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323153641
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The Hague 11/9/91 [OA 7564] [6]
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323153641
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The Hague 11/9/91 [OA 7564] [6]
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13779-010
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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Speech Backup Chronological Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
Subseries:
Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13779
Folder ID Number:
13779-010
Folder Title:
The Hague 11/9/91 [OA 7564] [6]
Stack:
Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
G
26
21
7
4
Ref.
JX1705
United States Department of State
A25
1988
WH
Principal Officers
of the
Department of State
and United States
Chiefs of Mission
1778 - 1988
UNITED STATES CHIEFS OF MISSION
49
Finland (Continued)
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
Jack K. McFall
D.C.
C
EE/MP
10 Sept. 1952
15 Nov. 1952
Recommissioned after confirmation
1 May 1953
Promoted to AE/P
AE/P
15 Sept. 1954'
17 Sept. 19544
Recommissioned after confirmation
3 Dec. 1954
Left post, 19 Sept. 1955
John D. Hickerson
Tex.
C
AE/P
4 Oct. 1955'
23 Nov. 1955
Recommissioned after confirmation
25 Jan. 1956
Left post, 3 Nov. 1959
Edson O. Sessions
III.
NC
AE/P
20 Oct. 1959'
28 Nov. 1959
Recommissioned after confirmation
21 Jan. 1960
Left post, 20 Nov. 1960
Bernard Gufler
Wash.
C
AE/P
24 Feb. 1961
14 Apr. 1961
Left post, 18 Apr: 1963
Carl T. Rowan
Minn.
NC
AE/P
9 Mar. 1963
21 May 1963
Left post, 8 Feb. 1964
Tyler Thompson
Me.
C
AE/P
31 July 1964
25 Aug. 1964
Left post, 14 June 1969
Val Peterson
Nebr.
NC
AE/P
1 May 1969
14 July 1969
Left post, 23 Mar. 1973
V. John Krehbiel
Cal.
NC
AE/P
27 Mar. 1973
1 June 1973
Left post, 24 Feb. 1975
Mark Evans Austad
Utah
NC
AE/P
20 Feb. 1975
20 Mar. 1975
Left post, 14 Apr. 1977
Rozanne L. Ridgway
D.C.
C
AE/P
26 May 1977
5 Aug. 1977
Left post, 20 Feb. 1980
James Eugene Goodby
N.H.
C
AE/P
27 Feb. 1980
11 Apr. 1980
Left post, 18 Aug. 1981
Keith Foote Nyborg
Id.
NC
AE/P
30 July 1981
18 Sept. 1981
Left post, 17 Feb. 1986
Rockwell Anthony Schnabel
Cal.
NC
AE/P
17 Dec. 1985
28 Feb. 1986
4Legation Helsinki was raised to Embassy status on 10 Sept. 1954.
France
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres: of Cred.
Term. of Mission
Benjamin Franklin¹
Pa.
MP
14 Sept. 1778
23 Mar. 1779
Superseded, 17 May 1785
Thomas Jefferson
Va.
MP
10 Mar. 1785
17 May 1785
Recommissioned
12 Oct. 1787
Left post, 26 Sept. 1789
William Short
Va.
CdA
20 Apr. 1790
14 June 1790
Presented recall, 15 May 1792
Gouverneur Morris
N.Y.
MP
12 Jan. 1792
3 June 1792
Recall requested by Govt. of France,
9 Apr. 17942
James Monroe
Va.
MP
28 May 1794
15 Aug. 1794
Presented recall, 9 Dec. 1796
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney³
S.C.
MP
9 Sept. 1796'
William Vans Murray4
MP
James A. Bayard5
Del.
MP
19 Feb. 1801
Robert R. Livingston
N.Y.
MP
2 Oct. 1801
6 Dec. 1801
Presented recall, 18 Nov. 1804
John Armstrong6
N.Y.
MP
30 June 1804'
18 Nov. 1804
Left post, 14 Sept. 1810
Jonathan Russell
R.I.
CdA
[5 Nov. 1810⁷]
[⁸]
Superseded, 17 Nov. 1811
Joel Barlow
D.C.
MP
27 Feb. 1811
17 Nov. 1811
Died at Zarnowiec, 26 Dec. 1812,
en route to Paris from consultations
with French officials in Russia
William H. Crawford
Ga.
MP
9 Apr. 1813
Recommissioned after confirmation
28 May 1813
14 Dec. 1813
Reaccredited when France again
became a kingdom.
16 Aug. 1814
Left post, 26-30 Apr. 1815
Albert Gallatin
Pa.
EE/MP
28 Feb. 1815
16 July 1816
Left post, 16 May 1823
James Brown
La.
EE/MP
9 Dec. 1823
13 Apr. 1824
Had farewell audience, 28 June
1829
William C. Rives
Va.
EE/MP
18 Apr. 1829
25 Oct. 1829
Recommissioned after confirmation
10 Feb. 1830
Reaccredited after change of
government
[14 Jan. 18319]
Left post, 27 Sept. 1832
Levett Harris
N.J.
CdA
6 Mar. 1833
20 Apr. 1833
Superseded, 30 Sept. 1833
1Commissioned also to negotiate a treaty with Sweden.
Nomination was confirmed by the Senate, but no record has been found
2Morris was still at his post when his successor presented credentials.
of a new commission following confirmation.
³Proceeded to post, but was not received by the Directory; left post,
7Commission not of record, but enclosed with an instruction of this date.
5 Feb. 1797. Nomination was confirmed by the Senate, but no record has
8Received his commission about 13 Feb. 1811; was not issued a letter
been found of a new commission following confirmation.
of credence, but continued his official relations with the Govt. of France
4Not commissioned; nomination superseded by a nomination of Murray
begun in Sept. 1810 as Chargé d'Affaires ad interim.
and two others to serve on a joint commission.
9Formally received on this date.
5Did not serve under this appointment.
50
UNITED STATES CHIEFS OF MISSION
France (Continued)
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
Edward Livingston
EE/MP
29 May 1833'
30 Sept. 1833
Recommissioned after confirmation
5 Mar. 1834
Left post, 29 Apr. 1835¹⁰
Lewis Cass
EE/MP
4 Oct. 1836
1 Dec. 1836
Left post, 12 Nov. 1842
Henry A. Wise¹¹
Va.
EE/MP
William R. King
Ala.
EE/MP
9 Apr. 1844
1 July 1844
Presented recall, 15 Sept. 1846
Charles J. Ingersoll12
Pa.
EE/MP
Richard Rush
Pa.
EE/MP
3 Mar. 1847
31 July 1847
Reaccredited when France again
became a republic
26 Apr. 1848
Presented recall, 8 Oct. 1849
William C. Rives
Va.
EE/MP
20 July 1849
8 Nov. 1849
Recommissioned after confirmation
18 Mar. 1850
Reaccredited when France again
became an empire
10 Jan. 1853
Presented recall, 12 May 1853
John Y. Mason
Va.
EE/MP
10 Oct. 1853
Recommissioned after confirmation
6 Dec. 1853
22 Jan. 1854
Died at post, 3 Oct. 1859
Charles J. Faulkner
Va.
EE/MP
16 Jan. 1860
4 Mar. 1860
Presented recall, 12 May 1861
William L. Dayton
N.J.
EE/MP
18 Mar. 1861
19 May 1861
Died at post, 1 Dec. 1864
John Bigelow
N.Y.
EE/MP
15 Mar. 1865'
23 Apr. 1865
Recommissioned after confirmation
22 Jan. 1866
Presented recall, 23 Dec. 1866
John A. Dix
N.Y.
EE/MP
24 Sept. 1866
23 Dec. 1866
Recommissioned after confirmation
2 Mar. 1867
Presented recall, 23 May 1869
Elihu B. Washburne
III.
EE/MP
17 Mar. 1869
23 Mar. 1869
Reaccredited when France again
became a republic
8 May 1871
Presented recall, 5 Sept. 1877
Edward F. Noyes
O.
EE/MP
1 July 1877
5 Sept. 1877
Recommissioned after confirmation
30 Oct. 1877
Presented recall, 5 Aug. 1881
Levi P. Morton
N.Y.
EE/MP
21 Mar. 1881
5 Aug. 1881
Presented recall, 14 May 1885
Robert M. McLane
Md.
EE/MP
23 Mar. 1885
14 May 1885
Presented recall, 20 May 1889
Whitelaw Reid
N.Y.
EE/MP
23 Mar. 1889
21 May 1889
Left post, 25 Mar. 1892
T. Jefferson Coolidge
Mass.
EE/MP
12 May 1892
10 June 1892
Presented recall, 4 May 1893
James B. Eustis
La.
EE/MP
20 Mar. 1893¹³
AE/P
8 Apr. 1893
6 May 1893
Presented recall, 24 May 1897
Horace Porter
N.Y.
AE/P
19 Mar. 1897
26 May 1897
Presented recall, 2 May 1905
Robert S. McCormick
III.
AE/P
8 Mar. 1905
2 May 1905
Presented recall, 2 Mar. 1907
Henry White
R.I.
AE/P
19 Dec. 1906
23 Mar. 1907
Left France, 3 Nov. 1909
Robert Bacon
N.Y.
AE/P
21 Dec. 1909
31 Dec. 1909
Presented recall, 19 Apr. 1912
Myron T. Herrick
O.
AE/P
15 Feb. 1912
29 Apr. 1912
Left post, 28 Nov. 1914
William G. Sharp
O.
NC
AE/P
19 June 1914
4 Dec. 1914
Presented recall, 14 Apr. 1919
Hugh Campbell Wallace
Wash.
NC
AE/P
27 Feb. 1919
22 Apr. 1919
Presented recall, 5 July 1921
Myron T. Herrick
O.
NC
AE/P
16 Apr. 1921
15 July 1921
Died at post, 31 Mar. 1929
Walter E. Edge
N.J.
NC
AE/P
21 Nov. 1929
18 Dec. 1929
Presented recall, 13 Apr. 1933
Jesse Isidor Straus
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
17 Mar. 1933
8 June 1933
Left France, 5 Aug. 1936
William Christian Bullitt
Pa.
NC
AE/P
25 Aug. 1936
13 Oct. 1936
Recommissioned after confirmation
23 Jan. 1937
Left La Bourboule, 11 July 194014
William D. Leahy
Ga.
NC
AE/P
29 Nov. 1940
8 Jan. 1941
Left Vichy, 1 May 1942¹⁵
Jefferson Caffery
La.
C
AE/P
25 Nov. 1944
30 Dec. 1944¹⁶
Left post, 13 May 1949
David K. E. Bruce
Va.
NC
AE/P
9 May 1949
17 May 1949
Left post, 10 Mar. 1952
James Clement Dunn
N.Y.
C
AE/P
13 Mar. 1952
27 Mar. 1952
Left post, 2 Mar. 1953
C. Douglas Dillon
N.J.
NC
AE/P
27 Feb. 1953
13 Mar. 1953
Left post, 28 Jan. 1957
Amory Houghton
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
14 Mar. 1957
17 Apr. 1957
Left post, 19 Jan. 1961
James M. Gavin
Mass.
NC
AE/P
22 Feb. 1961
21 Mar. 1961
Left post, 26 Sept. 1962
Charles E. Bohlen
D.C.,
C
AE/P
4 Sept. 1962
27 Oct. 1962
Left post, 9 Feb. 1968
Robert Sargent Shriver, Jr.
III.
NC
AE/P
22 Apr. 1968
25 May 1968
Left post, 25 Mar. 1970
¹⁰Thomas P. Barton served as Chargé Affaires ad interim until 8 Nov.
14Near the end of Bullitt's term of service, Anthony J. Drexel Biddle, Jr.,
1835, when he closed Legation Paris, having been recalled.
acted as Deputy Ambassador to France, 13-25 June 1940
"Not commissioned; nomination rejected by the Senate.
15S. Pinkney Tuck was serving as Chargé d'Affaires ad interim when
12Not commissioned; nomination rejected by the Senate.
France severed diplomatic relations with the U.S., 8 Nov. 1942.
¹³Took oath of office, but did not proceed to post in this capacity.
¹⁶Embassy Paris was opened to the public 1 Dec. 1944 with Ambassador
Caffery in charge pending presentation of his letter of credence.
UNITED STATES CHIEFS OF MISSION
51
France (Continued)
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
Arthur K. Watson
Conn.
NC
AE/P
8 Apr. 1970
6 May 1970
Left post, 30 Oct. 1972
John N. Irwin, II
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
2 Feb. 1973
23 Mar. 1973
Left post, 20 Oct. 1974
Kenneth Rush
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
19 Sept. 1974
21 Nov. 1974
Left post, 14 Mar. 1977
Arthur A. Hartman
N.J.
C
AE/P
8 June 1977
7 July 1977
Left post, 14 Oct. 1981
Evan Griffith Galbraith
Conn.
NC
AE/P
6 Nov. 1981
2 Dec. 1981
Left post, 15 July 1985
Joe M. Rodgers
Tenn.
NC
AE/P
19 July 1985
20 Sept. 1985
Gabon1
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
W. Wendell Blancké²
Cal.
C
AE/P
12 Dec. 1960'
13 Jan. 1961
Recommissioned after confirmation
6 Feb. 1961
Superseded, 10 Oct. 1961
Charles F. Darlington
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
20 Sept. 1961
18 Oct. 1961
Left post, 26 July 1964
David M. Bane
Pa.
C
AE/P
22 July 1965
14 Aug. 1965
Left post, 29 June 1969
Richard Funkhouser
N.J.
C
AE/P
13 June 1969
9 Aug. 1969
Left post, 2 Aug. 1970
John A. McKesson, III
D.C.
C
AE/P
10 Dec. 1970
4 Feb. 1971
Left post, 1 June 1975
Andrew L. Steigman³
Md.
C
AE/P
10 June 1975
9 Aug. 1975
Left post, 21 Aug. 1977
Arthur T. Tienken
Va.
C
AE/P
3 Feb. 1978
6 Mar. 1978
Left post, 19 July 1981
Francis Terry McNamara
Vt.
C
AE/P
11 Dec. 1981
19 Jan. 1982
Left post, 3 Aug. 1984
Larry C. Williamson
Cal.
C
AE/P
13 Aug. 1984
20 Nov. 1984
Left post, 21 Aug. 1987
Warren Clark, Jr.
Conn.
C
AE/P
10 Aug. 1987
19 Sept. 1987
1Alan W. Lukens (resident at Brazzaville) presented credentials as Chargé
³Steigman and all subsequent Ambassadors were also accredited to the
d'Affaires ad interim, 17 Aug. 1960. During Blancké's tenure as non-resident
Democratic Republic of Sao Tomé and Principe and resident at Libreville.
Ambassador, Embassy Libreville was established 20 Mar. 1961 with Walker
A. Diamanti as Chargé d'Affaires ad interim.
2Accredited also to the Central African Republic, Chad, and Congo; resi-
dent at Brazzaville.
The Gambia¹
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
Mercer Cook2
III.
NC
AE/P
18 May 1965
9 Aug. 1965
Left Dakar, 1 July 1966
William R. Rivkin
III.
NC
AE/P
13 Oct. 1966
16 Jan. 1967
Died at Dakar, 19 Mar. 1967
L. Dean Brown
Md.
C
AE/P
18 Oct. 1967
18 Jan. 1968
Left Dakar, 15 Aug. 1970
G. Edward Clark
D.C.
C
AE/P
12 Oct. 1970
24 Nov. 1970
Left Dakar, 16 Oct. 1973
O. Rudolph Aggrey
D.C.
C
AE/P
23 Nov. 1973
17 Jan. 1974
Left Dakar, 10 July 1977
Herman J. Cohen
N.Y.
C
AE/P
24 June 1977
29 Mar. 1978
Left Dakar, 21 July 1980
Larry Gordon Piper
Tex.
C
AE/P
30 June 1980
21 Aug. 1980
Left post, 23 Aug. 1982³
Sharon Erdkamp Ahmad
D.C.
C
AE/P
30 Sept. 19824
Robert Thomas Hennemeyer
III.
C
AE/P
11 May 1984
20 June 1984
Left post, 27 June 1986
Herbert E. Horowitz
Fla.
C
AE/P
12 Sept. 1986
24 Oct. 1986
¹During Cook's tenure as non-resident Ambassador, Embassy Bathurst
P. Wesley Kriebel, July-Nov. 1983; Alan Logan, Nov. 1983-Apr. 1984; and
(now Banjul) was established 9 Sept. 1965 with John G. Gossett as Chargé
Edward Brynn, May-June 1984.
d'Affaires ad interim.
4Did not serve under this appointment.
2Ambassadors Cook through Cohen were also accredited to Senegal
and resident at Dakar.
3Between Aug. 1982 and June 1984, the following officers served as
Chargé Affaires ad interim: Owen W. Roberts, Aug. 1982-June 1983;
German Democratic Republic1
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
John Sherman Cooper
Ky.
NC
AE/P
19 Sept. 1974
20 Dec. 1974
Left post, 28 Sept. 1976
David B. Bolen
Colo.
C
AE/P
29 July 1977
22 Aug. 1977
Left post, 20 June 1980
1Embassy Berlin was established 9 Dec. 1974 with Brandon H. Grove,
Jr., as Chargé d'Affaires ad interim.
90
UNITED STATES CHIEFS OF MISSION
Peru (Continued)
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
William D. Pawley
Fla.
