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Souda Bay Naval Stationn - Crete 7/20/91 [OA 8325] [2]
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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Speech Backup Chronological Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
Subseries:
Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13765
Folder ID Number:
13765-001
Folder Title:
Souda Bay Naval Stationn - Crete 7/20/91 [OA 8325][2]
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G
26
21
5
4
STATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT
AT SOUDA BAY, CRETE
PRIME MINISTER MITSOTAKIS, CAPTAIN AND CREWS OF THE LEMNOS AND
USS
, DISTINGUISHED GUESTS:
I CAN'T IMAGINE A MORE GLORIOUS SETTING FOR HONORING THE
SERVICEMEN -- AND WOMEN -- OF GREECE AND THE UNITED STATES THAN
THIS MAGNIFICENT HARBOR. I WAS, AS SOME OF YOU KNOW, A NAVAL
PILOT DURING WWII. IT IS THEREFORE ALWAYS A SPECIAL PLEASURE
FOR ME TO VISIT A U.S. NAVY SHIP. I ALSO WANT TO THANK THE
GREEK NAVY, AND IN PARTICULAR ADMIRAL LAGARAS, FOR MAKING IT
POSSIBLE FOR ME TO PAY MY FIRST VISIT TO A GREEK NAVAL VESSEL.
THE PRESENCE OF THE LEMNOS CALLS TO MIND THE RECENT VICTORY OF
THE COALITION FORCES OVER THE BLATANT AGGRESSION OF SADDAM
HUSSEIN. HOW THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ROSE TO DEFEAT THAT
TYRANT. THIS VESSEL'S PARTICIPATION IN THAT GREAT ENDEAVOR IS
TRIBUTE TO GREECE'S STRONG SUPPORT FOR THE COLLECTIVE EFFORTS
WHICH INEVITABLY PREVAILED OVER SADDAM. OFFICERS AND CREW OF
THE LEMNOS AND YOUR SISTER SHIP IN THE GULF EFFORT, THE ELLI,
-- I SALUTE YOU.
THE BOW-TO-BOW MOORING OF THESE TWO SHIPS SYMBOLIZES, FOR ME,
THE CLOSENESS OF OUR SECURITY RELATIONS. THE BILATERAL
SECURITY RELATIONSHIP BENEFITS BOTH OUR COUNTRIES. THAT
RELATIONSHIP -- IN CONCRETE TERMS -- IS NOW BASED ON THE
-2-
1990 MUTUAL DEFENSE COOPERATION AGREEMENT. THAT AGREEMENT
PROVIDES FOR USE OF OUR FACILITY AT THIS SPLENDID BAY, AND OF
OUR COMMUNICATIONS STATION AT IRAKLION.
FOR OUR PART, WE HAVE A COMMITMENT TO GREECE TO ASSIST IN
MODERNIZING YOUR MILITARY FORCES. LET ME SAY THAT WE FULLY
INTEND TO ABIDE BY THAT PLEDGE. GREECE'S ABILITY TO DEFEND
ITSELF AND CARRY OUT ITS NATO ROLE ARE IMPORTANT TO US. PART
OF THAT COMMITMENT IS FULFILLED THROUGH PROVISION OF MILITARY
ASSISTANCE. THESE FUNDS HELP YOU PURCHASE U.S. MILITARY
EQUIPMENT. (THE GREEK GOVERNMENT RECENTLY ANNOUNCED THAT IT
INTENDED TO PURCHASE 20 ADDITIONAL F-16 AIRCRAFT. IT WILL PAY
FOR THOSE AIRCRAFT BY DRAWING ON OUR MILITARY ASSISTANCE
FUNDS. I CAN THINK OF NO BETTER EXAMPLE THAN THIS OF THE
VITALITY OF OUR SECURITY RELATIONSHIP.) THIS, AND OTHER LIKE
SALES, ARE PROOF POSITIVE OF THE DYNAMISM OF OUR BILATERAL
SECURITY TIES.
U.S. MILITARY ASSISTANCE TAKES SEVERAL FORMS. THE TRANSFER OF
EXCESS DEFENSE ARTICLES HAS BEEN ANOTHER IMPORTANT WAY THAT WE
HAVE TRIED TO ASSIST WITH THE MODERNIZATION OF YOUR MILITARY.
SINCE OUR FISCAL YEAR 1990, WE HAVE TRANSFERRED EXCESS DEFENSE
ARTICLES VALUED AT OVER $81 MILLION FOR USE BY YOUR MILITARY
SERVICES. THIS PROGRAM IS A KEY COMPONENT OF OUR OVERALL
-3-
ASSISTANCE PACKAGE. AND I HAVE SOME NEWS WHICH I THINK GEN.
STATHIAS WILL BE HAPPY TO HEAR. I AM PLEASED TO ANNOUNCE THAT
WE HAVE BEEN ABLE TO ACCELERATE THE DELIVERY SOME OF THE 28F-4E
AIRCRAFT YOU ARE SCHEDULED TO RECEIVE UNDER THIS PROGRAM. TEN
WILL NOW BE AVAILBLE ON JULY
?
AS FOR THE NAVY, YOU ALREADY KNEW, OF COURSE, THAT WE WILL BE
LEASING YOU FOUR CHARLES F. ADAMS-CLASS DESTROYERS. WE HAVE
KNOWN FOR SOME TIME OF YOUR STRONG INTEREST IN OBTAINING
FRIGATES. OUR OWN NAVY, ESPECIALLY DURING DESERT STORM, NEEDED
THOSE FRIGATES AND NONE WERE AVAILABLE FOR LEASE. AS AN
EX-NAVY MAN, I TAKE PARTICULAR PRIDE IN INFORMING YOU THAT WE
ARE NOW ABLE TO LEASE YOU THREE KNOX-CLASS FRIGATES. I BELIEVE
ADMIRAL LAGARAS WILL AGREE THAT THESE VESSELS WILL GREATLY
ENHANCE THE GREEK NAVY'S ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE CAPABILITIES.
I KNOW YOU WILL USE THEM WELL IN CARRYING OUT YOUR ALLIANCE
MARITIME ROLE .)
OUR SECURITY TIES ARE STRONG. THEY ARE HEALTHY. AS WE LOOK
TOWARD THE FUTURE, I SEE SECURITY COOPERATION CONTINUING TO
REFLECT THE CLOSENESS OF RECENT YEARS. I FEEL CONFIDENT THAT
THE GREEK GOVERNMENT SHARES THIS VIEW. I HAVE NO DOUBT THAT WE
WILL CONTINUE TO PROGRESS ON THE BASIS OF MUTUAL BENEFIT AND
UNDERSTANDING.
THANK YOU VERY MUCH.
SOUDA BAY NAVAL SUPPORT ACTIVITY
Contact: Senior Chief Farley -- PAO
LCD Wray -- XO
The base serves as a transhipment point for supplies, ammunition,
mail, and personnel. It is also like a "dry land aircraft
carrier," serving as a refueling stop for cargo planes like C-
130s.
During Desert Shield/Desert Storm, the base handled 31,000 flights
-- 350% above normal; pumped 4,556,682 pounds of JP-5 jet fuel -
- 440% above normal; 13,000 tons of cargo -- 600% above normal;
serviced 97 ships.
The base was recommended for a Navy Unit commendation.
will
get one? ?
ask Jake
Rost
Crete
The New
Encyclopædia
Britannica
in 30 Volumes
MACROP/EDIA
Volume 5
Knowledge in Depth
FOUNDED 1768
15 TH EDITION
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
William Benton, Publisher, 1943-1973
Helen Hemingway Benton, Publisher, 1973-1974
Chicago/Geneva/London/Manila/Paris/Rome
Seoul/Sydney/Tokyo/Toronto
252 Cretaceous Period
Kansas, represent fish-eating seabirds that had long jaws
Late Jurassic to Cretaceous time in the circum-Pacific region;
bearing teeth.
D.P. NAIDIN, "On the Paleogeography of the Russian Platform
Dinosaurs were predominant among the land animals.
during the Upper Cretaceous Epoch," Stockh. Contr. Geol.,
Characteristic examples include Tyrannosaurus, the larg-
vol. 3, no. 6 (1959), a concise account of the paleogeography
of this area and its changes through time; W.P. POPENOE, R.W.
est flesh-eating dinosaur; Iguanodont, a plant eater that
IMLAY, and M.A. MURPHY, "Correlation of the Cretaceous
walked on hind feet; Trachodont, which had numerous
Formations of the Pacific Coast (United States and North-
rough teeth; Triceratops, with three peculiar horns on
western Mexico)," Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 7:1491-1540 (1960),
the head; and Struthiomimus, which probably ate insects
a good correlation chart, with annotations and bibliography,
or seeds, judging from the elongated bill-like mouth. It is
that shows an intimate relation between Cretaceous sequences
one of the most remarkable events in the history of life
in the Pacific Coast region and those of Japan and Alaska;
that the reptiles (see REPTILIA), which flourished during
J.B. REESIDE, JR., "Paleoecology of the Cretaceous Seas of the
the Mesozoic Era, declined at the end of the Cretaceous
Western Interior of the United States," Mem. Geol. Soc. Am.,
67:505-542 (1957), a summary account of the changes in
Period, and the dinosaurs became extinct. The mammals
paleogeography on the basis of stratigraphic correlation and
(see MAMMALIA), on the other hand, were quite indistinct
lithofacies and biofacies analyses; A.P. VINOGRADOV (ed.), Atlas
in Mesozoic times but burgeoned with multiple diver-
of the Lithological-Paleogeographical Maps of the USSR, 3
gence and development early in the Cenozoic Era.
vol. (1968), modern compilation of a series of maps that pre-
Plants
The land plants in the Early Cretaceous differed little
sents the Mesozoic history of this extensive region.
from those in the Jurassic. The main constituents of the
(T.M.)
flora were cycadeoids (cyad-like plants), conifers, gink-
gos, and ferns. Toward the middle of the period, angio-
Crete
sperms increased their dominance. In the Late Creta-
The fifth-largest island in the Mediterranean and the
ceous the flora became more like those of the Cenozoic
largest of the many islands that form part of modern
Era; they included figs, magnolias, poplars, plane trees,
Greece, Crete (Kríti) is officially merely an administrative
and willows. With the increasing predominance of flower-
subdivision, but its extraordinary history has earned the
ing plants, insects also may have developed in the period;
island a status accorded many independent entities with
but their fossil record can exist only under special, rare
areas much larger than its 3,189 square miles (8,260
conditions of preservation (see FOSSIL RECORD).
square kilometres) and population of about 500,000. The
island is relatively long and narrow, stretching for some
CRETACEOUS CLIMATES
152 miles on its east-west axis and varying from 35 to
On the evidence of fauna and flora distribution, climatic
7½ miles in width.
zones are roughly outlined between the tropical to sub-
Lying on Europe's southern fringe, Crete is halfway be-
tropical equatorial Tethys region and the warm or some-
tween Asia Minor and mainland Greece and is twice as
what cooler boreal and austral regions at higher latitudes.
far from Libya and Egypt; it also helps enclose the
Expanded seas of the period should have produced an
Aegean Sea, a geographical factor that has had con-
equitable climate. In the Cretaceous System, evaporites
siderable influence on its history and culture. Crete's
are comparatively few. Coal seams, indicating relatively
political and economic affairs may be domestically linked
high humidity, are intercalated in a number of places.
with Greece, but the island is an international archaeo-
Bauxite occurs at the unconformity between limestone
logical and tourist attraction. Crete, moreover, has sur-
sequences of the Cretaceous in some areas of Europe
vived so many challenges to its individuality that there
(Hungary, Yugoslavia, southern France, etc.), probably
will probably always be people who consider themselves
indicating that weathering (q.v.) took place under warm,
first and foremost Cretans. (For related historical infor-
humid conditions.
mation, see AEGEAN CIVILIZATIONS; see also GREECE;
Although the quantitative data of paleotemperature are
AEGEAN SEA; MEDITERRANEAN SEA.)
not sufficiently numerous, the available measurements by
History. Crete's history is often a part of the eastern
an oxygen-isotope method on some shells (belemnites and
Mediterranean's, yet it can boast distinct moments of its
others) indicate warmer seawater even in the boreal re-
own. There is no evidence that man arrived on the island
gion (see CLIMATIC CHANGE; DATING, RELATIVE AND AB-
before 6000-5000 BC, and the first inhabitants undoubt-
SOLUTE). They also suggest some decline of the tem-
edly came from somewhere in Asia Minor or the Levant
perature in the Maastrichtian Stage and possibly also in
(possibly from Egypt or Libya). They, their descendants,
the Cenomanian. On the basis of the paleomagnetic study
and subsequent groups of migrants introduced the full
of some Cretaceous rocks (see ROCK MAGNETISM), the
range of Neolithic culture-stone tools, cultivated plants,
North Pole is presumed to have been somewhere to the
domesticated animals, weaving, pottery, houses, and, by
south of the present one. Evidence of glaciers is almost
about 3000 BC, copperworking. Whatever the various ori-
entirely absent in the period, except for the mountain
gins of these peoples, their fusion with the Mediterranean
Minoan
glaciers, which might have existed in the southern part of
environment produced a Bronze Age culture, which is
Bronze
the then-rising, high Andean orogenic system. So far as
called the Minoan civilization after the island's legen-
Age
the available evidence indicates, the marine Late Creta-
dary ruler Minos. The first centuries (2600-2000 BC, the
civilization
ceous (Senonian) fauna of the Antarctic Peninsula (Gra-
Early Minoan, or Pre-Palace [Prepalatial] Period) pro-
ham Land) was essentially similar to that of nearby Chile
duced nothing more spectacular than fine stone-carved
and to New Zealand and also had some species in com-
vases and circular vaulted tombs. But, about 2000 BC,
mon with the Senonian fauna of India and Japan.
"palaces" began to be built on the sites of Knossos,
Phaestos, and Mallia, inaugurating the Middle Minoan,
BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. ALLEN, "The Wealden Environments:
or Protopalatial Period. Economic, political, and social
Anglo-Paris Basin," Phil. Trans. R. Soc., ser. B, 242:283-346
organization began to flourish, with increased trade in
(1959), a fine example of a study of Early Cretaceous environ-
the eastern Mediterranean, while stone carving, gold-
ments by stratigraphical and sedimentological analyses; R.
work, jewelry, and pottery demonstrated aesthetic pro-
BOWEN, "Oxygen Isotope Paleotemperature Measurements on
Cretaceous Belemnoidea from Europe, India and Japan," J.
gress.
Paleont., 35:1077-1084 (1961), seawater temperatures during
About 1700 BC, one of Crete's periodic earthquakes de-
the Cretaceous Period, derived from oxygen-isotope analyses;
stroyed parts of the three major palaces, but there was
G. COLOM, "Jurassic-Cretaceous Pelagic Sediments of the West-
no break in the continuity of Minoan culture. The pal-
ern Mediterranean Zone and the Atlantic Area," Micro-
aces were reconstructed and even enlarged, introducing
paleont., 1:109-123 (1955), a Jurassic-Cretaceous paleogeo-
the Middle Minoan III, or New Palace (Neopalatial)
graphical reconstruction; L.B. KELLUM (ed.), El sistema cretá-
Period. These ambitious complexes, with a medley of
cico; un symposium sobre el cretácico en el Hemisferio Occi-
sculpture, fresco painting, pottery, and metalwork, are
dental y su correlación mundial (1959), a comprehensive de-
scription of Cretaceous stratigraphy and correlation problems
still visible today. A rich ceremonial life included snake
in various parts.of the world; T. MATSUMOTO (ed.), "Age and
goddesses and bull-leaping. The Minoans' ships, mean-
Nature of the Circum-Pacific Orogenesis," Tectonophysics,
while, ranged even farther, possibly as far west as Spain;
vol. 4. no 4-6 (1967), 23 papers treating the tectonic activity,
but whatever power Cretan rulers exercised in those areas
regional metamorphism, granitic intrusions, and volcanism of
was economic. Indeed, since the same Linear B script (as
Crete
253
philologists call this early Greek writing) recording the
to 65,000,000 years ago). Much of Crete's 650 miles of
n
same Greek language was more widespread at Achaean-
rocky coastline slopes down from the major mountains
Mycenaean sites on the Greek mainland than at Minoan
of Crete's east-west axis, a spine that breaks naturally
y
sites, it has been conceded that, by about 1500 BC (Late
into four main groups: the westernmost Lévka Óri (White
V.
Minoan I), Mycenaean Greeks had assumed an influen-
IS
Mountains); the central Ídhi (or Psilorítis) Mountains,
1-
tial, perhaps dominant role in Minoan affairs.
with Crete's highest point, the summit of Mt. Ídhi, Stav-
Then, about 1450 BC, Knossos and many other centres
ros, 8,058 feet (2,456 metres) high; the east central Dhíkti
suffered another earthquake, possibly related to the cat-
(or Lasíthi) Mountains; and the far eastern Thriftí Moun-
es
astrophic explosion at Thíra, the volcanic island north
tains. Another range, the Asterousia (or Kófinos) Moun-
a;
of Crete. This ushered in the Late Minoan II, or Post-
tains, runs along the south central coast between the
1e
Palace (Postpalatial) Period, completing the Myce-
Mesará Plain and the Libyan Sea (Libikon Pélagos). The
naean Greek ascendancy in Mediterranean commerce.
more gradual slope of the northern coast provides sev-
in
d
Minoan civilization did not become definitely stagnant,
eral natural harbours as well as coastal plains, where
IS
however, until the Iron Age, which commenced about
major cities have grown up: Khaniá, Réthimnon, and
3
1200 BC. Eventually the Dorians, another Greek-speaking
Iráklion (the Candia of history). The major flatland,
people, moved in and organized Crete, while some
however, is the Mesará Plain, which extends along the
Minoans retreated into the mountains, to become known
south central region for about 18 miles, averaging three
later as Eteocretans-"true Cretans."
miles wide. Also, on its northern side, Crete has several
Crete still played a part in the transfer of various cul-
upland basins, including the Omalos in the Lévka Óri
Post-
tural forms from the Near East to Greece: a Cretan vari-
Minoan
and the Nidha in the Ídhi Mountains; the most notable
he
develop-
ation of the Orientalizing phase of Aegean art is known
is the Lasíthi Plain, an almost perfect stadium, measur-
n
as Daedalic (about 700-600 BC). During Athens' hey-
ments
ing about 50 square miles ringed by mountains. Cretans
ve
day, Crete fascinated Greeks as a source of myths, leg-
have lived mostly on the edges of these plains to avoid
he
ends, and laws. Eventually, the Romans appeared and
seasonal flooding, while taking maximum advantage of
th
by 67 BC had completed their conquest of Crete, con-
the arable land.
60
verting it into Cyrenica, a province linked with North
Soils and drainage. Nomadic grazing occurs on 48
he
Africa; after their empire had been divided, Crete passed
percent of Crete's total area, while 20 percent of the land
ne
to Byzantium (the Eastern Roman Empire) in AD 395.
is entirely unproductive. Over the centuries the islanders
to
Christianity, traditionally introduced by St. Paul, who
have so stripped the once thickly wooded slopes that the
was driven ashore on Crete around AD 47, gathered mo-
earth has eroded, leaving largely bare limestone. As a
e-
mentum under the Apostle's appointee, Bishop Titus,
result, the surface is so porous and honeycombed that
but the island later subsided into the Dark Ages. After
as
much of the water goes underground. This accounts for
Limited
he
824, a group of Arabs controlled at least parts of Crete,
the springs and the many merely seasonal watercourses.
surface-
n-
but Christianity triumphed in 961 under Nicephorus
There are only about six rivers on Crete, including the
water
Phocas, subsequently a Byzantine emperor.
Platanías (near Khaniá), the Milopótamos (north central
resources
ed
In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, which turned
region), the Anapodháris (south central), and the Yero-
:o-
aside to sack Constantinople, Crete was sold to the Ve-
pótamos (in the Mesará).
ir-
netians in 1204; they called both the island and its main
The soil is largely rocky, with little alluvium or loam;
city Candia and fitted Crete into their commercial em-
ere
it lacks nitrogen and phosphorus, though potassium and
es
pire. Native Cretans, however, never abandoned the
calcium carbonate are plentiful. Crete also is marked
or-
Orthodox religion, the Greek language, and their popu-
with many fissures and ravines, such as the gorge of
lar lore. In 1648 the Ottoman Turks, already possessing
E;
Samaria, which extends about 11 miles inland from the
parts of Crete, began attempts to take Candia. After one
southwestern coast. There are also caves, the source of
rn
of the longest sieges in history, Candia, and with it Crete,
many mythological and historical episodes. One fresh-
its
fell to the Turks in 1669. With the economy stagnant and
water lake, Kournás, lies west of Réthimnon. The island
nd
many Cretans perforce nominal Muslims, native culture
experiences occasional earth tremors, but only two seri-
bt-
nevertheless survived. But uprisings were always frus-
ous earthquakes have occurred in the last 100 years.
int
trated, including the one that accompanied the Greek
Climate. Crete's climate varies between temperate and
revolution of 1821 and another of 1866, which involved
ts,
tropical. The mountains are colder and wetter than the
ull
an explosion and massacre at Arkadhi, a monastery in
lowlands, and snow remains throughout winter above
central Crete, the symbol ever since of the island's motto,
ts,
1,600 feet and is almost permanent on the highest peaks.
by
"Freedom or Death!" The Turks were finally ejected in
Annual rainfall averages about 25 inches, mostly from
ri-
1898, and the island was granted autonomous status un-
October to March. In the hot, dry summer, prevailing
Minoan
der a high commissioner, Prince George, the younger
northeasterly sea breezes (the meltemi, or etesian winds)
an
is Bronze
son of the King of Greece. But nothing short of union
keep the coastal regions pleasant but cannot break the
Age
with Greece would satisfy many Cretans. Among them
drought of the interior. A dusty haze often pervades the
n-
he
civilization
was Eleuthérios Venizélos, the tempestuous, Cretan-born
atmosphere, with occasional sirocco winds blasting in
politician who eventually forced Prince George out; and
"O-
from the Sahara. But by late October eastward-moving
ed
in 1913, as Greek premier, he presided over the official
cyclones passing to the north or south bring more varia-
union of Crete with Greece.
ble and tempestuous winds, with rain at sea level and
IC,
Since then, Crete has shared most of Greece's history.
snow in the mountains.
DS,
Crete's
Nevertheless, a unique moment came in 1941 during
Frost is practically unknown on the coast; the south
in,
moment in
ial
World War II when the Greek government, along with
shore enjoys a particularly mild winter, with an average
World
in
British, Commonwealth, and some Greek troops, were
January temperature at Iráklion of 54° F (12° C). In
War II
Id-
forced by the advancing Germans to retreat from main-
summer, Iráklion's daily maximum averages 84° F
land Greece to Crete. Shortly thereafter, on May 20, the
(29° C).
"O-
Germans launched history's first-and still the only suc-
Vegetation and animal life. Despite its demanding cli-
le-
cessful-purely airborne invasion, putting down all or-
mate and man's abuse of the land, Crete supports a varied
ganized resistance within ten days. Most of the Allied
vas
vegetation. Characteristic Mediterranean scrub (maquis
al-
forces were evacuated from the southern coast, but the
or garigue), unproductive but flowery, dominates the
Cretans were left to another occupation till the last Ger-
ng
landscape. Something is usually blooming, be it phlomis
al)
man troops surrendered in May 1945. Postwar Crete
(a type of mint), thorny broom, spurges (cactus-like
of
made a slow recovery. Since the 1950s it has benefitted
plants), asphodel, thyme, heath (a type of evergreen
from growing international commerce, though its basic
are
shrub), burnet (a kind of herb), or rockrose (a local
ke
social and political patterns yield less readily to change.
shrub). Generally, Crete's flora is similar to that of the
The landscape. Natural topography. Crete is domi-
Peloponnese and Asia Minor, but the island is also noted
in-
in;
nated by harsh mountains rising out of the sea, stark evi-
for several native species, including Acer creticum, a
dence of its geological origins, for the island is a rem-
eas
dense, spiny maple shrub, and Berberis cretica, a bar-
(as
nant of a block thrown up in Tertiary times (2,500,000
berry (a red-berried shrub). The quince (Cydonia ob-
254
Crete
longa) is said to be indigenous to Crete. Perhaps the
Cretans are devout. There are a few Roman Catholics,
most prized local plant species is the Cretan dittany; re-
but Crete's old Jewish population moved out long ago,
lated to marjoram, it is a small, perennial, gray-green
as did the sizable Muslim Turkish community in the
plant with ruddy-pink flowers and clings to rocky cliffs
early 1920s as part of the population exchange between
and sparse patches of soil.
Greece and Turkey, when thousands of Greeks from
Crete once nurtured valued cypress and cedar forests,
Asia Minor were resettled on Crete.
which, as late as the 16th century, supplied wood for the
Demographic trends. More and more Cretans share in
Venetian fleet. Now only small clumps of wild cypress
such modern amenities as improved medical facilities,
survive on the Lévka Óri, and only about 2 percent of
agricultural aids, communications and transport, and
the total land area bears such trees as Aleppo pine, ilex,
more are born with the chance to live longer, healthier
holm oak, chestnut, and plane trees. Olives, carobs (ever-
lives. Crete's small population nevertheless is larger than
greens whose pods have a sweetish pulp), and orange trees
the island can support. Along with a gradual flow of
are cultivated, along with several curiosities such as
population to the larger towns, working class Cretans
almond trees, wild palm, bananas, and the black mul-
are leaving for mainland Greece or Europe, educated,
berry.
ambitious youth are going to Athens or abroad, and
The Cretan
The most spectacular of Crete's fauna is known as the
families are emigrating to such traditional destinations
wild goat
agrími ("the wild one"), a wild goat (Capra aegagrus) re-
as the United States and Australia.
lated to the ibexes that range across Asia Minor and
The economy. Agriculture and natural resources.
down into Iran and Pakistan. This wild goat was hunted
Most of the economy rests on agriculture: Crete is one of
down to the 20th century but became nearly extinct and
Greece's leading regions in the production of olives and
Major
was confined to the gorge of Samaria; now three offshore
olive oil, grapes (including seedless sultanas, raisins, and
crops
islets serve as natural preserves. The smaller animals and
wine), citrus fruits, and the carob, or locust, bean, all
birds are the ones usual in such an environment. There
exported mainly to Greece. For itself, Crete grows fresh
are no poisonous snakes, credit for which is traditionally
vegetables, fruits, nuts (almonds and acorns), and some
awarded to St. Titus. The surrounding sea yields shellfish,
grains (barley and oats, but insufficient wheat). It also
squid, sponges, and edible fishes such as red mullet, sur-
raises sheep and goats for meat, cheeses, wool, and hides.
prisingly underexploited.
Fine as many of these products are, none carries much
Traditional regions. Crete has contained varied life-
weight in modern commerce.
styles. Réthimnon is the "intellectuals' city"; Anóyia re-
Cretans also mine talc, lignite, and gypsum and even a
tains distinctive popular traditions. Perhaps the most
little copper and iron. Deposits of lead, manganese, zinc,
special "pocket" of all, Sfakákia, the southwesterly re-
sulfur, gold, silver, tungsten, platinum, emery, graphite,
gion isolated by mountains, has a particular heritage of
tin, and magnetite have been discovered, but none in
independence, boasting men taller and stronger than
workable quantities. Crete is still further limited in its
other Cretans. In any case, Crete divides traditionally into
energy resources, for it has to import all its fuels.
two regions: coast and mountain. This split is accentu-
Commerce and industry. Industry is largely confined
ated by the fact that coastal dwellers live mostly along
to food processing (olive and grape presses), building
the northern shore. The basic modern difference, how-
materials (stone quarries and building blocks), and a few
ever, is between those dependent on the land and those
ceramics, textiles, soap, leather, and steel-tool enter-
engaged in urban pursuits.
prises. Most concerns are still run by their owners, em-
Land use. Only about 30 percent of Crete's total area
ploy only a few people, and are located along the north-
can be actively cultivated. There are some regional spe-
ern coast. Some traditional handicrafts, such as weaving
cialties-citrus fruits in the west, carob trees in the east,
or embroidery, are done at home. The harbours, con-
for instance-but farming patterns are similar through-
struction trades, transport, public services, and tourism
out the island: small patches of land, cultivated with
also provide employment.
little use of machinery, and women helping in the fields,
Crete has to import all but the most basic items, even
some land still irrigated by hand-operated wells, though
building materials, fertilizers, and food. Increasingly con-
draft animals, gasoline pumps, and windmills are taking
sumer outlooks need higher incomes, but inflowing for-
over that task. An exception is the Mesará Plain; it is
eign and mainland capital must fight conservative ways,
relatively well watered and one of the few parts of Crete
family-run enterprises, consolidation rather than expan-
that lends itself to modern agricultural practices, where
sion, and age-old distribution patterns. Tourism, how-
large machinery is increasingly employed. Two deeply
ever, has brought changes, with more large employers
embedded traditions have hindered agricultural develop-
and some organization of labour.
ment: one is the Cretan preference for living together in
Transport. Crete has no railways and no navigable riv-
villages, which incurs long journeys to the fields; the
ers, but its road network is good. Private vehicles and
other is the splitting up of land in legacies, so that tiny
commercial trucks are multiplying, but most Cretans still
lots are walled in stone and individual ownership of the
travel by bus. Olympic Airways flights link Iráklion with
small plots is commonly quite scattered.
Athens and with Rhodes, and Khaniá with Athens; oc-
Urban settlement. The eight or nine largest cities on
casional charter flights also serve Iráklion. Small cargo
the northern coast account for a third of the island's
ships and caïques (light skiffs) ply between Crete and
population, yet most of them are overgrown villages.
other islands or ports, and there are almost daily ferries
Iráklion and Khaniá are the two exceptions, with almost
between Khaniá and Iráklion and Athens-Piraiévs (and
one-quarter of Crete's population. Iráklion has become
one ship weekly to Rhodes and to Thíra); large mer-
City life
quite cosmopolitan, with tourists, hotels, restaurants,
chantmen and liners frequently call, but mainly Crete
in Iráklion
shops, and similar enterprises. Its broad streets, cafés,
remains tied to Athens.
cinemas, museum, and market make it most lively, while
Administration. Crete, itself an administrative region
the port is also bustling. Modern problems such as traffic
of Greece, consists of four prefectures (nomoi)-Khaniá,
congestion, pollution, and urban blight are also appear-
Réthimnon, Iráklion, and Lasíthi. Each has a somewhat
ing on the heels of haphazard civic growth. Khaniá, half
powerless prefect (nomarch), appointed via Athens and
the size of Iráklion, is correspondingly more provincial.
responsible to the minister of the interior. Khaniá, the
The people. Although claims have been made that
administrative capital, housing various government of-
Cretans are taller than other Greeks or have different
fices and the island's highest court of appeal, exercises lit-
head measurements, due to Dorian or other heritages,
tle power. Crete is subdivided into 570 communities,
such differences are unverifiable. All Cretans speak
administered by elected mayors or presidents and small
Greek, albeit with variations of dialect, especially in
councils with little authority. This want of power stems
Nature
rural or mountain areas.
more from the general trend of state centralization than
Cretan
Religious affiliations. Virtually all Cretans belong to
from any particular Athens government. Cretans-when
politics
a special branch of the Orthodox Church, directly re-
given the choice-have taken the liberal, republican,
sponsible to the patriarchate of Constantinople. The
antimonarchist side in Greek political life. In any case,
archbishop of Crete has his seat in Iráklion, and most
physical remoteness from Athens and traditional skepti-
Cribbage 255
cism about governments have always rendered local
accessible are R.W. HUTCHINSON, Prehistoric Crete (1962);
problems more pressing than mainland matters.
J.D.S. PENDLEBURY, The Archaeology of Crete (1965); NICHO-
e
Notwithstanding, Crete has long provided dispropor-
LAS PLATON, Crete (Eng. trans. 1966); and for fine photo-
tionately large numbers of government personnel, a re-
graphs: S. MARINATOS and M. HIRMER, Krētē kai Mykënaikë
sult of the job shortage on the island. Military installa-
Hellas (1959; Eng. trans., Crete and Mycenae, 1960); and
LEONARD VON MATT et al., Das antike Kreta (1967; Eng. trans.,
tions include a Greek army training school outside
Ancient Crete, 1968). For post-Minoan history, the Dorian
Iráklion and a large NATO naval base and a NATO anti-
world is discussed in R.F. WILLETTS, Ancient Crete: A Social
S,
ballistic-missile training school around Soúdha Bay, the
History from Early Times Until the Roman Occupation
d
large harbour near Khaniá. Educationally, Crete has
(1965); the Venetian period in WILLIAM MILLER, Essays on
er
nothing above lycée (gymnasium) or vocational school
the Latin Orient (1921); GIUSEPPE GEROLA, Monumenti veneti
in
level, though every community provides some schooling.
nell'isola di Creta, 4 vol. (1905-32); and DENO J. GEANAKOP-
Similarly, health and welfare services deteriorate in re-
LOS, Greek Scholars in Venice (1962). For the struggle for
IS
mote districts, but doctors with some foreign study be-
independence and union, see EDWARD S. FORSTER, A Short
1,
History of Modern Greece, 1821-1956, 3rd ed. rev. by DOUG-
hind them are scattered throughout the island. With the
d
LAS DAKIN (1958); PRINCE GEORGE OF GREECE, The Cretan
only government representative in the villages a police-
Drama, ed. by A.A. PALLIS (1959). For World War II, see
IS
man, in most crises Cretans must rely on their own
ALAN CLARK, The Fall of Crete (1962); and GEORGE PSYCHO-
meagre family resources.
UNDAKIS, The Cretan Runner (Eng. trans. 1955). The only
S.
