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U.N. Address 9/23/91 [OA 8323] [8]
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323153529
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U.N. Address 9/23/91 [OA 8323] [8]
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13771-008
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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Speech Backup Chronological Files
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S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
Subseries:
Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13771
Folder ID Number:
13771-008
Folder Title:
U.N. Address 9/23/91 [OA 8323] [8]
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26
21
6
3
POLITICAL
HANDBOOK
OF THE
WORLD
1990
Essential political information about every country in the world.
Heads of state and government, cabinet members, leaders and programs of political parties,
representation in national legislatures, mass media, & composition and activities
of major intergovernmental organizations.
EDITED BY
ARTHUR S. BANKS
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
THOMAS C. MULLER
ASSISTANT EDITOR
PRODUCTION EDITOR
SEAN M. PHELAN
ELAINE TALLMAN
CSA PUBLICATIONS
STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT BINGHAMTON
SADCC
849
UNITED NATIONS
ence" convened at Arusha, Tanzania, in July 1979 by
datory sanctions against Pretoria to protest apartheid.
Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zambia
However, consensus was not attained on regional action,
(the "Front-Line States" opposed to White rule in southern
such as the severance of air links with Pretoria, primarily
Africa). A draft declaration entitled "Southern Africa:
because of objections from Lesotho and Swaziland, the
Towards Economic Liberation" was drawn up proposing
SADCC members whose economies are most directly
a program of action to improve regional transportation,
linked to South Africa.
agriculture, industry, energy, and development planning,
During their 1987 summit the heads of government con-
with a view toward reducing economic dependence on the
demned the "continuation and intensification" of South
Republic of South Africa. As a follow-up to the Arusha
Africa's "acts of aggression and destabilization" against
meeting, the SADCC was formally established during a
their countries. In January 1988 donor governments and
summit of the heads of state or government of nine coun-
international organizations signalled their continued sup-
tries (the original five plus Lesotho, Malawi, Swaziland,
port for the SADCC position by pledging an additional $1
and Zimbabwe) that convened on April 1, 1980, at Lusaka,
billion to the Conference over the next four years.
Zambia. Namibia became the tenth SADCC member upon
At the July 1988 summit SADCC leaders again called
achieving independence in 1990.
on the White-dominated regime to negotiate an end to
Structure. A Meeting of Heads of State or Government
apartheid and institute majority rule. Pretoria's current
is convened annually. In addition, ministerial representa-
policies were "doomed to fail", the summit leaders asserted,
tives attend an annual Council of Ministers meeting, with
particularly in view of evidence that SADCC corridor
special sessions called during the year to discuss specific
transport efforts were finally beginning to divert a signifi-
regional policies. Meetings are also held annually with
cant proportion of regional trade away from South Africa.
donor governments and intergovernmental organizations
The SADCC received further encouraging news in ear-
to review existing projects and augment external financing.
ly 1989 when the World Bank reported that regional eco-
The Secretariat, located at Gaborone, Botswana, is in-
nomic growth in 1988 (4.5 percent) had exceeded popula-
tentionally small to avoid the bureaucratic entanglements
tion growth (3.3 percent) for the first time in 15 years. The
that have been viewed as crippling most African regional
Bank credited the improvement in part to the implementa-
groupings. Under the terms of the "Lusaka Declaration"
tion of fiscal policy reforms by SADCC members, who
issued in 1980, individual members have been assigned
subsequently vowed to pursue further structural adjust-
coordinating roles over specified economic concerns. Thus,
ment, while attempting to ameliorate the negative effects
in July 1980 the Conference's first operational body, the
of such change on the region's poor. The Bank dem-
Southern African Transport and Communications Com-
onstrated its support by pledging $4 billion in assistance
mission, was formed under Mozambique's leadership.
to SADCC members over the next five years. In addition,
Other states have received the following assignments: An-
the Nordic countries established a new fund to finance
gola, energy; Botswana, livestock production, animal
export-oriented companies located in SADCC countries.
disease control, and crop production research; Lesotho,
soil and water conservation, land utilization, and tourism;
Malawi, fisheries, forestry, and wildlife; Swaziland, man-
power development and training; Tanzania, industry and
trade; Zambia, development funding and mining; and
UNITED NATIONS (UN)
Zimbabwe, regional food security.
Activities. The SADCC is considered one of the most
viable of the continent's regional groupings although its
Established: By Charter signed at San Francisco, United
actual accomplishments have been modest compared to the
States, June 26, 1945, effective October 24, 1945.
development needs of its members. During its first six years
the SADCC concentrated on the rehabilitation and expan-
Purpose: To maintain international peace and security; to
sion of transport corridors to permit the movement of
develop friendly relations among states based on respect
goods from the interior of the region to ocean ports without
for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of
the use of routes through South Africa. In 1986, however,
peoples; to achieve international cooperation in solving
SADCC leaders concluded that such infrastructure devel-
problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian
opment would not reduce dependence on South Africa suf-
character; and to harmonize the actions of states in the at-
ficiently unless accompanied by broad, long-term eco-
tainment of these common ends.
nomic growth in the region. Consequently, the SADCC
announced that additional emphasis would be given to pro-
Headquarters: New York, United States.
grams and projects designed to increase production within
the private and parastatal sectors, expand intra-regional
Principal Organs: General Assembly (all members), Secu-
trade, support national economic reform policies, and en-
rity Council (15 members), Economic and Social Council
courage international investment in the region. The cur-
(54 members), Trusteeship Council (5 members), Interna-
rent program of action encompasses some 500 projects
tional Court of Justice (15 judges), Secretariat.
ranging from small feasibility studies to large port and rail-
way construction projects with a total value of $6.5 billion.
Secretary General: Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (Peru).
Throughout the 1980s the Conference called for the
international community to impose comprehensive, man-
Membership (159): See Appendix C.
UNITED NATIONS
850
UNITED NATIONS
Official Languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French,
on August 18, 1975. On November 16, 1976, the United
Russian, Spanish.
States used its 18th veto in the Security Council to prevent
the admission of the recently united Socialist Republic of
Working Languages: Chinese, English, French, Russian,
Vietnam, having earlier in the same session, on June 23,
Spanish.
1976, employed its 15th veto to prevent Angola from join-
ing. Later in the session, however, the United States
Origin and development. The idea of creating a new
relented and Angola gained admission. In July 1977 Wash-
intergovernmental organization to replace the League of
ington dropped its objection to Vietnamese membership
Nations was born early in World War II and first found
as well. With the admission of Brunei, the total member-
public expression in an Inter-Allied Declaration signed at
ship during the 39th session of the General Assembly in
London, England, on June 12, 1941, by representatives of
1984 rose to 159, a figure still short of the organization's
five Commonwealth states and eight European govern-
goal of universality. Total membership rose briefly to 160
ments-in-exile. Formal use of the term United Nations first
with the admission of Namibia (which achieved in-
occurred in the Declaration by United Nations, signed at
dependence in March 1990) before falling back to 159 after
Washington, DC, on January 1, 1942, on behalf of 26
the merger of North and South Yemen into a single republic
states that had subscribed to the principles of the Atlantic
the following May. As of July 15, 1990, states that were
Charter (August 14, 1941) and had pledged their full co-
not members included the Holy See (Vatican City State),
operation for the defeat of the Axis powers. At the Moscow
Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Republic of
(USSR) Conference on October 30, 1943, representatives
Korea, Monaco, San Marino, Switzerland, Kiribati, Liech-
of China, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the
tenstein, Nauru, Tonga, and Tuvalu; most, however, par-
United Kingdom, and the United States proclaimed that
ticipate in certain of the United Nations' associated bodies
they "recognized the necessity of establishing at the earliest
(see Appendix C), while the first six have formal observer
practicable date a general international organization, based
status in the General Assembly and maintain permanent
on the principle of the sovereign equality of all peace-loving
observer missions at UN headquarters. (In July 1990
states, and open to membership by all such states, large
Liechtenstein submitted a membership request, which was
and small, for the maintenance of international peace and
subsequently endorsed by the Security Council, and is ex-
security". In meetings at Dumbarton Oaks, Washington,
pected to be admitted at the beginning of the General
DC, between August 21 and October 7, 1944, the four
Assembly's annual session in September.)
powers reached agreement on preliminary proposals and
Structure. The UN system can be viewed as comprising
determined to prepare more complete suggestions for dis-
(1) the principal organs, (2) subsidiary organs established
cussion at a subsequent conference of all the United
to deal with particular aspects of the organization's re-
Nations.
sponsibilities, (3) a number of specialized and related agen-
Meeting at San Francisco, California, from April 25 to
cies, and (4) a series of ad hoc global conferences to ex-
June 25, 1945, representatives of 50 states participated in
amine particularly pressing issues.
the drafting of the United Nations Charter, which was for-
The institutional structure of the principal organs re-
mally signed on June 26. Poland was not represented at
sulted from complex negotiations that attempted to bal-
the San Francisco Conference but later signed the Char-
ance both the conflicting claims of national sovereignty and
ter and is counted among the 51 "original" United Nations
international responsibility, and the rights of large and
members. Following ratification by the five permanent
small states. The principle of sovereign equality of all
members of the Security Council and a majority of the
member states is exemplified in the General Assembly; that
other signatories, the Charter entered into force Octo-
of the special responsibility of the major powers, in the
ber 24, 1945. The General Assembly, convened in its first
composition and procedure of the Security Council. The
regular session on January 10, 1946, accepted an invita-
other principal organs included in the Charter are the Eco-
tion to establish the permanent home of the organization
nomic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Trusteeship
in the United States; privileges and immunities of the
Council, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the
United Nations headquarters were defined in a Head-
Secretariat.
quarters Agreement with the United States government
The bulk of intergovernmental bodies related to the UN
signed June 26, 1947.
consists of a network of Specialized Agencies established
The membership of the UN, which increased from 51
by intergovernmental agreement as legal and autonomous
to 60 during the period 1945-1950, remained frozen at that
international entities with their own memberships and
level for the next five years as a result of US-Soviet disagree-
organs and which, for the purpose of "coordination", are
ments over admission. The deadlock was broken in 1955
brought "into relationship" with the UN. While sharing
when the superpowers agreed on a "package" of 16 new
many of their characteristics, the General Agreement on
members: four Soviet-bloc states, four Western states, and
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the International Atomic
eight "uncommitted" states. Since then, states have normal-
Energy Agency (IAEA) remain legally distinct from the
ly been admitted with little delay. The exceptions are worth
Specialized Agencies.
noting. The admission of the two Germanies in 1973 led
The proliferation of subsidiary organs can be attributed
to proposals for admission of the two Koreas and of the
to many complex factors, including new demands and
two Vietnams. Neither occurred, formal application of the
needs as more states attained independence; the effects of
Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the post-Thieu Re-
the "cold war"; a gradual diminution of East-West bi-
public of Vietnam being rejected by the Security Council
polarity; a greater concern with promoting economic and
SOUTH PACIFIC FORUM
848
SADCC
ber 1986 when Australia became the eighth SPF member
tion, proposed the formation of a regional petroleum
to tender its ratification. Those countries known to possess
organization, authorized a study on ways to boost produc-
nuclear weapons were asked to sign the Treaty's protocols,
tion and investment in smaller island countries, decried the
the SPF having added an "opt-out" provision which would
global "greenhouse effect" that could cause elevated sea
permit adherents to withdraw if they believed their national
levels to inundate countries such as Kirabati and Tuvalu,
interests were at stake. The Soviet Union ratified the pro-
and received a proposal from the Agency for the Prohibi-
tocols in 1988 while China has signed but not formally
tion of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America (OPANAL) for
ratified them. France, the United Kingdom, and the United
OPANAL-SPNFZ linkage.
States have declined to support the treaty.
Environmental issues dominated the annual meeting on
Controversy has also arisen in recent years regarding
July 10-11, 1989, at Tarawa, Kiribati, particularly the re-
tuna fishing in the region, Washington and the Forum Fish-
cent use of drift-net fishing in the region by Taiwanese and
eries Agency (FFA) eventually concluding a five-year
Japanese boats (see article on the South Pacific Commis-
agreement (signed in 1987 and ratified in 1988) under which
sion, above). The SPF strongly condemned the technique
the US government and the tuna industry agreed to pay
and called for creation of a regional structure to enforce
$12 million annually in cash grants and development aid
a ban on it.
for trawling rights. The agreement is of political impor-
The consultations with SPF dialogue partners, held in
tance since US tuna boats have periodically been charged
connection with the annual meeting, were described as
with "poaching" by SPF members, several of whom have
highly successful as Canada, France, Japan, the United
signed bilateral fishing pacts with the Soviet Union. In 1988
Kingdom, and the United States (among others) addressed
the FFA moved to secure a regional accord with Japan,
their growing Pacific concerns, particularly regarding
although Tokyo announced that it, too, favored the bilat-
fishing, potential exploitation of seabed resources, trade,
eral approach, and no agreement had been reached as of
and development aid. Throughout the year the SPF con-
mid-1990.
tinued to seek expanded ties outside the region, the Associa-
The 18th annual meeting was held at Apia, Western
tion of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) being a
Samoa, on May 29-30, 1987, scarcely more than two weeks
primary target of the outreach effort.
after the region's first military coup had overthrown the
government of Fiji. Australia and New Zealand were
strongly opposed to the ouster of Fiji's elected government,
while many island leaders sympathized with the desire of
indigenous Fijians to protect their traditional rights; thus,
SOUTHERN AFRICAN
the delegates settled on a statement expressing "deep con-
cern and anguish" over the situation. Another major topic
DEVELOPMENT
at the meeting was the political situation in New Caledonia
COORDINATION
(see France: Related Territories). Reflecting the strong feel-
ings of the Melanesian Spearhead Group (Papua New
CONFERENCE (SADCC)
Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu), the SPF
voiced "grave disquiet" over French policies in New Cale-
donia and called for a settlement that would guarantee "the
Established: During a summit meeting of Black southern
rights and interests of all inhabitants
with special
African countries at Lusaka, Zambia, on April 1, 1980.
recognition of Kanak rights".
The 1988 annual session was much less contentious,
Purpose: To promote economic cooperation among in-
largely because the situation in Fiji was omitted from the
dependent Southern African states by synchronizing de-
agenda in response to Spearhead Group insistence that it
velopment plans and reducing economic dependence upon
was inappropriate for the SPF to interfere in a member's
the Republic of South Africa.
internal political affairs. In regard to New Caledonia, the
summit strongly endorsed the peace plan introduced by the
Headquarters: Gaborone, Botswana.
new French government earlier in the year.
In an effort to break the long-standing impasse on the
Principal Organs: Meeting of Heads of State or Govern
proposed merger of the economic and technical functions
ment (all members), Council of Ministers (all members),
of the SPF with the South Pacific Commission, the sum-
Executive Secretariat, Southern African Transport and
mit leaders created the South Pacific Organizations Co-
Communications Commission.
ordinating Committee (SPOCC). The SPF envisioned the
SPOCC as a loose-knit regional "umbrella" that would be
Executive Secretary: Dr. Simbarashe H.S. Makoni
able to reduce program duplication without the complica-
(Zimbabwe).
tions stemming from a single regional organization. The
SPF also invited its "dialogue partners", particularly the
Membership (10): Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi,
SPC, to consultative meetings immediately prior to and
Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia,
following future SPF annual meetings. In other activity,
Zimbabwe.
the Forum agreed in principal to the establishment of a $140
million regional satellite telecommunications network by
Origin and development. The SADCC originated in a,
the Australian Overseas Telecommunications Corpora-
"Southern African Development Coordination Confer-
UNITED NATIONS
851
UNITED NATIONS
social development through technical-assistance programs
passed in the Assembly have varied considerably as the
(almost entirely financed by voluntary contributions); and
membership has changed. Thus while the Assembly's early
a resistance to any radical change in international trade pat-
history was dominated by "cold war" issues, the rapid ex-
terns. For many years, the largest and most politically
pansion of the membership to include less-developed
significant of the subordinate organs were the United Na-
countries-now comprising an overwhelming majority-
tions Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
has led to a focus on issues of decolonization and devel-
and the United Nations Industrial Development Organiza-
opment. A Declaration on the Granting of Independence
tion (UNIDO), both of which were initially venues for
to Colonial Countries and Peoples, adopted on December
debates, for conducting studies and presenting reports, for
14, 1960, proclaimed the "necessity of bringing to a speedy
convening conferences and specialized meetings, and for
and unconditional end colonialism in all its forms and man-
mobilizing the opinions of nongovernmental organiza-
ifestations". A special committee on the implementation
tions. They also provided a way for less-developed states
of this declaration, known informally as the Special Com-
to formulate positions vis-à-vis the industrialized states.
mittee of Twenty-four, has maintained continuous pres-
During the 1970s both became intimately involved in ac-
sure for its application to the remaining non-self-governing
tivities related to program implementation and on January
territories.
1, 1986, UNIDO became the UN's 16th Specialized Agency.
As the end of colonialism in the world at large ap-
One of the most important developments in the UN
proached, UN attention focused increasingly upon the
system has been the use of ad hoc conferences to deal with
problems of colonialism and racial discrimination in cer-
major international problems. For a listing of such con-
tain southern African territories: the Portuguese depen-
ferences and a brief description of their activities, see Ap-
dencies of Angola, Mozambique, and Portuguese Guinea;
pendix B. Some conferences are also discussed under
Southern Rhodesia; and Namibia. During the 1960s, the
General Assembly: Origin and Development, below, or
General Assembly moved from general assertions of moral
within entries for various General Assembly Special Bodies
and legal rights in this area to condemnations of specific
or UN Specialized Agencies.
governments, accompanied by requests for diplomatic and
economic, and threats of military, sanctions. In 1972 the
Assembly "condemned", for the first time, violations by
GENERAL ASSEMBLY
the United States of Security Council sanctions against im-
porting chrome and nickel from Southern Rhodesia. In
Membership (159): All members of the United Nations (see
December 1976 the Assembly took the unprecedented ac-
Appendix C), although South Africa has been excluded
tion of passing a resolution endorsing "armed struggle" by
from participation since 1974.
Namibians. Subsequently, a number of peace proposals
Observers (19): African, Caribbean and Pacific Group
were discussed, culminating in a 1978 UN plan for Nami-
of States; African Development Bank; Agency for Tech-
bian independence which called for a ceasefire between
nical and Cultural Cooperation; Asian-African Legal Con-
South African and indigenous forces-essentially, guer-
sultative Committee; Commonwealth Secretariat; Coun-
rillas of the South West African People's Organisation
cil for Mutual Economic Assistance; European Communi-
(SWAPO), UN supervision of the truce, a gradual with-
ty; Holy See; Islamic Conference; Democratic People's Re-
drawal of all troops in Namibia, and, seven months after
public of Korea; Republic of Korea; Latin American
the ceasefire, UN-supervised elections for a Namibian
Economic System; League of Arab States; Monaco; Orga-
constitutional assembly. However, settlement remained
nization of African Unity; Organization of American
elusive, in part because of a schism between South Africa
States; Palestine (formerly designated as the observer
and SWAPO over Pretoria's insistence on linking Namib-
mission of the Palestine Liberation Organization); San
ian independence with the withdrawal of Cuban and East-
Marino; Switzerland.
ern European troops stationed in Angola. In 1987 the
Council for Namibia, meeting at the ministerial level for
Origin and development. Endowed with the broadest
the first time in 20 years, condemned the "Transitional
powers of discussion of any UN organ, the General Assem-
Government of National Unity" installed by South Africa
bly may consider any matter within the scope of the Charter
in June 1985 and called for the "unconditional and speedy"
or relating to the powers and functions of any organ pro-
implementation of the 1978 plan. Negotiations intensified
vided for in the Charter. It may also make corresponding
in 1988 and on December 22 agreement among Angola,
recommendations to the members or to the Security Coun-
Cuba, and South Africa opened the way to independence
cil, although it may not make recommendations on any
based on the UN plan (see article on Namibia).
issue which the Security Council has under consideration
The Assembly's work in the area of development for-
unless requested to do so by that body.
mally began with a proposal by US President John F. Ken-
The Assembly's prominence in the UN system cannot
nedy that the 1960s be officially designated as the UN
simply be traced to the Charter but rather to the vigorous
Development Decade. The overall objective of the Decade
exercise of its clearly designated functions and to its asser-
was the attainment in each less-developed state of a mini-
tion of additional authority in areas, most notably the
mum annual growth rate of 5 percent in aggregate national
maintenance of peace and security, in which its Charter
income. To this end, the developed states were asked to
mandate is ambiguous.
make available the equivalent of 1 percent of their income
Since all members of the UN participate in the Assembly
in the form of economic assistance and private investment.
on a one-country, one-vote basis, the kinds of resolutions
By 1967 it had become clear that not all of the objectives
UNITED NATIONS
852
UNITED NATIONS
would be achieved by 1970, and a 55-member Preparatory
Both the General Assembly and the Security Council are
Committee for the Second UN Development Decade was
entrusted by the Charter with responsibilities concerning
established by the General Assembly in 1968 to draft an
disarmament and the regulation of armaments. Disarma-
international development strategy (IDS) for the 1970s.
ment questions have been before the organization almost
While the publicity surrounding the demand for a new
continuously since 1946, and a succession of specialized
international economic order (NIEO), particularly at the
bodies has been set up to deal with them. Among those cur-
1974, 1975, and 1980 special sessions of the General
rently in existence are the all-member Disarmament Com-
Assembly, tended to overshadow the IDS, the latter main-
mission, established in 1952 and reconstituted in 1978, and
tained its effectiveness, establishing quantitative targets for
the 40-member Conference on Disarmament (known until
the Second Development Decade and on some issues, such
1984 as the Committee on Disarmament), which meets at
as human development, remaining the single most com-
Geneva, Switzerland, under joint US-USSR chairmanship.
prehensive program of action for less-developed states.
The UN played a role in drafting the Treaty Banning
Targets for the Third Development Decade, which began
Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space,
January 1, 1981, included the following: an average an-
and Under Water (effective October 10, 1963), as well as
nual growth rate of 7 percent in gross domestic product;
the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
expansion of exports and imports of goods and services
(effective March 5, 1970). The Second Special Session on
by not less than 7.5 and 8.0 percent, respectively; gross
Disarmament, held June 7-July 10, 1982, at UN head-
domestic savings of approximately one-quarter of GDP
quarters, had as its primary focus the adoption of a com-
by 1990; expansion of agricultural production at an average
prehensive disarmament program based on the draft pro-
annual rate of at least 4 percent; expansion of manufactur-
gram developed in 1980 by the Committee on Disarm-
ing output at an average yearly rate of 9 percent; reduc-
ament. Although the session heard messages from many
tion of infant mortality in the poorest countries to less than
of the world's leaders, two-thirds of the delegations, and
120 per 1,000 live births; and life expectancy in all coun-
almost 80 international organizations, no agreement was
tries of at least 60 years.
reached on the proposal. At the 37th regular session of the
The General Assembly has increasingly concentrated
General Assembly, which opened in September 1982, some
on North-South relations, with an emphasis on economic
60 resolutions concerning disarmament were discussed. Of
links between advanced industrialized countries (often ex-
those adopted, three called for negotiation of new nuclear
cluding those having centrally planned economies) and less-
test-ban treaties. Additional resolutions, adopted over
developed countries. Major discussion topics, all of them
Western opposition, called for a freeze on the production
integral to the NIEO, have included the following: inter-
and deployment of nuclear weapons.
national monetary reform and the transfer of real resources
The General Assembly has also endorsed US-Soviet
for financing development; transfer of technological and
bilateral agreements on the limitation of offensive and
scientific advances, with specific emphasis on the reform
defensive strategic weapon systems; has urged wide adher-
of patent and licensing laws; restructuring of the economic
ence to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Devel-
and social sectors of the UN system; expansion of no-
opment, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological
strings-attached aid; preferential and nonreciprocal treat-
(Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction
ment of less-developed states' trade; recognition of the full
(opened for signature April 10, 1972); and in April 1981
permanent sovereignty of every state over its natural re-
opened for ratification a Convention on Prohibition or Re-
sources and the right of compensation for any expropriated
strictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons
foreign property; the regulation of foreign investment ac-
which may be deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to have
cording to domestic law; supervision of the activities of
Indiscriminate Effects, the intention being to protect civil-
transnational corporations; a "just and equitable relation-
ians from such weapons as napalm, land mines, and booby
ship" between the prices of imports from and exports to
traps.
less-developed states ("indexation"); and enhancement of
The Assembly met in special session on May 31-
the role of commodity-producers' associations. In recent
June 26, 1988, in another attempt to revise and update its
years, efforts have been made to conduct an all-encom-
disarmament aims and priorities. As in 1982, however, no
passing discussion of development issues in the form of
consensus was reached on a final declaration. "Irreconcil-
global negotiations. Although three UN special sessions
able differences" were reported between Western countries
have been held on this topic, advanced and developing
and Third World nations (usually supported by the Soviet
countries, particularly the United States, have disagreed
bloc) on a number of issues including conventional arms
on the necessity, scope, and utility of such talks.
controls in developing nations, proposed curbs on space
As the 1980s drew to a close, UN analyses acknowledged
weapons, nuclear-weapon-free zones, and nuclear arms
that little progress had been made toward most devel-
questions pertaining to South Africa and Israel.
opment goals, economic conditions generally having
UN activity in regard to human rights also dates virtually
deteriorated in the Third World during the decade and
from the organization's founding. The Assembly's adop-
development assistance from industrialized nations hav-
tion in 1948 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
ing "stagnated" at levels well below UN targets. Conse-
marked what was perhaps the high point of UN action in
quently, UN Secretary General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar urg-
this field. Subsequently, the Human Rights Commission
ed the Assembly to adopt a "limited set of realistic objec-
directed efforts to embody key principles of the Declara-
tives" for the Fourth Development Decade, negotiations
tion in binding international agreements. These efforts
on which were launched in early 1990.
culminated in two human-rights covenants - one dealing
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with economic, social, and cultural rights, and the other
sions from 1973 to 1982. Delegates to the tenth session
with civil and political rights of which came into
(August 1981), at Geneva, Switzerland, reluctantly agreed
force in January 1976.
to discuss several sensitive issues about which the US
On October 3, 1975, concern for human rights was, for
Reagan administration had expressed reservations.
the first time, explicitly linked with nationalism in the form
Although the 440 articles of the proposed treaty had re-
of a resolution contending "that Zionism is a form of
ceived consensual approval during previous UNCLOS ses-
racism and racial discrimination". After considerable
sions, the United States demanded that items such as the
parliamentary maneuvering, the resolution passed on No-
regulation of deep-sea mining and the distribution of mem-
vember 10 by a vote of 72-35-32. Two days later, US Am-
bers for a proposed International Seabed Authority be re-
bassador to the UN Daniel P. Moynihan launched what
examined before it would consider approving the document.
appeared to be a counterattack. He presented a draft reso-
Following a year-long review of the proposed treaty,
lution appealing to "all governments to proclaim an uncon-
Washington ended its absence from the Conference with
ditional amnesty by releasing
persons deprived of
the presentation of a list of demands and revisions to be
their liberty primarily because they have sought peaceful
discussed at the eleventh session. Although compromises
expression of beliefs at variance with those held by the
were reached in a number of disputed areas, other dif-
governments". While the US proposal was quickly with-
ferences remained unresolved, including the rights of re-
drawn in the face of hostile amendments, both it and the.
tention and the entry of private enterprises to seabed ex-
Zionism resolution suggested that a new phase was open-
ploration and exploitation sites, mandatory technology
ing in what had for some years been a relatively dormant
transfers from private industry to the Seabed Authority,
issue on the UN calendar.
and amending procedures. On April 30, 1982, the treaty
Questions relating to outer space are the province of a
was approved by 130 Conference members, with 17 absten-
47-member Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer
tions and four voting against: Israel, Turkey, the United
Space, established by the General Assembly in 1960 to deal
States, and Venezuela. The treaty was opened for ratifica-
with the scientific, technical, and legal aspects of the sub-
tion and signed by 117 countries on December 10, and will
ject. In addition to promoting scientific and technical
enter into force one year after ratification by 60 states. On
cooperation on a wide range of space endeavors, the Com-
December 30 the Reagan administration informed the UN
mittee was responsible for the adoption of the Treaty on
that it would not pay its 25 percent share of the costs for
Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Explora-
the Preparatory Commission established under the treaty.
tion and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and
UN officials responded that the United States was obli-
Other Celestial Bodies (entered into force October 10, 1967)
gated to meet its assessment because the Commission is a
and the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Re-
subsidiary organ of the General Assembly, while Washing-
turn of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched
ton asserted that since the Commission was established by
into Outer Space (entered into force December 3, 1968).
treaty, only treaty signatories were legally bound to pay
In July 1979 the Committee produced a new draft treaty
the Commission's expenses.
proclaiming that the moon's resources were "the common
The Preparatory Commission has been charged with
heritage of mankind". In addition, the Committee's legal
establishing the two main organs of the Convention - the
subcommittee has been drafting a treaty on direct televi-
International Sea-Bed Authority and the International
sion broadcasting via satellite and home receivers, and
Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. In addition, the General
another on satellite sensing of the earth's minerals and liv-
Assembly in 1983 created the Office of the Special Rep-
ing resources.
resentative of the Secretary-General for the Law of the Sea,
The Second Conference on the Exploration and Peace-
a permanent body whose functions include carrying out
ful Uses of Outer Space was held August 9-21, 1982, at
the central program on law of the sea affairs, assisting
Vienna, Austria, where the first space conference had con-
states in consistently and uniformly implementing the Con-
vened in 1968. In addition to reiterating a call for adherence
vention's provisions, and providing general information
to the 1967 Treaty and for improved UN monitoring of
concerning the treaty.
compliance, the Conference recommended that the Gen-
By December 9, 1984, the deadline for signing the Con-
eral Assembly adopt measures designed to accelerate the
vention, 159 nations had become signatories; by late 1989
transfer of peaceful space technology, to expand access to
instruments of ratification had been deposited by 42 coun-
space and its resources for developing countries, and to es-
tries and the UN Council for Namibia. Meanwhile, the UN
tablish a UN information service on the world's space
announced that many countries were already complying
programs.
with the provisions of the Convention.
Oceanic policy has also become a major UN concern.