NC
AE/P
14 June 1945
20 July 1945
Left post, 27 Apr. 1946
Prentice Cooper
Tenn.
NC
AE/P
2 May 1946
1 July 1946
Left post, 29 June 1948
Harold H. Tittmann, Jr.
Mo.
C
AE/P
18 June 1948
27 Sept. 1948
Left post, 30 Mar. 1955
Ellis O. Briggs
Me.
C
AE/P
24 Mar. 1955
27 Mar. 1955
Left post, 5 June 1956
Theodore C. Achilles
D.C.
C
AE/P
29 May 1956
24 July 1956
Relinquished charge, 27 Jan. 1960
Selden Chapin
D.C.
C
AE/P
18 Mar. 1960
7 May 1960
Left post, 7 Aug. 1960
James Loeb
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
18 Apr. 1961
23 May 1961
Normal relations interrupted 18 July
1962; new Govt. of Peru still
unrecognized by the U.S. when
Loeb left post, 26 July 1962
J. Wesley Jones
la.
C
AE/P
29 Nov. 1962
6 Feb. 1963
Recommissioned after confirmation
27 Feb. 1963
Left post, 2 June 1969
Taylor G. Belcher
N.Y.
C
AE/P
19 Aug. 1969
29 Aug. 1969
Left post, Apr. 1974
Robert W. Dean
III.
C
AE/P
14 Mar. 1974
2 May 1974
Left post, 17 June 1977
Harry W. Shlaudeman
Cal.
C
AE/P
26 May 1977
28 June 1977
Left post, 20 Oct. 1980
Edwin Gharst Corr
Okla.
c
AE/P
2 Oct. 1980
6 Nov. 1980
Left post, 11 Oct. 1981
Frank V. Ortiz, Jr.
N.M.
C
AE/P
1 Oct. 1981
10 Nov. 1981
Left post, 27 Oct. 1983
David C. Jordan
Va.
NC
AE/P
1 Mar. 1984
20 Mar. 1984
Left post, 17 July 1986
Alexander F. Watson
Md.
C
AE/P
16 Oct. 1986
27 Nov. 1986
Philippines
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
Paul V. McNutt
Ind.
NC
AE/P
21 June 1946
4 July 1946
Left post, 22 Mar. 1947
Emmet O'Neal
Ky.
NC
AE/P
10 June 1947
22 Sept. 1947
Left post, 28 Apr. 1948
Myron Melvin Cowen
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
2 Mar. 1949
23 May 1949
Left post, 14 Nov. 1951
Raymond Ames Spruance
Cal.
NC
AE/P
18 Jan. 1952
7 Feb. 1952
Left post, 1 Apr. 1955
Homer Ferguson
Mich
NC
AE/P
22 Mar. 1955
12 Apr. 1955
Left post, 23 Mar. 1956
Albert F. Nufer
N.Y.
C
AE/P
10 May 1956
20 July 1956
Died at post, 6 Nov. 1956
Charles E. Bohlen
D.C.
C
AE/P
9 May 1957
4 June 1957
Left post, 15 Oct. 1959
John D. Hickerson
Tex.
c
AE/P
13 Oct. 1959
13 Jan. 1960
Recommissioned after confirmation
21 Jan. 1960
Left post, 8 Dec. 1961
William E. Stevenson
Colo.
NC
AE/P
15 Dec. 1961'
Recommissioned after confirmation
30 Jan. 1962
5 Feb. 1962
Left post, 14 June 1964
William McCormick Blair, Jr.
III.
NC
AE/P
8 June 1964
5 Aug. 1964
Left post, 21 Oct. 1967
G. Mennen Williams
Mich.
NC
AE/P
15 May 1968
17 June 1968
Left post, 7 Apr. 1969
Henry A. Byroade
Ind.
C
AE/P
22 July 1969
29 Aug. 1969
Left post, 25 May 1973
William H. Sullivan
R.I.
C
AE/P
16 July 1973
6 Aug. 1973
Left post, 26 Apr. 1977
David D. Newsom
Cal.
C
AE/P
21 Oct. 1977
11 Nov. 1977
Left post, 30 Mar. 1978
Richard W. Murphy
Va.
C
AE/P
25 May 1978
8 June 1978
Left post, 10 Aug. 1981
Michael Hayden Armacost
Md.
NC
AE/P
11 Feb. 1982
12 Mar. 1982
Left post, 18 Apr. 1984
Stephen Warren Bosworth
Mich.
C
AE/P
12 Apr. 1984
4 May 1984
Left post, 2 Apr. 1987
Nicholas Platt
D.C.
C
AE/P
10 Aug. 1987
27 Aug. 1987
Poland
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
Hugh S. Gibson
Cal.
C
EE/MP
[16 Apr. 19191]
2 May 1919
Recommissioned after confirmation
26 June 1919
Presented recall, 3 May 1924
Alfred J. Pearson
la.
NC
EE/MP
2 Apr. 1924
26 June 1924
Left post, 18 Aug. 1925
John B. Stetson, Jr.
Pa.
NC
EE/MP
3 July 1925'
29 Aug. 1925
Recommissioned after confirmation
17 Dec. 1925
Left post, 29 Aug. 1929
Alexander P. Moore²
Pa.
NC
AE/P
31 Jan. 1930
John N. Willys
O.
NC
AE/P
8 Mar. 1930
24 May 1930
Left post, 30 May 1932
F. Lammot Belin
Pa.
C
AE/P
2 Nov. 1932
13 Dec. 1932
Recess appointment expired, 4 Mar.
1933
1Commission (issued during a recess of the Senate) not of record; took
oath of office on this date.
2Died in the U.S. before taking oath of office.
UNITED STATES CHIEFS OF MISSION
91
Poland (Continued)
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
James Michael Curley³
Mass.
NC
AE/P
John Cudahy
Wis.
NC
AE/P
13 June 1933
6 Sept. 1933
Left post, 23 Apr. 1937
Anthony J. Drexel Biddle, Jr.4
Pa.
NC
AE/P
4 May 1937
2 June 1937
Left London, 1 Dec. 1943⁵
Arthur Bliss Lane
N.Y.
C
AE/P
21 Sept. 1944
4 Aug. 1945
Left post, 24 Feb. 1947
Stanton Griffis
Conn.
NC
AE/P
15 May 1947
9 July 1947
Left post, 21 Apr. 1948
Waldemar J. Gallman
N.Y.
C
AE/P
7 July 1948'
15 Oct. 1948
Recommissioned after confirmation
2 Mar. 1949
Left post, 8 July 1950
Joseph Flack
Pa.
C
AE/P
20 Sept. 1950
30 Nov. 1950
Left Poland, 22 Apr. 1955
Joseph E. Jacobs
S.C.
C
AE/P
1 Apr. 1955
23 May 1955
Left post, 23 July 1957
Jacob D. Beam
N.J.
C
AE/P
26 June 1957
9 Aug. 1957
Left post, 30 Nov. 1961
John M. Cabot
D.C.
C
AE/P
30 Jan. 1962
2 Mar. 1962
Left post, 24 Sept. 1965
John A. Gronouski
Wis.
NC
AE/P
11 Sept. 1965
7 Dec. 1965
Left post, 26 May 1968
Walter J. Stoessel, Jr.
Cal.
C
AE/P
24 July 1968
12 Sept. 1968
Left post, 5 Aug. 1972
Richard T. Davies
Wyo.
C
AE/P
2 Dec. 1972
5 Jan. 1973
Recommissioned after confirmation
8 Feb. 1973
Left post, 5 Feb. 1978
William E. Schaufele, Jr.
O.
C
AE/P
3 Feb. 1978
30 Mar. 1978
Left post, 11 Sept. 1980
Francis J. Meehan
D.C.
C
AE/P
2 Oct. 1980
27 Oct. 1980
Left post, 11 Feb. 19836
John R. Davis, Jr.7
Cal.
C
AE/P
5 Feb. 1988
17 Mar. 1988
3Not commissioned; nomination withdrawn before the Senate acted
5Rudolf E. Schoenfeld was serving as Chargé 'Affaires ad interim when
upon it.
the mission of the Embassy near the Govt. of Poland established in England
4Biddle left Warsaw, 5 Sept. 1939, and followed the Govt. of Poland first
was terminated, 5 July 1945. He closed the office at London on 31 July
to France (Sept. 1939-June 1940) and later to England (where Biddle arrived
1945, on which date Embassy Warsaw was established with Ambassador
14 Mar. 1941). Rudolf E. Schoenfeld opened the Embassy near the Govt.
Lane in charge pending presentation of his letter of credence.
of Poland established in England, making his initial call as Chargé Affaires
6The following officers have since served as Chargé l'Affaires ad interim:
ad interim on 21 Sept. 1940. Biddle was commissioned also to Belgium,
Herbert E. Wilgis, Jr., Feb.-July 1983; and John R. Davis, Jr., Sept.
Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and
1983-Jan. 1987.
Yugoslavia; resident at London during his service near those govts.
7Designated Chargé d'Affaires 9 Jan. 1987.
Portugal
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
David Humphreys
Conn.
MR
21 Feb. 1791
13 May 1791
Presented recall, 25 July 1797
John Quincy Adams1
Mass.
MP
30 May 1796
William Smith
S.C.
MP
10 July 1797
8 Sept. 1797
Presented recall, 9 Sept. 1801
Thomas Sumter, Jr.2
S.C.
MP
7 Mar. 1809
7 June 1810
Presented recall, 24 July 1819
John Graham³
MP
6 Jan. 1819
24 July 1819
Left Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1820
John James Appleton⁴
Mass.
CdA
Henry Dearborn, Sr.
Mass.
EE/MP
7 May 1822
[5]
Had farewell audience, 30 June
1824
Thomas L. L. Brent
Va.
CdA
9 Mar. 1825
24 June 1825
Reaccredited after change of govt.
18 Jan. 1830
Left post on or soon after 28 Nov.
1834
Edward Kavanagh
Me.
CdA
3 Mar. 1835
25 July 1835
Relinquished charge, 19 Apr. 1841
Washington Barrow
Miss.
CdA
16 Aug. 1841
28 Dec. 1841
Presented recall, 20-24 Feb. 1844
Abraham Rencher
NC
CdA
22 Sept. 1843
Recommissioned after confirmation
11 Jan. 1844
20-24 Feb. 1844
Presented recall, 4 Nov. 1847
George W. Hopkins
Va.
CdA
3 Mar. 1847
4 Nov. 1847
Presented recall, 18 Oct. 1849
James Brown Clay
Ky.
CdA
1 Aug. 1849
18 Oct. 1849
Recommissioned after confirmation
18 Mar. 1850
Left post, 19 Aug. 1850
Charles B. Haddock
N.H.
CdA
10 Dec. 1850
17 June 1851
Presented recall, 16 June 1854
John L. O'Sullivan⁶
N.Y.
CdA
16 Feb. 1854
16 June 1854
Promoted to MR
MR
29 June 1854
19 Oct. 1854
Presented recall, 15 July 1858
1Did not serve under this appointment.
ad interim from June 1820 until the Legation to Portugal at Rio de Janeiro
2Served at the court of Portugal in Brazil; resident at Rio de Janeiro.
was closed in 1821 (his last dispatch dated 12 July 1821).
3Served at the court of Portugal in Brazil; resident at Rio de Janeiro.
5Arrived at Lisbon before 16 Aug. 1822; did not report date of presen-
tation of credentials.
4Not commissioned; nomination to be Chargé d'Affaires at Rio de Janeiro
⁶Nominated 25 Feb. 1856 to be EE/MP; nomination withdrawn before
rejected by the Senate. Appleton, however, served as Chargé d'Affaires
the Senate acted upon it.
62
UNITED STATES CHIEFS OF MISSION
Honduras (Continued)
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
Julius G. Lay
D.C.
C
EE/MP
16 Dec. 1929
31 May 1930
Left post, 17 Mar. 1935
Leo J. Keena
Mich.
C
EE/MP
22 Feb. 1935
19 July 1935
Left post, 1 May 1937
John D. Erwin
Tenn.
NC
EE/MP
29 July 1937
8 Sept. 1937
Promoted to AE/P
AE/P
27 Mar. 1943
27 Apr. 1943
Left post, 16 Apr. 1947
Paul C. Daniels
N.Y.
C
AE/P
10 Apr. 1947
23 June 1947
Left post, 30 Oct. 1947
Herbert S. Bursley
D.C.
C
AE/P
18 Dec. 1947
15 May 1948
Left post, 12 Dec. 1950
John D. Erwin
Tenn.
NC
AE/P
1 Feb. 1951
14 Mar. 1951
Left Honduras, 28 Feb. 1954
Whiting Willauer
Mass.
NC
AE/P
5 Feb. 1954
5 Mar. 1954
Left post, 24 Mar. 1958
Robert Newbegin
N.H.
C
AE/P
26 Mar. 1958
21 Apr. 1958
Left post, 3 Aug. 1960
Charles R. Burrows
O.
C
AE/P
27 Aug. 1960
3 Nov. 1960
Left post, 28 June 1965
Joseph J. Jova
N.Y.
C
AE/P
7 June 1965
12 July 1965
Left post, 21 June 1969
Hewson A. Ryan
Mass.
C
AE/P
9 Oct. 1969
5 Nov. 1969
Left post, 30 May 1973
Phillip V. Sanchez
Cal.
NC
AE/P
24 May 1973
15 June 1973
Left post, 17 July 1976
Ralph E. Becker
D.C.
NC
AE/P
13 Sept. 1976
27 Oct. 1976
Left post, 1 Aug. 1977
Mari-Luci Jarimillo
N.M.
NC
AE/P
26 Sept. 1977
27 Oct. 1977
Left post, 19 Sept. 1980
Jack Robert Binns
Ore.
C
AE/P
26 Sept. 1980
10 Oct. 1980
Left post, 31 Oct. 1981
Dimitri Negroponte
N.Y.
C
AE/P
29 Oct. 1981
11 Nov. 1981
Left post, 30 May 1985
John Arthur Ferch
O.
C
AE/P
18 July 1985
22 Aug. 1985
Left post, 9 July 1986
Everett Ellis Briggs
N.H.
C
AE/P
16 Oct. 1986
4 Nov. 1986
Hungary¹
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
U. Grant-Smith
Pa.
C
CdA pro
[²]
24 Jan. 1922
Left post, 28 Apr. 1922
tem
Theodore Brentano
III.
NC
EE/MP
10 Feb. 1922
16 May 1922
Presented recall, 6 May 1927
J. Butler Wright
Wyo.
C
EE/MP
26 Feb. 1927
18 June 1927
Presented recall, 24 Oct. 1930
Nicholas Roosevelt
N.Y.
NC
EE/MP
29 Sept. 1930'
12 Nov. 1930
Recommissioned after confirmation
16 Dec. 1930
Left post, 9 May 1933
John Flournoy Montgomery
Cal.
NC
EE/MP
13 June 1933
1 Aug. 1933
Left post, 17 Mar. 1941
Herbert Claiborne Pell
R.I.
NC
EE/MP
11 Feb. 1941
20 May 1941
Hungary severed diplomatic rela-
tions with the U.S., 11 Dec. 1941³
H. F. Arthur Schoenfeld
D.C.
C
EE/MP
15 Dec. 1945
26 Jan. 1946
Left post, 1 June 1947
Selden Chapin
D.C.
C
EE/MP
10 Apr. 1947
9 July 1947
Declared persona non grata by
Govt. of Hungary, 11 Feb. 19494
Nathaniel P. Davis
N.J.
C
EE/MP
1 Sept. 1949
21 Oct. 1949
Left post, 18 May 1951
Christian M. Ravndal
la.
C
EE/MP
3 Oct. 1951
11 Jan. 1952
Left post, 5 Aug. 1956
Edward T. Wailes5
D.C.
C
EE/MP
26 July 1956
Martin J. Hillenbrand
III.
C
AE/P
13 Sept. 1967
30 Oct. 1967
Left post, 15 Feb. 1969
Alfred Puhan
Va.
C
AE/P
1 May 1969
16 June 1969
Left post, 9 July 1973
Richard F. Pedersen
Cal.
NC
AE/P
24 July 1973
10 Sept. 1973
Left post, 26 Mar. 1975
Eugene V. McAuliffe
Mass.
C
AE/P
25 Mar. 1975
28 Apr. 1975
Left post, 15 Apr. 1976
Philip Mayer Kaiser
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
7 July 1977
4 Aug. 1977
Left post, 9 Mar. 1980
Harry E. Bergold, Jr.
Fla.
C
AE/P
3 Mar. 1980
31 Mar. 1980
Left post, 9 Nov. 1983
Nicolas M. Salgo
Fla.
NC
AE/P
7 Oct. 1983
23 Nov. 1983
Left post, 1 Aug. 1986
Robie M.H. Palmer
Vt.
C
AE/P
24 July 1986
8 Dec. 1986
1See under Austria for representatives to Austria-Hungary.
5Took oath of office and proceeded to post, but did not present creden-
2Not commissioned; letter of credence dated 27 Dec. 1921. Legation
tials; left post, 27 Feb. 1957. During the period 1957-1967 each of the follow-
Budapest was established 26 Dec. 1921, on which date Grant-Smith was
ing officers served as Chargé d'Affaires ad interim for more than a year:
granted provisional recognition as Chargé d'Affaires.
Garret G. Ackerson, Jr., July 1957-Feb. 1961; Horace G. Torbert, Jr., Feb.
