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Dolmabahce Palace - Turkey 7/21/91 [OA 8325] [2]
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Dolmabahce Palace - Turkey 7/21/91 [OA 8325][2]
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26
21
5
4
July 2, 1991
MEMORANDUM FOR DAN McGROARTY
FROM:
BOB SIMON PS
SUBJECT:
QUOTES BY KEMAL ATATURK
"The men who direct and lead nations, certainly above everything
else, should strive to ensure the existence and happiness of their
own nations. However, they must at the same time wish the same for
all other nations."
"Mutual security and safety should be the principle for happiness
desired by all nations of the world."
Ataturk's motto: "Peace at home, and peace in the world." "
Remal ataturbs
Great tasks and important missions are accom-
On an individual or national basis alike, egotism
plished only through cooperative efforts.
should always be considered bad.
(1925)
(1937)
In success it is necessary to overcome pride and
Unfortunate are those who identify the existence
in disasters it is necessary to resist despair.
of the entire mankind with their own persons.
(1930)
(1937)
*
*
Some leaders who lack sincerity and who do not
take into consideration the gravity of war have let
Nations should not be exposed to grief and
themselves to become the tools and agents for aggres-
chagrin. The duty of the leaders is to show the way to
sion. They have misled the nations under their control
their nations in perceiving life with zest and zeal.
by misrepresenting and abusing nationalism and tradi-
(1937)
*
tion. In order to avoid chaos, the time has come in this
hour of crisis, for the masses to deliberate on their fate
The men who direct and lead nations, certainly
themselves and deliver their stewardship to men of
and above everything else, should strive to ensure the
high character, of morals and conscience.
existence and happinees of ther own nations. However,
This needs to be done without any delay.
they must at the same time wish the same for all other
nations.
(1930)
(1937)
We must always be in position to render an
account of our actions, before history and before the
entire World.
(1930)
*
*
Ambition cannot be given up. Yet ambition must
not be personal. It should be directed towards the
objectives aiming at national interest.
*
(1937)
*
*
86
87
which comprised of the real representatives of the
There is no reason anymore to continue the
entire nation was to achieve our national goals, if pos-
battle. I definitely desire peace. I had no desire to
sible, without any bloodletting. Therefore, gentlemen,
mount the final offensive. However there was no other
it was another of our duties to attempt to resolve the
means to chase the enemy off Anatolia. (*)
problem peacefully and in bloodless manner, before
we put our military forces in use. All measures were
(1922)
taken to attend to this duty and all political démarches
Mutual security and safety should be the prin-
were made.
ciple for happiness desired by all nations of the World.
(1925)
But, Gentlemen, all these attemps were nega-
tively interpreted. These peaceful attemps which we
had initiated, merely, as resulting from our humane
Relying on the assurances given by Mr. Franklin
sentiments were mistaken for our weakness. They
Bouillon on behalf of the Allied Powers and on expec-
thought that our Army was feeble. They thought that
tation of an immediate opening of negotiations for the
our Army was hardly able to move, let alone to mount
speedy establishment of a just peace, we have ordered
an offensive and pursuit. They thought that our
the cessation forthwith of our military action in hot-
Assembly and our Government were weak and in
pursuit of the enemy towards and into Istanbul and the
despair. Undoubtedly, on all these points they were in
Dardanelles. (**)
(1922)
grave error and aberration. Perhaps some situations
and certain appearances had given rise to this sort of a
Recent world events and the Great War
hope in our enemies. However, I was not too sorry
brought about great awakenings in the minds of the
over their being misled as such. If I had wished, I could
entire Mankind. True that the despotic types who rule
have corrected this wrong impression at that moment.
nations which are astir with such awakenings are
But, Gentlemen, I preferred to effect this correction
striving to perpetuate their tyranny by resorting to
not by words but by action.
force. However, within a short time the whole World
will recognize on whose side justice is and societies
And only then, did I issue orders for prepara-
will be transformed into noble human masses. Then
tions on the final offensive. (*)
*
(1922)
*
(*) To the Daily Mail correspondent following the evacuation of Izmir by the
defeated enemy.
(*) The final offensive which resulted in the total defeat of the enemy.
(**) In a message to Mr. R. Poincaré, The French Prime Minister.
120
121
QUOTATIONS
from
Mustafa Kemal
ATATÜRK
Translated by Yilmaz Öz
from an original compilation by Akil Aksan
Timber last outstanding unarks
UNCLASSIFIED
(with CONFIDENTIAL attachment)
MEMORANDUM FOR BRENT SCOWCROFT
THE WHITE HOUSE
Subject:
Draft Remarks for President's Public Statements
Attached are proposed remarks for the dinner the President
will attend in Ankara during his July 20-22 visit to Turkey.
Attachment: As stated.
UNCLASSIFIED
(with CONFIDENTIAL attachment)
Drafted: EUR/SE:BITurner
SESE 6642, 15 Jun 91, x7-6114
Prez Ankara Speech State Dinner
Cleared: EUR:RRJohnson
EUR/SE: DMRansom, PCCollins
S/P: JHughes
P:CvanVoorst
C:MFoulon
NEA/RA:AKeiswetter
EUR/PA:MPearson
CONFIDENTIAL
DECL: 6/21/91
PROPOSED REMARKS
FOR THE PRESIDENT AT THE
STATE DINNER HOSTED BY PRESIDENT OZAL
JULY 20, 1991
MR. PRESIDENT, MINISTERS, DISTINGUISHED GUESTS AND FRIENDS,
LADIES AND GENTLEMEN,
I WANT AGAIN TO THANK PRESIDENT OZAL FOR INVITING ME TO SEE
FIRST-HAND THIS WONDERFUL COUNTRY AND EXPERIENCE THE WARMTH AND
LEGENDARY HOSPITALITY OF THE TURKISH PEOPLE. IT IS TRULY AN
HONOR AND A DELIGHT TO BE HERE. I UNDERSTAND BETTER NOW WHY IT
IS WRITTEN OUTSIDE ATATURK'S TOMB: "NE MUTLU TURKUM DIYENE."
(NAY MUT-LOO TURK-UM DEE-YEN-EH) ("How happy am I to be a
Turk.
STANDING THERE THIS MORNING, I COULD NOT HELP BUT THINK OF
THE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE FOUNDER OF THE MODERN TURKISH
REPUBLIC--WHOSE NAME I UNDERSTAND MEANS LITERALLY, "FATHER OF
THE TURKS"--AND THE MAN WE AMERICANS CALL THE FATHER OF OUR
COUNTRY, GEORGE WASHINGTON. BOTH MEN WERE GREAT GENERALS,
CAPABLE OF PROSECUTING A WAR TO VICTORY. WHAT MADE THEM
ENDURING HISTORICAL FIGURES WAS THEIR UNDERSTANDING THAT
WINNING THE WAR MEANT SECURING THE PEACE BY MAKING FRIENDS OUT
OF ONE'S FORMER ENEMIES. IN ADDITION, BOTH HAD A VISION FOR
THEIR COUNTRIES' FUTURES WHICH, WHILE REQUIRING PROFOUND AND
CONFIDENTIAL
DETERMINED TO BE AN
ADMINISTRATIVE MARKING
PER E.O. 12958, SEC 3.3 (C)
RMC 11/01/04
CONF IDENTIAL
-1-
DIFFICULT CHANGE AT THE TIME, WOULD PROVE ITSELF OVER TIME A
VITAL AND INTEGRAL PART OF THEIR RESPECTIVE NATIONS'
SELF-UNDERSTANDING.
THEN AS NOW, TURKEY AND AMERICA HAVE ESPOUSED THE SAME
IDEALS ABOUT HUMAN RIGHTS AND PERSONAL LIBERTY, DEMOCRACY,
OPPORTUNITY AND PROSPERITY WHAT WE CALL THE PURSUIT OF
HAPPINESS AND THE RULE OF LAW. BOTH OF US BELIEVE IN WHAT
ATATURK CALLED "PEACE AT HOME AND PEACE ABROAD," BUT WE BOTH
ALSO UNDERSTAND THAT PROTECTING PEACE SOMETIMES MEANS BEING
WILLING TO DEFEND IT. THAT IS WHY WE HAVE WORKED TOGETHER IN
NATO FOR NEARLY FORTY YEARS. THAT IS WHY WE FOUGHT TOGETHER IN
THE KOREAN WAR. THAT IS WHY WE STOOD TOGETHER TO REVERSE THE
OCCUPATION OF KUWAIT.
IN LESS THAN TWO WEEKS FROM NOW, ON AUGUST 2, A YEAR WILL
HAVE PASSED SINCE SADDAM HUSSEIN UNLEASHED HIS INVASION OF
KUWAIT. BY THAT TIME I HOPE THAT THE LAST AMERICAN WILL HAVE
DEPARTED FROM NORTHERN IRAQ. IT HAS BEEN AN EXTRAORDINARY YEAR
FOR BOTH YOUR COUNTRY AND MINE. WE HAVE HAD TO RISE TO
EXTRAORDINARY CHALLENGES. THAT WE SUCCEEDED IN MEETING THESE
CHALLENGES IS A TRIBUTE TO THE EXTRAORDINARY FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN
OUR TWO COUNTRIES. IT IS ALSO A TRIBUTE TO OUR WILLINGNESS TO
SACRIFICE. NOT LAST, THIS DIFFICULT PERIOD HAS REQUIRED
CONFIDENTIAL
CONF IDENTIAL
-2-
EXCEPTIONAL LEADERSHIP FROM PEOPLE LIKE YOUR PRESIDENT, TURGUT
OZAL.
I WANT YOU TO KNOW--AND I SPEAK HERE ON BEHALF OF THE
ENTIRE AMERICAN PEOPLE--THAT TURKEY'S ROLE IN THE GULF CRISIS
WAS NOT, AND WILL NOT BE, FORGOTTEN. YOU HAVE DESERVEDLY WON
THE THANKS OF MIDDLE EASTERN AND EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AS WELL AS
THE UNITED STATES. FROM THE VERY BEGINNING, TURKEY STOOD ON
PRINCIPLE IN CONDEMNING IRAQ'S INVASION OF KUWAIT. TURKEY'S
EARLY AND DECISIVE ENFORCEMENT OF THE UN SANCTIONS REGIME WAS
CRITICAL TO INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TO ISOLATE IRAQ
ECONOMICALLY. FOLLOWING THE OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES ON
JANUARY 16, THE TURKISH PARLIAMENT TOOK THE COURAGEOUS DECISION
OF VOTING TO ALLOW COALITION FORCES TO USE TURKISH BASES FOR
MILITARY ACTIONS AGAINST IRAQ. IT DID so DESPITE THE IMMEDIATE
RISK OF IRAQI RETALIATION AS WELL AS THE LONGER-TERM RISK THAT
TURKEY'S TIES WITH ITS SOUTHERN NEIGHBOR MIGHT SUFFER FOR MANY
YEARS TO COME. FINALLY, ON APRIL 2, JUST WHEN IT APPEARED THAT
COALITION FORCES HAD SUCCEEDED IN CONTAINING SADDAM HUSSEIN'S
AGGRESSION OUTWARD, TURKEY WAS CONFRONTED WITH YET ANOTHER
CRISIS WHEN OVER 450,000 IRAQI REFUGEES FLED TO THE
TURKISH-IRAQI BORDER.
THE UNITED STATES AND TURKEY CAN BE PROUD OF WHAT THEY HAVE
ACCOMPLISHED TOGETHER OVER THE LAST YEAR, WHICH HAS NOT BEEN
CONFIDENTIAL
CONF IDENTIAL
-3-
WITHOUT COST. TURKEY INCURRED ENORMOUS COSTS, ESPECIALLY IN
THE SOUTHEAST, AS A RESULT OF ITS COMPLIANCE WITH UN SANCTIONS,
ITS DECISION TO DEPLOY TROOPS CLOSE TO THE TURKISH-IRAQI
BORDER, AND ITS GENEROUS RELIEF ASSISTANCE TO THE HUNDREDS OF
THOUSANDS OF DISPLACED IRAQIS CAMPED ALONG ITS BORDERS. THE
UNITED STATES HAS TAKEN THE LEAD, THROUGH ITS CHAIRMANSHIP OF
THE GULF CRISIS FINANCIAL COORDINATION GROUP, TO OBTAIN
ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE FOR TURKEY. WE HAVE ALSO MADE SIGNIFICANT
ASSISTANCE AVAILABLE TO TURKEY ON A BILATERAL BASIS.
I HAVE TALKED OF EVENTS OF THE PAST YEAR NOT OUT OF
NOSTALGIA BUT BECAUSE THEY HAVE BEEN so EXTRAORDINARY. BOTH OF
OUR COUNTRIES CAN BE PROUD OF HAVING RISEN so MAGNIFICENTLY TO
THE CHALLENGE. AS I THINK PRESIDENT OZAL WOULD AGREE, WE
SHOULD VIEW OUR BILATERAL COOPERATION OVER THE LAST TWELVE
MONTHS AS A GUIDE TO THE FUTURE. IT IS FOR THAT REASON THAT WE
ARE NOW EMBARKED ON A PROGRAM OF STRATEGIC COOPERATION. THE
UNITED STATES AND TURKEY HAVE A SPECIAL FRIENDSHIP AND A SHARED
DESTINY.
TURKEY'S GROWING ABILITY TO EXPORT TO THE WORLD, ATTRACT
TOURISTS AND INVESTORS, DEVELOP THE AGRICULTURAL POTENTIAL OF
THE REGION THROUGH MAMMOTH WATER PROJECTS, AND EDUCATE ITS
TALENTED PEOPLE, HAVE BEEN WATCHED WITH ADMIRATION BY ALL OF
TURKEY'S FRIENDS. ALONG WITH OTHER WESTERN STATES, TURKEY AND
CONFIDENTIAL
CONF IDENTIAL
-4-
THE UNITED STATES CAN WORK TOGETHER TO CONTRIBUTE TO PEACE AND
PROSPERITY THROUGHOUT THE WORLD BY ADDRESSING CHALLENGES TO
FREE TRADE, STABILITY, AND JUSTICE WHEREVER WE MIGHT FIND
THEM. I SAY TO YOU, GEORGE WASHINGTON AND ATATURK WERE ONLY
THE BEGINNING.
PLEASE JOIN ME IN RAISING YOUR GLASSES TO PRESIDENT AND
MRS. OZAL.
CONF IDENTIAL
McGROARTY
OUTLINE FOR SPEECH AT DOLMABACHE PALACE
ISTANBUL, TURKEY -- JULY 21, 1991
I.
Introductory: Turkey's historical legacy.
A. Crossroad of cultures, civilizations.
1. Istanbul -- one city, two continents.
B. Turkey's place today -- in our world of change.
1. For 40 years: Strategic role on NATO's southern
flank.
2. Today: Bridge between Europe, Asia, Middle East.
From
II. Turkey's Key Role in the Gulf.
to Korea
A.
Proof of Turkey's commitment to internationalism.
to
B.
DESERT SHIELD: Cut off pipeline -- at a cost of $4.4
D.S.
billion dollars.
1. Gave sanctions chance to work.
C.
DESERT STORM: Allowed US/coalition to operate from
Turkish bases.
1
Deployed Turkish troops to tie down Iraqi Army.
D.
SECURITY President will push Congress for full
military assistance for Turkey ("best effort" pledge).
E.
ECONOMIC U.S. will encourage coalition members to
make good on promised economic assistance to ease
Turkey's hardship.
III. The Next Stage -- Turkey's Place among Nations.
A. Applaud Turkey's outreach to USSR/Eastern Europe.
B. Encourage Turkish opening to Greece on Cyprus/Agean
issues.
1. For 40 years, Greece and Turkey allies in NATO;
today, partners in Gulf.
2. Ataturk/Venizelos 1930 Treaty of Friendship. Time
to renew this spirit.
C. Underline Turkey's strategic importance in critical
regions.
IV. Modern Turkey as model.
A. Mix of modernity and Moslem traditions, democracy and
Islam.
1. Ataturk's vision.
2. Istanbul's ancient mosques and modern industry.
B. Turkey's flourishing free market.
1. Fastest growing economy in the OCED, 1980s.
2. Turkey positioned to be trade hub.
C. Turkey has earned its place in Europe.
1. U.S. supports Turkey's entry into EC and WEU.
V.
Concluding remarks:
A. U.S. confidence in Turkey.
B. Turkey's growing role in regional affairs.
# # #
Ht
E5
ISTANBUL
1982
WH
The New
st
Encyclopædia
Britannica
in 30 Volumes
MACROP/EDIA
Volume 9
Knowledge in Depth
FOUNDED 1768
15 TH EDITION
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
William Benton, Publisher, 1943-1973
Helen Hemingway Benton, Publisher, 1973-1974
Chicago/Geneva/London/Manila/Paris/Rome
Seoul/Sydney/Tokyo/Toronto
1068
Istanbul
Istanbul
the 1970s there remained scorched stretches of the old
city not yet rebuilt. Fifty major earthquakes and innu-
Istanbul (formerly Constantinople, and once ancient By-
merable less serious temblors have shaken the city since
zantium) is the largest city and seaport of Turkey. It was
the time of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great.
formerly the capital of the Byzantine Empire, of the Ot-
The fall of each empire has been followed by devastation
toman Empire, and-until 1923-of the Turkish Repub-
The city
and a period of decay for the capital.
lic.
walls
The name Byzantium may derive from that of Byzas,
The old, walled city of Istanbul stands on a triangular
who, according to legend, was leader of the Greeks from
peninsula between Europe and Asia. Sometimes as
the city of Megara who captured the peninsula from pas-
bridge, sometimes as barrier, Istanbul for more than
toral Thracian tribes and built the city about 657 BC. In
2,500 years has stood between conflicting surges of re-
196 BC, having razed the town for opposing him in a civil
ligion, culture, and imperial power. For most of those
war, the Roman emperor Septimus Severus rebuilt it,
years it was one of the most coveted cities in the world.
naming it Augusta Antonina in honour of his son. In AD
By long tradition, the waters washing the peninsula are
330, when Constantine the Great dedicated the city as
called "the three seas": they are the Golden Horn, the
his capital, he called it New Rome. The coinage, never-
Bosporus, and the Sea of Marmara. The Golden Horn is
theless, continued to be stamped Byzantium until he or-
a deep, drowned valley about 4½ miles (seven kilome-
dered the substitution of Constantinopolis. In the 13th
tres) long. Early inhabitants saw it as shaped like a deer
century Arabs used the appelation Istinpolin, a "name"
horn, but modern Turks call it the Haliç (Canal). The
they heard Byzantines use-eis tên polin-which, in Γe-
Bosporus (Bogaziçi), which is almost 19 miles long, is the
ality, was a Greek phrase that meant "in the city."
channel connecting the Black Sea (Karadeniz) to the
Through a series of speech permutations over a span of
Mediterranean (Ak Deniz) by way of the Sea of Mar-
centuries, this name became Istanbul: Until the Turkish
mara and the straits of the Dardanelles. The narrow
Post Office officially changed the name in 1926, however,
Golden Horn separates the old city of Stamboul to the
even after 600 years of Turkish rule the city continued
south from the "new" city of Beyoğlu (formerly referred
to bear the millenary name of Constantinople.
to as Galata-Pera) to the north; the broader (one-half to
The old city contains about nine square miles, but the
5 miles wide) Bosporus, from half a mile to five miles
present municipal boundaries stretch over 98 square
wide, divides European Istanbul from its districts on the
miles, including areas on both sides of the Bosporus and
Asian shore-Usküdar (formerly Scutari, ancient Chrys-
the Sea of Marmara. The original peninsular city has
opolis) and Kadiköy (ancient Chalcedon).
seven hills requisite for Constantine's "new Rome." Six
Like the forces of history, the forces of nature impinge
The
are crests of a long ridge above the Golden Horn, the
upon Istanbul. The great rivers pouring off the plains of
Golden
other a solitary eminence in the southwest corner. The
Russia and middle Europe-the Danube, Don, Dnestr
Horn
domes and minarets of the mosques crowning the hills
and Dnepr (Dnieper)-make the Black Sea colder and
form the fabled skyline of Istanbul. A closer approach,
less briny than the Mediterranean. The Black Sea waters
however, can lead to disenchantment. The feeling is one
thrust southward through the Bosporus, but beneath
of seediness rather than of antiquity. There are indeed ar-
them the salty warm waters of the Mediterranean push
chitectural gems and historic shrines to be sought out, as
northward as a powerful undercurrent running through
there are imposing parks, redolent bazaars, and the activ-
the same channel.
Monum
ities associated with an international waterfront. Al-
The prevailing wind, the northeast wind or poyraz,
though Istanbul is a large Middle-Eastern city, its life,
First Hil
comes from the Black Sea, giving way at times during the
which proceeds amid the evidences of a glory and splen-
Hagia Si
winter to an icy blast from the Balkans-the northwest
dour irrevocably past, does not beat with the pulse of a
Church
wind, known as the karayel, or Black Veil, capable of
modern metropolis.
Mosque
freezing solid the Golden Horn and even the Bosporus.
(Chur
Within recent years many of the burned-out neighbour-
Mosque
When the lodos, or southwest wind, blows it can raise
hoods have slowly been rebuilt, while a continuing pro-
Mosque
storms on the Sea of Marmara.
gram of street improvement has pushed wide avenues
Fountain
Istanbul's
Fire, earthquake, riot, and invasion have ravaged the
The Mu
through some of the meanest quarters of the old city.
disasters
Cinili K
city many times. More than 60 conflagrations have been
There remains, however, numbers of unpaved alleys
Basilica:
important enough to be recorded in history, and even in
overhung with decrepit wooden houses, and Anatolian
(Yere
Hippod:
Ara Guie
Topkap
Marmai
Second
Mosque
The Bui
The Gre
Third H
Mosque
(Chu:
Mosque
Mosque
Mosque
Mosque
Mosque
(Moi
Mosqu
(Moi
Aqued
The Golden Horn, Istanbul. The two mosques in the background are (centre left)
Hagia Sophia and (centre right) Süleymaniye.
Istanbul
10
old
migrants to the metropolis have erected shanty towns or
for foreign traders-principally the Genoese-who en-
nu-
have settled in crumbling palaces or fortresses. Some of
joyed extraterritorial privileges behind their walls. After
nce
these country migrants work as porters, bearing upon
the Ottomans took the city in 1453, all foreigners who
eat.
their backs burdens of immense size and weight.
were not citizens of the empire were restricted to this
ion
The city
Stamboul is still a walled city. The land walls, which
quarter. Around palatial embassies were compounds that
walls
isolate the peninsula from the mainland, were breached
included schools, churches, and hospitals for the various
zas,
only once, by the cannon of Mehmed II (the Conqueror)
nationalities. Eventually Galata became too crowded, so
om
in 1453, at the spot since called (Top Kapisi (Cannon
that the tide of building moved higher up the slope to the
as-
Gate). The walls are four and a half miles long, and con-
open country of Pera. For centuries, foreigners who
In
sist of a double line of ramparts-the inner built in 413,
wished to visit Stamboul, where the Court was installed,
ivil
the outer in 447-protected by a moat. The higher inner
could do so only if accompanied by one of the sultan's
it,
wall is about 30 feet high and 16 feet thick, and is
Janissaries.
AD
studded with 60 foot towers about 180 feet apart. Of 92
as
turrets originally on the outer wall, 56 are still standing.
HISTORY
ver-
The sea walls were built in 439. Only short sections of
Byzantium. Byzantium was one of the many colonies
or-
their 30-foot-high masonry still remain along the Golden
founded from the end of the 8th century onward along
The
3th
Horn. Intact, these walls had 110 towers and 14 gates.
the coasts of the Bosporus and the Black Sea by Greek
founding
ne"
The walls along the Sea of Marmara, which stretch about
settlers from the cities of Miletus and Megara.
of
re-
five miles from Seraglio Point, curving around the bot-
The Persian king Darius I took the settlement in 512
Byzantiu
y."
tom of the peninsula to join the land walls, had 188 tow-
BC; it slipped from Persian grasp during the Ionian revolt
of
ers; they were, however, only about 20 feet high, because
of 496, only to be retaken by the Persians. In 478 an
ish
the Marmara currents provided good protection against
Athenian fleet captured the city, which then became a
ver,
enemy landings. Most of these walls still stand.
rich and important member of the Delian League. As
ued
Within the city walls are the seven hills, their summits
Athenian power waned during the Peloponnesian War,
flattened through the ages, their slopes still steep and
Byzantines acknowledged Spartan overlordship. Al-
the
toilsome. Geographers number them from the seaward
though Alcibiades besieged and retook the city, Sparta
lare
tip of the peninsula, proceeding inland along the Golden
reasserted its domination after defeating Athens in 405
and
Horn, the last hill standing alone where the land walls
BC.
has
reach the Sea of Marmara.
In 343 BC, Byzantium joined the Second Athenian
Six
The
The Galata and Atatürk bridges cross the Golden Horn
League, throwing off the siege of Philip II of Macedon
the
Golden
to Beyoğlu. Each day before dawn their centre spans are
three years later. The lifting of the siege was attributed
The
Horn
swung open to allow passage to seagoing ships. The
to the divine intervention of the goddess Hecate and was
hills
waters of the Horn are still golden in the sunlight, but the
commemorated by the striking of coins bearing her star
ach,
shores, served by water busses, are a jumble of docks,
and crescent. Byzantium accepted Macedonian rule un-
one
warehouses, factories, and occasional historical ruins.
der Alexander the Great, regaining independence only
ar-
with the eclipse of Macedonian might. In the 3rd century
t, as
BC, the city's treasury was drained to buy off marauding
ctiv-
Monuments on the Seven Hills and Their Slopes
Gauls. A free city under Rome, it gradually fell under
Al-
imperial control, and briefly lost its freedom under the
life,
First Hill
Fourth Hill
emperor Vespasian. When, in AD 196, it sided with the
len-
Hagia Sophia
Mosque of the Fatih (Conqueror)
Church of St. Irene
of a
Mosque of Mollazeyrek
usurper Pescennius Niger, the Roman emperor Septimus
Mosque of Küçük Ayasofa
(Church of Christ Pantokrator)
Severus massacred the populace, razed the walls, and an-
(Church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus)
Mosque of Eski Imaret
nexed the remains to the city of Perinthus (or Heraclea,
our-
Mosque of Sokullu Mehmed Paşa
(Church of Christ Pantepoptes)
Mosque of Ahmed I (Blue Mosque)
modern Marmaraereglisi), in Turkey.
pro-
Fifth Hill
Fountain of Ahmed III
Subsequently, Septimus Severus rebuilt the city on the
nues
The Museums
Mosque of Ahmed Paşa (Church of
Cinili Kiosk (Pavilion of Tiles)
St. John the Baptist in Trullo)
same spot, but on a grander scale. Although sacked again
city.
Basilican Cistern
Mosque of Gül
by Gallienus in 268, the city was strong enough two
leys
(Yerebatan Sarayi)
(Church of St. Theodosia)
years later to resist a Gothic invasion. In the subsequent
lian
Hippodrome
Mosque of Fethiye (Church of the
civil wars and rebellions that broke out sporadically in
Topkapı Palace (Seraglio)
Pammakaristos Virgin)
Gule
Church of St. Mary of the Mongols
the Roman Empire, Byzantium remained untouched until
Marmara Sea Walls
Greek Patriarchal Church of St. George
the arrival of the emperor Constantine I-the first Ro-
Second Hill
Mosque of Nuruosmaniye
Sixth Hill
man ruler to adopt Christianity. Overcoming the army
The Burnt Column (Çemberlitas)
Mosque of Kariye
of the rival emperor, Licinius, at nearby Chrysopolis, on
The Great Bazaar (Kaplı Carsi)
(Church of St. Saviour in Chora)
September 18, 324, Constantine became head of the
Third Hill
Mosque of Mihrimah
whole Roman Empire, east and west. He decided to make
Mosque of Vefa Kilise
Adrianople Gate (Edirne Gate)
Tekfur Sarayı ("Palace of
Byzantium his capital.
(Church of St. Theodore Tiro)
Mosque of Bayezid II
Constantine")
Constantinople. Within three weeks of his victory,
The New
Mosque of Laleli
Seventh Hill
the foundation rites of New Rome were performed, and
Rome
Mosque of Şehzade
Mosque of Hekimoglu Ali Paşa
the much-enlarged city was officially inaugurated on May
Mosque of Süleymaniye, and tombs
Mosque of Ramazan Efendi
11, 330.
Mosque of Bodrum
Seven Towers Castle (Yedikule)
(Monastery of Myrelaion)
Mosque of Koca Mustafa Paşa
It was an act of vast historical portent. Constantinople
Mosque of Kalendarhane
(Church of St. Andrew in Krisei)
was to become one of the great world capitals, a font of
(Monastery of Akataleptos)
Mosque of Imrahor (Church of St.
imperial and religious power, a city of vast wealth and
Aqueduct of Valens
John of the Stoudion)
beauty, and the chief city of the western world. Until the
rise of the Italian maritime states, it was the first city in
Ferries to the Asian side of Istanbul leave from under the
commerce, as well as the chief city of what was, until the
Galata Bridge.
mid-11th century, the strongest and most prestigious
power in Europe.
Beyoğlu, considered to be "modern Istanbul," remains,
Constantine's choice of capital had profound effects
as it has been since the 10th century, the foreign quarter.
Warfare and fires have left standing only a few structures
upon the ancient Greek and Roman worlds. It displaced
that were built earlier than the 19th century.
the power centre of the Roman Empire, moving it east-
ward, and achieved the first lasting unification of Greece.
The approach from the Golden Horn is steep, and a
funicular railway runs between the Galata waterfront
Culturally, Constantinople fostered a fusion of Oriental
and the Pera Plateau. On the heights are the big hotels
and Occidental custom, art, and architecture. The religion
and restaurants, the travel bureaus, theatres, the opera
was Christian, the organization Roman, and the language
house, the consulates, and many Turkish government of-
and outlook Greek. The concept of the divine right of
fices.
kings, rulers who were defenders of the faith-as op-
From the 10th century onwards, Galata was an enclave
posed to the king as divine himself-was evolved here.
The gold solidus of Constantine retained its value and
1070
Istanbul
served as a monetary standard for more than a thousand
Italians. Not for some time were Italian traders permitted
years. As the centuries passed-the Christian Empire
once more to settle in Galata.
lasted 1130 years-Constantinople, seat of empire, was
In 1203 the armies of the Fourth Crusade, deflected
to become as important as the empire itself; in the end,
from their objective in the Holy Land, appeared before
although the territories had virtually shrunk away, the
Constantinople-ostensibly to restore the legitimate By-
capital endured.
zantine emperor, Isaac II. Although the city fell, it re-
Constantine's new city walls tripled the size of Byzan-
mained under its own government for a year. But on
tium, which now contained imperial buildings, such as
April 13, 1204, the crusaders burst into the city to sack it.
Crusader
the completed Hippodrome begun by Severus, a huge
After a general massacre, the pillage went on for years.
rule
palace, legislative halls, several imposing churches, and
The crusading knights installed one of themselves, Bald-
streets decorated with multitudes of statues taken from
win of Flanders, as emperor, and the Venetians-prime
We
rival cities. In addition to other attractions of the capital,
instigators of the crusade-took control of the church.
iza
free bread and citizenship were bestowed on those settlers
While the Latins divided the rest of the realm among
the
who would fill the empty reaches beyond the old walls.
themselves, the Byzantines entrenched themselves across
There was, furthermore, a welcome for Christians, a
the Bosporus at Nicaea (now Iznik) and at Epirus (now
tolerance of pagan beliefs, and benevolence toward Jews.
northwestern Greece). The period of Latin rule (1204 to
Constan-
Constantinople was also an ecclesiastical centre. In 381
1261) was the most disastrous in the history of Constan-
tinople
it became the seat of a patriarch who was second only
tinople. Even the bronze statues were melted down for
as a
to the bishop of Rome; the patriarch of Constantinople
coin; everything of value was taken. Sacred relics were
is still the nominal head of the Orthodox Church. Con-
torn from the sanctuaries and dispatched to religious
religious
capital
stantine inaugurated the first ecumenical councils; the
establishments in western Europe.
first six were held in or near Constantinople. In the 5th
In 1261 Constantinople was retaken by Michael VIII
and 6th centuries emperors were engaged in divising
Palaeologus, Greek emperor of Nicaea. For the next
means to keep the Monophysites attached to the realm.
two centuries the shrunken Byzantine Empire, threatened
In the 8th and 9th centuries, Constantinople was the
both from the west and by the rising power of the Otto-
centre of the battle between iconoclasts and the defenders
man Turks in Asia Minor, led a precarious existence.
of icons. The matter was settled by the seventh ecu-
Some building was carried out at the end of the 13th
menical council against the iconoclasts, but not before
and beginning of the 14th century, but thereafter the
much blood had been spilled, and countless works of
city was in a state of complete decay, full of ruins and
art destroyed. The eastern and western wings of the
tracts of deserted ground, contrasting with the prosperous
church drew further apart, and after centuries of doc-
condition of Galata across the Golden Horn, which had
trinal disagreement between Rome and Constantinople, a
been granted to the Genoese by the Byzantine ruler
schism occurred in the 11th century. The Pope originally
Michael VIII. When the Turks crossed into Europe in
approved the sack of Constantinople in 1204, then de-
the mid-14th century the fate of Constantinople was
cried it. Various attempts were made to heal the breach
sealed. The inevitable end was retarded by the defeat of
in the face of the Turkish threat to the city, but the divi-
the Turks at the hands of Timur Lenk (Tamerlane) in
sive forces of suspicion and doctrinal divergence were
1402; but in 1422 the Ottoman sultan of Turkey, Murad
too strong.
II, laid siege to Constantinople. This attempt failed, only
By the end of the 4th century, Constantine's walls had
to be repeated 30 years later. In 1452 another Ottoman
become too confining for the wealthy and populous
sultan, Mehmed II, proceeded to blockade the Bosporus
metropolis. St. John Chrysostom, writing at the end of
by the erection of a strong fortress at its narrowest point;
that century, said many nobles had 10 to 20 houses and
this fortress, called Rumeli Hisari, still forms one of the
owned from one to two thousand slaves. Doors were
principal landmarks of the straits. The siege of the city
often made of ivory, floors were of mosaic, or were
began in April 1453. The Turks had not only over-
covered in costly rugs, and beds and couches were over-
whelming numercial superiority but also cannon which
laid with precious metals.
breached the ancient walls. The Golden Horn was pro-
The pressure of population pressing from within, and
tected by a chain, but the Sultan succeeded in hauling his
Capture
the barbarian threat from without, prompted the build-
fleet by land from the Bosporus into the Golden Horn.
by the
ing of walls further inland at the hilt of the peninsula.
The final assault was made on May 29, and, in spite of
Turks
These new walls of the early 5th century, built in the
the desperate resistance of the inhabitants aided by the
reign of Theodosius II, are those that stand today.
Genoese, the city fell. The last Byzantine emperor, Con-
In the reign of Justinian I (527-565) medieval Con-
stantine XI Palaeologus, was killed in battle. For three
stantinople attained its zenith. At the beginning of this
days the city was abandoned to pillage and massacre,
reign the population is estimated to have been about
after which order was restored by the Sultan.