Cultural life. The arts. Perhaps the island's greatest
readily available general survey of the geography, economy,
resource is its popular culture. Crete also has attained
and sociology of contemporary Crete is LELAND G. ALLBAUGH,
d
Major
respectable artistic "heights"-as during something of a
Crete: A Case Study of an Underdeveloped Area (1953), al-
d
crops
renaissance that flowered from 1560 to 1660, when
though dating from 1948, many generalizations still hold
11
true. For the popular culture of modern Crete, the best intro-
poems, plays, and paintings with a peculiarly Cretan tang
duction is MICHAEL L. SMITH, The Great Island (1965). Trans-
were produced by Greek settlers from Constantinople or
lations of Crete's "renaissance" plays are in F.H. MARSHALL
e
by Venetian-Cretans. Vitzéntzos Kornáros, born near
and JOHN MAVROGORDATO, Three Cretan Plays (1929). Trav-
o
Sitia, is credited with Erotókritos, a romantic epic that
els on Crete include the classic, ROBERT PASHLEY, Travels in
S.
has become a national poem for some Greeks, and The
Crete (1837); and a modern experience, XAN FIELDING, The
Sacrifice of Abraham, a sturdy drama. Painting drew on
Stronghold (1953). JOHN S. BOWMAN, op. cit.; and STERGHIOS
the Byzantine tradition of Crete's churches. Some of the
SPANAKIS, Crete, 2 vol. (1968), are guides to Crete.
a
best artists went to paint in the monasteries of Mt. Áthos
(J.S.Bo.)
and the Meteora in Greece, although one late-16th-cen-
tury artist who chose to work on Crete was Michael
Cribbage
in
Damaskinos. The tradition's finest product was Doméni-
Cribbage is a card game in which the object is to form
ts
kos Theotokópoulos, born on Crete in 1541. He studied
counting combinations that traditionally are scored by
and painted there until perhaps 1566, going on to Venice,
moving pegs on a special Cribbage board, the dealer
Rome, Toledo, and universal fame as El Greco.
scoring an extra hand, the crib, formed of discards. The
After a pause of some two centuries, Crete produced
appeal of the game, usually played by two but with a
W
Notable
three notable writers, John Kondylakis, Pandelis Preve-
popular variant played by four or, occasionally, by three,
lakis, and the internationally known Nikos Kazantzakis.
is evident from two facts: few changes have been made
n-
writers
Two of Kazantzakis' finest works are specifically Cretan:
in the original rules, and it remains one of the most popu-
h-
Freedom or Death, a novel about one of the island's 19th-
lar of all card games. In Great Britain, during the four
century revolts, and Zorba the Greek, whose hero has be-
years prior to 1970, the "Card Corner" in News of the
D-
come the epitome of the Cretan spirit.
World had more requests for information on Cribbage
m
The folk element. Cretans are less attached to their
than for any other game. A 1970 appraisal indicated
ancient past than to Byzantine-Orthodox culture and
little overlap between devotees of Bridge and those of
en
their popular traditions: icons and sacred ground, name
Cribbage. In the United States, Cribbage is played by
n-
days and feast days, lore about spirits and vampires,
more than 10,000,000 people, principally across the
legends about the centuries of struggle against foreign
northern states, from New England to the Pacific, and
S,
occupiers, mantinades (rhymed couplets in song), and
the game has remained popular in Canada as well.
n-
palikhari (brigand-chieftains in folklore). Occasionally,
The game of Cribbage (earlier spelled Cribbidge) was
high and popular culture join, as with the Erotókritos,
invented by the English poet Sir John Suckling (1609-42).
rs
which is still recited, or with The Song of Daskaloyiannis,
Although Cribbage quite clearly developed from Noddy,
a late 18th-century poem about another revolt. But on
an older game for which a special scoring board also was
Crete, as elsewhere, this popular culture is slowly disap-
used, it appears to be the only existing game in its family.
d
11
pearing as the elderly die off. Some men still dress in
Cribbage would quite likely have become the most popu-
boots, baggy pantaloons, sash, and embroidered vest and
lar of all two-hand card games if so many descriptions
h
have a proverb or superstition for everything. Old motifs
had not called the Cribbage board indispensable, which
are embroidered into rugs, shoulder bags, or bridal linens,
it is not.
:O
and there have been conscious attempts at folklore re-
Almost the only big change from the original rules is
d
vivals. But the true Cretan spirit must survive naturally,
that in modern two-hand Cribbage each player is dealt
es
in village festivals or in cafés, where people sing and
six cards instead of five, as played originally.
d
dance to old tunes spontaneously.
Scoring. Scoring is traditionally called pegging, be-
The outlook. Crete today confronts the dilemmas of
cause it usually is done by moving pegs on a scoring de-
te
many underdeveloped, insular societies. Freed from for-
vice, the Cribbage board. This Cribbage board is essen-
Cribbage
eign threats, it now must deal with itself, though eco-
tially a tablet with 60 counting holes (in two rows of 30)
board
n
nomic advancement may seem indistinct from uniform-
for each player, plus one game hole for each, and often
a,
ity. Its immediate prospects rest in its archaeological
extra holes for holding pegs when not in play and for
d
treasures and its beaches and in their imaginative and
keeping track of games won. Game is 121 (twice around
sensitive exploitation. Alongside these assets, wiser land
the board plus 1 for the game hole) or 61 in the less fre-
ie
use and economic development rooted in native materi-
quently played game of Once Around. Each player has
f-
als, skills, and patterns could resolve the problem. With
two pegs, and each scoring point is marked by jumping
:-
accompanying restraint, development's ill effects may be
the rearmost peg ahead of the other (thus showing at a
S,
11
avoided and Crete may well emerge a robust yet modern
glance the number of points scored on a move as well
is
Nature
society.
as the total). Scores must be pegged in order (see below
Cretan
The showing), because the first player to reach 121 (or
n
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most accessible general surveys of
n politics
Crete are JOHN S. BOWMAN, Crete, rev. and enl. ed. (1969);
61) or, in some games, to pass it is the winner. Emphasis
R.W. HUTCHINSON, Prehistoric Crete (1962); and RAYMOND
on the board as a scoring device created the idea that the
MATTON, La Crète au cours des siècles (1957). For the Mi-
game could not be played without it, but the score can
noan world, see ARTHUR J. EVANS, The Palace of Minos, 6 vol.
be kept with pencil and paper or with chips or other
i-
(1921-36), is still the seminal (but unwieldy) work. More
counters; indeed, keeping score by discarding counters
252
Cretaceous Period
Kansas, represent fish-eating seabirds that had long jaws
Late Jurassic to Cretaceous time in the circum-Pacific region;
D.P. NAIDIN, "On the Paleogeography of the Russian Platform
phi
bearing teeth.
Dinosaurs were predominant among the land animals.
during the Upper Cretaceous Epoch," Stockh. Contr. Geol.,
san
vol. 3, no. 6 (1959), a concise account of the paleogeography
My
Characteristic examples include Tyrannosaurus, the larg-
of this area and its changes through time; W.P. POPENOE, R.W.
est flesh-eating dinosaur; Iguanodont, a plant eater that
IMLAY, and M.A. MURPHY, "Correlation of the Cretaceous
Mi
walked on hind feet; Trachodont, which had numerous
Formations of the Pacific Coast (United States and North-
tia
rough teeth; Triceratops, with three peculiar horns on
western Mexico)," Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 7:1491-1540 (1960),
T
the head; and Struthiomimus, which probably ate insects
a good correlation chart, with annotations and bibliography,
sul
or seeds, judging from the elongated bill-like mouth. It is
that shows an intimate relation between Cretaceous sequences
asi
one of the most remarkable events in the history of life
in the Pacific Coast region and those of Japan and Alaska;
of
that the reptiles (see REPTILIA), which flourished during
J.B. REESIDE, JR., "Paleoecology of the Cretaceous Seas of the
Western Interior of the United States," Mem. Geol. Soc. Am.,
the Mesozoic Era, declined at the end of the Cretaceous
67:505-542 (1957), a summary account of the changes in
na
Period, and the dinosaurs became extinct. The mammals
paleogeography on the basis of stratigraphic correlation and
M
(see MAMMALIA), on the other hand, were quite indistinct
lithofacies and biofacies analyses; A.P. VINOGRADOV (ed.), Atlas
in Mesozoic times but burgeoned with multiple diver-
of the Lithological-Paleogeographical Maps of the USSR, 3
gence and development early in the Cenozoic Era.
vol. (1968), modern compilation of a series of maps that pre-
pt
Plants
The land plants in the Early Cretaceous differed little
sents the Mesozoic history of this extensive region.
M
from those in the Jurassic. The main constituents of the
(T.M.)
flora were cycadeoids (cyad-like plants), conifers, gink-
gos, and ferns. Toward the middle of the period, angio-
Crete
-
sperms increased their dominance. In the Late Creta-
The fifth-largest island in the Mediterranean and the
-
ceous the flora became more like those of the Cenozoic
largest of the many islands that form part of modern
-
Era; they included figs, magnolias, poplars, plane trees,
Greece, Crete (Kríti) is officially merely an administrative
d
and willows. With the increasing predominance of flower-
subdivision, but its extraordinary history has earned the
e
ing plants, insects also may have developed in the period;
island a status accorded many independent entities with
but their fossil record can exist only under special, rare
areas much larger than its 3,189 square miles (8,260
conditions of preservation (see FOSSIL RECORD).
square kilometres) and population of about 500,000. The
island is relatively long and narrow, stretching for some
CRETACEOUS CLIMATES
152 miles on its east-west axis and varying from 35 to
On the evidence of fauna and flora distribution, climatic
7½ miles in width.
zones are roughly outlined between the tropical to sub-
Lying on Europe's southern fringe, Crete is halfway be-
tropical equatorial Tethys region and the warm or some-
tween Asia Minor and mainland Greece and is twice as
what cooler boreal and austral regions at higher latitudes.
far from Libya and Egypt; it also helps enclose the
Expanded seas of the period should have produced an
Aegean Sea, a geographical factor that has had con-
equitable climate. In the Cretaceous System, evaporites
siderable influence on its history and culture. Crete's
are comparatively few. Coal seams, indicating relatively
political and economic affairs may be domestically linked
high humidity, are intercalated in a number of places.
with Greece, but the island is an international archaeo-
Bauxite occurs at the unconformity between limestone
logical and tourist attraction. Crete, moreover, has sur-
sequences of the Cretaceous in some areas of Europe
vived so many challenges to its individuality that there
(Hungary, Yugoslavia, southern France, etc.), probably
will probably always be people who consider themselves
indicating that weathering (q.v.) took place under warm,
first and foremost Cretans. (For related historical infor-
humid conditions.
mation, see AEGEAN CIVILIZATIONS; see also GREECE;
Although the quantitative data of paleotemperature are
AEGEAN SEA; MEDITERRANEAN SEA.)
not sufficiently numerous, the available measurements by
History. Crete's history is often a part of the eastern
an oxygen-isotope method on some shells (belemnites and
Mediterranean's, yet it can boast distinct moments of its
others) indicate warmer seawater even in the boreal re-
own. There is no evidence that man arrived on the island
before 6000-5000 BC, and the first inhabitants undoubt-
gion (see CLIMATIC CHANGE; DATING, RELATIVE AND AB-
SOLUTE). They also suggest some decline of the tem-
edly came from somewhere in Asia Minor or the Levant
perature in the Maastrichtian Stage and possibly also in
(possibly from Egypt or Libya). They, their descendants,
the Cenomanian. On the basis of the paleomagnetic study
and subsequent groups of migrants introduced the full
of some Cretaceous rocks (see ROCK MAGNETISM), the
range of Neolithic culture-stone tools, cultivated plants,
North Pole is presumed to have been somewhere to the
domesticated animals, weaving, pottery, houses, and, by
south of the present one. Evidence of glaciers is almost
about 3000 BC, copperworking. Whatever the various ori-
entirely absent in the period, except for the mountain
gins of these peoples, their fusion with the Mediterranean
Minoa:
glaciers, which might have existed in the southern part of
environment produced a Bronze Age culture, which is
Bronze
called the Minoan civilization after the island's legen-
Age
the then-rising, high Andean orogenic system. So far as
the available evidence indicates, the marine Late Creta-
dary ruler Minos. The first centuries (2600-2000 BC, the
civilizati
ceous (Senonian) fauna of the Antarctic Peninsula (Gra-
Early Minoan, or Pre-Palace [Prepalatial] Period) pro-
ham Land) was essentially similar to that of nearby Chile
duced nothing more spectacular than fine stone-carved
vases and circular vaulted tombs. But, about 2000 BC,
and to New Zealand and also had some species in com-
"palaces" began to be built on the sites of Knossos,
mon with the Senonian fauna of India and Japan.
Phaestos, and Mallia, inaugurating the Middle Minoan,
sement in
BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. ALLEN, "The Wealden Environments:
or Protopalatial Period. Economic, political, and social
orld
Anglo-Paris Basin," Phil. Trans. R. Soc., ser. B, 242:283-346
organization began to flourish, with increased trade in
II
(1959), a fine example of a study of Early Cretaceous environ-
the eastern Mediterranean, while stone carving, gold-
ments by stratigraphical and sedimentological analyses; R.
work, jewelry, and pottery demonstrated aesthetic pro-
BOWEN, "Oxygen Isotope Paleotemperature Measurements on
Cretaceous Belemnoidea from Europe, India and Japan," J.
gress.
Paleont., 35:1077-1084 (1961), seawater temperatures during
About 1700 BC, one of Crete's periodic earthquakes de-
the Cretaceous Period, derived from oxygen-isotope analyses;
stroyed parts of the three major palaces, but there was
G. COLOM, "Jurassic-Cretaceous Pelagic Sediments of the West-
no break in the continuity of Minoan culture. The pal-
ern Mediterranean Zone and the Atlantic Area," Micro-
aces were reconstructed and even enlarged, introducing
paleont., 1:109-123 (1955), a Jurassic-Cretaceous paleogeo-
the Middle Minoan III, or New Palace (Neopalatial)
graphical reconstruction; L.B. KELLUM (ed.), El sistema cretá-
Period. These ambitious complexes, with a medley of
cico; un symposium sobre el cretácico en el Hemisferio Occi-
sculpture, fresco painting, pottery, and metalwork, are
dental y su correlación mundial (1959), a comprehensive de-
still visible today. A rich ceremonial life included snake
scription of Cretaceous stratigraphy and correlation problems
in various parts.of the world; T. MATSUMOTO (ed.), "Age and
goddesses and bull-leaping. The Minoans' ships, mean-
Nature of the Circum-Pacific Orogenesis," Tectonophysics,
while, ranged even farther, possibly as far west as Spain;
vol. 4. no 4-6 (1967), 23 papers treating the tectonic activity,
but whatever power Cretan rulers exercised in those areas
regional metamorphism, granitic intrusions, and volcanism of
was economic. Indeed, since the same Linear B script (as
Crete
253
egion;
atform
Philologists call this early Greek widespread writing) recording at Achaean- the
to 65,000,000 years ago). Much of Crete's 650 miles of
language was more
rocky coastline slopes down from the major mountains
Geol,
sites on the Greek mainland than at Minoan
of Crete's east-west axis, a spine that breaks naturally
graphy
been conceded that, by about 1500 BC (Late
into four main groups: the westernmost Lévka Óri (White
R.W.
Mycenaean Greeks had assumed an influen-
Mountains); the central fdhi (or Psilorítis) Mountains,
aceous
North.
perhaps dominant role in Minoan affairs.
with Crete's highest point, the summit of Mt. fdhi, Stav-
'960),
tisl. Then, about 1450 BC, Knossos and many other centres
ros, 8,058 feet (2,456 metres) high; the east central Dhíkti
-aphy,
suffered another earthquake, possibly related to the cat-
(or Lasíthi) Mountains; and the far eastern Thriftí Moun-
iences
laska;
astrophic explosion at Thíra, the volcanic island north
tains. Another range, the Asterousia (or Kófinos) Moun-
Crete. This ushered in the Late Minoan II, or Post-
tains, runs along the south central coast between the
of the
Am,
of Palace (Postpalatial) Period, completing the Myce-
Mesará Plain and the Libyan Sea (Libikon Pélagos). The
ges in
naean Greek ascendancy in Mediterranean commerce.
more gradual slope of the northern coast provides sev-
n and
Minoan civilization did not become definitely stagnant,
eral natural harbours as well as coastal plains, where
Atlas
however, until the Iron Age, which commenced about
major cities have grown up: Khaniá, Réthimnon, and
SR,
1200 BC. Eventually the Dorians, another Greek-speaking
Iráklion (the Candia of history). The major flatland,
3
pre-
people, moved in and organized Crete, while some
however, is the Mesará Plain, which extends along the
Minoans retreated into the mountains, to become known
south central region for about 18 miles, averaging three
M.)
later as Eteocretans-"true Cretans."
miles wide. Also, on its northern side, Crete has several
Crete still played a part in the transfer of various cul-
upland basins, including the Omalos in the Lévka Óri
tural forms from the Near East to Greece: a Cretan vari-
and the Nidha in the fdhi Mountains; the most notable
the
-
ation of the Orientalizing phase of Aegean art is known
is the Lasíthi Plain, an almost perfect stadium, measur-
dern
as Daedalic (about 700-600 Bc). During Athens' hey-
ing about 50 square miles ringed by mountains. Cretans
ative
day, Crete fascinated Greeks as a source of myths, leg-
have lived mostly on the edges of these plains to avoid
1 the
ends, and laws. Eventually, the Romans appeared and
seasonal flooding, while taking maximum advantage of
with
by 67 BC had completed their conquest of Crete, con-
the arable land.
3,260
verting it into Cyrenica, a province linked with North
Soils and drainage. Nomadic grazing occurs on 48
The
Africa; after their empire had been divided, Crete passed
percent of Crete's total area, while 20 percent of the land
to Byzantium (the Eastern Roman Empire) in AD 395.
is entirely unproductive. Over the centuries the islanders
ome
5 to
Christianity, traditionally introduced by St. Paul, who
have so stripped the once thickly wooded slopes that the
was driven ashore on Crete around AD 47, gathered mo-
earth has eroded, leaving largely bare limestone. As a
be-
mentum under the Apostle's appointee, Bishop Titus,
result, the surface is so porous and honeycombed that
but the island later subsided into the Dark Ages. After
much of the water goes underground. This accounts for
Limited
e as
the
824, a group of Arabs controlled at least parts of Crete,
the springs and the many merely seasonal watercourses.
surface-
con-
but Christianity triumphed in 961 under Nicephorus
There are only about six rivers on Crete, including the
water
ete's
Phocas, subsequently a Byzantine emperor.
Platanías (near Khaniá), the Milopótamos (north central
resources
iked
In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, which turned
region), the Anapodháris (south central), and the Yero-
aeo-
aside to sack Constantinople, Crete was sold to the Ve-
pótamos (in the Mesará).
sur-
netians in 1204; they called both the island and its main
The soil is largely rocky, with little alluvium or loam;
here
city Candia and fitted Crete into their commercial em-
it lacks nitrogen and phosphorus, though potassium and
Ives
pire. Native Cretans, however, never abandoned the
calcium carbonate are plentiful. Crete also is marked
for-
Orthodox religion, the Greek language, and their popu-
with many fissures and ravines, such as the gorge of
:CE;
Jar lore. In 1648 the Ottoman Turks, already possessing
Samaria, which extends about 11 miles inland from the
parts of Crete, began attempts to take Candia. After one
southwestern coast. There are also caves, the source of
ern
of the longest sieges in history, Candia, and with it Crete,
many mythological and historical episodes. One fresh-
its
fell to the Turks in 1669. With the economy stagnant and
water lake, Kournás, lies west of Réthimnon. The island
and
many Cretans perforce nominal Muslims, native culture
experiences occasional earth tremors, but only two seri-
ibt-
nevertheless survived. But uprisings were always frus-
ous earthquakes have occurred in the last 100 years.
ant
trated, including the one that accompanied the Greek
Climate. Crete's climate varies between temperate and
revolution of 1821 and another of 1866, which involved
its,
tropical. The mountains are colder and wetter than the
ull
an explosion and massacre at Arkadhi, a monastery in
lowlands, and snow remains throughout winter above
its,
central Crete, the symbol ever since of the island's motto,
1,600 feet and is almost permanent on the highest peaks.
by
"Freedom or Death!" The Turks were finally ejected in
Annual rainfall averages about 25 inches, mostly from
ri-
1898, and the island was granted autonomous status un-
October to March. In the hot, dry summer, prevailing
an
Minor
der a high commissioner, Prince George, the younger
northeasterly sea breezes (the meltemi, or etesian winds)
is
Bronz
son of the King of Greece. But nothing short of union
keep the coastal regions pleasant but cannot break the
n-
Age
with Greece would satisfy many Cretans. Among them
drought of the interior. A dusty haze often pervades the
he
civilize
was Eleuthérios Venizélos, the tempestuous, Cretan-born
atmosphere, with occasional sirocco winds blasting in
politician who eventually forced Prince George out; and
O-
from the Sahara. But by late October eastward-moving
ed
in 1913, as Greek premier, he presided over the official
cyclones passing to the north or south bring more varia-
union of Crete with Greece.
C,
ble and tempestuous winds, with rain at sea level and
Since then, Crete has shared most of Greece's history.
snow in the mountains.
,S,
Crete's
Nevertheless, a unique moment came in 1941 during
n,
Frost is practically unknown on the coast; the south
account in
al
World War II when the Greek government, along with
shore enjoys a particularly mild winter, with an average
Borld
in
British, Commonwealth, and some Greek troops, were
January temperature at Iráklion of 54° F (12° C). In
&r II
1-
forced by the advancing Germans to retreat from main-
summer, Iráklion's daily maximum averages 84° F
land Greece to Crete. Shortly thereafter, on May 20, the
(29° C).
Germans launched history's first-and still the only suc-
Vegetation and animal life. Despite its demanding cli-
cessful-purely airborne invasion, putting down all or-
mate and man's abuse of the land, Crete supports a varied
ganized resistance within ten days. Most of the Allied
IS
vegetation. Characteristic Mediterranean scrub (maquis
I-
forces were evacuated from the southern coast, but the
or garigue), unproductive but flowery, dominates the
Cretans were left to another occupation till the last Ger-
g
landscape. Something is usually blooming, be it phlomis
1)
man troops surrendered in May 1945. Postwar Crete
(a type of mint). thorny broom, spurges (cactus-like
made a slow recovery. Since the 1950s it has benefitted
plants), asphodel. thyme, heath (a type of evergreen
from growing international commerce, though its basic
e
shrub), burnet (a kind of herb), or rockrose (a local
social and political patterns yield less readily to change.
shrub). Generally. Crete's flora is similar to that of the
The landscape. Natural topography. Crete is domi-
Peloponnese and Asia Minor, but the island is also noted
nated by harsh mountains rising out of the sea, stark evi-
for several native species, including Acer creticum, a
S
dence of its geological origins, for the island is a rem-
dense, spiny maple shrub, and Berberis cretica, a bar-
$
nant of a block thrown up in Tertiary times (2,500,000
berry (a red-berried shrub). The quince (Cydonia ob-
254
Crete
longa) is said to be indigenous to Crete. Perhaps the
Cretans are devout. There are a few Roman Catholics,
most prized local plant species is the Cretan dittany; re-
but Crete's old Jewish population moved out long ago,
lated to marjoram, it is a small, perennial, gray-green
as did the sizable Muslim Turkish community in the
plant with ruddy-pink flowers and clings to rocky cliffs
early 1920s as part of the population exchange between
and sparse patches of soil.
Greece and Turkey, when thousands of Greeks from
Crete once nurtured valued cypress and cedar forests,
Asia Minor were resettled on Crete.
which, as late as the 16th century, supplied wood for the
Demographic trends. More and more Cretans share in
Venetian fleet. Now only small clumps of wild cypress
such modern amenities as improved medical facilities,
survive on the Lévka Óri, and only about 2 percent of
agricultural aids, communications and transport, and
the total land area bears such trees as Aleppo pine, ilex,
more are born with the chance to live longer, healthier
holm oak, chestnut, and plane trees. Olives, carobs (ever-
lives. Crete's small population nevertheless is larger than
greens whose pods have a sweetish pulp), and orange trees
the island can support. Along with a gradual flow of
are cultivated, along with several curiosities such as
population to the larger towns, working class Cretans
almond trees, wild palm, bananas, and the black mul-
are leaving for mainland Greece or Europe, educated,
berry.
ambitious youth are going to Athens or abroad, and
The Cretan
The most spectacular of Crete's fauna is known as the
families are emigrating to such traditional destinations
wild goat
agrími ("the wild one"), a wild goat (Capra aegagrus) re-
as the United States and Australia.
lated to the ibexes that range across Asia Minor and
The economy. Agriculture and natural resources.
down into Iran and Pakistan. This wild goat was hunted
Most of the economy rests on agriculture: Crete is one of
down to the 20th century but became nearly extinct and
Greece's leading regions in the production of olives and
was confined to the gorge of Samaria; now three offshore
olive oil, grapes (including seedless sultanas, raisins, and
islets serve as natural preserves. The smaller animals and
wine), citrus fruits, and the carob, or locust, bean, all
/
birds are the ones usual in such an environment. There
exported mainly to Greece. For itself, Crete grows fresh
are no poisonous snakes, credit for which is traditionally
vegetables, fruits, nuts (almonds and acorns), and some
awarded to St. Titus. The surrounding sea yields shellfish,
grains (barley and oats, but insufficient wheat). It also
squid, sponges, and edible fishes such as red mullet, sur-
raises sheep and goats for meat, cheeses, wool, and hides.
prisingly underexploited.
Fine as many of these products are, none carries much
Traditional regions. Crete has contained varied life-
weight in modern commerce.
styles. Réthimnon is the "intellectuals' city"; Anóyia re-
Cretans also mine talc, lignite, and gypsum and even a
tains distinctive popular traditions. Perhaps the most
little copper and iron. Deposits of lead, manganese, zinc,
special "pocket" of all, Sfakákia, the southwesterly re-
sulfur, gold, silver, tungsten, platinum, emery, graphite,
gion isolated by mountains, has a particular heritage of
tin, and magnetite have been discovered, but none in
independence, boasting men taller and stronger than
workable quantities. Crete is still further limited in its
other Cretans. In any case, Crete divides traditionally into
energy resources, for it has to import all its fuels.
two regions: coast and mountain. This split is accentu-
Commerce and industry. Industry is largely confined
ated by the fact that coastal dwellers live mostly along
to food processing (olive and grape presses), building
the northern shore. The basic modern difference, how-
materials (stone quarries and building blocks), and a few
ever, is between those dependent on the land and those
ceramics, textiles, soap, leather, and steel-tool enter-
engaged in urban pursuits.
prises. Most concerns are still run by their owners, em-
Land use. Only about 30 percent of Crete's total area
ploy only a few people, and are located along the north-
can be actively cultivated. There are some regional spe-
ern coast. Some traditional handicrafts, such as weaving
cialties-citrus fruits in the, west, carob trees in the east,
or embroidery, are done at home. The harbours, con-
for instance-but farming patterns are similar through-
struction trades, transport, public services, and tourism
out the island: small patches of land, cultivated with
also provide employment.
little use of machinery, and women helping in the fields,
Crete has to import all but the most basic items, even
some land still irrigated by hand-operated wells, though
building materials, fertilizers, and food. Increasingly con-
draft animals, gasoline pumps, and windmills are taking
sumer outlooks need higher incomes, but inflowing for-
over that task. An exception is the Mesará Plain; it is
eign and mainland capital must fight conservative ways,
relatively well watered and one of the few parts of Crete
family-run enterprises, consolidation rather than expan-
that lends itself to modern agricultural practices, where
sion, and age-old distribution patterns. Tourism, how-
large machinery is increasingly employed. Two deeply
ever, has brought changes, with more large employers
embedded traditions have hindered agricultural develop-
and some organization of labour.
ment: one is the Cretan preference for living together in
Transport. Crete has no railways and no navigable riv-
villages, which incurs long journeys to the fields; the
ers, but its road network is good. Private vehicles and
other is the splitting up of land in legacies, so that tiny
commercial trucks are multiplying, but most Cretans still
lots are walled in stone and individual ownership of the
travel by bus. Olympic Airways flights link Iráklion with
small plots is commonly quite scattered.
Athens and with Rhodes, and Khaniá with Athens; OC-
Urban settlement. The eight or nine largest cities on
casional charter flights also serve Iráklion. Small cargo
the northern coast account for a third of the island's
ships and caïques (light skiffs) ply between Crete and
population, yet most of them are overgrown villages.
other islands or ports, and there are almost daily ferries
Iráklion and Khaniá are the two exceptions, with almost
between Khaniá and Iráklion and Athens-Piraiévs (and
one-quarter of Crete's population. Iráklion has become
one ship weekly to Rhodes and to Thíra); large mer-
City life
quite cosmopolitan, with tourists, hotels, restaurants,
chantmen and liners frequently call, but mainly Crete
in Iráklion
shops, and similar enterprises. Its broad streets, cafés,
remains tied to Athens.
cinemas, museum, and market make it most lively, while
Administration. Crete, itself an administrative region
the port is also bustling. Modern problems such as traffic
of Greece, consists of four prefectures (nomoi)-Khaniá,
congestion, pollution, and urban blight are also appear-
Réthimnon, Iráklion, and Lasíthi. Each has a somewhat
ing on the heels of haphazard civic growth. Khaniá, half
powerless prefect (nomarch), appointed via Athens and
the size of Iráklion, is correspondingly more provincial.
responsible to the minister of the interior. Khaniá, the
The people. Although claims have been made that
administrative capital, housing various government of-
Cretans are taller than other Greeks or have different
fices and the island's highest court of appeal, exercises lit-
head measurements, due to Dorian or other heritages,
tle power. Crete is subdivided into 570 communities,
such differences are unverifiable. All Cretans speak
administered by elected mayors or presidents and small
Greek, albeit with variations of dialect, especially in
councils with little authority. This want of power stems
Nature
rural or mountain areas.
more from the general trend of state centralization than
Creta-
Religious affiliations. Virtually all Cretans belong to
from any particular Athens government. Cretans-when
politics
a special branch of the Orthodox Church, directly re-
given the choice-have taken the liberal, republican,
sponsible to the patriarchate of Constantinople. The
antimonarchist side in Greek political life. In any case,
archbishop of Crete has his seat in Iráklion, and most
physical remoteness from Athens and traditional skepti-
cism about governments have always rendered local
accessible are R.W. HUTCHINSON, Prehistoric Crete (1962);
J.D.S. PENDLEBURY, The Archaeology of Crete (1965); NICHO-
problems more pressing than mainland matters.
LAS PLATON, Crete (Eng. trans. 1966); and for fine photo-
Notwithstanding, Crete has long provided dispropor-
graphs: S. MARINATOS and M. HIRMER, Krête kai Mykënaikë
tionately large numbers of government personnel, a re-
Hellas (1959; Eng. trans., Crete and Mycenae, 1960); and
sult of the job shortage on the island. Military installa-
LEONARD VON MATT et al., Das antike Kreta (1967; Eng. trans.,
tions include a Greek army training school outside
Ancient Crete, 1968). For post-Minoan history, the Dorian
Iráklion and a large NATO naval base and a NATO anti-
world is discussed in R.F. WILLETTS, Ancient Crete: A Social
ballistic-missile training school around Soúdha Bay, the
History from Early Times Until the Roman Occupation
large harbour near Khaniá. Educationally, Crete has
(1965); the Venetian period in WILLIAM MILLER, Essays on
nothing above lycée (gymnasium) or vocational school
the Latin Orient (1921); GIUSEPPE GEROLA, Monumenti veneti
nell'isola di Creta, 4 vol. (1905-32); and DENO J. GEANAKOP-
level, though every community provides some schooling.
LOS, Greek Scholars in Venice (1962). For the struggle for
Similarly, health and welfare services deteriorate in re-
independence and union, see EDWARD S. FORSTER, A Short
mote districts, but doctors with some foreign study be-
History of Modern Greece, 1821-1956, 3rd ed. rev. by DOUG-
hind them are scattered throughout the island. With the
LAS DAKIN (1958); PRINCE GEORGE OF GREECE, The Cretan
only government representative in the villages a police-
Drama, ed. by A.A. PALLIS (1959). For World War II, see
man, in most crises Cretans must rely on their own
ALAN CLARK, The Fall of Crete (1962); and GEORGE PSYCHO-
meagre family resources.
UNDAKIS, The Cretan Runner (Eng. trans. 1955). The only
Cultural life. The arts. Perhaps the island's greatest
readily available general survey of the geography, economy,
resource is its popular culture. Crete also has attained
and sociology of contemporary Crete is LELAND G. ALLBAUGH,
Crete: A Case Study of an Underdeveloped Area (1953), al-
Major
respectable artistic "heights"-as during something of a
though dating from 1948, many generalizations still hold
renaissance that flowered from 1560 to 1660, when
true. For the popular culture of modern Crete, the best intro-
poems, plays, and paintings with a peculiarly Cretan tang
duction is MICHAEL L. SMITH, The Great Island (1965). Trans-
were produced by Greek settlers from Constantinople or
lations of Crete's "renaissance" plays are in F.H. MARSHALL
by Venetian-Cretans. Vitzéntzos Kornáros, born near
and JOHN MAVROGORDATO, Three Cretan Plays (1929). Trav-
Sitia, is credited with Erotókritos, a romantic epic that
els on Crete include the classic, ROBERT PASHLEY, Travels in
has become a national poem for some Greeks, and The
Crete (1837); and a modern experience, XAN FIELDING, The
Sacrifice of Abraham, a sturdy drama. Painting drew on
Stronghold (1953). JOHN S. BOWMAN, op. cit.; and STERGHIOS
the Byzantine tradition of Crete's churches. Some of the
SPANAKIS, Crete, 2 vol. (1968), are guides to Crete.