France, Japan, India, and the Soviet Union have been
In 1968 the General Assembly established a 42-member
registered by the Preparatory Commission as "pioneer in-
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and the
vestors" under a program established to recognize national
Ocean Floor and in 1970 advanced a Treaty on the Pro-
investments already made in exploration, research, and
hibition of the Emplacement of Nuclear Weapons and
development work related to sea-bed mining. Pioneer in-
Other Weapons of Mass Destruction on the Sea-Bed and
vestors are entitled to explore allocated portions of the in-
the Ocean Floor and in the Subsoil Thereof. Detailed and
ternational sea-bed but must wait until the Convention
controversial negotiations in this area have since ensued,
enters into force to begin commercial exploitation.
most notably in conjunction with the Third UN Conference
Structure. All members of the UN, each with one vote,
on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which held eleven ses-
are represented in the General Assembly, which now meets
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for a full year in regular session, normally commencing the
bers present and voting. Agenda items not referred to a
third Tuesday in September. Special sessions (convenable,
Main Committee are dealt with directly by the Assembly
contrary to earlier practice, without formal adjournment
in plenary session under the same voting rules.
of a regular session) may be called at the request of the
There are two Procedural (Sessional) Committees. The
Security Council, of a majority of the member states, or
General Committee, which is composed of 29 members (the
of one member state with the concurrence of a majority.
president of the General Assembly, the 21 vice presidents,
Eighteen such sessions have thus far been held: Palestine
and the chairmen of the seven Main Committees), draws
(1947 and 1948), Tunisia (1961), Financial and Budgetary
up the agenda of the plenary meetings, determines agenda
Problems (1963), Review of Peace-Keeping Operations and
priorities, and coordinates the proceedings of the Commit-
Southwest Africa (1967), Raw Materials and Development
tees. The Credentials Committee, which consists of nine
(1974), Development and International Economic Coop-
members, is appointed at the beginning of each Assembly
eration (1975, 1980, and 1990), Disarmament (1978, 1982,
session and is responsible for examining and reporting on
and 1988), Financing for UN Forces in Lebanon (1978),
credentials of representatives.
Namibia (1978 and 1986), the Economic Crisis in Africa
The two Standing Committees deal with continuing
(1986), Apartheid in South Africa (1989), and Illegal Drug
problems during and between the regular sessions of the
Trafficking (1990).
General Assembly. The Advisory Committee on Adminis-
Under the "Uniting for Peace" resolution of November
trative and Budgetary Questions (16 members) handles the
3, 1950, an emergency special session may be convened by
budget and accounts of the UN as well as the administrative
nine members of the Security Council or by a majority of
budgets of the Specialized Agencies; the Committee on
the UN members in the event that the Security Council is
Contributions (18 members) makes recommendations on
prevented, by lack of unanimity among its permanent
the scale of assessments to be used in apportioning ex-
members, from exercising its primary responsibility for the
penses. The members of each Standing Committee are ap-
maintenance of international peace and security. The
pointed on the basis of broad geographical representation,
seventh, eighth, and ninth such sessions dealt, respective-
serve for terms of three years, retire by rotation, and are
ly, with the question of Palestine (July 22-29, 1980),
eligible for reappointment.
negotiations for Namibian independence (September 3-14,
The General Assembly is also empowered to establish
1981), and the occupied Arab territories (January 29-
subsidiary organs and ad hoc committees. Apart from the
February 5, 1982).
Special Bodies (see below), some three dozen such entities
The General Assembly elects the ten nonpermanent
of varying size presently deal with political, legal, scien-
members of the Security Council; the 54 members of
tific, and administrative matters. Among those of an essen-
ECOSOC; the elected members of the Trusteeship Coun-
tially political character (with dates of establishment) are
cil; and, together with the Security Council (but voting in-
the Special Committee on the Implementation of the
dependently), the judges of the International Court of
Declaration on Decolonization (1961), the Special Com-
Justice. On recommendation of the Security Council, it ap-
mittee against Apartheid (1962), the Special Committee on
points the secretary general and is empowered to admit new
Peace-Keeping Operations (1965), the Ad Hoc Commit-
members. The Assembly also approves the UN budget, ap-
tee on the Indian Ocean (1972), the UN Council for
portions the expenses of the organization among the
Namibia (1967), the UN Fund for Namibia (1970), the
members, and receives and considers reports from the other
Special Committee on the Charter of the United Nations
UN organs.
and on the Strengthening of the Role of the Organization
At each session the General Assembly elects its own pres-
(1975), the Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable
ident and 21 vice presidents, approves its agenda, and
Rights of the Palestinian People (1975), the Special Com-
distributes agenda items among its committees, which are
mittee on Enhancing the Effectiveness of the Principle of
grouped by its rules of procedure into three categories:
Non-Use of Force in International Relations (1977), the
Main, Procedural, and Standing.
Ad Hoc Committee on the Drafting of an International
All member states are represented on the seven Main
Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and
Committees: First Committee (Political and Security), Spe-
Training of Mercenaries (1980), the Advisory Board on
cial Political Committee (shares the work of the First Com-
Disarmament Studies (1978), the Disarmament Commis-
mittee), Second Committee (Economic and Financial),
sion (1978), and the Oil Embargo Committee (1986). Sub-
Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural),
sidiary groups dealing with legal matters include the Inter-
Fourth Committee (Trusteeship, including Non-Self-
national Law Commission (1947), the Advisory Commit-
Governing Territories), Fifth Committee (Administrative
tee on the UN Programme of Assistance in Teaching,
and Budgetary), and Sixth Committee (Legal). Each mem-
Study, Dissemination, and Wider Appreciation of Inter-
ber has one vote; decisions are taken by a simple major-
national Law (1965), and the UN Commission on Inter-
ity. Resolutions and recommendations approved by the
national Trade Law (1966). Those dealing with scientific
Main Committees are returned for final action by a plenary
matters include the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
session of the General Assembly, where each member again
Outer Space (1959), the UN Scientific Committee on the
has one vote but where decisions on "important ques-
Effects of Atomic Radiation (1955), the Advisory Com-
tions" including recommendations on peace and security
mittee on Science and Technology for Development (1980),
questions; election of members to UN organs; the admis-
and the Committee on Development and Utilization of
sion, suspension, and expulsion of member states; and
New and Renewable Sources of Energy (1982). Among the
budget matters- require a two-thirds majority of the mem-
subsidiary groups dealing with administrative and finan-
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UNITED NATIONS
cial matters are the Investments Committee (1947), the
term environmental concerns and measures to inhibit the
International Civil Service Commission (1948), the UN Ad-
threat or use of force in international relations.
ministrative Tribunal (1949), the UN Joint Staff Pension
The 42nd Assembly was reconvened on February 29-
Fund (1948), the Committee of Trustees of the UN Trust
March 2 and March 18-23, 1988, to discuss Washington's
Fund for South Africa (1965), the Joint Inspection Unit
efforts to close the observer mission offices of the Pales-
(1966), the Advisory Committee on the UN Educational
tinian Liberation Organization (see section on Interna-
and Training Programme for Southern Africa (1968), the
tional Court of Justice for details) and on May 11-12 to
Committee on Relations with the Host Country (1971), the
approve a special plan of economic cooperation for Cen-
Committee on Conferences (1974), and the Committee on
tral America under which the United Nations hopes to
Information (1978).
mobilize $4.3 billion in assistance for the region.
Recent Activities. In 1986 the General Assembly focused
In mid-1988 officials reported that arrears had reached
much of its attention on a financial crisis generated by
$602 million in the UN's regular budget and $687 million
drastic reductions in contributions by several countries, in-
in the peacekeeping budgets, leaving the organization "vir-
cluding the United States, which withheld $110 million of
tually without reserves". However, the financial picture im-
its $210 million assessment to protest what it termed a
proved in September as Washington, responsible for more
bloated and inefficient organization that did not accord
than $520 million of the arrears, described the UN reform
sufficient influence to major contributors in spending deci-
efforts as "making good progress" and announced plans
sions. Calling the impending deficit a threat to the viabil-
to release some of its withheld 1988 dues. Further em-
ity of the United Nations, Secretary General Pérez de
phasizing Washington's new attitude, US President Reagan
Cuéllar proposed sweeping savings measures that were en-
told the 43rd General Assembly, held September 26-
dorsed by the reconvened 40th Assembly in April and ex-
December 22, that "the United Nations has the opportunity
panded by the 41st Assembly during its September 16-
to live and breathe as never before". The Soviet Union also
December 19 regular session. An estimated $70 million was
continued to promote an expanded UN mandate as General
saved by the short-term changes, which included a re-
Secretary Gorbachev became the first Soviet head of state
cruiting freeze, the delay of planned construction, deferred
to address the Assembly since 1960. Both Reagan and Gor-
promotions, and reductions in spending for travel, con-
bachev praised the United Nations for its recent success
sultants, overtime, and temporary help.
in regional peace negotiations (see sections on the Secre-
The 41st Assembly also endorsed most of the longer-
tariat and the Security Council), which had significantly
term proposals advanced by an 18-member Group of High-
enhanced the organization's prestige in much of the world.
Level Intergovernmental Experts, which agreed that the
However, the conflict in the Middle East remained a source
United Nations had become "too complex, fragmented and
of contention, the Assembly reiterating its appeal for a UN-
top-heavy" and was hampered by a proliferation of inter-
sponsored peace conference while condemning Israel's
nal bodies with overlapping agendas. In response, a variety
"persistent policies and practices violating the human
of measures, such as staff reductions and the consolidation
rights" of Palestinians in the occupied territories. Midway
of departments, were scheduled for immediate implemen-
through the session one of the Assembly's sharpest con-
tation, while the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
troversies in recent years erupted when the United States
was directed to conduct a study on further restructuring,
refused to grant a visa to PLO Chairman Yasir 'Arafat,
including possible changes in the budgetary decision pro-
thereby preventing him from addressing the session on the
cess. (See section on ECOSOC for details on the failure
PLO's recent declaration of an independent Palestinian
of that study to produce a consensus.)
state. The Assembly, calling Washington's decision a viola-
At its regular session from September 15 to December
tion of the host country's legal obligations under the 1947
21, 1987, the 42nd Assembly adopted a $1.77 billion budget
Headquarters Agreement, thereupon shifted its venue to
for the 1988-1989 biennium. Despite the payment of some
Geneva, Switzerland, to hear 'Arafat (the first such move
arrears by the Soviet Union (Moscow having called
in UN history). At the end of the three-day Geneva sitting
throughout the year for enhanced UN activity and author-
the Assembly voted to change the name of the PLO ob-
ity in peacekeeping and other areas), the financial status
server mission at the United Nations to the Palestine
of the organization remained precarious and Pérez de
observer mission.
Cuéllar declared that the organization might be forced to
Other major topics of discussion at the 43rd Assembly
borrow money to avoid insolvency unless increased con-
included the dumping of nuclear and other toxic waste
tributions were forthcoming.
from industrialized nations in the Third World, the exter-
Apart from budgetary matters, much of the session's
nal debt crisis facing developing countries, pursuit of a
discussion centered on highly visible UN participation in
political settlement in Cambodia, and proposals for nego-
peace negotiations involving Afghanistan, Central Amer-
tiations on the reunification of Korea. The Assembly also
ica, the Persian Gulf, and southern Africa. Other resolu-
approved a $1.8 billion budget for the 1990-1991 bien-
tions denounced the continued Soviet presence in Afghan-
nium. Meeting in resumed session for two days the follow-
istan, deplored cuts in foreign aid to Africa and the lack
ing April to discuss Palestinian affairs, the Assembly
of success in the continent's recovery program, appealed
agreed to ask the Security Council to pursue ways of pro-
again for sanctions against South Africa, and committed
tecting Palestinians in the occupied territories.
the United Nations to a leadership role in a campaign to
The 44th Assembly, convening on September 19, 1989,
halt the spread of AIDS. The Assembly also approved
further reflected what the UN Chronicle described as "an
lengthy documents drafted by subsidiary bodies on long-
irresistible movement away from ideological confronta-
UNITED NATIONS
856
UNITED NATIONS
tion and towards a search for a common ground". The op-
Purpose: To give assistance, particularly to less-developed
timism grew out of the rapid thaw in East-West relations,
countries, in the establishment of permanent child health
which prompted the United States and the Soviet Union
and welfare services.
to pledge, in their first jointly sponsored Assembly resolu-
tion of its kind, to work toward the strengthening of the
Headquarters: New York, United States.
United Nations and its related organizations. However,
some observers questioned the extent of Washington's
Principal Organs: Executive Board (41 members), Pro-
commitment as the US Congress again cut the US contribu-
gram Committee (Committee of the Whole), Committee
tion to the United Nations and refused to pay any arrears.
on Administration and Finance (18 members), National
In addition, the United States threatened to cut off its UN
Committees, Secretariat. Membership on the Executive
financing entirely if the Assembly approved a resolution
Board is on the following geographical basis: Africa, 9
upgrading the PLO's UN status. The Assembly eventual-
seats; Asia, 9; Latin America, 6; Eastern Europe, 4; West-
ly postponed a vote on the resolution amid widespread con-
ern Europe and other, 12; with 1 additional seat rotating
demnation of the US pressure.
among the five groupings.
In other activity, the 44th Assembly adopted the long-
discussed International Convention on the Rights of the
Executive Director: James P. Grant (United States).
Child, called upon the UN Environmental Program and
the World Meteorological Organization to draft a treaty
Recent activities. UNICEF is actively involved in broad-
regarding global atmospheric warming, denounced the US
ening its support of maternal and child health, nutrition,
invasion of Panama, and called for a "Namibia-style solu-
education, and social-welfare programs. To improve child
tion" to the conflict in Cambodia. Meanwhile, a two-day
health and nutrition, UNICEF has formulated four strate-
special session in December unanimously adopted guide-
gies: the use of oral rehydration therapy (giving the child
lines for dismantling apartheid and instituting constitu-
a mixture of salt, sugar, and water during bouts of in-
tional democracy in South Africa. In addition, two special
testinal infection instead of withholding food and drink),
sessions were held in early 1990: the first approved a plan
the immunization of children against childhood diseases,
of action against drug trafficking which emphasized de-
the use of breastfeeding instead of artificial infant for-
mand reduction in drug consuming countries and economic
mulas, and the employment of child-growth charts by
assistance for poor drug producing countries; the second
which a mother can follow her child's progress and deter-
yielded a consensus that development policies for the Third
mine when more food intake is necessary. UNICEF deter-
World should favor free market orientation and "sound
mined that before any of these could be truly effective,
domestic policies".
there had to be basic changes in the life-style of the poor:
most importantly, increased income would be required to
improve maternal and child nutrition, health, and educa-
tion. A number of agricultural solutions have been sug-
GENERAL ASSEMBLY:
gested, including an increase in the number of small labor-
SPECIAL BODIES
intensive farms (producing both food and cash income for
families). An increase in food subsidies for pregnant
Over the years, the General Assembly has created a num-
women and children has also been recommended. UNICEF
ber of semiautonomous special bodies, two of which
stated that these measures, as well as others already in use,
(UNCTAD, UNDP) deal with development problems,
could help break the cycle of "ill-health, low energy, low
four (UNDRO, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNRWA) with relief
productivity, low incomes and a low level of financial and
and welfare problems, and two (UNEP, UNFPA) with
energy investment in improving family and community
demographic and environmental problems, while three
life".
(UNITAR, UNRISD, UNU) are research and training
Much of UNICEF's activity is carried out under the
bodies. The most recent, the World Food Council, is de-
Child Survival and Development Revolution (CSDR),
signed to carry forward the work of the 1974 World Food
adopted in 1983 to provide "a creative and practical ap-
Conference. A former special body, the United Nations
proach" to accelerating progress for children. Programs
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) became
have been extended recently to deal with the problems of
a Specialized Agency on January 1, 1986.
children affected by armed conflicts, exploitation, aban-
donment, abuse, and neglect. Increased attention has also
United Nations Children's Fund
been given to the role of women in economic development,
(UNICEF)
problems specific to female children, the need for family
"spacing", and the provision of better water and sanita-
Established: By General Assembly resolution of December
tion facilities. In all the areas it covers, UNICEF's goal is
11, 1946, as the United Nations International Children's
to foster community-based services provided by workers
Emergency Fund. Initially a temporary body to provide
selected by the community and supported by existing net-
emergency assistance to children in countries ravaged by
works of government agencies and nongovernment
war, the Fund was made permanent by General Assembly
organizations.
resolution on October 6, 1953, the name being changed to
During the celebration of its 40th anniversary in 1986
United Nations Children's Fund while retaining the abbre-
UNICEF noted that extraordinary progress had been made
viation UNICEF.
in basic areas: infant and child mortality rates were less
UNITED NATIONS
857
UNITED NATIONS
than half what they were in 1950 and life expectancy and
bers), Invisibles and Financing Related to Trade (102
literacy rates were up substantially. UNICEF estimated
members), Manufactures (101 members), Shipping (103
that over 1.5 million children were being saved annually
members), Transfer of Technology (99 members), and
in developing countries through oral rehydration therapy
Economic Cooperation among Developing Countries (110
and immunization. Projections suggested that the figure
members); Special Committee on Preferences (open to all
could rise to 3-5 million by 1990.
members).
Nevertheless, in UNICEF's 1987 and 1988 State of the
World's Children reports, Executive Director James P.
Secretary General: Kenneth K.S. Dadzie (Ghana).
Grant called for a "new political, economic, and moral
ethic" to address the fact that more than 13 million children
Membership (167): All UN members, plus Democratic
die "almost without notice" each year. The reports noted
People's Republic of Korea, Holy See (Vatican City State),
that advances had been made in recent years, due in part
Republic of Korea, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino,
to the attention of the mass media, in preventing large-scale
Switzerland, Tonga.
deaths from emergencies such as famine; however, similar
public attention has not been given to the "silent emer-
Recent activities. UNCTAD's quadrennial meeting of
gencies" of frequent infection and undernutrition. In addi-
governmental, intergovernmental, and nongovernmental
tion, UNICEF warned of the adverse effects that economic
representatives is considered the world's most comprehen-
adjustment policies in developing countries were having
sive forum on North-South economic issues. However,
on the poor and called for "adjustment with a human face"
staff reports and other analyses issued prior to UNCTAD
in addition to debt rescheduling and improved aid flows.
VII, held at Geneva, Switzerland, July 9-August 3, 1987,
The 1989 report addressed the Third World debt crisis
painted a gloomy picture both of UNCTAD's past accom-
even more forcefully, estimating that 500,000 children died
plishments and of its prospects for aiding developing coun-
in 1988 from the "deceleration or reversal of development
tries in the immediate future.
programs" resulting from debt pressures. The 1990 report
A major area of concern was negligible activity within
described it as a "chilling injustice" that "the heaviest
UNCTAD's Integrated Programme for Commodities
burden of the debt issue is falling on the growing minds
(IPC), established in the mid-1970s to secure fair and stable
and bodies of children in the developing world". UNICEF
prices for 18 commodities crucial to developing countries'
staff reports noted recent increases in child abandonment,
foreign exchange. The relatively few agreements negotiated
juvenile delinquency, and drug abuse among children and
by producers through the IPC had failed to counter the col-
reported that, after decades of progress, the world "re-
lapse of commodity prices in the early 1980s. In addition,
treated" in the 1980s from the goal of universal education.
the IPC's $750 million Common Fund for Commodity
Consequently, UNICEF was preparing a global strategy
Stabilization, approved in 1980 to combat extreme price
for the 1990s that would "place children at the center of
fluctuations through buffer stocks, had failed to secure
the world's consciousness". Major components of the plan
ratification by the required number of UNCTAD mem-
will include implementation of the International Conven-
bers.
tion on the Rights of the Child (adopted by the General
UNCTAD reports also despaired of the global debt
Assembly in November 1989 after ten years of negotia-
crisis that continued to yield a net transfer of resources
tions) and sponsorship of the "World Summit for Chil-
from developing to developed countries. Despite the ef-
dren", scheduled for September 1990 at UN headquarters.
forts of UNCTAD's Substantial New Program of Action
for the 1980s for the Least Developed Countries, the lat-
United Nations Conference on
ter were experiencing high unemployment, declining liv-
Trade and Development
ing standards, and falling levels of per capita output.
(UNCTAD)
Overall, efforts to stimulate economic activity and pro-
Established: By General Assembly resolution of December
mote exports were being hindered by declining access to
30, 1964.
external investment and concessional aid, as well as by
fragmentation in world trading systems and growing pro-
Purpose: To promote international trade with a view to
tectionism among industrialized nations.
accelerating the economic growth of less-developed coun-
In April 1987 the Group of 77, which represents 127
tries, to formulate and implement policies related to trade
developing countries within UNCTAD, condemned "the
and development, to review and facilitate the coordination
current crisis in international economic relations and the
of various institutions within the United Nations system
state of disarray and disequilibrium which characterizes
in regard to international trade and development, to ini-
these relations". The Group also criticized the International
tiate action for the negotiation and adoption of multilateral
Monetary Fund and the World Bank as "being designed
legal instruments in the field of trade, and to harmonize
exclusively to protect the interests of creditor nations".
trade and related development policies of governments and
However, at UNCTAD VII the Group adopted a less stri-
regional economic groups.
dent tone than at UNCTAD VI in 1983. The softening of
rhetoric was deemed partially responsible for UNCTAD
Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
VII's adoption of a Final Act declaring consensus on debt,
trade, development, and monetary issues. In general, the
Principal Organs: Trade and Development Board (131
developing countries agreed to place more emphasis on
members); six Main Committees: Commodities (107 mem-
private enterprise and free market activity, while the West
UNITED NATIONS
858
UNITED NATIONS
endorsed "flexibility" on debt repayments. Some observers
ment Fund (UNCDF), established in 1960 but administered
suggested that the Final Act signalled a "new spirit" in
by the UNDP since 1972; the United Nations Volunteers
North-South relations but the pronounced lack of enthu-
(UNV), formed in 1971; the UN Revolving Fund for Nat-
siasm from the United States for UNCTAD VII remained
ural Resources Exploration (UNRFNRE), founded in
a concern. On the other hand, the Soviet Union and its allies
1974; Development Assistance for National Liberation
underscored their growing support for UN operations by
Movements (DANLM), formed in 1974 as the UN Trust
ratifying the IPC's Common Fund and agreeing to con-
Fund for Colonial Countries and Peoples and renamed in
tribute to its capital.
1982; the UN Sudano-Sahelian Office (UNSO), placed
Attention remained focused on debt issues in 1988. In
under the UNDP in 1976; the UN Special Fund for Land-
September UNCTAD became one of the first major inter-
locked Developing Countries, administered by the UNDP
governmental organizations to endorse extensive debt
since 1977; the UN Fund for Science and Technology for
forgiveness by governments and commercial banks as "the
Development (UNFSTD), established as an Interim Fund
only realistic way" of resolving the crisis. In another im-
in 1979 and redesignated as of January 1982; the Energy
portant development during 1988, UNCTAD reported that
Account, authorized by the Governing Council in 1980;
the requisite number of ratifications had been achieved for
the UN Development Fund for Women (UNDFW), for-
the Common Fund, which finally became operational in
merly the Voluntary Fund for the UN Decade for Women,
June 1989 as an independent institution under its own
established in 1980 and renamed in 1985; and the UN Of-
Governing Council.
fice for Emergency Operations in Africa (UNOEOA), set
In 1989 UNCTAD officials again charged that austeri-
up in 1985.
ty measures imposed by the International Monetary Fund
on many of the world's poorest countries had produced few
Administrator: William H. Draper, 3rd (United States).
positive results, the economies of most developing coun-
tries in Africa and Latin America having stagnated or even
deteriorated, in large measure because of external debt
Recent activities. The UNDP works with over 150 gov-
burdens. Consequently, in marking UNCTAD's 25th an-
ernments and over 30 intergovernmental agencies to pro-
niversary, the Trade and Development Board called for a
mote more rapid economic growth and better standards
reassessment of UNCTAD's role in the 1990s in order to
of living throughout Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Arab
bring "fresh thinking" to bear on longstanding barriers to
World, and parts of Europe. To this end, the UNDP cur-
the creation of an "equitable world economy". Immediate
rently supports over 5,300 operational projects valued at
concerns also included preparation for the Second UN
over $7.5 billion in five main fields: (1) surveying and
Conference on the Least Developed Countries, scheduled
assessing natural resources having industrial, commercial,
for September 1990 at Paris, and UNCTAD VIII, to be
or export potential; (2) stimulating capital investments; (3)
held in 1991, where officials hope to capitalize on current
training in a wide range of vocational and professional
improvements in international political relations to pro-
skills; (4) transferring appropriate technologies and stim-
duce more effective development strategies.
ulating the growth of local technological capabilities; and
(5) aiding economic and social planning. In addition, the
General Assembly assigned the UNDP three special man-
United Nations Development Programme
dates for the 1980s: the International Drinking Water
(UNDP)
Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-1990), the Women
Established: By General Assembly resolution of November
in Development program, and implementation of the new
22, 1965, which combined the United Nations Expanded
international economic order (NIEO). The UNDP operates
Programme of Technical Assistance (UNEPTA) with the
113 field offices in support of programs in more than 150
United Nations Special Fund (UNSF):
countries and territories.
Funding for UNDP activities is provided by country
Purpose: To coordinate and administer technical assistance
contributions and pledges. After suffering financial set-
provided through the UN system, in order to assist less-
backs in 1983-1984, the Governing Council's Intersessional
developed countries in their efforts to accelerate social and
Committee recommended that United Nations members
economic development.
should maintain the real value of contributions from year
to year, with the UNDP administrator holding informal
Headquarters: New York, United States.
talks with governments to assure additional funds. The
UNDP financial situation subsequently improved, con-
Principal Organs: Governing Council (48 members), Com-
tributions exceeding $1 billion for the first time in 1986 and
mittee of the Whole, Executive Management Committee,
continuing to grow thereafter. The leading contributors
Office for Projects Execution, Inter-Agency Procurement
to the 1988 total of $1.2 billion were the United States ($116
Services Unit. Membership on the Governing Council ro-
million), Sweden ($107 million), and the Netherlands ($99
tates on the following geographical basis: developing coun-
million).
tries, 27 seats (Africa, 11; Asia and Yugoslavia, 9; Latin
Distributions are determined by indicative planning
America, 7); economically more-advanced countries, 21
figures (IPFs) which project the amount available for a
seats (Eastern Europe, 4; Western Europe and other, 17).
given country over a five-year period. Criteria include fac-
tors such as population, per capita gross national product
Related Organs: The following special funds and activities
(GNP), geographic constraints, debt services costs, and
are administered by the UNDP: the UN Capital Develop-
terms of trade. Total outlay for 1982-1986 was $2.7 billion
UNITED NATIONS
with 42 percent providing financing for projects in least-
iss.
developed countries; $3.2 billion is projected for 1987-1991
STATE
EL
with 64 percent going to those countries with a per capita
GNP equal to or less than $375.
current)
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
and
IN
During its 1987 annual session, the Governing Council
It
recommended that more assistance be given to the private
THE
sector to combat faltering economic conditions in many
is
withins
developing countries. In other activity, the Council asked
scares
UNDP administrators to assist governments in formulat-
ing debt-managing strategies, pledged $3 million to the
imernations
World Health Organization's Special Program on AIDS,
wide
-
again stressed the need for expanded integration of women
31131
in development, and called for additional implementation
of de ind
the
of projects within the ten-year-old Technical Cooperation
UND
out,
the
15,
among Developing Countries (TCDC).
years
III:
usiles
Global environmental degradation has recently been a
OF
THE
THE
major topic of discussion within the UNDP and at its 1988
fooding
K
annual session the Governing Council insisted that all
Gilter:
future development under its aegis be "environmentally
P.,
recoment
sustainable". Other issues addressed at that and other
alls
UNDP meetings in 1988 included continuing economic and
UNDRO
maying
THE
social problems in Africa, efforts to slow deforestation
In
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the
throughout the world, the recent locust infestation in
===
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ANIT
111al
vast
Africa, proposals for assisting the "rebuilding" of Afghan-
people
and
istan, and the failure of development efforts to offset the
deathial
growing ranks of Latin Americans living below the poverty
level.
At its June 1989 meeting the Council indicated that the
UNDP now preferred the role of "facilitator" rather than
"initiator" and called upon aid recipients to take the lead
sins. 505 will <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< is <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< vic-
in determining new projects. To that end, the UNDP subse-
quently decided that a larger percentage of resources would
be used to support "innovative" development activities
sponsored by community-based nongovernmental orga-
nizations. Other activity during the rest of 1989 and early
movid In of THE MAIR IN regional the
1990 included the establishment of a special fund for
development in Namibia, a call for extra funds to expand
UNDP work in Eastern Europe, and increased support for
credited system who the <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<
projects relating to health, education, and tourism.
United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator's Office
The will <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< THE 111 under
(UNDRO)
Established: By General Assembly resolution of December
14, 1971, becoming operational March 1, 1972.
Purpose: To coordinate and help mobilize aid to disaster
mal segis as Disastry part in 111 disasters" re-
the munity interest $5 <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< INDRO.DUT- the
areas by other bodies, to raise the level of predisaster plan-
ning and preparedness, and to encourage research and the
dissemination of information about the causes of disaster.
tries. mitiganist sponses. that me in 1111 the Programme
ing the thing ,At 1,11505
Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.
Field Officers: UNDRO is represented in over 110 less-
developed countries by Resident Representatives of the
United Nations Development Programme.
Recent activities. UNDRO is a worldwide information
Established! ning United Hd III
Number 1
Coordinator: M'Hamed Essaafi (Tunisia).
and action center on disaster situations and relief measures,
rather than a body which responds to disasters per se. In
15,
1972.
2
History
THE UNITED NATIONS
STEPS TO THE CHARTER
3
social, cultural or humanitarian character, and in promoting respect for
Atlantic Charter
human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.
