanbul ranges from the Istanbul Interna-
tional Festival-held late June through mid-July and attracting
internationally renowned artists and performers-to local
The Aegean Coast
folklore and theatrical groups, some amateur, some profession-
Some of the finest reconstructed Greek and Roman cities, in-
al. Because there is no central ticket agency, ask your hotel to
cluding. the fabled Pergamum, Ephesus, Aphrodisias, and
help you. You can also pick up tickets at the box office or
Troy, are to be found in this region of Turkey. Bright yellow
through a local tourist office.
road signs pointing to historical sites or to those currently un-
For tickets to the Istanbul International Festival, apply to the
dergoing excavation are everywhere here. There are SO many
Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts (Kültür ve Sanat
Greek and Roman ruins, in fact, that some haven't yet been ex-
Vakfi, Yildiz, Besiktas; tel. 1/160-4533 and 1/160-9072). Per-
cavated and others are going to seed.
formances, which include modern and classical music, ballet,
Grand or small, all the sites are steeped in atmosphere and are
opera, and theater, are given throughout the city in historic
best explored early in the morning or late in the afternoon,
buildings, such as St. Irene Church and Rumeli Castle. The
when there are fewer crowds. You can spend the heat of the day
highlight of the festival is the performance of Mozart's opera
on one of the sandy beaches that line the coast.
Abduction from the Seraglio, at Topkapi Palace, the site that
inspired the opera.
Getting Around
Concerts Tickets for performances at the main concert hall, Atatürk Kül-
tür Merkezi, are available from the box office at Taksim Square
The E24 from Canakkale follows the coast until it turns inland
(tel. 1/151-5600). From October through May, the Istanbul
at Kuşadasi to meet the Mediterranean again at Antalya. All
State Symphony gives performances here. It's also the location
the towns on the itinerary are served by direct bus routes, and
for ballet and dance companies. The Touring and Automobile
there are connecting services to the ancient sites.
Association organizes chamber music performances at Beyaz
Kösk and Hidiv Kasri, two 19th-century mini-palaces. For infor-
Guided Tours
mation, contact the Touring and Automobile Association
(Halaskargazi Cad. 364, Sişli, tel. 1/131-4631).
The travel agencies in all the major towns offer organized tours
of the historical sites. Troy-Anzac Tours (tel. 196/15849 or 196/
Nightlife
15847), in central Çanakkale, has guided tours of the battle-
fields at Gallipoli. The tour takes about four hours and costs
Bars and Kulis (Cumhuriyet Cad. 117, tel. 1/146-9345), an all-night
about $10.96 per person, including breakfast. Travel agencies
Nightclubs
hangout for actors and writers, offers good piano music. Open
along Teyyare Caddesi in Kuşadasi offer escorted tours to
daily 10 PM-5 AM. Local young professionals patronize Zihni
Ephesus; Priene, Miletus, and Didyma; and Aphrodisias and
(Bronz Sok. 21, Tesvikiye, Macka, tel. 1/146-9043) for lunch or
Pamukkale.
evening cocktails. Open daily noon-3 and 6-10.
Tourist Information
Bebek Bar (Bebek Ambassadeurs hotel, Cevdet Paşa Cad. 113,
Bebek, tel. 1/163-3000) has views over the Bosphorus. Open
Contact the tourist office in each town for names of travel agen-
daily until midnight.
cies and licensed tour guides.
A well-established nightclub, where you can dine, dance, and
Ayvalik. Yat Limani Karşisi, tel. 6631/2122.
watch belly-dancing shows, is Kervansaray (Cumhuriyet Cad.
Bergama. Zafer Mah. Izmir Cad. 54, tel. 5411/1862.
30, Elmadağ, tel. 1/147-1630). Open daily 8 PM-midnight. Two
Bursa. Ahmet Hamdi Tanpinar Cad. Saydan is Merkezi Kat
other good places for floor shows are Balim (Kemerhatun Mah.
21/5, tel. 24/228005; Ulu Cami Parki, Atatürk Cad. 64, tel. 24/
Hamalbaşi Cad. 8, Beyoğlu, tel. 1/149-5608) and Olimpia (Acar
212359.
Sok. Tomtom Mah., off Istiklal Cad., tel. 1/144-9456). Galata
Canakkale. Iskele Meyd. 67, tel. 196/11187.
Tower (Kuledibi, tel. 1/145-1160) offers dinner between 8:30
Çeşme. Iskele Meyd. 6, tel. 5492/6653.
and 10, with a Turkish show and dancing from 10 to 1 AM. Reser-
Izmir. Atatürk Cad. 418, Alsancak, tel. 51/220207; Gazi Musta-
vations advised. AE, DC, MC, V.
fa Kemal Pasa Bulvari, Büyuk Efes Oteli Alti, tel. 51/199278.
Jazz Bilsak (Soganci Sok. 7, Siraselviler Cad., tel. 1/143-2899) is an
Kuşadasi. Iskele Meyd. tel. 6361/1103.
easygoing restaurant and jazz bar, open Monday through Sat-
urday, where local groups and singers sometimes perform.
Exploring the Aegean Coast
Discos A popular disco with a lively atmosphere is Studyo 54 Istanbul
Bursa Bursa, the first capital of the Ottoman Empire, is known as
(Nispetige Cad. 24, Levent, tel. 1/168-6660), open every night
Yeşil (Green) Bursa, not only because of its many trees and
from 11 PM to 4 AM. Çubuklu 29 (Bahçeburun, Çubuklu, tel. 1/
parks but also because of its Yeşil Cami (Green Mosque) and
331-2829), situated by the Bosphorus on the Asian side, has a
Yeşil Turbe (Green Mausoleum). Both the mosque and mausole-
beautiful view. This place is open from mid-June through Sep-
um derive their names from the green tiles that line the
tember, and reservations are necessary for the restuarant.
interior of the buildings. They are located opposite each other
1108
The Aegean Coast
1109
The Aegean Coast
tour to appreciate fully the significance of this discovery and
the unwavering passion of the man who proved that Troy was
Samothrace
Gollipoli
Sea of
Marmara
not just another ancient myth. Admission: $2.20. Open daily
Lapseki
8-7.
Imroz:
Canakkale
Biga
Bandirma
The E24 highway leads around the Gulf of Edremit, a glorious
Truva
Gönen
(Troy)
Gönen
Bursa
area of olive groves, pine forests, and small seaside resorts pa-
tronized more by Turks than by foreign visitors. Colorful tea
Ezine
Koz Dagi
Ulüdağ
(Mr. Ida)
Susurluk
gardens sprawl along the shores, and good seafood restaurants
Ayvacik
Akçay
Oren
abound, most of them serving plates heaped with oysters.
Behram Kaleo
Edremit
Balikesin
Gulf of
Some worthwhile nearby villages include Behram Kale (a short
Edremit
detour off E24 at Ayvacik), where you'll find the ruins of Assos,
Clesbos
N
Ayvalik
an ancient Greek town; Akçay, with its hot springs and thermal
Bakir
Sindirgi
baths; and Oren, which has camping grounds nearby.
Bergaina
(Pergamum)
Gulf of
Ayvalik, 5 kilometers (3 miles) off the main bus route, between
Akhisar
Çandarli
Çanakkale and Izmir, is an ideal place to stay while visiting the
Foça
Karaburun
Gediz
ruins of ancient Pergamum, 40 kilometers (24 miles) away.
Manisa
From Ayvalik you can take boats to Ali Bey Adasi, a tiny island
Kücükbahce
Gulf
of
Turgutly
Usak
Izmir
with pleasant waterfront restaurants, and to the Greek island
Khios
Izmir
Sahlihli
of Lesbos.
300
Cesme
(Smyrna)
Seferihisar
Kuçuk Menderes
Pergamum Pergamum is reached by driving southeast along E24 following
Tire
Colophons
the signs toward Bergama, the modern-day name of the ancient
Selçuk
Gulf of
Ephésus
Greek-Roman site. If you're traveling by bus, be certain it is
E24
Kuşada
Ikaría
Samos
Kusadasi
Aydin
Nazili
Pamukkale
going all the way to Bergama, or you'll find yourself dropped off
Priene
Büyük
Menderes
Sarayköy
at the turn-in, 8 kilometers (5 miles) from the site.
KaracasuC
Söke
Aphrodisias
Denizi
Miletus
0
50 miles
Because the ruins of Pergamum are spread out over several
Didyma
miles, it's best to take a taxi from one site to the next. The most
AltinkumO
0'
X5 km
noteworthy places are the Asklepieion, the Ethnological Muse-
um, the Red Hall, and the Acropolis. Admission: $2.20. Open
Apr.-Oct., daily 8:30-6:30; Nov.-Mar., daily 8:30-5:30
on Yeşil Caddesi (Green Avenue). Admission free outside
namaz (prayer) hours. Open daily.
Pergamum's glory peaked during the Greck Attalid dynasty
(241-133 BC), when it was one of the world's most magnificent ar-
Bursa is also the site of Úlüdag (the Great Mountain), Turkey's
chitectural and artistic centers-especially SO under the rule of
most popular ski resort. To fully appreciate why the town is
Eumenes II, who lavished his great wealth on the city. Greek rule
called Green Bursa, take a ride on the teleferik (cable car) from
continued until 133 BC, when the mad Attalus III died, be-
Namazgah Caddesi up the mountain for a panoramic view.
queathing the entire kingdom to Rome.
The town square is called Heykel, which means "statue," and is
The most famous building at the acropolis is the library, which
named for its statue of Atatürk. Off Heykel, along Atatürk
once contained a collection of 200,000 books, all on papyrus.
Caddesi, is the Ulu Cami (Great Mosque) with its distinctive
The library's collection was second only to the one in Alexan-
silhouette of 20 domes. Admission free outside namaz hours.
dria, Egypt. When the troops of Julius Caesar burned down the
Open daily.
library in Alexandria, Mark Antony consoled Cleopatra by
shipping the entire collection of books from Pergamum to Alex-
A spa since Roman times, Bursa has thermal baths built on the
andria. These, too, went up in flames 400 years later, in wars
slopes of Cekirge, a suburb with many hotels and guest houses
between Muslims and Christians.
that offer celiks (mineral baths) as part of the package.
All that remains of the original Altar of Zeus (Zeus Sunagi) are
Çanakkale, at the northernmost tip of the Aegean coast, is 5½
its foundations. It was excavated by German archaeologists
hours west of Bursa by bus. This is a good stopping-off point if
who sent every stone to the Pergamum Museum in East Berlin.
you're heading for the battlefields of Gallipoli.
The Asklepieion was the temple of Asklepios, god of medicine,
Troy The ruins of ancient Troy are 40 minutes southwest of
and was a cultural and healing center of ancient times. The
Çanakkale. Long thought to be simply an imaginary city from
snake and staff of Asklepios are accepted as the symbol of mod-
Homer's Iliad, Troy was excavated in the 1870s by Heinrich
ern medicine. Admission: $2.20. Open daily 8:30-5.
Schliemann, a German amateur archaeologist. While others
laughed at him, he poured his considerable wealth into the ex-
Izmir The coastal area between Bergama and Izmir, 104 kilometers
cavations and had the last laugh: He found the remains not only
(64 miles), was once thick with ancient Greek settlements. To-
of the fabled Troy but also of nine successive civilizations, one
day only Izmir remains. Called Smyrna by the Greeks, it was a
on top of the other, dating back 5,000 years. Considering Troy's
vital trading port that was often ravaged by wars and earth-
fame, the site is surprisingly small. It's best to take a guided
quakes. Izmir was completely destroyed by a fire in 1922
Turkey
1110
The Aegean Coast
1111
following Turkey's War of Independence against Greece. The
containing the tomb of the apostle. Near the entrance to the ba-
war was a bloody battle to win back the Aegean coast, which
silica is the Ephesus Museum, with two statues of Artemis. The
had been given to the Greeks in the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.
museum also has marvelous frescoes and mosaics among its
Atatürk was in Izmir helping to celebrate the victory when cel-
treasures. Admission: $2.20. Basilica and museum open
ebrations soon turned to horror as the fire engulfed the city.
Tues.-Sun. 8:30-6.
The city was quickly rebuilt, and it then became known by its
St. Paul and St. John preached in both Ephesus and Selçuk and
Turkish name, Izmir. It's a beautiful, modern city filled with
changed the cult of Artemis into the cult of the Virgin Mary.
wide boulevards and apartment houses and office buildings.
Meryemana, 5 kilometers (3 miles) from Ephesus, has the
The center of the city is Kültürpark, a large green park that is
House of Mary, thought to have been the place where St. John
the site of Izmir's industrial fair from late August to late Sep-
took the mother of Jesus after the crucifixion and where some
tember, a time when most hotels are full.
believe she ascended to heaven. Admission $1. Open daily 7:30-
sunset.
On top of Izmir's highest hill is the Kadifekale (Velvet For-
tress), built in the 3rd century BC, the Hellenistic Age, by
Priene and Miletus Priene and Miletus, 40 kilometers (25 miles) from Kuşadasi,
Lysimachos. It is easily reached by dolmuş and is one of the few
are sister cities, also founded by the Ionians in 11 BC. Nearby is
ancient ruins that was not destroyed in the fire. At the foot of
Didyma, a holy sanctuary dedicated to Apollo.
the hill is the restored Agora, the market of ancient Smyrna.
Priene, on top of a steep hill, was an artistic and cultural center;
The modern-day marketplace is in Konak Square, a maze of tiny
Miletus, 8 kilometers (5 miles) from the sea, was a prosperous
streets filled with shops and covered stalls. Open 8-8. Closed
port city where commerce reigned supreme. You reach Priene
Sun.
by climbing up the hill and you go on from there to Miletus.
The road southwest of Konak Square leads to a coastal road and
Priene's main attraction is the Temple of Athena, a spectacular
Route 300, lined with beaches and spas. Although the entire
sight, with its five fluted columns and its backdrop of moun-
peninsula is filled with resorts, the area is too remote as a base
tains and the fertile plains of the Meander River. You can also
for sightseeing.
see the city's small amphitheater, gymnasium, council cham-
bers, marketplace, and stadium. Admission: $1. Open daily
Kuşadasi Kuşadasi, about 80 kilometers (50 miles) south of Izmir, has
8:30-6.
grown since the late 1970s from a fishing village into a sprawl-
ing, hyperactive town geared to serving thousands of tourists
Prosperous Miletus, a short walk away, was the first Greek city
who visit the nearby ruins and beaches. Although it's packed
to use coins for money. It also became an Ionian intellectual
with shops, Kuşadasi has managed to retain a pleasant at-
center and home to such philosophers as Thales, Anaximander,
mosphere.
and Anaximenes, all of whom made contributions to mathemat-
ics and the natural sciences.
Ephesus The major attraction near Kuşadasi is Ephesus, a city created
by the Ionians in the 11th century BC and now one of the grand-
The city's most magnificent building is the Great Theater, a re-
est reconstructed ancient sites in the world. It is the showpiece of
markably intact 25,000-seat amphitheater built by the Ionians
Aegean archaeology. Ephesus was a powerful trading port and
and kept up by the Romans. Climb to the highest seats in the
the sacred center for the cult of Artemis, Greek goddess of chasti-
amphitheater for a view across the city to the bay. Admission:
ty, the moon, and hunting. The Ionians built a temple in her
ruins $1, museum $1. Open Tues.-Sun. 8:30-6.
honor, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. During
The temple of Didyma is reached by a 32-kilometer (20-mile)
the Roman period, it became a shrine for the Roman goddess
road called the Sacred Way, starting from Miletus at the bay.
Diana. Today, waterlogged foundations are all that remain of the
The temple's oracles were as revered as those of Delphi.
temple.
Under the courtyard is a network of corridors whose walls
Allow yourself at least one full day to tour Ephesus. It's especially
would throw the oracle's voice into deep and ghostly echoes.
appealing out of season, when it can seem like a ghost town with
The messages would then be interpreted by the priests. Frag-
its shimmering, long, white marble road grooved by chariot whe-
ments of bas-relief include a gigantic head of Medusa and a
els. In the summer it's packed with tourists, many of them coming
small statue of Poseidon and his wife, Amphitrite. Admission:
off the Greek ships that cruise the Aegean and call at Kuşadasi.
$1. Open daily 8:30-6.
Two of the ancient city's most famous visitors were Mark Antony
Pamukkale East of Kuşadasi, 120 kilometers (75 miles), is Pamukkale,
and Cleopatra.
which first appears as an enormous chalky white cliff rising
Some of the splendors you can see here include the two-story Li-
some 102 meters (330 feet) from the plains. Mineral-rich vol-
brary of Celsus, filled with rolls of papyrus; houses of
canic spring water cascades over basins and natural terraces,
noblemen, with their terraces and courtyards; a 25,000-seat
crystallizing into white stalactites, curtains of solidified water
amphitheater, still used today during the Selçuk Ephesus Fes-
seemingly suspended in air. The hot springs in the area were
tival of Culture and Art; remains of the municipal baths; and a
popular with the ancient Romans, who believed they had cura-
brothel. Admission: $5. Admission to the houses on the slopes:
tive powers. You can see the remains of Roman baths among the
$1. Open daily 8:30-6 (summer), 8:30-5 (winter).
ruins of nearby Hierapolis.
Selçuk On Ayasoluk Hill in Selçuk, 4 kilometers (2½ miles) from
The village of Pamukkale has many small hotels surrounding
Ephesus, is the restored Basilica of St. John (St. Jean Aniti),
the hot springs, which are used today by people who still be-
Turkey
1112
The Acgean Coast
1113
lieve that they can cure a variety of problems, including rheu-
Tusan-Truva. Surrounded by a pine forest on a beach at Intepe,
matism. Farther down in the village are inexpensive pansiyons,
north of Troy, the Tusan-Truva is one of the most popular ho-
some also with hot springs.
tels in the area. Be certain to reserve well in advance. Intepe,
It's best to stay overnight in Pamukkale before heading on to
E24, tel. 1961/1461. 64 rooms with bath. No credit cards.
the ruins of Aphrodisias, a city of 60,000 dedicated to Aphrodi-
Closed Oct.-Feb. Moderate.
te, the Greek goddess of love and fertility. It thrived from 1 BC
Çeşme Çeşme Kervansaray. Built in 1528 during the reign of Sul-
to AD 5. Aphrodisias is reached via Karacasu, a good place to
Lodging leyman the Magnificent, the Kervansaray is decorated in tradi-
stop for lunch; fresh trout is the local specialty.
tional Turkish style. It has an excellent restaurant, with
Aphrodisias is filled with marble baths, temples, and theaters,
outdoor dining in an ancient courtyard. Adjacent to the hotel is
all overrun with wild blackberries and pomegranates. Across a
a medieval castle. Cumhuriyet Mey, tel. 549/26490. 32 rooms
field sprinkled with poppies and sunflowers is a well-preserved
with bath. AE, DC, MC, V. Expensive.
stadium, which was built for 30,000 spectators.
Izmir Büyük Efes. Elegant but showing its age, this hotel is distin-
Dining and Lodging
Lodging guished by a beautiful and relaxing enclosed garden. Cum-
huriyet Mey., tel. 51/144300. 446 rooms with bath. Facilities:
For details and price category definitions, see Dining and Lodg-
restaurant, outdoor pool, disco. AE, DC, MC, V. Very expen-
ing in Staying in Turkey.
sive.
Kismet. Tastefully decorated, the Kismet is a quiet, comfort-
Ayvalik Buyuk Berk. This is a modern hotel on Ayvalik's best beach,
able hotel with friendly service. 1377 Sok. 9, tel. 51/217050. 68
Lodging about 3½ kilometers (2 miles) from the center of town.
rooms with bath. Facilities: restaurant. AE, DC, MC, V. Mod-
Sarimsakli Mev., tel. 661/2311. 97 rooms with bath. Facilities:
erate.
outdoor pool, restaurant, disco. AE, DC, MC, V. Moderate.
Ankara Oteli. Located on Sarimsakli beach, just a few feet from
Kuşadasi Sultan Han. Full of atmosphere, with excellent food to boot,
the surf, the Ankara Oteli gives excellent value for the money.
Dining Sultan Han is an old house built around a courtyard, where the
Sarimsakli Mev., tel. 661/1195. 57 rooms with bath. Facilities:
focal point is a gigantic tree. You can dine in the courtyard or
café, bar, game room. No credit cards. Inexpensive.
upstairs in small rooms. One of the specialties is fresh seafood,
which you select from platters piled high with fish and shellfish
Bergama Tuscan Bergama Moteli. On the main road leading into Berga-
of every possible variety. Ask to have your after-dinner coffee
Lodging
ma, the Tuscan has a pool fed by hot springs. The rooms are
served upstairs, where you can sit on cushions at low brass ta-
simple and clean. Izmir Yolu, Cati Mev., tel. 5411/1173. 42
bles. Bahar Sok. 8, tel. 6361/3849. Reservations required. No
rooms with bath. Facilities: outdoor pool. No credit cards.
credit cards. Expensive.
Moderate.
Bursa Özkent. Located in Kültür Park, the Özkent serves excellent
Lodging Club Kervansaray. A refurbished, 300-year-old caravansery,
this hotel is decorated in the Ottoman style and loaded with
Dining Turkish food in a quiet setting. Kültür Park, tel. 241/67666.
charm and atmosphere. It's in the center of town and features a
Reservations advised. AE, DC, MC, V. Moderate.
restaurant with a floor show. There's dancing after dinner in
Lodging Celik Palace. The main attraction of this luxurious five-star ho-
the courtyard, where the camels were once kept. Barbaros
tel is a domed, Roman-style pool fed by hot springs. Çekirage
Cad., tel. 636/14115. 40 rooms with bath. Facilities: restau-
Cad. 79, tel. 24/353500. 173 rooms with bath. Facilities: restau-
rant, nightclub, bar. No credit cards. Expensive.
rant, bar, pool, nightclub, disco. AE, DC, MC, V. Expensive.
Kismet. Although it's a small hotel, Kismet is run on a grand
Ada Palas. Located near Kültür Park, this hotel has an inviting
scale, surrounded by beautifully maintained gardens on a
thermal pool. Murat Cad. 21, tel. 24/361600. 39 rooms with
promontory overlooking the marina on one side and the Aegean
bath. No credit cards. Moderate.
on the other. Ask for rooms in the garden annex. Its popularity
Artic. In the center of town, the Artic is a good base for sight-
makes reservations a must. Akyar Mev., tel. 636/12005. 98
seeing. Ask for an inside room because the traffic noise can be
rooms with bath. Facilities: private beach, restaurant. MC, V.
fierce. Fevzi Çakmak Cad. 123, tel. 24/219500. 70 rooms with
Closed Nov.-Mar. Expensive.
bath. No credit cards. Inexpensive.
Akman. One of the many reasonably priced, family-run
Huzur Oteli. Clean and tidy, this hotel is near the Hüda-
pansiyons in and around Kuşadasi, Akman is well located on a
vendigâr Mosque and a good base for sightseeing. Another plus
beach a few minutes from town. Istiklal Cad. 13, tel. 636/11501.
is its friendly staff. Birinçi Murat Camii Bitisgi, tel. 241/
47 rooms with bath. No credit cards. Moderate.
68021. No credit cards. Inexpensive.
Aran. Although it's quite a climb up the steep hill to this hotel,
Çanakkale, Troy,
Anafartalar. Located along the waterfront in Canakkale, this is
it's worth it for the view from the roof terrace. Kaya Aldogan
and Gallipoli
a quiet, pleasant hotel. Kayserili A. Paşa Cad., tel. 1961/4454.
Cad. 4, tel. 636/11076. 22 rooms with bath. No credit cards. In-
Lodging 69 rooms with bath. Facilities: bar, restaurant. No credit
expensive.
cards. Moderate.
Pammukale Tusan. The best feature of the Tusan is its pool, one of the most
Truva. Near the center of Canakkale, the Truva is an excellent
Lodging inviting in the area. The rooms are basic and comfortable. The
base for sightseeing. Yaliboyu, tel. 1961/1024. 66 rooms with
one-story building is at the top of a steep hill. Tel. 6218/1010. 47
bath. No credit cards. Moderate.
rooms with bath. Facilities: restaurant, outdoor pool. AE, DC,
MC, V. Moderate.
Turkey
1114
The Mediterranean Coast
1115
Selçuk Hulya. This is a pleasant, family-run pansiyon, where one of
Exploring the Mediterranean Coast
Lodging
the family members is a fisherman who brings in some of his
daily catch. You can enjoy a delicious fish meal cooked to order.
Bodrum Bodrum, which sits between two crescent-shaped bays, has for
Atatürk Cad., Ozgur Sok. 15, tel. 5451/2120. No credit cards.
years been the favorite haunt of the Turkish upper classes. To-
Inexpensive.
day, the elite are joined by thousands of foreign visitors, and
Kale Han. Located in a refurbished stone inn, Kale Han is an-
the area is filling rapidly with hotels and guest houses, cafés,
other pansiyon run by a warm, welcoming family. Atatürk Cad.
restaurants, and discos. Many compare it to St. Tropez on the
49, tel. 5451/1154. 18 rooms with bath. No credit cards. Inex-
French Riviera. Fortunately, it is still beautiful and unspoiled,
pensive.
with gleaming whitewashed buildings covered with bou-
gainvillea and magnificent unfettered vistas of the bays.