(J.S.Bo.)
best artists went to paint in the monasteries of Mt. Áthos
and the Meteora in Greece, although one late-16th-cen-
tury artist who chose to work on Crete was Michael
Cribbage
Damaskinos. The tradition's finest product was Doméni-
Cribbage is a card game in which the object is to form
kos Theotokópoulos, born on Crete in 1541. He studied
counting combinations that traditionally are scored by
and painted there until perhaps 1566, going on to Venice,
moving pegs on a special Cribbage board, the dealer
Rome, Toledo, and universal fame as El Greco.
scoring an extra hand, the crib, formed of discards. The
After a pause of some two centuries, Crete produced
appeal of the game, usually played by two but with a
three notable writers, John Kondylakis, Pandelis Preve-
popular variant played by four or, occasionally, by three,
sumble
lakis, and the internationally known Nikos Kazantzakis.
is evident from two facts: few changes have been made
Two of Kazantzakis' finest works are specifically Cretan:
in the original rules, and it remains one of the most popu-
Freedom or Death, a novel about one of the island's 19th-
lar of all card games. In Great Britain, during the four
century revolts, and Zorba the Greek, whose hero has be-
years prior to 1970, the "Card Corner" in News of the
come the epitome of the Cretan spirit.
World had more requests for information on Cribbage
The folk element. Cretans are less attached to their
than for any other game. A 1970 appraisal indicated
ancient past than to Byzantine-Orthodox culture and
little overlap between devotees of Bridge and those of
their popular traditions: icons and sacred ground, name
Cribbage. In the United States, Cribbage is played by
days and feast days, lore about spirits and vampires,
more than 10,000,000 people, principally across the
legends about the centuries of struggle against foreign
northern states, from New England to the Pacific, and
occupiers, mantinades (rhymed couplets in song), and
the game has remained popular in Canada as well.
palikhari (brigand-chieftains in folklore). Occasionally,
The game of Cribbage (earlier spelled Cribbidge) was
high and popular culture join, as with the Erotókritos,
invented by the English poet Sir John Suckling (1609-42).
which is still recited, or with The Song of Daskaloyiannis,
Although Cribbage quite clearly developed from Noddy,
a late 18th-century poem about another revolt. But on
an older game for which a special scoring board also was
Crete, as elsewhere, this popular culture is slowly disap-
used, it appears to be the only existing game in its family.
pearing as the elderly die off. Some men still dress in
Cribbage would quite likely have become the most popu-
boots, baggy pantaloons, sash, and embroidered vest and
lar of all two-hand card games if so many descriptions
have a proverb or superstition for everything. Old motifs
had not called the Cribbage board indispensable, which
are embroidered into rugs, shoulder bags, or bridal linens,
it is not.
and there have been conscious attempts at folklore re-
Almost the only big change from the original rules is
vivals. But the true Cretan spirit must survive naturally,
that in modern two-hand Cribbage each player is dealt
in village festivals or in cafés, where people sing and
six cards instead of five, as played originally.
dance to old tunes spontaneously.
Scoring. Scoring is traditionally called pegging, be-
The outlook. Crete today confronts the dilemmas of
cause it usually is done by moving pegs on a scoring de-
many underdeveloped, insular societies. Freed from for-
vice, the Cribbage board. This Cribbage board is essen-
Cribbage
eign threats, it now must deal with itself, though eco-
tially a tablet with 60 counting holes (in two rows of 30)
board
nomic advancement may seem indistinct from uniform-
for each player, plus one game hole for each, and often
ity. Its immediate prospects rest in its archaeological
extra holes for holding pegs when not in play and for
treasures and its beaches and in their imaginative and
keeping track of games won. Game is 121 (twice around
sensitive exploitation. Alongside these assets, wiser land
the board plus 1 for the game hole) or 61 in the less fre-
use and economic development rooted in native materi-
quently played game of Once Around. Each player has
als, skills, and patterns could resolve the problem. With
two pegs, and each scoring point is marked by jumping
accompanying restraint, development's ill effects may be
the rearmost peg ahead of the other (thus showing at a
avoided and Crete may well emerge a robust yet modern
glance the number of points scored on a move as well
as the total). Scores must be pegged in order (see below
Natured
society.
The showing), because the first player to reach 121 (or
Cretan
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most accessible general surveys of
61) or, in some games, to pass it is the winner. Emphasis
politics
Crete are JOHN S. BOWMAN, Crete, rev. and enl. ed. (1969);
on the board as a scoring device created the idea that the
R.W. HUTCHINSON, Prehistoric Crete (1962); and RAYMOND
MATTON, La Crète au cours des siècles (1957). For the Mi-
game could not be played without it, but, the score can
noan world, see ARTHUR J. EVANS, The Palace of Minos, 6 vol.
be kept with pencil and paper or with chips or other
(1921-36), is still the seminal (but unwieldy) work. More
counters; indeed, keeping score by discarding counters
a Dictionary of the Second would
Crete, German Invasion of 115
War
mander of the Canadian 1st Army which
until General Student* of the Fliegerkorps
Tank See Crusader Tank.
fought throughout the Allied campaign in
impressed upon him the feasibility of a
nglish manufacturing centre for
Northwest Europe' during 1944-5. A
purely airborne* operation. The plan was
vociferous opponent of Canadian iso-
approved on 21 April as Operation Mer-
munitions and military ve-
entry was subjected to a heavy
lationism and promoter of programmes for
cury, commanded by General Löhr, and it
raid (code-named Moonlight
the development of Canadian forces based
involved 13,000 paratroops, 9,000 moun-
449 bombers on 15 November
in Britain, Crerar resigned as Chief of the
tain troops, 500 warplanes, 500 transports
raid left much of the city de-
General Staff in 1941 to organize the UK
and 80 gliders.
luding the historic cathedral,
training of 100,000 Canadians of the 1st
On the morning of 20 May, after sus-
es of over 1,000 dead or severely
Canadian Corps. Following active service
tained bombing, 3,000 Germans para-
ie recent charge that the raid
with the Corps in Sicily* and Italy*, Crerar
chuted into Crete, detailed to take the
returned to Britain to form the Canadian
three main airfields in the north (Máleme,
precast by Ultra* intelligence
unchallenged because of fears
1st Army (which at times included also
Heraklion and Retimo) and secure the
: the existence of the Enigma*
Dutch, Polish, Belgian, US, British and
nearby beaches. They were to be progress-
vice remains unproven.
Czech elements) for the invasion of Nor-
ively reinforced by air, and heavy artillery
mandy' in June 1944. After directing the
was to arrive by sea. The plan did not go
HMS Although at the start of
battle at Argentan-Falaise* and fighting in
well. Large numbers of men were cut down
Royal Navy* could (and did)
the Pas de Calais, the Scheldt and in the
in the air or killed on landing, the artillery
ngth of 64 cruisers, 27 of these
Netherlands", Crerar took command of the
failed to arrive and none of the airstrips
W1 design and not one of the
bulk of the 21st Army Group forces (over
were taken on the first day. Nevertheless
500,000 men) for the offensive against the
German airborne reinforcements were
ordered in 1936 had been com-
Lower Rhine, begun in February 1945. He
poured in, and the quality of those that got
ran cruisers were generally suit-
r the protection of trade routes,
retired in 1946.
through was a telling factor.
the light 'C' Class vessels were
The capture of an airfield was vital to
is anti-aircraft* ships between
Crete, German Invasion of The island of
the Germans if troop transports were to
942. The first of these was the
Crete, dominating sea routes to the Eastern
land before the parachute force was wiped
hunched in 1917 and sunk by
Mediterranean and within flying range of
out. Only at Máleme in the northwest had
"Tobruk" in September 1942.
North Africa, had been occupied by the
much progress been made by the end of the
A (1939) Displacement: 4, 190
British in October 1940 as a forward base
first day, and there the assault regiment was
asions: o/a lgth - 451' 6", b -
for possible operations in the Balkans. After
engaged in fierce fighting with New Zealand
d: 29 knots; Armament: 10
the rout of the British force in Greece in
troops. On the night of 20-21 May,
(10 1), 8 X 2pdr AA gun.
April 1941, large numbers of battle-weary,
Student decided to send in his last para-
underequipped troops were evacuated to
chute reserves in an attempt to take the
erman Tank; Special-purpose
Crete and General Freyberg*, in command
strip. Let down by poor communications,
of the island, prepared to meet an antici-
the defenders withdrew to regroup over-
pated German invasion with a swollen gar-
night, and the next day the Luftwaffe*
Admiral Sir John G. (1887-
rison of 28,000 men plus two Greek
was able to start landing reinforcements in
h commander of Pacific Task
divisions (see Balkans, German invasion
quantity - if hardly in comfort.
n Australian naval squadron
of). With only two dozen fighter planes,
The capture of Máleme was the decisive
ipated in the important actions
the same number of infantry tanks', scant
moment in the battle. The build-up of
Sea" in 1942 and patrolled the
anti-aircraft* defences and a lack of short-
German strength in the area soon began to
tip of New Guinea", narrowly
range radios, Crete was ill-equipped to face
push the British back into the mountains.
ting by Japanese aircraft. Crace
an attack from the air. Freyberg, however,
The Royal Navy struggled to control coastal
ne same year, but remained
regarded such an operation as impracticable
waters under severe pressure from the Luft-
rintendent of HM Dockyard
and dispersed his defences to meet a sea-
waffe, and was forced to withdraw from the
til 1946. He was promoted to
borne invasion.
northern approaches on 24 May. Re-
945.
Hitler recognized that Royal Navy' su-
inforcements could not be spared from the
premacy in the area ruled out an assault by
Desert War* in North Africa and on 26
eral Henry (1888-1965) Dis-
sea, and intended to break off the Balkan
May, with over 20,000 Germans extending
nd highly able Canadian com-
campaign at the southern coast of Greece
their positions on the island, Freyberg de-
116 Crimea, The
cided the position was hopeless and ordered
of German and Rumanian troops, broke
Labour's accession to Chamber
a retreat to the southern port of Sfakia. For
through and poured onto the peninsula,
¡CY of appeasement of the Eur
four nights from 28 May, the Royal Navy
aiming towards the Kerch peninsula in the
rators, but was recalled by Ch
rescued as many of the defenders as poss-
east and Sevastopol in the southwest. On
lead a mission to Moscow in 19
ible, suffering heavy losses in the process.
17 December, an attack was launched on
led the unsuccessful British miss
Three cruisers and six destroyers were sunk,
Sevastapol*, but Soviet amphibious* at-
in 1942 to win Indian support fc
and 13 other ships badly damaged - includ-
tacks on Kerch diverted German attention
war effort, in return for pron
ing the fleet's only aircraft carrier - and
from the city, forcing Manstein to fight a
autonomy after the war (
more than 2,000 seamen were killed.
bitter series of battles to clear the Kerch
Nationalism). On his return to
About 16,500 men were evacuated, includ-
peninsula, which cost the Russians two
briefly held a post in the W
ing some 2,000 Greeks, but 12,000 British
whole armies and was not completed until
before becoming Minister of t
troops were left behind and captured, with
mid-May 1942. Detaching a corps to guard
duction. In July 1945 he becar
over 4,000 more killed or wounded.
the Kerch peninsula, Manstein now turned
lor of the Exchequer in Attle
German overall losses were smaller -
back to Sevastopol (garrisoned by over
Cabinet.
4,000 killed, 2,000 wounded and 220 air-
100,000 Soviet troops) with a five-day pre-
craft destroyed - but they were significant,
liminary air and artillery bombardment fol-
Crocodile See Special-purpos
seriously weakening Hitler's only parachute
lowed by a ground attack which made deep
and glider units. General Student's long-
penetrations to the north and south of the
Cromwell Tank In 1941 the
cherished plans for a series of similar attacks
city by 17 June. Effectively encircled, the
General Staff ordered a 'h
towards Suez were never sanctioned.
Sevastopol forces were withdrawn by
tank', to be known as the (
Shocked by the audacity of the operation,
evacuation at the end of June. On 4 July,
replace the vulnerable Crusad
the British awaited a follow-up in Cyprus*,
Manstein announced the official occu-
land company had planned a
Malta* or Syria' - but it didn't come.
pation of the city, for which he was made
the powerful Rolls Royce M
Instead Hitler concentrated on the Eastern
a Field Marshal.
tuned aircraft engine, and this
Front* and never again attempted a large-
In November 1943, following the disas-
for production. Until Mete
scale airborne invasion.
trous German defeats at Stalingrad* and
spared, it was powered by a I
Kursk, General Tolbukhin's' drive along
and named the Cavalier. Th
Crimea, The Peninsula of southwestern
the northern shores of the Sea of Azov*
vice in mid-1942, and was
Russia, strategically important because of
and the Black Sea cut off German and
as the Centaur. About 950
its proximity to the Black Sea and the
Rumanian forces in the Crimea. Although
Centaurs were built, althous
oil-rich Caucasus*, its capture was of pri-
Tolbukhin's drive was checked by the nar-
became Cromwells after et
mary importance to Hitler at the start of
rowness of the approaches, a dual assault
sion. Exhaustively tested, th
the German invasion of Russia (see Eastern
by his 4th Ukrainian Front* and Yer-
powered Cromwells were fi
Front). In August 1941, ignoring the exas-
emenko's' Coastal Army broke through
January 1943.
perated protests of his General Staff, whom
into the Crimea at the beginning of April
The opportunity for action
he claimed 'knew nothing about the econ-
1944. Heavy artillery attacks on the Ger-
until the invasion of Normar
omic aspects of war', Hitler denied the
man 17th Army at Sevastopol itself began
time the Cromwell's 75mm
necessity for maintaining sole momentum
on 5 May. The sheer power of the attack,
matched by the best Gerr
on the central front aimed at Moscow', to
using twice the field artillery* employed
Although close support versi
pursue his obsessional interest in the south,
by the Germans in 1942, resulted in its
were equipped with a 95mm
diverting troops and armoured forces from
surrender (against Hitler's orders) on 12
Cromwell's narrow hull pre
the central advance on the Russian capital
May, with 12 German and Rumanian div-
upgunning. Nevertheless the
to the southern objectives of the Crimea,
isions destroyed and 25,000 prisoners
a fast and agile tank, rem:
the Donets basin coalfields and the Cauc-
taken.
maintain. Alongside the
asus oilfields.
Sherman', it formed the m
Thus on 20 October 1941, German
Cripps, Sir Stafford (1889-1952) British
of British armoured divisio
forces launched an attack on Soviet lines
Socialist, Labour Party politician, Am-
year of the war and was I
across the five-mile wide gateway to the
bassador to Russia 1940-2 and Minister of
Allied infantry breakthroug!
Crimea, the Perekop Isthmus. Ten days
Aircraft Production 1942-5. Cripps had
Europe". Several thousand
later, Manstein's' 11th Army, consisting
resigned from the Party in protest at
been completed when prod
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
CDR Harphere XO
Ken Rose
Dewert
CDR TOM MYERS Co
LCDR KEN ROSE XO
Departed Charleston SC
5/29
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002
COMMAVSURFLANT PAO
Jul 1 3,91 10:49 No.002 P.02
UNITED STATES NAVY
*
USE DE WERT (FFG 45)
WELCOME
ABOARD
USS DE WERT WE
COAUNA
FFG 45
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COMNAVSURFLANT PAO
Jul 3.91 10:50 No. 002 P.03
COMMANDER JOHN E. MEYERS
UNITED STATES NAVY
A native of Toledo, Ohio, Commander John E. Meyers graduated
from the U.S. Naval Academy with a B.S. in mathematics and was
commissioned in 1972.
His initial assignment was in USS MACDONOUGH (DDG-37) as
First Lieutenant. He then participated in the recommissioning of the
USS WILLIAM V. PRATT (DDG-44) as Ordnance Officer and com-
pleted his division officer tour as PRATT'S Fire Control Officer.
Commander Meyers attended the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School
from 1976-1978, where he received a Master of Science degree in
Electrical Engineering. His subsequent tours included commissioning
Operations Officer and Combat Systems Officer of the USS DEYO
(DD-989): Flag Secretary, Commander Cruiser Destroyer Group Two:
and Commissioning Executive Officer, USS CARR (FFG-52). He
served as Assistant for Surface Programs in the office of the Assistant
Secretary of the Navy, Research, Engineering and Systems, in 1987
and 1988. He graduated from the National War College in 1989.
His awards include the Meritorious Service Medal, the Navy Com-
mendation and Achievement Medals. In addition, he is authorized to
wear the Meritorious Unit Citation and various theater and service
medals.
Commander Meyers is married to the former Petra C. Francis of
Guben, Germany. The Meyers have two sons, Andrew and Christopher.
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COMNAVSURFLANT PAO
GUIDED MISSILE FRIGATE
USS DE WERT (FFG 45)
Built by
Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine
Keel Laid
14 June 1982
Launched
18 December 1982
Commissioned
19 November 1983
Length
453 Feet
Beam
45 Feet
Displacement
3600 Tons
Complement
15 Officers, 186 Men
Armament
MK-15 Close-In Weapons System
MK-13 Guided Missile Launcher
- Harpoon (Anti-Surface Missile)
- Standard (Anti-Air Missile)
MK-75 76MM Rapid Fire Gun
MK-32 Torpedo Tubes (two triple mounts)
Combat Systems
AN/SPS-49 Air Search Radar
AN/SPS-55 Surface Search Radar
MK-92 Fire Control System
AN/SI.Q-32 Electronic Warfare System
AN/SQS-56 Digital Sonar
SRBOC ("CHAFF") Decoy System
Naval Tactical Data System
Propulsion
Two General Electric LM 2500 Gas Turbines
(40,000SHP)
Two 360 HP Electric Auxilliary Propulsion Units
Maximum Speed
Greater Than 28 Knots
Aircraft
Two SH-60B Seahawks or Two SH-2F Seasprites
THE SHIELD
Dark blue and gold are the colors of the Navy. The scarlet cross, edged in
gold, represents Richard De Wert's service as a Hospitalman with U.S.
Marine Corps. The anchor and globe are adapted from the marine corps
emblem, and also symbolize the world-wide mission of the ship. The taeguk
superimposed thereon denotes De Wert's service in Korea, where he gave his
life.
THE CREST
The crest commemorates Richard De Wert's conspicuous gallantry. for
which he was awarded the Medal of Honor, represented by the reversed light
blue star. The four rays, for hope, represent the four times De Wert
courageously exposed himself to enemy fire to save his wounded shipmates.
The small stars represent valor; the sprigs of oak, strength. The ship's motto
"Daring, Dauntless, Defiant" expresses the courageous sacrifice of De Wert,
and serves as an inspiration to the men who man the warship named in his
honor.
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COMNAVSURFLANT PAO
RICHARD DE WERT
Richard De Wert was born in Tauton, Massachusetts on 17
November 1931. He enlisted in the U.S. Navy on 2 December 1948 at
the Naval Recruiting Station, Boston. After basic training at the
Naval Training Station, Great Lakes, Illinois, he attended the U.S.
Naval Hospital Corps School at the same location. His initial
assignment was to the Naval Hospital, Portsmouth, Virginia.
On 28 July 1950, Hospitalman De Wert joined the 1st Medical
Battalion, 1st Marine Division, Fleet Marine Force, at Camp
Pendlcton, California, which deployed to Korea. On 17 December, he
landed at Inchon and assisted in the activation of the division
hospital. Within a fortnight he took part in the liberation of SEOUL,
the South Korean capital.
On 6 March 1951, after participation in serveral combat
operations, De Wert was transferred to the 2nd Battalion, 7th
Marines. On the morning of 5 April, "D" Company was advancing
up a ridge against stubborn resistance from Chinese Communist
Forces. A marine from the company's point platoon was wounded,
and fell in an exposed position. De Wert unhesitatingly rushed
forward, treated the man's wounds, and carried him to safety. He
then immediately answered a second call for aid, although himself
wounded in the leg.
Ignoring his injury, and despite the warnings of his shipmates,
De Wert moved forward a third time through intense enemy gunfire.
Wounded a second time, in the shoulder, De Wert arrived to find the
marine already dead. Hearing the call of a fourth comrade, De Wert
again ignored his own wounds and bravely moved through the
exposed area. While tending to the fourth marine. De Wert was killed
by a burst of enemy machine gun fire.
Hospitalman Richard De Wert was posthumously awarded the
Medal of Honor, which was presented to his mother, Mrs. Evelyn H.
De Wert, by the Secretary of the Navy, Dan A. Kimball on 27 May
1952.
USS DE WERT (FFG 45) is the first ship to bear his name.
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Jul 3,91 10:52 No. 002 P.06
THE MISSION
uss DE WERT is a guided missile frigate of the Oliver Hazard Perry
(FFG 7) class. The ship was designed with a wartime mission as a
multi-purpose escort vessel for the protection of amphibious groups,
convoys. and underway replenishment forces. In peacetime, Perry class
ships are also employed as escorts in deploying battle groups.
In conjunction with the reduced manning concept, the ship operates
highly automated equipment in the areas of combat systems, navigation,
ship control, propulsion, and ship support. In summary, the Perry class
frigate Is fully prepared to conduct quick reaction anti-air, anti-surface,
and anti-submarine operations whenever and wherever called upon.
45
USS DE WERT (FFG 45)
NPPSO CHASN 0090/78 (Rev. 3-90)
007
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NAVY NEWS RELEASE
Public Affairs Office
NAVAL BASE, CHARLESTON, S. C. 29408+5100
USS DEYO AND USS DEWERT DEPLOY
MAY 28, 1991
RELEASE # 58-91
Two Charleston-based ships will leave their homeport
Thursday for did regularly scheduled deployment to the
Mediterrancan Sea with the USS Forrestal aircraft carrier
battle group.
The dostroyer USS Deyo (DD-989) and the guided missile
frigate. UBB DeWert (FFG-45) had been scheduled to deploy with
the same battle group earlier this year, however, the
deployment was postponed because of the end of hostilities with
Iraq.
The battle group will be commanded by Rear Adm. Walter J.
Davis Jr., Commander, Carrier Group Six, from Mayport, Fla.
This will be the last deployment for the USS Forrestal.
It is schoduled to become the Navy's training aircraft carrier,
replacing the USS Lexington.
-30-
Note to News Editors: Media representatives are encouraged to
cover the departure from vantage points along the Cooper River.
USS Deyo and USS DeWert are expected to pass under the Cooper
River Bridge at approximately 9:45 a.m. and 10:15 a.m.,
respectively.
repel an attack. Early in the action he was wounded, but refused
evacuation and despite enemy fire continued to move among his men
checking their positions and making sure that each element was
prepared to receive the next attack. Again wounded, he continued to
direct his men. By his inspiring leadership he encouraged them to hold
their position. In the subsequent fighting when the fanatical enemy
succeeded in penetrating the position, he personally charged them with
carbine, rifle, and grenades, inflicting many casualties until he himself
was mortally wounded. His men, spurred on by his intrepid example,
repelled this final attack. Capt. Desiderio's heroic leadership, cou-
rageous and loyal devotion to duty, and his complete disregard for per-
sonal safety reflect the highest honor on him and are in keeping with
the esteemed traditions of the U.S. Army.
*DEWERT, RICHARD DAVID
Rank and organization: Hospital Corpsman, U.S. Navy. Hospital
Corpsman attached to Marine infantry company, 1st Marine Division.
Place and date: Korea, 5 April 1951. Entered service at: Taunton, Mass.
Birth: Taunton, Mass. Citation: For conspicuous gallantry and in-
trepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while
serving as a HC, in action against enemy aggressor forces. When a fire
team from the point platoon of his company was pinned down by a
deadly barrage of hostile automatic weapons fired and suffered many
casualties, HC Dewert rushed to the assistance of 1 of the more seri-
ously wounded and, despite a painful leg wound sustained while
dragging the stricken marine to safety, steadfastly refused medical
treatment for himself and immediately dashed back through the fire-
swept area to carry a second wounded man out of the line of fire. Un-
daunted by the mounting hail of devastating enemy fire, he bravely
moved forward a third time and received another serious wound in the
shoulder after discovering that a wounded marine had already died.
Still persistent in his refusal to submit to first aid, he resolutely an-
swered the call of a fourth stricken comrade and, while rendering
medical assistance, was himself mortally wounded by a burst of enemy
fire. His courageous initiative, great personal valor, and heroic spirit of
self-sacrifice in the face of overwhelming odds reflect the highest
credit upon HC Dewert and enhance the finest traditions of the U.S.
Naval Service. He gallantly gave his life for his country.
DEWEY, DUANE E.
Rank and organization: Corporal, U.S. Marine Corps Reserve, Com-
pany E, 2d Battalion, 5th Marines, 1st Marine Division (Rein). Place
and date: Near Panmunjon, Korea, 16 April 1952. Entered service at:
Muskegon, Mich. Born: 16 November 1931, Grand Rapids, Mich. Cita-
tion: For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life
above and beyond the call of duty while serving as a gunner in a
machinegun platoon of Company E, in action against enemy aggressor
forces. When an enemy grenade landed close to his position while he
and his assistant gunner were receiving medical attention for their
wounds during a fierce night attack by numerically superior hostile
forces, Cpl. Dewey, although suffering intense pain, immediately pulled
the corpsman to the ground and, shouting a warning to the other
739
VOLUME 13
Goethe to Hearst
THEENCYCLOPEDIA
AMERICANA
I INTERNATIONAL EDITION
COMPLETE IN THIRTY VOLUMES
FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1829
GROLIER INCORPORATED
International Headquarters: Danbury, Connecticut 06816
Salonika
em Aeg
tinople).
and poi
through
intersect
lows th
the Dar
rope. If
constitut
islands
the Aeg
armies, I
have ser
Creeks
natively,
Cultur
ingenuity
this basi
people h.
the outsic
history h
peoples a
BERNARD G. SILBERSTEIN, FROM RAPHO GUILLUME"
The centuries-old Parthenon, crowning the ancient Acropolis, overlooks the modern city of Athens.
borrowing
lending.
During
absorbed
GREECE
In world politics Greece is a member of the
Western bloc. A member of the Council of Eu-
mian and
rope, Greece joined the North Atlantic Treaty
Minoan S
Organization (NATO) in 1952 and the European
Mycenaea
the Iliad
Economic Community (EEC), or Common Mar-
ket, as an associate member in 1962. In its re-
Dorian CO
lations with its immediate neighbors, since
around 11
World War II Greece has experienced periods
Asia Mino
of strain. With its three Communist neighbors
and points
to the north, who helped the Communists 3
this expan
classical
Greece during the Greek civil war of 1944-1949
the strain has been ideological. But there have
achieveme
Alexander
also been long-standing territorial issues. Greece
Greeks acc
still claims northern Epirus, or southern Albania
Yugoslavia has cast longing eyes on Greek Mace
em Subsequ domina
donia; and Bulgaria has claimed Thrace as well
as Macedonia. Nonetheless, since 1948, rela-
their conq
tions with Yugoslavia have ranged from proper
man period
to cordial, and in 1965 diplomatic relations with
dominion
Bulgaria were fully restored. Turkey, a member
of the Western bloc, is formally allied with
ev
Greece as a comember of NATO. But in the
Coat of Arms of Greece
mid-1950's the issue of the status of Cypr
two occasions after that almost precipitate
form of CI
CONTENTS
war. Due to the sizable Greek communities
the Middle East and the influence of the Green
Byzantium tinuation portant Cyrillic), philosophic good In the
01
5th century
revived historic Greco-Turkish hostility, and (if
Section
Page
Section
Page
Orthodox Church there, Greece maintains cord
Slavs (Russ
Modern Greece
Ancient Greece
1. The People
relations with both Israel and the Arab states
362
8. History of Greece
2. The Land and Natural
to 330 A. D.
389
Geographical Influences. Geography has always
Tarks, but
were conq
Resources
364
9. Archaeology
404
had a great influence on the Greeks and is
3. The Economy
366
10. Art and Archi-
4. Education
370
sponsible for many of the continuities of the
ard broug
tecture
409
5. Sites of Tourist
11. Literature
418
long history. The mountains that chop up
Interest
371
12. Classical Music
Greek lands have contributed to localism
and
425
6. History and Govern-
13. Science
The
500 contin
426
ment Since 330 A. D.
372
14. Religion and
have been a major barrier to national unity.
that had
7. Modern Culture
380
Mythology
429
difficulties of communication by land and
presence of the sea have made mariners out
Ortoman ru
However, a in
some Greeks in every age. The limited nature
resources of the Greek lands have always ensured
mpact of
GREECE is a small country located in the south-
ern part of the Balkan Peninsula. One of the
a steady flow of Greeks to richer lands. Finalls
them a new I
world's greatest civilizations once flourished there.
the position of the Greek lands in the eastern Asa
are pendence
The modern state occupies not only the south-
and Africa, has made them a bridge between
Mediterranean basin, in close proximity to
Creeks hav
ern end of the Balkan Peninsula but also the
periods of
Ionian Islands, lying off its west coast; the large
east and west, north and south.
island of Crete, to the south; and, except for
The natural land bridges are two. The lateral the
en the at
Imbros (Turkish Imroz) and Tenedos (Turkish
route, along which the Romans once built of
Bozcaada), all the main Aegean islands, including
famous Via Egnatia, runs from the Albanian
sation-state, while remai
Rhodes.
of Durrës (Durazzo) on the Adriatic coast
360
GREECE
361
and then along the north-
the Aegen (formerly Constan-
INFORMATION HIGHLIGHTS
E runs from Athens
farther south, in the Peloponnesus,
through eastern part of the Greek mainland,
Official Name: Hellenic Republic.
the lateral route at Salonika, and fol-
Head of State: President.
entersects Axios-Vardar-Morava river valley to
Head of Government: Premier.
bus the Danube River and thence into central Eu-
Area: 50,960 square miles (131,986 sq km).
In addition to the land routes, the sea
Boundaries: North, Albania, Yugoslavia, and Bul-
highway, with the numerous
garia; east, Turkey; southeast, Aegean Sea;
stepping-stones, especially in
south, Mediterranean Sea; and west, Adriatic
Aegean. These natural routes, along which
Sea.
armies, the merchants, goods, and ideas could travel,
Highest Point: Mt. Olympus (9,573 feet, or 2,917
served as channels through which the
Live Greeks could extend their influence or, alter-
meters).
catively, receive the influence of others.
Population: (1981 census) 9,740,151; (1971 census)
Cultural Influences. Because of their curiosity,
8,768,641.
egenuity, and gregariousness, as well as for
Capital: Athens (population, 1981 census: 885,136;
this basic geographic reason, the Greeks as a
Athens Metropolitan Area, 3,027,331).
never developed in isolation from
Major Language: Greek (official).
world. Their long and distinguished
Major Religious Groups: Eastern Orthodox (97%);
history has always been tied to that of other
Muslim (1.3%).
BERSTEIN, FROM RAPHO GUILLUNETTE
peoples and cultures, with periods of cultural
Monetary Unit: Drachma (1 drachma equals 100
borrowing alternating with periods of cultural
lepta).
city of Athens.
lending. During the 2d millennium B. C. the Greeks
Weights and Measures: Metric system.
Flag: White cross extending full length and height
is a member of the
shsorbed the influences of the older Mesopota-
of the flag on a light blue field (adopted June
of the Council of Ea
mian and Egyptian civilizations through the
North Atlantic Treaty
Minoan society of Crete and produced the
1975 to replace flag with nine white stripes).
1952 and the European
Mycenaean civilization that was celebrated in
National Anthem: Ethnikos Hymnos (Hymn of
the Iliad and the Odyssey. After absorbing the
Liberty), written by Dionysios Solomos, set to
(EEC), or Common Mar-
mber in 1962. In its re-
Dorian conquerors who descended from the north
music by Nicholas Mantzaros.
ediate neighbors, since
around 1100 B. c., the Greeks colonized western
has experienced periods
Asia Minor (Ionia), the Black Sea coast, Sicily,
and points farther west in the Mediterranean. In
Communist neighbon
this expanded Greek world, they developed the
European countries. It achieved independence in
the Communists in
classical civilization that culminated in the
1830, after a decade of revolution, but with
civil war of 1944-1949,
eological. But there have
achievements of 5th century Athens. Under
only about one third its present territory and
Alexander the Great in the 4th century B. C. the
with a majority of Greeks still under Ottoman
territorial issues. Greece
Greeks acquired an empire extending to India.
rule. Relatively poor in natural resources, it
or southern Albania;
Subsequently, the Greeks fell under the west-
has had a stormy history ever since. Until the
eyes on Greek Mace-
em domination of Rome, but culturally they took
years immediately following World War I, irre-
claimed Thrace as well
their conquerors captive. During this same Ro-
dentism preoccupied the people, limited internal
heless, since 1948, rela.
man period, they fell under the eastern spiritual
development of the country, and poisoned Greek-
have ranged from proper
dominion of Christianity, but gave it a Greek
Turkish relations.
diplomatic relations with
philosophical formulation that has remained im-
Since independence, political disunity and
Turkey, a member
portant ever since. To Byzantium, the con-
financial crises have been endemic in Greece,
is formally allied with
tinuation of the Eastern Roman Empire after the
leading to continuous interference and domina-
of NATO. But in the
6th century A. D., they gave their language and
tion by one or more of the world powers. Though
of the status of Cyprus
1 good part of their cultural heritage. Through
Greece has been a monarchy, except for the
Turkish hostility, and on
Byzantium, they radiated the Greek Orthodox
period 1925-1935, the first dynasty was deposed
that almost precipitated
form of Christianity, a modified Greek alphabet
in 1862, and in the 20th century three kings,
Greek communities in
Cyrillic), and other cultural influences to the
including King Constantine in 1967, suffered
he influence of the Greek
Slavs (Russians, Bulgarians, and Serbs).
exile at some point in their reigns. Coups d'etat
Greece maintains cordial
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Greeks
in response to political crises have not been
and the Arab states.
were conquered from the east by the Ottoman
infrequent.
Geography has always
Turks, but in the process Greeks fleeing west-
Peace and prosperity have seldom been en-
on the Greeks and is re-
ward brought to the Renaissance West whatever
joyed by modern Greece for long. In the 20th
the continuities of their
classical Greek learning the West had not already
century the country was almost continuously at
untains that chop up the
absorbed. The long period of Ottoman domina-
war from 1912 to 1923 and again from 1940 to
tributed to localism and
bon continued the flow of Oriental influences
1949. It fought on the Allied side in World Wars
to national unity. The
that had also taken place in Byzantine times.