4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the
Two months later, on 14 August 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt of
attainment of these common ends.
the United States and Prime Minister Winston Churchill of the United
To fulfil the purposes for which it was established, the United Na-
Kingdom, meeting "somewhere at sea", issued a joint declaration in
tions acts in accordance with the following principles, as set forth in Ar-
which they set forth "certain common principles in the national policies
ticle 2 of the Charter:
of their respective countries" on which they based their hopes for a bet-
1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equa-
ter future for the world. In the document, known as the Atlantic Charter,
lity of all its Members.
the two signatories stated that "after the final destruction of the Nazi
2. All Members shall fulfil in good faith the obligations they have as-
tyranny, they hope to see established a peace which will afford to all na-
sumed under the Charter.
tions the means of dwelling in safety within their own boundaries, and
3. They shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means.
which will afford assurance that all the men in all the lands may live out
4. They shall refrain in their international relations from the threat
their lives in freedom from fear and want."
or use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the
They also stated that "they believe that all of the nations of the
United Nations.
world, for realistic as well as spiritual reasons, must come to the aban-
5. They shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action
donment of the use of force. Since no future peace can be maintained if
it takes in accordance with the Charter, and to refrain from giving assis-
land, sea, or air armanents continue to be employed by nations which
tance to any State against which the Organization is taking preventive or
threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their frontiers, they be-
enforcement action.
lieve, pending the establishment of a wider and permanent system of
6. The United Nations is to ensure that non-members act in accor-
general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential. They
dance with these principles so far as is necessary for maintaining interna-
will likewise aid and encourage all other practicable measures which will
tional peace and security.
lighten for peace-loving peoples the crushing burden of armaments."
7. The Organization shall not intervene in matters essentially within
The two statesmen also expressed, in the document, their desire "to
the domestic jurisdiction of any State. This provision shall not, however,
bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations in the economic
prejudice the application of enforcement action with respect to threats to
field with the object of securing, for all, improved labour standards, eco-
the peace, breaches of the peace and acts of aggression.
nomic advancement and social security."
(For text of Charter, see Appendix, page 381. For amendments to the
Charter, see Legal section, page 333).
Declaration by United Nations
STEPS TO THE CHARTER
On New Year's Day 1942, the representatives of 26 nations that were
fighting against the Axis signed at Washington, D.C., the Declaration by
Inter-Allied Declaration
United Nations. This document marked the first formal use of the term
United Nations", which had been suggested by President Roosevelt.
The first of a series of steps which led to the establishment of the United
In the Declaration, the signatory Governments:
Nations was the Inter-Allied Declaration, which was signed on 12 June
"Having subscribed to a common programme of purposes and prin-
1941, at St. James's Palace, London, by the representatives of Australia,
ciples embodied in the
Atlantic Charter,
Canada, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa and the United King-
'Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essen-
dom, of the exiled Governments of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece,
tial to defend life, liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland and Yugoslavia, and of
preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other
General de Gaulle of France. In the Declaration, the signatories, recog-
lands, and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against sav-
nizing that "the only true basis of enduring peace is the willing co-
age and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world,
operation of free peoples in a world in which, relieved of the menace of
"Declare:
aggression, all may enjoy economic and social security," stated that it
"(1) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources,
was their intention "to work together, and with other free peoples, both
military or economic, against those members of the Tripartite Pact and
in war and peace, to this end."
its adherents with which such Government is at war.
4
THE UNITED NATIONS
STEPS TO THE CHARTER
5
"(2) Each Government pledges itself to co-operate with the Gov-
United Nations to make a peace which will command the goodwill of the
ernments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace
overwhelming masses of the peoples of the world and banish the scourge
with the enemies."
and terror of war for many generations."
The Declaration was left open for signature by other nations "which
are, or may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the
struggle for victory over Hitlerism."
Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta Conferences
The 26 signatories of the Declaration of United Nations were the
United States, the United Kingdom, the USSR, China, Australia, Bel-
The first concrete step towards the creation of the United Nations was
gium, Canada, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, the Dominican Re-
taken in the late summer of 1944 at a mansion known as Dumbarton Oaks
public, El Salvador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India,
in Washington, D.C. In the first phase of the Dumbarton Oaks Confer-
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway,
ence, from 21 August to 28 September 1944, conversations were held be-
Panama, Poland, the Union of South Africa and Yugoslavia. Later adhe-
tween the representatives of the USSR, the United Kingdom and the
rents to the Declaration, in order of the dates of adherence, were
United States; in the second phase, from 29 September to 7 October,
Mexico, Philippines, Ethiopia, Iraq, Brazil, Bolivia, Iran, Colombia,
conversations were held between the representatives of China, the
Liberia, France, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Paraguay, Venezuela, Uruguay,
United Kingdom and the United States. This arrangement served to re-
Turkey, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Lebanon.
spect USSR neutrality in the war against Japan. As a result of the Con-
France and Denmark were generally regarded as having been iden-
ference, the four Powers reached a number of agreements which were
tified with the United Nations from the beginning. Free French Forces
embodied in proposals for the establishment of a general international
had fought against the Axis Powers and the Danish Minister in
organization.
Washington had signified the adherence of all free Danes to the Allied
The Dumbarton Oaks proposals were primarily concerned with the
cause. Since the Declaration was signed by Governments, they could not
purposes and principles of the organization, its membership and principal
at that time formally adhere to it. When the French National Committee
organs, and arrangements for the maintenance of international peace and
was constituted as a Government, France adhered formally to the Decla-
security and for international economic and social co-operation. Accord-
ration. Denmark, which was not liberated until after the opening of the
ing to the proposals, the key body in the United Nations for preserving
San Francisco Conference, was admitted as one of the United Nations by
world peace was to be the Security Council, on which China, France, the
the Conference. Poland did not attend the San Francisco Conference be-
USSR, the United Kingdom and the United States were to be perma-
cause the composition of its new Government was not announced until
nently represented. Agreement was not reached, however, on the ques-
28 June-too late for the Conference. A space, however, was left for the
tion of voting procedure in the Security Council.
signature of Poland, one of the original signatories of the Declaration by
That question, among others, was discussed by President Roosevelt,
United Nations. Poland signed the Charter on 15 October 1945, thus be-
Prime Minister Churchill and Premier Stalin at a conference at Yalta in
coming one of the original Members.
February 1945. On 11 February 1945, following the conference, a report
was issued in which the three leaders declared:
"We are resolved upon the earliest possible establishment with our
Moscow and Teheran Conferences
Allies of a general international organization to maintain peace and se-
curity. We believe that this is essential, both to prevent aggression and to
In a declaration signed in Moscow on 30 October 1943 by V. M. Molotov
remove the political, economic and social causes of war through the
of the USSR, Anthony Eden of the United Kingdom, Cordell Hull of the
close and continuing collaboration of all peace-loving peoples.
United States, and Foo Ping-sheung, the Chinese Ambassador to the
"The foundations were laid at Dumbarton Oaks. On the important
Soviet Union, the four Governments proclaimed that "they recognize
question of voting procedure, however, agreement was not there
the necessity of establishing at the earliest practicable date a general in-
reached. The present Conference has been able to resolve this difficulty.
ternational organization, based on the principle of the sovereign equality
"We have agreed that a Conference of United Nations should be
of all peace-loving states, and open to membership by all such states,
called to meet at San Francisco in the United States on the 25th April*
large and small, for the maintenance of international peace and se-
1945, to prepare the charter of such an organization, along the lines pro-
curity".
posed in the informal conversations of Dumbarton Oaks."
A month later, on 1 December 1943, President Roosevelt, Premier
The report further stated that the Government of China and the Pro-
Stalin and Prime Minister Churchill, meeting at Teheran, declared: "We
visional Government of France would be invited to sponsor invitations to
recognize fully the supreme responsibility resting upon us and all the
the Conference jointly with the United States, the United Kingdom and
6
THE UNITED NATIONS
MEMBERSHIP
7
the USSR and that as soon as consultations with China and France had
ernments were invited to co-operate in the observance of the anniver-
been completed, the text of the proposals on voting procedure would be
sary.
made public. China agreed to join in sponsoring the invitations. France
agreed to participate in the Conference but decided not to act as a spon-
soring nation.
MEMBERSHIP
The invitations to the Conference were issued on 5 March to those
nations which had declared war on Germany or Japan by 1 March and
The 51 original Members of the United Nations are States which took
had signed the Declaration by United Nations. The text of the invitation
part in the San Francisco Conference or had previously signed the Decla-
contained the provisions for voting in the Security Council which were
ration by United Nations, and which signed and ratified the Charter.
subsequently adopted at San Francisco.
Membership in the United Nations is open to all peace-loving coun-
tries which accept and, in the judgement of the Organization, are able
and willing to carry out the obligations of the Charter. Any country desir-
San Francisco Conference
ing to become a Member must submit an application including a declara-
tion that it accepts the obligations set out in the Charter. New Members
Before the start of the San Francisco Conference, the Dumbarton Oaks
are admitted by a two-thirds vote of the General Assembly upon the rec-
proposals were studied and discussed by the nations of the world both
ommendation of the Security Council. Membership becomes effective on
collectively and individually. From 21 February to 8 March 1945, for in-
the date the Assembly accepts the application.
stance, the representatives of 20 Latin American nations met in Mexico
A Member of the United Nations against which preventive or
City and adopted a resolution suggesting points to be taken into consid-
enforcement action has been taken by the Security Council may be sus-
eration in the drawing up of the charter of the proposed international or-
pended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership by
ganization. From 4 to 13 April 1945, talks were held in London among
the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
representatives of the British Commonwealth. A statement issued at the
The exercise of these rights and privileges may be restored by the Se-
close of the meetings indicated agreement that the Dumbarton Oaks pro-
curity Council.
posals provided the basis for a charter while recognizing that clarifica-
A Member of the United Nations which has persistently violated the
tion, improvement and expansion were called for in certain respects.
principles of the Charter may be expelled from the Organization by the
On 25 April, delegates of 50 nations met in San Francisco for the
General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
conference known officially as the United Nations Conference on Inter-
There is no provision in the Charter concerning the re-entry into the Or-
national Organization. Working on the Dumbarton Oaks proposals, the
ganization of an expelled Member.
Yalta Agreement and amendments proposed by various Governments,
After lengthy debate, it was agreed at the San Francisco Conference
the delegates, meeting both in plenary sessions and in committees, drew
not to include any provision in the Charter for the withdrawal of Mem-
up the 111-Article Charter.
bers. It was made clear, however, that it was not the purpose of the Or-
On 25 June, the delegates met in full session in the Opera House in
ganization to compel a Member "to continue its co-operation in the Or-
San Francisco and unanimously adopted the Charter. The next day, they
ganization", if that Member "because of exceptional circumstances" felt
signed it at a ceremony in the auditorium of the Veterans' Memorial Hall.
constrained to withdraw.
The Charter came into force on 24 October 1945, when China,
France, the USSR, the United Kingdom and the United States and a
Member States of the United Nations
majority of the other signatories had filed their instruments of ratifica-
(As of December 1978)
tion.
The 151 Member States of the United Nations, and the date of their
admission to the Organization, are as follows:
United Nations Day
Member
Date of Admission
Member
Date of Admission
On 31 October 1947, the General Assembly decided that 24 October, the
anniversary of the entry into force of the Charter of the United Nations,
should thenceforth be officially called "United Nations Day" and be de-
Afghanistan
19 Nov. 1946
Angola
1 Dec. 1976
voted to informing the peoples of the world of the aims and achievements
Albania
14 Dec. 1955
*Argentina
24 Oct. 1945
of the Organization and to obtaining support for its work. Member Gov-
Algeria
8 Oct. 1962
*Australia
1 Nov. 1945
(* denotes original member)
Austria
14 Dec. 1955
8
THE UNITED NATIONS
MEMBERSHIP
9
Member
Date of Admission
Member
Date of Admission
Member
Date of Admission
Member
Date of Admission
Bahamas
18 Sep. 1973
Fiji
13 Oct. 1970
Maldives
21 Sep. 1965
Spain
14 Dec. 1955
Bahrain
21 Sep. 1971
Finland
14 Dec. 1955
Mali
28 Sep. 1960
Sri Lanka
14 Dec. 1955
Bangladesh
17 Sep. 1974
*France
24 Oct. 1945
Malta
1 Dec. 1964
Sudan
12 Nov. 1956
Barbados
9 Dec. 1966
Gabon
20 Sep. 1960
Mauritania
27 Oct. 1961
Surinam
4 Dec. 1975
*Belgium
27 Dec. 1945
Gambia
21 Sep. 1965
Mauritius
24 Apr. 1968
Swaziland
24 Sep. 1968
Benin (formerly
German Democratic
*Mexico
7 Nov. 1945
Sweden
19 Nov. 1946
Dahomey)
20 Sep. 1960
Republic
18 Sep. 1973
Mongolia
27 Oct. 1961
*Syrian Arab
Bhutan
21 Sep. 1971
Germany, Federal
Morocco
12 Nov. 1956
Republic²
24 Oct. 1945
*Bolivia
14 Nov. 1945
Republic of
18 Sep. 1973
Mozambique
16 Sep. 1975
Thailand
16 Dec. 1946
Botswana
17 Oct. 1966
Ghana
8 Mar. 1957
Nepal
14 Dec. 1955
Togo
20 Sep. 1960
*Brazil
24 Oct. 1945
*Greece
25 Oct. 1945
*Netherlands
10 Dec. 1945
Trinidad and
Bulgaria
14 Dec. 1955
Grenada
17 Sep. 1974
*New Zealand
24 Oct. 1945
Tobago
18 Sep. 1962
Burma
19 Apr. 1948
*Guatemala
21 Nov. 1945
*Nicaragua
24 Oct. 1945
Tunisia
12 Nov. 1956
Burundi
18 Sep. 1962
Guinea
12 Dec. 1958
Niger
20 Sep. 1960
*Turkey
24 Oct. 1945
*Byelorussian Soviet
Guinea-Bissau
17 Sep. 1974
Nigeria
7 Oct. 1960
Uganda
25 Oct. 1962
Socialist Republic
24 Oct. 1945
Guyana
20 Sep. 1966
*Norway
27 Nov. 1945
*Ukrainian Soviet
*Canada
9 Nov. 1945
*Haiti
24 Oct. 1945
Oman
7 Oct. 1971
Socialist Republic 24 Oct. 1945
Cape Verde
16 Sep. 1975
*Honduras
17 Dec. 1945
Pakistan
30 Sep. 1947
*Union of Soviet
Central African
Hungary
14 Dec. 1955
*Panama
13 Nov. 1945
Socialist
Empire (formerly
Iceland
19 Dec. 1946
Papua New Guinea
10
Oct.
1975
Republics
24 Oct. 1945
Central African
*India
30 Oct. 1945
*Paraguay
24 Oct. 1945
United Arab
Republic)
20 Sep. 1960
Indonesia³
28 Sep. 1950
*Peru
31 Oct. 1945
Emirates
9 Dec. 1971
Chad
20 Sep. 1960
*Iran
24 Oct. 1945
*Philippines
24 Oct. 1945
*United Kingdom of
*Chile
24 Oct. 1945
*Iraq
21 Dec. 1945
*Poland
24 Oct. 1945
Great Britain and
*China¹
24 Oct. 1945
Ireland
14 Dec. 1955
Portugal
14 Dec. 1955
Northern Ireland
24 Oct. 1945
*Colombia
5 Nov. 1945
Israel
11 May 1949
Qatar
21 Sep. 1971
United Republic of
Comoros
12 Nov. 1975
Italy
14 Dec. 1955
Romania
14 Dec. 1955
Cameroon
20 Sep. 1960
Congo
20 Sep. 1960
Ivory Coast
20 Sep. 1960
Rwanda
18 Sep. 1962
United Republic of
*Costa Rica
2 Nov. 1945
Jamaica
18 Sep. 1962
Samoa
15 Dec. 1976
Tanzania⁵
14 Dec. 1961
*Cuba
24 Oct. 1945
Japan
18 Dec. 1956
Sao Tome and Principe
*United States of
Cyprus
20 Sep. 1960
Jordan
14 Dec. 1955
16 Sep. 1975
America
24 Oct. 1945
*Czechoslovakia
24 Oct. 1945
Kenya
16 Dec. 1963
*Saudi Arabia
24 Oct. 1945
Upper Volta
20 Sep. 1960
Democratic Kampuchea
Kuwait
14 May 1963
Senegal
28 Sep. 1960
*Uruguay
18 Dec. 1945
(formerly Cambodia)
Lao People's
Seychelles
21 Sep. 1976
*Venezuela
15 Nov. 1945
14 Dec. 1955
Democratic Republic
Sierra Leone
27 Sep. 1961
Viet Nam
20 Sept 1977
Democratic Yemen 14 Dec. 1967
(formerly Laos)
14 Dec. 1955
Singapore
21 Sep. 1965
Yemen
30 Sep. 1947
*Denmark
24 Oct. 1945
*Lebanon
24 Oct. 1945
Solomon Islands
19 Sept. 1978
*Yugoslavia
24 Oct. 1945
Djibouti
20 Sep. 1977
Lesotho
17 Oct. 1966
Somalia
20 Sep. 1960
Zaire
20 Sep. 1960
Dominica
18 Dec. 1978
*Liberia
2 Nov. 1945
*South Africa
7 Nov. 1945
Zambia
1 Dec. 1964
*Dominican Republic 24 Oct. 1945
Libyan Arab
*Ecuador
21 Dec. 1945
Jamahiriya
14 Dec. 1955
*Egypt2
24 Oct. 1945
*Luxembourg
24 Oct. 1945
*El Salvador
¹By resolution 2758 (XXVI) of 25 October 1971, the General Assembly decided
24 Oct. 1945
Madagascar
20 Sep. 1960
"to restore all its rights to the People's Republic of China and to recognize the
Equatorial Guinea
12 Nov. 1968
Malawi
1 Dec. 1964
representatives of its Government as the only legitimate representatives of China
*Ethiopia
13 Nov. 1945
Malaysia4
17 Sep. 1957
to the United Nations, and to expel forthwith the representatives of Chiang Kai-
10
THE UNITED NATIONS
THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS
11
Permanent Missions to the United Nations
THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS
Since the creation of the United Nations, the practice has developed of
The Charter established six principal organs of the United Nations: the
establishing permanent missions of Member States at the seat of the Or-
General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social
ganization. The General Assembly sought to regulate the submission of
Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and
credentials of permanent representatives on 3 December 1948, when it
the Secretariat.
recommended that credentials be issued by the head of the State, by the
The official languages of the General Assembly, all its Main Commit-
head of the Government, or by the Minister for Foreign Affairs, and be
tees and sub-committees, the Security Council, the Economic and Social
transmitted to the Secretary-General. It was further recommended that
Council and the Trusteeship Council are Chinese, English, French, Rus-
the permanent representative, in case of temporary absence, should
sian and Spanish. Those languages, together with Arabic, are the work-
notify the Secretary-General of the name of his replacement; that
ing languages of the Assembly and its seven Main Committees. The
Member States which wanted their permanent representatives to repre-
working languages of the Security Council are Chinese, English, French,
sent them on one or more organs of the United Nations should specify in
Russian and Spanish; those of the Economic and Social Council are
their credentials the organs concerned; and finally, that changes of mem-
English, French and Spanish, and for the Trusteeship Council and the
bers of permanent missions, other than the permanent representative,
Secretariat they are English and French. The official languages of the In-
should be communicated in writing to the Secretary-General by the head
ternational Court of Justice are English and French.
of the mission.
General Assembly
Permanent Observers
All Members of the United Nations are members of the General Assem-
The following non-member States maintain offices of permanent obser-
bly: Each has one vote. The Assembly has no power to compel action by
vers to the United Nations: Democratic People's Republic of Korea,
any Government. Its influence is exercised through the weight of its rec-
Holy See, Monaco, Republic of Korea and Switzerland.
ommendations as an expression of world opinion.
shek from the place which they unlawfully occupy at the United Nations and in all
FUNCTIONS AND POWERS.
The General Assembly may discuss any
the organizations related to it".
question or any matter within the scope of the Charter or relating to the
2Egypt and Syria were original Members of the United Nations from 24 October
powers and functions of any organ provided for in the Charter. It may
1945. Following a plebiscite on 21 February 1958, the United Arab Republic was
make recommendations on these questions and matters to the Member
established by a union of Egypt and Syria and continued as a single Member. On
States or to the Security Council or to both, with one exception-it may
13 October 1961, Syria resumed its status as an independent State and simultane-
not make recommendations on any dispute or situation which the Se-
ously its United Nations membership. On 2 September 1971, the United Arab Re-
public changed its name to Arab Republic of Egypt.
curity Council has under consideration unless the Council so requests.
³By letter of 20 January 1965, Indonesia announced its decision to withdraw from
The Assembly may consider the general principles of co-operation in
the United Nations "at this stage and under the present circumstances". By tele-
the maintenance of peace and security, including those governing disar-
gram of 19 September 1966, it announced its decision "to resume full co-operation
mament and the regulation of armaments.
with the United Nations and to resume participation in its activities". On 28 Sep-
It may discuss any question relating to the maintenance of interna-
tember 1966, the General Assembly took note of this decision and the President
tional peace and security brought before it by a Member State, by the Se-
invited representatives of Indonesia to take seats in the Assembly.
curity Council or by a non-member State, if that State accepts in advance
4The Federation of Malaya joined the United Nations on 17 September 1957. On
the obligations of pacific settlement contained in the Charter. Unless the
16 September 1963, its name was changed to Malaysia, following the admission to
matter is already being dealt with by the Security Council, the Assembly
the new federation of Singapore, Sabah (North Borneo) and Sarawak. Singapore
may make recommendations on any such question to the State or States
became an independent State on 9 August 1965 and a Member of the United Na-
concerned or to the Security Council or to both.
tions on 21 September 1965.
Subject to the same exception, the Assembly may recommend mea-
⁵Tanganyika was a Member of the United Nations from 14 December 1961 and
sures for the peaceful settlement of any situation, regardless of origin,
Zanzibar was a Member from 16 December 1963. Following the ratification on 26
which it deems likely to impair the general welfare or friendly relations
April 1964 of Articles of Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar, the United Re-
public of Tanganyika and Zanzibar continued as a single Member, changing its
among nations. It may also call to the attention of the Council situations
name to United Republic of Tanzania on 1 November 1964.
which are likely to endanger international peace and security.
12
THE UNITED NATIONS
THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS
13
The Assembly initiates studies and makes recommendations for the
Fourth Committee (Decolonization)
purpose of promoting international co-operation in the political field and
Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary)
encouraging the progressive development of international law and its
Sixth Committee (Legal)
codification; and of promoting international co-operation in the eco-
Voting in committees or sub-committees is by simple majority.
nomic, social, cultural, educational and health fields and assisting in the
The General Committee, composed of the President of the Assem-
realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.
bly, the 17 Vice-Presidents and the Chairmen of the seven Main Commit-
The Assembly receives and considers reports of the other organs of
tees, makes recommendations to the Assembly regarding the adoption of
the United Nations. It elects the 10 non-permanent members of the Se-
the agenda, the allocation of items and the organization of work. The
curity Council, the 54 members of the Economic and Social Council and
Credentials Committee, consisting of nine members appointed by the
those members of the Trusteeship Council which are elected. Voting in-
General Assembly on the proposal of the President, reports to the As-
dependently, the Assembly and the Security Council elect the members
sembly on the credentials of representatives.
of the International Court of Justice and, on the recommendation of the
Although the regular session of the Assembly lasts only three
Security Council, the Assembly appoints the Secretary-General.
months each year, the Assembly's work goes on continuously in special
The finances of the United Nations are controlled by the Assembly,
committees such as those dealing with colonialism, apartheid, science
which considers and approves the budget and apportions the expenses
and technology, natural resources and outer space; in the activities of
among the Members. It also examines the administrative budgets of the
bodies it has established such as the United Nations Development Pro-
specialized agencies.
gramme, the World Food Council, the United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and
VOTING. Decisions on important questions, such as recom-
the United Nations Children's Fund; in the work programme of the Sec-
mendations on peace and security, the election of members of the Se-
retariat; and at international conferences on specific problems.
curity Council, the Economic and Social Council and the Trusteeship
Council, the admission, suspension and expulsion of Members, Trustee-
ship questions and budgetary matters, are taken by a two-thirds majority
of members present and voting. Other questions require a simple major-
Security Council
ity.
The organ which has primary responsibility for the maintenance of inter-
SESSIONS.
The Assembly meets once a year in regular session, com-
national peace and security is the Security Council. The Council is com-
mencing on the third Tuesday in September and normally continuing
posed of five permanent members-China, France, the USSR, the
until mid-December, although the regular session may sometimes be re-
United Kingdom and the United States-and 10 non-permanent mem-
sumed at a later date. Special sessions may be called at the request of the
bers, elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms and not eligi-
Security Council, a majority of Member States, or one Member State
ble for immediate re-election. The number of non-permanent members
with the concurrence of a majority. An emergency special session may
was increased from six to 10 by an amendment of the Charter which
be called within 24 hours of a request by the Security Council on the vote
came into force in 1965.
of any nine of its members, or by a majority of Member States.
FUNCTIONS
AND
POWERS.
While other organs of the United Nations
STRUCTURE. The Assembly adopts its own rules of procedure. At
may make recommendations to Governments, the Council alone has the
each session, it elects its President, its 17 Vice-Presidents and the
power to take decisions which all Member States are obligated under the
Chairmen of its seven Main Committees. The Assembly distributes most
Charter to accept and carry out.
agenda items among those Committees, on which every Member State
The Council may investigate any dispute or situation which might
has the right to be represented. The Main Committees, which prepare
lead to international friction and may recommend methods of adjusting
recommendations for approval in plenary meetings of the Assembly, are:
such disputes or the terms of settlement. Disputes and situations likely to
First Committee (Political and Security, including the regulation of
endanger international peace and security may be brought to the atten-
armaments)
tion of the Council by any Member State, by a non-member State which
Special Political Committee (shares the work of the First Commit-
accepts in advance the obligations of pacific settlement contained in the
tee)
Charter, by the General Assembly, or by the Secretary-General.
Second Committee (Economic and Financial)
The Council may determine the existence of any threat to the peace,
Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian and Cultural)
breach of the peace or act of aggression. It may make recommendations
14
THE UNITED NATIONS
THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS
15
or decide to take enforcement measures to maintain or restore interna-
The Military Staff Committee, composed of the Chiefs of Staff of the
tional peace and security. Enforcement action may include a call on
five permanent members or their representatives, was established under
Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures short of the
the Charter to advise and assist the Security Council on such questions
use of armed force. Should it consider such measures inadequate, the
as the Council's military requirements for the maintenance of peace, the
Council may take military action against an aggressor. Under the Char-
strategic direction of armed forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of
ter, all Members undertake to make available to the Council on its call, in
armaments and possible disarmament.
accordance with special agreements to be negotiated on the Council's ini-
tiative, the armed forces, assistance and facilities necessary for maintain-
Economic and Social Council
ing international peace and security. The Council is also responsible for
formulating plans to regulate armaments. In addition, the Security Coun-
The Economic and Social Council, under the authority of the General
cil exercises the Trusteeship functions of the United Nations in areas
Assembly, is the organ which co-ordinates the economic and social work
designated as strategic.
of the United Nations and the specialized agencies and institutions-
The Security Council makes annual and special reports to the Gen-
known as the "United Nations family" of organizations. The Council
eral Assembly.
makes recommendations and initiates activities relating to development,
The Security Council and the General Assembly, voting indepen-
world trade, industrialization, natural resources, human rights, the status
dently, elect the judges of the International Court of Justice. On the Se-
of women, population, social welfare, science and technology, preven-
curity Council's recommendation, the General Assembly appoints the
tion of crime, and many other economic and social questions.
Secretary-General.
The membership of the Council is 54, with 18 members elected each
VOTING AND PROCEDURE.
Each member of the Council has one vote.
year by the General Assembly for a three-year term. Retiring members
Decisions on matters of procedure are taken by an affirmative vote of at
are eligible for immediate re-election. Originally, the Council had 18
least nine of the 15 members. Decisions on substantive matters also re-
members. Amendments to the Charter which came into force in 1965 and
quire nine votes, including the concurring votes of all five permanent
1973 enlarged the membership respectively to 27 and 54.
members. This is the rule of "great Power unanimity", often referred to
FUNCTIONS AND POWERS.
The Charter sets out the following func-
as the "veto". All five permanent members have exercised the right of
tions and powers of the Economic and Social Council: to make or initiate
veto at one time or another. If a permanent member does not support a
studies, reports and recommendations on international economic, social,
decision but has no desire to block it through a veto, it may abstain; an
cultural, educational, health and related matters; to promote respect for,
abstention is not regarded as a veto.
and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all; to
The Security Council is so organized as to be able to function con-
call international conferences and prepare draft conventions for submis-
tinuously, and a representative of each of its members must be present at
sion to the General Assembly on matters within its competence; to
all times at United Nations Headquarters. The Council may meet
negotiate agreements with the specialized agencies, defining their rela-
elsewhere than at Headquarters. In 1972, it met in Addis Ababa and, the
tionship with the United Nations, and to co-ordinate the activities of the
following year, in Panama.
specialized agencies by means of consultation with them and recom-
A State which is a Member of the United Nations but not of the Se-
mendations to them, and by means of recommendations to the General
curity Council may participate, without vote, in its discussions when the
Assembly and Members of the United Nations; to perform services, ap-
Council considers that that country's interests are specially affected.
proved by the Assembly, for Members of the United Nations and, upon
Both Members of the United Nations and non-members, if they are par-
request, for the specialized agencies; and to consult with non-
ties to a dispute being considered by the Council, are invited to take part,
governmental organizations concerned with matters with which the
without vote, in the discussions; the Council lays down the conditions for
Council deals.
participation by a non-member State.
The presidency of the Council is held monthly in turn by members in
VOTING. Voting in the Economic and Social Council is by simple
English alphabetical order. The Council decides its own rules of proce-
majority; each member has one vote.
dure and may establish subsidiary organs.
There are two standing committees-the Committee of Experts,
SUBSIDIARY BODIES.
The Economic and Social Council generally
which studies and advises the Council on rules of procedure and other
holds two regular sessions a year, each one month long, in New York and
technical matters, and the Committee on Admission of New Members;
Geneva. Throughout the year, however, there are meetings of the Coun-
each is composed of representatives of all Council members. Over the
cil's standing committees, commissions and other subsidiary bodies at
years, the Council has also established many ad hoc bodies.
Headquarters, or in other locations.
