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Finland Trip [Research Materials, 1992] [OA 6902] [6]
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Finland Trip [Research Materials, 1992] [OA 6902] [6]
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Carol Aarhus Alpha Files
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Finland Trip [Research Materials], 1992 [2]
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3
FINNISH FEAT URES
FINNISH FEATURES
FINLAND AND THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY
Finnish Foreign Policy and EC Membership
The function of Finnish foreign policy is
economic development of Europe is the
to promote Finland's national interests.
European community, from which the
The rapid changes that have taken place
key contribution in the creation of a uni-
in recent years both in our immediate
fied Europe is expected. Under the Maast-
vicinity and more widely in Europe pose
richt Treaty, the EC member states are
new challenges for Finnish foreign policy
leading the Community towards econ-
as well.
omic and political union. The EC is also
Central to these changes have been the
prepared to enlarge its membership.
end of the Cold War, the breakdown of
In March 1992 the Government of Finland
ideological barriers and the demise of
decided to apply for membership of the
totalitarian governments. With the end of
EC. The decision was based on the view
confrontation and ideological division, all
that Finland could best pursue its national
European governments have accepted
interests and international aspirations as
democracy, human rights and welfare
a member of the EC.
based on economic freedom and social
Finland shares the same values as the
justice as the cornerstone of the Conti-
EC member states, and is on an equal
nent's future development. The goal is
footing in socio-economic development
equal security for all countries.
with them. The views of Finland and the
The nations of Europe together with the
EC countries on international issues are
United States and Canada have set down
already either similar or convergent. In
their common values in the CSCE Paris
applying for membership, Finland ac-
Charter and committed themselves to
cepts the membership obligations and
work together to promote them. States
objectives of the Maastricht Treaty.
and international organizations and in-
As a member of the European Union,
stitutions are engaged in working together
Finland would be party to the common
and separately to create a foundation for
foreign and security policy of the Union,
peace and prosperity.
which the Union and its Member States
The central force in the political and
will implement through systematic coop-
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
HELSINKI FINLAND
eration, to common positions and to joint
EU's defence dimension will evolve and
action in international affairs. Devel-
how the European security architecture
opment of a common foreign and security
will take shape during the 1990s.
policy will be gradual, and based on
As a member, Finland would commit
unanimity. The goal is also to create a
itself, in a spirit of solidarity and without
common defence policy, and in time, a
reservation, to joint the other Member
common defence.
States in promoting the objectives of the
With respect to Finnish foreign and
Community. Finland's constructive work
security policy, the decision to apply for
in, for instance, the UN and CSCE, has
EC membership was based on a defi-
already won wide recognition. Finland
nition of the country's own interests, and
has worked actively for UN peacekeep-
an assessment of the demands posed
ing goals and for shaping crisis manage-
by them. In a divided Europe, the Finnish
ment mechanisms of the CSCE. Finland
policy of neutrality was a means of stay-
can make a positive contribution to im-
ing outside conflicts between the great
plementing the Union's common foreign
powers. It was a political, choice, which
and security policy.
was not based on obligations binding
The most important special feature of
under international law or our own legis-
Finland's international position is its geo-
lation. The end of the division of Europe
graphical location in the neighbourhood
and confrontation between the super-
of Russia. In a new Europe, the neigh-
powers means that there is no longer
bourly relations between Finland and
ground for a broadly applied policy of
Russia will be developed according to
neutrality.
commonly accepted international prin-
The Maastricht Treaty will not make the
ciples.
European Union a military alliance, nor
Finnish membership would also make
will it replace the present defence ar-
Russia an immediate neighbour of the
rangements of EC members or appli-
Union. The long land border with Russia
cants for membership. The core of
would affect the security of the whole
Finland's traditional neutrality - military
Union.
non-alignment and a credible indepen-
dent defence - is in harmony with the
The Union aims at cooperating with Rus-
obligations of the Maastricht Treaty, and
sia and bringing it into the process of
as a defensive arrangement will retain its
European unification. Finland will use its
significance for Finnish security.
own resources to promote the Russian
reform process, particularly in nearby
Finland's relations with the Western Euro-
areas. In this respect, the aims of Finland
pean Union (WEU) which is to be used
and the EU are mutually supportive.
as an instrument of the European Union
in decisions with defence implications,
will be determined in the light of the
development of the European Union.
Crucial in this development is, how the
October 1992
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
2
FINNISH FEATURES
Glögg Party
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
15
HELSINKI FINLAND
Christmas glögg
1. Boil the syrup and spices, add the mar-
garine and beat until the mixture is cool.
1 bottle red wine
2. Beat the eggs and sugar.
2-3 tablespoons Madeira (optional)
3. Mix the soda in with part of the flour and
then combine with the syrup-margarine
1/2 cup raw sugar, or to taste
mixture. Add the whipped eggsand the rest
1/3 cup raisins
of the flour. Do not knead the final mixture.
1-2 sticks cinnamon
4. Cover the dough with plastic wrap and
5-6 whole cloves
leave overnight in a cool place.
peelings of I orange
5. Roll out the dough, cut up into shapes
and bake the cookies in the oven until
1/4 cup blanched, slivered almonds
golden brown.
1/4 cup vodka to spike it up (optional)
In a large kettle, combine all the ingredi-
ents except the vodka. Heat slowly, until
the drink is steaming hot. Stir every now
and then, and taste with a spoon whenever
you feel like it. Do not let the drink get even
Christmas pastries
close to boiling. Just keep it warm. Before
Joulutortut
serving, add vodka if you wish.
Servings: 1 to 6.
Pastry:
7 OZ (200g) soft butter or margarine
1 cup (2 1/2 dl) flour
1/3 cup (1 dl) cold water
1 teaspoon vinegar
Filling:
Ginger cookies
sweetened prune purée or plum jam
Piparkakut
1. Put all the pastry ingredients into a bowl
(makes about 200)
and mix quickly by hand into a dough.
Don't knead too much.
2. Put the dough to a cold place to harden.
Baking time: 10 minutes/batch
3. Roll out on a floured board, folding a few
Oven temperature: 400 °F (200 °C)
times to make a puff pastry, and finally
make a 1/2 cm thick sheet.
1 1/4 cups (300 g) margarine
4. Cut the sheet into 7 X 7 cm squares. Split
1 1/4 cups (300 g) sugar
the corners of each square.
3 eggs
5. Place a bit of prune purée or plum jam in
1 cup (250 g) dark syrup
the middle of each square. Fold over every
other split end onto the center, to form a
2 teaspoons ground cinnamon
windmill-like pastry.
2 teaspoons ground ginger
6. Brush with beaten egg and bake at
2 teaspoons ground cloves
450° F (250° C) until light brown.
1 tablespoon grated orange rind
about 7 cups (1 kg) white flour
To make round pastries, cut into circles, fill,
3 teaspoons baking soda
and fold in half. Bake as above.
2
Cinnamon buns
be used, add it at this stage.
Korvapuustit
4. Add enough flour to get a thick, elastic
mixture. Beat it vigorously to put air into the
dough. This will enhance the glutination of
Rising time: 11/2 + 11/2 hours
the flour and make the dough rise well.
Baking time: about 10-15 minutes/batch.
5. Mix in the rest of the flour and finally the
Oven temperature: 400°F (200°C)
butter or margarine. Knead the dough until
it separates completely from your hands
Suitable for freezing
and the sides of the bowl.
6. If you make the dough with an electric
2 eggs
dough mixer, follow closely the instruc-
3/4 cup (2 dl) sugar
tions for preparing dough.
2 cups (1/21) milk
7. Cover the dough with a cloth and leave
2 OZ (50g) yeast or 2 pkgs dry yeast
to rise in a warm place. When the dough
has doubled in bulk, place it on a lightly
3 teaspoons salt
floured surface and knead well. Add the
1 tablespoon crushed cardamom
raisins.
1/2 lb. (250 g) butter or margarine or
8. Roll the dough into a sheet about 1 cm
3/4 cup (2 dl) cooking oil
thick.
about 2 1/4 lb. (1 kg) white flour
9. Spread the dough with a thick layer of
1/3 cup (1 dl) raisins
melted or very soft butter. Sprinkle with
sugar and cinnamon.
egg yolk for glazing
If you like, you can add a layer of chopped
almonds for decorating
or ground almonds or other nuts.
cinnamon
10. Roll and cut into slices C. 3 cm thick.
11. Arrange the slices on a baking sheet
1. Put the ingredients for the dough ready
covered with baking paper. Let rise.
in the kitchen the previous evening. If they
12. With a finger or the handle of a knife,
are cold the dough will take too long to rise.
make a vertical depression down each bun
2. Heat the milk to hand temperature so as
so that the spirallike filling bulges out on
to enhance the action of the yeast.
both sides.
3. Beat up the eggs and sugar, add the
13. Let the buns rise. Brush with beaten
milk, yeast, salt and cardamom. If oil is to
egg and bake.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
FINLAND 1992
Four Finnish Perspectives
Seen by
Jörn Donner
Osmo Jussila
Irmeli Niemi
Jarmo Virmavirta
Finland as an Exception
The victorious western powers in World
of coincidence or statesmanship where
War I wanted to give 'nations' freedom and
Finland is concerned during this period?
the right of self-determination, but were not
We do not know what Stalin was thinking
quite clear about how this would happen.
when he sent Russian troops to attack
There was agreement that the Habsburg
Finland at the end of November, 1939.
Empire had to be divided up, and this was
What we do know is that Finland's war was
done, but at the cost of national injustices,
a popular cause in London and Paris, with
if one assumes that an independent state
the result that the French and the British,
ought to be made up mainly of closely
Churchill included, wanted to send troops
related nationalities. Hungary, formerly part
to the aid of Finland. Another historian,
of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, suffered
John Lukacs, has called this "the most
considerably in the process.
harebrained plan of the Second World
Finland, however, was an exception. Dur-
War", adding: "Eventually the imbecile
ing the era of Russian rule, which began in
scheme collapsed, as the Finns concluded
1809, Finland succeeded in creating a
a Peace with the Russians a day or so
number of national institutions, including a
before the Anglo-French troops were to
central bank and eventually an elected
sail from Scotland, without knowing exact-
democratic parliament as well. Finland then
ly where."
profited from the Russian Revolution, since
The fact is that Sweden would have denied
Lenin shared Wilson's view of the freedom
the troops transit, as Sweden had abso-
of 'nations', although in retrospect histori-
lutely no interest in being drawn into the
ans have generally regarded this as mere-
war. Neither had Finland. It only happened
ly a tactical manoeuvre; Armenia for in-
to lie in geographical proximity to the Sovi-
stance, was later forcibly incorporated into
et Union, a fact which is sometimes forgot-
the Soviet Union.
ten even today now that the Soviet Union
Finnish independence, declared on De-
has again become Russia. But Finland's
cember 6, 1917, remained an exception.
eastern border, all 1,200 kilometres of it, is
The population was relatively homogene-
still there, and may one day be the only,
ous despite the fact that two languages,
and certainly the longest, land frontier be-
Finnish and Swedish, were spoken in the
tween the EC and Russia.
country. In contrast to many of the inde-
It is one of the peculiarities of history that
pendent states that emerged in Eastern
Finland had to surrender part of its east-
Central Europe, the new Republic of Fin-
ernmost territory in 1940, but did not lose
land encompassed no large ethnic or lin-
its independence or suffer occupation, even
guistic minorities regarding themselves as
at the end of the struggle against the Soviet
'homeless'.
Union which lasted from 1941 to 1944.
Finland was still primarily agrarian, although
Ignorant western historians have claimed
industrialization had begun, partly on the
that Finland took an active part in the
initiative of immigrants from various coun-
German siege of Leningrad, which is not
tries. During the period of Russian rule,
true. The war was an accident, self-inflict-
trade with Russia had been very advanta-
ed according to some, brought on by out-
geous to Finland; a similar situation devel-
side coercion according to others.
oped much later when Finland was able to
In autumn 1944, Finland agreed to drive
trade industrial products for Russian raw
the remaining German troops from Lap-
materials, with the Soviet Union eventually
land. This operation was completed some
accounting for over 20% of the country's
weeks before the Germans capitulated
foreign trade. This figure is now down to
and peace came to Europe, though peace
less than one-fifth of that level.
was not restored to the rest of the world
The historian A.J.P. Taylor underlined the
until after Hiroshima, Nagasaki and the
role of coincidence in the events leading to
Japanese capitulation.
the Second World War. Should one speak
1
Most of the new 'nations' which emerged
ond World War. The paradox now evident
from the First World War suffered an un-
in a freer but also less secure European
gentle Soviet fate. The Baltic states were
world and in an attempt at international
incorporated in 1940. Albania, Bulgaria,
unity, is that 'nations' declare themselves
Rumania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Po-
independent without asking others for ad-
land and the eastern parts of Germany
vice. I am thinking particularly of the
were subjected to Sovietization after the
Slovenes and Croats, but also of some
Second World War. Churchill delivered his
strong separatist tendencies in the west-
famous Fulton speech, the Cold War and
ern parts of Europe.
the Iron Curtain descended between East
But how did the concept of 'Finland' sur-
and West. Finland managed to keep on the
vive such great European crises as the two
western side of that boundary, but at a
world wars, without occupation and with an
price.
economy that eventually made the coun-
That price has been called 'Finlandization',
try, at least until the end of the 1980s, one
a term which may have been valid at times,
of the wealthiest in the world in terms of
but which gradually lost its meaning. Fin-
GNP?
land's incumbent President Mauno Koivis-
One reason has already been mentioned.
to said in a recent interview that "nothing
As a territory, excluding the areas ceded to
threatened Finland after 1944," while Yuri
the Soviet Union, Finland was fairly homo-
Deryabin, the present Russian ambassa-
geneous with fairly marginal class differ-
dor in Helsinki, is of the opinion that former
ences, despite the fact that the country had
president Kekkonen "always got his way in
two languages (and still has; 6% of the
Moscow." But this means forgetting that
population speaks Swedish).
the official friendship policy towards the
Soviet Union could bei and indeed was -
Finland has from time to time been the
used as a lever in Finnish politics. This was
subject of international sympathy, from
also reflected in cultural life, where books
very different directions, both East and
by Solzhenitsyn were non grata. A film
West. When the Czar tried to Russify Fin-
based on One Day in the Life of Ivan
land, a great European appeal for Finland
Denisovich was banned by the censors,
was signed by leading intellectuals. The
and the term 'anti-Soviet' could be person-
reason was that Finland was known for its
ally damning. One was supposed to be
science and art, and not its industry. The
pro-Soviet, in the name of the Treaty of
inexplicit concept of 'national culture' sim-
Friendship Co-operation and Mutual As-
ply meant that there was a great hunger for
sistance concluded in 1948 and which died
knowledge and aesthetic experience.
without glory at the end of 1991, when the
The old European states, particularly
Soviet Union was dissolved.
France, have often taken their existence
The fact is, as stated above, that the Finn-
for granted. But states which we regard as
ish economy gradually found the Soviet
self-evident, like Italy and Germany, have
Union to be a great asset, and that the
also experienced long periods of separa-
Soviet leaders, or their bureaucrats, were
tism, disruption and division by foreign
immensely irritated by Finnish statements
powers. It is all too easy to forget that
which could be construed as hostile. For a
modern nationalism is an invention of the
number of years there was also an unwill-
19th century and that before 1914 there
ingness to admit that Finland was neutral,
was a borderless Europe without pass-
instead it was merely "striving to be neu-
ports or visas.
tral," a problem which may now be rather
In the old Europe it was also considered
dated, as prospective Finnish EC mem-
vital to create pacts and alliances which
bership and acceptance of the Maastricht
would guarantee a balance of power; this
Treaty would entail reinterpretation of tra-
thinking was founded on imperial contra-
ditional neutrality, since membership re-
dictions and the fear that a single power
quires that democratic states join in the
would dominate Europe. This was what
defence of shared values.
Hitler's Germany attempted, and after the
The victors of the First World War did
Second World War it seemed imperative
violence to the principle of nationality by
for both West and East to have buffer
creating nation-states on vague premises,
territory of their own.
and history repeated itself after the Sec-
Oppressing nations and states and ruling
2
foreign territories indirectly was easier for
panies and real estate are still subject to
the Soviet Union than living in agreement
advance approval. All this has caused ex-
with its neighbours - with one exception,
tensive social depreciation, and an eco-
Finland.
nomic crisis which is self-inflicted, although
No one can be absolutely certain that the
sometimes the rest of the world is blamed.
time for alliances of that sort is definitely
It is true that demand has been declining in
past. It only seems past. Political alliances
Finland's main trading partners, but it is
have been replaced by economic alliances,
equally true that Finnish society was not
more specifically by the process of integra-
prepared for the day economic expansion
tion which Russia also seeks to join and to
stopped at home. A social welfare system
which Finland has submitted its applica-
had been created which swallowed more
tion.
revenues every year, and no one was
A psychological trap lies in thinking that
willing to admit the consequences once
Finland, which has had to resort to armed
they became apparent. Someone has said
force in modern times to preserve its inde-
that Finns are at their best in a crisis, which
pendence, would be wrong to give up
means that they should be at their best just
something won so dearly, mainly the myth
about now, since the present crisis is deep-
of total autonomy and independence. The
er than perhaps any other during the 75
sad example of Albania (a law was passed
years of Finnish independence, although
that prohibited foreign debt) demonstrates
the outer, visual image of the country is
that such self-sufficiency belongs to the
superficially tranquil. Still, more than 10%
past, but it may be difficult to admit that one
of the workforce is unemployed, the finan-
has already been part of a world of eco-
cial system is burdened with a huge vol-
nomic integration for some time. On an
ume of bad debt, there is now a chasm
intellectual level, one should also under-
between people's expectations and reali-
stand that deeper integration of this kind
ty, and we know from experience that
creates mutual dependence which in turn
reality generally wins.
may exacerbate conflicts.
And yet Finland has been by far the most
If defence against outside enemies be-
successful country in the border zone be-
comes of secondary concern to Finland,
tween "East and West' in Europe. In 1938,
other questions will rise to the surface,
the standard of living and productivity in
Considerable sections of the Finnish econ-
Czechoslovakia were higher than those of
omy are still closed, especially agriculture.
Finland. Being on the geographical periph-
There is tacit expectation that the export
ery of Europe may even cease to be a
sector, working under competitive condi-
disadvantage, as the country's proximity to
tions, should somehow finance a deficit in
the newly independent Baltic states and St
the balance of current accounts which is
Petersburg may eventually become an
partly the result of a lack of dynamism in
advantage. As a Finnish citizen, I feel
the closed sector. Although issues similar
compelled to believe in an end to the
to those being discussed in other industrial
present economic crisis, however absurd
countries are also under discussion in Fin-
that may seem at present.
land, such as the privatization of state-
owned industry and the functions of local
Jörn Donner, born in 1933, is a well-known
government, foreigners' rights to own com-
author and MP (Swedish People's Party).
3
Finland in Light of its History
The Finnish nation and state are products
gradually began to comprise the other Finn-
of many layers of history, as are the other
ish provinces, Häme, Karelia, Savo and
nations and states of the world. Finland is,
Ostrobothnia as well. Owing to the Great
in a historical sense, an eastern portion of
Power politics of Napoleon and Alexander
Sweden, with a predominantly Finnish-
I, Sweden ceded its eight eastern provinces
speaking population. It is the world's only
to Russia by the Treaty of Fredrikshamn in
country with Finnish as its official language.
1809, and the Czar added the appellation
The nation and state emerged under the
'Grand Duke of Finland' to his list of other
sceptre of Russian rule. Finland is a suc-
titles. In accordance with the traditions of
cessor-state to both Sweden and Russia.
the Russian Empire, Alexander preserved
Like most larger and older nations, the
the existing (Swedish) laws and social
French for example, the Finnish nation has
structure of this newly conquered territory,
its mythical history. But to a small and
thus necessitating the establishment of a
young nation, such a history is more impor-
separate central administration (the gov-
tant than to a large and ancient one. As
erning council), just as he did in Bessara-
Professor Yrjö Koskinen (d. 1903), leader
bia. But in contrast to Bessarabia, Finland
of the Finnish Party and father of Finnish
managed to use its new central govern-
history, once said: "If a nation wants a
ment (called 'the Senate' as of 1816) to
history, it will have one." And just the kind
transform itself during the course of the
it wants, one might add.
19th century into an internally independent
The Finnish people's great, national ro-
state. The country finally detached itself
from Bolshevik Russia in 1917 with Ger-
mantic story about its past includes the
migration from the bend in the River Volga
man assistance and then escaped becom-
to the promised land - Finland - arriving
ing a vassal state of Germany upon the
there in the early Christian Era, the emer-
downfall of the Kaiser's empire at the end
gence of a distinct Swedish 'Eastland' in
of 1918. Thus like it or not, Finland slipped
the Middle Ages, the transformation into a
into the role of a fully sovereign state,
grand duchy in the 16th century, the nas-
though no well informed citizen of that era
cence of the notion of independence in the
would have thought it possible.
18th century, the self-constitution of the
By virtue of its social composition, laws,
land into an autonomous state by way of a
form of government, and religion (with the
treaty with the Russian Emperor in 1809,
exception of its Greek Orthodox minority),
and then the fruition of independence, de-
Finland was - and in a sense remains - a
clared on December 6, 1917. At the heart
part of Sweden. Its status as a separate
of this story is the idea that the Finnish
state is a consequence of the loose struc-
nation accomplished this all by itself, albeit
ture of the Russian Empire, which ulti-
guided by the hand of Providence.
mately enabled a Finnish state to develop.
Reality often presents a less romantic pic-
As has been said of the Habsburg system,
ture. According to the latest scholarship,
Russia too was a "dynastic union of corpo-
there was no great migration to Finland.
rate states." Alexander I wanted to embel-
The separate nature of this Swedish 'East-
lish his cluster of titles with one more grand
land' stemmed mainly from the fact that it
duchy and strengthen his realm by one
was an overseas possession; otherwise it
more nation. He gave Finland a 'political
was an integral part of the Kingdom of
existence' and ordered his new subjects to
Sweden, unlike the other Swedish over-
be Finns. It was the Finns' duty to obey
seas conquests, such as Estonia and Livo-
their Emperor's command and infuse real
nia. Like the rest of the Swedish provinces,
substance into the state they had been
those on the eastern side of the Gulf of
given. The famous utterance "Swedes we
Bothnia (present-day Finland) were con-
are not, Russians we will not become,
solidated in step with the country as a
therefore let us be Finns" became some-
whole. 'Finland', which initially referred only
thing of a platform for nation building at that
to the southwestern tip of the peninsula,
time. Even so, 'Finnish nationalism' still
1
existed only as a bilingual - and predomi-
of the nation, whereas such a move was
nantly Swedish-speaking - movement. It
out of the question with the Baltic nobility,
was not until the 1840s that J.V. Snellman
which has been aptly termed 'illiberal'.
began to create a real Finnish-language
Thus Finland's civil society arose inde-
fennophile movement.
pendently and separately from Russia. In
Although both Estonia and Latvia were,
contrast, the Baltic nobility was closely
like Finland, successor states of Russia,
integrated into the ruling elite of St Peters-
Finland was in many ways unique among
burg, and no distinct civil society devel-
these borderlands. In contrast to Estonia
oped in those lands as did in Finland after
and Latvia, Finland was a 'complete' state
1809. It is strong evidence of Finland's
by 1917. The country had developed its
distinct status as an area separate from the
self-government further, and preserved it
rest of the Empire - that only 0.22% of the
for longer, than any other autonomous part
population were Russian speakers in 1900.
of the Russian Empire. Unlike the Baltic
Although a considerable number of Finn-
countries, it managed to fend off Stalin's
ish subjects were employed in Russia, with
attempt at Sovietization in 1939-40, and in
almost as many Finns in St Petersburg in
1944-45 distinguished itself from Hitler's
1840 as in the city of Helsinki itself, these
vassal states (Bulgaria, Romania and Hun-
people retained their Finnish citizenship
gary) by avoiding German occupation.
and were registered there by a Finnish
Among the capital cities of the European
passport bureau. Yet it would be an exag-
countries engaged in the war, only Mos-
geration to claim that the only bond be-
cow, London and Helsinki were never oc-
tween Finland and Russia was, aside from
cupied. This also largely explains why Fin-
the Emperor himself, the shared railway
land managed to avoid taking 'the Czech-
gauge or rifle calibre. It is certainly true that
oslovakian road' in 1944-48. Stalin settled
the Finnish rail network was built to serve
for obtaining a Treaty of Friendship, Coop-
the country's own needs, to link the lake
eration and Mutual Assistance specially
district with the coast and the different
tailored to Finnish conditions.
provinces to each other; the line from the
frontier to the Finland Station in St Peters-
The 600 years of Swedish rule differentiat-
burg was supervised by the Finnish au-
ed Finland from the Baltic lands. Livonia,
thorities, and the Finnish railway system
for instance, spent less than one hundred
was not linked to that of the rest of the
years under the Swedes. The people of
Empire until a trestle was built over the
Skåne in modern-day southern Sweden
River Neva in 1913. But on the other hand,
will have to wait until the year 2230 to have
it is worth remembering that Russia's stra-
actually been 'Swedish' for as long as the
tegic interests began, to influence railway
early Finns. Though, like the Baltic prov-
construction in Finland as of the turn of the
inces, Finland was overseen by a Russian
century, and that, aside from having a rifle
governor-general after 1809, it was none-
calibre in common, the Finnish army (1878-
theless a governorship ruled by the coun-
1901) was linked to the Russian also in the
try's own Swedish laws. In Finland, the
person of the governor-general, who was
governor-general was restrained by the
both the commander of the Finnish forces
Senate and occasionally by the Commit-
and of the Russian army's Finnish military
tee for Finnish Affairs in St Petersburg.
district. Likewise, the uniforms and lan-
Legality was also monitored by the Procu-
guage of command, Russian, were other
rator of the Senate. In the Baltic lands, the
shared features. Finland's telegraph sys-
German nobility sealed itself off with its
tem was Russian from the very start, as
own associations and its own Diets (Land-
was the postal system from 1890 onwards.
tag) and remained isolated from the gover-
Finnish legislation was made a separate
nor-general. A broad chasm separated the
part of Russian imperial legislation by the
Baltic German nobility from the rest of the
February Manifesto of 1899, but Finland's
populace. Finland, in contrast, developed
own Diet - a unicameral parliament as of
a state administration and a national con-
1906 - survived intact right through the
sciousness that united the four estates
end of the Russian Empire. Economically,
(nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants)
Finland had begun to part ways from Rus-
represented at the Diet. Furthermore, in
sia as early as the 1860s and to orient itself
1906 the Finnish nobility voluntarily aban-
towards western Europe. The country ob-
doned their privileged status in the interest
tained its own currency, the markka, in
2
1865 and shifted to the gold standard in
vian country depending on the tempera-
1877. In an economic sense, Russia, with
ture of relations. In bad times, as from 1939
its tariff boundaries, was perceived as a
onward, Finland was lumped together with
thriving 'foreign' market for Finnish indus-
the Baltic countries as the secret additional
try, and in Finnish liberal circles it was also
protocol to the Hitler-Stalin pact of August
considered a foreign country in a political
23, 1939 demonstrates. Even then, Mos-
sense. The common practice of Helsinki
COW treated Finland more leniently than it
newspapers to print Russian items under
did the Baltic states.
the heading of 'international news' did not
Though the Winter War (1939-40) could
go down well in St Petersburg.
have been avoided by succumbing to So-
In short, Finnish society never became
viet demands along with the Baltic coun-
Russian, despite the country's administra-
tries, Sovietization could not. The war test-
tion by an imperial governor-general with
ed the strength of the independence won in
even the Finnish title of maaherra changed
1917, and Finland survived that test. The
to 'governor' in 1839. On the contrary,
'war of retribution', launched in 1941 to
M.M. Speransky, the chief adviser to Em-
retake Karelia, could also have been avoid-
peror Alexander I, hoped to 'Sveco-fenni-
ed but in that case it is doubtful whether
cize' Russian society. The first step in this
Germany would have left Finland unoccu-
direction was to reunite the Finnish prov-
pied. Finding a way out of Hitler's war
ince of Viborg with the rest of Finland in
required good luck as well as skillful timing.
1811. Speransky's further plans were in-
When Finland made peace in September
terrupted, however, by his exile to Siberia.
1944, the onslaught of the Red Army had
The Swedish Gustavian system of admin-
been halted, the Germans had been forced
istration was preserved in Finland, even
out of the Baltic countries and no longer
after the Swedes mounted their own revo-
had any realistic opportunity of invading
lution in 1809 and distanced themselves
Finland. At Teheran in 1943, Stalin had
from that tradition. The foundations of that
assured Roosevelt that he would respect
system survived even beyond 1917, at
the independence of a nation that had
which time Russia underwent a revolution
fought as bravely as the Finns, and in late
of its own and, in a sense, 'left' Finland to
1944 and early 1945 he had no reason to
her own devices. Today's Russians who
occupy a country whose army was itself
claim that Finland 'left' Russia in 1917 do
doing the job of expelling the Germans. It
not know their history well enough. The
is entirely another matter that Stalin regret-
Finnish revolution of 1918 was an abortive
ted his generosity by the spring of 1948.
one, and therefore Finland is, alongside
With the Allied Control Commission in
Britain, one of the few European countries
Helsinki (1944-47), a Soviet naval base at
that have not witnessed true revolution -
Porkkala until 1956 and the conclusion of
neither bourgeois nor proletarian.
a Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and
Once the country had successfully sev-
Mutual Assistance in 1948, Finland had
ered itself from Russia and gained its inde-
certainly moved into the Soviet sphere of
pendence in 1917-1918, Finnish export-
interest if not the orbit of the true Soviet
ers quickly found new western markets to
satellites.
replace those they had lost in the east. The
Now that the USSR no longer exists, there
famine of 1918 prompted a thorough re-
has been discussion in Moscow over the
structuring of the agricultural sector and
nature of 'Finlandized' Finland's relations
new emphasis on self-sufficiency, the fruits
with the Soviet Union. Certain commenta-
of which were reaped during the Second
tors have described Finland as a mouse in
World War. In fact, Finland was to remain
the claws of a cat, while others note that the
an agrarian land of smallholders and log-
prey often outsmarted the predator. Some-
ging camps long into the post-war era.
how this discussion resembles a debate
In its foreign policy, independent Finland
that occurred at the beginning of the cen-
first aligned itself with the Baltic countries
tury over the conduct of Finland's repre-
and Poland (the so-called 'border-state
sentatives in imperial St Petersburg. Many
policy'), and then turned to the League of
of the Russians notorious to Finns as 'op-
Nations and the Scandinavian countries.
pressors', such as General and Historian
To Moscow, Finland appeared at times to
M.M. Borodkin, recognized these men for
be a Baltic, and at other times a Scandina-
what they were, able and clever guardians
3
of their nation's own interest.
the statue of Finland's national philoso-
The traveller to Helsinki who arrives by
pher and father of the Finnish currency,
ship past the sea fortress of Sveaborg and
J.V. Snellman, Opposite, in front of the
its Gustavian King's Gate, who lands at
House of Estates, one finds a bust of
Katajanokka and walks by Uspensky Ca-
Senator Leo Mechelin, theoretician of the
thedral, the Guard House and the Presi-
Finnish state, A portrayal of his work and -
dential Palace to Senate Square and pro-
at the same time - a 'self-portrait' of the
ceeds beyond the statue of Alexander I to
Finnish state is found in the frieze of the
the steps of the Lutheran (Nicholas) Ca-
House of Estates. The frieze was complet-
thedral, gets a good overview of two of the
ed in 1903 in secrecy from the 'Russifying'
main layers of Finnish history. In the Sve-
Governor-General Bobrikov, who held that
aborg fortress of Ehrensvärd and King
Finland was merely a Russian guberniya
Gustav, he sees a monument to the Swed-
and not a true state. The frieze depicts the
ish era, a rampart built to check the expan-
Swedish Law of 1734 and the Form of
sion of Petrine Russia. In the former impe-
Government of 1772, as well as the figure
rial (now presidential) residence and in
of Emperor Alexander I, who swore to
Senate Square with its statue of the Em-
uphold those laws, and the Finnish nation
peror and the Senate building, the visitor
to whom he made this solemn pledge. It
has before him the heart of the Grand
also displays the unique character of Finn-
Duchy - the original Finnish state. Though
ish nationalism: a bilingual nation is shown
the chapel erected beside Uspensky Ca-
rallying around its laws to defend them.
thedral in commemoration of Finland's
Similarly, when official guests - from East
annexation by Russia was demolished af-
or West - are received in the Hall of State
ter independence was gained, central Hel-
of the Presidential Palace, they sit before a
sinki's Empire-style architecture remains
statue of the 'Maid of Finland', her shield
testimony to this city's former status as the
emblazoned with the word 'LEX'. Legality
capital of an imperial grand duchy, a 'little
is once again the theme of Finland's 'na-
St Petersburg' as it were. At one time,
tional painting' The Attack ( 1899 by E.
plans were made to construct an imperial
Isto, showing that same maiden trying to a
palace, in the style of a Roman castrum or
save an enormous law book from the claws
Medieval stronghold, on the current site of
of a double-headed Russian eagle.
the Uspensky Cathedral. But, this being a
If our foreign guest still has enough energy,
poor country, Finland's rulers finally had to
he may choose to continue his tour from
settle for the unimposing Heidenstrauch
here northward. Crossing the 'Long bridge'
burgher's house, which now serves as the
(Pitkä silta), he will arrive at Hakaniemi
Presidential Palace. After the war of 1808
Square, the square of the Finnish people
and the period of reconstruction, the Hel-
and the Finnish working class in particular.
sinki of Gustav Vasa was left with only a
The square is bounded by the Helsinki
single building from the Swedish era. Just
Workers' Association building on the west-
as the city of Turku, with its Medieval
ern side, the headquarters of the Central
cathedral and other landmarks, is one of
Organization of Finnish Trade Unions on
the historical centres of the great Swedish
the south, and the statue entitled World
Kingdom that once surrounded the Baltic,
Peace, Moscow' gift to the city of Helsinki
Helsinki (made the capital city in 1812)
and symbol of the post-war era of Finnish-
belongs to the history of the Russian Em-
Soviet 'neighbourly' relations, on the east-
pire.
ern edge. Though the 'Long bridge' has
When the visitor to Helsinki leaves the
sometimes separated and sometimes unit-
steps of the Nicholas Cathedral and enters
ed the Finnish working and 'bourgeois'
the triangle formed by the Bank of Finland,
classes, on the whole, it acted as a dividing
the National Archive building and the House
line only a short time, from 1918 to the
of Estates, he is also leaving Finland's
1930s. In 1939, the Communists of the
'state square' and entering its 'national
north side joined the bourgeois residents
square'. The history, which Yrjö-Koskinen
of Helsinki's southern quarters in defend-
promised the Finnish people, is deposited
ing the Fatherland against an attack by the
on the northern edge of this triangle in the
Red Army.
Finnish National Archives. On the western
From the tower of the Workers' Associa-
edge, in front of the Bank of Finland, stands
tion building, where a red lantern was lit to
4
announce the revolution of 1918, one has
Finland is a young state, but it has its share
a splendid view of White (bourgeois) Fin-
of bronze figures, erected to commemo-
land across Töölö Bay. On Mannerhe-
rate a variety of people and ideas, from the
imintie, Helsinki's main thoroughfare, the
Czar to Mannerheim - - the Czar's uhlan -
White General himself, C.G. Mannerheim,
and from Peace to Lenin.
sits astride his mount, as if still leading his
Professor Osmo Jussila, born in 1938, is
peasant army in the victory parade of May
professor of political history at the Univer-
1918. Opposite, in front of Parliament
sity of Helsinki. Finland and Russia are his
House, stand the solid figures of P.E. Svin-
areas of special interest.
hufvud (1861-1944), vice-chairman of the
Senate and proclaimer of Finnish inde-
pendence, and K.J. Ståhlberg (1865-
1952), Finland's first president and 'father
of the Republic'. A little to one side is the
Osmo Jussila, born in 1938
seated figure of Kyösti Kallio (1873-1940),
Professor of Political History,
Finland's farmer president.
University of Helsinki
RAUHANKATU
HANK OF
FINLAND
1
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0000
0
0000
0000
*
SNELLMANINKATU
2
KIRKKOKATU
0000
onen
0
a DD 00 no 00 00 0
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0 DD 00 DO do DD 3
0100000
HALLITUSKATU
SENATE SQUARE
5
"
the rushing of thy rapids, the sighing in thy trees
Water and Forest:
the Keys to Finnish Culture
As early as the last century, Finland's
it into waves. / The wind lulled the maid /
prosperity was based on its forests and
and the billow drove the lass / about the
waterways. They were the primus motor in
blue main / and the froth-capped waves; /
the development of Finnish society and the
and the wind blew her womb full / the sea
country's economy. Thus it comes as no
makes her fat."
surprise that they also hold an important
Väinämöinen, the wise hero, is also a
position as cultural symbols.
seafarer, who seeks hidden knowledge in
Nature and culture may once have been
the depths of the sea. The battle for the
regarded as opposites. Today, however,
great magic object, the Sampo, is waged
such an attitude is fruitless, even danger-
on stormy seas. In the Kalevala, the sea is
ous. People who believe in cultural values
as much a challenge to the heroes' strength
cannot look on nature with indifference.
as a basic element of movement and a
And many Finns, Finnish artists, too, still
mysterious unknown realm peopled by
have "dirt under their fingernails." I myself
mermaids and other sea sprites. Its break-
am a fourth-generation city-dweller, but
ers give an inkling both of the Ithaca of
every summer I get the same powerful
Ulysses and of the Viking voyages current-
message from nature when I feel the pine
ly being presented to a wide public at the
needles of a forest path under my bare
Council of Europe's great exhibition in Paris.
feet.
The embrace of the sea also opens to
This summer there is an exhibition called
receive the tragic maiden, for whom the
Kalliolle kukkulalle (High on a hilltop- the
lapping waves are the only escape from
name is taken from a popular folk song) at
marriage to the old seer: "Waters of the sea
Helsinki railway station, that most urban of
/ so much blood of mine; / fishes of the sea
places. Using new methods and fleeting
/ so much flesh of mine; / brushwood on the
images, two young women photographers
shore / is a poor one's ribs; / grasses of the
have sought to crystallize the relationship
shore / are her tousled hair."
between nature and culture, and to stop
The very nature of water makes it an ele-
hurried passers-by to ponder it. The envi-
ment which maintains international rela-
ronment feeds the soul, they say; through
tions. Thus many wistful characters in Finn-
it, people see themselves as part of the
ish folk songs sit by rivers, weeping, as if
whole.
the river of Babylon had suddenly been
This sort of thing has been going on in
transferred into a Finnish setting. In Finn-
Finnish art for centuries. The artistic value
ish visual arts, rivers are threatening, the
of forests and people's relationship to them
sea is awesome and lakes are calm. There
occupied the Romantics of the 19th centu-
could hardly be a more explicit image of
ry, while images of water are inherited from
isolation and desolation than the picture of
ancient times. Both acquire a mythical
a frozen lake, bearing only the imprint of
dimension in art: water joins, the forest
the lone skier.
separates. The forest carries connotations
The great sea epic of Finnish literature is
of innocence and purity but water of expe-
Volter Kilpi's Alastalon salissa (In the par-
rience and continuity.
lour at Alastalo, 1933). This story about an
Finnish culture is still solidly based on the
attempt by Finnish islanders to build a tall
Kalevala, the Finnish national epic. It is not
ship is of international stature but it still
an epic of forests, but of water. The Kale-
awaits its translator. The action all takes
vala begins with the birth of the world out of
place on one day and its innovative lan-
the primeval cosmic ocean: "There came a
guage make it comparable in importance
great gust of wind / from the east nasty
to James Joyce's Ulysses and Joseph
/ lashed the sea to foam / whipped
Conrad's stories. The sea both threatens
1
and draws together: in the street, you may
contemporary art, as in Kimmo Kaivanto's
hear someone humming a tune which
Monet-type water-lilies paralysed by pollu-
brings a greeting from the Ancient Ro-
tion.
mans: "for all but sailing is futile."
Sculptors who use wood as a material
The openness and movement of the sea
have a special relationship with the forest.
have their counterpoint in the shelter and -
This even sparked a lively aesthetic de-
at least so far - permanence of the forest.
bate a while ago: is it really art if somebody
Even at its most romantic, the Finnish
carries an old stump out of the forest, puts
forest is nothing like Shakespeare's pasto-
it in an exhibition and calls it art? Wood
ral wonderland. The forest claims man for
lives in a more refined form in the work of
its own.
Martti Aiha and Kain Tapper: Tapper's
Aleksis Kivi, Finland's great classical writ-
sculptures, appealing in their monumental
er of the 19th century, made the forest into
simplicity, are like journeys into the soul of
a symbol which still endures. In his novel
the forest.
Seitsemän veljestä (Seven brothers, 1872),
It took a genius of Jean Sibelius's calibre to
he leads the seven brothers of the title,
give these two symbols musical shape.
who will not adapt to civilization, back to
Sibelius understood that it was the sea and
the "womb of the forest," into a rough,
the forest that gave an international audi-
northern pastoral existence. Kivi also wrote
ence a sense of Finland. In 1914/, he
the first Finnish tragedy, Kullervo, basing it
composed and conducted The Oceanides,
on folk poetry (the same work on which
a work commissioned for an American
Aulis Sallinen has based his new opera). In
music festival. The name might be a refer-
this work, the forest acquires features of
ence to the Kalevala, but Sibelius himself
destruction, final judgement and annihila-
said that the theme has a closer affinity
tion; it becomes a landscape of the apoc-
with Homer's mythological imagery. Sibe-
alypse.
lius's forest fantasy, on the other hand, the
The forest theme permeates all Finnish
symphonic poem Tapiola, is closely bound
literature as a symbol of social change -
to Finnish folk poetry, although it, too, was
"from forest to town" - and as a conveyor
commissioned for America and had its
of a lyrical state of mind. An ambiguous
world premiere in New York in 1925. Sibe-
world of forest and trees exists in the
lius' free hand with Kalevala themes is
production of Paavo Haavikko, a notable
obvious from the motto he wrote for the
Finnish contemporary poet. The trees are
score at the publisher's request: "Wide-
women, the forest is the nation's capital
spread they stand, the Northland's dusky
which it is unable to look after properly. In
forests, /ancient, mysterious, brooding
Ratsumies (The horseman), which has
savage dreams: / within them dwells the
also been made into an opera by Aulis
Forest's mighty god, / and woodspirits in
Sallinen, Sweden and Russia are creating
the gloom weave magic secrets."
a 'forest state' between them: "so great
The spirit of the sea, its powerful rhythms
and gloomy a forest / between the robber
and volumes continue to exert an attrac-
states, / Sweden and Russia. Land of the
tion on today's composers. When one lis-
happy." France has given a particularly
tens to Marea, the new work by the leading
enthusiastic reception to Arto Paasilinna's
Finnish orchestral composer of the 1980s,
novel Jäniksen vuosi( (The year of the hare:
Magnus Lindberg, one senses the ties to
French Le Lièvre de Vatanen), which is a
both Sibelius and Debussy. But in Marea
comic description of man's longing to re-
(the Italian for 'tide'), the continuously
turn to nature and his attempts to find a
changing, gushing and layered musical
survival ethic of his own in the pressures of
texture speaks its own, contemporary lan-
consumer society. Jäniksen vuosihas also
guage.
been made into a popular film.
But what role do women play in the culture
After touring the landscapes of Europe, the
of water and forest? Are they mere objects
pictorial artists of the 'golden age' at the
and ornaments in works by men? By no
turn of the century discovered the Finnish
means; women have created their own
forest. Their work has a power which has
fantasies and images, even if, quantita-
lately been interpreted as a plea for the
tively speaking, they fall short of those
conservation of nature. The ecological re-
made by men. Women have their own
sponsibility of mankind is also evident in
perspective, as we see from Edith Söder-
2
gran, a great Modernist poet of the 1920s,
Mirka Rekola's poem Burning in water: "In
who turns the relationship between trees
water as a bait / in front of your portrait /
and people on its head. Now the trees
silver, flowing / quickly, glowing. // Do you
speak: "My childhood's trees stand high in
see the double / fishes afire. / Your eyes
the grass / and shake their heads: what
kindle. / Burning in water."
has become of you? / Rows of pillars stand
One can also learn self-knowledge and
like reproaches: you are unworthy to walk
tolerance on 'the sea of life, and the per-
among us!"
fect guide on this voyage is Tove Jansson
Nature requires man to account for his
and her Moomin stories. The sea is part of
actions, wakens him from sleep. Small
the happy and sometimes frightening real-
observations may reveal metaphysical di-
ity of the Moomin world. Moominpappa at
mensions, as in the lines of Helvi Juvonen,
Sea describes the sea as a being, as
a woman poet of the 1950s: "Lichen lifted
unpredictable as a person and just as
its crisp cup, / and rain filled it, and a sky /
worthy of understanding and loving: 'You
glistened in charged with wind. // Lichen
see,' said Moominpappa, 'my idea is to
lifted its crisp cup: let's toast to the abun-
discover what secret rules the sea obeys.
dance of our lives."
I must if I'm going to learn to like it. I shall
Many contemporary woman writers, for
never be happy on this island until I've
example, Ulla-Lena Lundberg and Eeva
learned to like the sea.'
Kilpi, consider the sea and the forest part of
'It's exactly the same with people,' said
people's everyday environment, the coor-
Moomintroll eagerly, sitting up. 'Liking them,
dinates they use to navigate by. But the
I mean."
identification of water and human being
may also be filled with an almost magic
Irmeli Niemi, born in 1931,
mystery. In Maaria Wirkkala's light installa-
Ph. D., Director General,
tions, reflections literally walk on water.