1961-Dec. 1962; Owen T. Jones, Dec. 1962-July 1964; Elim
3Hungary declared war on the U.S., 13 Dec. 1941. Pell left post, 16 Jan.
O'Shaughnessy, Nov. 1964-Sept. 1966; Richard W. Tims, Sept. 1966-Oct.
1942.
1967. Tims was serving as Chargé d'Affaires ad interim when Legation
4Chapin left post, 17 Feb. 1949
Budapest was raised to Embassy status, 28 Nov. 1966.
UNITED STATES CHIEFS OF MISSION
81
Nepal (Continued)
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
Chester Bowles
Conn.
NC
AE/P
10 Oct. 1951
16 Feb. 1952
Left New Delhi, 23 Mar. 1953
George V. Allen
N.C.
C
AE/P
11 Mar. 1953
5 July 1953
Left New Delhi, 30 Nov. 1954
John Sherman Cooper
Ky.
NC
AE/P
4 Feb. 1955
3 June 1955
Left New Delhi, 23 Apr. 1956
Ellsworth Bunker
Vt.
NC
AE/P
28 Nov. 1956'
Recommissioned after confirmation
25 Jan. 1957
8 Mar. 1957
Superseded, 25 Nov. 1959
Henry E. Stebbins
Mass.
C
AE/P
9 Sept. 1959
25 Nov. 1959
Left post, 10 June 1966
Carol C. Laise
D.C.
C
AE/P
19 Sept. 1966
5 Dec. 1966
Left post, 5 June 1973
William I. Cargo
Fla.
C
AE/P
16 July 1973
28 Sept. 1973
Left post, 3 Apr. 1976
Marquita M. Maytag
Cal.
NC
AE/P
3 Mar. 1976
18 May 1976
Left post, 22 Apr. 1977
L. Douglas Heck
Ore.
C
AE/P
26 May 1977
29 July 1977
Left post, 19 May 1980
Philip R. Trimble
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
23 May 1980
10 July 1980
Left post, 21 Feb. 1981
Carleton S. Coon, Jr.
N.H.
C
AE/P
11 June 1981
3 July 1981
Left post, 3 Aug. 1984
Leon Jerome Weil
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
13 Aug. 1984
21 Sept. 1984
Left post, 11 Nov. 1987
Milton Frank
Cal.
NC
AE/P
28 Mar. 1988
22 Apr. 1988
Netherlands
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
John Adams1
Mass.
MP
1 Jan. 1781
Apr. 17822]
Transmitted recall by note from
London, 30 Mar. 1788³
William Livingston4
N.J.
MP
John Rutledge5
S.C.
MP
William Short
Va.
MR
16 Jan. 1792
18 June 1792
Left post, 19 Dec. 1792
John Quincy Adams⁶
Mass.
MR
30 May 1794
6 Nov. 1794
Presented recall, 20 June 1797
William Vans Murray⁷
Md.
MR
2 Mar. 1797
20 June 1797
Presented recall, 2 Sept. 1801
William Eustis
Mass.
EE/MP
19 Dec. 1814
[20 July 1815⁸]
Had farewell audience, 5 May 1818
Alexander H. Everett
Mass.
CdA
27 June 1818
Recommissioned after confirmation
30 Nov. 1818
4 Jan. 1819
Had farewell audience, 7 Apr. 1824
Christopher Hughes9
Md.
CdA
9 Mar. 1825
10 July 1826
Superseded, 28 Jan. 1830
William Pitt Preble
Me.
EE/MP
1 June 1829
28 Jan. 1830
Recommissioned after confirmation
10 Feb. 1830
Left post on or shortly before 2 May
1831
Auguste Davezac
La.
CdA
15 Oct. 1831'
30 Dec. 1831
Recommissioned after confirmation
3 Jan. 1832
Superseded, 13 July 1839
Harmanus Bleecker
N.Y.
CdA
15 May 1839
13 July 1839
Recommissioned after confirmation
[19 Mar. 1840¹⁰]
Superseded, 22 Aug. 1842
Christopher Hughes
Md.
CdA
12 May 1842
22 Aug 1842
Presented recall, 28 June 1845
Auguste Davezac
La.
CdA
19 Apr. 1845'
28 June 1845
Recommissioned after confirmation
3 Feb. 1846
Superseded, 16 Sept. 1850
George Folsom
N.Y.
CdA
4 May 1850¹¹
16 Sept. 1850
Presented recall, 11 Oct. 1853
August Belmont¹²
N.Y.
CdA
24 May 1853'
11 Oct. 1853
Recommissioned after confirmation
8 Feb. 1854
Promoted to MR
MR
29 June 1854
26 Sept. 1854
Presented recall, 22 Sept. 1857
Henry C. Murphy
N.Y.
MR
1 June 1857'
24 Sept. 1857
Recommissioned after confirmation
14 Jan. 1858
Presented recall, 8 June 1861
James S. Pike
Me.
MR
28 Mar. 1861
8 June 1861
Left post on or soon after 29 May
1866
Daniel E. Sickles¹³
N.Y.
MR
11 May 1866
John A. Dix14
N.Y.
MR
27 July 1866
Albert Rhodes
CdA
[15]
19 Oct. 1866
Superseded, 1 Dec. 1866
1Commissioned also to Great Britain (see under United Kingdom); resi-
7Commissioned to the Batavian Republic.
dent at London after 1785. Adams also received a second set of instruc-
8Formally received on this date.
tions dated 16 Aug. 1781.
9Nominated 11 Dec. 1828 to be EE/MP; nomination tabled by the Senate.
2Formally recognized on this date.
10Commission not of record, but enclosed with an instruction of this date.
3Adams, before leaving The Hague at the end of his longest period of
residence there, presented Charles W. F. Dumas as Chargé Affaires ad
"The record copy is so dated, but the date is probably erroneous, as
interim on 15 Oct. 1782. Dumas, although holding no commission from
the Senate confirmed Folsom's nomination on 14 May 1850.
the United States, continued to act in this capacity, except during Adams'
12Nominated 25 Feb. 1856 to be EE/MP; nomination withdrawn before
later visits to the Netherlands, until 1790.
the Senate acted upon it.
4Elected 23 June 1785 to be MP to the United Netherlands; declined
13Declined appointment.
appointment.
14Declined appointment.
Elected 5 July 1785 to be MP to the United Netherlands; declined
15Not commissioned; letter of credence dated 29 Sept. 1866.
appointment.
6Continued to serve, without reaccreditation, after the proclamation of
the Batavian Republic.
82
UNITED STATES CHIEFS OF MISSION
Netherlands (Continued)
Name
Res.
Career
Title
Appointment
Pres. of Cred.
Term. of Mission
Hugh Ewing
Kans.
MR
24 Sept. 1866'
1 Dec. 1866
Recommissioned after confirmation
2 Mar. 1867
Left post on or soon after 31 Oct.
1870
Joseph P. Root¹⁶
Kans.
MR
Charles T. Gorham
Mich.
MR
12 July 1870
15 Dec. 1870
Presented recall, 9 July 1875
Francis B. Stockbridge¹⁷
Mich.
MR
12 July 1875'
James Birney
Mich.
MR
10 Jan. 1876
29 Mar. 1876
Left post on or soon after 20 Apr.
1882
William L. Dayton
N.J.
MR
26 Apr. 1882
26 Sept. 1882
Presented recall, 8 June 1885
Isaac Bell, Jr.
R.I.
MR
2 Apr. 1885
8 June 1885
Presented recall, 29 Apr. 1888
Robert B. Roosevelt
N.Y.
MR
16 May 1888
10 Aug. 1888
Promoted to EE/MP
EE/MP
10 Aug. 1888
26 Sept. 1888
Presented recall, 17 May 1889
Samuel R. Thayer
Minn.
EE/MP
19 Mar. 1889
24 May 1889
Presented recall, 7 Aug. 1893
William E. Quinby
Mich.
EE/MP
24 May 1893
11 Aug. 1893
Recommissioned after confirmation
25 Aug. 1893
Presented recall, 26 July 1897
Stanford Newel1⁸
Minn.
EE/MP
11 May 1897
19 Aug. 1897
Recommissioned to a combination
of countries
5 June 1903
Recommissioned after confirmation
16 Nov. 1903
Presented recall, 30 June 1905
David J. Hill19
N.Y.
EE/MP
15 Mar. 1905
15 July 1905
Presented recall, 1 June 1908
Arthur M. Beaupré
III.
EE/MP
2 Apr. 1908
15 June 1908
Transmitted recall by note, 25 Sept.
1911
Lloyd Bryce
N.Y.
EE/MP
12 Aug. 1911
16 Nov. 1911
Presented recall, 10 Sept. 1913
Henry van Dyke
N.J.
NC
EE/MP
27 June 1913
15 Oct. 1913
Presented recall, 11 Jan. 1917
John W. Garrett
Md.
C
EE/MP
23 Aug. 1917
11 Oct. 1917
Left post, 18 June 1919
William Phillips
Mass.
C
EE/MP
3 Mar. 1920
23 Apr. 1920
Left post, 11 Apr. 1922
Richard M. Tobin
Cal.
NC
EE/MP
27 Feb. 19232⁰
5 Mar. 1923
1 May 1923
Recommissioned after confirmation
12 Dec. 1923
Left post, 29 Aug. 1929
Gerrit John Diekema
Mich.
NC
EE/MP
11 Sept. 1929
20 Nov. 1929
Died at post, 20 Dec. 1930
Laurits S. Swenson
Minn.
NC
EE/MP
28 Feb. 1931
29 Apr. 1931
Left post, 5 Mar. 1934
Grenville T. Emmet²¹
N.Y.
NC
EE/MP
27 Dec. 1933
15 Jan. 1934
21 Mar. 1934
Left post, 21 Aug. 1937
George A. Gordon
N.Y.
C
EE/MP
30 July 1937
10 Sept. 1937
Govt. left the Netherlands, 13 May
1940, in anticipation of German
occupation.22
Anthony J. Drexel Biddle, Jr.23
Pa.
NC
EE/MP
11 Feb. 1941
27 Mar. 1941
Promoted to AE/P
AE/P
12 May 1942
[8 May 194224]
Left London, 1 Dec. 1943
Stanley K. Hornbeck²⁵
Colo.
NC
AE/P
21 Sept. 1944
8 Dec. 1944
Left post, 7 Mar. 1947
Herman B. Baruch
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
13 Mar. 1947
12 Apr. 1947
Left post, 26 Aug. 1949
Selden Chapin
D.C.
C
AE/P
7 Oct. 1949
27 Oct. 1949
Left post, 30 Oct. 1953
H. Freeman Matthews
D.C.
c
AE/P
1 Oct. 1953
25 Nov. 1953
Recommissioned after confirmation
26 Jan. 1954
Left post, 11 June 1957
Philip Young
N.Y.
NC
AE/P
28 Mar. 1957
27 June 1957
Left post, 20 Dec. 1960
John S. Rice
Pa.
NC
AE/P
29 Mar. 1961
6 May 1961
Left the Netherlands, 27 May 1964
William R. Tyler
D.C.
C
AE/P.
6 May 1965
23 June 1965
Left post, 20 June 1969
J. William Middendorf II
Conn.
NC
AE/P
13 June 1969
9 July 1969
Left post, 10 June 1973
Kingdon Gould, Jr.
Md.
NC
AE/P
28 Sept. 1973
18 Oct. 1973
Left post, 30 Sept. 1976
Robert J. McCloskey
Pa.
C
AE/P
3 Sept. 1976
22 Oct. 1976
Left post, 10 Mar. 1978
Geri M. Joseph
Minn.
NC
AE/P
18 July 1978
6 Sept. 1978
Left post, 17 June 1981
William Jennings Dyess
Ala.
C
AE/P
30 July 1981
2 Sept. 1982
Left post, 19 July 1983
L. Paul Bremer III
Conn.
C
AE/P
6 July 1983
31 Aug. 1983
Left post, 25 Aug. 1986
John Shad
D.C.
NC
AE/P
15 June 1987
24 June 1987
16Not commissioned; nomination withdrawn before the Senate acted
Netherlands established in England, making his initial call as Chargé
upon it.
l'Affaires ad interim on 15 Aug. 1940.
17Took oath of office, but did not proceed to post.
23Served near the Govt. of the Netherlands established in England; com-
¹⁸Newel's second and third commissions were to the Netherlands and
missioned also to Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, Norway,
Luxembourg; resident at The Hague.
Poland, and Yugoslavia; resident at London.
19Representatives from Hill through Phillips were also accredited to
24Formally received, and the Legation raised to Embassy status, on this
Luxembourg and resident at The Hague.
date.
20Commissioned to the Netherlands and Luxembourg; did not serve
25Served near the Govt. of the Netherlands established in England; resi-
under this appointment. His later commissions were to the Netherlands only.
dent first at London; transferred the Embassy to The Hague, 17 Aug. 1945.
21Did not serve under this appointment.
The office of the Embassy in London was closed, 19 Sept. 1945.
22Gordon closed the Legation, 15 July 1940, and left post, 16 July 1940.
Rudolf E. Schoenfeld established the Legation near the Govt. of the
Dams in
The vulnerability of the Netherlands
The Delta Project
Over half of the Netherlands lies below sea level. Just how
The outcome of this determination was the Delta Project.
the Delta
vulnerable the country is to flooding was demonstrated on the
The Project's principal goal was to improve the safety of the
night of 1 February 1953. The combination of a spring tide
southwest Netherlands by considerably shortening and re-
and a persistent, violent northwesterly storm recreated on a
inforcing the coastline. It was decided that dams should be
particularly large scale an event which happened many
constructed across inlets and estuaries, considerably reducing
1
times over the centuries. Waves destroyed the dykes and the
the possibility of the sea surging into the land once more.
sea rushed into the polders. The results were catastrophic:
Freshwater lakes would form behind them. Roads along the
1,835 people drowned and many thousands of cows, horses,
dams would improve access to the islands of Zeeland and
pigs and chickens were killed. The floods destroyed 47,000
South Holland. Dams could not be constructed across the New
homes, as well as schools, churches and other buildings. Appro-
Waterway or the Western Scheldt, as these important shipping
ximately 500 kilometres of dykes were completely or partially
routes to the seaports of Rotterdam and Antwerp had to be
destroyed and 200,000 hectares of land was flooded. The har-
kept open. The safety of these areas was to be guaranteed by
dest hit areas were the province of Zeeland, the southern part
substantially reinforcing the dykes.
of South Holland and the western part of North Brabant.
The Delta Project is one of the largest hydraulic engineering
The bewilderment and shock felt by people in the rest of the
projects that has ever been carried out anywhere in the world.
Netherlands when they learnt of the extent of the flooding
New hydraulic engineering techniques were gradually develop-
soon gave way to determination, and great efforts were made
ed for the construction of the eleven dams and barriers of
to reseal the breached dykes. The last breach, near Ouwerkerk
various sizes which were built over a period of thirty years.
on Schouwen-Duiveland, was resealed at the beginning of
November 1953. Rarely have the people of the Netherlands
In the early 1970s the realization grew that it was important tc
been so united as when they decided that such a catastrophe
preserve as much of the natural environment as possible, and
should never happen again.
this point of view has left its mark on the Delta Project. As a
result the original plans were changed: not all of the inlets,
3
distributaries and estuaries between the Western Scheldt and
the New Waterway have been transformed into freshwater
lakes as was initially intended; there are now very distinct
water systems, each with its own characteristic function.
5
You can now drive along the roads constructed on top of the
dams and visit all the major Delta works and water systems in
a single day. It does not matter where your journey begins or
which direction you take. There is no systematic route one
could follow to visit the dams and barriers in the same
6
sequence in which the project was carried out. Yet the Delta
Project was carried out in anything but a random order. Work
began on the relatively simpler parts, so that the experience
gained could be used during the construction of larger, more
2
difficult dams across inlets and estuaries with strong tidal cur-
rents. That was how the Delta works progressed: new hydrau-
lic engineering techniques were first applied on a small scale
and then used in the larger projects.
The last dam in the Delta Project was completed in the
spring of 1987 and lies at the junction of the provinces of
Zeeland, North Brabant and South Holland. Its completion
marked the end of thirty years' construction work on a chain
of dams and other hydraulic engineering works to protect
the southwest Netherlands from flooding.
The Hollandse IJssel
The Veerse Meer
The Grevelingenmeer
Engineers from the Public Works Department first turned
After the storm surge barrier in the Hollandse Ussel was
The construction of the Grevelingen dam (completed in
their attention to the Hollandse IJssel, a river with an open
completed, a start was made on the first major dams in the
1965) entailed a more extensive use of the seabed protec-
passage to the sea via the Nieuwe Maas. A storm surge bar-
turbulent tidal inlets. In line with the principle of working
tion techniques that had been tested in the Zandkreek and
rier was built at Krimpen to protect one of the lowest lying
from small to large, the first project was the Three Islands
the Veerse Gat. The six-kilometre dam between Schouwen-
and most densely populated areas of the Netherlands.