16
THE UNITED NATIONS
THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS
17
There are standing Committees on Non-Governmental Organi-
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
zations; Negotiations with Intergovernmental Agencies; Programme and
Universal Postal Union (UPU)
Co-ordination; Natural Resources; Review and Appraisal; and Science
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
and Technology for Development. The Commission on Transnational
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
Corporations is also a standing body.
Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO)
The functional commissions comprise the Statistical Commission;
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
the Population Commission; the Commission for Social Development;
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
the Commission on Human Rights; the Commission on the Status of
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the General
Women; and the Commission on Narcotic Drugs. The Commission on
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), are also listed among the related
Human Rights has a Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination
agencies. (For accounts of the related agencies see page 351).
and Protection of Minorities. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs has a
Sub-Commission on Illicit Drug Traffic and Related Matters in the Near
NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS. The Economic and Social
and Middle East.
Council may consult non-governmental organizations on matters with
Also under the Council's authority are the regional commissions,
which they are concerned and which fall within the competence of the
whose aim is to assist in the economic and social development of their re-
Council. The Council recognizes that these organizations should have
spective regions and to strengthen the economic relations of the coun-
the opportunity to express their views and that they often possess special
tries in each region, both among themselves and with other countries.
experience or technical knowledge that would be of value to the Council
These are the Economic Commission for Africa (with headquarters in
in its work.
Addis Ababa), the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Organizations which have been given consultative status may send
Pacific (Bangkok), the Economic Commission for Europe (Geneva), the
observers to public meetings of the Council and its subsidiary bodies and
Economic Commission for Latin America (Santiago) and the Economic
may submit written statements relevant to the work of the Council. They
Commission for Western Asia (Beirut).
may also consult with the United Nations Secretariat on matters of
The regional commissions study the problems of their regions and
mutual concern.
recommend courses of action to member Governments and specialized
Organizations in consultative status are divided into three
agencies. In recent years the work of the commissions has been ex-
categories: those with a basic interest in most of the activities of the
panded, and they have been increasingly involved in carrying out devel-
Council (Category I); those which have a special competence in, and are
opment projects.
concerned specifically with, only a few of the Council's fields of activity
(Category II); and those which have a significant contribution to make to
RELATED AGENCIES.
The intergovernmental agencies are separate,
the work of the Council which may be placed on a roster for ad hoc con-
autonomous organizations related to the United Nations by special
sultations. In December 1977, 26 organizations were listed in Category I,
agreements. They have their own membership, legislative and executive
102 organizations in Category II, and 501 were on the Roster.
bodies, secretariats and budgets, but they work with the United Nations
and with each other through the co-ordinating machinery of the Eco-
nomic and Social Council.
Trusteeship Council
Fifteen agencies are known as "specialized agencies", a term used
in the Charter. They report annually to the Economic and Social Council.
The Charter assigns the Trusteeship Council responsibility for supervi-
The specialized agencies are listed below.
sion of the administration of Territories placed under the International
International Labour Organisation (ILO)
Trusteeship System. By the end of 1977, only one of the 11 original Trust
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Territories remained under the System and no additional Trust Ter-
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
ritories had been established. Ten had attained self-government or inde-
(UNESCO)
pendence, either as separate States or by joining neighbouring indepen-
World Health Organization (WHO)
dent countries. (See International Trusteeship System, page 278.)
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World
The Charter provides that the membership of the Council shall re-
Bank, IBRD)
flect a balance between members administering Trust Territories and
International Finance Corporation (IFC)
members not doing so. The size of the Council, therefore, is not fixed. As
International Development Association (IDA)
the number of Trust Territories and of countries administering them de-
International Monetary Fund (Fund, IMF)
creased, the Council became smaller. In 1977, it included the United
THE UNITED NATIONS
18
THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS
19
States, which administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, and
JURISDICTION.
The jurisdiction of the Court comprises all cases
the other four permanent members of the Security Council-China,
which the parties refer to it, and all matters specifically provided for in
France, the United Kingdom and the USSR.
the Charter or in treaties or conventions in force. In the event of a dis-
pute as to whether the Court has jurisdiction, the matter is settled by the
FUNCTIONS AND POWERS.
The Trusteeship Council, under the au-
decision of the Court.
thority of the General Assembly, carries out the functions of the United
To preserve continuity with the work of the Permanent Court of In-
Nations with regard to Trust Territories except in those areas which are
ternational Justice, the Statute of the International Court of Justice stipu-
designated as strategic. The Security Council exercises the functions of
lates that whenever a treaty or convention in force provided for reference
the United Nations in "strategic areas," with the assistance of the Trus-
to the Permanent Court, the matter is referred to the International Court
teeship Council in political, economic, social and educational matters.
as between the parties to its Statute.
The Trusteeship Council considers reports submitted by the Ad-
States are not forced to submit cases to the Court. The Charter pro-
ministering Authority on the basis of a questionnaire prepared by the
vides that Members of the United Nations may entrust the solution of
Council, and it examines petitions in consultation with the Administering
their differences to other tribunals.
Authority. It provides for periodic visiting missions to Trust Territories
States parties to the Statute may at any time declare that they recog-
at times agreed upon with the Administering Authority, and takes other
nize as compulsory, ipso facto and without special agreement, in relation
actions in conformity with the terms of the Trusteeship Agreements.
to any State accepting the same obligation, the jurisdiction of the Court
VOTING.
Voting in the Trusteeship Council is by simple majority;
in all legal disputes concerning: (a) the interpretation of a treaty; (b) any
each member has one vote. The Council meets once a year.
question of international law; (c) the existence of any fact which, if estab-
lished, would constitute a breach of an international obligation; and (d)
the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach of an in-
International Court of Justice
ternational obligation.
The International Court of Justice, whose seat is at The Hague, is the
ADVISORY OPINIONS.
The General Assembly or the Security Council
principal judicial organ of the United Nations. The Court functions in ac-
may request the Court to give an advisory opinion on any legal question.
cordance with its Statute, which is an integral part of the United Nations
Other organs of the United Nations or specialized agencies when autho-
Charter. The Statute is based upon the Statute of the Permanent Court of
rized by the Assembly, may also request advisory opinions on legal ques-
International Justice, which functioned under the League of Nations.
tions arising within the scope of their activities.
The Court is open to the parties to its Statute, which automatically
includes all Members of the United Nations. A State not belonging to the
THE LAW APPLIED BY THE COURT.
In accordance with Article 38 of the
United Nations may become a party to the Statute on conditions to be
Statute, the Court applies: (a) international conventions; (b) international
determined in each case by the General Assembly on recommendation of
custom; (c) the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations;
the Security Council. Switzerland (1948), Liechtenstein (1950) and San
and (d) judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified
Marino (1954) are the three non-member States which are presently par-
publicists as subsidiary means for the determination of the rules of law.
ties to the Statute. The Court is also open to States which are not parties
Furthermore, the Court may decide a case ex aequo et bono, that is, ac-
to its Statute on conditions laid down by a Security Council resolution of
cording to the principles of equity, if the parties concerned agree.
15 October 1946. Such States must file with the Registrar of the Court a
The Security Council can be called upon by one of the parties in a
declaration by which they accept the Court's jurisdiction in accordance
case to determine measures to be taken to give effect to a judgment of the
with the Charter of the United Nations and the Statute and Rules of the
Court if the other party fails to perform its obligations under that judg-
Court, undertaking to comply in good faith with the decision or decisions
ment.
of the Court and accepting all the obligations of a Member of the United
Nations under Article 94 of the Charter. Such a declaration may be either
COMPOSITION OF THE COURT.
The members of the Court are 15 inde-
particular or general. A particular declaration is one accepting the
pendent judges, of different nationalities, elected by the General Assem-
Court's jurisdiction in respect of a particular dispute or disputes which
bly and the Security Council from candidates nominated, after consulta-
have already arisen. A general declaration is one accepting the jurisdic-
tion with national and international law bodies, by government-
tion in respect of all disputes, or of a particular class or classes of dis-
appointed national groups of highly reputed international law experts.
pute, which have already arisen or which may arise in the future. The
The General Assembly and the Security Council hold separate elec-
Court is not open to private individuals.
tions independently of one another. They must be satisfied not only that
20
THE UNITED NATIONS
HEADQUARTERS OF THE UNITED NATIONS
21
the persons to be elected individually possess the qualifications required
tion to his administrative duties, the Secretary-General is called on by
in their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial
the Charter to perform such "other functions" as are entrusted to him by
offices or are recognized authorities on international law, but also that, in
the Security Council, the General Assembly and the other main organs.
the Court as a whole, the result will be the representation of the main
He may also bring to the attention of the Security Council "any matter
forms of civilization and the principal legal systems of the world. To be
which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace
elected, a candidate must obtain an absolute majority of votes, both in
and security".
the Assembly and in the Council. The voting in the Council is without
The first Secretary-General of the United Nations was Trygve Lie,
distinction as between its permanent and non-permanent members.
of Norway, who served until 1958. Dag Hammarskjöld, of Sweden,
The Statute provides for a special joint conference procedure to be
served from 1953 until his death in a plane crash in Africa in 1961, when
applied if, after three meetings, concurring majorities have not been
he was succeeded by U Thant of Burma. In December 1971, Kurt
achieved in the two organs for all the vacant seats. Parties to the Statute
Waldheim, of Austria, was appointed and he assumed office in January
which are not Members of the United Nations may nominate candidates
1972. In December 1976, Mr. Waldheim was reappointed to serve a sec-
and take part in the elections in the General Assembly.
ond five-year term, ending 31 December 1981.
Judges are elected for terms of nine years and are eligible for re-
The Secretariat, an international staff working at Headquarters and
election. The terms of five of the 15 judges expire at the end of every
in the field, carries out the day-to-day work of the Organization. Staff
three years. The Court itself elects its President and Vice-President for
members come from more than 130 countries. They are international
three-year terms.
civil servants and work for the United Nations; each takes an oath not to
If there is no judge of their nationality on the bench, the parties to a
seek or receive instructions from any Government or outside authority.
case are entitled to choose ad hoc, or national, judges, to sit only in that
Under Article 100 of the Charter, each Member State undertakes to re-
particular case. Such judges take part in the decision on terms of com-
spect the exclusively international character of the responsibilities of the
plete equality with the other judges. All questions are decided by a major-
Secretary-General and the staff and not to seek to influence them in the
ity of the judges present, with nine constituting a quorum. In the event of
discharge of their duties.
an equality of votes, the President of the Court has a casting vote.
The work of the Secretary-General and the staff is as varied as the
list of problems dealt with by the United Nations. It includes good
ADMINISTRATION.
The administration of the Court is directed by the
offices, and sometimes formal mediation, in resolving international dis-
President and carried out by a Registrar and Deputy-Registrar elected by
putes; administering peace-keeping operations; surveys of world
the Court, assisted by Registry officials responsible to the Registrar and
economic trends and problems; studies in fields such as human rights and
appointed by the Court.
natural resources; organizing international conferences; compilation of
The Court issues its own publications, which may be obtained wher-
statistics; gathering information on the extent to which decisions of the
ever United Nations publications are distributed. They include the full
Security Council or other bodies are being carried out; interpreting
texts of the Court's decisions, in the Reports series; case documents and
speeches, translating documents, and servicing the world's communica-
speeches, printed after a case is over in the Pleadings series; a Yearbook
tions media with information about the United Nations.
of current information on the work of the Court; the instruments govern-
Away from Headquarters, technical experts and economic advisers
ing the Court's operation, in Acts and Documents; and an annual Bibli-
work directly in the field to assist developing countries in economic de-
ography.
velopment; and, from time to time, peace-keeping forces or observer
The channel of communication with the Court is the Registrar.
groups are stationed at points of tension or potential armed conflict.
(See also Legal Questions, page 315.)
HEADQUARTERS OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Secretariat
Site for Permanent Headquarters
The Secretariat services the other organs of the United Nations and ad-
On 10 December 1945, the Congress of the United States unanimously
ministers the programmes and policies laid down by them. It is made up
resolved to invite the United Nations to establish its permanent home in
of a Secretary-General, who is the chief administrative officer of the
the United States. The invitation was accepted by the General Assembly,
United Nations, and such staff as the Organization may require.
which was meeting in London, on 14 February 1946, after offers and sug-
The General Assembly, on the recommendation of the Security
gestions for permanent sites had also been received from many other
Council, appoints the Secretary-General for a term of five years. In addi-
parts of the world.
22
THE UNITED NATIONS
HEADQUARTERS OF THE UNITED NATIONS
23
Early in 1946, the Secretariat was established provisionally at
and furnishing were made possible by a gift from the Ford Foundation in
Hunter College in the Bronx, New York, and in the middle of August the
1959 and, at the Foundation's request, it was named for the late
United Nations moved to the Sperry Gyroscope plant at Lake Success
Secretary-General, who met his death just before the Library's dedica-
on Long Island.
tion in 1961. It was designed to accommodate 400,000 volumes, 175
On 14 December 1946, the General Assembly accepted an offer by
readers in the principal reading rooms and a staff of upwards of 100 per-
John D. Rockefeller, Jr., of $8.5 million for the purchase of the present
sons.
18-acre site between 42nd and 48th streets on Manhattan's East Side,
The Library is highly specialized in the subjects of international law
bounded on the west by United Nations Plaza (formerly part of First
and in political, economic and social affairs and is devoted primarily to
Avenue) and on the east by the East River. Concurrently with the
providing information, research materials and library services required
Rockefeller gift, the City of New York offered certain lands within and
by delegations and the Secretariat. It includes a collection of documents
adjacent to the site, together with waterfront rights and easements. The
and publications of the United Nations and the specialized agencies, as
City also undertook a $30 million improvement programme in the im-
well as books, periodicals and pamphlets concerning them. The Wood-
mediate area, including the construction of a vehicular tunnel under First
row Wilson Memorial Collection, a gift of the Woodrow Wilson Founda-
Avenue.
tion, contains documents of the League of Nations and publications deal-
Once the site was decided on, the first Secretary-General, Trygve
ing with the League, the peace movements and international relations be-
Lie, appointed the architect, Wallace K. Harrison, of the United States,
tween the two World Wars. There is also a special collection of maps and
to guide the architectural and development plans in co-operation with an
geographical reference books.
international board of design consultants from 10 countries.
The plans prepared by the international board of consultants were
unanimously adopted by the General Assembly on 20 November 1947.
Official Seal, Emblem and Flag
The corner-stone was laid on 24 October 1949-United Nations Day-at
of the United Nations
an open-air plenary meeting of the General Assembly at which the Pres-
ident of the United States, among others, spoke. Occupancy of the Sec-
The official seal and emblem of the United Nations is a map of the world,
retariat building began in August 1950 and was completed the following
as seen from the North Pole, surrounded by a wreath of olive branches.
June. The Security Council held its first meetings in its new chamber
When the General Assembly approved the design in 1946, it also recom-
early in 1952, and in October of the same year the General Assembly
mended that Members should adopt legislation or other appropriate mea-
convened for the first time in the new Assembly Hall.
sures to protect the emblem against use not authorized by the
The four main structures, all interconnected, that comprise Head-
Secretary-General. In particular, the Assembly called for prohibition of
quarters, are: the 39-storey office building of the Secretariat; the long,
the use for commercial purposes of the official seal, emblem, name or ini-
low Conference Building paralleling the East River; the General Assem-
tials of the world Organization.
bly Hall; and the Dag Hammarskjöld Library.
The United Nations flag was adopted by the General Assembly in
The official address is United Nations, New York 10017. Telephone:
1947. Its design consists of the official emblem in white, centred on a light
(212) 754-1234.
blue background. In accordance with Assembly directives, the
Secretary-General drew up regulations concerning the dimensions of the
flag and, on 19 December 1947, issued a Flag Code to govern the use and
Headquarters Agreement
protect the dignity of the flag. The Code was amended in November 1952
to permit display of the flag by organizations and persons desiring to
On 26 June 1947, the Secretary-General and the Secretary of State of the
demonstrate their support for the United Nations.
United States signed an agreement dealing with the privileges and im-
munities of the United Nations Headquarters. Under this agreement,
which came into force on 21 November 1947, the United Nations has the
power to make necessary regulations for the Headquarters district.
Dag Hammarskjöld Library
The Dag Hammarskjöld Library is located at the south-west corner of the
Headquarters site, adjoining the Secretariat building. Its construction
INTERGOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES
ember 1973, following nearly six years
100 States, accounting for more than
ed new multilateral trade negotiations
ese negotiations, the most ambitious
Appendices
ces, covered both tariff and non-tariff
agricultural products, with particular
eveloping countries. The Tokyo Dec-
bility of improvements in the General
tre in Geneva, since 1968 operated
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
ions Conference on Trade and Devel-
<pand its activities in supporting the
Preamble
ng countries.
ces to increase trade among develop-
utually advantageous tariff and trade
WE THE PEOPLES
to unite our strength to maintain in-
nt that took effect in February 1973.
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
DETERMINED
ternational peace and security, and
natory countries had ratified the Pro-
among Developing Countries.
to save succeeding generations from
to ensure by the acceptance of prin-
ement Regarding International Trade
the scourge of war which twice in
ciples and the institution of methods,
ted by some 50 countries under GATT
our lifetime has brought untold sor-
that armed force shall not be used,
r period. It was intended to reconcile
row to mankind, and
save in the common interest, and
ting countries in the traditionally sen-
by permitting the expansion of trade
to reaffirm faith in fundamental
to employ international machinery
S. In December 1977, it was agreed to
human rights, in the dignity and
for the promotion of the economic
and social advancement of all
nd four-year period, beginning on 1
worth of the human person, in the
equal rights of men and women and
peoples,
of nations large and small, and
wal of protectionist pressures. Other
risen from regional groupings, dis-
to establish conditions under which
HAVE RESOLVED TO
monetary instability, payments im-
justice and respect for the obliga-
COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO
zation of agriculture. These devel-
tions arising from treaties and other
ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS
ole as a forum where they can be dis-
sources of international law can be
1 them can be resolved, and as an in-
maintained, and
Accordingly, our respective Gov-
le effects can be countered through
ernments, through representatives
ralization of world trade.
to promote social progress and better
assembled in the city of San Fran-
38,585,000 Swiss francs. GATT has a
standards of life indarger freedom
cisco, who have exhibited their full
neral is Olivier Long (Switzerland).
powers found to be in good and due
AND FOR THESE ENDS
Rappard, 154 rue de Lausanne, 1211
form, have agreed to the present
Charter of the United Nations and do
to practice tolerance and live to-
hereby establish an international or-
gether in peace with one another as
ganization to be known as the United
good neighbors, and
Nations.
The Charter of the United Nations was adopted at San Francisco on June 25. 1945. and was signed the follow-
day It came into force on October 24, 1945, when a majority of the signatories had ratified it.
Amendments to Articles 23, 27 and 61 of the Charter were approved by the United Nations General As-
sembly on December 17. 1963, at the Assembly's eighteenth session. and came into force on August 31, 1965.
382
APPENDICES
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
383
CHAPTER I
3. All Members shall settle their
Article 4
PURPOSES AND
international disputes by peaceful
Article 8
PRINCIPLES
means in such a manner that interna-
1. Membership in the United Na-
The United Nations shall place no
tional peace and security, and justice,
tions is open to all other peace-loving
restrictions on the eligibility of men
are not endangered.
states which accept the obligations
Article 1
and women to participate in any ca-
4. All Members shall refrain in
contained in the present Charter and,
pacity and under conditions of equality
The Purposes of the United Na-
their international relations from the
in the judgment of the Organization,
in its principal and subsidiary organs.
tions are:
threat or use of force against the ter-
are able and willing to carry out these
1. To maintain international peace
ritorial integrity or political indepen-
obligations.
and security, and to that end: to take
dence of any state, or in any other
2. The admission of any such state
CHAPTER IV
effective collective measures for the
manner inconsistent with the Purposes
to membership in the United Nations
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
prevention and removal of threats to
of the United Nations.
will be effected by a decision of the
the peace, and for the suppression of
5. All Members shall give the
General Assembly upon the recom-
Composition
acts of aggression or other breaches of
United Nations every assistance in any
mendation of the Security Council.
the peace, and to bring about by peace-
action it takes in accordance with the
ful means, and in conformity with the
present Charter, and shall refrain from
Article 5
Article 9
principles of justice and international
giving assistance to any state against
A Member of the United Nations
1. The General Assembly shall
law, adjustment or settlement of inter-
which the United Nations is taking
against which preventive or enforce-
consist of all the Members of the
national disputes or situations which
preventive or enforcement action.
ment action has been taken by the Se-
United Nations.
might lead to a breach of the peace;
6. The Organization shall ensure
curity Council may be suspended from
2. Each member shall have not
2. To develop friendly relations
that states which are not Members of
the exercise of the rights and privileges
more than five representatives in the
among nations based on respect for the
the United Nations act in accordance
of membership by the General Assem-
General Assembly.
principle of equal rights and self-
with these Principles so far as may be
bly upon the recommendation of the
determination of peoples, and to take
necessary for the maintenance of inter-
Security Council. The exercise of thèse
Functions and Powers
other appropriate measures to
national peace and security.
rights and privileges may be restored
strengthen universal peace;
7. Nothing contained in the pres-
by the Security Council.
Article 10
3. To achieve international co-
ent Charter shall authorize the United
operation in solving international prob-
Nations to intervene in matters which
The General Assembly may dis-
Article 6
Markets
lems of an economic, social, cultural,
are essentially within the domestic
cuss any questions or any matters
or humanitarian character, and in pro-
jurisdiction of any state or shall require
A Member of the United Nations
within the scope of the present Charter
moting and encouraging respect for
the Members to submit such matters to
which has persistently violated the
or relating to the powers and functions
human rights and for fundamental free-
settlement under the present Charter;
Principles contained in the present
of any organs provided for in the pres-
doms for all without distinction as to
but this principle shall not prejudice the
Charter may be expelled from the Or-
ent Charter, and, except as provided in
race, sex, language, or religion; and
application of enforcement measures
ganization by the General Assembly
Article 12, may make recom-
4. To be a center for harmonizing
under Chapter VII.
upon the recommendation of the Secu-
mendations to the Members of the
the actions of nations in the attainment
rity Council.
United Nations or to the Security
of these common ends.
Council or to both on any such ques-
tions or matters.
Article 2
CHAPTER III
CHAPTER II
The Organization and its Mem-
ORGANS
MEMBERSHIP
Article 11
bers, in pursuit of the Purposes stated
in Article 1, shall act in accordance
Article 7
1. The General Assembly may
Article 3
with the following Principles.
consider the general principles of co-
1. There are established as the
1. The Organization is based on
The original Members of the
operation in the maintenance of inter-
principal organs of the United Nations:
the principle of the sovereign equality
United Nations shall be the states
national peace and security, including
of all its Members.
a General Assembly, a Security Coun-
which, having participated in the
the principles governing disarmament
cil, an Economic and Social Council, a
2. All Members, in order to
United Nations Conference on Interna-
and the regulation of armaments, and
Trusteeship Council, an International
ensure to all of them the rights and ben-
tional Organization at San Francisco,
may make recommendations with re-
Court of Justice, and a Secretariat.
efits resulting from membership, shall
or having previously signed the Decla-
gard to such principles to the Members
fulfill in good faith the obligations as-
2. Such subsidiary organs as may
ration by United Nations of January 1,
or to the Security Council or to both.
be found necessary may be established
sumed by them in accordance with the
1942, sign the present Charter and
2. The General Assembly may
in accordance with the present Char-
present Charter.
ratify it in accordance with Article 110.
discuss any questions relating to the
ter.
maintenance of international peace and
384
APPENDICES
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
385
security brought before it by any
encouraging the progressive devel-
Article 17
Article 19
Member of the United Nations, or by
opment of international law and its
1. The General Assembly shall
A Member of the United Nations
the Security Council, or by a state
codification;
consider and approve the budget of the
which is in arrears in the payment of its
which is not a Member of the United
b. promoting international co-
Organization.
financial contributions to the Organiza-
Nations in accordance with Article 35,
operation in the economic, social,
2. The expenses of the Organiza-
tion shall have no vote in the General
paragraph 2, and, except as provided in
cultural, educational, and health
tion shall be borne by the Members as
Assembly if the amount of its arrears
Article 12, may make recom-
fields, and assisting in the realization
apportioned by the General Assembly.
equals or exceeds the amount of the
mendations with regard to any such
of human rights and fundamental
3. The General Assembly shall
contributions due from it for the pre-
questions to the state or states con-
freedoms for all without distinction
consider and approve any financial and
ceding two full years. The General As-
cerned or to the Security Council or to
as to race, sex, language, or religion.
budgetary arrangements with spe-
sembly may, nevertheless, permit such
both. Any such question on which ac-
2. The further responsibilities,
cialized agencies referred to in Article
a Member to vote if it is satisfied that
tion is necessary shall be referred to
functions and powers of the General
57 and shall examine the administrative
the failure to pay is due to conditions
the Security Council by the General
Assembly with respect to matters men-
budgets of such specialized agencies
beyond the control of the Member.
Assembly either before or after discus-
tioned in paragraph 1(b) above are set
with a view to making recommenda-
sion.
forth in Chapters IX and X.
tions to the agencies concerned.
Procedure
3. The General Assembly may call
the attention of the Security Council to
Article 14
Article 20
situations which are likely to endanger
international peace and security.
Subject to the provisions of Article
Voting
The General Assembly shall meet
4. The powers of the General As-
12, the General Assembly may recom-
Article 18
in regular annual sessions and in such
sembly set forth in this Article shall not
mend measures for the peaceful ad-
special sessions as occasion may re-
limit the general scope of Article 10.
justment of any situation, regardless of
1. Each member of the General
quire. Special sessions shall be con-
origin, which it deems likely to impair
Assembly shall have one vote.
voked by the Secretary-General at the
the general welfare or friendly relations
Article 12
2. Decisions of the General As-
request of the Security Council or of a
among nations, including situations re-
sembly on important questions shall be
majority of the Members of the United
1. While the Security Council is
sulting from a violation of the provi-
made by a two-thirds majority of the
Nations.
exercising in respect of any dispute or
sions of the present Charter setting
members present and voting. These
situation the functions assigned to it in
forth the Purposes and Principles of the
questions shall include: recom-
United Nations.
Article 21
the present Charter, the General As-
mendations with respect to the mainte-
sembly shall not make any recom-
nance of international peace and se-
The General Assembly shall adopt
mendation with regard to that dispute
Article 15
curity, the election of the non-
its own rules of procedure. It shall elect
or situation unless the Security Council
permanent members of the Security
its President for each session.
1. The General Assembly shall re-
so requests.
ceive and consider annual and special
Council, the election of the members of
2. The Secretary-General, with
reports from the Security Council;
the Economic and Social Council, the
Article 22
the consent of the Security Council,
these reports shall include an account
election of members of the Trusteeship
shall notify the General Assembly at
The General Assembly may estab-
of the measures that the Security
Council in accordance with paragraph
each session of any matters relative to
lish such subsidiary organs as it deems
Council has decided upon or taken to
1(c) of Article 86, the admission of new
the maintenance of international peace
necessary for the performance of its
maintain international peace and se-
Members to the United Nations, the
and security which are being dealt with
functions.
by the Security Council and shall simi-
curity.
suspension of the rights and privileges
2. The General Assembly shall re-
of membership, the expulsion of Mem-
larly notify the General Assembly, or
ceive and consider reports from the
bers, questions relating to the opera-
CHAPTER V
the Members of the United Nations if
the General Assembly is not in session,
other organs of the United Nations.
tion of the trusteeship system, and
THE SECURITY COUNCIL
budgetary questions.
immediately the Security Council
3. Decisions on other questions,
ceases to deal with such matters.
Article 16
Composition
including the determination of addi-
The General Assembly shall per-
tional categories of questions to be de-
Article 13
Article 23*
form such functions with respect to the
cided by a two-thirds majority, shall be
1. The General Assembly shall
international trusteeship system as are
made by a majority of the members
1. The Security Council shall con-
initiate studies and make recom-
assigned to it under Chapters XII and
present and voting.
sist of fifteen Members of the United
mendations for the purpose of:
XIII, including the approval of the trus-
a. promoting international co-
teeship agreements for areas not desig-
*As amended. The original text of Article 23 reads as follows:
1. The Security Council shall consist of eleven Members of the United Nations. The Republic of China,
operation in the political field and
nated as strategic.
France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
386
APPENDICES
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
387
Nations. The Republic of China,
2. In discharging these duties the
2. Decisions of the Security
Article 31
France, the Union of Soviet Socialist
Security Council shall act in accor-
Council on procedural matters shall be
Republics, the United Kingdom of
dance with the Purposes and Principles
made by an affirmative vote of nine
Any Member of the United Na-
Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
of the United Nations. The specific
members.
tions which is not a member of the Se-
and the United States of America shall
powers granted to the Security Council
3. Decisions of the Security
curity Council may participate, without
be permanent members of the Security
for the discharge of these duties are
Council on all other matters shall be
vote, in the discussion of any question
Council. The General Assembly shall
laid down in Chapters VI, VII, VIII,
made by an affirmative vote of nine
brought before the Security Council
elect ten other Members of the United
and XII.
members including the concurring
whenever the latter considers that the
Nations to be non-permanent members
3. The Security Council shall
votes of the permanent members; pro-
interests of that Member are specially
of the Security Council, due regard
submit annual and, when necessary,
vided that, in decisions under Chapter
affected.
being specially paid, in the first in-
special reports to the General Assem-
VI, and under paragraph 3 of Article
stance to the contribution of Members
bly for its consideration.
52, a party to a dispute shall abstain
Article 32
of the United Nations to the mainte-
from voting.
nance of international peace and se-
Any Member of the United Na-
Article 25
curity and to the other purposes of the
tions which is not a member of the Se-
Organization, and also to equitable
The Members of the United Na-
curity Council or any state which is not
Procedure
geographical distribution.
tions agree to accept and carry out the
a Member of the United Nations, if it is
2. The non-permanent members
decisions of the Security Council in ac-
a party to a dispute under considera-
of the Security Council shall be elected
cordance with the present Charter.