500,000. In 532 a large part of the city was burned and
Istanbul. When Constantinople was captured, it was
many of the population killed in the course of the re-
almost deserted. Mehmed II began to repeople it by
pression of the Nika Insurrection, an uprising of the
transferring to it populations from other conquered areas
Hippodrome factions. The rebuilding of the ravaged city
such as the Peloponnese, Salonika, and the Greek islands.
gave Justinian the opportunity to engage in a program of
By about 1480 the population rose to between 60,000
magnificent construction, of which many buildings re-
and 70,000. Hagia Sophia and other Byzantine churches
R
main today.
were transformed into mosques. The Greek patriarchate
of
In 542 the city was struck by a plague that is said to
was retained, but moved to the Church of the Pamma-
G
have killed three out of every five inhabitants; the de-
karistos Virgin (Mosque of Fethiye), later to find a per-
tir
cline of Constantinople dates from this catastrophe. Not
manent home in the Fener (Phanar) quarter. The Sultan
only the capital but the whole empire languished, and
built the Old Seraglio (Eski Saray), now destroyed, on
slow recovery was not visible until the 9th century. Dur-
the site occupied at present by the university, and a little
ing this period the city was frequently besieged-by the
later the Topkapi Palace (Seraglio), which is still in exis-
Persians and Avars (626), the Arabs (674 to 678 and
tence; he also built the Eyüp Mosque at the head of the
again from 717 to 718), the Bulgars (813 and 913), the
Golden Horn and the Fatih Mosque on the site of the
Russians (860, 941, and 1043), and by a wandering
Basilica of the Holy Apostles. The capital of the Ottoman
Turkic people, the Pechenegs, (1090-91). All were un-
empire was transferred to Constantinople from Adrian-
successful.
ople (Edirne) in 1457.
In 1082 the Venetians were alloted quarters in the city
After Mehmed II, Istanbul enjoyed a long period of
itself (there was an earlier cantonment for foreign
peaceful growth, interrupted only by natural disasters—
traders at Galata across the Golden Horn), with special
earthquakes, fires, and pestilences. The sultans and their
trading privileges. They were later joined by Pisans,
ministers devoted themselves to the building of fountains,
Amalfitans, Genoese, and others. These Italian groups
mosques, palaces, and charitable foundations, so that
soon obtained a stranglehold over the city's foreign trade
the aspect of the city was soon completely transformed.
-a monopoly that was finally broken by a massacre of
The most brilliant period of Turkish construction coin-
Istanbul 107:
cides with the reign of the Ottoman ruler Süleyman the
the Turks call Kıztaşı; the Column of the Virgin, in the
Magnificent (1520-66).
Fatih quarter; and, in the grounds of the Seraglio, a
The next major change in the history of Istanbul oc-
perfectly preserved Corinthian column thought to be
curred at the very beginning of the 19th century, when
from the reign of another emperor, Claudius II Gothicus
dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire was approach-
(268-70).
ing. This period was known as the era of internal reforms
Spanning the valley between the 3rd and 4th hills is
1
(Tanzimat). The reforms were accompanied by serious
the two-story limestone aqueduct built in 366 by the
Crusader
disturbances, such as the massacre of the Janissaries in
emperor Valens. Some of the enormous open-water
rule
the Hippodrome (1826). With the triumph of the pro-
cisterns of the Byzantine epoch now serve as market gar-
gressive Ottoman sultan Mahmud II over the conserva-
dens. The closed cisterns, of which there are more than
e
Western-
tive opposition, the westernization of Istanbul started
80 remaining, include one of the most beautiful and
ization of
apace. There was an ever-growing influx of European
mysterious structures of Istanbul, the Basilican Cistern
the city
visitors who, since the 1830s, could reach Istanbul by
near the Hagia Sophia. Called the Yerebstan Sarayı,
S
steamship. The first bridge across the Golden Horn was
("underground palace"), its 336 columns rise from the
built in 1838. In 1839 the Ottoman sultan Abdülmecid I
still, black waters to a vaulted roof.
)
issued a charter guaranteeing to all his subjects, whatev er
The Golden Gate is a triumphal arch from about 390
their religion, the security of their lives and fortune. The
and was built into the defenses of Theodosius II, near
r
process of westernization was further accelerated by the
the junction of the land and sea walls. The marble-clad
Crimean War (1853-56) and the quartering of British
bases of its two large towers still stand, and three arches
S
and French troops in Istanbul. The latter part of the 19th
decorated with columns stretch between them.
and the beginning of the 20th century were marked by
The only well-preserved example of Byzantine palace
the introduction of various public services: the European
architecture is the shell of a three-story rectangular build-
railroad extending to Istanbul was begun in the early
ing of limestone and brick, laid in patterns and stripes.
1
1870s. The underground tunnel joining Galata to Pera
Dating from about 1300, it is called "Constantine's
was completed in 1873; a regular water supply for
Palace," or the Tekfur Sarayı, and is attached to the land
Istanbul and the settlements on the European side of the
walls not far from the Golden Horn.
Bosporus was brought from Lake Terkos on the Black
The largest legacy from the capital of the vanished
Sea coast (29 miles from the city) by the French com-
empire is constituted by 25 Byzantine churches. Many
d
pany, La Compagnie des Eaux, after 1885; electric light-
of these are still in use-as mosques. The largest of the
S
ing was introduced in 1912 and electric street cars and
churches is considered one of the great buildings of the
d
telephones in 1913 and 1914. An adequate sewage sys-
world. This is the Hagia Sophia, whose name means
The Hagia
r
tem had to wait until 1925 and later.
"Divine Wisdom." Its contemporary and neighbor, St.
Sophia
In the first quarter of the 20th century Istanbul ex-
Irene, was dedicated to "Divine Peace." Many art histo-
S
perienced various disruptions marking the death of the
rians deem the dome (105 feet in diameter) of Hagia
Ottoman Empire and the birth of modern Turkey. In
Sophia to be the most beautiful in the world, "the most
n
1908 the city was occupied by the army of the Young
successful architectural approach to the air-borne vault
d
Turks who deposed the hated sultan Abdülamid II. Dur-
of the universe." It rises to a height of 184 feet, seeming
y
ing the Balkan Wars (1912-13) Istanbul was nearly cap-
to float above the vast floor, which is 252 feet long and
n
tured by the Bulgarians. Throughout World War I the
234 feet wide. The church, which shared its clergy with
S
city was under blockade. After the conclusion of the
St. Irene, is said to have been built by Constantine in 325
Armistice (1918) it was placed under British, French, and
on the foundations of a pagan temple. Enlarged by the
e
Italian occupation that lasted until 1923. The Greco-
emperor Constans, rebuilt after the fire of 415 by the
y
Turkish War in Asia Minor, as well as the Russian Revo-
emperor Theodosius II, it was burned again in the Nika
lution, brought thousands of refugees to Istanbul. With
Insurrection of 532, and reconstructed by Justinian. The
h
the victory of the Nationalists under Mustafa Kemal
structure standing today is essentially the 6th-century
Atatürk, the sultanate was abolished and the last Otto-
edifice, although an earthquake tumbled the dome in 559,
S
Capture
man sultan, Mehmed VI, fled from Istanbul (1922). After
after which it was rebuilt to a smaller scale and the whole
1.
by the
the signing of the Lausanne Treaty, Istanbul was evacu-
church reinforced from the outside. It was restored again
Turks
ated by the Allies (October 2, 1923) and Ankara was
in the mid-14th century. In 1453 it became a mosque
e
chosen as the capital of Turkey (October 13, 1923). On
with minarets, and a great chandelier was added. In 1935
October 29, the Turkish Republic was proclaimed. Be-
it was made into a museum. The walls are still hung with
cause of Turkey's neutrality during most of World War
Muslim calligraphic disks, and since 1931, the Byzantine
II, Istanbul suffered no damage, although a German in-
Institute of America has been uncovering and cleaning
vasion was feared after the Balkans had been conquered
the Christian mosaics.
S
by the Axis. The influx of automobiles brought acute
The church of SS Sergius and Bacchus was erected by
y
traffic problems to Istanbul, and large tracts of the city
Justinian between 527 and 536 as a thank offering. The
S
have been demolished or cleared to make way for mod-
two soldier-saints allegedly appeared to the emperor
ern highways.
Anastasius I to intercede for Justinian, who had been
Byzantine monuments. Nothing remains of the By-
condemned to death for conspiracy. The church is built
S
Remains
zantium that Constantine chose as the site of New Rome,
as a domed octagon within a rectangle, with a columned
of
and almost nothing is left of the mighty city he built
and galleried Byzantine interior. In Turkish it is called
Constan-
there. Constantine's column, the Burnt Column, a shaft
"little Sophia," (Mosque of Küçük Ayasofya), and can
tine's city
of porphyry drums bound by metal laurel leaves, still
be considered an architectural parent of Justinian's re-
1
stands near the Nuruosmaniye Mosque, but there is no
construction of the Hagia Sophia. St. Saviour in Chora
1
proof that any building in the city dates from his period.
(now called Kariye Cami, but no longer a mosque) is near
He completed the Hippodrome that Septimus Severus
the Adrianople Gate. Restored in the 11th century and
had restored, but it was enlarged and rebuilt by his suc-
extensively remodelled in the 14th, it is now a museum,
e
cessors until the 5th century. Today only its curved end
renowned for its 14th-century mosaics, marbles, and
e
remains, with three columns along the central spina-an
frescoes, which have been cleaned and consolidated by
obelisk removed from Egypt by the Roman emperor
the Byzantine Institute of America. Over the central
Theodosius I (q.v.), a masonry obelisk of Constantine
portal is a head of Christ with the inscription, "The land
VII Porphyrogenitus (AD 905 to 959), and a column en-
of the living." When it was made a mosque it acquired
twined by a Delphic serpent (decapitated by looters) cast
the narthex (an enclosed passage between the main
after the Battle of Plataea, when the Greeks defeated the
entrance and the nave), portico, and minarets.
Persians in 479 BC.
A massive tower that dominates the Galata district was
Of the myriad columns that decorated Constantinople,
built by the Genoese traders in 1349 as a watchtower and
today there remain standing only the base of the column
a fortification for their walled enclave.
of the emperor Arcadius (383-408) in the Cerrahpaşa
Turkish monuments. When the Turks took possession
quarter; a column of the emperor Marcian (450-57) that
of Constantinople, they covered the spines of the seven
1072
Istanbul
hills with domes and minarets, changing the character of
diye), which was organized by Constantine as 14 districts
the city. Like the Greeks, the Romans, and the Byzan-
in imitation of Rome, is now divided into 12 circum-
tines, the new rulers loved the city, and spent much of
scriptions (kazas), each governed by a kaymakam. These
their treasure and energy on its embellishment. The Otto-
are, in the old city, Eminönü and Fatih; on the European
man (Osmanli) dynasty, which lasted from 1300 to 1922,
side above the Golden Horn, Eyüp, Gakirkoy, Beyoğlu,
continued to build new important structures almost until
Şişli, Beşiktas, and Sariyer; and across the Bosporus on
the end of their line. The most imposing of their mosques
the Asiatic side, Beykoz, Usküdar, Kadiköy, and Adalar.
were constructed from the mid-15th to the mid-16th cen-
Public Utilities. While Istanbul has a chlorinated and
The Sinan
turies, and the greatest of the architects all bore the
filtered water supply and sewage disposal system, these
architec-
name of Sinan. They were Atik Sinan (the Elder), Sinan
facilities are not sufficient to meet the increased need
tural
of Balikesir, and Koca Sinan ("the architect," also called
created by the influx of rural migrants to the city. In
tradition
the Great). Although the building was deeply influenced
the mid-1960s an estimated 21 percent of the popula-
by the Persian-born traditions of the Seljuqs (once
tion lived in shanty towns called gecekondu (literally "set
masters of the Ottomans), the style was blended with pre-
down by night") with no sanitation facilities. The middle
vailing Hellenic and Byzantine traditions of the city.
income group lives in modern apartments or in houses
Koca Sinan's masterpiece-and his burial place-is the
on the city's outskirts, most of which have running water
Mosque of Sülymaniye (1550-57), inspired by, but not
and electricity. Water supply is a problem particularly in
copied from, the Hagia Sophia. It ranks as another of the
the summer when rivers run dry; at this season tap water
world's great buildings. Probably the most popularly
is liable to flow only sporadically, except in luxury hotels.
known of all the mosques in Istanbul is the Blue Mosque,
Electric power supplies have been increased to help
that of the Mosque of Ahmed I (1609-1616), which has
promote industrial expansion. In 1967 the Ambarbi
six minarets instead of the customary four.
generating station began operation with an initial capac-
The mosques of the following century and later show
ity of 110,000 kilowatts. Capacity has since been doubled.
the deleterious effects of importing European architects
In 1973 a 1,150-mile, high-voltage transmission system
and craftsmen, who produced baroque Islãmic architec-
was to carry power generated at the Keban hydroelectric
ture (such as the Mosque of the Fatih, rebuilt between
plant on the Euphrates River to Istanbul, doubling the
1767 and 1771), and even Neoclassical styles, as in the
electrical capacity.
Dolmabahçe Mosque of 1853, now the Naval Museum.
Health and safety. Most of the health services of
The big mosques were built with ancillary structures,
Istanbul il (province) are concentrated in the municipal-
such as a Qur'anic school (medrese), baths (hamam) for
ity. There are 74 hospitals, 36 of which are public, with a
purification, a hostel and kitchen for the poor (imaret) or
total capacity of 16,000 beds. The province has 2,800
tombs of royalty and distinguished persons.
medical specialists, 1,500 general practitioners, and 1,000
There are 404 fountains in Istanbul. Some simply flow
dentists.
from wall niches, but others, erected as public philan-
The city police commissioner heads the municipal police
thropies, are pavilions. The most magnificent of these was
force, cooperating with the national police, who are re-
built by the Sultan Ahmed III in 1728, behind the apse
sponsible for the security of the cities, and who some-
of Hagia Sophia. It is square, with marble walls and
times supplement the municipal force.
bronze gratings, a mixture of the Turkish with the west-
Education. The first University of Istanbul was found-
Istanbul's
ern rococo style.
ed in 425 by Theodosius II, and was succeeded by a
universities
To the north of it, toward the Golden Horn and OC-
Turkish university in 1453, which was lastly reorgan-
Topkapı
cupying the whole tip of the promontory, is the sultan's
ized in 1933. The present university includes faculties of
Palace
Seraglio (Topkapi Palace), enclosed in a fortified wall.
letters, science, law, medicine, and forestry located in
Begun in 1462 by Mehmed II, it served as the residence
the former Seraskerat (war ministry) between the Great
of the sultans until the beginning of the 19th century. It
Bazaar and the Mosque of Süleymaniye. There is also
was to this palace that foreign ambassadors were ac-
a technical university on the Galata side of the Horn as
credited, and they were admitted through the Imperial
well as an Academy of Fine Arts, and schools of tech-
Gate, or Bab-i-Hümayun, mistranslated by Westerners
nology, commerce, and economics. Foreign educational
as "Sublime Porte." The Seraglio consists mostly of small
institutions include the American Robert College for
buildings grouped around three courts. The most sig-
boys (founded in 1863), and the American College for
nificant buildings are the Çinili Kiosk (Pavilion of Tiles)
Girls (founded in 1871), both on the Bosporus.
built in 1472, the Audience Chamber (Arzodası), the
Commerce and communications. Istanbul is Turkey's
Hirkaiserif, a sanctuary containing relics of the Prophet
largest port and is the hub of its industry. In 1970 the
Muhammad, and the elegant Baghdad Kiosk commemo-
port handled 1,005,026 tons of imports and 231,266 tons
rating the capture of Baghdad in 1638. The Seraglio
of exports. Textiles, flour milling, tobacco processing, ce-
houses the sultan's treasure and has important collections
ment, and glass are the city's principal manufactures.
of manuscripts, china, armour, textiles, etc. After the
Tourism is a growing source of income for Istanbul,
abandonment of the Old Seraglio, the sultans built for
which is the terminus of the international rail service (the
themselves palaces along the Bosporus, such as the Bey-
former Orient Express) which originates in Paris. It is
lerbey Palace (1865), the lavish Dolmabahçe Palace
also the starting point (from Haydarpasa, on the Asian
(1853), the Çeragan Palace built in 1874 and burned in
side) of the Baghdad Railway. Maritime services include
1910, and the Yıldız Palace which was the residence of
many forms of transport, from harbour dinghies and
Abdül hamid II, Ottoman sultan from 1876 to 1909.
small ferries to international liners. Yeşilköy Airport is
The Great Bazaar, founded early in the Turkish regime,
about 17 miles to the west of the city. Buses provide in-
but since often subject to fire and earthquake, had 4,000
ternal urban transportation, and the ferries range as far
shops around two central distributing houses. The dis-
as the Kizil Adalar (Princes Islands) several hours sail-
trict is laid out on a grid plan. It still boils with life and
ing to the south.
the pursuit of piasters.
The il (province) of Istanbul covers an area of about
2,206 square miles, extending to both the European and
THE CONTEMPORARY CITY
Asian shores of the Bosporus. It had a population of
Population, administration, and economy. Population.
nearly 3,000,000 in 1970.
Census figures are not always reliable, but Istanbul, like
Another span bridging the Golden Horn was to be com-
other major cities, is experiencing an influx from the
pleted in 1974 as part of the $185,000,000 Istanbul high-
countryside. The Muslim majority continues to grow,
way system which will reach 12 miles north to the Bospo-
and the Christian and Jewish minorities to shrink, both
rus Bridge, for which foundations were laid in 1970.
in percentage of the whole and in numbers. The total
Linking Europe and Asia, this 5,118-foot-long suspension
population in 1970 was 2,312,751 (metropolitan area).
bridge near the entrance to the Black Sea will be the
Administration. The mayor, appointed by the presi-
world's fourth longest, and the longest in Europe.
dent of the republic, serves as prefect of Istanbul city and
Cultural life. The Palais de la Culture d'Istanbul was
governor of Istanbul il (province). The municipality (bele-
built in 1969 as a centre for the arts. Facilities include a
Istanbul 1073
BLACK
Eyüp Sultan
Major roads
Kilyos
SEA
Mosque
BOSTAN SAKINZI
Rumelifeneri
Other roads
Kumbarahane
(Demirciköy
Railroads
Mosque
Sokollu
Mehmed
Greenbelts
Zekeriyakoy
Pasa Tomb
DEFTERDAR
Beyoğlu
Built-up areas
Bosporus
Piyale Pasa
0
2½
5 mi
Sariyer
Anadolukavagi
Mosque
0
2½
5 km
Haskoy
Beykoz
Shipyards
Yeniköy,
Pasabahçe
Haskoy Ferry
Pier
Boyacikoy
PASMAKCI
CAYIRI
Kanlica
ST.
Ayvansaray
Robert
College
Gate
Kabrithane
Anadoluhisar
Sisli
Egri Gate
Bebe
Kasimpasa
Balat
Mosque
Eyüp
Ferry
Besiktas
Palas
deva
Istanbul
FETHI
Pier
eyogly
alace
Constantine's
Palace
st
SERVICE
Golden
Uskudar
AYAN
Fener Ferry
Horn
Istanbull
Pier
Kasimpasa
Kadiköy
Edirne
Kariye
Greek Patriarchal
Gate
Mosque
Church of St, George
(3118H)
Ferry Pier,
DRAMAN
INFORMATION
Bakirköy SEA OF MARMARA
Fenerbahçe
TOMARUK
Fethiye
Mihrimah
Ahmed Pasa
Mosque
5
Mosque
Mosque
Sultan Selim
Mosque
Tunnel
Beyoğlu
Nusretive Mosque
Stadium
AGASI
Arap
Gül
Mosque
Mosque
Cibali Ferry
Galata
MALTERE $110
Pier
SARAY
Atatürk
Tower
Nisanci
Mosquavuz
CIBALIST
Bridge
HAVE
KEMANKES
Galata
010
ST
Waterfront
Hirkai Serif
ST.
Sokollu
DAVUT
PASA
Mosque
Eski Imaret
Mehmed
Bosporus
BLVD.
Fatih
Mosque
Pasa Mosque
SOFALI KEÇECILER
Haydarpasa
Mosque
ST.
HAYDAR
Galata
Kadikoy Ferry Pier
Cannon
Gate
SEDDIN
Bridge
Seraglio
Point
AKSEM
Mollazeyreh
ST
BOTANIC
Yeni
Atatürk
Mosque
Valens
GARDENS
Mosque
&
Monument
AKOENIZ
Rüstem
Aqueduct
CERTIFICATE
Pasa Mosque<
Sirkeci Ferry
TATLI
Pier
HAUCILAR
Süleymaniye
KATIP
Kilise
Mosque
SiRKECi ISTASYON
Mosque
Egyptian
st.
Museum
of
Bazaar
Marcian's
Gothic
Column
Turkish and
Sirkeci
Topkapi
Column
Meviana
316
Gate
niversities
OĞUZHAN
Islâmic Art,
University
Büyük
stanbul's
of Istanbul
Post Office
Railway Station Palace
HOLDER
Nuru
STAMBOUL
Pavilion
Osmaniye
Tiles
City
Sehzade
Mosque
Hall
AHMET VEFIK PASA ST
3
Mosque
Bayezid
ST
Murat Pasa
Valide
Tower
Great
Sublime
Archaeological
MILLET
Mosque
Mosque
Lâleli
Bazaar
Mahmud
Port
Museums
GULHANE
1046
Pasa
PARK
ALTIMERMER ST.
Mosque
316
KIZILELMAST.
Mosque,
ELMA
ORDU
Irene
Basilican
Haseki
Cistern
Imperial
Mosque
Bodrum
KIZIL
KEMAL
Triumphal Arch
TURANLI
Bayézid II
PASA
Atik Ali
DÍVAN
CERRAH
Mosque
Mosque
BLVD
Gate
of Theodosius
Pasa
Burnt
Courts of
Ahmed
Hekimoglu Ali
ST
HAYRIYE
GEDIKPASA ST
Hagia
TÜRKELI
Mosque
Column
Justice
Fountain
Pasa Mosque
SILIURIKAP
Cerrahpasa
Sophia
ST.
Ibrahim Paşa
PASA
LANGA
NAMIK KEMAL
TÜCCARI ST.
Mosque
BAGAGAS
MUSTAFA
Hippodrome
Mosque
KOCOK
SARAPNEL
KADIRGA
Blue
LIMANI
Mosque
Silivri
MUSTAFA
Mehmed Pasa
Museum of
Gatek
MEKTEBI
KOCA
Ramanzan
Mosque
Mosaics
Efendi Mosque
Ermeni
FIORY-SAHIL
Küçük Ayasofya
Koca Mustafa
Church
Mosque
Paşa Mosque
KADIN
SAMATYA
Belgrat
Gate
MERHABA
Major streets
Other streets
IMRAHOR
Imrahor
Railroads
Mosque
SEA OF MARMARA
Ferries
Walls
Points of interest
Yedikule
Towers
General locations
1
of hills (see table)
Greenbelts
0
1/8
1/4
%mi
Marble
Tower
0
4/4
1/2 km
Istanbul and (inset) its metropolitan area.
concert hall, art gallery, and two theatres. It is the home
There are many public and private libraries. The small,
of the Istanbul Municipal Symphony Orchestra and the
specialized Köprülü Library (1677) has about 3,000
Istanbul City Opera. The municipal theatre operates four
volumes with almost 200 works from early Ottoman
playhouses and there are 13 private theatre companies.
presses and about 40 handwritten works over 1,000 years
Over 30 learned societies and research institutes are
old. Many of the city's mosques, palaces, and monu-
headquartered in the city, including the Geographical
ments, as mentioned earlier, contain museums; other
Institute (1933), German and French archaeological
museums include the Archaeological Museums of Istan-
institutes, and the Turkish Folklore Society. There is a
bul (1836), the Museum of Turkish and Islãmic Art, and
nuclear research centre at Küçük Çekmece.
the Museum of the Janissaries (1726).
1074
Istanbul
The Media. Almost all of Istanbul's 22 daily news-
papers are printed in Ankara on the same day. Milliyet
and Cumhuriyet are the most influential dailies. The
weeklies Akis and Akbaba and the cultural fortnightly
Forum are also widely read. The city is served by two
radio stations and one television station. The Technical
University of Istanbul broadcasts educational radio and
television programs.
Recreation. The Hippodrome is now a public garden;
LIGURES
there are also numerous other public parks. A unique
feature of the city is its market gardens, which have
ROMAN COLONIES
already been mentioned; these kitchen gardens are asso-
ciated with the open cisterns that formed early Constan-
tinople's water-supply system. The cisterns have been
EAST ITALIC"?
partially built over and are called Çukur Bostan ("hollow
UMBRI
gardens").
Football (soccer) is a popular sport, and Istanbul has
VESTINI
three stadiums-Mithatpaşa, Fenerbahçe, and the indoor
MARRUCINI
Spor ve Sergi Sarayı. There are facilities for tennis, fenc-
PAELIGNI
ITALIC LANGUAGES
MARSI
ing, mountain climbing, riding, golf, and water sports.
Florya and Ataköy are popular beaches on the Sea of
Latin
Osco-Umbrian
Marmara.
SAMNITES
Faliscan
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Antiquities: A. VAN MILLINGEN, Byzantine Constantinople:
Venetic
LUCANI
Boundaries of the
The Walls of the City and Adjoining Historical Sites (1899);
Italic languages
PHILIP SHERRARD, Constantinople: Iconography of a Sacred
OTHER INDO-EUROPEAN
City (1965); PHILIP GRIERSON, The Tombs and Obits of the
LANGUAGES
Byzantine Emperors, 337-1042 (1962); BERNARD LEWIS, Istan-
SEA
bul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire (1963); DEAN
Gaulish
BRUTTI
A. MILLER, Imperial Constantinople (1969); MICHAEL MAC-
Messapic
LAGAN, The City of Constantinople (1968), well illustrated,
Greek
with good annotated bibliography and index.
Churches: W.R. LETHABY and H. SWAINSON, The Church of
NON-INDO-EUROPEAN
LANGUAGES
Sancta Sophia (1894); T. WHITTEMORE, The Mosaics of St.
PRE-ROMAN
LANGUAGES OF SICILY
Sophia at Istanbul, 4 vol. (1933-52); PAUL ATKINS UNDER-
Etruscan
WOOD, The Kariye Djami (1966).
Rhaetic
0
50
100 m
Contemporary descriptions: E. MAMBOURY, Istanbul touris-
Unclassifiable
languages
0
50
100
150
km
tique (1951); Guide bleu: Turquie (1958); ROBERT BOULANGER,
Istanbul et ses environs (1957; Eng. trans., 1960); PETER
Figure 1: Supposed language areas of the Italic and
MAYNE, Istanbul (1967).
neighbouring languages about 250 BC.
(B.E.)
transmitted by Greek and Roman sources, and especially
Italic Languages
from inscriptions.
Italic languages, in a broad sense, are certain Indo-Euro-
Oscan. Before Latin spread out, Oscan was the most
pean languages that were once spoken in the Apennine
widely spoken group of dialects of the Apennine Peninsu-
Peninsula (modern Italy) and in the eastern part of the
la. It was used by the Samnites in Samnium and Cam-
Po Valley. These include the Latin, Faliscan, Osco-Um-
pania; by the inhabitants of Lucania and Bruttium; and,
brian, and Venetic languages, which have in common a
with slight variations, by smaller tribes between Latium
considerable number of features that separate them from
and the Adriatic coast: the Volsci, Marsi, Paeligni,
the other languages of the same area-e.g., from Greek
Vestini, and Marrucini. The legendary Sabines, who
and Etruscan. (In a more narrow sense, the term Italic
shared the earliest history of Rome, probably also spoke
languages excludes Latin and denotes only Oscan, Um-
an Oscan dialect. The most important Oscan texts come
brian, Faliscan, and Venetic.)
from Campanian cities. The largest text, a treaty between
For a long time the Italic languages have been consid-
Nola and Abella, is carved on a stone slab, called the
ered to be an Indo-European subfamily like Celtic, Ger-
Cippus Abellanus. In Bantia, a nearly unknown town of
manic, or Slavic. Today, some scholars are inclined to
Lucania, the Tabula Bantina is preserved, the most ex-
distinguish within the so-called Italic branch at least
tensive Oscan inscription. It is a bronze tablet with penal
three independent members of the Indo-European fam-
laws concerning municipal administration, written in
ily: Latin (perhaps with Faliscan), Osco-Umbrian, and
Latin letters not earlier than 80 BC.
Venetic. They attribute the similarities-i.e., the unifying
Umbrian. The Umbrian idiom, closely related to Os-
phenomena in the division-to a convergence that took
can, is known from a few small inscriptions and from
place when the speakers of these different idioms were
the Tabulae Iguvinae (Iguvine Tables), which consist of
integrated into the "Italic" civilization of the early first
seven bronze tablets found at Gubbio (the ancient Iguv-
millennium BC. The culture that resulted is known as
ium). Constituting one of the largest and most important
the "Etruscan koine." Figure 1 shows the assumed dis-
epigraphical documents of antiquity, the tablets contain
tribution of languages in ancient Italy; the solid line
ritual regulations of a sacred brotherhood to which a
marks the Italic languages.
considerable part of the public cults of Iguvium was del-
Languages of the group. Latin. Latin is the language
egated. The Tabulae Iguvinae were incised, partly in the
of Latium and of Rome; its earliest known documents
Umbrian alphabet and partly in Latin letters, within the
date from the 6th century BC. Rich epigraphical evidence
last two centuries before Christ, but the text itself may
and an extensive literature begin at the end of the 3rd
result from a far more remote oral tradition.
century BC, at the time when Roman Latin was emerging
Faliscan. Faliscan inscriptions appear only in the im-
as the predominant language of Italy. By AD 100 at
mediate surroundings of Falerii (the present Cività Cas-
Spread
the latest, Latin had effaced all the other dialects between
tellana in central Italy), which, except for its dialect,
of Latin
Sicily and the Alps, with the exception of Greek in the
seems to have been a completely Etruscan city.
on the
colonies of Magna Graecia. (For more information about
Venetic. The language represented by inscriptions
Italian
Latin and about the languages that derive from it, see
from the territory of the Veneti-between the Po River,
peninsula
ROMANCE LANGUAGES.)
the Carnic (Carniche) Alps, and Istria-is called Venetic.
The other Italic languages, Italic languages in the nar-
The majority of discoveries come from sanctuaries at
row sense, are known through local and personal names
Este and Làgole di Calalzo.
THE
N41
THE OXFORD
COMPANION TO
CLASSICAL
LITERATURE
SECOND EDITION
EDITED BY
M.C. HOWATSON
Oxford New York
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
1989
253
GORGONS
developed his great work on the evolution of
verbal echoes, and play on words. Part of a
religious beliefs and institutions, the Golden
funeral oration also survives, and a fragment on
Bough (1890-1915).
the paradoxical theme that 'nothing exists'.
Gorgias later travelled about Greece giving
Golden Fleece, the fleece of the ram that had
lectures, dying at a great age at Larisa in
carried away Phrixus and *Hellē, sought by
Thessaly. His influence has been detected in
Jason and the *Argonauts.
Antiphon, Thucydides, and especially in the
Golden House (Domus Aurea), the vast palace
speeches of *Isocrates.
built by the emperor Nero in Rome after the
Go'rgias, dialogue by *Plato named after the
great fire of AD 64, covering, it is calculated,
famous sophist (see above). Socrates opens the
about 50 hectares (125 acres) between the
dialogue by asking Gorgias to define rhetoric.
S
Palatine and Esquiline hills; the centre-piece was
The latter replies that it is the most important of
an ornamental lake in the valley later occupied
human concerns because successful statesman-
by the Colosseum. Uncompleted at Nero's
ship depends not upon knowing what should be
death and damaged by fire in AD 104, its remains
done and advising accordingly, but upon having
were covered over by the emperor Trajan; as a
the knack of persuasive speech. A successful
consequence the ruins which have been excav-
orator can therefore act as he pleases, justly or
ated are in a fair state of preservation, the
unjustly. When Gorgias retires his pupil Polus
paintings being particularly fine.
takes up the argument; Socrates makes him
Golden Milestone, see MILIARIUM AUREUM.
agree, against his will, that it is better to suffer
injustice than to do it, and that when one has
Gordian knot. Alexander the Great, on his
done evil it is better to be punished than to
arrival at Gordium in Phrygia, found in the
go unpunished. When Polus retires his place
acropolis there an ox-cart of which the pole was
is taken by a certain Callicles (otherwise
fastened to the yoke by a knot of cornel-bark.
unknown to us), who in a manner foreshadow-
According to legend, in ancient times a Phry-
ing Nietzsche argues that virtue and happiness
gian peasant called Gordius, his wife, and son
are to be found in the exercise of lawless self-
*Midas chanced to arrive in this cart at an
will, for those who are capable of it. The issue of
assembly of the Phrygians, who had just been
the dialogue is suddenly seen to be the choice a
told by an oracle that a cart would bring them a
man has to make between a life of action of the
king to put an end to the civil disturbances. The
kind Callicles stands for and a life of philosophy
Phrygians at once made Gordius king, and he
represented by Socrates. Socrates reinforces his
dedicated to Zeus in the acropolis at the town
own choice of philosophy with a passionate
subsequently named Gordium his cart and the
denunciation of the 'great' Athenian statesmen
yoke to which the oxen had been fastened. A
of the past, Pericles, Cimon, and Miltiades, and
further oracle declared that whoever could untie
emerges himself as the only true statesman
the knot, which had defeated all attempts to
because he alone improves his fellow citizens. At
undo it, should reign over Asia. Alexander cut
the climax of the dialogue there is a myth, the
the knot with his sword and applied the oracle
earliest in Plato, of the judgement of the soul
to himself. 'To cut the Gordian knot' thus
after death, perhaps as an additional incentive to
signifies drastic action to solve a difficulty.
avoid injustice.
Go'rgias, of Leontini in Sicily (c.483-c.385 BC),
Gorgons (Gorgonēs), in Greek myth, female
one of the most influential of the Greek
monsters. Homer seems to know only one
*sophists whose particular expertise was the
Gorgon: in the Iliad her head adorns the *aegis
teaching of rhetoric, based less upon systematic
of the goddess Athena and inspires terror.
treatment of the subject-matter than upon
According to Hesiod there were three Gorgons,
mannered, poetic, and effective expression. He
Sthenno ('mighty'), Euryale ('wide-wanderer'),
made his pupils learn typical passages by heart.
and Medusa ('queen'), living in the far West, by
He appears in one or two of Plato's dialogues
the stream of Ocean, daughters of the sea deities
(see below), where he is treated with a certain
Phorcys and his sister Ceto, and sisters of the
amount of respect (although Agathon's speech
Graiae. They are often given monstrous features
in the Symposium is a telling parody of his style).
such as serpents in their hair and glaring eyes.
His speeches delivered in Athens in 427 when he
Medusa, who alone was mortal, and whose head
headed an embassy from his home-town
was so fearful that anyone who looked at it was
stunned the Athenians with the brilliance and
turned to stone, was loved by Poseidon and
novelty of their style (see RHETORIC). His extant
pregnant by him when *Perseus killed her.
Encomium of Helen and Defence of Palamedes
At the moment of her death she gave birth
illustrate both his confidence that the well-
to Pegasus and Chrysaor ('golden-sword').
taught orator could with ingenuity find
The head of Medusa was said to be buried
arguments to support any case and also his
under a mound in the agora of Argos, where
remarkable prose style, with its short symmetri-
it was probably thought to have apotropaic
cal clauses, rhythmically balanced antitheses,
power, and the representation of the head or
Goethe to Hearst
VOLUME 13
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
AMERICANA
INTERNATIONAL EDITION
COMPLETE IN THIRTY VOLUMES
FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1829
GROLIER INCORPORATED
International Headquarters: Danbury, Connecticut 06816
86
GORDIAN-GORDON
GORDIAN, gôr'dē-en, Marcus Antonius, the name
GORDON, Charles George (1833-1885), British
of three 3d century Roman emperors. Gordian I
general, who won fame for his services in China
(159-238 A.D.), proconsul of Africa, was pro-
and the Sudan. He was born at Woolwich, near
claimed emperor by the African troops in March
London, on Jan. 28, 1833, into a Scottish military
238. He quickly won the Senate's backing
family. Commissioned a lieutenant in the Royal
against the reigning Emperor Maximin. Only 22
Engineers in 1852, Gordon fought in the Crime-
days later, however, he committed suicide after
an War and earned distinction for his work in the
learning that his son and co-ruler Gordian II (192-
trenches at the siege of Sevastopol in 1855.