I and II. Between the two wars, Greece was
by land and the
However, in the 18th century, while still under
especially unstable. The struggle between mon-
made mariners out of
Ottoman rule, the Greeks began to feel the first
archists and republicans was bitter; the country
age. The limited natural
impact of modern Western civilization. It gave
faced the immense task of assimilating more than
lands have always ensured
them a new appreciation of their classical heri-
one million Greek refugees from Turkey and
to richer lands. Finally,
tage and intensified their desire for national in-
Bulgaria; and population growth outstripped
lands in the eastem
dependence. Thus, since the 15th century, the
economic progress. The Greeks suffered severe
in close proximity to Asia
Greeks have been in one of their receiving
hardships under Axis occupation during World
them a bridge between
periods of history. Modern Greek history has
War II and barely escaped Communist domina-
south.
are two. The lateral
been the attempt of the Greeks to Westernize
tion during the long and bitter civil war of
while remaining true to themselves.
1944-1949. Only since the 1950's have the
Romans once built the
Independent Greece. Greece, as an independent
Greeks enjoyed relative peace and a degree of
from the Albanian city
nation-state, is much younger than many other
prosperity.
on the Adriatic coast to
362
GREECE: 1. The People
Modern Greece
1. The People
Muslims, who were exempted from the compul-
sory exchange of populations with Turkey in
The names "Hellas" and "Hellenes," by which
1923: the Turkish-speaking descendants of Otto-
the Greeks refer to the country and themselves,
mans who settled there in the 14th century, and
originally designated a small district and tribe
the Pomaks, descendants of pre-Ottoman inhabi-
in Phthiotis. The name "Hellenes" was not ap-
tants who converted to Islam during the Ottoman
plied to the Greek people as a whole until the
period. The latter speak a dialect akin to
post-Homeric period. The word "Greek" is de-
Bulgarian.
OUTDOOR CAFÉS along the
rived from the Latin term "Graecus."
Language. Greek is an Indo-European lan-
voterfront of Mykonos provid.
What defines a Greek historically is his lan-
guage using a 24-letter alphabet. The use of
9 cheerful welcome for tourist
guage and the culture it expresses, not his race.
Greek on the Greek mainland goes back to the
from the mainland of Greece, 0
Racially, the Greek people are a composite of the
early 2d millennium B.C. Modern Greek grew
ell as for foreign visitors
various peoples who have settled in the region
out of the popular Byzantine language, which in
over the centuries. That was probably true of
turn stemmed from the common language (Koine'
the classical Greeks, who were separated from
used throughout the Greek world at the time of
the original Greek-speaking inhabitants of the
Alexander the Great. Turkish, Slavic, Albanian.
region by at least 1,000 years. It is certainly
Italian, and French words enriched the idiom.
the case with the Greeks of today. In the 6th
The spoken form of the language (demotic
and the following centuries A. D., the Slavs set-
has become a rich and forceful literary medium.
tled in the Greek lands, as place-names in
Alongside it there exists a purist form Katha-
rose until the mid-1970's
Greece attest. They were followed in the Middle
revusa (Katharevousa), reconstructed at the be-
sharply. The chief recipie
Ages by Latins and Franks, Albanians and Turks.
ginning of the 19th century to accord more
States, Canada, Australia, a
But because of the remarkable ability of Greek
closely with ancient Greek. The latter is the
Urbanization. Concurrent
culture to assimilate intruders, by the dawn of
official language of state and is used by the
massive internal movement
the modern era the overwhelming majority of
government, press, and universities.
countryside to the cities.
those living in Greece still spoke Greek and
Religion. The Eastern Orthodox faith is the
of rural emigrants have been
identified themselves as Greeks.
official religion of Greece, though other faiths
Many other smaller cities
Greece today is linguistically one of the
are tolerated. The Orthodox faith is professed
share as well. As a result, in
most homogeneous nations of the world. Virtually
by 97% of the population. Orthodoxy has tradi-
mcluding the port of Pirae
the entire population speaks Greek. There are,
tionally commanded the loyalty of Greeks for
the country's total populati
however, various bilingual groups which together
spiritual reasons but also as a badge of national-
only 6% in 1920. Approxim.
make up almost 3% of the population. These in-
ity. Under Ottoman rule the Orthodox Church.
population is now classified
clude Albanian-speaking people in Epirus and
headed by the patriarch of Constantinople, exer-
with slightly less than one
Attica, a few Bulgarian-speaking Slavs on the
cised civil as well as spiritual powers. When the
etic building boom has tak
Macedonian border, and some nomads speaking a
Greeks achieved independence in 1830, the
sew urban residents. Gli
dialect of Rumanian called Vlach. These groups
church in Greece withdrew from the control of
partment buildings have
are all Orthodox Christian in faith. In Greek
the patriarch and became self-governing, of
of Athens and Salonika.
Thrace there are two distinct ethnic groups of
autocephalous. Ever since, it has been adminis.
Both population movem
tered by a holy synod of bishops, subject to the
ribution of the rural pop
control of the state, but it has maintained doc-
afertile hills and the ferti
HYDRA, an island in the Aegean Sea, has a sheltered
trinal unity with all other Orthodox churches
war, hill villages had bee
harbor that was once the center of a flourishing trade.
The chief primate of Greece is the archbishop of
herefore contained the
GEORGE HOLTON, FROM PHOTO RESEARCHERS
Athens. There is a married clergy, though onh
celibate priests may hold ranking positions within
ezment of Greek society.
rodus to the cities or to I
the hierarchy.
Among the religious minorities are the alread
tace from the hill villages
marginal. The population
mentioned Muslims of Greek Thrace, constitut-
land was amenable 1
ing about 1.3% of the population. There are
mined fairly stable.
also small communities of Roman Catholics
Besides drawing off a
mostly remnants of Venetian times; Protestants
products of 19th century missionary activity
stabitants, the city has
Armenian Monophysites; and Jews.
Population. The population of Greece, include ix
apers, 4 and a road system I
the countryside
the villages. The deci
ing the Greek islands, totaled 9,740,151 in
and which
1981 census. Since independence in 1830, it her
the Most
multiplied more than 12 times, whereas the are Ty
population density in 1981 was 191 persons total pre
Nature the city
profit rather than for
of land has increased less than three times.
square mile (74 persons per sq km) of the
1 to the
preferri
area, including the islands.
Greece suffered acutely from overpopulative
clothes
Since most villagers i
"pendent on the city
in the years following World War I.
one million refugees from
here
or abroad, their mer
had to be absorbed. Also,
immediate surroundi
taking place since the beginning of the century
restrictions cut off the
the poverty as an act 0
/
the population explosion that has characters
Since World War II, Greece has
:'m twen constantly dwelle
been abso:
more of life. Hov
many developing nations. But its
population growth was attributable in largerans
re 201. has retained at least
ties with the village
to renewed emigration. The number of
a impted from
in the 14th
is of pre-Ottoman inha!). ats.
Islam during the
beak a dialect Ottomakin 1:
CAFÉS
along
the
an Indo-European las.
provide
in alphabet. The use
for tourists
ainland goes back to i
Greece, as
intine language, which
C. Modern Greek grea the
90 - os for foreign visitors.
common language (Koitz at
reek world at the time
Turkish, Slavic, the idiam
ords enriched
the language (demotic)
PETER THROCKMORTON, FROM NANCY PALMER
forceful literary medium
ts a purist form Katha
until the mid-1970's and then declined
Social Structure. Social mobility has been a
century to accord more be
reconstructed at the
sharply. - The chief recipients were the United
marked feature of modern Greek society. There
Canada, Australia, and West Germany.
is no hereditary aristocracy. Wealth, education,
Creek. The latter is the
Urbanization. Concurrently, there has been a
and personal achievement have been the chief
ate universities. and is used by the
sussive internal movement of people from the
determinants of social class. In the rural areas
rn Orthodox faith is the
countryside to the cities. The chief recipients
there are no fully formed social classes. The
it rural emigrants have been Athens and Salonika.
major social division is that between landowning
'ece, though other faiths
Many other smaller cities have absorbed their
and landless peasants. But most villagers own
thodox faith is professed
share as well. As a result, in 1981, greater Athens,
at least some land, and disparities of wealth and
ion. Orthodoxy has tradi-
18 loyalty of Greeks for
scluding the port of Piraeus, contained 31% of
education are much less pronounced than in the
the country's total population, as compared with
cities.
in as a badge of national-
only 6% in 1920. Approximately half of the Greek
In urban Greece, social classes are distinguish-
ile the Orthodox Church,
population is now classified as urban, compared
able. The upper class consists of shipowners,
h of Constantinople, exer-
with slightly less than one third in 1928. A fre-
bankers, industrialists, and large-scale merchants.
iritual powers. When the
setic building boom has taken place to house the
It also includes men of influence who may not
pendence in 1830, the
new urban residents. Glistening, ultramodern
be wealthy, such as leading politicians, senior
drew from the control of
spartment buildings have transformed parts
military officers, and leaders in the professions
came self-governing, or
of Athens and Salonika.
and the arts, as well as self-made men who may
nce, it has been adminis-
Both population movements affected the dis-
not be educated. The middle class, a majority
of bishops, subject to the
tnbution of the rural population between the
of the urban population, has two distinct parts.
it it has maintained doc-
infertile hills and the fertile plains. Before the
The upper part includes professional people,
ther Orthodox churches.
war. hill villages had been overpopulated and
businessmen, officials, and senior executives. The
reece is the archbishop of
therefore contained the most poverty-striken
lower middle class is made up of clerks, junior
arried clergy, though only
segment of Greek society. Most of the postwar
civil servants, small merchants and shopkeepers,
d ranking positions within
exodus to the cities or to foreign countries took
craftsmen, and skilled workers. Finally, there
place from the hill villages where the land was
is the lower class of unskilled, factory workers,
minorities are the already
marginal. The population of the plains, where
drivers, and domestic servants.
Greek Thrace, constitut-
the land was amenable to mechanization, re-
Each social class has its own life-style. At
population. There are
mained fairly stable.
least the educated and second-generation mem-
'S of Roman Catholics,
Besides drawing off a portion of the rural
bers of the upper class generally speak English
netian times; Protestants,
mhabitants, the city has also extended its in-
or French fluently. They possess a cosmopolitan
tury missionary activity;
duence into the countryside through radio, news-
culture and indulge in conspicuous consumption.
and Jews.
papers, and a road system that reaches practically
The middle classes tend to be thrifty and ac-
ulation of Greece, includ-
all the villages. The decline of rural isolation
count for the remarkable growth of bank savings
totaled 9,740,151 in the
and self-sufficiency, which began before the war,
in Greece since World War II. The lower class,
ependence in 1830, it has
has been intensified. Most villages now produce
of limited education and often of recent rural
2 times, whereas the area
for profit rather than for mere subsistence, and
origin, tends to be much closer to the rural areas
'SS than three times. The
therefore rely on the city to absorb their sur-
in their style of life.
981 was 191 persons per
pluses. Villagers, preferring standardized ma-
Social Values and Way of Life. The family plays
S per sq km) of the total
chine-made goods to their often aesthetically
a crucial role in Greek society. A closely knit
nds.
superior homemade clothes and household items,
unit, extending beyond a married couple and
tely from overpopulation
are dependent on the city for many essentials.
their children to include relatives as well, it
World War I. More than
Since most villagers have relatives in the
commands a loyalty that overrides duty to other
om Turkey and Bulgaria
cities or abroad, their mental horizon transcends
groups. Only the nation, and that only in time
Also, foreign immigration
their immediate surroundings. They no longer
of crisis, can elicit equal devotion. Confidence
migration that had been
accept poverty as an act of God and accordingly
and trust, self-sacrifice. and even friendship are
beginning of the century.
expect more of life. However, since the cities
usually restricted to the circle of one's family.
Greece has been spared
have been constantly absorbing rural immigrants
Among Greeks who are not kinsmen, social obli-
n that has characterized
and because urban dwellers generally maintain
gations tend to be negative and marked by dis-
ns. But its low annual
close ties with the village of their origin, the
trust. Cultivation of land or the running of a
attributable in large part
city has retained at least some continuity with
business tends to be a family enterprise because
The number of emigrants
the past.
it allows men to pool their resources while sparing
363
THE ISLAND OF C
LOCAL CRAFTS attract
off the northwestern
shoppers to an outdoor
of Greece is one o
market in Sparta, which
country's most beo
lies just south of the scanty
islands. Its fertile
ruins of the ancient city.
produces olives and
HENRI CARTIER-BRESSON, FROM MAGNUM
them the necessity of working for nonkinsmen or
squares, parks, and boulevards for a walk, re-
part in the country
investing in larger enterprises beyond family con-
freshment, window-shopping, or just to see what
try, and urban poj
trol.
is going on.
the mainland at A.
The family is not just concerned with the up-
European-style clothing has universally re-
in maritime plains,
bringing of the children. Its ultimate concern
placed the traditional Greek garb, except for
manned chiefly by i.
is their marriage and honorable establishment.
ceremonial and tourist purposes. Traditional
vide timber, fodder.
Daughters generally receive dowries. Sons re-
dances, with several persons linked in a chain
sheep; the plains a
ceive equal portions of what remains either
or with two dancing opposite each other, still
and rice; and the
during the lifetime of the father or through in-
prevail in the countryside and some have been
wine, figs, vegetal
heritance. Family solidarity is a protective
revived in the dine-and-dance places (tavernas)
peaches, nuts, pasti
device against threats from the state or rival
of the cities. Some characteristically Greek
breed fish, especially
groups. However, it inhibits cooperative ven-
items of diet are egg-lemon soup (avgolemono).
The Mainland. Th
tures between unrelated families, such as com-
stuffed vine leaves, various sorts of lamb dishes.
em Greece, central (
munity action, labor unions, or farm cooperatives,
a soft white cheese (feta), honeyed pastry of
Thrace, Macedonia
and makes it difficult for the state to mobilize
various types, a white resinated wine (retsina).
northern Greece, are
the population as a whole for the pursuit of
an anise-flavored liqueur (ouzo), and demitasse
stuffs and large in
national goals.
coffee with a thick bottom of sediment.
Macedonia have larg
Concern for honor and desire for social repu-
Standard of Living. Following World War IL
drow excellent cerea
tation are deeply engrained attitudes among the
there was a general rise in the standard of
maintain cattle, while
Greeks, as they were in Homeric times. In the
living. Real per capita income rose from $180
st high levels with p
past, desire for social approval elicited the de-
in 1955 to more than $500 in 1966. To be sure.
and at lower levels W
gree of conformity that permitted the Greeks
inequalities among regions as well as groups
Apples, pears, and p
to retain their heritage under adverse conditions.
continue. Income levels in greater Athens are
the Pindus range, has
duced for export. E₁
In more recent times, however, it has been in-
far greater than those in the provinces. Yet
strumental in making Greeks adaptable to rapid
no important segment of Greek society has been
ducts, and, at Arta,
thre. It produces can
social change, once those with prestige have
excluded from this general improvement.
shown the way. The Greeks as a whole have
always been quick-witted and curious, freedom
reflected in dietary and
The rising standard living is perhaps wher
Sheep graze in the m (
a the lowlands in the
loving, and egalitarian in spirit. They admire
before World War II were among the lower
In central Gree
personal achievement, disdain manual labor, and
in Europe. However, the composition of the
**zion. 12 Cereals are
have a keen taste for intellectualism, discussion,
average Greek diet, though now more varied and
milks three large plain: 1-
and politics.
nutritional, still leaves much to be desired. The and
In spite of Westernization, the rhythm of
provide pasture. Tr
produce timber,
average life expectancy is about 69 years,
thief
daily life in Greece still bears distinctive features.
the country is free from endemic diseases.
Due to underemployment, the Greek farmer
JOHN A. PETROPULOS, Amherst Colleg
Fagasai) is the chief the
enjoys a great deal of leisure time, especially
2. The Land and Natural Resources
are
south the
during certain seasons of the year. He spends
most of it among exclusively male company in
Within Greece there are wide variations d
the village coffee house (cafeneion), talking,
climate. The northern areas have the hard winter
playing backgammon, or just observing. Though
and torrid summer of southern continental Er is
with small; its inden
rural women have less time for leisure, they do
rope; the peninsula and the islands have the
spend some of it in public, apart from the men,
short mild winter and long dry summer of are
they
the small Medite
at the village fountain or in the village church-
Mediterranean area. Also, the
yard.
much wetter than the eastern
In the cities, too, Greeks spend most of their
is much greener than Chios. Within each varir
at th
leisure time out-of-doors and in public. The
tions of climate, so that occupations and
the mountains and the sea provide minor food
and overla:
workday starts early in the morning and extends
into the early evening, but it is interrupted
stuffs are varied.
The western part
the Pelop
by a long siesta in the early afternoon, when
Greece is divisible into the and
vtolia mountainous.
offices and stores close. In the evening, after
work, Greeks come out in full force to the public
and plains, each of which plays a differed
the islands, and into highlands,
KETTI are barren
is relatively trae this
364
DE ISLAND OF CORFU
RAFTS
the northwestern coast
an outdeen afters
Greece is one beautiful of the
Sparta, which
quatry's
most
h of the sconcient
Its fertile soil
e city
produces blends. olives and fruits.
J. ALLAN CASH, FROM RAPHO GUILLUMETTE
r
a
walk,
gart
in the country's economy. Capital, indus-
Agrinion, where fine tobacco is grown and pro-
st to see what n.
and urban population are concentrated on
cessed. The southern coast facing the Gulf of
mainland at Athens and Salonika, situated
Corinth is generally rugged; Naupaktos and Itea
iniversally To
maritime plains, whereas Greek shipping is
are its chief ports.
b, except for
nunned chiefly by islanders. The highlands pro-
The Peloponnesus is entered via Megara, a
d in Traditional a chain
nde timber, fodder, and pasture, especially for
wine-producing area. Corinthia, Achaea, and
theep; the plains are rich in cereals, tobacco,
Elis grow most of the grapes for the currant
ch other, still
and rice; and the hill country provides olives,
and sultana raisins that Greece exports. The
me have been
wine, figs, vegetables, maize, apples, pears,
Isthmus Canal being little used, Corinth has be-
ces (taverna)
peaches, nuts, pasture, and charcoal. The seas
stically Greek
breed fish, especially the tunny, in great numbers.
of (avgolemono) lamb dishes
The Mainland. The mainland consists of north-
TERRACED HILLSIDES on the island of Aegina en-
Greece, central Greece, and the Peloponnesus.
able crops to be raised on otherwise unusable land.
eyed pastry of
em Thrace, Macedonia, and Epirus, constituting
ERICH HARTMANN, FROM MAGNUM
vine (retsina),
oorthern Greece, are relatively rich in basic food-
and demitasse
stuffs and large in population. Thrace and
ent.
Macedonia have large plains and coastal flats that
World War II,
grow excellent cereals, cotton, and tobacco, and
e standard
maintain cattle, while their mountains are forested
ose from $180
at high levels with pine, fir, beech, and chestnut,
6. To be sure,
and at lower levels with mixed deciduous timber.
vell as groups
Apples, pears, and peaches are increasingly pro-
ter Athens are
duced for export. Epirus, on the western side of
provinces. Yet
the Pindus range, has fewer plains and more pas-
ciety has been
ture. It produces cattle, sheep, maize, milk pro-
ment.
ducts, and, at Arta, olives, citrus fruits, and rice.
is perhaps best
Sheep graze in the mountains in the summer and
nditions, which
m the lowlands in the winter.
ong the lowest
In central Greece, Thessaly is the richest
position of the
region. Cereals are grown and stock pastured on
ore varied and
its three large plains, while the mountains and
e desired. The
hills produce timber, fruit, nuts, and olives, and
69 years, and
provide pasture. Trikkala and Larissa are the
iseases.
chief centers inland; Volos on the Gulf of Volos
Amherst College
Pagasai) is the chief port.
To the south the plains of Phocis and Boeotia
rces
are rich in wheat. Attica, with its light soil
le variations of
and Mediterranean climate, is suitable for the
the hard winter
culture of the olive; its cereal-producing plains
continental Eu-
are small; its indented coast is well wooded
lands have the
with the small Mediterranean pine. The Athens-
summer of the
Piraeus metropolitan area, linking plain and
estern areas are
coast together, is by far the largest center of
eas; thus Corfu
population in Greece. The political and cultural
hin each district
capital, it lies at the focal point of seaborne
de minor varia-
commerce and overland traffic between northern
tions and food-
Greece and the Peloponnesus.
The western part of central Greece is much
mainland and
more mountainous. Parts of Acarnania and
S, hill country,
Aetolia are barren tracts of limestone; the popula-
ays a different
tion is relatively thin, except in the plain of
365
The Serbian da.
Dusan in 1355,
captured Consta
the center of a
BYZANTINE EMP
MOUNT ATHOS is the site
The period
of 20 Eastern Orthodox
Greek history a
monasteries, many of which
from 1453. By
date from the 10th century.
forces had long
The monks still ban women
Greek mainland.
from their retreat, but
Balkan Peninsula
allow men tourists to visit.
Adrianople (Edi
in 1380 and Th
rest of the Gree
new invader. Al
to hold some isla
GREEK NATIONAL TOURIST OFFICE
the dominant pc
Ottoman state. I
6. History and Government Since 330 A. D.
dals, Ostrogoths, and Huns. From the 6th
vided into six san
through the 10th centuries Slavs, Bulgars, Avars.
Through the next
The modern Greek state, which was first
Cumans, and Pechenegs (Patzinaks) passed
under Ottoman rt
established in 1830, was deeply influenced by
through the land. In the 11th century the
culture and influe
the historical experiences of the Greek people in
Vlachs, a people related to the modern Ruma-
der Turkish rule
the two great empires-the Byzantine and the
nians, settled in Thessaly. In the 11th and 12th
Byzantium, a bacl
Ottoman-of which they had formed a part in the
centuries Normans, Venetians, and Crusaders
The Ottoman Sy
preceding centuries.
were the chief threat. In the 14th and 15th
Balkan Christians
centuries large-scale Albanian settlement occurred.
unique Ottoman S
BYZANTIUM
Of these peoples the Slavs (q.v.) had the
man eyes religion
In 285, in the reign of Diocletian, the Roman
most significant-and the most controversial-
basis of political d
Empire was divided into an eastern and a west-
permanent effect. Starting in the 6th century.
were free to join
ern half. In 330, Constantine established the
Slavic tribes moved into Macedonia, Epirus, and
Creeks only the (
ancient Greek city of Byzantium as the capital of
Thessaly; in 623 they reached Crete. They grad-
large numbers. o
the East and renamed it Constantinople-the city
ually settled in the area and adopted the Greek
a part of the rul
of Constantine. Thereafter, while the western
language.
deged position wit
half of the empire fell into chaos during the
Until the 11th century the chief menace to
to remain Christian
raids of the barbarian peoples, Constantinople
the Greek mainland came from the north and
and were governe
developed for 1,000 years as the center of the
east, either from the peoples mentioned before
which people wer.
great Byzantine Empire.
or from the Bulgarian empire. Thereafter, the
church. The Gree
Byzantine Culture. Although Byzantium rep-
principal danger came from the west, first from
part of the Ortho
resented a fusion of Greek and Latin elements,
the Normans, based in southern Italy, and then
Doups. They fell
Greek language, literature, and education were
from Venice, the rising commercial empire of the
patriarch of Cons
common to the entire state. The empire devel-
Mediterranean world. Most significant for Greek of
as an official in t}
oped a high culture and great commercial pros-
development, however, were the consequences
perity, and had command over a large stretch
the Fourth Crusade. In 1204 the Crusaders, un-
of territory in Europe and Asia. It was also the
der Venetian influence, diverted their attention
1
1
The
center from which Christianity spread into the
from the Muslim "infidels" to the great Christian
Balkans and eastern Europe; it was from By-
looted. The Venetians and the Western feuds
city of Constantinople, which they captured and
under the archbish
zantium that Kievan Russia was converted in the
tised with Greek
patriarch of Consta
10th century.
tine Empire among themselves. The Greek world the
lords thereafter portioned segments of the Byzan-
Despite the fact that the official language
was Greek, the empire was composed of many
both the mainland and the islands, now lost
unity that it had under the empire.
the local level the (
peoples; national consciousness in the modern
Some of the kingdoms established at this time
enjoyed a great de.
sense did not exist. Nevertheless, the Byzantine
eral.
Empire did preserve and transmit the Greek cul-
were of long duration, in particular the brincipal
tural heritage and the prestige and position of
ity of Achaea (1205-1432), founded the
Soi
Greek as the language of administration and
frey de Villehardouin, and the duchy of also
main
civilization in the East. In the 19th century the
Archipelago (1207-1566). Venice and Cenoa
name
privileges wit
modern Greek was to feel himself the legitimate
acquired important areas. Venice, for instance.
claimant to the Byzantine heritage as well as to
held Crete from 1204 to 1669 and Euboea from
that of ancient Greece.
1209 to 1407. The rule of the Westerners, know>
Invasions. During the Byzantine period Con-
as Franks, was not popular. Western feuds
stantinople, not mainland Greece, remained the
forms were introduced, and conflict soon arost and
Invorableral no Byzantine condit. the r: I
real center of Greek culture and prosperity. In
between the Catholic hierarchy of the rulers
Greece proper, commerce and agriculture de-
the Orthodox Church of the people. Many from Wen
clined precipitously, and Athens lost its position
to welcome the Ottoman Turks as liberators
as a center of learning. Also, during the entire
Frankish tyranny.
Byzantine era the mainland and the islands were
Although the Byzantine state was able to 112° if
subject to invasions that fundamentally altered
cover some of its lost power after 1261, it est
the racial composition of the population and had
not able to reestablish its control over the
Twite than of Muslim D bys. Better she ?ntem. *sition toward for hostile toward the than The his naturally Islam, land, a Chris se:
a devastating effect on the prosperity and de-
tire Greek world. Two new and potent enemies Otto
velopment of the country. In the 4th and 5th
the Serbian empire of Czar Dušan and the
the
sword
centuries Greece was overrun by Visigoths, Van-
man Turks, appeared to threaten its existence
Frank."
372
GREECE: 6. History and Government Since 330 A.D.
373
Serbian danger declined after the death of
At this time, also, converted Christians played
per
in 1453 the Ottoman Turks
a leading role in the governing of the empire
expturenter of EMPIRE. a great Muslim empire. See also
Constantinople, which was to become
through the devsirme (devshirme), or the tax in
children. At intervals, large numbers of children
3
of the conquered Balkan peoples were taken to
STANTINE
Constantinople, where they were converted to
OTTOMAN RULE
Islam. The best were sent to the palace school,
HOS is the 4
The history as Turkocratia, is usually dated
period of Ottoman control, known in
where they were trained to be the administrators
of the empire. Others became members of the
tern Orthodop
Creek 1453. By that year, however, Ottoman
elite corps of Janissaries, which was the basis
e
many which
too had long been in control of most of the
of Ottoman military superiority. This tax in
till
Creek Peninsula began in 1365 with the fall of
mainland. The Ottoman conquest of the
children was abolished in 1637. See also JANIS-
SARY.
8
Macedonia was occupied
Social Structure During the Ottoman Decline. The
ourists to red.
in 1393. Thereafter the
reign (1520-1566) of Suleiman the Magnificent
the lands fell quickly before the
marked the height of the empire; after his death
ast invader. Although Venice was always able
the state declined rapidly. Corruption and mal-
hold some islands, ports, and strategic points,
administration came to characterize the provincial
dominant power in the Near East was the
as well as the central government. The Ottoman
Octoman & state. In 1470, Greece proper was di-
armies were no longer uniformly victorious, and
rided into six sanjaks, or administrative districts.
the state was deprived of the booty won in
ilgars, Avan
m the 60
Through the next 400 years Constantinople, even
battle. Conditions of landholding became more
aks) passed
ender Ottoman rule, was the real center of Greek
onerous for the peasant; taxes were increased
century the
culture and influence. The Greek mainland un-
greatly, and their collection was characterized
dern Rums-
der Turkish rule remained as it had been under
by abuses and violence.
1th and 12th
Byzantium, a backward and impoverished area.
In the period of decline certain groups of
d Crusaders
The Ottoman System. Like the other conquered
Greeks were able to gain what the British his-
th and 15th
Balkan Christians, the Greeks came under the
torian Arnold Toynbee has described as a "senior
ent occurred
enique Ottoman system of government. In Otto-
partnership" within the empire. Because of their
ontroversial- v.) had the
man eyes religion, not nationality, constituted the
ability with languages and their skill in admin-
basis of political division. The conquered peoples
istration, Greeks were early used by the Ottoman
6th century,
were free to join the Muslim faith; among the
government in certain posts. Most important
Epirus, and
Creeks only the Cretans followed this course in
were their positions as grand dragoman (which
They grad.
large numbers. Once Muslim they could become
became the equivalent of a foreign secretary),
d the Greek
& part of the ruling group and obtain a priv-
dragoman of the fleet, and governor, or hospodar,
Leged position within the state. Those who chose
of each of the two Danubian provinces of Mol-
f menace to
to remain Christians received a subordinate status
davia and Wallachia. See also HOSPODAR.
e north and
and were governed under the millet system, in
Greeks also controlled the high positions with-
oned before
which people were divided on the basis of their
in the hierarchy of the Orthodox Church, which
creafter, the
church. The Greeks in the empire thus became
was Greek in language and in the education it
it, first from
part of the Orthodox millet, the largest of these
provided. In the 18th century this influence was
'y, and then
groups. They fell under the jurisdiction of the
used to secure the abolition of the Serbian and
mpire of the
patriarch of Constantinople, who was regarded
Bulgarian ecclesiastical organizations at Peć and
nt for Greek
as an official in the Ottoman government.
Ohrid respectively, and the substitution of Greek
sequences of
In the early period of Ottoman rule, church
control. Like the Ottoman state, the Orthodox
usaders, un-
organization reflected the national divisions in
Church was corrupt; church offices, including
ir attention
the Balkans. The Serbs were under the authority
that of the patriarch, were bought and sold.
at Christian
of the patriarchate of Peć; the Bulgarians were
The Greeks who participated in Ottoman ad-
aptured and
under the archbishopric of Ohrid (Okhrid). The
ministration usually lived in the Phanar district
stern feudal
patriarch of Constantinople remained closely iden-
of Constantinople and are referred to as Phanari-
F the Byzan-
tified with Greek interests.
ots. In addition to that group, Greek merchants,
Creek world,
At first, Ottoman rule did not impose an in-
who came to dominate the commerce of the em-
ow lost the
tolerable burden on the conquered people. On
pire, also played a leading role in the state. Their
the local level the Greek peasant and villager
position was improved in the late 18th century,
at this time
enjoyed a great deal of self-government. In gen-
when they gained the right to fly the Russian
e principal-
eral, community affairs were administered by
flag on their ships and when the French and
d by Geof-
local notables. Some Greek islands and certain
British eliminated each other's commerce during
chy of the
districts of the mainland were given special rights
the French Revolutionary wars. The Phanariot,
Genoa also
and privileges within the Ottoman system. In
with his close connections with the Ottoman
or instance,
some aspects-such as, for instance, religious
government and the Orthodox Church, and the
uboea from
toleration-the system was in advance of western
merchant, with his opportunities to travel and
iers, known
Europe. Moreover, the system of taxation and
to prosper in his business endeavors, were widely
*ern feudal
the general conditions on the land were more
separated in their life and thought from the
soon arose
favorable to the peasant than they had been
Greek peasant of the mainland. All, however,
rulers and
under Byzantine rule, and he was in a better
were to join together to overthrow Ottoman con-
Many were
position than a serf under the Western feudal
trol.
rators from
system. The Christian subject usually paid a
tithe for his land, a head tax, and certain other
THE GREEK REVOLUTION
able to re-
dues. He naturally resented his subjection to a
Despite the relatively strong position of some
261, it was
Muslim power, but his church at this time was
Greeks in the Ottoman system, the Greek world
er the en-
more hostile toward Catholicism and the West
as a whole was ready for revolt by the end of
it enemies,
than toward Islam, as is illustrated in the saying:
the 18th century. Most important were the de-
1 the Otto-
"Better the sword of the Turk than the bread
velopments of international relations. Since the
existence.
of the Frank."
end of the 17th century, Russia and the Habs-
374
GREECE: 6. History and Government Since 330 A.D.
burg empire, usually in cooperation, had inflicted
As a result of this internal political instabil-
to establish a
numerous defeats on the Ottoman Empire. The
ity, the Greek forces soon lost their early ad-
separated from
interest of Russia in the fate of the Orthodox
vantage. In 1825 the Ottoman government, un-
frontiers. The
Christians under Ottoman rule, evident at this
able to control the revolt with its own army,
the boundary
time, was to be particularly significant for Greek
called on the pasha of Egypt, Mehmet Ali, for
Volos (Pagasai
events. Henceforth Russia was the nation to
assistance. Crete and the Peloponnesus were
(Ambracian G
which the Orthodox Christians looked for assist-
promised him as a reward for victory. The Egyp-
included in Gr
ance. In 1770, Catherine the Great sent token
tian forces quickly occupied Crete and moved
have a populati
forces to the Peloponnesus to encourage a revolt.
on the Peloponnesus. The Greek revolution now
as many Greek.
National Consciousness. At the end of the 18th
appeared doomed.