The Mediterranean Coast
People flock to Bodrum not for its beach, which is a disappoint-
ment, but for its fine dining and nightlife. You'll find beautiful
Until the mid-1970s, Turkey's southwest coast was inaccessible
beaches in the outlying villages on the peninsula-Torba,
to all but the most determined travelers-those intrepid souls
Türkbükü, Yalikavak, Turgutreis, Akyarlar, Ortakent Bitez,
in four-wheel-drive vehicles or on the backs of donkeys. Today,
and Gümbet. Easy to reach by mini-bus or dolmus, these vil-
well-maintained highways wind through the area and jets full
lages are about an hour's drive away and have clean hotels and
of tourists arrive at the new Dalaman Airport.
plenty of outdoor restaurants.
Thanks to strict developmental control, the area has not been
One of the outstanding sights in Bodrum is Bodrum Castle,
glutted with high-rise hotels and condos, but has maintained
known as the Castle of St. Peter. Located between the two bays,
its Turkish flavor, with low, whitewashed buildings and tiled
the castle was built by crusaders in the 11th century. It has
roofs. The beaches are clean, and you can swim and snorkel in
beautiful gardens and a Museum of Underwater Archaeology.
turquoise waters S0 clear that you can see fish 6 meters (20 feet)
Castle and museum. Admission: $2.20. Open Tues.-Sun. 8-
below. There are excellent outdoor cafés and seafood restau-
noon and 1-5.
rants in which to dine, and you won't find a shortage of bars,
discos, and nightclubs.
The peninsula is downright littered with ancient Greek and Ro-
man ruins, although getting to some of them involves driving
Getting Around
over rough dirt roads. Five kilometers (3 miles) from Bodrum is
Halikarnas, a well-preserved 0,000-seat Greek amphitheater,
By Car Although the highways between towns are well maintained,
built in the 1st century BC and still used for town festivals. Ad-
the smaller roads are usually unpaved and very rough.
mission free. Open daily 8:30-sunset.
By Boat There are lots of coves and picnic areas accessible only by boat.
Marmaris Another beach resort situated in the middle of two bays is
For a'small fee, local fishermen will take you to and from the
Marmaris, which has some of the best sailing on the Mediterra-
coves; also, you can take one of the many water taxis. Or char-
nean. It is 178 kilometers (111 miles) along Route 400 from
ter a small yacht, with or without skipper, at the marinas of
Bodrum via Mugla. You'll climb steep, winding mountain pass-
Bodrum and Marmaris. Many people charter boats and join
es, with cliffs that drop straight into the sea. The final 30 kilom-
small flotillas that leave the marinas daily for sightseeing in the
eters (19 miles) into Marmaris is a broad boulevard lined with
summer. One of the most enjoyable ways to see the coast is to
eucalyptus trees.
take a one- or two-week Blue Voyage cruise on a gulet, a wooden
Marmaris, like Bodrum, is a sophisticated resort with bou-
craft with a full crew. There are also three-night mini Blue Voy-
tiques, elegant restaurants, and plenty of nightlife. Nearby are
age trips for scuba divers and snorkelers. For information,
quiet villages, easy to reach by boat or taxi. One of these is
contact the following Blue Voyage agencies in the United King-
Knidos, where you can see the ruins of Aphrodite's circular
dom: Explore, 1 Frederick Street, Aldershot, Hants GU11
temple and an ancient theater. By road, Knidos is a very rough
1LQ, tel, 02/523-19448; Simply Turkey, 8 Chiswick Terrace,
108 kilometers (67 miles) from Marmaris. It's easier and quick-
Acton Lane, London W4, 081/747-1011; Falcon Sailing, 13
er to take a boat. Another town is Turune, worth a day's visit,
Hillgate Street, London W8, 071/727-0232.
especially for its beaches.
Guided Tours and Tourist Information
Time Out At the Turune Bay Yacht Club you can dine on a small terrace
built into a hill above a sandy cove, surrounded by mountains
Local tourist offices list all the guided tours for the area and
and pine forests. It's a five-minute walk on the road toward
will also arrange for local guides.
Kumlubuk Road. No credit cards. Closed Nov.-mid-May. Ex-
Bodrum. Eylül Meyd. 12, tel. 6141/1091.
pensive.
Dalaman. Dalaman Airport, tel. 6119/1229 or 1292.
Datça. Iskele Mah. Belediye Binasi, tel. 6145/1163.
Freshwater Lake Köyceğiz can be reached by boat through the
Fethiye. Iskele Meyd. 1, tel. 6151/1527.
reed beds of the Dalyan delta. This entire area is a wildlife pre-
Kaş. Cumhuriyet Meyd. 6, tel. 3226/1238.
serve, filled with such birds as kingfishers, kestrals, egrets,
Marmaris. Iskele Meyd. 39, tel. 6121/1035.
and cranes. Köycegiz and Dalyan villages, both 20 minutes'
drive from Dalaman Airport, are good stopping-off places for
1116
The Mediterranean Coast
1117
The Mediterranean Coast
Xanthos Return to Route 400 and head 18 kilometers (11 miles) south to-
Manisa
Usak
ward the village of Kinik. At Kinik leave the main highway and
Atyon
take a mile-long bumpy road to Xanthos, another major city of
ancient Lycia. It was excavated in 1838 and much of what was
Turgutlu
Salihli
found here is now in the British Museum in London. What's left
Izmir
Menderes
N
Kucuk
is still well worth the bumpy ride: the acropolis, the Tomb of
Harpies, some plastercast reliefs, and ruins of some Byzantine
Ephesus
buildings. Admission: $1. Open daily 8:30-sunset.
E24
Menderes
Patara Ten minutes from Xanthos is Patara, once the city's port. Here
Büyük
Söke
Denizli
and Kalkan you'll find ruins scattered around the marshes and sand dunes.
Burdur
Miletus
The area's long, wide beaches remain beautiful and unspoiled,
Milás
despite the fact that they attract hundreds of Turkish families
Isparta
400
and tourists. You can find two small restaurants at the beach
fesilova
and some makeshift stalls with cold drinks for sale. The nearest
R&E Halikarnas
Mugla
Bodrum
place to stay is Kalkan, a fishing village 20 minutes away by
Oren
Koycegiz
Lake
minibus. Kalkan has plenty of small hotels, guest houses, and
Marmaris
Kaunus
Tefenne
Kos
Datça
Köycegiz
restaurants with roof terraces-ideal spots from which to
Dalaman
Dalyan
Antalya
Knidos
Bozburung
watch sunsets across the bay. Its waterfront is lined with ex-
Fethiye
cellent seafood restaurants.
G
E
E
C
Olü Deniz Pinara
Kemer
Letoon
Kinik
Kaş Kaş, 30 kilometers (18 miles) from Kalkan, is another fishing
Xanthos
Phaselis,
Patara
Finike
village that has become a popular resort, and is also developing
Kalkan
Aegean
Rhodos
into a major yachting center. Although luxury hotels have re-
Demre
Sea
Kaş Kale
placed many of the tiny houses on the hills, there are still plenty
Uçagiz
of old-fashioned pansiyons for those on a budget. One of the at-
0
50 miles
tractions here is the underwater city of Kekova, where you can
Mediterranean Sea
look overboard and see ancient Roman and Greek columns that
0
75 km
were once part of a thriving city before the area was flooded.
Kekova is especially popular with scuba divers and snorkelers,
but to scuba-dive or fish in this area, a permit must be obtained
exploring the area. It costs $16 to rent a boat with a boatsman
from the directorate of the harbor and from the directorate of
to sail from Dalyan to the ruins and beach.
the ministry of tourism. Motorboats leave daily at 9:30 and cost
about $10.
Fethiye Fethiye, 130 kilometers (80 miles) from Bodrum and 167 kilome-
ters (104 miles) from Marmaris, was rebuilt after the original
Two interesting side trips from Kaş by boat include a visit to
town was destroyed in an earthquake in 1957. The town is espe-
Kale, where you can roam through a Byzantine fortress at the
cially appealing at night, when residents promenade along the
top of a steep hill, and Demre, site of St. Nicholas's Basilica,
lighted harbor or relax in their gardens sipping tea. Although
built soon after the saint's death in the 4th century. His re-
modern in appearance, it's still an old-fashioned agricultural
mains were stolen and taken to Bari, Italy, in 1087. St.
community, where goats and sheep are herded along the main
Nicholas, the original Santa Claus, was a bishop of Myra in
Asia Minor.
roads on their way to market.
Olü Deniz
One of Turkey's greatest natural wonders is Olü Deniz, an az-
The 190-kilometer (119-mile) road from Kas to Antalya is under
ure lagoon flanked by long, white beaches. The area is about 15
reconstruction and the trip takes a good four hours by car
kilometers (9 miles) from Fethiye and can be reached by ferry.
and five hours by bus. You can visit Kale and Demre along the
There are a few wooden chalets in camping grounds and one
way.
beachfront hotel. Opposite the beach, you'll find small restau-
For romantic ruins, it would be hard to beat Phaselis. The Ro-
rants with rooftop bars, many with live music that goes on all
man agora, theater, aqueduct, and a necropolis with fine sar-
night. One of the beachside restaurants, Ada Kamp, serves ex-
cophagi are scattered through the pine woods which surround
cellent lobsters and barbecued jumbo shrimp. The area around.
the Temple of Athena. Overgrown streets descend to the trans-
the lagoon is a national park.
lucent water, ideal for a swim.
Southeast of Fethiye, near Route 400, are several ancient sites,
Kemer is the center of intensive touristic development, with
including the ruins of Pinara, one of the most important cities
hotels and restaurants, well-equipped marina, and club-style
of the former Roman province of Lycia. It is 40 kilometers (24
holiday villages where you wouldn't know you're in Turkey.
miles) from Fethiye. Near Pinara, up a steep and strenuous dirt
The remaining 35 kilometers (26 miles) are increasingly occu-
road, you'll find nearly 200 Roman tombs cut honeycomb-
pied by villas and motels along the smooth pebbles of Konyalti
fashion into the face of the cliffs. Admission: $1. Open daily
Beach, which stretches to the outskirts of Antalya.
8:30-sunset.
Antalya The resort of Antalya, on the Mediterranean, is a good base for
several worthwhile excursions. The city is on a beautifully re-
1118
The Mediterrannean Coast
Turkey
1119
stored harbor and filled with narrow streets lined with small
views. Good outdoor restaurant. Posta Kodu 48810, Dalyan,
houses, restaurants, and pansiyons. On the hilltop are tea gar-
tel. 6116/1057. Inexpensive.
dens where you can enjoy tea made in an old-fashioned samovar
and look across the bay to the Taurus Mountains, which parallel.
Fethiye Ulgen. Travelers on a budget will find the Ülgen a pleasant,
the coast. To the right of the port is the 13th-century Fluted
Lodging simply furnished pansiyon. Cumhuriyet Mah. Pasptir Mev. 3,
Minaret (Yivli Minare). The Hisar Café, Tophane tea garden,
Merdivenli Yokusu, tel. 6151/3491. No credit cards. Inexpen-
sive.
and Mermerli tea garden all overlook Antalya's harbor.
Kalkan Kalkan Han. A rambling old house in the back part of the vil-
Dining and Lodging
Lodging lage, the Kalkan Han has a special treat for visitors: a roof
terrace with sweeping views of the bay, a perfect place to enjoy
For details and price category definitions, see Dining and Lodg-
breakfast. Koyici Mev., tel. 3215/1151. 16 rooms with bath. No
ing in Staying in Turkey.
credit cards. Moderate. Closed Nov.-Apr.
Talya. This is a luxurious resort hotel with its own beach that
Balikci Han. This delightful pansiyon is in a converted 19th-
Antalya
you reach by taking an elevator down the side of the cliff. From
century inn, directly on the waterfront. Tel. 3215/1075. 7 rooms
Lodging
every angle there's a view of the sea. It has a five-star rating
with bath. No credit cards. Inexpensive.
and gets booked up quickly in high season. Fevzi Çakmak Cad.,
Kaş Mercan. On the eastern side of the harbor, the Mercan serves
tel. 31/115600. 204 rooms with bath. Facilities: disco, restau-
Dining good, basic Turkish food in an attractive open-air setting. The
rant, pool, game room. AE, DC, MC, V. Very Expensive.
water is so close you can actually hear fish jumping. Hukumet
Turban Adalya. Built in 1869 as a bank, the Turban Adalya has
Cad. Reservations not necessary. No credit cards. Moderate.
been imaginatively transformed into a luxurious hotel over-
Lodging Kaş Oteli. This hotel has wonderful views of the Greek island of
looking the colorful fishing port. Kaleiçi Yat Limani, tel. 31/
118066. 23 rooms with bath. Facilities: restaurant. AE, DC.
Kastellorizo. There's good swimming off the rocks in front of
the hotel, or you can laze in the sun with drinks and snacks from
Altun Expensive. Pansiyon. Near the Fluted Minaret and minutes from the
the bar or restaurant. Hastana Cad. 15, tel. 3220/1271. No
seaport, this is a recent addition to Antalya's hotels. The staff
credit cards. Closed Nov.-Apr. Moderate.
is extremely helpful. It has a well-stocked bar and a pleasant
Mimosa. This is a new hotel conveniently located on a hill near
courtyard. Kaleiçi Mev. 10, tel. 31/116624. 15 rooms, some with
the bus station, with plain but perfectly adequate rooms, all
with balconies and views. Elmali Cad., tel. 3226/1272. 22
shower. No credit cards. Inexpensive.
rooms with bath. Facilities: swimming pool. No credit cards.
Bodrum Club Pirinç. This restaurant has a pleasant bar, nine guest
Moderate.
Dining rooms, a swimming pool, and offers Turkish-French cuisine.
Çan Otel. Turkish carpets and antiques grace this village house
Akçabuk Mev., tel. 6141/2902. Expensive.
that's been lovingly restored and turned into a pansiyon. It's on
Restaurant No. 7. Octopus casseroles are a specialty. Eski Ban-
a tiny side street near the harbor. Off Hukumet Cad., tel. 32261
ka Sok. 7. Expensive.
1441. No credit cards. Inexpensive.
Balik Restaurant. Specialties include fish, meat, and chicken
kebabs. Yeniçarşi 28, tel. 6141/3018. No credit cards. Moder-
Köycegiz Hotel Ozay. This lakeside hotel is quiet, modern, and efficiently
Lodging run. Kordon Boyu 11, Köyceğiz, tel. 6114/1300. 22 rooms with
ate. Korfez Restaurant. This is a seaside fish restaurant. Cum-
bath. Facilities: restaurant, bar, swimming pool. AE, DC,
MC, V. Expensive.
huriyet Cad. 18, tel. 6141/1169. No credit cards. Moderate.
Hotel Deniz Feneri. The owner is an artist whose wood carvings
Lodging Manzara Aparhotel. On a hill looking across the bay toward
hang in Golbasi Restaurant. The hotel is located in a pictur-
Bodrum Castle, the Manzara is a group of 20 small apartments,
esque square; the rooms are basic. Atatürk Square, Köyceğiz,
each with living room, kitchen, and terrace. At peak times, you
tel. 6114/1777. No credit cards. Inexpensive.
may have to pay half-board. Kumbahce Mah. Meteoroloji Yani,
Olü Deniz Beyaz Yunus. Wicker chairs and wooden floors fill this domed
tel. 6141/1719. Facilities: restaurant, outdoor pool. AE, DC,
Dining
restaurant, whose name means "white dolphin." The most ele-
MC, V. Expensive.
Merhaba Pansiyon. Here, on the waterfront, you'll find a beau-
gant restaurant in the area, it's situated on a promontory near
tiful roof terrace and simply furnished but clean rooms.
Padirali and serves Continental and Turkish cuisine, imagina-
Akasya Sok. 5, tel. 6141/2115. No credit cards. Inexpensive.
tively prepared and presented. No telephone. Reservations not
necessary. No credit cards. Expensive.
Dalyan Yali Restaurant. This is a waterside eatery reached by a short
Kebapici Salonu. You can grill meat at your table in this outdoor
Dining boatride from Dalyan. It's also a good stopping-off point if
restaurant, where tables and chairs are clustered around trees
you're planning a walk to the Kaunus ruins. Tel. 6116/1150.
in a field. Meals are served with meze, salad, and wine. Behind
Reservations not necessary. No credit cards. Inexpensive.
Han Camp, no telephone. Reservations not necessary. No
Lodging Hotel Turtle. This is a quiet 10-room hotel tucked away in a bay
credit cards. Inexpensive.
of orchards on the lakeside. The hotel boat picks up guests from
Lodging Meri Oteli. Located on a steep incline above the lagoon, this is a
Dalyan. Vefa Ülkü, the owner, cooks excellent dishes served
series of bungalows, with rooms a bit down-at-the-heel but
under a big plane tree. Kücük Karaağac, Sultaniye Köyü,
clean. These are the only accommodations at the lagoon. Tel.
Köyceğiz, tel. 6114/1487. No credit cards. Moderate.
6151/1482. 75 rooms with bath. Facilities: restaurant. AE, DC,
Kaunos Hotel. Overlooking the river, some of the rooms have
MC, V. Moderate.
Turkey
1120
1121
Central Anatolia:
Central Anatolia and Cappadocia
Cappadocia
Kizilirmak
Alyon
Avanos
Cappadocia, an area filled with ruins of ancient civilizations, is
Lake
Üçhisar
Kayseri
in the eastern part of Anatolia. Cappadocia has changed little
Tuz
Nevsehir
Göreine
over the centuries. People travel between their farms and vil-
Aksahir
Derinkuy
Urgurp
L. Egridir
Aksaray
Kaymakin
lages in horse-drawn carts, women drape their houses with
strings of apricots and paprika for drying in the sun, and no-
Sultan Han
mads pitch their black tents beside wheat and sunflower fields
Beysehir
Konya
Nigde
Egridir
and cook on tiny fires that send smoke billowing through the
Behsehir
Catalhuyuk
Bor
Isparta
Karapinar
tops of the tents. And in the distance, a minaret pierces the
Cumra
Bucak
sky.
Ayranci
Eregli
Bozkin
Karb
Dog
0
Termessos
Katoman
Getting Around
Perge
Mn
U
N
Aspendos
Tarsus
Antalya
Manavgot
Mersin
Adana
By Car There are good roads between Istanbul and the main cities of
Sido
Kemer
Ermonok
Mut
Anatolia-Ankara (the capital of Turkey), Konya, and Kay-
Gulf of
Erdemli
Alanya
seri. The highways are generally well maintained and lead to
Anatolia
Karates
all the major sites. Minor roads are full of potholes and are
Gazipasa
Silifke
Gulf of
very rough. On narrow, winding roads, look out for oncoming
Ovacik
Alexandretta
Anamur
Aydinik
trucks, whose drivers apparently don't believe in staying on
their side of the road.
Mediterranean Sea
By Bus There is a good interlinking bus network between most towns
NORTHERN PORTION OF CYPRUS
and cities, and fares are reasonable.
OCCUPIED BY TURKEY
N
By Train Though there are frequent trains between the main cities, they
0
50 miles
are almost nonexistent between small towns. It's much quicker
CYPRUS
0
75 km
to take a bus.
By Taxi Drivers are usually willing to take you to historical sites out of
town, for reasonable fares.
theater, walk down a restored colonnaded street, visit well-
Guided Tours
preserved thermal baths and a Roman basilica, and see the spot
where St. Paul preached his first sermon in AD 45. Admission:
$2.20. Open daily 9-5:30.
Since the Cappadocia area is S0 vast, you'll need at least two
days to see the main sights. If you are driving, consider hiring a
Nearby is Aspendos, 44 kilometers (23 miles) to the east of An-
guide for about $13-$26 a day. Local tourist offices and hotels
talya, which contains Turkey's best-preserved amphitheater.
will be able to recommend guides and excursions.
The acoustics are SO fine that modern-day performers don't
need microphones or amplifiers. Admission: $2.20. Open daily
Tourist Information
9-5:30.
Check with local tourist offices for names of travel agencies and
Konya, home of the Whirling Dervishes, is reached by driving
427 kilometers (267 miles) northeast of Antalya past Lake
English-speaking guides.
Beysehir. There is also a longer and more difficult road via Lake
Aksaray. Hükümet Konagi, tel. 4811/12474.
Eğridir. The Whirling Dervishes belong to a religious order
Nevsehir. Devlet Hastanesi Yani, tel. 4851/3659.
founded in the 13th century by Melvana, a Muslim mystic, who
Ürgüp. Kayseri Cad. 37, tel. 4868/1059.
said, "There are many ways of knowing God. I choose the dance
and music." You can see the dervishes whirl to the sounds of a
Exploring Central Anatolia and Cappadocia
flute at the annual commemorative rites held in Konya in early
December. Tickets are available from travel agencies or Konya
An hour's drive, 30 kilometers (19 miles) to the northwest of
Turizm Vakfi (tel. 33/116255).
Antalya, is Termessos, which has an almost complete Roman
Sultan Han, 95 kilometers (59 miles) northeast of Konya, is
amphitheater built on a mountainside, and the unexcavated re-
Anatolia's largest and best-preserved caravansery, once a
mains of a Roman city on the other side of the mountain. There
place of rest and shelter for travelers and their camels plying
are organized tours to Termessos from Antalya. Admission
the ancient trade routes. Traditionally, caravanseries opened
free. Open daily 9-5:30.
into vast courtyards from private and public rooms and had
Perge, 19 kilometers (11 miles) east of Antalya, has many Ro-
kitchens, a bathhouse, and a small mosque. Lodging was free
man ruins to explore. You can climb up a 22,000-seat amphi-
Turkey
1122
Central Anatolia: Cappadocia
1123
because these were run by religious foundations funded by sul-
Lodging Basak Palas. An older but charming small hotel, Basak Palas is
tans. Caravanseries were built between 20 and 25 miles apart,
also comfortable. Hukumet Alani 3, tel. 33/111338. 40 rooms,
a comfortable day's journey for a camel laden with goods.
most with bath. No credit cards. Moderate.
Cappadocia roughly forms the triangular area between Kayse-
Ürgüp Hanedan. Located in the cellar of an old Greek house, the
ri, Nevşehir, and Niğde. Most of the main sights are within an
Dining
Hanedan is on a hill a short distance from town. You can sit on
even smaller triangular area linked by Urgurp, Göreme, and
the terrace and watch the sunset across the plains toward the
Avanos. Ürgürp is the center from which to explore the villages
mountains. The food is very good and presented with flair.
and the best place to shop, as well as to arrange tours.
Neysehir Yolu Uzen, tel. 4868/1266. Reservations not neces-
sary. No credit cards. Moderate.
The landscape is stark and lunarlike. It was formed by prehis-
toric volcanic eruptions that dumped layers of mud, ashes, and
Lodging Buyuk. Located in the center of town, this is a friendly hotel
lava on the area. Eventually the ground turned to tufa (soft,
that features folk dancing in the evenings-you're encouraged
porous rock). Rain, snow, and wind created a fantasyland of
to join in, but can just sit back and watch if you prefer. Kayseri
rock formations resembling chimneys, cones, needles, pillars,
Cad., tel. 4868/1060. 49 rooms with bath. No credit cards. Mod-
and pyramids, often topped by perfectly balanced gigantic
erate.
slabs of rock. Then came earthquakes to add vast valleys, and
Hitit. The family-run Hitit is a comfortable, small hotel with a
oxidation to give the area the final artistic touch: rocks
restaurant serving basic but enjoyable food. Dumlupinar Cad.
"painted" yellow, pink, red, russet, and gray-violet.
54, tel. 4868/1481. 15 rooms without bath. No credit cards. In-
expensive.
The softness of the rock in this area was ideal for hollowing out
Hotel Ozata. This is an ideal hotel if you're on a tight budget.
cave dwellings and forming defenses from invading armies.
It's a clean, family-run place, just outside the center of town.
The Cappadocians carved out about 40 underground cities,
Atatürk Bulvari 56, tel. 4868/1355. 32 rooms with bath. No
with some structures as deep as 20 stories underground. The
credit cards. Inexpensive.
largest of these cities housed 20,000 people. Each had dormito-
ries, dining halls, sewage disposal systems, ventilation
chimneys, a cemetery, and a prison. Large millstones sealed off
the entrances from enemies. Two of these cities are open to the
public, one at Derinkuyu, 21 kilometers (13 miles) south of
Nevşehir, and the other at Kaymakli 30 kilometers (10 miles)
south of Nevşehir. Admission: $2.20. Open daily 8-sunset.
The Christians also hid in these underground cities when the
Islamic forces swept through Cappadocia in the 7th century.
Some of the earliest relics of Christianity are to be found in the
Göreme Valley, a few miles east of Nevşehir. There are dozens
of old churches and monasteries covered by frescoes. For a his-
tory of the area, visit the Göreme Open-Air Museum, 1 kilo-
meter (.62 miles) outside of Göreme village on the Urgüp road.
Admission free. Open daily 8:30-5:30.
Dining and Lodging
For details and price category definitions, see Dining and Lodg-
ing in Staying in Turkey.
Konya Ali Baba Kebapçisi. This restaurant serves good kebabs, and is
Dining
famous for its Firin kebap, cooked over an open charcoal fire.
Eski Avukatlar Sokak 11/A, tel. 33/110307. Reservations not
necessary. No credit cards. Inexpensive.
Bolu Restaurant. You can eat dishes here for which Konya is
reknowned: etli ekmek (flat bread with ground lamb) and
tereyağli borek (buttered pastries). Pürküklü Mah. 31/c, tel.