Ministry of Education,
Fire and water merge in an erotic glow in
Helsinki
3
From Division to Interaction:
a Small Country on the Brink of Major Changes
First of all, it is important to know that
Norway. In the second half of the 19th
Finland has always been situated between
century Finland had the world's largest
east and west, on the border of Europe. A
sailing fleet, which headed west.
letter from the Pope to the Archbishop of
The zero point of Europe's post-war divi-
Uppsala in 1172 identifies Finland as one
sion is 1917, the year of the October Rev-
of the Baltic provinces that were targets for
olution and Finnish independence. As a
crusades and that had become battle-
result of the revolution Finland detached
grounds between east and west. Christi-
itself from the chaos of Russia. However,
anity came to Finland both from Novgorod
Finland had first to obtain recognition for its
in the east and from Uppsala in the west.
decision from Lenin. Before that, no coun-
The Byzantine border crossed Finland from
try in western Europe recognized Finnish
south to north. Even the oldest existing
independence.
travel guide to Finland describes the coun-
Thus Finland discovered her limitations at
try as a realm between east and west. The
navigational route ran from Äland, by the
birth; it was necessary to win the confi-
dence of the Soviet Union in order to have
island of Kökar, and from there eastwards
along the Finnish coastline, towards Vi-
leeway in the west.
borg, Russia and southward to Estonia.
As the Soviet Union locked itself up in
Thus the division of Europe is part of Finn-
Moscow, the border of western Europe
ish history.
coincided with Finland's eastern frontier.
This situation lasted until the end of World
Culturally and economically, Finland be-
came united with western Europe. Aca-
War II. Soviet politics remained obscure
demically-minded Finns studied at the uni-
and foreign to the European way of think-
versities of Paris, Bologna or Leipzig. Bish-
ing long after the war: introverted, party-
op Olavus Magni, a Finn, was rector of the
centered, obsessed with control.
University of Paris in the 15th century and
After the war, Finland had to return to the
even built an altar in the Cathedral of Turku
basic scenario; political confidence and
to Saint Ursula, the patron saint of that
acknowledgement of its independence had
university.
to be gained from Moscow, whereas the
As a province of Sweden, Finland came
markets for her products lay in western
under the influence of German culture.
Europe. Now most everything had to be
The advisers of the Swedish kings were
done on Moscow's terms, as the Soviet
Germans. Scholarship came to Finland via
Union had emerged from the war as a
Germany, as did the art of printing.
superpower. Finland was now within the
sphere of influence of a Communist super-
Finland became a nation after the Rus-
power.
sians took the country from Sweden in
1809. Finland was given an autonomous
In the post-war era, three fourths of Finnish
status, its own currency, state organs and
foreign trade was with western Europe.
even its own Diet. Finland became
Although the Soviet Union understood the
realities of Finnish culture and economics,
Finnish, since it was no longer part of
it did not wish to share a border with a
Sweden and did not wish to become part of
Finland that belonged politically to western
Russia. Finland was the showpiece of the
Europe. The policy of Finnish neutrality
Russian Emperor, the only peaceful bor-
was born. Leeway in the west was bought
derland. St Petersburg, the nearest me-
by first earning the trust of the east. It was
tropolis to Finland, was culturally French.
a balancing act between choices.
When Finland began to industrialize to-
This history, particularly the post-war era,
wards the end of the 19th century - while
has affected Finnish modes of thinking and
still under Russian rule - its markets were
behaviour in a variety of ways. De Gaulle is
in western Europe. Capital, technology,
supposed to have said that a state has no
and even industrial leaders were imported
friends, a state only has interests. It was in
from Germany, Scotland, Sweden and
Finland's interest to have friends in Mos-
1
COW. Moscow had no other friends in the
and sometimes a qualified majority. This
west.
necessitated a broad governmental basis
Friendship was a political issue. Finns have
or the tacit cooperation of the opposition. It
learnt to hold politics and foreign policy in
favoured unanimity, not conflicting opin-
high regard. Politics was what divided
ions. Finnish constitutional law has its roots
Europe and politics used to control things.
in the experience of the Civil War which
Politically conducted trade with the Soviet
followed on the heels of independence: a
Union offset problems in the west Europe-
situation where the nation was divided into
an market and so it was profitable for
equally strong right and left political fac-
Finland. Finland gradually began to over-
tions. This system of constitutional law and
estimate the importance of politics.
consensus created a broad political cen-
In the late 1940s, the time known in Finland
tre, involving long lasting governmental
as the 'years of danger', an American
cooperation between the agrarian Centre
diplomat, answering Finnish requests for
Party and the Social Democrats.
material aid, said: "We cannot promise you
Constitutional law is also connected with
aid, but will give you some good advice. In
another special feature of Finnish politics.
the future, you should remain on better
In Finland, the president possesses ex-
terms with your great neighbour."
ceptionally broad powers. The President
Finland became Finlandized of its own free
has played an active role, especially in
will, by its own form of wisdom.
foreign policy, where the necessity of na-
tional unanimity was most obvious. The
We should note that even after the war,
President's position was stressed particu-
Finland was internally divided into political
larly during the presidency of Urho Kekko-
factions on the left and right. The Commu-
nen, and it also extended to domestic
nists, ideological brothers of Moscow, had
policy. In fact, the division between foreign
the support of one quarter of the voters.
and domestic policy was vague.
Finland was also divided into different in-
Consensus was effective, but inflexible
terest groups: producers and consumers,
urban and country people.
and expensive. It covered everything. Pol-
itics began to govern economic life and the
The conflict-management theories of Ralf
ability to adapt to changing circumstances
Dahrendorf were the inspiration for a new
decreased. Ralf Dahrendorf himself be-
approach to the country's political and eco-
gan to criticise the Finnish and the Swed-
nomic administration, an approach which
ish system for concealing conflict rather
Max Jacobson called 'consensus'. Con-
than regulating it.
sensus called for the most significant is-
sues to bei solved by negotiation between
Unity is power according to a Finnish prov-
the Government, the opposition, the em-
erb. In the post-war era, this evolved into a
virtue, the only accepted doctrine. Differ-
ployers and the trade unions. Parliament
was not the centre of power. This system
ences had no place in foreign policy. Deci-
worked well as long as the country experi-
sions on income policy also covered social
enced economic growth - and had spoils
policy, regional policy, agricultural policy,
to divvy up. Thus labour-market and in-
almost everything. The intellectuals also
comes policy. penetrated the political are-
came closer to power, and the media joined
na and politics meshed with economic life.
the consensus. Thinking became stand-
ardized.
The public administration grew, wage lev-
els rose, and taxation increased, all this
The Final Act of the Helsinki CSCE was
happening on the basis of broad mutual
basically post-war Finnish. It defined the
understanding.
rights and duties of the states involved and
their position in the divided Europe. It was
Finland has a strong tradition of state-
based on the idea of peaceful coexistence
centered thinking, and so the idea of state-
between two opposing political systems in
centered consensus-building was as tradi-
Europe. In maintaining peace and bal-
tional and familiar as the country's situa-
ance, the principle of non-intervention in
tion between east and west. In important
the internal affairs of other states was
decisions, Finnish constitutional law used
upheld. Here Finland was adamant, con-
to require more than a simple majority; it
sidering its own situation. Cooperation was
demanded a majority of at least two thirds,
for states, not citizens.
2
The CSCE was the peace which had not
land, too. The nearest major home market
been made after World War II. In Finland
is Russia, and first of all St Petersburg.
few people understood that it was neces-
These markets are now trying to ascertain
sary, that the post-war era ended with the
the nature of Finnish expertise.
Helsinki Final Act, and that Europe began
One must also consider communication.
to move toward a new age.
The links between the increasing freedom
The Paris CSCE act, 15 years after Helsin-
of the media and the changes in eastern
ki, is proof of what happened. It declares
Europe are particularly clear. Those few
that respect for human rights and basic
provisions in the Helsinki Final Act about
freedoms offer vital protection against a
the flow of communication meant a great
strong state. Democracy and a market
deal. The liberation of the media was lim-
economy are common European values.
ited at first, yet irrevocable. The beginning
The freedom of the individual forms the
of perestroika was glasnost, openness.
basis for successful economic and social
This is significant in Finland because the
development.
foreign policy consensus also extended to
In Finland, so accustomed to state-centred
communication. Non-intervention in the
thinking, this was the greatest change of
internal affairs of the Soviet Union was also
all. And why not. Finland, after all, existed
understood to include communications.
between two state-centered systems, the
This may be one reason why the disinte-
Soviet Union and Sweden.
gration of the Soviet Union came as a
The post-war era was favourable for Fin-
surprise to the Finns.
land. Finland had a special position on the
At the moment, however, the Finns have
border of a divided Europe. For the Soviet
better connections to the emerging Rus-
Union, Finland was a display window. Since
sian media than anyone else. One thing
it is difficult to give up a special position,
must be remembered although Russia is
Finland wanted to believe that the Soviet
in a process of transformation, develop-
Union was eternal.
ments are still controlled to a large extent
Somehow, fear of what is going on in
by the same people as before. The new
Russia has an effect. Fortresses to protect
Europe is also a Europe of the people in the
Finland were built along the eastern fron-
east. And the east is also part of Europe.
tier as early as the 15th century. They
Finland now has a different type of neigh-
might come in very handy now for refu-
bour in the east. Russia will remain unsta-
gees. Or, more wisely, Finland now needs
ble for some time, but progress is being
the expertise of immigrant Russians for the
made towards more openness, democra-
new Russian market. Finnish trade with
cy and free enterprise. In the west Finland
the east will no longer be governed by
is becoming integrated with a different
politics.
Europe. Unrestricted mobility of people,
As Europe is no longer divided, neutrality
goods, capital and services forces one to
will also change. There will be no need to
ask where the opportunities of a small
buy leeway in the west from Moscow. It is
country lie. They lie in the philosophy of
time for Finland to stand on its own feet.
smallness, in creativity.
Finland lost the wars, but won the subse-
We will have to transform our thinking. The
quent peace based on division. European
position of a small country cannot be con-
integration is therefore a new challenge to
solidated by a Berlin wall if that wall is a
Finland in a completely different way from
mere memory of the insanity with which the
any other European country. It is a chal-
world was ruled. Without the cold wall,
lenge to thinking.
there might have been a hot war.
It is understood that in a Europe where
During the long division after the war, we
technology and economy form the basis of
learnt to think that peace was only an
division, Finland cannot remain neutral,
extension of war, an intermediate state, an
but will have to be on the side of progress.
interregnum. The position and thinking of a
This is where Finland's advantage on the
small country were based on those facts.
emerging eastern market lies. As freedom
Now it must change. This challenges for-
increases and Europe opens, the entire
eign policy, economic policy, but most of all
Continent will be a home market for Fin-
thinking.
3
First of all, state-centred thinking must
world was - so small that there is room in
change. We are moving towards a Europe
it for everyone," as Henry Miller wrote at
of citizens. Human rights offer protection
the ruins of Phaestos before World War II.
against a strong state. This change comes
easier to a large country than it does to a
small one. It means that the entire world
Jarmo Virmavirta, born in 1940
Lawyer, journalist
must become small. "The world must be-
Chairman of the Finnish Institute of
come small again as the Ancient Greek
International Affairs
4
FINNISH FEATURES
Edith Södergran's Fame is Spreading
Mention Scandinavian literature, and most
her time and social class: she was a good
people outside the Northern countries will
student, she excelled in languages and
give you Strindberg and Ibsen. Others may
literature, she had youthful crushes on
even venture Lagerlöf, Sillanpää, Hamsun
some of her teachers, she hated the re-
or Laxness. Writers of prose, writers for the
pressive tsarist regime. She spent her sum-
theatre. But ask for the name of a poet from
mer vacations in Raivola, some sixty miles
that part of the world, and increasing num-
north-west of St. Petersburg where the
bers of people today will say: Edith Söder-
family had a house - a perfect place for
gran. Wasn't she a Nordic poet? Isn't she
reading, for daydreaming. It was here she
one of the most beloved poets that Scan-
began to write poetry.
dinavia has ever produced?
The shadows fall
A St. Petersburg childhood
The early Södergran poetry gives us little
Indeed she is, and today she is also con-
indication of the poet to come. These are
sidered one of the best. One hundred
verses, mostly in German, written by an
years ago this year, and twenty-five years
adolescent, conventional in style and sub-
before Finland became an independent
ject matter. Soon however, life dealt
country, Edith Södergran was born in St.
Södergran a series of blows: she lost her
Petersburg. Her parents were Finnish, and
grandmother, an adopted sister, and final-
since they belonged to Finland's Swedish-
ly her father to whom she was very close.
speaking minority, Södergran's home
Worse yet, her father died of tuberculosis
language was Swedish. She attended an
and before Edith was sixteen years old,
excellent school where the language of
she found out that she had contracted the
instruction was German and where she
same disease.
also studied French, Russian, and English.
As the shadow of illness and death fell over
Södergran's life in St. Petersburg was not
Södergran's life, something remarkable
unlike that of other young gifted women of
happened to her art. Taking her vocation
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13
HELSINKI FINLAND
death, at her side as she is searching for
ways to survive her illness. Another import-
ant theme comes from a searing love affair
that Södergran had with a married man
sixteen years her senior. The doomed af-
fair left Södergran deeply disappointed but
produced some of her best-known love
lyrics.
War, revolution, more poetry
The First World War brought turmoil to the
Raivola region. Trains full of troops passed
in one direction, refugees in another. Food
became scarce. The Russian Revolution
of 1917 cut off the financial support that
Södergran and her mother had been re-
ceiving from St. Petersburg. The Finnish
civil war that followed on its heels brought
fighting right into Raivola itself. Söder-
gran's precarious health deteriorated.
Edith Södergran 1892-1923
Her answer to all these difficulties was
another collection of poetry, September-
as a poet with increasing seriousness, she
lyran (The September Lyre), published in
abandons German, abandons rhyme and
1918. Most critics had met her first collec-
meter, and starts writing poetry in Swedish
tion with lukewarm interest. But now her
in a modernistic style never before seen in
style had changed: Södergran writes pro-
Scandinavia. But before she published her
phetic poems full of cosmic visions and
debut collection she took a trip to the
exalted strength. These poems shocked
continent which provided her with valuable
most critics, and some even questioned
spiritual nourishment and inspiration.
her sanity. Despite this, Södergran pub-
lished two more collections: Rosenaltaret
(The Rose Altar, 1919) and Framtidens
The sanatorium years
Skugga (Future's Shadow, 1920).
It was no ordinary tourist trip. When Söder-
gran found out that she had tuberculosis,
Final years
she was first sent to a Finnish sanatorium
- the same one where her father had died.
There was enough illness, poverty, and
She hated the place and would not collab-
defeat in Södergran's short life to expect
orate in her treatment. Her doctor then
the predominant tone of her poetry to be
referred her to a Swiss sanatorium in Davos.
one of disillusionment. But that is not the
There, she not only profited from the care
case. What Södergran has left us, instead,
of a wise doctor but also from the interna-
is a song to life's beauty and the triumph of
tional atmosphere of the sanatorium itself
the human spirit. In her last poems, written
with patients from all over the world taking
shortly before her death at the age of thirty-
the cure and enjoying the well-equipped
one, she speaks of a humble and childlike
libraries, the theatre companies and sym-
acceptance of God and of a closeness to
phony orchestras of Davos. On the eve of
nature which is free of all artifice. It is an
the outbreak of World War I, Edith Söder-
intimate voice, but it has carried far: Söder-
gran returned from Switzerland much im-
gran has been translated into all the major
proved, and ready to appear in print.
languages and continues to win new
readers, even among those who do not
usually read poetry.
Love affair and debut
Södergran's first collection, Dikter (Poems)
was published in 1916. The poems are
suffused with lyricism and a gentle sad-
ness. The poet addresses the "stranger",
2
My Soul
My soul can tell no tales and knows no truths,
my soul can only cry and laugh and wring its hands;
my soul cannot remember and defend,
my soul cannot consider or approve.
As a child / saw the sea: it was blue.
In my youth / met a flower: she was red.
Now a stranger sits by my side: he is colorless,
but / fear him no more than the virgin feared the dragon.
The knight came upon the virgin, red and white,
but / have dark rings under my eyes.
From Love & Solitude, selected poems by Edith Södergran. Bilingual centennial edition.
Translated by Stina Katchadourian. Fjord Press, 1992.
The actress Lisa Doron as Edith Södergran in Stina Katchadourian's play The Raspberry Patch. The
play has been performed in Finland and Sweden, in the US and in Ireland, and will be performed
in Norway and in Russia during the summer of 1992.
Written by Stina Katchadourian, author, translator
June 1992
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
FINNISH FEATURES
Finnish Music in the World
Finland has experienced a period of rapid
in Helsinki, which have achieved fame
growth in musical performances during the
both on tour and with their recordings. The
past decade. The level of music-making
Helsinki Philharmonic (founded in 1882) is
has risen considerably, in many cases to
the oldest Nordic orchestra with an unin-
the international elite. More music is being
terrupted history of concert-giving. Apart
played and listened to than ever before.
from the Helsinki orchestras, those of Lah-
Helsinki, the capital, is still the main centre
ti, Tampere and Turku are also well known.
of music in Finland, but nearly every city
The Tapiola Sinfonietta and the Ostroboth-
and town has an active musical life today.
nia Chamber Orchestra are professional
In summer, dozens of music festivals draw
chamber orchestras; other, more irreg-
enthusiastic crowds all over Finland.
ularly active chamber orchestras include
Although Finland does not have anything
the flexible Avanti!, which was founded by
like the heritage that many countries in
young musicians and which changes its
Central Europe can boast of, the traditions
ensemble to fit the works performed, and
of the performing arts are surprisingly old
the Finnish Chamber Orchestra.
in some cases. For example, Turku Musi-
The founder of the Helsinki Philharmonic
cal Society, founded in 1790, is one of the
and the 'true' interpreter of the works of
world's oldest orchestral institutions still in
Sibelius, Robert Kajanus (1856-1933), was
operation: it lives on under the name of the
the first Finnish conductor to establish a
Turku Philharmonic Orchestra.
reputation abroad. Since his time, several
Orchestras are the cornerstone of Finnish
Finnish conductors have reached the in-
musical life at present. Finland has a popu-
ternational limelight; those still active in-
lation of five million, yet it has more than ten
clude Paavo Berglund (b. 1929), Leif Seger-
professional symphony orchestras and
stam (b. 1944), Okko Kamu (b. 1946) and
twice as many semi-professional orches-
Osmo Vänskä (b. 1953). The brightest
tras which give concerts regularly. Orches-
stars in the young constellation of conduc-
tras, like all musical life, are supported by
tors are Jukka-Pekka Saraste (b. 1956)
society through a comprehensive subsidy
and the newly appointed chief conductor of
system.
the Los Angeles Philharmonic, Esa-Pekka
The best known orchestras are the Finnish
Salonen (b. 1958). The large number of
Radio Symphony Orchestra and the Hel-
orchestras in Finland is often cited as an
sinki Philharmonic Orchestra, both based
explanation for the high incidence of excel-
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13
HELSINKI FINLAND
Scene from the opera Aida, a work featured in the repertoire of the Savonlinna Opera Festival
since 1986
lent Finnish conductors.
linna Opera Festival, is held each summer
Finnish singers have also done well in both
in the Medieval courtyard of Olavinlinna
Lied and opera ever since the days of Aino
Castle. Apart from the National Opera and
Ackté (1876-1944), who took the operas
the Savonlinna Opera Festival, operas are
of Paris, London and New York by storm.
performed on an irregular basis by various
Recent and current world-famous Finnish
operatic societies.
singers include bass singers Matti Salmi-
Finland is known as a land rich in choirs,
nen (b. 1945), Jaakko Ryhänen (b. 1946)
although choral singing no longer carries
and Martti Talvela (1935-1989), whose
such patriotic clout as it did last century.
brilliant career was tragically cut short;
Choral music relies almost solely on ama-
baritone singers Tom Krause (b. 1934),
teur singers, but despite this apparent
Walton Grönroos (b. 1939) and Jorma
handicap many choirs have attained an
Hynninen (b. 1941); and, in the younger
extremely high level of performance.
generation, soprano Karita Mattila (b. 1960)
The current boom in Finnish musical life is
and bass Petteri Salomaa (b. 1961). Many
largely due to the efficient music training
other Finnish singers are pursuing a ca-
system. The first school of music in Finland,
reer in the opera houses of Central Europe.
Helsinki Music Institute, was founded in
That Finnish singers often go abroad to
1882. This institution is now called the
work is no wonder, since there is only one
Sibelius Academy; it is the only university-
professional opera company in Finland,
level music education facility in Finland.
the Finnish National Opera. The other well-
Over the last few decades, music schools
known manifestation of opera, the Savon-
have sprung up all over Finland. Eleven
2
Conductor Jukka-Pekka Saraste
conservatories, nearly a hundred music
the best-known Finnish musicians abroad.
institutes and a large number of other
It is only a question of time before other
music schools ensure that talent is spotted
young musicians follow suit.
and provided with competent tutelage.
Finnish musical life follows a regular annual
The fruit of this increase in music edu-
pattern. The normal concert season. be-
cation is beginning to ripen, and musicians
gins in September, peaks before Christ-
now make their débuts at an increasingly
mas and continues regularly again through-
younger age. The world-famous Tapiola
out spring to the end of May; however, the
Choir is a traditional example of the re-
summer season with its dozens of music
markable achievements of young Finns.
festivals is really the culmination of the
Another example could be the Helsinki
year. The best-known music events in sum-
Junior Strings, an astonishingly mature
mer in Finland are: the Savonlinna Opera
and disciplined orchestra of young mu-
Festival, the Naantali and Kuhmo Cham-
sicians whose age is between ten and
ber Music Festivals, the Turku Music Fes-
eighteen.
tival, the Pori Jazz Festival, the Kaustinen
The first internationally known Finnish in-
Folk Music Festival, the Viitasaari Con-
strumentalist was the clarinetist and com-
temporary Music Festival, and the Helsinki
poser Bernhard Henrik Crusell (1775-
Festival, which brings the summer season
1838), who spent most of his life in Sweden;
to a close in August.
however, comparatively few Finnish in-
The summer festivals attract a large
strumentalists have managed to reach in-
number of international visitors, both con-
ternational, fame, compared with the
certgoers and top performers. Thus, the
number of conductors and singers. Cur-
summer season has become a showcase
rent celebrities in this field include cellist
for the diversity and high quality of Finn-
Arto Noras (b. 1942) and pianist Ralf Gothó-
ish musical life.
ni (b. 1946). This situation will in all prob-
ability change, for a generation of talented
and thoroughly educated musicians is
Written by Mr. Kimmo Korhonen, M.A.,
growing up. For example, young pianist
free-lance journalist
Olli Mustonen (b. 1967) is already one of
April 1992
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
4
FINNISH FEATURES
Main Outlines of Finnish History
The Swedish reign
The Reformation set in motion a great rise
Until the middle of the 12th century, the
in Finnish-language culture. The New Tes-
tament was translated into Finnish in 1548
geographical area that is now Finland was
a political vacuum, and interesting to both
by the Bishop of Turku, Mikael Agricola
its western neighbour Sweden and the
(1510-1557), who brought the Reforma-
tion to Finland and created written Finnish.
Catholic Church there, and its eastern
neighbour Novgorod (Russia) and its Greek
The entire Bible appeared in Finnish in
1642.
Orthodox Church. Sweden came out on
top, as the peace treaty of 1323 between
During its period as a great power (1617-
Sweden and Novgorod assigned only east-
1721), Sweden extended its realm around
ern Finland to Novgorod. The western and
the Baltic and managed, due to the weak-
southern parts of Finland were tied to
ness of Russia, to push the Finnish border
Sweden and the Western European cul-
further east. With consolidation of the ad-
tural sphere, while eastern Finland, i.e.
ministration in Stockholm, uniform Swedish
Karelia, became part of the Russo-Byzan-
rule was extended to Finland in the 17th
tine world.
century. Swedes were often appointed to
As a consequence of Swedish domination,
high offices in Finland, which strengthened
the Swedish legal and social systems took
the position of the Swedish language in
Finland.
root in Finland. Feudalism was not part of
this system and the Finnish peasants were
Finland as a Grand Duchy of
never serfs; they always retained their
personal freedom. Finland's most import-
Russia (1809-1917)
ant centre was the town of Turku, founded
When Sweden lost its position as a great
in the middle of the 13th century. It was
power in the early 18th century, Russian
also the Bishop's seat. In 1362, Finns were
pressure on Finland increased, and Russia
given the right to send representatives to
conquered Finland in the 1808-1809 war
the election of the king in Sweden, and in
with Sweden.
the 16th century this right was extended to
During the Swedish period, Finland was
include representation in the Swedish Diet.
merely a group of provinces and not a
The Reformation started by Luther in the
national entity. Finland was governed from
early 16th century also reached Sweden
Stockholm, the capital of the Finnish prov-
and Finland, and the Catholic Church
inces at that time. But when Finland was
consequently lost out to the Lutheran faith.
joined to Russia in 1809, it became an
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
2
HELSINKI FINLAND
autonomous Grand Duchy. The Grand
Senate and its own Diet, its own local
Duke was the Russian Emperor, whose
officials, legislation, army, money (the mark)
representative in Finland was the Governor-
and postage stamps. And to top it all off,
General.
Finland was separated from the Empire by
Finland's highest governing body was the
an official border.
Senate, whose members were Finns. Mat-
The obliteration of 'Finnish separatism', a
ters pertaining to Finland were presented
policy also known as Russification, started
to the Emperor in St. Petersburg by the
during the 'first era of oppression' (1899-
Finnish Minister Secretary of State. This
1905) and continued during the second
meant that the administration of Finland
era (1909-1917). The 1905 Revolution in
was handled directly by the Emperor and
Russia gave Finland a short breathing
the Russian authorities were therefore
spell, while a new legislative body to re-
unable to interfere.
place the old Estates was created in 1906.
The enlightened Russian Emperor
At that time this was the most radical
Alexander I, who was Grand Duke of
parliamentary reform in Europe, because
Finland in 809-1825, gave Finland exten-
Finland moved in one bound from a four-
sive autonomy thereby creating the Finn-
estate diet to a unicameral parliament and
ish state. The Lutheran Church retained its
universal suffrage. Finnish women were
position in Finland, and so did Swedish as
the first in Europe to gain the right to vote
the official language of the country. In
in parliamentary elections.
1812, Helsinki was made the capital of
Finland, and the University, which had
been founded in Turku in 1640, was moved
The independent republic
to Helsinki in 1828.
On December 6, 1917, Parliament ap-
The Finnish national movement gained
proved the declaration of independence
momentum during the Russian period. The
drawn up by the Senate under the leader-
Finnish national epic, the Kalevala, cre-
ship of P.E Svinhufvud (1861-1944).
ated by Elias Lönnrot, was published in
At the same time, the breach between the
1835. J.V. Snellman (1806-1881), who
parties of the left and the right had become
was a senator and professor at the Univer-
irreconcilable. At the end of January 1918,
sity of Helsinki during the reign of Alexander
the left-wing parties staged a coup, and the
II in 1855-1881, worked to promote the
government was forced to flee Helsinki.
Finnish language and to make it an official
The ensuing Civil War ended in May with
language alongside Swedish.
victory for the government troops, led by
The Language Decree issued in 1863 by
General Gustaf Mannerheim (1867-1951).
Alexander II marked the beginning of the
Finland became a republic in the summer
process through which Finnish became an
of 1919, and K.J. Ståhlberg (1865-1952)
official administrative language. Although
was elected the first president.
only one-seventh of the Finnish population
The independent republic developed briskly
spoke Swedish as its first language,
during the 1920s. The wounds sustained
Swedish retained its dominant position until
in the Civil War were alleviated by concili-
the beginning of the 20th century.
atory measures such as including the Social
The Finnish Diet was convened in 1863
Democrats in the government; in 1926-
after a break of more than half a century.
1927 they formed a minority government
From then on, the Diet met regularly, and
on their own. In 1929, the Lapua Move-
active legislative work in Finland began.
ment, which had taken its cue from Italian
The Conscription Act of 1878 gave Finland
fascism, demanded a ban on communist
an army of its own.
activities, and such a ban was indeed put
into effect by the "communist laws" of 1930.
During the reign of Alexander III (1881-
In 1932, the Lapua Movement also tried
1894) and particularly of Nicholas II (1894-
armed revolt against the government, but
1917), nationalist circles in Russia gained
had to back down.
increased influence. The Grand Duchy of
Finland, part of the Russian Empire but
Although Finland first pursued a foreign
enjoying extensive privileges had long been
policy based on cooperation with Estonia,
a sore point to Russian chauvinists. Finland
Latvia, Lithuania and Poland, the League
was a state within a state, with its own
of Nations was already the cornerstone of
2
Finnish security policy in the 1920s. When
latitude in foreign policy. by pursuing an
the inability of the League of Nations to
active policy of neutrality. This was evident
safeguard world peace became evident in
for instance in initiatives taken by Finland,
the 1930s, Parliament approved a Scandi-
such as the Conference on Security and
navian orientation in 1935.
Cooperation in Europe held in Helsinki in
In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet
summer 1975.
Union signed a non aggression pact, which
When Urho Kekkonen, who had led Finland
included a secret protocol relegating
for a quarter of a century, resigned be-
Finland to the Soviet sphere of interest.
cause of poor health, Mauno Koivisto was
When Finland refused to allow the Soviet
elected president in 1982.
Union to build military bases on its territory,
In the 1945 parliamentary election, the
the latter revoked the non-aggression pact
Communists won a great victory and en-
of 1932 and attacked Finland on Novem-
tered the Government from which they
ber 30, 1939. The Winter War ended in a
were forced to resign following defeat in
peace treaty drawn up in Moscow on March.
the 1948 election. The following govern-
12, 1940, giving southeastern Finland to
ments were coalitions of the Social Demo-
the Soviet Union.
crats and the Agrarian Party, until the former
When Germany invaded the Soviet Union
were forced to relinquish their position in
in the summer of 1941, Finland entered the
1958 due to distrust on the part of the
war as a co-belligerent with Germany. The
Soviet Union. Major gains by the left in the
'Continuation War' ended in armistice in
1966 parliamentary elections allowed the
September 1944. In addition to the areas
Communists and the Social democrats
already lost to Russia, Finland also ceded
who had long been in opposition to return
Petsamo on the Arctic Ocean. The terms of
to the government. The political right (the
the armistice were confirmed in the Paris
National Coalition Party) was subsequent-
Peace Treaty of 1947.
ly in opposition for some two decades.
Marshal Mannerheim was made president
Spring 1987 marked another turning point
of the republic towards the end of the war.
when the conservative National Coalition
He was followed in 1946 by J.K. Paasikivi
Party and the Social Democrats formed a
(1870-1956), whose aim was to improve
majority government which remained in
relations with the Soviet Union. The Treaty
power until 1991. After the 1991 election,
of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual
the Social Democrats were left in op-
Assistance concluded between the
position, and a new government was formed
countries in 1948 provided the foundation
by the Conservatives and the Centre Party
of what is known as the 'Paasikivi Line'. In
(formerly the Agrarian Party).
subsequent years, Finland's international
position grew stronger. The Olympics were
held in Helsinki in 1952, and in 1955 Finland
joined both the United Nations and the
Nordic Council.
Urho Kekkonen, who was elected presi-
Written by
Prof. Seppo Zetterberg, University of Helsinki
dent in 1956, worked to increase Finland's
June 1992
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
FINNISH FEATURES
Finnish Theatre
Finland has achieved a reputation as a
and about half as many professional
country where theatre thrives. The fig-
theatre groups of varying sizes. The
ures often quoted in support of this show
groups, in particular, make a habit of
that every other Finn goes to the theatre
touring different parts of the country,
at least once a year, on average. This is
while the popularity of theatre excur-
not, in fact, as surprising as it seems,
sions is testified to by the numerous
since the theatre is never far away: there
chartered coaches that typically flank a
are nearly 40 permanent or institutional
theatre building during performances.
professional theatres around the country
Finnish theatre has also been described
Ralf Långbacka is known best for directing and researching Brecht. THE LIFE OF GALILEI at
Helsinki City Theatre in 1987 featured one of the best-known Finnish actors in Scandinavia, Lasse
Pöysti.
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13
HELSINKI FINLAND
as a people's theatre; the reference is
The foundation of theatre: from
then to the city or municipal theatre insti-
the international to the national
tution which exists in various administra-
tive forms. A theatre of this kind has a
Finland's remote geographical location
permanent staff, its own theatre building,
meant that early theatrical influences,
State and municipal subsidies and a
while they did reach Finland, remained
fixed number of performances per year
slight. In the late 18th century, foreign
catering to all tastes. This type of theatre
theatre companies visited Finland from
fell out of grace in the late 1960s, com-
the west, south and east. The Swedish
pared with groups founded by the new
influence was ultimately the strongest,
generation in the name of 'the people'
as is witnessed by the fact that the main
and fired by the social passions of the
Swedish-speaking theatre in Finland re-
period. These groups took their perform-
mained a sort of remote outpost for the
ances outside the established theatres -
Stockholm theatres until 1916, at which
if they had any permanent venue at all -
point the Swedish-speaking Finns took it
and proceeded one production at a time.
over, up to and including the leading
roles.
The administration, such as it was, was
handled by the actors themselves. But
Finnish theatre was born in a period of
tradition is a force to be reckoned with,
nationalistic fervour around the middle of
and within a few decades these fringe
the 19th century, following the same
groups became established in turn them-
pattern as several other countries whose
selves, passed influences back into the
national language or population was
institutional theatres, and came to re-
subject to oppression. Drama was the
semble permanent theatres themselves
first art form to appear: Aleksis Kivi (1834-
with their own venues and regular pa-
1872), who attained the status of Fin-
trons. In fact, such institutionalization is a
land's national author, wrote a tragedy
feature typical of Finnish theatre, and it
called Kullervo, a comedy called Num-
was not actually seriously threatened
misuutarit ('The cobblers on the heath')
until the beginning of the 1990s, with the
and several other plays which have re-
emergence of a profusion of small-scale
mained in the stock repertoire; while J.J.
theatres, for whom 'the people' no longer
Wecksell's (1838-1907) Daniel Hjortwas
represented a single homogeneous con-
considered the most significant drama
cept.
written in Swedish before Strindberg.
Domestic and foreign material often min-
The founding of the Finnish Theatre in
gle in Finnish theatre in a way that makes
1872 was preceded by scattered theatre
them difficult to distinguish from one an-
performances in Finnish. The theatre
other. The theatre in itself is a foreign
was set up following international mod-
loan, but the penchant for acting can
els, the purpose being to show that
already be seen in the ancient folk poetry
Finnish-language culture was on a par
with that of established cultures.
and rites. The popularity of amateur thea-
tre is a modern continuation of this old
The most significant person in the Finn-
urge to perform. Theatrical styles are
ish Theatre was its director, Kaarlo Berg-
also foreign in origin, but adapting them
bom (1843-1906), whose main influ-
to Finnish circumstances has in many
ences came from Germany. The reper-
cases produced something quite origi-
toire of the theatre exhibited strong links
nal. Finnish drama has always formed a
both with the Continent and with Scandi-
significant part of the repertoire - more
navia. Henrik Ibsen was particularly popu-
than one third- but foreign plays that are
lar, and his plays were often performed
staged successfully on the Continent
in Finland immediately following their
tend to appear in Finnish translation fair-
premieres in Norway. The cultural obli-
ly rapidly. The international and the dom-
gations of the theatre required that classi-
estic have occupied the Finnish theatre
cal drama be performed; Bergbom faced
as equals from its very beginnings to the
up to this task admirably, aided by a
present day.
cohort of industrious and talented trans-
lators. Apart from contemporary foreign
2
The Chekhov tradition in Finland has survived its foremost proponent, Eino Kalima. The
National Theatre has also introduced many internationally famous guest directors.
THE CHERRY ORCHARD was directed by Anatoli Efros in 1983.
drama and the classics, Finnish drama
longer alone in nurturing the develop-
was a strong third component in the
ment of Finnish theatre. The largest pro-
theatre's profile. After Kivi, Bergbom fos-
vincial towns soon acquired theatres of
tered a new generation of dramatists,
their own, many of which eventually be-
who now had live performances to draw
came professional. Amateur theatre was
upon as well as translations of major
extremely popular all over the country,
foreign plays. The most important of these
particularly in the workers' clubs, many
new dramatists was Minna Canth (1844-
of whose theatres also went profession-
1897), who progressed from the realism
al. A particularly high status was won by
of the 1880s to conventional depictions
the Tampere Workers' Theatre, founded
of family life during the next decade.
in 1901, often a pioneer of change in
At the turn of the century, the changing
drama, and today the only surviving pro-
times were reflected in the theatres as
fessional workers' theatre. The 1910s
well, and National Romanticism focused
also saw experimental contributions to
on Finnish history. The political situation
the field of drama, such as the Ida Aal-
in Finland added fine shades of its own.
berg Theatre, founded in 1918 in memo-
In 1902, the Finnish Theatre moved into
ry of the greatest star of Finnish theatre
a new building designed in the National
history and applying Stanislavskian meth-
Romantic style and changed its name to
ods, and the Vapaa Näyttämö ('Free
the Finnish National Theatre. At a time
stage') founded by Elli Tompuri a little
when Russification was imminent, the
later.
change acquired great symbolic signifi-
cance, while the repertoire showed at-
Institutionalization of the
tempts to emphasize the special quali-
national theatre movement
ties of Finland's past.
Finland became independent in 1917.
However, the National Theatre was no
Repertory theatre became the norm, and
3
artists were now occupied full-time. Con-
The recession in the 1930s, along with
tacts with the outside world proliferated,
increased political awareness, was re-
and theatre managers and directors in
flected in the theatres, which turned to
particular travelled abroad to find new
the classics and to depictions of the
plays and modes of interpretation. Ex-
Finnish people. The most prominent
perimentation in the 1920s was within
name in Finnish drama in the 1930s was
the institutional theatres, since the heavy
Estonian-born Hella Wuolijoki (1886-
entertainment tax at the time made it
1954), whose six plays were premiered
impossible to organize theatre perform-
at the Helsinki People's Theatre under
ances without public subsidies; the few
Eino Salmelainen (1893-1975). Many of
temporary groups were summer touring
these plays, such as the Niskavuori cy-
companies set up by actors, more often
cle, Justiina and Juurakon Hulda, have
to earn money to pay for costumes than
retained their status since their initial
for artistic experimentation.
overwhelming success in the 1930s. The
Eino Kalima (1882-1972) had been ap-
product of Salmelainen's and Wuolijoki's
pointed director of the Finnish National
cooperation represents the typical '30s
Theatre in 1917. His exceptionally long
style: Realism flavoured with focuses
directorship created a comfortable work-
and emphases borrowed from the Ex-
ing environment in the theatre, despite
pressionism of the previous decade. The
occasional disputes. The National Thea-
new Realism was selective, rhythmic,
tre was without doubt the most important
and theatre-like.
theatre in the country. A new major dram-
atist emerged with the début in the 1910s
Upheaval in the 1930s
of Maria Jotuni (1880-1943), storywriter
Finnish theatre has always been vulner-
and depicter of women, who displayed
able to conflicts, some of which have
human weaknesses in her plays with
made the news. In the 1880s, the Board
gentle irony (e.g. Miehen kylkiluu, 'Ad-
of the Finnish Theatre discontinued per-
am's rib', 1914). The Expressionists at-
formances of Canth's naturalistic depic-
tracted a great deal of attention in their
tion of the poor because it was too mer-
day people like Hagar Olsson, advo-
ciless. In the early 1920s, Parliament
cate of literary Modernism, or Lauri Haar-
debated the immorality of a Jotuni play
la, who waxed patriotic with pathos- but
being performed at the National Theatre.
more so then than at any time thereafter.
The moralists usually triumphed in this
Expressionism arrived in Finnish theatre
controversy. The 1930s and the Helsinki
belatedly, in the 1920s. It can be seen as
People's Theatre in particular seem to
an extension of German reflections in
have attracted the most disputes, mainly
Finnish theatre, the most conspicuous
political issues highlighting the hegemo-
name being Max Reinhardt. This influ-
ny of the literary ideals dominating the
ence manifested itself both in choices of
theatre world. Criticism was levelled at
plays and in features of the performanc-
Marc Connelly's Green Pastures, Wuol-
es. The strictest adherent of the style
ijoki's Laki ja järjestys ('Law and order'),
was Kosti Elo (1873-1940), director of
Pär Lagerkvist's Pyöveli ('The execu-
the Tampere Workers' Theatre, whose
tioner'), Irwin Shaw's Bury the Dead and
teachings were disseminated through-
Hagar Olsson's Lumipallosota ('The
out Finland via the courses organized by
snowball fight').
the Workers' Theatre Association and,
Connelly's play was put on inspired by a
the Finnish Drama Agency. Elo made
performance in Stockholm, and no doubt
directing the strongest component of a
fierce debate and a consequent box of-
production and trained his actors into a
fice hit was anticipated. What transpired
group capable of cooperation. Mia Back-
went beyond the wildest dreams of the
man (1877-1958), director of the Helsin-
producers: within a few months, opin-
ki People's Stage, copied from the same
ions on the play had been published in
sources but more superficially, keeping
the very remotest newspapers, and the
to her characteristic Realism despite the
choice of play was debated in Parliament
occasional more radical borrowing.
and in Sunday sermons. The division
4
between pro and con ran roughly along
Moscow, an affection he had had since
party lines. The opposition won, and it
the beginning of the century. The Nation-
was ruled that God must not be repre-
al Theatre exported its performances,
sented on the stage (especially if He was
and Kalima was invited to direct in Oslo
black). Thus the play never opened. The
and other places. Arvi Kivimaa (1904-
events surrounding Lagerkvist's Execu-
84), director of the Helsinki People's
tioner paralleled those in other Scandi-
Theatre and later of the National Thea-
navian countries, where the play was
tre, introduced Finns to Scandinavian
performed amidst great public uproar
and contemporary American drama, rep-
and the disapproval of German circles.
resented in the previous decade only by
In Finland, the opposition wrecked the
Eugene O'Neill. French drama enjoyed
production before the premiere.
particularly great success at the National
Law and order, a play far too under-
Theatre. During the 1950s, the Tampere
standing of the losing side in the Finnish
Workers' Theatre attracted the public
Civil War, and Bury the Dead, well known
eye due to the work of Eino Salmelainen.
in many countries for its Pacifist tenden-
The conference of the International The-
cies, were subjected to censorship by
atre Institute in Finland in 1959, and
order of the Board. The strangest fate
especially the participation of Eugene
befell The snowball fight, a play set in
lonesco, had a great influence on Finn-
Finland, more particularly in the family of
ish theatre. Absurd drama, of which some
the Foreign Minister, in 1939. As the
examples had already been seen, made
threat of war grew in autumn 1939, real-
its breakthrough in Finland. This was
ity began horribly to conform to the fic-
encouraged by the founding of chamber
tional content of the play, even though
theatres and later the construction of
the text was altered to distance the play
studio stages, initiated by the National
from real life. Eventually the Ministry for
Theatre, but also by the cultural atmos-
Foreign Affairs banned the play, which
phere, which contributed towards the
by that time had also become difficult for
birth of Modernism in literature. Along-
the actors to perform.
side the traditional Realism, a new strand
The theatre rows of the 1930s were
of Finnish drama deriving its influences
caused by social circumstances as much
from Modernism evolved, producing play-
as by the plays themselves. Pacifism
wrights such as Eeva-Liisa Manner (b.
was seen as a threat to national unity and
1921), Veijo Meri (b. 1928) and Paavo
especially the values of the student un-
Haavikko (b. 1931).
ion which owned the premises housing
The next decade brought about an even
the People's Theatre. True to Finnish
more extensive change. The perform-
tradition, morality was heavily invoked in
ance in 1966 of the Lapualaisooppera
the debate, although it did not take on as
('Lapua Opera') by Arvo Salo (b. 1932) is
much weight as it had had at the turn of
generally seen as a turning point, the
the century. In issues concerning the
moment when a new 'people's theatre'
immorality of Wuolijoki's plays, for in-
was born. The symbolic value of this
stance, it is easy to decipher the real
passionate outburst from young students
reason for discontent- the left-wing ten-
has remained constant, even though the
dencies of the author.
event was actually as much an effect as
a cause. In any case, the new generation
From the absurd to social
gradually took over the limelight. The
strongest force in this development was
change
Ralf Långbacka (b. 1932), an analytic
After the Second World War, the theatre
director and Brecht expert who is also
world went back to business as usual,
equally conversant with Chekhov and
but the opening of frontiers was bringing
the epic style. People in theatre believed
in new influences. At the National Thea-
that the world could be changed, and the
tre, Eino Kalima created his great inter-
Finns naturally could not reach this con-
pretations of Chekhov as a tribute to
clusion independently of international
Stanislavski and the Artistic Theatre in
developments. The strongest manifes-
5
tation of theatre with a message was the
eight-year directorship of Ralf Långbacka
and Kalle Holmberg (b. 1939) at the
Turku Theatre in the 1970s. It was at that
period that the capital lost its previously
undisputed status as the leader of Finn-
ish theatre. Later, these directors moved
to Helsinki, but also made visits abroad,
for instance to Sweden and Hungary.
The 1970s gave rise to the group theatre
movement and regional theatres, paral-
leling developments in the other Scandi-
navian countries. The interest in regional
theatre brought about local plays which,
typically of the period, addressed prob-
lems close to the audience. The interest
in Finnish drama also brought director
Jouko Turkka (b. 1942) into the public
eye for the first time. The first scandal
associated with his name concerned the
production of Jussi Kylätasku's (b. 1943)
play Runar ja Kyllikkiin Joensuu. Having
once made the headlines, Turkka stayed
there. During his stay at the Helsinki City
Theatre, he established a reputation as
an interpreter of Finnish plays, but also
produced Strindberg's Ghost Sonata with
great success and followed international
trends more than he is given credit for.
The Lahti Theatre, designed by Pekka Salmi-
Turkka is still seeking new paths, after
nen and completed in 1983, was named Con-
years of teaching at the Theatre Acade-
crete Building of the Year upon completion
because of its architectural merits. Photo: Pertti
my, directing TV plays and writing.