238) had been killed by rival revolutionaries.
"Chinese Gordon." Gordon went to China in
The Senate then elevated Maximus and
1860, during the Second Opium War, and was
Balbinus to the throne, but they were soon mur-
present at the capture of Peking. At the request
dered by the powerful Praetorian Guard and
of the Chinese government he took command of
replaced by Gordian III (225-244), grandson of
the force known as the "Ever Victorious Army,"
Gordian I. The boy emperor relied heavily on
which was fighting the Tai-p'ing rebels. He
advisers-notably Gaius Furius Timesitheus,
returned to London in 1865 and there acquired
praetorian prefect since 241. With his help Gor-
the nickname of "Chinese Gordon," a sobriquet
dian controlled the restless guard and repelled
by which he was known thereafter.
Gothic and Persian invaders. The tenuous
Governor of Equatoria. After refusing a large
stability collapsed with Timesitheus' death in
monetary reward from the Emperor of China,
the winter of 243-244. Early in 244 the guard
Gordon returned to England in 1865. He was
murdered Gordian and substituted their new
named commanding royal engineer at Gravesend
prefect, Julius Philippus as the Emperor
and devoted his spare time to philanthropic ac-
Philip.
tivities. In 1871 he was named the British mem-
JOHN W. EADIE, University of Michigan
ber of the international commission for the im-
provement of navigation on the Danube River.
GORDIAN KNOT, gôr'dē-an, in Greek legend, an
After having served in this post for a period of
intricate knot tied by Gordius, king of Phrygia,
two years, he was appointed governor of Egypt's
symbolizing a seemingly insoluble problem.
Equatoria province on the upper Nile by Khe-
According to legend, Gordius was a peasant
dive Ismail Pasha.
whom the Phrygians named king in response to a
Gordon arrived at his headquarters in Gondo-
prophecy that their troubles would cease if they
koro in April 1874. During his two years of ser-
chose for this office the first man to approach the
vice on the upper Nile he constructed a chain of
Temple of Zeus in a wagon. Gordius dedicated
posts along the river as far south as the present
his wagon to the god, fastening it to a pole with a
Sudan-Uganda border and established close rela-
knot that defied untying
tions with the African kingdoms of Bunyoro and
Legends arose that whoever undid the Gordi-
Buganda.
an knot would rule all Asia. Alexander the
Governor-General of the Sudan. Gordon resign-
Great, on his invasion of Asia, was shown the
ed his post and left Equatoria for England in
knot and found the key to untying it. By another
1876. However, at the request of Khedive Ismail
account, he cut the knot with his sword. "Cut-
Pasha, he returned the following year as gover-
ting the Gordian knot" has thus come to stand for
nor-general of the Sudan as well as Equatoria.
a bold solution to a complex problem.
He was given a mandate to suppress the slave
trade and improve communications.
GORDIMER, gôr'da-mer, Nadine (1923-
),
Gordon first traveled to the Ethiopian fron-
South African author of stories concerned primar-
tier, where he settled a border dispute. He then
ily with such themes as loneliness, alienation,
went to Khartoum and was ceremoniously in-
and the consequences of apartheid. She was
stalled as governor-general on May 5, 1877. His
born in Springs, Transvaal, on Nov. 20, 1923, and
first task was the suppression of a revolt in Dar-
graduated from Witwatersrand University.
fur, after which he returned to the Ethiopian
Her first publications were the story collec-
frontier in an unsuccessful attempt to meet King
tion The Soft Voice of the Serpent (1952) and The
John of Ethiopia. Gordon visited Cairo briefly
Lying Days (1953). Other works include the col-
in the spring of 1878 and toured Egypt's posses-
lections Friday's Footprint (1960), Livingstone's
sions on the Red Sea coast. Almost immediately
Companions (1971), and A Soldier's Embrace
after his return to Khartoum he left again to sup-
(1980) and the novels A World of Strangers
press a second revolt in Darfur and to release
(1958), A Guest of Honor (1970), Burger's
slaves who were being taken northward for sale
Daughter (1979), July's People (1981), and A
in Egypt and the Sudan.
Sport of Nature (1987).
Gordon decided to resign after receiving
news in July 1879 that Ismail Pasha had been
GORDON, Adam Lindsay (1833-1870), Australian
deposed. However, the new khedive, Muham-
poet and horseman, who was one of the first writ-
mad Tewfik Pasha, sent Gordon on another
ers of bush ballads. Born on Fayal Island,
abortive mission to King John before officially
Azores, on Oct. 19, 1833, he spent a wild youth in
accepting his resignation. Gordon returned to
England and emigrated in 1853 to Adelaide,
England in 1880 and was promoted to major gen-
South Australia. He became a horsebreaker,
eral two years later.
racehorse owner and trainer, and steeplechase
Siege of Khartoum. The British government
jockey. Depressed over debts after dissipating a
sent Gordon to the Sudan on his most dangerous
legacy, he committed suicide on June 24, 1870,
mission in January 1884. The followers of a reli-
in Brighton, Victoria.
gious mystic, who had proclaimed himself the
Gordon's ballads are characterized by their
Mahdi, had revolted against the Egyptian admin-
swinging rhythms and quotable phrases depic-
istration in the Sudan. They had defeated the
ting outdoor life. They are well represented in
Egyptian forces sent to suppress the rebellion,
Sea Spray and Smoke Drift (1867) and Bush Life
and were besieging the Egyptian garrisons sta-
and Galloping Rhymes (1870).
tioned in the country. Gordon was sent to rescue
AE5
BYZANTINE EMPIR
.E5
1982
WH
The New
Encyclopædia
Britannica
in 30 Volumes
MACROP/EDIA
Volume 3
Knowledge in Depth
FOUNDED 1768
15 TH EDITION
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
William Benton, Publisher, 1943-1973
Helen Hemingway Benton, Publisher, 1973-1974
Chicago/Geneva/London/Manila/Paris/Rome
Seoul/Sydney/Tokyo/Toronto
al
Byzantine Empire 547
f his
for first, later, and foreign editions see that by E.H. COLERIDGE
century, as long as men continued to act and think ac-
por-
in vol. 7 of his edition of the poetry (cited below). For
cording to patterns not unlike those prevailing in an ear-
and
Byroniana, see SAMUEL C. CHEW, Byron in England (1924);
lier Roman Empire. These same centuries nonetheless
cized
and E.J. LOVELL, "Byron," in FRANK JORDAN (ed.), The En-
witnessed changes so profound in their cumulative effect
Role
ittee,
glish Romantic Poets: A Review of Research and Criticism
that after the 7th century state and society in the East
war
iding
&
(1971).
differed markedly from their earlier forms. In an effort
urks.
Greek
Editions: The standard edition of the works remains Let-
to recognize that distinction, historians traditionally have
e of
indeper
ters and Journals, ed. by R.E. PROTHERO, 6 vol. (1898-1901);
described the medieval empire as "Byzantine."
dence
a of
Poetry, ed. by E.H. COLERIDGE (1898-1904). The ed. best by 1-vol-
ume edition is The Complete Poetical Works
PAUL
The latter term is derived from the name Byzantium,
Origin of
1 his
ELMER MORE (1905). Other accessible editions include:
borne by a colony of ancient Greek foundation on the
the desig-
Italy
Poems, ed. by G. POCOCK, Everyman's Library, rev. ed., 3 vol.
European side of the Bosporus, midway between the
nation
Mary
edition (1948); (1949); The Selected Poetry ed. by L.A. MAR-
Selections
ed. by PETER QUENNELL, the Nonesuch
Mediterranean and the Black Sea: the city was, by virtue
"Byzan-
rting
of its location, a natural transit point between Europe
tine"
CHAND, Modern Library edition (1951; rev. ed., 1967);
and Asia Minor (Anatolia). Refounded as the "new
ship,
Selected Poetry and Letters, ed. by E. BOSTETTER (1951). For
Rome" by the emperor Constantine in 330, it was en-
Don Juan, the fullest critical edition is Byron's Don Juan: A
ward
Variorum Edition, by T.G. STEFFAN and W.W. PRATT, 4 vol.
dowed by him with the name Constantinople, the city of
resa's
(1957); the best 1-volume edition is Don Juan, ed. by L.A.
Constantine. The derivation from Byzantium is sugges-
lonia
MARCHAND (1958). Additional letters are in Lord Byron's
tive in that it emphasizes a central aspect of Byzantine
Me-
Correspondence
ed. by JOHN MURRAY, 2 vol. (1922);
civilization: the degree to which the empire's administra-
a, he
and
Byron:
A
Self-Portrait
ed.
by
PETER
QUENNELL,
2
tive and intellectual life found a focus at Constantinople
or the
vol. (1950).
from 330 to 1453, the year of the city's last and unsuc-
IS, all
Biographical works: The definitive modern biography is
cessful defense under the 12th Constantine. The circum-
4,000
L.A. MARCHAND, Byron: A Biography, 3 vol. (1957); supple-
stances of the last defense are suggestive, too, for in
1 ser-
mented and updated in Byron: A Portrait (1970). Memoirs
1453 the ancient, medieval, and modern worlds seemed
n) on
by contemporaries include: R.C. DALLAS, Recollections of the
briefly to meet. The last Constantine fell in defense of the
Life of Byron (1808-1814) (1824); T. MEDWIN, Journal
dátos,
(1824;
ed.
by
new Rome built by the first Constantine. Walls that had
of E.J. LOVELL, 1966); P. GAMBA, A Narrative of Byron's
the
Conversations
of
Byron
at
Pisa
held firm in the early Middle Ages against German, Hun,
ins to
Last Journey to Greece (1825); W. PARRY, The Last Days
Avar, Slav, and Arab were breached finally by modern
: em-
of Byron (1825); J.H. LEIGH HUNT, Lord Byron and Some
artillery, in the mysteries of which European technicians
under
of His Contemporaries, 2nd ed. (1828); T. MOORE, Letters
had instructed the most successful of the Central Asian
utedly
and Journals of Byron: With Notices of His Life, 2 vol.
invaders: the Ottoman Turks. In short, the Byzantine
orts to
(1830), the first "official" biography; COUNTESS OF BLESSING-
Empire, by virtue of its geographical position and its
TON, Conversations of Lord Byron (1834; ed. by E.J. LOVELL,
recon-
long continuity, unites a number of worlds: geographi-
1969); E.J. TRELAWNY, Recollections of the Last Days of
ruary
Shelley and Byron (1858); E.J. LOVELL, JR. (ed.), His Very
cally, that of Asia and that of Europe; chronologically,
eding,
Self and Voice: Collected Conversations of Byron (1954).
that of classical antiquity and that of the Renaissance.
ion of
Among later biographies and biographical studies should be
The fortunes of the empire thus were intimately en-
igh his
noted: J. CORDY JEAFFRESON, The Real Lord Byron, 2 vol.
twined with those of peoples whose achievements and
ed, he
(1883); E. MAYNE, Byron (1924), and The Life and Letters
failures constitute the medieval history of both Europe
stacles
of
Lady Noel Byron (1929); HAROLD NICOLSON, Byron:
and Asia. Nor did hostility always characterize the rela-
from
The Last Journey (1924; rev. ed., 1940); ANDRE MAUROIS,
tions between Byzantines and those whom they consid-
1 Lou-
Don Juan; ou, la vie de Byron (1930; Eng. trans., Byron,
ered "barbarian." Even though the Byzantine intellectual
1930); QUENNELL, Byron: The Years-of- (1935; new
rought
ed., 1967) and Byron in Italy (1941); W.A. BORST, Lord
firmly believed that civilization ended with the boundaries
Iressed
Byron's First Pilgrimage (1948); IRIS ORIGO, The Last At-
of his world, he opened it to the barbarian, provided that
mplet-
tachment (1949), the story of Byron and the Countess Guic-
the latter (with his kin) would accept Baptism and render
Greek
cioli; C.L. CLINE, Byron, Shelley and Their Pisan Circle
loyalty to the emperor. Thanks to the settlements that re-
le was
(1952); G. WILSON KNIGHT, Lord Byron: Christian Virtues
sulted from such policies, many a name seemingly Greek
1 other
(1952) and Lord Byron's Marriage (1957). See also DORIS
disguises another of different origin: Slavic, perhaps, or
vnpour
L. MOORE, The Late Lord Byron (1961), on the posthumous
Turkish. Barbarian illiteracy, in consequence, obscures
ch was
reputation of Byron; and MALCOLM ELWIN, Lord Byron's
the early generations of more than one family destined
Wife (1962), based on the Lovelace Papers (Lady Byron's
octors.
to rise to prominence in the empire's military or civil ser-
papers).
e died
vice. Byzantium was a melting-pot society, characterized
Criticism: E.J. LOVELL, Byron: The Record of a Quest
e land,
(1949); A. RUTHERFORD, Byron: A Critical Study (1961), and
during its earlier centuries by a degree of social mobility
and a
(comp.), Byron: The Critical Heritage (1970), a collection
that belies the stereotype, often applied to it, of an im-
to En-
of 19th-century critiques; P. WEST (ed.), Byron: A Collection
mobile, caste-ridden society.
y, was
of Critical Essays (1963), 20th-century views; L.A. MARCHAND,
A source of strength in the early Middle Ages, Byzan-
orkard
Byron's Poetry: A Critical Introduction (1965); JEROME J.
tium's central geographical position served it ill after
ter his
MCGANN, Fiery Dust: Byron's Poetic Development (1968);
the 10th century. The conquests of that age presented
placed
M.K. JOSEPH, Byron, the Poet (1964); on Don Juan, E.F.
new problems of organization and assimilation; and these
BOYD, Don Juan: A Critical Study (1945); G.M. RIDENOUR,
the emperors had to confront at precisely the time when
The Style of Don Juan (1960).
(L.A.M.)
older questions of economic and social policy pressed for
Trans-
answers in a new and acute form. Satisfactory solutions
1 Satire
were never found. Bitter ethnic and religious hostility
antos i
Byzantine Empire
marked the history of the empire's later centuries, weak-
Giaour:
The very name Byzantine illustrates the misconceptions
ening it in the face of new enemies descending upon it
Abydos:
to which the empire's history has often been subject, for
from east and west. The empire finally collapsed when its
; Lara:
(1814);
its inhabitants would hardly have considered the term
administrative structures could no longer support the bur-
4 Poem
appropriate to themselves or to their state. Theirs was,
den of leadership thrust upon it by military conquests it
d Other
in their view, none other than the Roman Empire, found-
had won in the European and Asian worlds.
fred: A
ed shortly before the beginning of the Christian Era by
Sources of Byzantine history. Research in Byzantine
(1818);
God's grace to unify his people in preparation for the
history can be as frustrating as it is fascinating, thanks to
(1819);
coming of his Son. Proud of that Christian and Roman
certain unique characteristics of the sources. First of all,
cantos
heritage, convinced that their earthly empire so nearly
linguistic problems are monumental. Since the historical
Problems
Faliero:
resembled the heavenly pattern that it could never
experience of almost all medieval peoples impinged upon
of
4 Poem
cari: A
change, they called themselves Romaioi, or Romans.
that of Byzantium, the historian may have to consult
Byzantine
dgment,
Modern historians agree with them only in part. The
materials written in a bewildering array of languages.
historiog-
term East Rome accurately described the political unit
Even Byzantine Greek itself is a double language: the
raphy
embracing the Eastern provinces of the old Roman Em-
"pure" language of the intellectual class, rooted in the
editions
'rse and
pire until 476, while there were yet two emperors. The
Greek of ancient Athens and the New Testament, and
1 1963);
same term may even be used until the last half of the 6th
the demotic, or popular living tongue, spoken in city and
548 Byzantine Empire
village. Second, the historical record is far from satis-
the better known since its constituents are the predomi-
factory for all places and all periods. As a result of the
nant features of Roman civilization. The common Latin
high degree of centralization in Constantinople, most ma-
language, the coinage, the "international" army of the
terials (whether literary, legal, or economic) are con-
Roman legions, the urban network, the law, and the
cerned with the affairs of that city and not of the prov-
Greco-Roman heritage of civic culture loomed largest
inces. Nor are all periods equally well represented. From
among those bonds that Augustus and his successors
the end of the 6th century to the second half of the 8th
hoped would bring unity and peace to a Mediterranean
century, the record must be pieced together from an ex-
world exhausted by centuries of civil war. To strengthen
tremely small number of chronicles, legal codes, ecclesi-
these sinews of imperial civilization, the emperors hoped
astical documents, and saints' lives. After about 800, the
that a lively and spontaneous trade might develop among
sources become increasingly abundant, permitting the
the several provinces. At the pinnacle of this world stood
historian to investigate a much wider range of problems,
the emperor himself, the man of wisdom who would
including even the economic and social conditions of
shelter the state from whatever mishaps fortune had
specific villages. Third, the sources frequently display no
darkly hidden. The emperor alone could provide this pro-
sense of historical development or even any high degree
tection since, as the embodiment of all the virtues, he
of historical consciousness. The Byzantine intellectual
possessed in perfection those qualities displayed only im-
often described his own world in terms of the past,
perfectly by his individual subjects.
borrowing whole passages from earlier authors to delin-
The Roman formula of combatting fortune by reason
eate contemporary practice. The modern historian, in
and therewith assuring unity throughout the Mediterra-
consequence, may be misled in one of two ways: either
nean world worked surprisingly well in view of the pres-
he may read long-vanished patterns into a later era, or,
sures for disunity that time was to multiply. Conquest
more insidiously, he may assume that nothing Byzantine
had brought regions of diverse background under Roman
ever changed, forgetting that, if the Byzantine people
rule. The Eastern provinces were ancient and populous
were overly conscious of the past and of an almost bur-
centres of that urban life that for millennia had defined
densome cultural heritage, the struggle for survival had
the character of Mediterranean civilization. The Western
made pragmatists of them. They had learned to observe
provinces had only lately entered upon their own course
clearly the world of the outsider as well as their own,
of urban development under the not always tender minis-
however little they liked or respected the stranger outside
trations of their Roman masters.
their gates.
Each of the aspects of unity enumerated above had its
This article contains the following sections:
other side. Not everyone understood or spoke Latin.
I. The empire to 867
Paralleling and sometimes influencing Roman law were
The Roman and Christian background
local customs and practices, understandably tenacious by
Unity and diversity in the late Roman Empire
reason of their antiquity. Pagan temples, Jewish syna-
The reforms of Diocletian and Constantine
gogues, Christian baptisteries attest to the range of or-
The 5th century: persistence of Greco-Roman civiliza-
ganized religions with which the official forms of the
tion in the East
Economic and social policies
Roman state, including those of emperor worship, could
Relations with the barbarians
not always peacefully coexist. And far from unifying the
Religious controversy
Roman world, economic growth often created self-suffi-
The empire at the end of the 5th century
cient units in the several regions, provinces, or great
The 6th century: from East Rome to Byzantium
estates.
The years of achievement to 540
Given the obstacles against which the masters of the
The crisis of midcentury
Roman state struggled, it is altogether remarkable that
The last years of Justinian I
Christian culture of the Byzantine Empire
Roman patriotism was ever more than an empty formula,
The successors of Justinian: 565-610
that cultivated gentlemen from the Pillars of Hercules to
The 7th century: the Heraclians and the challenge of
the Black Sea were aware that they had "something" in
Islãm
common. This "something" might be defined as the
Green
Heraclius and the origin of the themes
Greco-Roman civic tradition in the widest sense of its in-
Roma
The successors of Heraclius: Islãm and the Bulgars
stitutional, intellectual, and emotional implications.
civie
The age of Iconoclasm: 717-867
Grateful for the conditions of peace that fostered it, men
tradein
The reigns of Leo III (the Isaurian) and Constantine
of wealth and culture dedicated their time and resources
V
Constantine's weak successors
to glorifying that tradition through adornment of the
The Iconoclastic controversy
cities that exemplified it and through education of the
II. From 867 to the Ottoman conquest
young who they hoped might perpetuate it.
The Macedonian era: 867-1025
Upon this world the barbarians descended after about
Military revival
AD 150. To protect the frontier against them, warrior em-
Relations with the Slavs and Bulgars
perors devoted whatever energies they could spare from
Estrangement from the West
the constant struggle to reassert control over provinces
Culture and administration
where local regimes emerged. In view of the ensuing war-
Social and economic change
Byzantine decline and subjection to Western influences:
fare, the widespread incidence of disease, and the rapid
1025-1260
turnover among the occupants of the imperial throne, it
11th-century weakness
would be easy to assume that little was left of either the
Arrival of new enemies
traditional fabric of Greco-Roman society or the bureau-
Alexius I and the First Crusade
cratic structure designed to support it.
Later Comneni
Neither assumption is accurate. Devastation was hap-
The Fourth Crusade and the establishment of the
hazard, and some regions suffered while others did not.
Latin Empire
In fact, the economy and society of the empire as a whole
The empire under the Palaeologi: 1261-1453
Michael VIII
during that period was more diverse than it had ever been.
Andronicus II
Impelled by necessity or lured by profit, men moved
Cultural revival
from province to province. Social disorder opened ave-
Andronicus III and John Cantacuzenus
nues to eminence and wealth that the more stable order
Turkish expansion
of an earlier age had closed to the talented and the am-
Manuel II and respite from the Turks
bitious. For personal and dynastic reasons, emperors fav-
Final Turkish assault
oured certain towns and provinces at the expense of
I. The empire to 867
others, and the erratic course of succession to the throne,
coupled with a resulting constant change among the top
THE ROMAN AND CHRISTIAN BACKGROUND
administrative officials, largely deprived economic and
Unity and diversity in the late Roman Empire. The
social policies of recognizable consistency.
Roman Empire, the ancestor of the Byzantine, remark-
The reforms of Diocletian and Constantine. The defi-
ably blended unity and diversity, the former being by far
nition of consistent policy in imperial affairs was the
Byzantine Empire 549
redomi-
achievement of two great soldier-emperors, Diocletian
was the work of the shipmaster, or navicularius; and ser-
n Latin
(ruled 284-305) and Constantine (324-337), who together
vices rendered by the curiales, members of the municipal
of the
ended a century of anarchy and refounded the Roman
senate charged with the assessment and collection of lo-
and the
state. There are many similarities between them, not the
cal taxes. Constantine's laws in many instances extended
largest
least being the range of problems to which they addressed
or even rendered hereditary these enforced responsibili-
ccessors
themselves: both had learned from the 3rd-century an-
ties, thus laying the foundations for the system of colle-
rranean
archy that one man alone and unaided could not hope to
gia, or hereditary state guilds, that was to be so note-
engthen
control the multiform Roman world and protect its fron-
worthy a feature of late-Roman social life. Of particular
S hoped
tiers; as soldiers, both considered reform of the army of
importance, he required the colonus (peasant) to remain
, among
prime necessity in an age that demanded the utmost mo-
in the locality to which the tax lists ascribed him.
Id stood
bility in striking power; both found the old Rome and
would
Italy an unsatisfactory military base for the bulk of the
THE 5TH CENTURY: PERSISTENCE
ine had
imperial forces. Deeply influenced by the soldier's pen-
OF GRECO-ROMAN CIVILIZATION IN THE EAST
his pro-
chant for hierarchy, system, and order, a taste that they
Whether innovative or traditional, Constantine's mea-
tues, he
shared with many of their contemporaries as well as the
sures determined the thrust and direction of imperial
only im-
emperors who preceded them, they were appalled by the
policy throughout the 4th century and into the 5th. The
lack of system and the disorder characteristic of the econ-
state of the empire in 395 may, in fact, be described in
reason
omy and the society in which they lived. Both, in conse-
terms of the outcome of Constantine's work. The dynastic
diterra-
quence, were eager to refine and regularize certain des-
principle was established so firmly that the emperor who
he pres-
perate expedients that had been adopted by their rough
died in that year, Theodosius I, could bequeath the im-
onquest
military predecessors to conduct the affairs of the Roman
perial office jointly to his sons, both of whom were young
Roman
state. Whatever their personal religious convictions, both,
and incompetent: Arcadius in the East and Honorius in
opulous
finally, believed that imperial affairs would not prosper
the West. Never again would one man rule over the full
defined
unless the emperor's subjects worshipped the right gods in
extent of the empire in both its halves. Constantinople
Western
the right way.
had probably grown to a population of between 200,000
a course
The means they adopted to achieve these ends differ so
and 500,000; in the 5th century the emperors sought to
er minis-
profoundly that the one, Diocletian, looks to the past and
restrain rather than promote its growth. After 391 Chris-
ends the history of Rome; the other, Constantine, looks
tianity was far more than one among many religions:
: had its
of
to the future and founds the history of Byzantium. Thus,
from that year onward, imperial decree prohibited all
e Latin.
in the matter of succession to the imperial office, Diocle-
forms of pagan cult, and the temples were closed. Im-
aw were
tian adopted precedents he could have found in the prac-
perial pressure was often manifest at the church councils
cious by
tices of the 2nd century AD. He associated with himself
of the 4th century, with the emperor assuming a role he
sh syna-
a co-emperor, or Augustus. Each Augustus then adopted
was destined to fill again during the 5th century in defin-
e of or-
a young colleague, or Caesar, to share in the rule and
ing and suppressing heresy.
$ of the
eventually to succeed the senior partner. This rule of four,
Economic and social policies. The empire's economy
p, could
or tetrarchy, failed of its purpose, and Constantine re-
had prospered in a spotty fashion. Certain provinces, or
ying the
placed it with the dynastic principle of hereditary suc-
parts of provinces such as northern Italy, flourished com-
elf-suffi-
cession, a procedure generally followed in subsequent
mercially as well as agriculturally. Constantinople, in
Economic
or great
centuries. To divide administrative responsibilities, Con-
particular, influenced urban growth and the exploitation
prosperity
stantine replaced the single praetorian prefect, who had
of agricultural frontiers. Balkan towns along the roads
S of the
traditionally exercised both military and civil functions in
leading to the great city prospered, while others not so
ible that
close proximity to the emperor, with regional prefects
favoured languished and even disappeared. Untilled land
formula,
established in the provinces and enjoying civil authority
in the hilly regions of northern Syria fell under the plow
rcules to
alone. In the course of the 4th century, four great "re-
to supply foodstuffs for the masses of Constantinople. As
hing" in
gional prefectures" emerged from these Constantinian be-
the 4th century progressed, not only did Constantine's
I as the
Greco-
ginnings, and the practice of separating civil from mili-
solidus remain indeed solid gold, but evidence drawn
of its in-
Roma
tary authority persisted until the 7th century.
from a wide range of sources suggests that gold in any
ications.
civic
Contrasts in other areas of imperial policy are equally
form was far more abundant than it had been for at least
1 it, men
tradition
striking. Diocletian persecuted Christians and sought to
two centuries. It may be that new sources of supply for
esources
revive the ancestral religion. Constantine, a convert to
the precious metal had been discovered; perhaps in spoils
t of the
the new faith, raised it to the status of a "permitted re-
plundered from pagan temples, perhaps from mines new-
n of the
ligion." Diocletian established his headquarters at Nico-
ly exploited in western Africa and newly available to the
media, a city that never rose above the status of a pro-
lands of the empire, thanks to the appearance of camel-
r about
vincial centre during the Middle Ages, while Constanti-
driving nomads who transported the gold across the
rior em-
nople, the city of Constantine's foundation, flourished
Sahara to the Mediterranean coastline of North Africa.
re from
mightily. Diocletian sought to bring order into the econ-
The extreme social mobility noted in the late 3rd and
rovinces
omy by controlling wages and prices and by initiating a
early 4th centuries seems less characteristic of the second
ing war-
currency reform based upon a new gold piece, the aureus,
half of the latter century. Certainly the emperors contin-
he rapid
struck at the rate of 60 to the pound of gold. The con-
ued their efforts to bind men collectively to their socially
irone, it
trols failed and the aureus vanished, to be succeeded by
necessary tasks, but the repetition of laws tying the
ther the
Constantine's gold solidus. The latter piece, struck at the
colonus to his estate, the navicularius to his ship, and the
bureau-
lighter weight of 72 to the gold pound, remained the
curialis to his municipal senate suggests that these edicts
standard for centuries. For whatever reason, in summary,
had little effect. Indeed, it would be a mistake to con-
as hap-
Constantine's policies proved extraordinarily fruitful.
clude from such legislation that Roman society was uni-
did not.
Some of them-notably hereditary succession, the recog-
versally and uniformly organized in castes determined in
a whole
nition of Christianity, the currency reform, and the foun-
response to imperial orders. There was always a distinc-
er been.
dation of the capital-determined in a lasting way the
tion between what an emperor wanted and what he could
moved
several aspects of Byzantine civilization with which they
obtain, and, as the foregoing survey has suggested, there
ned ave-
are associated.
were distinctions among the provinces as well.
le order
Yet it would be a mistake to consider Constantine a
Even before the end of the first quarter of the 5th cen-
the am-
revolutionary or to overlook those areas in which, rather
tury, these provincial differences were visible; and, in no
ors fav-
than innovating, he followed precedent. Earlier emperors
ense of
had sought to constrain groups of men to perform cer-
small degree, they help to explain the survival of imperial
government and Greco-Roman civilization in the East
throne,
tain tasks that were deemed vital to the survival of the
while both eventually perished in the West. Throughout
the top
state but that proved unremunerative or repellent to
the Eastern provinces, population levels seem to have re-
nic and
those forced to assume the burden. Such tasks included
the tillage of the soil, which was the work of the peasant,
mained higher, and the emperors in Constantinople never
had to search (at least until the 6th century) for men to
he defi-
or colonus; the transport of cheap bulky goods to the
fill the ranks of their armies. As might be expected in
was the
metropolitan centres of Rome or Constantinople, which
those eastern lands in which urban civilization was sev-
550 Byzantine Empire
eral centuries old, cities persisted and, with them, a mer-
Goths elsewhere in the empire by favouring the warlike
chant class and a monetary economy. Eastern merchants,
Isaurians and their chieftain, Tarasicodissa, whom he
known in the sources as Syrians, assumed the carrying
married to the imperial princess, Ariadne. The Isaurian
trade between East and West, often establishing colonies
followers of Tarasicodissa, who was to survive a stormy
in the beleaguered cities of the latter region.
reign as the Emperor Zeno (474-491), were rough moun-
Most important, the emperor in the East never lost ac-
tain folk from southern Anatolia and culturally probably
cess to, or control over, his sources of manpower and
even more barbarous than the Goths or the other
money. An older and probably more wealthy senatorial
Germans. Yet, in that they were the subjects of the
class, or aristocracy, in the West consolidated its great
Roman emperor in the East, they were undoubtedly
estates and assumed a form of protection or patronage
Romans and proved an effective instrument to counter
over the labouring rural classes, depriving the state of
the Gothic challenge at Constantinople. In the prefecture
desperately needed military and financial services. The
of Illyricum, Zeno ended the menace of Theodoric the
D
senatorial class in the East seems to have been of more
Amal by persuading him (488) to venture with his
recent origin, its beginnings to be found among those
Ostrogoths into Italy. The latter province lay in the
favourites or parvenus who had followed Constantine to
hands of the German chieftain Odoacer, who in 476 had
his new capital. By the early 5th century, their wealth
deposed Romulus Augustus, the last Roman emperor in
seems to have been, individually, much less than the re-
the West. Thus, by suggesting that Theoooric conquer
sources at the disposal of their Western counterparts;
Italy as his Ostrogothic kingdom, Zeno maintained at
their estates were far more scattered, their rural depen-
least a nominal supremacy in that western land while
dents less numerous. They were thus less able to challenge
ridding the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate.
the imperial will and less able to interpose themselves be-
With Zeno's death and the accession of the Roman civil
tween the state, on the one hand, and its potential soldiers
servant Anastasius I (ruled 491-518), Isaurian occupation
or taxpayers, on the other.
of the imperial office ended, but it was not until 498 that
Relations with the barbarians. These differences be-
the forces of the new emperor effectively took the mea-
tween Eastern and Western social structures, together
sure of Isaurian resistance. After the victory of that year,
with certain geographical features, account for the differ-
the loyal subject of the Eastern Roman emperor could
ent reception found by the Germanic invaders of the 4th
breathe easily: Isaurians had been used to beat Germans,
and 5th centuries in East and West. Although the Ger-
but the wild mountain folk had, in their turn, failed to
manic people had eddied about the Danube and Rhine
take permanent possession of the imperial office. Im-
frontiers of the empire since the 2nd century, their major
perial authority had maintained its integrity in the East
inroads were made only in the latter half of the 4th cen-
while the Western Empire had dissolved into a number
tury, when the ferocious Huns drove the Ostrogoths and
of successor states: the Angles and Saxons had invaded
Visigoths to seek refuge within the Danubian frontier of
Britain as early as 410; the Visigoths possessed portions
the empire. The initial interaction between Roman and
of Spain since 417, and the Vandals entered Africa in
barbarian was far from amicable; the Romans seemed to
428; the Franks, under Clovis, had begun their conquest
have exploited their unwelcome guests, and the Goths
of central and southern Gaul in 481; Theodoric was des-
Battle of
rose in anger, defeating an East Roman army at Adrian-
tined to rule in Italy until 526.
Adrianople
ople in 378 and killing the Eastern emperor in command.
Religious controversy. If ethnic hostility within the
Emperor Theodosius (ruled 384-395) adopted a differ-
empire was less a menace around the year 500 than it
ent policy, granting the Goths lands and according them
had often been in the past, dissensions stemming from
the legal status of allies, or foederati, who fought within
religious controversy seriously threatened imperial unity,
the ranks of the Roman armies as autonomous units
and the political history of the next century cannot be un-
under their own leaders.
derstood without some examination of the so-called Mo-
Neither in West nor East did Theodosius' policy of ac-
nophysite heresy. The latter was the second great heresy
The
commodation and alliance prove popular. The Goths,
in the Eastern Empire, the first having been the dispute
Mom
like most Germanic peoples with the exception of the
occasioned by the teachings of the Alexandrian presbyter
site
Franks and the Lombards, had been converted to Arian
Arius, who, in an effort to maintain the uniqueness and
Christianity, which the Catholic, or Orthodox, Romans
majesty of God the Father, had taught that he alone had
considered a dangerous heresy. The warlike ways of the
existed from eternity, while God the Son had been cre-
Germans found little favour with a senatorial aristocracy
ated in time. Thanks in part to imperial support, the
essentially pacifist in its outlook, and the early 5th cen-
Arian heresy had persisted throughout the 4th century
tury is marked in both halves of the empire by reactions
and was definitively condemned only in 381 with pro-
against Germanic leaders in high office. At Constanti-
mulgation of the doctrine that Father and Son were of
nople in 400, for example, the citizens rose against the
one substance and thus coexistent.
senior officer of the imperial guard (magister militum),
If the Fathers of the 4th century quarrelled over the re-
Gainas, slaughtering him together with his Gothic fol-
lations between God the Father and God the Son, those
lowers. Although this particular revolt was, in many
of the 5th century faced the problem of defining the re-
respects, less productive of immediate results than simi-
lationship of the two natures-the human and the divine
lar episodes in the West, and the Germanic leaders later
-within God the Son, Christ Jesus. The theologians of
reappeared in roles of command throughout the East,
Alexandria generally held that the divine and human na-
the latter acted thenceforth as individuals without the
tures were united indistinguishably, whereas those of
support of those nearly autonomous groups of soldiers
Antioch taught that two natures coexisted separately in
that western barbarian commanders continued to enjoy.