33/124533. Reservations not necessary. Inexpensive.
Damla Restaurant. Damla is owned and run by a woman who is
famous for her cooking, especially piliç (roast chicken) and saç
kavurma (sauteed lamb). Hükümet Alani, Şahin Oteli Alti,
tel. 33/113705. Reservations not necessary. Inexpensive.
Meram Tavusbaba Cafeteria. This restaurant has a good view
overlooking the city. Its most famous dish is kuzu cevirme
(lamb). In Meram Tavusbaba, tel. 33/179525. Reservations not
necessary. Inexpensive.
THE "KÖSK" MUSEUM AT CANKAYA
THE "KOSK" MUSEUM AT CANKAYA
1921-1932
GENERAL DIRECTORATE
OF PRESS AND INFORMATION
PHOTOS: MUSTAFA TÜRKYILMAZ
PRINTED IN BY/AJANS - TURK MATBAACILIK SANAYII / ANKARA - TURKEY
K.Ottation
THE "KOSK" MUSEUM AT CANKAYA
1921-1932
The Köşk Museum located at Çankaya owes its name
to Atatürk. He lived in this residence between the
years 1921 and 1932. It is in this residence that he
conducted the War of Independence, supervised the
founding of the new Turkish State, and determined
the principles and watched the implementation of the
reforms which echoed at the four corners of the
earth. It is for these important reasons that the Çan-
kaya residence has acquired the quality of a museum
which has no counterpart in the world. This museum
constitutes a testimony to the most vivid part of the
story of Atatürk's life.
Atatürk was born in Salonika, in 1881, at a time of
crisis both for the world and for the Ottoman Empire.
In Russia Tsar Alexander II, in America, President
Garfield have been assassinated. England has just
entered a violent conflict with Ireland. In Canada an
insurrection has started, and in the French Parliament
At the time of Atatürk's birth, an army headquarters
fighting is going on between the conservatives and
was located in Salonika, and the setting was mostly
liberals, on the issue of the freedom of education and
military. Soldiers, officers, hing ranking commanders,
of the press.
various means of war added colour and movement to
As regards the Ottoman Empire Abdülhamid Il's
the city. People had more freedom there than in Istan-
despotism is intensifying. A political, social and ethi-
bul. The young officers who filled most of the army
cal disintegration has arisen in all the ramifications
ranks were more open - minded and vigilant. That is
of the State and of the society. The British are settling
why it is in Salonika that news of the projects develo-
down in Egypt. The French occupying Tunis. The buds
ped against the Turks by the Balkan countries spread
of rebellion are sprouting in the Balkans. For the wes-
first than any other place, it is in Salonika that the
tern public opinion the Turkish nation is a «sick man».
savagery of rebel groups operating in the Balkans aro-
The time has come to drive him out of Europe. His
used emotions in the hearts of the Turkish population.
lands in Asia are to be shared out.
It is in Salonika that means were devised against the
Thus, the Turkish people in the Ottoman Empire lived
despotic rule of Abdülhamid, as well as the policy of
in a state of spiritual depression, of fear and hopeless-
the Foreign Powers, aimed at dividing the Empire.
ness. Now and then appeared in the nations' sub-
Atatürk was brought up and flourished within these
conscious a sense of liberation, like a flash of ligh-
very circles consisting of members of the army and
tning in the darkness : a saviour would come who
of personalities struggling for independence.
would solve the crisis and open the way towards jus-
By birth, Atatürk could neither enjoy the advantages
tice.
of fortune, nor fame. Having died prematurely, his
Atatürk was born in such a milieu. His native house
father had not even left a testament. On the subject
was situated on an eminence in Salonika. From its
of choosing a career he had been at odds with his mot-
windows one could see the fortress and the sea.
her. Atatürk wanted to join the army. Whereas his
Just opposite his house was the big school built by
mother wanted him to study the Quran. In spite of
Mithat Pasha, the martyr of independence. For Ata-
the resistance by his mother he joined the military
türk he was a symbol of three values first history,
school without her knowledge.
then freedom and thought, thirdly life, the future and
Between the years 1891 and 1905, he studied in turn
novelty.
at the military junior high school in Salonika, at the
military senior high school in Monastir, and after
graduating from the Istanbul Millitary College and
War Academy, he joined the army with the rank of
captain. It is there that he got acquainted with those
persons with whom he would later collaborate, and
maintain relations of friendship. Among those friends
Ali Fuat Cebesoy, Fethi Okyar, Ismet Inönü, Kâzım
Karabekir, Rauf Orbay, Fevzi Çakmak should be men-
tioned first.
After finishing the War Academy he started his suc-
cessful ascent through various echelons of the army.
Between the years 1905 and 1918, we can see him in
the capacity of commander, military attaché, army
representative in Syria, Tripoli, Macedonia, the Bal-
kans, France as well as in Germany. His first combat
is against the Italians in Tripoli (Libya). During the
war in the Balkans, he is on the Bolayır front. During
World War I he briliantly wins victories against the
French and the English, in the Anafartalar and Galli-
poli fronts, and against the Russians in the Muș front.
Which will make his name heard in his homeland as
well as in the whole world. Commanding the «Yıldı-
rim» army group, he succeeds in stopping the English
troops in the north of Aleppo.
The military career has offered Atatürk large possi-
bilities for developing his personality in every way :
it has given him the opportunity of weighing the extent
of the political crisis which enveloped the country,
His career has also prepared the ground to per-
ceive the plans of the countries who were aiming at the
destruction of the Turkish nation, and to devise mea-
sures to prevent such plans. Seeing the heroism of
his soldiers originating from the four corners of the
Empire, coming forward under conditions of extreme
poverty, in order to fight to preserve the honour and
dignity of the nation, he learnt to recognize the lofty
character of the Turks. Furthermore, the military care-
er strengthened his will, his self confidence, his sense
of responsibility and his ability to command.
His idea concerning the liberation of his homeland
surpassed the boundaries of the military art. Conse-
quently, in addition to the knowledge and experience
he had acquired, he was fully aware of the necessity
of equipping himself with broader knowledge. In his
book entitled «Chat with the Officer», he had argued
that the force directing the people is thought. He
had in mind to be a philosopher. To achieve this aim
he had to educate himself.
It is for this reason that he thought it essential to fol-
low all the trends of contemporary thought, literature,
and art. Taking advantage of the temporary silence
ATATÜRK AS A CAPTAIN, IN DAMASCUS. (1)
of guns and rifles, he gave himself to reading
«To raise the level of the people, mould them accor-
books about history, philosophy and literature. He
ding to my pattern, not to be moulded according to
had made a habit of summing up every book he had
theirs». That is the gift of his philosophy construc-
just read and of adding his own opinion about it. This
tive, liberating, revolutionary ! But here a question
method of reading had turned Atatürk into a man of
arises by what means can he perform this lofty aim ?
action as well as a man of thought. For this reason,
Here is the picture of the country as drawn by himself
it was not a mere coincidence that Atatürk showed
«Our country is completely ruined. There is not a
up in the horizon as a liberator, in the end of World
War I, and eventually on the threshold of the Turkish
single city where the people can live. The villages
look like places made of rubbish. There are places
War of Independence.
which reminds one of the ruins of Pompei. They are
His theory of liberation lies on three basic points a
places unsuitable for living. Moreover, the nation is
lofty ideal, reforms, belief in the nation. Even among
ignorant, poor, miserable». This shows that Atatürk
his close friends, there were people who did not
understand him. They qualified as a meaningless pas-
nourishes a feeling of pity for the people, not of app-
sion his quick actions and scientific works. The ans-
rehension. He considers that to have pity for the
people and work for them is the real patriotism. The
wer that Atatürk would give them shows that his de-
signs go beyond personal intentions
key to success in this matter can be found in the very
essence of the Turkish nation. He has observed this
«Indeed, I have passions, and big ones. But these pas-
quality in the poorest class of people. He had obser-
sions have nothing to do with such ordinary ambitions
ved this quality within the heroism of the Turkish
as attaining high positions or earning a lot of money.
I seek the fulfilment of my passions in the success of
soldiers who rivalled him in face of danger, as they
rushed from one battle to another. Archimedes had
an idea which will be of great use to my homeland
said that in order to lift the world a base was neces-
and will give me the peace of mind of someone
sary. Atatürk had seized that for the liberation and
who carried out his duty with efficiency. This idea
development of the Turkish nation, it would be suffi-
struck me from my earliest years, and I will not fail
cient to place confidence in its basic national and
to preserve it until I breathe my last». One can read
human qualities.
through these lines that this «great idea» he mentio-
ned was doubtless nothing but his national ideal. But
It is after the defeat of Turkey in World War I that
he thought the time was not ripe to give full details
Atatürk started to put his thought into practice. On
about it. Towards the end of World War I, the intelli-
the aftermath of the war, as a result of the cease
gentsia had started to explore the ways leading to
fire signed at Mondros on October 30, 1918, the
liberation. Thus, an idea which was put forward during
Ottoman Empire was divided into pieces, Anatolia
the reform initiative of the promulgation of the first
and Thrace were occupied by the forces of the vic-
Constitution, even since the proclamation of «Tanzi-
torious Powers. On November 13, 1918, the fleets of
mat» was spreading about, namely the remedy for
the Allied Powers hold Istanbul within the reach of
the problem of liberation is to mix with the people
their guns. Subsequently, they occupied such places
and pretending to believe in the very things the peop-
as Mersin, Tarsus, Adana, Urfa, Maraș and Antalya.
le are attached to, slowly modernize them. In a way,
In the meantime, the Greek army landed in Izmir with
Atatürk is opposed to this way of modernizing his
the help of the Allied Powers. Still, this was not the
society, as one can see from his own words «If I ever
end of the crisis. A Greek danger appeared in the
have authority and power, I believe that I can carry
horizon for the eastern part of the Black Sea, as for
out with a single leap forward the reforms required in
Eastern Anatolia, the danger came from the Arme-
our social life. For, as some people do, I cannot belie-
nians.
ve it is possible to fulfil this task by mixing with the
At a time when the homeland was faced with dark
people, raising slowly their opinion and those of the
hours and was starting to sink into deubt and anxiety,
ulemas to the level of mine, and prompting them to
Atatürk set foot in Samsun, on May 19, 1919, as the
think. As far as I am concerned, this kind of action
commander of the 9 th Army Corps. His first step was
is revolting. Why, after so many years of training and
to examine the general state of affairs and the effect
study of social life and civilization, should I go down
of the world war I on the army. The nation was
to the level of the people ? I will rather bring them
impoverished. Vahidettin, who combined the powers
up to my level. Why should I act the way they do ?
of Sultan and Caliph, and his grand vizier, Damat Fe-
Let them act the way I do».
rit were incapable and selfish and were only anxious
about their position and interests. The national asso-
the country. It also accepted provisions in order to eli-
ciations setup against the occupation by the Allied
minate all kinds of obstacles of a nature to cast sha-
Forces were operating in limited areas with no coor-
dow on the independence of the country. Moreover, in
dination. In view of this situation, Atatürk could envi-
case the government in Istanbul did not fulfil the abo-
sage only a single solution to be adopted in order to
ve mentioned duties, the Congress let it be known that
liberate the country : namely, the founding of a new
a provisional government would be set up in Anatolia.
Turkish state, based on unconditional sovereignty. To
Another phase was the convening of a congress in Si-
achieve this, it was necessary to maintain the national
vas, on September 4 - 12, under the chairmanship of
feelings aroused as a result of the foreign occupation
Atatürk. This congress would reach decisions on be-
to ensure the national unity. It was also necessary to
half of the entire nation. It approved the decisions
reorganize and reinforce the army. The days following
taken by the congress of Erzurum, in spite of the fact
May 19 witness his activities to fulfil this purpose. The
that it did not have a regional nature. It was also de-
main developments which had an impact on the War
cided that different ressistance organizations based
of Independence are as follows :
in different parts of the country should come under
On June 22, in Amasya; after having examined the
the authority of a single organization. Atatürk, in or-
situation with Rauf bey, Ali Fuat and Refet Pasha, in
der to put this decision into practice, presented the
a communiqué, he declared that the integrity of the
governor a document concerning the founding of the
whole country and the independence of the nation
association for the Protection of the Rights of the
were in danger and that only through resolution and re-
People in Anatolia and Thrace. Thus, two important
sistance could the nation free itself. For this purpose,
tasks were fulfilled Firstly, the basic principles of the
he suggested the convening of a congress at Sivas.
struggle for independence in evolution were determi-
On June 23, the government in Istanbul dismissed
ned; secondly, a new organization symbolizing the
Atatürk from his duty. In a communiqué issued in Er-
national unity was created. Atatürk was elected as the
zurum on July 8, addressed to the people as well as
head of its executive council.
civilian and military authorities, he explained the na-
On September 12, Atatürk counter attacked the go-
ture of his new obligation, in the following manner
vernment of Damat Ferit Pasha, who was doing
« In order to free the grand nation and homeland
everything in order to strangle the national movement
from the danger of disintegration, my official titles
which developed in Anatolia. Until the formation of a
prevent me from participating in the national struggle
government respectful of the national will, he stopped
freely. I swear that I shall not fail to strive until the
all contacts between Anatolia and Istanbul. He made
end of my life for the sake of this sacred aim. Con-
Sivas the administrative center of the country. The
sequently, I resign today from my military duties and
execution of these decisions and Damat Ferit's for-
give up a career that I have always cherished. From
ced resignation from office manifested the appearan-
now on I would like to inform you that I am no one but
ce in Anatolia of an organized movement correspon-
a simple soldier fighting in the bosom of the nation,
ding to the will of the Turkish people.
ready to make sacrifices in order to fulfil the grand
Atatürk's name had been heard for the first time on
national design».
the occasion of the battle of Canakkale. After the
One can feel in this communiqué a new source of
Armistice, all the leaders of the Committee of Union
faith, a new authority, as well as a new approach to
and Progress having fled the country, this name be-
his duty. The source of his new faith sprung from
gan to spread among our patriotic intellectuals. But
the true interest for the Turkish nation and homeland.
after he moved into Anatolia, he was considered as
The new authority was dependent on the aspiration
a saviour, not only amongst the intelligentsia, but also
and will of the people, instead of the sultan, caliphate
amongst the people. After the congress of Sivas, he
and Ottoman government. As to the new approach to
was met by the people on his way to Ankara with the
his duties, it consisted of reinforcing the links with
warmest enthusiasm.
the people, by a solemn oath.
The Delegation of Representatives first stopped at
It was this new conviction and approach to national
Kayseri. An unexpectedly huge crowd had been wai-
faith and ethics mentioned above which bestowed
ting for them for hours. All the eyes were filled with
honour to Atatürk, elected to the presidency of the
tears and the lips trembling with emotion. It was as
congress, which convened on July 23, in Erzurum.
if the passionate heart of Anatolia was beating in Kay-
The congress ascertained the political boundaries of
seri. In a letter of thanks addressed to the inhabitants
of Kayseri, Atatürk could not help saying that as long
our beloved and respected country, it is essential that
as he lived, he would preserve the memory of this
all enlightened people, as well as all the sons of this
warm welcome.
land, should prepare themselves for the struggle. We
On December 21, the Delegation of Representatives
shall not go to Istanbul. It is Anatolia which is our
treasure. It is in the bosom of the nation that we shall
passed through Mucur. The townspeople, as well as
the inhabitants of surrounding villages had lined up
look for the way to salvation until the end of our
lives».
on both sides of the road through which Atatürk was
to pass, Despite the falling rain. all waited in silence.
After a brilliant and enthusiastic welcome in Kaman,
When Atatürk's car appeared, they started running
the Delegation of Representatives arrived at last at
towards him in disorder, as if they were welcoming
Ankara. Ali Fuat Pasha had made the necessary ar-
their son returning after many years of military ser-
rangements to greet them. All the inhabitants of the
vice. On their part, the group led by Atatürk having
city were out in the streets to see the Pasha. After
stepped out of their cars, marched to meet those
having saluted and thanked those who had come to
faithful people. Those who had fought with him at Ça-
greet him, Atatürk told them that no force could save
nakkale ran towards him with tears in their eyes to
the country but courageous and self - sacrificing pe-
ask whether he recognized them. This sight made
ople like them.
people weep. Seeing that, Atatürk said : <<l have never
This visit to Ankara was a turning point not only in his
seen such a welcome. Thus, you have exalted our
life and in that of the nation, but also in the evolution
national cause».
of the historical events of the century. The fact that,
On December 23, people of Насı Bektaş reserved
in the communiqué issued on the occasion of his visit,
Atatürk the same warm welcome. He said during the
he said that the Delegation of Representatives would
banquet given in his honour that he would work until
meet in Ankara, was significant. From now on it was
the end of his life and give the last drop of his blood
in this city that the heart of the new Turkey would
in order to save the country and the people from the
beat. The eyes of the innocent nations would turn to
enemies' fetters.
this city, filled with hope, and this would cause awe
On December 24, passing through Kırşehir, he was so
and doubt in the Imperialist Countries.
moved by the interest shown him by the youth that
Yet Ankara looked more like a big and dull village
he addressed them in this way «In order to save
with big section of its population of 20 000 occupied
with agriculture. The town stretched between the Ci-
WINTER VIEW OF OLD ANKARA. (2)
tadel and Ulus Square. Apart from a few stone Go-
vernment buildings, the houses were made of clay,
most of them with flat tops. There were no trees and
no fountains with bubbling water. Ankara Brook, un-
covered, formed sheets of water from place to place,
bringing forth mosquitoes. As in many other places
in Anatolia, Malaria was there, as the people's fierce
enemy. (picture 2).
The fact that Atatürk had come to Ankara, that many
people had joined him there after the occupation of
Istanbul by the Allied Powers who were determined
to carry on fighting in Anatolia, and finally the con-
vening there of the Grand National Assembly, made
a capital out of Ankara. All that people, particularly
those coming from Istanbul, had seen on the way,
their first impression about Ankara, and their idea
about Atatürk's conception of the liberation contribu-
ted to create an atmosphere of pessimism.
They had seen emptiness, stagnation, ruins every-
where. What most of them thought about Ankara could
be summed up thus Ankara was like a town im-
mersed in a profound sleep that was like death. To
spend a day in idleness in that desert - like place
would provoke a feeling of boredom and melancholy,
which would shorten one's life by half».
In like manner, Atatürk's state was a matter of bewil-
derment for the newcomers. He had established his
headquarters in the School of Agriculture, and from
that place, he addressed the whole nation and ans-
wered the questions put to him. All that he achieved
was done in the name of the Delegation of Represen-
tatives, although all the members of this Delegation
lived in far away places. Such a Delegation did not
even truly exist, but Atatürk acted as if it was a
reality. The state in which the army corps stationed
in Ankara alarmed those who were pessimistic.
There were only 150 men under arms, poorly equip-
ped, and 90 mules captured from the English forces
when they had been forced to retreat from Eskişehir
by Ali Fuat Pasha.
Those who were desperate in face of this vacuum and
disorder rushed to see Atatürk with the hope that an
explanation that would soothe them. Atatürk would
THE FIRST NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. (3)
answer the questions put to him as follows
Another category of people believed that even though
«Yes our country looks empty, like a desert. Bu the
the Grand National Assembly was constituted, one
thrill of the big thing we are doing at present is here.
could not expect miracles as a result of its work. As
Create life out of a desert, organization out of disor-
to Atatürk, he understood the necessity of convincing
der. Moreover, one should not take into account the
them on this point. He said «On the contrary, I am
present vacuum ! This field which seems empty is in
one of those people who expect miracles from the
reality full. In this world which is considered a desert
Assembly. We are in such an epoch where everything
there is a hidden and powerful life, and it is the nation,
has to conform with the law. The rule of law and lega-
the Turkish nation. What is lacking is organization.
lity in the national life depends on decisions taken by
That is what we are working on».
the nation and can bé ensured by conforming with the
general tendency of the nation. Our nation is great
What Atatürk meant by organization was the conve-
indeed. Don't fear, the way of the nation is the safest
ning of the Grand National Assembly. Once it would
way» (picture 3).
be convened, everything would be settled, and the
Those who were listening to Atatürk and shared his
necessary measures could be adopted for the libera-
opinion about the liberation of the country thought
tion. For some of those who came from Istanbul, first
that if it had not been for Atatürk's strong personality,
and foremost thing should be putting up an army;
one could get mad at the sight of this vacuum, this
the assembly and its future work were hypothetical.
disorder and these ruins. Besides, Atatürk had to face
As to Atatürk, he defended his opinion categorically,
an opposition concerning the Assembly. The first mo-
in the following manner : «In my opinion the Assembly
ment of opposition originated among his closest fri-
is not an hypothesis, it is a reality, and it is the most
ends and was due to the name that was to be attri-
important of realities. It is the nation that will cons-
buted to the new assembly. Considering the fact that
titute the armed forces and the Assembly is the re-
all relations were cut between Anatolia and Istanbul,
presentative of the nation. For, the army means hund-
Atatürk deemed it necessary for the Assembly to be
reds of thousands of human beings, and financial
a <<Constituent Assembly». Some of his friends having
means which are expressed in terms of millions.
disagreed upon this name, he had accepted the name
Organizing an army cannot be decided upon by a
«Grand National Assembly» as a satisfactory one,
few persons, only the decision and approval of the
considering the fact that it meant such an assembly
nation can create the armed forces».
would be granted extraordinary powers of decision and
authority. The second movement of opposition of any
importance appeared at the first session on April 23,
1920, on the occasion of the election of the president.
Considering the propaganda made against him from
various sides and thinking it would be harmful to the
national cause, Atatürk declared at the first session
that he did not solicit any office. In the subsequent
poll, he was elected president of the Grand National
Assembly by 110 favourable votes out of 120.
After his election as President of the Assembly and
after performing his duties for a certain time, Atatürk
continued to work in the stone building of Ankara
railway station. As from 1921 on, he began to use
the Çankaya pavilion as residence of the Chief of
State.
Neither the School of Agriculture, nor the railway sta-
tion building appeared suitable for a permanent pla-
ce to work in : As it has been mentioned above it was
situated in a hot and dusty area, muddy in wintertime
and full of mosquitoes in summertime. As for him, he
was fond of nature and of trees. Upon the suggestion
by one of his close friends, Rușen Eșref, he went up
to Çankaya and found a convenient place. (picture 4).
VIEW OF THE RESIDENCE, IN 1931. (5)
Çankaya was a village situated on the southern slo-
pes of Ankara. There were houses scattered about.
those hills, but in a concealed place, was a residence,
hidden among the trees. This residence could not
surrounded by vineyards. On the very top of one of
be seen from the plain below, but, if one stepped a
GENERAL VIEW OF THE RAILWAY
little further, Ankara down below, the Citadel which
STATION WITH THE STONE BUILDING (4)
overlooks it and the surrounding mountains struck
the eye. The weather there was rigorous but healthy.
There was neither dust, mosquitoes or noise of the city,
nor its smells. Moreover in the hall of the residence,
a murmuring fountain gave life and freshness all
around.
Atatürk lived in this residence offered to him by
the people of Ankara, between the years 1921 and
1932. His mother Zübeyde Hanım and his wife Latife
Hanım stayed there for a while. It is there that he
would welcome and entertain his visitors, his native
and foreign hosts, and the journalists. It is during the
time he lived in this residence that occurred all the
significant historical events such as the War of Inde-
pendence and the implementation of all the reforms
bearing his name
He won the battle of Sakarya as the first com-
mander in chief in the history of the new Turkish Sta-
te and was granted the title of «Gazi» and that of
morshal.
The historical events, such as the winning of great
battles, the recapture of Izmir, Thrace and Istanbul, the
signing of the Lausanne Treaty, the abrogation of
the sultanate and of the caliphate, the proclamation
of the republic, were all carefully elaborated
in his mind during his stay at the Çankaya
Pavilion. All reforms, such as the promulgation of the
constitution based on secular principles, the aboli-
tion of decayed institutions contrary to the above
mentioned principles, the modernizing of costumes,
the banning of the «tekke» S, the adoption of the Civil
Code and of the new Turkish alphabet, were all plan-
ned in this Çankaya residence.
Most of historical monuments in the world owe their
fame to their architects, whereas the Çankaya resi-
dence has no material importance, neither is its ar-
chitect known. But its historical value and fame is
greater than most of that of the magnificent palaces
occupied by renowned sovereigns and built by famous
architects. For, in this residence, the hero of the Tur-
kish War of Independence, the architect of the Tur-
kish State, and the founder of the modern Turkish
nation, Atatürk, had worked, thought, and created. The
name Çankaya became as renowned as that of the
ATATÜRK DURING THE REFORM OF THE ALPHABET. (6)
biggest capitals in the world. It added new and glo-
rious history to the ancient history of Ankara.
A VIEW OF THE «KÖŞK»
THE TOWER.
FAÇADE OF THE RESIDENCE
WITH THE ADDITIONAL CONSTRUCTIONS (8)
As can be seen on picture 4, the first shape of the
house could not be heated properly and, for this rea-
residence was a two storey building with wooden
son, during winters when repairs were necessary, Ga-
stutters and with a balcony on both façades, that
zi Mustafa Kemal Atatürk had to leave Ankara for
overlooking the town, and that at the rear. On the
trips, until everything was put in order. On the other
ground floor of this house, which opened to the
hand, since the library did not have enough suitable
rear, there used to be a marble fountain. From an
space for additional books, M. Kemal Atatürk chose
open place of the hall on the 1 st floor divided in two
a new site for a presidential residence which is loca-
by a balustrade, one could see this fountain below.
ted on top of a rocky hill.