Independent /
century Greek national consciousness went
Foreign Intervention. By 1826 it was clear that
placed under t]
through a period of reawakening. Members of
the Greeks could not succeed without foreign
and Russia, who
the numerous and prosperous merchant class,
assistance. After the revolt had broken out in
in the internal a
who were in close contact with the West, became
1821 the possibility of outside aid had appeared
established the b.
deeply influenced by the ideas of liberty and
slight. The Greeks had first turned to Russia
but they also (
nationalism connected with the ideology of the
but Alexander I, because of his personal political
the form of go
French Revolution. Poets, scholars, writers, and
convictions, refused to support a rebellion against
offered to Princ
revolutionary leaders, of whom Rhigas Pheraios
a legitimate ruler. In the next years the Greeks
declined it. The
and Adamantios Korais were the most notable, ex-
turned to the Western nations, particularly Brit-
King Louis (Lue
pressed these ideas and applied them to the situ-
ain. Here they were greatly aided by the move-
of his 17-year-ol.
ation of the Greeks under Ottoman control. They
ment of Philhellenism. Once it became apparent
King Otto I. Bec.
recalled to the Greek people their glorious past,
that the Greek revolt would not be immediated
ditions in Greece
in particular the great age of ancient Greece,
suppressed, the struggle attracted widespread
should rule as an
and contrasted their position at that time with
sympathy and concern throughout Europe. Ev
Creek military fc
conditions under Ottoman rule.
ropean intellectuals identified the modern Greeks
their place, appro.
Armed Revolt. As a consequence of almost
with the ancient Greeks of their own classical
German, soldiers
constant warfare and the continuing disintegra-
studies and pressed their governments to aid the
army of the new
tion of the central government, conditions in
insurgents. The death of the poet Byron in 1824
be was accompan
mainland Greece deteriorated further. In order
at Missolonghi and the involvement of other
varians-Count
to crush the rebellion of 1770 the Ottoman Em-
Europeans in the war further aroused Europeas
Heidegger, and (
pire dispatched Albanian troops to the Pelopon-
public opinion.
some Phanariot C
nesus; they ravaged the area for nine years. In
The Egyptian intervention and the sympath
and Alexandros M
addition, certain provincial governors, of whom
of their citizens finally forced the European gov
administration, the
Ali Pasha of Janina was the most significant in
ernments to act. In 1826, Russia and Britain
erament was domi
Greek affairs, were able to defy the authority of
signed the Protocol of St. Petersburg; and in
felds, proceeded t.
The regents, W
the central government. The inability of the
1827, France joined those two states in the
Ottoman administration to keep order in its lands,
Treaty of London. The aim of these agreement
based
together with the rise of Greek national feeling,
was to mediate the conflict and to secure the
prepared the stage for revolution. Much of the
establishment of an autonomous Greece. In Octo
population of the mainland was armed and orga-
ber 1827 a joint French, British, and Russian
legal code. A nat
was
nized into either legal or illegal bands. Once
squadron on patrol in the Mediterranean &
the revolt began, the commercial fleets of the
baunded. The Gre
extituted; in 1837
stroyed a Turkish-Egyptian fleet at the Batth
Greek merchants and the islanders formed the
of Navarino. In subsequent months, as a result
& 01
basis of a navy.
of this event and of other disagreements, reis
The Greek revolution was precipitated by the
tions between Russia and the Ottoman Emper
The city of Athens,
actions of a secret society, the Philikè Hetairía
difficult campaign the Russian Aril 1825 succede
worsened; war broke
to be th
(Society of Friends), which was founded in
und
Odessa in 1814. The revolt broke out first in the
in coming within striking distance of Const
th
Danubian principalities, where Greek influence
tinople. At Adrianople in September 1829, Ro
was strong. In March 1821, Prince Alexandros
sia negotiated a treaty with the Ottoman Empri Cmd
Ypsilanti, an aide-de-camp to the Russian czar
that provided for an autonomous, tributary
there # were disliked the wer n
Alexander I, crossed the Pruth (Prut) River into
state.
Moldavia. His Greek forces were soon defeated
During the Russo-Turkish War the Brith
by Ottoman troops and by a Rumanian counter-
and French governments had secured an agring
movement. At the same time, however, on
ment with Mehmet Ali calling for the remova
March 25, a parallel uprising occurred in the
of Egyptian forces from the Peloponnesus.
Peloponnesus. This revolt was to inaugurate a
1827 a Greek government had been formed, her
were whene name it bore.
decade of revolution and civil war in Greece.
ing at its head form
At first the rebels were successful. They
foreign minister
gained control of the Peloponnesus and some
attempted to organize a strong,
land north of the Gulf of Corinth. That was to
ministration and to establish the
be the limit of their field of activity; thereafter
ern state. His autocratic
the Peloponnesus remained the center of the
natural jealousies that his position and pour polity
tooks two THE Bavarian reached into the his situa with don go ma
revolution. Greek ships were also able to free
aroused caused deep divisions in the Greek
some of the islands. Unfortunately, throughout
cal world. His assassination in 1831
the revolution the Greek leadership was torn by
constant strife, and civil war was added to revo-
powers had already undertaken the task gover of
country into turmoil, but by that time
&
lution. In January 1822 a National Assembly
viding Greece with its first independent
provided bested * the by for with the parties The to the agree Britis} resu est leo
held at Epidaurus drew up a constitution and
ment.
elected the Phanariot Alexandros Mavrocordatos
as first president. This government, however, was
In the Treaty of London of -
OTTO: 1833-1863
not able to function effectively or to unite the
competing factions. Subsequent regimes were
signatory powers had agreed upon the
Address and monarchy,
similarly unable to provide a united leadership.
of an autonomous Greece; in 1830
GREECE: 6. History and Government Since 330 A.D.
375
litical instabled
establish an independent state completely
government changed little. Otto, with the co-
Ottoman control, but with limited
operation of Kolletis, of the French party, who
heir early ad.
#
so that it ran from the Gulf
used in France under Louis Philippe, simply
vernment, clear
1 final agreement of 1832 extended of
was well acquainted with the political methods
in Thessaly to the Gulf of Arta
managed the elections; the King's candidates al-
Ambracian Gulf) in Epirus. Athens was now
ways won. This method of governing succeeded
WE
but the new state was to
because the French party was in fact the popular
Live many Greeks remained under Ottoman
only 800,000. Three times rule.
party, and the King wholeheartedly adopted the
policy of national expansion favored by the Greek
ROU
Independent Monarchy. Greece was specifically
people.
protection of France, Britain,
The Greek national program, established at
was the
thereafter constantly interfered
this time, is known as the Megale Idea (Great
roken out is
thout foreign
inthe internal affairs of the state. They not only
Idea). Some of its advocates sought the more
the boundaries of independent Greece,
limited program of joining all the Greeks still
had appeared
they also chose the king and determined
under foreign rule into the Greek state; others
but form of government. The throne was first
pursued the more ambitious dream of re-creating
THE
offered the to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who
the Byzantine Empire. Greek expansionist plans
declined it. The position was finally accepted by
were opposed principally by Britain, who wished
of his 17-year-old second son, who now became
King Louis (Ludwig) I of Bavaria in the name
to preserve the territorial integrity of the Otto-
man Empire. From 1854 to 1857 a British and
the move-
ame apparent
ditions in Greece, the powers agreed that Otto
King Otto I. Because of the chaotic internal con-
French force occupied Piraeus in order to pre-
vent the Greek government from using the op-
I immediately
widespread
should rule as an absolute monarch and that the
portunity presented by the Crimean War to gain
Creek military forces should be disbanded. In
more territory inhabited by Greeks.
Europe. Eu-
odern Greeks
their place, approximately 3,500 European, chiefly
Otto's Abdication. The Crimean War (1854-
own classical
German, soldiers were brought in to form the
1856) marked the height of Otto's popularity.
its to aid the
army of the new state. Since Otto was a minor,
Soon thereafter discontent with his rule arose
he was accompanied by a regency of three Ba-
again. Otto had no children; his heirs were his
;yron in 1824
varians-Count Von Armansperg, Gen. Karl
brothers, who were Roman Catholics and thus
ent of other
Heidegger, and Georg von Maurer. Although
excluded from succession by the constitution,
ed European
some Phanariot Greeks, such as Ioannis Kolettis
which required that the next ruler be Orthodox.
the sympathy
and Alexandros Mavrocordatos, held posts in the
The King had also antagonized all three of the
uropean gov-
administration, the first independent Greek gov-
protecting powers. When another coup occurred,
and Britain
emment was dominated by Bavarians.
in October 1862, Otto did not attempt a real
urg; and in
The regents, who were able men in their own
resistance, but instead quietly returned to Ba-
fields, proceeded to establish the centralized ad-
varia. With the Greek throne vacant, the pro-
tates in the
ministration, based on accepted European models;
tecting powers once again assembled to choose
e agreements
that they thought best for Greece. Maurer, a
a monarch for Greece.
secure the
ace. In Octo-
law historian, was responsible for drawing up the
GEORGE I: 1863-1913
and Russian
legal code. A national educational system was
'rranean de-
instituted; in 1837 the University of Athens was
The choice for a monarch again fell on a
founded. The Greek church was separated from
young prince, this time on the second son of
t the Battle
the patriarchate of Constantinople, which was
the future ruler of Denmark. The 18-year-old
as a result
ements, rela-
regarded as being under Ottoman domination.
Prince William now became George I, king of
man Empire
The city of Athens, a mere village in 1830, was
the Hellenes. His title was intended to designate
remodeled to be the capital of the country.
his theoretical supremacy over all Greeks both
828. After a
Despite the undoubted improvements and the
within and without the state. Since the King had
y succeeded
of Constan-
sincere efforts of the King and his advisers, the
been the British candidate, that power gave
r 1829, Rus-
government faced much discontent. The Bavari-
Greece the Ionian Islands, which had been held
man Empire
ans were disliked as foreigners, and many of
as a protectorate by Britain since 1815. In 1863
utary Greek
their measures were not suitable and were far
a new constitution was drawn up. Extremely
too costly for the impoverished Greece of the
democratic, the document provided for a single-
the British
1830's. The regents also quarreled among them-
house legislature based on proportional repre-
d an agree-
selves. Moreover, three political parties-called
sentation and elected- by direct, secret, and uni-
the removal
respectively the French, the British, and the Rus-
versal male suffrage. The powers of the king
sian-now emerged, each tied to the country
were further limited.
onnesus. In
ormed, hav-
whose name it bore. Since the protecting powers
Party Rivalry. Even with a new monarch and
were in conflict with one another, this condition
another constitutional arrangement, Greek politi-
S, a former
Capodistrias
contributed to domestic instability. In 1835,
cal life remained unstable. After the Crimean
Otto reached his majority; he now brought more
War the parties based on foreign connections had
tralized ad-
for a mod-
Greeks into the government and retained only
been dissolved to be replaced by a multiparty
nt and the
one Bávarian minister.
system centered on individual leaders. Election
and power
Failures in foreign policy, a rapidly deterio-
proceedings were often corrupt and accompanied
Greek politi-
rating financial situation, and political rivalries
by violence.
threw the
among the parties led in 1843 to a military coup,
After 1872 a type of two-party system arose
headed by the British and Russian factions. Otto
with the emergence of two strong leaders, Theo-
e the great
ask of pro-
was forced to agree to summon a constitutional
doros Deliyiannes (Deligiannes) and Charilaos
ent govern-
assembly. The resulting constitution of 1844
Tricoupes. Greek politics from the 1870's through
provided for the establishment of a two-house
the 1890's was dominated by the rivalry of these
legislature with an appointed senate of 27 mem-
two men, who stood for opposing principles in
bers and a chamber elected by universal man-
foreign policy. Tricoupes believed that the Greek
the three
hood suffrage.
government should concentrate on internal de-
Although Greece was now in theory a consti-
velopment and some social legislation. When he
ey decided
tutional monarchy, the actual running of the
was in power he furthered the building of roads
376
GREECE: 6. History and Government Since 330 A.D.
World War I and
and railroads and the improvement of financial
In 1908 the Young Turk revolution in the
wars had no sooner en
conditions. In contrast, Deliyiannes believed that
Ottoman Empire again brought into question the
gan. The war caused
the emphasis should remain on the accomplish-
status of Crete and Macedonia. Once more Crete
ment of the Great Idea and that an active for-
sought union with Greece. Under strong pressure
Greek government; tl
were in conflict over
eign policy should be pursued.
from the great powers, the Greek government
should pursue. Const:
Expansionist Efforts. Despite the fact that the
was compelled to give up any attempt to secure
Greek state did not have the economic base for
the island, to the great discontent of the Greek
German military might
public. A group formed in the army, the Mili-
tain Greek neutrality.
an adventurous foreign policy, the entire reign
ferred to cooperate "
of George I was dominated by the theme of
tary League, was determined to reform the gov-
Britain, France, and I
foreign expansion. The Ottoman-controlled ter-
ernment. After successfully carrying out a coup
protecting powers of G
ritories of chief interest to the Greek govern-
in 1909, the league called upon the Cretan politi-
of the predominant Bri
ment were Thessaly, Epirus, Macedonia, and
cal leader Eleutherios Venizelos to advise them.
eastern Mediterranean.
Crete. During the 19th century Crete was the
As premier, Venizelos first secured the voluntary
scene of repeated revolts-in 1841, 1858, 1866-
dissolution of the Military League and then pro-
In 1916, Venizelos,
1868, 1878, and 1896-1897. After the rebellion
ceeded with constitutional reform. In June 1911
support, formed a separ
ika; at the same time
in 1866 certain reforms were introduced in the
the constitution was changed to allow a more
blockade around Greece
administration of the island; in 1878 the Pact
efficient functioning of the government. Venizelos
they landed troops at Pit
of Halepa provided for the appointment of a
then entered into negotiations with the neigh-
vention forced Constant
Greek administration and the summoning of an
boring Balkan states, which led to the outbreak
try; his second son, Al
assembly.
of the First Balkan War.
Venizelos now headed
Although Crete was an important issue, the
Economic Problems. In March 1913, George
June 1917, Greece was
real problem in Greek international relations was
I was assassinated in Salonika and was succeeded
Macedonia. In Crete the Greeks were clearly
by his son Constantine I. Although gains had
Powers. Greek troops
only during the last sta
the predominant nationality; in Macedonia, Greek
been made in foreign policy during George's
claims were challenged by the Serbs and the
reign, internal economic development had not
Bulgaria. In the Treaty
Bulgaria in November 19
Bulgars. In 1870, under Russian pressure, the
been commensurate. The government had since
1830 repeatedly borrowed abroad. By the end
territory in Thrace that
Ottoman government established a separate Bul-
of the century the condition of state finances had
in 1913. Arrangements V
garian ecclesiastical organization, or exarchate. It
was agreed that when two thirds of a Macedonian
become so bad that the great powers forced
ing an exchange of popt
Negotiations with the
district voted to join the exarchate, it would be
Greece to accept an international Financial Com-
more difficult. In the Tre:
detached from the authority of the patriarch of
mission of Control.
with the Ottoman govern
Constantinople and put under the new church
YEARS OF CONFLICT: 1912-1923
made important gains,
administration. In 1878 in the Treaty of San
Thrace, some islands, an
Stefano, negotiated at the conclusion of the
Between 1912 and 1923, Greece underwent a.
Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, Russia secured
period of almost constant warfare. First, in 1912
and administer the city
the incorporation of almost all of Macedonia into
the Balkan states of Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia,
plebiscite was then then to be
territ
a large Bulgarian state.
and Montenegro joined together in a series of
final disposition of the
At the Congress of Berlin (1878), Russia
agreements that formed the basis of the Balkan
was forced to agree to the three-part division of
League. These allies were intent upon expelling
however, was not accepte
tionalist forces led by Mt.
Bulgaria and the return of the Macedonian sec-
the Ottoman Empire from Europe and on secur-
tion to direct Ottoman rule. This area thereupon
ing the remaining Ottoman possessions, notably
long years of war and W
In Greece, meanwhile
became a center of acute conflict among the
Macedonia, for themselves. Encouraged, by the
three neighboring states. Each organized cul-
Italian victory over the Ottoman Empire in 1911.
the Balkan states were confident that they could
defeat in the election of
Venizelos' administration
tural societies and armed bands of supporters.
B December a plebiscite was
From that time until the present the problem of
defeat the Turkish forces.
Macedonia has remained the chief cause of dis-
The Balkan Wars. The First Balkan War be
the restoration of Con:
sension among the three states in the area.
gan in October 1912. The Balkan League sooa
and his ministers proceeded
terous course of action. Fr
As a result of the decisions at the Congress
accomplished its intent; the Ottoman armies were
forced back to the Enos-Media line. Of its for
the of Greek forces advanced
of Berlin, Greece made major gains. In 1881,
Thessaly and a part of Epirus were joined to
mer great empire in Europe, the Ottoman gov
ernment now held only the city of Constant
within 20 miles (32 km)
Turks. Although the
Greece. However, in 1878 the predominantly
Musta
Greek island of Cyprus was acquired from the
nople and a small hinterland.
allies began to quarrel over the share each should
With military victory secured, the Balks
1921. The
Ottoman Empire by Britain. (British possession
the disastei
of this island was to cause a major crisis after
World War II.) In 1896 another uprising oc-
receive of Macedonia. The question was cour
section of Smyrna. This an
Army took
curred in Crete. The Greek government dis-
plicated by the insistence of the great powers
patched troops and ships to aid the rebels. Once
that an Albanian state be established that would
Pastiras litary revolt heade na
again the great powers intervened to prevent
include some of the lands claimed by Green
and Serbia. The Second Balkan War, in 1913
became abdicated in favor of his
Col. Stylianos
Crete from joining Greece; a blockade was estab-
lished. Border skirmishes on the mainland de-
which arose from this issue, found Greece, Ser the
In 1923, Greece
king in September
veloped in 1897 into a full-scale war between
bia, and Montenegro, joined by Rumania and
Greece and the Ottoman Empire. In this con-
Ottoman Empire, aligned against Bulgaria.
The defeat of Bulgaria resulted in its is re
more issues between a 1
Treaty July Lausanne. This an
flict the Turkish troops proved superior to the
clusion from the partition of Macedonia; it
change important, provided fi
Greek forces.
ceived only a small part of Thrace with the port and
populations. As
The great powers, however, prevented the
with national minoritie
Ottoman Empire from taking advantage of the
of Dedeagach
situation. In the peace Greece lost only a few
Serbia divided the major portion
pieces of territory along its border, and it was
between them, STATE Greece
next accept about 1.3 million (
b a population of 4.5 mil
mmber of whom were destitut
required to pay an indemnity. The powers also
city of Salonika. In a
and other islands were the final settlement Grez a
4
dictated a settlement for Crete. The island was
given administrative autonomy and Prince George,
The establishment
the second son of George I, was appointed high
state, whose borders embraced the Cread-claime
Sran Deat of the huge a number characte of n i
commissioner. In 1906, after a quarrel with Cre-
territory of northern Epirus, and was to police
economic burden for t]
tan officials, he was forced to resign.
significant effect on future Greek foreign
GREECE: 6. History and Government Since 330 A.D.
377
World War I and Its Aftermath. The Balkan
The year 1923 marked the end of the Great
; Turk revolution in
had no sooner ended than World War I be-
Idea. Greek territory had indeed been greatly
edonia. brought into question the
CHEWS The war caused a deep division within the
increased between 1913 and 1923; but with the
ce. the
Under Once more Credt this
End in conflict over the policy that Greece
government; the King and the premier
population exchanges, prosperous Greek colonies
in Anatolia, Bulgaria, and also the Soviet Union
were Constantine I was impressed by
were broken up. Independent Greece had reached
up any secure
and he wished to main-
d in the army, the MAL
discontent of the Greek
Credit in contrast, pre-
its maximum extension. Only minor territorial
adjustments were to be made in the next years.
nined to reform the
to with the Entente powers,
and Russia, who were still the
BETWEEN WORLD WARS I AND II: 1923-1939
fully carrying out a 80m
Greece. He was also aware
The principal political issue after 1923 was
d upon the Cretan polity coup
British naval strength in the
that of the maintenance or abolition of the mon-
'enizelos to advise them
archy. The question was ultimately determined
rst secured the voluntary
custern
ry League and
In 1916, Venizelos, with British and French
by shifts of opinion within the army and the
support, the same time the Allies established a
formed a separate government at Salon-
conflict between monarchist and republican offi-
al reform. In June 1911
cers. George II held his position only until De-
anged to allow a
Greece, and in December 1916
cember 1923. Venizelos, who supported a con-
troops at Piraeus. This flagrant inter-
stitutional monarchy, left the country in the
neigh
Constantine I to leave the coun-
following month. A plebiscite was held in April
nich led to the outbreak
his second son, Alexander, took his place.
1924, resulting in a victory for the republican
Venizelos by: now headed the government, and in
forces. On May 1, Greece was proclaimed a re-
in March 1913, George
1917, Greece was at war with the Central
public. In June 1925, Gen. Theodoros Pangalos
onika and was succeeded
Powers. June Greek troops were engaged in battle
seized power; in January 1926 he declared him-
I. Although gains had
only during the last stages of the war against
self dictator, only to be deposed in August by
policy during George's
0 development had not
Bulgaria. In the Treaty of Neuilly with defeated
another coup.
e government had since
Sulgaria in November 1919, Greece acquired the
Domestic Problems. Stability in Greek politics
territory in Thrace that Bulgaria had received
was not attained until July 1928, when Venizelos
ed abroad. By the end
in 1913. Arrangements were also made concern-
again became premier. His period of four years
ion of state finances had
ing an exchange of populations.
and a half in office was marked by successes in
e great powers forced
Negotiations with the Turks were to prove
foreign policy, but he faced difficult domestic
mational Financial Com-
more difficult. In the Treaty of Sèvres, concluded
problems. Throughout the interwar years Greece
with the Ottoman government in 1920, Greece
was in a very weak economic position. The
LICT: 1912-1923
made important gains, including territory in
country had to import half of its basic food sup-
23, Greece underwent
Thrace, some islands, and the right to occupy
plies; the refugees were a great expense. The
warfare. First, in 1912
and administer the city of Smyrna in Anatolia
main Greek exports-olive oil, wine, and tobacco
and its surrounding territory for five years. A
-were luxury products, sales of which suffered
reece, Bulgaria, Serbia
plebiscite was then to be held to determine the
during periods of depression. In 1933, Venizelos
together in a series of
Snal disposition of the area. This agreement,
held office for the last time. Defeated in the
the basis of the Balkan
however, was not accepted by the Turkish na-
elections, he was replaced by Panayiotes Tsal-
re intent upon expelling
tionalist forces led by Mustafa Kemal.
daris, who for two years and a half attempted to
n Europe and on secur-
In Greece, meanwhile, discontent with the
control the difficult internal situation. In 1935
ian possessions, notably
long years of war and with certain aspects of
the monarchist forces triumphed; George II, after
es. Encouraged by the
Venizelos' administration led to the premier's
a rigged plebiscite, returned to Greece.
ttoman Empire in 1911.
defeat in the election of November 1920. In
Again in power, the King found the Greek
onfident that they could
December a plebiscite was held, which resulted
political scene difficult to control because of the
in the restoration of Constantine I. The King
even division of forces. An election held in
First Balkan War be-
and his ministers proceeded to embark on a dan-
1936 resulted in the return of 143 monarchist
he Balkan League soon
gerous course of action. From the base at Smyr-
deputies as against 142 Liberals, Republicans,
e Ottoman armies were
na, Greek forces advanced into Anatolia against
and Agrarians. The Communists, with 15 votes,
Media line. Of its for-
the Turks. Although the Greek army reached
held the balance. This situation led to the rise
ope, the Ottoman gov-
within 20 miles (32 km) of Ankara, it was de-
of another military strong man, Gen. Ioannis
the city of Constanti-
cisively defeated by Mustafa Kemal in August
Metaxas. Appointed premier in April 1936, he
and.
and September 1921. The Turkish counterattack
proclaimed himself dictator in August of the
secured, the Balkan
resulted in a Greek disaster. In September 1922
same year.
r the share each should
the Turkish Army took and burned the Greek
Metaxas' government, known as the Regime
he question was com-
section of Smyrna. This national catastrophe led
of the Fourth of August, closely paralleled those
3 of the great powers
to a military revolt headed by Col. Nikolaos
of other contemporary European dictatorships.
established that would
Plastiras and Col. Stylianos Gonatas. Constantine
He dissolved parliament, introduced a system of
ds claimed by Greece
I abdicated in favor of his son George II, who
strict censorship, and kept close control over
Balkan War, in 1913,
became king in September 1922.
political life. He instituted some social reforms
ie, found Greece, Ser-
In July 1923, Greece and Turkey signed the
and inaugurated a program of public works.
d by Rumania and the
Treaty of Lausanne. This agreement settled the
Foreign Affairs. In foreign affairs in the pe-
against Bulgaria.
territorial issues between the two states and,
riod immediately after World War I, minor dis-
ia resulted in its ex-
more important, provided for a compulsory ex-
agreements, arising usually from the peace
of Macedonia; it re-
change of populations. As a result of treaties
settlements, occurred with Italy, Bulgaria, Yugo-
f Thrace with the port
concerning national minorities, the Greek nation,
slavia, and Turkey. During Venizelos' period in
oupolis). Greece and
with a population of 4.5 million, was compelled
power an effort was made to improve Greece's
portion of Macedonia
to accept about 1.3 million Greeks from abroad,
relations with its neighbors. This endeavor cul-
ce receiving the port
most of whom were destitute refugees. A large
minated in the conclusion of the defensive Bal-
final settlement Crete
number were settled in the newly acquired lands
kan Pact in February 1934 with Rumania, Tur-
SO awarded to Greece.
in Thrace and Macedonia, an action that gave
key, and Yugoslavia. (See BALKAN ENTENTE.)
independent Albanian
those areas a Greek character. But the absorp-
During the subsequent years Greece was drawn
ced the Greek-claimed
tion of the huge number of new citizens was a
closer to Germany because of the need for export
IS, and was to have a
great economic burden for the Greek state.
markets, particularly for tobacco, but relations
Greek foreign policy.
378
GREECE: 6. History and Government Since 330 A.D.
were maintained with Britain and France. In
monarchy. During the war the two groups some-
GREECE A
April 1939, after the Italian invasion of Albania,
times cooperated in common actions against the
Greece accepted a British guarantee of its ter-
occupying powers, but at other times they fought
After 1949, Greek 1
ritory.
against each other. Both resistance organizations,
cerned chiefly with issue
however, were against the return of the King
War and the Cyprus qu
WORLD WAR II AND REVOLUTION: 1939-1949
after the war and, therefore, were in opposition
had acquired from Italy
When World War II broke out in September
to the government-in-exile. In April 1944 a
but this represented the
1939, Greece at first remained neutral. In Octo-
mutiny among the Greek troops stationed in
World War II. Greece и
ber 1940, Italy launched an attack from Albania
Egypt indicated that disaffection also existed
the United Nations.
that brought Greece into the war. The Italian
there.
International Relations.
campaign was a military fiasco. The Greek Army
In May 1944 a conference was held in Leb-
Atlantic Treaty Organiza
soon pushed the Italian forces back into Albania,
anon among members of the government-in-exile,
and, in 1953, granted p
and the war on this front became a stalemate.
the political parties, and representatives from the
lishment of U.S. air and
Germany, believing that it must secure its south-
resistance groups. A government of national
tory. On Aug. 14, 1974,
ern flank before advancing into the Soviet Union,
unity was formed, headed by Georgios Papan-
of the conflict over Cypr
came to the rescue of its ally in April 1941 and
dreou. It was agreed that a plebiscite should
announced withdrawal of
launched an attack on both Greece and Yugo-
be held in Greece before the return of the King
NATO. Meanwhile, in 19
slavia. Britain sent a small force to Greece, but
and that the armed forces of the resistance and
an associate member of t
the German army soon occupied the Greek main-
the government-in-exile should be unified.
Community (EEC). In 1:
land and in May crossed over to Crete. From
After Liberation. Despite the agreement re-
to full EEC membership
this time until October 1944, Greece remained
garding unity, the question of the ultimate fate
Cyprus. The issue tha
under German, Italian, and Bulgarian occupation.
of the resistance units caused a major crisis. In
tense feelings in Greece i.
Occupation. During the rest of the war Greece
October 1944, Papandreou, accompanied by a
of Cyprus. This island,
had in fact three centers of government. The
small number of British troops, returned to
one fifth Turkish and foi
German occupation authorities established a pup-
Athens. The Greek government then attempted
miles (60 km) from the
pet government in Athens. The King, some Greek
to secure the disarmament and disbandment of
800 miles (1,300 km) fre
political figures, and the Greek Army leaders
the EAM forces. In December 1944 civil was
possession since 1878, it
went into exile. In mainland Greece, particularly
broke out in Athens and spread to the country
lonial government. The Gr
in the mountains and the remote areas, resistance
side. The revolt was only quelled with the arrival
enosis, union with Greec
movements formed their own political organiza-
of additional British troops. In February 1945
the movement for enosis
tions.
the Varkiza agreement was signed; it stated that
bands of two experienced
The resistance forces within Greece split into
the EAM should surrender its arms and that
bishop Makarios III and
various, often competitive, factions. The two
elections and a plebiscite on the monarchy should
Turkey opposed the Greek
major groups were the National Liberation Front
be held.
and wished the island retur
(EAM), which was Communist-led, and the
Elections were held in March 1946, but un-
In February 1959, Britai
National Democratic League (EDES), headed by
der conditions that caused the EAM and some
Col. Napoleon Zervas. EDES was to the right
liberals to abstain from voting. As a result the
but under conditions that
arreed that Cyprus should
of EAM in political ideology, but most of its
monarchists won a clear victory. With Konstan-
members were republicans, who opposed the
tinos Tsaldaris as premier, a plebiscite was held
in September in which more than 65% voted for
tishop Makarios as its pres
Republic of Cyprus came in
to the Turkish minority. 0
the return of the King. In the same month
CAPTURED ITALIAN TROOPS were marched through
between after especially serious
#23 not to bring peace, h
George II returned to Athens. He died in April
Athens in Feb. 1941, but Greece soon fell to Germany.
1947 and was succeeded by his brother Paul.
WIDE WORLD
Civil War. After its political defeat, the let
Leacekeeping force was di
Greek and Turki
prepared for civil war. Aid was received from
the Communist governments in Albania, Bulgaris
Crprided Guard, le Ji
the came in 0
Another serious clash
and Yugoslavia. In December 1947 a provisions
government was set up in the mountains headed
8 the military ju
by the Communist leader Markos Vafiades.
coup and deposed Makaric
Until this time, the British government had
the on Aug. 3, 1977. Turkey
exerted the major influence in Greek affairs and
the wake of this action,
had been willing to contribute military force
way to See
to back its policies. Now, faced with another
major crisis, Britain declared itself unable ,
a
Betwee a
continue its previous commitments. The United de
from Marshal Alexandros Pa
Faid strong politic ren
States replaced Britain. In March 1947
Truman Doctrine was proclaimed, which was
signed to protect Greece and Turkey from Card
the 1952 a
October a political, coaliti
munist control. Massive military and financial 1952
next elections new the elect Ra
aid was subsequently sent to Greece (by uning
more than $3.5 billion had been expended
&
the program).
Despite this assistance, the Greek government
Laramanlis. of the next
was not able to end the civil war until 1949. TAP
July 1948, after the break between Marshal
prived of their chief source of THE
of Yugoslavia and Soviet Premier
Sain And time he was to Karamanlis remain his party, in pr pr W t
Yugoslav border was closed to
form Union Party, successfully headed
the rebels were not able to continue the Green
immes and Sophocles Venize
The Communist party was outlawed in United
Party two
Sewember 1963. After
although a coalition of leftist groups, the 195ᵗ
and subsequently won important electoral
Democratic Left (EDA), was formed in 132
Ang Paul obtainedied and
son, Constantine was su
tories.
II.
GREECE: 6. History and Government Since 330 A.D.
379
GREECE AFTER 1949
After the restoration of the monarchy in 1946,
e
the tendency of the king and the government to
the
After 1949, Greek foreign policy was con-
quarrel-a condition that had played such a large
er times organization
with issues arising from the Cold
part in previous Greek politics-continued. Such
stance
Cyprus question. In 1947, Greece
a conflict played a major role in the downfall of
return King
from Italy the Dodecanese Islands,
Karamanlis. Papandreou and the young king now
were
In April 1944
this the only gain resulting from
came to differ sharply over the position that the
World Warld II. Greece was a charter member of
monarch should hold in Greek politics.
troops stationed
Nations.
In July 1965, Constantine dismissed Papan-
fection also existed is
International Relations. Greece joined the North
dreou, and Greece entered a period of political
Atlantic in 1953, granted permission for the estab-
Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1952
crisis due to weak government. This ended on
ce was held in Leb
April 21, 1967, when a group of army officers
resentatives government-in-exile from the
and Eshment of U.S. air and naval bases on its terri-
under the leadership of Col. Georgios Papado-
On Aug. 14, 1974, however, in the midst
poulos staged a swift, bloodless coup. Elections
rnment of national
ex: Cyprus with Turkey, Greece
scheduled for May of that year were canceled,
by Georgios Papan-
of its armed forces from
press censorship was imposed, and a military
a plebiscite should
1962, Greece had become
dictatorship was established.
e return of the King
of the European Economic
The king appeared to have accepted the new
f the resistance and
Community (EEC). In 1979, Greece was elected
regime, but in December 1967 he attempted a
Id be unified.
the agreement
w membership, effective in 1981.
countercoup and, when it failed, went into exile.
of the ultimate fatt to
Cyprus. The issue that aroused the most in-
Papadopoulos became premier and appointed a
feelings in Greece after 1949 was the fate
regent to serve in the king's stead. A new con-
d a major crisis.
In
tense of Cyprus. This island, whose population is
stitution took effect in November 1968.
accompanied by
fifth Turkish and four fifths Greek, lies 40
The Papadopoulos government produced
troops, returned
ment then attempted to
miles ece (60 km) from the Turkish mainland and
some economic stability, but civil liberties were
and disbandment
800 miles (1,300 km) from Greece. A British
not restored in the period 1968-1972. By early
nber 1944 civil was of
possession since 1878, it had an unpopular co-
1973, student demonstrations and unrest in the
Inial government. The Greek population wanted
armed forces were causing the government em-
oread to the country
mosis, union with Greece. The leadership of
barrassment. On June 1, 1973, the premier an-
:elled with the arrival
In February 1945
the movement for enosis was initially in the
nounced the abolition of the monarchy. In-
signed; it stated that
bands of two experienced political figures, Arch-
stalled as president of the new Greek republic on
r its arms and that
bishop Makarios III and Gen. Georgios Grivas.