Project, which entailed the construction of dams in the
Duiveland and Goeree-Overflakkee crosses the channels on
Under normal conditions, the gates of the barrier, which
Zandkreek between North and South Beveland and in the
either side of the Oude Tong sandbar. The section on the
was completed in 1958, are raised 12 metres above the
Veerse Gat between North Beveland and Walcheren. During
sandbar itself was built by pumping sand onto it. The sou-
waterlevel, so that there is no obstruction to shipping. If the
the construction of the Zandkreek dam asphalt was used for
thern channel was dammed using the same type of small
tide rises to a dangerously high level, the gates can be lowe-
the first time to cover the sill which would support the cais-
caissons that had been used in the Zandkreek dam, but a
red to dam the river. A lock allows ships to travel up or
sons, huge concrete structures which can be positioned
new technique was developed for the larger channel to the
downstream when the barrier is closed.
quickly to dam the tidal inlet. The Zandkreek dam was com-
north: a cableway was spanned across the channel and cable
pleted in 1960.
cars tipped stone into the water.
The seven caissons used a year later to dam the Veerse Gat
A substantial part of the dam built across the Brouwersha-
were even larger. Sluices in the caissons allowed the tide to
vense Gat, which forms the western boundary of the Greve-
ebb and flow without obstruction. This prevented the cur-
lingenmeer, was also constructed on sandbars using the
rent from becoming too strong while the mouth of the
pumping method. The northern channel was dammed with
channel was gradually being dammed. When all seven were
sluice caissons. These remained open until the dam in the
in position the steel sluice gates were closed simultaneously
southern channel, which was constructed using a cableway,
and the caissons filled with sand. A substantial part of the
had risen well above the water level. Then the sluice gates
dam had already been built on a sandbar in the Veerse Gat
were closed and the dam across the two tidal channels was
by pumping sand onto it. The Veerse Meer, the lake formed
completed using sand.
after the dam was completed, is partly brackish due to dilu-
tion by rainwater. Land that has been reclaimed is now used
The Brouwers dam was completed in 1971, and the area
for farming or recreational purposes and a few sandbars
behind it is now a lake, the Grevelingenmeer. The loss of the
have been left entirely to nature.
tide and the gradual reduction in the salt content of the
water led to the death of many plants and animals. Within a
few years, though, nature adapted to the new conditions.
After a sluice had been constructed in the Brouwers dam to
allow water to flow between the Grevelingenmeer and the
North Sea, the lake developed into a very valuable area for
nature conservation, the fishing industry and recreational
purposes. A sluice has also been constructed in the Grevelin-
gen Dam and the Grevelingenmeer can be 'flushed' with
water from the North Sea to keep the salt and oxygen con-
tent high.
The Haringvliet
The Eastern Scheldt
The Storm Surge Barrier
The Volkerak dam separates the Hollandsch Diep and the
While the Haringvliet dam and the Brouwers dam were nea-
A compromise was reached in 1976: a storm surge barrier,
Haringvliet from the southern part of the Delta and pre-
ring completion, preparations had already begun for the
which would stay open under normal conditions but which
vents fresh water from the Rhine and the Maas flowing
construction of the dam across the mouth of the Eastern
could be closed at very high tides. The construction of the
southward. The Volkerak dam, completed in 1965, comprises
Scheldt, the last, largest and also most complex part of the
storm surge barrier meant a break with the policy that the
the Hellegatsplein, a dam extending to Goeree-Overflakkee
Delta Project. Three islands were constructed: Roggenplaat,
Public Works Department and the hydraulic engineering
and a second dam with a large lock complex extending in
Neeltje Jans and Noordland. A pumped sand dam was built
contractors in the Netherlands had pursued in working from
the direction of North Brabant. A road bridge has been built
between the latter two. In the remaining channels the first
small to large and from relatively simple to complex. The
from the Hellegatsplein to the Hoekse Waard. The dam to
steel towers were built for the cableway, as it was planned
storm surge barrier needed expertise that had yet to be
Goeree-Overflakkee was built with pumped sand. Twelve
to dam the Eastern Scheldt using this well-tried method.
developed and experience that had yet to be gained. Exten-
sluice caissons were needed to dam the southeastern chan-
Its completion date was set for 1978.
sive research was carried out to determine the feasibility of
nel.
building the storm surge barrier, taking full account of the
At the end of the 1960s however protests were voiced
interests of the environment, flood protection, and the
The Haringvliet dam on the western side of the Haringvliet
about the project. Scientists became aware of the special
fishing and shipping industries.
has two purposes. It must not only protect the waters
significance of the flora and fauna in and around the
The actual construction of the storm surge barrier also had
inland from high tides, but must also discharge excess water
Eastern Scheldt. The sandbars and mud flats exposed at low
to be thoroughly studied. The solution was a barrier consis-
from the Rhine and the Maas. The construction of the
tide are important feeding grounds for birds, and the
ting of pre-fabricated concrete and steel components that
4.5 kilometre Haringvliet dam therefore began with the
estuary is a nursery for fish from the North Sea. Fishermen
were assembled in the three channels at the mouth of the
building of a large sluice complex. The 17 sluices can
and action groups made sure that the scientific findings
Eastern Scheldt. 65 colossal concrete piers from the barrier's
discharge an enormous volume of water. Closing or opening
were heard by the government and parliament. A heated
backbone. A stone sill and a concrete sill beam were placed
the sluices determines how much water has to be dischar-
debate flared up. Opponents of the dam believed that the
between each of the piers, and the openings could be closed
ged by the alternative route via the New Waterway. By
safety of the region could be guaranteed by raising the
with steel gates. Concrete box girders were placed on top of
channelling as much water as possible through the New
height of the dykes along the Eastern Scheldt. The inlet
the piers to form a road deck.
Waterway to the North Sea, saltwater is prevented from
would then remain open and saline. The equally vigorous
penetrating deep inland and making the groundwater
supporters of the solid dam, for example agricultural and
The seabed also needed special consideration. A new techni-
saline. The sluice complex in the Haringvliet dam is called
water boards, appealed to the emotions of the Zeelanders,
que was required to prevent the strong current in the
the 'tap of the Netherlands' because of its vital significance
asking whether the consequences of the flood disaster of
mouth of the river from washing away the sand on which
to the country's water management. The channel on the
1953, had already been forgotten.
the piers were to stand. The solution was to place the piers
southern side of the discharge sluices was dammed with
on mattresses filled with graded layers of sand and gravel
sand, and that on the northern side using the cableway
which would allow water to flow through but trap the sand.
method. The dam was completed in 1971. There is now no
tide in the Haringvliet and it consist entirely of freshwater.
The Zoommeer
The Monument
The construction of the storm surge barrier also required
The storm surge barrier has narrowed the mouth of the
The place where the Philips dam joins up with the Grevelin-
the development of special equipment. The 'Mytilus' made
Eastern Scheldt, and less water now enters and leaves the
gen dam is typical of the Delta works. It is a point where
its appearance in the estuary to compact the seabed, follo-
estuary with the tide. Special measures had to be taken to
three different water systems meet: the saltwater Grevelin-
wed by the 'Jan Heijmans' which laid asphalt and dumped
ensure that this reduction in tidal movement would not lead
genmeer, the freshwater Krammer/Volkerak and the estuary
stones, the 'Cardium' which positioned the mattress, the
to a serious reduction in the difference between the high
of the Eastern Scheldt, each with its own environment and
'Ostrea' to lift, transport and position the piers and the
and low water levels. Partly for this reason two dams were
its own function. The concrete anchor block, which was part
mooring and cleaning pontoon 'Macoma'. These are very
built in the Eastern Scheldt inland of the storm surge barrier.
of the cableway used in the construction of the Grevelingen
special ships designed for just one purpose: to construct the
These reduced the area of the estuary and ensured an ade-
dam, has been left as a monument to the new hydraulic
storm surge barrier. New measuring instruments and com-
quate tidal range despite the construction of the storm
engineering techniques that have been developed. The
puter programs were also developed, so that engineers
surge barrier. Behind these two dams, the Oester dam and
dams themselves symbolise the safety that the Delta Project
working 30 to 40 metres below the surface could position
the Philips dam, an area of fresh water has formed with a
has brought to the southwest Netherlands.
components with such precision that the maximum error
permanent water level, the long Krammer/Volkerak and the
would be just one centimetre.
Zoommeer. Another reason for constructing the Oester and
More Information
Philips dams was that shipping on this important route
The Cardium laid the first mattress in November 1982 and
would no longer be affected by tidal movements. Further-
A permanent exhibition on the Delta Project and the history
the Ostrea placed the first pier in August 1983. Work pro-
more, these dams prevent fresh water from entering the
of flood defences in the Netherlands - the Delta Expo -
gressed quickly. There were virtually no technical setbacks;
salt water of the Eastern Scheldt. The size of the Zoommeer
is housed in the Topshuis on the island Neeltje Jans in the
only the cost turned out to be higher than expected. The
was reduced by the completion of the Markiezaat dyke in
mouth of the Eastern Scheldt.
storm surge barrier was 30% more expensive than estima-
1983 and a canal was excavated to discharge excess fresh
ted. On 4 October 1986 Her Majesty Queen Beatrix officially
water from the lake into the Western Scheldt. The protec-
Colophon
opened the storm surge barrier. The Eastern Scheldt has
tion provided by the storm surge barrier allowed the Oester
remained open and flood protection has been achieved. On
dam and the Philips dam to be constructed entirely of sand.
Ministry of Transport and Public Works
average the barrier has to be closed once a year because of
Tidal currents in the estuary can largely be eliminated by
Information Division
storms.
closing the barrier's gates. The Oester dam was completed
Plesmanweg 5 - Den Haag
in 1986 and the Philips dam in the following year. The Phi-
june 1988
lips dam has an unusual lock complex with a salt/freshwater
separation system that prevents salt water entering the
Design: Dijkerman & van Waarden, Den Haag
freshwater lake and fresh water entering the Eastern
Scheldt whenever a ship passes through the locks.
Photography: Aerocamera, Bart Hofmeester
The Delta Project
preserving the environment
and securing Zeeland against flooding
11/3
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the
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30'
ABT
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45'
40'
The Delta Project
preserving the environment
and securing Zeeland against flooding
4
Countless floods
The flood disaster of
The sea has had many opportunities in the past
1953 claimed 1,835 lives
to determine the shape of the Netherlands. The
line of coastal defences shows where the water
overpowered the people. Every century has
witnessed floods. Many were given names, for
example the Saint Aechten's Day Flood in 1288,
the Saint Elizabeth's Day Floods in 1404 and
1421, the Saint Felix's Day Flood in 1530 and
All Saints' Day Flood in 1570. Although the
Dutch fought back, they often had to surrender
large areas of land to the sea. The Verdronken
Land van Saeftinghe (Zeeland Flanders), the
Verdonken Land van Reimerswaal (South Beve-
land) and Zuidland (Schouwen-Duiveland), for
example, were all lost to the sea. On balance,
during the past centuries more land has been
lost than reclaimed.
Floods have not been confined to particular
periods or enabled to occur only by the limita-
tions of technology. They have also occurred in
the 20th century, for instance in 1906 and
1916. The greatest flood disaster in the coun-
try's history occurred on the night of 1 February
1953. The sea surged into many polders in the
southwest Netherlands, innundating some
200,000 cows, horses, pigs and other livestock
200,000 hectares of fertile farmland and flood-
died and over 47,000 buildings were damaged.
ing many towns and villages. The dykes were
destroyed in 67 places and breached in over
The dykes had not been equal to the unprece-
400. 1,835 people drowned and 72,000 were
dentedly high water level of 4 to 5 metres
forced to evacuate the region; more than
above AOD (Amsterdam Ordnance Datum,
mean sea level as defined for Amsterdam). The
flood was caused by a spring tide, when excep-
tionally low and high tides are produced as the
influences of the sun and moon reinforce each
other, in combination with a persistent north-
westerly storm. The storm reached its peak in
the middle of the night, and an hour of continu-
ous wind force 12 coincided with the high tide.
The water piled up against the dykes, spilled
over the top of them and then began to wash
them away. Most people were asleep when the
sea overtook them.
A great deal of assistance was offered from
abroad. The people of the Netherlands were
determined not to surrender the flooded land.
Their thoughts first turned to repairing the
damage and then to preventing a reoccurrence
of such a disaster. They quickly resealed the
The dikes break in many
dykes and pumped the water out of the pol-
Astronomical tides
VLISSINGEN
places
ders. The experience they had gained in
5m
pumping the island of Walcheren dry after the
4m
bombing of its dykes in 1944, in damming the
3m
Brielse Maas in 1950 and in damming the
2m
Braakman inlet in 1952 proved invaluable.
1m
Caissons, large watertight concrete structures,
N.A.P.
were indispensable as a means of blocking off
1m
the channels quickly. The last breach, near
2m
Ouwerkerk, was resealed in November 1953.
3m
O
4
8
12
16
20
0
4
8
12
16
20
0
4
8
12 UUR
31 JANUARI
1 FEBRUARI
2 FEBRUARI
Graph showing changes in
water levels 1953
5
The attractions of delta regions
People have always been attracted to coastal
However, the human settlement, transporta-
regions. River estuaries in particular are obvious
tion, agriculture, fishing, trade and industry that
places for settlements; the river provides a
flourish due to the favourable conditions of the
communication route to the hinterland and also
delta are a threat to the ecosystem. The increa-
supplies alluvium that forms fertile soil. The
sing size of ships requires the dredging of
distributaries that branch from a river as it
deeper navigation channels and the construc-
approaches the sea often form a triangular
tion of larger harbours. Industry discharges
shape on the map. The mouth of the river Nile
waste into the water, and toxins discharged
in Egypt is a very good example of this. The
hundreds of kilometres upstream eventually
he mud flats are a
ancient Greeks called the mouth of the Nile a
settle with the alluvium at the mouth of the
eeding ground for
"delta" after the fourth letter of their alphabet,
wading birds
river. Human activities put the ecosystem under
which was written in the form of a triangle.
pressure. Since the beginning of the 1970s there
Nowadays the term delta is widely used to
has been a growing awareness that this pres-
describe many areas where a river enters a sea
sure cannot continue to increase unabated and
or a lake. Apart from the Nile, other famous
that a balance needs to be struck between the
deltas include those of the Ganges, the Missis-
interests of ecology and the economy.
sippi, the Rhone and the Yangtze. In the south-
west Netherlands the estuaries of the Rhine,
Maas and Scheldt also form a delta.
Low, flat deltas are vulnerable regions, and the
inhabitants have good cause to construct dykes
and embankments to protect themselves
against the sea. As villages and towns flourish,
though, and their economic importance as
centres of trade, shipping and industry
increases, the need to construct better forms of
protection also increases.
Deltas often provide many of the conditions
needed to support a rich and varied system of
plant and animal communities. Algae and plants
grow in the shallow, relatively warm water,
which light can penetrate easily. Their growth
and the supply of organic matter from the sea
and minerals from the river enable deltas to act
as nurseries for young fish. The driving force
behind the delta's ecosystem is the tide. The
regular exposure of mud flats and sandbars at
low tide and their submergence at high tide is
indispensable to the innumerable shellfish,
ds abound in the
worms and other fauna that live on them. These
Dutch delta
in turn are essential to the thousands of birds
od chain in the
that feed on them at low tide. The lower
astern Scheldt
animals and birds form a small food chain, one
oyster, a popular
of the many that exist in the water, the mud
cy from the waters
flats and the higher-lying salt marshes.
of the delta
6
Securer flood defences
Shortly after the 1953 flood a specially
In 1958, Parliament passed the Delta Act, which
appointed committee presented proposals for
set out plans to ensure the safety of the south-
the prevention of another disaster in the
west Netherlands, to the great enthusiasm of
future. The proposals centred on improving
the public. In addition to reducing the risk of
safety by strengthening the coastal defences. A
flooding by increasing the height of the dykes
proposal to shorten the length of the coastline
and shortening the coastline by 700 kilometres,
was enthusiastically received, as, after all, the
the Delta Project would also create consider-
strength of a defensive line increases as its
able economic benefits. It would improve water
length decreases. This has been the principle
management in a large proportion of the
behind many other hydraulic engineering
Netherlands and combat the penetration of salt
works, an outstanding example of which is the
water into the ground water. Freshwater lakes
Barrier Dam which was constructed in 1932
would form and be an important source of
across the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, now called
water for farms. New recreational areas, parti-
the Isselmeer, to protect it from the incursions
cularly for water sports, would be created. The
of the North Sea. By constructing this single
construction of dams would also considerably
dam, the length of the coastline was reduced
improve the road network in the southwest
by 300 kilometres and the danger of flooding in
Netherlands.
a large area of the country was entirely elimi-
nated.
One of the Project's drawbacks was that the
The committee recommended that the tidal
saltwater fishing industry and the shellfish
channels in the Rhine, Maas and Scheldt Delta
farms would disappear. The oyster and mussel
should be dammed near the coast and that the
farms centred on the town of Yerseke were an
dykes along the sea and the rivers in the rest of
important source of income in the Eastern
the country should be raised to allow for a
Scheldt region, but would be destroyed after
water level of five metres above AOD at the
the inlets were dammed. Shellfish cultivation
Hook of Holland. This would reduce the fre-
would have to be transferred to other areas. In
quency of inland flooding to an average of
those days very little consideration was paid to
once every ten thousand years and flooding in
the environment; flood protection and the
the inlets to once every four thousand years,
economy were the main issues.
which seemed quite safe enough for the time
being. The New Waterway and the Western
Scheldt had to be kept open to shipping due to
their economic importance to the ports of
Rotterdam and Antwerp. The surrounding
dykes would therefore also be raised to the
same height as those in the Delta.