Thus, this house consisting of two rooms and a hall
When this plan of the building was drawn up, the
on the Ist floor and of the same ordering on the gro-
architect was given the instruction to build a spacious
und floor, was enlarged in 1924 by architect Meh-
library and a comfortable and luminous study.
met Vedat and took its present state.
Both houses are predominantly decorated with pink
These additions consisted a glassed entry on the
and various tones of green to suit the taste of Ata-
front which extended forward to the room on the left. At
türk. The decoration of the ceilings of the residence
the rear, on the ground floor, there were a pantry
which is now a museum consists of Turkish motifs
and a kitchen, and on the side, there was a projection
and is in accordance with the Turkish style.
forming angles in the shape of a tower. On the first
When he moved to the new building, in 1932, Atatürk
floor was the same disposition. (picture 5, 6).
maintained the old residence exactly as it was and
Although the house had been equipped with central
lodged there some of his closest friends such as
heating in 1926, since it proved to be defective, the
Fethi Okyar.
"
Now let us visit this Çankaya residence, respecting
the way it was used by M. Kemal Atatürk. The glass
entry is furnished with a mirror and armchairs
made out of carved dark brown wood. Here sat a
doorkeeper of Ethiopian origin called Nesip Efendi.
Nesip Efendi had two peculiarities : firstly the model
of his uniform and buttons which he had copied from
the picture reproduced in a newspaper of a uniform
worn by a king. He always wore the same uniform
without provoking any question from Atatürk; se-
condly : he knew by heart all the telephone numbers
of all familiar people (picture 7). After this entry ca-
me a hall of which the main furniture was a billiard -
table. Presently it is on the Ist floor. During the day -
time its accessories were kept in a side cupboard
and nearly every evening Atatürk would play billiards
as his daily exercise. Although he used to ride a hor-
se or walk sometimes, billiards was still his permanent
THE GLASSED ENTRY. (9)
A VIEW OF THE BILLIARD ROOM (10)
DETAIL OF A CUPBOARD DOOR
IN THE ENTRY OF THE AMBASSADORS (11)
THE AMBASSADORS' RECEPTION ROOM, ON THE GROUND GLOOR. (12)
ANOTHER VIEW OF THE AMBASSADORS' RECEPTION ROOM. (14)
DETAIL OF THE SOFA INLAID WITH MOTHER - OF - PEARL IN THE
AMBASSADORS' RECEPTION ROOM. (15)
ENTRY OF THE AMBASSADORS' RECEPTION ROOM. (13)
favourite sport. In this hall there was a sofa and a few
armchairs. At the bottom of the stairs there was a
piano (picture 8).
On the left hand side of this hall, in the tower, there
was a reception - room for ambassadors and foreign
dignitaries, which was divided into two and lighted by
a bow window (pictures 9, 10, 11, 12, 13), Opposite
the writing - desk inlaid with mother - of - pearl there
was a corner furnished with armchairs and tables
inlaid with mother - of - pearl in the like manner. Ata-
türk would sit at this desk and receive his official
THE GREEN DRAWING - ROOM. (16)
guests. It is there that one day a foreign ambassa-
Atfer this visit, General Gouraud told the journalists :
dor fell down, either slipping on the polished
«Today I have had the good fortune of conversing
floor, or perhaps out of emotion, but was able to pull
for two hours with your President». Mentioning the
himself together quickly, thanks to a screen.
battle of Canakkale, he added : «My having fought the
On June 5, 1930, in this reception - room, came an of-
Turks has given me the occasion of getting to know
ficial guest. It was the French General Gouraud who
closer a very courageous nation, and of loving and
had lost one arm in the battle of Çanakkale. When
respecting this nation».
he first met M. Kemal Atatürk, he told him : <<l have
lost this arm when fighting at Canakkale against the
Opposite this room, there is another room called the
Turks, today, I came here to hold the other one out
«green drawing - room». Its windows open on the
as a token of friendship». Atatürk had been deeply
front and on the side of the pavilion. It is used as a
moved by these words and had spoken to him for
reception - room. In a corner, there used to be a por-
a long time.
table stove. On its walls hang swords ornamented
with jewels; there is a glass cabinet with souvenirs
Another topic concerns new published books. Writers
and couriosities in it (Picture 14).
and poets read their own works. Problems related to
A door opens on the dining - room, although its main
the country are discussed, as well as historical sub-
entrance is through the hall. The dining - room is di-
jects. M. Kemal Atatürk, who wishes the history of
vided in two : the dining place proper, decorated with
the Turks and of Turkey to be examined from the
high stained glass windows and with a fire place or-
point of view of its contribution to civilization, often
namented with a carved wood mantelpiece in the old
relates what he has read, or sometimes gives a copy
Turkish fashion (picture 15). Next to it there is a small
of a newly published book, taken out of his own
room used for the service purposes and opening into
ENTRY FROM THE HALL TO THE DINING - ROOM. (17)
the kitchen. This dining - room is furnished with a side
board, a glass cabinet and a large dining table. It is
the place where M. Kemal Atatürk welcomes his
guests in the evening. There gathered statesmen, high
ranking officers, lawyers, writers and poets as well
as members of Parliament of all professions. Every
evening, those guests commented on political events
and have had discussions about them. Here all kinds
of subjects are pretext to conversation. Atatürk, who
presides over the table, opens the subjects, puts ques-
tions about them, giving a chance of speaking to
every one in turn, manages the opponents on delica-
te questions. For instance, in 1930, the law recogni-
zing the right for women to vote and be elected in
the municipal elections, was the topic of conversation
and the object of discussion there, before it was put
forward to the Grand National Assembly (picture 16).
WALL PANEL IN THE DINING - ROOM (1932). (18)
Grand
OA
ANOTHER VIEW OF THE DINING - ROOM. (19)
-
the
1
THE DINING - ROOM. (20)
CCCC
CEILING OF THE TOWER ROOM, ON THE GROUND FLOOR. (22)
A STAINED GLASS WINDOW IN THE DINING - ROOM. (21)
library, to his friends speaking foreign languages, as-
king them to summarize it for him, at short notice.
Thereafter, they would give their opinion about the
said book would set down in writing their criticism
about it (pictures 17, 18, 19).
Sometimes, musicians were invited too. This is a pic-
ture of the atmosphere of this dining room every
evening. Thus, the notable people of the country
would gather round this table and there would be
discussions and conversations about all sorts of
topics.
There was a two - leaf door opening onto the garden
in the other part of the dining - room, and a gaming -
table which was seldom in use was placed there.
In addition, two steps lead to the tower room, which
is a resting place and is furnished with a leather so-
fa and armchairs (pictures 20, 21). There, coffee was
served and, now and then, Atatürk would sit there
before or after the meal, with people whom he wan-
ted to speak to privately.
THE TOWER ROOM, ON THE GROUND FLOOR. (23)
While one of the rooms was being used as library, a
room next to Atatürk's bedroom called «the tower -
room» came to be used as library and study, after
1930, as there was not sufficient room for the books
and files in the library. Between the bedroom and
this tower - room, in place of the glass panel, shel-
ves for the books were fitted up. There is a door
opening into the bedroom too. The library opens out
on the front and side façades. It is provided with
walnut wood shelves and glassed cabinets, in the old
fashion. This room is furnished with a large writing
desk, besides a sofa and a few armchairs. It is on
this desk that Atatürk wrote or dictated his
«Speech» where as it is in the palace of Dolmabahçe
that were written «Improvements» and the <<Address
to the Youth».
In this library were books about military art, law, lite-
rature, his private note books, For instance his daily
memos written during the battles of Anafartalar or
Arıburun, or the Karlsbad note books used to be there.
There was no catalogue of the books; they were only
recorded in a big register by an employee, who came
from the Grand National Assembly (picture 27).
ATATÜRK's BEDROOM. (25)
LIVING - ROOM. (24)
Now, we can go up to the Ist floor. On the first curve
of the staircase is a landing. After the second curve,
on the right, there is a small 3 windowed bedroom
or living room which overlooks the town (picture
22). A door leads out into the drawing - room which
used to have a second door between the staircase
landing and the glassed entry and which does not
exist any more. This room has an oriental character. It
has a brazier in the middle and is furnished with so-
fas. On the front is a balcony, which corresponds
to the entry on the ground floor (picture 24).
The door on the left hand side of this drawing - room
is that of Atatürk's bedroom (pictures 23, 25) and
another one opens into a bathroom.
DRAWING - ROOM WITH BRAZIER IN THE MIDDLE. (26)
ATATÜRK's BEDROOM. (27)
The part of this library that was situated in the tower
the Prime Minister was going to put to him, and
was fitted with oak wood furniture, and white and
his concern, calmly brings up historical subjects he
grey upholstery. His particularity consisted in a wri-
had been working on during the previous night. The
ting desk situated in the window recess (picture 28).
Prime Minister is very impatient, but has to listen
Atatürk would smoke cigarettes and drink coffee for
though. President Atatürk, feeling that Ismet Inönü
hours and days, or sometimes buttermilk. Now and
has recovered his calm, suddenly resumes the sub-
then, the man he was dictating to would be tired
ject of the day. He gives solutions and lays down
and another one would take his place. There were ins-
general lines of conduct about the question that has
tances of M. Kemal Atatürk's working for two days and
to be settled to the Prime Minister who has now re-
two nights without stopping. An event occured in that
covered his calm. Looking pleased and cheerful as he
room is worth mentioning : On one morning following
is leaving Atatürk. They have solved together
one of those nights of continuous work, Prime Minis-
that day's problem. One can explain thus
ter Ismet Inönü comes very embarrassed to see Ata-
the reason why Atatürk had rather talked about his-
türk, in order to submit to him a question concerning
torical questions first : After having diverted the in-
the budget. He is most anxious. Atatürk comes into
terest of the Prime Minister, worried by that day's
the room and though knowing very well the problem
problem, M. Kemal had made his weariness disap-
THE
DAN
THE
SEAL
STATE
THE
FOR
TOWER ROOM TRANSFORMED LATER INTO A LIBRARY. (30)
THE LIBRARY RECORD BOOK. (29)
A BOOK OUT OF THE LIBRARY,
WITH NOTES WRITTEN BY ATATÜRK'S (31)
pear and then they had together quietly found a
solution.
This library is the place that Atatürk liked best. It
is there he spent most of his time and received in
the daytime officials and friends. The Secretary Ge-
celle
de
qui
du
и
de
neral of the Presidency used to come there every
se
day with official documents, he would inform Atatürk
a
about the documents the Chief of State would have
les
-
to sign, about the problems that were to be solved and
la
he would take his orders. It is in this library that the
area
-
dxes
Prime Minister, the ministers, the chief of general
staff, hing ranking officers would discuss the affairs
of the army and of the State and the solutions to
la
de
&
be found. Atatürk gave the greatest importance to
plan
1
books. He would not simply read them rapidly, but
di
plas
les
would underline places he thought important with
of
red or blue pencils. It is in this library that his works
*
the
on history took shape. Believing in the necessity of
N
research on the history of the Turks and of
Turkey, he studied it himself and gave tasks to tho-
Madil.
se who wanted to take pains at studying history. One
ture. He cared personally for them and was interes-
can sum up the subjects he worked upon : the estab-
ted in their pruning. He could satisfy thus his love
lishing of a chronological history of the Turks and of
and admiration for greens. In his time, as well as la-
Turkey and, last but not least, the finding of examp-
ter on new trees were added to the old ones in
les of the contribution of the Turks to the world
Cankaya. It is as though he took pride in seeing them
civilization (picture 29, 30).
grow and become green. One spring, he had been
Besides, he was interested in legal subjects and po-
most worried by the fact that some trees had been too
litical principles concerning the control of the State,
much pruned, and he had scolded the gardener.
on economic matters, on books and studies about it.
M. Kemal Atatürk has lived in this world as all mortal
For instance, after having taken notes out of the
creatures do. He has spent ten years of his life in
books he had read or had had analized for him, in
Çankaya residence. Here, his memory lives. Only the
view of establishing the principles of our Constitution,
people are mortal, ideas and successful deeds re-
it is in this library that he put them forward and
main. According to this principle, Atatürk, the foun-
explained how they should be enforced by taking
der of the Republic, has entrusted the Turkish na-
into comparison our social and economic state he
tion with the task of preserving the territorial integ-
had observed in his journeys through the country.
rity, of advancing every day further in the way of
As for the gardens and trees around the Çankaya
civilization. The leader of the Nation has been able
residence, they witness how he loved and valued na-
to say : «I am happy, because I have been successful».
THE AMBASSADORS
ENTRANCE
RECEPTION ROOM
DRAWING - ROOM
DINING ROOM
TOWER ROOM
OFFICE
GROUND FLOOR
BALCONY
THE LIBRARY
LIVING ROOM
REST ROOM
BEDROOM
W.C.
BATHROOM
TOWER ROOM
1 st FLOOR
PRINTED IN TURKEY BY AJANS-TÜRK MATBAACILIK SANAYII/ANKARA
QUOTATIONS
from
Mustafa Kemal
ATATÜRK
Translated by Yılmaz Öz
from an original compilation by Akil Aksan
QUOTATIONS
from
Mustafa Kemal
ATATÜRK
Translated by Yılmaz Öz
from an original compilation by Akil Aksan
Published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Turkey,
on the occasion of Atatürk's Centenary.
Ankara
1982
CONTENTS
page
END OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
3
THE RIGHTS OF A NATION
7
— "People's voice"
7
- Independence
17
- Liberty
19
- National Sovereignty
20
THE BIRTH OF A NEW TURKISH STATE
23
- "Defense of Rights", "National Forces",
Organization, Struggle
23
REVOLUTIONS AND REFORMS
42
- To Demolish and Rebuild
42
- Religion and Secularism
51
- Women and their Rights
55
- Law and Justice
59
- Education
62
- The new Alphabet
66
- Economy
68
page
PUBLIC OPINION, PRESS, HISTORY
74
- Public Opinion, the Press
74
- History
78
ART AND ARTISTS
80
STEWARDS OF NATIONS
83
THE YOUTH
88
MILITARY ART, ARMY, WAR
93
FOREIGN POLICY
105
PEACE AND HUMANISM
119
ATATÜRK, THE MAN
128
Douglas MAC ARTHUR - (1948)
With his death the World lost a genius and a great leader; the Turkish
nation lost its eminent and most gallant son, and Humanity lost a fearless
defender endowed with keen perception If he were to be alive, the tur-
moiled international scene would have been substantially different today.
His death at a crucial moment of the conflict shattering the World con-
tinues to be an irreplaceable loss.
Jawaharlal NEHRU - (1963)
Kemal ATATÜRK or Kemal Pasha as we knew him then, was a hero of
mine in my younger days. We were then wholly occupied with our own
freedom movement and I had, in common with many others, begun my
pilgrimage to jails. Even in prison, we followed avidly the news of Kemal
Pasha's activities and his struggles to free Turkey from foreign rule and
influences. I remember when news came to us in the prison, of his great vic-
tory over the Greeks in Asia Minor, how we rejoiced and we celebrated it
even in prison. Later on, when we read of his great reforms we were much
impressed. His dynamism, his fearlessness were most impressive. He is one
of leaders of the modern age in the East and I for one continue to admire
him greatly.
John F. KENNEDY - (1963)
The name of ATATÜRK brings to mind the historical accomplishments of
one of the great men of this century; his inspired leadership of the Turkish
people; his perceptive understanding of the modern World; and, his
boldness as a military leader.
It is to the credit of ATATÜRK and the Turkish people that a free Turkey
grew out of a collapsing empire and that the new Turkey has proudly
proclaimed and maintained its independence ever since.
Certainly, there is no more successful example of national self-reliance
than the Turkish Republic and the profound changes initiated since then by
Turkey and ATATÜRK.
AYUB HAN - (1963)
Kemal ATATÜRK was not only one of the greatest men of the century but
we in Pakistan regard him as one of the greatest men of all times. A mili-
tary genius, a born leader of men and a great patriot, Kemal ATATÜRK
has put Turkey back on the road to greatness. He is not only the beloved
leader of Turkish people but muslims all over the World look upon him
with feelings of love and admiration.
Mustafa Kemal ATATÜRK
(1881 - 1938)
END OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
My Friends,
Here is the purpose in my assembling you here
tonight: (*) I think it redundant to remind you of the
grave moments which our country is now living
through. All of you are aware of this. We have impor-
tant obligations towards this ill-fated country. Our sole
object is to save it. They now want to detach Macedo-
nia and the whole of Roumelia from the country. Parts
of it are already under foreign influence and predo-
minance. The Sultan who thinks of nothing but the
pursuit of his pleasures and his reign has but a detes-
table personality capable of all baseness. The nation is
perishing under tyranny and oppression. And in a
country where freedom ceases to exist, only death and
destruction reign. The mainspring of all progress and
deliverance is freedom. History today charges us with a
(*) This talk was delivered at a secret meeting in Salonika.
3
great mission. I have already formed an association in
Syria and we have started our fight against tyranny.
My purpose in coming here also is to lay the ground-
work for this association. For the time being, it is
necessary to remain in secret and to organize further.
I expect sacrifices from you. In order to be able to res-
pond to a crushing tyranny through revolution, to
destroy a rotten and obsolete administration, to render
the nation sovereign, and in short, to save the country,
I am inviting you to take on this mission.
It is true that before ours, there have been many
attemps to this end. They failed because they lacked
organization. Whereas with the organization we will
create we shall eventually and indubitably succeed. We
will save the country and the nation.
(1906)
* * *
The problem is not one of dying. It is to bring
our ideals to realization before we die. (*)
(1906)
*
* *
The day will come when I shall have realized all
these reforms which you today consider as dreams.
The nation to which I belong will believe in me.
The Sultanate must be abolished. The structure
of the state should rest on a homogenous element.
Religious and state affairs should be separated. We
(*) To his friends who pledge their lives "for the sake of the reforms".
4
must cast off and divert our identity from that of the
Eastern civilization to the Western. We must establish
a new social order by eliminating the difference
between man and woman. Renouncing the script which
prevents us from joining the Western civilization, we
must adopt an alphabet of Latin origin. We must
adapt to westerners in everything, down to the way we
dress. Rest assured that all of these will one day be
realized. (*)
(1907)
* * *
The country will most assuredly be saved and the
nation will rejoice. Because many are the youth of this
country who are willing to sacrifice their own safety
and happiness for that of their nation.
(1912)
* * *
Gentlemen I am hoping that after the conclu-
sion of an appropriate peace, our situation will be bet-
ter than which prevailed within our previous borders,
assuming that it is properly handled. At this juncture,
let me expound on a further idea: We have lived for
centuries and within the same frontiers, together with
our fellow-moslems, our dear brethren, who are now
to remain outside the frontiers we have drawn for our-
selves. These brethren of ours in Syria, in Iraq, in
Yemen and all over the Orient are struggling to pre-
serve their existence and to gain their independence in
(*) From his talk in Salonika with I. Manolof, the eminent Bulgarian Turcologist.
5
their own boundaries. How great a happiness will it be
for the World of Islam, for all such moslem segments
to reach independence? I feel the greatest of joys in
imagining, even from now, how powerful the situa-
tion in the World of Islam will become when this is
attained. My conviction as to the success of the Moslem
World which, without doubt, has been awakening, is
so strong that expressing my sentiments along lines of
this conviction gives me a profound pleasure.
(1919)
* * *
Having thoroughly studied the Mudros Armis-
tice(*) terms, I had reached the conclusion that with this
Armistice, the Ottoman Empire was not only consen-
ting to capitulate unconditionally before its enemies,
but promised, as well, to assist them to occupy the
country.
I passed unto the Government my opinion that if
the terms of this Armistice were to be put into effect as
written, the country would be exposed to total invasion
and occupation, and I explained to them that the con-
sequences of kowtowing to all demands of the enemies
would, undoubtedly, lead to the invaders taking over
the entire country and to their appointing the Ottoman
Cabinet. One did not need to be endowed with a gift
for prophecy to see this.
(1926)
* * *
(*) The Armistice signed between the Allied Powers and the Ottoman Empire on
October 30, 1918.
6
THE RIGHTS OF A NATION
"People's voice is the voice of righteousness"
(1923)
* * *
Henceforth the nation will have to seek and
defend its own rights. And it behooves us, in coopera-
tion with the Army, to show the way and to assist it to
the extent possible.
(1918)
* * *
History never negates the blood, the rights and
the reality of a nation. Therefore, verdicts pronounced
and opinions expressed against our country and our
nation behind so deceptive a curtain, are definitely
condemned to remain without effect.
(1919)
*** * * *
7
If a nation is unconcerned over its might, and
over its intellectual and physical resources for its own
existence and for its rights, and if it is incapable of
securing its existence and independence through use of
its own might, it will remain merely a toy for others.
(1919)
* * *
The right surely does exist in this World of ours
and it is superior to might. However, one must prove
to the World that the nation is aware of its rights and
is ready to make all sacrifices for the defense and
preservation thereof.
(1919)
* * *
Moved by injustices committed by the Allied
Powers and the weakness and inability of the Govern-
ment(*) in Istanbul, our nation has been compelled to
adopt the resolution to prove its existence and to take
action to defend its honor and independence against
actual aggression.
(1919)
* * *
Disasters always lead men and wise nations to
persevere and to make vigorous moves.
(1919)
*
* *
(*) The Sultan's Government in Istanbul.
8
The national force now emerging in the country
has been given its birth in the minds and the heart of
the nation deriving its lesson from calamities.
(1919)
* * *
The nation must be vigilant towards its Govern-
ment. Because if the Governments' actions are nega-
tive and if the nation does to object thereto or divest
itself thereof, it would be deemed to have shared in all
the faults and the blame.
(1919)
* * *
Our conviction is firm as to the sacred nature of
the struggle we initiated for the defense of our rights
and independence, and as to the fact that there is no
force which is able to deprive a nation of its right to
exist.
(1920)
* * *
In the East and the West, almost in all corners of
the country, associations had been formed for the
defense and protection of the rights of the nation and
the country. These associations were the sole organiza-
tions issuing from a resolution well-rooted in the
nation's conscience.
(1920)
*
* *
9
So far as we are concerned, the Treaty of
Sèvres (*) which envisions the elimination of our politi-
cal, judicial, economic and financial independence,
and which, consequently, denies and terminates our
right to live, does not exist. (**)
(1921)
* * *
We wish none other than living free and indepen-
dent within our national boundaries. We wish our
rights to be kept inviolable, just a those enjoyed by
other nations of Europe.
(1921)
* * *
We do not wish to violate the rights of others,
and by the same token, we have no claim other than
their respecting our right to an independent existence.
All humanity and the civilized World will finally
recognize the legitimate rights of the Turkish Nation
which has no purpose other than to live independently,
as any other civilized nation, within its national
boundaries and free of foreign intervention.
Our Assembly and its government are far from
being belligerent or adventuresome. Quite to the
reverse, they prefer peace and deliverance. In parti-
cular they fervently wish the realization of humane and
(*) This Treaty which was signed by and between the Ottoman Empire and the
Allied Powers on August 1, 1920, was refused by Atatürk and The Grand
National Assembly in Ankara. In brief, this Treaty was leaving only a few
provinces in Central Anatolia for Turkey.
(**) To the United Press Correspondent.
10
civilized ideals. Within this framework, they will
always seek to enter into good relations and to develop
amicable ties with both the Eastern and the Western
world.
(1921)
* * *
Those who lack force and talent are not res-
pected.
(1921)
* * *
For many centuries our nation had gravely suf-
fered under the weight of two tyrannical and destruc-
tive forces: The first of these were the despots who had
a direct claim to the rule of the country and the nation,
and the second consisted of the world of imperialist
capitalism.
Subjected to the pressures of these two forces for
centuries, the nation certainly is in an extremely feeble
condition. However, Gentlemen, as a result of these
pressures, great awakenings are taking place. In our
nation too such a true awakening has occurred and we
happen to find ourselves in just such a period. Indeed,
it has now been about a year and a half that the nation
revolted against both these two forces and started its
struggle.
(1921)
*
* *
This victory in Anatolia will be imbedded in
history as the best example which demonstrates how
11
powerful and reviving could become an idea as
embraced by a nation so totally.
(1922)
* * *
Within the community of men, there is a great
Turkish nation with a population which exceeds one
hundred million, and this nation has a historical depth
proportionate to its extent on the face of this Earth.
(1922)
* * *
Gentlemen, Mr. Claude Farrère has proven in
the most unmistakable manner that he is veritably and
seriously a friend of Turkey. When our country was
living through tragic moments, when our nation was
subjected to oppression and when all the injustices of
the World were being hurled upon us, one heard a
noble voice, a humane voice against all such oppres-
sion. This was the voice of Claude Farrère in whose
presence here today we feel much happiness. (*)
(1922)
* * *
We- recognize for all nations of the World the
right to "self-determination" which is advanced by
civilized Mankind in international relations as corres-
ponding to a total embodiment of the most noble and
lofty of ideas and desires. And we demand that this
right of ours be recognized without any condition or
reservation.
(*) From a talk during the visit to Atatürk by Claude Farrère at Izmit.
12
The responsibility for blood already shed or to be
further shed in denying us this legitimite and righteous
claim will, undoubtedly, fall on those who so deny. No
force is conceivable which could make us to renounce
pursuing this national cause. National cause to us
means our lives.