Nisonen
In and out of new buildings
stages and to buildings which some-
The first purpose-built theatre buildings
times laid more emphasis on architec-
in Finland were constructed in the 19th
ture and public facilities proved problem-
century. Of these, the Abo Svenska Teat-
atic in some cases. However, it is obvi-
er (Turku Swedish Theatre), the Sven-
ous that in the early 1990s theatre is, on
ska Teatern i Helsingfors (Helsinki Swed-
average, better housed and equipped in
ish Theatre) and the Pori Theatre have
Finland than anywhere else.
survived. Following the building of the
At the same time, there has been an
new National Theatre, only a handful of
estrangement from these new premises
other theatres were built until the past
and from a large staff in general. The
two decades, when over half a dozen
trend away from the conventions of insti-
cities and towns, including Turku, Hel-
tutions betrays cracks in the unity. This is
sinki, Tampere and Lahti, acquired mod-
evident in the experiments within institu-
ern theatre buildings with two or three
tional theatres which either utilize the
stages. The most famous modern Finn-
traditional space in a new way or trans-
ish architect, Alvar Aalto, designed sev-
port the performance outside the thea-
eral theatres in Finland, some of them
tre. There are more small independent
part of a more extensive building com-
theatre groups now than ever before.
plex, as in Rovaniemi and Seinäjoki.
The dominance of language is receding
with the rise of visual features and the
The new buildings created a better work-
ing environment, but adapting to larger
breaking of old forms. Women have al-
ways enjoyed a strong position in Finn-
6
ish theatre, and particularly SO in the
theatre performances; at best, it has
1980s. Perhaps the most significant
introduced a wide variety of experimen-
woman director is Laura Jäntti (b. 1950),
tal productions. The annual Tampere
who has worked with the KOM Theatre
Theatre Festival also always includes
and Turku City Theatre. Dramatizations
foreign productions, but the 'small is beau-
have primarily favoured Finnish sour-
tiful' theme of recent years has brought
ces.
about a sea-change: no single cult pro-
The 1990s have opened an important
ductions, but several smaller produc-
phase in Finnish drama with a new gen-
tions of extremely diverse character.
eration of dramaturgically trained gradu-
ates of the Theatre Academy, presaged
Land of theatres and theatre
by the shocking depictions of modern
organizations
Angst by Jussi Parviainen in the 1980s.
One of the most notable playwrights in
Finland is a land of organizations and
recent years has been Juha Siltanen,
thus also a land of theatre organizations.
whose texts reflect film dramaturgy and
The Finnish and Swedish language
urban themes; his play Foxtrot has been
groups both have their own central thea-
translated into English.
tre organization, and the professions are
nearly 100% unionized. The earliest or-
ganizations to be founded were the Finn-
Theatre visits
ish Actors' Union (1913), the Finnish
Before the Second World War, Finnish
Theatre Association (1920), the Workers'
theatres very rarely exported their per-
Theatre Association (1920), the Finnish
formances; conversely, foreign perform-
Drama Agency (1921) and the Finnish
ers rarely appeared on Finnish stages.
Society of Dramatists (1921). Unlike their
After the war, international traffic picked
counterparts in many other countries,
up, and permanent contacts were estab-
the organizations also act as agents for
lished in Scandinavia in particular. Lilla
plays and handle contract business. Most
Teatern was the first to establish a repu-
organizations have international con-
tation in Sweden as an interesting avant-
tacts. The most important of the organ-
garde theatre in the 1950s. Performances
izations is the Central Union of Finnish
touring the Continent took in Finland as
Theatre Organizations, founded in 1934,
well, such as the famous productions
which includes the Finnish offices of the
directed by Peter Brook. However, these
International Theatre Institute, which
were isolated cases, organized by the
manages foreign theatre contacts, and
National Theatre or other organizations.
the Scandinavian Theatre Union. In the
As group theatre became more popular,
early 1990s, the organizational tangle
Finnish theatre exports increased, partly
became somewhat simpler, with most
because the productions of independent
organizations residing under the same
groups were easy to move around. The
roof.
cultural exchange between Sweden and
The Theatre Academy gives basic, fur-
Finland was also based on the desire to
ther and complementary training in Finn-
offer theatre in Finnish to emigrants liv-
ish and Swedish for the various pro-
ing in Sweden.
fessions of the theatre, from actors and
Over the past decades, organizations
directors to dancers and lighting man-
have also been created for the express
agers. The National Ballet has its own
purpose of arranging theatre visits. The
school. The University of Industrial Arts
Central Union of Finnish Theatre Organ-
trains set and costume designers, the
izations is responsible for visits to the
University of Tampere trains actors.
yearly meeting of professional theatre
Theatre and drama research can be un-
people in Finland, and the international
dertaken up to and including a doctorate
organizations connected with it have
at the University of Helsinki. At the Uni-
taken care of Scandinavian and inter-
versities of Tampere and Turku, theatre
national festivals. The Helsinki Festival
research is an option available to litera-
has always included a varying number of
ture students.
7
Now, in the early 1990s, Finnish theatre
ted that Finland will remain a country of
is in a state of flux: the feasibility of the
institutionalized theatre, notwithstanding
traditional structure of the theatre world
recent pluralistic developments and the
is being questioned. In this sense, the
emergence of independent sub-cultures.
present time resembles the 1930s, when
the parallel systems of workers' theatres
and 'bourgeois' theatres was disman-
tled. Then, as now, the prime motivation.
Dr. Pirkko Koski, Assistant Professor of
Theatre Research at the University of Helsinki.
was economic, but also had, to do with
October 1992.
values. Still, it can confidently be predic-
Translation: The English Centre, Helsinki.
8
Contemporary Finnish plays translated into English 1970-1991
Alftan, Robert
Kiri, kiri (Hurry, Hurry)
Andersson, Claes
Familjen (The Family)
Ahlfors, Bengt-Bargum Johan:
Finns der tigrar i Kongo
(Are There Tigers in the Congo)
Haavikko, Paavo:
Kullervo (The Kullervo Story)
Haavikko, Paavo:
Ratsumies (The Horseman)
Helminen, Jussi:
Hölmöläiset (The Numskulls)
Kilpinen, Inkeri:
Toinen maailma (Another World)
Kilpinen, Inkeri:
Totisesti, totisesti (Verily, Verily)
Kilpinen, Inkeri:
White Roses on the Table
Kilpinen, Inkeri:
Eino Leino, the Poet
Kilpinen, Inkeri:
Rakas Lotta (Dear Lotta)
Kylätasku, Jussi:
Runar ja Kyllikki (Runar and Kyllikki)
Kylätasku, Jussi:
Maaria Blomma (Mary Bloom)
Kylätasku, Jussi:
Haapoja
Leppäkoski, Raila:
Keskusteluja viidelle näyttelijän kanssa
(Conversation for Five Actors)
Mäkinen, Erkki:
Viimeinen valssi Viipurissa
(The Last Waltz of Viipuri)
Mäkelä, Hannu
Herra Huu (Mr. Boo)
Parviainen, Jussi
Jumalan rakastaja (The God's Lover)
Peltonen, Juhani:
Kohti maailman sydäntä
(Towards the Heart of the World)
Seppälä, Arto:
Viisi naista kappelissa
(Five Women in a Chapel)
Siltanen, Juha:
Foxtrot
Stürmer, Wawa
Så som elden (As Fire Burns)
Suosalmi, Kerttu-Kaaarina:
Satahampaiset (The Hundred-toothed)
Tikkanen, Märta:
Punahilkka (Little Red Riding Hood)
Tikkanen, Märta:
Love Story of the Century
Tuomarila, llpo:
Yössä Gehennan (Gehenna's Night)
Vieno, Jukka:
Ilmiantaja (The Informer)
Virtanen, Harri:
Nam, nam (Yum-Yum)
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
FINNISH FEATURES
Cinema in Finland
Some 150 feature films have been made
mean in the US that films reaching an
in Finland in the past ten years - an
audience of less than 4-5 million would
average of 15 films a year. The number
show a loss. In Finland the 100,000
is fairly high considering Finland's 5 mil-
profitability level is exceeded only by the
lion population and the fact that the mar-
most popular comedies or such epics of
ket is increasingly dominated by films
national history as The Winter War. It
imported from the US.
also means that Finnish film production
Finnish film production has always relied
is kept alive mainly through State subsi-
on the domestic market, and we still
dies.
cannot count on exporting our films. This
A crisis hit the Finnish film industry in the
means that most new films require audi-
1950s, reflecting a global trend. Audi-
ences of more than 100,000 to pay their
ences shrank, first because of television,
way. In relation to population this would
then because of the breakthrough of
THE WINTER WAR, 1989, directed by Pekka Parikka, actor Taneli Mäkelä.
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13
HELSINKI FINLAND
ONLY
LyonsMaid
/ HIRED A CONTRACT KILLER, 1990, directed by Aki Kaurismäki, actors Aki Kaurismäki and
Jean-Pierre Léaud
video, and it was not until the late 1980s
vikoski and Maunu Kurkvaara have not
that the downward slide came to an end.
made films since the early 1980s. Even
It was understood at the end of the 1950s
veterans like Matti Kassila and Rauni
that State subsidies were necessary,
Mollberg seem to be having difficulties in
and the first support system was estab-
carrying on with their careers.
lished in the early 1960s in the form of
A change of generation began in the
State Awards. The Finnish Film Founda-
early 1980s, and the decade witnessed
tion was set up at the end of the decade,
some thirty first films, many of which
and after a chequered history its support
were unfortunately also their makers'
system has finally stabilized. The Film
last. Mika and Aki Kaurismäki emerged
Foundation does not produce films itself,
as pioneers of the new film, but there
but it decides on financing and regulates
were also other film-makers worth men-
loans out of funds comprising firstly State
tioning, e.g. Päivi Hartzell, Matti ljäs,
grants to the arts, and secondly fees for
Markku Lehmuskallio, Claes Olsson, Olli
unrecorded cassettes and television
Soinio and Lauri Törhönen.
rights and a share of box office receipts.
Along with its young film-makers, Finn-
When the production system dominated
ish cinema rediscovered the theme of
by large companies collapsed in the early
'rootless young people outside the main-
1960s, a 'new Finnish wave' emerged,
stream of society', thus achieving rap-
i.e. films made by small companies and
port with the majority of their audience.
distinctive cinema personalities. All this
The first push in this direction was given
was again in keeping with the interna-
by Tapio Suominen's film Right On, Man!
tional trend. This generation of transition
(1980), a great success with both the
steered the Finnish film industry into the
public and the critics. This provided the
next decade, until it, too, was forced to
same kind of aesthetic and production
step aside for various reasons. Now, at
stimulus as Under Your Skin in the mid-
the beginning of the 1990s, Risto Jarva,
60s. Suominen's film captured some-
Mikko Niskanen and Heikki Partanen
thing in the air that had been lost to
are dead, and Jörn Donner, Erkko Ki-
Finnish directors for a long time: it dealt
2
AMAZON, 1990, directed by Mika Kaurismäki, actor Kari Väänänen
with the problems of the age in a way that
projects, The Liar (1981) and The Worth-
reached a wide audience, and present-
less (1982), directed by Mika Kaurismäki
ed a picture young people could identify
and written by Aki Kaurismäki, were like
with.
a refreshing breath of wind: they rejected
The 1980s also saw the advent of such
the prevailing production norms, rising
fairytale movies as The King Who Had
from the foundation of the liberated, small-
No Heart (1982), Pessi and Illusia (1984),
scale film-making tradition of the 'new
The Snow Queen (1987) and Markku
waves'. This tradition included playing
Lehmuskallio's relentlessly visionary
with roles, associations, quotations, in-
poetic works on the confrontation be-
side jokes and the relationship between
tween man and nature (The Raven's
film and reality. Mika Kaurismäki has
Dance, 1980; Skierri, 1982; Inuksuk,
since approached conventional film-
1988) or Olli Soinio's horror movie The
making procedures and genres, using
Moonlight Sonata (1988). Pekka Parikka
as his starting points a crime story (The
applied the conventional epic approach
Clan, 1984), a road movie (Rosso, 1985),
in his films Plainlands (1988) and The
a comedy (Cha Cha Cha, 1989) and
Winter War (1989), while Lauri Törhönen
models from international gangster
stepped forward as an interpreter for the
movies (Helsinki Napoli All Night Long,
new urban 'yuppie generation' in his
1987) and adventure films (Amazon,
movies Tropic of Ice (1987) and Insiders
1990).
(1989).
The younger brother, Aki Kaurismäki,
Nevertheless, it is undoubtedly the Kau-
has proved himself a stylistically and
rismäki brothers who have been the trend-
thematically coherent and systematic
setters and most visible representatives
film-maker personality characterized by
of the Finnish film industry both in Fin-
astripped, disciplined expression, aware-
land and abroad. Their first collaboration
ness of tradition, and rough, often black
humour. His way of presenting his mar-
3
ginal, dispossessed characters combines
Finnish films have won favourable atten-
criticism of current values with a disci-
tion among other Nordic output, as is
plined moral pathos, for instance in his
evidenced by the many special awards
'working class trilogy' Shadows in Para-
and the main award that went to Matti
dise (1986), Ariel (1988) and The Match
Kassila's The Glory and Misery of Hu-
Factory Girl (1990). Aki Kaurismäki start-
man Life in 1989.
ed his career as a director with a version
The Kaurismäki brothers are known not
of Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment
only in Europe but also in North and
(1983), set in Helsinki, and continued
South America and Japan. A retrospec-
with a fairytale-like satirical urban odys-
tive of their output has been arranged by
sey called Calamari Union (1985) and a
the New York Museum of Modern Art,
modern version of Shakespeare, Hamlet
and at festivals they are top names con-
Goes Business (1987). Aki Kaurismäki
sidered equal to other leading European
has placed most of his later films abroad,
film-makers. Aki Kaurismäki has even
in the US (Leningrad Cowboys Go Amer-
become a cult director in many Europe-
ica, 1989), London (I Hired a Contract
an countries. It is true that, amid the
Killer, 1990) and Paris (La Vie de Bo-
mainstream of the film industry, Kauris-
hème, 1992).
mäki audiences are small and special-
Largely thanks to the Kaurismäki broth-
ized, but the brothers have succeeded in
ers, the international status of Finnish
continuing to work on limited budgets,
cinema has improved considerably, and
limited international appreciation and in
the overall standard and artistic and tech-
part even limited financing.
nical quality can now compete with any
country of the same size. Finnish films
have been shown widely at various
Sakari Toiviainen
Film researcher, The Finnish Film Archive
events, both retrospectives and festi-
Translation: The English Centre, Helsinki
vals. At the Nordic Film Festival in Rouen,
November 1992
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
4
FINNISH FEATURES
Contemporary Dance in Finland
East meets West - the rise of
The company's first ballet master was
Finnish dance
the Finn George Gé, who in the 1930s
The history of Finnish dance since the
not only assembled a repertoire of class-
early 20th century has reflected the coun-
ics, but also created Finland's first mod-
try's geographical position as a gateway
ern ballets. His work reflected the neo-
between east and west. Classical ballet
classical style of the Ballet Russes' cel-
found inspiration close at hand in St
ebrated choreographers: Brontislava
Petersburg, while America and Germa-
Nijinska, Serge Lifar and George Bal-
ny provided the impetus for the rise of
anchine. Free dance also made its mark
modern dance. It all began with two
in the history of the Finnish Opera: Mag-
memorable performances by touring
gie Gripenberg, who studied under Emile
stars.
Jaques-Dalcroze in Hellerau, Germany,
Isadora Duncan, pioneering exponent of
choreographed for operas and the music
of Jean Sibelius. She concentrated her
free dance, performed in Helsinki on her
way to St Petersburg in 1905. The plas-
energy on her work as a teacher of free
ticity of her style impressed many an
dance and on the company she had
aspiring dancer, among them Maggie
founded and won recognition as a prize-
Gripenberg, who later became Finland's
winning choreographer in international
leading dance teacher and choreogra-
choreographers' competitions.
pher in free dance. Three years later St
Petersburg's Maryinsky Theatre Ballet
Modern dance and the '60s art
opened their first tour of western Europe
boom
in Helsinki, with Anna Pavlova as prima
ballerina. The performance was arranged
Finnish modern ballet had its Renais-
by Edvard Fazer, the Finnish impresario
sance in the 1950s, when Elsa Sylvest-
who later became director of the Finnish
ersson, a former prima ballerina, turned
Opera and founded the National Ballet.
to choreography. In a career spanning
From its founding year in 1922, the Na-
over thirty years, she created a vast
tional Ballet made steady progress un-
repertoire for the National Ballet, includ-
der the auspices of the Finnish Opera
ing adapted versions of the classics,
(now the Finnish National Opera). The
neoclassical pieces and modern ballets.
ballet masters and teachers received
She also made a pioneering contribution
to televised ballet.
their classical training in St Petersburg,
which gave the company a distinctly
The late '50s saw the emergence of a
Russian flavour. Throughout the 1920s
new school of modern Finnish dancers,
Helsinki's 'miniature Maryinsky' per-
led by the former pupils of Maggie Grip-
formed a repertoire of famous Russian
enberg. They formed Praesens, Finland's
classics by Marius Petipa and Pyotr
first professional free dance company.
Tchaikovsky: Swan Lake, The Nutcrack-
However, it was US-trained Riitta Vainio
er and Sleeping Beauty.
that brought real momentum to the teach-
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13
HELSINKI FINLAND
'SEVEN BROTHERS', Finnish National Ballet, 1992. Choreography Marjo Kuusela, dancer Sampo
Kivelä
ing and performance of modern dance.
It rose on the crest of a left-wing boom
1961 marked a watershed, with Vainio
because the message was spelt outclear-
founding an academy of modern dance
ly: defending the underdog. Marjo Kuu-
and launching a ground-breaking career
sela, whose early pieces depict the life of
as a choreographer. Together with art-
the Finnish working classes, eventually
ists and musicians she inspired a new
became the chief choreographer. Al-
trend; boundaries between art forms were
though Kuusela is no longer a political
transgressed and Finland was given its
artist, she still stands among Finland's
first taste of performance art. Vainio's
leading choreographers as artistic direc-
postmodern choreography was unpre-
tor of the Helsinki City Theatre's dance
cedented in Finland, eliciting the disap-
company. Her strength lies in her ability
proval of audiences accustomed to the
to interpret human nature, in which she
aestheticism of classical ballet. Vainio
carries on the realist tradition of Finnish
nonetheless won an enthusiastic follow-
theatre. One of her finest achievements
ing from a young generation of dancers,
is a ballet choreographed in 1981 based
composers, musicians and experimen-
on Aleksis Kivi's late 19th century class-
tal artists. Finland of the '60s was not
ic, The Seven Brothers. Still topical to-
ready for such radicalism. It was not until
day, it depicts people on the fringe of
Vainio devoted herself to dance therapy
European society adjusting to main-
in the '70s that her work began to bear
stream civilization.
fruit.
Now in its 20th year, Raatikko has proved
In the '70s a number of modern dance
itself an enduring source of creative tal-
artists began forming small, temporary
ent, spawning gifted choreographers
groups for independent productions
such as Kuusela's successor, Marja
staged at a variety of venues, In 1972 the
Korhola. Her work is satirical, frequently
dancers Marjo Kuusela and Maria Wol-
addressing themes related to women
ska formed the Raatikko Dance Theatre.
and the world of dance.
2
Jorma Uotinen - new stature to
will share its two centre stages in perfect
dance
symbiosis.
The '70s witnessed the rise of American
Postmodernism alongside the realist ten-
Globality - the watchword for
dencles of Raatikko. New York became
modern dance
a Mecca for budding dancers, who learnt
their trade and appropriated new ideas
Following in Uotinen's footsteps, mod-
from the dance schools of Martha Gra-
ern dance has become more global than
ham and Merce Cunningham. The Rake
ever. Today St Petersburg and Hellerau
are no more than distant memories of
Studio in the heart of Helsinki became
Finland's very own mini-New York, where.
times long past. Contemporary Finnlsh
dance draws inspiration from the new
a new generation of dancers debuted
physical dance theatre of France and
their first experimental creations. Ulla
Belgium, from Asian dance theatre and
Koivisto spearheaded the concept of in-
trinsic value in movement, while Reijo
from Japanese buto, just to name a few.
Kela, like Cunningham and John Cage
Today's generation of young dancers
before him, launched a choreographic
show a spirit of intellectual inquiry. Their
inquiry into modern man's relationship
ability to draw on a wide range of influ-
with his environment. In a piece called
ences speaks for the vast improvement
'Cityman' Kela spent a week in a see-
in dancing skills during the last thirty
through dwelling in the centre of Helsin-
years.
ki, where he danced, ate, bathed and
Today's young dancers are ready to take
slept in front of a live audience. Finland
on the world; many are involved in inter-
had never before seen another 'work of
national projects. Dancer-choreogra-
art' that so effectively undermines the
phers such as Ari Tenhula and Arja Raa-
boundary that separates performing from
tikainen have studied Japanese buto and
everyday life.
performed on international tours with their
teacher, Anzu Furukawa. The influence
Jorma Uotinen's arrival on the scene had
an apocalyptic impact. He danced with
of buto is also discernible in productions
by Sanna Kekäläinen and Kirsi Monni of
the Natlonal Ballet until the mid-'70s,
when Carolyn Carlson recruited him for
the Zodíak presents dance company.
GRTOP, the Paris Opera's experimental
Japanese dance seems to strike a famil-
iar chord with Finnish audiences - it is
dance group. Paris ripened Uotinen into
a brilliant performer and an inspired cho-
powerful, austere, even uncompromis-
reographer. Forgotten Horízon, his first
ing. Why else it might appeal to Finnish
feature-length dance piece, was choreo-
audiences is difficult to say.
graphed for the Helsinki Festival in 1980.
Asian culture has also provided a rich
Uotinen's breakthrough performance
source of inspiration for Tero Saarinen
bore all the hallmarks of modern Europe-
and Tuomo Railo, two gifted ballet danc-
an dance theatre. It filtered Zeitgeist,
ers and choreographers whose solo work
menace and black humour through myth-
has been widely acclaimed. Kenneth
ical elements. Finnish dance was finally
Kvarnström, a Swedish-speaking Finn
jettisoned into the modern world, releas-
currently residing in Stockholm, has also
ing a store of dormant energy. The spir-
won international recognition with Exhi-
itual and aesthetic hegemony of ballet
bo and that was all / wanted, so / stuck
began to crumble.
my finger in his eye Voyeur, also by
A year later Uotinen was appointed di-
Kvarnström, premiered in Stockholm in
1992 with Finns included on the cast of
rector of the Helsinki City Theatre dance
company. Over his decade-long tenure it
dancers. It, too, is characteristically ag-
became Finland's leading modern dance
gressive, inspired by the underlying vio-
lence of urban life.
company. Uotinen's career came the full
circle in February 1992 with his appoint-
Apart from Raatikko and the Helsinki
ment as director of the National Ballet.
City Theatre dance group, Finland also
His appointment as director of the na-
has a number of smaller dance compa-
tion's most prestigious dance institution
nies. Aurinkobaletti, directed by chor-
sealed the revolution that had taken place
eographer Raija Lehmussaari, is an inter-
in Finnish dance. When Helsinki's new
national group that performs a repertoire
Opera House is inaugurated in autumn
of modern ballet and experimental pieces
1993, classical ballet and modern dance
by young choreographers. Eri is a small,
3
but highly skilled group of dancers direct-
which provide them with 'regular' sala-
ed by the talented choreographer Tiina
ries.
Lindfors, whose most talked-about work
The '90s have ushered in a new dance
addresses the theme of sexual minori-
boom, and audience numbers are on the
ties. Hurjaruuth, who perform actively
increase. The new OperaHouse will leave
both in Finland and abroad, specialize in
the old venue free for guest performanc-
children's productions, and draw inspira-
es, primarily dance productions and
tion from foreign cultures, including Afri-
music theatre. Dancers will finally be
ca, where they have recently toured.
provided with a much craved for perma-
Some of the finest productions of recent
nent venue in the city centre. In 1993 the
years have been independent produc-
old Opera House will become theirs to
tions for which the choreographers have
keep - a place known to all city-dwellers
assembled Finland's top freelance danc-
and full of memories, the place where it
ers. Many dancers consider quality to be
all began for Finnish ballet 70 years ago.
more important than tenure, which natu-
rally benefits the art of dance and audi-
ences alike. For the most part, Finnish
Auli Räsänen
dance companies are poorly subsidized,
The author is principal dance critic for
although Finland has a unique system
Helsingin Sanomat, Finland's leading daily
allowing young dancers and choreogra-
newspaper.
October 1992
phers to apply for one-three year grants
Translation: The English Centre, Helsinki
'ORIENT EXPRESS', Raatikko Dance Theatre. Choreography Marja Korhola, dancers Reijo
Tuomi and Kirsi Karlenius
4
'VICTIM', Finnish National Ballet. Choreography Jorma Uotinen.
'VOYEUR', Dansens Hus, Stockholm, 1992. Choreography Kenneth Kvarnström, dancer Katri
Soini.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
CONTENTS:
1 THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE
2 HISTORY
3 POLITICS AND POLITICAL LIFE
4 FOREIGN POLICY
5 THE LEGAL SYSTEM
6 GOVERNMENT AND DEFENCE
7 BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
8 SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING
9 THE SYSTEM OF SOCIAL WELFARE
10 CHURCH AND RELIGION
11 EDUCATION AND THE MEDIA
12 SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTES
13 CULTURE, ART AND DESIGN
14 LEISURE AND SPORTS
15 THE FINNISH WAY OF LIFE
FINNISH FEATURES
Finnish Self-defence
Today's Finn finds himself on the verge of
admiration of foreigners, their excessive
a frightening landscape. Will he lose his
desire to secure their own interests and
soul and his language if he rushes head-
their self-disparagement. They would gain
long onto the world scene? Hardly. The
prestige immediately if they would only
Finn can be oppressed, but not discour-
respect themselves to some slight degree.
aged. His history proves as much.
It is said: "Others hold you in as much
Finns have once again been led to believe
respect as you hold yourself."
that they were the last people on earth to
In Juslenius's time, the Finns knew next to
descend from the trees.
nothing about themselves or their past. A
And no wonder.
history had to be invented for them, and
once the inventing began there was no
Foreign conquerors as well as our own
holding them back. The Finnish language
local elite have always managed to take
was elevated to the position of one of the
advantage of the Finns' rather unsteady
world's primary tongues, and the Finns
self-esteem; at times we are inbred louts,
were held to have descended directly from
at times brave, steely-eyed warriors - any
Noah's grandson Magog. Some half dozen
way the upper crust have wanted to see us.
Finnish kings emerged, though hitherto
Well-behaved and law-abiding, the Finn
there had been no trace of them. With
has not resisted. How could he, when both
mentions of Finnish prehistoric times few
loutishness and bravery - together with
and far between in the depths of foreign
several other more-or-less ornamental
archives, imagination galloped wild and
characteristics- - have been the mythology
unbridled.
of the Finnish character for centuries.
These rare notations indicate that the Finns
As early as the 17th century, Daniel Jusle-
were no riffraff, even if the Swedes did run
nius, an exponent of national awareness,
roughshod over them for centuries.
wrote of the Finns as follows: "They are
For instance, the Norwegian Vikings
hard-working, industrious, unafraid to exert
guarded very bitter memories of their ex-
themselves, able to perform any trade
periences with the Finns, whom they tried
whatsoever and not only purely mechan-
to rob in the 11th century. King Olaf almost
ical handiwork or skills but also philosophi-
lost his life before he had a chance to
cal and other studies. They have a bent for
become a saint. He sailed confidently to
languages, the liberal arts and sciences,
the Finnish coast after first heavily taxing
and they are very sharp-witted, so much so
the Gotlanders and slaughtering most of
that they could hardly be surpassed by any
the troublesome inhabitants of Saaren-
other nation if only they didn't channel their
maa, but the Finns, prosperous and sly,
efforts in so many different directions If
fled with their possessions into the forests.
only they would give up their condemnable
The Norwegians gave pursuit, but by night-
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
1
HELSINKI FINLAND
Akseli Gallen-Kallela: Defence of the Sampo, 1896. Turku Art Museum.
fall were overcome by dread. As they
Topelius¹ and J.L. Runeberg², the Finns
stumbled back to their ships in the dark, the
were given a self-image from which Finn-
Finns fell upon them - killing the majority of
ish men, in particular, are still suffering
them. The rest were close to drowning
today.
once the Finns in their devilishness con-
Of all Runeberg's brazen warriors, the one
jured up a terrible storm.
figure to emerge as a symbol of the Finnish
hero is the only complete idiot in the writer's
repertoire, Sven Dufva.
Stubborn clodhoppers
Topelius, in turn, gave a real shove to the
Thus the Finns' reputation as witches and
Finnish man's poor self-esteem in his Our
backwoodsmen is on a firm footing, al-
Land, in which he describes Matti, the very
though this became something of a burden
essence of Finnish male mediocrity: "As a
as Christianity and Swedish culture began
young man he was said to have danced,
to spread. In the 19th century, the great
but that is probably just slander, because
advocates of 'Finnishness' could no longer
nowadays no one can detect in him even
accept the mushroom-dazed shaman as
the slightest dancing ability."
the Finnish archetype. No, instead they
wanted to see a hardened, powerful,
"By nature Matti is not one to get excited.
patient, vigorous and battle-fit nation living
He is close-mouthed and shy. But when he
in healthy fear of both the Lord and secular
has sat for a time in the company of good
authority.
friends he seems to loosen up and under-
go a transformation of character as it were.
Thanks to the good intentions of Zacharias
His wooden composure softens, he may
1) Zacharias Topelius, historian and author (1818-1898).
2) Johan Ludvig Runeberg, poet (1804-1877). He descrided characters in the 1808-1909 "Finnish war" between Sweden and
Russia, which ended in Russian victory. In consenquence, Finland became a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire.
2
even become cheerful and witty in his own
The ardent Finnish patriot of the 1930s,
way."
who dreamt of a spiritual and territorial
"The whole world also knows that Matti is
Greater Finland, would not, of course, have
stubborn as sin itself: his immobility is, in
admitted even on pain of death the exist-
fact, the reverse side of his endurance.
ence of that eastern heritage. Instead, he
Whatever he once gets into his head, that
clung firmly to the image of a blond, blue-
he will take to its conclusion. Wherever he
eyed, folk-costumed 'Maid of Finland'
stands, there he stands; but when he has
and for good reason, too. At least two-
no will for something, it is simply futile to try
thirds of the Finnish genetic make-up is of
to coax him into it. One of Matti's brothers,
western origin, and nowhere in the world
a very tall fellow, drowned himself in a
does one find so many pale blue eyes as in
bucket of water; it was not an easy task, but
Finland. And what does it matter if they are
he had decided to drown and drown he
slightly slanted. That's just piquant.
did."
The Finns' internal linguistic and social
Without the perseverance to drown one-
struggle finally ended with the Winter War.
self in a bucket, the Finns would hardly
The supreme sacrifice was made by
have ever salvaged their own language or
Finnish-speaking and Swedish-speaking
their Uralic genetic peculiarities from all
Finns alike, by the ultra-patriotic bourgeois
the various bullies they've encountered. In
as well by Communist believers in inter-
the 18th century, real efforts were made to
national class solidarity.
'Swedify' the Finns, but these efforts failed
After the Second World War, the Finns had
though the Finns numbered only a million.
little opportunity to ponder the question of
The Russians' hopes went the same way.
who they are and where they are going.
The country had been dismembered, and
The Finns' horrible secret
many symbols of the Finnish nation were
banned by the victor's fiat. War reparations
Though the threat of Russification abated
were paid, food rationed and graves of the
with the securing of Finnish independence,
war dead tended, but there were scarcely
Finnish-speaking Finland still did not con-
any outlets for pride or at least one
sider itself free. The struggle for a single
couldn't make any noise about them. The
language and a single national-minded-
Finns were taught with a firm hand to keep
ness continued well into the 1930s, while
quiet while the big boys talked.
the gutsy Swedish-speaking minority held
the country in its grip by the force of money
Of course, this was a cinch for the Finns
and education. In the 1920s, one was hard
after centuries of practice.
pressed in Helsinki to find even a Finnish-
By the 1960s, the 'Fatherland' and 'patriot-
speaking barber. Swedish street signs,
ism' had gradually become naughty words.
Swedish names and the Swedish habit of
The post-war baby-boom generation
always bugling the 'Mother Country' to
caught all kinds of peace-and-love vi-
their assistance made life hell on earth for
brations from abroad, and turned first
Finnish-speaking patriots.
against the Vietnam War and then against
The most fervent Finns ground their teeth
Finland's own war experience.
as they listened to the Finland-Swedes
The Soviet Union, the arch-enemy of earlier
carry on about their superior race and
generations, began to reap sympathy as
civilized language. Finnish was called a
left-wing ideas spread among the Finnish
language for yokels and servant girls, and
youth. Everything held dear by those gen-
the Finnish-speaking nation was lumped
erations who had 'shed blood for their
together with barbarians and mongols.
country' was opposed by young people.
This name-calling offended deeply, particu-
The Finnish flag was desecrated coming
larly since it contained a grain of truth. The
and going, and so too was C.G.
Finns, the Finland-Swedes included, bore
Mannerheim³. At the peak of craziness in
inside them a horrible secret: that measly
the 1970s, there was an effort to make J.V.
dose of mongol genes.
Snellman⁴) into something of a proto-
3) Carl Gustav Mannerheim, Field Marshal and President of Finland (1867-1951). He led the 'White Army' in the Finnish Civil War in
1917-1918, and served as a Commander in Chief in the Winter War of 1939-40 and in the Continuation War (1941-1944).
4) Johan Vilhelm Snellman, philosopher, statesman and journalist (1806-1881). He developed a concept of the nation-state,
and promoted the Finnish language and Finnishness.
3
Stalinist, war deserters into heros and V.I.
He is afraid that the rest of Europe will spit
Lenin into Finland's generous godfather.
him out.
He is afraid that the Russians are coming.
Athletes light up the dark
He is afraid that Finnish land will be bought
It probably counts as an odd twist of fate
out from under his feet.
that the baby-boomers' children, raised as
His fears are probably unfounded: Finnish
they were on asexual 'peace toys', now
culture, language and survival skills have
pay tribute to the Winter War and want to
been tried and tested time and again in the
know all about it. Fans of heavy rock music
course of history.
- all metal studs, hair and black clothing - -
Kaari Utrio, who has enlivened Finnish
whose vocabulary comprises a total of
historiography with a number of colourful
seven English and three Finnish words,
books, laughs at the idea that the EC or
despise dad and mom with their internal-
CIS, or any other acronym, could ever
ized concepts of peaceful coexistence, but
obliterate the Finnish identity.
bow down in respect before their grand-
"Perhaps the Finns' most salient quality is
fathers, veterans of war.
their unusually strong awareness of their
Until now, they never knew what a heroic
own nationality. After all, we were under
and proud past Finland has really had!
some damned foreign power for 800 years.
School administrators have noted an en-
The Swedes couldn't change us, nor could
tirely new interest in 'Finnishness' among
the Russians. So how are the French sup-
the young. The army is 'in' again: conscien-
posed to manage it? It's a real vote of no
tious objectors are scorned. Motives for
confidence in this nation to imagine that it
national pride, in rather short supply in
could lose its identity!"
today's world, are sought in the nation's
Utrio is exasperated by the way Finns are
past. After all, who wants to brag about
compared to foreigners. "A Finnish work-
how many tonnes of pulp Finland pro-
man is compared with an Oxford don. That
duces?
is entirely wrong. Your ordinary Finnish
In post-war Finland, national pride has
bloke should be compared with ordinary
been maintained almost exclusively by our
French or British bloke. There's no differ-
athletes. There is hardly a single Finn who
ence between them.
doesn't feel a twinge of pride when Toni
"When all is said and done, we are left with
Nieminen sails to another ski-jumping vic-
a highly educated but shy and quiet nation.
tory.
Our only fault is that we don't know how to
At that moment, the Finn forgets his fear of
smile. Smile and all will be forgiven!"
the future - a future which for the past few
years has appeared exceptionally dark to
him, in fact so dark that he has once and for
all ceased to believe in the good fortune
and beatitude of being born Finnish.
He is afraid that the rest of Europe will
Written by Ms. Anneli Sundberg, Journalist.
Published in Helsingin Sanomat newspaper on
swallow him up like cough medicine.
January 19th 1992.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
4
FINNISH FEATURES
JUNE 1981
The Finnish Nature and Landscape
Viewed from a distance and superfi-
long. time. The bedrock consists of wide-
cially, Finland gives the impression of
ly varying igneous varieties, includ-
being a low-lying country with few
ing granite, granodiorite and diorite, as
signs of human activity in its flat ter-
well as varieties metamorphosed
rain. If one applies the definition of a
when the ancient mountain chains
plain generally used in international
were formed through folding, e.g.
geography, virtually the whole of Fin-
quartzite, mica schist, mica gneiss and
land is a plain rising to less than 300
other types of gneiss. Very few se-
metres above sea level. Only in West-
dimentary rocks are found in Finland.
ern Lapland is there an unbroken area
of Arctic fells rising to over 300 metres.
Most of the soil cover was produced in
A general feature of the terrain is a
the course of a period of 10,000 years
gradual increase in elevation as one
or so during and after the melting of
moves north and east from the coastal
the Pleistocene ice sheet. The soil layer
plains fringing the Baltic.
overlaying the bedrock is generally
thin and most commonly found
When one takes a closer look, one ex-
type is moraine, which is an accumula-
amines height differentials between
tion of stones, gravel and other debris
high ground and valleys in the terrain.
set free as the glaciers melted. The del-
In a zone varying from 50 to 100 ki-
ta layers formed where rivers
lometres in width along the Gulfs of
emerged from the glaciers gave birth
Bothnia and Finland, this so-called re-
to esker ridges and terminal moraines
lative height is under 20 metres, 10
(which mark the former edges of the
metres for the most part. Elsewhere it
ancient glaciers); these formations
is generally between 20 and 200 me-
contain mostly sand and gravel. Since
tres. Thus surprisingly large height
most of what is today Finland was be-
fluctuations are encountered.
neath the waters of the Baltic for a
The low-lying and flat nature of the
shorter or longer period as the Ice Age
Finnish terrain is not due to thick soil
was drawing to a close, alluvial clay is
strata, as is the case with the extensive
now found as the surface layer in these
plains of Eastern and Western Europe,
areas, which are now dry land due
for example. Finland's relative flatness
to the bedrock having risen because of
is due to very old and thoroughly
isostatic recovery. There are extensive
weathered bedrock. Indeed, the main
alluvial areas in the coastal regions of
parts of the Finnish bedrock are over
Southern, South-Western and Western
1,500 million years old. Even mea-
Finland. The cold, damp climate pre-
sured on the geological time-scaie, this
vailing in Finland since the Ice Age,
area has been part of a continental
coupled with the flatness of the terrain,
land mass above the sea for a very
has encouraged the development of
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
1.4
HELSINKI FINLAND
extensive bogs, which contain a soil
island-studded and labyrinthine lakes,
organogenetically formed from semi-
which are linked together in wa-
decomposed vegetation - peat.
tercourse chains containing very few
rivers. However, smallish river sys-
Almost all pre-Pleistocene soils were
tems are a characteristic feature of
cleared out of depressions and valleys
coastal regions. Lapland, with the ex-
in the bedrock by the glaciers. Water
ception of the district around Lake
accumulated in these basins, thus
Inari, is also mostly dominated by river
creating Finland's typically extensive,
systems. The rivers in Lapland are lon-
Photo by Tapio Korkolainen
A brace of capercaillie
Photo by Mauri Peltonen
Photo by Antti Leinonen
An elk (moose)
Photo by Timo Aaltonen
ger and have greater volumetric flows
for 19 hours a day in late June. In addi-
than those in the coastal regions. In
tion to this, there are 2-3 hours of twi-
the Finnish heartland, the so-called
light. Because Finland is situated so far
Lake District, lakes generally account for
north, darkness does not fall immedia-
over 20 per cent of the total area, and
tely the sun sets, but comes slowly as
in the Saimaa region of South-Eastern
the twilight fades. Sunrise is likewise
Finland this percentage rises to over
preceded by a gradually brightening
35. All in all, there are about 55,000
dawn.
lakes in Finland. In turn, the seas off her
coast are studded with islands and
Flora and fauna
skerries, especially in the Gulfs of Fin-
Where its flora is concerned, Finland is
land and Bothnia. The archipelago
part of a boreal coniferous zone. The
stretching from the South-Western
northernmost parts of the country and
mainland to the Åland Islands is un-
the highest elevations there are areas
ique in the world, containing more
of Arctic-Alpine vegetation, whilst the
than 17,000 islands larger than 0.3 hec-
Southern part of the country belongs
tares. Altogether, the Finnish sea areas
to the hemiboreal zone. The flora if
contain about 28,000 islands.
Finland comprises about 1,200 vascu-
lar plants which have established
Climate
themselves, about 800 mosses, over
Finland is included in a cool climatic
1,000 lichens and about 2,000 algae.
zone with cold winters. This zone is
The most common plant community
characterised by a cold, snowy winter
is, naturally, the forest, which covers
and a summer with average monthly
about 71 % of the total land area. The
temperatures of over 10°C for the 1-3
forests are not rich in variety as far as
months that it lasts. There is precipita-
tree species are concerned, and there
tion the whole year round, but it is
are usually only one or two dominant
heaviest in autumn and lightest in
species. 55 % of the forests are pine-
spring, from March to May. Mean an-
dominated, 30 % spruce-dominated
nual precipitation is 550-650 mm in
and the remainder birch-dominated.
the South and 400-550 mm in the
Peatlands cover about 31 % of the land
North. The wind is usually weak or
area. Of these, two thirds are suitable
moderate and its direction very varia-
for forestry and the rest open bogs.
ble. Thanks to a number of favourable
Nearly half of Finland's peatlands have
natural and geographical factors, win-
been drained to increase forest pro-
ter temperatures in Finland are
ductivity.
8-12°C warmer than the average for
The flora of Finland resembles that of
these latitudes. Where summer is con-
Scandinavia and the Northern parts of
cerned, Finland enjoys an advantage
the Soviet Union. Altogether, there are
of 1-2°C in this respect.
about 22,700 species of fauna, 85 % of
There are few hours of daylight in win-
them arthropodal invertebrates. Some
ter. At Utsjoki in the northernmost part
67 mammal, 347 bird and 37 freshwa-
of the country (about 70°N), there is
ter fish species are found. Mammals
uninterrupted darkness for 51 days
found all over Finland include foxes,
and in Helsinki (about 60°N) there is
weasels, hares, water voles and forest
only about 6 hours of daylight each
shrews. The most common species of
day in late December. In summer,
birds include chaffinches, wagtails, tit-
however, there is no shortage of day-
mouses, robins, etc.
light. The sun doesn't set at all in the
Utsjoki district for 73 days and even in
Written by Seppo Sikkinen, Lecturer, University
Helsinki it is visible above the horizon
of Helsinki, Department of Geography
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Fin-
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
nish information service abroad, and is intend-
in your country
ed to be used for reference purposes. It may
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
be freely used in preparing articles, speeches,
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki 12
broadcasts, etc. No acknowledgment is neces-
Finland
sary. Please note the date of preparation.
Helsinki 1988. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
APRIL 1984
Strangers in their own land:
Finland relocated its Karelian evacuees without
difficulty after the Second World War
Finland lost Karelia, about 10 % of its
the following weeks, while the last left just
area, to the Soviet Union after the Second
before the border was closed.
World War. The migration of the Karelians
to the rest of Finland was a little incident
Many received their evacuation orders a
couple of days before "D-day." Perhaps
in the enormous population moves that
have taken place in Europe, but it was a
they had time to drag some of their
period in Finland's post-war history with
possessions to the railroad stations for
later moves. Finally, they hitched up their
exceptionally far-reaching consequences.
horses, collected their COWS together on
The Karelian population made its
the road: it was time to move west.
unanimous decision for the first time
during the Winter War (1939-1940): it
They drove their teams hundreds of
kilometers, along roads filled with people,
moved in its entirety to the rest of Finland
from areas taken by the Russians.
cattle, and despair. Sometimes they found
Two-thirds of the 400,000 evacuees
shelter in strange houses, sometimes in
abandoned schools. Luckily, it was
enthusiastically traveled in the opposite
summer. Those on the other side of the
direction, however, when the Finnish
old border were put into trains which
offensive during the Continuation War
carried most of the evacuees to the
(1941-1944) made it possible for them to
return home.
western parts of the country.
This brief prologue later proved a valuable
experience. Both society as a whole and
Back to the land quickly
its individual members gained expertise in
Just as World War Two was culminating
evacuation, reconstruction, resettlement,
in Germany, Finland was putting the
and compensation which decisively
finishing touches on the legislation which
facilitated the Karelians' final relocation.
set down the principles by which the
The Allies began to land in Normandy on
evacuees were to be resettled. A few days
June 6, 1944, and the Soviet attack on the
before, the brief conflict in Lapland had
Karelian Isthmus started three days later.
ceased, Finns against the Germans, a
The time for final farewells was
Soviet condition in the peace treaty.
approaching. Everyone left this time, too.
A land acquisitions act defined the general
Most systematically moved west during
relocation of the rural evacuees. However,
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
1.4.3
HELSINKI FINLAND
a large group of other Karelians also
followed the rural population of their
home district to the relocation areas
chosen. In 1949, 53 % of the evacuees
lived in these areas. The rest settled where
they liked.
Many things were done to help the
Karelians adapt. Efforts were made to see
that the region and farm conditions
resembled as closely as possible those the
farmers had left. Special attention was
paid to the soil, economic conditions,
language, and religion.