The sea walls must be
able to hold back water
levels of 5 meters +
Normal Amsterdam Level
(NAP)
Oyster beds in Yerseke
New water sport areas
created by the Delta Plan
7
Fewer dykes
The original plans for the Delta Project entailed
the construction of huge dams in four tidal
inlets, the Veerse Gat, the Eastern Scheldt, the
Brouwershavense Gat and the Haringvliet,
which would reduce the length of the sea-
dykes in the region from over 700 kilometres to
just 25 kilometres. In addition, three dams were
also planned further inland in the Volkerak,
Grevelingen and Zandkreek channels. The
Volkerak dam would separate the freshwater
and saltwater environments, and the dams in
the Grevelingen and Zandkreek would elimin-
ate uncontrollable currents in the tidal area.
(rammer locks in the
Some unusual civil engineering structures
Philips Dam
would be needed for specific purposes. A storm
rds eye view of the
surge barrier was to be built in the Hollandse
estern delta area
IJssel to protect the low-lying but densely-
populated region of South Holland. A large
sluice complex was to be built in the Haringvliet
dam to discharge any excess water from the
Rhine and the Maas into the North Sea. Locks
were also to be built in several dams for
commercial ships and pleasure craft.
8
New techniques
The Delta Project was a challenge to Dutch
Prefabrication became a common technique
hydraulic engineers. It was evident that past
and in addition to new materials, new equip-
experience and existing techniques would not
ment was also very valuable. Sluice caissons
be sufficient to enable dams to be constructed
were developed. A cableway with gondolas was
across the wide and deep tidal channels. The
developed to tip stone into the channels.
tidal range in the Delta is approximately three
Hydrodynamic study techniques were refined
metres and the water flows in and out twice a
by developing laboratory tests. The computer
day with powerful currents shifting enormous
gradually made its entrance. Measuring techni-
quantities of sand. Weather conditions in the
ques and weather forecasts became more
estuaries are often unfavourable and North Sea
accurate. The Delta Project would take 25 years
storms produce powerful waves. New techni-
to complete. A new age was dawning for
ques had to be developed quickly so that the
hydraulic engineering.
Delta Project could be carried out.
The towering caissons were adapted and
improved. Man-made fibres were used for the
first time to protect the seabed and to clad the
dykes. The traditional seabed protection
method, which involved covering the seabed
with large osier mats made of willow wood and
weighted with stone, was gradually replaced.
Changes took place step by step. It was decided
Scale model in the hydro-
to implement the Delta Project by working
dynamic laboratory
from small to large so that technological
Model of storm flood
progress would keep pace with the growth in
barrier currents
experience.
The implementation of
the Delta Project
The storm surge barrier in the Hollandse IJssel
1958
The implementation of the Delta Project began
with the construction of a storm surge barrier
across the river the Hollandse IJssel, which
forms an open passageway to the sea via the
Nieuwe Maas. The barrier was built just to the
east of Rotterdam and completed in 1958. It
protects the lowest-lying region of the
Netherlands from flooding. The 80 metre wide
barrier consists of four piers towering over
44 metres above AOD, two gates suspended
between the piers, a shipping lock and a road
bridge. Under normal conditions the gates are
raised high above the water so as not to
impede shipping, but when the water level is
dangerously high they can be lowered,
effectively damming the river. When the
barrier is closed ships can pass through the
lock.
torm flood barrier in
the Hollandse IJssel
10
The Zandkreek dam
1960
The Delta Project really got underway with the
construction of the dams. First on the agenda
was the Three Islands Project, which would
connect the islands of Walcheren, North
Beveland and South Beveland with each other.
Work began in 1959 on a dam with a lock
between North and South Beveland in the
Zandkreek channel. The 830 metre long dam
was constructed using caissons and completed
in May 1960. By this date the construction of
the dam across the Veerse Gat between
Walcheren and North Beveland was
progressing well. Around 70 million m³ of
water flowed through the Veerse Gat with each
tide.
The Zandkreek Dam
with lock
The Veerse Gat dam
1961
A new technique was needed to dam the
Veerse Gat. The usual caissons were adapte
and what are known as sluice caissons wer
Veerse Gatdam
developed. Sluice caissons have sealable
caisson is almost
openings so that at first water can flow
at the Veerse Gat
through them freely while a dam is being
Dam
constructed. Seven sluice caissons, each a
pen caisson being
high as a seven-storey building, were placed
sported to the last
the 320 metre wide channel on a sill made
in the dike
tipped stone. The dam was completed in Ap
1961. The sluices were closed at slack wat
between low and high tide. The closure of ti
first inlet had been completed and a lake, tl
Veerse Meer, had been created. A dyke was
quickly laid over the caissons to finish the
work.
ITALIE
12
10
The Grevelingen dam
1965
A start had been made in 1958 on the six-
kilometre dam across the Grevelingen channel
between Schouwen-Duiveland and Goeree-
Overflakkee, which would ultimately
incorporate a lock and harbours near
Bruinisse. A substantial part of the dam was
constructed on the Oude Tonge sandbar using
the well-tried method of dredging sand. Two
channels remained open. The small southern
channel was dammed using solid caissons
placed on a sill constructed from new
materials - nylon and mastic asphalt. A new
method was used to dam the larger, northern
channel: a cableway with gondolas suspended
from steel cables nine centimetres thick was
spanned across the channel and used to
gradually dam it by tipping 170,000 tons of
Cableway above
stone. The dam was completed in 1965 and a
Grevelingen
road along the top opened to traffic.
assageway through the
Grevelingen Dam
Bulldozers and diggers
on the future
Grevelingen Dam
13
The Volkerak locks
The Volkerak dam
1969
Taking advantage of the new techniques, the
Volkerak channel between the Haringvliet and
Hollandsch Diep channels was dammed to
improve water management and the transport
network. The work, which commenced in
1957, consisted of a dam across the
Hellegatsplaten (a series of sandbars) and the
Hellegatsplein (an artificial island), a bridge
spanning the 1200 metres across the
Haringvliet, and a large lock and sluice
complex and a solid dam at the mouth of the
Volkerak. The dam across the Hellegatsplaten
and Hellegatsplein, the Hellegats dam, was
constructed entirely of sand. The Volkerak was
dammed in the spring of 1969 using 12 sluice
caissons. By that date the locks, built near the
town of Willemstad, were already being used
by ships on the busy Scheldt-Rhine shipping
route.
14
The Haringvliet dam
1971
It took 14 years to construct the Haringvliet
dam, which extends 4.5 kilometres between
Goeree and Voorne. A unique design was
developed as the dam had to remain open for
the purposes of water management and the
discharge of excess water from the Maas and
the Rhine: a sluice complex with a channel
width of 1,000 metres and a lock for fishing
boats. The 17 sluices can be closed with steel
gates on both the sea and the river side. The
gates were made in an excavated construction
site surrounded by an encircling dyke - similar
to a polder - in the middle of the Haringvliet.
The sluice complex temporarily functioned as
sluice caissons, and the dam was completed in
1970 by tipping 100,000 concrete blocks
using a cableway. A road built along the dam
was opened in 1971.
Trench with Haringvliet
sluices under
construction
Drainage sluices in the
Haringvliet Dam
15
Brouwers Dam
Cableway at the
Brouwershavense Gat
The Brouwers dam
1971
The final rehearsal for the last part of the Delta
Project, the Eastern Scheldt, was the
construction of a dam across the 6.5 kilometre
wide and 30 metre deep Brouwershavense Gat
between Goeree and Schouwen. Work began in
1962 using various well-tried methods. Sand
dams were dredged on the shallow
Kabbelaarsbank and Middelplaten sandbars.
The northern channel, Springersdiep, was
dammed using sluice caissons, which had been
constructed in a special construction dock in
the Grevelingen. The southern channel, the
Brouwershavense Gat, was dammed using the
cableway method. The dam was completed at
the end of 1971, creating a new lake, the
Grevelingenmeer. A sluice was built into the
dam ten years after its completion in order to
flush the Grevelingenmeer with water from the
North Sea to keep the salt content of the lake at
an appropriate level.
16
The most difficult project
The Eastern Scheldt dam,
1986
According to the original plans the dam across
the mouth of the Eastern Scheldt inlet would
have been completed in 1978, 25 years after
the flood disaster. The construction of this
dam, extending eight kilometres between
Schouwen and North Beveland, would be the
most difficult part of the Delta Project. The
inlet had an average tidal range of three metres
and its deepest channel was 40 metres deep.
1,100 million m³ of water flowed through the
channels at each tide, considerably more than
the 350 million m³ that flowed through the
Brouwershavense Gat. Work commenced in
1967. The construction islands Roggenplaat,
Neeltje Jans and Noordland were built on
three shallow sandbars. Neeltje Jans and
Noordland were later linked to each other by a
three-kilometre dam.
Approximately five kilometres of the dam had
been completed by the end of 1973. Three
channels remained open, the Hammen, Schaar
van Roggenplaat and Roompot channels, with
a total width of three kilometres. According to
the plans they were to be dammed using the
cableway method and prefabricated concrete
blocks. Steel towers for the cableway had
already been erected in the channels, but they
were never to be used. There was an
increasing body of public opinion in the
Netherlands which felt that the Eastern Scheldt
should remain open to conserve the
environment and the fishing industry. Social
pressure forced though a radical change in the
Delta Project.
SCHOUWEN
HAMMEN
ROGGENPLAAT
SCHAAR VAN ROGGENPLAAT
NEELTJE JANS
DAMVAK GEUL
NOORDLAND
Roompot lock
ROOMPOT
Tidal channels
NOORD BEVELAND
and damextensions
in the Eastern
0
1500m
Scheldt
Increasing environmental
awareness
The technical progress that had been achieved
during the implementation of the Delta Project
had not occurred in isolation. There had been a
general and rapid growth in the economies of
the western industrialised nations. Standards of
living and levels of consumption had increased.
HILMONE
The growth of opportunities, knowledge and
power seemed to know no bounds. Cities were
expanding, the road network was growing
Sting-ray
constantly, communications links were bringing
far-away places closer to home and man was
walking on the moon. With its emphasis on
flood protection, increases in scale and the use
of the very latest techniques, the Delta Project
was a part of this era.
In the second half of the 1960s opinions about
the environment changed. There was a growing
awareness that the global assault on the envi-
ronment could have catastrophic results. The
idea gained ground that there had to be limits
to growth, and the optimistic view of the
future began to fade. This ultimately led to a
fresh approach being adopted for the Delta
Project. The construction of a solid dam across
the mouth of the Eastern Scheldt lost the
general support it had once commanded. If the
dam were built, the Eastern Scheldt would no
longer be a tidal inlet, the salt water would
become fresh and instead of rising and falling
with the tides the water level would be con-
stant. Moreover, the plant and animal commun
ities would be transformed and the shellfish
would disappear. More and more people
realised that the Eastern Scheldt was an area of
exceptional value and became concerned about
the effects that damming the inlet would have
on the flora and fauna.
Scientists, nature conservationists and
fishermen spearheaded the protest against a
solid dam. Their alternative was to raise the
height of the surrounding dykes. Politicians
initially refused to consider the plans. They had
promised to dam the Eastern Scheldt, and they
would keep their word. The fight to keep the
Eastern Scheldt open, however, gradually
received wider support, even in political circles.
How people believed the inlet should be made
safe became a yardstick for measuring their
environmental awareness. The government
decided to commission a special committee to
perform a new study. In 1974 the committee
The Eastern Scheldt
recommended a compromise: the Eastern
estuary holds an
Scheldt should be kept open most of the time
abundance of lobster
but closed whenever there was a risk of flood-
emonstration against
ing.
plans to seal off the
Eastern Scheldt
completely
Hermit crab
Seals return to the
astern Scheldt estuary
18
Unique wildlife area
The Eastern Scheldt is a rich and unique wildlife
The Eastern Scheldt is a nursery for fish such as
area. It is a tidal inlet entirely free of the in-
sole, cod, plaice and herring, which breed else-
fluence of freshwater rivers and is thus com-
where but grow in the tidal inlet, and also a
pletely saline. The tides generate fast-flowing
breeding ground for others such as gar,
currents as the water from the North Sea flows
anchovy and pout. There are over 75 different
into the inlet through channels up to 40 metres
species of fish in the inlet. The Eastern Scheldt
deep and two kilometres wide. Sandbars and
enjoys an international reputation for its bird-
shallows lie between the channels. In the more
life. Many thousands of birds rest there during
inland section of the Eastern Scheldt the chan-
migration or come to spend the winter, the
nels become narrower and shallower. The clean
summer or the breeding season. There is an
water, with its high salt content and relatively
abundance of food; the water is pure and rarely
warm temperature, provides unusual condit-
freezes in winter. The area is particularly impor-
ions.
tant for water birds. The Eastern Scheldt is
home to ducks, geese, oystercatchers, plovers
All kinds of plants and animals that usually live
and avocets. Many rare plants and animals live
only in more southerly climes can be found in
on the bed of the inlet. There are also mussels
the Eastern Scheldt. The ecosystem is highly
and oysters, which are economically very impor-
developed, with many organisms, both common
tant.
and uncommon. Many valuable species of flora
and fauna live on the stone and concrete-clad
dykes, for example lichens, snails, sea acorns,
sponges, anemones, crabs and starfish. There
are dozens of varieties of seaweed, including
some rare ones. The Eastern Scheldt is a rich
store of food, plankton being the most impor-
tant resource. A million tons of vegetation is
produced each year, most of which sinks to the
bottom where creatures living on the bed take
full advantage of it. In their turn, fish, crusta-
ceans and birds feed on the creatures living on
the bed.
irds on the salt marshes
Sea anemone
Mussels
19
Along the edges of the Eastern Scheldt there
are extensive mud flats, which appear to be
barren but are in fact teeming with life. Birds in
particular take advantage of them. Towards the
dykes, where the mud flats have gradually silted
up, salt marshes have formed. Saltwater plants
grow on the undulating land between the low
and high tide marks, which is drained by count-
e surface area of salt
less streams. Some sections of the salt marshes
rshes and mud flats in
the Eastern Scheldt
are so high that they are submerged only
uary is reduced by the
during spring tides. There is a rich and colourful
storm flood barrier
diversity of plants. Glasswort and sea aster are
harvested for human consumption. A few of
the salt marshes are grazed by sheep. The salt
marshes form one of the few natural land-
scapes remaining in the Netherlands. This too is
one of the unique features of the Eastern
Scheldt.
20
The half-open dam
At the end of 1974 Parliament recognised the
importance of keeping the Eastern Scheldt
open and decided to change the plans for the
Delta Project. It was not an easy decision to
take and there were many opponents to it, so a
compromise had to be reached. The plan for a
solid dam was abandoned and the engineers
were requested to design a reliable method of
protection that would also preserve the valu-
able environment. A design for the half-open
dam had to be worked out subject to several
conditions: it had to be technically feasible; the
additional costs had to be kept to a minimum;
and the area around the Eastern Scheldt had to
be protected from flooding by 1985. The
hydraulic engineers were confronted with an
entirely new problem, one at the very limits of
their technical know-how. As there would no
longer be a dam by 1978, the government
provided funds to reinforce the weak dykes
Creation of pitchings on
bordering the inlet. The reinforcement of the
the dike
dykes considerably improved the safety of the
area before the new barrier was completed.
Pushing back the frontiers
The engineers' problem was to design and con-
placed in the three channels, Hammen, Schaar
struct a reliable, open barrier that would allow
van Roggenplaat and Roompot, and firmly
the tide to enter the Eastern Scheldt each day.
anchored with masses of stone, and 62 steel
Such a project had never been carried out
gates that could be raised or lowered would be
anywhere in the world. The knowledge and
placed between the piers. Under normal condit-
experience gained during the implementation
ions the gates would be raised SO that the tidal
of the previous parts of the Delta Project were
movement in the inlet would be largely
no longer sufficient and there was little time
retained, thus preserving the environment. The
available. Of the various solutions that were
gates would be lowered during storms when
proposed the engineers decided on a storm
exceptionally high waterlevels were expected,
surge barrier across the mouth of the Eastern
damming the Eastern Scheldt from the North
Scheldt. Parliament agreed to the project in
Sea and guaranteeing protection from flooding.
mid-1976. The idea behind the storm surge
barrier was simple: 65 concrete piers would be
As the storm surge barrier would reduce the
tide to some extent, it would be necessary to
compartmentalise the Eastern Scheldt by build-
Location of the
ing dams inland of the barrier. This would
compartimentalisation works
reduce the tidal area so as to maintain a suffic-
ient difference in level between high and low
tide, namely an average tidal range of 3.2
metres at Yerseke, which was important for the
fishing industry. It also guaranteed that the
Scheldt-Rhine shipping link would be non-tidal,
as the Netherlands government had promised
Belgium. Compartmentation had the additional
advantage of separating salt water from fresh
water, which was desirable for efficient envi-
ronmental conservation and water manage-
ment. Freshwater peripheral lakes were formed
behind the Philips dam in the northeast and the
Oester dam in the southeast. A discharge canal
was dredged, leading to the Western Scheldt,
to control the level and quality of these lakes.
For technical and environmental reasons a
further dyke was constructed near Bergen op
Zoom, which also created a new lake. The final
part of the compartmentation works made the
canal through South Beveland suitable for
pushed barges.