Christ, the latter being "the chosen vessel of the Godhead
Furthermore, the East made good use of its resources in
the man born of Mary." In the course of the 5th cen-
gold, in native manpower, and in diplomacy, while quick-
tury, these two contrasting theological positions became
ly learning how best to play off one enemy against an-
the subject of a struggle for supremacy among the rival
other. In the reign of Theodosius II (408-450), the Huns
sees of Constantinople, Alexandria, and Rome. Nestorius,
under their chieftain Attila received subsidies of gold that
patriarch of Constantinople in 428, adopted the Antioch-
both kept them in a state of uneasy peace with the Eastern
ene formula, which, in his hands, came to stress the hu-
Empire and may have proved profitable to those mer-
man nature of Christ to the neglect of the divine. His
chants of Constantinople who traded with the barbarians.
opponents (first the Alexandrian patriarch, Cyril, and
When Marcian (ruled 450-457) refused to continue the
later Cyril's followers, Dioscourus and Eutyches) in reac-
subsidies, Attila was diverted from revenge by the pros-
tion emphasized the single divine nature of Christ, the
pect of conquests in the West. He never returned to
result of the Incarnation. Their belief in Monophysitism,
challenge the Eastern Empire, and, with his death in 453,
or the one nature of Christ as God the Son, became ex-
his Hunnic empire fell apart. Both Marcian and his
traordinarily popular throughout the provinces of Egypt
successor, Leo I (ruled 457-474), had ruled under the
and Syria. Rome, in the person of Pope Leo I, declared in
tutelage of the Alan, Aspar, until Leo resolved to chal-
contrast for Dyophysitism, a creed teaching that two na-
lenge Aspar's pre-eminence and the influence of the
tures, perfect and perfectly distinct, existed in the single
Byzantine Empire
551
; the warlike
person of Christ. At the Council of Chalcedon (451), the
In 224 the ancient Persian Empire had passed into the
a, whom he
latter view triumphed thanks to the support of Constanti-
hands of a new dynasty, the Sasãnians, whose regime
The Isaurian
nople, which changed its position and condemned both
brought new life to the enfeebled state. Having assured
The rise of
ive Rg stormy
Nestorianism, or the emphasis on the human nature of
firm control over the vast lands already subject to them,
Sãsãnian
rough moun-
Christ, and Monophysitism, or the belief in the single
the Sãsãnians took up anew the old struggle with Rome
Persia
ally probably
divine nature.
for northern Mesopotamia and its fortress cities of Edessa
r the other
More important for the purposes of military and poli-
and Nisibis, lying between the Tigris and the Euphrates.
jects of the
tical history than the theological details of the conflict
In the course of the 4th century, new sources of hostility
undoubtedly
was the impact Monophysitism produced on the several
emerged as East Rome became a Christian empire. Partly
to counter
regions of the Mediterranean world. Partly because it
by reaction, Sãsãnian Persia strengthened the ecclesiasti-
he prefecture
provided a formula to express resistance to Constanti-
cal organization that served its Zoroastrian religion; in-
heodoric the
/
nople's imperial rule, Monophysitism persisted in Egypt
tolerance and persecution became the order of the day
are with his
time
and Syria. Until these two provinces were lost to Islãm
within Persia, and strife between the empires assumed
: lay in the
in the 7th century, each Eastern emperor had somehow
something of the character of religious warfare. Hos-
o in 476 had
Emply
to cope with their separatist tendencies as expressed in
tilities were exacerbated when Armenia, lying to the
1 emperor in
the heresy. He had either to take arms against Monophy-
north between the two realms, converted to Christianity
oric conquer
sitism and attempt to extirpate it by force, to formulate a
and thus seemed to menace the religious integrity of
aintained at
creed that would somehow blend it with Dyophysitism, or
Persia. If small-scale warfare during the 4th and 5th cen-
1 land while
frankly to adopt the heresy as his own belief. None of
turies rarely erupted into major expeditions, the threat to
bordinate.
these three alternatives proved successful, and religious
Rome nonetheless remained constant, demanding vigi-
Roman civil
hostility was not the least of the disaffections that led
lance and the construction of satisfactory fortifications.
n occupation
Egypt and Syria to yield, rather readily, to the Arab con-
By 518, the balance might be said to have tipped in the
intil 498 that
queror. If ever the East Roman emperor was to reassert
favour of Persia as it won away the cities of Theodosio-
ok the mea-
his authority in the West, he necessarily had to discover
polis, Amida, and Nisibis.
of that year,
a formula that would satisfy Western orthodoxy while
aperor could
not alienating Eastern Monophysitism.
THE 6TH CENTURY: FROM EAST ROME TO BYZANTIUM
cat Germans,
The empire at the end of the 5th century. In the reign
The 6th century opens, in effect, with the death of Anas-
irn, failed to
of Anastasius I (491-518), all these tendencies of the 5th
tasius and the accession of the Balkan soldier who re-
1 office. Im-
century found their focus: the sense of Romanitas, which
placed him, Justin I (ruled 518-527). During most of
/ in the East
demanded a Roman rather than an Isaurian or a German
Justin's reign, actual power lay in the hands of his nephew
to a number
emperor, the conflict between orthodoxy and Monophysi-
and successor, Justinian I (527-565). The following ac-
The
had invaded
tism, and the persisting economic prosperity of the East-
count of these more than 40 years of Justinian's effective
accession
ssed portions
ern Roman Empire. Acclaimed and elected as the Roman
rule is based upon the works of Justinian's contemporary,
of
ed Africa in
and orthodox emperor who would end both the hated
the historian Procopius. The latter wrote a laudatory ac-
Justinian I
heir conquest
hegemony of the Isaurians and the detested activity of
count of the Emperor's military achievements in his
oric was des-
the Monophysite heretics, Anastasius succeeded in the
History of the Wars and coupled it in his Secret History
first of these objectives while failing in the second. While
with a venomous threefold attack upon the Emperor's
y within the
he defeated the Isaurians and transported many of them
personal life, the character of the empress Theodora, and
500 than it
from their Anatolian homeland into Thrace, he gradually
the conduct of the empire's internal administration.
mming from
came to support the Monophysite heresy despite the pro-
Justinian's reign may be divided into three periods: (1)
iperial unity,
fessions of orthodoxy he had made upon the occasion of
an initial age of conquest and cultural achievement ex-
annot be un-
his coronation. If his policies won him followers in Egypt
tending until the decade of the 540s; (2) ten years of
o-called Mo-
and Syria, they alienated his orthodox subjects and led,
crisis and near disaster during the 540s; and (3) the last
great heresy
The
finally, to constant unrest and civil war.
decade of the reign, in which mood, temper, and social
1 the dispute
Moona
Anastasius' economic policies were far more successful;
realities more nearly resembled those to be found under
ian presbyter
site
if they did not provide the basis for the noteworthy
Justinian's successors than those prevailing throughout
iqueness and
achievements of the 6th century in military affairs and
the first years of his own reign. After 550, it is possible
he alone had
the gentler arts of civilization, they at least explain why
to begin to speak of a medieval Byzantine, rather than an
ad been cre-
the Eastern Empire prospered in those respects during the
ancient East Roman, empire. Of the four traumas that
support, the
period in question. An inflation of the copper currency,
eventually transformed the one into the other-namely,
4th century
prevailing since the age of Constantine, finally ended with
pestilence, warfare, social upheaval, and the Arab
1 with pro-
welcome results for those members of the lower classes
Muslim assault of the 630s-the first two were features
Son were of
who conducted their operations in the base metal. Re-
of Justinian's reign, and these the following account will
sponsibility for the collection of municipal taxes was
emphasize.
over the re-
taken from the members of the local senate and assigned
The years of achievement to 540. Justinian is but one
: Son, those
to agents of the praetorian prefect. Trade and industry
example of the civilizing magic that Constantinople often
ning the re-
were probably stimulated by the termination of the chrys-
worked upon the heirs of those who ventured within its
d the divine
argyron, a tax in gold paid by the urban classes. If, by
walls. Justin, the uncle, was a rude and illiterate soldier;
cologians of
way of compensating for the resulting loss to the state,
Justinian, the nephew, was a cultivated gentleman, adept
I human na-
the rural classes had then to pay the land tax in money
at theology, a mighty builder of churches, and a sponsor
as those of
rather than kind, the mere fact that gold could be pre-
of the codification of Roman law. All these accomplish-
eparately in
sumed to be available in the countryside is a striking in-
ments are, in the deepest sense of the word, civilian, and
he Godhead
dex of rural prosperity. In the East, the economic resur-
it is easy to forget that Justinian's empire was almost con-
the 5th cen-
gence of the 4th century had persisted, and it is not sur-
stantly at war during his reign. The history of East Rome
ons became
prising that Anastasius enriched the treasury to the extent
during that period illustrates, in classical fashion, how the
ng the rival
of 320,000 pounds of gold during the course of his reign.
impact of war can transform ideas and institutions alike.
Nestorius,
With such financial resources at their disposal, the Em-
The reign opened with external warfare and internal
he Antioch-
peror's successors could reasonably hope to reassert
strife. From Lazica to the Arabian Desert, the Persian
ress the hu-
Roman authority among the western Germanic successor
frontier blazed into action in a series of campaigns in
divine. His
states, provided they could accomplish two objectives:
which many of the generals later destined for fame in the
Cyril, and
first, they must heal the religious discord among their
West first demonstrated their capacities. The strength of
hes) in reac-
subjects; second, they must protect the eastern frontier
the East Roman armies is revealed in the fact that, while
Christ, the
against the threat of Sãsãnian Persia. Since the 6th cen-
containing Persian might, Justinian could nonetheless dis-
ophysitism,
tury was, in fact, to witness concurrent warfare on both
patch troops to attack the Huns in the Crimea and to
became ex-
fronts, some knowledge of the age-old rivalry between
maintain the Danubian frontier against a host of enemies.
es of Egypt
Rome and Persia is essential to an understanding of the
In 532 he abandoned military operations for diplomacy,
declared in
problems confronted by the greatest among Anastasius'
negotiating, at the cost of considerable tribute, an "End-
hat two na-
successors, Justinian I (ruled 527-565), as he undertook
less Peace" with the Persian king, Khosrow, which freed
n the single
the conquest of the West.
the Roman's hands for operations in another quarter of
552
Byzantine Empire
the globe. Thus Justinian attained the first of the objec-
signed to replace an older church destroyed in the course
tives needed for reconquest in the West: peace in the
of the Nika riots. In five years they had constructed the
East.
edifice, and it stands today as one of the major monu-
Even before his accession, Justinian had aided in the at-
ments of architectural history.
tainment of the second. Shortly after his proclamation as
In 533 the moment had clearly come to reassert Chris-
emperor, Justin had summoned a council of bishops at
tian Roman authority in the West, and Vandal North
Constantinople. The council reversed the policies of
Africa seemed the most promising theatre of operations.
Anastasius, accepted the orthodox formula of Chalcedon,
Although a major expedition mounted under Leo I had
and called for negotiations with the pope. Justinian had
failed to win back the province, political conditions in
personally participated in the ensuing discussions, which
the Vandal monarchy had lately altered to the Eastern
restored communion between Rome and all the Eastern
emperor's favour. When King Hilderich was deposed and
Pronic
churches save Egypt. No longer could a barbarian king
replaced, Justinian could rightfully protest this action
hope to maintain the loyalties of his Catholic subjects by
taken against a monarch who had ceased persecution of
persuading them that a Monophysite emperor ruled in the
North African Catholics and had allied himself with
East.
Constantinople. The Eastern merchants favoured military
The Nika
In the same year of 532, Justinian survived a revolt in
action in the West, but Justinian's generals were reluc-
Revolt
Constantinople, stemming from the Nika (i.e., "conquer")
tant; possibly for that reason, only a small force was dis-
riots, which initially threatened his life no less than his
patched in tentative fashion under Belisarius. Success
throne but, in the event, only strengthened his position.
came with surprising ease after two engagements, and in
To understand the course of events, it is essential to re-
534 Justinian could set about organizing this new addi-
member that Constantinople, like other great East Ro-
tion to the provinces of the Roman Empire.
man cities, had often to depend upon its urban militia, or
These were, in fact, years of major provincial reorgani-
demes, to defend its walls. Coinciding with divisions with-
zation, and not in North Africa alone. A series of edicts
in the demes were factions organized to support rival
dated in 535 and 536, clearly conceived as part of a
charioteers competing in the horse races: the Blues and
master plan by the prefect, John of Cappadocia, altered
the Greens. In addition to their sporting and military
administrative, judicial, and military structures in Thrace
functions, the Blues and the Greens also played a political
and Asia Minor. In general, John sought to provide a
role during the emperor's appearance at the horse races
simplified and economical administrative structure in
in the Hippodrome. In a rhythmical chant, they would
which overlapping jurisdictions were abolished, civil and
present popular grievances, thereby serving as the only
military functions were sometimes combined in violation
effective channel of protest whereby popular discontent
of Constantinian principles, and a reduced number of of-
could reach the emperor's ordinarily inaccessible ear. The
ficials were provided with greater salaries to secure better
Blues tended to draw their leadership from the landhold-
personnel and to end the lure of bribery.
ing senatorial aristocracy, a class usually orthodox in its
In the prefaces to his edicts, Justinian boasted of his re-
sympathies; the Greens, in contrast, found their leaders
constituted authority in North Africa, hinted at greater
among men whose wealth was based upon trade and in-
conquests to come, and-in return for the benefits his de-
dustry and whose theological sympathies lay with the
crees were to provide-urged his subjects to pay their
Monophysites. Given these social and religious differ-
taxes promptly so that there might be "one harmony be-
ences, accentuated by residence in different quarters of
tween ruler and ruled." Quite clearly the Emperor was
Constantinople, it is not surprising that Blues and Greens
organizing the state for the most strenuous military ef-
were often at each other's throats.
fort, and, later (possibly in 539), reforms were extended
The Nika riot of 532 was one of the rare occasions when
to Egypt, whence the export of grain was absolutely es-
the two factions united in opposition to the imperial gov-
sential for the support of expeditionary armies and Con-
ernment. Angered at the severity with which the urban
stantinople.
prefect had suppressed a riot, Blues and Greens first
Developments during 534 and 535 in Ostrogothic Italy
freed their leaders from prison and then insisted that
made it the most likely victim after the fall of Vandal
Justinian dismiss from office two of his most unpopular
North Africa. When Theodoric died in 526, he was suc-
Camps
officials: John of Cappadocia and Tribonian. Even
ceeded by a minor grandson for whom Theodoric's
in Itsy
though the Emperor yielded to their demands, the crowd
daughter, Amalasuntha, acted as regent. Upon the boy's
was not appeased, converted its riot into a revolt, and pro-
death, Amalasuntha attempted to seize power in her own
claimed a nephew of Anastasius as emperor. Justinian
right and contrived at the assassination of three of her
was saved only because the empress, Theodora, refused
chief enemies. Her diplomatic relations with the Eastern
to yield. Justinian's able general, Belisarius, sequestered
emperor had always been marked by cordiality and even
the rebels in the Hippodrome and slaughtered them to
dependency; thus, when Amalasuntha, in turn, met her
the number of 30,000. The leaders were executed, and
death in a blood feud mounted by the slain men's fami-
their estates passed, at least temporarily, into the Em-
lies, Justinian seized the opportunity to protest the mur-
peror's hands.
der.
After 532 Justinian ruled more firmly than ever before.
In 535, as in 533, a small, tentative expedition sent to
With the subsequent proclamation of the "Endless
the west-in this instance, to Sicily-met with easy suc-
Peace," he could hope to use his earlier won reputation
cess. At first the Goths negotiated; then they stiffened
as a champion of Chalcedonian orthodoxy and appeal to
their resistance, deposed their king, Theodahad, in favour
those Western Romans who preferred the rule of a
of a stronger man, Witigis, and attempted to block Beli-
Catholic Roman emperor to that of an Arian German
sarius' armies as they entered the Italian peninsula. Here
kinglet. In these early years of the 530s, Justinian could
the progress of East Roman arms proved slower, and vic-
indeed pose as the pattern of a Roman and Christian em-
tory did not come until 540 when Belisarius captured
peror. Latin was his language, and his knowledge of Ro-
Ravenna, the last major stronghold in the north, and-
Promulga-
man history and antiquities was profound. In 529 his of-
with it-King Witigis, a number of Gothic nobles, and
tion of
ficials had completed a major collection of the laws and
the royal treasure.
legal code
decrees of the emperors promulgated since the reign of
All were dispatched to Constantinople, where Justinian
Hadrian. Known as the Code of Justinian and partly
was presumably thankful for the termination of hostilities
founded upon the 5th-century Code of Theodosius, this
in the West. Throughout the 530s, Justinian's generals al-
collection of imperial edicts pales before the Digest com-
most constantly had to fight to preserve imperial author-
pleted under Tribonian's direction in 533. In the latter
ity in the new province of North Africa and in the Bal-
work, order and system was found in (or forced upon)
kans as well. In 539 a Gothic embassy reached Persia,
the contradictory rulings of the great Roman jurists; to
and the information it provided caused the king, Khos-
facilitate instruction in the schools of law, a textbook, the
row, to grow restive under the constraints of the "Endless
Institutes, was designed to accompany the Digest. Mean-
Peace." During the next year (the same year [540] that a
while, architects and builders worked apace to complete
Bulgar force raided Macedonia and reached the long
the new Church of the Holy Wisdom, Hagia Sophia, de-
walls of Constantinople), Khosrow's armies reached even
Byzantine Empire 553
Antioch in the pursuit of booty and blackmail. They re-
need to break this Persian monopoly had led Justinian to
he course
turned unhurt, and 541 witnessed the Persian capture of
search for new routes and new peoples to serve as inter-
ucted the
a fortress in Lazica. In Italy, meanwhile, the Goths chose
mediaries: in the south, the Ethiopian merchants of the
or monu-
a new king, Totila, under whose able leadership the mili-
kingdom of Aksum; in the north, the peoples around the
tary situation in that land was soon to be transformed.
Crimea and in the Caucasian kingdom of Lazica, as well
ert Chris-
The crisis of midcentury. At last the menace of simul-
as the Turks of the steppes beyond the Black Sea. Other
lal North
taneous war on two fronts threatened Justinian's plans.
valuable commodities were exchanged in the Black Sea
perations.
During the 550s, his armies were to prove equal to the
region, including textiles, jewelry, and wine from East
Leo I had
challenge, but a major disaster prevented them from so
Rome for the furs, leather, and slaves offered by the bar-
ditions in
doing between 541 and about 548. The disaster was the
barians; yet, silk remained the commodity of prime in-
e Eastern
bubonic plague of 541-543, the first of those shocks, or
terest. It was fortunate, then, that before 561 East Roman
posed and
traumas, mentioned earlier, that would eventually trans-
agents had smuggled silkworms from China into Con-
his action
form East Rome into the medieval Byzantine Empire.
stantinople, establishing a silk industry that would lib-
:cution of
The plague was first noted in Egypt, and from there it
erate the empire from dependence on Persia and become
self with
passed through Syria and Asia Minor to Constantinople.
one of medieval Byzantium's most important economic
d military
By 543 it had reached Italy and Africa, and it may also
operations.
ere reluc-
have attacked the Persian armies on campaign in that
In the West, Justinian's successes were even more spec-
e was dis-
year. In East Asia, the disease has persisted into the 20th
tacular. By 550 the Moorish threat had ended in North
S. Success
century, providing medical science with an opportunity
Africa. In 552 the armies of Justinian had intervened in a
its, and in
to view its causes and course. Transmitted by fleas to men
quarrel among the Visigothic rulers of Spain, and the
new addi-
from infected rodents, the plague attacks the glands and
East Roman troops overstayed the invitation extended
early manifests itself by swellings (buboes) in armpit and
them, seizing the opportunity to occupy on a more per-
reorgani-
groin, whence the name bubonic. To judge from Proco-
manent basis certain towns in the southeastern corner of
3 of edicts
pius' description of its symptoms at Constantinople in
the Iberian Peninsula. Most important of all, Italy was re-
part of a
542, the disease then appeared in its more virulent pneu-
covered. Early in the 550s, Justinian assembled a vast
ia, altered
monic form, wherein the bacilli settle in the lungs of the
army composed not only of Romans but also of barbari-
in Thrace
victims. The appearance of the pneumonic form was par-
ans, including Lombards, Heruli, and Gepids, as well as
provide a
ticularly ominous: the latter may be transmitted directly
Persian deserters. Command of this host eventually was
ructure in
from man to man, spreading the infection all the more
given to an unlikely but, as events were to prove, able
I, civil and
readily and producing exceptionally high mortality rates.
commander: the eunuch and chamberlain Narses. In two
n violation
Comparative studies, based upon statistics derived from
decisive battles (Busta Gallorum and Mons Lactarius),
aber of of-
incidence of the same disease in late-medieval Europe,
the East Roman general defeated first Totila and then his
cure better
suggest that between one-third and one-half the popula-
successor, Teias. The Goths agreed to leave Italy. De-
tion of Constantinople may well have died, while the
spite the continued resistance of certain Gothic garrisons,
1 of his re-
lesser cities of the empire and the countryside by no
coupled with the intervention of Franks and Alamanni,
at greater
means remained immune.
after 554 the land was essentially a province of the East
efits his de-
The short-term impact of the plague may be seen in sev-
Roman Empire.
pay their
eral forms of human activity during the 540s. Justinian's
In view of the wide mixture of peoples that descended
rmony be-
legislation of those years is understandably preoccupied
upon it, the Balkans present a far more complex situation,
Balkan
aperor was
with wills and intestate succession. Labour was scarce,
and the Romans used a wider variety of tactics to con-
affairs
nilitary ef-
and workers demanded wages so high that Justinian
tain the barbarians. After the Kutrigur Bulgar attack of
e extended
sought to control them by edict, as the monarchs of
540, Justinian worked to extend a system of fortifica-
solutely es-
France and England were to do during the plague of the
tion's that ran in three zones through the Balkans and as
S and Con-
14th century. In military affairs, above all, the record of
far south as the Pass of Thermopylae. Fortresses, strong-
those years is one of defeat, stagnation, and missed op-
holds, and watchtowers were not, however, enough. The
gothic Italy
portunities. Rather than effective Roman opposition, it
Slavs plundered Thrace in 545 and returned in 548 to
of Vandal.
was Khosrow's own weariness of an unprofitable war
menace Dyrrhachium; in 550 the Sclaveni, a Slavic peo-
e was suc-
that led him to sign a treaty of peace in 545, accepting
ple, reached a point about 40 miles (60 kilometres) from
Theodoric's
in Its)
tribute from Justinian and preserving Persian conquests
Constantinople. The major invasion came in 559, when
n the boy's
in Lazica. Huns, Sclaveni, Antae, and Bulgars ravaged
the Kutrigur Bulgars, accompanied by Sclaveni, crossed
in her own
Thrace and Illyricum, meeting only slight opposition
the Danube and divided their force into three columns.
aree of her
from Roman armies. In Africa, a garrison diminished by
One reached Thermopylae; a second, the Gallipoli Pe-
the Eastern
plague nervously faced the threat of Moorish invasion. In
ninsula near Constantinople; and the third, the suburbs
y and even
Italy, Totila took the offensive, capturing southern Italy
of Constantinople itself, which the aged Belisarius had to
n, met her
and Naples and even (546) forcing his way into Rome de-
defend with an unlikely force of civilians, demesmen, and
en's fami-
spite Belisarius' efforts to relieve the siege. Desperately,
a few veterans. Worried by Roman naval action on the
st the mur-
Justinian's great general called for reinforcements from
Danube, which seemed to menace the escape route home,
the east; if ever they came, they were slow in arriving and
the Kutrigurs returned north and found themselves under
ion sent to
proved numerically less than adequate to the task con-
attack from the Utigurs, a people whose support Justini-
h easy suc-
fronting them.
an's agents had earlier connived at and won by suitable
y stiffened
The last years of Justinian I. After about 548, Roman
bribes. The two peoples weakened each other in warfare,
1, in favour
fortunes improved, and, by the mid-550s, Justinian had
of which the episode of 559 was not the first instance,
block Beli-
won victories in most theatres of operation, with the
and this was precisely the result at which Byzantine
asula. Here
notable and ominous exception of the Balkans. A tour of
diplomacy was aimed.
er, and vic-
the frontiers might begin with the east. In 551 the for-
As long as the financial resources remained adequate,
.S captured
tress of Petra was recovered from the Persians, but fight-
orth, and-
diplomacy proved the most satisfactory weapon in an age
ing continued in Lazica until a 50 years' peace, signed in
hobles, and
when military manpower was a scarce and precious com-
561, defined relations between the two great empires. On
modity. Justinian's subordinates were to perfect it in
balance, the advantage lay with Justinian. Although the
re Justinian
their relationships with Balkan and south Russian peo-
latter agreed to continue payment of tribute in the amount
of hostilities
ples. For, if the Central Asian lands constituted a great
of 30,000 solidi a year, Khosrow, in return, abandoned
generals al-
reservoir of people, whence a new menace constantly
his claims to Lazica and undertook not to persecute his
emerged, the very proliferation of enemies meant that
rial author-
Christian subjects. The treaty also regulated trade be-
in the Bal-
one might be used against another through skillful com-
tween Rome and Persia, since rivalry between the two
hed Persia,
bination of bribery, treaty, and perfidy. East Roman rela-
great powers had always had its economic aspects, fo-
king, Khos-
tions in the late 6th century with the Avars, a Mongol
cussed primarily upon the silk trade. Raw silk reached
he "Endless
people seeking refuge from the Turks, provide an excel-
Constantinople through Persian intermediaries, either by
[540] that a
lent example of this "defensive imperialism." The Avar
a land route leading from China through Persia or by the
d the long
ambassadors reached Constantinople in 557, and, if they
agency of Persian merchants in the Indian Ocean. The
eached even
did not receive the lands they demanded, they were
554 Byzantine Empire
loaded with precious gifts and allied by treaty with the
expansive warfare could hardly be undertaken by a SO-
empire. The Avars moved westward from south Russia,
ciety chronically short of men and money.
subjugating Utigurs, Kutrigurs, and Slavic peoples to the
In summary, the East Roman (or better, the Byzantine)
profit of the empire. At the end of Justinian's reign, they
state of the late 6th century seemed to confront many of
stood on the Danube, a nomadic people hungry for lands
the same threats that had destroyed the Western Empire
and additional subsidies and by no means unskilled them-
in the 5th century. Barbarians pressed upon it from be-
selves in a sort of perfidious diplomacy that would help
yond the Balkan frontier, and peoples of barbarian origin
them pursue their objectives.
manned the armies defending it. Wealth accumulated
Impact of
No summary of the quiet, but ominous, last years of
during the 5th century had been expended; and, to satisfy
the
Justinian's reign would be complete without some notice
the basic economic and military needs of state and so-
bubonic
of the continuing attacks of bubonic plague and the im-
ciety, there were too few native Romans. If the Byzantine
plague
pact they were to continue to produce until the 8th cen-
Empire avoided the fate of West Rome, it did so only be-
tury. As have other societies subjected to devastation
cause it was to combine valour and good luck with cer-
from warfare or disease, East Roman society might have
tain advantages of institutions, emotions, and attitudes
compensated for its losses of the 540s had the survivors
that the older empire had failed to enjoy. One advantage
married early and produced more children in the succeed-
already described, diplomatic skill, blends institutional
ing generations. Two developments prevented recovery.
and attitudinal change, for diplomacy would never have
Monasticism, with its demands for celibacy, grew apace
succeeded had not the Byzantine statesmen been far more
in the 6th century, and the plague returned sporadically
curious and knowing than Justinian's 5th-century prede-
to attack those infants who might have replaced fallen
cessor about the habits, customs, and movements of the
members of the older generations.
barbarian peoples. The Byzantine's attitude had changed
The resulting shortage of manpower affected several
in yet another way. He was willing to accept the bar-
aspects of a state and society that perceptibly were losing
barian within his society provided that the latter, in his
their Roman character and assuming their Byzantine.
turn, accept orthodox Christianity and the emperor's
The construction of new churches, so noteworthy a fea-
authority. Christianity was often, to be sure, a veneer
ture of the earlier years, ceased as men did little more
that cracked in moments of crisis, permitting a very old
than rebuild or add to existing structures. An increasing
paganism to emerge, while loyalty to the emperor could
need for taxes, together with a decreasing number of tax-
be forsworn and often was. Despite these shortcomings,
payers, evoked stringent laws forcing members of a vil-
the Christian faith and the ecclesiastical institutions de-
lage tax group to assume collective responsibility for
fined in the 6th century proved better instruments by far
vacant or unproductive lands. This, contemporary sources
to unite men and stimulate their morale than the pagan
avow, was a burden difficult to assume, in view of the
literary culture of the Greco-Roman world.
shortage of agricultural workers after the plague. Finally,
Christian culture of the Byzantine Empire. Justinian's
the armies that won the victories described above in east
legislation dealt with almost every aspect of the Christian
and west were largely victorious only because Justinian
life: entrance into it by conversion and Baptism; adminis-
manned them as never before with barbarians: Goths,
tration of the sacraments that marked its several stages;
Armenians, Heruli, Gepids, Saracens, and Persians-to
proper conduct of the laity to avoid the wrath God would
name only the most prominent. It was far from easy to
surely visit upon a sinful people; finally, the standards to
maintain discipline among so motley an army; yet, once
be followed by those who lived the particularly holy life
the unruly barbarian accepted the quieter life of the gar-
of the secular or monastic clergy. Pagans were ordered to
Byzz
rison soldier, he tended to lose his fighting capacity and
attend church and accept Baptism, while a purge thinned
more
prove, once the test came, of little value against the still
their ranks in Constantinople, and masses of them were
warlike barbarian facing him beyond the frontier. The
converted by missionaries in Asia Minor. Only the or-
army, in short, was a creation of war and kept its quality
thodox wife might enjoy the privileges of her dowry;
only by participating in battlefield action, but further
Jews and Samaritans were denied, in addition to other
From Grosser Historischer Weltatias, vol. I, Vorgeschichte und Altertum (1972); Bayerischer Schulbuch-Verlag, Munich
Rhine
KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS
AVARS
ANTAE
ALANS
ALEMANNI
AVARS
Genava
Aquincum
HERULI
ATLANTIC
ALPS
LOMBARDS
KINGDOM OF
CRIMEA
AVARS
CASPIAN
BULGARS
Ticinum
GEPIDS
SEA
OCEAN
THE SUEVES
Theodosia
Genua (Genoa)
Chersonesus
Albana
Salamantica
Massilia
Revenna
DALMATIA
SCLAVENI
LAZICA)
CAUCASUS
Tagus
BLACK SEA
(Marseille)
Busta Gallorum
KINGDOM OF
Petra
Lake
Corsical
Name
THRACE
Sinope
Sevan
THE VISIGOTHS
Rome
Adrianopole
ARMENIA
Corduba
Valentia
PREFECTURE
Neapolis
OF ITALY
Constantinople
Theodosiopolis
Lake
(Naples)
Balearic Is.
Dyrmachium
Nicomedia
Mt. Lactarius
Lake
Urmia
Sardinia
MACEDONIA
Chalcedon Ancyre
Van
Gazaca
Melitene
Septem
Caralis
PREFECTURE
ANATOLIA
Amida
Messana
OF ILLYRICUM
Nisibis
"Ection
Caesaree
'Edessa
Saldae
Ephesus
ATLAS
Carthage
Sicily
Athens
RMiletus
SYRIA
SASANIAN EMPLE
MAURETANIANS
Syracuse
rise of
Sparta
Antioch
Ctesiphon
Cyprus
Salamis
Babyfon
TO
Extran
MOORS
VANDALS
Crete
Euphrates
Damascus
Persian's
Shatt
Tripolis
al-Jarid
SEA
AND
Guf
"Jerusalem
Cyrene,
Alexandria
GHASSANIOS
ARABS
ARABS AND
LAKHMIDS
Pelusium
Ails
ARABIAN DESERT
The empire at the beginning
SAHARA
Diospolis Magne
of Justinian's reign in AD 527
Justinian's reconquests
RED
0 100 200 300 400 mi
ETHIOPIA
SEA
0
200
400
600
km
The Byzantine Empire at the death of Justinian in AD 565.
Byzantine Empire
555
by a so-
civil disabilities, the privilege of testamentary inheritance
The vitality and pervasiveness of popular Christian cul-
unless they converted. A woman who worked as an ac-
ture manifested themselves most strongly in the venera-
zantine)
tress might better serve God were she to forswear any
tion increasingly accorded the icon, an abstract and sim-
oath she had taken, even though before God, to remain
plified image of Christ, the Virgin, or the saints. Notable
many of
Empire
in that immoral profession. Blasphemy and sacrilege
for the timeless quality that its setting suggested and for
rom be-
were forbidden, lest famine, earthquake, and pestilence
the power expressed in the eyes of its subject, the icon
in origin
punish the Christian society. Surely God would take
seemingly violated the Second Commandment's explicit
vengeance upon Constantinople, as he had upon Sodom
injunction against the veneration of any religious images.
mulated
and Gomorrah, should the homosexual persist in his "un-
Since many in the early centuries of the church so be-
o satisfy
natural" ways.
lieved, and in the 8th century the image breakers, or
and so-
yzantine
Justinian regulated the size of churches and monasteries,
iconoclasts, were to adopt similar views, hostility toward
only be-
forbade them to profit from the sale of property, and
images was nearly as tenacious an aspect of Chris-
with cer-
complained of those priests and bishops who were un-
tianity as it had been of Judaism before it.
attitudes
learned in the forms of the liturgy. His efforts to improve
The contrasting view--a willingness to accept images as
Ivantage
the quality of the secular clergy, or those who conducted
a normal feature of Christian practice-would not have
itutional
the affairs of the church in the world, were most oppor-
prevailed had it not satisfied certain powerful needs as
tune. The best possible men were needed, for, in most
Christianity spread among Gentiles long accustomed to
ver have
far more
East Roman cities during the 6th century, imperial and
representations of the divinity and among Hellenized
civic officials gradually resigned many of their functions
Jews who had themselves earlier broken with the Mosaic
y prede-
is of the
to the bishop, or patriarch. The latter collected taxes, dis-
commandment. The convert all the more readily accepted
changed
pensed justice, provided charity, organized commerce,
use of the image if he had brought into his Christianity, as
the bar-
negotiated with barbarians, and even mustered the sol-
many did, a heritage of Neoplatonism. The latter school
.Γ, in his
diers. By the early 7th century, the typical Byzantine city,
taught that, through contemplation of that which could be
viewed from without, actually or potentially resembled a
seen (i.e., the image of Christ), the mind might rise to
mperor's
a veneer
fortress; viewed from within, it was essentially a religious
contemplation of that which could not be seen (i.e., the
very old
community under ecclesiastical leadership. Nor did Jus-
essence of Christ). From a belief that the seen suggests
or could
tinian neglect the monastic clergy, or those who had re-
the unseen, it is but a short step to a belief that the seen
comings,
moved themselves from the world. Drawing upon the
contains the unseen and that the image deserves venera-
tions de-
regulations to be found in the writings of the 4th-century
tion because divine power somehow resides in it.
ts by far
Church Father St. Basil of Caesarea, as well as the acts
Men of the 4th century were encouraged to take such a
he pagan
of 4th- and 5th-century church councils, he ordered the
step, influenced as they were by the analogous venera-
cenobitic (or collective) form of monastic life in a fashion
tion that the Romans had long accorded the image of the
ustinian's
so minute that later codes, including the rule of St.
emperor. Although the first Christians rejected this prac-
Christian
Theodore the Studite in the 9th century, only develop the
tice of their pagan contemporaries and refused to adore
adminis-
Justinianic foundation.
the image of a pagan emperor, their successors of the 4th
al stages;
Probably the least successful of Justinian's ecclesiastical
century were less hesitant to render such honour to the
od would
policies were those adopted in an attempt to reconcile
images of the Christian emperors following Constantine.
ndards to
Monophysites and orthodox Chalcedonians. After the
Since the emperor was God's vicegerent on Earth and his
holy life
success of negotiations that had done so much to
empire reflected the heavenly realm, the Christian must
rdered to
conciliate the West during the reign of Justin I, Justinian
venerate, to an equal or greater degree, Christ and His
e thinned
attempted to win over the moderate Monophysites, sepa-
saints. Thus the Second Commandment finally lost much
moraln
em were
rating them from the extremists. Of the complicated series
of its force. Icons appeared in both private and public use
y the or-
of events that ensued, only the results need be noted. In
during the last half of the 6th century: as a channel of
r dowry;
developing a creed acceptable to the moderate Mono-
divinity for the individual and as a talisman to guarantee
to other
physites of the East, Justinian alienated the Chalcedoni-
success in battle. During the dark years following the
ans of the West and thus sacrificed his earlier gains in
end of Justinian I's reign, no other element of popular
rlag, Munich
that quarter. The extreme Monophysites refused to yield.