Article 28
tion by the Security Council, shall be
for a term of two years. In the first elec-
1. The Security Council shall be
invited to participate, without vote, in
tion of the non-permanent members
Article 26
so organized as to be able to function
the discussion relating to the dispute.
after the increase of the membership of
In order to promote the establish-
continuously. Each member of the Se-
The Security Council shall lay down
the Security Council from eleven to fif-
ment and maintenance of international
curity Council shall for this purpose be
such conditions as it deems just for the
teen, two of the four additional mem-
participation of a state which is not a
peace and security with the least diver-
represented at all times at the seat of
bers shall be chosen for a term of one
the Organization.
Member of the United Nations.
sion for armaments of the world's
year. A retiring member shall not be el-
igible for immediate re-election.
human and economic resources, the
2. The Security Council shall hold
Security Council shall be responsible
periodic meetings at which each of its
3. Each member of the Security
for formulating, with the assistance of
members may, if it so desires, be rep-
CHAPTER VI
Council shall have one representative.
the Military Staff Committee referred
resented by a member of the govern-
Functions and Powers
to in Article 47, plans to be submitted
ment or by some other specially desig-
PACIFIC SETTLEMENT
nated representative.
OF DISPUTES
to the Members of the United Nations
Article 24
for the establishment of a system for
3. The Security Council may hold
1. In order to ensure prompt and
the regulation of armaments.
meetings at such places other than the
Article 33
effective action by the United Nations,
seat of the Organization as in its judg-
its Members confer on the Security
ment will best facilitate its work.
1. The parties to any dispute, the
Voting
continuance of which is likely to
Council primary responsibility for the
endanger the maintenance of interna-
maintenance of international peace and
Article 29
Article 27*
tional peace and security, shall, first of
security, and agree that in carrying out
The Security Council may estab-
all, seek a solution by negotiation,
its duties under this responsibility the
1. Each member of the Security
lish such subsidiary organs as it deems
enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbi-
Security Council acts on their behalf.
Council shall have one vote.
necessary for the performance of its
tration, judicial settlement, resort to
functions.
regional agencies or arrangements, or
and the United States of America shall be permanent members of the Security Council. The General Assem-
other peaceful means of their own
bly shall elect six other Members of the United Nations to be non-permanent members of the Security Coun-
choice.
cil. due regard being specially paid, in the first instance to the contribution of Members of the United Nations
Article 30
to the maintenance of international peace and security and to the other purposes of the Organization, and
2. The Security Council shall,
also to equitable geographical distribution.
The Security Council shall adopt
when it deems necessary, call upon the
2. The non-permanent members of the Security Council shall be elected for a term of two years. In the
its own rules of procedure, including
parties to settle their dispute by such
first election of the non-permanent members, however, three shall be chosen for a term of one year. A retiring
the method of selecting its President.
means.
member shall not be eligible for immediate re-election.
3. Each member of the Security Council shall have one representative.
"As amended. The original text of Article 27 reads as follows:
1. Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote.
2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of seven
3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of seven
members.
members including the concurring votes of the permanent members: provided that, in decisions under Chap-
ter VI, and under paragraph 3 of Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting.
388
APPENDICES
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
389
Article 34
Article 37
provisional measures shall be without
general location, and the nature of the
The Security Council may investi-
1. Should the parties to a dispute
prejudice to the rights, claims, or posi-
facilities and assistance to be provided.
of the nature referred to in Article 33
tion of the parties concerned. The Se-
gate any dispute, or any situation which
3. The agreement or agreements
fail to settle it by the means indicated in
curity Council shall duly take account
shall be negotiated as soon as possible
might lead to international friction or
give rise to a dispute, in order to de-
that Article, they shall refer it to the
of failure to comply with such provi-
on the initiative of the Security Coun-
sional measures.
termine whether the continuance of the
Security Council.
cil. They shall be concluded between
2. If the Security Council deems
the Security Council and Members or
dispute or situation is likely to
endanger the maintenance of interna-
that the continuance of the dispute is in
between the Security Council and
Article 41
tional peace and security.
fact likely to endanger the maintenance
groups of Members and shall be subject
of international peace and security, it
The Security Council may decide
to ratification by the signatory states in
shall decide whether to take action
what measures not involving the use of
accordance with their respective con-
under Article 36 or to recommend such
armed force are to be employed to give
stitutional processes.
Article 35
terms of settlement as it may consider
effect to its decisions, and it may call
1. Any Member of the United Na-
appropriate.
upon the Members of the United Na-
Article 44
tions may bring any dispute, or any
tions to apply such measures. These
situation of the nature referred to in Ar-
may include complete or partial inter-
When the Security Council has
Article 38
ticle 34, to the attention of the Security
ruption of economic relations and of
decided to use force it shall, before cal-
Council or of the General Assembly.
Without prejudice to the provi-
rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio,
ling upon a Member not represented on
2. A state which is not a Member
sions of Articles 33 to 37, the Security
and other means of communication,
it to provide armed forces in fulfillment
of the United Nations may bring to the
Council may, if all the parties to any
and the severance of diplomatic rela-
of the obligations assumed under Arti-
attention of the Security Council or of
dispute so request, make recom-
tions.
cle 43, invite that Member, if the
the General Assembly any dispute to
mendations to the parties with a view
Member so desires, to participate in
which it is a party if it accepts in ad-
to a pacific settlement of the dispute.
the decisions of the Security Council
vance, for the purposes of the dispute,
Article 42
concerning the employment of contin-
the obligations of pacific settlement
Should the Security Council con-
gents of that Member's armed forces.
provided in the present Charter.
CHAPTER VII
sider that measures provided for in Ar-
3. The proceedings of the General
ticle 41 would be inadequate or have
Article 45
Assembly in respect of matters brought
ACTION WITH RESPECT TO
proved to be inadequate, it may take
to its attention under this Article will
In order to enable the United Na-
THREATS TO THE PEACE,
such action by air, sea, or land forces
be subject to the provisions of Articles
BREACHES OF THE PEACE,
tions to take urgent military measures,
as may be necessary to maintain or
11 and 12.
AND ACTS OF AGGRESSION
Members shall hold immediately avail-
restore international peace and se-
able national air-force contingents for
curity. Such action may include dem-
combined international enforcement
Article 39
onstrations, blockade, and other opera-
Article 36
action. The strength and degree of
tions by air, sea, or land forces of
The Security Council shall deter-
readiness of these contingents and
Members of the United Nations.
1. The Security Council may, at
mine the existence of any threat to the
plans for their combined action shall be
any stage of a dispute of the nature re-
peace, breach of the peace, or act of
determined, within the limits laid down
ferred to in Article 33 or of a situation
aggression and shall make recom-
Article 43
in the special agreement or agreements
of like nature, recommend appropriate
mendations, or decide what measures
referred to in Article 43, by the Se-
procedures or methods of adjustment.
1. All Members of the United Na-
shall be taken in accordance with Arti-
curity Council with the assistance of
2. The Security Council should
tions, in order to contribute to the
cles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore
the Military Staff Committee.
take into consideration any procedures
international peace and security.
maintenance of international peace and
for the settlement of the dispute which
security, undertake to make available
have already been adopted by the par-
to the Security Council, on its call and
Article 46
Article 40
ties.
in accordance with a special agreement
Plans for the application of armed
3. In making recommendations
In order to prevent an aggravation
or agreements, armed forces, assis-
force shall be made by the Security
under this Article the Security Council
of the situation, the Security Council
tance, and facilities, including rights of
Council with the assistance of the Mili-
should also take into consideration that
may, before making the recom-
passage, necessary for the purpose of
tary Staff Committee.
legal disputes should as a general rule
mendations or deciding upon the mea-
maintaining international peace and se-
be referred by the parties to the Inter-
sures provided for in Article 39, call
curity.
Article 47
national Court of Justice in accordance
upon the parties concerned to comply
2. Such agreement or agreements
with the provisions of the Statute of the
with such provisional measures as it
shall govern the numbers and types of
1. There shall be established a
Court.
deems necessary or desirable. Such
forces, their degree of readiness and
Military Staff Committee to advise and
APPENDICES
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
391
390
pacific settlement of local disputes
CHAPTER IX
assist the Security Council on all ques-
Article 50
through such regional arrangements or
INTERNATIONAL
tions relating to the Security Council's
If preventive or enforcement meas-
by such regional agencies before refer-
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
military requirements for the mainte-
ures against any state are taken by the
ring them to the Security Council.
CO-OPERATION
nance of international peace and secu-
Security Council, any other state,
3. The Security Council shall
rity, the employment and command
whether a Member of the United Na-
encourage the development of pacific
Article 55
of forces placed at its disposal, the reg-
tions or not, which finds itself con-
settlement of local disputes through
ulation of armaments, and possible dis-
fronted with special economic prob-
such regional arrangements or by such
With a view to the creation of con-
armament.
lems arising from the carrying out of
regional agencies either on the initia-
ditions of stability and well-being
2. The Military Staff Committee
those measures shall have the right to
tive of the states concerned or by ref-
which are necessary for peaceful and
shall consist of the Chiefs of Staff of
consult the Security Council with re-
erence from the Security Council.
friendly relations among nations based
the permanent members of the Secu-
gard to a solution of those problems.
4. This Article in no way impairs
on respect for the principle of equal
rity Council or their representatives.
the application of Articles 34 and 35.
rights and self-determination of
Any Member of the United Nations not
Article 51
peoples, the United Nations shall pro-
permanently represented on the Com-
mote:
mittee shall be invited by the Commit-
Nothing in the present Charter
a. higher standards of living,
tee to be associated with it when the
shall impair the inherent right of indi-
Article 53
full employment, and conditions of
efficient discharge of the Committee's
vidual or collective self-defense if an
economic and social progress and
responsibilities requires the participa-
armed attack occurs against a Member
1. The Security Council shall,
development;
tion of that Member in its work.
of the United Nations, until the Se-
where appropriate, utilize such re-
b. solutions of international
3. The Military Staff Committee
curity Council has taken measures
gional arrangements or agencies for
economic, social, health, and related
shall be responsible under the Security
necessary to maintain international
enforcement action under its authority.
problems; and international cultural
Council for the strategic direction of
peace and security. Measures taken by
But no enforcement action shall be
and educational co-operation; and
any armed forces placed at the disposal
Members in the exercise of this right of
taken under regional arrangements or
c. universal respect for, and ob-
of the Security Council. Questions re-
self-defense shall be immediately re-
by regional agencies without the au-
servance of, human rights and fun-
lating to the command of such forces
ported to the Security Council and
thorization of the Security Council,
damental freedoms for all without
shall be worked out subsequently.
shall not in any way affect the authority
with the exception of measures against
distinction as to race, sex, language,
4. The Military Staff Committee,
and responsibility of the Security
any enemy state, as defined in para-
or religion.
with the authorization of the Security
Council under the present Charter to
graph 2 of this Article, provided for
Council and after consultation with ap-
take at any time such action as it deems
pursuant to Article 107 or in regional
Article 56
propriate regional agencies, may estab-
necessary in order to maintain or re-
arrangements directed against renewal
lish regional subcommittees.
store international peace and security.
of aggressive policy on the part of any
All Members pledge themselves to
such state, until such time as the Organ-
take joint and separate action in co-
Article 48
CHAPTER VIII
ization may, on request of the Gov-
operation with the Organization for the
ernments concerned, be charged with
achievement of the purposes set forth
1. The action required to carry out
REGIONAL
the responsibility for preventing
in Article 55.
the decisions of the Security Council
ARRANGEMENTS
further aggression by such a state.
for the maintenance of international
2. The term enemy state as used
Article 57
peace and security shall be taken by all
Article 52
in paragraph 1 of this Article applies to
the Members of the United Nations or
any state which during the Second
1. The various specialized agen-
1. Nothing in the present Charter
by some of them, as the Security
World War has been an enemy of any
cies, established by intergovernmental
Council may determine.
precludes the existence of regional ar-
rangements or agencies for dealing
signatory of the present Charter.
agreement and having wide interna-
2. Such decisions shall be carried
tional responsibilities, as defined in
with such matters relating to the main-
out by the Members of the United Na-
their basic instruments, in economic,
tenance of international peace and se-
tions directly and through their action
social, cultural, educational, health,
in the appropriate international agen-
curity as are appropriate for regional
and related fields, shall be brought into
cies of which they are members.
action, provided that such ar-
Article 54
relationship with the United Nations in
rangements or agencies and their activ-
The Security Council shall at all
accordance with the provisions of Arti-
ities are consistent with the Purposes
times be kept fully informed of activ-
cle 63.
Article 49
and Principles of the United Nations.
ities undertaken or in contemplation
2. Such agencies thus brought into
The Members of the United Na-
2. The Members of the United
under regional arrangements or by re-
relationship with the United Nations
tions shall join in affording mutual as-
Nations entering into such ar-
gional agencies for the maintenance of
are hereinafter referred to as spe-
sistance in carrying out the measures
rangements or constituting such agen-
international peace and security.
cialized agencies.
decided upon by the Security Council.
cies shall make every effort to achieve
392
APPENDICES
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
393
Article 58
years. A retiring member shall be eligi-
the rules prescribed by the United Na-
ommendations of the General Assem-
ble for immediate re-election.
tions, international conferences on
bly.
The Organization shall make rec-
3. At the first election after the in-
matters falling within its competence.
2. It may, with the approval of the
ommendations for the coordination of
crease in the membership of the Eco-
General Assembly, perform services at
the policies and activities of the spe-
nomic and Social Council from eight-
cialized agencies.
Article 63
the request of Members of the United
een to twenty-seven members, in addi-
Nations and at the request of spec-
tion to the members elected in place of
1. The Economic and Social
ialized agencies.
Article 59
the six members whose term of office
Council may enter into agreements
3. It shall perform such other
The Organization shall, where ap-
expires at the end of that year, nine ad-
with any of the agencies referred to in
functions as are specified elsewhere in
propriate, initiate negotiations among
ditional members shall be elected. Of
Article 57, defining the terms on which
the present Charter or as may be as-
the states concerned for the creation of
these nine additional members, the
the agency concerned shall be brought
signed to it by the General Assembly.
any new specialized agencies required
term of office of three members so
into relationship with the United Na-
for the accomplishment of the purposes
elected shall expire at the end of one
tions. Such agreements shall be subject
set forth in Article 55.
year, and of three other members at the
to approval by the General Assembly.
Voting
end of two years, in accordance with
2. It may coordinate the activities
arrangements made by the General As-
of the specialized agencies through
Article 67
Article 60
sembly.
consultation with and recom-
Responsibility for the discharge of
4. Each member of the Economic
mendations to such agencies and
1. Each member of the Economic
the functions of the Organization set
through recommendations to the Gen-
and Social Council shall have one vote.
and Social Council shall have one rep-
resentative.
eral Assembly and to the Members of
2. Decisions of the Economic and
forth in this Chapter shall be vested in
Social Council shall be made by a
the General Assembly and, under the
the United Nations.
majority of the members present and
authority of the General Assembly, in
Functions and Powers
voting.
the Economic and Social Council,
Article 64
which shall have for this purpose the
Article 62
powers set forth in Chapter X.
1. The Economic and Social
Procedure
1. The Economic and Social
Council may take appropriate steps to
Council may make or initiate studies
obtain regular reports from the spe-
and reports with respect to interna-
cialized agencies. It may make ar-
Article 68
CHAPTER X
tional economic, social, cultural, edu-
rangements with the Members of the
The Economic and Social Council
THE ECONOMIC AND
cational, health, and related matters
United Nations and with the spe-
shall set up commissions in economic
SOCIAL COUNCIL
and may make recommendations with
cialized agencies to obtain reports on
and social fields and for the promotion
respect to any such matters to the Gen-
the steps taken to give effect to its own
of human rights, and such other com-
Composition
eral Assembly, to the Members of the
recommendations- and to recom-
missions as may be required for the
United Nations, and to the specialized
mendations on matters falling within its
performance of its functions.
agencies concerned.
competence made by the General As-
Article 61*
2. It may make recommendations
sembly.
Article 69
1. The Economic and Social
for the purpose of promoting respect
2. It may communicate its obser-
Council shall consist of twenty-seven
for, and observance of, human rights
vations on these reports to the General
The Economic and Social Council
Members of the United Nations elected
and fundamental freedoms for all.
Assembly.
shall invite any Member of the United
by the General Assembly.
3. It may prepare draft conven-
Nations to participate, without vote, in
2. Subject to the provisions of
tions for submission to the General As-
Article 65
its deliberations on any matter of par-
paragraph 3, nine members of the Eco-
sembly, with respect to matters falling
ticular concern to that Member.
nomic and Social Council shall be
within its competence.
The Economic and Social Council
elected each year for a term of three
4. It may call, in accordance with
may furnish information to the Security
Article 70
Council and shall assist the Security
Council upon its request.
The Economic and Social Council
*As amended. The original text of Article 27 reads as follows:
may make arrangements for represen-
1. The Economic and Social Council shall consist of eighteen Members of the United Nations elected by
tatives of the specialized agencies to
the General Assembly.
Article 66
2. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3, six members of the Economic and Social Council shall be
participate, without vote, in its deliber-
elected each year for a term of three years. A retiring member shall be eligible for immediate re-election.
1. The Economic and Social
ations and in those of the commissions
3. At the first election, eighteen members of the Economic and Social Council shall be chosen. The term of
Council shall perform such functions as
established by it, and for its representa-
office of six members so chosen shall expire at the end of one year, and of six other members at the end of two
fall within its competence in connec-
tives to participate in the deliberations
years, in accordance with arrangements made by the General Assembly.
4. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have one representative.
tion with the carrying out of the rec-
of the specialized agencies.
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
395
394
APPENDICES
CHAPTER XII
Article 77
Article 71
a. to ensure, with due respect
for the culture of the peoples con-
INTERNATIONAL
1. The trusteeship system shall
The Economic and Social Council
cerned, their political, economic, so-
TRUSTEESHIP SYSTEM
apply to such territories in the follow-
may make suitable arrangements for
cial, and educational advancement,
ing categories as may be placed there-
consultation with non-governmental
their just treatment, and their protec-
Article 75
under by means of trusteeship agree-
organizations which are concerned
tion against abuses;
ments:
with matters within its competence.
The United Nations shall establish
b. to develop self-government,
a. territories now held under
Such arrangements may be made with
to take due account of the political
under its authority an international
mandate;
international organizations and, where
aspirations of the peoples, and to as-
trusteeship system for the administra-
b. territories which may be de-
appropriate, with national organi-
sist them in the progressive devel-
tion and supervision of such territories
tached from enemy states as a result
zations after consultation with the
opment of their free political institu-
as may be placed thereunder by sub-
of the Second World War; and
Member of the United Nations con-
tions, according to the particular cir-
sequent individual agreements. These
c. territories voluntarily placed
cerned.
territories are hereinafter referred to as
cumstances of each territory and its
under the system by states responsi-
peoples and their varying stages of
trust territories.
ble for their administration.
advancement;
2. It will be a matter for sub-
Article 72
c. to further international peace
sequent agreement as to which ter-
Article 76
1. The Economic and Social
and security;
ritories in the foregoing categories will
Council shall adopt its own rules of
d. to promote constructive
The basic objectives of the trus-
be brought under the trusteeship sys-
procedure, including the method of
measures of development, to
teeship system, in accordance with the
tem and upon what terms.
encourage research, and to cooper-
Purposes of the United Nations laid
selecting its President.
2. The Economic and Social
ate with one another and, when and
down in Article 1 of the present Char-
Article 78
Council shall meet as required in ac-
where appropriate, with specialized
ter, shall be:
The trusteeship system shall not
international bodies with a view to
cordance with its rules, which shall in-
a. to further international peace
apply to territories which have become
clude provision for the convening of
the practical achievement of the so-
and security;
Members of the United Nations, rela-
meetings on the request of a majority of
cial, economic, and scientific pur-
b. to promote the political, eco-
tionship among which shall be based on
poses set forth in this Article; and
nomic, social, and educational ad-
its members.
vancement of the inhabitants of the
respect for the principle of sovereign
e. to transmit regularly to the
Secretary-General for information
trust territories, and their progres-
equality.
purposes, subject to such limitation
sive development towards self-
CHAPTER XI
as security and constitutional con-
government or independence as may
Article 79
siderations may require, statistical
be appropriate to the particular cir-
The terms of trusteeship for each
DECLARATION
and other information of a technical
cumstances of each territory and its
territory to be placed under the trus-
REGARDING
nature relating to economic, social,
peoples and the freely expressed
teeship system, including any altera-
NON-SELF-GOVERNING
and educational conditions in the ter-
wishes of the peoples concerned,
tion or amendment, shall be agreed
TERRITORIES
ritories for which they are respec-
and as may be provided by the terms
upon by the states directly concerned,
tively responsible other than those
of each trusteeship agreement;
including the mandatory power in the
territories to which Chapter XII and
c. to encourage respect for
case of territories held under mandate
Article 73
XIII apply.
human rights and for fundamental
by a Member of the United Nations,
freedoms for all without distinction
Members of the United Nations
and shall be approved as provided for
as to race, sex, language, or religion,
in Articles 83 and 85.
which have or assume responsibilities
and to encourage recognition of the
for the administration of territories
Article 74
interdependence of the peoples of
whose peoples have not yet attained a
Article 80
the world; and
full measure of self-government recog-
Members of the United Nations
d. to ensure equal treatment in
1. Except as may be agreed upon
nize the principle that the interests of
also agree that their policy in respect of
social, economic, and commercial
in individual trusteeship agreements,
the inhabitants of these territories are
the territories to which this Chapter
matters for all Members of the
made under Articles 77, 79, and 81,
paramount, and accept as a sacred
applies, no less than in respect of their
United Nations and their nationals,
placing each territory under the trus-
trust the obligation to promote to the
metropolitan areas, must be based on
and also equal treatment for the lat-
teeship system, and until such agree-
utmost, within the system of interna-
the general principle of good-
ter in the administration of justice,
ments have been concluded, nothing in
tional peace and security established
neighborliness, due account being
taken of the interests and well-being of
without prejudice to the attainment
this Chapter shall be construed in or of
by the present Charter, the well-being
of the foregoing objectives and sub-
itself to alter in any manner the rights
of the inhabitants of these territories,
the rest of the world, in social, eco-
ject to the provisions of Article 80.
whatsoever of any states or any
and, to this end:
nomic, and commercial matters.
396
APPENDICES
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
397
not administering trust territories;
2. Decisions of the Trusteeship
peoples or the terms of existing inter-
nomic, social, and educational matters
national instruments to which Mem-
in the strategic areas.
and
Council shall be made by a majority of
c. as many other Members
the members present and voting.
bers of the United Nations may respec-
elected for three-year terms by the
tively be parties.
Article 84
2. Paragraph 1 of this Article shall
General Assembly as may be neces-
Procedure
not be interpreted as giving grounds for
It shall be the duty of the adminis-
sary to ensure that the total number
delay or postponement of the negotia-
tering authority to ensure that the trust
of members of the Trusteeship
Article 90
tion and conclusion of agreements for
territory shall play its part in the main-
Council is equally divided between
placing mandated and other territories
tenance of international peace and se-
those Members of the United Na-
1. The Trusteeship Council shall
curity. To this end the administering
tions which administer trust ter-
adopt its own rules of procedure, in-
under the trusteeship system as provi-
ded for in Article 77.
authority may make use of volunteer
ritories and those which do not.
cluding the method of selecting its
forces, facilities, and assistance from
2. Each member of the Trustee-
President.
2. The Trusteeship Council shall
the trust territory in carrying out the
ship Council shall designate one spe-
Article 81
cially qualified person to represent it
meet as required in accordance with its
obligations towards the Security Coun-
rules, which shall include provision for
cil undertaken in this regard by the ad-
therein.
The trusteeship agreement shall in
the convening of meetings on the re-
each case include the terms under
ministering authority, as well as for
local defense and the maintenance of
Functions and Powers
quest of a majority of its members.
which the trust territory will be ad-
law and order within the trust territory.
ministered and designate the authority
Article 87
Article 91
which will exercise the administration
of the trust territory. Such authority,
Article 85
The General Assembly and, under
The Trusteeship Council shall,
its authority, the Trusteeship Council,
hereinafter called the administering au-
1. The functions of the United Na-
when appropriate, avail itself of the as-
in carrying out their functions, may:
thority, may be one or more states or
sistance of the Economic and Social
tions with regard to trusteeship agree-
a. consider reports submitted
the Organization itself.
Council and of the specialized agencies
ments for all areas not designated as
by the administering authority;
strategic, including the approval of the
in regard to matters with which they
b. accept petitions and examine
Article 82
terms of the trusteeship agreements
are respectively concerned.
them in consultation with the ad-
and of their alteration or amendment,
There may be designated, in any
ministering authority;
trusteeship agreement, a strategic area
shall be exercised by the General As-
c. provide for periodic visits to
or areas which may include part or all
sembly.
the respective trust territories at
CHAPTER XIV
of the trust territory to which the
2. The Trusteeship Council,
times agreed upon with the adminis-
operating under the authority of the
THE INTERNATIONAL
agreement applies, without prejudice
tering authority; and
General Assembly, shall assist the
to any special agreement or agreements
d. take these and other actions
COURT OF JUSTICE
made under Article 43.
General Assembly in carrying out these
in conformity with the terms of the
functions.
trusteeship agreements.
Article 92
Article 83
The International Court of Justice
Article 88
shall be the principal judicial organ of
1. All functions of the United Na-
The Trusteeship Council shall
the United Nations. It shall function in
tions relating to strategic areas, includ-
CHAPTER XIII
formulate a questionnaire on the politi-
accordance with the annexed Statute,
ing the approval of the terms of the
cal, economic, social, and educational
which is based upon the Statute of the
trusteeship agreements and of their al-
THE TRUSTEESHIP
advancement of the inhabitants of each
Permanent Court of International Jus-
teration or amendment, shall be exer-
COUNCIL
trust territory, and the administering
tice and forms an integral part of the
cised by the Security Council.
authority for each trust territory within
present Charter.
2. The basic objectives set forth in
Composition
the competence of the General Assem-
Article 76 shall be applicable to the
bly shall make an annual report to the
Article 93
people of each strategic area.
Article 86
General Assembly upon the basis of
3. The Security Council shall,
such questionnaire.
1. All Members of the United Na-
subject to the provisions of the trustee-
1. The Trusteeship Council shall
tions are ipso facto parties to the Sta-
ship agreements and without prejudice
consist of the following Members of the
Voting
tute of the International Court of Jus-
to security considerations, avail itself
United Nations:
tice.
of the assistance of the Trusteeship
a. those Members administer-
Article 89
2. A state which is not a Member
Council to perform those functions of
ing trust territories;
b. such of those Members men-
1. Each member of the Trustee-
of the United Nations may become a
the United Nations under the trustee-
ship system relating to political, eco-
tioned by name in Article 23 as are
ship Council shall have one vote.
party to the Statute of the International
SEP 18 '91 09:08AM STATE DEPT IO/IAP&PA
P.1/2
For
Joe
Duggan
John R. Bolton
Current
Policy
9.1 SEPThesConcept of
No. 1191
the "Unitary UN"
United States Department of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
Washington, D.C.
Following is an address by John R.
your indulgence, I will take a few mo-
tive regions. Just as an action taken
Bolton, Assistant Secretary for Inter.
ments at the opening of the meeting
toward one specific country affects
national Organization Affairs, before
to discuss with you our concept of
overall regional relationships, by anal-
the "unitary United Nations."
ogy, so, too, do the actions of individual
the Geneva Group consultative-lovel
UN agencies affect the operation of the
meeting, Geneva, June 89, 1989.
entire system. For example, the han-
dling of UNDP support costs, which we
It is a special pleasure for me to partic-
will discuss, has a direct bearing on
ipate in this my first meeting of the
"The unitary United Nations
the assessed budgets of the specialized
Geneva Group consultative level. This
concept provides us with a basis
forum, especially through the 1980s,
agencies.
has provided an important and useful
to deal coherently with the UN
The unitary United Nations con.
opportunity for exchanging views and
system on both budgetary and
cept provides us with a basis to deal co-
policy grounds. We have all
herently with the UN system on both
coming to conclusions on budgetary,
budgetary and policy grounds. We have
financial, and administrative issues
noted the proliferation of com-
all noted the proliferation of commit-
affecting the organizations of the UN
mittees, councils, conferences,
tees, councils, conferences, and meet-
system. 1 look forward to working with
and meetings, all of which cover
ings, all of which cover essentially the
all of you in continuing our efforts to
essentially the same issues."
same issues. Numerous governing bod-
assure that the significant resources,
ies (however denominated) all spend
we as a group invest in the UN system,
precious time and fiscal resources die-
are put to good use.
cussing precisely the same issues, often
Together, the members of the Ge-
neva Group represent over 70% of the
In the course of formulating the
in several different cities. Moreover. al-
Bush Administration's diplomacy to-
most all components of the UN system
contributions to the assessed budgets
of the UN system. Were we to add our
ward the UN system, it struck me that
have expanded their programs beyond
voluntary contributions to the extra-
we should have 8 policy that treated the
their originally intended missions and
budgetary activities of the UN agen-
United Nations comprehensively. (Let
are now duplicating each other's work.
me say at the outset that this analysis
Moreover, there is always the risk of
cies, and to the operational programs
such as UNDP [UN Development Pro-
does not In any way implicate the IMF
creating even more new organizations,
[International Monetary Fund), IBRD
with substantial budgetary claims,
gram], UNICEF [UN Children's Fund],
UNHCR [UN High Commissioner for
[International Bank for Reconstruction
when existing agencies could handle
Refugees], and the WFP [World Food
and Development], or GATT (General
emerging problems.