21
Step-by-step construction
The storm surge barrier was constructed step
The barrier is very heavy and the seabed had to
by step. Solid foundations were needed in the
be compacted to a depth of 15 metres using a
sandy bed of the Eastern Scheldt, where enor-
specially designed vessel, the Mytilus, to
mous quantities of sand are continuously being
increase its bearing capacity. The Mytilus drove
moved, changing the location of sandbars and
four steel tubes into the bed, which were
channels. The bed where the piers were to
vibrated to force water out from between the
stand had to be improved. The first operation
grains of sand, eliminating quicksand and thus
was to lay block mattresses made of concrete
strengthening the bed. It took three years to
blocks attached to polypropylene sheets to
compact the bed in this manner. Bed protec-
protect the seabed around the area where the
tion, improvement and depth compaction,
piers were to stand. At the site itself, clay strata
however, were not enough to ensure that the
were were dredged out and replaced with sand
piers could be placed safely. A foundation had
covered with a layer of gravel to prevent it
to be constructed on the reinforced bed to
from being scoured out during storms.
prevent the sand from being washed away and
to guarantee that the piers would stand evenly.
The Mytilus sea-bed
compression vessel
22
Polypropylene mattresses
Polypropylene mattresses filled with graded
layers of gravel were used in the foundations.
They were made at a factory that had been
specifically built for their production. Two kinds
of mattresses were made, lower mattresses 200
metres long, 42 metres wide and 36 centi-
metres thick, and upper mattresses measuring
Mat factory on the
Neeltje Jans artificial
60x31 metres. 65 mattresses of each kind were
island
needed. As the mattresses were produced in
the factory they were rolled onto huge floating
drums and then placed on a specially-designed
vessel, the Cardium, which laid them. The
seabed was first levelled using the extra-wide
suction nozzle on the bow of the Cardium
before the vessel rolled the mattresses into
position. It sounds a simple operation, but the
mattresses had to be laid with extreme preci-
sion, which is not so simple in a turbulent tidal
inlet. Furthermore, they could only be laid
during the short period of slack water between
low and high tide, which lasts for just one hour.
If a mattress had not been fully unrolled before
the tide turned, it would have been destroyed
by the force of the ebb tide. Fortunately, this
never occurred.
When the mattresses were being laid the
Cardium was assisted by another specially-
designed vessel, the Jan Heijmans. This vessel
held the ends of the mattresses in place and
sealed the seams between them with layers of
stone. The piers were placed 45 metres apart,
so there was a three-metre seam between
them and the 42 metre wide mattresses. Laying
the mattresses was a critical stage in the con-
struction of the storm surge barrier: it deter-
mined the evenness of the seabed and the
strength of the barrier.
The Cardium mat-laying
vessel with the
The mattresses are filled with graded layers of
lan Heijmans stone and
asphalt tipper
sand and gravel and act as filters, trapping the
sand in place on the seabed but allowing water
The Cardium rolls off
to flow through them. The mattresses were laid
a mat
quickly. In some sections a block mattress was
laid on top of them to smooth out any uneven-
ness. Another special mattress, a gravel ballast
mattress, was finally laid over the seams to
prevent the stone from being washed away.
The final result was a flat "carpet", more level
than most football pitches, across a 200 metre
section of the mouth of the Eastern Scheldt.
23
The backbone of the barrier
The 65 enormous piers from the backbone of
the barrier. They were constructed in three
large construction docks 15 metres deep, which
were kept dry by 320 underwater pumps. The
piers are colossal structures made of pre-
stressed concrete to keep their weight to a
minimum. They are 30 to 40 metres tall and
have a dry weight of up to 18,000 tons.
The height of the piers depended upon their
ultimate position in one of the channels.
A purpose-built factory produced 450,000 m³
of concrete over four years. The piers were
hollow and were filled with sand when they
erial construction of
pillars
were in position. They are not featureless
monoliths but contain many notches and inden-
ars in a building dock
tations where the other concrete components
and the steel gates are attached. It took just
under one and a half years to construct each
pier. As all the piers had to be completed in
only four years, they were produced in stag-
gered batches with work beginning on a new
pier every two weeks. At the peak of activity 30
piers were being constructed simultaneously.
24
Unusual vessels
When all the piers in a construction dock were
Work on the piers was far from over once they
completed, the dock was flooded and the
had been placed. They still needed to be grou-
encircling dyke was opened so that they could
ted, which involved filling the space between
be transported to one of the channels in the
the foot of the pier and the foundation
mouth of the Eastern Scheldt. This operation
mattress with grout, a mixture of sand, cement
too required unusual vessels. The Ostrea was
and water, to achieve a perfect bond with the
designed and built to lift the piers in the con-
mattress. Once this operation was completed,
struction dock, transport them to the channels
the lower sections of the piers were filled with
and then place them with great precision on
sand to increase their stability. They were then
the mattresses. The Macoma was specially built
covered with a layer of concrete to protect
to moor the Ostrea while it was placing the
them from damage. The foot of the piers was
piers and to clean the site immediately before-
protected by stone/asphalt bags, each weighing
hand. The piers were positioned with pin-point
30 to 40 tons. These were necessary as each
accuracy at slack water using very sophisticated
pier had to be embedded in a sill made of
The Ostrea crane vessel
measuring equipment. It took a year to place
dumped stone.
and the Macoma
them all.
mooring and cleansing
pontoon shortly after a
pillar has been installed
The turn of the tide,
the right time to install
the pillars
Ten-ton stones
The sill increased the piers' stability and also
helped dam the mouth of the Eastern Scheldt
The ultimate intention was that only that part
of the barrier which could be closed by gates
was to remain open. The sill was constructed of
graded layers of stone. Lighter stones were
placed at the bottom and huge blocks weighing
as much as ten tons (10,000 kilogrammes) were
placed on top. These blocks have to be so heavy
in order to withstand the powerful currents
that would build up if one of the gates refused
to close during a storm. The largest stones
could not be dropped into position as the risk
of their damaging the piers was too great. The
Trias was therefore designed to lay the top
layer of stone. This vessel was equipped with a
large crane with a long extendable arm that
was used to place the heavy stones accurately.
Five million tons of stone were used in the con-
struction of the sill. It had to be imported over a
period of four years from Germany, Finland,
Sweden and Belgium as it was not available in
the Netherlands.
When the work on the foundations, the piers
and the underwater sill was finished, a large
part of the battle had been won, although
there was still a lot of work to be done to
complete the barrier. In order of assembly,
service ducts, pier capping units, gates, sill
beams and upper beams had to be installed.
These are all indispensable components for the
Stone deposits at the
dge of the storm flood
efficient operation of the storm surge barrier.
barrier
The concrete service duct, each section of
which was 45 metres long, was placed on the
The Trias top-layer
ipping vessel in action
piers by the floating crane Taklift 4. A major
road now runs over the top of the service duct,
e Taklift IV crane vessel
while part of the space inside it has been used
with a road bridge box
girder in its hoist
to house the operating and control equipment
for the gates.
Ever increasing currents
The capping units were made of prestressed
concrete and were installed to increase the
height of the piers to accommodate the gate
structure. The height of the 124 upper members
varies from 4.3 to 10 metres and their weight
from 250 to 450 tons. 62 concrete sill beams -
hollow box girders 39 metres long, 8 metres
wide and 8 metres high were built in a con-
struction dock to connect the piers to each
other under water. After they had been posi-
tioned between the piers, thus reducing the
cross section of the channel and causing the
speed of the current to increase, they were
filled with sand. Above the water level the piers
were connected to each other by concrete
upper beams, which form the upper limit of the
opening in the barrier.
The steel gates were designed to hold back the
Between the dam and
the pier lies a quarry
waters of the North Sea during storms. Their
stone dam
height varies from 5.9 to 11.9 metres depending
upon their position in the barrier. The largest
stallation of sill beams
gate, weighing 480 tons, is located in the
in trench
deepest channel, the Roompot. The gates were
he Taklift hangs a lock
installed between the piers using the Taklift 4.
hatch in place
When the gates are raised the Eastern Scheldt is
Positioning of lock
open and sufficient water can flow into it to
atches is precision work
ensure a tidal range of 3.2 metres at Yerseke,
the centre of the shellfish industry. That is just
over three-quarters of the original tidal range
and enough to preserve the existing wildlife
and the fishing industry.
27
Gates closed
The gates consist of plating and tubular steel
girders. The plating, which is on the Eastern
Scheldt side, needs to be just one centimetre
thick to withstand storms. The gates have been
designed to resist the loads caused by different
water levels on either side and can be raised or
lowered in fast flowing water under adverse
weather conditions. Each gate is opened or
closed with the aid of two hydraulic cylinders,
varying in length from 21.8 to 34.5 metres. The
gates can be moved at a speed of three milli-
metres per second, which means that it takes an
hour to open or close the largest gate.
The storm surge barrier is operated from the
Tops-huis, the central control building standing
high above the North Sea at some distance
from the barrier. On average the barrier has to
be closed once a year due to extremely high
water levels. The Tops-huis also accommodates
the Delta Expo, a permanent exhibition on
2,000 years of hydraulic engineering. On the
southern part of the Neeltje Jans construction
island the Roompot lock was built because ships
can no longer pass freely through the mouth of
The Ir. J.W. Tops-huis,
the Eastern Scheldt. A road has been built on a
ie storm flood barrier
viaduct above the barrier.
service building
e storm flood barrier is
On 4 October 1986 Her Majesty Queen
ompletely computer-
Beatrix officially declared the storm surge
controlled
barrier in the Eastern Scheldt open.
leen Beatrix opens the
astern Scheldt storm
ood barrier. Standing
/ith her are Transport
and Public Works
linister Dr. Neelie Smit
(left) and
J. van Dixhoorn,
e Director General of
Public Works
zee
veilig
28
Other uses
The storm surge barrier was constructed to
provide greater protection from the sea and to
preserve the unique and valuable environment
of the Eastern Scheldt. This has largely deter-
mined how and when the barrier is operated,
and the steel gates will be kept open whenever
possible. In principle the barrier is closed only
when it is predicted that the high water level
will exceed 3.25 metres above AOD. A danger
level has also been decided upon, as the sea is
often unpredictable and the water level can rise
suddenly. If the water rises above the danger
level the gates will close automatically. A warn-
ing system has been developed that makes use
of long-range weather forecasts.
Opening or closing the barrier will affect the
safety of the flood defences along the Eastern
Scheldt (strong dykes are still necessary) and
also the environment, the fishing industry,
water management and shipping. When the
barrier is operated, therefore, as much account
as possible will be taken of conditions in the
Eastern Scheldt.
The barrier can of course be operated for other
purposes in addition to flood prevention. Since
this could endanger the environment, however,
it has been decided that when the water level is
not dangerously high the gates will be closed
only to prevent oil or chemical pollution from
entering the Eastern Scheldt, to limit the effects
of dyke collapse and to prevent drift ice damag-
ing the dykes. The storm surge barrier was also
closed during the construction of the compart-
mentation dams in 1986 and 1987 to moder-
ate the effect of the tide. Reducing the tidal
current made it possible to construct the Oester
and Philips dams using sand.
29
New peripheral lakes
The compartmentation dams necessitated by
the building of the barrier were constructed on
the border between the provinces of Zeeland
and North Brabant. Interconnected peripheral
lakes formed as a result of the construction of
the Oester and Philips dams. From north to
south these lakes are the Krammer/Volkerak,
the Zoommeer and the Markiezaatsmeer. A
sophisticated salt/freshwater separation system
has been built into the Krammer lock complex
to prevent the fresh water of the lakes mixing
with the salt water of the Eastern Scheldt.
Water can be discharged from the Zoommeer
via the Bath canal into the Western Scheldt so
that the level of the peripheral lakes is kept
constant. The Oester and Philips dams were
constructed using sand and are the largest sand
dams in the world to have been constructed in
Philips Dam
flowing water.
The Philips dam
1987
The Philips dam was constructed between Sint
Philipsland and the Grevelingen dam. A large
lock complex, the Krammer locks, was built on
a construction island in the middle of the dam.
Two locks were built for commercial shipping
and are suitable for four-barge push-tows.
A separate lock was built for pleasure craft.
A salt/freshwater separation system was built
into the lock complex to prevent large
quantities of salt water entering the freshwater
Krammer/Volkerak whenever a ship is locked
through from the Eastern Scheldt, and
conversely to prevent dilution of the Eastern
Scheldt with fresh water. It works on the
principle that salt water is denser than fresh
water. During the lockage of ships to the
Krammer/Volkerak the salt water of the
Eastern Scheldt is replaced with fresh water,
and the procedure is reversed for ships
travelling in the opposite direction. This
system has also been used in the Kreekrak
locks to prevent the brackish and polluted
water from the industrial area around Antwerp
entering the Zoommeer.
30
10
The Markiezaat dyke
1983
A special dyke had to be constructed to
prevent strong currents building up during the
construction of the Oester dam, which would
have caused problems for shipping and
weakened the banks. This dyke was built
along the edge of the submerged former
marquisate of Bergen op Zoom; hence its
name, the Markiezaat dyke. A serious set-back
occurred during the construction of this dyke,
which extends five kilometres between the
Kreekrak locks and the Molenplaat near
Bergen op Zoom. 1982 it had been virtually
Markiezaatskade quay
completed and only the finishing work needed
to be done when a storm surge 3.7 metres
above AOD breached the dyke. The dyke was
finally completed a year later. A freshwater
lake has formed behind the Markiezaat dyke,
most of which will remain a wildlife area.
The Oester dam
1986
The Oester dam was built between Tholen and
South Beveland. Extending nearly 11
kilometres, it is the longest of all the dams in
the Delta. It separates the Scheldt-Rhine
shipping route from the Eastern Scheldt, so
that this important link is now non-tidal. The
dam lies close to the Scheldt-Rhine link in the
most easterly section of the inlet and therefore
the majority of the Eastern Scheldt remains
tidal. A lock, the Bergsche Diep lock, has been
built in the dam near Tholen for pleasure craft
and fishing boats moving between the
Zoommeer and the Eastern Scheldt. The dam
was built in an area where man had often done
battle with the sea in the past. The
composition of the bed was so erratic that it
had to be improved in many places.
he Oester Dam with the
Bergse Diep lock
31
A simple technique
A sluice has been built in the Grevelingen dam
just south of the point where it meets the
Philips dam. It uses a simple principle: that of
the siphon. It does not need expensive gates.
The siphon allows water to flow between the
Grevelingenmeer and the Eastern Scheldt. The
siphon and the discharge sluice in the Brouwers
dam enable the Grevelingenmeer to be flushed
with water to keep its salt content at an accep-
table level.
Water from the land inland of the compartmen-
tation dams drains into the peripheral lakes and
the level and quality of these lakes have to be
controlled. Inlet sluices have been constructed
in the Volkerak dam and when necessary water
from the Rhine and Maas can enter the peri-
pheral lakes via the Hollandsch Diep. As there
are often toxins in the rivers, though, the river
water is only rarely allowed to enter the peri-
pheral lakes; otherwise the beds of the Kram-
mer/volkerak and the Zoommeer would be
covered with a layer of highly polluted alluvium.
The Bath Discharge Canal
1987
The eight-kilometre Bath discharge canal has
been excavated across the neck of South
Bathse drainage sluice
Beveland to discharge excess water from the
The mouth of the canal
rivers and polders. It runs parallel to the
running through Zuid
Scheldt-Rhine link and can discharge 8.5
Beveland at Hansweert
million³ of water per day. At the outlet in the
Western Scheldt there is a sluice made of
concrete tunnels that forms part of the sea
wall. The sluice gates are closed when the
water level in the Western Scheldt is high, thus
preventing salt water from the Western Scheldt
entering the Zoommeer. The existing canal
running through South Beveland was also
improved as part of the compartmentation
works. New locks were built at Hansweert, the
canal was widened and a lock-free mouth was
created near Wemeldinge.
32
The Delta project completed
The bold programme of hydraulic engineering
The Netherlands was willing to spend a lot of
works in the Delta produced enormous changes
money on the Delta Project. The cost of ensur-
affecting people, animals, plants and the land-
ing protection from flooding, radically improv-
scape. Dams, locks and roads were constructed
ing the communications network, distributing
and new lakes and residential and recreational
the scarce supplies of fresh water more effi-
areas were created. Sweeping changes have
ciently and preserving the unique ecosystem
occurred in the age-old rhythm of ebb and
came to Fl. 12,000 m. The work in the Eastern
flow. The environment has altered in many
Scheldt was the most expensive part of the
places and in many ways. In addition to protect-
Delta Project, costing Fl. 8,000 m.
ing the southeast Netherlands from flooding
and producing economic benefits, the imple-
During the official opening ceremony of the
mentation of the Delta Project increasingly took
storm surge barrier, Queen Beatrix declared the
account of ecological requirements. A delta is a
Delta Project completed. The work in the south-
very rich and varied system of plant and animal
west Netherlands may be over, but there is still
communities: an ecosystem that is also econo-
a lot of work for the hydraulic engineers. Shal-
mically important and very sensitive to human
lows and sandbars are developing in front of
intervention.
the dams and headlands, and gradually becom-
ing higher, promoting the formation of new
channels. This area can offer new opportunities
to the fishing industry and the environment.
Plans are therefore already under consideration
in connection with the Delta Project for the
future of this area. The steady rise of the sea
level also indicates that the protection of the
Netherlands against the sea will remain a
permanent struggle. Dutch hydraulic engineers
believe that the knowledge and expertise they
gained in the thirty years it took to complete
The last lock hatch is put
in place
the Delta Project should also benefit other
countries in addition to the Netherlands.