Christian belief better stimulated that high morale with-
Reacting against Justinian's persecutions, they strength-
out which the Byzantine Empire would not have survived.
ened their own ecclesiastical organization, with the result
The successors of Justinian: 565-610. Until Heraclius
that many of the fortress cities noted above, especially
arrived to save the empire in 610, inconsistency and con-
CASPIAN
those of Egypt and Syria, owed allegiance to Mono-
tradiction marked the policies adopted by the emperors,
SEA
physite ecclesiastical leadership. To his successors, then,
a reflection of their inability to solve the problems Justini-
ASUS
Justinian bequeathed the same religious problem he had
an had bequeathed his successors. Justin II (565-578)
Justin II
inherited from Anastasius.
haughtily refused to continue the payment of tribute to
Lake
DSevan
If, in contrast, his regulation of the Christian life proved
Avar or Persian, thereby preserving the resources of the
MENIA
successful, it was largely because his subjects themselves
treasury, which he further increased by levying new
opolis
Lake
were ready to accept it. Traditional Greco-Roman cul-
taxes. Praiseworthy as his refusal to submit to blackmail
ake
Urmia
ture was, to be sure, surprisingly tenacious and even pro-
may seem, Justin's intransigence only increased the men-
an
"Garms
ductive during the 6th century and was always to remain
ace to the empire. His successor, Tiberius (578-582), re-
the treasured possession of an intellectual elite in Byzan-
moved the taxes and, choosing between his enemies,
ASANIAN EMPIRE
tium; but the same century witnessed the growth of a
awarded subsidies to the Avars while taking military ac-
of
Christian culture to rival it. Magnificent hymns written
tion against the Persians. Although Tiberius' general,
Ctesiphen
by St. Romanos Melodos mark the striking development
Maurice, led an effective campaign on the eastern fron-
Babyion
Avacan
of the liturgy during Justinian's reign, a development that
tier, subsidies failed to restrain the Avars. They captured
Euphrates
was not without its social implications. Whereas tradi-
the Balkan fortress of Sirmium in 582, while the Slavs
Persian
Gull
tional pagan culture was literary and its pursuit or en-
began inroads across the Danube that would take them,
ARABS AND
joyment thereby limited to the leisured and wealthy, the
within 50 years, into Macedonia, Thrace, and Greece.
LAKHMIDS
Christian liturgical celebration and its musical compo-
The accession of Maurice in 582 inaugurated a reign of
nent were available to all, regardless of place or position.
20 years marked by success against Persia, a reorganiza-
RABIAN DESERT
Biography, too, became both markedly Christian and
tion of Byzantine government in the west, and the prac-
markedly popular. Throughout the countryside and the
tice of economies during his Balkan campaigns that, how-
city, holy men appeared in legend or in fact, exorcising
ever unavoidable, would destroy him in 602. Byzantine
demons, healing the sick, feeding the hungry, and
efforts against Sãsänian Persia were rewarded in 591 by a
warding off the invader. Following the pattern used in
fortunate accident. The lawful claimant to the Persian
the 4th century by Athanasius to write the life of St.
throne, Khosrow II, appealed to Maurice for aid against
Anthony, hagiographers recorded the deeds of these ex-
the rebels who had challenged his succession. In gratitude
traordinary men, creating in the saint's life a form of
for this support, Khosrow abandoned the frontier cities
literature that began to flower in the 6th and 7th cen-
and the claims to Armenia, the two major sources of con-
turies.
tention between Byzantium and Persia. The terms of the
556 Byzantine Empire
treaty gave Byzantium access, in Armenia, to a land rich
menace of the Avars and the Persians, and neither people
in the soldiers it desperately needed and, equally impor-
abated its pressure during the first years of the new reign.
tant, an opportunity to concentrate on other frontiers
The Avars almost captured the Emperor in 617 during a
where the situation had worsened.
conference outside the long walls protecting the capital.
Confronted by a Visigothic resurgence in Spain and by
The Persians penetrated Asia Minor and then turned to
the results of a Lombard invasion of Italy (568), which
the south, capturing Jerusalem and Alexandria (in Egypt).
was steadily confining Byzantine power to Ravenna, Ven-
The great days of the Persian Achaemenid Empire
The
ice, and Calabria-Sicily in the south, Maurice developed a
seemed to have come again, and there was little in the re-
exarchate
form of military- government throughout the relatively
cent history of the Byzantine emperors that would en-
of
secure province of North Africa and in whatever regions
courage Heraclius to place much faith in the future. He
Carthage
were left in Italy. He abandoned the old principle of sepa-
clearly could not hope to survive unless he kept under
and
rating civil from military powers, placing both in the
arms the troops he had brought with him; yet, the fate of
Ravenna
hands of the generals, or exarchs, located, respectively,
Maurice demonstrated that this would be no easy task,
at Carthage and Ravenna. Their provinces, or exarchates,
given the empire's lack of financial and agricultural re-
were subdivided into duchies composed of garrison cen-
sources.
tres that were manned not by professional soldiers but by
Three sources of strength enabled Heraclius to turn de-
conscript local landholders. The exarchate system of
feat into victory. The first was the pattern of military
Three
military government seems to have worked well: North
government as he and the nucleus of his army would
Africa was generally quiet despite Moorish threats; and
have known it in the exarchates of North Africa or Ra-
in 597 the ailing Maurice had intended to install his sec-
venna. As it had been in the West, so it now was in the
ond son as emperor throughout those western possessions
East. Civil problems were inseparable from the military:
in which he had clearly not lost interest.
Heraclius could not hope to dispense justice, collect taxes,
But the major thrust of his efforts during the last years
protect the church, and assure the future to his dynasty
of his reign was to be found in the Balkans, where, by
unless military power reinforced his orders. A system of
dint of constant campaigning, his armies had forced the
military government, the exarchate, had accomplished
Avars back across the Danube by 602. In the course of
these objectives so well in the West that, in a moment of
these military operations, Maurice made two mistakes:
despair, Heraclius sought to return to the land of his
the first weakened him; the second destroyed him to-
origins. In all likelihood, he applied similar principles of
gether with his dynasty. Rather than constantly accom-
military rule to his possessions throughout Asia Minor,
panying his armies in the field, as his 7th- and 8th-century
granting his generals (stratêgoi) both civil and military
successors were to do, Maurice remained for the most
authority over those lands that they occupied with their
part in Constantinople, losing an opportunity to engage
"themes," as the army groups, or corps, were called in the
the personal loyalty of his troops. He could not count on
first years of the 7th century.
their obedience when he issued unwelcome commands
Secondly, during the social upheaval of the past decade,
from afar that decreased their pay in 588, ordered them
the imperial treasury had doubtless seized the estates of
to accept uniforms and weapons in kind rather than in
prominent individuals who had been executed either dur-
cash equivalents, and, in 602, required the soldiers to es-
ing Phocas' reign of terror or after the latter's death. In
use
of
tablish winter quarters in enemy lands across the Dan-
consequence, though the treasury lacked money, it none-
ube, lest their requirements prove too great a strain on
theless possessed land in abundance, and Heraclius could
the agricultural and financial resources of the empire's
easily have supported with grants of land those cavalry
provinces south of the river. Exasperated by this last de-
soldiers whose expenses in horses and armament he could
mand, the soldiers rose in revolt, put a junior officer
not hope to meet with cash. If this hypothesis is correct,
named Phocas at their head, and marched on Constanti-
then, even before 622, themes, or army groups-includ-
nople. Blues and Greens united against Maurice, and the
ing the guards (Opsikioi), the Armenians (Armeniakoi),
aged emperor watched as his five sons were slaughtered
and the Easterners (Anatolikoi)-were given lands and
before he himself met a barbarous death.
settled throughout Asia Minor in so permanent a fashion
The ensuing reign of Phocas (602-610) may be described
that, before the century was out, the lands occupied by
as a disaster. Khosrow seized the opportunity offered him
these themes were identified by the names of those who
by the murder of his benefactor, Maurice, to initiate a
occupied them. The Opsikioi were to be found in the
war of revenge that led Persian armies into the Anatolian
Opsikion theme, the Armeniakoi in the Armeniakon,
heartland. Subsidies again failed to restrain the barbari-
and the Anatolikoi in the Anatolikon. The term theme
ans north of the Danube; after 602 the frontier crumbled,
ceased thereafter to identify an army group and described
not to be restored save at the cost of centuries of warfare.
instead the medieval Byzantine unit of local administra-
Lacking a legitimate title, holding his crown only by
tion, the theme under the authority of the themal com-
right of conquest, Phocas found himself confronted by
mander, the general (strategos).
constant revolt and rebellion. To contemporaries, the
When Heraclius "went out into the lands of the themes"
S
coincidence of pestilence, endemic warfare, and social
in 622, thereby undertaking a struggle of seven years'
upheaval seemed to herald the coming of the Antichrist,
duration against the Persians, he utilized the third of his
the resurrection of the dead, and the end of the world.
sources of strength: the religious. The warfare that en-
But it was a human saviour who appeared, albeit under
sued was nothing less than a holy war: it was partly fi-
divine auspices. Heraclius, son of the Exarch of Africa,
nanced by the treasure placed by the church at the dis-
S
set sail from the western extremes of the empire, placing
posal of the state; the Emperor's soldiers called upon
his fleet under the protection of an icon of the Virgin
God to aid them as they charged into battle; and they
against Phocas, stigmatized in the sources as the "cor-
took comfort in the miraculous image of Christ that pre-
rupter of virgins." In the course of his voyage along the
ceded them in their line of march. A brief summary of
northern shores of the Mediterranean, Heraclius added
the campaign unfortunately gives no idea of the difficul-
to his forces and arrived at Constantinople in 610 to be
ties Heraclius encountered as he liberated Asia Minor
hailed as a saviour. With the warm support of the Green
(622), fought in Armenia with allies found among the
faction, he quickly bested his enemy, decapitating Phocas
Christian Caucasian peoples, the Lazi, the Abasgi, and
and, with him, those the latter had advanced to high civil
the Iberians (624), and struggled in far-distant Lazica
a
and military office. There were, in consequence, few ex-
while Constantinople withstood a combined siege of
Avars and Persians (626). An alliance with the Khazars,
p
perienced counsellors to aid Heraclius, for, among the
men of prominence under Phocas-and earlier under
a Turkic people from north of the Caucasus, proved of
Maurice-few survived to greet the new emperor.
material assistance in those years and of lasting import
in Byzantine diplomacy. Heraclius finally destroyed the
THE TH CENTURY: THE HERACLIANS
main Persian host at Nineveh in 627 and, after occupy-
the
AND THE CHALLENGE OF ISLAM
ing Dastagird in 628, savoured the full flavour of triumph
Heraclius and the origin of the themes. The most
when his enemy, Khosrow, was deposed and murdered.
7
threatening problem Heraclius faced was the external
The Byzantine emperor might well have believed that, if
Byzantine Empire 557
the earlier success of the Persians signalized the resurrec-
family conflicts that often imperilled the succession, but
er people
tion of the Achaemenid Empire, his own successes had
gradually the principle was established that, even if
ew reign.
during a
realized the dreams of Caesar, Augustus, and Trajan.
brothers ruled as co-emperors, the senior's authority
Yet this was a war fought by medieval Byzantium and
would prevail. Although strife between Blues and Greens
= capital.
turned to
not by ancient Rome. Its spirit was manifest in 630, when
persisted throughout the century, internal revolt failed to
n Egypt).
Heraclius triumphantly restored the True Cross to Jeru-
imperil the dynasty until the reign of Justinian II. The
Empire
salem, whence the Persians had stolen it, and-even
latter was deposed and mutilated in 695. With the aid of
in the re-
more-when Constantinople resisted the Avar-Persian
the Bulgars, he returned in 705 to reassume rule and
ould en-
assault of 626. During the attack, the patriarch Sergius
wreak a vengeance so terrible that his second deposition,
sture. He
maintained the morale of the valiant garrison by pro-
and death, in 711 is surprising only in its delay of six
pt under
ceeding about the walls, bearing the image of Christ to
years. From 711 until 717 the fortunes of the empire
e fate of
ward off fire, and by painting upon the gates of the west-
foundered; in that year, Leo, stratëgos of the Anatolikon
ern walls images of the Virgin and child to ward off at-
theme, arrived as a second Heraclius to found a dynasty
asy task,
Itural re-
tacks launched by the Avars-the "breed of darkness."
that would rescue the empire from its new enemies, the
The Avars withdrew when Byzantine ships defeated the
Arab Muslims and the Bulgars.
turn de-
canoes manned by Slavs, upon whom the nomad Avars
Three features distinguish the military history of the
military
depended for their naval strength. The latter never recov-
years 641-717: first, an increasing use of sea power on
ered from their defeat. As their empire crumbled, new
the part of the Arabs; second, a renewed threat in the
y would
a or Ra-
However
peoples from the Black Sea to the Balkans emerged to
Balkans occasioned by the appearance of the Onogur
as in the
week
seize power: the Bulgars of Kuvrat, the Slavs under
Huns, known in contemporary sources as the Bulgars;
military:
Samo, and the Serbs and Croats whom Heraclius per-
third, a persisting interest among the emperors in their
ect taxes,
mitted to settle in the northwest Balkans once they had
western possessions, despite the gradual attrition of By-
dynasty
accepted Christianity.
zantine authority in the exarchates of Carthage and
.ystem of
As for the Byzantine defenders of Constantinople, they
Ravenna. Thanks to the control that the Arabs gradually
mplished
celebrated their victory by singing Romanos' great Aki-
asserted over the sea routes to Constantinople, they cli-
thistos hymn, with choir and crowd alternating in the
maxed their earlier assaults on Armenia and Asia Minor
oment of
id of his
chant of the "Alleluia." The hymn, still sung in a Lenten
with a four years' siege of the great city itself (674-678).
nciples of
service, commemorates those days when Constantinople
Defeated in this last attempt by the use of Greek fire, an
a Minor,
survived as a fortress under ecclesiastical leadership, its
inflammable liquid of uncertain composition, the Arabs
: military
defenders protected by the icons and united by their
signed a 30 years' truce, according to which they agreed
vith their
liturgy. This they sang in Greek, as befitted a people
to pay tribute in money, men, and horses. Lured by the
led in the
whose culture was now Greek and no longer Latin.
unsettled conditions following upon Justinian's second
The successors of Heraclius: Islãm and the Bulgars. In
deposition, they renewed their assaults by land and sea,
st decade,
the same year that Heraclius went out into the themes,
and the year 717 found the Arabs again besieging Con-
estates of
Muhammad made his withdrawal (hijrah) from Mecca to
stantinople.
ither dur-
Medina, where he established the ummah, or Muslim
On the Balkan frontier, meanwhile, the Bulgars as-
The Bulgar
death. In
of
community. Upon the Prophet's death in 632, the caliphs,
sumed the role abdicated by the Avars after 626. A
menace
it none-
or successors, channelled the energies of the Arab Bedou-
pagan people whom the Khazars had forced toward
lius could
in by launching them upon a purposive and organized
the Danube Delta in the latter part of the 7th century,
e cavalry
plan of conquest. The results were spectacular: a Byzan-
they eluded Constantine IV's attempts to defeat them in
: he could
tine army was defeated at the Battle of the Yarmük River
681. By virtue of a treaty signed in that year, as well as
S correct,
(636), thereby opening Palestine and Syria to Arab Mus-
others dating from 705 and 716, the Bulgars were recog-
-includ-
lim control. Alexandria capitulated in 642, removing for-
nized as an independent kingdom, occupying (to the
neniakoi),
ever the province of Egypt from Byzantine authority.
humiliation of Byzantium) lands south of the Danube
ands and
The Arabs had, meanwhile, advanced into Mesopotamia,
down into the Thracian plain. While the Bulgars had
a fashion
capturing the royal city of Ctesiphon and, eventually, de-
thus deprived the empire of control in the north and cen-
cupied by
feating an army under command of the Persian king
tral Balkans, the Byzantines could take comfort in the ex-
hose who
himself. So ended the long history of Persia under Achae-
peditions of 658 and 688 launched by Constans and
id in the
menids, Parthians, and Sãsãnians; further conquests were
Justinian II into Macedonia and in the formation of the
neniakon,
shortly to initiate that region's Islãmic phase (see further
themes of Thrace (687) and Hellas (695), evidence that
m theme
IRAN, HISTORY OF; CALIPHATE, EMPIRE OF THE).
Byzantine authority was beginning to prevail along the
described
At least three aspects of the contemporary situation of
peninsular coastline and in certain parts of Greece where
Iministra-
Byzantium and Persia account for the phenomenal ease
Slavs had penetrated.
nal com-
with which the Arabs overcame their enemies: first, both
In the West, the situation was less reassuring. Mono-
empires, exhausted by wars, had demobilized before 632;
thelitism had evoked a hostile reception among the
themes"
second, both had ceased to support those client states on
churches of North Africa and Italy, and the resulting
en years'
the frontiers of the Arabian Peninsula that had restrained
disaffection had encouraged the exarchs of both Carthage
ird of his
the Bedouin of the desert for a century past; third, and
(646) and Ravenna (652) to revolt. By the end of the
that en-
particularly in reference to Byzantium, religious con-
century, Africa had been largely lost to Muslim con-
partly fi-
troversy had weakened the loyalties that Syrians and
querors who would, in 711, seize the last outpost at
L the dis-
Egyptians rendered to Constantinople. Heraclius had
Septem. For the moment, at least, Sicily and the scattered
led upon
sought in 638 to placate Monophysite sentiment in these
Italian possessions remained secure. Constans, in fact,
and they
two provinces by promulgating the doctrine of Mono-
undertook operations against the Lombards, and he ap-
that pre-
thelitism, holding that Christ, although of two natures,
parently intended to move his capital to Sicily, before
mary of
had but one will. Neither in the East nor in the West did
his assassination ended the career of the last Eastern em-
: difficul-
this compromise prove successful. The victorious Mus-
peror to venture into the West. In summary: Leo in 717
ia Minor
lims granted religious freedom to the Christian commu-
ruled over an empire humiliated by the presence of pagan
nong the
nity in Alexandria, for example, and the Alexandrians
barbarians upon Balkan soil rightfully considered "Ro-
asgi, and
quickly recalled their exiled Monophysite patriarch to
man," threatened by an attack upon its Anatolian heart-
it Lazica
rule over them, subject only to the ultimate political
land and its capital, and reduced, finally, in the West to
siege of
authority of the conquerors. In such a fashion the city
Sicily and the remnants of the Ravenna exarchate.
Khazars,
persisted as a religious community under an Arab Mus-
However dismal the military record, institutional and
Economics
roved of
lim domination more welcome and more tolerant than
economic developments had permitted the empire to sur-
and
g import
that of Byzantium.
vive and were to provide foundations for greater success
institutions
oyed the
Delate
The aging Heraclius was unequal to the task of contain-
in the centuries to come. The themal system had taken
occupy-
the
ing this new menace, and it was left to his successors-
root and, with it, probably the institution of soldiers'
triumph
Person
Constantine III (ruled 641), Constans II (641-668), Con-
properties. Military service was a hereditary occupation:
hurdered.
stantine IV (668-685), and Justinian II (685-695, 705-
the eldest son assumed the burden of service, supported
d that, if
711)-to do so. This bare list of emperors obscures the
primarily by revenues from other members of the family
558 Byzantine Empire
who worked the land in the villages. This last was a task
taking the form of violent persecution of the monastic
easier to accomplish at the end of the 7th century thanks
clergy, the foremost defenders of the iconophile position.
to the colonies of Slavs and other peoples brought into
The Council of Nicaea in 787 restored iconophile doc-
the empire and settled in the rural areas by Heraclius,
trine at the instigation of the empress Irene, but military
Constantine IV, and Justinian II. In the 8th and 9th cen-
reversals led Leo V to resurrect in 815 the iconoclastic
turies, other emperors, including Leo III, Constantine V,
policies associated with Constantine V, one of Byzanti-
and Nicephorus I, were to continue the practice, thus
um's most successful generals. Not until 843 were the
ending the population decline that had long eroded the
icons definitively restored to their places of worship and
ranks of Byzantine society. There are unmistakable signs
icon veneration solemnly proclaimed as orthodox belief.
of agricultural expansion even before 800; and, at about
Even this brief summary suggests that the Emperor's for-
that time, urban life, which had never vanished in Asia
tunes on the battlefield were of no small moment in deter-
Minor, began to flourish and expand in the Balkans. To
mining his attitude toward the icons, those channels
judge from the evidence of the Farmer's Law, dated in
whence superhuman power descended to man. An ac-
the 7th century, the technological base of Byzantine so-
count of the age of Iconoclasm opens appropriately,
ciety was more advanced than that of contemporary west-
then, with its military history.
ern Europe: iron tools could be found in the villages; wa-
The reigns of Leo III (the Isaurian) and Constantine V.
ter mills dotted the landscape; and field-sown beans pro-
Almost immediately upon Leo's accession, the empire's
vided a diet rich in protein. None of these advances was
fortunes improved markedly. With the aid of the Bulgars,
to characterize western European agriculture until the
he turned back the Muslim assault in 718 and, in the in-
10th century. Byzantine agriculture enjoyed the further
tervals of warfare during the next 20 years, addressed
advantage of a highly developed tradition of careful farm-
himself to the task of reorganizing and consolidating the
ing that persisted even in the darkest days, enabling the
themes in Asia Minor. Thanks to the assistance of the
peasant to make the most of the soil upon which he
traditional allies, the Khazars, Leo's reign concluded with
worked. The invasions had even provided a form of stim-
a major victory, won again at the expense of the Arabs, at
ulus to development: having lost first its Egyptian gran-
Acroinon (740). His successor, Constantine, had first to
ary and, later, its North African and Sicilian resources,
fight his way to the throne, suppressing a revolt of the
the empire had to live essentially, although not totally,
Opsikion and Armeniakon themes launched by his
from whatever it could produce in the lands remaining
brother-in-law Artavasdos. During the next few years, in-
to it. The invasions had also, in all probability, broken up
ternal disorder in the Muslim world played into Con-
many a large estate, and the small peasant holding seems
stantine's hands as the 'Abbãsid house fought to seize the
to have been the "normal" form of rural organization in
caliphate from the Umayyads. With his enemy thus weak-
this period. Although collective village organization per-
ened, Constantine won noteworthy victories in northern
sisted in the form of the rural commune and, with it,
Syria, transferring the prisoners he had there captured to
certain collective agricultural practices, the state seems to
Thrace in preparation for the wars against the Bulgars
have made little or no attempt to bind the peasant to the
that were to occupy him from 756 to 775. In no fewer
soil upon which the tax registers had inscribed him.
than nine campaigns, he undermined Bulgar strength so
While Byzantium remained a slave-owning society, the
thoroughly that the northern enemy seemed permanently
colonus of the later Roman Empire had vanished, and a
weakened, if not crushed. Even the venom used by the
greater degree of freedom and mobility characterized
iconophile chroniclers of Constantine's reign cannot dis-
agricultural relationships during the 7th and 8th cen-
guise the enormous popularity his victories won him.
leavel
II
turies.
In later centuries, the folk of Constantinople would
So it was, too, in trade and commerce. After the
stand by his tomb, seeking his aid against whatever
loss of Egypt and North Africa, the grain fleets manned
enemy imperilled the city's defenses.
Sav
by hereditary shipmasters disappeared; in their place
Constantine's weak successors. His successors all but
there emerged the independent merchant, of sufficient
let slip the gains won by the great iconoclast. Constan-
importance to call forth a code of customary law, the
tine's son Leo IV died prematurely in 780, leaving to suc-
Rhodian Sea Law, to regulate his practices. Military and
ceed him his ten-year-old son, Constantine VI, under the
religious hostilities failed to check him as he traded with
regency of the empress Irene. Not much can be said for
The
the Bulgars in Thrace and, through Cyprus, with the
Constantine, and Irene's policies as regent and (after the
empres
Arabs. Despite constant warfare, this was, in short, a
deposition and blinding of her son at her orders) as sole
Irene
healthier society than the late Roman, and its chances of
ruler from 797 to 802 were all but disasterous. Her
survival were further increased when the sixth general
iconophile policies alienated many among the themal
council (681) condemned Monotheletism and anathema-
troops, who were still loyal to the memory of the great
tized its adherents. With Egypt and Syria under Muslim
warrior emperor, Constantine V. In an effort to maintain
rule, it was no longer necessary to placate Eastern Mono-
her popularity among the monkish defenders of the icons
physitism, and it seemed that doctrinal discord would no
and with the population of Constantinople, she rebated
lönger separate Constantinople from the West. Events
taxes to which these groups were subject, as well as re-
were to prove otherwise.
ducing the customs duties levied outside the port of Con-
stantinople, at Abydos and Hieros. The consequent loss
THE AGE OF ICONOCLASM: 717-867
to the treasury weighed all the more severely since vic-
For more than a century after the accession of Leo III
tories won by the Arabs in Asia Minor (781) and by the
(717-741), a persisting theme in Byzantine history may
Bulgars (792) led both peoples to demand and receive
be found in the attempts made by the emperors, often
tribute as the price of peace. A revolt of the higher palace
with wide popular support, to eliminate a practice that
officials led to Irene's deposition in 802, and the so-called
had earlier played a major part in creating the morale
Isaurian dynasty of Leo III ended with her death, in exile,
essential to survival: namely, the veneration of icons.
on the isle of Lesbos.
The
The latter sentiment had grown in intensity during the
In the face of the Bulgar menace, none of the following
veneration
7th century: the council in Trullo of 691-692 had de-
three emperors succeeded in founding a dynasty. Nice-
of icons
creed that Christ should be represented in human form
phorus I (ruled 802-811), the able finance minister who
rather than, symbolically, as the lamb. The reigning em-
succeeded Irene, reimposed the taxes that the Empress
peror, Justinian II, had taken the unprecedented step of
had remitted and instituted other reforms that provide
placing the image of Christ on his coinage while pro-
some insight into the financial administration of the em-
claiming himself the "slave of God." Evidence of a Γe-
pire during the early 9th century. In the tradition of Con-
action against such iconophile (or image venerating) doc-
stantine V, Nicephorus strengthened the fortifications of
trines and practices may be found early in the 8th cen-
Thrace by settling, in that theme, colonists from Asia
tury, but full-fledged Iconoclasm (or destruction of the
Minor.
images) emerged as an imperial policy only when Leo III
Taking arms himself, he led his troops against the new
issued his decrees of 730. Under his son, Constantine V
and vigorous Bulgar khan, Krum, only to meet defeat and
(ruled 741-775), the iconoclastic movement intensified,
death at the latter's hands. His successor, Michael I
Byzantine Empire
559
ionastic
Rangabe (811-813), fared little better; internal dissen-
The iconoclasts responded by pointing to the express
osition.
sions broke up his army as it faced Krum near Adrian-
wording of the Second Commandment. The condemna-
ile doc-
ople, and the resulting defeat cost Michael his throne. In
tion therein contained of idolatry seems to have weighed
military
only one respect does he occupy an important place in
heavily with Leo III, who may have been influenced by
oclastic
the annals of the Byzantine Empire. The first emperor to
Islãm, a religion that strictly prohibited the use of reli-
Byzanti-
bear a family name, Michael's use of the patronymic,
gious images. The latter point is debatable, as is the con-
'ere the
Rangabe, bears witness to the emergence of the great
tention that Iconoclasm was particularly an expression of
hip and
families whose accumulation of landed properties would
religious sentiment to be found in the eastern themes of
belief.
soon threaten the integrity of those smallholders upon
the empire. There is little doubt, however, that Mono-
or's for-
whom the empire depended for its taxes and its military
physitism influenced the ideas of Constantine V and,
in deter-
service. The name in question seems a Hellenized form of
through him, the course of debate during the last half of
hannels
a Slav original (rokavu), and, if so, Michael's ethnic origin
the 8th century. In the eyes of the Monophysite, who be-
An ac-
and that of his successor, Leo the Armenian (ruled 813-
lieved in the single, indistinguishable, divine nature of
priately,
820), provide evidence enough of the degree to which
Christ, the iconophile was guilty of sacrilege. Either he
Byzantium in the 9th century had become not only a
was a Nestorian, reducing the divine nature to human
ntine V.
melting-pot society but, further, a society in which even
terms in the image, or he was a Chalcedonian Dyophy-
empire's
the highest office lay open to the man with the wits and
site, radically distinguishing that which man could not
Bulgars,
stamina to seize it. Leo fell victim to assassination, but
distinguish. Still another consideration favouring icono-
I the in-
before his death events beyond his control had improved
clasm may be found in the intimate connection of icono-
idressed
the empire's situation. Krum died suddenly in 814 as he
clastic doctrine with the emperor's conception of his role
ting the
was preparing an attack upon Constantinople, and his
as God's vicegerent on Earth. During the late 6th and 7th
: of the
son, Omortag, arranged a peace with the Byzantine Em-
centuries, iconophile emperors had viewed themselves in
ed with
pire in order to protect the western frontiers of his Bulgar
a "pietistic" fashion, emphasizing their devotion and
rabs, at
empire against the pressures exerted by Frankish expan-
subservience to God. Constantine V, on the other hand,
1 first to
sion under Charlemagne and his successors. Since the
pridefully replaced the icons with imperial portraits and
t of the
death of the caliph, Härün ar-Rashid, had resulted in
with representations of his own victories. Viewed in this
by his
civil war in the Muslim world, hostilities from that quar-
light, Iconoclasm signalled a rebirth of imperial con-
ears, in-
ter ceased. Leo used the breathing space to reconstruct
fidence; and, so deservedly great was Constantine's repu-
to Con-
those Thracian cities that the Bulgars had earlier de-
tation, so dismal the accomplishments of his successors,
seize the
stroyed. His work indicates the degree of gradual Byzan-
that a Leo V, for one, could easily believe that God
as weak-
tine penetration into the coastal fringes of the Balkan
favoured the iconoclastic battalions.
northern
Peninsula, as does the number of themes organized in
Under Constantine V, the struggle against the icons be-
tured to
that same region during the early 9th century: those of
came a struggle against their chief defenders, the mon-
Bulgars
Macedonia, Thessalonica, Dyrrhachium, Dalmatia, and
astic community. The immediate destruction wrought by
10 fewer
the Strymon.
Constantine and his zealous subordinates is, however, of
ength so
The new emperor, Michael II, the Amorian, was indeed
less moment than the lasting effect of the persecution on
nanently
able to establish a dynasty, his son Theophilus (829-842)
the orthodox clergy. Briefly put, the church became an
1 by the
and his grandson Michael III (842-867) each occupying
institution rent by factions, wherein popular discontent
not dis-
the throne in turn, but none would have forecast so happy
found a means of expression to replace the Blues and the
him.
II
a future during Michael II's first years. One Thomas the
Greens, whose significance steadily waned during the 8th
e would
Slav, Michael's former comrade in arms, gave himself
century. Intransigent iconophiles looked for their leaders
vhatever
out to be the unfortunate Constantine VI and secured his
among the monks of the monastery of Stoudion, and they
SIT
coronation at the hands of the Patriarch of Antioch, with
found one in the person of the monastery's abbot, St.
S all but
the willing permission of the Muslim caliph under whose
Theodore the Studite (759-826). In the patriarch Ignatius
Constan-
jurisdiction Antioch lay. Thomas thereupon marched
(847-858; 867-877) they discovered a spokesman after
g to suc-
upon Constantinople at the head of a motley force of
their own hearts: one drawn from the monastic ranks
nder the
Caucasian peoples whose sole bonds were to be found in
and contemptuous of all the allurements that the world of
said for
The
their devotion to iconophile doctrine and their hatred of
secular learning seemed to offer. More significant than
after the
empress
Michael's Iconoclasm. Assisted by Omortag and relying
the men to be found on the other extreme, iconoclast
) as sole
Irene
upon the defenses of Constantinople, Michael defeated
patriarchs including Anastasius and John Grammaticus,
us. Her
his enemy, but the episode suggests the tensions beneath
were the representatives of the moderate party: the
: themal
the surface of Byzantine society: the social malaise, the
patriarchs Tarasius, Nicephorus, Methodius, and Photius.
he great
ethnic hostility, and the persisting discord created by
Although iconophile in sympathy, the latter group en-
naintain
iconoclasm. All these may explain the weakness displayed
joyed little rapport with the monastic zealots. Unlike the
he icons
throughout Theophilus' reign, when a Muslim army de-
average monk, they were often educated laymen, trained
rebated
feated the Emperor himself (838) as a prelude to the
in the imperial service and ready to compromise with im-
11 as re-
capture of the fortress of Amorium in Asia Minor. It may
perial authority.
of Con-
also explain the concurrent decline of Byzantine strength
Not only was Iconoclasm a major episode in the history
ent loss
in the Mediterranean, manifest in the capture of Crete
of the Byzantine, or Orthodox, Church, it also perma-
Byzantine
ince vic-
by the Arabs (826) and in the initiation of attacks upon
nently affected relations between the empire and Catholic
relations
3 by the
Sicily that finally secured the island for the world of
Europe. The Lombard advance, it may be remembered,
with
receive
Islãm. Iconoclasm certainly played its part in the further
had restricted Byzantine authority in Italy to the Exar-
Catholic
-I palace
alienation of East from West, and a closer examination
chate of Ravenna, and to that quarter the popes of the
so-called
Europe
of its doctrines will suggest why this may have been.
7th century, themselves ordinarily of Greek or Syrian
in exile,
The Iconoclastic Controversy. Iconoclasts and icono-
origin, turned for protection against the common enemy.
philes (or iconodules) agreed on one fundamental point:
During the 8th century, two issues alienated Rome from
ollowing
a Christian people could not prosper unless it assumed
Constantinople: Iconoclasm and quarrels stemming from
y. Nice-
the right attitude toward the holy images, or icons. They
the question of who should enjoy ecclesiastical jurisdic-
ter who
disagreed, of course, on what that attitude should be.
tion over Illyricum and over Calabria in south Italy. Pope
Empress
Each could discover supporting arguments in the writings
Gregory II refused to accept the iconoclastic doctrines of
provide
of the early church, and it is essential to remember that
Leo III; and his successor, Gregory III, had openly to
the em-
the debate over images is as old as Christian art. The
condemn them at a council. Once Ravenna fell to the
of Con-
fundamentals of Iconoclasm were by no means an 8th-
ations of
Lombards, and the exarchate ceased to exist in 751, the
century discovery. The ablest defender of the iconophile
Pope had to seek a new protector. This he found in the
om Asia
position was, however, the 8th-century theologian St.
person of the Frankish leader Pepin III, who sought some
John of Damascus. Drawing upon Neoplatonic doctrine,
form of sanction to legitimize his seizure of the crown
the new
John suggested that the image was but a symbol; the crea-
feat and
from the feeble hands of the last representative of the
tion of the icon was justified since, by virtue of the In-
ichael I
Merovingian dynasty. Thus Pope Stephen anointed Pepin
carnation, God had himself become man.
as king of the Franks in 754, and the latter entered Italy
560 Byzantine Empire
to take arms against the Lombard king. Even the restora-
disposed of Caesar Bardas. As had Heraclius and Leo III
tion of icon veneration in 787 failed to bridge the dif-
before him, Basil came to found a dynasty, in this in-
ferences between orthodox Byzantium and Catholic Eu-
stance the Macedonian house. Unlike his predecessors,
rope, for the advisers of Pepin's son and successor, Char-
he came not as a saviour but as a peasant adventurer, to
lemagne, condemned the iconophile position as heartily
seize an already sound empire whose next centuries were
as an earlier generation had rejected the iconoclast de-
to be its greatest.