Program], the percentage would be at
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade].) In-
Following the unitary United Na-
least as high. It is incumbent on mem-
stead of a series of unrelated policies
tions concept would provide us with a
bers of the Geneva Group to fulfill our
toward each UN component, I felt that
principled rule of decision to prune the
we needed to address the UN system in
thicket of UN governing bodies. It
responsibilities to our taxpayers and to
much the same way as the U.S. State
would also permit us to redefine the
other members of the organizations by
Department's regional bureaus interact
proper limits of each UN component's
continuing to provide the leadership
with the governments in their respec-
responsibilities and help avoid both em-
required for adapting the UN system
to its growing responsibilities. With
pire building and turf fighting. By ad-
hering to the original intent underlying
the creation of each UN component, we
tem. I fully recognize that many of our
This is important because we rec-
should achieve not only budgetary sav-
substantive interests in the UN agen-
ognize the great and growing need for
Ings but also create a greater sense of
cies are fostered and protected by the
the work of the UN system. In addition
political responsibility among member
pluralism of the UN system. I am fa-
to the recent major increase in UN
governments and secretariats.
miliar with the longstanding efforts of
peacekeeping activities, still more can
Under a unitary United Nations
some to do away with this pluralism in
be expected. More directly related to
concept, even if some elements of the
order to allow the whole of the UN aye-
our work at this meeting are the signif-
UN system were to take on new respon-
tem to be tightly orchestrated by a po-
icant transnational problems increas-
sibilities, we are not suggesting that
liticized majority in the UN General
ingly being addressed. Certainly, the
the Geneva Group abandon its policy
Assembly. It is because of the plural-
UN syatem has the potential to help
of zero real growth. Indeed, the pos-
ism of the UN system, and our interest
deal with issues such as drug control,
sibility of added responsibilities in-
in maintaining this pluralism, that I
terrorism, refugees, AIDS [acquired
creases the need for maintaining tight
urge the concept of the unitary United
immune deficiency syndrome], human
budgetary discipline. In fact, I view
Nations. The lack of effective central
rights, and the host of environmental
the unitary United Nations concept as
control in the UN system increases the
problems.
a logical next step beyond the policy
need for us, the member governments,
Based on the reforms initiated in
of zero real growth, which is now only
to guide our participation in the differ-
the United Nations and in the major
applied component by component. But
ent UN agencies with an eye on the
specialized agencies, and on the Impor-
in implementing : policy of zero real
overall system.
tant UN peacekeeping activities re-
growth, we must recognize that there
cently undertaken, President Reagan
will be Instances where some agencies
decided last year to seek restoration of
must grow to respond to new and
U.S. financial support to the United
emerging developments. Otherwise
"
the United States looks for-
Nations and its affiliated agencies. He
they will stagnate, and initiatives will
included in the fiscal year (FY) 1990
be taken by other organizations which
ward to important opportunities
budget essentially full funding for U.S.
do not have the expertise or qualifies-
in the UN system for dealing
assessed contributions to the organiza-
tions to do 50 in the most effective way
with critical world problems.
tions of the UN system. As indicated in
possible. Any such growth, however,
The renewed confidence in the
our paper, President Reagan also in-
must be offset by reductions in other
UN system must be further
cluded in the FY 1990 budget the first
organizations so as to maintain zero
step in a multiyear plan for payment of
real growth throughout the UN sys-
strengthened and maintained;
outstanding U.S. arrearages. This
tem. Difficult choices must be made not
we must guard against allowing
commitment to restore U.S. financial
only by the secretariats but by us, the
the expected return of financial
support for the UN system has been
member governments; ultimately, the
stability to result in renewal of
strongly endorsed by President Bush.
burden of identifying and enforcing
wasteful practices."
Final approval of the budget requests
priorities rests with us. As we have
by Congress remains uncertain, but we
seen, It is not easy to achieve cutbacks
are hopeful for support of President
in agency functions, but if we want to
Bush's program on Capitol Hill.
strengthen the UN system, it is incurn-
In conclusion, I want to stress that
One example of the concept of the
bent upon us to take a hard look at the
the United States looks forward to
various components in order to ration-
unitary United Nations at work is in
deciding upon the appropriate role of
important opportunities in the UN
alize and harmonize their operations.
the UNDP for the 1990s. We believe
system for dealing with critical world
My reference to the concept of the
unitary United Nations should not be
that the UNDP should play a more
problems. The renewed confidence in
misinterpreted. I am not now suggest-
vigorous coordinating role. Over the
the UN system must be further
years, UNDP has been weakened con-
strengthened and maintained; we must
ing a change in the mandate of the
siderably, since agencies are taking it
guard against allowing the expected
Geneva Group. I well understand that
return of financial stability to result in
the Geneva Group does not address the
upon themselves to do what is properly
renewal of wasteful practices. This will
whole of the UN system, and that its
in UNDP's realm. Indeed, if the Geneva
Group is to be effective in assuring the
require continued vigor by the Geneva
mandate explicitly 18 limited to concern
best use of resources by the United
Group in insisting on value for money.
for administrative, budgetary, and fi-
However, building on what we have
nancial issues related to the basic infra-
Nations' technical agencies, it will be
essential that we assure 2 clearer divi-
achieved in recent years. we must go a
structure of the UN system, i.e., the
sion of labor between the UNDP and
step further in identifying and enfore-
regular assessed budgets of the spe-
cialized agencies and the IAEA (In-
the technical agencies. Further, there
ing priorities for the UN system as a
whole in order to be sure that our
ternational Atomic Energy Agency].
needs to be improved communication
financial resources are being well
However, we must recognize that this
among the major donors on the
relationships between bilateral and
used. 1 urge that-within our own
infrastructure influences, and is Influ-
enced by, & much larger whole. We be-
multilateral assistance programs. The
governments-we all place more em-
current state of play, all too often,
phasis on what I have called the uni-
lieve more attention must be given to
means that resources are wasted or
tary United Nations,
this larger whole in order to be effec-
tive in addressing our concerns about
that we work at cross purposes in the
the basic infrastructure.
management of a unitary UN system.
Published by the United States Department
of State Bureau of Public Affairs
Let me also make clear that my use
Office of Public Communication e Editorial
of the concept of the unitary United
Division Washington, D.C. July 1989
Nations does not mean that 1 am advo-
Editor: Sharon R. Haynes This material is
cating central control in the UN sys-
in the public domain and may be reprinted
without permission; citation of this source is
appreciated.
SEP 18 '91 08:30AM STATE DEPT IO/IAP&PA
P.8/9
- 6 -
ELEMENTS FOR THE PRESIDENT'S SPEECH
Repeal the Zionism 18 Racism Resolution
-- We believe strongly that it is time to repeal General
Assembly Resolution 3379, the odious resolution which equates
Zionism with racism. Based on a despicable lie, this
resolution has seriously undercut the moral authority of the
U.N.
New Secretary General
-- We attach great importance to the search for # new Secretary
General. We seek the most capable, dedicated individual
possible, irrespective of his or her country of origin.
-- Most imporant, the new Secretary General will have to be
able and willing to implement the reforms necessary to lead the
U.N. into the 21st century.
Unitary U.N.
-- The U.N. system as a whole desperately needs reform and
restructuring.
-- We believe that the concept of the unitary U.N. provides the
best vehicle for reform of the organization. The U.N. system
of organizations should be treated as a coherent whole, with
each organization having assigned roles in carrying out
programs consistent with their respective charters. Such an
approach would lead to the elimination of an enormous amount of
waste and duplication within the system.
-- We do not seek greater central control by the U.N.
bureaucracy. Rather, member states must play a more active
role in preventing the proliferation of overlapping programs.
We hope that a large number of member states will join us in
endorsing the truth and eliminating this resolution.
Arms control
-- We warmly endorse the efforts of our close friends, the EC
and Japan, to establish a U.N. arms transfer registry. We will
work closely with them to ensure the passage of a resolution
designed to bring needed transparency to the global arms trade.
Election Assistance
-- we believe that the U.N. can play an important role in
furthering democratization around the globe by providing
electoral assistance to those countries which specifically
P.9/9
SEP 18 '91 08:30AM STATE DEPT IO/IAP&PA
- 7 -
it. We look forward to the Secretary General's report
request U.N. electoral assistance and hope to work with other member
on states in sponsoring an appropriate resolution on the topic,
Temple 278
The medieval minority's opposition to Real-
1948, by unanimous vote (with the six mem-
ism granted existence to universals only as
bers of the Soviet bloc, Saudi Arabia, and the
vest in the ill
mental concepts. Conceptualist arguments
Union of South Africa abstaining). The decla-
Garvey's fin
Bla
ts to teach religious truth, it has essen-
were put forward by Roscelin, by Abelard,
ration contained general definitions not only
for fraud i
become a denomination. Unity ministers
and by William of Ockham; but Roscelin and
of those principal civil and political rights
and imprison
complete a prescribed course of study
Ockham were so uncompromising that their
recognized in democratic constitutions but
though the o
be approved by the Unity School of
antagonists equated their conceptualism with
also of several so-called economic, social, and
single person
stianity. Ministers are organized into the
Nominalism (i.e., with the contention that
cultural rights. Among the new items in the
ly Ministers Association; they hold an an-
universals are merely words or names arbi-
declaration were the right to social security;
Multitudes to b
or
I conference. Unity emphasizes spiritual
trarily applied to similar things for conve-
right to work; right to education; right to par.
ism, which et
ling, prosperity, and practical Christianity.
nience). Modern scholars, however, doubt
ticipate in the cultural life of the community:
War II.
like some New Thought groups, it stresses
that there were any medieval Nominalists, for
and right to enjoy the arts and to share n
Black Muslin
agreements with traditional Christianity.
extreme Nominalism cannot explain man's
scientific advancement and its benefits. For
Garvey's tead
illness, the world, and matter are consid-
perception of similarities.
the text of the Universal Declaration of Hu-
In the 17th century, however, the Materialist
Universal P
d real, in contrast to the doctrine of Chris-
man Rights, see X:1049. Major ref. 8:1186e
n Science, but illnesses are considered un-
philosopher Thomas Hobbes defended a
international law's lack of power 17:312g
motion-pictur leading prodi
tural and curable by spiritual means. The
moderate Nominalism based on the close con-
slavery prohibited by UN 16:864g
nection between thought and speech. Later
1920s and of
actice of medicine, however, is not rejected.
state sovereignty and international
Carl Laemmi
ere is no definite creed, although a state-
philosophers, divided between those who
law 17:614h
ent written by Charles Fillmore, the Unity
upheld the validity of ontology (the theory of
ducer, formed
atement of Faith, is available in a pamphlet.
Being) and those concerned only with logic
universal generalization, rule of, in logic,
ty days it was
nity is tolerant of the beliefs and practices of
and with linguistic analysis, shifted the peren-
the rule of inference that allows a universal
budget serials
nial debate about universals into fields of epis-
proposition to be inferred from a particular.
films of Erich
thers, and its facilities at Unity Village are
ften used by other groups.
temology barely explored by the Scholastics.
or existential, proposition under certain re-
was a pionee
Official statistics are not available, but the
Thus, modified forms of all four views-Pla-
stricted circumstances.
many years a
tonic, Aristotelian, conceptualist, and Nomi-
LPC transformation rules 11:48b
Quiet on the 1
Unity movement is evidently growing. Its in-
presented its
luence extends far beyond the membership in
nalist-are still defended. Major ref. 6:945e
Universal Historical Bibliothèque (1686),
which include
ts own centres and the activities of its recog-
aesthetic values in Kant 1:153g
English periodical.
Frankenstein
nized ministers and teachers. Many who re-
Boethius, Anselm, Roscelin, and Hobbes's
magazine publishing history 15:248b
the 1960s it re
ceive Unity's publications, hear its programs,
philosophies 14:257e
or attend its classes remain within their own
Universal History, in full THE MODERS PART
through the ce
Christian philosophy debates 4:560f
Hudson. It w
churches. Major ref. 13:15g
classification of being 12:16c passim to 18e
OF AN UNIVERSAL HISTORY (1759-66), a mul-
tional for a ti
Idealism's acknowledgment 9:189g
tivolume compilation edited by Tobias Smol-
Unity Temple (1906), Unitarian church in
owned by the
Plato's Theory of Forms 14:531e passim
lett.
Oak Park, Ill., designed by Frank Lloyd
profit decline
to 538f
-Smollett's contribution 16:908h
Wright.
Rationalist description of knowing 15:528d
Universal P
construction and landmark status 19:1030b
Realist ascription of real existence 15:539h
Universal History from the Creation of
agency of the
Unity Theatre, left-wing amateur theatre
Scholastic concern with reality 16:355b
the World to the Empire of Char-
ganize and im
Taoism cyclical basis 4:416g
lemagne, An (1778), French DISCOURS SUR
founded in London in 1936.
the world and
L'HISTOIRE UNIVERSELLE (1681), survey of his-
ideology and productions 18:234c
universal adult franchise: see suffrage.
ration in this
tory up to AD 800 by Jacques-Bénigne Bos-
eming its ope
Univac I, acronym derived from UNIVERSAL
Universal Bibliography (Gesner): see Bibli-
suet. In later editions, the coverage was ex-
sal Postal Co
AUTOMATIC CALCULATOR, one of the first com-
otheca Universalis.
tended to 1700 by Jean de La Barre.
lations, two
puters designed primarily for commercial use.
universal class, in set theory, the class of
historical meaning and providence 8:962b
formation of
-computer development and examples 4:1047d
which everything is a member.
Universal House of Justice (Bahã⁷ faith):
nations for t:
cation and ur
universal, in epistemology and logic, a gener-
-definition and notation 11:53h
see spiritual assemblies.
of weight. Ti
al term or common noun representing a recur-
rence or a principle of grouping or classifying,
Universal Copyright Convention (UCC),
universalis potestas, English UNIVERSAL
1875 applied
which is considered as an entity and thus as
convention drafted by UNESCO in 1952 and in
POWER, 12th- and 13th-century doctrine of pa-
services, suci
posing the problem of what sort of being
effect for signatories from 1955.
pal temporal sovereignty.
money order
should be ascribed to the referents of general
international copyright protection 5:155b
Innocent IV's challenge to lay rule 9:607c
mentary agr
signing men
terms. It raises the question, for instance, of
Universal Decimal Classification, also
Universalist Church of America see Uni-
A first at
whether there is any redness apart from par-
known as the BRUSSELS CLASSIFICATION, a sys-
tarian Universalist Association.
principles g
ticular red things.
tem of library organization. It is distinguished
Universalists: see Unitarians and Universal-
vice was m
The debate over the status of universals
from the Dewey Decimal Classification (q.v.)
stems from the ancient Greek theory of
by expansions using various symbols in addi-
ists.
in Paris in
postal exch
Forms or Ideas, which Plato held to have a
tion to Arabic numerals, resulting in exceed-
universal joint (device): see coupling.
thora of bi
real existence distinct from their manifesta-
ingly long notations. This system grew out of
the international subject index of the Institut
universal language: see international lan-
ternational
tions in individual objects; ideal beauty must
representa
exist, he thought, as a precondition of its
International du Bibliographie at Brussels,
guage.
Bern Tre:
manifesting itself, albeit imperfectly, in certain
which in 1895 adopted the Dewey Decimal
universal machine, computing machine that
Union. Th
things recognized as beautiful. Aristotle was
Classification as the basis for its index. First
can simulate the operation of any Turing ma-
on July 1
rather less positive, arguing that Forms or
published in 1905, it was later translated into
chine (q.v.).
Universal
universals exist but only "in" the particulars
several languages.
automata theory 2:499b
in 1878. Ii
in which they are discerned. Although both
Despite differences, the Dewey and Univer-
Plato and Aristotle were Realists in holding
Universal Military Service Act (1939),
agency of
sal Decimal classifications are fundamentally
The Uni
that universals are real, there was a difference
the same. In its ability to create a hybrid nota-
Soviet conscription legislation intended to in-
tive body
between them, later summed up in the phrases
tion (i.e., Arabic number plus symbol), Uni-
crease the size of the military services.
ecutive C
universalia ante rem (Plato's belief in "univer-
versal Decimal parallels the Colon Classifica-
World War II preparedness measures 16:78b
tative CO:
sals before the thing") and universalia in re
tion (q.v.). Its decimal basis and attempts at
Universal Negro Improvement Associa-
sures the
(Aristotle's belief in "universals in the thing").
hierarchical range underscore its theoretical
tion (UNIA), primarily in the United States, or-
meets ar
Christian Scholastic philosophers of the
origin in Dewey. Revision has been continu-
ganization founded by Marcus Garvey (q.v.)
maintain
Middle Ages were influenced on the one hand
ous.
and dedicated to racial pride. economic self-
carrying
by Augustine's identification of the Platonic
In particular, it is intended mainly for use
sufficiency, and the formation of an indepen-
Consulta
Forms with archetypes in the mind of God
with classified cards rather than books. It is,
dent black nation in Africa. Though Garvey
was crea
and on the other by a passing reference by Bo-
however, used in libraries, notably in Europe
had founded the UNIA in Jamaica in 1914, its
on the
ethius, a late Roman scholar, in his commen-
and in the United Nations library. Its applica-
problem
main influence was felt in the principal urban
tary on Porphyry's Isagoge, to the questions
tion has been heavily weighted in the areas of
than 14
"whether genera and species are substances or
black neighbourhoods of the U.S. North after
science and technology. The Universal Deci-
origins
are set in the mind alone; whether they are
his arrival in Harlem, in New York City in
mal's Relative Index, for consultation by the
"postal
corporeal or incorporeal substances; and
1916.
inter
public, is arranged alphabetically for access to
whether they are separate from the things per-
In an atmosphere of post-World War I disil-
the number under which it is classed. Major
lusionment, thousands of ordinary blacks,
univer:
ceived by the senses or set in them." The Pla-
ref. 10:869f
tonic-Augustinian position, extreme Realism,
many from the rural South were soon re-
tion th.
is reflected in the works of the Pseudo-
bibliographic material unification 2:978e
sponding enthusiastically to the UNIA plat-
lar clas
Dionysius the Areopagite, of John Scotus
form, which advocated racial self-respect and
logic }
Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
Erigena, of Anselm, of Guillaume de Cham-
declaration completed by the United Nations
a pride in their historic past. Up to 1,000,000
univer
and of Gilbert de La Porrée; the Aris-
Commission on Human Rights in June 1948
followers participated in UNIA activities, which
suppo
in
those
and adopted, after a few changes, by the Gen-
included colourful costumes and parades. The
capab
at its Paris session on Dec. 10,
association collected almost $1,000,000 to in-
The
1049 Addenda
Universal Declaration of Human Rights [1948]
Preamble
Article 5
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman
and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is
or degrading treatment or punishment.
the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Article 6
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a per-
resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the con-
son before the law.
science of mankind, and the advent of a world in which hu-
Article 7
man beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the high-
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled
est aspiration of the common people,
to equal protectión against any discrimination in violation of
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have
this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimi-
recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and
nation.
oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule
of law,
Article 8
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the
friendly relations between nations,
competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamen-
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the
tal rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights,
Article 9
in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or
rights of men and women and have determined to promote
exile.
social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
Article 10
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair, and public
achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promo-
hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the
tion of universal respect for and observance of human rights
determination of his rights and obligations and of any crimi-
and fundamental freedoms,
nal charge against him.
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and free-
doms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of
Article 11
this pledge,
1. Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to
Now, therefore,
be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in
The General Assembly
a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary
Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as
for his defence.
a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all
2. No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on
nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of
account of any act or omission which did not constitute a
society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall
penal offence, under national or international law, at the time
strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these
when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be im-
rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national
posed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal
and international, to secure their universal and effective
offence was committed.
recognition and observance, both among the peoples of
Article 12
Member States themselves and among the peoples of territo-
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his
ries under their jurisdiction.
privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon
Article 1
his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
)
rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and
Article 13
should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and
residence within the borders of each State.
Article 2
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth
2. Everyone has therright to leave any country, including his
in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as
own, and to return to his country.
race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opin-
Article 14
ion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.
1. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other
Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of
countries asylum from persecution.
the political, jurisdictional or international status of the coun-
2. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions
try or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be
genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts con-
independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other lim-
trary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
itation of sovereignty.
Article 15
Article 3
1. Everyone has the right to a nationality.
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and the security of
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor
person.
denied the right to change his nationality.
Article 4
Article 16
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the
1. Men and women of full age, without any limitation due
slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to
Addenda
1050
found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to mar-
Article 24
riage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reason-
2. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full
able limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with
consent of the intending spouses.
pay.
3. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of
Article 25
society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.
1. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate
for the health and well-being of himself and of his family,
Article 17
1. Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as
including food, clothing, housing and medical care and neces-
sary social serviccs, and the right to security in the event of
in association with others.
2. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or
other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.
Article 18
2. Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience
and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wed-
and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion
lock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with
Article 26
others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or
1. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be
belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Ele-
Article 19
mentary education shall be compulsory. Technical and
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expres-
professional education shall be made generally available and
sion; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without
higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis
interference and to seek, receive and impart information and
of merit.
ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
2. Education shall be directed to the full development of
the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for
Article 20
human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
1. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations,
and association.
racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of
2. No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
3. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education
Article 21
1. Everyone has the right to take part in the government of
that shall be given to their children.
his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
Article 27
2. Everyone has the right of equal access to public service
1. Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural
ih his country
life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scien-
3. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority
tific advancement and its benefits.
of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and
2. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and
genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suf-
material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or ar-
frage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free
tistic production of which he is the author.
voting procedures.
Article 28
Article 22
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social
which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can
security and is entitled to realization, through national effort
be fully realized
and international co-operation and in accordance with the
Article 29
organization and resources of each State, of the economic,
1. Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the
social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the
free and full development of his personality is possible.
free development of his personality.
2. In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall
be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law
Article 23
1. Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employ-
solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect
for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just
ment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to pro-
requirements of morality, public order and the general wel-
tection against unemployment.
fare in a democratic society,
2. Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to
3. These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised
equal pay for equal work.
3. Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable
contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence
Article 30
worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying
other means of social protection.
for any State, group or person any right to engage in any
4. Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions
activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any
for the protection of his interests.
of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
399
398
APPENDICES
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
2. Appropriate staffs shall be
legal capacity as may be necessary for
Court of Justice on conditions to be de-
Organization may require. The
termined in each case by the General
Secretary-General shall be appointed
permanently assigned to the Economic
the exercise of its functions and the
and Social Council, the Trusteeship
fulfillment of its purposes.
Assembly upon the recommendation of
by the General Assembly upon the rec-
the Security Council.
ommendation of the Security Council.
Council, and, as required, to other or-
He shall be the chief administrative
gans of the United Nations. These
staffs shall form a part of the Secre-
Article 105
Article 94
officer of the Organization.
tariat.
1. The Organization shall enjoy in
1. Each Member of the United
3. The paramount consideration
Article 98
the territory of each of its Members
Nations undertakes to comply with the
in the employment of the staff and in
such privileges and immunities as are
decision of the International Court of
The Secretary-General shall act in
the determination of the conditions of
necessary for the fulfillment of its pur-
Justice in any case to which it is a
that capacity in all meetings of the
service shall be the necessity of secur-
poses.
General Assembly, of the Security
ing the highest standards of efficiency,
party.
2. Representatives of the Mem-
2. If any party to a case fails to
Council, of the Economic and Social
competence, and integrity. Due regard
bers of the United Nations and officials
perform the obligations incumbent
Council, and of the Trusteeship Coun-
shall be paid to the importance of re-
of the Organization shall similarly
upon it under a judgment rendered by
cil, and shall perform such other func-
cruiting the staff on as wide a geograph-
enjoy such privileges and immunities
the Court, the other party may have re-
tions as are entrusted to him by these
ical basis as possible.
as are necessary for the independent
course to the Security Council, which
organs. The Secretary-General shall
exercise of their functions in connec-
may, if it deems necessary, make rec-
make an annual report to the General
CHAPTER XVI
tion with the Organization.
ommendations or decide upon meas-
Assembly on the work of the Organiza-
3. The General Assembly may
ures to be taken to give effect to the
tion.
MISCELLANEOUS
make recommendations with a view to
judgment.
PROVISIONS
determining the details of the applica-
Article 99
tion of paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Arti-
Article 95
Article 102
cle or may propose conventions to the
The Secretary-General may bring to
Members of the United Nations for this
Nothing in the present Charter
the attention of the Security Council
1. Every treaty and every interna-
purpose.
shall prevent Members of the United
any matter which in his opinion may
tional agreement entered into by any
Nations from entrusting the solution of
threaten the maintenance of interna-
Member of the United Nations after
their differences to other tribunals by
tional peace and security.
the present Charter comes into force
virtue of agreements already in exis-
shall as soon as possible be registered
tence or which may be concluded in the
Article 100
with the Secretariat and published by
CHAPTER XVII
future.
1. In the performance of their
it.
TRANSITIONAL SECURITY
duties the Secretary-General and the
2. No party to any such treaty or
ARRANGEMENTS
Article 96
staff shall not seek or receive instruc-
international agreement which has not
1. The General Assembly or the
tions from any government or from any
been registered in accordance with the
provisions of paragraph 1 of this Arti-
Article 106
Security Council may request the In-
other authority external to the Organi-
zation. They shall refrain from any ac-
cle may invoke that treaty or agree-
Pending the coming into force of
ternational Court of Justice to give an
tion which might reflect on their posi-
ment before any organ of the United
such special agreements referred to in
advisory opinion on any legal question.
tion as international officials responsi-
Nations.
Article 43 as in the opinion of the Secu-
2. Other organs of the United Na-
tions and specialized agencies, which
ble only to the Organization.
rity Council enable it to begin the
exercise of its responsibilities under
may at any time be so authorized by
2. Each Member of the United
Article 103
the General Assembly, may also re-
Nations undertakes to respect the ex-
In the event of a conflict between
Article 42, the parties to the Four-
quest advisory opinions of the Court on
clusively international character of the
the obligations of the Members of the
Nation Declaration, signed at Moscow,
legal questions arising within the scope
responsibilities of the Secretary-
United Nations under the present
October 30, 1943, and France, shall, in
General and the staff and not to seek to
accordance with the provisions of
of their activities.
Charter and their obligations under any
influence them in the discharge of their
other international agreement, their ob-
paragraph 5 of that Declaration, con-
CHAPTER XV
responsibilities.
sult with one another and as occasion
ligations under the present Charter
requires with other Members of the
shall prevail.
THE SECRETARIAT
Article 101
United Nations with a view to such
joint action on behalf of the Organiza-
1. The staff shall be appointed by
Article 104
Article 97
tion as may be necessary for the pur-
the Secretary-General under regula-
tions established by the General As-
The Organization shall enjoy in the
pose of maintaining international peace
The Secretariat shall comprise a
territory of each of its Members such
and security.
Secretary-General and such staff as the
sembly.
400
APPENDICES
CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS
401
Article 107
the coming into force of the present
and Spanish texts are equally authen-
IN FAITH WHEREOF the representa-
Charter, the proposal to call such a
tic, shall remain deposited in the ar-
tives of the Governments of the United
Nothing in the present Charter
conference shall be placed on the
chives of the Government of the United
Nations have signed the present Char-
shall invalidate or preclude action, in
agenda of that session of the General
States of America. Duly certified
ter.
relation to any state which during the
Assembly, and the conference shall be
copies thereof shall be transmitted by
DONE at the city of San Francisco
Second World War has been an enemy
held if so decided by a majority vote of
that Government to the Governments
the twenty-sixth day of June, one
of any signatory to the present Charter,
the members of the General Assembly
of the other signatory states.
thousand nine hundred and forty-five.
taken or authorized as a result of that
and by a vote of any seven members of
war by the Governments having re-
the Security Council.
sponsibility for such action.
CHAPTER XIX
CHAPTER XVIII
RATIFICATION AND
AMENDMENTS
SIGNATURE
Article 108
Article 110
Amendments to the present Char-
1. The present Charter shall be
ter shall come into force for all Mem-
ratified by the signatory states in ac-
bers of the United Nations when they
cordance with their respective con-
have been adopted by a vote of two
stitutional processes.
thirds of the members of the General
2. The ratifications shall be depos-
Assembly and ratified in accordance
ited with the Government of the
with their respective constitutional
United States of America, which shall
processes by two thirds of the Mem-
notify all the signatory states of each
bers of the United Nations, including
deposit as well as the Secretary-
all the permanent members of the Secu-
General of the Organization when he
rity Council.
has been appointed.
3. The present Charter shall come
Article 109
into force upon the deposit of ratifica-
tions by the Republic of China, France,
1. A General Conference of the
the Union of Soviet Socialist Repub-
Members of the United Nations for the
lics, the United Kingdom of Great
purpose of reviewing the present Char-
Britain and Northern Ireland, and the
ter may be held at a date and place to
United States of America, and by a
be fixed by a two-thirds vote of the
majority of the other signatory states.
members of the General Assembly and
A protocol of the ratifications deposi-
by a vote of any seven members of the
ted shall thereupon be drawn up by the
Security Council. Each Member of the
Government of the United States of
United Nations shall have one vote in
America which shall communicate
the conference.
copies thereof to all the signatory
2. Any alteration of the present
states.
Charter recommended by a two-thirds
4. The states signatory to the
vote of the conference shall take effect
present Charter which ratify it after it
when ratified in accordance with their
has come into force will become origi-
respective constitutional processes by
nal Members of the United Nations on
two thirds of the Members of the
the date of the deposit of their respec-
United Nations including all the per-
tive ratifications.
manent members of the Security
Council.
Article 111
3. If such a conference has not
been held before the tenth annual ses-
The present Charter, of which the
sion of the General Assembly following
Chinese, French, Russian, English,
WHITE HOUSE COMMCEN
FRI 20 SEP 91 01:12
PG.01
R
TIME OF TRANSMISSION
TIME OF RECEIPT
THE SITUATION ROOM
PRECEDENCE: IMMEDIATE
RELEASER: 13D
PRIORITY
ROUTINE
DTG: 200110-Z
MESSAGE NO. 54 CLASSIFICATION Unclas
PAGES 29
FROM JENNIFER GROSSMAN
(202)456 7752
111.5
(Name)
(Phone Number)
(Room No.)
MESSAGE DESCRIPTION
TO (Agency)
DELIVER TO:
DEPT/ROOM NO.
PHONE NUMBER
WH SPEECHURITING TONY SNOW /L.A.
1211
REMARKS
PG.02
September 19, 1991
MEMORANDUM FOR TONY SNOW
FROM:
JENNIFER GROSSMAN
SUBJECT:
UN MATERIAL
Tony, I'll try to just continue to fax you material as I
process it. Here's what I have right now. P.S. -- keep organized!
Yenta says use those files she gave you. Attached material:
1)
regurgitation of what you saw as outline, I copied my notes
of what you relayed, you'll probably understand it better than
I.