There was also a desire to keep the
evacuees' local societies intact by parish
and village. The Karelians themselves
decided which villages were to be located
in the best places, which in the poorest,
based on agricultural conditions, level of
cultivation, and location in Karelia. The
parishes' mutual position and location
were also preserved geographically in a
north-south direction.
The Karelians were relocated quickly and
smoothly. Nonetheless, it was impossible
Schools and parish community centers served
to keep differing opinions from clashing.
as temporary lodgings as the whole Karelian
The interests of those who relinquished
population moved from Karelia to the rest of
Finland.
land and those who were granted it
conflicted. The evacuees' prior claim to
land was also questioned at times. Finally,
quickly enough and at a moderate price on
the influx of new settlers threatened the
a voluntary basis.
peacefull relations between the Finnish-
speaking and the Swedish-speaking
The evacuees were paid compensation for
population.
land, forests, buildings, and effects left in
Karelia. This compensation was financed
by the proceeds of property levies
collected from the rest of the population
Expropriation
and partly also by increasing normal
taxation. Tax payers thus had to dip into
The land necessary for resettlement was
their purses twice on account of the war.
obtained mostly from the State,
municipalities, the church, business, and
The evacuees, in turn, paid for 84 % of
abandoned farms, while the share
their farms in the form of their
provided by actual farmers was limited to
compensations and ready money; the rest
one-fifth. Since four-fifths of the total 2.8
remained as a debt to the State. Only after
million hectares of land was obtained by
the extensive work of construction,
expropriation, the question of land
clearing land, draining fields, and making
transfers became a key factor in the public
roads was done were the Karelians
morale. The most important reason for the
gradually able to join their neighbours as
farmers' unwillingness to relinquish their
equal members of society. This would
land was its price. Since compensation
never have been possible without the
was not subject to price index adjustment,
widespread sympathy of the rest of the
the land was transferred to its new owners
Finns.
for under the going price, as a result of
inflation. Another bone of contention was
Swedish-speaking areas in a
the word expropriation itself, which has
special position
traditionally had a bad ring to it in Finland.
Nonetheless, it would not have been
One special feature of post-war
possible to obtain land for resettlement
resettlement was the necessity of
war orphans, war widows, and soldiers
with families as well. The prior claim to
land promised the evacuees was,
however, largely redeemed; only some of
the others obtained land at the same time
as the Karelians.
Special features
Over 14 million people became refugees or
evacuees in Europe during the period
1912-1939, most of them in the Balkans,
Germany, and the Soviet Union. Twelve
million suffered the same fate during the
Second World War, and during the
ensuing decade, 30 million followed them,
over half of them Germans.
The Karelians thus made up only a small
stream in the great flood of refugees. Even
though they only accounted for about
12 % of the Finnish population, many
factors made it easier for them to get a
new start. Finland was, after all, able to
solve its evacuee problems itself, without
Packed trains transported the evacuees from
the presence of occupying forces.
the eastern border to safer areas in western
Relocation took place under the country's
Finland.
own highly developed administration and
legislation.
In addition, the Karelians joined other
relocating the Karelians without disturbing
Finns; they were able to adapt to another
the linguistic character of the
Finnish society. Their move was also a
Swedish-speaking and bilingual areas.
single and final event. The evacuees did
This prohibited the settlement of Karelians
not come as a continual, chaotic flood, as
almost entirely in coastal areas, which put
they did in Germany, but over a short
Karelian fishermen in a difficult position.
period of time, which made it possible to
make long-range plans in solving the
The country's leaders did, however,
problems involved.
realize that the Swedo-Finns represented a
Another factor which facilitated
valuable link in Finnish foreign relations
precisely during that period, when the rest
resettlement was the full-employment
of Scandinavia was showing its friendship
situation which revailed, due partly to
and support. The others who relinquished
Finland's obligation to pay war
land had to swallow their bitterness
reparations. It was certainly also very
toward the Swedo-Finns, whose land had
important that the evacuees' initiative and
internationally been left untouched.
sense of responsibility could be used to
the full in arranging their affairs. As a
All in all, relocating the evacuees brought
result of all this, Finland resolved its
out the even greater contrast between the
evacuee question earlier than other
advanced agricultural areas of southern
countries.
Finland and the forested areas of the north
and northeast. In other words, most of the
Karelians were relocated in areas that
Finland in transition
already had the densest population.
Urbanization also increased as a result.
The Karelians' move, to the last man, to
the rest of Finland was recognized quite
Post-war resettlement did not, obviously,
early as a social transformation with
only involve the evacuees. The conditions
far-reaching and profound effects. The
created by a prolonged war made it
first plan to study this period of transition
imperative to find land for war invalids,
scientifically was put on paper as early as
the summer of 1946. In the spring of 1948,
the Rockefeller Foundation in the United
100 km
States appropriated a large grant to carry
out the project.
While the evacuees gradually adapted to
PETSAMO
5 200 inhab.
new conditions, they still harbored an
Rural evacuees and
directions followed in
unconsicious hope that Karelia would be
their relocation,
returned to Finland. Before the Paris
1945-1949
Peace Treaty was signed (1947), this wish
Directions of
SALLA-KUUSAMO
relocation, 1944.
AREA
might indeed have been based on some
5 500 inhab.
degree of realism. The fact that as late as
Directions of
the 1960s, efforts were made to use this
immigration,
1945-1949
question politically shows just how strong
and tenacious these hopes were. The
Karelians never started up any vindictive
political movement, however.
Most of those who had lived their adult
BORDER
life in Karelia were inclined to put
Karelia
54 600 inhab.
everything that was past and lost in an
idealized light. The Karelia they had left
and everything connected with it became
the center of all their sentiments. On the
CENTRAL
KARELIA
other hand, many very real difficulties with
137 300 inhab.
farms and homes did indeed make new
KARELIAN
conditions compare unfavorably with the
PORKKALA
ISTHMUS
old.
5 800 inhab.
214 900 inhab.
The younger generation, on the other
Relocating the evacuees. The evacuees
hand, had only vague memories of the
began their move in the autumn of 1939, in
land they had lost and was much more
evacuations preceeding the Winter War which
willing to put down roots in a new place.
continued during and after the war as the
inhabitants of areas ceded to the Soviet Union
It had none of the adjustment problems
left them. During the Continuation War, C. 70
that came from deep-seated feelings.
% of the evacuees returned to their homes.
Nonetheless, the knowledge that a family
After the armistice in September 1944, all of
comes from Karelia can be kept alive for
the areas were evacuated once more. The
generations as an historic tradition, a
evacuees accounted for C. 12 % of the Finnish
highly valued heritage.
population at the time.
Carrying out resettlement proved to be a
An emergency resettlement act was passed in
project that strengthened Finnish society
1940 and a land acquisitions act in 1945 to
in quite a short time. Today we are fully
relocate rural evacuees. The implementation of
aware that the rapid and determined
the former was interrupted. Persons other than
evacuees were covered by the latter. By the
settlement of both Karelians and war
end of 1950, nearly all the evacuees who had
veterans saved the country from many
worked in agriculture had been settled; C. 16 %
difficult post-war social problems.
relinquished their right to land. Immigration by
the evacuees after 1945 was directed from the
western parts of the country toward the east
Written by Keijo K. Kulha, editor-in-chief of
and north, but also on a large scale to southern
Helsingin Sanomat and a Finnish historian, with
Finland.
a special interest in recent history.
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Finnish
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
information service abroad, and is intended to be
in your country
used for reference purposes. It may be freely used
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts, etc.
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki 12
No acknowledgment is necessary. Please note the
Finland
date of preparation.
Helsinki 1984. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
MAY 1984
The Roots of the Finnish Language
In terms of both structure and vocabulary,
Fennoscandia, Western Siberia and
Finnish differs sharply from most other
Eastern Europe, including Hungary. This
European languages. The general acoustic
group is further related to the Samoyedic
quality of the language in itself is enough
languages, which at the beginning of this
to attract the foreigner's attention: lots of
century were spread over an area
vowels, few consonants, long words,
extending from the Arctic Ocean across
stress invariably on the first syllable.
the tundra to the Taymyr Peninsula, the
Consonant clusters are rare, particularly at
shores of the Ob and Yenisey Rivers and
the beginning and end of words.
the Sayan Mountains. Together the
Loanwords may thus receive such forms
Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic languages
in Finnish as koulu (cf. Latin schola,
form the Uralic family of languages.
Swedish skola), ranta (cf. Swedish
strand), lyijy (cf. Swedish bly). The word
The language most closely related to
hääyöaie, on the other hand, is an
Finnish is Estonian, which is spoken by
example of the abundant use of vowels.
around a million people on the southern
Finnish grammar is characterized by the
side of the Gulf of Finland. Finnish and
Estonia differ from each other to about the
lack of grammatic gender, the absence of
articles, and the large number of cases
same degree as Swedish and Danish.
(15) and derivatives, among other things.
With a little practice a Finn and an
One general feature is the use of suffixes
Estonian can learn to understand each
where other European languages employ
other's language. To the south, southeast
prepositions, pronouns and particles. For
and east of Finland, there are several other
instance the phrase / also sing in my car
languages which are nearly as easy for
can be translated as laula-n auto-ssa-ni-kin
Finns to learn as Estonia is. These include
(hyphens added), which corresponds
Karelian, Veps, Votic and Livonian. A
roughly to "sing-I car-in-my-also".
more distantly related language is Lapp,
which is spoken in Sweden, Norway,
The Finnish language, despite its exotic
Finland and Russia over a broad area
features, does not stand alone in Europe.
which extends in a zone some 100-200
It belongs to the Finno-Ugric family of
kilometres wide from Härjedalen in central
languages, which have spread to
Sweden to the eastern shores of the Kola
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
1.6
HELSINKI FINLAND
Peninsula. Lapp and Finnish have diverged
initially spoken in the region between the
to the point that they are mutually
Urals and the Volga, but over the course
unintelligible.
of the next two thousand years,
Finno-Ugric tribes spread out over a broad
Other more distantly related languages
area reaching from the Urals to the
include Mordvin and Mari (Cherimis) in the
eastern part of the Baltic.
Central Volga area, Votyak in the Kama -
Vyatka region, Komi (Zyryan) in the Dvina
The Finno-Ugric peoples represent the
and Petchora River area, and Ostyak and
oldest population of northern and central
Vogul in the Ob River area on the other
Russia. It was only in historic times,
side of the Urals. Finnish is also remotely
mostly in the past thousand years, that
related to Hungarian, the best known of
they faced encroachment by newcomers
the Finno-Ugric languages.
of Slavic and Turkish origin. These have in
turn assimilated parts of the indigenous
All these languages share certain
Finno-Ugric population.
structural features which set them apart
from other languages. They also share the
Archeological finds, stone artifacts,
oldest stratum of vocabulary. Linguists
pottery fragments and decorations, the
have been able to demonstrate the
remains of dwellings and human graves
relations between the members of the
tell us a great deal about the life of
Finno-Ugric family and to reconstruct their
prehistoric peoples. But language also
history. All are assumed to have
carries traces of the past. New inventions,
developed from a common parent
working methods, occupations and social
language, termed Proto-Finno-Ugric,
structures always bring with them new
which was spoken some 5000 years ago.
concepts and words. Words form layers,
Further reconstruction leads back to
with the oldest strata going back
Proto-Uralic, from which the Finno-Ugric
thousands of years and the youngest
and Samoyedic languages have
dating only to yesterday. The researcher
developed. It is thought that this earlier
can study these layers and read the history
parent language was in use some 6000-
of a language and the people who have
7000 years ago. There is no definite
spoken it just as the geologist reads the
information concerning where these
history of our planet from the strata of the
ancient tongues were spoken. Many facts
earth's crust. Although the oldest known
nevertheless seem to indicate that
Finnish-language, texts only date back to
Proto-Uralic was originally spoken in the
the 16th century, historical-comparative
Urals region, as the name implies.
linguistics offers the means to trace the
roots of this language much farther back
Stone Age hunting and fishing tribes
into the past.
required plenty of room to ensure their
daily supply of food. It has been
The oldest recognized stratum of the
calculated that at the time in question the
Finnish language goes back to
forest zone of Eastern and Northern
Proto-Uralic and Proto-Finno-Ugric, i.e.
Europe could sustain a population with a
some 5000-7000 years. It echoes the life
density of no more than 0.1-0.5 persons
of the Stone Age hunter-fisherman and
per square kilometre. Life involved a great
includes such words as jousi ("bow"),
deal of travelling. Families wandered over
nuoli ("arrow"), kalin and kulle (both
great areas in search of food, according to
meaning a type of primitive fishing net).
the rhythm of the seasons. We can easily
Although the main livelihoods at this time
understand that as the region occupied by
were hunting and fishing, some domestic
speakers of Proto-Uralic expanded,
animals were also kept, as evidenced by
contacts weakened and finally broke off
the words koira ("dog") and porsas
between groups which were physically
("pig"). This last word was borrowed by
separated from one another. Dialects also
the Finno-Ugric people from their
diverged. This divergeance eventually
Indo-European neighbours (cf. English
resulted in a loss of mutual
pork). Other borrowings include such
comprehension: one language became
words as mehiläinen ("bee") and mesi
many. The cleft between Finno-Ugric and
("honey"), which show that bee products
Samoyedic was the first to develop. It
were at least known and perhaps some
appears that Proto-Finno-Ugric was
primitive form of beekeeping was already
2
being developed. Words related to old
Ladoga. Eventually these two groups also
forms of winter travel such as ahkio
diverged linguistically. The northern group
("sled") and suksi ("ski") have survived,
continued to live as before. Game,
as has the verb soutaa ("to row"), which
particularly wild reindeer, drew hunters
indicates how streams were used for travel
farther and farther to the north, where
purposes. Other vocabulary related to
they encountered and gradually absorbed
everyday articles and skills which has
some earlier Fenno-Scandinavian
remained embedded in the Finnish
population whose origin is unknown. The
language includes pato ("dam"), punoa
Lapps are descended from this stock. The
("to weave"), solmu ("knot"), veitsi
southern group, on the other hand, stayed
("knife", originally "axe"), vuolla
in the area around the Gulf of Finland, tied
("carve"), vyö ("belt"), äimä ("needle",
down by their developing agriculture and
originally made of bone), kota ("tent")
livestock herding. This second group gave
and ovi ("door"). Proto-Finno-Ugric had a
rise to the Baltic peoples, including the
wealth of terms to describe family
Finns.
relations, and many of these are preserved
in Finnish. Other social vocabulary from
Finnish came from the east, but when?
this period has not fared so well, however.
When did the first words of this language
In fact the only word in this category
or some earlier stage of it first echo in the
which has been passed on is noita
wilds of present-day Finland? No definite
("witch"), a term connected with
answer can as yet be given to this
Shamanism. Such facts demonstrate the
question. Linguistic methods make a
central importance of the family among
relative chronology possible. Far-reaching
Stone Age hunter-fishermen. Permanent
conclusions can be reached concerning
social organization on a broader scale is
the relative age of grammatical
not likely to have existed as yet.
constructions, words and forms.
Grammatical changes can be put into
All the subsequent stages through which
order and the main stages of language
Finnish has gone have similarly left their
development can be outlined. But
traces on the language. Vocabulary strata,
language data alone cannot tell very much
for example, give some indication of the
about the absolute time at which a
great social change which took place in
particular change took place or some state
the third century before our own era,
of the language existed. Pinpointing such
when the inhabitants of the Baltic and
changes generally requires some type of
Volga regions learned the art of
extralinguistic information which can be
agriculture. The common farming
dated and compared to the language
vocabulary of the Baltic languages,
under study.
Mordvin and Mari give witness to this
revolutionary change. As one might
Archeological artifacts can be dated in
expect, new social vocabulary also
many instances. Archeologists have
developed at this time. The farmer's life
shown that Finland has been inhabited for
was regular, dwellings became
as much as 9000 years. But stone axes,
permanent, relations with neighbours took
pottery fragments and fireplaces do not
on larger importance, and the community
tell us what language their users spoke.
moved towards greater organization and
This presents a problem: archeological
adopted new standards.
finds can be dated, but they are mute,
while language speaks of the past in
words, but not dates. How can these two
Not everyone wished to assume the
worries of farming, however. Especially in
documents of prehistoric times be
combined?
the northernmost areas, agriculture could
not guarantee survival. Hunting and
Various attempts have been made towards
fishing offered more security. This very
this end. For example, very few artifacts
difference in natural conditions was
dating to the pre-Roman Iron Age (500
probably the main reason why two
BC-AD 50) have been found in Finland.
separate groups began to develop in the
Abundant finds going back to the
so-called primitive Proto-Finnic language
following period have been made,
community living on the northwestern
however, and these artifacts are similar to
periphery of Finno-Ugric habitation,
those found to the south of the Gulf of
around the Gulf of Finland and Lake
Finland. This has led to the conclusion
3
36*
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE
URALIC LANGUAGES
FINNO-UGRIAN SOCIETY
HELSINKI UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
DEPARTMENT OF URALIC STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF FINNISH
ARCTIC CIRCLE
HELSINKI 1980
Tysfierd
ALTA
B
N
Nesseby
rents Sea
500 km
Kautokeino
Utsjoki
N
LAPP
Karasjok
NOVA,
Vefsn
LAPP
Ivatojok
NENETS
Arjeplog &
FINNISH
aloma
Jokkmonk
Nuortijarvi
Teriberka
Reros
U
MURMANSK
From
Vilhelmina
Mala
LAPP
LAPP
Kid
w
ROVANIEM
S
Lovozoro
KANDALAKSA
SVERIGE
O KOLGUEV
NORGE
KOL'SKH
Lokanga
Jokanga
OV
Guba
.
OULU
T
OSLO
HANIA
.
FINNISH
Bothnia
Ponoj
NENETS
NENECKIJ N.O
NAR'JAN-MAR
SUOMI
KARELIAN
Beloe
Sula
M
V
Gulf
20
FINLAND
Z
Sap
BELOMORSK
or
MEZEN
Ail
n
FINNISH
KAREL'SKAJA A.S.S.R
Prid
ARHANGEL'SK
KOMI
STOKHOLM
TURKU
.
LOS
ins
ONEGA
RRS
Pinego
PECORA
KOBENHAVN
HELSINKI
150
KARELIAN
KOMI A.S.S.R.
HAMBURG
Gulf of Finland
A
VYBORG
ETROZAVODSK
TALLINN
FINNISH
Ladožkoje
a
UHTA
0
Sea
ESTONIAN
Ozero
ZHORIAN LENINGRAD
VERSIAN
EESTI N.S.V.
Baltic
LIVONIAN Rizskij
VOTIAN
Zaliv
VEPSIAN
Ityc
FINNISH
+LIVONIAN
BERLIN
KARELIAN
SYKTYVKAR
RIGA
.
PSKOV
NOVGOROD
KOMI
LATVIJAS
Limen
P.S.R.
.
KALININGRAD
VOLOGDA
Suinna
KOMI-
PERMJACKIJ
KARELIAN
N.O.P
VIL'NJUS
.
KOMI
WROCLAW
Name
Tv
PRAHA
KALININ
0
KOSTROMA
KUDYMKAR
KIROV
WARSZAWA
VITEBSK
JAROSLAVL
.
Neman
KARELIAN
.
MINSK
Volga
.
BRNO
Duepr
MARI
.
MOSKVA
UDMURT
KRAKOW
GOR'KIJ
UDMURTSKAJA
WIEN
Nizai Norgbrood
MARUSKA
A.S.S.R.
KALOGA
MARI
JOSK
ZEVSK
Me
TULA
⑈⑉
CEBOKSARY
HUNGARIAN
RJAZAN
CUVAS-
KAZAN
.
E
LVOV
BRJANSK
SKAJA
Kama
-
BUDAPEST
MORDVINIAN
MARI
.
A.S.S.R.
SSF
MAGYAR
SARANSK
TATARSKAJA A.S.S.R.
w
DEBRECEN
Simbinsk
ORSZAG
.
UKRAINSKA ASR
ULJANOVEK
UF
Alkino
KIEV
@/SZEGED
TAMBOV .
PENZA
MORDVINTAN
tsakly
JUGO
BASKIRSKAJA A.S.S.R.
SLAVIJA
CLUJ
VORONEZ
KUJBYSEV
Sz
samara
HAR'KOV
Volga
SARATOV
ROMÂNIA
Adjud
MORDVINIAN
ORENBURG
and
ODESSA
ZAPOROZ'E
Throm
BUCUREST
I
Black Sea
VOLGOGRAD
S.
0
Lena
THINTRE
NGANASAN
D
TAJMYRSKIJ N.O.
00
o BELY
NGANASAN
Karskoe More
P.OV JAMAL
DUDINKA
NORIL'SK
GYDANSKIJ P.OV
NENETS
ENETS
NENETS
Sir,
PD
Novyj Port
KOMI
Obskaja a
Hadulti
NETS
SELKUP
ORKUTA
NENETS
SELKUP
SALEHARD
JAMALO-NENECKIJ NO
Nadyn
Bajkit
ka
Poluj
NENETS
KHANTY
"Kuska
18
MANSI
112a
Berezovo
Korliki
KHANTY
Sym
Auguro
BRATSK
HANTY-MANSIJSKI NO
Vah
ENISEJSK
Bir
MORDVINIAN
Surput
MANS
KHANTY
SELKUP
KHANTY
KHAN
E
HANTY-MANSIJSK
SELKUP
KHANTY
KANSK
IRKUTSK
MORDVINIAN
MANSI
KRASNOJARSK
Development
KHANTY
SELKUP
ESTONIAN
Demjank
+KAMAS
K
Ses've
KHANTY
MORDVINIAN
TOBOCSK
Irtys
PM
+MOTOR
.
TOMSK
HAKASSKAJA
ESTONIAN
A.O
ABAKAN
oll
KOMI
FINNISH
TJUMEN
NOVOSIBIRSK
SVERDLOVSK
MORDVINIAN
KYZYL
ESTONIAN
FINNISH
TUVINSKAJA ASSR
OMSK
BARNAUL
PETROPAVLOVEN
LAPP S Southern U Ume Pi Pite. L Lule, N Northern Inari,
Sk Skoll Kid Kildin, Ter
GORNO ALTAJSK
FINNISH
KARELIAN N Northern. A Aunus-Olonec L Ludian Tv Tver
VEPSIAN
IZHORIAN
Cards
GORNO LTAJSKAJA A.O.
VOTIAN
ESTONIAN
LIVONIAN
MOROVINIAN M Moksha E Erza
MARI (CHEREMIS) Mo Mountain, Me Meadow E Eastern
UDMURT (VOTYAK)
?
KOMI P Komi-Permyak
MANSI (VOGUL) N Northern. W Western Eastern, S Southern
KHANTY (OSTYAK) N Northern, E Eastern. S Southern
HUNGARIAN (Sz Székely)
NGANASAN (TAVGY-SAMOYED)
ENETS (YENISEY SAMOYED)
NENETS (YURAK-SAMOYED) Forest
SELKUP (OSTYAK-SAMOYED) Ta Taz. Ty Tym. Ke Ket
KAMAS (KOIBAL)
MOTOR (TAIGI, SOYOT) K Karagas
Light green: Areas of Widest Distribution
Dark Green: Present-day Main Areas
t Extinct
5
that settlement in what is now Finland -
western foliage over the course of time.
whatever the origin of this early
Mention was made earlier of the
population - decreased or even
Indo-European loanwords which made
disappeared during the pre-Roman Iron
their way into Proto-Finno-Ugric. The
Age, with new settlers moving in from
study of words dating from subsequent
Estonia during the first centuries of the
periods indicates constant contacts with
Christian era. It is assumed that these new
certain Indo-European groups. During the
settlers spoke Proto-Finnic and were the
second century BC, the ancestors of
ancestors of modern-day Finns. This
today's Finns came in touch with the
interpretation and the view of history it
Balts, who spoke an Indo-European
involves gained an established position in
language related to modern-day
the early part of the present century.
Lithuanian and Latvian. Old Baltic
Scholars representing various disciplines
loanwords suggest close contacts and the
were more or less unanimously in favour
influence of Baltic culture. The scene of
of this explanation, and this is what was
these contacts was what is now the Baltic
taught in schools. But it was not the final
states, where the Proto-Finns had arrived
word.
from the east. The Finno-Ugric people had
up until this time been inland dwellers.
Recently, and particularly since the 1970s,
The oldest strata of the Finnish language
both linguists and archeologists have
thus lack words related to the sea, even
revealed new data and new research
though they include many terms
findings which do not support the old
connected with other types of waterways.
migration theory, but rather undermine it.
When the Proto-Finnic people arrived on
New archeological excavations have also
the shores of the Gulf of Finland and the
brought to light artifacts from the
Baltic Sea, they encountered the Balts
pre-Roman period. Thanks to more
and adopted from them such words as
complete data and more advanced
meri ("sea"), lohi ("salmon") and ankerias
research methods, the picture of Finland's
("eel").
pre-historic period has been altered. Many
archeologists believe that the findings
Around this same time or perhaps a little
point to continuous cultural development
later, the Proto-Finnic people came into
from the Stone Age onwards. In their
touch with Germanic tribes, from whom
view, archeological remains do indeed
they also borrowed many new words.
point to contacts with the south, but they
Judging from such borrowings, this
do not justify the assumption of such a
Germanic influence appears to have been
dramatic demographical change as was
considerably stronger than that of the
once thought to have taken place.
Balts. Finnish includes very many words
of Germanic origin in such areas as
The latest linguistic findings are also in
occupations, crafts, weapons and society.
conflict with the old migration theory.
This Germanic influence has continued
Recent research shows that the oldest
from the Bronze Age up to the present
Germanic loanwords were assimilated into
day, with greater or lesser force. The
Finnish in southwestern Finland and not to
lender has also changed during this period
the south of the Gulf of Finland. Since the
from Proto-Germanic to Scandinavian and
contacts which made these borrowings
on to Swedish. The latest flow of
possible are nowadays considered to have
Germanic loanwords comes from English.
taken place in the Bronze Age, this means
Such words as buukata ("to book"), jatsi
that Proto-Finnic was spoken in Finland as
("jazz"), meikki ("make-up"), taksi
early as 1000-1500 BC. Whether or not
("taxi") and teippi ("tape") are an every
Finno-Ugric settlement in this area goes
day part of modern Finnish.
back even farther than this is still a riddle.
In the light of archeological findings, it
The Finns came in contact with the Slavs
would appear possible that Finno-Ugric
at a relatively late date, only around the
settlers arrived in Finland before 3000 BC,
middle of the first millenium of our era.
when what is known as comb pottery
Since then numerous Slavic loanwords
spread to this area.
have been assimilated into Finnish, and
such borrowings form a considerable
Although Finnish has its roots firmly in the
portion of the vocabulary of eastern
east, it has also acquired a great deal of dialects.
6
New words are not the only thing that
but some authorities even question the
foreign languages have contributed to
inter-relation between these Altaic groups.
Finnish. Germanic influences in particular
In any case, there are researchers who
have left profound traces on the phonetic
believe that the Uralic and Altaic
and syntactic structure of the Finnish
languages are quite distantly related.
language. This is especially true in the
Yukaghir, which is spoken in Siberia, is
case of phraseology and word meaning,
more evidently related to the Uralic family.
i.e. the content expressed by linguistic
There are also similarities between the
forms. Prof. Lauri Hakulinen, a noted
Indo-European and Uralic languages, and
Finnish language scholar, has stated that
these have been interpreted as a sign of
"The Finnish language's inventory of
common parentage. It should, however,
expressions has particularly by means of
be noted that the Indo-European
translation loans gained access to the
languages show a more distant relation to
common cultural heritage of the majority
the Uralic languages than do the Altaic
of European languages and thus has been
languages and Yukaghir. In recent times
'Europeanized' much more thoroughly
there has been some discussion of
than one might suppose given the
possible ancient connections between
isolation of its phonological and
Uralic, Altaic and Dravidian. In all these
morphological structure."
cases, similarities between language
families represent such an old stratum that
The isolation of phonological and
it has not yet been possible to clarify their
morphological structure mentioned by
nature. There is no way to judge whether
Hakulinen refers to that part of the Finnish
this is a question of common ancestry or
language which has best preserved the
contacts between ancient Eurasian
ancient Finno-Ugric heritage. Finnish has
peoples some tens of thousands of years
in fact been compared to an icebox
ago. The horizon is shrouded in mist.
storing age-old expressions and
constructions which have changed
markedly in other languages. Some
Finnish words are like mammoth bones
surviving as monuments of prehistoric
times.
The Uralic language family
For example, the words pata ("pot"), pesä
(with approximate number of
("nest"), kala ("fish"), kota ("tent") and
speakers)
ilma ("air") have retained the same
phonetic appearance for 5000-6000
years, while they have changed radically in
Finno-Ugric division
the other Finno-Ugric languages. If we
take the Finnish word kota, for instance, it
1. Baltic-Finnic group
has such cognates as koahti in Lapp, kudo
- Finnish (5,000,000)
in Mordvin, kude in Mari, kola in Komi,
kwa in Votyak, kaat in Ostyak and ház in
- Estonian (1,000,000)
- Karelian (138,000)
Hungarian. In many cases Finnish has also
preserved old loanwords better than the
- Veps (16,000)
- Votic (a few dozen)
language of origin. Thus the old Germanic
- Livonian (300)
kuningaz is still kuningas in Finnish, while
in the Germanic languages it has
developed over the course of centuries
2. Lapp (36,000)
into king in English, konung and kung in
Swedish and König in German.
3. Volga-Finnic group
We have followed the prehistory of the
- Mordvin (1,200,000)
Finnish language from Proto-Uralic some
- Mari or Cheremis (622,000)
6000-7000 years ago. What about the
time before this? Long ago scholars found
similarities between the Uralic and Altaic
4. Permic group
languages. This latter family includes the
- Komi or Zyryan (478,000)
Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus languages,
- Votyak or Udmurt (714,000)
7
5. Ob-Ugric group
- Ostyak or Khanty (21,000)
- Vogul or Mansi (7,600)
6. Hungarian (14,000,000)
Samoyedic division
1. Nenets or Yurak (25,000)
2. Enets or Yenesey Samoyed (400)
3. Ngansan or Tavgi (1,000)
4. Selkup or Ostyak Samoyed (4,300)
Written by Mikko Korhonen, Professor at the
University of Helsinki
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Finnish
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
information service abroad, and is intended to be
in your country
used for reference purposes. It may be freely used
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts, etc.
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki 12
No acknowledgment is necessary. Please note the
Finland
date of preparation.
Helsinki 1988. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
JULY 1984
Finnish coats of arms
The following is a brief description of
Finland's national coat of arms and the
arms of the nation's nine provinces. A
short account is given of what each of
these symbolizes and how it came into
being. The article is based on the official
blazon and the most widely approved
explanation of each coat of arms.
The national coat of arms
When King Gustav I of Sweden (died
1560) gave his son John the title of duke
of Finland in 1556, the territory also
received its own coat of arms, which was
probably approved by the king in 1557,
although as far as we know Duke John
never used it. In addition to national
emblems, this coat of arms (Figure 1)
included two other symbols referring to
northern and southern Finland, in actual
King Gustav I at the Uppsala Cathedral
fact the areas of Satakunta and
(completed 1591). This monument was
Varsinais-Suomi (Finland Proper). These
designed during the reign of John's elder
two symbols were later retained in the
brother, Erik XIV, who was king from 1560
arms of these two provinces.
to 1568, but it was only completed some
After ascending the Swedish throne, King
thirty years later during John's reign. The
John III adopted the title of "Grand Duke
shield was probably designed by the
of Finland and Karelia" in the year 1581. It
Dutch artist Willem Boyen, who served
under both Gustav I and Erik XIV.
was probably at this time or a little later
that Finland received a second coat of
There is no way to know whether
arms (Figure 2), which is somewhat like
Finland's second coat of arms was purely
the present one. This coat of arms is
the product of Willem Boyen's own
generally thought to have been modelled
imagination or whether it was based on
on a shield sculpted for the tombstone of
Erik XIV's wishes or some other unknown
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
2.1.
HELSINKI FINLAND
Figure 2
historical tradition. It is known, however,
Provincial coats of arms
that Erik XIV was himself interested in
heraldry. This matter has been the subject
of considerable academic debate among
Finland's nine historical provinces include
scholars and laymen.
Varsinais-Suomi
(Finland
Proper),
Satakunta, Ahvenanmaa (Åland),
At any rate, the general consensus has
Uusimaa, Häme (Tavastia), Karjala
been that the symbol of the lion is derived
(Karelia), Savo, Pohjanmaa (Ostrobothnia)
from the arms of the Folkung family,
and Lappi (Finnish Lapland). Several
which are included in the royal arms of
Finnish provinces had their own seals as
Sweden. The two swords were borrowed
early as the Middle Ages. No present-day
from the Karelian coat of arms (Figure 8),
coats of arms have developed from these
which was publicly displayed for the first
seals, however, which included
known time on a banner at the funeral of
representations of saints. It was probably
King Gustav I in 1560.
not until the reign of Gustav I that
Finland's provinces received arms similar
The placing of the curved Russian sabre
to those existing today.
beneath the lion's paws is undoubtedly a
reflection of the political situation at this
The provincial arms were all apparently
time. Sweden and Russia were almost
designed under kings with a personal
constantly at war, and the Swedes made
interest in heraldry. Each coats of arms is
use of this propaganda device to imply
clearly representative of the province, its
that they had the upper hand over their
fauna or other special characteristics. The
enemies. The nine roses are decorative,
coronets which appear in Finland's
although they have falsely been
provincial arms are based on historical
interpreted as referring to Finland's nine
practice and show a certain degree of
historical provinces. It is worth noting that
ignorance regarding continental heraldic
the number of roses has varied over the
tradition and conventions. The ducal
centuries.
coronet on some provincial arms differs
from the normal crown, while the count's
When Finland gained independence in
coronet on other provincial arms
1917, the "lions arms" became the coat of
resembles a baronial crown.
arms of the new nation. Before this it had
served as the common symbol for all the
Today provincial arms are used in various
Swedish territory to the east of the Gulf of
provincial symbols. The coats of arms of
Bothnia; and from 1809 to 1917 it served
Finland's modern administrative provinces
as the coat of arms for the Grand Duchy
are in the main derived from those of the
of Finland, which was under Russian rule
historical provinces. Many municipalities
during this period.
have also adopted the colours and motifs
of provincial arms.
The Finnish coat of arms appears on the
state flag, official seals, coins, banknotes
and postage stamps. On the President's
Varsinais-Suomi (Finland
car it takes the place of an ordinary
Proper)
registration plate.
It was not until 1978 that legislation was
(Figure 3)
passed concerning Finland's coat of arms.
A golden jousting helmet in front of
This legislation gives the official blazon
crossed golden lances on a red field. Each
and prohibits the sale of the national coat
lance bears a blue forked pennon with a
of arms, subject to fine.
golden cross. Ducal coronet.
The national coat of arms displays a
The arms of this province appeared on the
crowned lion standing on a red field. The
coat of arms designed when King John III
lion holds a raised sword in its right
took the title of grand duke of Finland.
gauntleted fore leg and is trampling a
The helmet and lances no doubt have
curved sabre. The lion, the crown and the
reference to Turku Castle, the military and
sword and sabre handles are gold, as are
administrative centre of southwestern
the gauntlet joints. The blades and the
Finland. The helmet also bears witness to
gauntlet are silver. The field is adorned by
the importance of the nobility and
nine silver roses.
knighthood, established in Medieval times.
3
I
Figure 3
Figure 4
Varsinais-Suomi
Satakunta
Figure 5
Figure 6
Ahvenanmaa
Uusimaa
4
Figure 7
Figure 8
Häme
Karjala
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Savo
Pohjanmaa
Lappi
5
The arms of Åland have remained
Satakunta
basically the same since the early 17th
century. The Oland arms, on the other
(Figure 4)
hand, for a time displayed two deer.
Nowadays they, too, feature a stag and
greatly resemble the Åland coat of arms.
A black bear standing on a blue and
golden field, with red claws, tongue and
The coat of arms of Åland was slightly
teeth. The bear holds a silver sword with
changed in 1951, when a ribbon was
golden haft and wears a golden crown. On
removed from the stag's neck. The arms
either side of the bear's head is a silver
were redrawn by the renowned Finnish
star. Ducal coronet.
heraldist Gustaf von Numers at this time.
This coat of arms also figured in the arms
created for Duke John. The bear is a
reference to the old fur trade and the
Uusimaa
existence of bears in this region in the
Middle Ages and the early part of our own
era. The bear may have appeared on the
(Figure 6)
arms of this province as early as the 15th
century. The animal is a symbol of the
A golden boat between two wavy silver
wilds. The sword and the two
lines on a blue field. Baronial coronet.
seven-pointed stars are mainly
ornamental. Swords and stars have
The oldest known depiction of this
always been common heraldic devices.
province's arms is in a runic painting in
The stars can be thought of as referring to
Uppsala which dates from 1599. The boat
the clear winter sky of the North, for
is a traditional symbol of coastal areas and
example. The ducal coronet indicates the
refers to the importance of navigation and
importance of the province.
fishing. The wavy lines supposedly
represent the Vantaa and Porvoo rivers,
which are old trading routes and
Ahvenanmaa (Åland)
connections between the coast and the
interior, i.e. the province of Häme.
Another interpretation is that they refer to
(Figure 5)
the Kymi and Mustio rivers, which border
the province to the west and east.
A stag on a blue field. Baronial coronet.
The arms of municipalities in this province
As mentioned above, the coat of arms
quite often make use of the provincial
adopted by Duke John in 1556 included
colours: blue, gold and silver. The modern
the arms of southern and northern Finland
administrative province of Uusimaa also
(Finland Proper and Satakunta). In 1569
makes use of the same arms, without the
Katarina Stenbock, the widow of Gustav
coronet.
I, received the Åland Islands as a fief, and
this area was then considered a province
in its own right. This is reflected by the
baronial coronet.
Häme (Tavastia)
This province's first coat of arms displayed
two deer one above the other, symbolizing
(Figure 7)
the rich game of the islands. Around the
beginning of the 17th century, however,
A golden linx with black ear tufts on a red
the two deer were replaced by one stag.
field, with three six-pointed silver stars
above and four silver roses underneath.
According to one view, this change
Ducal coronet.
resulted from the confusion of the names
Åland and Öland. The arms of Öland did
An armorial banner representing the
in fact show a golden stag on a blue field,
province of Häme was also noted at the
a reference to the splendid hunting which
funeral of King Gustav I. The principal
Öland offered the nobility.
charge, the linx, was added later as part of
6
the coat of arms for Gustav's tombstone.
Since then it has always figured in the
Savo
provincial arms.
The linx was once a very common animal
(Figure 9)
in this part of Finland. The stars and roses
are ornamental. In the days of Gustav I,
Häme was regarded as a duchy, hence the
A drawn bow on a black field, with golden
bow and arrow and silver feathers and
ducal coronet.
arrowhead. Baronial coronet.
The arms of this historical province
The simple and quite beautiful arms of the
nowadays appear as one side of the arms
Savo province also appeared on a banner
of the administrative provinces of Häme,
displayed at the funeral of King Gustav I.
Mikkeli and Keski-Suomi (Central Finland).
The Savo arms have remained unchanged
The "Häme linx" also appears on the arms
since the 16th century. The bow and
of several municipalities. Many
arrow refer to hunting and the need to
organizations, including one of Finland's
defend the nation's border. The Savo
best known icehockey and football clubs,
arms, without the coronet, nowadays
have also adopted the linx as their symbol.
serve as the arms of the administrative
The provincial colours are often found in
province of Kuopio. The bow and arrow
municipal arms.
also appear on the arms of Mikkeli
province, together with the linx of Häme,
as well as in numerous municipal arms.
Black and gold are also commonly found
Karjala (Karelia)
in various municipal arms in this part of
the nation.
(Figure 8)
Pohjanmaa (Ostrobothnia)
A golden crown above two duelling arms,
the right guantleted arm holding a sword
and the left mailed arm a scimitar, all silver
(Figure 10)
except for golden hafts and gauntlet joint.
Ducal coronet.
Six silver ermines with black-tipped tails
on a blue field. Baronial coronet.
The oldest known Karelian arms date from
1562. An armorial banner representing this
Various interpretations have been
province most probably appeared before
advanced concerning this province's arms.
this time at the funeral of King Gustav I in
The Ostrobothnian arms also appeared on
1560, however. This banner carried the
a banner displayed at the funeral of King
same shield which has remained on the
Gustav I. In 1562 the province had its first
provincial arms for four centuries.
known coat of arms, consisting of a pine
marten on a white/silver field. This animal
The origin and symbolic function of the
has also been interpreted - erroneously
- as a black fox or even a hound. Over
Karelian arms have long been debated.
The emblem is generally interpreted as an
the course of time the province's symbol
has changed in size and shape, although it
reference to the province's position as a
has always remained a fur animal. The
eastern border region and to the lengthy
number of animals has also varied. It is
struggle between Sweden and Russia for
ownership of this area. Finland's national
worth mentioning that the Ostrobothnian
coat of arms borrowed the sword and
arms appeared on a 1576 medallion in
scimitar from the Karelian arms. The ducal
practically the same form as today. The
crown in the shield itself reflects the
ermine was once quite common in this
area.
province's historical heraldic status. The
Karelian arms, without the coronet,
The Ostrobothnian arms appear on the
nowadays serve as the coat of arms of the
arms of the modern provinces of Oulu,
administrative province of Pohjois-Karjala
Vaasa and Lappi (Finnish Lapland) and in
(North Karelia).
various municipal arms.
7
It is worth mentioning that a list illustrated
Lappi (Finnish Lapland)
in the 1580s by Rev. Johan Klint of Östra
Stenby, Sweden, includes a Lapp coat of
arms with two golden/yellow wolves on a
(Figure 11)
silver/white field. This coat of arms never
A wild man carrying a golden club on his
came into general use, however.
shoulder and wearing a green garland and
girdle on a red field. Baronial coronet.
King Karl IX, the third son of Gustav I, is
responsible for giving Finnish Lapland its
Bibliography:
own arms. The original arms were
Bomansson, K.A.: Finlands landskapsvapen.
Historical Archives X/1889
depicted for the first time on a 1606 coin
Dreijer, Matts: Ålands landskapsvapen och
as part of a chain around the king's seal.
kommunalvapen. Åländs Odling 1953
The shield shows a wild man apparently
Heraldica Fennica, Espoo 1978
clothed in furs and carrying a club on his
Juva, Einar W.: Suomen suuriruhtinaskunta. Helsinki
1951
shoulder. Later on the man was shown
Suomen
Kunnallisvaakunat
-
Finlands
with only a laurel girdle and garland. This
kommunvapen Municipal Coats of Arms of
figure, which also appears in the arms of
Finland. Association of Finnish Municipalities.
Swedish Lapland and Finland's modern
Helsinki 1970
administrative province of Lappi, is no
doubt a poor symbol of this cold northern
region. The wild man is a reference to the
primitive conditions of the province's
Written by Maunu Harmo, Master of Pol. Sc.,
inhabitants.
Vice President of Finnish Society of Heraldry
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Fin-
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
nish information service abroad, and is intend-
in your country
ed to be used for reference purposes. It may
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
be freely used in preparing articles, speeches,
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki 12
broadcasts, etc. No acknowledgment is neces-
Finland
sary. Please note the date of preparation.
Helsinki 1984. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
Dr. Mauno Koivisto
President of the Republic of Finland
According to Paragraph 33 of Finland's
K.J. Ståhlberg, who became Finland's first
Constitution, the President of the Republic
President, considered the central task of
"prescribes" the nation's relationship to
the office. Ståhlberg's political profile was
other countries. This categorical formu-
uncompromisingly republican.
lation, which excludes all interpretations,
When Mauno Henrik Koivisto was a presi-
reveals what the father of the Constitution,
dential candidate for the first time, a re-
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
3
HELSINKI FINLAND
1
porter requested that he define the content
of Social Democrats and the Centre Party
of Finland's foreign policy in three words,
supplemented by the Swedish People's
and no more than three. Koivisto's answer,
Party. And in 1983, the Finnish Rural Party
"good neighbour relations", bewildered the
(FLP) was added to the Government.
interviewer who then asked, "Is that enough
The second Government appointed by
for you?" Perhaps he had expected some
Koivisto in 1987, on the other hand, meant
phrase or other from the reigning political
a real change in the nation's political power
liturgy, for example, "Paasikivi-Kekkonen
structure. The Conservative Party, which
line".
had been in opposition for two decades,
This simple, surprising answer showed
became the principle party in the Govern-
that the interviewee, with his double experi-
ment together with the Social Democrats.
ence of having twice held both the post as
They even held the Prime Minister's post.
Minister of Finance as well as that of Prime
The Centre Party (Agrarian Party), who
Minister, was thoroughly familiar with the
had become accustomed to being a per-
complexity of problems which are a per-
manent member of the Government, had
manent part of Finland's geopolitics, as
to accept the fact that they were left out this
marked by the location of the country in the
time. The creator of the so-called "red-blue
joint between East and West. Koivisto has
Government" obviously had other alterna-
later added to his thoughts by stating: "If
tives, but the secret agreement regarding
Finland's relations to its neighbours, the
the formation of the Government, entered
Soviet Union and the Nordic countries, are
into by the Centre Party and the National
not in order, it is futile to attempt to build a
Coalition Party influenced the President's
credible role in a wider international con-
decision. He had clearly announced earlier
text".
that no party - not even the National Co-
After World War II, Finland's international
alition Party would be automatically ex-
position was stabilised during the quarter-
cluded from collaboration in the Govern-
of-a-century long presidential period of Urho
ment.
Kekkonen. In particular, playing host to the
The thought often presented by Koivisto,
Conference on Security and Cooperation
that a Government should reign through-
in Europe, held in Helsinki in 1975, accen-
out the four-year period of the Parliament,
tuated the image of Finland as an active,
became a reality. Unfortunately, this had
neutral nation, striving to foster peaceful
disastrous consequences for both Govern-
developments in Europe.
mental parties. In the elections of 1991
Mauno Koivisto's first presidential period,
they experienced a crushing defeat, while
from 1982-1988, in regards to domestic
the Centre Party, which had been in oppo-
politics as well as international develop-
sition, won a "chilling victory" (victory that
ments, was characterised by mild weather
would chill your blood), which the party
compared to the tornados that whirled up
secretary had predicted two years early.
during his second term in office, in the
Thus the non-Socialist parties' Govern-
immediate vicinity of Finland as well.
ment was created after a four-year delay.