(J.L.Te.)
crees of Leo III. Nor could the men of Charlemagne's
II. From 867 to the Ottoman conquest
-
of
time admit that a woman-the empress Irene-might
properly assume the dignity of emperor of the Romans.
THE MACEDONIAN ERA: 867-1025
Assire
For all these reasons, Charlemagne, king of the Franks
Under the Macedonians, at least until the death of Basil
and Lombards by right of conquest, assented to his
II in 1025, the empire enjoyed a golden age. Its armies
coronation as emperor of the Romans on Christmas Day,
regained the initiative against the Arabs in the East, and
800, by Pope Leo III. No longer a barbarian king, Char-
its missionaries evangelized the Slavs, extending Byzan-
lemagne became, by virtue of the symbolism of the age,
tine influence in Russia and the Balkans. And, despite the
a new Constantine. This the Byzantine chancery could
rough military character of many of the emperors, there
not accept, for, if there were one God, one faith, and one
was a renaissance in Byzantine letters and important de-
truth, then there could be but one empire and one em-
velopments in law and administration. At the same time
peror; surely that emperor ruled in Constantinople, not
there were signs of decay: resources were squandered at
in Charlemagne's Aachen. Subsequent disputes between
an alarming rate; there was growing estrangement from
Rome and Constantinople seemed often to centre upon
the West; and a social revolution in Anatolia was to un-
matters of ecclesiastical discipline; underlying these dif-
dermine the economic and military strength of the em-
ferences were two more powerful considerations, neither
pire.
of which could be ignored. According to theory there
The empire was in theory an elective monarchy with no
(
could be but one empire; clearly, there were two. And
law of succession. But the desire to found and perpetuate
(
between Rome and Constantinople there stood two
a dynasty was strong, and it was often encouraged by
1
groups of peoples open to conversion: the Slavs of cen-
popular sentiment. This was especially true in relation to
I
tral Europe and the Bulgars in the Balkans. From which
the Macedonian dynasty, the founder of which Basil I,
F
of the two jurisdictions would these people accept their
murdered his way to the throne in 867. Probably of
of
the
a
Christian discipline? To which, in consequence, would
Armenian descent, though they had settled in Macedonia,
dynam
C
they owe their spiritual allegiance?
Basil's family was far from distinguished and can hardly
Si
The reign
The reign of Michael III draws together these and other
have expected to produce a line of emperors that lasted
of Michael
threads from the past. Veneration of the icons was defi-
through six generations and 189 years. But, having ac-
9
III
nitely rehabilitated in 843, in so diplomatic a fashion
C
that the restoration, in itself, produced no new rifts al-
though old factionalisms persisted with the appointment
The Macedonian Emperors,
a
867-1025
of a monk, Ignatius, as patriarch. The latter's intransigent
zealotry found little favour with Caesar Bardas, Michael's
name
reign dates
uncle, who had seized power from the Empress Regent in
856. Two years later, Ignatius was deposed and replaced
Basil I
867-886
el
Leo VI
886-912
by a moderate: the scholar and layman Photius. No
Constantine VII
913-959
single person better exemplifies the new age, nor, indeed,
Romanus I*
919-944
01
did any other play a larger part in the cultural rebirth
Romanus II
959-963
Nicephorus II
963-969
E
and missionary activity among the Slavs, Bulgars, and
John I
969-976
Sy
Russians that marks the middle of the 9th century. The
Basil II
976-1025
as
same aggressive and enterprising spirit is manifest in the
military successes won on the Asia Minor frontier, culmi-
Ruled in Constantine's name.
op
nating in Petronas' victory at Poson (863) over the Mus-
lim emir of Melitene.
quired the imperial crown, Basil tried to make sure that
B:
In Sicily, and throughout the Mediterranean, Byzantine
his family would not lose it and nominated three of his
or
II
arms were less successful, but, thanks to Photius' diplo-
sons as co-emperors. Though he was his least favourite,
through the scholarly Leo VI, who succeeded him in 886,
tr:
matic skill, the see of Constantinople maintained its posi-
in
tion against Rome during the so-called Photian Schism.
the succession was at least secure. Even the three soldier-
emperors who usurped the throne during the Macedonian
re
When Pope Nicholas I challenged Photius' elevation to
W:
the patriarchate, deploring as uncanonical the six days'
era were conscious, in varying degrees, that they were
m
speed with which he had been advanced through the suc-
protecting the rights of a legitimate heir during a minor-
tit
cessive ranks of the hierarchy, the Byzantine patriarch
ity: Romanus I Lecapenus for Constantine VII, the son
refused to bow. He skillfully persuaded Nicholas' dele-
of Leo VI; and Nicephorus Phocas and John Tzimisces
pu
ot
gates to a council, summoned at Constantinople to in-
for Basil II, the grandson of Constantine VII.
da
vestigate the matter, that he was the lawful patriarch
Military revival. A reassertion of Byzantine military
me
despite the persisting claims of the rival Ignatian faction.
and naval power in the East began with victories over the
Arabs by Michael III's general Petronas in 856. From
at
Nicholas, alleging that his men had been bribed, ex-
863 the initiative lay with the Byzantines. The struggle
pu
communicated Photius; a council at Constantinople re-
ne
sponded (867) by excommunicating Nicholas in turn. The
with the Arabs, which had long been a struggle for sur-
vival, became a mounting offensive that reached its bril-
By
immediate issues between the two sees were matters of
ea:
ecclesiastical supremacy, the liturgy, and clerical disci-
liant climax in the 10th century. By 867 a well-defined
tui
pline; behind these sources of division lay the question,
boundary existed between the Byzantine Empire and the
R
mentioned above, of jurisdiction over the converts in
territory of the 'Abbasid caliphate. Its weakest point was
Bulgaria. And behind that question may be found cen-
in the Taurus Mountains above Syria and Antioch. Basil
pe:
mi
turies of growing separation between the minds and in-
I (reigned 867-886) directed his operations against this
of
stitutions of the eastern and the western Mediterranean
point, recovered Cyprus for a while, and campaigned
po
worlds, symbolized in the roles assumed by two among
against the Paulicians, a heretical Christian sect whose
the
be
the major protagonists in the Photian Schism. It was the
anti-imperial propaganda was effective in Anatolia. But
Ch
supreme spiritual authority, the pope, who hurled anath-
the conflict with Islãm was one that concerned the whole
by
emas from the west, but it was God's vicegerent on
empire, in the West as well as in the East, by sea as well
Cy
Earth, the emperor Michael III, who presided at the
as by land. In 902 the Arabs completed the conquest of
of
council of 867.
Sicily, but they were kept out of the Byzantine province
pos
Michael did not long survive this moment of triumph.
of South Italy, for whose defense Basil I had even made
gy,
In that very year, he was murdered by his favourite,
some effort to cooperate with the Western emperor Louis
the
Basil, who, on his bloody path to the throne, had earlier
II. The worst damage, however, was done by Arab pi-
dor
Byzantine Empire 561
Leo III
rates who had taken over the island of Crete. In 904 they
missionaries resented what they considered to be Byzan-
his in-
plundered Thessalonica, carrying off quantities of loot
tine interference among the northern Slavs, and there
essors,
and prisoners. Leo VI sent a naval expedition to Crete in
were repeated clashes of interest that further damaged
irer, to
911, but the Muslims drove it off and humiliated the By-
relations between the sees of Rome and Constantinople.
:s were
zantine navy off Chios in 912.
The conversion of the Bulgars became a competition be-
I.L.Te.)
On the eastern frontier, the Byzantine offensive was sus-
of
tween the two churches and was ably exploited by the
tained with great success during the reign of Romanus I
Bulgar king Boris until, in 870, he opted for Orthodox
Lecapenus by an Armenian general John Curcuas (Gur-
Christianity on condition of having an archbishop of his
gen), who captured Melitene (934) and then Edessa (943),
own.
f Basil
advancing across the Euphrates into the caliph's territory.
Bulgarian wars. The trade with Constantinople that
armies
It was Curcuas who paved the way for the campaigns of
followed the missionaries whetted the appetites of the
ist, and
the two soldier-emperors of the next generation. In 961
Slavs and Bulgars for a larger share in the material
Byzan-
Nicephorus Phocas, then domestic (commander) of the
wealth of Byzantium. Symeon of Bulgaria, who suc-
pite the
armies in the West, reconquered Crete and destroyed the
ceeded his father Boris in 893 and who had been edu-
S, there
Arab fleet that had terrorized the Aegean for 150 years;
cated at Constantinople, proved to be an even more dan-
ant de-
he thereby restored Byzantine naval supremacy in the
gerous enemy than the Arabs. His efforts to become em-
ne time
eastern Mediterranean. In 962 his strategy achieved un-
peror dominated Byzantine history for some 15 years. In
ered at
expected triumphs all along the eastern frontier and cul-
913 he brought his army to the walls of Constantinople,
it from
minated in the capture of Aleppo in Syria. When he was
demanding the imperial title. The patriarch, Nicholas
to un-
proclaimed emperor in March 963 Nicephorus appointed
Mysticus, appeased Symeon for a time, but it was Ro-
he em-
another Armenian general, John Tzimisces, as domestic
manus Lecapenus who, by patience and diplomacy, un-
of the East, though he retained personal command of
dermined the power of the Bulgars and thwarted Sy-
with no
operations against the Arabs. By 965 he had driven them
meon's ambitions. Symeon died in 927, and his son Peter
petuate
out of Cyprus and was poised for the reconquest of Syria.
came to terms with Byzantium and married a grand-
aged by
The revived morale and confidence of Byzantium in the
daughter of Romanus.
ation to
East showed itself in the crusading zeal of Nicephorus
Relations with Russia. The Russians lay far outside
Basil I,
Phocas and John Tzimisces for the reconquest of Syria
the Roman jurisdiction. Their warships, sailing down the
ably of
of
and the Holy Land. The ground lost to Islãm in the 7th
Dnepr from Kiev to the Black Sea, first attacked Con-
cedonia,
century was thus fast being regained; and although Jeru-
stantinople in 860. They were beaten off, and almost at
1 hardly
salem was never reached, the important Christian city of
once Byzantine missionaries were sent into Russia. The
at lasted
Antioch, seat of one of the patriarchs, was recaptured in
Russians had been granted trading rights in Constantino-
ving ac-
969. These victories were achieved largely by the new
ple in 911. But in 941 and 944, led by Prince Igor, they
cavalry force built up by Nicephorus Phocas. In the
returned to the attack. Both assaults were repelled and
areas recovered from the Arabs, land was distributed in
Romanus I set about breaking down the hostility and
military holdings with the interests of the cavalry in
isolationism of the Russians by diplomatic and commer-
mind. But the victories were achieved at the expense of
cial contacts. In 957 Igor's widow Olga was baptized and
the western provinces, and an attempt to recover Sicily
paid a state visit to Constantinople during the reign of
ended in failure in 965.
Constantine VII; her influence enabled Byzantine mis-
The campaigns of John Tzimisces, who usurped the
sionaries to work with greater security in Russia, thus
throne in 969, were directed against the Emir of Mosul
spreading Christianity and Byzantine culture. Olga's son
on the Tigris and against the new Fatimid Caliph of
Svyatoslav was pleased to serve the empire as an ally
Egypt, who had designs on Syria. By 975 almost all of
against the Bulgars in 968-969, though his ambition to
Syria and Palestine, from Caesarea to Antioch, as well
occupy Bulgaria led to war with Byzantium in which he
as a large part of Mesopotamia far to the east of the
was defeated and killed. In 971 John Tzimisces accom-
Euphrates, was in Byzantine control. The way seemed
plished the double feat of humiliating the Russians and
open for Tzimisces to advance to the 'Abbãsid capital of
reducing Bulgaria to the status of a client kingdom. By-
sure that
Baghdad on the one hand and to Jerusalem and Egypt
zantine influence over Russia reached its climax when
ee of his
on the other. But he died in 976 and his successor, Basil
Vladimir of Kiev, who had helped Basil II to gain his
II, the legitimate heir of the Macedonian house, concen-
avourite,
throne, received as his reward the hand of the Emperor's
m in 886,
trated most of his resources on overcoming the Bulgars
sister in marriage and was baptized in 989. The mass
in Europe, though he did not abandon the idea of further
e soldier-
conversion of the Russian people followed, with the es-
cedonian
reconquest in the East. The Kingdom of Georgia (Iberia)
tablishment of an official Russian Church subordinate to
was incorporated in the empire by treaty. Part of Ar-
the patriarch of Constantinople.
ey were
a minor-
menia was annexed, with the rest of it to pass to Byzan-
Bulgar revolt. The Bulgars, however, were not content
tium on the death of its king. Basil II personally led two
the son
to be vassals of Byzantium and rebelled under Samuel,
punitive expeditions against the Fatimids in Syria, but
zimisces
youngest of the four sons of a provincial governor in
otherwise his eastern policy was to hold and to consoli-
Macedonia. Samuel made his capital at Ochrida and cre-
military
date what had already been gained. The gains can be
ated a Bulgarian empire stretching from the Adriatic to
over the
measured by the number of new themes (provinces) cre-
the Black Sea and even, for a while, into Greece, though
ated by the early 11th century in the area between Vas-
6. From
Thessalonica remained Byzantine. The final settlement of
struggle
purakan in the Caucasus and Antioch in Syria. The an-
the Bulgar problem was worked out by Basil II in a ruth-
Bulgars
for sur-
nexation of Armenia, the homeland of many of the great
less and methodical military campaign lasting for some
crushed by
di its bril-
Byzantine emperors and soldiers, helped to solidify the
20 years, until, by 1018, the last resistance was crushed.
Basil II
II-defined
eastern wall of the Byzantine Empire for nearly a cen-
Samuel's dominions became an integral part of the By-
tury.
e and the
zantine Empire and were divided into three new themes.
Relations with the Slavs and Bulgars. Although im-
point was
At the same time the Slav principalities of Serbia (Rascia
och. Basil
perial territory in the East could be reclaimed only by
and Dioclea) and Croatia became vassal states of By-
ainst this
military conquest, in the Balkans and in Greece the work
zantium, and the Adriatic port of Dyrrhachium came
mpaigned
of reclamation could be assisted by the diplomatic wea-
under Byzantine control. Not since the days of Justinian
pon of evangelization. The Slavs and the Bulgars could
ect whose
had the empire covered so much European territory. But
tolia. But
the be brought within the Byzantine orbit by conversion to
the annexation of Bulgaria meant that the Danube was
the whole
Christianity. The conversion of the Slavs was instigated
now the only line of defense against the more northerly
ea as well
by the Patriarch Photius and carried out by the monks
tribes, such as the Pechenegs, Cumans, and Magyars.
Cyril and Methodius from Thessalonica. Their invention
nquest of
Estrangement from the West. The extension of By-
province
of the Slavonic alphabet (Cyrillic and Glagolitic) made
zantine interests to the Adriatic, furthermore, had raised
possible the translation of the Bible and the Greek litur-
ven made
again the question of Byzantine claims to South Italy
ror Louis
gy, and brought literacy as well as the Christian faith to
and, indeed, to the whole western part of the old Roman
Arab pi-
the Slavic peoples. The work began in the Slavic King-
Empire. The physical separation of that empire into East
dom of Moravia and spread to Serbia and Bulgaria. Latin
and West had been emphasized by the settlement of the
562 Byzantine Empire
Slavs in the Balkan Peninsula and in Greece, and since
books of the Basilica, which Hellenized the legal code of
the 7th century the two worlds had developed in their
Justinian and made it more intelligible and accessible to
different ways. Their differences had been manifested in
lawyers. Additions and corrections to meet the needs of
ecclesiastical conflicts, such as the Photian Schism. The
the time were incorporated in Leo's 113 Novels, which
conversion of the Slavs had produced bitterness between
represent the last substantial reform of the civil law in
the agents of the rival jurisdictions. But the re-establish-
Byzantium. Enshrined in this legislation was the principle
ment of Byzantine authority in Greece and eastern Eu-
of the absolute autocracy of the emperor as being himself
rope, added to the gains against the Muslim powers in
the law. The Senate, the last vestige of Roman republican
Asia, reinforced the Byzantine belief in the universality
institutions, was abolished. Only in the matter of the
of the empire, to which Italy and the West must surely be
spiritual welfare of his subjects did the emperor recognize
reunited in time. Until that time came, the fiction was
any limits to his authority. The ideal relationship of a
maintained that the rulers of western Europe, like those
dyarchy between emperor and patriarch, the body and
of the Slavs, held their authority by virtue of their special
the soul of the empire, was written into the Epanagoge of
relationship with the one true emperor in Constantinople.
Basil I, in a section probably composed by Photius.
It was sometimes suggested that a marriage alliance
The administration in this period was ever more closely
might bring together the Eastern and Western parts of
centralized in Constantinople, with an increasingly com-
Group
the empire and so provide for a united defense against
plex and numerous bureaucracy of officials who received
the common enemy in Sicily-the Arabs. In 944 Ro-
their appointments and their salaries from the emperor.
go
manus II, son of Constantine VII, married a daughter of
The emperor also controlled the elaborate machinery of
Hugh of Provence, the Carolingian claimant to Italy.
the foreign and diplomatic service. Some of his civil
Constantine VII also kept up diplomatic contact with
servants, however, were powerful enough to play the part
Holy
Otto I, the Saxon king of Germany. But the case was
of kingmakers, notably Basil, the chamberlain who en-
Roman
dramatically altered when Otto was crowned emperor of
gineered the ascent to the throne of Nicephorus Phocas
Empire
the Romans in 962, for this was a direct affront to the
and John Tzimisces. Order and the regulation of trade,
founded in
unique position of the Byzantine emperor. Otto tried,
commerce, and industry in the capital were in the hands
the West
and failed, to establish his claim, either by force in the
of the Prefect of the City, whose functions are outlined in
Byzantine province in Italy or by negotiation in Con-
the 9th-century Book of the Eparch. He was responsible
stantinople. His ambassador Liudprand of Cremona
for organizing and controlling the guilds or colleges of
wrote an account of his mission to Nicephorus Phocas in
craftsmen and retailers, whose legal rights and duties to
968 and of the Emperor's scornful rejection of a proposed
the state were strictly circumscribed and supervised. The
a
marriage between Otto's son and a Byzantine princess.
provinces in Europe and Asia were administered accord-
The incident vividly demonstrates the superior attitude of
ing to their territorial division into themes, which, by the
the Byzantines toward the West in the 10th century.
10th century, numbered over 30. The themes, though
John Tzimisces relented to the extent of arranging for
subdivided and reduced in size, retained their military
c
one of his own relatives to marry Otto II in 972, though
character. Their governors, or stratëgoi, combined mili-
the arrangement implied no recognition of a Western
tary and civil authority and were directly answerable to
e
claim to the empire. Basil II agreed that Otto III also
the emperor, who appointed them. The army and the
should marry a Byzantine princess. But this union was
navy were, for the most part, recruited from the ranks
0
never achieved; and subsequently Basil reorganized the
of soldier-farmers who held hereditary grants of land
p
administration of Byzantine Italy and was preparing an-
within the territory of each theme. The border districts
d
other campaign against the Arabs in Sicily at the time of
were protected by contingents of frontier troops, led by
e
his death in 1025. The myth of the universal Roman Em-
their own officers or lords of the marches. Their exploits
pire died hard.
and adventures were romanticized in the 10th-century
d
Culture and administration. The Iconoclastic Con-
folk-epic of Digenis Akritas. But warfare was studied
n
troversy had aggravated the estrangement of the Byzan-
and perfected as a science, and it was the subject of trea-
tine Church and Empire from the West. But it helped to
tises such as the Tactica of Leo VI, derived from the
u
define the tenets of Orthodoxy; and it had an effect on
Strategicon of the emperor Maurice.
the character of Byzantine society for the future. On the
Social and economic change. The wars of reconquest
one hand, the church acquired a new unity and vitality:
on the eastern frontier in this period and the general mili-
a
its missionaries spread the Orthodox faith in new quarters
tary orientation of imperial policy brought to the fore a
S
of the world, its monasteries proliferated, and its spiritual
new class of aristocracy, whose wealth and power was
tradition was carried forward by the sermons and writ-
based on land ownership and who held most of the high-
ings of the Patriarch Photius in the 9th century and of
er military posts. Trade and industry in the cities were so
Symeon the New Theologian in the 10th and 11th cen-
rigidly controlled by the government that almost the only
turies. On the other hand, the empire became more aware
profitable form of investment for private enterprise was
of its Greco-Roman heritage. Interest in classical Greek
the acquisition of landed property. The military aristoc-
Gred
scholarship revived following the re-organization of the
racy, therefore, took to buying up the farms of free peas-
land
University of Constantinople under Michael III. The re-
ants and soldiers and reducing their owners to varying
hoar
vival was fostered and patronized particularly by the
forms of dependence. As the empire grew stronger, the
are
scholar-emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, who
rich became richer. Given the system of agriculture pre-
saw to the compilation of three great works on the ad-
vailing in Anatolia and the Balkans, every failure of
ministration, the court ceremonies, and the provinces of
crops, every famine, drought, or plague produced a quota
his empire. He also commissioned a history of the age to
of destitute peasant-soldiers willing to turn themselves
which he contributed a biography of his grandfather
and their land over to the protection of a prosperous and
Basil I. The age produced little original research, but
ambitious landlord. The first emperor to see the danger
lexicons (such as the 10th-century Suda), anthologies, en-
in this development was Romanus I Lecapenus, who, in
cyclopaedias, and commentaries (such as the Lexicon
922 and 934, passed laws to defend the small landowners
and Bibliotheca of Photius) were produced in great num-
against the acquisitive instincts of the "powerful"; for he
ber. The soldier-emperors of the 10th century were less
realized that the economic as well as the military strength
interested in intellectual pursuits, but scholarship re-
of the empire depended on the maintenance within the
ceived a new impetus in the 11th century with Michael
theme system of the institution of free, yet tax-paying,
Psellus.
soldier-farmers and peasants in village communities.
The founder of the dynasty, Basil I, and his son Leo VI,
(Only freemen owed military service.)
made plain their intention to inaugurate a new eΓa by a
Successive emperors after Romanus I enforced and ex-
restatement of the imperial law. Basil hoped to make a
tended his agrarian legislation. But the cost of the cam-
complete revision of the legal code, but only a prelimi-
paigns of reconquest from the Arabs had to be met by
nary textbook (Procheiron) with an introduction (Epana-
higher taxation, which drove many of the poorer peas-
goge) appeared during his reign. Leo VI, however, ac-
ants to sell their lands and to seek security as tenant-
complished the work with the publication of the 60
farmers. Nicephorus Phocas. who belonged to one of the
Byzantine Empire 563
aristocratic landowning families of Anatolia, was natu-
ascetic and uncultured by nature, Basil embodied the
code of
ssible to
rally reluctant to act against members of his own class,
least attractive features of Byzantine autocracy. Some
needs of
though he adhered to the principle that the rights of the
have called him the greatest of all the emperors. But the
's, which
poor should be safeguarded. His laws about land tenure
virtue of philanthropy, which the Byzantines prized and
il law in
were particularly directed towards the creation of a more
commended in their rulers, was not a part of his great-
principle
mobile force of heavy-armed cavalry recruited from
ness; and the qualities that lent refinement to the Byzan-
; himself
those who could afford the equipment, which inevitably
tine character, among them a love of learning and the
publican
trought changes in the social structure of the peasant
arts, were not fostered during his reign. Yet, while Basil
r of the
militia. On the other hand, Nicephorus took a firm line
was busily earning his title of Bulgaroctonus (Bulgar
to prevent the accumulation of further land by the
ecognize
Slayer), St. Symeon the New Theologian was exploring
hip of a
church, and he forbade any addition to the number of
the love of God for man in some of the most poetic
ody and
monasteries, whose estates, already extensive, were un-
homilies in all mystical literature.
productive to the economy.
agoge of
The last emperor to attempt to deal with the problem of
BYZANTINE DECLINE AND SUBJECTION
IS.
land ownership seriously was Basil II, whose rise to the
TO WESTERN INFLUENCES: 1025-1260
e closely
gly com-
Grown
throne had involved the empire in a bitter and costly war
Basil II never married. But after his death his relatives
received
against the aristocratic Sclerus and Phocas families. In
remained in possession of the throne until 1056, less be-
and
y96 Basil promulgated comprehensive punitive legisla-
emperor.
cause of their efficiency than because of a general feeling
tion against the landed families, ordering the restitution
hinery of
among the Byzantine people that the prosperity of the
of land acquired from the peasantry since 922 and re-
his civil
empire was connected with the continuity of the Mace-
The later
the part
quiring proof of title to other land going back in some
donian dynasty. When Basil's brother Constantine VIII
Macedo-
cases as far as 1,000 years. Further, the system of collec-
who en-
died in 1028, the line was continued in his two daughters,
nians
tive responsibility for the payment of outstanding taxes
.S Phocas
Zoe and Theodora. Zoe was married three times: to
known as the allelengyon now devolved not on the rest
of trade,
Romanus III Argyrus (ruled 1028-34), to Michael IV
the hands
of the village community but on the nearest large land-
(1034-41), and to Constantine IX Monomachus (1042-
owner, whether lay or ecclesiastical. Basil's conquest of
utlined in
55), who outlived her. When Constantine IX died in 1055,
Bulgaria somewhat altered the social and economic pat-
sponsible
Zoe's sister Theodora reigned alone as empress until her
tern of the empire, for new themes were created there in
olleges of
death a year later.
duties to
which there was no long tradition of a landed aristocracy
The great emperors of the golden age, not all of them
rised. The
as in Anatolia. After his death in 1025 the powerful hit
members of the Macedonian family, molded the history
d accord-
back, and the government in Constantinople was no long-
of that age. The successors of Basil II were rather the
ch, by the
er able to check the absorption of small freeholders by
creatures of circumstances in that they did not make and
the great landowners and the consequent feudalization
S, though
seldom molded. In the 56 years from 1025 to 1081, there
of the empire.
military
were 13 emperors. An attempt made by Constantine X
ined mili-
This process was particularly disastrous for the military
Ducas to found a new dynasty was disastrously unsuc-
verable to
establishment. The success and prestige of the Byzantine
cessful. Not until the rise of Alexius I Comnenus to pow-
, and the
Empire in the Macedonian era to a large extent depended
er, in 1081, was stability restored by an ensured succes-
the ranks
on the unrivalled efficiency of its army in Anatolia. A
sion in the Comnenus family, who ruled for over 100
S of land
professional force, yet mainly native to the soil and so
years (1081-1185).
r districts
directly concerned with the defense of that soil, it had no
11th-century weakness. The state of the Byzantine
equal in the Western or the Arab world at the time. And
ps, led by
Empire in the 11th century may be compared to that of
ir exploits
yet it was in this institution that the seeds of decay and
the Roman Empire in the 3rd century, when, after a long
th-century
disintegration took root; for most of the army's com-
period of secure prosperity, new pressures from beyond
manders were drawn from the great landowners of Ana-
IS studied
the frontiers aggravated the latent tensions in society.
ct of trea-
tolia, who had acquired their riches and their status by
The brief reigns of Basil II's heirs reflected, and were
undermining the social and economic structure on which
from the
often the product of, a division in the Byzantine ruling
its recruitment depended. Basil II had restrained them
class, a conflict between the military aristocracy of the
with such an iron hand that a reaction was inevitable
econquest
provinces and the civilian aristocracy, or bureaucracy,
neral mili-
after his death. Indeed, it is doubtful if Byzantine society
of Constantinople. Each faction put up rival emperors.
the fore a
could have tolerated another Basil II, for all his triumphs.
The sophisticated urban aristocracy favoured rulers who
Soured by long years of civil war at the start of his reign,
ower was
would reverse the militaristic trend of the empire, and
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Damascus
as tenant-
one of the
The Byzantine Empire in 1025.
564 Byzantine Empire
who would expand the civil service and supply them and
Constantinople refused to have him back as emperor
their families with lucrative offices and decorative titles.
and installed their own candidate, Michael VII. Romanus
The military families, whose wealth lay not in the capital
was treacherously blinded. The Seljuqs were thus justi-
but in the provinces, and who had been penalized by
fied in continuing their raids and were even encouraged
Basil II's legislation, favoured emperors who were sol-
to do so. Michael VII invited Alp Arslan to help him
diers and not civil servants. In this they were more
against his rivals, Nicephorus Bryennius and Nicephorus
realistic, for in the latter part of the 11th century it be-
Botaneiates, each of whom proclaimed himself emperor
came ever clearer that the empire's military strength was
at Adrianople in 1077 and at Nicaea in 1078. In the four
no longer sufficient to hold back its enemies. The land-
years of ensuing civil war there were no troops to defend
Si
owners in the provinces appreciated the dangers more
the eastern frontier. By 1081 the Turks had reached
readily than the government in Constantinople, and they
Nicaea. The heart of the empire's military and economic
E
made those dangers an excuse to enlarge their estates in
strength, which the Arabs had never mastered, was now
defiance of all the laws passed in the 10th century. The
under Turkish rule.
theme system in Anatolia, which had been the basis of
The new enemies in the West were the Normans, who
the empire's defensive and offensive power, was rapidly
began their conquest of South Italy early in the 11th
breaking down at the very moment when its new enemies
century. Basil II's project of recovering Sicily from the
tc
were gathering their strength.
Arabs had been almost realized in 1042 by the one great
M.
On the other hand, the urban aristocracy of Constanti-
general of the post-Macedonian era, George Maniaces,
of
nople, reacting against the brutalization of war, strove to
who was recalled by Constantine IX and killed as a pre-
St
make the city a centre of culture and sophistication. The
tender to the throne. The Normans thereafter made
university was endowed with a new charter by Con-
steady progress in Italy. Led by Robert Guiscard, they
stantine IX in 1045, partly to ensure a steady flow of
carried all before them; in April 1071, Bari, the last Γe-
educated civil servants for the bureaucracy. The law
maining Byzantine stronghold, fell after a three-year
school was revived under the jurist John Xiphilinus; the
more
B
siege. Byzantine rule in Italy and the hope of a recon-
school of philosophy was chaired by Michael Psellus,
quest of Sicily were at an end.
Fax
whose researches into every field of knowledge earned
The disasters at Manzikert and at Bari, at opposite ex-
tremes of the empire, in the same year 1071, graphically
made
him a reputation for omniscience and a great following
of brilliant pupils. Psellus-courtier, statesman, philoso-
illustrate the decline of Byzantine power. The final loss
0:
pher, and historian-is in himself an advertisement for
of Italy seemed to underline the fact of the permanent
the liveliness of Byzantine society in the 11th century.
division between the Greek East and the Latin West,
W
What he and others like him failed to take into account
which was now not only geographical and political but
R
was that their empire was more and more expending the
also increasingly cultural and ecclesiastical. In 1054 a
C
resources and living on the reputation built up by the
state of schism had been declared between the churches
Schise
0
Macedonian emperors.
of Rome and Constantinople. The political context of the
betwer
Arrival of new enemies. The new enemies that
event was the Norman invasion of Italy, which at the
churces
emerged in the 11th century, unlike the Arabs or the
time was a matter of as much concern to the papacy as it
Bulgars, had no cause to respect that reputation. They
was to Byzantium. But the event itself, the excommunica-
appeared almost simultaneously on the northern, the
tion of the patriarch Michael Cerularius by Cardinal
o
eastern, and the western frontiers. It was nothing new
Humbert in Constantinople, symbolized an irreconcilable
for the Byzantines to have to fight on two fronts at once.
difference in ideology. The reform movement in the Ro-
But the task required a soldier on the throne. The Pe-
man Church had emphasized an ideal of the universal
chenegs, a Turkic tribe, had long been known as the
role of the papacy that was wholly incompatible with
St
northern neighbours of the Bulgars. Constantine VII had
Byzantine tradition. Both sides also deliberately aggra-
thought them to be valuable allies against the Bulgars,
vated their differences by reviving all the disputed points
p
Magyars, and Russians. But after the conquest of Bul-
of theology and ritual that had become battle cries dur-
garia, the Pechenegs began to raid across the Danube
ing the Photian Schism in the 9th century. The schism of
into what was now Byzantine territory. Constantine IX
1054 passed unnoticed by contemporary Byzantine his-
allowed them to settle south of the river, where their
torians; its significance as a turning point in East-West
numbers and their ambitions increased. By the mid-11th
relations was fully realized only later.
d
century they were a constant menace to the peace in
Alexius I and the First Crusade. But even the events
Thrace and Macedonia, and they encouraged the spirit
of 1071 had not made the decline of Byzantium irretriev-
of revolt among the Bogomil heretics in Bulgaria. It was
able. The shrinking of its boundaries reduced the empire
p
left to Alexius I to avert a crisis by defeating the Pech-
from its status as a dominating world power to that of a
a
enegs in battle in 1091.
small Greek state fighting for survival. That survival
The new arrivals on the eastern frontier were the Seljuq
now depended on the new political, commercial, and ec-
Seljuq
Turks, whose conquests were to change the whole shape
clesiastical forces in the West, for it could no longer
Z
Turks in
of the Muslim and Byzantine worlds. In 1055, having
draw on its former military and economic resources in
the East
conquered Persia, they entered Baghdad, and their prince
Anatolia. The civil aristocracy of Constantinople yielded
assumed the title of sultan and protector of the 'Abbasid
with a bad grace. After four years of civil war, the mili-
p
caliphate. Before long they asserted their authority to the
tary lords triumphed with the accession of Alexius I
borders of Fatimid Egypt and Byzantine Anatolia. They
Comnenus, the greatest soldier and statesman to hold the
made their first explorations across the Byzantine fron-
throne since Basil II. The history of his reign was written
C
tier into Armenia in 1065 and, in 1067, as far west as
in elegant Greek by his daughter Anna Comnena; and,
Caesarea in central Anatolia. The raiders were inspired
as she remarks, it began with an empire beset by enemies
by the Muslim idea of holy war, and there was at first
on all sides. The Normans captured Dyrrhachium in
nothing systematic about their invasion. They found it
1081 and planned to advance overland to Thessalonica.
$
surprisingly easy, however, to plunder the countryside
Alexius called on the Venetians to help him, but Robert
and isolate the cities, owing to the long neglect of the
Guiscard's death in 1085 temporarily eased the Norman
r
eastern frontier defenses by the emperors in Constantino-
problem. The following year the Seljuq sultan died, and
ple. The emergency lent weight to the military aristocra-
the sultanate was split by internal rivalries. Fortune thus
a
cy in Anatolia who, in 1068, finally secured the election
played into Alexius's hands by ridding him of two of his
of one of their own number, Romanus IV Diogenes, as
besetting enemies. By his own efforts, however, he de-
emperor. Romanus assembled an army to deal with what
feated the Pechenegs in 1091.