August 19, Papadopoulos promised restoration of
the monarchy should
Turkey opposed the Greek desire for annexation
civil liberties and the free election of a parlia-
and wished the island returned to its possession.
ment in 1974. On Nov. 25, 1973, Gen. Dimitrios
In February 1959, Britain, Turkey, and Greece
Ioannidis, chief of the military police, mounted a
March 1946, but
un-
agreed that Cyprus should become independent,
new coup, having found the president's August
the EAM and some
but under conditions that would give protection
concessions too liberal.
ting. As a result the
to the Turkish minority. On Aug. 16, 1960, the
In July 1974, Karamanlis was summoned back
story. With Konstan-
a plebiscite was held
Republic of Cyprus came into being, with Arch-
from exile in Paris and was sworn in as premier
bishop Makarios as its president. Independence
on July 24. On December 8, in a referendum,
re than 65% voted for
was not to bring peace, however, and in 1964,
69.2% of the Greeks voted against the monarchy.
In the same month
after an especially serious outbreak of fighting
The republic was proclaimed on December 9. A
'ns. He died in April
between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, a UN
new constitution was adopted in June 1975, and
his brother Paul.
litical defeat, the left
peacekeeping force was dispatched to Cyprus.
parliament elected Konstantinos Tsatsos as pres-
Another serious clash occurred in 1967, but
ident. Karamanlis won a second term as premier
id was received from
the gravest crisis came in July 1974. The Greek
in November 1977, and in May 1980 the parlia-
S in Albania, Bulgaria,
Cypriot National Guard, led by Greek officers
ment elected him president. Foreign Minister
ber 1947 a provisional
and aided by the military junta in Athens, staged
Georgios Rallis was elected as premier.
the mountains headed
a coup and deposed Makarios, who died in Nico-
Greece's 35 years of conservative rule ended
Markos Vafiades.
sia on Aug. 3, 1977. Turkey invaded Cyprus, and
on Oct. 18, 1981, when Andreas Papandreou,
itish government had
in the wake of this action, the junta in Athens
leader of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement
3 in Greek affairs and
gave way to civilians. See also CYPRUS.
and a son of Georgios Papandreou, succeeded
ribute military forces
Domestic Affairs. Between 1949 and 1952,
Rallis as premier. In 1985, President Karamanlis
faced with another
Greek domestic politics remained unstable. In
lost the support of Papandreou and resigned the
red itself unable to
1952 another strong political leader emerged,
presidency. He was succeeded on March 30 by
itments. The United
Field Marshal Alexandros Papagos, who based his
Christos Sartzetakis, a Supreme Court justice.
In March 1947 the
power on a political coalition, the Greek Rally.
Papandreou was reelected in June 1985.
aimed, which was de-
In October 1952 a new electoral law was passed;
BARBARA JELAVICH and CHARLES JELAVICH*
nd Turkey from Com-
in the next elections the Rally was able to win
Indiana University
military and financial
a majority. Papagos remained in office until his
to Greece (by 1963
death in October 1955.
Bibliography
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Relative political stability continued during
Andrewes, Antony, The Greeks (Norton 1978).
the tenure of the next premier, Konstantinos
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thuen 1972).
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vil war until 1949. In
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Union (ERE). Karamanlis was able to win three
1979).
between Marshal Tito
elections and to remain in power until 1963. At
Clogg, Richard, ed., The Struggle for Greek Independence
Premier Stalin, the
that time he was successfully challenged by the
(Shoe String 1973).
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d to the rebels. De-
Center Union Party, headed by Georgios Papan-
1821-1956, ed. by Douglas Dakin (1958; reprint, Green-
: of outside assistance,
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wood Press 1977).
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former premier. After two elections, held in
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Woodhouse, C. M., Modern Greece (Faber & Faber 1977).
tist groups, the United
party obtained the desired majority. In 1964,
Woodhouse, C. M., The Struggle for Greece, 1941-1949
was formed in 1951
King Paul I died and was succeeded by his 23-
(Beekman Pubs. 1979).
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portant electoral vic-
year-old son, Constantine II.
well and Mott 1976).
er in Greece. The
in Greece proper
riods, the first from EL
ond from 1900 on. IFS
?
on t
produced several after
nch and Grog
the the thampetithe
a
the were made to revive
ly various companies
A 6
The turn of the
DIERA, on Aegean of island, tranquil is
nportant events.
scene
asted 20 years, Roya
way 0 However, the volcano
thens with donations from
produceduced t this attractive is-
rated
may destroyed the
stage
mount and Minoan culture of Crete.
y
ever, and the productices "
ays were given in the
were free to as they
enna gave a
e return of Konstanting
stablished the Neampet
GEORGE HOLTON, FROM PHOTO RESEARCHERS
ne produced, according t
matic conceptions, moders
Ancient Greece
Greek plays, as well
The translations were b
sts were carefully selected
History of Greece to 330 A. D.
donia. Extensive settlement, however, becomes
visible only with the agricultural settlements of
vell conceived. The No.
terly skill, and the scenery
The history of ancient Greece can be broadly
the Neolithic period. After about 6000 B. C.
divided into two eras-before and after about
farmers who did use pottery lived in most areas
1906 and marked a great
Greek theater. When both
1000 B. C. The evidence for all Greek prehistory
of Greece, Crete, and some Aegean islands.
(to about 1000 B. c.) is essentially the archae-
Coastal settlements also engaged in fishing and
I the Nea Skene ceased to
ters. ies were formed with the
ological material provided by pottery styles, grave
seafaring for obsidian. Farmers cultivated wheat
customs, and settlement patterns, although in the
and barley and had domesticated dogs, goats,
Middle and Late Bronze ages, writing was used,
sheep, and other animals. They probably learned
ress was made in 1930.
first in Crete and then on the mainland. Classical
these skills from the Near East, along with styles
nt support, the National
Greek civilization, which began to rise on the
of pottery decoration and the making of female
1. With fine casts, inspired
ruins of the Mycenaean culture after about 1000
figurines.
1 and thoroughly equipped
C., left a rich legacy of art and architecture
Early Bronze Age (2800-2000 B. C.). In the
rose to a high level. It
and an extensive literature.
Early Bronze Age, Greece lagged far behind the
best plays of the world's
Near East, where civilized states arose. The use
panies that contributed to
PREHISTORIC GREECE (TO 1000 B. C.)
of bronze was adopted, and large gold treasures
eater in Greece after 1930
The prehistoric era in Greece falls into two
have been found on the island of Lemnos and at
ka Kotopoule and Katerim
ages. The Neolithic period lasted from about
Troy. Early Cycladic culture is marked by the
>n's Theatro Technes (Art
6000 B. C. to past 3000 B. C. Archaeologists call
creation of marble abstract figurines such as
rt-lived United Artists.
the rest of the prehistoric era to about 1000 B.C.
those of women and lyre players. Some of these
E.P. PANAGOPOULO
the Bronze Age, after the main metal used for
figurines have been found in the western Medi-
ATA MARIA PANAGOPOULOS
weapons and tools. This is subdivided into three
terranean and are a token of far-flung seafaring.
Jose State College, Calif.
cultural phases, Early, Middle, and Late. Geo-
On the mainland, Early Helladic culture occurs
ography
graphically there is also a threefold division: in
at many sites, but it has been studied especially
eks (Norton 1978).
mainland Greece the culture of the Bronze Age
at Lerna, near Argos, where the House of the
in Greece (Academic Press
is called Helladic; in Crete, Minoan; on the other
Tiles seems to have been the abode of a chief-
etry (Heinman 1985).
islands, Cycladic. In the Early Bronze Age all
tain. The pottery of the period had a high
pects of Contemporary Greek
three areas were quite similar; in the Middle
burnish.
reprint, AMS Press 1973).
Bronze Age, Crete possessed the outstanding cul-
Before the close of the Early Helladic period
olklore of Modern Greece (Gor-
ture; and in the Late Bronze Age, the mainland
several mainland sites, including Lerna, were
f Greek Art (Univ. Press of New
became the dominant region.
destroyed and abandoned; others fell shortly be-
In the prehistoric era ideas came to Greece
fore 2000. The most likely explanation is a wave
Creek Folklore: An Annotated
185).
from the Near East, and people came from the
of northern invaders, who probably spoke an
fodern Greek Literature (Oxford
north; the amalgam laid the foundation for his-
early form of the Greek language. Early Bronze
torical Greek culture. Aegean progress was slow-
Age peoples had used some other language in
Greek Poetry from Homer to
Press 1982).
er than that of the Near East, partly because
which the elements SS and nth were prominent.
udies in Byzantine History and
Greece did not provide as rich crops as the
Such place names as Corinth and Assos in later
vol. 1 (EO Press 1980).
Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates did, and also be-
Greece are relics of those people.
e Black Hunter: Forms of
cause Greece was subjected to several invasions
Middle Bronze Age (2000-1570 B. C.). The in-
ciety in the Greek World (Johns
6).
from the north.
vading conquerors tended to live inland on hill-
reek Society: Continuity and
Neolithic Period (6000-2800 B. C.). Man has
tops, which they fortified with rough walls made
MS Press 1977).
reek Art of the Aegean Islands
lived in Greece since Paleolithic times. Villages
of the largest movable stones, piled on top of
of the 7th millennium B. C. that did not make
each other; the approach to the gate was de-
fe (1925; AMS Press 1970).
pottery have been found in Thessaly and Mace-
signed to expose the unshielded side of attackers.
389
War II; others
cenae, Tiryns,
ciphered in 19
to be an early
Mycenaean
abundant potte
what mechanic
pears rather u
B.C. Mycenae
Egypt, in many
southern Italy
also appears as
ROYAL TOMBS at Mycenae, dat.
England. In M
ing from before 1000 B. C., re-
tities of amber,
veal the advanced art and cut
tie across centr.
ture of the ancient Greeks
The prosper
partly on its k
also appears
I
raided abroad f
these attacks "
GREEK NATIONAL TOURIST OFFICE
action that ever
bards in the Ho:
Middle Helladic pottery, which was made in two
Late Bronze Age (1570-1000 B. C.). From the
likely that these
major styles, the Minyan and the mat-painted,
16th century B. C. the center of activity in the
the Mycenaean
was very different from earlier vases. Toward the
Aegean was the palaces of the mainland. A great
centuries later al
end of the Middle Helladic period a number of
volcanic eruption on the island of Thera may
can be trusted. I
coastal areas came under the influence of the ad-
have helped destroy the Minoan palaces; but
show that Mycen
vanced Cretan artistic style.
also seems clear that mainlanders held Knossos
of arms, armor, a
Crete had not been reached by these invaders
throughout the Late Minoan period.
of Asia Minor se
of about 2000. Crete's culture progressed with-
In Greece proper the Late Helladic era
as disrupting life
out interruption from the Early Minoan into the
more often named the Mycenaean age after the
After 1300, h.
Middle Minoan period, which witnessed an ex-
great center of Mycenae. Here Middle Helladic
cenaean world el
traordinary outburst of activity. A number of
lords, living in their rock fortress, began to bei
destroyed before
independent kingdoms emerged, each centered
acquainted with Minoan culture soon after 1600
The rulers of My
on a palace (Knossos, Phaestos, Mallia, Kato
by way of the Cyclades. A group of graves
hurriedly strengtl
Zakro, and others). A Cretan palace, built
called "Grave Circle B," which were cut into
ered access passa
around a central courtyard, was a maze of store-
the rock outside the fortress, were found to con
an effort to fortif
rooms and living apartments; the latter were
tain some Minoan objects alongside native prod
defense was in va
decorated with handsome frescoes and had run-
ucts. Later, the masters of Mycenae constructer
1150. Writing ai
ning water and bathrooms. These palaces, which
another set of shaft graves ("Grave Circle A'
in the Mycenaea
were protected by the seas around the island,
inside the fortress. They were found by Heinric
population of Gre
were not fortified.
Schliemann in 1876 and produced the riches
m mountain villa
The earlier diversity of cultural patterns
store of gold face masks, bracelets, ivory gaming
a few places cont
yielded to a fairly uniform Middle Minoan artis-
boards, inlaid daggers, and other precious object
The most like.
is a
tic style, which is particularly evident in the
ever discovered in the Aegean area.
central and eastern parts of Crete. Among the
The two major architectural achievements
by Creek-speakin
beautiful products of skillful craftsmen were
the Mycenaean world after 1400 were tholo
ivory figurines, stone seals, stone vases, and pot-
tombs and palaces. Tholos tombs were gres
tery that was as thin as eggshell and decorated
false domes made of squared masonry, with $
GOLDEN MASK, ider
in several colors (Kamares ware). Although Cre-
entry corridor; the most famous is the Treasury
the archaeological
tan civilization was influenced by the Near East,
of Atreus at Mycenae, but many others haw
it was not as monumental or solemn, and it was
been found. Unlike Cretan palaces, those
not dominated completely by kings and priests.
Greece were focused on a "megaron," a lan
In Cretan art human figures are secondary to
room with a hearth in the center and a foreport
animals, fish, and plants, which are drawn in a
with columns; this arrangement is generally agree
lithe, impressionistic style.
to be the origin of the historic temple plan.
Most Cretan natives remained farmers, but
Greece, at the time, was evidently divide
traders sailed to Egypt, Syria, Sicily, and the
into a number of independent kingdoms. Ner
Lipari Islands. True urban centers or cities ex-
Mycenae a palace with bathroom and casement
isted at Knossos and Gournia and elsewhere.
walls was built at Tiryns; and other palaces
For royal records, a form of syllabic writing
isted at Pylos on the west coast of Gree
called Linear A was developed after an earlier
Athens (on the Acropolis), Thebes, and as
hieroglyphic experiment, but it has not been in-
north as Iolkos in Thessaly, the legendary hos
terpreted.
of Achilles. In these palaces the rulers lived
Cretan civilization has been highly praised
luxurious surroundings; peasants and artiss
for its grace and modernity. Its fundamental im-
dwelt in surrounding villages. (There is as
portance, however, lay in its handing on the
no evidence that real cities existed on the mar
ideas of civilization from the Near East to Greece
land.)
proper. Historic Greece retained a dim memory
Nevertheless, the Mycenaean kings advance
of a king named Minos and his labyrinth (pal-
so far toward civilization that they needed
ace) of Knossos, so-called because a favorite
form of writing, at least for financial recors
Cretan religious motif was a double ax (labrys);
which were incised on clay tablets. A storero?
classical Greece, however, was more directly in-
of these tablets, in the syllabic script
fluenced by mainland developments.
Linear B, was found at Pylos just before Word
390
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
391
was Thebes. This writing was
have turned up at Knossos, My- de-
Balkan edge of the Mycenaean world. These
peoples, later called Dorians, pushed some of
by Michael Greek. Ventris and proved
the Mycenaeans across the Aegean to the coast
form of
of Asia Minor and even to Cyprus; they them-
as can be known from its
selves occupied much of Crete and the neighbor-
other products, Crete was and a some-
ing islands as far as Rhodes and southwestern
a out down ap-
Asia Minor. Thenceforth almost all the shores
to 1200
of the Aegean were occupied by peoples who
part
Micenaey sites. on the has been found in
spoke one or another dialect of the Greek lan-
in Syrian coast, and in
guage.
as far from as
and Sicily; Mycenaean Greece Wessex metalwork in
Although Greece had thus sunk back by 1000
B. C. to as barbarous a level as in 2000, not
ROYAL TOMBS at Mycenoe,
In Mycenaean graves are found quan-
everything of the past was lost. For example,
ing from before
Indiand amber, which came down from the Bal-
pottery developed from the Mycenaean style,
veal the advanced art
Europe to the Adriatic.
after a period of decadence, into the new vigor
ture of the ancient
Pub
of Mycenaean Greece rested
of the Protogeometric style by 1000; in this lat-
on its farmers and artisans, but it
ter type of pottery the major characteristics of
gurtiy to appears likely that Mycenaean warriors
historic Greek art are already clearly visible in
abroad for booty with great zeal. One of
their basic outlines. The Linear B tablets in-
said attacks was on the fortress of Troy, an
dicate that in the Mycenaean period, major gods
y that eventually was elaborated by epic
of later Greece such as Poseidon, Dionysus, and
atxin in the Homeric poems. It is, however, un-
Athena were already being worshiped, though it
1570-1000 B. C.). From
great epics throw any light on
is not known whether they were visualized in as
e center of activity in &
period itself or that legends told
sharp a form as they were in historic times.
es of the mainland. A &
about heroes of the Trojan period
Names such as Hector appear for slaves on
the island of Thera grea
But evidence does
Linear B tablets as well, but it is unlikely that
the Minoan palaces; but THE
that warriors had an abundance
the epic tradition was beyond its early infancy
mainlanders held Knoska
arms, armor, and chariots, and Hittite records
at this time. The breakdown at the close of
Minoan period.
Asia Minor seem to refer to Aegean residents
the Late Bronze Age wiped out the higher evi-
the Late Helladic era
disrupting life on the coasts.
dences of civilization in Greece but left a base
nae. &
e Mycenaean age after
After 1300, however, the strength of the My-
on which the Greeks were to build a truly great
rock fortress, began to
renaean world ebbed. The palace of Pylos was
civilization. See also AEGEAN CIVILIZATION;
destroyed before 1200 and was never rebuilt.
CRETE.
an soon after 160%
The rulers of Mycenae, Athens, and other areas
CHESTER G. STARR
ades. A group of grave
burriedly strengthened their walls and built cov-
University of Illinois
B," which were cut in
ered access passages to springs; there was even
GREEK CITY-STATE CIVILIZATION
ortress, were found to Co.
an effort to fortify the Isthmus of Corinth. The
ects alongside native prod
defense was in vain, for Mycenae itself fell about
The development of the Greek city-state may
'rs of Mycenae constructed
1150. Writing and the advanced arts centered
be divided into four periods: (1) the period in
traves ("Grave Circle A")
6 the Mycenaean palaces disappeared, and the
which the foundations were laid (1000-800 B. c.);
ey were found by Heinrick
population of Greece declined sharply as men hid
(2) growth of the city-state (800-500 B.
and produced the riches
M mountain villages or became nomads. Only
(3) the apex of city-state civilization (500-404
ks, bracelets, ivory gaming
few places continued to be inhabited.
B. c.); and (4) decline (404-338 B. c.).
and other precious objects
The most likely explanation for this collapse
Political, Social, and Economic Foundations (1000-
Aegean area.
D a continuing series of infiltrations and attacks
800 B. C.). After the collapse of the Mycenaean
hitectural achievements d
by Greek-speaking barbarian peoples from the
civilization, human settlements throughout the
after 1400 were tholos
Aegean area reverted to the level of villages.
Tholos tombs were great
The barbarian invaders jettisoned the higher cul-
quared masonry, with at
GOLDEN MASK, identified as Agamemnon's, was among
ture centered in the palaces, and began to build
st famous is the Treasury
the archaeological treasures discovered at Mycenae.
afresh on the foundations of the tribal traditions
but many others have
GREEK PRESS AND INFORMATION SERVICE
that they had brought with them from the north.
Cretan palaces, those of
Primarily a pastoral people during the period
on a "megaron," a large
of their migrations, the Greeks returned to sub-
he center and a foreporch
sistence farming, combining their pastoral tradi-
gement is generally agreed
tion with agriculture. The result was a strong
historic temple plan.
tendency toward small, economically self-sufficient
was evidently divided
units. Although the Greeks never lost the tech-
endent kingdoms. Near
niques of seamanship that they had acquired
athroom and casemented
from the Cretan civilization, the Cretan-Myce-
IS; and other palaces ex-
naean seaborne commerce atrophied.
west coast of Greece,
The new technology of iron strongly rein-
lis), Thebes, and as far
forced the tendency toward small, self-sufficient
aly, the legendary home
economic units. Bronze was always an expensive
laces the rulers lived in
metal to produce because the constituent ele-
peasants and artisans
ments, copper and tin, are relatively scarce; fur-
lages. (There is as yet
thermore, because copper and tin are rarely
ies existed on the main-
found together, the production of bronze pro-
moted the economic unification of diverse areas
cenaean kings advanced
by commerce or conquest. Iron, on the other
in that they needed a
hand, is widely distributed and easily accessible.
t for financial records,
The result was a decentralization of industry,
ay tablets. A storeroom
agriculture, and warfare. The metalworker was
syllabic script called
emancipated from dependence on the palace; op-
"ylos just before World
erating on his own, he could supply a village
392
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
with cheap tools for agriculture and cheap weap-
Political Organization. Although no two of the
the 5th century B. c., ha
ons for defense.
several hundred Greek city-states had identical
and was in a class by
The network of peasant villages thus estab-
constitutions, they all represented variations of a
cities, including Sparta
lished remained the foundation of Greek eco-
basic pattern that was evolved in the earliest
citizens.
nomic life throughout classical antiquity. The
period of Greek history. The essential organs of
Growth of City-State (
trend toward decentralization of economic life,
a Greek city-state were (1) a magistracy, (2) a
The internal transformat
which continued through the early Iron Age
council or senate, and (3) an assembly. The
sion of Greek civilization
down to about 500 B. c., also made it possible
magistracy grew out of tribal kingship, while the
age (800-500 B. c.) we'
for Greek civilization to develop a phenomenally
council and the assembly grew out of the tradi-
nomic developments as
large number (several hundred) of small cities
tion of tribal collectivism: the fusion of the two
became once more a C(
and to cultivate in each of these the ideals of
traditions can be seen in the Homeric epics. The
civilization, as it had b.
economic self-sufficiency and political autonomy.
Homeric king is the priest of the community in
This trend first showed
The reversion to an economy of self-sufficient
religious matters, the leader in war, and the dis-
of Greek colonies throug
villages resuscitated the tribal social organization
penser of justice; he is surrounded by a council
and Black Sea areas (7:
that the Greeks had brought with them on their
of elders, whom he consults for advice; his de-
Greek colonization had
migrations but that had been temporarily
cisions are communicated to an assembly of the
Creek commerce, it was
eclipsed by the individualism of Mycenaean king-
people. Although the earliest city-states all con-
for trade outlets, but by
ship. The ultimate social unit was the patriarchal
formed to the Homeric pattern, kingship began to
ity of the peasant village
household-"a house and a wife and an OX to
decline as soon as a landed aristocracy had con-
history broke down in t
plough," as the peasant-poet Hesiod says. Except
solidated itself at the top of the Greek social
population, aggravated b
in some Dorian states, such as Sparta, the pa-
structure. This aristocracy monopolized the mag-
tribution of land. One SC
triarchal tradition was strongly entrenched in
istracy and subordinated it to the council, which
territorial expansion: bore
Greek culture: the active citizens of a city-state
was in effect the aristocracy itself meeting in
stant in some areas, suc
(polis) were adult males only. The patriarchal
plenary session.
Peloponnesus, where Spa
family was enclosed within a series of concentric
Despite the relapse of Greece into a local and
in the west (725-668 B.
kinship circles-the clan (genos), the phratry,
feudal particularism, the tradition of political cen-
ward at the expense of A
the tribe.
tralization was not lost. The kernel that was to
The alternative soluti-
The Greek city-state of classical times in-
grow into the city-state of classical times was a
tion was resorted to by I
herited from this earlier period the notion that
Mycenaean legacy. Although city life in the strict
Creek cities, although
citizenship connoted some kind of blood brother-
sense of the word did not exist in the early
Megara, Corinth, Miletus
hood, sanctified by participation in ancestral re-
period, nevertheless certain localities already
tionally prolific in coloni-
ligious rites. It is therefore the tradition of
stood out from the mass of peasant villages and
tensively colonized were S
primitive tribalism that provided the basis for
were called polis. These localities were fortified
B the west, and the C(
the Greek concept of citizenship, which, like the
heights, at the foot of which were settlements
and the Sea of Marmara
Roman concept of the respublica, made the state
that later grew into commercial and industrial
of colonization on the ec
a collective enterprise belonging to a body of
towns. In most cases they had been originally
ar-reaching. The new CO
men rather than the property of a king or of a
the site of the castle of the Mycenaean war
tribes in the hinterland )
god, as in the Bronze Age civilizations. In spite
lord, the Acropolis of Athens being a perfect es-
stimulated a great expar
of the survival in classical times of certain restric-
ample. These fortified points served a group of
industry. After about 7
tions on individual ownership of land, in early
surrounding villages as centers for military de-
articles, of which metal
Greece the economy was based essentially on
fense, religious observances, and political admin-
tatiles, and pottery wei
private property, and subsequent developments
istration. The term polis was originally restricted
were produced by Greec
consolidated the system.
to the fortified acropolis; later the term and the
quantities to all parts of
From the start this tribal tradition was com-
fortifications were extended to embrace the lower
Black Sea.
plicated by economic inequalities and a social
town; in classical times the term designated the
This commercial and i
stratification inherited from the Mycenaean age.
entire area and civic body governed by a city-
concentrated in a few lo
At the top of the social scale was a group of
state. This consolidation of the city-state's re
paphic position and nati
landholding warriors; after 800 B. C. this group
gime proceeded at an unequal rate and tools
lated by the poverty of t}
became a conscious aristocracy that developed a
different forms in different territories.
Corinth Mega
distinct way of life centering on athletics, more
The particularist tendencies of Greek civiliza
luxurious surroundings, and social pride. At the
tion were so strong that even in classical times
it was the exception when the political bound
the and t]
Samos)
bottom of the social scale there was slavery,
of early
though this remained very limited until after
aries coincided with the cultural and geographic
also reo
800. In the middle there were various gradations
ones. The outstanding exceptions were the politi
of free persons. The most important distinction
instable the supply of staple
access
cal unification of Laconia under Sparta and di
in the middle stratum of free persons was that
Attica under Athens. Elsewhere, regions with
& commercial cities be
between members of the community (tribe or
common interests and cultural homogeneity corr
sexe farming to specialize
food, their agriculture
city) and resident aliens, who even in classical
tained a plurality of city-states, which either st
times were not only debarred from the political
tempted to cover their lack of political unity dis by
resumption went in the city
life of the community, but also did not enjoy full
establishing leagues (Thessaly, Arcadia), or
equality before the law. The second main dis-
sipated their energies in mutual rivalries (Boar
and became a country rc.
Litica further along this
tinction was that between landholders and the
tia, Argolis, Euboea), or slumbered in political
sweals in the 4th century
landless. The original tribal notion was that all
insignificance (Achaea, Phocis, Locris, Aetolis
issue imported into Att
members of the tribe and only members of the
Acarnania). To appreciate the intensity of Greed
tribe would have a share in the tribal land; land-
urban civilization, one must always remember
iskg
less craftsmen and day laborers tended to drop
the smallness, both in territory and in population
of doing with
out of the tribal system and become assimilated
of the city-states. Sparta (3,360 square miles. of
ind
in status to resident aliens. Thus early Greece
8,700 sq km) and Athens (1,060 square miles. the
and small farn
had already developed a definite social stratifica-
2,750 sq km) were the largest. Some idea of if
tion-a landed aristocracy at the top; a middle
average size may be had from the fact that there
ventic reamed the decentralize
The new commercial
intensive producti
stratum with free farmers at the top, landless
were, apart from Thebes, 12 cities, each aver &
Boeotia, a prosperous agricultural
merchants, craftsmen, and agricultural laborers in
Do of the early Iron
the middle, and resident aliens at the bottom;
ing about 52 square miles (134 sq km). Athens is
and at the very bottom, slaves and serfs.
Traitsmen working in inde] smal
hands of small,
with 43,000 adult male citizens at its peak
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
393
ited rates
ugh no two of
3th a class by itself. The majority
century B. C., had the largest population of
four or five slaves. Similarly, trade was in the
hands of a large number of small, independent
including Sparta, had less than 5,000
merchants and shipowners.
ed
Y
The decentralized style of Greek commerce
essential carling
- City-State Civilization (800-500 B. C.).
and industry exploited a recent invention-coined
ternal transformation and external expan-
money. In the 7th century the kingdom of Lydia,
assembly
or
civilization in the so-called archaic
inland from the Greek cities on the coast of Asia
:ingship, while The
were set in motion by eco-
Minor, began issuing pieces of electrum stamped
as a result of which Greece
by the state to guarantee uniformity of weight
V the
fusion of the true,
- more a commercial and industrial
and quality. This coinage may have been used
/
as it had been in the Bronze Age.
chiefly to pay mercenary soldiers; its units were
or commit
out assembly advice; Greek of had all his of OBP
FL
the first showed itself in the proliferation
so high in value that they could not have been
Creek areas (750-600 B. c.). Although
colonies throughout the Mediterranean
used for general trade. The really revolutionary
a &
development was the introduction of silver coins
had a revolutionary effect on
of smaller value, issued for the first time at
n
it was caused not by any need
Aegina, Corinth, and other states early in the 6th
city-states
eade outlets, but by land hunger. The stabil-
century B. C. This type of coinage made it pos-
kingship begas
the peasant village economy of early Greek
sible to place the entire economy, and not just
stocracy
of broke down in the face of a growth in
international trade, on a money basis.
the
The effect of the new coinage can be mea-
opolized the will
section expansion: aggravated land. One border solution by inequalities warfare was to became embark in the con- dis- the on
sured by the transformation of the agora of the
he council, which may
Greek city, originally the place for political and
itself meeting
in some areas, such as, for example,
religious assembly, into a marketplace. The small
- Sparta conquered Messenia
landowner could now switch from subsistence
e into a local
B. c.) and expanded north-
farming to specialized agriculture; the craftsman
on of political
and at the expense of Arcadia (560-550 B. c.).
and trader not only profited from the new market
ernel that was
The alternative solution of overseas coloniza-
for cheap goods, but were emancipated from the
sical times was
was resorted to by nearly all the important
limitations on the accumulation of profit inherent
ty life in the strict
Cosek se cities, although certain cities (Chalcis,
in a natural economy of exchange in kind.
xist in the
Vegira, Corinth, Miletus) stand out as excep-
Acquisitive individualism, once the pastime of
localities alread
smally prolific in colonies. The areas most in-
Bronze Age kings, now became the general
sant villages
ensively colonized were southern Italy and Sicily
watchword of the age: for the first time in world
ties were fortify
the west, and the coasts of the Black Sea
history it is said that "money makes the man."
were settlement
at the Sea of Marmara in the east. The effects
The introduction of a money economy in
al and industrial
colonization on the economy of Greece were
Greece in the 6th century B. C. was accompanied
reaching. The new colonies and the barbarian
by social and political upheavals. The supremacy
d Mycenaean been original
ries in the hinterland provided a market that
of the landed aristocracy was undermined by the
eing a perfect
emulated a great expansion of commerce and
emancipation of the small peasants and craftsmen
erved a group
After about 700 B. C., manufactured
from the village and their reorientation toward
for military
sticles, of which metal utensils and weapons,
the market in the city. This social leveling ten-
I political admis
taxtiles, and pottery were the most important,
dency was intensified by a simultaneous change
iginally restricted
are produced by Greece and exported in mass
in military technology: the decisive role in war-
the term and the
suntities to all parts of the Mediterranean and
fare passed from aristocratic elites to the mass of
mbrace the lower
Luck Sea.
the citizenry financially able to equip themselves
n designated the
This commercial and industrial revolution was
as hoplites (heavy-armed infantry). The main
erned by a city
esncentrated in a few localities favored by geo-
immediate beneficiaries were a new plutocracy of
e city-state's It
caphic position and natural resources or stimu-
successful craftsmen and merchants who possessed
I rate and took
ated by the poverty of the land-the Isthmus of
wealth as great as the landed wealth of the old
itories.
Corinth (Corinth, Megara), the Saronic Gulf
aristocracy, and who aspired to social and politi-
of Greek civiliza
Aegina, Athens), and the coast of Asia Minor
cal equality with the self-styled "best men.
n classical times
(Rhodes, Miletus, Samos). In these localities the
Although in the long run the commercial rev-
political bound
redimentary cities of early Greece grew into real
olution laid the basis for the prosperity of small,
and geographic
obes. Commerce also reoriented agriculture. The
intensively cultivated farms in the 5th century
were the politi-
colonies opened access to areas with an ex-
B.C., the immediate effects on the small farmer
Sparta and of
portable supply of staple cereal foodstuffs. As
were disastrous. The general economic disloca-
e, regions with
be commercial cities began to rely on imports
tion that accompanied the transition from sub-
mogeneity con-
of food, their agriculture switched from subsist-
sistence to specialized farming caused an agricul-
which either at-
roce farming to specialized production, either for
tural crisis, and the only solution offered by the
olitical unity by
consumption in the city or for export. Athens
new money economy was usury. The small farm-
\rcadia), or dis-
went further along this road than any other city;
ers were forced to borrow on the security not
rivalries (Boeo-
Attica became a country of vines and olive trees,
only of their lands, but also of their persons, and,
red in political
and in the 4th century B. c., the amount of
as a result, large numbers were threatened with
Locris, Aetolia
cereals imported into Attica was four times the
reduction to the status of sharecropping serfs.
tensity of Greek
home production. The economic changes that
At the bottom of the social scale there was a
vays remember
followed the colonization movement had the ef-
great expansion of the slave labor force. The
d in population,
fect of doing away with the need for coloniza-
new market for industrial products stimulated
square miles, or
tion: commerce and industry absorbed surplus
the need for them; the new money economy
square miles, or
population, and small farms were made profitable
facilitated their acquisition. The immediate ef-
ome idea of the
by the intensive production of specialized crops.
fect was to place the acquisition of one or two
he fact that it
The new commercial and industrial economy
slaves within the reach of the small craftsman
ral area, there
retained the decentralized organization charac-
and the small farmer, and thus to diffuse the
'S, each averag
teristic of the early Iron Age. Industry was in
exploitation of slave labor and a modest incre-
I km). Athens,
the hands of small, independent owners, mostly
ment of leisure through a large segment of the
at its peak in
craftsmen working in small shops and assisted by
population.