Changes in the Soviet Union and through-
The Left, both the Social Democrats and
out all of Eastern Europe have also sent
the Coalition of the Left, the heir of the
waves across the Baltic Ocean and the
Communist Party reduced to half its size,
Gulf of Finland, and have forced the
became the opposition. The Greens joined
leaders of Finland's foreign policy to face
them as well, though they had received
new issues.
increased support in the elections.
The Social Democratic presidential candi-
Ever since he was elected, Koivisto has
date, Mauno Koivisto's clear victory in 1982
stressed the importance of parliamentary
over two non-Socialist candidates pro-
government and the balance of power
vided a good basis for his domestic policy
between the President and the Parliament.
decisions. The transition from his having
During the events surrounding the forma-
been Acting President during Kekkonen's
tion of the Government in 1991 he re-
illness to becoming the head of the nation,
mained aloof. For example, the Centre
had no effect on foreign policy nor, for
Party's choice of their new, young party
example, on the State's Civil Service,
leader as Prime Minister was never
despite fears of a development to the
questioned. During Koivisto's time as
contrary. The first Cabinet he appointed
President, nearly all possible types of
was built on the same basis as had been
Government formations have had the
the custom since 1966; the core consisted
opportunity to show their viability, and there
2
has been no need to form a civil servant or
tection for the body are preferred to those
minority Government, which Koivisto
employing weapons and explosives."
repudiates.
The President recalls that he once tried to
The ten-year period of stable economic
formulate a short definition of culture, with
growth, during the so-called era of consen-
the following result: "Culture is knowledge,
sus and societal harmony, up until the start
skills and experiences. Knowledge grows
of the depression in early 1991 did not
through research and observations. Skills
require any extraordinary intervention by
as the realisation of thoughts. Experiences
the President.
provide us with contact with the spiritual life
Mauno Koivisto's active participation in the
of others.
nation's societal debate, during his time as
Prior to the elections of 1982, there were
Head of the Bank of Finland, was part of his
some political commentators who doubted
image as an individual. During his Presi-
Koivisto's ability to create personal con-
dential period he has kept up his long-
tacts with the leaders of other countries,
standing contact with representatives of
particularly the Soviet Union, as had his
the arts and sciences, but he has not, like
predecessor. His first visit to the East after
his predecessor, become involved in
his election showed that this fear was
heated topical questions.
ungrounded. The then sickly President
Koivisto has, instead, expressed his
Bresjnev, Prime Minister Tihanov and
thoughts and opinions regarding the turn
Foreign Minister Gromyko, as an excep-
of events in published books. The first
tional gesture, met him at the airport; and
work, "Linjanveto" (Drawing the Line) from
since then, he has met all the Soviet
1968, dealt with the period he was Prime
leaders. According to President George
Minister. This was followed up by "Väärää
Bush, he is considered the statesman who
politiikkaa" (The Wrong Politics) in 1978,
is best informed concerning matters re-
while the author was still with the Bank of
lated to the Soviet Union. Mauno Koivisto,
Finland. "Politiikkaa ja politikointia 1979-
who has been called "a long-standing good
1981" (Politics and Politicking 1979-1981)
friend" by both Bush and President Mihail
was published in 1988 and received as
Gorbatjov, was the first foreign statesman
much attention as his earlier works. "Linja-
to visit the newly elected President of
viitat" (Landmarks - Finland in the World"),
Russia, Boris Jeltsin, in his office in Mos-
first published in 1983, contained Koivisto's
cow.
point of view regarding foreign policy. This
The lack of inner stability which has existed
book has been updated several times and
in the Soviet Union during the past few
published in several languages.
years, and particularly the strive for inde-
Usually the President expresses his
pendence of the Baltic States, has given
thoughts through speeches and lectures
rise to a many-faceted discussion in Fin-
which he gives on different occasions.
land, in which the President has also been
Furthermore, he gives innumerous inter-
involved during the spring of 1991. His
views each year to foreign and domestic
cautious line, recommending negotiations
periodicals. At times friction has arisen in
concerning the plans for independence,
his relations with the press, though he has
was also touched on during his visit to
been much more open than any of his
Jeltsin. Officially, Finland does not want to
predecessors.
become involved in the internal affairs of its
Aside from the normal reading that is part
neighbouring countries, but it does support
of his daily routine, Koivisto regularly keeps
mutual agreements and does not approve
up-to-date with a number of periodicals
of the use of force.
and newspapers in several languages and
When the independence of the Baltic States
reads the current literature. He has been
became a reality, following the attempted
particularly interested in research con-
coup in the Soviet Union in August 1991,
nected with World War II perhaps because
Finland, along with the other Nordic
of his own war memories.
countries, was among the first to reestab-
Koivisto is known to be an expert volleyball
lish diplomatic relations with and recog-
player, and in recent years he has taken up
nize the independence of Estonia, Latvia
sailing as a hobby. Once he pointed out
and Lithuania.
that sport is often called a body culture and
Throughout his official life, Koivisto has
added: "Sport also requires and often
been the favourite of the people, even
develops mental strength. International
though his popularity in several recent
competitions using wooden bats and pro-
opinion polls has been declining. Despite
3
this, he would undoubtedly have good
tween the U.S.A. and the Soviet Union
chances to compete for the Presidential
held in the autumn of 1990 to discuss the
office in the elections of 1994 as well, when
Persian Gulf crisis. The next CSCE meeting
his second six-year mandate will end, In
to be held in Helsinki in 1992, ever more
the spring of 1991 the Parliament passed
important for the development of the Con-
a Constitutional reform which means that
ference on Security and Cooperation in
already in 1994, the President will be
Europe, is also a new challenge for Fin-
chosen through direct elections, in two
land's foreign policy and its leadership.
rounds, and the maximum period of office
is restricted to two mandates. Though, the
Regarding Finland's relations to the super
law enacted by Koivisto on 22 July 1991 is
powers Koivisto has said the following:
not retroactive and does not apply to him.
"We strive to hold ourselves outside the
According to a memorandum from the
conflicts between the super powers, but
President's office that same day, Koivisto
we watch with interest anything that could
stated that in the autumn of 1992 he would
be a risk to our security. A path must be
inform of his plans to stand for reelection.
chosen between two extreme attitudes: on
He has earlier clearly expressed his pref-
the one hand, one cannot imagine that in
erence for only two mandates.
making a decision on any particular ques-
tion, the only factors to be taken into con-
Finland's international position, particularly
sideration are those which are directly re-
during Koivisto's second mandate has been
lated to the matter; on the other hand, one
strengthened. For example, Finland's mem-
cannot imagine steering carefully, with your
bership in the Security Council of the U.N.
back to the direction of travel, into future
did not cause any problems in regard to
situations with the single concern of keeping
domestic policies. For example, Finland
the wake behind you in a straight line."
supported sanctions against Iraq after it
invaded Kuwait. Finland's voting behav-
Koivisto has described, among other things,
iour has been facilitated by the two super
his own position and his own tasks in a way
powers being on the same side. The many
that is characteristic of him: "I have not
State Visits made by the President, along
been able to change the world in any
with the return visits, have created an
significant way, but rather the world has
image of Koivisto as a calm, able and
changed me in a way that has clearly not
cautious statesman who also follows his
been positive. I was a different-thinking
own line of thinking regarding European
dissident until they made me an upholder
integration.
of the law. Now I look with a stern view at
anyone who rocks the boat."
Finland's neutrality has been recognised
by both super powers as well as by other
nations. Koivisto had the interesting task of
Written by Keijo Immonen, M.A.
being host for the summit meeting be-
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
The Components
of Finnish Parliamentarism
A short history
vested in independent courts of law, at the
If we had to select two important dates
highest level in the Supreme Court and the
from the whole of Finland's political his-
Supreme Administrative Court.
tory, they would be 1809 and 1917. In
The relations between Parliament, the
1809, after a period of about 600 years,
Cabinet (Council of State) and the Presi-
Finland ceased to be the easternmost part
dent of the Republic are governed by the
of the Kingdom of Sweden and became an
principles of European parliamentarism and
autonomous grand duchy under the Rus-
an American-style presidency. On the one
sian Czar. On December 6th, 1917, Parlia-
hand, the Cabinet must enjoy the support
ment proclaimed Finland an independent
of a majority in Parliament. According to
republic. Both Swedish and Russian domi-
the constitutional reform of 1991 this sup-
nation left their mark on the relations be-
port is first tested when a new cabinet
tween Finland's highest organs of govern-
takes office. On the other hand, the Presi-
ment.
dent has considerable power of his own,
Today Finland is a parliamentary democ-
though not as much or such undisputed
racy based on competition between politi-
power as his American or French counter-
cal parties, power being divided among the
parts. The special nature of this consti-
highest organs of government. It does not
tutional system is reinforced by the large
in every respect fit into the categories of
number of political parties: to be a big party
parliamentarism constructed by political
in Finland means receiving no more than
scientists.
one-quarter or one-fifth of the votes.
The Finnish Constitution is made up of
constitutional laws and ordinary laws. In
Constitutional basis
some respects it has its roots in the days
The Finnish Constitution crystallizes the
when Finland was part of the Kingdom of
main principles of government in very plain
Sweden. The most important constitutional
terms. Power in Finland is vested in the
law is that of 1919, which sets out the rights
people, who are represented by deputies
and duties of citizens, and defines the
assembled in Parliament. Legislative power
legislative power and the status and duties
is exercised by Parliament together with
of the Cabinet and the President. The 1928
the President of the Republic. The su-
Parliament Act is based on a similar act
preme executive power is vested in the
passed in 1906, before Finland was inde-
President. For the supreme government of
pendent, and includes the most important
the state there is also a Council of State
rules concerning Parliament. Other consti-
consisting of a Prime Minister and a requi-
tutional laws are the Act on parliamentary
site number of ministers. Judicial power is
jurisdiction over the offices of members of
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
3
HELSINKI FINLAND
The Parliament
At its birth in 1906 the Finnish Diet
(Eduskunta) was something of a rarity. It
was unicameral and elected by universal
suffrage - women included. In the elec-
tions of the 200 Members of Parliament
held in recent years, about 75% of Finns
over the age of 18 and eligible to vote have
done so. In the Parliament elected in 1991
no fewer than 77 MPs were women.
Parliament meets - usually twice a week -
for plenary sessions at which it debates
matters, or rather makes speeches about
them, and makes decisions by voting. Once
a week there is a special session, at which
MPs put questions to the members of the
Cabinet. It is unusual for an MP to vote
against his or her party colleagues. In
principle, MPs have a free mandate; in
practice they have a party mandate, as in
many other countries.
Much of the MPs' time is spent working in
committees. The committees are prelimi-
nary organs, usually comprising 17 MPs
through whose hands matters to be de-
The Chamber of the Parliament Building,
cided in Parliament pass. The committees
Helsinki. Photographer Simo Riska
also employ outside experts. The compo-
sition of the committees reflects the strength
of each party in Parliament.
Parliament has three main duties through
which it represents the people and makes
the Council of State and the Attorney Gen-
the basic decisions on Finnish policy. It
eral and the Act on the High Court of
passes laws, it debates and approves the
Impeachment, both dating from 1922.
Budget, and it supervises the government
of the country.
A distinctive feature of Finland's form of
government is its rigidity. A constitutional
Passing laws is a complicated process that
law can be amended only if two-thirds of
usually begins with the Cabinet placing a
the members of Parliament agree. Even
bill before Parliament. MPs may, and do
then, the same session of Parliament can-
also, propose legislation but government
not amend a law unless the amendment
bills take preference and are better pre-
has previously been declared "urgent". This
pared. Parliament has no official machin-
calls for a five-sixths majority, which means
ery for making and preparing proposals.
agreement between at least four or five
To be passed, a bill must have the support
parties. One-third of MPs have the power
of the majority of Parliament and it must be
to significantly delay the passage of an
signed by the President of the Republic.
ordinary law. To be out of government
The annual Budget put before Parliament
does not mean to be totally without power.
is also prepared by the government, and
Finnish parliamentarism runs on coalitions
much of the autumn session is devoted to
and compromises. Its rhythm is fixed by
debating it. Any changes made to the
parliamentary elections held every four
Budget in Parliament tend to be marginal.
years and presidential elections held every
Parliament supervises the government in
six years. The annual centralised nego-
many ways, both juridically and, in particu-
tiations held between the labour market
lar, politically. Every year Parliament
organisations have quickened the pace of
presents the government or members of it
Finnish politics in recent years and have a
with hundreds of written or oral inquiries.
direct influence on policies laid down by
Parliament may also test the political con-
the Cabinet and Parliament.
fidence enjoyed by the government by
2
Political parties elected in Parliament in 1991
% of
Party
Seats
votes
Centre Party of Finland
55
24,8
Social Democratic Party
48
22,1
National Coalition Party
40
19,3
Left Wing Alliance
19
10,1
Swedish People's Party
12
5,5
The Greens
10
6,8
Finnish Christian Union
8
3,0
Finnish Rural Party
7
4,8
Liberal Party of Finland
1
0,8
making an interpellation; the result of the
pendence. There are 12 ministries and a
vote decides whether the government may
maximum of 18 ministers.
continue. In practice the publicity of such
The main collective tasks of the govern-
moves is greater than the risk to the govern-
ment are: the sessions over which the
ment. The risk last became apparent in the
President presides, ordinary sessions and
late 1950s. Parliament also supervises the
evening sessions. The President attends
Bank of Finland and the Finnish Broad-
only the first of these, this being the highest
casting Company.
level of the government's decision-making
hierarchy in legislative matters. Evening
The Cabinet and the President
sessions are informal occasions at which
matters are prepared for discussion at
The Cabinet produces most of the material
ordinary sessions; they provide extremely
that Parliament deals with and uses as the
useful opportunities for multi-party cabi-
basis for its decisions. In forming a Cabinet
nets to try to come to an agreement before
the President has a considerable, but not
actual decisions have to be taken. There
generally decisive, role. The President for-
are also more limited preliminary minis-
mally appoints and dissolves the Cabinet
terial committees.
and he also appoints a potential Prime
Minister to assemble the ministers. In prac-
The session presided over by the Presi-
tice, the central role in the formation, activi-
dent is usually held on Fridays. Also present
ties and dissolving of the Cabinet is played
is the Attorney General, who oversees the
by the political parties involved. When a
legality of procedures and decisions. At
Cabinet resigns in Finland, it is usually the
these sessions the President formally
makes his decisions on whether bills should
result of disagreements between the Cabi-
be placed before Parliament or whether
net parties that come to light when the
Cabinet has to make a decision or its own
acts passed by Parliament should be
bills are being dealt with in Parliament. In
signed. The President may go against the
recent years, four or five parties have been
opinion of the Cabinet's majority. Similarly
represented on the Cabinet.
he may refuse to sign a law passed by
Parliament, in which case it does not come
The tasks of the ministers are extensive.
into force. Usually there is no visible con-
They prepare and, after gaining approval
flict with the Cabinet, because decisions
of Parliament and the President, execute
have always been well prepared and gone
legislative reform and the Budget. The
through many stages. Finland's presidents
Cabinet may also pass statutes if SO auth-
have refused to sign one law a year on
orized by Parliament. The ministers each
average. Furthermore, Parliament may
direct their ministries with relative inde-
approve the same law again after the next
3
Relations between the components of Finnish parliamentarism
Places bills before Parliament (de facto)
Tests Parliament's confidence
Influences Parliament in committees and plenary sessions
Cabinet (Council of State)
Supervises work of Cabinet
Gives vote of no-confidence
Presents matters for decision by President
Influences formation of Cabinet
Implements President's decisions
Parliament
Passes laws
Decides on matters proposed by Cabinet
Revokes Presidential veto
Appoints and dismisses ministers
President of the Republic
Places bills before Parliament (de jure)
Ratifies laws and uses veto
Dissolves Parliament (Prime Minister's proposal)
elections. If that happens, the President
conflicts arise between the President and
must then approve it.
the Cabinet or the President and Parlia-
The most important sanction open to the
ment. A conflict between Parliament and
President in his relations with Parliament
the Cabinet may lead to the latter's fall.
has been his right to dissolve Parliament
Parliament is highly dependent on the bills
and call new elections. This has happened
submitted to it by the Cabinet.
seven times since 1917. Under the 1991
In the type party-based parliamentarism
constitutional reform, the President cannot
practised in Finland political coalitions have
dissolve Parliament if the Prime Minister
to be large, and often unconventional. Inter-
has not made a proposal to that effect.
party relationships often overshadow the
formal institutional relationships. Rapid
decision-making is not a characteristic of
Summary
Finnish parliamentarism.
In Finnish parliamentarism, the Cabinet is
the preparatory and executive body that
produces material for Parliament to handle,
Written by Mr. Jarmo Laine, M.Pol.Sc., lecturer
approve or reject. The material is submit-
in political science at the Helsinki School of
ted to the President twice, but normally no
Economics and Business Administration
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
The Powers of the
President of the Republic
The Constitution Act passed in 1919 is one
parliamentary majority and the Cabinet.
of the world's oldest existing constitutions
Accordingly, Parliament was dissolved in
still more or less unchanged from its orig-
1971 and 1974 because of the inability of
inal form. The enactment of the Consti-
the major political parties to agree on a
tution was preceded by Finland's Declara-
viable majority government. It was hoped
tion of Independence in 1917 and the Civil
that the ensuing elections would enable a
War in 1918. It bears the imprint of the
majority government to be formed.
political thinking and the social crisis exist-
Originally the President's right to dissolve
ing at that time. This can be seen in the
Parliament was entirely unrestricted. How-
articles concerning the President and the
ever, by a 1991 amendment to the Consti-
division of powers between Parliament and
tution, the right to dissolve Parliament was
the Cabinet. The intention was to allow
made conditional upon the Prime Minis-
extensive powers of the head of state in
ter's consent. Now the President may dis-
order to have a stabilizing effect on society.
solve Parliament upon a reasoned pro-
The Constitution provides the President
posal by the Prime Minister and after hear-
with several major and far-reaching powers
ing the Speaker of Parliament and the
and it was the idea of the authors that they
party groups in Parliament. A further con-
would indeed be used even against the will
dition is that Parliament must be in session
of the parliamentary majority if necessary.
at the time. Although the President is not
In accordance with the classical model of
bound to accept the Prime Minister's pro-
dualistic parliamentarism, the President
posal, he may not dissolve Parliament
has the right to dissolve Parliament. The
without a freely formulated proposal by the
dissolution of Parliament was intended to
Prime Minister. This amendment was in-
serve as a countermove in a situation of
troduced in connection with the 1991
conflicting interests between the President
amendment of the presidential election
and Parliament where the latter had ex-
system. On the assumption that the adop-
pressed its lack of confidence in the Cabi-
tion of direct elections would increase the
net. Parliament has been dissolved on
President's power vis-à-vis Parliament, the
seven occasions since Finland became
decision was made to counterbalance this
independent. Only in the first two cases (in
increase in power by making the Presi-
the 1920's) was the right of dissolution
dent's right to dissolve Parliament con-
exercised in a way that could have been
ditional upon the consent of a Prime Minis-
said to be directed against Parliament or a
ter responsible to Parliament.
Cabinet enjoying parliamentary confi-
The President has extensive legislative
dence. Later dissolutions have been car-
powers. Most of the legislative proposals
ried out in understanding with the
introduced in Parliament for debate are
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
3
HELSINKI FINLAND
based on bills presented by him. When
and 1991 define the procedures by which
Parliament enacts a new law, it is submit-
the President appoints a Government and
ted to the President for promulgation. He-
dismisses the Council of State or a mem-
can, however, refuse to do so. The bill is
ber thereof. In appointing a new Govern-
then (once again) returned to Parliament.
ment, the President of the Republic must
At this stage, the act enters into force even
first hear all the party groups in Parliament.
without the President's promulgation, if it is
In the event that the composition of the
adopted without amendment during the
Council of State should change signifi-
term of Parliament following submission of
cantly (e.g. if a party resigns from a co-
the bill for approval. In general, Presidents
alition Government), the President must
have refused to promulgate laws which
hear the party groups and the Speaker of
have, after parliamentary debate, been
Parliament, and Parliament must be in
found inadequate from the point of view of
session. Once a new Government is
legislative technique.
formed, it must immediately bring its pro-
The right of veto has, in other words, evolved
gramme before Parliament. After debating
into a means of maintaining high legislat-
the programme, Parliament may either
ive standards and preventing imperfect
choose to approve it or give the Govern-
laws from getting onto the statute book.
ment a vote of non-confidence; in the latter
Only seldom has a veto been exercised
case the Government must resign. Thus
against the will of Parliament.
Parliament's confidence in the new Govern-
ment is ascertained soon after the Govern-
The President is in charge of foreign policy
and makes all important decisions in this
ments's appointment.
sphere. He appoints delegations to inter-
Upon request, the President may allow a
national conferences, briefs negotiators
member of the Council of State to resign.
when necessary and determines the
Resignation may also, occur without a re-
signing and ratification of treaties. The
quest if the Council of State or a member
President also makes other decisions con-
thereof ceases to enjoy the confidence of
cerning international affairs, e.g. Finland's
Parliament. The President may also ac-
foreign policy and the recognition of foreign
cept the resignation of a minister in other
powers. The conduct of foreign policy has,
circumstances (ultimately dismiss a minis-
in fact, become the most important task of
ter against the wishes of the Council of
the President during the last few decades.
State or of the individual minister) upon a
Presidents have exercised their right to
proposal by the Prime Minister. Thus the
conduct foreign policy independently, and
President may not unilaterally without the
not even in practice have decisions on
consent of the Prime Minister dismiss the
central issues been transferred to the Prime
Council of State or member thereof if they
Minister, Foreign Minister or the respon-
enjoy the confidence of Parliament.
sible civil servants.
Time and again it has been difficult to form
A very important power of the President is
a majority government it the Finnish multi-
the right to appoint the members (Minis-
party system. The President has, there-
ters) of the Council of State and to dismiss
fore, occasionally played a vital role both in
a Cabinet. When a Cabinet resigns (either
endeavours to form a majority government
because of a vote of parliamentary non-
(by persuading the parties to enter it) and
confidence or the loss of capacity for politi-
/ or to prolong unsatisfactory co-operation
cal action when e.g. the parties in the
in a discordant government. The President
Government have ceased to co-operate
has thus often been obliged to step out as
with each other), the formation of a new
mediator when interparty cabinet conflict
government is carried out under the lead-
has proved particularly difficult.
ership of the President. He studies the
The President has several other powers
political prospects for forming a majority
which, however, are secondary to those
Government and then appoints a prospec-
mentioned above. He appoints the highest
tive prime minister to lead the interparty
government officials. He is Commander-
political, negotiations. At the end of the
in-Chief of the Defence Forces although
negotiations the President appoints the
the supreme command can be delegated
Cabinet as agreed among the parties
to a military man during the war. The Presi-
The constitutional amendments of 1987
dent has the right to issue decrees, the
2
right to exempt from punishment imposed
preliminary collegial meeting. This is a
by a court and to order legal action against
result of the parliamentary principle incor-
a minister.
porated in the Finnish Constitution. All
The main part of the President's powers
Cabinet members shall enjoy the confi-
have been enumerated above. His rights
dence of Parliament. In the event of a vote
are indeed extensive, and, as already point-
of non-confidence the Cabinet has to re-
ed out, the authors of the 1919 Constitution
sign.
meant the President to exercise the pre-
Such a vote of non-confidence would lead
rogatives stipulated by the Constitution
to a situation in which the President's scope
independently. It was also pointed out
for action decreases. The Cabinet can
earlier that the parliamentary principle had
take advantage of this possibility and
been incorporated in the Finnish Consti-
threaten to resign if the conflict with the
tution. To describe Finnish parliamentarism
President involves an issue of principle.
it is necessary briefly to examine the roles
Due to the parliamentary principle a crisis
of the President and the ministers in the
situation between the President and Par-
decision-making process. Practically all
liament could lead to a failure of presiden-
the matters under the President's legal
tial policy and could finally compel the
authority are decided in the presence of
President to resign.
the Cabinet, and are presented to the
During Finland's independence the Presi-
President by the minister concerned. The
dents have not exercised their powers
Chancellor of Justice (Attorney-General)
against the will of the majority of Parlia-
is also present to supervise the consti-
ment, but have complied with the will of
tutionality of decisions made by the Presi-
majority governments enjoying parliamen-
dent. The President can announce his
tary confidence. Whenever party discor-
decisions only in the presence of the Cabi-
dance has temporarily made it necessary
net. On the other hand, he is not legally
to rely on minority or caretaker Govern-
bound to the opinion of a single Cabinet
ments, the situation has been somewhat
member nor to that of the whole Cabinet.
different.
In practice most matters requiring presi-
The Constitution of Finland enables the
dential decision are dealt with in a pre-
President to stay outside day-to-day poli-
liminary collegial meeting of the Cabinet
tics (Presidents have not been members of
chaired by the Prime Minister. When the
a political party after their election) but he
President makes the final decision, he is
is, on the other hand, able to intervene
informed of the Cabinet's position on the
fairly promptly and effectively if the political
matter. Its opinion does not, however,
situation a parliamentary crisis) calls for it.
legally bind the President, and he is free to
act against it. In general there have been
When the presidential election system was
extremely few deviations from the stand
altered by constitutional amendment in
taken by the Cabinet. The exceptions have
1991, and two-stage direct elections were
usually been in socially insignificant mat-
introduced, there was speculation that fu-
ters such as appointments. Dissenting
ture presidential elections would draw the
opinions have been expressed less than
President more deeply into party politics.
once a year.
Presidents have usually complied with the
By Mr. llkka Saraviita, LL.D., Professor of
view arrived at by the Cabinet during the
Public Law at the University of Rovaniemi
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
The structure and development of
Finnish political parties
Despite the many new contenders and the
Interest groups and
seemingly rapid swings of the political pen-
parliamentary reform
dulum, continuity has been a dominant
feature in the Finnish political party sys-
Social and economic interests spurred on
tem. The main lines of party policy have
the formation of the two subsequent party
undergone surprisingly few changes since
lines. The Finnish Labour Party was foun-
ded in 1899. In 1903 it became the Social
Finland gained its independence. Apart
from constantly changing election themes,
Democratic Party (SDP) and adopted a
Finnish politics are characterized by conti-
Marxist programme. Organizationally it
nuity.
represented a totally new type of mass
party.
The Agrarian Party (ML), founded in 1906
Language parties
by smallholders in northern and eastern
The Finnish Estates convening in 1863,
Finland, represented political agrarianism
after a break of more than five decades,
and had the same mass appeal as the
and the Language Decree of the same
SDP.
year created the basis for the formation of
The 1906 parliamentary reform transformed
the Finnish party system. The nationalist
Finnish party politics. It forced parties to
Fennoman movement, which Snellman had
modernize their programmes and organiz-
initiated, gradually became the Finnish
ations. This was particularly true of the
Party. Also, the liberals in the Diet began
elitist Swedish Party. The adoption of a
to act increasingly like a party. The Swed-
new ideology was also reflected in the
ish speakers took up defensive positions
Party's new name. Whilst the support of
and consequently a Swedish Party
the Swedish Party had rested on two Es-
emerged in the 1870s and '80s.
tate in the Diet, the Swedish People's Party
Conflicts within the Finnish Party led to a
(RKP) sought the support of the whole of
split. The young members - who stressed
the linguistic minority. The election cam-
liberalism and constitutionalism - estab-
paign following interruption of the Russifi-
lished the Young Finns Party in 1894. The
cation programme and the parliamentary
remainder of the Finnish Party came to be
reform made political parties in 1905-07
known as the Old Finnish Party. Thus three
turn their attention to social issues. Sup-
of the main political party lines already
port for merging the Old Finnish Party and
existed by the mid 1890s.
the Young Finnish Party developed as the
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
3
HELSINKI FINLAND
Russian policies of the Finnish-speaking
The Lapua Movement which had started
parties converged towards the end of the
with a conservative platform and became
second period of oppression. The Peop-
increasingly radical, culminated in 1932 in
le's Party I (see chart) was formed to
the Mäntsälä Rebellion. The patriotic Peop-
achieve this end.
le's Movement (IKL) was founded the same
year to advance the work of the Lapua
First years of independence
Movement, although by parliamentary
means.
The Civil War split the SDP. The radical left
The IKL took the model for its organization
fled to Russia and founded the Finnish
from Germany. Towards the end of the
Communist Party (SKP) at the and of
decade the Italian model - including the
August 1918 in Moscow. As the Party was
corporate state - also contributed to it. At
a revolutionary organization and illegal, a
the end of 1937 Minister of the Interior
Finnish Socialist Workers' Party was es-
Urho Kekkonen suddenly banned the IKL.
tablished for public activities in 1920. The
The Helsinki City Court, however, over-
name was soon changed to the Finnish
turned this decision by a vote of 2-1.
Workes' Party. The Party and its papers
were discontinued in 1923, although it con-
tinued to have candidates in parliamentary
Postwar situation
elections under different electoral alliances
The outcome of the Continuation War
throughout the 1920s.
(1941-1944) brought about another up-
The division of the SDP was not only the
heaval in the Finnish political party system
outcome of the Civil War. It also had a
and in a way shifted the whole system
wider international context: the Russian
leftward. The IKL was banned as 'fascist'
revolution and the general division of the
and the SKP was legalized as a party.
labour movement. With the foundation of
The Finnish People's Democratic League
the Finnish Communist Party (SKP) Finland
(SKDL) was founded as a joint organiza-
now had its sixth main political party line.
tion for the political left to carry out election
The constitutional conflict within the con-
and parliamentary work. The SKP was one
servative camp led to political realignment.
of the member organizations of the SKDL.
The majority of the Old Finns and the
The Social Democratic opposition, orig-
minority of the Young Finns merged to
inally part of the SDP, and the so-called
form the National Coalition Party which -
'six' formed the Socialist Unity Party (SYP)
after the Party's plans to establish a Finn-
within the SKDL in 1946 as a counterbal-
ish monarchy had failed- advocated strong
ance to SKP dominance. In 1955 the SYP
central government.
broke away from the SKDL, but failed in the
elections.
The 1930s
The postwar transition period also affected
the political centre. The Progressive Party's
In 1929 the Great Depression spawned
(previously the Young Finnish Party) sup-
the Finnish Smallholders Party, which was
port had continuously declined. The idea
largely an offshoot of the Agrarian Party.
of a new party, which would speak more
With respect to ideology and adherents the
openly on behalf of the middle classes,
new party stood somewhere between the
emerged within the Party. In 1949 the idea
Agrarian Party and the SDP. In 1932 dis-
led to the founding of a group called the
content due to the Great Depression led to
Independent Middle Class. In 1951 this
the establishment of the People's Party II.
group together with certain leading Pro-
These parties combined forces and merged
gressives founded the Finnish People's
in 1936 to form a Smallholders' and Agrar-
Party (III).
ian People's Party.
This development led to the formation of
the seventh main party line. This line has
From the '50s to the '60s
been characterized by the emergence of
After Väjnö anner's election as SDP chair-
several isolated small parties. At the same
man and a takeover of the Party leadership
time this party line - which was in a pivotal
by a narrow majority of 'comrades in arms',
position between the conservative and
the minority marched out of the party con-
socialist camps- seems to have served as
ference. The minority founded the Social
the most sensitive gauge of social and
Democratic Union of Workers and Small-
economic change. The reactions have often
holders (TPSL) in 1959. This was the fourth
displayed traces of populism.
division in the history of the Social Demo-
2
Development of Finnish Political Parties
Finnish Party
Liberal
Swedish
Party
Party
1880
Young
Old
Finnish
Finnish
Party
Party
1899
Finnish Labour Party
Social Democratic
Party (SDP)
Activist
Party
Christian
Agrarian
Party
Swedish
Labour
People's
1906
Party
People's
Party
Finnish
Agrarian
National
National
Communist
SDP
Left
Party
Swedish
Swedish
1918
Progressive
Coalition
Party
People's
Party
Party
Party
Socialist
Worker's
Party
Smallhol-
ders' Party
People's
Party II
Swedish
1930
Small-
Left
SDP
Patriotic
holders'
National
& Rural
People's
Coalition
Movement
Party
People's Demo-
National
National
Swedish
1944
cratic League
Agrarian
Progressive
Coalition
SDP
People's
Communist
Party
Party
Party
Party
Party
Socialist
Unity Party
Liberal
People's
League
Party III
Party
Social
Socialist Unity
Dem.
Rural
League
Party
Centre
Liberal
Party
Party
1965
Dem. Alternative
Socialist
Unity Party
People's
People's Demo-
Worker's
Pensioners' Party
Greens
cratic League
Party
Communist
Party
Rural Party
Centre
Liberal Party
National
League
Christian
Right Party
Swedish
SDP
Party
Coalition
People's
1990
Left Wing
Party
Constitutional
Party
Alliance
8.
6.
4.
7.
5.
3.
2.
1.
LEFT
RIGHT
cratic Party. The reason were both per-
this move, founded the Socialist Workers'
sonal and ideological.
Party, which was active for a few more
At cabinet level the TPSL worked in close
years.
cooperation with the Agrarian Party. It also
The northern smallholder wing of the Agrar-
had good relations with President Kekko-
ian Party formed an opposition group and
nen. The party officially rejoined the SDP in
left in 1959 to found the Finnish Smallhold-
1973. A small minority, which disapproved
ers' Party. Points of convergence with the
3
smallholders' parties of the 1920s and
Divisions on the right in the
'30s, were evident in the new party. Their
1970s
effect - although minor - extended up to
1954, so the interval between the new and
The political right itself was in turmoil in the
the old smallholders' movement was only
1970s. One reason was the National Co-
4-5 years. Thus, the Finnish Smallholders'
alition Party's policy shift towards the centre.
Party can be placed in the seventh, or
As early as 1958 the Finnish Christian
"protest party line".
League had emerged to combat postwar
secularization and the erosion of cultural
homogeneity in the conservative camp.
The late '60s - a period of
Until 1970 it took part in elections under
transition
different alliances and after that as an
independent party. The first party political
The 1960s was a period of great social
platform was approved in 1972, and has
change in Finland. Towards the end of the
since been supplemented by the exten-
decade the political parties also began to
sion of the Party's Christian ideology to
mirror these changes.
various sectors of social policy.
The Agrarian Party, whose base was
The Finnish Constitutional Party of the
waning because of rural depopulation,
Right (POP) was founded in 1973 mainly
sought wider support from the cities. In
as a protest against the emergency legis-
1963 the Party became the Centre Party
lation passed to ensure President Kekko-
(KESK). Its counterparts in Sweden and
nen's re-election. However, there was also
Norway had made similar changes in name
wider discontent among the National Co-
towards the end of the 1950s.
alition and the Swedish People's Party
The Agrarian Party/Centre Party's am-
(RKP).
bitions put the whole political centre into a
state of ferment. The two successors of the
Progressive Party, the Finnish People's
The 1980s
Party and the Liberal League, felt the time
The political '80s began with the end of
was right for their parties to merge. In 1965
President Kekkonen's 25-year rule. Mau-
they together formed the Liberal People's
no Koivisto's election as President in 1982
Party.
reflected the growing support and domi-
The Finnish Smallholders' Party tried to
nance of the SDP.
exploit the Agrarian/Centre Party's change
SDP's growing 'hegemony' drove the par-
of name and ideology. The Party claimed
ties which considered themselves part of
to speak for the people "forsaken" by the
the political centre to closer cooperation.
Centre Party. At the same time it changed
The Liberal People's Party became a mem-
its name to the Finnish Rural Party. The
ber organization of the Centre Party in
Party also found surprising popularity in
1982. This appeared for the first time in the
urban centres, which the Centre Party had
history of the Finnish political party system
been at pains to do. In the 1970 protest
to mark the end of a "line". In 1986, how-
elections Veikko Vennamo's 'one-man
ever, the Liberal Party officially decided to
party' grew to a medium-sized party with
leave the Centre Party fold. One back-
18 representatives. Its protest ideology
ground factor influencing the decision was
was not, however, enough to keep the very
the election victories of fraternal organiz-
heterogeneous party together. In 1972 the
ations in Europe. Harri Holkeri's blue-red
opposition founded the Finnish People's
coalition government formed in 1987 seems
Unity Party (SKYP). The new party did
to have effectively ended the centre co-
poorly in the parliamentary elections.
operation of the first half of the decade.
A policy dispute within the SKP broke out
The unpredictability of the changes in the
in the late 1960s. The disagreement was at
1980s is best illustrated by the inclusion of
least partly linked with the Party's position
the SMP in the government. It was the first
in the government. The majority stressed
time in the history of the 'protest' party line.
the fruitfulness of participation in govern-
It was the sixth main party line that experi-
ment, whilst the opposing minority under-
enced the most abrupt changes in the
scored the importance of ideology. The
1980s. The policy dispute which had
dispute displayed points of contact with
Eurocommunism, although the Party itself
plagued the SKP for what seemed an
eternity was finally resolved in a series of
denied such allegations. Prolonged trench
warfare slowly but steadily undermined the
resignations towards the end of the dec-
ade. With the 1987 parliamentary election
Party's support.
4
approaching the minority faction was forced
political party map. This eighth or 'Green'
to register as a party. This meant the
party line, is therefore a new political di-
emergence of the Democratic Alternative
mension with no place in the political spec-
(DEVA). Dwindling support finally resulted
trum that evolved out of 19th century ideol-
in the formation of a new party: the Left
ogies.
Wing Alliance.
Despite the many changes, continuity is a
The arrival of the Greens and the Pen-
dominant characteristic of the Finnish pol-
sioners' Party on the Finnish political party
itical party map. Adherence to a basic
map in the 1980s was a new phenomenon.
'party line' yields benefits that new con-
As a single-cause, or single-group move-
tenders outside the system lack. Tradition
ment their placement on the left-right axis
has for example facilitated the comeback
of the party map is difficult. This is particu-
attempts of the Liberals time and time
larly true of the Greens. The shrinking of
again, even if voters have not given the
the left-right axis in favour of the right, with
endeavour their support.
the left, too, now acknowledging the power
of the market economy, has further compli-
cated the issue. With their opposition to all
aspects of market economy which they
Written by
consider ecologically destructive, the
Dr. Timo Soikkanen, Assistant Professor
Greens have walked off the traditional
in Political History, University of Turku
For further information please contact:
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
For free background use.
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
Curricula Vitae of the Members of
Prime Minister Esko Aho's Government,
appointed on 26 April, 1991
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
3
HELSINKI FINLAND
PRIME MINISTER
Esko AHO
- Master of Social Sciences (Pol.Sc.)
- Trade Ombudsman of Kannus, 1980-91
- Member of Parliament since 1983, Centre Party of Finland
- Chairman of the Centre Party of Finland since 1990
- Born in 1954/married
- Chairman of the Youth Organization of the Centre Party,
1974-1980
- Member of the Party Government and Working Committee of the Centre
Party, 1974- 1980
- Political Secretary to the Minister for Foreign Affairs, 1979-1980
- Speaker of Parliament in 1991
2
DEPUTY PRIME
MINISTER
(as from 23 August 1991),
MINISTER FOR
FOREIGN TRADE
(Department for External
Economic Relations in the
Ministry for Foreign Affairs and
Trade Department in the Ministry
of Trade and Industry, excluding
Soviet trade and issues
concerning the consumer,
competition and tourism)
Pertti SALOLAINEN
- Chairman of the National Coalition Party since 1991
- Master of Economic Sciences
- TV Journalist at the Finnish Broadcasting Company, 1962-66;
Correspondent in London, 1966-69
- Reporter at the BBC 1966
- Member of Parliament since 1970, National Coalition Party
- Born in 1940/married
- Chairman of the Helsinki District Organization of the National Coalition
Party, 1973-76
- Member of the Party Government of the National Coalition Party, 1972-
76 and 1979-80
- Head of Department at the Finnish Employers' Confederation, 1969-89
(on leave of absence 1975-89)
- Member of the Helsinki City Council, 1972-84
- Vice-Chairman of the Parliamentary Committee for Social Affairs,
1970-75
- Chairman of the Parliamentary Finance Committee's Tax Division,
1975-79; Chairman of the Committee, 1979-87
- Minister for Foreign Trade, 1987-1991 and 1991-
3
MINISTER FOR
FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Paavo VÄYRYNEN
- Doctor of Social Sciences (Pol.Sc.) 1988
- Member of Parliament since 1970, Centre Party of Finland
- Born in 1946/married
- Political Secretary to Prime Minister Ahti Karjalainen, 1970-71
- Vice-Chairman of the Centre Party, 1972-80
- Chairman of the Centre Party, 1980-90
- Candidate in Presidential Elections of 1988
- Vice-President of Liberal International since 1988
- Member of the Nordic Council, 1972-75
- Minister of Education, 1975-76
- Minister of Labour, 1976-77
- Minister for Foreign Affairs, 1977-82
- Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs, 1983-87
- Vice-Chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee in 1991
4
MINISTER OF SOCIAL
AFFAIRS AND HEALTH
Eeva KUUSKOSKI
- Pediatrician
- Licentiate in Medicine
- Medical Officer of Turku Health Centre since 1973
- Assistant Physician at the Helsinki University Hospital, Department of
Pediatrics, 1976-80
- Member of Parliament since 1979, Centre Party of Finland
- Born in 1946/married
- Minister of Social Affairs and Health, 1983-87
- Member of the Turku City Council, 1973-80
- Chairman of the Council for Equality, 1981-87
5
MINISTER OF LABOUR
AND MINISTER AT THE
MINISTRY OF FINANCE
(Development of Administration)
Ilkka KANERVA
- Master of Social Sciences (Pol.Sc.)