(1922)
* * *
Know we must that the nations which fail to find
their national identity do fall prey to other nations.
(1923)
* * *
We do not want far too much from anyone. We
should not be denied those things which all civilized
nations of the World enjoy by nature; and our rights
too should be admitted. Because those rights are
natural, legitimate and reasonable, and we need them.
We shall never relinquish them. The capability and the
might of our country and of our nation to defend and
safeguard them is but a reflection of the legitimacy of
our claim.
(1923)
* * *
It appears the Allied Powers have not yet devel-
oped the sense to accept and confirm the conditions
which are absolutely necessary for the existence and
development of Turkey and its people. The obstinacy
and the insistence of the Allied Powers which entertain
certain conditions for and demands from Turkey,
infringing upon its independence and which are incon-
13
ceivable for any civilized nation is an event which
should be deplored by the whole World in surprise and
astonishment.
We want a peace which guarantees our indepen-
dence. As long as we see this remains unsecured, we
shall continue what we have started until we attain full
independence with a view to reach the élan with which
we need to live. This represents the firm resolution of
our nation. All measures to implement this decision, at
whatever cost, have already been taken.
(1923)
* * *
Our Nation has severely suffered for having
ignored its proper origin. Different peoples making up
the Ottoman Empire have emancipated themselves by
adopting national beliefs and by the force inherent in
ideals of nationalism. We did not realize our own iden-
tity and the fact that we are distinct from and
foreign to them until after they forced us out. They
insulted and humiliated us when we had become weak.
Only then did we become aware of our error in having
forgotten what we really were.
(1923)
*
* *
In the accomplishment of our great mission, the
great capacity and the infallible good sense of our
nation have served as our principal guide and the
source of our success.
(1923)
*
* *
14
True victory does not consist solely of triumph in
the battlefield, but it is in the reinforcement of the
sources of triumph and in the elevation of the nation,
as well.
(1923)
* * *
The system which is most compatible with the
nature and spirit of the Turkish Nation is Republica-
nism.
(1924)
* * *
Offer the Turk something good and positive. He
will not possibly refuse it.
(1924)
*** * *
*
The origins of national struggles do not lie in
personal ambitions, but rather, in national ideals and
national honor.
(1925)
***
Those who are uncivilized are condemned to be
trampled under the feet of civilized ones.
(1925)
***
Great missions are accomplished but by great
nations.
(1928)
*** * * *
15
Outside our own political existence and in lands
afar, there are Turkish communities which, although
having a unity with us, of language, of race and origin
and even close or distant historical and moral affinity,
have willingly or unwillingly shared destinies with
other political entities. This fact, which resulted merely
from a historical dislocation, constitutes a painful
memory, although it would never affect neither the
roots nor the solidarity in the original formation of the
Turkish nation, from both the historical and ethno-
logical viewpoints.
(1930)
*
* *
The people of Turkey which formed the Republic
of Turkey are called The Turkish Nation.
(1930)
***
Force is unique and it belongs to the nation.
(1937)
* * *
*** * *
*
*
* *
16
Independence
However wealthy and prosperous, a nation de-
prived of independence cannot be worthy of any claim
higher than that of being subservient in the eyes of
civilized men.
(1919)
* * *
When its independence is in danger, the nation
recruits its own armies and adopts but one attitude: to
sacrifice its blood to the last for its own salvation.
(1919)
* * *
A nation which puts forth every imaginable
effort and sacrifice to secure its existence and indepen-
dence does succeed. To speak of the probability the
it may not so succeed, means that such a nation is
moribund anyway. Therefore, so long as the nation is
alive and continues its sacrifices, failure is inconceiv-
able. (*)
(1919)
*
* *
We must be independent, from the standpoint of
religion, as well.
(1919)
*
* *
(*) His replies to Major General James G. Harbord of the United States upon
being posed the question as to what he was going to do if the movement
failed.
17
The independence of the nation will be saved by
its own will and resolution.
(1919)
* * *
In any case, our State and our nation shall remain
independent, internally and externally, in the fullest
sense.
(1919)
*
* *
The spirit of our mission today is total indepen-
dence. And to this mission, we have committed our-
selves as the entire nation and history will bear
witness. (*)
(1921)
*** * * *
When one speaks of full independence, this
means, of course, total political, financial, economic,
judicial, military, cultural etc., freedom in all respects.
Being deprived of anyone of those I enumerated, would
mean, in the strictest sense, that the nation and the
country lack full independence.
(1921)
*
* *
(*) From his statement to Franklin Bouillon, the informal emissary of France.
18
Regardless of how much our misfortunes may
increase, the idea to which we are committed is inde-
pendence.
(1921)
* * *
Total independence is possible only along with
financial independence.
(1922)
***
The nations which are enamored with indepen-
dence and liberty should always keep fresh the memory
of their moments of suffering, and the reasons and
causes for such suffering, so that proper lessons are
drawn and vigilance maintained. (*)
* * *
(1928)
* * *
* * *
Liberty
Institutions founded on slavery of nations are
bound to be eradicated everywhere.
(1924)
*
* *
We, the Turks, are a nation which throughout its
entire history has become a symbol of independence
and freedom.
(1927)
* * *
(*) His statement to the King of Afghanistan who was visiting Ankara.
19
Unlimited liberties are inconceivable. Even the
right to live, the greatest of rights, is not absolute.
(1930)
* * *
For the Turk, freedom is his life.
(1930)
* * *
Freedom consists of man's ability to do what he
thinks and desires, without any influence or interven-
tion by others. This is the widest definition of the con-
cept. Mankind has never attained liberty to this extent
and never will. Because as is known, men are creations
of Nature and the Nature itself is not absolutely free
either; it is subject to universal laws.
(1930)
*
* *
*
* *
* * *
National Sovereignty
National will prevails and rules over the destiny
of the state and the nation. The army is subservient to
said will and is at its service.
(1919)
*** * * *
The nation has claimed its sovereignty and has
done so through rebellion. Sovereignty so attained can-
not be waived, returned or abandoned under any cir-
cumstance or for any reason whatever. To wrestle
20
away such sovereignty, one has to resort to the same
sort of means when the nation was attempted to be
subjugated.
(1921)
* * *
Sovereignty is vested with the nation uncondi-
tionally and without any reservation.
(1923)
* *
In order for our state to be perpetual, for our
country to become stronger, for the prosperity and
felicity of our nation, for our lives, for our honor
and dignity, for our future, and for all that we hold
sacred, we shall defend and jealously guard our
national sovereignty with all our might and with
reawakened vigilance.
(1923)
* * *
Adversity to national sovereignty is nothing but
the crime of deliberately attempting in one stroke to do
away with everything possessed by a nation which has
exceptional dignity and honor.
(1923)
* * *
Those who fail to conform to the will and desire
of the nation are destined to definite ruin and destruc-
tion.
(1923)
***
21
The principal tenet underlying the new Turkish
State is national sovereignty. And, it is unconditional
sovereignty.
(1923)
* * *
All the World should know that there is no other
power or authority any more above this state and this
nation. There is but one power and that is national
sovereignty. There is but one authority and that is
the heart, the conscience and the very existence of the
nation itself.
(1923)
* * *
I take this oath before my mother's grave and in
God's presence: I shall not hesitate, if need be, to join
by my mother's side, in order to ensure the defense and
preservation of the sovereignty which this nation has
secured by shedding so much blood. I consider it an
obligation of conscience and an honorable duty to give
my life for the sovereignty of our nation.
(1923)
*
*
*
Sovereignty is not given, it is only taken.
*
(1927)
* *
Sovereignty cannot be founded upon fear. And,
sovereignty which is supported by guns shall not last.
That sort of sovereignty or dictatorship would not be
necessary, except in times of revolution and for only a
limited time.
*
(1930)
* *
* * *
*
* *
22
THE BIRTH OF A NEW TURKISH STATE
("Defense of Rights", "National Forces",
Organization, Struggle)
I landed at Samsun(*) on the 19th day of May
1919. (**) Here was the general situation:
The group of powers which included the Otto-
man Empire had been defeated in the World War. The
Ottoman army bruised everywhere. An Armistice
signed under severe conditions. After long years of the
Great War, the people left exhausted and impove-
rished. Those who had driven the nation and the
country into the World War having fled, caring for
nothing but their own safety. Vahdettin, the dege-
(*) This is the Black Sea port where he first set foot at following his departure
from Istanbul as the Inspector General of the 9th Army. The forces belonging
to this Army had been deployed in central and eastern Anatolia.
(**) The "Speech" he delivered before the convention of the Republican People's
Party during the 6-day period of October 15 through 20, 1927, starts with
these words.
23
nerate occupant of the Throne and of the Caliphate
seeking some despicable way to save his person and his
Throne, the only objects of his anxiety. The Cabinet
under Damat Ferit Pasha neither competent, nor
having any dignity or courage, being subservient only
to the will of the Sultan and resigned to any proposal
which could protect its members and their Sovereign.
The army deprived and being deprived of its
arms and ammuniton.
The Allied Powers not considering it necessary to
respect the terms of the Armistice. Their men-of-war
and their troops remaining in Istanbul under one
pretext or another
Gentlemen, under these circumstances one res-
olution alone was possible, namely, to create a new
Turkish State, the sovereignty and independence of
which would be unreservedly recognized.
This was the resolution we had adopted even
before leaving Istanbul, and which we began executing
immediately upon setting foot on Anatolian soil at
Samsun.
The reasoning and logic best supporting this
resolution were as follows:
The basic point is that the Turkish Nation should
live in honor and dignity. Such a basis could only be
attained by complete independence. However wealthy
and prosperous, a nation deprived of its independence,
cannot be worthy of any claim higher than that of
being subservient in the eyes of civilized men.
24
To accept the protectorate and dominion of a
foreign power would be nothing more than an admis-
sion of the lack of human qualities. and of weakness
and incapacity. Indeed, it is impossible to envision
people who have not denigrated to so low a level as to
accept willingly a foreign master.
But the Turk is both very dignified and proud.
He is also capable and talented. Such a nation would
prefer to perish rather than subject itself to servitude.
Therefore, independence or death ! This was to
be the rallying cry of all those who honestly desired to
save their country.
(1919)
* * *
Within its national boundaries, our homeland
constitues one indivisible unit.
(1919)
* * *
There is no nation which could prosper without
the support of moral principles.
(1919)
* * *
After the Armistice -and this is regrettably
said- the nation remained indifferent to its destiny,
while the enemies, resolved to eliminate its existence,
were about to dismember the country. Fortunately,
however, certain events caused our beloved nation to
awaken and to regain its vigilance. Hither and thither,
citizens started searching for and finding each other
25
and as a result of this, an organization sprang. The
foreigners who were set on the destruction of the inde-
pendence of our state, were not expecting our nation to
exhibit such a spirit. They had mistaken the people
living on this land to be devoid of any sense. When
reaching their conclusion that "no such nation has a
right to live", they failed to take into account the real
existence of this nation. Due to events, they also failed
to discern its efforts towards organization in many cor-
ners of the country. Yet what these ignored segments
wish to defend resolutely and in line with the basic
point of departure adopted by the entire nation can be
summarized in these words: "National forces must be
made effective and the national will must be made to
prevail."
And this is the spirit of that organization.
(1919)
*
* *
My offical capacity and military title(*) have now
begun to hinder me from working freely with the
nation in the national resistance movęment initiated
for the salvation of our sacred land and of our nation
from dismemberment. As I have promised on every-
thing I hold sacred, to strive alongside my nation until
the very end towards these sacred aims. I have quit
and resigned today of my military commission - this
career which I love so deeply-. I hereby announce
through this circular that henceforth I shall continue
(*) Inspector-General of the IX. Army.
26
simply as an individual foot-fighter among the ranks
of the nation, striving with the utmost of sacrifices
towards our sacred national object (*)
(1919)
* * *
In general, our Association is not in need of
great amounts of money, as frequently misconceived.
Our objectives are not unlawful. Therefore, we are in
no need to have them recognized by a foreign state
through offers of money, we are not in a position of
being forced to purchase other nations' consciences
either, nor are we obliged to set our own nation upon
an unknown objective. Stemming from national consci-
ousness, our Association is the fruit of purely patriotic
a movement, and, it enjoys nationwide organization.
Our treasury is made up of our nation which has
learned to appreciate the value of independence and
patriotism. Our revenues spring from the spontaneous
donations by the nation.
(1919)
* * *
For the moment, we have arms both for defense
and for the offensive. We are going to take away, the
arms we shall be needing in the future too, from the
hands of the enemies.
(1920)
* * *
(*) This telegram was circularized to all provinces.
(**) Association for the Defense of Rights for Anatolia and Roumelia.
27
It is true that we are called the nationalists.
However, our nationalism is such that we treat with
respect all nations which cooperate with us. We
recognize all exigencies of their nationality. At any
rate, our nationalism certainly is not one which is
egotistic or arrogant.
(1920)
* * *
One needs to derive some life out of this desert,
and to create an organization out of these ruins. The
space which seems empty is in fact full, and under this
territory which is mistaken for a desert, there lies a life
of extreme vigor. And that entity is the nation itself.
What is lacking is organization and that is what we are
now trying to create.
(1920)
* * *
Just to meet every contingency, in assuring our
life and existence, if we ever needed to resort to an
exterior force or source of force, we decided it would
not be inopportune to utilize any source, on condition
that our viewpoint would remain reserved at all times.
(1920)
* * *
When we had taken the decision to salvage the
existence and independence of our country and of our
nation, we had no viewpoints other than our very own
and we relied only on our own strength. We did not
seek any lessons from anyone, and we did not embark
on our mission being duped by fake promises by
28
others. Everyone knows that our viewpoint and our
principles are not bolshevik principles and we have
never entertained the thought of or attempted to coerce
our nation to accept bolshevik principles.
(1920)
*
* *
Facing this inimical World full of malfeasance,
the nation itself must speak and respond. The voice
best authorized to so speak could only be that of
the National Assembly. Supposing even after the As-
sembly is constituted, and due to events, we are forced
to leave Ankara, we could speak with still greater an
authority and force, from wherever we may have to
relocate. We shall defend the existence and indepen-
dence of our nation even from the tops of the last rock
in the land and we shall succeed without fail.
(1920)
*
*
*
There was a central Government in Istanbul and
all the armed forces came under its jurisdiction. This
Government was firmly besieged by the enemy. It was
a tight political encirclement. It was in this sort of a
situation that the Government was issuing orders to the
armed forces, for the defense of the land and of the
independence of the nation and the state. With orders
issued in this manner, it was impossible to expect these
forces to accomplish their basic mission, as in fact,
they could not. The army as the principal element of
these forces, although still retaining and asserting its
name, was nevertheless denied the ability to perform.
29
Thus the basic mission which consisted of defending
and salvaging the country fell directly on the nation
itself. Our nation has now been obliged to entrust to
the Army, constituted by conscripts from its own
bosom, the mission to defend the areas under attack by
the enemy, as well as, the lives of their brethren suf-
fering from aggression. These we call "The National
Forces" and the entire World calls them by the same
name.
The organization which incarnates the unity of
the nation and which is created for the purpose of
exhibiting this unity both within the country and
abroad -despite the condition which Istanbul hap-
pened to find itself- does not merely consist of these
cadres of National Forces. In point of fact, another
civil organization has been created on a perfectly legal
basis all over the country, down to its most distant cor-
ners, and we call it "Association for the Defense of
Rights".
In this organization, the question does not con-
cern arms. Perhaps one could say, from a civil, social
and general viewpoint, that it is akin to a political
association. This Association, as you know, has
Central Committees in every province and independent
county. The Army, however, not finding any compe-
tent central authority in these Committees, needed sus-
tenance, administration and direction from a unified
quarter and hence, the absorption of the armed forces
into the organization for the Defense of Rights.
*
(1920)
* *
30
Mr. Minister, (*)
I have the honor to submit to you that following
the unjustified and reprehensible occupation of the
city of Istanbul by the Allied Powers, The Ottoman
Nation, considering the Caliph and the Government as
captive, has proceeded with the convening of the
Grand National Assembly, and to effect, has called
general elections. In the course of its opening session
on April 23, 1920, The Grand National Assembly, has
decided by acclamation, to take into its hands, the des-
tiny of the country, now and for the future, for as long
as the Caliph, The Sultan and its eternal capital remain
under foreign occupation and domination
Therefore, the orders and religious edicts ema-
nating from Istanbul are considered null and void.
(1920)
*
* *
Our paramount duty is not politics. Today our
sole mission and that of our country and our nation is
to chase the enemy out of our land with our bayonets.
For as long as we fail to accomplish this, the word
"politics" shall remain devoid of any meaning.
(1921)
*
* *
When faced with the tragic blows aimed at the
elimination of its independence and existence, Turkey
(*) From a Note sent to the foreign ministers of the Allied Powers and the Neutral
Governments.
31
and its people had no support in the World. Trusting
only in their own will and resolution springing from
their own hearts and conscience, these people have
decided either to live in full possession of their inde-
pendence or die. As a natural consequence of this deci-
sion, they initiated a national resistance movement
which currently continues.
(1921)
* * *
A new Turkish State has been born out of the
old Ottoman Empire. This must be recognized. New
Turkey shall have its rights recognized, just as any
other independent nation. The Treaty of Sèvres is so
nefarious a death sentence for the Turkish Nation that
we expect no friend will pronounce it. Even during
conversation, I abhor the mention of this Treaty. We
could not entertain any relations based on confidence,
with any nation which has not banished the Treaty of
Sèvres from its minds. So far as we are concerned, no
such treaty exists. (*)
(1921)
* * *
As this map before us shows very clearly, Ana-
tolia is like an outpost of all Asia and of all the
oppressed peoples towards the world of oppression.
Owing to this situation, Anatolia takes the brunt of all
oppression, attacks and aggression. They want to ruin,
trample and tear Anatolia apart. But Gentlemen, these
(*) To Mr. Franklin Bouillon.
32
aggressions are not limited to Anatolia. The overall
object behind all these is the entire Orient.
Against all sorts of attacks Anatolia defends
itself with all its might and is confident of success.
With such defense, Anatolia does not only fulfill its
own duty but perhaps, it blocks the attacks aimed at
the entire Orient, as well. Gentlemen, these attacks will
surely be repelled, and all these acts of aggression
will surely be brought to an end. Then and only then
will real peace and real prosperity and humanity
prevail in the West and in the entire World.
(1921)
* * *
Gentlemen, I have not for a moment wavered in
my confidence and my belief that we shall, without
fail, defeat the enemies who want to take our hapless
nation as prisoner. I declare this total confidence at
this moment, before your austere Assembly, before the
entire nation and to the whole World.
(1921)
*
* *
The Grand National Assembly of Turkey has
assumed both the legislative and executive powers, and
as such, is an assembly which effectively has taken into
its hand the destiny of the nation and of the country.
In other words, it is the Government itself.
(1921)
*
*
*
33
Gentlemen, our Government is not a democratic
Government, neither is it socialistic. In fact, from a
scientific viewpoint, it is one which has no resemblance
to Governments described in books. Yet it is the only
Government causing the manifestation of the sove-
reignty of the nation and of the national will. If we
were to describe it from a scientific and social view-
point, we would call it a "popular Government". In its
Articles 1 through 4, our Constitutional Law defines
clearly what the Government is, who directs it, and
what the powers and authority thereof are. The struc-
ture and format are fixed. But when considered from
the standpoint of social doctrine too, we are an unfor-
tunate people who are striving to save their lives and
their independence. Let us admit what we are. We are a
people who must work to save themselves and to live.
Therefore, all of us have rights and authority. Howe-
ver, only by working are we entitled to a right. Those
who loaf and wish to live in idlesse have no place and
no rights in our society. Then let it be said clearly,
Gentlemen! 'Populism' is a social doctrine which
wants to base the social order on work and rights.
Gentlemen, to reserve this right and to assure our-
selves of our independence, we are a people who have
embraced the view that we are justified in our national
struggle against imperialism which desires none other
than our total elimination, and, against capitalism
which desires simply to swallow us. Therefore, in the
light of those demands for clarification and these
explanations we offer, one should see clearly that
the base on which our Government rests is one which
34
social science supports. They say that our Government
does not resemble to a democracy, nor to socialism nor
to any other form. So what Gentlemen? We should be
proud of not resembling to anyone and not attempting
at any comparisons. Because we resemble only to our
own very selves!
(1921)
* * *
Although all my friends have already expressed
it, I feel it worthwhile to confirm once again that the
current Turkish struggle does not concern Turkey
only. If the struggle initiated by Turkey was only in its
name and for its own account, it would perhaps have
been of shorter duration and less bloody. Turkey has
mounted an enormous and substantial effort. Because
what it defends is the cause of all oppressed nations,
the cause of the entire Orient. Turkey is certain that
until final victory all nations of the Orient which
support it will march along.
(1922)
*
* *
Our task is not finished, we are just beginning. (*)
(1922)
* * *
For salvation and independence, there is no reso-
lution or solution other than first combatting the
enemy with all our might and defeating him.
(1922)
*
* *
(*) Statement in Izmir immediately on the morrow of having driven the enemy
forces to the sea.
35
Candor obliges us to admit that until about three
and one half years ago, we were living like a mere com-
munity. They used to govern us however they wished.
The World had come to know us only through our
representatives. But for the last three and one half
years we have been living like a true nation. The best
tangible proof of this is the form and character of our
Government which the law has named as "The Grand
National Assembly".
(1922)
*
* *
New Turkey has no relation to the old one. The
Ottoman Government has disappeared into history. A
new Turkey has now been born. It is true that the
nation has not changed. It is the self-same Turkish
element which constitutes it. However, the system has
changed. Before the formation of a national Govern-
ment in Ankara, there was a Sultan in Istanbul and his
Government. The nation did not have a voice in the
affairs of the country except through an assembly
whose duty consisted merely of passing laws. This
form of government was not sufficient to give the
nation the independence and liberty to which it was
entitled. The adverse consequences of such a govern-
ment have been obvious.
The nation did not want to expire; it wanted to
live and to do whatever necessary therefor. This is the
reason why it changed its system, and instead of the
government of a monarchy which I explained a while
36
ago, it adopted a government issuing directly from
itself.
(1922)
* * *
The Government of The Grand National As-
sembly of Turkey, being always fully cognizant of all
the attempts which are adverse to the Turkish State,
obviously has thought of counter-measures(* That
The Grand National Assembly is the sole authority
which has taken into its hands and is responsible over
the destiny, since its inception, of the new Turkish
State, the form and character of which are defined in
the Constitutional Law, is known to the entire World
and is reconfirmed by actual events and political
action. In the peace conference which is imminent as a
natural consequence of the decisive victories won by
the armies of the Grand National Assembly, the Tur-
kish State shall be represented solely by the Govern-
ment of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. In
view of these facts, it goes without saying that if dele-
gations or delegates whose illegitimacy have been
repeatedly expressed and declared by the Grand
National Assembly do not desist from interfering with
the politics of the State, as had occurred many times in
the past, they will invite heavy responsibilities.
(1922)
* * *
(*) From a letter to the Grand Vizier in Istanbul.
37
The Ottoman Empire has become completely ex-
tinct. However, our enemies misconstrued this to mean
the extinction of the Turkish Nation which founded
the Ottoman Empire, the destruction of essential ele-
ments and of the real people of this country, as well.
They could not have erred more. The Turkish Nation
which founded the Ottoman State and numerous other
states similar to it, had not in fact, been destroyed.
Quite to the reverse, under these blows menacing its
existence, these bitter and despicable blows from
enemies both within and abroad, it regained its facul-
ties of a sudden, and with renewed awareness and
vigilance, it rose tenaciously to salvage its life and its
honor, all united and solid.
(1923)
* * *
Gentlemen, the secret for all the accomplish-
ments with which we are justly proud of lies in the
structure of the new Turkish State.
In point of fact, the pillars on which the new
State is founded are different in nature than those
historical institutions which preceded it.
If one has to summarize this in one word, it
could be said that the new Turkish State is a popular
state or a state of the people, whereas the old institu-
tions were emanating from or belonging to person or
to groups of persons.
(1923)
*
* *
38
The Grand National Assembly of Turkey does
not belong to the Caliph, and nor can it so belongs.
This Assembly belongs to none other than the nation
itself. It comprises of deputies elected by the nation. It
has to follow the orders of none other than the nation
itself. The nation cannot entrust or deliver this right to
anyone, whatever his name and title. (*)
(1923)
* * *
We expect only favorable results from the
Lausanne Conference (**). We will not consider any
result which fails to satisfy our national demands. The
Turkish Nation along with the rest of the World,
awaits with impatience the conclusion of the Lausanne
Conference. If this Conference fails to bring the peace
everyone wants, the responsibility therefor will surely
not fall on us.
(1923)
*
* *
The movement of Turks for centuries has kept a
steady course. We have always been marching from the
East to the West.
(1924)
*
* *
The countries may differ but civilization is one
and the same. And, in order to progress, a nation must
(*) The Sultanate was abolished by a decision of the Grand National Assembly in
1922. The Caliphate was repealed by Law adopted in 1924.
(**) To journalist Mr. Paul Herriot.
39
partake this sole civilization. The decline of the Otto-
man Empire started on the day when, very proud of
its triumphs over the West, it cut its ties with the
European nations. This was a mistake which we will
not repeat.