394
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
Class Conflict and the State. These socioeco-
instituting large programs of public works; and
for the perform
nomic developments not only cut the ground
they broke the aristocratic monopoly on higher
duced about 4
from under the aristocratic political system, but
culture by expanding the festivals and centers,
thereafter to
also set the stage for a more or less permanent
which gave the entire citizen body access to
given to Athei
state of conflict over the division of political
gymnastics and the arts.
program that
privileges among the different social classes with-
In different ways both the lawgivers and the
series of templ
in the citizenry-the large landowners, the small
tyrants introduced a larger measure of social and
At the sai
peasant farmers, and the landless group of mer-
political equality than had previously existed, and
treaties with it:
chants, craftsmen, and day laborers. This conflict,
if their work did not last, it was because it had
risons through
fought out separately in each city-state, every one
not gone far enough in that direction. Athens is
cratic constitut
with its own special adaptation of its local en-
the classic example: after the limited reform of
local courts to
vironment, produced the infinite variety of Greek
Solon came the tyranny of Pisistratus and his
trolled the mo'
constitutions.
sons, which ended in 510 B. c.; after the tyranm
IS grain and ti
Greek constitutions may be roughly classified
came the final democratic constitution established
represents a rt
into aristocracies, oligarchies, democracies, and
by Cleisthenes in 508-507 B. C.
toward econon
tyrannies. Again roughly speaking, aristocracy
Apex of City-State Civilization (500-404 B. C.I
and an attemp
meant the rule of the large landowners; oligar-
The 5th century B. C. was both the high point
4 large part of
chies were in effect plutocracies in which the
and the crisis of Greek city-state civilization. It
Sed by the de
wealthy landowners shared political privileges
began with the great victory of Greece in the
The develo
with the wealthy businessmen; democracies meant
Persian Wars (499-479 B. c.), which frustrated
changed the (
the diffusion of political privileges to the poorer
the attempt of the Persian Empire to expand into
When Cleisther
classes in the citizen body. Tyrannies represented
European Greece. It also liberated the Greek
constitution for
attempts to solve the social conflict not by con-
cities in Asia Minor, which had -fallen under the
had still been
stitutional adjustment, but by setting up a per-
domination of the kingdom of Lydia in the
left wide powe
sonal dictatorship. In actuality most Greek
second half of the 7th century B. C., and which
and to the cou
constitutions were complicated mixtures of aristo-
had been absorbed, along with Lydia, into the
pagus). The
cratic, oligarchic, and democratic features, de-
Persian Empire in 546 B. C.
creased the nur
pending on the local situation. The fundamental
Intermittent fighting between Greeks and Per
city, and the
political institutions of the city-state-the assem-
sians continued until 449 B. C., when a peace
their contributi
bly, the council, the magistracy-were extremely
treaty was made in which the Persian king
state at least as
flexible. The general rule was that in democ-
Artaxerxes I (reigned 464-424 B. c.), agreed to
class, who supp
racies the sovereign authority was the assembly,
stay away from the Aegean Sea and it's coasts
Pericles was
while in aristocracies or oligarchies the powers
Meanwhile, in 480 B. C., the Greeks in the west
urban segment
of the assembly were curtailed in favor of the
ern Mediterranean had halted the expansion in
who depended
council.
Sicily of the Phoenician empire of Carthage
of the navy, the
The new problems of economic, social, and
These victories, which demonstrated the super
power (461-429
political readjustment could be solved only by a
ority in morale and military technology of Greel
ples already esta
vigorous assertion of the central authority of
city-state civilization, not only made it possible
to their log-
the city-state itself. One of the first consequences
for Greece to continue its political and cultural
trates by lot an
of the social crisis was the expansion of the
development undisturbed by Oriental interference
He introduced a
judicial role of the state at the expense of the
but also, by securing access to areas vital to
the imperial fu
autonomy of the clan, and the substitution of
Greek commerce, laid the basis for the attain
basis, Periclean
codified systems of positive law in place of the
ment of a level of prosperity that surpassed the
mn into a mor
orally transmitted body of customary law, which
highest achievements of the Bronze Age.
ever before or
traditionally had been dispensed by the aristoc-
Athenian Empire. The crisis of the Persist
represents the W
racy. In many cities, however, a new set of laws
Wars also stimulated the greatest single achieve
power among t
was needed to meet the new circumstances. With
ment of Greek city-state civilization, the Atheniss
sained a privile
a faith in reason and a willingness to experiment
experiment in internal democracy and extems
$3,000). It ex
that are characteristically Greek, city-states en-
imperialism. The Persian threat stimulated Athess
trusted their destinies to lawgivers who were
to build a considerable navy (482 B. c.), which ni
erident aliens (
granted full powers to revise not only the con-
only proved vital in the defense of the Greek main
Athenian Empir
to
stitution, but also the entire way of life of the
land in 480-479 B. c., but also was the crucis
Exe, policy was
community.
factor in the defense of the newly liberated citio be
she," who estab
Solon (c. 594 B. c.) not only gave Athens a
on the coast of Asia Minor. Hence Athens
new law code and the rudiments of a democrat-
The Athenian
wing majority
came the head of a maritime confederation, or?
ically oriented constitution but also attacked the
nized in 478 B. C. on a voluntary basis as
under Pericles'
economic problem by encouraging industry and
Delian League, which grew to include some
democracy be
above all by canceling the mortgages that were
cities in the Aegean Islands and along the coase its
turning the small farmers into a class of share-
of Asia Minor, the Thracian Chersonese, and
with Peloponnesian the Pelopo
cropping serfs. The same vigorous assertion of
rest of Thrace. The financial contributions m3d
the Athenian El
result of whic
the power of the state is seen in the tyrannies
by all but a few (ship-contributing) members
that proliferated in the commercial and industrial
the confederation maintained the Athenian na 123
century B. c.,
cities, such as Corinth, Sicyon, Megara, and
The maintenance of the navy became a
been able to dev
Athens, in the 7th and 6th centuries B. C. These
necessity for Athens, since its food was importe
tyrants, or dictators, who seized power by force,
its prosperity depended on trade, and a
Laced assume
as the sharecro
&
with the support of some combination among the
large number of its citizens were financially Athes
teartans formed
underprivileged classes, exploited their position
pendent on employment in the navy.
Greece. Sparta
w
to assist their followers, not so much by con-
soon (470 B. c.) began to use its naval prepor
stitutional reforms as by social and economic
derance to prevent secession from the
policies. They divided the estates of their aris-
the process of transforming it into an
news Thus with the e
tocratic opponents among landless peasants; they
began.
resian the
yea
fostered foreign trade by establishing new col-
After 449 B. C., Athens used the funds of
onies and by building a network of commercial
league not only to maintain its
stoo an
alliances; they encouraged domestic industry by
raise the standard of living at
I
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
395
ns of public works;
for 450 B. C. jurymen,
the performance of for public service and was extended intro-
oligarchical in its politics, and conservative in
tic monopoly on of
its customs; Athens a sea power, commercial in
he higher
other services. Employment was
its economy, democratic in its politics, and radi-
citizen
artisans by the for public the famous works
cal in its cultural innovations.
th the lawgivers and
Gren that was responsible
The basic cause of the conflict between
Program temples on the Acropolis.
Sparta and Athens was the inherent tendency of
d previously existed. of
ger measure of social is
and the same time Athens, by a series of
the Athenian Empire toward dynamic expansion.
At with its "allies," established Athenian gar-
From 458 to 446 B. C., Athens actually attempted
st, it was because it ***
enties throughout the empire, imposed demo-
to become the foremost power on the Greek main-
er of limited reform
that the direction. Athem had
eatic Athenian courts, and con-
constitutions, transferred jurisdiction from
land as well as in the Aegean Sea, although Per-
icles abandoned this policy in 446 B. C. after a
y 0 B. Pisistratus and d
inal the movement of vital commodities, such
series of defeats on land.
c.; after be
timber. Thus the Athenian Empire
The Peloponnesian War was provoked by
'C 07 constitution B. C.
of the Iron Age tendency
Athenian interference in the Ionian Sea, which
political decentralization,
Corinth, the great maritime state in the Pelopon-
Civilization (500-404
assert centralized control over
nesian League, regarded as its sphere. Athens,
vas both the high B.C.S a
Lurge part of the area already economically uni-
after the death of Pericles in 429 B. c., abandoned
city-state
1rd by the development of commerce.
his cautious defensive strategy in favor of ex-
victory of
The development of the Athenian Empire
pansionist adventures on the mainland of Greece
in
the expand
of Athenian democracy.
(426-424 B. c.), in the Peloponnesus (419-418),
established a democratic
and in Sicily (415-413). This tendency to pre-
the mass of the citizens
cipitate expansion, combined with the degenera-
ich had fallen under
working farmers, who of necessity
tion of Athenian politics into open class struggle
igdom of Lydia in the
century B. c., and which the
H wide powers to the magistrates they elected
under the strain of the war, and the disaffection
B.C.
ong with Lydia, into the
and to the council of ex-magistrates (the Areo-
of the subject cities in the Athenian Empire, gave
Fugus). The development of the empire in-
the victory to Sparta. The 5th century thus
creased the number of citizens who lived in the
ended with the victory of reaction over the city-
49 B. c., when a
between Greeks and Per.
and the development of the navy made
state that represented economic progress, political
which the Persian peace king
their aty. contribution to the military power of the
liberalism, and cultural enlightenment and that,
464-424 B. c.), agreed
state at least as important as that of the farmer
in the given historical circumstances, was the
egean Sea and its coasts to
class, who supplied the infantry.
only city-state capable of achieving the political
Pericles was placed in power in 461 B. C. by the
unification of Greece.
halted the expansion
the Greeks in the west.
arban segment of the Athenian citizen population,
Decline of City-State Civilization (404-338 B. C.).
ian empire of in
who depended on the maintenance and expansion
Although the economy of Greece, badly shattered
the
of the navy, the empire, and commerce. When in
in the Peloponnesian War, staged a remarkable
power (461-429 B. c.), Pericles carried two princi-
recovery in the 4th century B. c., it never re-
ples already established in the Athenian constitu-
gained the level of prosperity attained in the 5th
not only made it possible
bon to their logical conclusion: election of magis-
century. Athens became once more the most
its political and cultural
trates by lot and the supremacy of the assembly.
important port in the Mediterranean, although it
d by Oriental interference
He introduced as a third principle payment (from
now faced competition from other expanding
access to areas vital to
the imperial funds) for public service. On this
centers of commerce and industry (Corinth,
the basis for the attain-
basis, Periclean democracy drew the average citi-
Megara, Boeotia on the mainland; Rhodes, Chios,
sperity that surpassed the
of the Bronze Age.
ten into a more active governmental role than
Thasos in the Aegean). But the revival of com-
he crisis of the Persian
ever before or since. Periclean democracy thus
merce was accompanied by a sharp inflation of
represents the widest possible diffusion of political
prices, widespread unemployment, and chronic
he greatest single achieve-
power among the citizen body, which still re-
food shortages.
e civilization, the Athenian
mained a privileged minority (numbering about
Although this economic crisis was aggravated
democracy and external
43,000). It excluded women (about 43,000),
by unsettled political conditions, there were two
n threat stimulated Athens
resident aliens (about 28,500), and slaves (about
underlying causes in particular: the contraction
navy (482 B. c.), which not
110,000), not to mention the population of the
of the foreign market as local imitations began to
defense of the Greek main-
Athenian Empire outside Attica. In actual prac-
replace Greek imports; and the contraction of the
but also was the crucial
tice, policy was shaped by "leaders of the peo-
domestic market due to the depressing effects of
f the newly liberated cities
ple.' who established a moral ascendancy and a
slave labor on free labor, as larger establishments,
Minor. Hence Athens be
voting majority in the debates in the assembly.
wholly operated by slaves, became common in
ritime confederation, orga-
The Athenian historian Thucydides says that
both industry and agriculture. The effect was to
a voluntary basis as the
under Pericles' leadership "what was nominally
undermine the middle stratum of small farmers
grew to include some 200
a democracy became in fact one-man rule."
and craftsmen, which had been the backbone of
ands and along the coasts
Peloponnesian War. The 5th century ended
the polis, to concentrate the wealth in the hands
acian Chersonese, and the
with the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B. c.), as
of the few, and to pauperize the mass of the
nancial contributions made
a result of which Sparta and its allies destroyed
citizen body.
-contributing) members of
the Athenian Empire. Since the end of the 6th
The mass of paupers could find no outlet in
tained the Athenian navy.
century B. C., Sparta's citizen aristocracy had
colonization until Alexander's conquest of the
the navy became a vital
been able to devote full time to military training
East. The only opportunity for employment was
nce its food was imported,
as the sharecropping serfs (helots) had been
in warfare: Greek mercenary soldiers became
ed on trade, and a very
forced to assume all the burdens of farming. The
standard in both Greek and Oriental armies.
tizens were financially de-
Spartans formed the most powerful land army in
Class war assumed ugly proportions in many
nt in the navy. Athens
Greece. Sparta had also placed itself at the head
cities, the poor demanding redivision of the land
a to use its naval prepon-
of a military alliance known as the Peloponnesian
and cancellation of debts. More liberal states,
ssion from the league, and
League, which embraced all the cities of Pelopon-
such as Athens, avoided social revolution by en-
orming it into an empire
nesus with the exception of Argos and Achaea.
larging the subsidies for poor citizens that had
Thus in the years (479-431 B. c.), between the
been introduced in the 5th century. To finance
ens used the funds of the
Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War, Sparta
the dole, since there was no longer a tribute-
intain its navy, but also to
and Athens stood at the head of rival coalitions-
paying Athenian Empire, heavier burdens were
iving at Athens. Payment
Sparta a land power, agrarian in its economy,
placed on the rich.
396
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
While these economic developments weak-
of natural and social phenomena were entirely
ancient Middle East literacy
ened the internal structure of the Greek cities,
mythical; even thereafter myth remained central
difficult achievement and
the really decisive deterioration was in their
in Greek religion and poetry, and philosophy and
specialized caste of scribes,
external relations. The defeat of Athens in the
science never fully got rid of its influence. Greek
in the 8th century B. C. the
Peloponnesian War had eliminated the one city
drama and lyric poetry evolved out of the tradi-
vented by Phoenician merch
capable of achieving the political unification of
tional songs and dances that were an integral
spread the knowledge of it
Greece, without eliminating the need for it. Vari-
part of the tribal cycle of magic ceremonies-
Not only the enjoyment but
ous cities attempted to establish their leadership
funeral dirges, marriage songs, initiation rites, and
culture became diffused. Alt
in Greece; none of them succeeded, and all of
harvest songs. Even in classical times the con-
tecture remained in the ha
them exhausted themselves in internecine war-
nection between poetry and magico-religious
craftsmen, amateurs entered
fare. Sparta fell heir to the Athenian Empire in
ceremony was preserved, as well as the combina-
and invented the new genre
404 B. C., but was not strong enough to prevent
tion of poetry with music and dancing, and the
The collapse of the old
spasmodic revivals of Athenian sea power (394
organization of the whole as a group performance
the need for new ideological
B. c.; 377 B. c.) and the appearance of a rival
by a chorus. Similarly in the visual arts, aesthetic
task of constructing them to i
land power in Thebes (378 B. c.). After the de-
expression was subordinated to either practical
now free to develop idiosyn.
cisive defeat of Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra
utility (the decoration of useful articles), of
etry became a vehicle of
(371 B. c.), there was a decade of Theban he-
magical purposes (funeral urns, votive offerings,
strong personalities with a
gemony in Greece until the destructive and inde-
and ritual masks); classical Greek art was like-
Hesiod, who lived around 700
cisive Battle of Mantinea (362 B. c.), which left
wise never "art for art's sake." The style of early
use the epic poetical techni
no city strong enough to exercise more than local
Greek art (9th and 8th centuries B. c.), known
ideology for independent far
leadership.
as Geometric, has the same kind of rigid formal-
and Days he transformed tl
This disunity brought Greece under the
ism and schematized conventions as are charac-
individual achievement into
domination of outside influences. The Pelopon-
teristic of the art of primitive peoples today.
work, and in his Theogony he
nesian War had reintroduced Persia as a factor
Mycenaean palace architecture gave the basic
ology a new moral content b:
in Greek politics, since Sparta had secured Per-
plan for the temple of classical times, and the
lution of the spirit world fron
sian support at the price of the surrender of the
gods worshiped in these temples were at least
of order and justice under the
Greek cities of Asia Minor. From the end of
in part known in Mycenaean times. But the most
Political propagandists like
the Peloponnesian War to 355 B. c., Persia held
important legacy consisted of mythology and epic
c.), Solon (c. 594 B. c.), an
the balance of power in Greece, ratifying Spartan
poetry. The Mycenaean warrior-kings may have
c.) transformed elegiac poet
hegemony in 386 B. C., and Theban hegemony
employed professional minstrels to entertain their
relaxation of the aristocracy,
in 368 B. c., and always successfully organizing
courts with short lays celebrating contemporary
manifestos to their fellow (
resistance to any city that threatened to oust it
heroic exploits; certainly minstrels' guilds recited
frustrated individuals, such
from the Aegean.
stories about the Trojan War and other great
c.) and Sappho (c. 590 B
After 357 B. C., Greek disunity was exploited
deeds.
new genre of personal lyric pc
with equal success by the kingdom of Macedonia,
Probably some time after 800 a great poet
universal significance of their
which, under the aggressive leadership of Philip
called Homer pulled together some of those tales
and emotions.
II (reigned 359-336 B. c.), embarked on a career
in the Iliad; possibly another poet, who goes under
New dimensions were add
of dynamic expansion. Unlike Persia, which was
the same name, composed the Odyssey perhaps
liefs. The Dionysiac initiation
content to keep Greece weak, Macedonia needed
as much as a generation later. The Homeric
tormed into an escapist religi
to bring Greece directly under its domination. By
epics are large-scale panoramas of an earlier
those who suffered as a result
346 B. c., Philip had extended the Macedonian
heroic age, but they are also artistic masterpieces
economic dislocations of the
sphere of influence as far south as Delphi. In
Their authors established a genre of poetry re-
ritual of Demeter at Eleusis Wa
the final battle at Chaeronea (338 B. c.), the
cited on essentially secular occasions, with $
a mystery religion guaranteeir
last-ditch resistance organized by Athens and the
technique dictated by essentially artistic con-
the afterworld to the initiate. T
Athenian statesman Demosthenes was crushed,
siderations, and with an essentially human inter-
hood at Delphi became the sp
and Greece was reduced to that dependent status
est in its subject matter. At the same time they
regarded their poetry as the repository of of 3
cratic order. ethical system of conse
in which she remained throughout antiquity.
higher culture-the culture of the heroic age
Others sought to place the
CULTURE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATE (1000-322 B. C.)
the past-and therefore as having a vital educa
on a more objective foundation
The foundations on which classical Greek cul-
tional mission. They thus prepared the way for of
cities of Asia Minor, with thei
ture was built were, on the one hand, a legacy
the rise of the poet as the primary source
of primitive tribalism reinforced by the relapse of
spiritual guidance in Greek culture.
Greece to an agrarian village economy about
In an age when tribal traditions imprisoned
the individual in the magic circle of the village
A 1 and were adv
THE and cult
birth to
1000-800 B. C.; and, on the other hand, a legacy
and the clan, the Iliad and the Odyssey unfolded
Ionian school 0
from the enlightened Mycenaean civilization that
Ar
had taken root on the mainland about 1600-1200
a spectacle of unfettered individualism with the
(c. 540
B. C. These two traditions were fused and be-
whole of Greece and all the seas around it as the
came the general property of all citizens.
field of action. Along with the individualism
cities of southern Italy, the Py
B. c.)-and their succe.
In the primitive folk culture of Greece, as in
went a humanistic ethics
lowers of Pythagoras (c. 510 B.
other primitive cultures, science, philosophy, lit-
through achievement, and an
ogy that robbed the spirit world of its mysterious
500 B. c.)
erature, and art in the modern sense did not exist.
The tribal lore was orally transmitted and, while
terrors by thoroughly
emple form for human behavior by d
to prov
containing elements of scientific knowledge, philo-
denizens. The Homeric
these of order in nature. Th
sophical speculation, and aesthetic expression, it
of Greece."
was essentially a system of magical practices and
Growth of Greek Culture (800-500 B. C.). Greek
world world my
form
mythical thought. Magical practices survived in
classical times not only in the superstitions of
culture was transformed by the development ubs
came in the wake of the
farmers and craftsmen, but also in the official re-
of about 800-500 B. C. The diffusion of pur
rated by Socrates and Plato. Li
age philosophical sp
ligion of the city-state, which was for the most
chasing power and political power was accom-
speculation took
panied by the diffusion of leisure and higher creak
difference was th
part constructed out of the traditional cycle of
md supernatural machinery, a:
agrarian magic-springtime and harvesttime fes-
ture among the entire
prose. observation, and for the
tivals and the like.
culture presupposed a
Until the birth of Greek science and philos-
tary education in reading,
eated The expanding city-state to
ophy in the 6th century B. C., Greek explanations
poetry, music, and gymnastics.
by the tribe and became
vère entireh
Middle East literacy had been a highly
more humane culture. Especially under the influ-
lined
and the monopoly of a
ence of the tyrants and lawgivers, the cycle of
ilosophy ind and
caste scribes, the Greeks adopted
religious festivals sponsored by the state was
ence. Green
C. the simpler alphabet in-
expanded by the absorption into the state religion
of the tradi
by Phoenician merchants and increasingly
of deities formerly patronized only by particular
an
a but also the creation of
of it among the citizenry.
local, family, or professional groups. Sacred
hymns-for example, the so-called Homeric
not became Although art and archi-
Hymns, a collection for the most part composed
les the coo.
the remained in the hands of professional
for performance at religious festivals-attained a
rico-religious combins
entered the field of poetry
new level of formal perfection and expressed a
a new genre of prose.
new kind of civic consciousness.
ng, and the
The collapse of the old tribal norms created
The temple was perfected in the 6th century
performant
need for new ideological systems and left the
B. c.; with its open colonnade, its exterior deco-
east free to develop idiosyncratic solutions. Po-
of constructing them to individuals who were
ration, and the modest dignity of its proportions,
er practical
it became the classic expression of civic con-
sow became a vehicle of self-expression for
sciousness in architecture. At the same time, the
8
(ty personalities with a sense of mission.
sites of old intervillage festivals were transformed
articles), c.), today. the the and and at
Hesiod, crong who lived around 700 B. c., attempted to
into magnificent centers, as at Olympia and Del-
of early
the epic poetical technique to express an
phi, where the Greek cities competed with each
known
are deology for independent farmers; in his Works
other with dedications of works of art as well as
igid formal-
Days he transformed the heroic ethics of
in musical and athletic competitions. Here civic
are charac-
and adividual achievement into a gospel of hard
consciousness was merged in a wider Panhellenic
:S
work, and in his Theogony he gave the epic the-
consciousness, which was fostered by the coloni-
ve basic
dogy a new moral content by showing the evo-
zation movement and by increasing, contact with
es, the
lution of the spirit world from chaos to a system
barbarians whose culture was manifestly inferior.
ere least
of order and justice under the supremacy of Zeus.
The emancipation of the individual and the
But most
Political propagandists like Tyrtaeus (c. 640
growth of a new community consciousness in
'gy epic
c.), Solon (c. 594 B. c.), and Theognis (c. 540
the city gave rise to a new sense of the dignity
S may have
c.) transformed elegiac poetry, the after-dinner
of mankind as represented by the average citizen
tertain their
relaxation of the aristocracy, into a vehicle for
of the city-state. This humanism is most clearly
intemporated
sanifestos to their fellow citizens. Politically
reflected in the evolution of Greek art. The rigid
frustrated individuals, such as Alcaeus (c. 600
formalism of Geometric art gave way to a freer
other great
&c) and Sappho (c. 590 B. c.), invented the
representation of movement in a luxuriantly
new genre of personal lyric poetry to express the
decorative style borrowed from the East, the
great poet
eniversal significance of their private experiences
Orientalizing style (700-600 B. c.). Subsequent
those tales
and emotions.
developments (the archaic style of about 600-
goes under
New dimensions were added to religious be-
480 B. c.) subordinated the newly acquired free-
sey perhaps
liefs. The Dionysiac initiation rituals were trans-
dom to a demand for naturalism. Representations
he Homeric
formed into an escapist religion popular among
of the human figure came to life as they shed
an earlier
those who suffered as a result of the social and
their stiffnesses and distortions; representations of
asterpieces.
economic dislocations of the age. The fertility
the gods became as consistently anthropomor-
poetry re-
ritual of Demeter at Eleusis was transformed into
phized in art as they had been in Homeric
ns, with
& mystery religion guaranteeing a better fate in
literature. The images in the temple and the
1
rtistic con-
the afterworld to the initiate. The oracular priest-
profusion of anthropomorphic mythology in art
uman inter-
bood at Delphi became the sponsors of an aristo-
and poetry assured the citizen that there was in
e time they
cratic ethical system of conservatism, law, and
heaven and on earth nothing more divine than
sitory of
8
order.
human nature.
roic age of
Others sought to place their system of values
Apex of City-State Culture (500-404 B. C.). The
vital educa-
on a more objective foundation. In the advanced
prosperity and freedom enjoyed by the Greek
the way for
cities of Asia Minor, with their political debates,
cities as a result of victory in the Persian Wars
source of
commercial relations, and cultural contacts, new
enabled them to carry to completion the cultural
canons of authority were advanced-reason and
development that had been launched in the
imprisoned
experience-and gave birth to philosophy and
archaic age. The wide diffusion of a demand for
the village
science. The Ionian school of natural philoso-
the best in art, combined with an intensified
'y unfolded
phers-Thales (c. 585 B. c.), Anaximander (610?-
national consciousness as a result of the Persian
n with the
?546 B. c.), Anaximenes (c. 540 B. c.), Heraclitus
Wars, tended to undermine cultural particularism
d it as the
(c. 500 B. c.)-and their successors in the Greek
and unify taste and style. The choral lyric poetry
lividualism
cities of southern Italy, the Pythagoreans, or fol-
of Simonides of Ceos (556-468 B. c.), Bacchyl-
-fulfillment
lowers of Pythagoras (c. 510 B. c.), and the Elea-
ides (died about 431 B. c.), and Pindar (518-
ated theol-
tics-Xenophanes (c. 500 B. c.) and Parmenides
438 B. c.) found a market not only in their own
mysterious
(c. 450 B. -sought to provide a more solid
home cities, but all over Greece, as well as in
hizing its
norm for human behavior by discovering a prin-
Macedonia, Sicily, and Cyrenaica.
the "Bible
ciple of order in nature. The speculations of
The same diffusion of a high standard of
these natural philosophers formed a brilliant in-
craftsmanship is shown in the visual arts. Varia-
C.). Greek
terlude between the age of mythical speculation
tions of style in sculpture were reduced to a few
oment that
and the age of philosophical speculation inaugu-
main regional schools (Athens, Aegina, Argos);
revolution
rated by Socrates and Plato. Like mythical spec-
in vase painting, standardization of style was
n of pur-
ulation, their speculation took the form of cos-
promoted by the predominance of Athenian prod-
as accom-
mologies; the difference was that they dispensed
ucts. The art of the 5th century B. C. retained
higher cul-
with supernatural machinery, appealed to reason
the freedom and naturalism of archaic art, but
ical Greek
and observation, and for the most part wrote
subordinated them to the principle of rational
of elemen-
prose.
harmony, rooted in the civic consciousness of
arithmetic,
The expanding city-state took the place va-
Greek culture. Its greatest achievements-the
eas in the
cated by the tribe and became the center of a
sculptures of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia
398
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
(456 B. c.) and of the Parthenon at Athens (432
world toward the inner soul and problems of
B. c.)-show a unique balance between energy
personal conduct, could only have come out of
and order, between the whole and the part, be-
Athens. For Socrates, philosophy was a civic
tween concrete representation and universal sig-
mission to his fellow citizens. His appeal for a
nificance.
turn from material power to moral principles
The expanding needs of civilization fostered
grew out of his experience as an Athenian citi-
the growth of science. The tradition of natural
zen; and if in the end democratic Athens exe-
philosophy, along the lines laid down by the
cuted him for alleged impiety, only democratic
pioneers of the 6th century B. c., was continued
Athens would have permitted his activity so long.
by Empedocles (c. 493-c. 433 B. c.) and Anaxa-
The most original creation of Athenian cul-
goras (c. 500-c. 428 B. c.). It culminated in the
ture was drama. Attic drama originated in the
atomistic theory of Leucippus (c. 440 B. c.) and
6th century B. C., growing out of primitive rituals
Democritus (460?-?370 B. c.), which reduced na-
of agrarian magic and tribal initiation connected
ture (and by implication society) to individual
with the god Dionysus, and consisting largely
particles united into larger aggregates by me-
of groups singing and dancing in animal cos-
chanical collision.
tumes. When these rituals were reorganized in
At the same time, the all-inclusive subject
the 6th century B. C. as public performances in-
matter of the natural philosophers was broken up
cluded in state festivals, the element of acting
into a number of particular positive sciences, all
was separated from the singing and dancing of
of them based on the rational and empirical
the chorus, and the plot was permitted to explore
method that the natural philosophers had intro-
subjects other than the traditional myth of
of a program of hig
in a school that tur
duced. The growth of the natural sciences was
Dionysus.
as Hyperides and
inhibited by the divorce between "liberal" theo-
Although Attic drama proceeded from a par-
such as Ephorus an
retical studies and "vulgar" technology: the
tial secularization of religious rituals, the dramatic
Another institut
practical lore of the craftsman was not put on a
festivals continued to be religious occasions, and
out of the Socratic
scientific basis; mathematics flourished as a pure
dramatic form continued to be governed by strict
developed by Socr:
science; the only successful combination of theo-
conventions derived from its ritualistic origins.
.c.). Like the sch
retical sophistication and practicality was in the
Attic drama thus came into being as part of an
Academy, founded
medical school of Hippocrates (late 5th-early 4th
essentially democratic policy of providing the
eral education as a
centuries B. c.).
citizenry with a common core of culture. The
public life, but the
The social sciences, stimulated by a practical
dramatic masterpieces of the 5th century B.C.
on mathematics in tl
interest in politics, made greater progress. Greek
gave the Athenian citizenry spiritual enlighten-
dialectics (in probl
myths about their own history and Greek mis-
ment through poetry, in the tradition of Homer
philosophy) in the
conceptions about foreign countries were subjected
and Hesiod, as well as a cathartic emotional ex-
perience, sublimating the acute tensions in the
Aristotle (384-32
to criticism by men who had seen the world.
pupil, in later life f,
Herodotus (about 485-430 B. c.) became the
life of the community. Hence the historical drams
of 5th century Athens is always in the back-
Lyceum, 335 B. c.),
father of history when he constructed a narrative
pedic synthesis of al
of the Persian Wars using critical methods and
ground of the stage drama.
an interpretative framework derived partly from
In tragedy, Aeschylus (524?-456 B. c.), in the
triumphant period of Athenian expansion, makes
lectures covered logi
oped in Greek city-s:
the Ionian natural philosophers. Sophists like
Protagoras (c. 435 B. c.) formulated general theo-
his theme progress through suffering toward a
ethics, politics, rhe
harmony based on law and reason; Sophocles
astronomy, physics, n
ries of the nature of man and society as part of
( 496?-406 B. c.), at the peak of Athenian great-
egy, and botany. Al
their program of education for would-be politi-
cians. Thucydides (c. 460-c. 400 B. c.) became
ness, makes his theme the fragility of human
also turning Athens
tnbuting to the diffu
pupils from all over
the father of scientific history when he wrote a
success; Euripides (485-406 B. c.), in the period
narrative of the Peloponnesian War using analyti-
of decline during the Peloponnesian War, pre-
cal methods derived from the Sophists and the
sents insoluble conflicts occasionally relieved by
Hippocratic school of medicine, and making it
romantic happy endings. Similarly in comedy.
educated men.
the Attic dialect into
his aim to produce "an exact knowledge of the
Aristophanes (c. 450-c. 385 B. c.) shifts from
At the same time.
past as an aid to the interpretation of the future."
earnest polemics to gay fantasy as the darkness
was
Athenian Culture. The imperial position and
of the Peloponnesian War closes in. This kind the
democratic social structure of Athens combined
of civic drama could not and did not survive
to make it the cultural center of the Greek world.
defeat of the city that had produced
The muralist Polygnotus migrated from Thasos
Decline of Greek it (404-312
to Athens about 470 B. C., and exercised a de-
B. C.). The decline of Ciry-story-state cilizati is
cisive influence on Athenian vase painting; Anax-
in the 4th century B. C. did not arrest the
agoras of Clazomenae brought the Ionian tradi-
fusion of Greek culture or prevent the creative #
tion of natural philosophy to Athens about 480
of cultural products of the first class. On
B. c.; Herodotus of Halicarnassus brought the
contrary, the refinements developed at Athens
Ionian tradition of scientific investigation of so-
cial phenomena about 445 B. C. Athens became
the 5th century B. C. spread to other and drams
All over Greece theaters were built,
help form day Rec Arana, no KV7 though ingly when entertainment. raised management monopolized yet dre-sponson the was learning by cultural a the priviles freque trage and of diff: con cult of by lil C,
the chief port of call for the wandering profes-
festivals introduced. Barbarian monarchies
sors known as Sophists-among them Protagoras
Macedonia, Asia Minor, and the Black Sea Groll
of Abdera, Hippias of Elis, Gorgias of Leontini,
Hellenized their courts and patronized
and Prodicus of Ceos-who earned a living by
artists, poets, and professors.
catering to the demand for higher education in
Meanwhile Athens, still the cultural leader hide
social theory, rhetoric, and other subjects. At
learning. Rhetoric, introduced as a instemast centers
Greece, developed new refinements
the same time, Attic style began to exercise a
decisive influence throughout the Greek world.