- Member of Parliament since 1975, National Coalition Party
- Born in 1948
- Chairman of the National Coalition Party Youth League, 1972-76
- Member of the Party Government of the National Coalition Party since
1972; Member of the Working Committee since 1975
- Member of the Turku City Council since 1972
- Chairman of the Board of Directors of Oy Alko Ab
(State Alcohol Monopoly) 1989-1991
- Minister of State Office of the Council of State, 1987-1990
- Minister of Transport and Communications, 1990-1991
- Minister at the Ministry of Finance (development of administration),
1989-1991
- Deputy Prime Minister in 1991
6
MINISTER OF
TRANSPORT AND
COMMUNICATIONS
MINISTER FOR
NORDIC COOPERATION
Johan NORRBACK
- Executive Manager, teacher
- Member of Parliament, 1979-87 and since 1991, Swedish People's
Party
- Teacher, 1966-67
- Born in 1941/married
- Member of the Swedish People's Party's Central Government,
1972-79; Member of the Working Committee since 1983
- Chairman of the Swedish People's Party since 1990
- District Secretary of the Swedish People's Party in Ostrobothnia,
1967-71
- Executive Manager of the Provincial Union of Swedish Ostrobothnia
since 1971
- Political Secretary to the Minister of Transport and Communications,
1976-77
- Member of the Vaasa City Council since 1981
- Chairman of the Swedish People's Party's Parliamentary Group,
1983-87
— Minister of Defence, 1987-1990
- Minister of Education, 1990-1991
- Minister at the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Fisheries and Game
Department), 1987-1991
7
MINISTER OF DEFENCE
Elisabeth REHN
- Master of Economic Sciences
- Member of Parliament since 1979
- Born in 1935/married
- Member of the Working Committee of the Swedish People's Party since
1985
- Chairman of the Swedish People's Party Parliamentary Group,
1987-90
- Office Manager at Oy Renecta Ab, 1960-64, Member of the Board of
Directors, 1964-77
- Career Guidance Teacher at Grankulla Samskola, 1973-77
- Office Manager at Oy Rehn Trading Ab, 1978-79
- Member of the Kauniainen Municipal Council, 1973-80
- Member of the Municipal Board, 1979-80
- Chairman of the Parliamentary Law Committee, 1983-87
- Minister of Defence, 1990-1991
8
MINISTER OF TRADE
AND INDUSTRY AND
MINISTER AT THE
MINISTRY FOR
FOREIGN AFFAIRS
(Trade and Economic Cooperation
with the Soviet Union)
Kauko JUHANTALO
- Master of Laws
- Advocate; Law Office since 1971
- Member of Parliament since 1979, Centre Party of Finland
- Born in 1942/married
- Member of the Party Government of the Centre Party of Finland,
1973-79 and since 1983
- Member of the Kankaanpää Municipal Council; Chairman of the Council
since 1981
- Chairman of the Parliamentary Group of the Centre Party of Finland
1983-1991
9
MINISTER OF JUSTICE
AND MINISTER AT THE
MINISTRY OF SOCIAL
AFFAIRS AND HEALTH
Hannele POKKA
- Doctor of Laws
- Member of Parliament since 1979, Centre Party of Finland
- Born in 1952
- Chairman of the Woman Organization of the Centre Party since 1985
- Vice-Chairman of the Centre Party of Finland since 1986
- Lawyer at the Central Union of Agricultural Producers, 1976-79
- Chairman at the Board of Governors of the Federation of Finnish
Fisheries Associations, 1985-88
- Member of the Rovaniemi Municipal Council, 1980-88
- Chairman of the Delegates of the Finnish National Pensions Institute
1987-1991
10
MINISTER OF THE
INTERIOR
Mauri PEKKARINEN
- Master of Social Sciences
- Researcher at the City of Jyväskylä 1972
- Member of Parliament since 1979, Centre Party of Finland
- Born in 1947/married
- Member of the Party Committee of the Centre Party of Finland,
1972-74 and since 1985
- Member of the Party Government of the Centre Party of Finland, 1974
- Managing Director of the Progressive Science Association, 1973
- Managing Director of the Centre Party's District Organization in Central
Finland, 1974-79
- Political Secretary to the Minister of Labour, 1976-77
- Political Secretary to the Minister of the Interior, 1978-79
- Member of the Jyväskylä City Council since 1977
- Member of the Jyväskylä City Board, 1978
- Chairman of the Board of Directors of Oy Yleisradio Ab
(Finnish Broadcasting Company) 1987-1991
11
MINISTER OF FINANCE
liro VIINANEN
- Master of Science in Technology
- Managing Director of Konevalmistamo Oy, 1967-83
- Member of Parliament since 1983, National Coalition Party
- Born in 1944/married
- Chairman of the National Coalition Party in the Etelä-Häme District
since 1987
- Member of the Government of the National Coalition Party since 1989
- Chairman of Parliamentary Group of the National Coalition Party since
1990
- Member of the Riihimäki City Council since 1977 and first Vice-
Chairman since 1985
- Chairman of the Häme District Regional Planning Authority since 1989
12
MINISTER OF
EDUCATION
Riitta UOSUKAINEN
- Licentiate in Philosophy
- Member of Parliament since 1983, National Coalition Party
- Born in 1942/married
- Teacher at Imatrankoski Upper Secondary School, 1969-71, teacher
of Finnish since 1971
- Lecturer at Joensuu University, Department of Finnish, Didactics,
1976-77
- Provincial Instructor of Finnish in the Province of Kyme, 1976-83
- Member of the Imatra Municipal Council since 1977 and First Vice-
Chairman, 1980-86
- Vice-Chairman of the Carelian Association since 1986
- Chairman of the Committee for Education and Culture in 1991
13
MINISTER FOR
CULTURAL AFFAIRS
(Division of Cultural Policy,
Department for International
Relations, Planning Secretariat,
Students' financial aid and
Ecclesiastical affairs)
Tytti ISOHOOKANA-
ASUNMAA
- Doctor of Social Sciences
- Acting Lecturer at a Lyceum in Oulu, 1973
- University Lecturer, History and Social Sciences, Department of Teacher
Education at Oulu University since 1973
- Member of Parliament since 1983, Centre Party of Finland
- Born in 1947/married
- Member of the Haukipudas Municipal Council since 1972, First Vice-
Chairman since 1989
- Chairman of the Council for Adult Education, 1985-87
- Member of the Board of Directors of the Finnish Film Foundation, 1987
- Member of the Editorial Staff of "Kaltio" since 1973
- Chairman of the Finnish Youth Association
14
MINISTER OF THE
ENVIRONMENT
Sirpa PIETIKÄINEN
- Master of Economic Sciences
- Member of Parliament since 1983, National Coalition Party
- Born in 1959
- Vice-Chairman of the National Coalition Party since 1989
- Correspondent at Postitie Ltd, 1979
- Market Researcher at Ajanmies Oy, 1979, Teinitalo Oy, 1980,
Suomen Hippos, 1981
- Member of the Hämeenlinna City Council since 1980
- Chairman of the EDU Environmental Committee since 1990
15
MINISTER OF HOUSING
Pirjo RUSANEN
- Master of Economic Sciences
- Lecturer
- Teacher at an Institute of Commercial Training in Mikkeli, 1963-68, and
Lecturer of Management Accountancy since 1968
- Member of Parliament since 1983, National Coalition Party
- Born in 1940
- Financial Manager of the Parliamentary Group of the National Coalition
Party, 1983-89
- Vice-Chairman of the Parliamentary Group of the National Coalition
Party 1990-1991
- Member of the Mikkeli City Council since 1973, Second Vice-Chairman,
1981, and Chairman since 1982
- Member of the Mikkeli City Board, 1973-80
16
MINISTER OF
DEVELOPMENT
COOPERATION
(Minister at the Ministry for
Foreign Affairs)
AND
MINISTER AT THE
MINISTRY FOR SOCIAL
AFFAIRS AND HEALTH
(Temperance and Alcohol Policy)
Toimi
KANKAANNIEMI
- Chairman of the Finnish Christian Union
- Municipal Secretary of Siikainen, 1975-76
- Municipal Secretary of Uurainen since 1976
- Acting Town Manager of Uurainen, 1978-79
- Member of Parliament since 1987, Finnish Christian Union
- Born in 1950/married
- Third Chairman of the Finnish Christian Union, 1986-90 and Chairman
since 1990
17
MINISTER OF
AGRICULTURE AND
FORESTRY
Martti PURA
- Secondary Diploma in Agriculture
- Farmer
- Member of the Centre Party of Finland
- Born in 1949/married
- Vice-Chairman of the Youth Organization of the Centre Party, 1978-80
- Vice-Chairman of the Centre Party of Finland since 1984
- Political Secretary to the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry, 1982-83
18
FINNISH FEATURES
Finland and the United Nations
Finland's position in the United Nations
tise, which will prove invaluable for the
can be described as that of "a small, active,
future.
neutral Nordic country". In the light of re-
Neutrality has been one of the principal
cent world-scale upheavals, now might be
means of Finnish foreign policy to safe-
a good time to take a closer look at what
guard Finnish autonomy and indepen-
that entails.
dence. When international politics hung in
'Smallness' is a relative concept. Although
the balance between two super powers,
Finland is among the UN's smaller mem-
neutrality enabled Finland to offer its ser-
ber nations in terms of population, in geo-
vices and to act as a mediator in conflict
graphical size and financial contribution to
situations. Finnish neutrality in regional
the UN Finland is doing better than aver-
crises has not, however, been absolute as
age. On a per capita basis and including
Finland has taken stands in principle.
voluntary payments, Finland is one of its
Finland's basic approach in complex re-
four largest contributors (incidentally, the
gional conflicts has been to look for a
other three are also Nordic countries).
solution and to be as objective as possible;
Finland's per capita contribution is up to
for this reason it has avoided taking rigid
ten times greater than that of some of the
positions on any specific issues.
major economic powers.
The new world order and the disappear-
Nor is Finland's active contribution in the
ance of bipolarity will naturally place Finn-
UN by any means nominal - quite the
ish neutrality in a new light. Finnish partic-
contrary. Throughout its nearly 40-year
ipation in the UN has not been based on
membership, the country has played an
neutrality alone. Expertise, initiative and
active role in the organization. Finland has
competence guarantee Finland's future
systematically sought to take constructive
influence in the world organization.
action based on realistic assessments.
In the structure of the UN Finland is grouped
Finland has gained experience and exper-
with the Nordic countries. The historical
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
4
HELSINKI FINLAND
and cultural links between the Nordic
UN's importance in distributing and co-
countries are manifest in the united Nordic
ordinating help in disaster areas.
stand taken on virtually all issues on the
Finland has participated actively and ex-
UN agenda. This, in turn, has led to close
pertly in.UN discussions on disarmament
co-operation between the Nordic coun-
and international security. Security which
tries and to rotation in offices and electoral
is a high priority in the UN Charter - is
issues. The Nordic countries have a good
central to Finland's duties in the UN. In the
reputation in the UN; the developing
UN, the New World Order is closely linked
countries regard them as empathic to their
with the concept of collective security. As
problems and ready to offer untied aid
the UN takes effective counter-measures
while industrial countries see them as calm
against the military violation of all its mem-
and sensible, but also strongly principled
ber nations, the organization can be seen
when necessary.
as a collective security system, at the same
The changing world, particularly European
time implementing international justice as
integration and developments closer at
specified by the UN Charter.
hand to the East, presents new challenges
The best example of the stronger role of
to the Nordic countries. Although the forms
the United Nations is the liberation of Kuwait
of co-operation may vary even for prag-
and the restoration of its independence.
matic reasons, it seems clear that the ties
The Charter of the United Nations with-
between the Nordic countries will continue
stood a violent challenge to its authority.
to hold fast.
The Security Council acted promptly and
The fear that growing Western support of
effectively. Finland, being a member of the
the new European democracies will chan-
Council in the period 1989-1990, fully sup-
nel resources away from the Third World
ported the actions of the Council in this
will probably prove to be groundless at
regard. The United Nations is and must
least over the medium and long term. One
continue to be actively engaged in alleviat-
of the basic prerequisites of development
ing the suffering caused by the Gulf War.
and integration in Europe as a stable,
This is true of humanitarian and other
secure continent is that the social and
assistance, peace-keeping as well as the
economic gulf between East and West is
elimination of Iraq's remaining weapons of
narrowed. A healthy north is needed as an
mass destruction. Respect for international
effective partner for the south.
law and collective security remains the
While the importance of the Bretton Woods
basis for protecting the security of all states
institutions is increasing in the Third World,
- especially the smaller ones.
the industrialized countries are now bring-
As Finnish foreign minister Paavo Väyrynen
ing up issues in various contexts which
stated at the UN General Assembly in
have thus far appeared almost exclusively
1991, "the United Nations was born to
on UN agendas. This poses a serious
prevent war. That primary responsibility
challenge for the UN, whose economic
remains valid. However, five decades ago
and social sector is in need of reform, and
it was not possible to foresee how exten-
reappraisal of priorities. Having tradition-
sive the present and future problems of
ally held that the UN should be supported
development and environment would be.
and reinforced, Finland has taken an ac-
When the Charter of the United Nations
tive part in this work. An extensive report
was formulated, nobody knew what role
entitled "The Nordic UN project" is the
economic and technical development
result of this work. The report stresses the
would play and what effects they would
organization's capacity for implementing
have internationally. Now, as the Organ-
operations independently and efficiently.
ization is approaching its fiftieth anniver-
Finland is aware that there is an increasing
sary, there is ample reason for a thorough
number of important questions in the UN
review of the challenges the United Nations
social sector that need to be addressed.
is facing, and of the adequacy of its struc-
These include poverty, migration, refugees
tures and mechanisms, including the Char-
and population growth, environmental haz-
ter, to respond to them".
ards and needs to create conditions for
The UN has achieved its most concrete
sustainable development. In the promotion
results in the security sector, particularly in
of human rights the UN holds a unique
peacekeeping. The co-ordination of
position. Finland also acknowledges the
national regional and global interests will
2
nonetheless remain one of the UN's great-
the UN and its capacity for action, and
est challenges.
provides its full backing in every respect -
The growing confidence member nations
while carrying out its own UN duties in an
are vesting in the UN is reflected in their
exemplary fashion and without delay.
willingness to assign the organization more
demanding tasks. Hopefully this willing-
ness will also extend to providing sufficient
Written by: Mr. Hannu Halinen, Director,
funding to address these tasks. In this
Division for International Organizations,
respect, Finland's contribution to the UN is
Political Department, Ministry for Foreign
invaluable. Finland has full confidence in
Affairs, Helsinki
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
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in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
ETYK
You are advised to learn The Word right
Never mind the acronymic side of this
away. It will explain everything about your
entirely artificial (kryonic?) mot juste. Every
(foreign) presence in Helsinki to incredu-
man, woman and child knows its meaning
lous Finns. So here it goes: Etyk.
today. Etyk is freely splashed across the
If you try to pronounce it properly, i.e. in
front-pages of Finnish newspapers. It has
idiomatic Finnish, it will sound like an im-
grown deep roots in everyday headlines
aginary French word 'etuc', but with the
and it trops off the tongue of all radio and
emphasis on both syllabies.
television newscasters. Say 'Etyk' to any
'Etyk' will open doors in Helsinki. Try it at
Finnish politician and you will certainly
restaurants if the doorman looks less than
want to know which knob will switch him off
inviting. Flex your newly won verbal muscle
again. Such is the might of 'Etyk'.
with ladies or gentlemen of your choice.
But is Etyk still the genie of the lamp? If
If, however, the old magic doesn't work any
Finns rub the lamp, do they still expect Etyk
longer - it did in 1975 and in 1985 - you just
to perform wonders?
have more proof that times are not what
Basically, Etyk still has a kind of immediate
they used to be, even in Finland's politics
and thus, real relevance for Finns. It was a
and media. And this is reflected in the
moment of crowning glory for this small
behaviour of your ordinary Finn in the
nation when statesmen from 35 CSCE
street.
countries signed the Final Act in Helsinki in
And now - try again. Say 'Etyk'. If it sounds
1975. Of course it helps that the heady
like a mantra, this should be perfectly all
signing days provided some equally in-
right. Because Etyk is both a mantra and
tense and glorious summer days and nights
an acronym. Etyk is an abbreviation - in
of unparallelled beauty and warmth.
Finnish - of 'Euroopan turvallisuus- ja yh-
Many Finns are prepared to recognize the
teistyökokous', meaning the CSCE, the
intrinsic value of the CSCE in gradually
Conference on Security and Co-operation
transforming Europe beyond recognition.
in Europe.
Etyk has made freedom possible for
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
4
HELSINKI FINLAND
countries which at the time signed the
lelled success stories such as Finland's
documents of the CSCE process with their
postwar development and remarkable
fingers crossed and their tongue in their
achievements in her chosen, albeit small,
cheek.
field; national survival and subsequent
So, Finns expect Etyk to be of real assist-
blossoming into a prominent small-nation
ance in the future as well. Be it peace-
state.
keeping forces for the CSCE, a re-de-
Still, if I were you, and if you want in any
signed political and security architecture
way to improve your stakes in whatever
for Europe or a kind of regional security
enterprise you might find yourself engaged
council for this old continent; whatever it is,
in during the CSCE exercises in Helsinki, I
the Finns are all for it.
would try the magic word 'Etyk'.
But some of the lustre and power of the
mantra might have vanished.
So much has changed in the world. Finns
don't regard their security and foreign pol-
icy as a unique and earthshattering project
any more. The days when complex politi-
cal realities both at home and abroad were
pressurized into simple catchwords, or so-
Written by Ambassador Ralf Friberg, former
called doctrines, are over. Most Finns cer-
Director General of the Department for Press
tainly feel that sloganeering is not what
and Culture at the Ministry for Foreign Affairs
European politics today are about.
in Helsinki. Mr. Friberg is also a well-known
former journalist in Finland and Scandinavia.
It might be sad to see simple truths fade, to
When he put pen to paper, Ralf Friberg was on
abandon cosy comforts and to realize how
his way to Athens as Finland's new Ambassa-
relentless change can be even for unparal-
dor there.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
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in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
FINNISH FEATURES
Address to the Finnish Parliament
by Prime Minister Esko Aho
on March 16, 1992
(Unofficial translation)
The decision to apply for membership of
fears about the impact of membership on
the European Community is one of the
our society. It would be a mistake to enter-
most important and far-reaching decisions
tain the illusion that membership will pose
ever taken by Finland as an independent
no problems for us. It would be equally
state. Such an application is justified only
irresponsible to argue that remaining out-
if we are convinced that Finnish national
side an expanding EC would not entail
interests are best served in the Community.
problems of its own.
The Government has come to this con-
clusion after careful deliberation. Our pos-
*
*
ition is presented in the report given to
Parliament in January and in the com-
munication now before Parliament.
Finland is not joining Europe, for we have
These documents must be examined
always belonged to it. Our values, our
together. The report is an overall assess-
economy and our civilization are part of the
ment of the development of the European
common cultural heritage of Europe.
Community and of the advantages and
Finland's historical aim has been a Europe
disadvantages of EC membership. The
where all the nations and cultures live in
communication in turn concentrates mainly
fruitful interaction with each other. We have
on the areas in which we can expect the
always sought to build a Europe in which
greatest change as a full member of the
security and prosperity are indivisible.
European Community, over and above
Europe is now moving towards this historic
that resulting from implementation of the
goal.
European Economic Area. In order for
Now that the Cold War division has van-
Finland to adjust to the requirements of EC
ished, this process will be based on com-
membership, solutions must be found both
mon values: democracy, human rights, the
in the negotiations and through national
rule of law and the market economy. These
measures that will ensure balanced devel-
principles are enshrined in the Helsinki
opment for our society.
Final Act and the Paris Charter.
Debate on the issue has revealed positive
However, numerous problems remain un-
expectations as well as uncertainty and
solved. The future is clouded by the great
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
4
HELSINKI FINLAND
economic adversities facing the states of
democracy will be a central issue as the
Eastern Europe, by a deteriorating en-
European Community expands and gains
vironment and by acute ethnic conflicts.
stature. In the Maastricht Treaty, the Com-
These problems can be resolved only
munity members emphasize the im-
through broad European cooperation, by
portance of democratic principles in de-
peaceful means.
cision-making. New issues will not be trans-
The political and economic integration of
ferred to the Community if they can be
Western Europe is the main force shaping
resolved more efficiently at the national,
development on the European Continent.
regional or local level.
The European Community is expected to
Finland is a peripheral region in Europe.
play the key role in the creation of a new,
Successful competition requires special
unified Europe.
efforts of us, by virtue of our location and
The founding members of the Community
natural circumstances. It is important for
stated in the Treaty of Rome, that they aim
Finland that regional differences in the
at "an ever closer union among the peoples
European Community are reduced.
of Europe" and called "upon the other
peoples of Europe who share their ideals
The Finnish economy is part of the ad-
to join in their efforts". Finland is now taking
vanced European market economy sys-
a step towards full participation in this
tem, and it is vital for our economy to be
endeavour. We expect much from mem-
able to operate on equal terms with com-
bership, but we are also prepared to make
petitors in our main markets.
every effort towards achieving the com-
mon goals of the Community.
Membership of the European Community
will not solve the present serious problems
Historically, the integration process has
of the Finnish economy. On the contrary,
meant channelling competition between
EC membership will urgently require resto-
nation-states into peaceful cooperation.
ration of an economic balance. The Govern-
Its ultimate task is the promotion of econ-
ment will seek to achieve this with a com-
omic prosperity, common security and
prehensive programme of economic and
balanced social development.
industrial policy that will increase the con-
Integration in the European Community
tribution made by industry and exports to
has proceeded in stages, by broadening
our economy and improve its functioning.
and deepening. In the Maastricht Treaty
The participation of every Finn is needed in
the member states entered a new stage
this effort.
towards economic and political union. In
EC membership will obviously pose prob-
seeking EC membership, Finland approves
lems for some sectors of the Finnish econ-
the acquis communautaire, the content of
omy. The greatest problems in adapting
the Maastricht Treaty and the finalité poli-
will be faced by the food production chain.
tique of the European Union.
In the view of the Government, these prob-
The fundamental values of the Community
lems can be solved both through the nego-
are freedom and democracy. As a member
tiations and national measures.
of the European Community, Finland will,
Overall, Finland has a good foundation to
in a spirit of solidarity, participate in im-
become a member of the EC. We have a
plementing the tasks and goals facing the
high standard of know-how and technology,
Community.
a highly educated population and a society
The Community renews itself constantly.
that functions. Our forests and other re-
Finland has a positive contribution to make
newable natural resources and related
in this process, particularly in the enhance-
technology constitute an important re-
ment of democracy and equality, the re-
source even by European yardsticks.
ducing of regional differences and the
The European Community devises and
achievement of ecologically sustainable
carries out policies in the areas of the
development.
economy and industry, agriculture, en-
Finland is a Nordic democracy, in which
vironmental protection, social welfare and
the ideals of freedom and equality are
health, research, education, labour re-
deeply rooted. Democracy is the foun-
lations, consumer protection and the ad-
dation of Finnish society. It is also a power-
vancement of equality. All these have an
ful unifying force. The advancement of
impact on the entire continent. Finland has
2
both much to contribute to international
cooperation in these areas and national
***
interests to secure.
Mr Speaker,
By presenting the communication on appli-
Nordic co-operation has a contribution to
cation for EC membership the Govern-
make in European integration. The Nordic
ment has aimed to enable Parliament to
countries are a very stable part of Europe.
express its views on the issue and also to
In entering broader European co-operation
take a stand on the line of action proposed.
through EEA or as members of the EC, the
The Government hopes to obtain the
Nordic countries will not be bringing un-
broadest possible support from Parliament
resolved social conflicts with them. On the
for its objectives. National consensus would
contrary, we may be able to present
create a good foundation for the forth-
solutions that are of value to others.
coming negotiations.
Finland supports reform in Russia, its east-
Should the Government receive a vote of
ern neighbour, in the other members of the
confidence from Parliament, it is for its part
CIS and in the Baltic region and eastern
prepared to carry the matter through as
Central Europe as these countries strive to
rapidly as possible. In accordance with the
strengthen democracy and build a market
Constitution, the President of the Republic
economy. These goals can scarcely be
decides on the membership application.
reached without the participation of the
The application would be submitted to the
European Community. As a member of the
European Community on Wednesday,
Community, new opportunities will open
immediately after the vote on the com-
for Finland for increased co-operation with
munication.
our neighbouring areas.
We are now deciding on the application.
Finland has always pursued a policy aimed
Negotiations with the Community will fol-
at stability and security in Northern Eu-
low the avis prepared by the Commission.
rope. On the basis of our location and
The Government seeks to conduct Fin-
historical experience, neutrality is our aim
land's negotiations in parallel with the other
in any armed conflicts possibly arising in
EFTA countries applying for membership.
the proximity of Finland. The core of our
We hope that negotiations start as soon as
policy of neutrality in today's Europe may
possible, so that Finland could become a
be characterized as military non-alignment
member in the middle of this decade. We
and an independent defence. We maintain
would appreciate support in our endeav-
an effective and credible national defence,
our from the members of the Community,
commensurate with our security environ-
with all of whom we already have excellent
ment.
relations.
The Maastricht Treaty establishes a com-
The Government will ensure that Parlia-
mon foreign and security policy for the
ment and its committees are kept well
European Union, and provides for the de-
informed, on the processing of our EC
velopment of a defence dimension and for
application and on the conduct of the nego-
the role of the Western European Union.
tiations. It is the intention of the Govern-
Finland accepts the obligations of the
ment to hold an advisory referendum on
Treaty, and is prepared to participate con-
the matter before ultimate approval of the
structively in their implementation as agreed
outcome of these negotiations.
at Maastricht.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
3
FINNISH FEATURES
The Helsinki Process:
A Success Story
Record of achievements
Few, if any, of the representatives of the 35
European and North American States who
gathered in winter 1972 for the preparatory
consultations on a Conference on Security
and Cooperation in Europe in Helsinki an-
ticipated the enormous built-in power of
the process they were initiating. In less
than 20 years the community of basic
human values - democracy, the rule of
law, and human rights; the hallmarks of the
CSCE — had overwhelmed the false legit-
imacy of totalitarianism and opened the
door to freedom and unity for all of Europe.
The dramatic events of 1989 and 1990
were consequences of the social and econ-
The signing of the CSCE Final Act in 1975 took
omic failure of the Communist system, but
place at Finlandia Hall.
the Helsinki process accelerated this inevi-
and individuals - all those who in past
table collapse. The CSCE not only sur-
years prepared the ground for the radical
vived the Cold War but also contributed
changes - drew their strength from the rich
greatly to its demise.
potential of the Helsinki process. Helsinki
Governments and people, organizations
symbolized a better future for countless
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
4
HELSINKI FINLAND
people, and they were not misled in their
Future potential and challenges
expectations. The CSCE has stood the
test of time effectively.
The Europe of today has succeeded in
reducing military threats and means of
The Helsinki process legitimized the right
conflict. At the same time, there is ample
of one country to expect, indeed demand,
evidence that the use of military force is no
that the external behaviour of states to
less unthinkable in the new Europe than
each other, and the internal behaviour of
during the Cold War. Conflicts in Yugo-
states towards their peoples, should con-
slavia or in parts of the former Soviet Union
form with the Helsinki Principles and other
may be containable, but they are more
CSCE agreements. How an individual
than just local or internal affairs. Many
country treats its own citizens is now a
outstanding problems have become all the
legitimate concern of other CSCE countries.
more visible with the disappearance of
Demonstrating concerned opinion no
East-West confrontation. The actual and
longer constitutes inappropriate interven-
potential instabilities arising from economic,
tion in the internal affairs of other states.
environmental and minority problems,
At the heart of the CSCE lay not only
nationalistic antagonisms and destabiliz-
national sovereignty, non-intervention in
ing ethnic claims and conflicts, all under-
the internal affairs of states and consen-
mine the fragile new system of security,
sus, but also - and especially - human
which is characterized by complexity, inter-
rights and the right of selfdetermination.
dependence and unpredictability. The in-
Major CSCE achievements - the Human
divisibility of security and the interrelation-
Rights Mechanism, the Mechanism on
ship of the three baskets of the Helsinki
Unusual Military Activities and the Emerg-
Final Act - military security, cooperation in
ency Mechanism - have broken the ice of
the economic, scientific and environmen-
absolutism surrounding the sensitive area
tal areas, and the human dimension
of sovereignty and consensus. The time
more significance now than ever before
may be ripe for further steps in this direc-
Europe is undergoing a fundamental pro-
tion at the Helsinki Follow-up Meeting.
cess of reorganization, militarily, politically
The Cold War divisions, antagonisms and
and economically. The elements in this
threats have ended, and with them the
new constellation - states, organizations
peculiar kind of stability they created. In
and institutions - are redefining their
their place, a Europe full of potential for
relationships and functions in order to form
democracy, economic well-being and hu-
a sound whole. The enlargement of the
man rights has arisen. The competition
CSCE constitutes both a challenge and an
between the superpowers has given way
opportunity. There is little reason to be-
to dialogue and to a joint acceptance of
lieve that the profound changes of 1989-
both European and global responsibilities.
90 will be consolidated in a short period of
Europeans are no longer afraid of massive
time. Rather, a fragile equilibrium, punctu-
military confrontation on their continent;
ated by outbreaks of instability, will con-
European countries can now embark on
tinue. Europeans will thus need an effec-
the search for security in Europe on an
tive political forum to which they can all
equal footing, as free and democratic so-
belong.
cieties.
The Helsinki process is a security system,
The CSCE was designed to bridge the
but not in the sense of a military alliance.
East-West divide. It meant an alleviation,
The CSCE is not a system of classical
not a sanctioning, of the division of Europe,
collective security, nor can it, in its present
and played an immense role in the evol-
form, offer the degree of security that Euro-
ution of relations across the dividing line,
pean states desire. States will continue to
the Iron Curtain. It helped to preserve
derive security from their own arrange-
dialogue and essential forms of cooper-
ments for self-defence, but a re-national-
ation during those difficult years. Now that
ization of security policies should not be
there is no longer an East-West divide,
the goal. The CSCE provides the basis for
different problems are appearing and the
a system of cooperative security, and the
enlarged CSCE is facing new challenges.
cooperative security measures developed
Its contributions will be very much needed
within the CSCE both complement the
during years ahead as well.
existing measures and offer new potential
2.
in the military area. Thus, security with
capabilities of relevant European and trans-
others overrides the need for security
atlantic economic organizations must be
against others.
utilized. Affluent members of the CSCE
The new order in Europe permits states to
should meet their responsibilities for facili-
create jointly, on a cooperative basis, new
tating the historic transitions now taking
security and policy options which were not
place in the economies of some CSCE
possible for individual states in the previous
participating states. Europe must not be-
confrontational situation. But the new op-
come a continent in which a new division
portunities cannot be realized by one el-
replaces the old. To overcome the obstacles
ement alone, whether it be an institution,
to political and economic stability and de-
structure or process. Neither the CSCE
velopment, those organizations and ac-
nor NATO, NACC, WEU, EC, or any other
tors which are best equipped in their own
organization for that matter can, by itself,
areas of competence should lead the way.
provide the basis for stability and security
The unique advantage of the CSCE is that
in the new Europe. Real security can only
it includes the existing, and will equally
be guaranteed jointly, through mutually
include all the new, participating states,
supportive cooperation and interaction
each contributing its weight to European
between all interlocking institutions and
affairs. The CSCE thus offers an overarch-
forums. We should use what works for as
ing framework within which much can be
long as it works and add what is needed, if
accomplished.
and when it is needed.
The framework of regional cooperation will
The CSCE can meet the new challenges,
be an important part of the new compre-
if it is permitted to develop existing and
hensive security setting. Regional cooper-
acquire new operational capabilities, e.g.
ation will be able to respond more effec-
by enhancing institutions and structures
tively to various local conditions and needs,
which were created to prevent, manage
allowing regions to tackle their specific
and resolve conflicts. This requires a clear
problems together. Selective regional
division of responsibility between the Com-
measures and solutions embedded in an
mittee of Senior Officials in Prague, the
all-European CSCE framework present
Conflict Prevention Centre in Vienna and
considerable potential and may become a
the Office for Democratic Institutions and
real innovation of the post-Helsinki secur-
Human Rights in Warsaw. The conflict
ity negotiations. Regional cooperation of-
prevention and crisis management capa-
fers limitless possibilities in the economic
bility of the CSCE can be improved through
and social areas as well. On the all-Euro-
the use of clearly defined instuments. Fact-
pean level, the emerging system of secur-
finding, observation and monitoring of the
ity for Europe will have to take into account
implementation of cease-fire or disengage-
the political dynamics of West Europe inte-
ment agreements are essential elements
gration, the security concerns of the
of conflict resolution.
countries of Central and Eastern Europe
Peacekeeping, in cooperation with the
and the future roles of the great powers in
parties involved in the conflict, is a highly
Europe.
effective tool. The Helsinki Follow-up Meet-
ing in 1992 must take decisions to enhance
Past is prologue
the CSCE's capability to meet future chal-
lenges. These decisions will be just as
"Security is not gained by erecting fences;
innovative as those taken in Helsinki in
security is gained by opening gates",
Finland's then President Urho Kekkonen
1975.
said at the first CSCE Foreign Ministerial
The CSCE and its potential for contributing
Meeting in Helsinki in June 1973. In March
to stability and security in Europe - includ-
1992 the Helsinki process will return to the
ing crisis resolution and the development
Finnish capital where it began some 20
of cooperative economic, political and se-
years before. With the disappearance of
curity arrangements - must be viewed
the old barriers, the CSCE is entering its
from the perspective of complementarity
second and more operational phase. As it
rather than substitution in relation to other
had in its first phase, the CSCE in its next
institutions. It is a mechanism for linkage
phase will have a unique and critical role to
and not replacement. The experience and
play in building a durable peace and a just
3
and equitable order in the new Europe.
an unfailing source of inspiration for further
There is nothing final about the Final Act.
endeavour and action. The Helsinki process
This historic document, drafted at a time
will be judged by its success in providing
when Europe was divided, embodies the
the basis for the most profound concept of
principles which are even now shaping,
human rights - freedom, justice, equity
and will continue to shape, an undivided
and security. The Final Act of Helsinki and
Europe. While many commitments and
the Charter of Paris together present an
pledges still remain empty and unim-
open-ended vision for a new and better
plemented, many more have had profound
Europe, committing all the participants with
impact. The greatest strength of the CSCE
equal force to each of their provisions.
will remain its moral strength, based on the
Helsinki Principles and the fundamental
human rights it supports for individuals in
all the participating states. The Final Act is
Written by Mr. Pertti Torstila, Ambassador,
a reminder of what remains to be done and
CSCE Delegation of Finland, Vienna
For further information please contact:
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in your country
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Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
4
FINNISH FEATURES
CSCE: what next?
The origins
sensus principle: All decisions must be
Conference on Security and Cooperation
made by the consent of all. There is only
in Europe (CSCE) is a formal title for a
one category of decisions and all require
process which began here in Helsinki nearly
unanimity among the participating states.
twenty years ago. The primary task in the
Absence of a particular state or states from
early 1970s was to bridge the divided
the meetings does not hinder others from
European continent, create a modus viv-
going ahead with new decisions.
endi between the two German states, and
The CSCE currently has 48 participating
open gates for humanitarian cooperation
States. The original number was 35; Alba-
and contacts. This was the novelty in inter-
nia did not want to join but did so after the
national politics: for the first time the partic-
Paris summit in November 1990. Germany
ipating states were ready to encourage
was united on October 2nd 1990: The last
and promote also individual activities par-
time the delegation of the German Demo-
allel to the interstate cooperation.
cratic Republic was present was at the
The other basic difference from normal
foreign ministers' meeting in New York.
international conferences was, that the
CSCE established a follow-up system with
further meetings, and with a chance to
Nature of this exercise
review and assess the progress achieved.
Nobody thought that Europe would be-
Nothing would be forgotten or bypassed in
come harmonized according to the prin-
silence. All aspects of interstate cooper-
ciples of the Helsinki Final Act 1975 very
ation, including the violations of human
quickly. The overall understanding was
rights, were open to discussion and criti-
that progress might be rather slow and
cism. CSCE became a continuous en-
require patience. Nevertheless great strides
deavour, a process characterized by the
have been taken: for instance despite all
changing opportunities.
the bad omens the Madrid Follow-Up Meet-
The decision-making mechanism of the
ing could decide upon a Conference on
CSCE differs from that of other international
Confidence and Security Building
bodies such as the United Nations. All
Measures. When this conference started
participants are equal, and hence the con-
in Stockholm in January 1984 it was the
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
4
HELSINKI FINLAND
only international channel between the
states are equal; the process is to take
nuclear powers.
place outside military or other alliances;
It finished with a breakthrough in Septem-
and the scope of agreements is, for the first
ber 1986. A taboo was broken; military
time, to cover humanitarian cooperation in
activities in the European part of the Soviet
addition to the military security, and econ-
Union were made open for on-site inspec-
omic and environmental cooperation. Each
tions upon request by any of CSCE partici-
participating state may choose which par-
pating State.
ticular section or item to emphasize as long
The Vienna Follow-Up Meeting 1986-89
as they were ready faithfully to implement
made the next major advance possible:
all the other joint commitments as well.
within the framework of the human dimen-
sion one hotly disputed principle - interfer-
ence in internal affairs of states- was mar-
It was strictly a
ginalized. Individual and human rights got
European conference
the upper hand, time frames within which
In Helsinki in 1992, the enlarged group of
requests should be decided on were short-
participants will have a chance to define
ened, and the commitments to the human
new priorities for their common efforts and
dimension became central to interstate
future cooperation.
relations.
Although, in a purely physical sense, the
Those who expected no further progress
area of the former Soviet Union has not
after the Vienna Follow-Up Meeting were
grown, the zone of application of the CSCE
once again betting on the wrong horse.
seems to have been enlarged. We have
Less than a year later presidents Gorbat-
more actors on the stage, new govern-
shev and Bush met in Valletta to begin
ments and more nations with fresh self-
preparations for an early CSCE summit to
confidence. As a result Europe will be
precede the Helsinki Follow-Up Meeting
defined on a new basis.
scheduled to open on March 24, 1992.
At the same time the participants have to
All European nations, the United States
make up their mind on the proper definition
and Canada were anxious to participate in
of participating State. Responsibility for
the reshaping of the post-Second World
European security would perhaps not be
War Europe. Lessening of tension often
enough as the only criterion. Concern about
requires as close cooperation among par-
the implementation and respect of human
ticipants as situations of potential conflicts.
rights, democratic principles and the rule
The time since the Paris summit has been
of law, has united all the participants, irres-
historic in many respects. The pace of
pective of their previous record. Interstate
change has taken everyone by surprise.
relations have been multiplied in recent
More than once there have been multilat-
months. At the same time non-govern-
eral efforts to get these changes under
mental organizations are actively prepar-
control. But there is still no clear under-
ing their contributions in different events.
standing about what form the new stability
New threat perceptions have arisen. The
might look like.
risk that economic inequality may pose a
The events inside the former Yugoslavia
heavy burden is growing. The CSCE does
and Soviet Union demonstrate that prob-
not have mechanisms to react quickly; it
lems inherited as a legacy of the Second
has the power of words and political sig-
World War do no longer present the most
nals. Everyone is aware of the new risks
immediate danger.
looming. Many are concerned and many
Those related to the federal nature of former
wary. The whole process is facing a great
states, not traditional interstate conflicts,
challenge. That is why so many people are
seem to be our main concerns today.
sceptical and others are cautious about
reshaping the basic established pro-
cedures.
Problems of definition
As pointed out, procedure and substance
The preparatory consultations held in Hel-
go together. The problems of the new
sinki 1972-72 set the basic characteristics
participating States will be shared jointly
of the CSCE process. Decisions are to be
by all. A new learning process is before us.
reached by consensus; all participating
Once again we must forge the link between
2
realities and ambitions so that the political
The CSCE Minister Council has already
leaders of the participating States will have
decided to hold its next meeting in Stock-
a common understanding of the challeng-
holm in December this year. The end of the
es and opportunities posed by Europe
Helsinki meeting will thus not mark the end
today.
of further efforts. Let us hope that the
The time available in Helsinki has been
results achieved in Helsinki will warrant
limited to three months. In this respect, too,
greater confidence in the new potential of
the CSCE process has modified its original
the CSCE and reaffirm the Helsinki pro-
character: before the negotiations actually
cess in its broadened, more positive mean-
start all know when they must be ready to
ing.
present their common results. It may well
be that the results will not be as mature and
ready as they were in the past. Do the
Written by
hectic finishing negotiations - before final
Dr. Markku Reimaa
compromises are agreed upon - belong to
Director General
history?
Ministry for Foreign Affairs
For further information please contact:
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Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
FINNISH FEATURES
Finland Seeks Membership
in the European Community
Finland is about to join Austria and Sweden
protestant nations. They are likely to tilt the
on what is called "the first train" of new
balance in favour of a cautious approach to
applicants heading for membership in the
political integration and a greater concern
European Community.
for what is called the social dimension.
The formal application will not be made
They will also add a new geopolitical di-
before Parliament has voted on it on March
mension: through the membership of
18, but since the main opposition party, the
Finland and Norway the Community will
socialdemocrats, supports the ruling
acquire a common landborder with Russia.
center-right coalition on this issue, the out-
The implications of this fact have not yet
come is a foregone conclusion.
received much attention within the Com-
The Finnish application may well prod the
munity.
Norwegians to make up their minds in time
For Finland, applying for EC membership
to begin membership negotiations parallel
marks a sharp break with the past. Tra-
with their neighbours. Thus all the Scandi-
ditionally the Finns have maintained their
navian or Nordic countries, with the excep-
independence and national identity by ex-
tion of Iceland, could be members of the
clusion. The creed of the Finnish national
Community in 1995.
movement in the 19th century was formu-
This represents a momentous change for
lated by one of its leaders in one terse
the region. By applying for membership
sentence: We are no longer Swedes, we
the Nordic countries abandon their tra-
do not want to become Russians, so let us
ditional aloofness from the affairs of the
be Finns. From this double negative grew
European continent and their belief in the
a nation with a distinctive cultural identity
superiority of the Scandinavian social
and democratic institutions of original
model. They all look forward to member-
design that have functioned without inter-
ship as an external discipline to help them
ruption for a longer time than those of most
lighten the heavy burden of a bloated pub-
European states.
lic sector and to bring down production
Indeed, Finland is one of the very few
costs, consumer prices and interest rates.
European states that have survived intact
The Community, too, will be changed by
through the upheavals of the first half of the
the entry of an additional three northern
20th century. It survived by resisting foreign
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
4
HELSINKI FINLAND
domination by whatever means suited to
The adjustment in economic policy that
changing circumstances; by armed
lies ahead will be more painful. Farming in
struggle, by saying no, or by avoiding to
particular will face a tough test. The econ-
say yes.
omy as a whole is suffering from a severe
But now the Finns are told by their presi-
slump - the worst since the second world
dent Mauno Koivisto to say yes to the
war. In 1991 GNP fell by 6%, while unem-
Community, because in an interdepen-
ployment rose to 13%.
dent world "it is better that we have a voice
The decline in the Finnish economy has
where the decisions are made".
been caused partly by the collapse of trade
Many Finns still worry about the possible.
with the Soviet Union. Last year the Soviet
effects of EC membership for the country's
share of Finland's total exports fell-to less
security. Russia remains a powerful neigh-
than 5% from an historical average of 15%,
bour which may well revert to authoritarian
and it is expected to go down even further
rule and militant nationalism. Might not
this year. In contrast, exports to Germany
membership then provoke Russian hos-
increased in 1991 by 10%, making
tility making Finland once again, as hap-
Germany Finland's number one trading
pened 50 years ago, an exposed outpost
partner.
to be abandoned by the West in the event
The devaluation of the Finnish markka and
of a conflict?
a zero wage agreement reached between
Such fears persist. Yet a strong current in
unions and employers at the end of last
Finnish opinion now supports the view
year have improved the competitiveness
that, if faced again with an aggressive
of Finnish industry. The slump is believed
Russian regime, Finland would be more
to have bottomed out. A cautious sense of
secure as a member of the Community
optimism can be observed in the business
than on its own and should seize the op-
community. The hope is that the decision
portunity to join the western community of
to apply for EC membership in itself will
nations whose values the Finnish people
revive confidence in Finland's economic
has always shared.
prospects. But the country has a long way
Finland, like Sweden, will continue to stay
to go in order to qualify for membership in
out of military alliances and to maintain a
the planned European Monetary Union.
national defence. Whether or not this should
be called a policy of neutrality is a matter of
debate. The Finnish government still pre-
fers to use the term which has a powerful
emotional appeal as a symbol of inde-
pendence and self-reliance. But the sub-
stance of Finland's foreign policy has been
adjusted to fit membership in the Com-
Written by Ambassador Max Jakobson
(Published in the International Herald Tribune)
munity.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
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in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
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Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
FINNISH FEATURES
Åland, Finland and the EC
Aland cannot count on existing like some
both government and opposition, takes
kind of reservation, outside the EC. It would
basically the same view of the matter.
be much better to join from the start. That
Aland must join in the Finnish negotiations
is the view of Ragnar Erlandsson, Chair-
about EC membership, when and if Finland
man of the Aland Executive Council, as
gets that far.
expressed in an interview a few weeks
Finland, not Åland, will convey Åland's
ago.
demands for special terms and rules to the
In saying this, he was also expressing the
EC. Aland must now make its demands
general opinion of people in Aland. Getting
and requests known.
on the EC train with Finland is seen as
There is disagreement about how to time
preferable to being left behind at the station.
this. According to the Aland Executive
Due to its autonomous status, Áland could
Council there is no hurry.
choose to remain outside the EC even if
The exact demands will not be needed
Finland became a member. But in the
until Finland has received the go-ahead to
Åland islands, this is not seen as a realistic
start negotiating on EC membership.
alternative.
The opposition sees every reason to speed
It might lead to Aland being surrounded by
up the proceedings, but at present it seems
customs barriers to both Sweden and
that the EC issue will not be debated by the
Finland, thus risking isolation which could
Aland Parliament until March.
in turn be fatal to the economic future of the
The Aland Executive Council claims that
islands, including the vital tourist trade.
Aland cannot make any special requests
The political spectrum from right to left,
until it is known what Finland will be asking
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
4
HELSINKI FINLAND
for. Åland and Finland have similar de-
ment, it is now thought that similar specifi-
mands concerning issues like regional
cations should not pose an insurmount-
policy and agriculture. Other important
able problem in the EC negotiations.
issues for Aland include the capacity to
The EC also raises the issue of security
sustain a dynamic archipelago community
policy. Where Åland is concerned, this
in the future. Agriculture is even more
means what will happen to its demilitarized
important in the regional perspective of the
status, the ban on fortification, and the
Äland islands than it is for mainland Finland.
neutrality of the Aland islands, all of which
Åland must have special rules concerning
derive from international agreements and
ferry services, since means of transport to
form the cornerstones of Áland autonomy.
and from Äland must be secured even after
The regulations which state that men from
tax-free sales on the ferries have been
Åland are exempt from compulsory mili-
eliminated, which is to happen in 1999. It
tary service is another aspect of this.
must not become unreasonably expensive
Since the protection of minorities in the
to travel to and from Áland, whether this
new Europe is an important issue in the
means the Ålanders themselves, goods
EC, it is easier in some ways for auton-
transport or tourists.
omous provinces to win permanent opt-
How the special rights included in the Äland
outs than it is for states. Áland puts its faith
Autonomy Act are to be adapted to the EC
in this fact and in the understanding Finland
is a difficult question. It was made clear in
has for the special needs of the islands.
the negotiations for the EEA agreement
It is difficult to say what position Åland
that the Åland Autonomy Act does not
should take. The general political attitude
conflict with the European Convention on
seems to be that it is best to make a virtue
Human Rights.
of necessity. Åland is a small province in a
The uncertainty concerns three things: the
Nordic perspective, to say nothing of a
right to acquire and own property in the
European perspective. The islands de-
Áland islands, the protected minority status
pend on the world around them. Fewer
of the Swedish language, and the liberty of
obstacles to trade and increased mobility
travel and residence in the islands.
will be in the interest of the Áland islands,
During the EEA negotiations, the Åland
especially its trade.
Executive Council took the position that
But at the same time one must not forget
Åland is interested in joining in develop-
that Aland became autonomous seventy
ment of a common market, but, as is now
years ago in order to be able to protect its
the case with the EC, only on certain con-
culture, its traditions and its Swedish
ditions. In the EEA agreement, Äland suc-
language. The people in the Åland islands
cessfully established specification of the
want all this to continue, because without
areas in which problems may occur and
it, autonomy would lose both its foundation
which therefore require separate rules.
and its meaning.
In the agreement, Aland was thus able to
The only way to preserve Åland's unique
retain the right to pass its own legislation
features in the Europe of the future is to
on the acquisition and ownerships of prop-
safeguard its autonomy and thus help it
erty in the Åland islands, on the right to
live and develop.
establish and run companies in the prov-
ince of Äland, and about protection for the
Swedish language in the islands.
Considering the exceptions Åland man-
Editorial published in Hufvudstadsbladet
aged to get included in the EEA agree-
newspaper on February 2nd 1992.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
2
FINNISH FEATURES
AUGUST 1991
Finland's New Aliens Act
There are not many aliens in
A clearer aliens policy
Finland
Finland's new Aliens Act came into effect
Unlike most other countries, Finland's
on March 1, 1991. The aim of the Act is to
present population is ethnically very
simplify the processing of entrance per-
homogeneous. In earlier days the situ-
mits (visas and residence permits) and
ation was different: in the 1920s, for
work permits.
example, there were more foreigners liv-
The power of Finnish diplomatic rep-
ing in Finland than in the other Nordic
resentatives abroad to make decisions
countries. This was caused in part by
on the granting of permits has been in-
refugees fleeing the Russian Revolution.
creased. Decisions regarding the exten-
Today there are very few foreign
sion of permits have been transferred
nationals in Finland. In 1990 about
almost solely to local police and labour
20,000 of Finland's 5 million residents,
offices.
or about 0.4% of the population, were
The new Aliens Act strengthens the pos-
citizens of countries outside the Nordic
ition of aliens in Finland. It also improves
countries. In 1989 the number of resi-
the position of refugees and seekers of
dence permits handled was 14,100 and
asylum. The Act is also designed to
that of work permits 10,200.
speed up the processing of work and
The flow of people is greatest between
residence permits.