(1924)
* * *
The sole means for the salvation of the country
from an internal or external danger, with minimum
sacrifice and most expediently is to have every citizen
respond to a call for mobilization, in haste and at once.
(1925)
* * *
The old state did pass away. But as you can see,
the Turkish Nation continues to live, much stronger
and with increased dignity. Our current Government
and organization of our state are those which the
nation has itself created directly and it is called the
Republic. The past distinction between the Govern-
ment and the nation is not valid anymore; the Govern-
ment is the nation and the nation is the Government.
(1925)
* * *
The affairs of the nation and of the state cannot
be administered nor can their honor and independence
be secured by entreaties for justice and forgiveness.
40
There is no such thing as begging for justice and
forgiveness. The Turkish nation and our future genera-
tions should not, even for a moment, forget this.
(1927)
*
* *
When I landed at Samsun in May of 1919, there
was no physical force available to me. Only the moral
force filling my conscience and born out of the nobility
of the Turkish nation. Relying on this national force
and the nation itself, did I embark on my mission.
(1927)
*
* *
A nation which, when needed, knows to strive
for the country resolutely as one individual, is one
which is surely entitled to and be a candidate for a
great future.
* * *
There will be no bolshevism in Turkey. Because
the foremost objective of the Turkish Government is to
assure the liberty and the happiness of its people.
(1935)
* * *
* * *
*
* *
41
REVOLUTIONS AND REFORMS
To Demolish and Rebuild
If one day I am given great power and authority,
I believe, I would apply swiftly and in a single "coup"
the reforms desired in our social lives.
(1918)
* * *
We cannot close our eyes and suppose that we
are living an isolated life. We cannot live restricting
our country to within a circle and cutting relations with
the World at large.... Quite to the contrary, we will be
living as a progressive and civilized nation. And this is
possible only through science and technology. We shall
reach for science and technology wherever they may
be, and we shall see to it that they are instilled into the
minds of every member of our nation. For science and
technology, there are no conditions or restrictions.
The progress of nations which persist on keeping
certain beliefs and traditions devoid of logical base
42
shall be very difficult, or perhaps, nil. The nations
which do not surmount their preconceptions on the
road to progress, are incapable to conceive life in
reasonable and practical terms. They are condemned
to becoming slaves under the domination of other
nations with a larger philosophical vision of life.
(1922)
*
* *
Our country will surely become a modern, civi-
lized and prosperous one. This is a vital matter for us.
The fruition of all our sacrifices depends on this.
Turkey must have an honest administration
animated by new ideas, otherwise it will cease to exist.
I have plenty of contact with the people. You
don't know how these pure masses long for renovation.
(1923)
* * *
There must be a natural consensus between
the minds and the objectives of the intellectual class
and of the people at large. In other words, the ideas to
be suggested by the intellectuals to the people should
emanate from the spirit and conscience of the latter
Let us admit that, as yet, there is no perfect accord
between the young intelligenstia and the people and
masses. To save the country, it is necessary to put a
stop to the discordance between these mentalities and
to bring them together before marching ahead. To
achieve this, the masses should be inspired to accele-
rate a bit while the intellectuals are proceeding even
43
faster. However, to approach the people and to merge
with them is a duty which falls mostly on the intellec-
tuals.
(1923)
*
* *
Just as the greatest of ignoramuses may come out
of the ranks of literate people, veritable scientists who
see the truth, especially such as those observed among
you, may arise out of illiterates. (*)
(1923)
* * *
Every useful and novel action inevitably
creates a counter-force. This is what is called "reac-
tionary" in our language. To eliminate such reaction,
the necessary measures must be taken in advance. Our
entire nation should remain confident and be reassured
that those who have accomplished the reforms have the
power, the capability and the measures to crush these
negative forces wherever they may appear.
(1923)
* * *
Every nation has its own traditions, mores and
national traits. No nation should imitate exactly
another. Because if it does, it will really neither attain
that identity nor preserve its own. Such imitation
would, doubtless, lead to disappointment.
(1923)
*
* *
(*) From a chat at a village.
44
In Turkey, the Republic and the Republicans are
facts. The elements who wish to destroy these sacred
existences can no longer breath the air of Turkey
without being suffocated.
(1924)
*
* *
What is the "Turkish Reform"? This reform,
other than meaning revolution as the word at first
implies, also signifies a transformation much vaster
than that. The form of our current state represents the
most progressive one, eliminating the ancient forms
which have persisted for centuries. The common bond
envisioned by the nation for its survival as between its
members, has modified its form and nature. In other
words, the nation has united its members by the bond
of Turkish nationality instead of religious and sec-
tarian ties.
The nation has adopted as a principle and as an
immutable reality that the knowledge and the means
assuring life and power in the competition within the
international community can only be found in con-
temporary civilization.
In sum, Gentlemen, as a natural and inevitable
consequence of the changes and reforms I have enu-
merated, the nation has judged it to be vital for its
very existence to adopt a down-to-earth mentality of
Government on the basis that the whole of its adminis-
tration and legislation be inspired by worldly needs and
be continuously changed and improved with every
change and improvement therein
45
These transmutations which our great nation has
carried out during the last six years of its existence
constitute the greatest of reforms and are much more
important and profound than any revolution.
(1925)
* * *
Those who have duly understood the objectives
of the Reform shall always be capable of protecting it.
(1925)
* * *
I have always sided with one thing: I am for the
Republic and for intellectual and social reforms.
(1925)
*
* *
Whatever strides and reforms I have so far
accomplished for the benefit of the nation and the
country, I have always been able to achieve them on
the strength and inspiration given me by the interest.
Affection and sincerity exhibited by my people during
such contacts as this. (*)
(1925)
* *
Genuine reformists are those who know to seize
upon the veritable tendencies in the spirit and con-
science of the people they wish to lead unto the path of
progress and renovation. Let me also add in this con-
nection that the real author of the miracles and, of the
(*) From his talk to sailors and boatmen who had come to visit him.
46
political and social reforms realized by the Turkish
Nation in recent years is that nation itself. It's you! If
the nation did not possess this capacity, no power
would have sufficed in achieving these reforms.
(1925)
*
* *
The internal and the external politics of the
Republic will be characterized, even in the future, by
dignity, by power and honesty, as well as, by the chan-
nelling and concentration of national power into the
prosperity and development of the Turkish Nation.
(1927)
*
* *
It was an absolute necessity to reject the fez
on our heads which was looked upon as a symbol of
ignorance, of fanaticism and of adversity towards
progress and civilization; and to don in its place the hat
which was the head-gear used by the entire civilized
world, and this to show that there was no difference of
mentality between the Turkish nation and the civilized
World.
(1927)
*
*
*
The French Revolution which spread the idea of
liberty to the entire World still constitutes the principal
source thereof. However, since then humanity has
progressed much. the Turkish democracy has, while
following in the footsteps of the French Revolution,
nevertheless developed in line with its own qualities
47
and characteristics. Because each nation realizes
its own reforms in due consideration of conditions
resulting from the pressures and the needs of its own
social environment, and of the time when such revolu-
tion and reforms do take place.
(1928)
* * *
To enlighten and guide those who harbor ideas
and sentiments adverse to our blessed reforms is the
first and foremost of national duties which fall on our
intellectuals.
(1929)
* * *
The link between national sentiments and lan-
guage is very strong. A rich language of national
character is the primary factor in the development of
national sentiments.
Turkish is one of the richest languages, provided
it is cultivated conscientously.
The Turkish nation which has shown that it can
preserve its land and its independence, must set its
language free from yoke of foreign languages, as well.
(1930)
* * *
Reform signifies tearing down of institutions
which hampered the development of the Turkish
nation for centuries, and the establishment in their
place, of new institutions which will assure the
48
progress of the nation in accordance with the highest
of standards of civilization.
(1933)
* * *
You know the extreme importance we as a nation
attach to our cultural affairs. Foremost among these, I
must cite the earnest efforts which are now underway,
in order to reestablish Turkish history on its correct
foundations and to give the original Turkish language
the amplitude it merits.
(1934)
* * *
Those who will represent the nation through its
will should be the intellectuals. With the laws already
passed and those to be further promulgated, they shall
reaffirm our reforms and shall elevate the nation to the
level of contemporary civilization. Two times eight
makes sixteen. Supposing ten of us say so, while a
hundred others insist that it makes ten! Are we to
accept the view of these hundred? We now belong to
the West. We cannot attempt to attain and surpass the
level of contemporary civilization merely by boasting
about our old civilization which reigned over the old
World. Instead, we shall achieve that goal by breaking
all the chains and by walking the same paths as the
civilization of the past century.. We shall rid ourselves
of myths and superstitions. In science, and knowledge,
in arts and in everything positive, cultivated indivi-
duals will lead our great, noble and compliant nation
49
along this path, aided by their culture, their knowledge
and their persevering wills and application. We shall
undoubtedly and most certainly achieve these goals.
(1934)
* * *
A ruined country on the edge of precipice
bloody struggles against all sorts of adversaries
war lasting many years. then a new country, a new
society, a new state, respected both within and abroad,
and uninterrupted reforms to accomplish all of these
That's the brief description of the general Turkish
Reform.
(1935)
* * *
The Turkish Linguistic Society(*), as a commen-
dable and very useful task, has determined the Turkish
equivalents of terms relating to various sciences and
thus has taken an important step towards eliminating
from our language the influence of foreign languages.
(1937)
***
Reforms cannot be accomplished without first
preparing the nation and the social base.
(1929)
*
* *
*
*
* *
* *
(*) Founded by Atatürk in 1932.
50
Religion and Secularism
Our religion is the most reasonable and natural
of all and that is the reason why it is the latest of reli-
gions. For a religion to be natural, it must conform to
reason, science, technology and logic. Our religion
fully conforms to all of these.
(1923)
* * *
Like for so many centuries, the existence even to
this day, both in our country and abroad, of those
who, by taking advantage of the ignorance and fanati-
cism of peoples, try to use religion as an instrument
and means to serve all manner of political and personal
purpose and gain, unfortunately, does not yet cause us
to remain indifferent in speaking on the subject. Until
such time as the sentiments and the knowledge of Man-
kind in regard to religion are purified and cleansed of
all myths and superstition, under the light of genuine
51
science and technology, one will encounter players of
religious histrionics everywhere.
(1923)
* * *
Sermons to be pronounced must be and shall be
entirely in Turkish; and in conformity with the current
needs.
(1923)
* * *
Now Turkey is far from being the scene of reli-
gious or shariat schemes. If there are any who desire
such schemes they would be well advised to seek other
stages for themselves.
(1924)
* * *
The truest of guides is science and technology.
And this is valid for civilization, for life, for success
and for everything in this World of ours. To search for
guides outside of science and technology is nothing but
gross aberration, ignorance and blunder.
(1924)
*
* *
The Caliphate is nothing but a myth of the past
having no place in modern times.
(1924)
***
The Republic of Turkey has no official religion.
In the administration of the state, all laws and regula-
52
tions are enacted and applied in accordance with the
basis, the form and the mundane needs as science pro-
vides to contemporary civilization. Since the concept
of religion relates to personal conviction, the Republic
considers the separation of religious ideas from state
and world affairs and from politics, as the principal
factor in the success of the contemporary progress of
our nation.
(1930)
* * *
The Turkish State is secular. Every individual
reaching majority is free in choosing his or her reli-
gion.
(1930)
*
* *
The closure of convents of dervishes and of clois-
ters, individual tombs, as well as, the suppression and
abrogation of all sects and all titles such as sheik,
dervish, disciple, occultist, sorcerer, tomb-warden etc.,
were accomplished during the era of the "Law con-
cerning the Reinforcement of Peace and Order". It
should be granted that the implementation of this Law
was of utmost necessity from the standpoint of
showing that our society actually was not a supersti-
tious and primitive nation.
Can one consider as a civilized nation, a mass
consisting of people subjecting themselves to some
sheiks, dedes, masters, disciples, fathers, emirs, or,
entrusting their lives to all sorts of fortune-tellers,
occultists, sorcerers, healers, soothsayers? Should one
53
have kept in the new Turkish State, in the Turkish
Republic such elements and institutions which could
misrepresent and which, indeed, have misrepresented
our nation for many centuries? Would it not have been
the gravest and most irreparable of mistakes in the
cause of progress and renovation, not to attach any
importance to this? If we did take advantage of the
Law concerning the Reinforcement of Peace and
Order, we did so in order to avoid such a historical
mistake and to show the visage of our nation as it
really is and that it is not bigoted nor of a Middle-Ages
mentality.
(1927)
* * *
The principles that we follow in the administra-
tion of our state should never be confused with the
dogmas in certain books which are believed to have
been heaven-sent. We have received our inspiration
neither from the heavens nor from the invisible, but
directly from life itself.
What has set our course for us has been the land
in which we live, the Turkish Nation from whose
bosom we have sprung and the conclusions we have
extracted from the pages of the history of nations,
recording a thousand and one types of calamities and
sufferings.
(1937)
*
* *
*
*
* *
* *
54
Women and Their Rights
Conclusion: Let us be brave in this subject, let
us drop all scruples and let us allow women to be
enlightened and let us grace their minds with serious
science and technology.
(1918)
* * *
Great accomplishments are realized thanks to
eminent sons and daughters who are brought up by
worthy mothers.
(1923)
*
* *
Our current level is insufficient to meet current
requirements and basic wants. We are in need of men
of a diffecerent mentality and maturity. And such men
shall be raised by future mothers.
(1923)
*
* *
55
There is another path which we can follow more
securely and straightforward: to let the great Turkish
women participate in our work; to conduct our life
jointly with them, to make the Turkish woman a
partner, an associate, an assistant and supporter of the
man in the scientific, moral, social and economic
domains.
(1923)
*
* *
It is scientifically improbable and even impos-
sible for a society to progress, if it does not march
toward the same goals together with all its men and
women.
(1923)
* * *
It is true that it was our men with bayonets on
hand who faced the invader and his bayonets. Howe-
ver the vital sources of the Army which comprised of
our men were maintained by our women. Those who
have prepared the way for the very existence of the
country have been and will continue to be none other
than our womenfolk.
(1923)
* * *
Turkish women will also become imbued in
science and technology and will go through all levels of
education which men undergo. Thereafter, in social
56
life, the women will march along with men and will
support and help one another.
(1923)
*
* *
If a society is content with the acquisition of
modern ways for only one of the sexes, such society is
enfeebled by more than one half. A nation which is
resolute on progress and cilivization must particularly
accept this basic truth.
(1923)
*
* *
All we see on the face of this Earth is the creation
of women.
(1923)
*
* *
The foundation of civilization and the base of
progress and power rest on family life. All derailment
in this life inevitably leads to social, economic and
political incapacity. It is necessary for the man and
woman who form the family, to enjoy their natural
rights and to be capable of fulfilling the family duties.
(1924)
*
* *
The starting point in social life is the family.
(1925)
* * *
In sum, the women must acquire the right to elect
and be elected. Because:
57
- The logic of democracy dictates this,
- There are specific interests to be defended by
women,
- There are specific duties which the women
must perform towards the society, and
finally,
- It will be beneficial for the women to exercise
their political rights.
(1930)
*
* *
In expressing their desire to join in the political
group which directs the destiny of the nation in its
name, The Turkish women will not consider them-
selves exempt from any of the duties imposed by the
nation on its citizens. Because there is no right which
does not correspond to a duty.
(1931)
* * *
I am convinced that the exercise of political and
social rights by women is necessary from the stand-
point of the happiness and prestige of mankind.
(1935)
*
* *
The modern Turkish society, with its women and
men being equal in every right, is a creation of recent
years. (*)
(1937)
*
* *
(*) The Turkish women acquired suffrage in municipal elections, in 1930, and in
general elections, in 1934.
58
Law and Justice
The right to jurisdiction is the primary condition
for independence of nations. A nation whose judiciary
is not independent cannot be considered a state.
(1920)
* * *
All is not simply to legislate. Quite to the reverse,
all consists of implementing and have implemented
those laws. Those who must apply and execute are
always in a much stronger position than those who
legislate.
(1921)
*
* *
The fundamental principle of our judiciary
policy is the irrefutable rule that with the change in
times the provisions too must be changed.
(1922)
*
* *
59
The goals to follow in our judiciary policy are,
firstly, to deliver justice without tiring the people,
swiftly, accurately and securely. Secondly, taking into
account that contacts between our society and the rest
of the World are necessary and natural, we must have
our justice on a level with that of all civilized socities.
To achieve this, we are in the process of improving,
renewing and reforming our laws and procedures con-
formant to these views, and we shall continue to do so.
(1922)
* * *
Our laws shall be renewed, improved and com-
pleted in accordance with national needs and precepts
of the science of Law. In the preparation of all our
laws and in all our reorganization, we shall take action
within the framework of national sovereignty.
(1923)
*
* *
The important point is to rid, as soon as possible,
our judiciary concepts and our judiciary organization,
of the anachronistic ties which have until now influ-
enced us, consciously or unconsciously, and which to
not conform to the requirements of our century. The
nation wants civilized procedures which assure speedy
and decisive justice.
(1924)
* * *
The time has now come to take action for the
creation of new juridical bases and a new body of
60
jurists who will respond to the concepts and satisfy the
needs of this great work.
(1925)
***
We are attempting to efface completely the
ancient juridical bases by legislating new laws. We are
inaugurating this institution(*) for the purpose of
bringing up a new generation for jurists who will begin
their studies with the basics of new principles of law.
(1925)
*
* *
* * *
* * *
(*) From the speech he gave during the opening of the Ankara School of Law.
61
Education and the New Alphabet
Education
Gentlemen, whatever the level of their studies,
our children and our youth must be taught, before and
above everything else, of the need to combat against all
elements which are hostile to Turkey's independence,
to its identity and to its national traditions.
(1922)
*
* *
The master of this country and the basic compo-
nent of our society is the peasant. It is the peasant who
has heretofore been deprived of the light of education.
Therefore, the pillar of the educational policy we are
going to follow shall be, firstly, to eradicate the
ignorance which exists.
(1922)
*
* *
62
It is with science and technology which the
school will offer, will the Turkish Nation, Turkish art,
Turkish economy and Turkish poetry and literature
blossom in full.
(1922)
* * *
Everywhere in the World, the teachers constitute
the most devoted and the most respectable elements of
the human community.
(1923)
* * *
You the devoted teachers and educators of the
Republic! It is you who will bring up the new genera-
tion and that will be your work. The value of this work
will be proportionate to your ability and sacrifices. The
Republic requires guardians of high qualification and
who are strong intellectually, physically, and science-
wise.
(1924)
* * *
Only the teachers and educators are the saviours
of nations. A nation wanting of these cannot yet be
called a nation. It may be called an ordinary mass but
not a nation.
(1925)
*
* *
Regardless of their age, the students should be
considered and treated as the adults of future.
(1930)
*** * * *
63
The more the Turkish youth reconizes his ances-
tors, the more power he will find in himself to accom-
plish great works.
(1930)
* * *
If I were not the President, I would have wanted
to become the Minister of Education.
(1930)
* * *
As the cultural level of a nation is raised, the
fields of application of individual liberty too shall
increase and be broadened.
(1930)
** *
Civilization is none other than culture itself.
(1930)
* * *
Science is not acquired merely by translating but
only through study and research.
(1932)
*** * * *
All sorts of sports activity must be deemed
among essential elements of the national education of
the Turkish youth.
(1937)
*** * *
*
64
As long as a nation lacks a well-educated core,
the glorious victories which it may secure in battlefields
will not be crowned with durable results.
(1937)
* * *
* * *
* * *
65
The New Alphabet
Our rich and harmonious language will shine
forth through the new Turkish alphabet(*).
(1928)
* * *
The new Turkish alphabet must be mastered
quickly. This must be taught to every citizen, to the
man, the woman, the porter, the boatman. Regard this
as a partriotic and national duty. Within one or two
years at the most, the entire Turkish society will learn
the new script. With its script and with its mind our
nation will show that its place is with the civilized
World.
(1928)
* * *
Dear friends, I would firstly like to discuss a
matter which constitutes the cornerstone towards any
(*) In 1928, a Latin Alphabet was adopted as the new Turkish alphabet with
some minor changes, in substitution of the Arabic script being used for
centuries.
66
sort of development: Before any other means, the
great Turkish nation must be given a facile alphabet
totally different than the one which has rendered all its
efforts sterile. This grand nation may cast off igno-
rance with minimum effort and straightaway, only
through an expedient device easily conforming to its
beautiful and noble language. and, this device could
only be a Turkish alphabet based on Latin letters. A
simple experiment has shown clearly how the new
Turkish letters conform to the Turkish language and
how easily the Turks of advanced age, both in cities
and in the villages, can read and write.
The adoption of the new Turkish alphabet by a
resolution of the Grand National Assembly and the
promulgation of the law relevant thereto shall consti-
tute a principal milestone in the struggle for the eleva-
tion of this country.
(1928)
*
* *
This will either be done in three months or
never! (*)
(1928)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
(*) His reply to a journalist who happened to indicate that the transition period
into the new script would take a minimum of five years.
67
Economy
There is no civilized state which has not given
consideration to its economy prior to its army or navy.
(1923)
***
The new Turkish state shall be an economic
state.
(1923)
*** * * *
My friends, we shall be heading for very impor-
tant victories. But these victories will not be those of
the bayonet. They will be victories of economy and of
science. The victories achieved to this day by our
armies cannot be considered as having brought our
country to safe havens. These victories have only
prepared an invaluable base for our future victories.
Let us not be too proud of our military victories,
68
Instead, let us be prepared for new scientific and
economic victories.
(1923)
* * *
Our people does not comprise of castes or classes
whose interests differ. Quite to the contrary, it is made
of classes whose existence and efforts are mutually
needed. Those who are listening to me now are
farmers, artisans, merchants and workers. Which of
these could be against the other? Who can deny that
the farmer needs the artisan, the artisan needs the
farmer and the farmer needs the merchants, and that
all of these need not only each other, but the worker as
well
All these classes I have enumerated have to be
enriched one and at the same time.
(1923)
* * *
However big the political and military victories
may be, they will not last and are liable to snuff out in
a short time, unless they are crowned with economic
victories. Therefore, to continue reaping the beneficial
effects of our great and brilliant victory, our economy
and our economic independence must be secured, rein-
forced and expanded.
(1923)
*
* *
It is necessary to find the means -and this is
possible- and to adopt the measures enabling the
69
structure of the state to live by its own resources and
revenue, without resorting to outside help. Saving at a
maximum should be our national principle.
(1923)
* * *
When searching for causes for the rise and fall of
nations, the history finds and enumerates a multitude
of political, military, social reasons. No doubt all such
causes affect social events. However, what directly
concerns and is related to the very existence of a nation
and to its rise and fall is its economy. This truth, which
is based on history and experience, has manifested
itself in the history of our nation as well. In order to
elevate the new Turkey to the level it merits, we must
attach absolutely the greatest importance to our
economy. Because our era is one of economy.
(1923)
* * *
Fortune and the prosperity and happiness which
are its natural consequences belong only to those who
work hard.
(1923)
* * *
Before and everything else, we are searching the
ways to make our country rich, in agriculture and farm
industries.
(1924)
*
*
*
70
The people and the peasants everywhere have
underlined to me the most-wanted features of our
work program in these two words: roads and schools.
(1924)
* * *
An economically feeble country cannot escape
poverty and misery, and cannot attain an advanced
degree of civilization, of prosperity and felicity;
neither can it avert social and political disasters.
(1924)
*
* *
To live as consumers is not good. We must be
productive.
(1925)
* * *
There are two different means by which to con-
quer the World; the sword and the plough! A nation
whose victory was based on the sword is liable one day
to be chased out of the occupied territory, to be ridi-
culed and to be ruined. Therefore, real conquests are
those which are made not with the sword alone, but
with the plough, as well. The sword and the plough!
Of these two conquerors, the first always succumbed
to the latter..
(1928)
* * *
It behooves everyone to do something useful for
the society. This implies the requirement to consider
71
work as a social duty. Work is the general rule. Even
the rentiers and the rich are not immune from this rule;
they must utilize their fortunes in such manner as to
help in increasing the nation's fortunes. A rich man
may manage to remain free from manual labor, but in
that case, his activity must be diverted to an intellectual
occupation.
(1930)
* * *
A management observing utmost frugality must
prevail in all our activities, official and private alike.
(1930)
*
* *
The legitimate way making a fortune consists of
working with competence and sacrifice and strictly
observing saving.
(1930)
*
* *
The system of Statism being applied by Turkey is
not a system adopting, by way of mere translation, the
ideas advanced by theories of socialism since the 19th
century. This is a system born out of Turkey's own
needs and one which is its own. To us Statism means
the following:
While acknowledging as basis the private enter-
prise and personal activities of individuals; to let the
state take in hand the economy of the country, in due
consideration of all the needs of a great nation and a
vast country and the fact that there is so much left
undone.
72
The State of the Republic of Turkey tried to
accomplish in the country in short order such things
which, for centuries, were traditionally left to private
and individual enterprise. And as witnessed, it suc-
ceeded. The road we follow, as seen, is something
other than liberalism.
(1936)
*
* *
I would like to briefly relate to you the concept
of "merchant" as same is endorsed by the Republic:
The merchant is the man in whose hand and mind a
trust is placed, for the enhancement of the value of the
nation's labor and products, and for which trust he
must prove eligible.