C
he saw as a large-scale military operation. It was a sign
The Venetians had been pleased to help drive the Nor-
of the times that it was mainly composed of foreign mer-
mans out of the Adriatic Sea but demanded a heavy
C
Battle of
cenaries. In August 1071 it was defeated at Manzikert,
price. In 1082 Alexius granted them trading privileges in
e
Manzikert
near Lake Van in Armenia. Romanus was taken prisoner
Constantinople and elsewhere on terms calculated to
by the Seljuq sultan, Alp Arslan. He was allowed to buy
outbid Byzantine merchants. This charter was the cor-
his freedom after signing a treaty, but the opposition in
nerstone of the commercial empire of Venice in the
Byzantine Empire
565
emperor
eastern Mediterranean. But it fed the flames of Byzan-
tion of equipping himself as a mounted cavalryman with
Romanus
tine resentment against the Latins; and it provoked the
a varying number of troops. He was in absolute posses-
ius.justi-
rich, who might have been encouraged to invest their
sion of his property until it reverted to the crown upon
couraged
capital in shipbuilding and trade, to rely on the more
his death. Similarly, Alexius tried to promote more prof-
help him
familiar security of landed property.
itable development of the estates of the church by grant-
cephorus
The terms that Alexius made with his enemies in the
ing them to the management of laymen as charisticia or
emperor
first ten years of his reign were not meant to be perma-
benefices. As an expedient, the pronoia system had ob-
the four
nent. He fully expected to win back Anatolia from the
vious advantages both for the state and for the military
o defend
Seljuqs; his plans, however, were not given time to ma-
aristocracy who were its main beneficiaries. But in the
reached
ture, for matters were precipitated by the arrival in the
long term it inevitably hastened the fragmentation of the
economic
East of the first Crusaders from western Europe (1096).
empire among the landed families and the breakdown of
was now
Alexius had undoubtedly solicited the help of mercenary
centralized government that the 10th-century emperors
troops from the West but not for the liberation of the
had laboured to avert.
ans, who
Holy Land from the infidel. The urgent need was the
Later Comneni. The domestic and foreign policies of
the 11th
protection of Constantinople and the recovery of Ana-
Alexius I were continued by his son John II (reigned
from the
tolia. The Byzantines were more realistic about their
1118-43) and his grandson Manuel I Comnenus (reigned
one great
Muslim neighbours than the distant popes and princes
1143-80). The 12th century saw a growing involvement
Maniaces,
of the West. Jerusalem had finally been taken by the
of the Western powers in the affairs of the East, as well
as a pre-
Seljuqs in 1077, but the most immediate threat to By-
as an increasingly complex political situation in Europe.
ter made
zantium came from the Pechenegs and the Normans.
In Asia, too, matters were complicated by the continuing
ard, they
Alexius was tactful in his dealings with the pope and
conflict between the Seljuqs and the Dänishmends (a
e last re-
ready to discuss the differences between the churches.
rival Turkish dynasty) by the emergence of the kingdom
hree-year
But neither party foresaw the consequences of Pope Ur-
of Lesser Armenia in Cilicia, and by the activities of the
a recon-
ban II's appeal in 1095 for recruits to fight a Holy War.
crusader states. Foreign relations and skillful diplomacy
The response in western Europe was overwhelming. The
became of paramount importance for the Byzantines.
posite ex-
made
motives of those who took the cross as crusaders ranged
John II tried and failed to break what was fast becoming
raphically
from religious enthusiasm to a mere spirit of adventure
the Venetian monopoly of Byzantine trade, and he
final loss
or a hope of gain; and it was no comfort to Alexius to
sought to come to terms with the new kingdom of Hun-
ermanent
learn that four of the eight leaders of the First Crusade
gary, to whose ruler he was related by marriage. Alexius
tin West,
were Normans, among them Bohomund, the son of
I had seen the importance of Hungary, lying between
litical but
Robert Guiscard. Since the crusade had to pass through
the Western and Byzantine empires, a neighbour of the
in 1054 a
Constantinople, however, the emperor had some control
Venetians and the Serbs. More ominous still was the
churches
over it. He required its leaders to swear to restore to the
establishment of the Norman Kingdom of the Two
text of the
empire any towns or territories they might conquer from
Sicilies under Roger II in 1130. But John II astutely
ich at the
the Turks on their way to the Holy Land. In return, he
allied himself with the Western emperor against it.
pacy as it
gave them guides and a military escort. Still, the cost was
Manuel I realized even more clearly that Byzantium
mmunica-
enormous, for the crusaders had to be supplied with food
could not presume to ignore or offend the new powers in
Cardinal
or live off the land as they went.
the West, and he went out of his way to understand and
concilable
Nicaea fell to them in 1097 and was duly handed over
to appease them. Certain aspects of the Western way of
Appease-
in the Ro-
to the emperor in accord with the agreement. In 1098
life appealed to Manuel. His first and second wives were
ment of the
universal
they reached, and captured, Antioch. Here the trouble
both Westerners, and Latins were welcomed at his court
West
tible with
started. Bohomund refused to turn over the city and in-
and even granted estates and official appointments. This
ely aggra-
stead set up his own principality of Antioch. His exam-
policy was distasteful to most of his subjects; and it was
ited points
ple was imitated in the establishment of the Latin King-
unfortunate for his intentions that the Second Crusade
cries dur-
dom of Jerusalem, which fell to the crusaders in 1099,
occurred early in his reign (1147), for it aggravated the
schism of
and of the counties of Edessa and Tripoli. The crusaders
bitterness between Greeks and Latins and brought By-
antine his-
settled down to colonize and defend the coast of Palestine
zantium deeper than ever into the tangled politics of
East-West
and Syria and to quarrel among themselves. While they
western Europe. Its leaders were Louis VII of France
did so, Alexius was able to establish a new and more
and the emperor Conrad III, and its failure was blamed
the events
secure boundary between Byzantium and Islãm through
on Byzantine treachery. The French king discussed with
n irretriev-
the middle of Anatolia. Full advantage was taken of the
Roger of Sicily the prospect of attacking Constantinople;
the empire
prevailing rivalry between the Seljuq sultans at Konya
and in 1147 Roger invaded Greece. But Manuel retained
o that of a
and the Dänishmends emirs at Melitene; and a limit was
the personal friendship and the alliance of Conrad III
it survival
set to the westward expansion of the Turks.
against the Normans and even planned a joint Byzantine-
al, and ec-
The First Crusade thus brought some benefits to By-
German campaign against them in Italy.
no longer
zantium. But nothing could reconcile the emperor to
No such cooperation was possible with Conrad's suc-
:sources in
Bohomund of Antioch. In 1107 Bohomund, who had re-
cessor, Frederick I Barbarossa, after 1152. To Frederick,
ple yielded
turned to the West, mounted a new invasion of the em-
the alliance between the Holy Roman Empire and what
Γ, the mili-
pire from Italy. Alexius was ready for him and defeated
he called "the kingdom of the Greeks" was not one be-
Alexius I
him at Dyrrhachium in 1108. Byzantine prestige was
tween equals. Manuel launched a vain invasion of the
to hold the
higher than it had been for many years, but the empire
Norman kingdom on his own account in 1154; but it was
vas written
could barely afford to sustain the part of a great power.
too late for a revival of Byzantine imperialism in the
nena; and,
Alexius reconstituted the army and re-created the fleet,
West. It was hard for the Byzantines to accept the fact
by enemies
but only by means of stabilizing the gold coinage at one-
that their empire might soon become simply one among a
achium in
third of its original value and by imposing a number of
number of Christian principalities.
essalonica.
supplementary taxes. It became normal practice for
In the Balkans and in the Latin East Manuel was more
but Robert
taxes to be farmed out, which meant that the collectors
successful. His armies won back much of the northwest
e Norman
recouped their outlay on their own terms. People in the
Balkans and almost conquered Hungary, reducing it to a
1 died, and
provinces had the added burden of providing materials
client kingdom of Byzantium. The Serbs, too, under their
ortune thus
and labour for defense, communications, and provisions
leader Stephen Nemanja, were kept under control, while
two of his
for the army, which now included very large numbers of
Manuel's dramatic recovery of Antioch in 1159 caused
ver, he de-
foreigners. The supply of native soldiers had virtually
the crusaders to treat the Emperor with a new respect.
ceased with the disappearance or absorption of their mili-
But in Anatolia he overreached himself. To forestall the
:e the Nor-
tary holdings. But Alexius promoted an alternative source
formation of a single Turkish sultanate, Manuel invaded
:d a heavy
of native manpower by extending the system of granting
the Seljuq territory of Rūm in 1176. His army was sur-
rivileges in
estates in pronoia (by favour of the emperor), and tying
rounded and annihilated at Myriocephalon. The battle
Iculated to
the grant to the military obligation. The recipient of a
marked the end of the Byzantine counteroffensive against
as the cor-
pronoia was entitled to all the revenues of his estate and
the Turks begun by Alexius I. Its outcome delighted the
nice in the
to the taxes payable by his tenants (paroikoi), on condi-
Western emperor, Frederick Barbarossa, who had sup-
566 Byzantine Empire
ported the Seljuq sultan of Rūm against Manuel and who
II, whose son Alexius IV had escaped to the West to
battle
now openly threatened to take over the Byzantine Em-
seek help, and who made lavish promises of reward to
suppo
pire by force.
his benefactors. But when, in 1203, the crusaders drove
princ
Manuel's personal relationships with the crusaders and
Alexius III out of Constantinople, Isaac II and his son
king
with other Westerners remained cordial to the end. But
proved incapable either of fulfilling the promises or of
Two
his policies had antagonized the Holy Roman Empire,
stifling the anti-Latin prejudice of their people, who pro-
nople
the papacy, the Normans, and, not least, the Venetians.
claimed an emperor of their own in the person of Alexius
to Ita
V. The Venetians and crusaders therefore felt justified in
crativ
His effort to revive Byzantine prestige in Italy and the
taking their own reward by conquering and dividing Con-
was c
Balkans, and his treaties with Genoa (1169) and Pisa
stantinople and the Byzantine provinces among them-
to the
(1170), roused the suspicions of Venice; and in 1171, fol-
lowing an anti-Latin demonstration in Constantinople,
selves. The city fell to them in April 1204. They worked
and i
all Venetians in the empire were arrested and their prop-
off their resentment against the inhabitants in an unparal-
the la
erty was confiscated. The Venetians did not forget this
leled orgy of looting and destruction, which did irrepara-
THE
I
episode. They, too, began to think in terms of putting
ble damage to the city and immeasurable harm to East-
Constantinople under Western control as the only means
West understanding.
The
The Venetians, led by their doge, Enrico Dandolo,
and
of securing their interest in Byzantine trade.
gained most from the enterprise by appropriating the
based
Manuel's policies antagonized many of his own people
principal harbours and islands on the trade routes. The
Selju
as well. His favouritism to the Latins was unpopular, as
was his lavish granting of estates in pronoia. A reaction
crusaders set about the conquest of the European and
polic
Asiatic provinces. The first Latin emperor, Baldwin I,
been
set in shortly after his death in 1180, originated by his
cousin Andronicus Comnenus, who ascended to the
was the suzerain of the feudal principalities that they
into
established in Thrace, Thessalonica, Athens, and the
for ti
throne after another anti-Latin riot in Constantinople.
Andronicus murdered Manuel's widow and son Alexius
Morea (Peloponnese). He soon came into conflict with
caea.
II. He posed as the champion of Byzantine patriotism and
the ruler of Bulgaria. Still more serious was the opposi-
caea
of the oppressed peasantry. But to enforce his reforms he
tion offered by the three provincial centres of Byzantine
omy
resistance. At Trebizond (Trabzon) on the Black Sea, two
bega
behaved like a tyrant. By undermining the power of the
brothers of the Comnenian family laid claim to the im-
Jeru:
aristocracy he weakened the empire's defenses and un-
perial title. In Epirus in northwestern Greece Michael
hand
did much of Manuel's work. The King of Hungary broke
his treaty; Stephen Nemanja of Serbia declared his in-
Angelus Ducas, a relative of Alexius III, made his capital
the e
dependence from Byzantium and founded a new Serbian
at Arta and harrassed the crusader states in Thessaly.
the
kingdom. Within the empire, too, disintegration pro-
The third centre of resistance was based on the city of
like
ceeded. In 1185 Isaac Comnenus, governor of Cyprus,
Nicaea in Anatolia, where Theodore I Lascaris, another
mor
the i
set himself up as independent ruler of the island. In the
relative of Alexius III, was crowned as emperor by a
patriarch of his own making in 1208. Of the three, Nicaea
zant
same year the Normans again invaded Greece and cap-
lay nearest to Constantinople, between the Latin empire
in 7
tured Thessalonica. The news prompted a counter-revo-
and the Seljuq sultanate of Rüm; and its emperors proved
emp
lution in Constantinople and Andronicus was murdered.
He was the last of the Comnenian family to wear the
worthy of the Byzantine traditions of fighting on two
for
crown. His successor Isaac II Angelus was brought to
fronts at once and of skillful diplomacy. Theodore Las-
app:
power by the aristocracy. His reign, and, still more, that
caris and his son-in-law John III Vatatzes built up at Ni-
was
caea a microcosm of the Byzantine Empire and church in
Chu
of his brother Alexius III, saw the collapse of what re-
mained of the centralized machinery of Byzantine gov-
exile. The Latins were thus never able to gain a perma-
Lase
ernment and defense. Isaac tried at least to keep his for-
nent foothold in Anatolia; and even in Europe their posi-
con
Mi
eign enemies in check. The Normans were driven out of
tion was constantly threatened by the Byzantine rulers of
northern Greece, though in the centre and south of the
an
Greece in 1185. But in 1186 the Bulgars began a rebel-
lion that was to lead to the formation of the Second Bul-
country their conquests were more lasting.
garian Empire. Matters were not made easier by the ar-
The most successful of the Latin emperors was Bald-
rival of the Third Crusade, provoked by the loss of Jeru-
win's brother, Henry of Flanders, after whose death in
salem to the Muslim leader Saladin in 1187. One of its
1216 the Latin empire lost the initiative and the recovery
leaders was Frederick Barbarossa, whose avowed inten-
of Constantinople became a foreseeable goal for the By-
tion was to conquer Constantinople. He died on his way
zantines in exile. The Latin regime was prolonged less by
B(
to Syria. But Richard I the Lion-Heart of England ap-
its own vitality than by the inability of the successor states
propriated Cyprus from Isaac Comnenus, and the island
of Epirus and Nicaea to cooperate. In 1224 Theodore
never again reverted to Byzantine rule.
Ducas of Epirus, who had extended his territories across
The Fourth Crusade and the establishment of the Latin
the north of Greece and far into Bulgaria, wrested Thes-
Empire. In 1195 Isaac II was deposed and blinded by
salonica from the Latins and was crowned emperor there
his brother Alexius III. The Westerners, who had again
in defiance of the Emperor in Nicaea. In 1230, however,
blamed the failure of their crusade on the Byzantines,
he was defeated in battle against the Bulgars before
saw ways of exploiting the situation. The emperor Henry
reaching Constantinople; and his defeat gave John Vatat-
VI had united the Norman kingdom of Sicily with the
zes the chance to extend his own empire into Europe, to
Holy Roman Empire. He inherited the ambitions of both
ally with the Bulgars, and so to encircle Constantinople.
to master Constantinople, and his brother, Philip of
Theodore's successor was made to renounce his imperial
Swabia, was married to a daughter of the dethroned
title, and Thessalonica surrendered to the empire of Ni-
Isaac II. Alexius bought off the danger by paying tribute
caea in 1246. The Mongol invasion of Anatolia, which
to Henry. But Henry died in 1197. The idea had now
had meanwhile thrown the East into confusion, was of
gained ground in the West that the conquest of Con-
great benefit to Nicaea, for it weakened the Seljuq sultan-
stantinople would solve a number of problems and would
ate and isolated the rival empire of Trebizond.
be of benefit not only to trade but also to the future of
John Vatatzes might well have crowned his achieve-
the crusade and the church. In 1198 Innocent III was
ments by taking Constantinople had he not died in 1254.
elected pope. The new rulers of Hungary, Serbia, and
When his son Theodore II Lascaris (1254-58) died in
Bulgaria all turned to him for the recognition of the
1258, leaving an infant son, John IV, the regency and
sovereignty that Byzantium would not give them.
then the throne in Nicaea were taken over by Michael
It was under Innocent's inspiration that the Fourth Cru-
VIII Palaeologus (reigned 1259-82). Michael came of
The
sade was launched, and it was by the diversion of that
one of the aristocratic families of Nicaea whom Theo-
access
crusade from its purpose and objective that the conquest
dore II had mistrusted. But it was he who carried the
of Main
Conquest
and colonization of the Byzantine Empire by the West
work of the Lascarid emperors to its logical conclusion.
Palae-
and coloni-
was realized. A multiplicity of causes and coincidences
The Byzantine state in Epirus had revived under Michael
olog-
zation by
led up to the event; but the ambition of Venice, which
II Ducas, who set his sights on Thessalonica. Despite
the West
supplied the ships, must rank high among them. A plau-
several efforts to reach a diplomatic settlement, the issue
Th
sible excuse was offered by the cause of restoring Isaac
between the rival contenders had finally to be resolved in
Byzantine Empire
567
battle at Pelagonia in Macedonia in 1259. Michael II was
termined that it should succeed. He took measures for
the West to
supported by William of Villehardouin, the French
the rehabilitation, repopulation, and defense of Constan-
f reward to
aders drove
prince of the Morea, and by Manfred, the Hohenstaufen
tinople. He stimulated a revival of trade by granting
king of Sicily. The victory went to the army of Nicaea.
privileges to Italian merchants. The Genoese, who had
and his son
mises or of
Two years later a general of that army entered Constanti-
agreed to lend him ships for the recovery of the city
le, who pro-
nople. The last of the Latin emperors, Baldwin II, fled
from their Venetian rivals, were especially favoured; and
n of Alexius
to Italy; and the Venetians were dispossessed of their lu-
soon they had built their own commercial colony at
crative commercial centre. In August 1261 Michael VIII
Galata opposite Constantinople, and cornered most of
t justified in
was crowned as emperor in Constantinople; the boy heir
what had long been a Venetian monopoly. Inevitably,
viding Con-
nong them-
to the throne of Nicaea, John IV Lascaris, was blinded
this led to a conflict between Genoa and Venice, of which
hey worked
and imprisoned. In this way, the dynasty of Palaeologus,
the Byzantines were the main victims. Some territory was
an unparal-
the last to reign in Constantinople, was inaugurated.
taken back from the Latins, notably in the Morea and
the Greek islands. But little was added to the imperial
lid irrepara-
THE EMPIRE UNDER THE PALAEOLOGI: 1261-1453
revenue; and Michael VIII's campaigns there and against
rm to East-
The empire in exile at Nicaea had become a manageable
Epirus and Thessaly ate up the resources that had been
and almost self-sufficient unit, with a thriving economy
accumulated by the emperors at Nicaea.
0 Dandolo,
priating the
based on agriculture and, latterly, on trade with the
The dominating influence on Byzantine policy for most
Threat of
routes. The
Seljuqs. It had no navy but the land frontiers in Anatolia,
of Michael's reign was the threat of reconquest by the
reconquest
ropean and
policed by well-paid troops, were stronger than they had
Western powers. Charles of Anjou, the brother of the
by the
been since the 12th century. By stretching the frontiers
French king Louis IX, displaced Manfred of Sicily and
West
Baldwin I,
S that they
into Europe the empire had not dissipated its strength;
inherited his title in 1266, organizing a coalition of all
for the possession of Thessalonica balanced that of Ni-
parties interested in re-establishing the Latin empire and
IS, and the
onflict with
caea. When the seat of government was moved from Ni-
posing as the pope's champion to lead a crusade against
caea to Constantinople, that balance was upset, the econ-
the schismatic Greeks. Michael VIII countered this threat
the opposi-
omy was re-oriented, and the defense system in Anatolia
by offering to submit the Church of Constantinople to
f Byzantine
ack Sea, two
began to break down. Constantinople was still the New
the see of Rome, thereby inviting the pope's protection
1 to the im-
Jerusalem for the Byzantines. To leave it in foreign
and removing the only moral pretext for a repetition of
hands was unthinkable. But after the dismemberment of
the Fourth Crusade. The offer to reunite the churches
:ce Michael
the empire by the Fourth Crusade, the city was no longer
had been made as a diplomatic ploy to previous popes
e his capital
the focal point of an integrated structure. It was more
by previous emperors, but never in such compelling cir-
n Thessaly.
the city of
like an immense city-state in the midst of a number of
cumstances. Pope Gregory X accepted it at its face value;
ris, another
more or less independent provinces. Much of Greece and
and at the second Council of Lyons in 1274 a Byzantine
peror by a
the islands remained in French or Italian hands. The By-
delegation professed obedience to the Holy See in the
iree, Nicaea
zantine rulers of Epirus and Thessaly, like the emperors
name of their emperor. Michael's policy, sincere or not,
atin empire
in Trebizond, refused to recognize Michael VIII as
was violently opposed by most of his people; and he had
emperor. His treatment of the Lascarid heir of Nicaea,
to persecute and imprison large numbers of them in order
rors proved
for which the patriarch Arsenius excommunicated him,
to persuade the papacy that the union of the churches
ing on two
appalled many of his own subjects and provoked what
was being implemented. Later popes were not convinced
eodore Las-
was known as the Arsenite schism in the Byzantine
by the pretense. In 1281 Charles of Anjou invaded the
ilt up at Ni-
Church. Many in Anatolia, loyal to the memory of the
empire. His army was beaten back in Albania, but he at
d church in
Lascarid emperors who had enriched and protected them,
once prepared a new invasion by sea, supported by
in a perma-
Venice, Serbia, Bulgaria, and the separatist rulers of
e their posi-
condemned Michael VIII as a usurper.
ne rulers of
Michael VIII. The new dynasty was thus founded in
northern Greece. His plans, however, were wrecked in
outh of the
an atmosphere of dissension. But its founder was de-
1282 by a rebellion in Sicily known as the Sicilian Ves-
From W. Shepherd, Historical Atlas; Barnes & Noble Books, New York
was Bald-
se death in
SEA OF
he recovery
KINGDOM OF HUNGARY
WALACHIA
AZOV
GOLDEN HORDE
for the By-
ged less by
BOSNIA
essor states
Belgrade
1 Theodore
SEVERIN
GREAT
Cherson
Danube
bries across
BLACK
SEA
ested Thes-
Niš
KINGDOM
KINGDOM
beror there
OF BULGARIA
Varna
OF SERBIA
Sofia
; however,
Sinope
ars before
Philippopolis
Trebizond
Skoplje
Adrianople,
ohn Vatat-
Prilip
Ochrida
Constantinople,
Europe, to
Pelagonia
Nicomedia
Halys
Thessalonica
tantinople.
Gallipoli
Nicaes,
is imperial
Brusa
Yannina
bire of Ni-
Lemnos
MONGOL DOMINIONS AND SELJUQ TURKS
Arts.-
lia, which
LATIN
Lesbos
Casarea
on, was of
STATES
juq sultan-
Athens
"35
Smyrna
Corinth
Iconium
Laodices.
Miletus
S achieve-
ARMENIA
Edessa
Mistra
Tarsus
d in 1254.
Attalia
LESSER
Aleppo.
8) died in
Antioch
gency and
Rhodes)
KINGDOM OF
y Michael
CYPRUS
Nicosia
The
CRETE
I came of
MAMLUK
accounts
Tripoli
om Theo-
SULTANATE
arried the
of
Was
SEA
Damascus
onclusion.
Palat
T Michael
olso
0
150 mi
Byzantine Empire
Despotat of Epirus
Empire of Trebizond
1. Despite
0
100
200
km
the issue
The remnants of the Byzantine Empire in 1265.
esolved in
568 Byzantine Empire
pers and by the intervention of Peter III of Aragon,
and help them. The Catalans finally moved west; in 1311
which the Byzantines encouraged. Michael VIII died at
they conquered Athens from the French and estab-
the end of the same year. He had saved his empire from
lished the Catalan Duchy of Athens and Thebes. The
its most persistent enemy, but he died condemned by
Turks whom they left behind were not ejected from
his church and people as a heretic and a traitor.
Gallipoli until 1312. The cost of hiring the Catalans, and
Whatever sins he may have committed in the eyes of
then of repairing the damage that they had done, had to
the Orthodox Church, it is true that Michael VIII, by
be met by desperate measures. The face value of the By-
Neglect of
concentrating on the danger from the West, neglected,
zantine gold coin or hyperpyron was lowered when its
Eastern
if he did not betray, the eastern provinces where he had
gold content was reduced to a mere 50 percent; and the
defenses
come to power. Frontier defense troops in Anatolia were
people had to bear still greater burdens of taxation-
withdrawn to Europe or neglected, and bands of Turkish
some extracted from the landlords of Macedonia and
raiders, driven westward by the upheaval of the Mongol
northern Thrace, some payable in kind by farmers. In-
invasion, began to penetrate into Byzantine territory.
flation and rising prices led to near famine in Constan-
Like the Seljuqs in the 11th century, the new arrivals
tinople, the population of which was swollen by vast
found little organized opposition. Some of the local
numbers of refugees. Unscrupulous merchants made
Byzantines even collaborated with them out of their own
great black-market profits.
antipathy to the emperor in Constantinople. By about
Cultural revival. Materially, the empire seemed al-
1280 the Turks were plundering the fertile valleys of
most beyond hope of recovery in the early 14th century,
western Anatolia, cutting communications between the
but spiritually and culturally it showed a remarkable
Greek cities; and their emirs were beginning to carve out
vitality. The church, no longer troubled over the question
small principalities. Michael VIII's network of diplomacy
of union with Rome, grew in prestige and authority. The
covered the Mongols of Iran and of the Golden Horde in
patriarchs of Constantinople commanded the respect of
Russia, as well as the Mamlüks of Egypt. But diplomacy
all the Orthodox Churches, even beyond the imperial
was ineffective against Muslim ghãzis (warriors inspired
boundaries; and Andronicus II, himself a pious theolo-
by the ideal of holy war); by the time the threat from
gian, yielded to the patriarch the ancient right of imperial
Italy was removed in 1282, it was almost too late to save
jurisdiction over the monastic settlement on Mt. Athos,
Byzantine Anatolia, even by military measures.
which prospered at a time when other centres of Byzan-
Nor was it possible to raise armies to fight in Europe
tine monasticism were being occupied by the Turks.
and Asia simultaneously. The native recruitment fostered
There was a new flowering of the Byzantine mystical tra-
Myyr
by the Comnenian emperors had fallen off since 1261.
dition in a movement known as Hesychasm, whose chief
and
Estates held in pronoia had now become hereditary pos-
spokesman was Gregory Palamas, a monk from Athos.
sessions of their landlords, who ignored or were relieved
The theology of the Hesychasts was thought to be hetero-
of the obligation to render military service to the govern-
dox by some theologians; and a controversy arose in the
ment. The knights of the Fourth Crusade had found
second quarter of the 14th century that had political un-
many familiar elements of feudalism in the social struc-
dertones and was as disruptive to the church and state as
ture of the Byzantine provinces. By the end of the 13th
the Iconoclastic dispute had been in an earlier age. It was
century the development had gone much further. The
not resolved until 1351.
officers of the Byzantine army were still mostly drawn
The revival of mystical speculation and the monastic
from the native aristocracy. But the troops were hired,
life may have been in part a reaction against the con-
and the cost of maintaining a large army in Europe,
temporary revival of secular literature and learning.
added to the lavish subsidies that Michael VIII paid to
Scholarship of all kinds was patronized by Andronicus
his friends and allies, crippled the economy.
II, whose court was likened to the Lyceum of antiquity.
Andronicus II. Michael's son Andronicus II (reigned
As in the 11th century, interest was mainly centred on a
1282-1328) unwisely attempted to economize by cutting
rediscovery of ancient Greek learning. The scholar Maxi-
down the size of the army and disbanding the navy. Un-
mus Planudes compiled a famous anthology and trans-
employed Byzantine sailors sold their services to the new
lated a number of Latin works into Greek, though
Turkish emirs, who were already raiding the Aegean
knowledge of Latin was rare and most of the Byzantine
islands. The Genoese became the suppliers and defenders
scholars prided themselves on having in their Hellenic
of Constantinople by sea, which excited the jealousy of
heritage an exclusive possession that set them apart from
the Venetians to the pitch of war and led to the first of a
the Latins. A notable exception was Demetrius Cydones
series of naval battles off Constantinople in 1296. In re-
who, like Michael Psellus, managed affairs of state for a
action against his father's policy, Andronicus II pursued
number of emperors for close to 50 years. Cydones trans-
a line of almost total isolation from the papacy and the
lated the works of Thomas Aquinas into Greek; he was
West. The union of Lyons was solemnly repudiated and
the forerunner of a minority of Byzantine intellectuals
Orthodoxy restored, to the deep satisfaction of most
who joined the Roman Church and looked to the West
Byzantines. But there were still divisive conflicts in so-
to save their empire from ruin. More typical of his class
ciety. The Arsenite schism in the church was not healed
was Theodore Metochites, the Grand Logothete or chan-
until 1310; the rulers of Epirus and Thessaly remained
cellor of Andronicus II, whose encyclopaedic learning
defiant and kept contact with the successors of Charles of
rivalled that of Psellus. His pupil Nicephorus Gregoras,
Anjou in Italy; and the people of Anatolia aired their
in addition to his researches in philosophy, theology,
grievances in rebellion. As the Turks encroached on their
mathematics, and astronomy, wrote a history of his age.
land, refugees in growing numbers fled to the coast or
The tradition of Byzantine historiography, maintained
to Constantinople, bringing new problems for the govern-
by George Acropolites, the historian of the Empire of
Appear-
ment. In 1302 a band of Turkish warriors defeated the
Nicaea, was continued in the 14th century by George
ance of
Byzantine army near Nicomedia in northwestern Anato-
Pachymeres, by Gregoras, and finally by the Emperor
Ottoman
lia. Its leader, Osman I, was the founder of the Osmanlı
John VI Cantacuzenus, who wrote his memoirs after his
Turks
or Ottoman people, who were soon to overrun the
abdication in 1354.
Byzantine Empire in Europe. His activities were so far
Andronicus III and John Cantacuzenus. The histories
on a smaller scale than those of some of the other Turk-
they wrote tell more of politics and personalities than
ish emirs. But Nicomedia was dangerously near to Con-
of the underlying social and economic tensions in their
stantinople.
society that were to find expression in a series of civil
In 1303 Andronicus hired a professional army of mer-
wars. Trouble broke out in 1320 when Andronicus II,
cenaries, the Catalan Company, who had been fighting in
purely for family reasons, disinherited his grandson
Sicily. The Catalans made one successful counterattack
Andronicus III. The cause of the young emperor was
against the Turks in Anatolia. But they were unruly and
taken up by his friends and there was periodic warfare
unpopular; and when their leader was murdered they
from 1321 to 1328, when the older Andronicus had to
turned against their employers. For some years they
yield the throne. It was in some ways a victory for the
used the Gallipoli Peninsula as a base from which to
younger generation of the aristocracy, of whom the lead-
ravage Thrace, inviting thousands of Turks to come over
ing light was John Cantacuzenus. It was he who guided
Byzantine Empire 569
.t; in 1311
the empire's policies during the reign of Andronicus III
people vented their dissatisfaction with the ruling aristoc-
nd² estab-
(1328-41). They were men of greater drive and de-
racy by revolution. It was directed mainly against Canta-
ebes. The
termination, but the years of fighting had made recovery
cuzenus and the class that he represented. The movement
:ted from
still more difficult and given new chances to their ene-
was most memorable and lasting in Thessalonica, where
alans, and
mies. In 1329 they fought and lost a battle at Pelekanon
a faction known as the Zealots seized power in a coup
ne, had to
(near Nicomedia) against Osman's son, Orchan, whose
d'etat and governed the city as an almost independent
of the By-
Turkish warriors went on to capture Nicaea in 1331 and
commune until 1350.
when its
Nicomedia in 1337. Northwestern Anatolia, once the
The second civil war was consequently even more de-
t; and the
heart of the empire, was now lost. There seemed no
structive of property and ruinous to the economy than
axation-
alternative but to accept the fact and to come to terms
the first. At the same time, in 1347, the Black Death deci-
Jonia and
with the Ottomans and the other Turkish emirs. By so
mated the population of Constantinople and other parts
rmers. In-
doing, Andronicus III and Cantacuzenus were able to
of the empire. John VI Cantacuzenus, nevertheless, did
1 Constan-
call on the services of almost limitless numbers of
what he could to restore the economy and stability of the
n by vast
Turkish soldiers to fight for them against their other
empire. To coordinate the scattered fragments of its ter-
ints made
enemies: the Italians in the Aegean islands, and the Serbs
ritory he assigned them as appanages to individual mem-
and the Bulgars in Macedonia and Thrace.
bers of the imperial family. His son Manuel took over the
eemed al-
The power of Serbia, which Andronicus II had managed
province of the Morea in 1349 with the rank of despot
h century,
to control by diplomatic means, grew alarmingly after
and governed it with growing success until his death in
emarkable
the accession of Stefan Dušan to the Serbian throne in
1380. His eldest son, Matthew, was given a principality in
ie question
1331. Dušan exploited to the full the numerous embar-
Thrace; while the junior emperor John V, who had mar-
ority. The
rassments of the Byzantines and in 1346 announced his
ried a daughter of Cantacuzenus, ruled in Thessalonica
respect of
ambitions by having himself crowned as emperor of the
after 1351. This somewhat feudal system of imperial gov-
e imperial
Serbs and Greeks. The greatest practical achievement of
ernment was to be continued by the successors of John
us theolo-
Andronicus III was the restoration to Byzantine rule of
VI, sometimes making for stability but more often for ri-
of imperial
the long separated provinces of Epirus and Thessaly. But
valry between the various princes or Despots.
Mt. Athos,
only a few years later, in 1348, the whole of northern
Cantacuzenus also tried but failed to weaken the eco-
of Byzan-
Greece was swallowed up in the Serbian Empire of
nomic stranglehold of the Genoese by rebuilding a By-
the Turks.
Stefan Dušan.
zantine war fleet and merchant navy. The effort involved
ystical tra-
vhose chief
Myxes
When Andronicus III died in 1341, civil war broke out
him in warfare, first on his own and then as an unwilling
and
for a second time. The contestants on that occasion were
partner of the Venetians against the Genoese, from which
om Athos.