Finland and Sweden. About 5,000
Other legislation has also been amended
people per year emigrate in each direc-
with a view to improving the position of
tion. In recent years the number of
aliens in Finland. The qualifications of
people moving back to Finland has been
public officials (state and municipal)
slightly larger.
have been changed so that Finnish citi-
A little over 1,000 Ingrian Finns have
zenship and education in Finland are no
immigrated to Finland from the Soviet
longer prerequisites for application for a
Union.
post.
Former Finnish citizens and persons at
least one parent of whom is a former Fin-
Refugees and asylum seekers
nish citizen, provided that they have
been granted a limited period residence
Approximately 3,000 refugees have
permit, need no work permit. This also
been admitted to Finland since 1973. In
applies to permanent residents in Fin-
1990 Finland received 841 refugees
land and persons married to Finnish
under the United Nations refugee quota.
citizens.
The official annual quota is 500.
Refugees under the quota may include
The right to work without a work permit
'difficult cases' selected from UN
of foreign students studying in Finland
refugee camps.
and possessing a limited period resi-
dence permit is restricted to holiday and
The number of people seeking asylum in
part-time work.
Finland has grown rapidly. In 1990 a
total of 2,743 people sought asylum in
Finland. The largest group, 1,437 Soma-
lis, entered Finland via the Soviet Union.
Finnish citizenship in five years
In the first four months of 1991, 788
The granting of citizenship does not
people applied for asylum in Finland,
come within the scope of application of
322 from Somalia.
the Aliens Act. Thus the new Aliens
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
5
HELSINKI FINLAND
Act does not affect the criteria for the
1. A close relative of the foreign national
granting of Finnish citizenship. The
resides in Finland or he has some other
Nationality Act decrees that a person
connection with Finland.
may be granted Finnish citizenship after
2. The foreign national has been ac-
he has lived in Finland for five years.
cepted to study at an educational insti-
Former Finnish citizens or spouses of
tution in Finland and he has a guaran-
Finnish citizens can receive Finnish citi-
teed source of income.
zenship in a shorter period.
3. The foreign national can be granted a
work permit or he has some other re-
liable source of income.
Scandinavians do not need
permits
4. There are pressing humanitarian
reasons or other reasons which favour
The close integration of the Nordic
the granting of a permit.
countries extends to the rights of citi-
Permanent residence permits and exten-
zens. A common labour market has
sions of limited period residence permits
existed in the Nordic countries since the
are granted by the local police.
1950s and movement between countries
has not required special permits.
Citizens of Iceland, Norway, Sweden and
Work permits
Denmark have the right to enter Finland
without a passport and to live and work
An alien must have a work permit to
in Finland without a residence or work
work in Finland. Work permits are
permit.
granted by Finnish diplomatic missions
after they receive a statement from the
Ministry of Labour.
Residence permits
A work permit is granted for a specified
field, and may be supplemented by
The new Aliens Act contains provisions
restrictions concerning the employer,
on entry into and residence in Finland.
the permit's regional validity or the
The Act recognizes two permits associ-
nature of the work.
ated with entry: a visa and a residence
permit. In addition, a work permit is re-
quired to work in Finland.
Appeals to the Asylum Appeals
A visa is granted only for tourism or short
Committee
periods of residence comparable with
tourism.
Non-refoulement has been added to the
There are two kinds of residence per-
regulations on deportation and turning
mits: limited period and permanent.
back foreigners at the border. No one can
Finnish diplomatic missions can only
be deported to an area where he may
grant residence permits for a limited
become the victim of inhuman treatment
period.
or persecution or from where he may be
sent to such an area.
A limited period residence permit is
usually granted for a minimum of one
The need for an organ to handle appeals
year. An alien who is a former Finnish
against negative decisions affecting
citizen or of whom at least one parent is
asylum seekers and refugees became
or has been a Finnish citizen is granted
obvious in the course of preparation of
a two-year limited period residence
the Aliens Act.
permit.
The Asylum Appeals Committee is ap-
An alien who has lived in Finland for a
pointed for a five-year term by the Coun-
period of two years consecutively is
cil of State. Its members include experts
granted a permanent residence permit.
on international refugee issues. The
A permanent residence permit carries
Committee works in association with the
the entitlement to work.
Ministry of Justice and makes decisions
independently.
Under the new Aliens Act a limited
period residence permit can be granted
Written by Dr. Martti Häikiö
for one of the following reasons:
Executive Director of Finland Society
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Helsinki 1991. The Finnish Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
MAY 1991
Reform of the Autonomy Act of the Aland Islands
One of the last laws to be passed in the
A. Status
previous term of the Finnish Parliament
B. Democracy
was the reform of the Autonomy Act on
the Aland Islands. This small group of
C. Legislation
islands between Finland and Sweden
D. Administration
has extensive internal autonomy which
E. Public economy
has been the subject of lively inter-
F. Effects on the status of the individual
national interest in recent years. At the
Alander.
end of February 1991, the Finnish Par-
liament passed the new Autonomy Act
This is intended to be an overview, and
almost unanimously, by a vote of 170-8
therefore it only touches upon those
in favour.
details that are likely to be of general
The new Parliament elected in March of
interest.
this year (1991) must repass the law by
a 2/3 majority without amendments in
Status
order for it to be finally enacted. After
that, the Aland Parliament must pass
The reform is meant to uphold the
the law by the same majority.
autonomous status of the islands. The
At present, however, it is possible to
report of the Constitutional Law Com-
examine, on the one hand, whether the
mittee, as accepted by the Finnish Par-
goals set have been reached and, on
liament, makes the request that the
the other hand, to see what changes the
government include mention of the
new Act entails over and above the
islands' autonomy in the Constitution
present one, which dates from 1951.
Act. Such mention will consolidate
The main question is whether the goal
Aland's status in the Constitution Act,
to strengthen the autonomy of the
thus further reinforcing the consti-
Aland Islands has been accomplished.
tutional nature of the autonomy. Sub-
sequently, it would be possible to
The following gives a brief outline of
include mention of autonomy in the
the contents of the reform, in the hope
Autonomy Act itself, to the effect that it
that the reader will then be able to for-
is valid as a constitutional law.
mulate his own answer to this question.
The new Act establishes Aland as a uni-
The review of the new Act is divided
lingually Swedish-speaking area (§36).
into the following sections:
This is not expressed in the present
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
5
HELSINKI FINLAND
Jorn
PITEA
HaukipudasC
Kiiminki
Boliden
Vilhelmina
Hailuoto
OULU
is
Ylikimink
SWEDEN
O
Pudlanka
ycksele
SKELLEFTEA
Liminka
Muhos
RAAHE
© Нугуп:
Ruukki
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Asele
Vindel
©Pattamo
64
Kalajoking
OULAINEN
Outujdrvi
Haapaves
©KAJAAN
Sotkan
Bjurholm
Mannas
LIVIESKA
Pyhanta
8
KOKKOLA
Kannus
Nivala
GULF UMEA OF BOTHNIA UUSIKAARLEPYY NYKARLEBY PIETARSAARI JAKOBSTAD
KARLEBY
HAAPAJARV
Vieremä
Va
© Sobkajarvi
Kaustinen
Kiuruves
IISALMI
SOLLEFTEA
Vetel
BRNSKÖLDSVIK
Rautavasra
Alahärma
Rihtipudas
VAASA
Perho
KRAMFORS
Nilsia
Ju
Isokyro
Kauhava Lappajarvi Vimpeli
Pielavesi
VASA
D
Malaxo
jitasaar
Siilinjarvi
Kaavi
Maalahti
Laihia
PLAPUA Alajarvi
Karstula
KUOPIO
CHÄRNÖSAND
Korsnaso
Umajoki
Kuortane
Keitele
Tuos
Jurva
Kallavesi
SEINAJOKI
Saarijaryl
Närges
KURIKKA
ALAVUS
AANEKOSK
Hautalampi
OUTOKUMP
SUNDSVALL
Närpio
SUBNENJOKI
KASKINEN
Jalasjärvi
SUCLARTI
Teuva
KASKO
Ahtari
Kauhajoki
LaukaaQ
KRISTUNANKAUPUNKI
Hankasalm
VIRRAT
as
62°
Keuruu
Lauhanvuon
VARKAUS
231
Taapamak
JYVASKYLA
PIEKSAMAKI
Karvia
©MANPTA
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Rantas
Merikarvia
PARKANO
Huoves
Korpitenti
Juva ©
KANKAANPAA IKAALINEN Orivesi
JAMSA
Puula
CO Joutsa
SAVONE
Hämeenkyrog
Näsijärvi
Paijanne
MIKKELI
PORI
953
TAMPERE
Syama Hartola
NOKIA
Kahmsinen
ORISHING
HARJAVALTA
Kangasala
KOKEMÄKI
Lempalala
©Mantybario Saimaa
Ruokola
VAMMALA
VALKEAKOSKI
RAUMA
TOIJALAO
Vääksy S
HEINOLA
Savitaipale
Sakyla©
TINEN
Lamm
O/Urjala
firisma
LAHTH
Pyhajdrol
HAMEENLINNA
KUUSANKOSKI
CLAPPEE
UUSIKAUPUNKI
Laitila
LOIMAA
Turenki
little
Mynämäki
Ditti
© OrimaHith
KOUVOLA
FORSSA
RIIHIMAKI
ANJALANKOSKL
Kustavi
ALAND
RAISIO
Somero@
HYVINKAAS
Mantsala
Efimaki
Mishikkaja
Osthammar
NAANTALT
KARKKELA
ARVENPA
0
MOO
000
000
Paidio SALO
LOVISA
CHAMINA
TURKU
KERAVA
OO
Saltvik
Eckerö
ABO
KADNIAINEN
LOVISA
PARGAS
LOHJA
GRANKULLA
PORVOD
KOTKA
Primors%
Koivista
60°
MARIEHAMN
PARAINEN
ESPOQ
VANTAA
BORGA
UPPSALA
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ESBO
VANDA
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KARIS
AHVENANMAAS
HELSINKI
KARJAA
:
008
dekkonummi
EKENAS
Kyrkslätt
HELSINGFORS
NORRTALJE
80
FAMMISAARI
Glink
HANKO
HANGO
GULF OF FINLAND
Kurgolovo
BALTIC SEA
0
TALLINN
18°)
STOCKHOLM
20°
22°
24°
86°
289
The Aland Islands lie southwest of Finland in the Baltic Sea.
Autonomy Act. The provision whereby
Åland will be expanded. Provincial law
those applying for the right of domicile
may ordain the right to use the Aland
in Aland must know Swedish (87) also
flag on ferries operating in the prov-
sets more rigourous language require-
ince, as well as on fishing boats, leisure
ments than before. Any information
çraft and merchant vessels registered in
published in the province about goods
Aland (§18).
and services must be given in Swedish.
'Aland' must be specified in passports
All rules and regulations effective in
issued in the province to those who
Aland must be available in Swedish
have right of domicile (§30). The prop-
(§43).
erty of Aland residents who have no
The Åland Parliament and the Áland
heirs will, upon their death, revert to the
Executive Council must be allowed to
province, with the exception of real es-
participate in any international de-
tate situated outside the province,
cisions concerning Aland (§§58-59). The
which shall go to the Finnish State. If a
province of Aland is made equal to the
person resident outside Aland leaves a
State in matters of tax exemption and
legacy including real estate on Aland,
similar legislative privileges (§66). The
this property shall go to the province of
right to use the flag of the province of
Aland (§63).
2
Democracy
- social services, the most significant
being maternity benefits, family and
The new Autonomy Act will entail con-
child allowances and care of the dis-
siderably greater demands on those
abled and disability benefits;
entrusted with handling the public af-
- alcohol licensing, in cases where the
fairs of Aland. This will involve raising
licence is vital to the province's tour-
the level of the political work in the
ist trade;
province. Likewise, the liberalization of
- record offices;
the economy will create entirely new
- postal services, including an indepen-
opportunities for the province's demo-
dent policy on postage stamps;
cratic institutions. Aland's local demo-
- radio and television;
cracy will be strengthened as a result of
- inter-municipal affairs, e.g. boundary
the greater opportunity for taking im-
issues
portant decisions within the province
independently of decisions and events
2. National law will grant the Aland
in Helsinki. In addition to reinforcing
Parliament authority over the fol-
local democracy, the new law also pro-
lowing:
vides Aland with new means of influ-
encing national-level policy. Aland will
- population registration;
become a separate party in any nego-
- the trade register, register of associ-
tiations concerning the province. This
ations and ships' register, the latter
will be especially pertinent in cases
being of special importance to Aland;
of consultancy, as in $30. (The main
- employment pensions and other
issues are mentioned under the
forms of social insurance dealing
heading Administration).
with extensive funds;
- alcohol legislation in its entirety;
The right to vote in Nordic municipal
- banking and credit systems;
elections will be introduced in Aland
- employment contracts and cooper-
(§67).
ation within companies.
Legislation
Administration
Greater administrative powers will nat-
This aspect of the reform is intended
urally accompany the expansion of
to clarify and broaden Aland's legis-
legislative powers. It has been con-
lative powers. The clarification of legis-
sidered expedient for the province to
lative powers will be achieved by com-
handle the administration of even
plete transfer of responsibility - either
certain matters over which legislative
to the province or to the State - for a
power itself lies with the national
number of matters which were pre-
Parliament. This is the case, for in-
viously handled by both authorities. In
fact, however, the State will be on the
stance, with regulations on contagious
diseases, internal air traffic and, con-
receiving end in only one case; it will
sumer protection legislation. The Aland
receive full responsibility for legislation
Executive Council will appoint a con-
on employment contracts. Responsi-
sumer complaint board, and con-
bility for all other areas of legislation in-
cluded in the present Autonomy Act
sumer guidance will be handled by the
will be retained by the Aland Par-
province and the municipalities of
Aland.
liament. The expansion of the prov-
ince's legislative powers will result
The provincial authorities will be
from new areas of legislative responsi-
gaining new means of influence mainly
bility being defined by the new Act, or
through the establishment of a new
by new areas of responsibility being
consultancy procedure. In accordance
transferred to the province by national
with this concept, it will no longer be
law.
sufficient to merely hear the province
in matters of concern to it. Instead,
1. The Aland Parliament's new legis-
actual negotiations will take place, as
lative responsibilities
the situation requires. In certain mat-
ters, however, it will remain sufficient
The new Act will grant the Åland Par-
for the province to be heard or to make
liament powers of legislation over the
its own statement.
following:
- rent and rent control as well as the
§30 of the proposed bill lists 23 points in
which the province is to be allowed its
law of adjoining properties;
- historical monuments;
say in the decision. The following are
some examples:
3
.
4
- In appointments to State posts in
$44 decrees the province's free budget-
Aland, familiarity with Aland or resi-
ing right. This includes the right to inde-
dency in Aland must be assigned par-
pendent allocation of funds. The para-
ticular significance;
graph contains a resolution to the effect
- The State shall ensure that Aland re-
that the Aland Parliament shall strive to
ceives the use of radio and television
keep the social benefits of Aland resi-
frequencies;
dents at least up to the standards pre-
- The Aland Executive Council shall de-
vailing in the rest of Finland.
cide on the competency of Nordic-
§§45 and 46 specify the province's
trained health care staff for the pur-
claim to State funds and how it is calcu-
pose of practice in Aland;
lated, i.e. that State income for the bud-
- New merchant shipping routes within
get year, excluding State loans, forms
Aland territory must be approved by
the basis of calculation.
the Aland Executive Council;
- Decisions regarding cabotage (traffic
$47 gives the figure of 0.45% as the
by foreign vessels between Finnish
province's claim to State revenues. The
ports) requires consultancy;
paragraph also stipulates the con-
- The Bank of Finland shall consult the
ditions under which this figure may be
Aland Executive Council before
amended. It can be raised if
making decisions of particular im-
1) the province assumes new duties or
portance to Aland's economy and
undertakes to perform duties of
labour market;
national importance;
- The Aland Executive Council shall
2) the administration of Aland's auton-
negotiate with the State on matters of
omy results in a considerable in-
fishing and agriculture incomes pol-
crease in costs;
icy and on the regulation of these in-
3) costs emerge which were unforeseen
dustries;
when the law was passed.
- The State authorities shall hear the
The claim on State revenues will be re-
Aland Executive Council before
duced in the event that responsibilities
making any decision on import
are transferred from the province to the
protection for agriculture and fishing
national administration.
products;
The content of §48 is completely new,
- The Aland Executive Council must be
and states that extraordinary funding
heard before any State undertakings
will be reintroduced, but according to
are withdrawn from Aland.
an entirely different procedure from
that currently in use. The requirement
Any compilation of statistical data
that such allocations be made for "pur-
about Aland for State use must be car-
poses corresponding to those in main-
ried out in cooperation with the Aland
land Finland" has, been omitted, thus
authorities. Provision has been made
allowing for the Aland Delegation to
for an Administrative Court, common to
decide freely on such matters. The
Aland and mainland Finland, to be
Aland Delegation shall also indepen-
founded in Aland by national legis-
dently decide when extraordinary
lation. The provincial administrative
funding is to be granted. When extraor-
çourt will then cease to exist, and the
dinary funding is deemed necessary,
Aland Executive Council will relinquish
the Government shall be obliged to
its position as the instance of appeal.
include the expense item in the State
budget, and Parliament is bound by the
Aland Delegation's decision. This is
Public finance
something truly unique. Finally, the use
of extraordinary funding does not affect
the Aland Parliament's budgetary
The finances of the province of Aland,
powers according to $44.
particularly the economic relationship
between the province and mainland
§49 stipulates a system of tax credits,
Finland, are treated in the eight para-
stating that if Aland provides more than
graphs of chapter 7. Public interest has
0.50% of the nation's income and prop-
focused on the 'basis of calculation', i.e.
erty tax revenues in a single year, the
the percentage of yearly State revenues
excess shall be credited to the province.
Aland should receive to cover the ex-
§50 gives Aland the right to contract
penses of autonomy.
loans.
The contents of the chapter are as fol-
$51 provides for special subsidies,
lows:
which shall be granted if
6
B
I
a
1
Brando
1
Geta
Saltvik
0
a
Kumlinge
Vardo
Sund
0
0
Finström
Eckerö
8.
Hammar
land
Jomala
I
n
Lumpar-
Sottunga
land
Marie
hamn
Lemland
0
Föglö
4
0
Kokar
Facts about the Åland Islands
Area: 6,739 sq.km.
- land area 1,481 sq.km.
- main island: 977 sq.km.
Number of islands: appr. 6,500
Population: appr. 24,000
Main town: Mariehamn (Maarianhamina)
Language: Swedish
History: 1200-1809: under Swedish rule
1809-1917: under Russian rule as part of Grand Duchy of Finland
1917: Finland becomes independent
1920: Autonomy Act passed
Government: the Åland Parliament (Ålands Landsting), consisting of 30 members, is
elected every four years. In addition, there is a representative of Åland in the Parliament
of Finland. The Åland Executive Council (Alands landskapsstyrelse) is appointed by the
Åland Parliament.
7
1) Aland is affected by disturbances in
cisions regarding radio and television
public-sector finances;
broadcasting will be made in Aland.
2) costs are incurred due to a natural
Coast Guard stations will not be closed
disaster, nuclear accident, oil spill,
without the permission of the Aland
etc.
Executive Council. The many ferries
§847 and 51 outline an "economic
which maintain the vital connections
safety net", which is more detailed than
between the various islands of the
that included in the present Autonomy
province will fly the flag of Aland.
Act.
Merchant vessels whose home port is
in Aland will fly the same flag on the
seven seas if the Aland Parliament so
Effects on the status of the
decrees. Aland representatives will par-
individual Alander
ticipate in decisions on agricultural and
fishing incomes policy. The same is
The individual Alander will be affected
true of import regulations on agricul-
by the practical application of the law,
tural products and fish. A local con-
as decided by the Aland Parliament and
sumer advisory service will finally be
the Aland Executive Council.
established. The Bank of Finland shall
The new Autonomy Act, like the present
not devalue the Finnish mark without
one, remains dependent on the con-
first consulting with Aland. Theoreti-
tinued cultivation of good relations be-
cally, devaluation could take place on
tween the representatives of Aland and
the basis of a proposal from Aland. The
the national-level authorities. Aland
Skiftet boat route shall not be built after
can only enjoy maximal autonomy by
1992 against the decision of the Aland
maintaining contacts and engaging in
Executive Council and the Aland del-
constant discussions with the rest of
egation.
Finland. This is particularly true of situ-
Thus, in short, Aland will acquire a
ations requiring consultancy.
more distinct image and be more
We can list a variety of effects that will
clearly defined as a unilingually
be felt on the practical level. The Alan-
Swedish-speaking area.
der, whose passport expressly states
that he is from Aland, shall receive his
mail from the Aland Post Office, which
Written by Mr. Gunnar Jansson, MP, representa-
will also decide which individual post
tive of the Aland Islands in the Finnish Parliament
offices are to remain in operation. De-
since 1983.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
The Finnish Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
SEPTEMBER 1981
The Rule of Law in Finland
There is hardly any country in the
Historical background
world where more importance was
given to the rule-of-law principle than
The rule-of-law principle is much more
the Grand Duchy of Finland at the be-
a part of Finnish political ideology than
ginning of this century.
in its Western neighbouring countries,
where it has been self evident for such
Finland was then under Russian rule,
a long time. It is upheld not only by the
but enjoyed a large degree of autono-
lawyers, but also by other groups of
my. Finland was governed separately
society. Some of the political parties
from Russia and had its own constitu-
particularly stress their adherence to
tion and laws, which the Russian
this principle.
Emperor, as Finland's Grand Duke and
in this respect a constitutional mon-
The constitutionalist tradition in Fin-
arch, had promised to uphold. Fin-
nish politics can be explained by Fin-
land's constitution (inherited from
land's historical past. During the last
Sweden, to which Finland belonged as
period of Finland's union with Russia,
an integrated part until 1809), Finland's
political life had become quite dy-
codified laws (the Swedish Code of
namic as a result of the parliamentary
1734) and other statutes, and its Scan-
reform in 1906 which introduced gen-
dinavian legal traditions were re-
eral voting rights for all men and wom-
garded as an important safeguard
en. At that time, the constitutionalists
against assimilation with the great
formed an important political force in
Russian empire.
Finland.
As Finland - after a long period of
The leaders of this movement were
good relations with the Russians, ba-
ruthlessly suppressed by the Russians.
sed on Russian respect for Finland's
Some of them were exiled, even to Si-
autonomous rights - saw its home
beria. These men are looked upon as
rule endangered at the turn of the last
Finnish freedom fighters. And the
century, the defence was mainly based
same honour is given to the numerous
on legal principles. Finland was in no
Finnish judges and governmental
position then to use other means of re-
officers who were sentenced to prison
sistance.
or fined because of disobedience to
unconstitutional Russian statutes and
The strong legalistic tradition in Fin-
decrees.
land goes back to these crucial years,
when Finland's future as a nation was
Many of Finland's old statesmen had a
under constant attack. It is still very
legal background. Legal arguments
much alive in Finnish society, although
were very much a part of political dis-
it is less rigidly applied today than in
cussion at that time. The rule-of-law
earlier times.
principle was a uniting idea for the
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
5.1
HELSINKI FINLAND
setting up a supreme administrative
court in Finland as a means of
strengthening the rule-of-law principle
in governmental action. He also
became the Court's first president in
1918, but was soon elected Finland's
first President of the Republic. Senator
P. E. Svinhufvud (1861-1944), who
later was elected President of the
Republic, had been exiled to Siberia
for disobeying unconstitutional Rus-
sian decrees. He is also among the Fin-
nish freedom fighters with a legal
background who in his later political
career served independent Finland in
its highest office.
***
The rule-of-law tradition in Finland
was eloquently expressed by the natio-
nal poet, Johan Ludvig Runeberg
Senator Leo Mechelin (1839-1914)
(1804-1877), whose poems on the
Finnish war of 1808-09 are known by
heart by many Finns and have given
men who liberated Finland from Rus-
moral strength to them to resist out-
sia in 1917-18, which was possible as
side pressure during various periods in
a result of Russia's defeat in the war,
Finland's history. Particularly popular
followed by revolution and decompo-
is his poem "The Governor", which
sition.
describes the attitude of Olof Wibelius
***
(1752-1823), governor of the province
of Savo-Karelia in 1803-1809, when
These Finnish lawyers, who had strug-
told by the Russian conquerors of his
gled with legal means for Finland's au-
province to punish the families of
tonomy and later its independence, be-
those who still carried arms against
came the leaders of independent Fin-
the Russians:
land. The rule-of-law principle contin-
ued to be the pole-star of Finnish pol-
Then stood Wibelius at his judgment board,
itics even during subsequent years.
Where Sweden's lawbook lay.
This was also a consequence of the
He weighty laid his hand upon the book,
Finnish war of independence in 1918,
And, fixed upon it, shone his glances clear:
when the Red revolution had spread to
"Sir General, upon the shield you look
Finland. The other side the victors
Of those you threaten here.
of the civil war saw the revolt as a
"Here lies our weaponless security,
threat not only to Finland's inde-
Our law - our treasure great in joys and needs.
pendence but also to its legal order
Your ruler to revere it did agree;
and democratic constitution.
For his support it pleads.
"Herein for ages the decree has stood:
A few names should be mentioned.
The criminal shall bear his guilt alone;
Senator Leo Mechelin (1839-1914)
No man for crime of wife shall be pursued,
was the leader of the constitutionalist
Nor she for his atone.
movement. He was also a law profes-
"If 'tis a crime to fight for native land,
sor specialised in constitutional and in-
To which all noble hearts reply, 'not so',
ternational law. His version of Fin-
Take vengeance then on men with sword in
land's constitution act, drafted in 1907,
hand,
served as a basis for further constitu-
On babes and women, no!
tional reform work, taken up by K. J.
"You won. The power belongs to you to-day.
Ståhlberg (1865-1952). Ståhlberg was
I am prepared; do with me as you will!
professor of administrative law and
But law preceded me; when I am clay,
served in various governmental offi-
'Twill hold dominion still."
ces. He actively promoted the idea of
The Constitution Act
Finland's Constitution Act was signed
by General Gustav Mannerheim in his
capacity as regent of Finland on July
17, 1919. It is still in force, except for
some minor modifications. The act
contains several articles concerning
the principle of the rule of law.
The general rights and the legal pro-
tection of Finnish citizens are pre-
scribed in Chapter II of the Constitution
Act. Article 5 proclaims that all Finnish
citizens are equal before the law. Arti-
cle 6 states that every citizen shall be
protected by law in matters of life,
honor, personal liberty and property.
The Constitution Act contains the prin-
ciple that the judicial power shall be
exercised by independent courts and
particularly mentions the two highest
tribunals: the Supreme Court of Jus-
tice and the Supreme Administrative
Lex statue
Court. The independence of the courts
is guaranteed by the irremovability of
elected by Parliament. The Chancellor
the judges. The Constitution Act ex-
is a State official until retirement age,
pressly prescribes that no judge shall
the Ombudsman for a period of four
be deprived of his office except by a
years. They both investigate, upon
lawful trial and judgement. Without his
citizens' request or on their own
own consent he cannot be transferred
initiative, into the activities of the
to another post, except in the case of
courts of law and governmental au-
reorganization of the judiciary.
thorities and may, as public
prosecutors, demand the indictment of
The principle of the rule of law is clear-
criminal or negligent officials by a
ly expressed in article 92 of the Con-
court of law or, in minor cases,
stitution Act, which reads as follows:
demand that an official be
"In the exercise of public functions the law must
reprimanded by his superior. The
be strictly followed under penalty of law.
Chancellor and the Ombudsman
"If a provision in a decree is contrary to a funda-
mental or other law, it shall not be applied by a
present their annual reports to
judge or other official."
Parliament, with their observations on
the rule of law. The Chancellor also
The Constitution Act also contains pro-
visions regarding the office of the
serves as the legal expert of the Gov-
ernment and the President of the
Chancellor of Justice, the successor to
Republic.
the Procurator of the Russian period.
According to article 46, he must see
Parliamentary control
that authorities and officials comply
with the law and perform their duties
Another important guarentee of the
SO that no person shall suffer injury to
rule of law in Finland is the control of
his rights.
the constitutionality of the
parliamentary acts exercised by
The Chancellor of Justice was supple-
Parliament itself, particularly by its
mented in 1920 by another surveyor of
Speaker and its Constitutional
the law: the Ombudsman of Justice
Committee. It is obvious that such
(the Parliamentary Ombudsman). Ac-
control is supplemented by similar
cording to article 49 of the Constitution
actions taken by the Government, the
Act he is to supervise the observance
President of the Republic and the
of the laws in the proceedings of
Chancellor or Justice during various
courts and other authorities. The Chan-
stages of the drafting of a statute, prior
cellor is appointed by the President of
to and following the parliamentary
the Republic and the Ombudsman is
process.
But once confirmed by the President of
There are frequent examples in Finnish
the Republic and published in the
parliamentary practice of governmen-
official gazette, a parliamentary act
tal bills passed by Parliament with a
must be obeyed. No court can annul a
majority of 5/6, because they concern
statute passed by Parliament. Only
regulative measures on trade or labour
statutes of a lower degree, ordinances
relations. The present price control
and decrees, can be set aside by the
system in Finland is based upon such
authorities if found contrary to the law.
a temporary statute. The same is true
There are thus some cases where the
for rent control, considered a restric-
Supreme Administrative Court has
tion of constitutionally guaranteed pro-
disregarded administrative ordinances
perty rights.
as being contrary to the Constitution
Act and other acts passed by
The requirement of a qualified major-
Parliament.
ity in Parliament for passing such acts
can be regarded as an important
Supreme Administrative Court, May 13, 1980.
means of protecting the citizens agains
A muncipal court had fined some people who
misuse of legislative power. A majority
had sold pamphlets on the streets without
of 5/6 cannot be attained except in ca-
permission. The decision was upheld by the
ses of emergency or almost universal
Provincial Court. The Supreme Administrative
approval for restrictive measures.
Court, however, quashed the sentence, since the
Constitution Act guarantees the right of Finnish
***
citizens to print and publish written and pictorial
representations without interference. And the
The rule-of-law principle as applied by
Freedom of the Press Act entitles the author or
the Finnish courts of law has been sub-
the publisher to sell or otherwise distribute print-
ject to very little criticism. The stability
ed matter. A muncipal ordinance may not,
of Finnish society has reflected also on
consequently, prescribe that permission must be
the administration of justice. The
obtained for the purpose of selling pamphlets.
Therefore the decision of the municipal court,
impartiality of the judges has never
based on a municipal ordinance containing such
been seriously doubted.
a clause, was set aside by the Supreme Admin-
The extension of the administrative
istrative Court.
court system during recent decades
The lack of court control of parliamen-
has improved the situation of the cit-
tary acts is made up for by the usually
izens in their dealings with govern-
thorough way in which Government
mental and administrative authorities.
bills concerning citizens' rights and
The creation of the provincial courts in
other constitutional matters are
the 1950s and their strengthening due
examined by the Parliament's standing
to more recent reforms contribute to
Constitutional Committee. Experts on
the enforcement of the rule-of-law
constitutional law are frequently heard
principle in the field of governmental
by the Committee. The reasons behind
action. The members of these courts
the Committee's decision are always
do not, however, enjoy the status of
published in the Parliamentary Papers.
judges. This is only the case for the
Supreme Administrative Court, foun-
According to the Parliament Act, a bill
ded in 1981, which is responsible for
can be passed by Parliament even
the whole sphere of the administra-
when contradictory to the Constitution
tion of justice in such important areas
Act and its articles guaranteeing pro-
as taxation, building regulations, social
tection of the citizens' rights. But in
and health administration and local
such cases the bill must be passed by
government.
a qualified majority in Parliament: the
procedure is the same as if the Con-
Written by Dr. Tore Modeen, Professor at the
stitution Act itself were to be changed.
Helsinki University Law School.
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Fin-
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
nish information service abroad, and is intend-
in your country
ed to be used for reference purposes. It may
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
be freely used in preparing articles, speeches,
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki 12
broadcasts, etc. No acknowledgment is neces-
Finland
sary. Please note the date of preparation.
Helsinki 1981. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
The Military Doctrine of Finland
1. Finland's security situation
northern flank as well. We expect that our
northern subregion will fully benefit from
While pursuing a policy of neutrality, Finland
future arms control treaties.
is an active participant in the CSCE (Con-
ference on Security and Co-operation in
The Nordic region has managed to retain
Europe) process. The core aspect of
its traditional stability. Every opportunity
Finland's neutrality is non-membership in
should be taken to strengthen the security
military alliances. This national security
of all states in the Baltic Sea region.
arrangement enables Finland to effective-
The recently concluded START Treaty will
ly protect her own interests and contribute
have a positive effect on global security.
to regional and international stability.
From the Nordic perspective, we must
In September 1990, the Finnish Govern-
note that the Treaty appears to increase
ment announced that the stipulations of
the relative importance of the airborne and
the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty concerning
maritime legs of the nuclear triad.
Germany and those limiting Finland's sov-
This will underline the continued strategic
ereignty had lost their meaning.
significance of the northwestern part of the
As a consequence of the end of division of
Soviet Union and the adjacent northern
Europe and owing to the profound changes
waters - areas in Finland's vicinity.
in the Soviet Union and its republics, Finland
will be negotiating a new contractual basis
2. The tasks of the Finnish
for relations with its eastern neighbour. It is
Defence Forces
our objective to conclude agreements that
will satisfy the interests of the different
The tasks of the Finnish Defence Forces
parties, in accordance with the principles
can be divided into two major categories:
jointly agreed in Europe, and confirm con-
(1) protection of Finland's territorial integ-
tinued good neighbourly relations.
rity and (2) the defence of the country in the
The basic tenets of Finland's geostrategic
event of aggression. As far as various non-
position have remained unaltered, while
military threats - for instance, major disas-
new opportunities and challenges have
ters and uncontrolled mass migration - are
emerged in our security environment.
concerned, the role of the Defence Forces
is limited to supporting other authorities.
The CFE (Conventional Forces in Europe)
Treaty has made a historic contribution to
Naval and air defence have gained in-
eliminating the threat of surprise attack
creased importance in territorial surveil-
and reducing the danger of superpower
lance and protection of territorial integrity.
conflict in Europe. While the CFE Treaty
The Finnish Army, for its part, plays the
focuses on the security problems of Cen-
decisive role in defending the country and
tral Europe, it is in Finland's interest that
repelling aggression.
the Treaty be fully implemented on the
The objective of our military defence is to
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
6
HELSINKI FINLAND
render planned exploitation of Finnish ter-
military and other nationally significant tar-
ritory or attack against Finland prohibitive-
gets.
ly costly in relation to the expected ben-
Our maritime defence seeks to fully utilise
efits. Thus, our military defence aims at
the defensive advantages inherent in the
preventing attacks and keeping the country
out of war.
unique Finnish archipelago. The main el-
ements of this defence are fixed coastal
artillery and effective mine-laying backed
3. Territorial surveillance and
up by mobile units. The focal points of our
protection of territorial integrity
naval operations are the entrance to the
Gulf of Finland and the Aland Islands area.
The Defence Forces bear the main re-
sponsibility for surveillance and protection
Overall defence has been planned in re-
of the country's territorial integrity. The
gard to three main types of attack: (1) a
Frontier Guard and other authorities per-
surprise attack to subjugate the Finnish
form complementary functions in this re-
state, (2) an offensive against a third party
spect.
through Finnish territory, and (3) a large-
scale attack to invade the country. By
The Commander-in-Chief of the Air Force
maintaining military readiness and defens-
is responsible for air surveillance. The in-
ive capability flexibly corresponding to each
formation based on radar systems is comp-
hypothetical threat situation an attempt by
lemented by optical and electronic means.
an aggressor to use our territory for their
Unidentified intruders are identified and
own purposes can be prevented or re-
intercepted by fighter planes in constant
pelled.
readiness.
The Commander-in-Chief of the Navy is
responsible for sea surveillance, involving
5. Development of Finland's
the use of radar, other electronic and opti-
military defences
cal observation equipment as well as under-
The military doctrines of the CSCE States
water surveillance systems. Naval and
are now under critical examination. Finland,
Coast Guard vessels as well as Air Force
for its part, has not felt a need to change its
aircraft are employed in identifying and
strategic thinking. Our doctrine continues
repelling targets.
to fulfil the requirements of our military
security and seems to meet the expecta-
4. Defence of the nation
tions of Finland's neighbours as well. It
gives a clear signal that we are capable of
Finnish military doctrine is non-offensive.
preserving the integrity of Finnish territory.
In the event of serious aggression, how-
Finland is in the process of rationalizing the
ever, the defence of the country will begin
command and administrative system of its
at its very borders.
military. As of the beginning of 1993, the
Territorial defence is the mainstay of Finnish
country will be divided into three regional
military doctrine. The central objective of
commands and, subordinate to them, 12
this mode of defence is to retain control of
military districts. This re-organization will
the most strategically important areas. If
reduce the total number of regional staffs
necessary, we would take advantage of
from 30 to 15.
the depth of our territory, in order to delay
The Air Force command and administrat-
and wear down the aggressor so that con-
ive system will remain essentially un-
ditions for repelling and defeating the
changed. There will continue to exist three
enemy could eventually be achieved.
air force wings, whose areas of responsi-
Enemy units would be engaged in both
bility will coincide with those of the regional
forward combat and full-scale guerilla war-
Army commands. The Navy will have two
fare in the rear, thereby creating the oppor-
operational flotillas.
tunities for obtaining our defence goals.
The Army remains the largest arm of the
The objective of Finland's air defence,
Finnish Defence Forces. Of its 27 wartime
carried out by the Air Force in conjuction
brigades, two armoured and ten jaeger
with anti-aircraft units, is to prevent any
brigades have been highlighted for devel-
eventual aggressor from achieving air su-
opment. The mobility, fire-power and pro-
periority and to protect our most important
tection of these operational units are pres-
2
ently being significantly improved.
keepers in co-operation with other
Starting in the mid-1990s, the Air Force
countries. We are convinced that this ex-
interceptors currently in service will be
pertise can be useful in the CSCE context
phased out. Authorization for replacing
as well.
these interceptors is included in the Finnish
Government's budget proposal for 1992.
8. Support for the CSCE
The radar surveillance system is now be-
ing updated with sophisticated long-range
process
equipment.
Security can be - and has been-improved
Our naval development programme con-
by joint international efforts and agree-
tinues to focus on mine-laying capacity.
ments. Nevertheless, we in Finland be-
We are also improving our Navy's attack-
lieve that a small country has to take care
repelling capability by procuring fast attack
of itself by maintaining a credible defence.
craft and surface-to-surface missiles.
As the only body of its kind bringing together
all States responsible for the continent's
security, the CSCE has a key role to play in
6. Military service and defence
transforming the structure of European
motivation
security. We are committed to participating
Finnish defence is founded on thoroughly
in this transformation.
effective system of obligatory national mili-
tary service. Our defence also relies on the
maintenance of extensive reserves creat-
ed by this system, and on the Finnish
population's traditionally strong motivation
to defend the country.
7. UN service
Finnish soldiers continue to contribute to
UN peacekeeping operations. Since 1957,
Based on the statement by Admiral
more than 27,000 Finns have served in the
Jan Klenberg, Commander-in-Chief of the
UN forces. We have also trained peace-
Finnish Defence Forces, at the Second Seminar
on Military Doctrine, Vienna, 9th October 1991.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
Peacekeeping and Finland
Finland became a member of the United
At the time of writing (October, 1991),
Nations in 1955. In the following year the
Finland has 15 military observers on stand-
first Finnish peacekeeping force - a
by for departure to the Western Sahara
company of over 200 men- was placed at
(MINURSO). They have been at the ready
the UN's disposal in Sinai. This company
since August.
was replaced twice during the period of
Thus 998 (+15) men from Finland are
that mission.
currently involved in UN peacekeeping.
Since that time Finland has been involved
The maximum number of 1986 Finnish
in all the UN's peacekeeping missions,
peacekeepers serving in UN operations at
either by providing troops and/or by help-
one time was in 1989-1990, when Finland
ing finance their presence.
also had a battalion in Namibia.
Decisions on Finnish involvement in peace-
keeping missions are made in response to
official requests from the Secretary-Gen-
Training Finnish peacekeepers
eral. The decision is made by the President
All the personnel supplied by Finland for
of Finland on the basis of submissions by
UN duties have had proper training. Peace-
the Council of State and the Foreign Affairs
keeping training comprises the basic four-
Committee of Parliament.
week period, which has been the standard
practice for earlier peacekeeping missions,
Finland's role in peacekeeping
following which the troops proceed to their
destination.
today
This basic training is given at the UN Train-
Since 1956 a total of 28,000 Finnish troops
ing Centre in Finland, which was set up
have served on UN peacekeeping
under the Ministry of Defence. The training
missions. In 1991 Finland placed the fol-
is divided into two main groups, "general"
lowing personnel at the UN's disposal:
training and "special" training.
- FINBATT/UNDOF
414 men
- FINBATT/UNIFIL
543 men
General training
- military observers
This training covers all the general topics
UNTSO
21 officers
important for all UN peacekeepers, irres-
UNMOGIP
5 officers
pective of their personal duties and lo-
OSGAP
1 officer
cation. They include:
UNIKOM
7 officers
- background information about their
duties
There is also a 7-man Finnish detachment
with UNFICYP in Cyprus.
- information about the area and popu-
lation
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
6
HELSINKI FINLAND
UNTAG 4854
Finnish peacekeepers took part in the successful UNTAG-operation in Namibia in 1989-1990.
Finnish SISU armoured personnel carriers in Rundu, Northwest Namibia.
SUOMI
A young Namibian meets a Finnish captain. A trusting relation between the local inhabitants and the
UN-force is established.
2
- weapon and target practice
Nordic UN courses in Sweden, Norway
- guard training.
and Denmark.
The main emphasis is on guard training,
which covers the basic mechanics and
The Finnish UN Stand-by Force
practice of peacekeeping duties. This in-
cludes exercises for the following types of
Recruiting
situations and duties:
All Finnish UN personnel, men or women,
- setting up a guard position
regardless of rank and appointment, are
- setting up a check point
volunteers. Some eight per cent of them
are regular personnel of the Finnish De-
- making observations and reporting
fence Forces, which are also responsible
- closing off an area
for their recruitment.
- guarding a particular point
The vast majority, over 90 per cent, of the
- protection and escort operations.
Finnish UN soldiers are civilians in the
reserve. The men have already completed
The training needed for the particular task
their compulsory national service of eight
in hand begins in Finland and goes on
or eleven months, and have volunteered
without a break on arrival at the desti-
for UN service. These personnel are di-
nation. At this point what has been learned
in theory can be applied in practice to the
rectly recruited from civilian life by the UN
Training Centre, while the regular force
current situation, and to events as they
members are recruited in close co-oper-
occur.
ations with Finnish General Headquarters.
The personal records of Finnish UN per-
Special training
sonnel are kept in the UN Training Centre.
One important selection criterion for Finn-
ish UN peacekeeping forces has always
Mobilization
been the individual's civilian job and edu-
cation. Modern technical equipment and
It is the duty of the UN Training Centre to
instrumentation calls for a high level of
mobilize the Stand-by Force for training
skill, both from users and maintenance
prior to service with a UN peacekeeping
personnel. Special training concentrates
force or observer mission. Three recruiting
on teaching familiarity with equipment.
rounds are organized annually by the UN
Training Centre. A total of appr. 9,000
applicants respond to advertisements for
Military observers
UN personnel published in Finnish news-
Military observers, who are either regular
papers.
military personnel or reserve officers, are
Roughly 50 per cent of all applicants get
trained separately on special courses not
through the stringent selection process,
included in peacekeeping troop training.
and are then committed to be in readiness
The number of men trained is designed to
for a period of one year. They are then on
meet the following year's needs. The mili-
call and able to arrive for training within
tary observer courses are for all Nordic
seven days.
personnel, and are held at the UN Training
At the UN Training Centre, well over 2,000
Centre in Finland. There are three courses
men or women accepted are assigned to
a year, in winter, spring and autumn. They
various Stand-by Force duties, taking into
last three weeks and teach the basic infor-
consideration their civilian education and
mation and skills needed by military ob-
occupation.
servers. Several theoretical and practical
exercises are also held. The military ob-
The Stand-by Force shown in the picture,
server training is in English, and aims to
with its large number of surplus personnel,
ensure that military observers can cope
can be considered a UN Peacekeeping
with any UN operation.
Force reserve, from which personnel can
be called up and trained as replacements
for Finnish UN battalions abroad.
Nordic UN training
Stand-by Force training is similar to normal
Every year staff officers, logistical officers,
rotation training, but personnel are divided
and military police officers and NCO's (Non
into three parties:
Commissioned Officers) are trained on
3
THE FINNISH UN STAND-BY FORCE 1991
COMMANDER (1)
HQ (2+36)
Staff officers (9)
Military observers (30)
HQ COY
INF COY
LOG
(150)
(136)
COY
(145)
Military police
Movement control (25)
Strenght: 806
- advance party 1 is prepared to leave on
Peacekeeping is considered to be well
the new mission in three days,
suited to Finland's peace-oriented foreign
- advance party 2 is prepared to leave in
policy.
one week and
From the military point of view, there are
- the main body is ready to leave after a
certain essential aspects which deserve
training period of two weeks if necess-
mention:
ary.