2)
Address by Bush when he was US Ambassador to UN. Has a bit
on founders' vision. Some of the nice things UN has done.
3)
News Summary update on new members.
4)
Bush's 1990 address to UN. You should have a copy, but here's
another just in case.
--p. 2: irrepresibility of human spirit and "power of
individuals"
--pp. 2-3, bottom 6: part I.A. of your outline, UN freed
from Cold War Freeze
--pp. 4-5: Iraq
--p. 7: the visionary stuff
--p- 8: countdown 2000
5)
Article on new President of the General Assembly
6)
Address by Bush when Ambassador to the UN, at Annual Dinner
Inaugurating the '71 UN Day Program
7)
***Address by Bush when Ambassador to the UN, to UN Plenary
on situation in the Middle East.
--talks about Resolution 242
8)
Article from Bob, "Ten Minutes to Midnight"
RE YOUR QUESTIONS
1)
Guido de Marco is the outgoing President of the General
Assembly. Samir Shihabi is incoming President. (see article)
QUOTES
1)
"The United Nations will not abolish sin, but it can make it
more difficult for the sinners."
--Ivor Richard, Great Britain, fmr ambassador to the
United Nations
2)
"The United Nations is messy because the world is messy"
--ibid
3)
THE WAY IT WAS:
"If the United Nations is a country unto itself, then the
commodity it exports most is words.
--Esther B. Fein, NY Times, 14 Oct '85
"When they speak, dead frogs fall out of their mouths."
--David Hare, on some UN representatives
"It's group therapy for the world."
--Antonio Monteiro, Portugal, on the series of
debates that mark the start of each General Assembly
session, NYT 27 Sept '86
4)
"This organization is created to prevent you from going to
hell. It isn't created to take you to heaven."
--Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., 28 Jan '54
5)
APPLIC TO IRAQ: "May the United Nations ever be vigilant and
potent to defeat the swallowing up of any nation at any time,
by any means -- by armies with banners, by force or by fraud,
by tricks or by midnight treachery."
Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., at dedication of plaque
honoring 37,000 servicemen who died while fighting
under UN's unified command in Korean War, NYT, 28
Jun '60
6)
***GREAT ANECDOTE (could be used to qualify how divisions will
always remain in the organization):
"Our agenda is not exhausted. The secretary general is
exhausted. All of you are exhausted. I find it comforting
that, beginning with our very first day, we find ourselves in
such complete unanimity."
--Paul Henri Spaak (1899-1972) presiding over the
first General Assembly in '46 as President of the
United Nations.
September 19, 1991
MEMORANDUM FOR TONY SNOW
FROM:
JENNIFER GROSSMAN
SUBJECT:
OUTLINE
Tony, here's a regurgitation of the outline you gave me over
the phone:
OUTLINE
themes: now is the time when when the UN's charter and universal
declaration of human rights can be taken seriously; up to now it's
efficacy has been stymied by the Cold War.
I.
salutations, intro, different kind of speech because different
kind of world
A.
End of the Cold War, demise of the old world order
1. proof given during Gulf conflict when Sovs signed
on joint effort.
--here we can stroke UN, UN at its best, working
--here we can fit in any Iraq updates as needed.
II. Future
A.
Defining challenges
1.
Regional disputes
2.
Trade disputes
-GATT
B.
Values
--the time has come to retract the shameful "Zionism is
Racism"
--other anachronistic, reprehensible resolutions
C.
The Individual as the New Unit
--Croatia
1.
Individual rights
2. Power rests with the people, not with the
governments
III. This is not, and cannot be Pax Americana
--it is an order in which individuals must take responsibility
for monitoring government
--we don't want to meddle in the internal affairs of other
states, unless under extreme situations of abuse (?)
3 2 8 0 0 0 0 1 0 2
UNITED STATES MISSION
TO THE UNITED NATIONS
RELEASE ON DELIVERY.
Press Release USUN-55 (71)
2:30 P.M., SUNDAY, MAY 9, 1971
May 7, 1971
Address by. Ambassador George Bush, United States. Representative
to the United Nations, at Cloucostor County Community College
Gloucester, New Jersey, Bunday, May 9
1971
I'm sure many of you have studied the United Nations, and
if 50 you know something about how it all began at the end of
the Second World War. You know the vinion that was in the minds
of the UN's founders -- how they dreamed of « new age when the
great powers of the world would cooperate in peace as they had
*1
as allies in war, and would take the 1wad 111 stopping aggression
and settling disputes. The Security Council was even supposed
to have armed forces, including air forces, at its immediate call
to stop an aggressor. The UN was designed to make it possible
for man's ancient dream of werld peace to some true at lact.
But there was one big "1t" -- the major powers had to cooperate.
And I'm sure you have also read about what actually
happened. The optimists had a rude awakening from the dream
of peace. The big-power cooperation that we all hoped for
disappeared almost overnight. Military defense alliances were
formed to resist communist pressure in Europe and many other
places. The UN became famous not as a center of cooperation but
as an arena of attack and counterattack in the cold wat. A lot
of pessimists in those days thought the UN was about finished.
"more"
3 2 0 0 0 -2- 0 1 0 2 2
BUSH
But this time the pessimists were in for & surprise. The
UN did not die. It did fail to bring A stable world peace or
disarmament, but it accomplished a lct of very important things.
It helped to defeat a major military aggression aqainst south
Korea. It sent peace observers and larger peace forces to help
prevent large-scale war in Kashmir, the Middle East, the Congo,
Cyprus and other places. And while those events were grabbing
the headlines, the UN was also, rather quietly, serving as a
world center for cooperation on an immense number of common
interests that affect the nations of the world -- teaching people
to read, giving children enough to eat, finding refugees a new
place to live, stamping out endemic diseases like malaria and
smallpox, coordinating disaster relief of the floods and earth-
quakes, promoting trade and communications and economic and social
progress in every part of the world. That is still today the
big untold story of the United Nations HM the part of its work that
takes up more than 80 per cent of its money and talont but gets
very few headlines in the press.
St the UN is still in business, more than 25 years after its
founding. After only a couple of months as United States
Representative there I can assure you that 14 still has plenty
of headaches. The pessimists still have plenty of evidence for
predicting, just as they were doing 20 years ago, that the UN
is on its last legs. The international development program of
the UN, which has worked for more than a decade to help the low-
income countries, has been having serious growing pains and needs
a major overhaul. who UN nas A serious financial anfieit because
the Soviet Union and some others won't pay for past peacekeeping
costs. The future ability of the UN to create peacekeeping forces
is a question mark. There is too much talk and too little action.
The 127. nations that make up the General Assembly are very unequal
in power. The result is that majority votes in the Assembly often
express strong emotions but don't reflect what can actually be done
by- the nations with the power to act.
And basically, it remains true today as it has been from the
beginning, that the UN can only accomplish what its members are
ready and able to do together, on some days, on some issues,
that doesn't seem to be very much.
Really, 1f. you are a born pessimist 1f you "got up on the
wrong side of life," as somebody put it -- it's no trouble at all
to prove that the UN, this time, is about through.
But I, for one, just don't believe that. I believe the UN
will gradually overcome its difficulties. I expect it will
continue its economic and technical and humanitarian programs and
that these will be made more efficient. And H further hope and
expect that the UN will play & very Imposiant Lawl part in helping the
nations of the world to meet some of the new and emerging challen-
ges of our technological ago.
BUSH
-3-
Let me say & word about the impact or technology, it 10
changing the world faster than soine of us realize, Radio and
jet travel have made the world a smaller place in which people
of different nations and cultures lenow more about oxoh other
and tend to share the same aspirations. Modern medicine and
public health have dramatically lengthened the life span of
people in the low-income countries -- thereby solving one big
problem and creating another one, a very great one, which we
call the pepulation explosion. Space science has given us
fantastic new powers to discover hidden earth resources, to
detect areas of pollution and drop diseases, to see nurricanes
beginning to form, and before long to make reliable long-range
weather forecasts which will be of immense economic value for
agriculture. Underwater engineering technology 1s enabling us
to find and use resources of petroleum and metals far beneath
the surface of the seas, and far beyond the jurisdiction of any
nation.
Technology thus brings us both new opportunities and new
problems and dangers. The same nuclear energy that could, if
it ever got loose, pretty much destroy civilization, can also
be, as President Eisenhower once said, "consecreated to man's
life" -- a source of power for the economies of the whole world,
The name JAC DIRGER that make international contact SU baby was
be perverted to use for the international drug traffic; they can
also be hijacked by people with some personal or political motive.
The same industrial technology that has made modern Americans
motanially richer than kinga of annient himes has also led
to widespread and dangerous pollution -- so dangerous that the
control of that pollution must now be undertaken on an inter-
national and even a world scale.
Every single one of these problems and opportunities of
modern technology is on the active agenda of the United Nations
today. Cleaning up the world environment. Reducing the
dangerously rapid growth of population in many countries.
Finding an orderly arrangement for nations to cooperate in
mining the realth t1.at Iion under the occans. Preventing and
punishing hijacking. controlling and ending the vicious inter-
national drug traffic. Turning nuclear energy toward peaceful
use. Putting the detection powers of the newly devised earth
resource satellites into service for international development
and in the fight against pollution.
This is one frontier of international cooperation -- the
technological frontier -- that makes the United Nations an
exciting and indispensable center in the modern world. We are
constantly aware that the powers that science and technology
gives us -- and which they will continue to give us during your
lifetime -- can be used for either good or ovil, either to build
or to destroy. The choice depends to a great extent on what the
governments of the world decide to do; and the UN 1s the place
where some of these decisions are going to be made in the years
ahead.
-more-
132800001024
BUSH
Let me add that the UN today 18 very conscious of the need
to enlist young people in its work. We have a newly established
International Corps of Volunteers, a kind of "international
peace corps", which has just. begun to set up shop in the UN
Development Program 50 that young volunteers can-find a construc-
tive place in helping the developing countries of the world. In
the UN Secretariat itself, new emphasis is being placed on
recruiting talented young people into the international civil
service. Maybe some of you W111 be interested in such a career,
I know very well, of course, that some people in your
generation are very, very skeptical about institutions created
by their eiders, The United Nations 15 not immune to your
skepticism, I'm sure, and it shouldn't be. I mentioned some of
its problems and weaknesses, and I could list some more. It
has done very little indeed to help sulve LNO uragio problems
of Vietnam and Southeast Asia. Its greatest single peacemaking
effort today, in the Middle East, still hangs in the balance
arter more than 20 years. The UN 10 still today, as 16 has been
from the beginning, no stronger than its 127 members, with all
their age-old misunderstanding and distrust and different
interests, are willing to see it become.
And let me assure you that distrust among nations is not
something you can wave away with a magic wand. You have to
work away at it, constantly talking and listening, donstantly
probing for new openings and hoping to find some new common
ground even in tise most difficult situations. In this game
you don't honn for perfect Deage: you feel very lucky indeed
if conflict can be kept short of violence and 11 new,
programs of cooperation can be opened up. I am enough of an
cyllmial to believe that as international programs of cooperation
srow, emoracing all these new fields of technology, and involving
ordinary people from countries #77 over the world, nations will
realize more and more what trememdous interests they have in
common. And that realization will help to let the steam out
of the dangerous conflicts and hatreds of the past.
Some young person here may be saying that hope isn't good
enough, and that the United Nations itself isn't good enough.
You have & right to that opinion, but I would ask you just one
question AO I sensluder Hvw-yod-got-a-better-126a7
White House News Summary
Wednesday, Sept. 18, 1991
--
B-5
YUGOSLAVIA
Brokaw reports the civil war has moved into Croatia's capital.
Fighting was fierce, even though the ink still was wet on the
latest in a series of cease-fire agreements.
(CBS-6, NBC-9)
UN/FLAGS
Jennings reports the flags of seven new members were raised at the
UN today. They belong to the three Baltic states, Micronesia, the
Marshall Islands, South Korea and North Korea.
(ABC-8)
UNEMPLOYMENT BENEFITS
Rather: A new veto showdown is shaping up between President Bush
and those in Congress who want to help the unemployed. The issue:
a bill passed by the House today that would provide jobless
benefits to the long-term unemployed.
CBS's Susan Spencer: The Democratic bill declares unemployment an
emergency, something Mr. Bush so far refuses to do, and is designed
both to provide money for those long out of work and to provide as
much embarrassment as possible for the President.
(Rep. Aucoin: "It's time, Mr. Chairman, that the people became one
of this Administration's leading economic indicators. Let's put
this bill back on George Bush's desk.")
But if this bill comes to his desk, Mr. Bush VOWS to veto it as a
budget buster.
(TV coverage: President Bush at meeting.)
Democrats insist the priorities are all wrong.
(Rep. Downey: "We have in this House voted billions of dollars to
bail out the savings and loans. We've helped the Kurds in Turkey.
We've helped the Bangladeshis. It's time to help Americans.")
The bill would extend benefits up to 20 weeks for the estimated 3
million Americans whose checks have run out. Money would come from
a surplus in the unemployment trust fund, and down the road, from
an employer tax. That idea set off Republicans.
(Rep. Walker: "I would suggest that what this House ought to be
considering today is ways of creating jobs, not ways of creating
more spending and more taxes in order to fund people who have been
victimized by Democratic spending in the past.")
But the White House today signalled it could accept a scaled-down
version taking shape in the Senate.
(Chairman Boskin:
"Sensible unemployment-insurance benefit
extension that was fully paid for in an acceptable manner would be
something that he would support.")
of course, accepting any compromise would challenge Mr. Bush's
continuing claim that the economic recovery is well under way.
Rather discusses the issue with Spencer:
Rather: President Bush has played it pretty hard and tough on this
issue so far. Why might he be prepared to compromise now?
Spencer: Well, I think if unemployment doesn't start dropping
soon, he may simply have no choice. And secondly, a compromise
could look a lot more appealing than listening to Democrats go
around the country charging that he cares more about people
overseas that he cares about people here at home. And that's
exactly what Democrats are prepared to do.
(CBS-3)
-more-
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
September 28, 1990
MEMORANDUM FOR THE PRESIDENT
THROUGH:
CHRISS WINSTON cw
FROM:
EDWARD E. MCNALLY gmw
SUBJECT:
ADDRESS TO THE U.N. GENERAL ASSEMBLY
I.
SUMMARY
On Monday, October 1, at 11:40 a.m., you will address the
45th U.N. General Assembly. This draft was prepared with
guidance from General Scowcroft, Ambassador Pickering, the State
Department, Richard Haass, Nancy Dyke and other NSC staff.
II. DISCUSSION
This address (20 minutes, on teleprompter) builds on your
remarks in Helsinki, to the Joint Session of Congress, and at the
World Bank, calling for the world to move beyond containment and
the cold war to the "new partnership of nations" you've proposed.
The remarks praise the U.N., calling for a key role in
building the new partnership over the coming years. It includes
particular praise for the U.N. 's response to the Gulf crisis, and
renews last year's call for abolishing chemical weapons. The
draft also includes two new proposals: a U.N. Electoral
Commission, and U.N. membership for the Republic of Korea.
The U.N. speech also marks our last opportunity -- and our
best opportunity -- to say that "the cold war is over" -- a
predictable "headline" likely to resonate clear on into 1992.
It's the right thing to say because it matches the mood of
the times, the theme of your speech, and your vision of a new
partnership of nations. And it forthrightly acknowledges what we
have already as much as said -- and what everyone recognizes is a
reality.
It's the last opportunity because most observers will mark
German reunification on Oct. 3 as the formal end of the cold war
era. And it's the best opportunity because it's before not only
"a" world forum, but the world forum -- one we've asked to play a
key part in reintegrating the Soviet Union into the community of
nations. For these reasons, we've [bracketed] for your
consideration the "cold war is over" language that you looked at
for the Joint Session of Congress speech. (Please see the bottom
of page two and the top of page three.)
McNally/Simon
September 28, 1990
Draft Seven (B:UN)
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY
NEW YORK CITY
MONDAY, OCTOBER 1, 1990, 11:40 A.M.
Mr. President. Mr. Secretary-General. Distinguished
delegates to the United Nations:
It is a great privilege to greet you today as we begin what
marks a new and historic Session of the General Assembly. My
congratulations to the Honorable Guido de Marco on your election
as President of the General Assembly. On a personal note, I want
to say that, having witnessed the unprecedented unity and
cooperation of the past two months, I have never been prouder to
have once served within your ranks, and never been prouder that
the U.S. is host to the U.N. 111
45 years ago, while the fires of an epic war still raged
across two oceans and two continents, a small group of men and
women began a search for hope amid the ruins. They gathered in
San Francisco, stepping back from the haze and the horror to try
to shape a new structure that might support an ancient dream.
Intensely idealistic, and yet tempered by war, they sought
to build a new kind of bridge, a bridge between nations, a bridge
that might help carry humankind from its darkest hour to its
brightest day. 111
The founding of the United Nations embodied our deepest
hopes for a peaceful world. And during the past year, we have
come closer than ever before to realizing those hopes. We've
seen a century sundered by barbed threats and barbed wire give
2
way to a New era of peace, cooperation, and freedom.
The Revolution of '89 swept the world almost with a life of
its own, carried by a new breeze of freedom that transformed the
political climate from Central Europe to Central America, and
touched almost every corner of the globe.
That breeze has been sustained by a now almost universal
recognition of a simple, fundamental truth: The human spirit
can't be locked up forever. The truth is, people everywhere are
motivated in much the same ways. And people everywhere want much
the same things: The chance to live a life of purpose -- the
chance to choose a life -- in which they and their children can
learn, grow healthy, worship freely, and prosper through the work
of their hands, their hearts and their minds.
I
We're not talking about the power of nations, but the power
of individuals. The power to choose, the power to risk, the
power to succeed.
This is a new and different world. Not since 1945 have we
seen the real possibility of using the United Nations as it was
designed -- as a center for international collective security.
[[The changes in the Soviet Union have been critical to the
emergence of a stronger U.N. The U.S.-Soviet relationship is
finally beyond containment and confrontation, and now we seek to
fulfill the promise of mutually shared understanding. 111
The long twilight struggle that for 45 years has divided
Europe, our two nations, and much of the world has to come to an
end. Much has changed over the last two years. The Soviet Union
3
has taken"many dramatic and important steps to again join the
community of nations.
When the Soviet Union agreed with us, here in the United
NEW WORLD
UN NO invoor STYMIED
Nations, to condemn the aggression of Iraq, there could be no
doubt that at long last, we can put four decades of history
behind us.
No longer will the machinery of the United Nations be frozen
by the Cold War. At long last, we can build new bridges, and
tear down old walls. At long last: The cold war is over.]]
Two days from now, the world will be watching when the [cold
war] is formally buried in Berlin. And in this time of testing,
a fundamental question must be asked. A question not for any one
nation -- but for the United Nations. And the question is this:
Can we work together in a new partnership of nations? Can the
collective strength of the world community, expressed by the
United Nations, unite to deter and defeat aggression?
Because the [cold war's] battle of ideas is not the last
epic battle of this century. Two months ago, in the waning weeks
of one of history's most hopeful summers, the vast, still beauty
of the peaceful Kuwaiti desert was fouled by the stench of diesel
and the roar of steel tanks. Once again the sound of distant
thunder echood across a cloudless sky. And once again the world
awoke to face the guns of August. 111
But this time, the world was ready. The U.N. Security
Council's resolute response to Iraq's unprovoked aggression has
been without precedent. Since the invasion on August 2nd, the
4
Council has passed eight major resolutions setting the terms for
a solution of the crisis.
The Iraqi regime has yet to face the facts. But as I said
last month: The annexation of Kuwait will not be permitted to
stand. This is not simply the view of the United States. It is
the view of every Kuwaiti, the Arab league, and the United
Nations. Iraq's leaders should listen: it is Iraq against the
world. 111
Let me take this opportunity to make the policy of my
government clear. The United States supports the use of
sanctions to persuade Iraq's leaders to withdraw immediately and
without condition from Kuwait. We also support the provision of
food for humanitarian purposes, so long as distribution can be
properly monitored. We have no quarrel with the people of Iraq;
we do not wish for them to suffer.
We have dispatched military forces to the region to enforce
sanctions; to deter and if need be defend against further
aggression. We seek no advantage for ourselves. Nor do we seek
to maintain our military forces in Saudi Arabia for one day
longer than is necessary. U.S. forces were sent at the request
of the Saudi Government; U.S. forces will depart the same way.
Let me also emphasize that we hope military forces will
never have to be used. We seek a peaceful outcome - a
diplomatic outcome. And one more thing -- in the aftermath of
Iraq's unconditional departure from Kuwait, I truly believe that
there may be opportunities: for Iraq and Kuwait to settle their
5
differences permanently; for the states of the Gulf themselves to
build new arrangements for stability; and for all the states and
peoples of the region to settle the conflict that divides the
Arabs from Israel. But, first, we must demonstrate that
aggression will not be tolerated or rewarded.
Through the U.N. Security Council, Iraq has been judged by a
jury of its peers -- the very nations of the Earth. Today, the
regime stands isolated and out of step with the times, separated
from the civilized world not by space, but by centuries.
Iraq's unprovoked aggression is a throw-back to another era,
a dark relic from a dark time. It has plundered Kuwait,
terrorized innocent civilians, and held even diplomats hostage.
Iraq and its leaders must be held liable for these crimes of
abuse and destruction. But this outrageous disregard for basic
human rights does not come as a total surprise. Thousands of
Iraqis have been executed on political and religious grounds, and
even more through a genocidal, poison gas war waged against
Iraq's own Kurdish villagers.
As a world community, we must act -- not only to deter the
use of inhuman weapons like mustard and nerve gas -- but to
eliminate the weapons entirely. That is why, one year ago, I
came to the General Assembly with new proposals to banish these
terrible weapons from the face of the Earth.
I promised the United States would destroy over 98 percent
of its stockpile in the first eight years of a chemical weapons
ban treaty, and 100 percent -- all of them -- in 10 years, if all
6
chemical weapons-capable nations sign the treaty.
We've stood by those promises. In June, the U.S. and the
Soviet Union signed a landmark agreement to halt production, and
to destroy the vast majority of our stockpiles. Today, U.S.
chemical weapons are being destroyed, even as we meet.
But time is running out. This is not a merely bilateral
concern. The Gulf crisis proves how important it is to act
together -- and to act now -- to conclude an absolute, worldwide
ban on these weapons. We must also redouble our efforts to stem
the spread of nuclear weapons, biological weapons, and the bal-
listic missiles that can rain destruction upon distant peoples.
The United Nations can help bring about a new day, a day
when these kinds of terrible weapons -- and the terrible despots
who would use them -- are both a thing of the past. It is in our
hands to leave these dark machines behind, in the dark ages where
they belong, and to press forward to cap a historic movement
towards a new world order and a long era of peace.
We have a vision of a new partnership of nations that
transcends the Cold War. A partnership based on consultation,
cooperation and collective action, especially through inter-
national and regional organizations. A partnership united by
principle and the Rule of Law, and supported by an equitable
sharing of both cost and commitment. A partnership whose goals
are to increase democracy, increase prosperity, increase the
peace -- and reduce arms.
And as we look to the future, the calendar offers up a
7
convenient milestone, a signpost by which to measure our progress
as a community of nations. 111
The Year 2000 marks a turning point, beginning not only the
turn of the decade, not only the turn of the century, but also
the turn of the millennium. 111
And 10 years from now, as the 55th Session of the General
Assembly begins, you will again find many of us in this Hall, our
hair a bit more gray, perhaps a bit less spring in our walk. But
you will not find us with any less hope or idealism, or any less
confidence in the ultimate triumph of humankind. 111
I see a world of open borders, open trade, and -- most
importantly -- open minds. A world that celebrates the common
heritage that belongs to all the world's people, taking pride not
just in hometown or homeland but in humanity itself. 111
I see a world touched by a spirit like that of the Olympics:
Based not on competition that's driven by fear, but sought out of
joy and exhilaration and a true quest for excellence. 111
I see a world where democracy continues to win new friends
and convert old foes, and where the Americas can provide a model
for the future for all humankind -- the world's first completely
democratic hemisphere. 111
And I see a world building on the emerging new model of
European unity. Not just Europe, but the whole world -- "whole
and free." IIII
This is precisely why the present aggression in the Gulf is
a menace not only to one region's security, but to the entire
8
world's vision of our future. It threatens to turn our dream of
a new international order into a grim nightmare of anarchy, in
which the law of the jungle supplants the law of nations.
That is why the United Nations reacted with such historic
unity and resolve. And that is why this challenge is a test we
cannot afford to fail. III I am confident we will prevail.
Success, too, will have lasting consequences -- reinforcing
civilized standards of international conduct, setting a new
precedent in international cooperation, brightening the prospects
for our vision of the future.
There are 10 more years until the century is out.
10 more years to put the struggles of the 20th century
permanently behind us.
10 more years to help launch a new partnership of nations.
And throughout those 10 years -- and beginning now --- the
U.N. has a new and vital role in building towards that partner-
ship. Last year's General Assembly showed how we can make
greater progress towards a more pragmatic and successful U.N.
And, for the first time, the U.M. security Council is beginning
to work as it was designed to work.
We have shown that the U.N. can count on the collective
strength of the international community. We have shown that the
U.N. can rise to the challenge of aggression, as its founders
hoped it would. And now in this time of testing, we must also
show that the U.N. is the place to build international support
and consensus for meeting the other challenges we face.
9
The world remains a dangerous place. And our security and
well-being often depends, in part, on events occurring far away.
We need serious international cooperative efforts to make headway
on threats to the environment, on terrorism, on managing the debt
burden, on fighting the scourge of international drug
trafficking, and on peace-keeping efforts around the world.
But the world also remains a hopeful place. Calls for
democracy and human rights are being reborn everywhere. These
calls are an expression of support for the values enshrined in
the U.N. Charter. They encourage our hopes for a more stable,
more peaceful, more prosperous world.
Free elections are the foundation of democratic government,
and can produce dramatic successes, as we have seen in Namibia
and Nicaragua. And the time has come to structure the U.N. role
in such efforts more formally. And so today, I propose that the
United Nations establish a Special Coordinator for Electoral
Assistance, to be assisted by a U.N. Electoral Commission
comprised of distinguished experts from around the world.
As with free elections, we also believe that universal U.N.
membership for all States is central to the future of this
Organization, and to the new partnership we've discussed. In
support of this principle, and in conjunction with U.N. efforts
to reduce regional tensions, the United States fully supports
U.N. membership for the Republic of Korea. We do so without
prejudice to the ultimate objective of reunification of the
Korean peninsula, and without opposition to simultaneous
10
membership for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.
Building on these and other initiatives, we must join
together in a new compact -- all of us -- to bring the United
Nations into the 21st Century. And I call today for a major,
long-term effort to do this. We should build on the success of
our distinguished Secretary-General, my long-time friend and
colleague, Javier Perez de Cuellar. We should strive for greater
effectiveness and efficiency of the U.N.
The United States is committed to playing its part. We
offer our continuing leadership, helping to maintain global
security, promoting democracy and prosperity. My Administration
is fully committed to supporting the United Nations, and to
paying what we are obliged to pay by our commitment to the
Charter. International peace and security -- and international
freedom and prosperity -- require no less. 1111
The world must know and understand: From this hour, from
this day, from this hall -- we step forth with a new sense of
purpose, a new sense of possibilities. We stand together,
prepared to swim upstream, to march uphill, to tackle the tough
challenges as they come -- not only as the United Nations -- but
as the nations of the world united. 1111
Let it be said of the final decade of the 20th Century:
This was a time when humankind came into its own. When we
emerged from the grit and the smoke of the industrial age to
bring about a revolution of the spirit and of the mind, and began
11
a journey"Into a new day, a new age, and a new partnership of
nations. 111
The U.M. is now fulfilling its promise as the world's
parliament of peace. I congratulate you. I support you. And I
wish you Godspeed in the challenges ahead.
Thank you.
#
#
#
Saudi
U.N.
elected
Add
to U.N.
By Anthony Gobdma
REUTERS NEWS AGENCY
NEW YORK The
post
mitted seven new men
Nations would have he
Cold War:
The new members
By Peter James Spielmannesse
Baltic states of Eston
THE ASSOCIATED PRESS
Pacific island nations
Islands
were
adm
NEW YORK - Saudi Arabia's
mation.
high-profile role in the Persian Gulf
All were unammous
war helped propel its U.N. ambassa-
cil, where a veto by all
dor, Samir Shihabi, into the spotlight
could have blocked the
with his election yesterday as Gen
The United Nations
eral Assembly president.
with 5) at its founding
Born a Palestinian in Jerusalem in
The admission of th
1925, Mr. Shihabi represents a coun-
biggest single influx S
try that for decades had taken a quiet
admitted to the world
back seat in the world body.
1975.
Saudi Arabia has never sat on the
The new members
Security Council, and longtime U.N.
have come with the 1")
officials do not recall that the king-
Estonia, Latvia and
dom has ever sought the chairman
independence, 51 yent
ship of & major U.N. committee
South Kores no long
But Saudi Arabia's role as the
vetoes
staging point for the allied coalition
The United Nation
that freed Kuwait from Iraq brought
against communist N.
the kingdom into a more diplomati-
ward, North Korea op
cally prominent role.
for the two Korean st
Mr. Shihabi entered the race for
perpetuate their sepai
the General Assembly presidency
The Federated Stan
only after the ambassador of rival
New U.N. General Assembly President Samir Shihabi addresses the 46th
of the Marshall Islar
Yemen declared his candidacy for
the post.
session yesterday. He has served as Saudi ambassador to the world body.
nations previously adi
With a seat on the Security Coun-
part of a U.N. trust ter
cil, Yemeni Ambassador Abdalla
new position as assembly president.
from 1980 to 1983. He joined the
At its opening sesi
Saleh Ashtal often infuriated the
Mr. Shihabi will have a U.N. limou-
Saudi foreign service in 1949, first
president Saudi Are
Saudis by sidetracking anti-Iraq ini-
sine and driver if he wants them, but
being posted as first secretary in the
Jerusalem-born Sami
tiatives of the United States and Brit-
the post is unsalaried and he must
Saudi Embassy in Bern, Switzer-
After a hard-fought
ain during the Gulf crisis.
pay for his own travel.
land.
bying, he obtained 83
In yesterday's secret balloting,
Mr. Shihabi, who has an open,
From 1959 to 1961, Mr. Shihabi
handily defeating the
soon after the opening of the Gen-
friendly manner, is well-liked among
was charge d'affaires in Italy, and
Guinea, Sir Michael S
eral Assembly, Mr. Shihabi won in
his fellow delegates. He was a
from 1961 to 1964 he was director of
candidate, Yemeni U.I
the first round with 83 votes out of
founder of the International Associ-
the U.N. and International Organiza-
celved 20 votes.