The storm flood barrier is
complete
Colophon
Ministry of Transport and Public Works
Information Division
Plesmanweg 5 - Den Haag
January 1989
D67
Design: Dijkerman & van Waarden, Den Haag
Photography: Aero camera Bart Hofmeester,
Willem Diepraam, Peter de Ruig, Delta-phot,
Rijkswaterstaat reprografie en Aeroview
Lithography: Duolitho b.v., Zoetermeer
Printed: De Lange van Leer, Deventer
Voet Meters vm
Feet Metres Fms
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15 16 13 14 12 11 10 8 9 6 7 5 4 2 3 O 1
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05 07\
The compartmentalisation works
in the Eastern Scheldt
for the benefit of the natural environment, water management and shipping
GOEREE-
LAKE
OVERFLAKKEE
GREVELINGEN
VOLKERAK
SCHOUWEN,
INLET SLUICE
DUIVELAND
PHILIPS DAM
ST.PHILIPS
LAND
NORTH BRABANT
THOLEN
EASTERN SCHELDT
The storm surge barrier in the Eastern Scheldt
LAKE MARQUISATE
OESTER DAM
MARQUISATE QUAY
SOUTH BEVELAND
WESTERN SCHELDT
BATH DISCHARGE CANAL
TIDAL SALT
STAGNANT SALT
FRESH
Location of the compartmentalisation works
The construction island in the Krammer with locks, approach
harbours and water reservoirs.
The compartmentalisation works in the
eastern scheldt for the benefit of the
natural environment, water management
and shipping
The original scenario for the Delta Project
envisaged the damming of all the estuaries,
distributaries and waterways open to the sea in
the south-west of the Netherlands with the
exception of the New Waterway and the
Western Scheldt, which would remain open for
shipping. The dams were to protect the
hinterland from storm surges such as the one
which took such a heavy toll of lives and
property in 1953. The Eastern Scheldt was also
to be closed off by a dam 9 kilometres in length,
creating a freshwater lake which would have
incorporated the Krammer and the Volkerak. But
in the early seventies public demand for the
conservation of the existing natural environment
in the Eastern Scheldt was SO great that the
government decided on a change of plan. A
storm surge barrier which can be closed as
occasion demands has now been constructed.
Under normal conditions, the 62 steel gates
remain open to permit virtually normal tidal
movement, but if storms give rise to the threat of
excessively high water levels the gates can be
closed until the danger passes. In this way the
valuable natural environment in the Eastern
Scheldt area can be conserved, fishing activities
can continue unhindered and, at the same time,
the population of this part of the Netherlands is
protected from the hazards associated with
extreme weather conditions.
The decision to build the storm surge barrier also
embraced the construction of two compart-
mentalisation dams in the eastern section of the
estuary, the Philips dam in the north-east, and
NORTH SEA
ROTTERDAM
the Oester dam in the south-east, enclosing a
HARINGVLIET
freshwater peripheral lake. A discharge canal
linking up with the Western Scheldt was dug
BROUWERS DAM
with a view to maintaining the quality of the
water in this lake as well as controlling water
EASTERN SCHELDT
levels. As part of the compartmentalisation
scheme the existing canal through South
Beveland is being adapted for pushed barge
BERGEN OP ZOOM
traffic.
Underwater life
A resting place and feeding area for birds
An oyster farm near Yerseke
Tidal movement in the Eastern Scheldt. Above: low water
Fixed arch bridge over the Scheldt-Rhine link
Below: high tide six hours later
2
Why compartmentalisation?
EASTERN SCHELDT
The compartmentalisation dams are necessary for the following
reasons:
a) to reduce the tidal area in the Eastern Scheldt
b) to make the Scheldt-Rhine link non-tidal
c) to create a freshwater buffer lake between the salt seawater
section of the Eastern Scheldt and the freshwater complex in
WEMELDINGE
the western part of the province of Brabant and the Hollands
Diep.
a) To keep the cost of the storm surge barrier within certain
limits the total area of the opening had to be restricted to
approximetaly 14,000 m², as a consequence of which the
volume of tidal flow has been reduced. Both the reduction in
the difference between low and high water and the reduced
velocity of the water passing through the barrier is
detrimental to flora and fauna and to the important mussel
and oyster industries. However, the construction of the
Philips andd Oester dams has reduced the tidal area SO that
the reduction in the tidal range is restricted to about 25%. A
minimum range of 2.70 m at Yerseke can thus be achieved.
FLUSHING
PIPELINE TUNNEL
b) In 1963 Belgium and the Netherlands concluded a treaty on
the shipping link between the Scheldt and the Rhine which
TRAFFIC BRIDGE,
assured that the shipping channel would be non-tidal. At the
RAIL BRIDGE
design stage of the Scheldt-Rhine link, opened in 1975,
provision was made for a fixed water level which would be
BERGEN OP ZOOM
attained when the Eastern Schelde was completely closed
off (originally scheduled for 1978). If tidal movement were
NATIONAL
retained the fixed bridges would not be high enough to allow
HIGHWAY A58
sufficient clearance for shipping at high water and at low
LOCKS
water the canal would not be deep enough. The two
compartmentalisation dams thus ensure that the
international inland shipping channels are also kept free of
HANSWEERT WEST
HANSWEERT EAST
tidal movement.
c) Apart from this a freshwater lake is necessary: it is important
to both water management and environmental management
OUTER APPROACH
that the salt water of the Eastern Scheldt should be
HARBOUR
separated from the fresh water of the peripheral lake to the
east of the dams. This prevents both salinization of the
WESTERN SCHELDT
hinterland and desalinization of the Eastern Scheldt.
In order to control the water level and the quality of the
peripheral lake, it was decided to construct a discharge canal
Adaptation of the canal through South Beveland
with a discharge sluice into the Western Scheldt.
Shipping routes in the southern Delta area. Projected cargo figures
for 1990 in millions of tonnes capacity
KRAMMER
LOCKS
65,7
VOLKERAK LOCKS
168
KATS LOCK
5,9
CANAL THROUGH
SCHELDT-RHINE LINK
WALCHEREN
CANAL THROUGH
SOUTH BEVELAND
57
KREEKRAK LOCKS
97
3
The Philips dam lock complex
in 1979, after which further excavation work was carried out to a
depth of 15 metres below A.O.D. In order to pump the site dry
The extra dams built across the navigation route between
152 wells had to be dug to a depth of 47 metres below A.O.D.;
Zeeland and the major rivers are an obstacle to shipping, SO
the total capacity of the pumps was 6000 m3 per hour. Before
locks had to be built. An artificial island was built in the Krammer
work could begin the subsoil at the bottom of the site was
with a lock complex and approach harbours for inland shipping
reinforced to such an extent that pile-driving was not necessary.
and pleasure craft. There are two locks 280 metres long and 24
The lock complex was the largest concrete construction work
metres wide for 4-barge push-tow units. In addition there are
ever contracted out by the Public Works Department
two pleasure craft measuring 9 m X 75 m. The sill depth of the
(Rijkswaterstaat) as a single commission. Each of the two push-
push-tow locks is 6.25 metres below A.O.D. (A.O.D. =
tow locks has a reinforced concrete lock chamber with the floor
Amsterdam Ordnance Datum, mean sea level as defined for
3 metres thick and a perforated upper floor. In the centre of each
Amsterdam). Space has been reserved for a future third push-
chamber, between the two floors, there are culverts to supply
tow lock if this should be necessary. Since this is a busy shipping
and discharge water and these are connected to the two
route it was decided to build separate locks and approach
storage reservoirs and also to the adjacent section of the Eastern
harbours for commercial and pleasure craft traffic. The lock
Scheldt, the Slaak channel. The locks are surrounded on three
complex has been furnished with a fresh/saltwater separation
sides by the fresh water the peripheral lake known as the
system to prevent large quantities of salt water from the Eastern
Zoommeer; on the fourth side they are separated from the salt
Scheldt entering the freshwater peripheral lake during locking
water of the Eastern Scheldt by retaining walls built into the piers
and, vice versa, to ensure that the Eastern Scheldt is kept
on the seaward side of the lock.
relatively free of fresh water. This ingenious system makes use of
the fact that salt water is heavier than fresh water, together with
a system of storage reservoirs and pumps for removing either
the fresh or salt water from the locks and returning it to its original
location.
For the construction of the lock complex an island with an area
of 96 ha. was built in 1977 and 1978 in a shallow section
between the Krammer and Slaak channels. A 700 m temporary
bridge was built out to the island to facilitate construction work.
After the construction of a surrounding dike and a pumping
station the 18 ha. construction site was pumped dry in 7 weeks
Left: the Kreekrak locks in the Scheldt-Rhine link.
Below: the Krammer locks in the Philips dam.
unicon
5
The first phase of the construction island in the Krammer: building the dam to contain the construction harbour.
The temporary bridge giving access to the construction island.
The Krammer locks before and after the flooding of the construction site.
The fresh/saltwater separation system
EASTERN SCHELDT
THE ZOOMMEER PERIPHERAL LAKE
The system works on the principle that when the lock is closed
the fresh water in the lock chamber is replaced by salt water, or
vice versa, depending on whether the vessel is entering or
leaving the peripheral lake. Obviously it cannot come into
operation until the Philips dam has been completed and the salt
and fresh water have been separated leaving the Zoommeer.
The system includes two storage reservoirs, one of 45 ha. with a
lower water level and one of 40 ha. with a higher water level. The
lock chambers are connected to these reservoirs and to the
Slaak channel in the Eastern Scheldt by a system of culverts and
1. ENTRY FROM EASTERN SCHELDT (SALT WATER)
sluices.
The lock chamber walls contain openings which can be sealed
by means of sliding panels. When open they admit fresh water
from the surrounding Zoommeer. This is made possible by
simultaneously releasing a similar quantity of salt water through
the perforated floor and via the system of outlet sluices into the
lower reservoir. The salt water in the chamber is thus replaced
by fresh water entering above it. If the lock chamber has to be
filled with salt water, i.e. if a ship is proceeding from the
Zoommeer to the Eastern Scheldt, the salt water is allowed to
flow via the inlets, culverts and perforated floor from the higher
reservoir into the lower section of the lock chamber. Since salt
2. SEAWARD GATE CLOSED
water is heavier than fresh water there is little chance of the two
mixing. The salt water forces the fresh water upwards SO that it
flows through the openings in the chamber walls into the
freshwater lake. In this way the chamber is supplied with salt
water from below. At certain times the level of the water in the
Eastern Scheldt is sufficient to perform this function and the
reservoirs are not required.
In order to connect each of the locks with each discharge sluice
a whole network of culverts was created. The total width of the
six culverts is 50 metres, while the diameter of each of these
huge pipes is approximately the same as that of a railway tunnel.
3. LEVELLING OF SALT WATER WITH FRESHWATER LAKE
5.60
24.10
5.60
+7.00
4. REPLACEMENT OF SALT WATER WITH FRESH WATER
A.O.D.
perforated floor
-7.00
12.50
12.50
5. LANDWARD GATE OPENED
31.10
Cross-section of a push-tow lock
6. ENTRY INTO VOLKERAK (FRESH WATER)
Far right: construction of the pumping station in the Philips dam
Locking cycle
8
SPACE FOR 3RD LOCK
The water in the above network flows in accordance with the
interconnected vessels principle. If only pumps were used to
effect the exchange if waters between the chambers, ie, if
culverts or reservoirs were not used, this would result in higher
energy costs. The water in the reservoirs must be kept at the
desired level. This can be done by pumping water out of the
lower reservoir into the Eastern Scheldt or into the higher
2ND LOCK
reservoir. For this purpose a pumping station was built with four
adjustable-screw centrifugal pumps each of which can move
11.5 m3 per second. The capacity required for two locks is
approximately 20 m3/sec. At high tide in the Eastern Scheldt the
higher reservoir can be filled without the use of pumps simply by
lowering a section of the surrounding ring dike.
1ST LOCK
INLET
Right: general view of the site of the pumping station and system of
DISCHARGE SLUICE
culverts for the locks in the Philips dam.
OUTLET
PUMPING STATION
The system of culverts in the push-tow locks
Diagram of the inlet, outlet and discharge sluices in the push-tow
locks of the Philips dam
PHILIPS DAM
ZOOMMEER PERIPHERAL LAKE
2ND LOCK
SALTWATER APPROACH HARBOUR
FRESHWATER APPROACH HARBOUR
1ST LOCK
HIGHER RESERVOIR
LOWER RESERVOIR
INLET CULVERTS
OUTLET CULVERTS
PUMPING STATION
DISCHARGE CULVERTS
EASTERN SCHELDT
PHILIPS DAM
10
Wall openings and perforated floor
12
Gate-operating machinery and pumping station
Wall openings and perforated floor of the locks, which form part of the
fresh/saltwater separation system.
13
Pleasure craft locks
These are twin locks with a dividing wall, the lock piers being
9.10
9.10
equipped with two revolving gates with an automatic locking
device which prevents the gates from opening if the water level
in the lock is not equal to that outside it. These locks also have a
fresh/saltwater separation system, but in this case the work of
the reservoirs is done by a pump linked by culverts directly with
A.O.D.
the Eastern Scheldt and the lock chambers. The pump has a
capacity of 4 m3 per second.
-3.45
-6.90
30.00
Cross-section of the pleasure craft locks
The pleasure craft lock site ready to be flooded.
14
Construction of the locks
drive system and rubber sealing devices. The 258 openings in
the walls of the lock chamber which regulate the two-way flow
Enormous quantities of concrete were required for the Krammer
of fresh water can also be opened and closed by means of
locks. The construction of the 280 metre push-tow locks with
sliding panels.
their concrete walls several metres thick, double flooring and
network of huge culvert pipes called for a concrete works on the
construction island itself, consisting of a conveyor system for
sand and gravel, two cement silos, mooring wharfs, a hot water
installation and storage tanks with metering devices for the
various additives required. The concrete factory had a capacity
of 230 m3 per hour, while the silos had a storage capacity of
GATE
1200 tonnes. There was also a special site for storing and
processing the steel for reinforcing the concrete, where 6,000
tonnes could be stored and a weekly production of 400 tonnes
could be achieved. The locks were constructed in 14-metre
sections poured in 5 consecutive operations. An ingenious
system of shuttering was devised for this purpose which allowed
LOCK CHAMBER
to rapid handling SO that the shuttering would be in place ready
for the following pouring operation.
The power supply for the Krammer locks, 4000 kVA, is provided
HYDRAULIC PRESS
by the Zeeland Provincial Energy Authority whose service facility
contains a high-tension distribution station and two diesel-
powered emergency generators each capable of producing 725
kVA. The complex system of machinery for the variety of
discharge and filling programmes required in a lock complex with
a fresh/saltwater separation system is controlled by a computer
GATE
which performs the necessary calculations and continually
RUBBER SEALING DEVICE
monitors operations.
Obviously, if the salt/fresh separation system is to function
adequately the lock gates must seal well. The push-tow locks
are equipped with hydraulic sliding gates which are constantly
being forced against the wall of the lock chamber. The gates in
the inlet, outlet and discharge sluices have a variable-speed
Closing mechanism of a sliding gate in the push-tow locks.
Cross-section and ground plan of a push-tow lock.
AOD-625 m
280 m
24 m
15
Pouring the concrete for a section of a culvert.
Pouring concrete for the walls of the push-tow locks in consecutive sections.
284841
Tjaden
16
Approach harbours
Since the Krammer locks, like the Volkerak locks to the north-
east, are situated on a busy shipping route, extensive approach
harbours with a length of approximately 1500 metres were built.
They were designed for a configuration with three push-tow
locks, in case the third lock should ever be required, and they
extend to a depth of 7 metres below A.O.D.; the width of the
channel at this depth at the entrance is 150 metres. The
approach harbours are enclosed by dams which were also
designed to:
- serve as a guide for shipping;
- prevent the formation of currents in the period before the
completion of the Philips dam;
- reduce the intrusion of waves;
- provide road links with the shore.
The approach harbours are equipped with waiting berths and
guide walls. Ships are guided into the lock via a queuing area
and a funnel-shaped area formed by the guide walls on one side
and a central guide jetty on the other. The waiting berths are for
the use of shipping at the back of the queue which will have to
wait for some time, perhaps even until the following day. The
Zijpe approach harbour on the Eastern Scheldt is equipped with
a floating guide wall to counteract tidal influence.
The Volkerak lock complex
HARBOUR WALL
3RD LOCK
GUIDE WALL
2ND LOCK
ZIJPE APPROACH HARBOUR
VOLKERAK APPROACH HARBOUR
WAITING BERTHS
1ST LOCK
WAITING BERTHS
HARBOUW WALL
Location of the guide walls and waiting berths in the approach harbours at the Krammer locks
The ring dike under construction
17
Bridges
A 650 metre-long road bridge crosses the entire lock complex.
A bascule bridge spans the northern pushed barge lock, SO that
at least one of the locks offers unlimited clearance for shipping.
The bridge platform consists of pre-stressed concrete beams
resting on 20 concrete piles and two abutments. Each span is
approximately 30 metres in length. The components of the
temporary bridge have been incorporated in the permanent
bridgeworks. The highest point of the bridge is above the yacht
locks (clearance: 18.5 metres); the underside of the bridge at the
push-tow locks allows a clearance of about 14.5 metres.