The peculiar historical experience of Athens
became a highly elaborate art in the hands
discipline by the Sophists in the 5th
stimulated the creation of new forms of higher
professional politicians (Demosthenes, Aesching
culture. The revolution in philosophy pioneered
Hyperides, Lycurgus) and professional the hand
Net the depular showses learning of aristocracy, atta only metaphysics, devising vase there the pa in 1. (:
by the Athenian Socrates (469-399 B. c.), who
judicial speeches (Lysias, Isaeus). In the are
turned rational inquiry away from the external
of Isocrates (436-338 B. c.), it became
ming plutocracy itself
problems vas out
ppeal for
a CTYLE
\thens no
&
democrate
henian as
In
ATHENIAN COIN, dating from about 400 B.C., bears the
itive
ited in the
head of Athena on one side. The obverse side shows an owl.
ganized largely rituin on
connected
GRECIAN COIN issued by Lysimachus, the king of Thrace,
nimal
shows Athena, seated, with a figure of Victory in her hand.
mances is
in
BETTWANN ARCHIVES
of acting
to explain
2 program of higher education, institutionalized
rifts produced by the crisis in the city-state. The
myth &
at turned out not only orators such
execution (399 B. c.) of Socrates shows the depth
Hyperides and Lycurgus, but also historians
of the schism between the politicians who ac-
om a Pt.
dramatic
wach a as Ephorus and Theopompus of Chios.
cepted the status quo and the philosophic re-
Another institution of higher learning grew
formers. The schism was institutionalized in the
asions, and
dreloped by Socrates' pupil Plato (427?-?347
Socratic style of philosophizing, as
conflict between the school of Isocrates and the
d by strics
Platonic Academy. The former made rhetoric the
ic original
c). Like the school of Isocrates, the Platonic
core of an education designed to turn out prac-
part of at
Academy, founded about 385 B.C., offered gen-
tical men who would make the best of the real
iding the
eral education as a preparation for leadership in
world. The latter tried to educate "philosopher-
ture. The
public life, but the program of studies centered
kings" in the knowledge of an ideal pattern that
tury enlighten B.C.
mathematics in the Pythagorean tradition and
would supplant the status quo.
dialectics on (in problems of moral and political
Aristotle's attempt to compromise the dif-
of Homes
tional et.
philosophy) in the Socratic tradition.
ference between these two approaches and to
Aristotle (384-322 B. c.), Plato's most famous
evolve a flexible ideology of conservative idealism
ns in the
cal drams
pupil, in later life founded his own school (the
was vitiated by its unquestioning acceptance of
Lyceum, 335 B. c.), which attempted an encyclo-
the finality of the basic institutions of the Greek
the back.
pedic synthesis of all the higher learning devel-
city-state. His view was also shared by the great
oped in Greek city-state culture. Aristotle's own
architect of Greek resistance to the Macedonian
c.), in the
lectures covered logic, metaphysics, pyschology,
conquest, the orator Demosthenes. The only in-
n, makes
ethics, politics, rhetoric, poetry, mathematics,
tellectual who discerned the need for national
toward a
astronomy, physics, meteorology, geography, zool-
unification was Isocrates, but this insight led him
Sophocles
ogy. and botany. All of these schools attracted
to accept the rule of Macedonia.
an great-
f human
pupils from all over Greece, thus not only con-
The ideological confusion was accentuated
tributing to the diffusion of higher learning but
by the increased division of the body of knowl-
e period
also turning Athens into a university town and
edge into specialized departments. Aristotle's en-
Var, pre-
the Attic dialect into the common language of
cyclopedic expertise was a heroic attempt to over-
ieved by
educated men.
come the trend. Xenophon (c. 430-c. 354 B. c.),
comedy,
At the same time, the decline of Greek city-
who was an experienced general as well as a
fts from
state civilization was reflected in a general dis-
writer, and whose writings included history in
darkness
integration of the cultural unity of the citizenry.
the Thucydidean tradition, bellettristic prose in
his kind
The management of public affairs was increas-
the rhetorical tradition, and philosophical treatises
'vive the
ingly monopolized by highly trained experts; the
in the Socratic tradition, was a quixotic anach-
t.
higher learning of the new "universities" at
ronism.
(404-322
Athens was a privilege open only to a few. Al-
The crisis of the city-state was also reflected
rilization
though the cultural life of the pauperized masses
in a widespread trend to withdraw attention
the dif-
was raised by the diffusion of the Athenian prac-
from the city and focus it on the individual. The
creation
tice of state-sponsored and state-subsidized
substitution of social manners for political affairs
On the
drama, yet drama tended to become mere popu-
as the central theme of comedy is one. example.
thens in
lar entertainment. Comedy shed its ritualistic
In art the masterpieces of Lysippus, Scopas, and
k cities.
form and political content and evolved into com-
Praxiteles lack the social significance of 5th cen-
tramatic
edy of manners; tragedy was unable to put forth
tury art, but gain in individual realism and
hies in
any new growth, and revivals of the 5th century
psychology. In philosophy the political orienta-
ea area
masters became frequent. While Plato and Aris-
tion of Plato was challenged by other pupils of
Greek
totle were devising intricate systems of mono-
Socrates-Aristippus the hedonist and Antisthenes
theistic metaphysics, the religion of the lower
and Diogenes the Cynics-who advocated with-
ader of
classes remained full of superstition and was in-
drawal from politics and the cultivation of in-
higher
creasingly influenced by Oriental gospels of sal-
dividual self-sufficiency.
tematic
vation. While sculpture, patronized by the intel-
entury,
lectual aristocracy, attained new refinements, the
GREECE UNDER MACEDONIAN DOMINATION
nds of
popular art of vase painting declined.
(338-200 B. C.)
chines,
Not only was there a divorce between the
The Battle of Chaeronea (338 B. c.) resulted
iters of
higher learning of the governing plutocracy and
in the complete subjection of Greece to Mace-
hands
the popular culture of the masses, but the gov-
donia. The Hellenic League of Corinth, into
e core
erning plutocracy itself was split by ideological
which Philip II organized all the cities of Greece,
399
400
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
in spite of its lip service to the principle of
nities in the East began to compete with Greece.
autonomy, in fact subordinated the foreign policy
The wages of free laborers were sharply de-
in the Hellenistic age.
and the domestic politics of the Greek cities to
pressed; the middle class, owners of moderate-
lenistic science were p
of Syracuse, with the
the requirements of the Macedonian monarchy.
sized farms or factories, likewise became impov-
of Samos (310?-230
The rebellions that were started by Greek cities
erished. Infanticide and abortion became com-
heliocentric hypothesis
at every crisis in Macedonian affairs led to the
mon among both rich and poor. Class war
Theophrastus (370?-28)
adoption of forcible and dictatorial methods by
became acute and open in many Greek cities,
Peripatetic school after
Alexander III (Alexander the Great, reigned
apart from those, like Rhodes and Athens, still
did continue his master
336-323 B. c.), for example, the destruction of
rich enough to subsidize the proletariat.
especially in the field
Thebes (335 B. c.), and by his regent in Greece,
The chief points in the program of the social
Antipater, who established narrow, pro-Mace-
revolutionists were still, as in the 4th century
tifically minded Peripat
duential of the Athenian
donian oligarchies and garrisons to keep them in
B. C., cancellation of debts and redistribution of
power.
land. The only novelty was the demand for the
the 3d century B. C., a
Aristotelian scientific tr:
This period of outright Macedonian domina-
emancipation of the slaves, whose support was
established about 280 B.
tion was as brief as the unity of the Macedonian
needed if the revolution was to have a chance
Empire itself. In the wars (321-280 B. c.) be-
against the powerful mercenary armies of the
support of the Egyptian
tween the rival contenders for the succession to
day.
In the second place.
servative in outlook tha
Alexander and in the wars (280-200 B. c.) be-
From the start the Macedonian monarchy
East. It had no vast me
tween the resultant Hellenistic monarchies of
sought to gain support for itself as the bulwark
Macedonia, Asia, and Egypt, the Macedonian
of the social order against revolution. Conse-
or Antioch, and the p
period demonstrate the
monarchy was so weakened that it had to content
quently the social revolution became interwoven
itself with indirect control. For this reason, it
with the struggle for national liberation, although
Creece to the city-state ic
remained attached to th
could not prevent the Greek cities from con-
the Macedonian monarchy on occasions exploited
stantly embarking on fresh efforts to liberate
a social revolutionary situation in order to place
did not actively participa
the Alexandrian school
themselves completely.
a puppet tyrant in power. A combination of the
Theocritus, Apollonius of
The Greek struggle for independence was,
Macedonian monarchy and the Achaean League
in the end defeated the social revolutionary re-
In art the terra-cotta figu
however, interwoven with an internecine struggle
for leadership among the Greeks themselves. The
gime at Sparta (221 B. c.), which was the only
Athenian sculpture, acad
Praxitelean style, avoid I
most effective resistance to Macedonia was of-
place where the revolution had more than ephem-
and baroque theatricality
fered by states that succeeded in unifying large
eral success.
the schools of Pergamum
areas of Greece under their control-the Aetolian
Cultural Developments. In the Hellenistic age.
League (290?-189 B. c.), the Achaean League
Greece and the Hellenized cities and courts of
history, while the Alexa
Macedonia, Asia Minor, and Egypt formed a cut
careers of Alexander and
(280-198 B. c.), and Sparta (227-221 B. c.).
chus of Athens took as 1
But they thereby became involved in war with
tural unity that transcended their political di-
each other as well as against recalcitrant cities
visions. The courts competed with each other
porary resistance of Greec
nation; a whole school.
that defended their own autonomy at all costs. In
to attract artists and intellectuals; young men
prominent figure is Philoc
addition, the anti-Macedonian struggle of the
circulated freely from city to city in search of 30
c.), did research on loc
Greek cities was exploited by Macedonia's rivals
education; the Greek monopoly of Egyptian
among the big powers, especially Egypt. Thus
papyrus multiplied the copies of books, and the
In the third place,
new institution of public libraries (the largest
creater measure of politic
the balance of power between the Hellenistic
monarchies gave Greece an illusory autonomy and
by the Egyptian monarch
threst. The Museum at A
being those at Alexandria and Pergamum) pro-
turned it into a battleground for intermittent, in-
moted their circulation. As a result, Greek cut
decisive, and devastating wars.
ture underwent a process of standardization
supervised by scholarly experts in various fields
Greece, especially Athens
balance freethinking tenc
While the Greek cities kept their traditional
governmental structures unchanged, their exhaus-
who collected, systematized, and attempted to
ntiric literature that was
tion in futile wars of liberation and their in-
work out a common set of critical canons for the
by aschistic philosophy of Cy
capacity to develop any national cohesion under-
Greco-Oriental urban aristocracy. At the same
the itinerant Cynic preach
time, Greek parochial civic patriotism was dir it
to in Greece, as is show
mined republican patriotism and tended to reduce
135 this genre made by C
city-states to mere cities. Rhodes, favored by its
appearing, and the Hellenistic monarchies.
though they introduced the cult of the god-king
B. c.), Cercidas of
geographical position, commercial wealth, and al-
in order to transfer to themselves the devotion
c), and Timon of Phli
liance with Egypt, was at the end of the 3d
century B. C. the only Greek city playing an ac-
formerly absorbed by the
to nd its own peculiar trad
Unique Contributions. T
tive and independent role in Aegean affairs.
ceeded in creating a real OF
Otherwise the republican tradition survived only
As a consequence, Greek culture became
make-the unique contr
in the modified form of autonomous federations
mopolitan and individualistic in outlook.
such as the Aetolian and Achaean leagues.
trama The New Comedy
atonts. New Comedy
the Hellenistic world, and its cultural products
Greece itself occupied a special position
the produced in the He
Social Developments. While the Greek city-
states were losing their role in international af-
retained their individuality. In the first plans -
restury B. C. is to
trend of the Middle
fairs, they were faced by increasingly serious
Greece was not so prosperous or so liberally
dowed by the Hellenistic kings as such cities there
in
internal social problems. Alexander's conquest of
the East temporarily alleviated the economic
crisis of the 4th century B. C. Soldiers who had
Alexandria and Antioch. Consequently except
were few new public buildings in Greece, As
haracters ves around content.
are the ev
been in his army returned to Greece rich men;
in the areas benefiting from the rise of the the
the
the new colonies all over the East absorbed a
tolian and Achaean leagues-for example,
D
91%
considerable part of the surplus population of
temples at Pleuron and Lycosura. It is on refine
Greece, and an immense market for Greek ex-
was
coast of Asia Minor that a
342-2
ports was opened up. Greece enjoyed a period
ments in town planning
/
of prosperity that lasted until about 280 B. C.
a really opulent Hellenistic temple
Thereafter the same conditions that had led to
could be built. Even the less expensive the
the crisis of the 4th century came to the fore
sculpture declined in productivity except on
THE
THE
again, aggravated now by perpetual and increas-
prosperous island of Rhodes.
ingly devastating wars. Wealth was concentrated
Economic stagnation and the lack of 10131 little
1, two older estab,
c These two established
in fewer hands; the market for Greek exports
contribution to the remarkable progress made scien
patronage also explain why Greece
1, new rivals-the
contracted as the new Greco-Oriental commu-
E.picurus (342?-270 Epic
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
401
with Greece
Hellenistic age. The great names of Hel-
the Stoic school founded by Zeno 2011
products of Alexandria or
B. c.) in 301 B. C. These four Athenian whenk
of moderate &
exception of Aristarchus
monopolized philosophy in the Hellemstic ise.
B. c.), the author of the
The two new schools were cosmopolitan 111 viit-
became impow
in astronomy. At Athens.
look: Epicurus drew on the atomistic materialism
Class COME
B. c.), the head of the
of Democritus in order to emancipate the 111-
Greek cities ==
the death of Aristotle,
dividual from religious superstitions and political
etariat. Athens, =
his master's empirical investigations,
allegiances; Zeno put forward the ideal of the
specially inded field of botany; but the scien-
self-sufficient sage. While the Aristotehan Peri-
of the social
Peripatetics were the least in-
patetics concentrated on empirical research, the
listribution 4th century
Boential Seally of the Athenian schools of philosophy in
Platonic Academy responded to the challenge of
3d century B.C., and the real heir to the
Stoicism by transforming itself, under the leader-
mand for the of
Vetelian scientific tradition was the Museum
ship of Arcesilaus (316-241 B. c.), into a strong-
support was
othlished the Egyptian monarchy.
about 280 B. C. at Alexandria with the
hold of epistemological skepticism and Mag-
ave a chance
matic conformism.
armies of the
sport the second place, Greece was more con-
The most dynamic and the most constructive
enative had no vast metropolis like Alexandria
in outlook than the new cities in the
of the schools was Stoicism. Whereas Zeno's
an monarch,
self-sufficient sage had considerable affinities with
S the bulwan
Antioch, and the political struggles of the
the Hellenistic monarch, Zeno's successor, Clean-
ution. Conse-
period ideal. In literature Greece
demonstrate the obstinate attachment of
thes (c. 330-c. 231 B. c.), emphasized the 17'-
ne interwover
sions exploited
A traditional forms and
A - in the innovations of
ligious side of the Stoic creed. Chry sippus
ition, although
(c. 280-c. 205 B. c.) answered the destructive
criticism of the Platonic Academy by systematiz-
order to place
Alexandrian school of poets (Callimachus,
ing Stoic logic and metaphysics and making them
bination of the
Theocritus, be Apollonius of Rhodes, Aratus of Soli).
the basis for an uncompromising ethic of public
:haean League
b art the terra-cotta figurines from Tanagra and
service marked by strong republican tendencies.
volutionary re-
Athenian sculpture, academically faithful to the
See also HELLENISTIC AGE.
1 was the only
Praxitelean style, avoid the exaggerated realism
"e than ephem-
and baroque theatricality that is to be found in
GREECE UNDER ROMAN DOMINATION
the schools of Pergamum and even Rhodes. In
(200 B. C.-330 A. D.)
Hellenistic age,
history, while the Alexandrians chronicled the
The conflict between Rome and Macedonia
and courts of
careers of Alexander and his successors, Phylar-
began when Rome established a bridgehead on
t formed a cul-
chus of Athens took as his subject the contem-
the eastern Adriatic after two wars against Illyrian
ir political di-
porary resistance of Greece to Macedonian domi-
pirates (229-228; 219 B. c.). It broke out Into
ith each other
nation; a whole school, in which the most
war (First Macedonian War, 215-205 II, e.)
Is; young men
prominent figure is Philochorus (died about 260
when Philip V (reigned 221-179 B. king of
in search of an
s.c.), did research on local Athenian antiquities.
Macedonia, formed an alliance with Carthage,
of Egyptian
In the third place, Greece experienced a
and it resulted in the emergence of Rome as the
books, and the
greater measure of political freedom and social
paramount power in Greece after the Second
es (the largest
unrest. The Museum at Alexandria was founded
Macedonian War (200-197 B. c.). As the enemy
ergamum) pro-
by the Egyptian monarchy in order to counter-
of Macedonia, Rome was actively supported in
ult, Greek cul-
balance freethinking tendencies radiating from
the First and Second Macedonian wars by such
standardization,
Greece, especially Athens. The moralizing and
states as the Aetolian League, Athens, Spartn,
a various fields,
satiric literature that was inspired by the an-
and Rhodes.
1 attempted to
archistic philosophy of Cynicism and was spread
When the victorious Roman general Titus
canons for the
by itinerant Cynic preachers was especially pop-
Quinctius Flamininus, in 196 B.C., proclaimed
At the same
ular in Greece, as is shown by the contributions
the complete independence of all Greek cities, he
iotism was dis-
to this genre made by Crates of Thebes (365-
was greeted with enthusiasm. The decision not
monarchies, al-
285 B. c.), Cercidas of Megalopolis (290-220
to organize Greece as a province meant that
of the god-king
B.C.), and Timon of Phlius (320-230 B. c.).
tribute was not imposed, garrisons were not in-
es the devotion
Unique Contributions. The position of Greece,
stalled, and there was no appeal from local
ate, never suc-
and its own peculiar traditions, enabled Athens
courts to a provincial governor. On the other
1 consciousness.
to make two unique contributions to Hellenistic
hand, from the outset the Romans acted as %W.
e became cos-
culture-the New Comedy and the philosophic
ereigns over the Greek cities liberated from
outlook.
schools. The New Comedy was the only original
Macedonian rule, imposing territorial adjustments
cial position in
drama produced in the Hellenistic period. In it
to reward their friends and punish their encinies,
iltural products
the trend of the Middle Comedy of the 4th
dictating internal constitutional arrangement: for
the first place,
century B. C. is carried to its logical conclusion:
some cities, and expecting a pro-Roman foreign
so liberally en-
it is completely secular in form and completely
policy from all.
.S such cities as
devoid of political content. In New Comedy the
It was not long before the other "free" cities
equently there
plot revolves around the fortunes of love; the
of Greece, which had been neutral or pro-Koman
Greece, except
characters are universal, everyday types; the style
in the Macedonian wars, realized the last of
rise of the Ae-
is witty and urbane. New Comedy thus reflects
their subjection. Anti-Roman sentiment was par-
r example, the
the cosmopolitan individualism of Hellenistic cul-
ticularly strong among the socially revolutionary
1. It is on the
ture. Only at Athens was significant drama pro-
lower classes, since Rome, like Macedon before
ellenistic refine-
duced: Menander (c. 342-292 B. c.), the leading
used her influence to strengthen the political
ed (Priene), or
exponent of New Comedy, rejected handsome
position of the rich, notably by insisting on prop-
ple (Magnesia)
offers from the Macedonian and Egyptian kings.
erty qualifications for magistrates. Every chain-
expensive art of
In philosophy Athens enjoyed the advantage
pion of resistance to Rome in the Aegean area
y except on the
of a head start with the Platonic and Aristotelian
found support in Greece: first Antiochus III of
schools already established in the 4th century
Syria in the Syrian War (192-189 B. C.);
e lack of royal
B.C. These two older establishments were joined
Perseus of Macedonia in the Third Macadonian
ece made little
by two new rivals-the Epicurean school founded
War (171-168 B. c.); and finally Mithridates VI
gress of science
by Epicurus (342?-270 B. c.) in 306 B. C., and
Eupator of Pontus in the First Mithridatic Was
402
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
(88-84 B. c.). The Achaean League even started
economy of the region. Hadrian also subsidized
Cameades (c. 214-c. 128 I
a mad rebellion by itself in 146 B. C. The net
religious festivals while Antoninus Pius (reigned
skeptical position, but by
result was, of course, further restrictions on
138-161 A. D.) and Marcus Aurelius (reigned
of pragmatic probability
Greek liberty.
161-180 A. D.) endowed chairs in rhetoric and
eclecticism, attractive to the
After the revolt of the Achaean League,
philosophy at Athens. Greek solidarity was even
the Roman mind. The eclo
tribute was levied from most Greek cities. Their
permitted to express itself once more in the re-
was fully developed by Anti
internal constitutions reflected Roman influence,
vived leagues (the Achaean League, the Delphic
of the Academy around 79
although there was no prescribed uniformity.
Amphictyony), and Hadrian founded a new
eration of the Platonic tra.
Rome isolated cities from each other by dissolv-
Panhellenic league, centered in Athens, open to
places can be seen in the pl
ing all leagues and by forbidding individuals to
Greek communities in any part of the Roman
Cicero, who was Antiochus
own property in more than one community. The
world.
school, Panaetius (185?-109
fiction that Greece was free was preserved until
Decline of the Cities. But Greece remained
back and forth between Ron
Emperor Augustus established the province of
without the commerce necessary to compensate
doned the Stoic ideal of ind,
Achaea in 27 B. C.
for its natural poverty. Its plight was aggravated
tude in favor of an ethic of I
Roman Mastery. Meanwhile the effect of
by an incredible concentration of such wealth
was so close to the creed of
Roman domination on the economy of Greece
as there was in the hands of a few, and by the
trat that Cicero could follow
was catastrophic. The Romans were superior to
unenterprising investment policy pursued by the
Panaetius' even more influent
the Macedonians in crushing opposition by ruth-
wealthy. Estates which had been intensiven
135?-?51 B. c.), identified
less devastation: the complete destruction of
cultivated in the 1st century B. C. were now
eniversal commonwealth wit
Corinth in 146 B. C. and the general massacre of
turned over to pasturage. The only sources from
pire, and accommodated R
Athenians ordered by Sulla in 86 B. C. are extreme
which Greece could hope to gain income west
atroducing an elaborate de
examples, but no part of the country was left
the students who came to Athens for higher
Stoic metaphysics. The Epic
untouched. The devastation continued after all
learning, and the tourists who came to all d
preach withdrawal from pol-
Greek resistance had disappeared, since Greece
Greece, like so many others since. The mass a
of their position was discover
was a major battleground in the Roman civil
the citizens were demoralized by poverty-hy
wars, as the battles of Pharsalus (48 B. c.), Philip-
terically grateful for any bounty, rioting who
as Lucretius in the chaotic p
and wars. The Peripatetic St
pi (42 B. c.), and Actium (31 B. c.) show.
it was not forthcoming.
No economic recovery compensated for this
Under these circumstances Greece remained
- In historiography
depopulated: in the 2d century perhaps a dare
about 120 B. c.) of Megalop
devastation. The Roman administration under
Seipio the Younger and a Rom
the republic not only did nothing for Greece, but
cities in Greece attained the proportions of mad
est small towns. When, in the 3d century. the
is after the Achaean War, achi
it sacrificed the economy of the country to its
own imperial interests. As long as the Hellenistic
barbarian Goths and Heruli captured Athers
Bome. acute analysis of the cause
monarchies in the East survived, it was part of
(267 A. D.) and spread destruction as far sould
Antiquarianism and Archaism.
Rome's strategy to isolate these monarchies from
as Sparta, the emperors were no longer in a
- of cultural life in Gre
each other and from Greece. The implementa-
position to subsidize restoration. In the 4th 8
tion of this policy destroyed forever the com-
tury only Corinth and Athens could be classified
country. This antiquarianism,
an antiquarian study of the
mercial relations that were the root of whatever
as towns.
**** remote from contempora
prosperity Greece had enjoyed. Rome's willing-
Cultural Developments. The Romans made If
ness to punish disloyalty by completely destroy-
East. But Roman culture was Hellenized
attempt to Romanize Greece or the Hellense at
gevertheless sustained the
lines attuned to the tastes of I
ing vital centers of commerce shows its indif-
ference to the economic welfare of Greece. Even
the aristocracy, hitherto preoccupied with THE
to of the Greek bourge St
more significant than the destruction of Corinth
extred Local archaic dialects of
Creece not only did not lear.
quest, began to enjoy the refinements they them
and Athens was the crippling of Rhodes after
fore survived both as the vehicle of submit
could afford to cultivate. Greek culture
WE prided thems the
the Third Macedonian War, which left pirates
free to ravage the Aegean area. So catastrophic
people in the Roman Empire and as an ingrees
'according to
was the economic collapse that in the 1st century
in the life of the ruling people.
solemnly (
B. C. oil and wine, the traditional Greek exports,
In the 2d and 1st centuries B. C., the internet a
celebrated theirs
40 1
were imported by Greece from Italy, and in the
of Greek culture in Greece was almost -
or mor
reign (27 B. c.-14 A. D.) of Augustus the only
guished by the eagerness the to
Non in the inn
flourishing towns were new colonies established
it their own. Although
rife in the troubled time
by him.
propriation of works of art and wholesak
the cultural legacy of
an
B.C. was replace
The Roman emperors of the first two cen-
turies A. D. gave Greece a more generous and
portation of Greek artists and
more responsible government, which alleviated
Rome, Roman purchasing power intellectuale
Since cultural innovation culture
Manan to the
but could not cure the mortal sickness of the
cultural productivity in Greece. Roman
form, was the last province
country. Although Greece was organized as a
for Greek art revived Athenian
the and for a long time to the
province called Achaea in 27 B. c., from the be-
philosophical schools at Athens were intered
ginning a number of cities were declared "free"
by the youth of Rome, and Roman school /
colony of Cori
oratory stimulated a revival of Greek include
the Greek cities
(and therefore exempt from tribute), and others
In architecture a
were added to the list by the philhellenic em-
perors of the 2d century A. D. Individual Greeks
of rhetoric in the curriculum
rhetoric (especially at Rhodes) the the schard
STATE in the
and when t
were assimilated into the imperial governing class
$
philosophy. This dependence on the Roman market
to Arcl
and appear in the Roman Senate in the 2d cen-
tury A.D. Decayed sites (Corinth and Patrae)
accompanied by an acceptance in Greece Altron
/ 7
the master of A
were restored by establishing them as Roman
vertised its higher learning in the Roman
Roman point of view. In 155 B. C.,
colonies, and a new city was founded by Augus-
A
tus at Nicopolis. Existing cities and religious cen-
by making the heads of the three main com
FIREST in The litera es
classicate for
ters (particularly Athens, Olympia, and Delphi)
to Rome. Thereafter philosophic doctrine
of philosophy its representatives
leestine Insured the an
were adorned with public buildings, especially by
increasing accommodation to the needs
2 the at i
Emperor Hadrian (reigned 117-138 A. D.). Pub-
imperial bureaucracy. The skepticism
the
I
lic works programs such as the canal across the
Isthmus of Corinth, left unfinished by Julius
cesilaus had already made Platonic
3
Caesar, and the draining of Lake Copais by
emy an
1 A A
THE THE
Hadrian, testify to the imperial concern for the
ing adjustable to
a appeal, Stoic an
GREECE: 8. History of Greece to 330 A. D.
403
Antoninus also subsidized
Hadrian
Cameades (cition, but by developing a doctrine
128 B. c.), took the same
ers like Epictetus (55?-?135 A. D.) and Dio (or
Dion) Chrysostom (c. 40-c. 112 A. D.) urged the
larcus Aurelius (reigued
the door to
unhappy Greeks to be content with little, undis-
(reiguit
practicality of
turbed by the persecutions which drove Epictetus
elf =
The eclecticism of Carneades
from Rome to Nicopolis, and uncorrupted by the
once more in the an
by Antiochus, who was head
worldly entanglements that make the Stoicism of
tean adrian League, the Delper to
around 79 B. C., and the degen-
Seneca so fraudulent.
founded
Platonic tradition into common-
In the archaistic rhetoric of the so-called
tered in Athens, open a 18%
gration can be seen in the philosophic writings of
Second Sophistic, which was the most influential
any part of the Roman
slaces who was Antiochus' pupil. In the Stoic
literary movement from the 2d to the 4th cen-
B. c.), who traveled
tury A. D., the antiquarianism of the age degen-
Its necessary to compensity
But Greece remained
THE THE Rome and Athens, aban-
erated into preciosity, though it did stimulate
Stoic independence and forti-
serious critical study of the classics of Greek
intration plight was aggravavated
in favor of an ethic of public service, which
literature. The great archaeological description
orde close to the creed of the Roman bureau-
of Greece by Pausanias (c. 150 A. D.) is a monu-
ds of wesk
a few, and by
as so could follow it in his De officiis.
ment of sober scholarship devoted to the glory
h it policy pursued by 6.
even more influential pupil, Posidonius
that was Greece.
century B.C.
had been intensive &
identified the Stoic ideal of a
All that is best in the culture of the aristoc-
commonwealth with the Roman Em-
racy of Greece in the 2d century A. D. is reflected
The only sources from DESD
aniversal accommodated Roman religiosity by
in the life and writings of Plutarch (46?-?120
pe to gain income west
into the
A. D.), who though wealthy and influential at
to Athens for highes
to
Rome, preferred to live out his life in provincial
sts who came to all
breach from politics; the attraction
Chaeronea, serving as a petty local magistrate
ralized by The mass Ink
hers since. d
their position was discovered by Romans such
and as a priest of Delphi. In his numerous writ-
Lucretius in the chaotic period of the Roman
ings on history, religion, ethics, and philosophy,
ny bounty, rioting when
civil B wars. The Peripatetic school remained un-
Plutarch elevated Hellenism to a religion which,
stances Greece remained
sbout 120 B. c.) of Megalopolis, the friend of
suportant. In historiography, Polybius (died
like Judaism, perpetuated the values of a politi-
cally broken people.
century perhaps a dozes
Scipio the Younger and a Roman agent in Greece
The rival religion of Christianity had been
the proportions of mod-
after the Achaean War, achieved greatness by
spreading in Greece ever since St. Paul estab-
in the 3d century, the
his acute analysis of the causes of the success of
lished the church at Corinth in 51 A. D. In the
Heruli captured Athens
2d century, Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, ad-
destruction as far south
Rome. Antiquarianism and Archaism. Under the Roman
dressed letters to the churches at Athens and
S were no longer in
emperors cultural life in Greece took the form
Sparta as well as at Knossos and Gortyna on the
coration. In the 4th cent a
of an antiquarian study of the great past of the
island of Crete. Greek intellectual converts also
thens could be classified
country. This antiquarianism, often precious, al-
begin to appear in the 2d century: Aristides and
ways remote from contemporary life, and some-
Athenagoras, two of the earliest apologists, were
The Romans made no
times attuned to the tastes of the Roman tourist,
Athenians, and Clement of Alexandria probably
reece or the Hellenistic
nevertheless sustained the self-respect of the
came originally from Athens. In the 3d century,
re was Hellenized, and
remnants of the Greek bourgeoisie. The Greeks
bishop of Achaea was a recognized title in the
preoccupied with con-
in Greece not only did not learn Latin, they even
church.
e refinements they now
revived archaic dialects of their own language.
: Greek culture there-
Local magistrates prided themselves on perform-
he vehicle of a subject
ing their duties "according to the ways of our
OUTDOOR THEATER at Epidaurus, dating from 4th cen-
pire people. and as an ingredient
incestors" and the remnants of the aristocracy
tury B. C., is a perfect setting for classical dramas.
solemnly celebrated their pedigrees, traced
J. ALLAN CASH, FROM RAPHO GUILLUMETTE
ituries B. C., the integrity
through 40 generations or more to a hero or a
eece was almost extin-
god. In religion, at least in the upper classes, the
of the Romans to make
inclination toward Oriental innovations that had
the Romans did reduce
been rife in the troubled times of the 4th and
reece by wholesale ap-
3d centuries B. C. was replaced by a patriotic
art and wholesale im-
conservatism devoted to the antique cults as
.ts and intellectuals to
symbols of the national culture.
g power also stimulated
Roman cultural innovations were resisted:
Greece. Roman demand
Greece was the last province to admit gladiatorial
thenian sculpture; the
shows, and for a long time they were confined
\thens were patronized
to the Roman colony of Corinth. Instead of
and Roman interest in
Roman baths, the Greek cities continued to build
cal of Greek schools of
gymnasiums. In architecture the Roman arch
odes) and the inclusion
was rarely attempted, and when Greek builders
ilum of the schools of
did attempt it, as in the Arch of Hadrian at
Athens, they failed to master the form. In
he Roman market was
sculpture the workshops of Athens supported
tance in Greece of the
themselves by the wholesale manufacture of
155 B. C., Athens ad-
copies of classical statues for export throughout
g in the Roman market
the Roman world. The literary products of
the three main schools
Greece in this period have an archaistic flavor.
tatives in an embassy
In the philosophic schools at Athens the only
osophic doctrines show
creative activity was among the Peripatetics, who
to the needs of the
pursued a fruitful kind of antiquarianism by turn-
he skepticism of Ar-
ing out a series of commentaries on the text of
le the Platonic Acad-
Aristotle, culminating in those of Alexander of
prous intellectual train-
Aphrodisias (200 A. D.). Outside the schools and
!. Arcesilaus' successor,
enjoying a wider appeal, Stoic and Cynic preach-