John Cantacuzenus, who had expected to act as regent
Byzantium emerged as the loser. The revenue of the Gen-
) be hetero-
for the boy-heir John V, and his political rivals led by his
oese colony at Galata, derived from custom dues, was
trose in the
former partisan Alexius Apocaucus, the patriarch John
now far greater than that of Constantinople. The empire's
olitical un-
Calecas, and the empress-mother Anne of Savoy, who
poverty was reflected in dilapidated buildings and falling
and state as
held power in Constantinople. Cantacuzenus, befriended
standards of luxury. The crown jewels had been pawned
age. It was
and then rejected by Dušan of Serbia, was crowned as
to Venice during the civil war, and the Byzantine gold
the Emperor John VI in Thrace in 1346; and, with the
coin, hopelessly devalued, had given place in internation-
e monastic
help of Turkish troops, he fought his way to victory in
al trade to the Venetian ducat. More and more, Byzan-
ist the con-
the following year. Like Romanus Lecapenus, he pro-
tium was at the mercy of its foreign competitors and ene-
d learning.
tested that he was no more than the protector of the
mies, who promoted and exploited the political and fam-
Andronicus
legitimate heir to the throne, John V Palaeologus. His
ily rivalries among the ruling class. John Cantacuzenus
of antiquity.
brief reign, from 1347 to 1354, might have turned the
was never popular as an emperor, and feeling against him
entred on a
tide of Byzantine misfortunes had not the second civil
came to a head when some of his Ottoman mercenaries
holar Maxi-
war provoked unprecedented social and political con-
took the occasion of the destruction of Gallipoli by earth-
/ and trans-
sequences. In the cities of Thrace and Macedonia the
quake to occupy and fortify the city in March 1354. It
eek, though
e Byzantine
eir Hellenic
Drava
MOLDAVIA
SEA OF
1 apart from
KINGDOM OF HUNGARY
AZOV
GOLDEN HORDE
ius Cydones
f state for a
Belgrade
Cherson
dones trans-
BOSNIA
WALACHIA
reek; he was
Danube
intellectuals
to the West
Nish,
KINGDOM OF
BLACK SEA
KINGDOM OF
BULGARIA
Varna
of his class
SERBIA
Sofia
ete or chan-
Sinope
Skoplje
Philippopolis
Trebizond
dic learning
Adrianople
IS Gregoras,
Prilip
Ochrida*
Constantinople
y, theology,
Ismid
Thessalonica
y of his age.
Gallipoli
Brusa
Isnik
maintained
Yannina
: Empire of
Lemnos
OTTOMAN TURKS
TURKS
Arta
0
/ by George
Lesbos
Kaisarieh
he Emperor
Chios
Athens
Smyrna
oirs after his
Corinth
Konya
LESSER
.Urfa
MOREA
Miletus
ARMENIA
The histories
Mistra
Tarsus
Attalia
nalities than
Aleppo.
ions in their
Antioch
Euphrates
eries of civil
Rhodes
Crete
KINGDOM OF
adronicus II,
CYPRUS
MAMLUK
his grandson
SULTANATE
MEDITERRANEAN
Tripoli
emperor was
SEA
odic warfare
Damascus
nicus had to
ctory for the
0
Byzantine Empire
150ml
Empire of Trebizond
iom the lead-
0
100
200km
who guided
The Byzantine Empire in 1355.
570 Byzantine Empire
was their first permanent establishment in Europe, at the
visited in Italy, France, and England, leaving his nephew
key point of the crossing from Asia. In November of the
John VII in charge of Constantinople. Manuel's journey
Turkish
same year John V Palaeologus, encouraged by the anti-
did something to stimulate Western interest in Greek
occupation
Cantacuzenist Party, forced his way into Constantinople.
learning. His friend and ambassador in the West, Manuel
/
of
In December Cantacuzenus abdicated and became a
Chrysoloras, a pupil of Demetrius Cydones, was ap-
in
Gallipoli
monk. Though his son Matthew, who had by then been
pointed to teach Greek at Florence. The Pope instituted a
crowned as co-emperor, fought on for a few years, the dy-
defense fund for Constantinople, even though Manuel
Europ.
nasty of Cantacuzenus was not perpetuated.
did not offer to submit the Byzantine Church to Rome as
Turkish expansion. John Cantacuzenus's relationship
an incentive. Interest and sympathy were forthcoming,
with the Turks had been based on personal friendship
but little in the way of practical help. During Manuel's
with their leaders, among them Orchan, to whom he gave
absence, however, the Ottomans were defeated at Ankara
his daughter in marriage. But once the Turks had set up
by the Mongol leader Timur (Tamerlane) in July 1402.
a base on European soil and had seen the possibilities of
Bayezid was captured and his empire in Asia was shat-
further conquest, such relationships were no longer prac-
tered. His four sons contended with each other to secure
ticable. Stefan Dušan, who very nearly realized his
possession of the European provinces, which had been
ambition to found a new Serbo-Byzantine empire, was
little affected by the Mongol invasion, and to reunite the
the only man who might have prevented the subsequent
Ottoman dominions. In these wholly unexpected circum-
rapid expansion of the Turks into the Balkans, but he
stances the Byzantines found themselves the favoured al-
died in 1355 and his empire split up. The new emperor,
lies first of one Turkish contender, then of another. The
John V, hoped that the Western world would sense the
blockade of Constantinople was lifted. Thessalonica-
danger and in 1355 he addressed an appeal for help to
with Mt. Athos and other places-was restored to By-
the Pope. The popes were concerned for the fate of the
zantine rule; and the payment of tribute to the sultan was
Christian East but guarded in their offers to Constantino-
annulled. In 1413 Mehmed I, helped and promoted by
ple so long as the Byzantine Church remained in schism
the emperor Manuel, triumphed over his rivals and be-
from Rome. In 1366 John V visited Hungary to beg for
came sultan of the reintegrated Ottoman Empire.
help, but in vain. In the same year his cousin Amadeo,
During his reign, from 1413 to 1421, the Byzantines en-
count of Savoy, brought a small force to Constantinople
joyed their last respite. Manuel II, aware that it could not
and recaptured Gallipoli from the Turks, who had by
last, made the most of it by strengthening the defenses
then advanced far into Thrace. Amadeo persuaded the
and administration of the fragments of his empire. The
emperor to go to Rome and make his personal submis-
most flourishing province in the last years was the Des-
sion to the Holy See in 1369. On his way home, John was
potate of the Morea. Its prosperity had been built up first
detained at Venice as an insolvent debtor; and, during his
by the sons of John Cantacuzenus (who died there in
absence, the Turks scored their first victory over the suc-
1383), and then by the son and grandson of John V-
cessors of Stefan Dušan on the Marica River near Adri-
Theodore I and Theodore II Palaeologus. Its capital city
anople in 1371. The whole of Macedonia was now open
of Mistra became a haven for Byzantine scholars and
to them. The remaining Serbian princes and the ruler of
artists and a centre of the last revival of Byzantine cul-
Bulgaria became their vassals; and in 1373 the Emperor
ture, packed with churches, monasteries, and palaces.
was forced to do the same.
Among its scholars was George Gemistus Plethon, a pla-
Byzantium was now a vassal state of the Turks, pledged
tonist who dreamed of a rebirth of Hellenism on Hel-
to pay tribute and to provide military assistance to the
lenic soil.
Ottoman sultan. The possession of Constantinople there-
Final Turkish assault. When Murad II became sultan,
after was disputed by the Emperor's sons and grandsons
in 1421, the days of Constantinople and of Hellenism
in a series of revolutions, which were encouraged and
were numbered. In 1422 Murad revoked all the privi-
sometimes instigated by the Turks, the Genoese, or the
leges accorded to the Byzantines by his father and laid
Venetians. John V's son Andronicus IV, aided by the
siege to Constantinople. His armies invaded Greece and
Genoese and the sultan Murad I, mastered the city for
blockaded Thessalonica. The city was then a possession
three years (1376-79). He rewarded the Turks by giv-
of Manuel II's son Andronicus, who in 1423 handed it
ing back Gallipoli to them, and Murad made his first Eu-
over to the Venetians. For seven years Thessalonica was
Falls
ropean capital at Adrianople. The Venetians helped John
a Venetian colony, until, in March 1430, the Sultan as-
These
V to regain his throne in 1379, and the empire was once
saulted and captured it. Meanwhile, Manuel II had died
loning
again divided into appanages under his sons. Only his sec-
in 1425, leaving his son John VIII as emperor. John, who
ond son, Manuel, showed any independence of action.
had already travelled to Venice and Hungary in search
For nearly five years, from 1382 to 1387, Manuel reigned
of help, was prepared to reopen negotiations for the
as emperor at Thessalonica and laboured to make it a ral-
union of the churches as a means of stirring the con-
lying point for resistance against the encroaching Turks.
science of Western Christendom. His father had been
But the city fell to Murad's army in April 1387. When the
skeptical about the benefits of such a policy, knowing
Turks then drove deeper into Macedonia, the Serbs again
that it would antagonize most of his own people and
organized a counteroffensive, but were overwhelmed at
arouse the suspicion of the Turks. The proposal was
Kossovo in 1389.
made, however, at the Council of Florence in 1439, at-
Manuel II and respite from the Turks. The loss of
tended by the emperor John VIII, his patriarch, and
Thessalonica and the Battle of Kossovo sealed Constanti-
many Orthodox bishops and dignitaries. After protracted
nople off by land. The new sultan Bayezid I (1389-1402)
and difficult discussions, they agreed to submit to the
intended to make it his capital; when Manuel II came to
authority of Rome. The union of Florence was badly re-
that throne at his father's death in 1391, the Sultan
ceived by the citizens of Constantinople and by most of
warned him that he was emperor only inside the city
the Orthodox world. But it had its notable adherents,
walls. The Turks already controlled the rest of Byzantine
such as the bishops Bessarion of Nicaea and Isidore of
Europe, except for the south of Greece.
Kiev, both of whom retired to Italy as cardinals of the
In 1393 Bayezid completed his conquest of Bulgaria,
Roman Church. Bessarion's learning and library helped
and soon afterward he laid siege to Constantinople. The
to encourage further Western interest in Greek scholar-
blockade was to last for many years, though the city
ship. The union of Florence also helped to stimulate a
could resist so long as its walls remained intact. Manuel
crusade against the Turks. Once again it was led by the
II, like his father, pinned his hopes of rescue on the West.
king of Hungary, Vladislaw III of Poland, supported by
A great crusade against the Turks was organized by the
George Branković of Serbia and by János Hunyadi of
King of Hungary; but it was defeated at Nicopolis on the
Transylvania. But there were disagreements among its
Danube in 1396. In 1399 the French marshal, Boucicaut,
leaders, and the Christian army was annihilated at Varna
who had been at Nicopolis and had returned to the relief
in 1444.
of Constantinople with a small army, persuaded Manuel
The Byzantine collapse and the Ottoman triumph fol-
to travel to western Europe to put the Byzantine case in
lowed swiftly thereafter. In 1448 Constantine XI, the last
person. From the end of 1399 to June 1403 the Emperor
emperor, left Mistra for Constantinople when his brother
Byzantine Empire 571
John VIII died without issue. His two other brothers,
oslavica (Prague); Dumbarton Oaks Papers (Washington,
ohew
Thomas and Demetrius, continued to govern the Morea,
D.C.); Travaux et Mémoires (Paris); Vizantiiskii Vremennik
"rney
the last surviving Byzantine province. In 1449 the new
(Moscow and Leningrad).
ireak
Applicable
sultan, Mehmed II, began to prepare for the final assault
The Roman and Christian background: The first two chap-
inuel
on Constantinople. No further substantial help came
ters, by Moss and Matthews, in The Cambridge Medieval His-
ap-
Mame $ Europe BEEN
from the West, and the formal celebration of the union
tory, vol. 4, will introduce the reader to the problems dis-
ted a
cussed in this section. Further reading might include the brief
of the Churches in Hagia Sophia in 1452 was greeted with
unuel
and extremely provocative sketch by PETER BROWN, The
a storm of protest. Even in their extremity, the Byzantines
ne as
World of Late Antiquity (1971), excellent for cultural history;
would not buy their freedom at the expense of their Or-
ning,
and at the other extreme of length, A.H.M. JONES, The Later
thodox faith. They found the prospect of being ruled by
Roman Empire, 284-602: A Social, Economic, and Adminis-
nuel's
the Turks less odious than that of being indebted to the
trative Survey, 2 vol. (1964), which will probably remain one
akara
Latins. When the crisis came, however, the Venetians in
of the monuments of 20th-century scholarship on the period.
1402.
Constantinople, and a Genoese contingent commanded
The 5th and 6th centuries: Two older works provide a more
shat-
by Giovanni Giustiniani, wholeheartedly cooperated in
extensive coverage than that found in Jones's Later Roman
ecure
the defense of the city, though the Genoese at Galata de-
Empire: J.B. BURY, History of the Later Roman Empire from
been
the Death of Theodosius I. to the Death of Justinian (A.D. 395
clared their neutrality. Mehmed II laid siege to the walls
te the
to A.D. 565), 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1923, reprinted 1958); and
in April 1453. His ships were obstructed by a chain that
cum-
ERNST STEIN, Histoire du Bas-Empire, 2 vol. (1949-59). The
the Byzantines had thrown across the mouth of the Gold-
ed al-
1960s and early 1970s saw the publication of a number of new
en Horn. The ships were therefore dragged overland to
works on Justinian of varying merit: BERTHOLD RUBIN, Das
The
the harbour from the seaward side, bypassing the de-
Zeitalter Justinians, vol. 1 (1960); J.W. BARKER, Justinian and
tica-
fenses. The Sultan's heavy artillery continually bombard-
the Later Roman Empire (1966); ROBERT BROWNING, Justinian
) By-
ed the land walls until, on May 29, some of his soldiers
and Theodora (1971); and THOMAS Fitzgerald, Justinian the
n was
forced their way in. Giustiniani was mortally wounded.
Great: Roman Emperor of the East (1970). The conclusions
ed by
The emperor Constantine was last seen fighting on foot
presented herein are justified in detail in JOHN L. TEALL, "The
nd be-
Barbarians in Justinian's Armies," Speculum, 40:294-322
at one of the gates.
(1965). Since the end of the century was first studied in a
The Sultan allowed his victorious troops three days and
es en-
sophisticated fashion by ERNST STEIN, Studien zur Geschichte
ild not
nights of plunder before he took possession of his new
des byzantinischen Reiches (1919), it has received less atten-
capital. The Ottoman Empire had now superseded the
tion than it should.
:fenses
Byzantine Empire; and some Greeks, like the contempo-
The 7th century and the Heraclian reforms: A general over-
e. The
rary historian Critobulus of Imbros, recognized the logic
view of the age and its problems will be found in Dumbarton
e Des-
of the change by bestowing on the Sultan all the attri-
Oaks Papers, vol. 13 (1959), a collection of papers, including
up first
butes of the emperor. The material structure of the em-
important studies by Ostrogorsky on the significance of the
ere in
Slavic invasions and on the cities, by Charanis on ethnic mix-
n V-
pire, which had for long been crumbling, was now under
ture, and by Lopez on trade. R.J.H. JENKINS, Byzantium: The
the management of the sultan-basileus. But the Orthodox
tal city
Imperial Centuries, A.D. 610-1071 (1966), provides a survey
faith was less susceptible to change. The Sultan acknowl-
rs and
of this and the following three centuries that, though founded
edged the fact that the church had proved to be the most
on sound scholarship, reads like a novel. For a contrasting
ne cul-
enduring element in the Byzantine world; and he gave the
opinion on the foundation of the themes, see PAUL LEMERLE,
alaces.
Patriarch of Constantinople an unprecedented measure
"Esquisse pour une histoire agraire de Byzance," Revue his-
a pla-
of temporal authority by making him answerable for all
torique, 219:32-74, 254-284 and 220:43-94 (1958), an im-
n Hel-
Christians living under Ottoman rule.
portant survey of agrarian institutions from the 4th to the
The last pockets of resistance were eliminated soon af-
11th century. A detailed defense of the position taken above,
sultan,
with references to other studies, will be found in JOHN L.
llenism
ter 1453. Athens fell to the Turks in 1456; and in 1460
TEALL, "The Byzantine Agricultural Tradition," Dumbarton
the two Despots of the Morea surrendered. Thomas fled
: privi-
Oaks Papers, 25:33-59 (1971), which also deals with agricul-
nd laid
to Italy, Demetrius to the Sultan's court. In 1461 Trebi-
tural technology and problems of land settlement. Byzan-
zond, capital of the last Greek empire, which had main-
tium's position in eastern Europe is presented in masterly
ece and
ssession
tained its precarious independence by paying court to
fashion by DIMITRI OBOLENSKY, "The Empire and Its Northern
nded it
Turks and Mongols alike, finally succumbed; and the
Neighbors," The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 4, and in
transformation of the Byzantine world into the Ottoman
the same author's Byzantine Commonwealth (1971). A con-
ica was
Fall et
venient history of Iconoclasm is E.J. MARTIN, A History of
Itan as-
world was at last complete.
There
(D.M.N.)
the Iconoclastic Controversy (1930).
ad died
Ionica
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following surveys and analyses pro-
The 9th century: The standard survey remains. J.B. BURY,
in, who
vide brief introductions to Byzantine history and civilization:
A History of the Eastern Roman Empire
A.D. 802-867
1. search
N.H. BAYNES and H. ST. L.B. MOSS (eds.), Byzantium: An Intro-
(1912, reprinted 1965); but to FRANCIS DVORNIK must be given
for the
duction to East Roman Civilization (1948); J.M. HUSSEY, The
much of the credit for the subsequent revision of views on the
Byzantine World, 3rd rev. ed. (1967); R.J.H. JENKINS, Byzan-
period, particularly on the significance of the reign of Michael
he con-
tium and Byzantinism (1963); and P.D. WHITTING, Byzantium:
III. A number of Dvornik's important works have recently
d been
An Introduction (1971). Brief general characterizations of
been reprinted with new introductions: Les Légendes de Con-
nowing
various aspects of Byzantine civilization may be found in the
stantin et de méthode vues de Byzance, 2nd ed. (1969); Les
ple and
collected essays of two masters of Byzantine studies: N.H.
Slaves, Byzance et Rome au IXème siècle (1926, reprinted
sal was
BAYNES, Byzantine Studies and Other Essays (1955); and
1970); and The Photian Schism (1948, reprinted 1970); see
439, at-
FRANZ DOLGER, Byzanz und die europäische Staatenwelt (1953)
also his Byzantine Missions Among the Slavs (1970). The work
ch, and
and Paraspora (1961). Deeper study of Byzantine history
of another distinguished revisionist is summarized in, but not
otracted
should begin with GEORGE OSTROGORSKY, Geschichte des by-
well represented by, the chapter he prepared for The Cam-
to the
zantinischen Staates (1965; Eng. trans., History of the By-
bridge Medieval History, vol. 4: HENRI GREGOIRE, "The Amo-
zantine State, 2nd ed., 1968); and may continue with The
rians and Macedonians, 842-1025." Arab-Byzantine warfare
adly re-
Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 4, pt. 1-2, The Byzantine
is narrated in A.A. VASILIEV, Byzance et les Arabes, vol. 1, La
most of
Empire, 2nd ed. (1966-67), a collective survey of uneven qual-
Dynastie Amorium, 820-867 (1935).
herents,
ity that suffers from its adoption of the year 717 as a starting
The Macedonian dynasty (867-1025): J.B. BURY, The Impe-
dore of
point for Byzantine history. Geographical relationships are
rial Administrative System in the Ninth Century (1911, re-
S of the
discussed in ALFRED PHILIPPSON, Das byzantinische Reich als
printed 1958); FRANCIS DVORNIK, The Photian Schism (1948,
helped
geographische Erscheinung (1938); and its church and theol-
reprinted 1970); J.M. HUSSEY, Church and Learning in the
scholar-
ogy in H.G. BECK, Kirche und theologische Literatur im byzan-
Byzantine Empire, 867-1185 (1937, reprinted 1963); R.J.H.
nulate a
tinischen Reich (1959). By far the most profound and exten-
JENKINS, Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries, A.D. 610-1071
sive work in Byzantine studies before World War I had been
d by the
(1966); STEVEN RUNCIMAN, A History of the First Bulgarian
completed in imperial Russia, A.A. VASILIEV, History of the By-
Empire (1930), The Eastern Schism (1955), and The Emper-
orted by
zantine Empire, 324-1453, 2nd ed. rev. (1952, reprinted 1964;
or Romanus Lecapenus and His Reign (1929, reprinted 1963);
iyadi of
orig. pub. in Russian, 1917), provides a thorough bibliogra-
GUSTAVE SCHLUMBERGER, L'Epopée byzantine à la fir. du Xe
nong its
phy; M.V. LEVCHENKO, Byzance des origines à 1453 (1949; orig.
siècle, 3 vol. (1896-1905); A.A.VASILIEV, Byzance et les Arabes,
it Varna
pub. in Russian, 1940), illustrates the Marxist approach in the
vol. 2, pt. 1-2 (1950-68); ALBERT VOGT, Basile 1ᵉʳ, Empereur
Soviet Union, where, since World War II, Byzantine history
de Byzance (867-886) et la civilisation byzantine à la fin du
nph fol-
has undergone a renaissance. Current work is published in a
IXe siècle (1908).
the last
number of periodicals of international character: Byzantin-
Byzantine decline and subjection 10 Western influence (1025-
brother
ische Zeitschrift (Munich); Byzantion (Brussels); Byzantin-
1260): C.M. BRAND, Byzantium Confronts the West, 1180-
572 Byzantine Empire
1204 (1968); FERDINAND CHALANDON, Les Comnènes, vol 1,
joyed the esteem of King Manuel I of Portugal, from
Essai sur le règne "Alexis 1er Comnène, 1081-1118 and vol. 2,
whom he received various privileges in 1497; these in-
Jean II Comnène, 1118-1143, et Manuel I Comnène, 1143-
1180 (1900-13); ALICE GARDNER, The Lascarids of Nicaea
cluded a personal allowance, the title of counsellor to his
(1912); R.J.H. JENKINS, The Byzantine Empire on the Eve of
highness, and the habit of the military Order of Christ.
the Crusades (1953); OKTAWIESZ JUREWICZ, Andronikos 1.
Three years later the King entrusted him with the com-
Komnenos (1962; Eng. trans., 1970); D.M. NICOL, The Despo-
mand of the second major expedition to India, express-
tate of Epiros (1957); GEORGE OSTROGORSKY, Pour l'histoire de
ing "the great confidence we have in Pedralvares de Gou-
The
la féodalité byzantine (1954), and "Agrarian Conditions in
veia, nobleman of our household." Cabral was named
the Byzantine Empire in the Middle Ages," in The Cambridge
admiral in supreme command of 13 ships, which set out
expective
Economic History of Europe, 2nd ed., vol. 1, ch. 5 (1966);
from Lisbon on March 9, 1500. He was to follow the
D.I. POLEMIS, The Doukai: A Contribution to Byzantine Pro-
sopography (1968); STEVEN RUNCIMAN, A History of the Cru-
route taken earlier by Vasco da Gama, to strengthen
sades, 3 vol. (1951-54, reprinted 1962-66); K.M. SETTON (ed.),
commercial ties, and to further the conquest his prede-
A History of the Crusades: vol. 1, The First Hundred Years,
cessor had begun.
ed. by M.W. BALDWIN; vol. 2, The Later Crusades, 1189-1311,
In accordance with da Gama's instructions, based on
ed. by R.L. WOLFF and H.W. HAZARD (1955, 1962).
his experiences during the first voyage, Cabral was to
The empire under the Palaeologi (1261-1453): FRANZ BAB-
sail southwest so as to bypass the becalmed waters of the
INGER, Mehmed der Eroberer und seine Zeit (1953; French
Gulf of Guinea. This course, which later became known
trans., 1963); J.W. BARKER, Manuel II Palaeologus (1391-
as the "circle around Brazil," had the added advantage
1425): A Study in Late Byzantine Statesmanship (1969); U.V.
of providing the Portuguese with opportunity to recon-
BOSCH, Kaiser Andronikos III. Palaiologos (1965); D.J. GEAN-
noitre along the coast of the lands to the west, which
AKOPLOS, Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258-
1282 (1959); H.A. GIBBONS, The Foundation of the Ottoman
they had previously sighted and which belonged to them
Empire (1916, reprinted 1968); JOSEPH GILL, The Council of
in accordance with the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494).
Florence (1959); OSKAR HALECKI, Un Empereur de Byzance à
Sailing westward under favourable conditions, on April
Rome (1930); JEAN LONGNON, L'Empire latin de Constanti-
22, Cabral discovered the land he named Island of the
nople et la principauté de Morée (1949); WILLIAM MILLER, The
True Cross. Later renamed Holy Cross by King Manuel,
of
Latins in the Levant: A History of Frankish Greece, 1204-
the country ultimately took its modern name, Brazil,
1566 (1908), and Trebizond, the Last Greek Empire (1926);
from a kind of wood it produces, pau-brasil, which is
D.M. NICOL, The Byzantine Family of Kantakouzenos (Canta-
used in dye processing.
cuzenus) ca. 1100-1460 (1968) and The Last Centuries of
Byzantium 1261-1453 (1972); A.T. PAPADOPOULOS, Versuch
Cabral is reported to have made a special effort to treat
einer Genealogie der Palaiologen, 1259-1453 (1938); L.P. RAY-
the natives kindly, receiving them on board his caravel.
BAUD, Le Gouvernement et l'administration centrale de l'em-
Nonetheless, he took formal possession of the country
pire byzantin sous les premiers Paléologues (1258-1354)
and dispatched one of his ships to Portugal to inform the
(1968); STEVEN RUNCIMAN, The Sicilian Vespers (1958), The
King. Henceforth, maps of the region showed Portugal
Fall of Constantinople, 1453 (1965), The Great Church in
as ruler of a great expanse of land with vaguely defined
Captivity (1968), and The Last Byzantine Renaissance (1970);
boundaries that came to serve as a point of call on the
K.M. SETTON, "The Byzantine Background to the Italian Re-
long voyage from Europe to the Cape of Good Hope and
naissance," Proceedings of the American Philosophical So-
the Indian Ocean.
ciety, 100:1-76 (1956); ORESTE TAFRALI, Thessalonique au
quatorzième siècle (1913); GUNTER WEISS, Joannes Kanta-
After a stay of only ten days in Brazil, Cabral sailed
kuzenos, Aristokrat, Staatsmann, Kaiser und Mönch (1969);
for India, in a voyage that was plagued by a series of
ERNST WERNER, Die Geburt einer Grossmacht-die Osmanen,
misfortunes. On May 29, while the fleet was rounding
1300-1481 (1966); PAUL WITTEK, The Rise of the Ottoman
the Cape of Good Hope, four ships were lost with all
Empire (1938, reprinted 1965); D.A. ZAKUTHENOS, Le Despotat
hands aboard; Bartolomeu Dias, the Portuguese who had
grec de Morée, 2 vol. (1932-53), and Crise monétaire et crise
discovered the cape in 1488, was one of those who per-
économique à Byzance du XIIIc au XVe siècle (1948).
ished in this disaster. The remaining ships cast anchor
(D.M.N./J.L.Te.)
on September 13, 1500, at Calicut, India, where the
zamorin (Muslim ruler) welcomed Cabral and allowed
Cabral, Pedro Álvares
him to establish a fortified trading post. Disputes with
Though other Europeans had preceded him to that part
Muslim traders soon arose, however, and on December
of the world, Pedro Álvares Cabral is generally credited
17 a large Muslim force attacked the trading post. Most
with discovering Brazil, in 1500. Cabral, who lived from
of the Portuguese defenders were killed before reinforce-
1467 or 1468 to 1520, was one of the foremost of the
ments could arrive from the Portuguese fleet lying at
Portuguese navigators who brought fame to their home-
anchor in the harbour.
land during the Age of Discovery.
Cabral retaliated by bombarding the city, and then by
capturing ten Muslim vessels and executing their crews.
He then sailed for the Indian port of Cochin, farther
south, where he was affably received and permitted to
trade for precious spices, with which he loaded his six
remaining ships. Cabral also made port at Carangolos
and Cananor on the same coast, completed his cargo,
and on January 16, 1501, began the return voyage to
Portugal. On his way, however, two ships foundered,
and it was with only four vessels that Cabral finally
reached the mouth of the Tagus River in Portugal on
June 23, 1501.
King Manuel was pleased at the outcome of the under-
taking, in spite of the misfortunes that had beset it; he is
said to have at first favoured making Cabral head of a
new and more powerful expedition, but in the end it was
Vasco da Gama and not Cabral who was appointed to
Riv...
that command. Accounts differ as to the reason for the
with
King's change of heart. One chronicler attributes it to
Vas:
disagreement over division of authority within the new
da
Cabral, medallion by an unknown artist, 16th century. From the
fleet; another offers the explanation that da Gama op-
Mosterio dos Jerónimos, Portugal.
posed the appointment of Cabral on the grounds that da
By courtesy of the Secretaria de Estado da Informacao Cultura Popular e Turismo,
Lisbon
Gama himself already held the title admiral of all the
fleets that might leave Portugal for India and that the
Born in Belmonte, Portugal, the son of Fernão Cabral,
disasters of Cabral's expedition should disqualify him
a nobleman, and of Isabel de Gouveia, he was heir to a
for the new mission.
long tradition of service to the throne. He himself en-
Whatever the true explanation. the discoverer of Brazil
Americans still remember Turkey's contribution to the U.N. forces
fighting aggression in Korea. It was the winter of 1951, when the
battle was not going well -- and morale was low. Fighting at night
to retake Hill 151 south of Seoul, Turkish soldiers charged against
dug-in enemy troops with fixed bayonets and overran them. Word of
their bravery quickly spread throughout the Eighth Army. Inspired
by the Turkish example, Gen. Matthew Ridgeway ordered all his
troops to fix bayonets, and the boost in morale was enormous.
656
THE FORGOTTEN WAR
by Clay Blair
only a rear guard to harass. The historian of Dolvin's 89th Tank Battalion
an
wrote:
A
La
They waited through the evening, then suddenly, the infiltration started. A Chinese
ad
patrol came [out] through the wall of the city at 0200 hours [2:00 A.M.] on the 26th
of January. They came up so close and quietly that a pistol and machinegun fire
le
fight at point blank range developed
The tanks moved back to where they could
fire and Chinese ran down behind the tanks with satchel charges, attempting to
ha
throw them on the tanks as they ran. Small fire fights broke out all over town. [A]
A
lieutenant came out of the CP in time to see two Chinese with rifles approaching.
fix
He captured them waving a pistol at them. Why they did not fire still remains a
mystery, but one did try to pull a grenade when he was brought into the CP. The
guard at the CP hit him over the head with a rifle butt, and so it was that the
TH
battalion captured its first Chinese. The entire action at Suwon was characterized
R
by this same sort of small-scale infighting
so well liked by guerrilla troops.⁷³
sir
be
co
Sergeant Woody Woodruff remembered the 3/35 moving forward on foot
tas
against virtually no opposition:
sit
The weather was extremely cold and the hills were high and steep, one right after
the other. We made enemy contact almost daily. Sometimes during daylight we
Ri
would run up against a rear guard detachment; more often their patrols would
harass us at night.
None that I saw had firearms.
They did use snipers,
as
some of them all too accurate; and there was usually one "burp" gun per CCF
sta
squad. Most or all of the rest of the squad, however, might have nothing but hand
ple
grenades. The enemy did not really make much of an effort to hold
and did
un
not succeed in delaying our advance more than a couple of hours. I never under-
stood why they would leave such a small and poorly armed force
74
1951
on return the
to
On the second day of the offensive, January 26, MacArthur's seventy-first
mo
birthday, Kelleher's infantry and Dolvin's tanks "captured" Suwon. Ridgway
Al
got off a flowery and flattering birthday greeting to MacArthur,* then flew'to
Pa
Suwon to have a look at the town (a mass of rubble) and its airfield, an
intervation after
important prize which would enable FEAF prop planes providing close air
der
support and cargo planes to move closer to the front. Immensely impressed
we
with Kelleher's aggressive and skillful performance in command of the 35th,
fou
Ridgway decided to recommend him (as well as Michaelis) for battlefield
coa
promotions to brigadier general."
to
The Turkish Brigade, attacking on the right of Kelleher's 35th Infantry,
con
also achieved renown that day. After Barth's 64th and 90th FABs and the
40 km south
Turkish Artillery Brigade (and some FEAF prop planes) had pulverized a hill
the
of seoul
northeast of Suwon, the Turks assaulted the CCF positions with fixed bayonets
atta
Jchinese battalion Vat
or I
*Earlier Ridgway had sent MacArthur a captured Chinese scroll. Doyle Hickey telephoned night
of 1
Ridgway to say that when MacArthur opened the present, tears came to his eyes and he remarked
the
that it was the most touching remembrance of his birthday he had received in seventy-one years.
Battle of Kumyang - jang - hi
Hill 151
dog-in
Blood
FORGOTTEN WAR
Counterattacks
657
n of Dolvin's 89th Tank Battalion
and overran them. Word of this bold feat quickly spread throughout Eighth
Army. It was reported that the Turks killed "400 enemy," most by bayonet.
Later careful investigation revealed that only about 154 CCF troops had
nly, the infiltration started. A Chinese
actually been killed on the hill-the "preponderant number" by Barth's artil-
at 0200 hours [2:00 A.M.] on the 26th
etly that a pistol and machinegun fire
lery prior to the assault.⁷⁶
tanks moved back to where they could
Although Ridgway well knew the facts of the Turkish "bayonet charge"
with satchel charges, attempting to
had been greatly exaggerated, he was impressed by the awe the story inspired.
fire fights broke out all over town. [A]
As a morale builder he therefore issued orders for all Eighth Army troops to
two Chinese with rifles approaching.
fix bayonets. An Army historian explained:
Why they did not fire still remains a
then he was brought into the CP. The
h a rifle butt, and so it was that the
The command greatly needed something to symbolize the birth of a new spirit.
ire action at Suwon was characterized
Restoration of the bayonet, and a dramatizing of that action, was at one with the
so well liked by guerrilla troops."
simple message given to the troops: "The job is to kill Chinese." Once men could
be persuaded that those in other units were deliberately seeking the hand-to-hand
contest with the enemy, they would begin to feel themselves equal to the overall
ed the 3/35 moving forward on foot
task. There can be no question about the efficacy of this magic in the particular
situation: IT WORKED!"
Is were high and steep, one right after
The successes of the 35th Infantry and the Turkish Brigade that day led
daily. Sometimes during daylight we
Ridgway to cable MacArthur (not immodestly): "May I suggest for such use
ment; more often their patrols would
id firearms.
They did use snipers,
as you think it might merit, my firm conviction that recently-reported press
was usually one "burp" gun per CCF
statements that members of the JCS had announced "The Eighth Army has
nowever, might have nothing but hand
plenty of fight left and if attacked will severely punish the enemy' are great
much of an effort to hold
and did
understatements. This command, I am convinced, will do far more."78
than a couple of hours. I never under-
and poorly armed force
74
*
*
Bryant Moore's IX Corps attacked in concert with I Corps on the
anuary 26, MacArthur's seventy-first
morning of January 25. The attack was spearheaded by the 1st Cav Division.
S tanks "captured" Suwon. Ridgway
Although Hap Gay was still present in Korea, his replacement, Charlie
greeting to MacArthur,* then flew to
Palmer, conducted these operations."
mass of rubble) and its airfield, an
Palmer, nicknamed Charlie Dog for his initials, was a rough, tough,
EAF prop planes providing close air
demanding commander and strict disciplinarian. His first orders to his men
r to the front. Immensely impressed
were explicit and detailed. All bayonets were to be "well sharpened." Any man
erformance in command of the 35th,
found without a steel helmet would be punished. All outer garments (over-
as well as Michaelis) for battlefield
coats, jackets) were to be buttoned up at all times. No "foreign weapons" were
to be utilized. All men on guard were to be "alert at all times" or suffer dire
the right of Kelleher's 35th Infantry,
consequences.80
larth's 64th and 90th FABs and the
Palmer chose Billy Harris's 7th Cav and Johnny Johnson's 8th Cav to lead
AF prop planes) had pulverized a hill
the division, keeping Marcel Crombez's 5th Cav in reserve. The 7th Cav would
the CCF positions with fixed bayonets
attack on the right through Ichon. The 8th Cav would attack on the left, more
or less retracing its earlier path. The 7th Cav would be reinforced by a battalion
red Chinese scroll. Doyle Hickey telephoned
of the 24th Division, which would temporarily hold in place on the right of
present, tears came to his eyes and he remarked
the 1st Cav between Ichon and Yoju.⁸¹
birthday he had received in seventy-one years.
The 1st Cav did well initially. Attacking through positions held by the