(1937)
* * *
Not one farmer should be left in the country who
is deprived of land. And more importantly, the
indivisibility for any reason and under any manner
whatever, of the piece of land which props a peasant
family, must be assured. The expanse of land exploit-
able by big farmers and farms should be limited
according to the density of population and the fertility
level in the region where such land is located.
(1937)
*
* *
* * *
*
* *
73
PUBLIC OPINION, PRESS, HISTORY
Public Opinion, the Press
The press is the collective voice of the nation.
In enlightening and inspiring the nation, in providing it
with the intellectual nourishment it needs, and in sum,
in assuring the nation to march along towards the
common goal of happiness, the press constitutes a
force, a school, a guide in itself.
(1922)
*** *
* *
The press can in no wise be subjected to domina-
tion and influence.
(1923)
*** * * *
It is of utmost importance to let the people be
informed of the general situation.
(1924)
*** * * *
74
We are of the opinion that the only remedy to
remove the handicaps resulting from the freedom of
the press, lies in that freedom itself.
(1924)
* * *
The Turkish press will form an iron fortress
around the Republic whereat the real voice and the will
of the nation are manifested. A fortress of ideas, a
fortress of concepts, if you will. The Republic has the
right to demand this from the members of the press.
Today, it is essential that the nation remains sincerely
and solidy united. This is how the common good and
happiness will be assured. The struggle is not over yet.
The duty of the press to have this truth properly
relayed to the ears and the conscience of the nation is
of utmost importance.
(1924)
* * *
My preference always is to let the public opinion
to face the real situation.
(1927)
* * *
I do hope that in the utilization of the liberty of
pen in this country, more discretion will be exhibited as
befitting a democratic system. I am convinced that
such discretion is particularly required in a country
such as ours which has suffered so many misfortunes
resulting from the abuse of liberties.
(1930)
*
* *
75
The propagation and elevation of the ideas of
"national sovereignty" and of "representative govern-
ment" is not possible except through the interaction of
public opinion.
(1930)
* * *
The opinion of the government must represent
the opinion of the nation.
(1930)
*
* *
Criticism and debate are entirely free. What
keeps the government and the Assembly vigilant is the
freedom of criticism.
(1930)
* * *
The press helps prevent abuses and forces the
government agencies to perform their duties correctly.
Press and publications constitute a most effective
check. However, at this juncture, it should, alse be
remembered that it is easier to criticise than to create.
(1930)
* * *
The freedom to criticise public affairs creates the
ground for understanding between the government and
the nation. The government takes cognizance of the
public opinion through the press, and when needed,
enlightens such opinion by publishing the necessary
documents. The mutual understanding between the
76
government and the nation leads to their becoming and
staying united.
(1930)
* * *
However grievesome it may be, it is absolutely
necessary to keep the public opinion always in contact
with the truth.
(1931)
* * *
* * *
* * *
77
History
What a fine mirror history is ! In great events
recorded by history, how clearly can one see, in their
attitudes, acts and deeds, the moral levels of those who
have taken part in such events.
(1915)
***
Great events cause great evolution in ideas.
*
(1922)
* *
One of the speakers asked me from where do
I derive my inspiration and strength. I would like to
answer this briefly: For the awakening of today, we are
indebted to the past, to yesterday.
(1924)
*
* *
To write the history is as important as making it.
If the writer does not remain faithful to those who
78
make it, the immutable truth turns into an enigma for
the Mankind.
(1931)
* * *
Instead of creating a hastily prepared work and
then regretting over it in the morrow, it is better not to
create any and to admit one's inability.
In the writing of history, we must pay particular
attention. to search for the men who accomplished
deeds or took part in events. If we cannot locate them,
let us not demur from admitting the unknown and our
ignorance in that respect. Let us not try to create
apostles. This is not our calling. We must remain as
men always searching for the truth, and who face it
courageously when finding it or being convinced of
having found it.
(1931)
* * *
History is the truest of guides to show what a
nation is capable for and what it can succeed in.
(1937)
* * *
*
* *
* * *
79
ART AND ARTISTS
Art becomes more honored, the simpler it is.
(1922)
***
Certain bases are needed to make a nation live.
And, as you know, Art constitutes one such base which
is of foremost importance. If a nation is deprived of
art and artists it cannot have a full life... It means one
of its vital arteries is cut.
(1923)
* * *
Let us admit it: A nation which cares not for
painting, a nation which builds no statues, a nation
which does not meet the exigencies of science and tech-
nology deserves no place on the path towards develop-
ment.
(1923)
*** * * *
80
Does one need music in life? No, music is not
needed in life. Because life itself is music. Any being
not having interest in music is not human. If one is
talking of human life, the music is absolutely there. No
life is possible without music anyway.
(1925)
* * *
We do not accept a religion which ignores fine
arts.
(1926)
* * *
Genius is he who is looked upon as insane when
he first advances those ideas which everyone will later
appreciate and accept.
(1926)
*
* *
Gentlemen! In your lifetime you may become
deputies, ministers, even the president, but you will
never make artists. Therefore, let us appreciate these
young people. (*)
(1927)
*
* *
Human beings carry certain refined, superior
and pure sentiments in their hearts from which their
lives receive sustenance. It is the poet who can best
hear these sentiments and relay them to other human
beings.
(1928)
*
* *
(*) Remarks to a gathering of deputies where some performers of art were also
present.
81
The motive which rules over people's lives and
activities is the capacity to create and invent.
(1930)
*
* *
I am well aware of how you wish to see our
nation's youth to progress in all the branches of Fine
Arts. This is now being done. However, priority in
this regard must first be given to Turkish music. The
criteria in the renewal of a nation rests in its ability to
seize and grasp the changes in music
It is neces-
sary to compile the high expressions which reflect the
refined national sentiments and ideas, and to process
them soonest, according to generally prevailing rules
of music. That is how the distinguished Turkish
national music could elevate itself and claim its rightful
place within the universal music.
* * *
(1934)
Would you believe it? This portrait(**), at one
stage, reflected very well my likeness. However, the
good Master did not then care to stop! Artists, like
commanders, ought to know when to stop. Otherwise,
the downfall from the zenith they have arrived at,
would start.
(1932)
*
* *
The artist is the first one in a society who feels
the light shine on his forehead after long labor and
effort.
* * *
*
*
* *
* *
(*) Looking at a painting of his which had just been completed.
82
STEWARDS OF NATIONS
The onus of responsibility is heavier than anyth-
ing, including death.
(1915)
*
* *
Sacred is the weapon directed against the rule
of an individual and the ill-omened administration
represented by him.
* * *
Manifestations such as meetings and rallies alone
can never assure great goals. They can be helpful only
if they are based on the common energy which actually
emanates from the bosom of the nation.
(1919)
*
* *
83
It is not proper to link the defense of the country
to one single person, however invaluable he may be.
(1920)
* * *
Gentlemen! Any person can lead a nation to
rebellion. But the leading of the rebellion unto real
objects of the nation is not possible except through
getting it entirely involved. In our World, the applica-
tion of this rule has become possible only with the
assumption of the task by national assemblies.
(1922)
*
* *
No nation should resort to adopting and
imitating the methods applied by another.
(1922)
* * *
If a nation's salvation, deliverance and success
are wished, one should never demand these from one
person alone. The success of any person belonging to a
nation means the success of the latter, as well. And, the
success of a nation is possible only through formation
of forces of national character and the direction
thereof towards a unified goal.
(1923)
*** * * *
The reason for the existence of government is to
assure the order in the country, as well as the peace and
comfort of the nation.
(1923)
*
* *
84
Legitimacy in national affairs may be obtained
only through being supported by national decisions
and by reflecting the general tendencies of the nation.
(1924)
* * *
The men in whom the destiny of a nation is
entrusted should never forget that they are obligated to
employ the energy and force of the nation only
towards its real and attainable interests. They should
always keep in mind that it does not suffice to invade
and occupy a country in order to establish mastery
over the owners thereof. It is not possible to overpower
a nation unless its spirit is subjugated and its resolution
and will are broken too. And, no one can overpower
the spirit of any nation which is the product of many
centuries and which is endowed with a strong and
permanent will.
Dictators strong enough to keep a nation under
servitude against its will, no longer exist on the face of
our Earth.
(1924)
* * *
It is painful for a country and its people to be
ravaged by the enemy. But it is even more painful for
the people to be exposed to perfidy and misfortune by
those who are of their very own race and whom they
regard as great and keep at their head.
(1924)
*
* *
85
Great tasks and important missions are accom-
plished only through cooperative efforts.
(1925)
*
* *
In success it is necessary to overcome pride and
in disasters it is necessary to resist despair.
(1930)
* *
Some leaders who lack sincerity and who do not
take into consideration the gravity of war have let
themselves to become the tools and agents for aggres-
sion. They have misled the nations under their control
by misrepresenting and abusing nationalism and tradi-
tion. In order to avoid chaos, the time has come in this
hour of crisis, for the masses to deliberate on their fate
themselves and deliver their stewardship to men of
high character, of morals and conscience.
This needs to be done without any delay.
(1930)
* * *
We must always be in position to render an
account of our actions, before history and before the
entire World.
(1930)
*
* *
Ambition cannot be given up. Yet ambition must
not be personal. It should be directed towards the
objectives aiming at national interest.
*
(1937)
* *
86
On an individual or national basis alike, egotism
should always be considered bad.
(1937)
* * *
Unfortunate are those who identify the existence
of the entire mankind with their own persons.
(1937)
* * *
Nations should not be exposed to grief and
chagrin. The duty of the leaders is to show the way to
their nations in perceiving life with zest and zeal.
(1937)
* * *
The men who direct and lead nations, certainly
and above everything else, should strive to ensure the
existence and happinees of ther own nations. However,
they must at the same time wish the same for all other
nations.
(1937)
*
* *
*
*
* *
* *
87
THE YOUTH
Despite everything, we are marching sure-foot-
edly towards a bright future. The force which sustains
this fervent belief in me is not only my endless love for
my beloved country and nation, but also because I see
a youth which is trying to seek and disseminate the
light, prompted only by their love for the country and
for the truth, despite the darkness, immorality and
quackery prevailing in our day.
(1918)
***
All my hopes rest with the youth.
(1919)
*
* *
Political squabbles are largely fatuitous, whereas
social work is always meritorious. Our intellectuals
must work towards this. Why do not they come and
work in Anatolia? Why do not they enter into direct
88
contact with the nation itself? One must travel in the
country, get to know the nation, discover and identify
the deficiencies. This is how one shows his love for the
nation.
(1919)
* * *
Dear youngsters! Life consists but of a struggle.
For this reason there are only two things in life: To
overcome or to be vanquished. The conscious mission
we charge with and entrust in you, the youth of
Turkey, is always to be victorious, and I am sure, you
will always be that!
(1923)
* * *
Young people, it is you who reinforce and help
maintain our courage. With the education and training
you are receiving, you will be the best symbols of
human virtue, of the love for the country, and of intel-
lectual liberty.
Oh, you the new generation on the rise! You are
the future. We founded the Republic, it is you who
shall raise and perpetuate it.
(1924)
* * *
To have young ideas means to be endowed with
the truth.
(1925)
*
* *
89
Among the sportsmen, I like those who are intel-
ligent, agile, and at the same time, of high morals.
(1926)
* * *
Gentlemen, (*)
This long and detailed exposition which claimed
your attention for several days is, in sum, the recital of
an epoch which is now the past. I shall consider myself
fortunate, if through this recital, I have been able to
underscore some points which may require caution and
attentiveness on the part of our nation and our future
children.
Gentlemen, through this éxposé, I have tried to
express how a great nation which was deemed extinct,
regained its independence and established a national
and modern state based on the most recent fundamen-
tals of science and technology.
The result we have now achieved corresponds to
the price of our awakening from the national misfor-
tunes with which we had been stricken for several cen-
turies and of the blood shed over every corner of our
beloved land.
I entrust this result to the youth of Turkey.
You, the Turkish Youth! You primary duty is to
forever protect and defend the Turkish Independence
and the Turkish Republic. This is the mainstay of your
existence and of your future. This foundation is your
(*) His famous 6-day speech ends with these words.
90
most precious treasure. In the future, as well, there will
be malevolents, within and abroad, who will seek to
deny you of this treasury. If one day you are compelled
to defend your independence and the Republic, you
shall not reflect on the conditions and possibilities of
the situation in which you find yourself, in order to
accomplish your mission. These conditions and possi-
bilities may appear as very unfavorable. The adver-
saries who scheme against your independence and your
Republic may be the representatives of a victory
without precedent in the World. By force or by ruse,
all citadels and all arsenals of our dear fatherland may
have been taken, all of its armies may have been
dispersed and all corners of the country may have been
physically occupied. More distressing and more griev-
ous than all these, those who hold and exercise the
power within the country may have fallen in gross
aberration, blunder, and even treason. These holders
of power may have even united their personal interests
with the political ambitions of the invaders. The nation
itself may have fallen into privation, and may have
become exhausted and desolate.
You the future sons and daughters of Turkey!
Even under such circumstances and conditions, your
duty is to redeem the Turkish independence and the
Republic! The strength you shall need exists in the
noble blood flowing through your veins!
(1927)
*
* *
91
Here is what should be the last legacy to their
children, of those who bid goodbye to the Turkish
nation and depart from this World: "My duties
towards the Turkish nation, the Turkish Republic and
the future of Turks have not yet been fully fulfilled.
You shall finish them. You too must repeat these
words of mine to those who will succeed you". (*) These
words are not the expression of an individual. Rather,
they are the expression of the sentiment of Turkish
nationhood. Every Turk shall expire only after repeat-
ing this as a password to those who will succeed him.
The last breath of every Turk must be the proof that
the Turkish nation will never quit breathing and that it
will remain eternal.
(1935)
*
*
*
You, the young blood of new Turkey shall follow
me even if you are exhausted, I have come here(*) this
evening only to tell you this. Those who resolve to
march on without any pause, will never be tired. The
Turkish Youth shall march towards the goals, towards
our high ideals indefatigably and incessantly.
(1937)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
(*) From a message to the students of the School of Political Sciences.
(**) In an informal chat with young people at the Ankara Town center.
92
MILITARY ART, ARMY, WAR
As the country faces an armed agression, we are
now only engaged in war. However, if the safety of the
country one day dictates that we enter in politics, we
shall not hesitate for a moment, to engage in it with the
same sincerity and veracity as we wage this war.
(1910)
*
* *
In battles what is more important than force
itself is to deploy and direct your forces in accordance
with established aims.
(1915)
*
* *
Every soldier who combats here, (*) by me, should
absolutely realize that in the accomplishment of the
(*) From an order-of-the-day during the Çanakkale (Dardanelles) Campaigns.
93
honorable mission entrusted on us, we shall retreat not
even one step. Let me remind that the seeking of an
opportunity to rest and sleep, may cause not only us
but our whole nation to be deprived of such rest
forever. There is no doubt that all our mates share this
view and shall show no signs of fatigue until the enemy
is entirely hurled into the sea.
(1915)
* * *
If you wish to be assured of the execution of
orders you give, you must remain in place and in
person, until the very execution.
(1918)
* * *
The rule and procedure is such that those who
assume the responsibility for the direction and com-
mand of the situation must place themselves, to the
extent possible, near the most important of objectives
and most imminent of dangers, provided however, that
such proximity is not to such extent as to deprive the
ability to see the overall situation.
(1919)
* * *
In the struggle for its existence and honor, our
Army is the sole prop of the nation and its goals. The
first requirement for the success of the army, in
this noble task with which it is entrusted is an iron
discipline. In the army, this is secured through an
94
enlightened, courageous and self-sacrificing corps of
officers. (*)
(1920)
* * *
History records no front which has not been or
which cannot be pierced.
(1920)
* * *
You defeated not only the enemy there, but the
adverse fortunes of the nation, as well. (**)
(1921)
* * *
To engage in an offensive which is ill-prepared or
supported by incomplete measures is worse than not
attacking at all.
(1921)
*
* *
There is no such thing as a line of defense. Only a
surface to defend. (***) And, that surface consists of the
entire fatherland. Not one inch of our country can
be abandoned unless drenched with the blood of its
people. Any unit, large or small, may be dislodged
from its position. But each such unit shall regroup and
(*) From his address to the first officer cadets in Ankara.
(**) From his congratulatory telegram to Ismet Pasha, the Commander of the
Western Front and the Chief of Staff, following the victory at the 2nd İnönü
Battle.
(***) An order-of-the-day issued during the Sakarya field battles which lasted
22 days and 22 nights and which affected the final outcome of the war.
95
reform the front, at the first spot where it can hold its
ground and continue to fight the enemy. The units
observing that the neighboring ones are forced to
retreat cannot simply follow suit. They must hold their
positions and continue to resist until the end.
(1921)
* * *
To overcome those who cast their eyes on our
country and our independence only militarily is not
sufficient. We need to be so strong politically, admin-
istratively and economically as to dissuade completely
those who may entertain any thought of invading our
country.
(1922)
* * *
The Great War which lasted for years and which
caused the Earth's face to become soaked in human
blood has brought about noble awakenings in the
minds of Mankind.
(1922)
* * *
Armies! Your first destination is the Mediterra-
nean. Forward (*)
(1922)
* * *
(*) Upon this order-of-the-day the Turkish Army gave hot-pursuit to the enemy
forces following the decisive battles at Dumlupinar, and reached Izmir and
the Aegean Coast on September 9, 1922, covering a distance in excess of 400
kilometers, in nine days.
96
Gentlemen, the honor front can never be pierced
nor defeated.
(1923)
*
* *
I am not one of those who would wish to have his
nation enter in war for any frivilous reason. War must
be resorted to only when indispensible and vital. My
firm opinion is this: I should feel no qualms in my
conscience, when leading the nation to war. We could
wage war against those who say "kill them" by
responding "we shall not die". But waging of war
when the life of the nation is not threatened is a
murderous crime.
(1923)
* * *
The decisive result it always obtained by attack-
ing.
(1924)
* * *
The sole means for the salvation of the country
from an internal and external danger, with minimum
sacrifices and most expediently, is to have every citizen
respond to a call for mobilization in haste and at once.
(1925)
* * *
Commanders do not issue orders just for the sake
of ordering. They must order what is indispensible and
97
amenable to execution; and when ordering, they must
imagine themselves in place of those who will carry it
out and must know how the order could be executed.
(1927)
*
* *
In history there have been armies which have
defended an entire country, inch by inch, until last
ditch with heroism and honor, against enemy forces
far too superior, and yet still preserving their existence.
The Turkish Army is one such army, provided that
those who are in command have the quality required
for such command.
Gentlemen, when reflecting over and applying
military duties and requirements, the commanders
should refrain from having their minds influenced by
political considerations. They should not forget that
there are other persons attending to political require-
ments.
When they send the nation's youth to face the
enemy and possible death and when they expose the
country's means put at their disposition, the sole
preoccupation of commanders should be to perform
and bring to conclusion the duty entrusted in them, by
fire, by bayonet and if need be, by giving up their lives.
Military missions can be accomplished only with such
an attitude and conviction. These missions cannot be
carried out by mere words or politics or by falling in
for fake promises by the enemy. Those who cannot
shoulder the duty and responsibility of command and
98
''.. the waging of war when the life of the nation is not
threatened is a murderous crime."
(1923)
99
who especially lack the required mental strength shall
inevitably meet tragic ends.
Gentlemen, it may be excusable for a military
commander too to fall prisoner, provided however,
that he is captured by the enemy in the course of
performing his soldierly duties and only after he uses
his forces, as well as, his last bayonet and breath, to
the last, without having had the chance to shed his own
blood. There have been Turkish commanders, Gentle-
men, who have sought death, by charging their horses,
sword in hand straight into the tent of the enemy's
chief, even when their army was defeated by and
retreating before superior armies of the adversary.
Even if we may excuse a Turkish commander
who happens to fall prisoner to the enemy, without
using his army, albeit when due to bad coincidences
and mischance, the history will not and should not
forgive it. This is the message to be derived from the
history of the Turkish Reform for future generations.
(1927)
*
*
*
You know well that war and battle mean not only
the confrontation of two armies but also the confron-
tation and fighting between two nations with all their
existence and all their means, and utilizing all their
material and moral might. This is the reason why I
had to get the entire Turkish Nation interested and in-
volved, intellectually, emotionally, and physically just
as the army in the front. Not only those who were in
101
front lines facing the enemy, but everyone, be as it may
in the villages, in their houses, in their fields, were to
feel themselves as on duty and were to dedicate them-
selves entirely to the fight, the same as those frontline
soldiers. Those nations which are lax or slow in
mobilizing all their material and moral forces for
the defense of the country cannot be deemed to have
resolved seriously to make war and to have convinced
themselves as to their chances of success.
The sole condition for success in future wars
shall be found mostly in this concept that I have
explained. The great military nations of Europe have
already begun to adopt this concept as the basic rule.
(1927)
* * *
He who flees on the day of defeat is not a true
chief.
(1930)
* * *
A command post is extremely important. Under
a real commander an army could defeat forces superior
to itself and a defeated army could become victorious
under a competent commander.
(1930)
* * *
The infantry is the main component of the army.
Battle is not possible without the infantry. Because it is
the infantry which attacks, wins and keeps what it has
gained; whereas arms, mechanized vehicles, tanks etc.,
102
cannot by themselves accomplish these two missions.
They would need the infantry.
(1930)
*
* *
Whoever is in command must understand human
nature.
(1930)
*
* *
No victory in itself is an objective. Victory can
only be the principal means to achieve an objective
much greater than itself. The objective is an idea.
Victory has value only to the extent it serves the
achievement of an idea. A victory not supported by an
idea cannot endure. It becomes a hollow effort.
(1933)
*
* *
Here is the key to military art: To calculate
minutely the various possibilities, and to put into effect
audaciously and decisively that which appears best.
* * *
The other day they were telling me about forti-
fied lines of defense.. For example, about the Maginot
Line... Perhaps my opinion will sound somewhat
adverse.. But I must insist in not believing the utility
of such lines. Because war is waged by men who should
be physically on the ground. A force placed in the
subterrain like moles or in reinforced concrete tubes or
in armored towers should be considered as out-of-
action right from the outset. By eliminating its own
103
maneuvrability, I cannot imagine what an army may
expect in war, except defeat.
(1938)
***
What I like most about the military is its art.
(1938)
*
* *
*
*
* *
* *
104
FOREIGN POLICY
In order for our nation to be strong, happy and
stable the state must pursue an entirely national policy
and such policy must entirely be based on and conform
to our internal organization. When I refer to national
policy, here is what I mean: To work for the real hap-
piness and prosperity of the nation and the country,
within our national boundaries, by relying, above
everything else, on our own power... Not to engage the
nation in and not to damage it by pursuing absolutely
illusory aims... To expect a civilized and humane treat-
ment from and a reciprocal friendship with the civi-
lized World.
(1920)
*
*
*
Our foreign policy does not contemplate trans-
gressing the rights of other states. But we are and will
105
keep defending our right, our lives, our country and
our honor.
(1921)
* * *
Insofar as our relations with the Bolsheviks are
concerned, it should be noted that we have concluded
an accord of friendship with them. One of the prin-
cipal terms thereof is that the Russians will refrain
from waging propaganda and provocation in our
country, because there is a fundamental disconformity
between the Soviet organization and ours.
(1921)
* * *
Communism is a social problem. The current
situation in our country, the social conditions thereof
and the strength of our religious and national tradi-
tions are of such nature as confirming the opinion that
the communism of Russia has no practical application
here. The political parties recently formed in our
country on the basis of communism have experienced
this truth and have become convinced as to the need to
cease their activities. Even the Russian thinkers them-
selves are convinced as to this truth as concerning us.
Therefore, our relations and friendship with the Rus-
sians are based only on premises of entente and
alliance between two independent countries.
(1921)
*
* *
106
The basic lines of our foreign policy are simple,
straight-forward and clear.
(1922)
* * *
Lofty and powerful Ottoman Sultans had been
guided in their external policies, by their desires,
ambitions and aspirations. Being so guided, they were
obliged to adapt their internal policies and organiza-
tion to the requirements of such external policies
resulting from their royal ambitions. But external
policies must of necessity be based on internal organi-
zation and policies. In other words, they should not be
of such magnitude as not to be sustained by internal
organization, otherwise, those who pursue such imagi-
nary policies lose their support automatically. The
Ottoman rulers had lost sight of this essential prin-
ciple.
(1923)
* * *
External policies are closely related to the inter-
nal structure of the society. Because external policies
not supported by appropriate internal structure are
always doomed. The external policies of a society
would be firm and strong, in direct proportion to its
own firmness and strength.
(1923)
*
* *
107
Let us not be friends with those who are hostile
to our national existence.
(1923)
* * *
Whatever their origins, Turkey received eagerly
all appeals to peace and spared no help.
(1924)
* * *
We wish the League of Nations to manifest itself
and develop as an institution which is not an instru-
ment of domination by the strong, but as one which
assures harmony and balance between nations and
which helps conflicts to be reviewed and settled within
fair and equitable premises.
(1924)
* * *
The efforts being spent for some time in the poli-
tical world in the matter of mutual security do merit
attention. Mutual security is a basis for happiness
which all nations of the World should strive for.
However, unless such security is extended to cover all
nations, it will not serve to assure World peace, but
rather, will have to be considered as a license for some
nations to act freely in regard to certain other nations
intended to serve as spheres of influence... In parti-
cular, the measures which will result in letting interna-
tional arms trade to remain under the control of cer-
tain nations, reconfirms this belief.