150 cast. Papua New Guinea's for-
ation of Permanent Representatives
tions Department in the Saudi For-
Slightly built and t
eign minister, Michael Somare, was
to the United Nations, a sort of fra-
eign Ministry. He was ambassador to
the assembly hall wea
second with 47 votes, and Yemen's
ternity for U.N. envoys.
Turkey from 1964-73 and ambassa-
election, he changed
envoy came in third with 20 votes.
He is known for his fondness for
dor to Somalia in 1973-74.
headdress before deliv
Mr. Shihabi replaces Maltese For
ornate canes, which he collects and
He holds a bachelor of arts degree
the assembly podium.
eign Minister Guido de Marco. The
often carries in the corridors of the
in political science and economics
Speaking in Arabic
position is largely ceremonial, but
United Nations.
from the American University in
guages, he said: "We
the president has power to control
Mr. Shihabi has been his country's
Beirut, Lebanon, and Cairo, Egypt.
of Kuwait has ended ai
the assembly agenda.
U.N. ambassador since 1983, after
He studied law at Yale University
have been restored to
There are few perks to go with the
having been ambassador to Pakistan
and at Cambridge University
ple."
Aquino called U.S. 'lacke
By Rene Pastor
placate the Americans," said Sen.
treaty, and we're goin
REUTERS NEWS AGENCY
Aquilino Pimentel, who opposes the
a chance to approve it
U.S. presence. "We have cut the um-
Secretary Raul Mang
MANILA - The Philippine gov-
bilical cord, but we have a lackey of
gotiated the pact.
ernment battled yesterday to keep
a government wanting to satisfy the
In Washington, Per
UNITED STATES MISSION TO THE UNITED NATIONS
799 UNITED NATIONS PLAZA
PRESS RELEASE
New YORK, N. Yr 10017
FOR RELEASE AT 6:30 P.M., EDT
Press Release USUN-85(71)
WEDNESDAY, JUNE 16, 1971
June 16, 1971
Address by Ambassador George Bush, United States Representative
to the United Nations, at the Annual Dinner Inaugurating the
1971 National UN Day Program, New York Hilton, June 16. 1971.
[
Oliver Wendell Holmes put it this way -- "behind any scheme
to make the world over lies the question, 'what kind of world do
you want?'"
The men who shaped the UN Charter, fresh from the agonies
of a devastating world war, had no trouble in giving their
answer -- they wanted quite simply a world at peace or as the
UN Charter puts it "to save succeeding generations from
the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold
sorrow to mankind.
That was 25 years ago --
25 years of frustration --
A quarter of a century during which the failures of the UN
have become crystal clear to the American people. Its successes
have been much quieter -- less spectacular, sometimes obscure.
Let me outline for you what I'll bet many of your complaints
are about at the UN.
First, that the UN is not reflective of the real world.
The biggest complaint has to do with the fact the General
Assembly does not in its voting reflect the real world.
-- Not in popular representation,
-- Not in power.
-more-
BUSH
-8-
We at USUN and UNA desperately want you to feel a part of all-
of this. We want you to participate, to share in the grief and in
the dreams as well. Carl Schurz put it this way.
"Ideals are like stars, you will not succeed in touching
them with your hands, but like the seafaring man on the
desert waters, you choose them as your guides, " and,
following them, you reach your destiny.
The ideals of the Charter are valid today.
What we need now is a rededication to reaching these ideals.
UNITED STATES DELEGATION
TO THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
FOR RELEASE ON DELIVERY
Press Release USUN-152 (72)
CHECK TEXT AGAINST DELIVERY
December 5, 1972
STATEMENT BY AMBASSADOR GEORGE BUSH, UNITED STATES REPRESENTATIVE
TO THE UNITED NATIONS, IN PLENARY, ON THE SITUATION IN THE
MIDDLE EAST, DECEMBER 5, 1972.
Mr. President:
Since the tragic war of 1967, a torrent of words on the Middle East
has engulfed this and other U.N. chambers. Bitterness and invective
have characterized many statements, and these have contributed
little to finding the road to a durable peace.
For this reason the United States believed that unless there was a
specific practical objective which clearly could have moved the
area nearer to peace, it would have been wise to forego yet another
debate and resolution on the Middle East at this General Assembly.
Others did not agree, and the debate is on. It is now for us --
all of us -- to do our best to see that what emerges from this
debate contributes directly to an improvement in the atmosphere in
the Middle East and to the prospects for peacemaking, or, if this
is not possible, to ensure that opportunities for diplomacy in the
months ahead are not seriously set back.
Secretary Rogers outlined the views of my Government during the
general debate. He cautioned that "the momentum toward a peace
settlement must be regained. neither side has permanently closed
the door to future diplomatic efforts. We believe that forces
favoring a peaceful settlement still have the upper hand. Our
task is to do everything possible to see that they are supported."
-more-
DUSH
-2-
The basic framework for the long-sought peace has been in
existence since 1967. So many pro forma and perfunctory references
have been made to Security Council Resolution 242 in recent years
that we tend to forget the landmark quality of that guideline
to peace. It is a carefully balanced document, evolved with extra-
ordinary care to address the concerns of the parties involved
as well as to serve as a basis for reconciling interests and
laying the foundation for a peaceful settlement which will endure.
We would do well to bear always in mind that it is the essential
agreed basis for United Nations peace efforts and that this body and
all its members should be mindful of the need to preserve the nego-
tiating asset that it represents.
The heart of this resolution is that a just and lasting peace in
the Middle East should include the application of two -- not one,
but two -- principles: withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from
territories occupied in the 1967 conflict; and termination of all
claims or states of beligerency and respect for, and acknowledge-
ment of, the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political inde-
pendence of every State in the area, and their right to live in
peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or
acts of force.
Clearly, the inability of the countries in the area to move forward
toward a settlement, despite determined efforts by a distinguished
statesman, Ambassador Gunnar Jarring as the Secretary General's
Special Representative, has resulted from varying interpretations
of the principles contained in Resolution 242. The issues are com-
plex, and have deep historical and emotional roots. While my
Government regrets that more progress has not been made, we are
also convinced that these difficulties are not insurmountable and
that further efforts must be made to bring the benefits of a peace-
ful settlement to all the peoples of the Middle East. We know that
each side is convinced of the justice of its cause and we know that
each side is concerned about its future security. We believe that
a political settlement, based on mutual accommodation, could assure
both.
Mr. President, the United States Government and the American people
have an important, substantial interest in maintaining peace in the
Middle East, preserving the cultural heritage and political inde-
pendence of all its peoples, and in helping to create stable
conditions in which they may freely pursue their own material and
social development. We attach great importance to our relations
with all the states and peoples of the area -- relations which have
deep and abiding roots,; We are particularly pleased that in the
last year cordial and fruitful relations have been reestablished
between the United States and some Arab states. We on our part are
determined to conduct ourselves in a manner which will contribute
to this trend of improving relations with old friends.
For this reason we supported -- and continue to support -- Security
Council Resolution 242 and the mission of Ambassador Jarring. For
this reason we welcome -- and continue to welcome -- the establish-
ment of a ceasefire in much of the area, which has reduced the lives
and resources and has given time for constructive reflection on the
future of the area.
-more-
BUSH
-3-
And what of that future? HOW is it to be assured in peace and
harmony for the countries of the Middle Last? We are still faced
with the problem of the "how" -- "how" to get a reasonable process
of discussion and accommodation under way, so that the peoples of
that area may enjoy the benefits of a more tranquil environment?
All of us are aware that progress on the great political issues of
our time has come slowly and -- in most cases -- in small steps or
stages. i-ly government has long been convinced that the most hope-
ful and practical means of initiating a reasonable process of dis-
cussion and accommodation on the Middle East was through practical,
interim steps, such as those involved in the so-called interim Suez
Canal agreement. The United States has publicly and privately
indicated its willingness to play a role in helping the parties
negotiate such an agreement if they so desire, and we remain avail-
able for this purpose.
Mr. President, the problems in the Middle East area are indeed com-
plex and deeply rooted. But other problems around the world are
also complex, or the product of deep historical, cultural or
political divisions.
For our part, we are negotiating with the Soviet Union on the
complex matter of nuclear arms and other matters. We have taken
the first steps toward reducing two decades of accumulated tensions
between us and the People's Republic of China. We are talking to
North Vietnam about peace in Southeast Asia.
In Central Europe, the Federal Republic of Germany initiated a
process that has led to the initialing of a basic treaty with the
L
German Democratic Republic and to improved relations with the other
neighbors to the Cast. The countries of North America and Europe
are now engaged in a process of discussion of the issues that have
divided Europe for almost three decades.
Others have not been inactive in trying to bridge old animosities.
Parties to the Cyprus dispute are participating in intercommunal
talks. In South Asia, discussions are continuing among countries
who only one year ago were engaged in active hostilities. In Korea,
representatives from both sides of the armistice line are engaged
in exploring the prospects for greater peace and stability on their
peninsula.
It seems to us that all members of this Organization have a strong
interest in getting such processes started also on the problem of
the Middle Last. President Nixon recently indicated that a peaceful
settlement in the Middle East will have a high priority for the
United States.
-more-
BUSH
-4-
The guidelines for negotiations between the parties have already
been established in Security Council Resolution 242. This Assembly
must preserve the measure of agreement that already underlies this
resolution. It cannot seek to redefine the essentials for peace in
the Middle East. It cannot seek to impose courses of action on
the countries directly concerned, either by making new demands or
by favoring the proposals or positions of one side or the other.
These approaches simply will not work and may in fact endanger the
relative calm that has existed since 1970.
This Assembly must instead ensure that its conclusions will rein-
force the willingness of all parties in the months ahead to enter
into a diplomatic process which alone can lead to the just and
lasting settlement which is our common objective.
This a copy of the
EDITORIAL
ditorial ran in April '90 when the clock moved back
Ten minutes to midnight
A
solitary Chinese mun standing in
Rapid progress toward nuclear disarma-
the path of R column of tanks.
ment by the superpowers and other
Demonstrating South African
nuclear-armed nations has become
women being attacked by police
urgent for other reasons. Domestic
dogs. A playwright named president of
strife in a nation " ith nuclear weapons
Czechoslovakia. The bodies of six Sal-
stockpiles opens the possibility that
vadoran priests. All are faces of human
weapons could fall into the hands of
courage in the struggle for freedom and
unstable groups. Furthermore, deep
dignity.
reductions would strengthen the case for
While aware that the struggle continues
stopping the proliferation of weapons of mass
around the world, we rejoice in humanity's
destruction and minimize the risk that they will
momentous victory in Eastern Europe. People
be used in regional wal's. All nuclear weapons tests
revolted against the communist leaders whose power. exer-
should be halted.
cised through rigid bureaucracies and brutal police appara-
Due to Cold War rationales, the two military superpowers
tuses, ultimately rested on the Soviet army. This time. in
mee organized as national security states upheld by vast mil-
contrast to 1956 and 1968, the Soviets did not Intervenc.
itary and intelligence bureaucrucies and shielded from public
Now, 44 years after Winston Churchill's "Iron Curtain"
serutiny by layers of secrecy. These powerful infrustructures
speech, the myth of monolithic communism has been shat-
must now he dismantied and sensible defense policies estab-
tered for all Lo NOC, the ideological conflict known as the Cold
lished. "National security" should no longer justify bankrupt
War is over. and the risk of global nuclear war being ignited
policies and conceal misdeeds. American and Soviet citizens
in Europe is significantly diminished. Although success is in
are just beginning to reassess their countries' genuine
no way guaranteed. this is the greatest opportunity in four
defense needs, a prerequisite for drastic reductions in mili-
decades to create R safe, sustainable world. In response, we
tary spending and the reallocation of resources. People must
turn back the hands of the Bulletin clock four minutes, to
work more vigorously to demilitarize their societies and
stand at 10 minutes to midnight.
effectively address fundamental issues of poverty, hunger,
The Cold War mindset interpreted world events through
and environmental damage.
the distorting prism of East-West conflict. The competition
The transition into the post-Cold War ora will not be pain-
was labeled "cold" to distinguish it from World War 11, A hot
less. Along with the Joy and promise, the demise of the old
war where guns were fired, hombs exploded, tens of millions
order, as witnessed in Eastem Europe and the Soviet Union,
of people killed. Yet, during the past 45 years approximately
can unleash previously suppressed ethnic and religious rival-
125 wars were fought. more than 20 million people killed.
ries. The quest throughout the world for economic structures
The conflict was cold only in that World War III did not
that avoid the unjust extremes of monopoly communism and
happen. Aside from the close call in Cubu in 1962, U.S. and
laissez-faire capitalism will produce instability and conflict.
Soviet loaders didn't square off in R direct fight that could
That this is now less likely to trigger global war offers no
have led to nuclear disaster. Instead, they grudgingly
solace to the victims.
respected each other's right to police their respective
The difficulties in creating a better world should not be
empires, demonstrated restrained opposition to each other's
underestimated, but HT believe that the overall trend is pos-
bloody interventions in Vietnam and Afghanistan. fought
itive. We are encouraged, for example, by the Impressive
proxy wars, and profited by becoming the world's largest
United Nations efforts to resolve International conflicts in
a:ms suppliers. They popularized language that segregated
Namibia, Iran and Iraq, and elsewhere. The actual disman-
most people on earth into a separate "Third World."
time of U.S. and Soviet intermediate-runge ballistic missiles
Through it all, the people of the United States and Soriet
under the INF Treaty and the unilatend Soviet withdrawals
Union put the world at greater risk than at any time in his-
of thousands of tanks and troops from central Europe are
tory. Mesmerized by Cold War rhetoric, they allowed. even
significant deeds.
urged, their governments to build massive nuclear assenals,
Much remains to be done before the greatest short-term
amounting today to one million times the explosive power of
threat to the planet-the risk of nuclear war-ix eliminated.
the Hiroshima bomb. Until those arsenals are climinated,
Additional concrete actions that disarm the relations among
the danger persists that an accident. 8 miscalculation, or
nations are needed before the hands of the clock can be turned
irrational net will cause nuclear bulocaust. We urge speedy
back further. Still, the termination of the Cold Ww has lifted a
conclusion of a U.S.-Soviet Strategic Arms Reduction
grim weight from the human psyche. It has returned to human-
Treaty (START) R8 a next step.
ity its hope for a future, and the chance to create one.
THE 3
The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists has
1968
Seven minutes to matright
1981
Four minutes to widnight
told the world what time it is since 1947, when
its famous clock appeared on the cover. Since
France and China acquire
Both superpowers develop more
then, the clock has moved forward and back,
nuclear weapons; wars rage in
weapons for fighting a nuclear
reflecting the state of international security.
the Middle East, the Indian
war. Terrorist actions,
subcontinent, and Vietnam;
repression of human rights,
1947
Seven minutes to midnight
world military spending
conflicts in Afghanistan. Poland,
increases while development funds shrink.
South Africa add to world tension.
The clock first appears on the
Bulletin cover as a symbol of
1969
Ten minutes to midnight
1984
Three minutes to midnight
nuclear danger.
The U.S. Senate ratifies the
The arms race accelerates.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation
"Arms control negotiations have
Treaty.
been reduced to a species of
1949
Three minutes to midnight
propaganda
The blunt
simplicities of force threaten to
The Soviet Union explodes its
displace any other form of discourse between
first atomic bomb.
1972
Twelve minutes to midnight
the superpowers."
The United States and the
1988
Siz minutes to midnight
Soviet Union sign the first
Strategic Arms Limitation
The United States and the
1953
Two minutes to midnight
Treaty (SALT 1) and the Anti-
Soviet Union sign a treaty to
Ballistic Missile Treaty; progress
eliminate intermediate-range
The United States successfully
toward SALT II is anticipated.
nuclear forces (INF); super-
tests a hydrogen bomb in late
power relations improve; more
1952.
1974
Nine minutes to midnight
nations actively oppose nuclear weapons.
SALT talks reach an impasse:
1990
Ten minutes to midnight
1960
India develops a nuelear weapon.
4
Seven minutes to midnight
"We find policymakers on both
(In Oct. 1989, the clock is re-
sides increasingly ensnared,
The clock moves in response to
designed to show the need for an
frustrated, and neutralized by
the growing public understand-
expanded view of global security.)
domestic forces having a vested interest in the
Democratic movements in
ing that nuclear weapons made
amassing of strategic forces."
war between major technical
Eastern Europe shatter the myth
nations irrational. International
of monolithic communism; the Cold War ends.
scientific cooperation and efforts to aid poor
nations are cited.
1980
Seven minutes to mulnight
The deadlock in U.S.-Soviet arms
talks continues; nationalistic
THE STORY OF
1963
Twelve minutes to midnight
wars and terrorist actions
increase; the rift between rich
THE BULLETIN CLOCK
The U.S. and Soviet signing of
and poor nations grows wider.
the Partial Test Ban Treaty
"provides the first tangible
confirmation of what has been
the Bulletin's conviction in
recent years-that a new cohesive force has
entered the interplay of forces shaping the fate
of mankind."
Snow, McGroarty, Duggan
Grossman, Simon, Bunton
UN
September 22, 1991
Draft Three
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS: THE UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY
UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY HALL
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 23, 1991
11 A.M.
Mr. President, thank you very much. Mr. Secretary General,
to
distinguished delegates of the United Nations, I am honored to
speak with you as you open the 46th Session of the General
Assembly.
I would like to congratulate outgoing President Guido de
Ic
Marco of Malta, and incoming President Samir Shihabi of Saudi
a
Arabia. I also want to salute Secretary General Javier Perez de USUN
Pol
Cuellar, as he begins the final months of his term. Secretary
General Perez de Cuellar has served during a period of
almost
J
unprecedented change and turmoil. For nine years we have enjoyed
the leadership of this man of peace; a man I feel proud to call
my friend. \\
You now have the important task of finding a Secretary
General who can build on Secretary General Perez de Cuellar's
outstanding record. But today, let us congratulate our friend,
and praise his spectacular service to the United Nations -- and
the people of the world.
were incorp
last y
the
Let me also welcome new members to this chamber: the unified
as
(2)Dem Reps Rep + Republic of Koxea
5x
GN
1 mab
that
German delegation; two delegations representing Korea; the
2
kneas
republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania; and new missions from
keep
brans
the Marshall Islands and Micronesia. Just one week ago, 159
out
a
not
2
nations enjoyed membership in the U.N. Today, the number stands
at 166.
[ADDITIONAL PERSONAL REMINISCENCES]
My address will not sound like any you have heard from a
the
President of the United States. I will not dwell on a superpower
competition that defined international politics for a half
century. Instead, I will talk about the challenges of building
peace and prosperity in a world leavened by the Cold War's end
and the resumption of history.
Communism held history captive for years. It suspended
ancient disputes; it suppressed ethnic rivalries, nationalist
aspirations, and old prejudices. As it has dissolved, suspended
hatreds sprung to life. People who for years had been denied
their pasts began searching for their own identities -- often
through peaceful and constructive means, occasionally through
factionalism and bloodshed.
The revival of history presents new opportunities, and
throws up old obstacles. Let's begin by discussing the
opportunities.
First, the renewal of history enables people to pursue their
natural instincts for enterprise. As this Century dawned,
nations suffocated by feudalism or restrained by monarchy began
feeling the promise and power of free enterprise.
Communism froze that progress -- until its failures became
too much for even its defenders to bear. Now, citizens
throughout the world have chosen enterprise over envy; personal
3
responsibility over the enticements of Big Brother; prosperity
over the poverty of central planning.
The U.N. Charter encourages this adventure by pledging "to
employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic
and social advancement of all peoples.' " I can think of no better
way to fulfill this mission than to promote the free flow of
goods and ideas.
Frankly, ideas and goods will travel around the globe with
or without our help. The information revolution has destroyed
the weapons of enforced isolation and ignorance.
Technology has overwhelmed tyranny, proving that the age of
information also can become the age of liberation -- if we limit
state power wisely and free our people to make the best use of
new ideas, inventions, and insights.
By the same token, the world has learned that free markets
provide levels of prosperity, growth and happiness that centrally
planned economies could never offer. Even the most charitable
reckoning indicates that the economies of the free world have
grown at twice the rate of the former communist world during the
past decade.
years
Growth does more than fill shelves. It cultivates
conditions necessary for virtue. It drives out the impulse for
envy. A growing economy permits every person to gain -- not at
the expense of others, but to the benefit of others. Prosperity
encourages people to live as neighbors and not as predators.
4
Economic growth can aid international relations as well.
Many nations represented here are parties to the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The Uruguay Round, the latest in
the postwar series of trade negotiations, offers hope to
developing nations, many of which have been cruelly decieved by
the false promises of totalitarianism.
Here in this Chamber we hear about North-South problems.
But free and open trade, including unfettered access to markets
and credit, offer developing countries means of self-sufficiency
and economic dignity, and they permit developed economies to grow
even richer.
If the Uruguay Round should fail, it could set off a new
wave of protectionism and destroy our hopes for a better future.
Therefore, I call upon all members of GATT to redouble their
efforts to reach a successful conclusion for the Uruguay Round.
I cannot stress this enough: Economic progress will play a
vital role in the new world because it supplies the soil in which
democracy grows best.
Democracy is history's second bequest to our new world.
This century ushered in a new era of hope and of fledgling
democracy. Totalitarianism stalled that movement -- until now.
The people of the world seek government of, by and for the
people; they want to enjoy their inalienable rights to freedom of
property and person. In one of history's rich ironies: so-
called People's republics have been toppled by the people
themselves, and challenges to democracy have failed.
1991 : MORE THAN A DOZEN HAVE FALLEN
-Sit Reem, CIA reports
5
Last month, for instance, coup plotters in the Soviet Union
tried to derail the forces of liberty and reform. Soviet
citizens refused to follow.
The challenge facing the Soviet peoples -- that of building
political systems based upon individual liberty, minority rights,
democracy and free markets -- mirrors every nation's
responsibility for encouraging peaceful, democratic reform. But
it also testifies to the extraordinary power of the democratic
ideal.
As democracy flourishes, so does the opportunity for a third
historical breakthrough: international cooperation.
Less than a
year ago, the Soviet Union joined the United States and a host of
other nations in defending a tiny country against aggression --
and opposing Saddam Hussein. For the very first time on a matter
of major importance, superpower competition took a back seat to
international cooperation.
The United Nations, in one of its finest moments,
constructed a measured, principled, deliberate and courageous
response to Saddam Hussein. It stood up to an outlaw who invaded
Kuwait, who threatened many states within the region, who sought
to set a precedent for the post Cold War world that would have
menaced us all.
The coalition effort established a model for the collective
settlement of disputes. Members set a goal -- the liberation of
Kuwait -- and devised a couragous, unified means of achieving it.
6
Now, for the first time, we have a real chance to fulfill
the U.N. Charter's ambition of working "to save succeeding
generations from the scourge of war to reaffirm faith in
fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human
person, in the equal rights of men and women and nations large
and
small
to promote social progress and better standards of
life in larger freedom.
We will not revive these ideals if we fail to acknowledge
the challenges that the renewal of history presents.
Consider first the challenge of nationalism.
In Europe and Asia, nationalist passions have flared anew,
Dyle
challenging borders, straining the fabric of international
Vany
society. You see signs of this tumult here. The United Nations
the
organized but four peacekeeping missions during its first 43
Scoop
years; it has mounted nine missions in the past 36 months.
Although we now seem mercifully liberated from the fear of
nuclear holocaust, these smaller, virulent conflicts should
55. nor
trouble us all.
-noto
We must face this challenge squarely: First, by pursuing the
peaceful resolution of disputes now in progress; second, and more
cort
importantly, by trying to prevent others from erupting.
No one here can promise that today's borders will remain
fixed for all time. But we must strive to ensure the peaceful,
democratic settlement of border disputes.
We can help by defending the inalienable rights outlined in
the UN's founding documents, and enabling minorities to enjoy the
7
full benefits of membership in a free society -- including the
right to retain ties of kinship with ancestors and relatives in
other lands. We cannot fend off legitimate national aspirations.
But neither can we let hate-filled factions jeopardize the
prospects for a productive peace.
Government has failed if citizens cannot speak their minds;
if they cannot form political parties freely and elect
governments without coercion; if they cannot practice their
religion freely; if they cannot raise their families in peace; if
they cannot enjoy a just return from their labor; if they cannot
live fruitful lives and, at the end of their days, look upon
their achievements and their society's progress with pride.
Politicians who talk about "democracy" and "freedom" but
provide neither eventually will feel the sting of public
disapproval, and the power of people's natural yearning to live
free.
We also must promote the cause of international harmony by
addressing old feuds. We can start by taking seriously the
charter's pledge "to practice tolerance and live together in
peace with one another as good neighbors."
UNGA Resolution 3379, the so-called "Zionism is racism"
resolution, mocks this pledge and the principles upon which the
U.N. was founded. I call upon you to repeal it without delay.
Zionism is not a policy; it is the idea that led to the
creation of a home for the Jewish people, to the state of Israel.
To equate Zionism with the intolerable sin of racism is to twist
8
history, and forget the terrible plight of Jews in World War II,
and indeed throughout history. To equate Zionism with racism is
to reject Israel -- something this body cannot and must not do.
This body cannot on the one hand claim to support peace in
the Middle East while also challenging Israel's legitimacy. By
repealing Resolution 3379 unconditionally, the U.N. will enhance
its credibility and serve the cause of peace.
As we work to meet the challenge posed by the resumption of
history, we also must honor the Charter's emphasis on human
rights. Some nations still deny people their basic rights, and
too many voices cry out for freedom. The people of Cuba suffer
oppression at the hands of a dictator who hasn't gotten the word,
who hasn't adapted to a world that has no use for totalitarian
tyranny. Elsewhere, despots ignore the heartening fact that the
rest of the world has embarked upon a new age of liberty.
The renewal of history also imposes an obligation to remain
vigilant about new threats and old; to write new chapters in the
book of human progress, rather than repeating mistakes and
misfortunes of bygone times.
We cannot remain blind to new aggression, for instance. We
must expand our efforts to control nuclear proliferation. We
must work to prevent the spread of chemical and biological
weapons, and the missiles to deliver them.
We must remember that self-interest will tug nations in
different directions, and that struggles over perceived interests
will flare sometimes into violence.
9
We can never say with confidence where the next conflict may
arise. And we cannot promise eternal peace -- not while
demagogues peddle false promises to people hungry with hope; not
while terrorists use our citizens as pawns, and drug dealers
destroy our people. As a result, we must band together to
overwhelm affronts to basic human dignity.
It is no longer acceptable to shrug and say that one man's
terrorist is another man's freedom fighter. Let's put the law
above the crude and cowardly practice of hostage-holding. //
In a world defined by change, we must be as firm in
principle as we are flexible in our response to changing
international conditions.
That is especially true today of the outlaw regime in Iraq.
Six months after the passage of U.N. Security Council Resolutions
687 and 688, Saddam continues to rebuild his weapons of mass
destruction and subject the Iraqi people to brutal repression.
His contempt for U.N. resolutions -- first demonstrated in
August 1990 -- shows that we must keep U.N. sanctions in place as
long as he remains in power. It also shows that we cannot
compromise for a moment in seeing that Iraq destroys all its
weapons of mass destruction.
This is not to say that we should punish the Iraqi people.
Security Council Resolution 706 created a responsible mechanism
for sending humanitarian relief to innocent Iraqi citizens. Now,
we must put that mechanism to work.
[any additional Iraq language]
MORE them a dozen 1991]
10
We must not abandon our principled stand against Saddam's
aggression. This cooperative effort has liberated Kuwait; now it
must lead to a just government in Iraq. When it does, the Iraqi
people can look forward to better lives; free at home, free to
engage in the world beyond their borders.
The resumption of history also permits the United Nations to
resume the important business of promoting the values I have
discussed today. While this body cannot resolve large-scale
conflicts, it can serve as a vehicle through which willing
parties can settle old disputes. In the months to come, I look
forward to working with Secretary General Perez de Cuellar and
his successor as we pursue peace in Afghanistan, Cambodia,
Cyprus, El Salvador, and the Western Sahara.
The U.N. can encourage free-market development through its
international lending and aid institutions; it can discourage bad
behavior through the use of appropriate sanctions.
Where institutions of freedom have lain dormant, the United
Nations can offer them new life. These institutions play a
crucial role in our quest for a New World Order -- an order
characterized by the rule of law, rather than the resort to
force; the cooperative settlement of disputes, rather than the
anarchic warfare; and an unstinting belief in human rights.
Finally, you may wonder about America's role in the new
world I have described. Let me assure you, The United States has
no intention of striving for a Pax Americana. In a changing
world, the United States remain unchanged. We will not retreat
11
into isolationism. We will remain engaged. We will offer
freindship and leadership. In short, we seek a Pax Universalis
built upon shared responsibilities and aspirations.
In this world, every nation must accept its
responsibilities. The United Nations should not dictate the
particular forms of governments that nations should adopt. But
it can and should encourage the values upon which this
organization was founded.
Together, we should insist that nations seeking our
acceptance meet basic standards of human rights, that they commit
to the principle of resolving their disputes peacefully ; that
they honor individual rights, protect minority rights, defend
democracy, and establish a fair, just rule of law.
My friends, we have an opportunity to spare our sons and
daughters the sins and errors of the past; we can build a future
more satisfying than any our world has ever known.
The future lies undefined before us, full of promise;
littered with peril. We can choose the kind of world we want:
one made peaceful by reflection and choice, or one blistered by
fires of war and subjected to the whims of coercion and chance.
Take this challenge seriously. Inspire future generations
to praise and venerate you -- to say: On the ruins of conflict,
these brave men and women built an era of peace and
understanding; they inaugurated a new world order, an order we
want to preserve.
Good luck. Thank you very, very much.