The locks are provided with control rooms and a utilities block
containing offices, the operating computer, transformers and the
emergency generators. Once the locks had become operational
the sections of the Philips dam which link the lock complex with
the Grevelingen dam on one side and with St. Philipsland on the
other could also be completed. The ring dike enclosing the lock
complex first had to be dredged away, of course, in order to
make the locks accessible to shipping.
It was decided that the section of the dam between the locks
and St. Philipsland should be situated well to the east in order to
keep as large as possible an area of the mudflats to the north of
St. Philipsland under tidal influence. Wherever possible, the
connecting road on the shore has been routed SO that it avoids
crossing farmland.
The Philips dam and the lock complex were completed in 1987.
The lock complex shortly before completion.
18
LAKE GREVELINGEN
GREVELINGEN DAM
KRAMMER
PHILIPS DAM
LOCK COMPLEX
SLAAK
ST. PHILIPSLAND
ZIJPE
The lock complex in the Philips dam
Placing the prefabricated pre-stressed T piles for the bridge over the
Krammer locks
The utilities block at the Krammer locks.
19
The Oester dam
THOLEN
The second compartmentalisation dam is the Oester dam,
SCHELDT-RHINE LINK
situated in the eastern section of the Eastern Scheldt between
Tholen and South Beveland. This dam closes off the Scheldt-
Rhine link from the Eastern Scheldt. On the Tholen side of the
dam there is a lock for the use of small vessels sailing between
LOCK
THOLEN GAP
the Eastern Scheldt and the peripheral lake; this lock is 34
metres long and 6.5 metres wide and is spanned by an opening
bridge. The sill depth on the Eastern Scheldt side is 4 metres
MAROLLE GAP
below A.O.D. and on the peripheral lake side 2.5 metres. The
lock is important for pleasure craft and fishing vessels.
The Oester dam crosses two navigation channels, the Tholen
NORTHERN
Gap and the Marolle Gap. The northern section of the dam was
MARQUISATE QUAY
kept well to the west, running parallel to the coast of Tholen for
OESTER DAM
some time before linking up with it. This was to prevent shipping
WESTERN
in the Scheldt-Rhine link from being subjected to unnecessarily
MARQUISATE QUAY
strong transverse currents during work on the closing of the
Tholen Gap. The road along the dam links up with a road along
EASTERN SCHELDT
LAKE MARQUISATE
the shore which follows a watershed in the Schakerloo polder,
so no inroads had to be made in the natural landscape in the
DISCHARGE CANAL
KREEKRAK LOCKS
course of construction work. The southern section of the dam
forms the western bank of the discharge canal which enters the
Western Scheldt at Bath.
The longitudinal geological profile of the bed of the Eastern
SOUTH BEVELAND
Scheldt where the dam is situated shows clearly the erratic
nature of the composition of the estuary bed at the site. The
The Scheldt-Rhine link between the Oester dam and the Marquisate
section bordering the Scheldt-Rhine link was SO poor that the
Quay
weaker layers had to be reinforced with sand. In places where
there was already an upper layer of sand several metres thick,
this expensive process of reinforcement could be eliminated by
building the dam in stages. This meant that large sections of the
dam had to be filled in gradually with gently sloping layers until
the subsoil had adjusted sufficiently to enable the dam to be built
up to the required level. The top of the dam is 5.6 metres above
A.O.D. A single carriageway road runs along the top, with a
Right: the construction island for the lock in the Oester dam. In the
parallel road for agricultural and service vehicles.
background, the Kreekrak locks.
Longitudinal geological profile of a section of the Oester dam.
LOCK
MAROLLE GAP
A.O.D.
-5.00
-10.00
-15.00
SAND
CLAY
-20.00
PEAT
SAND WITH CLAY
CLAY WITH PEAT
20
21
The Marquisate Quay
In order to prevent excessive current velocities near the Tholen
bank and the formation of strong transverse currents which
would hinder shipping in the Scheldt-Rine link during the
construction of the Oester dam, the area of water to the east of
the Oester dam had to be reduced in size. To this end the
inundated land in the Marquisate area near Bergen op Zoom
was enclosed with a quay wall. This produced an area of
approximately 2000 ha. where the marine environment could
gradually adapt to the new situation. It has also made possible
urban extension in Bergen op Zoom and the creation of
additional recreational facilities in the area. Partly for the purpose
of the former, a neck of land with an area of about 160 ha. was
created in Lake Marquisate using sand produced by the
excavation of the Bath discharge canal. This means that the
Scheldt-Rhine link follows a course between the Oester dam
and the Marquisate Quay.
The western section of the Marquisate Quay and the Kreekrak lock
complex.
/
22
Closing the Channels
The compartmentalisation dams intersect four different
channels. All four of them - the Marolle and Tholen Gaps in the
Oester dam and the Slaak and Krammer channels in the Philips
Dam - were then closed off in turn using dredged sand.
In the case of the secondary channels (the Marolle Gap and the
Slaak) the gaps were gradually reduced in size as a sand dam
was constructed in a southerly direction. More sand was lost as
the channel velocities increased, but since the main channels
were still open, the sand loss was restricted and it was possible
to close the gaps.
In the case of the main channels, the drop over the gap was SO
great that a sand dam was not feasible. However, it was possible
to use the storm surge barrier to influence tidal flow in the
Eastern Scheldt in such a way that current velocities in the
closure gap, and therefore also sand loss, were kept within
limits. In closing the Krammer channel the principle of 'retarding'
and 'reducing' tides was applied: the tidal cycle was retarded
from twice a day to once a day. The tidal range was gradually
reduced in the final stage of the project, and the storm surge
barrier had to be closed completely for the last 1-2 days. A stone
wall had been considered as a means of closing the Tholen Gap,
but this method proved to be much more expensive, and it had
few advantages over a sand dam.
Suction dredgers obtaining sand from sites near a closure gap
STORM SURGE BARRIER
PARTLY OPEN
CLOSED
OPEN
PARTLY OPEN
AVERAGE WATER LEVEL IN METRES,
+1.00
A.O.D.
IN RELATION TO A.O.D:
16
20
24
4
8
12
16
20
24 HOURS
-1.00
NORMAL TIDES
TIDES WITH REDUCED FREQUENCY
The average vertical tidal range during closure of the channels.
Pumping up sand for the sand wall
23
The construction island for the Philips dam with the Slaak (right) and the Krammer (left) closure gaps.
The Molenplaat sandbank with (top right) the construction island for the Tholen Gap lock and closure gap
24
Closing the Marquisate Quay
The Marquisate Quay was closed in the spring of 1983. The gap,
with a breadth of 800 metres and an average depth of two
metres below A.O.D., was closed vertically by construction of a
containing wall in consecutive layers. This was done principally
at low tide by lorries and tipper trucks. The winter closure gap
and the final section of the first layer of stone were placed by
special stone-dumping vessels. When the wall had reached the
required height a sand wall was added behind it in such a way
that a large proportion of the stone could then be removed and
used elswhere for another part of the project.
RUK
Tipper trucks dumping stones at low water.
The quay wall and cranes at low tide
25
The Bath discharge canal
THE BATH DISCHARGE CANAL
A great deal of the water in the surrounding countryside drains
EASTERN SCHELDT
into the peripheral lake behind the compartmentalisation dams
which stretches from the Volkerak dam in the north to the
Kreekrak locks in the south. The lake is thus a reservoir for
excess water in the area. In order to permit control of water levels
and water quality it is desirable to have facilities for allowing
OESTER DAM
KREEKRAK LOCKS
water to enter the lake and for removing excess water.
Fresh river-water can enter the peripheral lake via the Volkerak
inlet sluices, but for evironmental reasons fresh water cannot be
discharged into the Eastern Scheldt. Nor can water be
discharged into the southern section of the Scheldt-Rhine link
because the water level in this canal is 1.8 metres higher than
that in the lake. This would only be possible if pumps were used
and owing to high energy costs this option was dismissed. This
accounts for the decision to discharge excess water into the
Western Scheldt via the Bath canal. The water in the Western
BATH
DISCHARGE CANAL
Scheldt is also salt but environmental requirements are less
SCHELDT-RHINE LINK
stringent there than in the Eastern Scheldt, since the quality of
the water is also influenced by the fresh water in the river Scheldt
and the large-scale discharge of water from polders and waste
waters. Water from the peripheral lake is carried to the Western
Scheldt via an 8-kilometre discharge canal which runs across
BATH
the neck of South Beveland. At low tide the water in the Western
Scheldt is lower than in the lake SO that pumps are not required.
A discharge sluice was built at the southern end of the canal near
DISCHARGE SLUICE
Bath on the Western Scheldt SO that the water can flow into the
Western Scheldt. At high tide the sliding gates are lowered to
WESTERN SCHELDT
prevent salt water flowing into the canal and to prevent flooding
of the agricultural land in the vicinity. As an additional safety
Route followed by the Bath discharge canal
measure there is an emergency gate which closes automatically
under the pressure of the water at high tide.
On its way south the canal crosses the following before entering
the Western Scheldt via the discharge sluice:
- a pipeline viaduct
- National highway 258
- the Flushing-Roosendaal railway line
- National highway A58
- two series of pipelines
- the Bath road
- a drainage canal.
The intersections with the pipeline viaduct and the national
highways can take the form of fixed bridges since no shipping
passes through the canal. The other pipelines run in culverts
under the canal and in order to drain the land east of the Scheldt-
Rhine link continuously a siphon was constructed under the
canal with two tunnels with a cross-section of 2.7 X 2.00 metres
and a floor depth of 11 metres below A.O.D.
Part of the 8 million cubic metres of soil produced in digging the
canal was used for the construction of the southern section of
the Oester dam and for the neck of land which was created in
Lake Marquisate.
26
SUN
VOLKERAK
FRESHWATER
HIGH TIDE
RAIN
EVAPORATION
DISCHARGE POINT
FRESH WATER
KRAMMER LOCKS
FOR AGRICULTURE
TIDE 1
WATER LEVEL IN PERIPHERAL
SALTWATER
LAKE, APPROX. A.O.D.
FRESH WATER
POLDER DISCHARGE
BERGSCHEDIEP SALT WATER
FRESHWATER
SLUICE FRESH WATER SALTWATER
PERIPHERAL
LAKE
SLUICES OPEN
DISCHARGE
SLUICES
CLOSE
SLUICE
LOW TIDE
DISCHARGE CANAL
FRESH
RIVERS IN BRABANT
GRAVITY DISCHARGE
KREEKRAK LOCKS
WESTERN SCHELDT
Diagram of the water balance in the area
The discharge phase in the Bath discharge canal
View of the bridges over the projected discharge canal. From left to
right: National Highway A58 (dual carriageway), railway bridge,
National Highway 258 and the pipeline viaduct.
The route of the discharge canal runs parallel to the Scheldt-Rhine link.
A drainage canal carrying water from West Brabant crosses the discharge canal by means of a siphon.
The Bath discharge sluice
discharged - 5 to 6 metres per second - necessitated the
construction of a wide outlet to the sluice in order to reduce the
The discharge sluice near Bath has an average capacity of over
velocity at the point of discharge. For this reason the concrete
24 hours of 100 cubic metres per second through a total of six
floor of the outlet area was built one metre lower than the floor of
tunnels. Consideration was also given to a siphon pump system
the tunnels, i.e. 6 metres below A.O.D. and the walls of the outlet
but the present system of tunnels and a free-fall drop proved the
section gradually widen over a distance of 20 metres from the
most satisfactory solution. Discharge through the tunnels is
mouths of the tunnels. At the outer end of the outlet section a 2.5
regulated by a system of lifting gates. When the flow of water is
metre high serrated wall was constructed to distribute the
slight, one or more of the tunnels are sufficient for discharge
current as it flows out onto the concrete-reinforced bed of the
purposes.
Western Scheldt. The sluice was built in a construction dock
The principle used for the sluice, which acts as a spillway, causes
which had been pumped dry and rests on a foundation of 570
high current velocities and without preventive measures the floor
concrete piles.
would be washed away. For this reason a protective layer of
concrete blocks and stone was employed. For hydraulic
engineering and economic reasons a sill depth of 5 metres
below A.O.D. was chosen; the top of the tunnels is at 0.25
metres above A.O.D. The high velocity of the water being
+10.00
+ 4.00
BATH
DISCHARGE
WESTERN
CANAL
SCHELDT
LIFTING GATE
- 3.50
GATE
A.O.D.
- 5.00
DIRECTION OF CURRENT
6.00
23.00
30.50
10.00
8.50
10.00
14.50
Cross-section of the Bath discharge sluice
The outlet into the Western Scheldt showing the serrated distribution wall.
29
The Lake Grevelingen siphon sluice
If ever it should be decided to make Lake Grevelingen a
freshwater lake, the Flakkee sluice could be used to direct water
One piece of construction work not directly connected with the
in the opposite direction. In this case the sluice will have to be
compartmentalisation works is the sluice in the Grevelingen
extended through the Philips dam to the planned freshwater
dam. This sluice, known as the Flakkee sluice, is designed to
peripheral lake behind it. From there fresh water can be directed
control the quality of the salt water in Lake Grevelingen and the
to lake Grevelingen and discharged into the North Sea through
Eastern Scheldt by siphoning off the water in Lake Grevelingen.
the sluice in the Brouwers dam. The salt water would thus be
In the seventies a discharge sluice was built in the Brouwers
forced out of Lake Grevelingen. The Flakkee and Brouwers dam
dam, which forms the western boundary of Lake Grevelingen, to
sluices would thus discharge water in the opposite direction to
enable salt water from the North Sea to be added to the
that which would apply if Lake Grevelingen were to remain a
stagnant salt water in the Lake. It can also be used to discharge
saltwater lake. However, it was decided in 1986 that it should
water from the lake into the North Sea. This is necessary in order
remain a saltwater lake, at least for the time being.
to maintain the salt content of the water in Lake Grevelingen
which is 'contaminated' by, among other things, the discharge
of fresh water from the polders. The new siphon sluice in the
Grevelingen dam makes it possible to discharge water into the
Krammer which flows directly into the Eastern Scheldt. In this
way Lake Grevelingen can be 'flushed' with seawater which
enters by way of the Brouwers dam and passes into the Eastern
Scheldt by way of the siphon in the Grevelingen dam. In the final
stages of the Delta project this arrangement ensured that the salt
content of the water in the northern section of the Eastern
Scheldt and the Krabbenkreek was maintained. This was
necessary because, in the period before the
compartmentalisation dams were completed, precipitation,
fresh water from the Volkerak and water draining from the
polders would have caused the salt content there to fall. In order
to prevent damage to the marine environment during this period
the Flakkee discharge sluice had to direct water of sufficient
salinity to the Eastern Scheldt.
Ways of flushing Lake Grevelingen
Continuous line = movement of salt water
Dotted line = movement of fresh water
BROUWERS DAM SLUICE
HARINGVLIET
LAKE GREVELINGEN
GREVELINGEN DAM
NORTH SEA
SIPHON SLUICE
EASTERN SCHELDT
KRABBENKREEK
WESTERN SCHELDT
30
The siphon sluice in the Grevelingen dam
The Brouwers dam sluice
The construction of the siphon
LAKE GREVELINGEN
KRAMMER
The siphon consists of arched tunnels in the Grevelingen dam
VALVE OPEN
which form a link between Lake Grevelingen and the Eastern
Scheldt. The upper section of the tunnels is an inverted U-bend,
the underside of which is situated above mean highwater level.
This means that the water cannot normally flow through the
tunnels. In order to activate the siphon, air is extracted from the
upper section by means of a vacuum pump. The water then rises
STAGE 1, SIPHON NOT IN OPERATION, AT ATMOSPHERIC
to fill the ensuing vacuum and flows through the arch in a
PRESSURE
continuous stream from one side to the other.
The principle is the same as that used to empty a fish tank by
means of a hose over the edge once the air has been siphoned
out of the hose. The flow is stopped by allowing air to re-enter
the arched section.
The siphon complex consists of two groups of three adjacent
VACUUM PUMP
VALVE CLOSED
arched tunnels, each tunnel being 3.2 X 3.2 metres with a
combined effective cross-section of 50 m2, the average capacity
over a 24-hour period is equivalent to 80 m³ per second.
Although the principle of the siphon is simple enough, additional
hydraulic engineering research was required because of the
dimensions of the project, particularly with regard to the
STAGE 2, CREATION OF A VACUUM CAUSES ATMOSPHERIC
operation of the siphon and the design of the outlet and
PRESSURE TO DROP
reinforcement of the subsoil.
In periods when the water level in the Krammer is higher than 3
metres above A.O.D. the siphon begins to draw water
automatically in the direction of Lake Grevelingen. This is
counteracted by using a compressor to keep the air in the
VALVE CLOSED
arched section under overpressure.
STAGE 3, SIPHON COMES INTO OPERATION AND WATER
BEGINS TO FLOW THROUGH TUNNEL
The principle of the Grevelingen dam siphon sluice
The arched section of the siphon under construction.
32
Published by the Information Department of the Ministry of Transport and Public
Works
Photographs: Aerocamera Bart Hofmeester, René Kleingeld, Jaap Wolterbeek,
Rijkswaterstaat
Layout: Driek Drost, Voorburg
Printed by the Dutch Government Printing Office
1987. 2nd Impression