(1925)
*
* *
108
We are the most ardent supporter of an open and
sincere policy in international relations aimed at
mutual security and respect. Our sensitivity is centered
on whether or not the proposed arrangements and for-
malities will assure us a real and effective security.
(1926)
* * *
In our foreign policy, the principles of, honesty
and attention to inviolability of the security and
development of our country guide our actions. Not-
hing should be more easily explained than a country
which is in the process of radical reforms and develop-
ment, seriously wanting peace and serenity both within
its borders and in its region. To assure the country of
the power to defend itself against any aggression which
may be aimed at the safety and security thereof and at
the rights of its citizens, constitutes the point on which
we are very particular.
(1928)
*
* *
Our clear and honest policy in foreign affairs is
based particularly on the ideas of peace. To seek the
solving of all of our international problems through
peaceful means would be the method best-suited to our
mentality and our interests. In order to avoid any pro-
position outside this method, we attach great impor-
tance to the principle of security and to the means to be
employed in its achievement. For the safeguarding of
109
international peace, the Republic of Turkey will not
spare any service within its ability.
(1929)
* * *
I do hope that, our clear and sound doctrine and
concepts in international relations, which call for
loyalty to friendships and which are not adverse to any
nation are getting better understood as time goes by.
(1930)
* * *
The accords which the nations can truly rely on
are only those which bind mutual interests through a
thorough cognizance and understanding.
(1930)
* * *
In the international sphere we are maintaining
good relations with every nation and we are achieving
positive results.
A path towards peace which aims at assuring the
security of Turkey and bearing malice to no nation
shall always remain as our guiding principle.
(1931)
* * *
I am especially pleased to mention my apprecia-
tion of the activities of private national organizations
which pursue the object peace and understanding
between the nations in the Balkans.
110
Owing to its geographical situation, Turkey is
particularly interested in the protection and strength-
ening of peace in the Balkans. The fact that it has
almost no conflict or dispute with its neighbors, natu-
rally, renders Turkey's wishes to be especially sincere.
(1931)
*
*
*
Ladies and Gentlemen! (*)
The Balkan nations today exist as independent
political entities such as Albania, Bulgaria, Greece,
Roumania, Yugoslavia and Turkey. The peoples of
these nations lived together for many centuries. It
could be said that the Balkan states of our day, coming
into existence in recent centuries, including the
Republic of Turkey, are the historical result of the slow
dismemberment, finally ending with disappearance
into history, of the Ottoman Empire.
Therefore, the Balkan nations have a common
history extending over several centuries. If such history
contains painful memories, they belong jointly to all
the Balkans. The share of Turks in these memories
have been no less painful.
You, the distinguished representatives of the Bal-
kan nations, by elevating yourselves above the intricate
accounts and emotions of the past, you will establish
the basis for a profound fraternity and open vast
horizons for union; you will redeem the great truths
which were heretofore forgotten and neglected.
(*) From an address to the 2nd Balkan Conference convened in Ankara in 1932.
111
Whatever social and political appearance they
may now have, it should not be forgotten that the
Balkan nations share a common ancestry of the same
blood and of a race close to each other, originating in
Central Asia
As you can see, it is perfectly possible to bind the
Balkan nations with each other with iron links more
from the distant and profound past than recent.
(1931)
*
* *
In our opinion, the first and foremost condition
for the development of international political security
is that the nations should at least sincerely agree on the
idea of preserving the peace.
(1932)
*
* *
The Versailles Treaty(*) has not removed a single
one of the reasons which caused the first World War.
On the contrary, it has deepened the chasm between
the main rivals of yesterday. The victors, steeped
in hostile feelings, dictated to the vanquished condi-
tions of peace, without taking into account either the
ethnical, geopolitical, or economic peculiarities of the
defeated countries. Hence the peace we have today, is
better described as an armistice. If you, Americans,
(*) During his exchange with General Douglas Mac Arthur of the United States
who visited Turkey in 1932.
112
had not withdrawn from European affairs and had
insisted on the execution of Wilson's program, we
could today have had a lasting peace.
It seems to me that the future of Europe depends
today, as it did yesterday, on the attitude of Germany.
This seventy million strong, disciplined, hardworking,
and extremely dynamic people will, sooner or later, try
to remedy the Versailles treaty, if it is led by a political
movement capable of exciting its national feelings and
passions.
Germany has the ability to create within a short
space of time an army to occupy the whole of Europe,
excepting England and Russia; war would break out
sometime during the period of 1940-45; France has lost
the quality which goes to the making of a strong army
and England could no longer count on it for the
defence of its islands.
America, as in the last war, will not remain neut-
ral and Germany will finally lose the war as a result of
American intervention. If Europe's statesmen, casting
aside national egoisms and differences, do not tackle
with all sincerity and determination, the solution of
fundamental political problems in the interests of all,
I am afraid that it will be impossible to avert a new
catastrophy. Strictly speaking, the European problem
has long passed the stage when it was caused by diffe-
rences between England, France and Germany. Today,
to the East of Europe there has appeared a new
power,. This power, besides mobilizing all its moral
and material resources for world revolution, employs
113
new political methods as yet unknown to Europeans
and Americans, and is skilled in making very good use
of the slightest mistakes and oversights of its enemies.
In a war, which will break out in Europe the
main victor will not be either England, France or
Germany, but Bolshevism. As close neighbours to Rus-
sia and as a nation having fought Russia the most, we
Turks, are better placed to watch the events occurring
in that country, and we see the danger in all its naked-
ness. The Bolsheviks who are exploiting the feelings
of the awakening peoples of the East and who are
cajoling their national passions and feelings, and who
know how to provoke their hatred, have become the
primary power, which threaten not only Europe, but
also Asia.
(1932)
*
* *
Here I stand, watching the sun which is about to
rise from the East.... Just as I witness the daybreak,
I can also see from a distance, the awakening of the
entire nations of the East. There are many of our
brethren who will yet achieve their liberty and free-
dom. Their reawakening will undoubtedly be directed
at progress and prosperity. Despite all difficulties and
barriers, these nations will triumph and attain the free-
dom which awaits them. Colonialism and imperialism
will disappear from this Earth and will be replaced by a
new era of harmony and cooperation between nations
without any discrimination as to color, creed and race.
(1933)
*
*
*
114
The firm loyalty of the Republic of Turkey to its
friendships has been put to test on many occasions in
past years. The universally acknowledged quality of
our nation is the keeping of mutual promises. It should
be amply evident that we are and will continue to be
keen on this principle.
(1934)
* * *
Our Republic which has just completed its tenth
year, has pursued, step by step, the line of action which
it had determined even as it was being formed, and has
succeeded, in a short time, to dissipate the darkness
which constituted the accumulations of the immediate
past.
The goal of "Peace at home, Peace in the
World" as constituting one of the fundamental prin-
ciples of the Turkish Republic should be the most
essential factor in the prosperity and progress of
Mankind and civilization. To have served this cause as
best we could, is a source of pride for us.
As the sun of reform rising from Turkey emits its
warmth, the heart of the Turkish nation too is being
imbued with warm affection towards the great and
precious works of the World and it is embracing firmly
all the principles of progress. (*)
(1933)
*
* *
(*) His reply to the congratulatory message received from President Roosevelt on
occasion of the Tenth Anniversary of the Republic.
115
The international situation is undergoing a grave
crisis. The deep rift of days yore has reached a
disturbing point. We should like to hope that the
exalted Mankind of our day will succeed in eliminating
the sense of insecurity which prevails generally, by
discovering the means to bring nations together.
(1935)
* * *
In order to avoid a bomb-shell like eruption of
war, the nations should not hesitate to unite their
armed defenses and their financial power against the
aggressor. The most rapid and effective measure
against aggression consists in the founding of an inter-
national organization which is able to clearly show to a
would-be aggressor that he would not get away with it.
(1935)
* * *
No, that is not possible! If war breaks out, the
high position which America enjoys in the community
of nations, shall most certainly be affected. Whatever
their geographic situation, nations are linked to each
other by a variety of ties. The nations on this Earth
are like tenants in an apartment building. The United
States is occupying the most luxurious flat. If the
building is put on fire by some of its occupants, it is
not possible for the others not to be affected. The same
116
holds true for war. It is unthinkable for the United
Stated to stay away from it. (*)
(1935)
* * *
The strengthening of fraternity between the Bal-
kan peoples has always been our principal desire.
(1936)
*
* *
One of the major problems which currently
preoccupy our nation, day and night, is the destiny of
Iskenderun-Antakya and its region, the real owners of
which are genuinely Turkish. We are obliged to dwell
on this matter seriously and decisively. (**)
This is the only major problem between France
and us, for whose friendship we always attach extreme
importance. Those who know the truth of the matter
and who side with the righteous will be able to better
understand and consider our ardor and sincerity only
as natural.
(1936)
*
* *
Hatay is my personal problem. I have explained
the situation to the French Ambassador right from the
outset. In the current state of World affairs, the evolv-
(*) From his reply to a question by Miss Gladys Baker, a U.S. journalist asking
him whether the United States could remain neutral in a possible war.
(**) The old Sanjak of Alexandretta had been disputed ever since the first World
War, between Turkey and France, the mandate power in the region. Hatay
first became an independent state and then elected to cede itself to Turkey
in 1939 of which it has been a province ever since.
117
ing of such a problem into an armed confict between
Turkey and France is definitely out of question. Howe
Wr, I have not altogether dismissed this possibility, as
well, and I have reached a decision. If such a possibi-
lity -however extremely remote it may be- appears
on the horizon, I shall resign as President of the
Turkish Republic and even as member of the Grand
National Assembly, and, together with a few friends
who will join me, I shall enter Hatay and continue the
struggle by joining hands with our compatriots there.
(1937)
*** * * *
Nations are bound more by sentiments than trea-
ties.
(1937)
*** * * *
* * *
* * *
118
PEACE AND HUMANISM
No nation has more respect than we do for the
beliefs and customs of foreign elements, Mehmet the
Conqueror left the religious and national instituons
which he found in Istanbul untouched. Such leaders
of Christian religion as the Greek and Armenian Patri-
archs, and the Bulgarian Exarch were granted conces-
sions and all sorts of liberty. The wide concessions
enjoyed by non-moslem elements since the fall of
Istanbul, are the clearest proof of the fact that our
nation is one of the most tolerant and munificient of
the world.
(1919)
* * *
Towards the middle of this year, our Army had
already attained the power and the might necessary
to defeat and rout the enemy's army. However, I ap-
preciated very well that the preference of our Assembly
119
which comprised of the real representatives of the
entire nation was to achieve our national goals, if pos-
sible, without any bloodletting. Therefore, gentlemen,
it was another of our duties to attempt to resolve the
problem peacefully and in bloodless manner, before
we put our military forces in use. All measures were
taken to attend to this duty and all political démarches
were made.
But, Gentlemen, all these attemps were nega-
tively interpreted. These peaceful attemps which we
had initiated, merely, as resulting from our humane
sentiments were mistaken for our weakness. They
thought that our Army was feeble. They thought that
our Army was hardly able to move, let alone to mount
an offensive and pursuit. They thought that our
Assembly and our Government were weak and in
despair. Undoubtedly, on all these points they were in
grave error and aberration. Perhaps some situations
and certain appearances had given rise to this sort of a
hope in our enemies. However, I was not too sorry
over their being misled as such. If I had wished, I could
have corrected this wrong impression at that moment.
But, Gentlemen, I preferred to effect this correction
not by words but by action.
And only then, did I issue orders for prepara-
tions on the final offensive. (*)
(1922)
* * *
(*) The final offensive which resulted in the total defeat of the enemy.
120
There is no reason anymore to continue the
battle. I definitely desire peace. I had no desire to
mount the final offensive. However there was no other
means to chase the enemy off Anatolia. (*)
(1922)
* * *
Mutual security and safety should be the prin-
ciple for happiness desired by all nations of the World.
(1925)
* * *
Relying on the assurances given by Mr. Franklin
Bouillon on behalf of the Allied Powers and on expec-
tation of an immediate opening of negotiations for the
speedy establishment of a just peace, we have ordered
the cessation forthwith of our military action in hot-
pursuit of the enemy towards and into Istanbul and the
Dardanelles. (**)
(1922)
* * *
Recent world events and the Great War
brought about great awakenings in the minds of the
entire Mankind. True that the despotic types who rule
nations which are astir with such awakenings are
striving to perpetuate their tyranny by resorting to
force. However, within a short time the whole World
will recognize on whose side justice is and societies
will be transformed into noble human masses. Then
(*) To the Daily Mail correspondent following the evacuation of Izmir by the
defeated enemy.
(**) In a message to Mr. R. Poincaré, The French Prime Minister.
121
and only then, the total goal of nations will evolve into
humanism and mutual affection.
Strong indicators of this intellectual movement
are observable not only in the East, in Asia, but in
Africa, as well. During a campaign lasting one year, I
lived among the people of Africa waging this sort of a
struggle. (*) I had close contacts with them and I know
profoundly what their ideas are. The men of Africa,
perhaps, had come to know personal liberty much
earlier. However, they never were given a chance to
express it. The invaders and their conquering armies
never ceased their pressure on them. But whatever its
severity, this pressure shall not succeed in containing
this great intellectual movement. Sooner or later the
forward movement towards the idea of humanity will
succeed. All oppressed nations will one day do away
with and destroy the brutes. Then the words oppressed
and brute will disappear from the face of this Earth
and Mankind will enjoy a social order as befitting it.
(1922)
*
* *
All men are members of a social organism and
hence are bound to each other.
(1930)
* * *
Mutual bonds render us tolerant towards others.
Because they help to show that in others' faults often
we too are culpable, though perhaps unintentionally.
In brief, solidarity imposes the substitution of the idea
(*) The Tripoli Campaign (1911).
122
of "everybody for his own" with "everybody for
everybody".
(1930)
* * *
Peace at home, Peace in the World.
*
(1931)
* *
Is it not worth to examine to what degree are
reassuring the results of the paths followed and the
means employed for centuries in trying to make the
hapless Mankind happy?
The concept of humanity has, at present, reached
so exalted a level as to assist us in purging our con-
science and in dignifying our sentiments.
If we observe and consider the existing situation
and its requirements as civilized men and with perfectly
clear conscience, we should arrive at the following
conclusions:
To have men slaughter each other, ostensibly to
lead them to happiness is an inhuman and extremely
deplorable system.
The only way to render Mankind happy lies in
action and energy aimed at securing their mutual
physical and moral wants by having them draw closer
to and love each other.
The real happiness of Mankind in world-wide
peace shall be realized only through the increase in
numbers and success of individuals subscribing to
these high ideals.
(1931)
*
* *
123
In linking the continents, you are also helping
nations draw closer. Heroes like yourselves do cause
the nations to become members of the same family
who are concerned over the happiness and destinies of
one another. (*)
(1931)
* * *
You, the valiant heroes who have shed their
blood on this soil! You are now lying in the soil of a
friendly country. May you rest in peace. You are side
by side with our dear Mehmets. You, the mothers who
sent their sons from countries afar, wipe away your
tears; your sons are now in our midst and they are
sleeping in peace. Having lost their lives on this land,
they have become our sons, as well. (**)
(1934)
*
* *
It is impossible not to feel distress over the deteri-
oration of peace. At any rate, the elimination of the
grave conflicts of our day should be the fervent wish of
civilized Mankind.
It goes without saying how attached we are to the
ideal of peace and how fundamental is our wish to see
this ideal guaranteed.
(*) His remarks to Polando and Boardman, the American aviators who flew non-
stop from New York to Istanbul in 49 1/2 hours.
(**) From an address dictated by Atatürk and delivered by his Interior Minister,
Mr. Şükrü Kaya, at the military memorial in Çanakkale, before members
of the Turkish and foreign press. This text now also appears on a monument
erected in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia in memory of the Anzac units
which had participated in the Dardanelles Campaigns under the flag of the
British Empire.
124
"Nations are bound more by sentiments than treaties."
(1937)
125
It is our sincere wish that the League of Nations
which dwells on this issue will develop its principles,
duly profiting from experiences, and, increase its
strength in the protection of Peace.
(1935)
*
* *
If lasting peace is wanted, international measures
to improve the lot of masses should be taken. The
prosperity of Mankind as a whole should replace
famine and oppression. The citizens of the World
should be brought up in such way as to discourage sen-
timents of jealousy, avarice and hate.
(1935)
*
* *
Today the nations on earth have become or are
fast becoming members of the same family. Therefore,
men should think of the peace and prosperity of all
nations, as well as, the existence and the happiness of
the nation to which they belong. They should strive
towards the happiness of all nations, as best as they
can, and with just as much value they attach to the
happiness of their own. Because to strive for the happi-
ness of all nations means striving to ensure, although
in a circuitous way, one's own peace and prosperity. If
tranquility, clarity and good relations are lacking as
between World nations, a nation will not enjoy peace,
even when it does whatever it can for its own account.
(1937)
*
* *
*
*
* *
* *
127
ATATÜRK, THE MAN
If in the environment he lives and works, man
happens to be in agreement with the leaders of the era
and shares their views, he can but be regarded as a man
of that same era and environment.
(1918)
* * *
The affairs of the nation and of the State cannot
be administered nor can their honor and independence
be secured by entreaties for justice and forgiveness.
There is no such thing as begging for justice and forgi-
veness. The Turkish nation and our future generations
should not, even for a moment, forget this.
One must think of ways to avoid and protect
himself against a disaster, before it actually arrives. To
lament after its occurrence serves no purpose.
*
(1920)
* *
128
Liberty and independence are my character.
(1921)
* * *
For the title and rank which you conferred today
upon my humble self, I submit my deep gratitude and
thanks. The success we achieved manifested itself
through the breakdown in the will of enemy's army
thanks to our Army whose will was fortified by that of
your austere Assembly. Therefore, the truly appro-
priate party to which these felicitations must be
addressed is the Army itself. (*)
(1921)
* * *
I am not a man who would feel spiteful towards a
nation for the errors committed by its government. (**)
(1922)
* * *
I, thus became aware of one fact: Danger flees
from man.
(1922)
*
* *
There is no law which states that I am an excep-
tion.
(1922)
* * *
(*) From his remarks upon being conferred by the Grand National Assembly
of Turkey the title of "Ghazi" and the rank of "Field Marshall" following
the field battles at Sakarya.
(**) From his remarks to the Morning-Post Correspondent on the Turco-British
relations.
129
The flag is the symbol of the independence of a
nation. It must be respected even when it happens to be
that of the enemy.
(1922)
*
* *
I am proud of not having deceived my nation by
my words and acts heretofore. When I had said "I will
do, we shall do, we can do", I was firmly convinced
that, in fact, they could be done.
(1923)
* * *
The honor never rests with one man only, it
belongs to the whole nation.
(1923)
*** * *
*
I have nothing to say to those who are against
me. Let them be. But I cannot stand the hypocrisy of
those who are my antagonists and yet try and present
themselves to the people who love me, as if they are
with me.
(1923)
* * *
I believe that I am not necessarily any higher
than any other member of our nation. If I have shown
more initiatives, these have not really emanated from
me, but rather from the common conscience of the
nation. If it were not for you, and for your deep con-
130
scious tendencies supporting me, I would not have
been able to come up with any of those initiatives.
(1923)
*
* *
We never act arbitrarily. Neither are we despots.
Our lives and all our actions have been dedicated to
fighting against those who act arbitrarily and in
despotic a manner in the affairs of the country.
(1925)
*
* *
I have no goals other than working towards the
salvation and felicity of the nation and the country.
This should provide sufficient joy and pleasure for a
man. The comfort and happiness of the individual and
of the family are possible only through that of the
nation.
(1925)
* * *
We must do forthwith anything which we are
convinced is necessary.
(1925)
*
* *
Victory belongs to whomever can say "Victory is
mine". Success belongs to whomever starts by saying
"I shall succeed" and ends by declaring his success.
(1925)
*
* *
131
The real motivation in our national struggle was
national honor and not personal ambitions.
(1925)
* * *
We do not claim pride for the services we rende-
red. Bu we find comfort in the hope that the services
we are yet to render will indeed merit pride.
(1925)
* * *
My friends, you cannot imagine how happy I am
to be a humble member of a nation such as yours. I
congratulate myself, because I happen to belong to
you.
(1925)
* * *
To expect help from the dead is a disgrace for a
civilized society.
(1925)
* * *
Sincerety has no language. It is ineffable; it can
be read in the eyes and the looks.
(1925)
*** * * *
This great nation has always appreciated and
protected her sons who strive to see and succeed in
(*) Remarks made on occasion of a torch-light procession conducted in his honor
in Izmir.
132
eeing the direction towards which its desires and abili-
ties point.
(1926)
* * *
Do not fear of speaking the truth.
(1926)
* * *
One day my humble body will surely return to
earth. But, the Republic of Turkey will remain per-
petual and the Turkish nation will continue marching
resolutely down the path towards civilization, in accor-
dance with such principles as will guarantee its security
and happiness.
(1926)
* * *
Life means strife and struggle. And success in life
is possible only through absolute success in strife. and,
this is a matter which requires power and strength,
both moral and physical.
(1927)
* * *
Dear fellow citizens!
The greatest support and source of strength in
my life has been the trust of and assistance from my
fellow citizens. In all my undertakings, the greatest
worry my conscience has had, has been always to care
for and respect the sacred nature of your trust.
(1927)
*
* *
133
That's where the comparison ends(*).. Alexan-
der conquered the World. I did not. When conquering
the World he forsake his homeland, whereas I shall
never forget mine.
(1928)
* * *
Why do you take this trouble for me? I feel
embarrassed(**) To see me should not necessarily mean
seeing my face. If you understand and feel my ideas
and my sentiments, that should be sufficient. Before
departing Ankara, I have heard the rumors being
circulated about me which were saying: "He is ill. He
is paralysed and his days are numbered".
Here we are, face-to-face! And you see that I am
in health and not paralysed. I am in perfect shape and
strength. Facing me this very evening, as a representa-
tive segment of the nation, I know that I am going to
be heard by the entire nation when I address you.
Then, hear it yourselves and let it be heard. The man
who has devoted his whole life and his health for your
interests is in good shape and he will continue to strive
for you. Because he lives for you. My strength comes
from our mutual affection. This country and this
nation with its new system shall constitute one of the
(*) His replies to Mr. de Chambrun, the French Ambassador who commented
on the coincidence of his being born in the same region as Alexander, the
Great.
(**) His remarks from the balcony of a mansion located by the Bosphorus to a
group of citizens who had come to see him in person, following rumors as
to his failing health.
134
most reasonable entities of the World. I small not die
before I see this with my very own eyes.
(1929)
* * *
I feel happy because I succeeded.
(1930)
* * *
Oh! Homeland! Let everything be sacrificed for
you! You are sacred. All of us have pledged our lives
to your cause. But you shall remain fertile in order to
sustain the Turkish Nation forever. Turkish Soil! You
cannot be the burial place for the Turkish Nation
which is so enamoured with you. Show your fertility
for this nation.
(1930)
***
Life is the source for progress and dynamism.
Man is obliged to adapt himself to it.
(1930)
*
* *
There is no love as great as that for the nation.
(1930)
*
* *
The Great Turkish Nation! Many times during
the last fifteen years you have heard me promising
success in undertakings we have initiated. I feel happy
135
that in none of these have I committed any error which
might have shaken my nation's trust in me. (*)
(1923)
* * *
To me, the dictator is he who makes others suc-
cumb to his will. I would like to rule not by breaking
hearts but rather by winning them.
(1935)
* * *
If I had wanted I would have forthwith set up a
military dictatorship and set out to administer the
country through it. But what I had in mind was to help
create a modern state for my nation.
* * *
I tell openly to those I love, what I think. Also,
I happen to be a man who is unable to keep to himself
a useless secret. Because I am a man of the people.
I must always speak before the people as to what J
think. If I am wrong, my people can refute me. Howe-
ver, I have so far never seen the people refute me when
I have spoken candidly.
(1937)
*
* *
I do not stop and think on how I shall succeed
in a given job. I merely concentrate on what could
(*) From his speech on occasion of the Tenth Anniversary of the Republic.
136
possibly present obstacles thereto. And when I remove
the obstacles, the job processes itself automatically.
* * *
I am not keen on territorial enlargements. I am
not in the habit of breaking the peace either. However,
I claim our right as based on treaty. I cannot do
without it. I promised from the rostrum of the Grand
National Assembly to my nation: I shall take Hatay (*)
My nation believes in me. If I fail to deliver my
promise, I cannot face the nation and I cannot keep my
position. I have never been defeated; I shall not be
defeated but if that comes, I cannot live a moment
longer.
(1937)
* * *
I forgive them, because I have a heart. They do
not forgive me because they have none. (**)
* * *
What is necessary for any individual to be con-
tent and happy for as long as he lives, is for him to
work not for himself but for those who will succeed
him
Full pleasure and happiness in life can be found
only in working for the honor and happiness of future
generations.
(1937)
*
* *
(*) Please see footnote on page 117.
(**) Speaking of his antagonists.
137
My People may bury me wherever they wish, as
long as, they do not forget me!
(1937)
*
* *
What time is it ? (*)
*
* *
*
*
* *
* *
(*) His last words, a few moments before his death on November 10, 1938.
138
METEKSAN, Ltd., Ankara
Printed in Turkey
K. ataturk