Working in a peacekeeping organization
provides valuable experience of operation
during crises. Experience of practical lead-
Equipment and material
ership can be acquired. Experience can be
The Stand-by Force will be suitably
gained in guarding, patrolling, surveillance
equipped for carrying out the duties out-
and sheltering, and observations made on
lined by the Secretary General. The Finn-
the use of transport and other military
ish Defence Forces provide the necessary
equipment.
special equipment, such as weaponry and
At the same time, every UN soldier has the
cross-country vehicles. The total weight of
opportunity to see for himself that Finnish
material is about 1,500 tons and the vol-
national military training bears comparison
ume is some 10,000 cubic metres.
with that of the other countries contributing
troops.
In conclusion
Finland's participation in UN peacekeep-
Written by B. Ahlqvist, Lieutenant Colonel,
ing activities demonstrates her active role
Ministry of Defence, Chief UN-Division, Helsinki
in the work of the United Nations.
Pictures by Arto Laitinen
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
NOVEMBER 1990
Nuclear safety in Finland
By the end of 1989 the Finnish nuclear
much less than one thousandth of the
power plants had accrued a combined
average dose caused by the natural
operating experience of 43 years. All of
radiation in Finland. The occupational
the four units, two of them at the Loviisa
dose limits have never been exceeded
site and the other two at the Olkiluoto
by a worker at the Finnish nuclear power
site, have operated in a reliable manner
plants. The integrated doses of all
and with an excellent safety record.
workers are at both plants among the
lowest in the world.
Operating results
The annual load factor is the indicator
Preparations for the nuclear era
most commonly used for describing the
overall plant performance. It tells the
The good results in operations and safety
ratio of the energy actually produced to
have not been reached by chance but
the theoretical maximum production,
are based on national industrial tra-
i.e. operation at full power throughout
ditions, development of early domestic
the year. The average load factor at the
expert knowledge, and commitment to
Finnish nuclear power plants has every
quality work in all organizations in-
volved.
year since 1983 been higher than 85 %.
Since 1985, Finland has every year re-
Preparation for the nuclear era begun
corded the highest average load factor
more than ten years before the first
among the countries using nuclear
concrete nuclear power plant projects
energy.
were launched.
A few operational disturbances have
The legal framework for the regulation
occurred at each plant, as can be ex-
of the use of nuclear energy was created
pected, but the number and severity of
in 1957 when the Nuclear Energy Act
those incidents have been exceptionally
and the Radiation Protection Act came
low in comparison with nuclear power
into force. One year later, the prede-
plants elsewhere. No event has ever
cessor of the Finnish Centre for Radi-
occurred that would have required the
ation and Nuclear Safety (STUK) was es-
operation of the standby safety systems.
tablished. STUK is the authority respon-
Neither has there been a loss or signifi-
sible for the regulation of radiation and
cant degradation of the safety systems.
nuclear safety.
The releases of radioactive effluents have
The key scientists were trained abroad
been so low that the consequent radi-
in the late 1950's, and a stronghold for
ation doses to the most exposed mem-
training nuclear engineers was gath-
bers of the general public have been
ered around a Triga type research reac-
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
6.3.7.1.
HELSINKI FINLAND
tor which was commissioned in 1962.
are routinely assigned to work exten-
The research reactor was operated in
sive periods in foreign organizations,
close co-operation with the Helsinki
mainly in the USA and the FRG. The
University of Technology which also
utilities frequently send their staff to
provided courses in nuclear engineer-
visit power plants in different countries,
ing.
and they, in turn, receive visits from
abroad.
In the late 1960's, when planning of a
nuclear energy program and discussions
with the nuclear steam supply system
vendors were started, there was already
Construction of the Loviisa
a good amount of nuclear expertise both
plant
within the utility and the regulatory
organizations. At the same time the
The first contract on a nuclear power
nuclear energy research was quickly
plant was signed in 1969 with Atom-
expanded, and the research activities
energoexport (AEE) of the USSR. The
were assigned to the different labora-
plant, consisting of two 465 MW units,
tories of the Technical Research Centre
was built at Loviisa. The basis for the
of Finland (VTT).
station is the VVER plant constructed in
Novo Voronesh. However, it was re-
quired by Finnish authorities that the
Learning from the worldwide
Loviisa plant had to meet the US Gen-
experience
eral Design Criteria written in the Code
of Federal Regulations, Title 10, Part 50,
Appendix A. This meant that the plant
The active efforts to learn as much as
had to be equipped with an Emergency
possible from the experience in other
Core Cooling System and a Reactor Con-
countries are continuing. Finland has
tainment Building. It also meant that
established intensive international co-
some of the plant lay-out had to be re-
operation both through multinational
designed to provide adequate physical
organizations and on a bilateral basis.
separation of the redundant safety sup-
The work within the International Atomic
port systems.
Energy Agency (IAEA) framework in-
The instrumentation and control sys-
volves participation in the Incident Re-
tems were not part of the main contract
porting System, contribution to the
but were separately contracted to
development of the safety codes and
Siemens of the FRG. Know-how and
guides, and assignment of experts to
missions such as Operational Safety
computer programs for the containment
design and for the analysis of accidents,
Review Team (OSART) visits to nuclear
postulated as the design basis, were
power plants in different countries.
acquired from the USA. Responsibility
In the nuclear safety research field the
for the electrical systems and plant con-
most important contacts are through
struction was kept by the utility itself, as
the OECD/NEA committees and the
well as overall coordination of the proj-
working groups under those committees.
ect.
Regional co-operation between the
Nordic countries has long traditions:
During the Loviisa project it was learned
common research programs in five year
that the VVER design has significant
safety merits of its own. The reactor
periods have been planned and im-
core is stable and easy to operate, and
plemented for twenty years. Some ex-
the nuclear fuel is not strained as much
perimental projects are carried out
as in the western light water reactors.
together with research institutes in the
USSR and in the SEV countries.
The plant behaviour is quiet, and the
transients caused by equipment mal-
The leading regulatory officials of the
function are mild. The main reason for
OECD countries exchange views and
this is the high ratio of cooling water
experience in meetings held twice a
mass to the reactor power. The large
year. Finland has participated in those
amount of water also provides a passive
meetings since the 1970s. In addition,
buffer that would even permit complete
there is continuous co-operation be-
loss of active safety systems for several
tween the regulators within the IAEA
hours, without challenging the integrity
and the EC.
of the nuclear fuel in the reactor core.
The international co-operation is not
The knowledge gained since the Loviisa
limited to short term meetings. The
plant startup, indicates that some parts
regulatory and the research personnel
of the plant could have a bette design.
2
INVOICE
us c S ATOME SR
VOIMA
voimalaitos
RGOEXPORT
MOSCOW
14.9,
10 10N 001
Pict
of the Loviisa nuclear power plant reactor room.
The main concern is the radiation
Thanks to these early actions the situa-
embrittlement of the reactor pressure
tion is under control, in contrast to some
vessel. At Loviisa it was observed
other VVER plants. However, in the long
already in 1980 that this phenomenon
term this phenomenon may limit the
proceeds faster than predicted by the
safe operating age of the plant.
previous research results. Several re-
In conclusion, the VVER plant, as imple-
medial actions were promptly taken to
limit the embrittlement rate and the
mented in Loviisa, is basically a healthy
design from the safety point of view.
probability of events where the pressure
vessel integrity could be endangered.
A good design is only one part of safety.
3
terthease
1tonni
Picture of the Olkiluoto nuclear power plant reactor room.
4
mm
5
Another point of equal importance is the
guides and standards. However, the
high quality of components that the plant
regulatory authorities thought that a
is composed of.
high level of safety and reliability in
As part of the Loviisa main contract, the
the nuclear power plant operation is
even more important for a small
representatives of the utility and the
regulatory body had access to the fac-
country than for a country like the USA.
Consequently, Finland aimed at more
tories supplying the main components.
stringent requirements of its own. A
Thus it was possible to verify the quality
of the components before they were
program was started in the early 1970's
shipped to the construction site. Addi-
for writing domestic regulatory guides,
called YVL guides. Ten years later these
tional quality control was done on site
before and after the installation.
guides covered quite well all areas
relevant for safety. Plant construction,
Some of the most sophisticated equip-
commissioning and early operation
ment, such as the in-core instrumenta-
had taken place in parallel with the YVL
tion, process computer, safety valves
guide development, and a good com-
and containment isolation valves were
pliance with the requirements had been
purchased from well known western
reached.
suppliers.
Since the very beginning the regulatory
work by STUK has emphasized inspec-
tions down to the component level. A
Construction of TVO plant
component inspection starts from a
Construction of the second nuclear
detailed review of the design plan and
power station, TVO, at Olkiluoto was less
ends with the approval of the completed
demanding than the Loviisa project, both
installation. The component inspections
for the utility and the regulatory organ-
have forced the utilities to conduct care-
isations. The plant vendor, Asea Atom,
ful supervision of their suppliers, and
had adopted from the very beginning
have no doubt contributed to the quality
the US regulations as the basis of its
and reliability of the equipment.
safety design. In addition, the designers
Another characteristic of the work of
interpreted the regulations in a more
STUK is combination of the theoretical
conservative manner than the US vend-
and the practical knowledge. The same
ors, and they added a fair safety margin
persons who review the design calcula-
to the minimum level required.
tions and the safety analysis also con-
The TVO plant, consisting of two 710
duct site inspections and examine the
MW units, was based on an evolution-
knowledge of the plant operators. This
ary development of Asea Atom BWR de-
ensures that the relevant safety issues
sign. It can be said to represent the fourth
are paid attention to, and that the utility
generation of plants, where each gen-
and the regulatory personnel speak the
eration is a step towards more maturity
same language.
and safety.
The TVO plant supply was a turn-key
project. However, from the beginning of
Nuclear safety research
the construction the utility had the goal
VTT, the research organization, has
of developing a strong in-house exper-
served the needs of the utility and the
tise, in order to be able to assume full re-
regulatory body equally.
sponsibility for all plant operations. This
goal had a beneficial side effect: all
Valuable support in the quality control,
supplies were supervised in a detailed
especially in the Loviisa project, was
manner by the utility personnel.
provided by the Metal Laboratory of
VTT. It made material research and
developed the domestic capability for
nondestructive examinations.
Nuclear regulation
STUK, the nuclear regulatory body, was
The Electrical Laboratory of VTT made
developed to its current size during the
an important contribution to the verifi-
first half of the 1970's. The personnel
cation of instrument and control sys-
turnover has been small and today STUK
tems quality. It also investigated the
has a strong, experienced staff.
operational features of those systems
before their actual commissioning.
Many of the detailed requirements for
Knowledge of the reliability and risk
the nuclear power plant projects were
assessment methods was created within
initially based on the US regulatory
the laboratory.
6
In the systems level inspections STUK
Reliable maintenance work and fast
has received support from the Nuclear
repairs are ensured by the generous
Engineering Laboratory of VTT. The lab-
spare parts policy. The stocks of spare
oratory has on-the-job trained the senior
parts contain complete replacement sets
reactor physicists in the country and has
for practically all vital equipment of the
developed computer codes for reactor
plants.
physics calculations for each of the Finn-
ish reactors. In addition, the laboratory
The procedures for operations and main-
tenance have been improved and new
has independently conducted thermo-
hydraulic calculations that are an essen-
procedures have been established to
tial part of the in-depth accident analy-
utilize the experience gained in the
sis. This has facilitated the assessment
practical work. Also, a new generation
of similar analyses required from the
of emergency operating procedures has
plant vendors. In recent years the duties
been developed. These new procedures
of VTT have turned towards developing
ensure correct actions even in compli-
the calculatory tools while the actual
cated situations where the diagnosis of
calculations are done by the experts
the event is not immediately evident to
within the utility and the regulatory
the operating staff.
organisations.
Experience has shown that the reason
for an industrial accident is often a
human error. The administrative rules
Maintenance of the safety level
and procedures have been carefully
during operations
studied and improved to ensure correct
and timely communications between
the operating staff, and to provide en-
A successful construction project is not
hanced control over the actual plant
enough to ensure good operating re-
states.
sults. During the operating stage con-
tinuous efforts are needed to maintain
The outage planning and management
and improve the reliability of plant equip-
is an area where the Finnish plants are
ment, the knowledge and skills of plant
widely recognized as world leaders. Well
personnel, and the methods used to plan,
coordinated work during the mainten-
conduct and control the work.
ance outage is crucial for future safe and
reliable operation, and it also minimizes
At both of the Finnish nuclear power
the personnel radiation exposures.
plants the pursuit of excellence is driven
by the active management policy that
Personnel training is another key el-
encourages initiatives and proposals on
ement of succes. The staff typically
potential improvements. The safety auth-
spends two weeks each year in continu-
orities contribute to the development by
ing training. The majority of the invest-
promoting research programmes, and
ments have been made for training of
by reguiring a more advanced safety
the control room operators. Each plant
approach wherever it is found useful
has on site a simulator which is a full-
and reasonable.
scale replica of the main control room,
and can be used to practis operations in
One way of upgrading the safety level is
both normal and anomalous plant con-
to construct new safety systems and to
ditions.
replace the old systems with new and
better. Major retrofitting projects, cost-
ing tens of millions of US dollars, have
Preparedness for future
been carried out at each plant. The Lovii-
projects
sa plant especially is today quite
different from the original design that
A preparedness to start new nuclear
was commissioned in 1977. Minor
power plant projects has been main-
modifications have also been frequent:
tained throughout the 1980s, both by
their annual number is typically more
the utilities and the safety authorities.
than one hundred per plant.
A complete revision of the Nuclear En-
Reliability statistics for individual com-
ergy Act was carried out in 1987. It was
ponents have been collected during
based on the experience gained, and
normal operation and during tests of the
gave a more formal status to the prac-
standby safety systems. The components
tices implemented until then through
with less than satisfactory performance
separate construction permits and op-
have been replaced by new parts that
erating licenses.
have shown better results in similar
The regulations have been updated to
conditions.
accommodate the developments in the
7
state-of-the-art in the nuclear safety field.
ects only. Later on it was realized that
The requirements concerning the relia-
many of the ideas could be implemented
bility of the safety functions have been
also at the old plants. Retrofits ensuring
upgraded and the limits for radioactive
good compliance with the new rules
effluent releases have been tightened.
have already been accomplished at the
In 1982, STUK took a position that the
TVO plants. At Loviisa, the containment
time was ripe for requiring protection
type is not optimal for severe accidents,
against severe core damage. Until that
and it will take further work to prove that
time a core meltdown accident had been
the environmental consequences would
regarded as highly improbable, and it
be small even after a potential core
meltdown accident.
had been left outside the design basis.
However, the research which had been
The utilities have kept in touch with the
started worldwide in the 1970s, and in-
potential nuclear power plant sup-
tensified after the TMI accident in 1979,
pliers, and in co-operation with them
had shown that there is a good chance
have designed plant versions that are
of preventing major offsite releases even
appropriate to the special Finnish con-
during such an event. The prerequisite
ditions. If a new project is ever started,
is that the containment is made strong
the safety arrangements of the plant
enough, and the phenomena specific to
will be at state-of-the-art level.
the core meltdown are properly ad-
dressed already in the design phase.
Initially it was intended that the new re-
Written by Mr. Jukka Laaksonen, Director of the
Department of Nuclear Safety, Finnish Centre of
quirements would concern future proj-
Radiation and Nuclear Safety
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Finnish
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
information service abroad and is intended to be
in your country
used for reference purposes. It may be frely used
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts, etc.
Kanavakatu 3 C 00160 Helsinki
No acknowledgment is ne cessary. Please note the
Finland
date of reparation.
Helsinki 1990. The Finnish Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
NOVEMBER 1990
Environmental radiation monitoring in Finland
The atmospheric testing of nuclear
borne radioactive material and evalu-
weapons in the 1950s and 1960s led to
ating the dispersion. In addition, the FMI
the organization of a nationwide radi-
operates 12 stations that measure con-
ation monitoring system in Finland. An
tinuously airborne radioactivity collected
extensive network for monitoring exter-
on filter paper. These stations trigger an
nal radiation was set up during the series
alarm in response to an increase in air-
of large-scale nuclear tests carried out
borne radioactivity. The sensitivity is
by the Soviet Union at the Novaya Zemlja
much better than that required to acti-
test site in 1961-62. Since then the net-
vate the external radiation network.
work has been operated on essentially
- The Finnish Centre for Radiation and
the same basis. Sampling and analysis
of environmental radioactivity has also
Nuclear Safety (STUK) is the central
been in operation since the 1960s.
authority and research institute of the
radiological monitoring organization. It
The organization for national radiation
carries out a wide range of environ-
monitoring involves several authorities
mental measurements, sampling and
and institutes:
laboratory analyses. In an emergency
the Centre obtains all the results from
- The Ministry of the Interior operates a
the other authorities and institutes, and
net of 351 external radiation monitoring
stations, in most cases located at the
recommends appropriate protective
measures.
municipal fire stations. At about 60
stations, located at the district alarm
In 1992 at the latest, the Ministry of the
centres, the dose rate is measured con-
Interior, STUK and the FMI will each
tinuously and displayed on a control
have remote data acquisition for at least
panel.
some of their monitoring stations. The
- The Defence Forces supplement the
radiation situation in the whole country
external radiation net with 94 continu-
can then be presented in real time at the
ously operating stations. Units of the Air
central locations. Alerting levels are al-
Force collect dust samples from the upper
ready in use, and each authority partici-
atmosphere when called upon.
pating in the national monitoring must
specify in its own guides and manuals
- The Finnish Meteorological Institute
the appropriate dose-rate levels or other
(FMI) is an essential partner in the radio-
reference criteria that are required to
logical emergency preparedness organ-
alert their own station net and to inform
isation, forecasting the transport of wind-
other authorities (cf. Table 1).
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
6.3.7.2.
HELSINKI FINLAND
Table 1. Reporting levels of the national radiation monitoring system.
Organization
Reporting level
The Ministry of the Interior
0.7 uSv/h
and the Defence Forces
external radiation
FMI
1 Bg/m3 increase in
aerosol radioactivity
STUK
Any unusual observation of
environmental radioactivity
The Seismological Institute of
All nuclear explosions and all
the University of Helsinki
earthquakes near nuclear plants
The net of stations measuring radioac-
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26°
27
29
30
31°
32
33
tivity in air is shown in Figure 1. There
KEVO (FMI)
are two main types of stations, aerosol
monitoring stations
(
)
with continu-
63
MUDDUSJÄRVI (STUK)
ous measuring and alarm capability, and
aerosol sampling stations
(
) that col-
68
lect samples on filter paper or charcoal
cartridges for analysis in the laboratory.
The environmental sampling and
SODANKYLA (FMI)
67"
measurement programme includes rain
67
water, river and lake water, sea water,
KARHUTUNTURI (STUK)
bottom sediments, fish and certain al-
gae. The radioactivity of liquid and dried
ROVANIEMI (STUK, FMI)
66
milk has been controlled for the last 30
years. The condition of grain, beef, pork,
vegetables and fruits is also studied.
65"
65
Gamma spectrometry is the most im-
portant method of assessing the radio-
activity in samples. Almost all radionu-
KAJAANI (FMI)
64
clides, or radioactive substances, emit
gamma radiation and can therefore be
determined from the spectrum. Some-
63'
VAASA (FMI)
VIITASAARI (STUK)
63
times the gamma spectrum may be very
complex; air samples collected during
JOENSUU (FMI)
the first days of the Chernobyl fall-out
62
contained about 40 different radionu-
TIKKAKOSKI (FMI)
clides.
TAMPERE (DF)
The amounts of radioactive substances
61"
OLKILUOTO (STUK)
in the human body are measured using
LAPPEENRANTA (FMI)
whole-body counters. STUK has two
NURMIJARVI (STUK, FMI)
such instruments; one is installed in a
LOVIISA (STUK)
special measurement vehicle (Figure 2).
MAARIANHAMINA (FMI)2
HELSINKI (STUK, FMI)
101
21"
22
24"
25
28"
29°
30'
Nationwide monitoring
STUK = FINNISH CENTRE
AEROSOL SAMPLING STATION
FOR RADIATION AND
NUCLEAR SAFETY
Fortunately, the large-scale testing of
CONTINUOUS AEROSOL MEASURING
STATION (alert at 1 Bq/m³)
nuclear weapons in the atmosphere
FMI
= FINNISH METEORO-
LOGICAL INSTITUTE
ended in 1963, when the USSR, the USA
and the UK signed the Moscow Test Ban
DF
= DEFENCE FORCES
Treaty, prohibiting tests in the atmos-
phere, in outer space and under water.
The concentrations of cesium 137, stron-
Figure 1. Net of stations measuring radioactivity in air.
2
Figure 2. Whole-body counter installed in a measurement vehicle.
tium 90 and other artificial radionuclides
Nuclear testing continues underground.
in the atmosphere began to decrease.
Occasionally these tests result in leaking
The fall-out on the ground decreased
craters, and volatile radioactive sub-
much more slowly. The highest concen-
stances can be carried across national
trations in foodstuffs and man were
borders. The origin of such radioactive
reached in 1964-65. Furthermore, some
debris can often be accurately traced to
dust from bombs in the megaton yield
a specific explosion. The ratio in which
range had risen to high altitudes, into
radionuclides occur reveals the age of
the stratosphere, and downward stre-
the debris. This information can then be
ams caused a new increase in the fall-
combined with meteorological trajecto-
out, each spring in particular.
ries and seismological observations. The
France and the People's Republic of China
Seismological Institute of the University
never joined the Moscow Treaty but
of Helsinki is part of the radiological
started their own tests in the middle of
monitoring system and has organized
the 1960s. China conducted altogether
its measurements to serve radiological
20 atmospheric tests in the Lop Nor
purposes.
desert, the last one in October 1980.
Leaks from underground tests in the
France conducted its tests in the South-
USSR have been detected at least in
ern hemisphere.
1966, 1967 and recently from a test at the
Improved aerosol monitoring equipment
Novaya Zemlja site in 1987. In 1968-69
enabled STUK to detect radioactivity
rain water contained tungsten 181, an
unusual radionuclide which was attrib-
from all the Chinese tests. The largest
uted to a leak from a US test in Nevada.
radioactivity concentrations were gener-
ally caused by the small tests. The debris
Despite efforts, some observations of
was transported in the atmosphere, to
artificial radioactivity in air remain of
reach Finland the long way around the
unknown origin. With the present sensi-
globe in 10-15 days. The stratospheric
tive methods of analysis this happens
debris from the large tests was seen only
on the average once a year. Especially
the next spring.
iodine 131 is often involved, and it can
3
iodine 131 is often involved, and it can
survey was started in full scale at each
come from many sources, such as local
site one year before the fuel loading of
hospitals, research institutes and, of
the first reactor. In order to evaluate the
course, nuclear reactors. Even if there is
dose to humans, the sampling includes
no significant health effect attached, the
foodstuffs, water and aerosols. In addi-
detection of these events is important
tion, some indicator organisms are
from a preparedness viewpoint. Inter-
sampled, which are known to take up
national collaboration and personal con-
radiological substances from the terres-
tacts are also invaluable in establishing
trial or aquatic environment.
the extent of contamination.
The routine monitoring has revealed very
The Chernobyl accident illustrated the
few measuring results attributable to
importance of maintaining a well-func-
releases from the power stations. The
tioning environmental monitoring sys-
airborne releases are discharged trough
tem and competent personnel. The ex-
a high stack, and the aquatic releases are
tensive environmental contamination is
diluted by the sea water coolant. Cobolt
a subject of another article in "Finnish
60, manganese 54 and silver 110m are
Features" (H. Arvela).
regularly measured in sedimenting
A special case of radiological emergency
material and in aquatic indicator organ-
isms. These radionuclides are activation
is the re-entry of a nuclear powered
sattellite into the atmosphere. Since the
products formed in the reactor, and they
first such accident, which occured over
do not enter food chains to any signifi-
cant extent.
sparsely populated regions of Canada in
1978, there have been two occasions on
The environmental monitoring pro-
which the Finnish authorities have es-
gramme for the nuclear power stations
tablished alerts, in 1983 and 1988. Acci-
ensures that the assumptions used in
dental re-entry of a nuclear reactor or a
setting the release guidelines are valid,
radioisotope type generator (RTG) can
i.e. that there are no unexpected dose
cause a wide dispersion of radioactive
pathways. The operator is responsible
items ranging from large pieces to par-
for the implementation of the monitor-
ticles of submillimeter size. The poten-
ing programme, and the results are
tial radiation hazard requires special
reported to the regulatory authority on a
search strategies and equipment. The
quarterly basis. The power companies
Geological Survey of Finland has an
and the surveillance department of STUK
aircraft equipped with large, sensitive
have contracted for most of the environ-
gamma detectors, normally used for
mental sample analyses.
aerial radiological surveying.
References
Monitoring nuclear power
Blomqvist L. and Paakkola O. An extensive, nation-
plants
ally co-ordinated system of environmental moni-
toring stations and laboratories. In: Emergency
Finland has four nuclear power plants,
Planning in Case of Nuclear Accident Technical
Aspects. Paris:OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, 1989.
two 440 MW pressurized water reactor
units at Loviisa and two 710 MW boiling-
Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety.
water reactors at Olkiluoto. They went
Programmes for monitoring radioactivity in the
environment of nuclear power plants. YVL-Guide
into operation in 1977-80. An extensive
7.7. Helsinki, 1982.
radiological environmental surveillance
programme is required for both stations.
Written by Mr. Leif Blomqvist, M.Sc.Eng., Finnish
To provide relevant reference data, the
Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety, Helsinki.
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of Finnish
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
information service abroad, and is intended to be
in your country
used for reference purposes. It may be freely used
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts, etc.
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
No acknowledgment is necessary. Please note
Finland
the date of preparation.
Helsinki 1990. The Finnish Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
NOVEMBER 1990
Occupational exposure control in Finland
The Decision of the Ministry of Social
same place may in some cases share a
Affairs and Health (594/68) requires that
dosimeter.
radiation doses are monitored and
special health control is arranged for
STUK publishes guides to monitoring
people who are exposed to radiation in
personal doses. 1, 2 The guides describe
their work. The Decision is in accordance
the objects and give detailed information
with the Agreement 115 of the
on how to arrange the monitoring.
International Labour Organization (ILO).
The annual dose limit for the whole body
in the radiation work is 50 mSv. In
A licence (safety licence) is needed for
the use of radiation. The licence is
addition, specific limits3, are defined for
issued by the regulatory body, the
certain organs. The dose during a
Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear
quarter of a year must be less than half of
the annual limit.
Safety (STUK). The organization using
radiation must present the
The radiation legislation will be reformed
arrangements for dose measurement.
soon. The regulations will cover e.g.
A safety officer is named, who takes
medical examination of radiation
care of monitoring and registration of
workers, dose register and the duty to
personal doses.
report doses from radiation work in a
In accordance with the Decision of the
foreign country. The dose limits will be
Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, the
prescribed separately in the government
order.
occupational exposure must be
monitored continuously if the work
takes place under circumstances where
the dose may exceed one third of the
annual dose limit. Such work may be
External radiation exposure
e.g. medical X-ray examination,
The users of the radiation can themselves
radiotherapy, industrial radiography and
perform dose measurements in a manner
work in the controlled area of nuclear
approved by STUK or they can order
power plants (dose rate above 8 µSv/h).
service from STUK. The administrative
Continuous dose monitoring is not
data and dose data are transferred to
necessary in a routine dental X-ray
STUK's register. The operators of nuclear
examination and in a medical X-ray
power plants measure the doses of their
examination when the operator of the
own workers whereas STUK gives service
equipment is in the control room during
for other users of radiation. Nuclear
exposure. Persons who work alternately
power plants report monthly doses to
with others for short periods in the
STUK.
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
6.3.7.3.
HELSINKI FINLAND
**
The external radiation exposure is measured by personal dosimeter worn on the chest.
2
The monitoring service of STUK sends
or significantly higher than the
the dosimeters by post to the users. The
corresponding dose of the other persons
external radiation dosimeter is a film
in the same work, STUK will send to the
cartridge developed at STUK. A
safety officer an inquiry about working
thermoluminescent pellet (LiF) may be
conditions.
attached to the reverse side of the film;
it is sensitive to high energy gamma
The background radiation dose is
radiation. The ring dosimeter is a LiF
subtracted from the dose measured. The
pellet hermetically sealed inside a plastic
correction is done in each site by
cover. Separate thermoluminescent
exposing some dosimeters to
dosimeters and albedo neutron
background radiation only. The
dosimeters are used for special
laboratory background is used, if no site-
specific measurements are available.
purposes.
The monitoring period in the service of
If the measured individual dose is high
STUK is three months and the recording
compared to the earlier measurements
level is 0.3 mSv.
METHODS OF THE MONITORING SERVICE IN STUK
Dosimeter
- film:
Kodak Personal Monitoring Film Type 2
- TL-pellet: LiF, attached to the reverse side of the film under the open
field when needed
- filters:
- open field (no filtration)
- 1 mm AI (270 mg/cm²)
- 1 mm lead-tin -alloy (930 mg/cm²)
- measuring ranges
gamma
beta
- energy:
20-2000 keV
400 keV - 1.7 MeV
- dose (film)
0.1-1000 mSv
0.3-1000 mSv
- dose (TL)
0.01-2000 mSv
Dose assessment
- The background radiation is subtracted
- Calibration in the standard laboratory of STUK
- 80 kV X-rays, mean energy 35 keV
- 60 Co -rays, mean energy 1250 keV
- beta rays, 90 Sr
- calibration is made to all film batches
- special calibrations can be done for other types of radiation
- TL -pellets are calibrated using 60Co- radiation and the individual
sensitivity of each pellet is determined
- Quality assurance
- correction for the developing process can be done by the control
films that were in the same process as the films exposed to radiation
- stability of the TLD reader is monitored daily
- individual sensitivity of TL pellets is monitored
3
The dose received in a foreign country is
Internal radiation exposure
registered by STUK on the basis of a
written declaration. The Finnish and
Swedish authorities have made an
Internal exposure originates from the
agreement to report the doses
radioactive materials inside the body.
automatically to each other.
Radioactive materials enter the body of
a worker through contaminated
breathing air, tools or laboratory room
Dose measurement in nuclear
surfaces. If the working methods have
power plants
been chosen correctly and regular
contamination measurements are
Nuclear power plants measure the
carried out in the working areas, the
personal doses, using their own systems
determination of radioactive materials
approved by STUK. They use
inside the body is necessary only in
thermoluminescense dosimeters that
special cases. The obligation to conduct
have four TL pellets. The monitoring
monitoring of internal radiation is laid
period is one month and recording level
down in the safety licence or in the
0.1 mSv. In addition, the computerized
inspection protocol on a case by case
real-time measuring system, including
basis. The internal contamination can
electronic pocket dosimeters and a
be measured directly or indirectly from
reader, gives reports e.g. on daily doses
the body fluids or excreta. A whole-body
or task-specific doses; the reporting
counter or gamma camera is used to
period can be freely selected. Workers
estimate the activity of radioactive
are identified by an ID-number at the
materials inside the body. In nuclear
entrance to the controlled zone or the
power plants surface contamination is
working area. In the Olkiluoto plant
measured by walk-though monitors.
about 330 and in the Loviisa plant about
These monitors can also to some extent
100 electronic dosimeters are in use.
uncover internal contamination.
Collective occupational doses in Finland 1982 - 1989
(manSv)
5
4
3
2
1
o
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
Field of activity
Medical
Industry
Research
Nuclear power
4
Average occupational doses in Finland 1982 - 1989
(mSv)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
Fleld of activity
Medical
Industry
Research
Nuclear power
Occupational lifetime doses in Finland
Number of persons
5000
3827
4000
3000
2000
1675
1598
1632
1000
713
317
94 21 2
19
138 9
82 11 2 29
0
0.1-0.49
0.5-4.9
5.0-49
50 -
Dose (mSv)
Medical
Industry
Research
Nuclear power
5
The whole-body counter of STUK. Measuring time is typically 30 minutes and the detectors slide
longitudinally over the person within this time.
STUK has a mobile system and a fixed
STUK demands the use of biological
measuring laboratory for internal
dosimetry, i.e. chromosome analysis.
contamination measurements. The
The dose evaluated in this way
minimum detectable activity is typically
represents cumulative exposure during
about 50-100 Bq. The doses from
several years. The detection limit in
internal contamination are usually very
chromosome analysis is about 100 mSv.
small compared with the external doses.
The internal doses are typically below
0.1 mSv.
Registration of doses
The annual intake, the amount of
The dose monitoring database of STUK
radioactive material entering the body
is the national register of the personal
during one year, is not allowed to
doses of occupationally exposed
exceed certain limits. The nuclide-
persons. The database supports the
specific limits for intake, ALI values
dosimetry service in functions such as
(Annual Limit on Intake), have been
periodic dispatch and dose calculation.
calculated by the International
The data is used for inspections and for
Commission on Radiological Protection,
the identification of the key areas in
(ICRP Publication 30 and its
radiation protection. The database is
supplements). These intake limits have
also suitable for epidemiological studies.
been derived from the primary dose
limits.
The database contains occupational
radiation doses since 1964. All doses
If it is suspected that a person has
that have exceeded the recording
received an exceptionally large dose,
threshold are registered. The dose data
6
from the nuclear power plants are
three persons had a lifetime dose above
transferred to STUK through the
100 mSv.
common data network or through a
modem connection. The power
The registered doses are the readings of
companies have direct access to a
the dosimeters representing the dose
subregister, which is updated once a
equivalent in a certain point of the body.
month.
The measuring procedure gives an
upper limit for the effective dose
In 1989 a collective dose of 6.7 manSv
equivalent.
was registered. The largest part, 4.8
manSv, came from the nuclear power
At the beginning of 1990 detailed work
plants; temporary workers received
codes were introduced. They allow a
more accurate estimation of the effective
about 85 % of the collective dose. The
largest individual and average doses
dose equivalent. The detailed
were recorded among the radiologists,
classification of work types makes it
nurses and assistants in the
possible to have statistical information
interventional radiology. X-ray and
on exposures in different occupational
gamma radiography were the
groups. This provides an effective means
dominating sources of radiation in
to control doses in various occupational
industry. More than one half of the
groups and to compare occupational
monitored persons had no doses above
hygiene between various sites.
the recording limit. In March 1990 thirty
RADIATION MONITORING STATISTICS 1989
Number of monitored persons
Workers
Employers
- Medicine
6238
718
- Industry
1132
157
- Research
1310
142
- Nuclear power
3404
440
Total
12053
1457
Personal doses above the recording level
Workers
Employers
Recording
Monitoring
limit (mSv)
period (month)
- Medicine
548
152
0.3
3
- Industry
104
30
0.3
3
- Research
94
27
0.3
3
- Nuclear power 1992
192
0.1
1
Total
2738
401
Collective dose (manSv)
- Medicine
1.48
- Industry
0.12
- Research
0.25
- Nuclear power
4.81
Total
6.66
7
References
4 Annals of the ICRP, ICRP Publication 30,
1 Monitoring of personal radiation doses
Limits for Intakes. of Radionuclides by
Workers and its supplements.
SS 5.5, Government Printing Centre,
Helsinki 1990.
5 Annals of the ICRP, ICRP Publication 51.
Vol 17, No 2/3, 1987, Data For Use in
2 Monitoring and reporting of personal
radiation doses YVL 7.10 Government
Protection Against External Radiation.
Printing Centre (in Finnish).
3 Nuclear energy and radiation protection.
Written by Mr. Hannu Hyvönen, M. Sc., the Finnish
Nuclear liability. Law series,
Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety,
Government Printing Centre 1988 (in
Department of Inspection and Metrology, Helsinki
Finnish).
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet it produced as part of the Fin-
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
nish information service abroad, and is intend-
in your country
ed to be used for reference purposes. It may
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
be frssly used in preparing articles, speeches,
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
broadcasts, etc. No acknowledgment is neces-
Finland
sary. Please note the date of preparation.
Helsinki 1990. The Finnish Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
NOVEMBER 1990
Chernobyl and Finland
A nuclear accident occurred at Cherno-
graphite. Vast amounts of radioactive
byl in the Ukraine in the western USSR
substances were released into the air
on 26 April 1986. The consequences of a
over a period of ten days.
large nuclear accident, analyzed theor-
etically, were suddenly reality. As a re-
sult of the numerous environmental
Transport of radioactive
studies, we have learned much about
how a single, extreme accident may
substances to Finland
change the radiation environment
At the time of the accident, surface winds
where we live.
at the Chernobyl site were weak and
variable in direction. However, at the
altitude of 1500 m the winds were 8-10
Reactor accident at Chernobyl
m/s from the south-east. The initial ex-
plosion and heat from the fire carried
The reactors of the Chernobyl nuclear
some of the radioactive materials to this
power station are graphite-moderated,
height, and then they were transported
water-cooled systems known as RBMK-
towards Finland and Sweden. A portion
1000. The electrical power of each unit is
of this plume at lower altitude was di-
1000 MW. The accident happened while
rected to Poland and Denmark. The arri-
a test was being carried out on a turbine
val of radioactive material was first ob-
generator during a normal scheduled
served on the evening of 27 April in
shutdown of unit four. During the test,
Kajaani in central Finland, where rain
safety rules were not followed and con-
showers increased the radioactive de-
sequently, the power of the reactor in-
position. Later studies of continuously
creased rapidly. Attempts to stop the
recording radiation monitors showed
chain reaction were too late. Energy
that the cloud arrived on the south-
released in the fuel by the power excur-
western coast of Finland at noon on 27
sion ruptured part of the core into mi-
April.
nute pieces. Small, hot fuel particles
caused a steam explosion.
The weather in Europe changed on the
day of the accident; 20 hours after the
The heavy cover plate of the reactor was
event the emission was no more to-
lifted, cutting all the cooling channels on
wards the Nordic Countries. During the
both sides of the reactor cover. After two
following ten days the effluents were
or three seconds, another explosion
transported everywhere in Europe, re-
occurred, and hot pieces of the reactor
sulting in a very complex dispersion
core were ejected into the environment.
pattern. On 7-8 May the direction of
The damage to the reactor permitted a
wind was again towards the Nordic
free flow of air, which then set fire to the
Countries. The release reached Finland
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
6.3.7.5.
HELSINKI FINLAND
on 10-12 May, increasing early depo-
External radiation
sition only slightly.
The dose rate monitoring network in
Fall-out
1986 comprised about 390 stations,
operated by the Ministry of the Interior,
The initial radioactive plume moved
the Defence Forces and the Frontier
beyond Finland towards the east. This
Guard. The first signal about the unusual
plume contained small fuel fragments,
radiation situation was received through
i.e. uranium and its non-volatile fission
this network.
products. The map in Figure 1, based on
The highest dose rate measured by the
mobile measurements of the Finnish
network stations was 5 microsieverts
Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety
(µSv) per hour. This is 30-50 times higher
(STUK), shows how fuel fragments
than the normal background radiation in
containing zirconium 95 were distrib-
Finland (0.1-0.2 µSv/h). By August 1986
uted in Finland. The distribution is closely
the level of radiation was only one tenth
related to the passage of the initial ex-
of the peak value measured at the begin-
plosion plume over Finland. Rain in-
ning of May.
creased deposition in eastern Finland.
Assessment of environmental gamma
The main fall-out in Finland originated
radiation was initiated by STUK on 28
from the initial release on 26 April. The
April. Sensitive radiation detectors were
radioactive plume spread over Finland
used. In autumn 1986 STUK carried out
between Sunday 27 and Tuesday 29
a wide spectrometric survey of dose rates
April. lodine and cesium were the domi-
(radioactive substances were identified)
nating radioactive substances. The main
in areas south of 65° N. The fall-out in the
deposition of these nuclides was caused
north of Finland was low and could be
by intermittent rain on 28-30 April. On 30
detected only with special sensitive in-
April and finally on 1 May a cold north-
struments. The survey in Lapland was
erly airstream spread into the whole of
carried out in 1987. Figure 2 shows the
Finland and gradually purified the at-
results of the survey.
mosphere.
A total of 19 000 km were scanned by a
Figure 2 shows the amount of cesium
mobile unit. While driving the instru-
137 deposition in Finland. The map is
ments were measuring, giving a more
based on a mobile survey by STUK. On
representative estimation on radiation
the first of October 1987 the mean de-
level than single measurements along
position for the 461 municipalities was
the route.
10.7 kBq m
The average dose from external radi-
ation caused by Chernobyl fall-out in
Hot particles
1988 was 0.1 mSv (note that the annual
The Chernobyl fall-out is characterized
external dose due to natural origin is 0.8
by an unexpected feature. The nuclear
mSv, Figure 5). From October 1987 the
fuel fractured into powder and escaped
dose rate is decreased by 30 % in two
from the power plant in particles of dif-
years.
ferent sizes. The largest lumps fell onto
The dose rate due to natural environ-
the power plant site and its surround-
mental gamma radiation in Finland var-
dings. Smaller particles were carried by
ies locally. The increase caused by the
air over long distances, up to Scancina-
Chernobyl fall-out is comparable to the
via. These 'hot' particles could readily be
variation in natural background.
found in the environment (Figure 1). An
epidemiological follow-up study has
been started to establish the potential
Foodstuffs
health hazard caused by these particles.
Many radioactive substances are trans-
ferred from the environment to food-
stuffs but only three nuclides, iodine
The health hazard of radiation is described by
131, cesium 134 and cesium 137, are
radiation dose. The unit is sievert (Sv), or more
often millisievert (mSv, 0.001 Sv). The total radi-
important. In the fall-out they were in
ation dose consists of internal dose, caused by
soluble form and could thus enter the
radioactive substances transferred into the human
metabolism of plants and animals. The
body, and external dose, caused by radiation re-
fall-out contained only small amounts of
ceived from sources outside the body, such as
radioactive strontium, which is one of
radioactive substances on the ground. The unit of
activity is becquerel (Bq). One becquerel means
the dominating nuclides in the nuclear
one nuclear disintegration per second.
detonations.
2
Finnish Centre
for Radiation and
Nuclear Safety
Zr-95 - deposition
2
kBq/m
0 - 1
1 - 2
2 - 4
4 - 8
8 - 30
not measured
Figure1. Distribution of zirconium 95 in Finland after the Chernobyl accident. Activity is decay
corrected to April 26, 1986.
3
Finnish Centre
for Radiation and
Nuclear Safety
External gamma
dose rate and
estimated Cs-137
deposition
1.10.1987
pSv/h kBq/m2
0 -.014 0-6
.014-.028 6-11
.028-.056 11-23
.056-.11 23-45
.11 -.19 45-78
Figure 2. External dose rate (µSv/h, microsieverts per hour) and estimated cesium 137 depo-
sition caused by the Chernobyl fall-out in Finland, reference date October 1, 1987. The mean
dose rate in 461 municipalities was 0.027 µSv/h (range 0-0.19 µSv/h). The population
weighted mean value was 0.037 µSv/h.
4
The gamma activity of 5000 samples
season. The cesium concentration in
were analyzed in the continuing food-
1989 in beef was 20-40 Bq/kg and in pork
stuff programme of STUK in 1986-1988.
less than 10 Bq/kg.
The ordinary research programmes were
expanded to meet the requirements of
Game and reindeer. The game meat
the new radiation situation.
contains more activity than that of
domestic animals. The average concen-
Milk and meat. Small amounts of radio-
tration in elk and reindeer meat in 1986-
iodine were detected in milk during May
1989 was about 200 and 650 Bq/kg, re-
1986. The indoor feeding of cows con-
spectively (before 1986, 30 and 300 Bq/
tinued until May 26. This made it poss-
kg.)
ible to avoid a considerable increase of
Fish. Increased cesium activity was found
iodine in milk as the cows were not per-
in fish as early as June 1986. The con-
mitted to eat any contaminated grazing
tents were first elevated in nonpreda-
grass. At its highest, at the beginning of
tory fish, which eat directly contami-
May, the average concentration of iod-
nated plankton. Predatory fish reached
ine 131 in milk was 30 Bq/l. Ten times
maximum values of cesium in 1988. For
higher concentrations were measured
all type of fish environmental factors
in continental Europe where the cows
cause variation in the cesium content. In
were freely grazing.
1989 a fish contained typically 100-4000
Figure 3 shows the cesium content of
Bq/kg of cesium (a big lake in the area of
milk in 1960-1988. The maximum con-
the highest fall-out). In areas of low de-
centration was about 30 Bq/l in 1986.
position the concentration is ten times
smaller.
Thereafter, the concentration decreased
annually. This behaviour is typical of
Countermeasures and recommenda-
other agricultural products too. The
tions. During the first days of the Cher-
seasonal variations in Figure 3 are con-
nobyl fall-out it became evident that no
nected with the change in forage at the
large scale restrictions were needed.
beginning and at the end of the grazing
Dose levels presented by the ICRP (Inter-
Figure 3. Cesium 137 concentration in milk in 1960-1988. Production-weighted monthly means in units
of Bq/l.
Bq/ 1
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
5
Contributions of foodstuffs to dietary caesium 137 received by
adult Finns during three years after the Chernobyl accident.
Bq/year
agr - Agricultural products
10000
wild= Wild produce
8000
6000
4000
milk
meat
vegetables&fruit
cereals
2000
drinking water
fish
game
berries
mushrooms
0
agr
wild
agr wild
agr wild
86-87
87-88
88-89
YEAR
Figure 4. Dietary intake of cesium 137 of agricultural and wild origin in Finland in three years after April
1986. Internal dose due to intake.
national Commission of Radiological Pro-
The reindeer breeding area is in the
tection) were used to determine the
north of Finland, which was not seriously
derived intervention levels in the food-
affected by the Chernobyl fall-out.
stuffs. Thus the annual radiation dose
However, when the reindeer slaughter-
received by a critical group should not
ing season started in October 1986, it
exceed 5 mSv or, the dose to an individ-
became evident that a small area in
ual organ should not exceed 50 mSv
southeast Lappland (Kuusamo) had re-
during the first year. On this basis the
ceived a large fall-out. The cumulative
intervention level of cesium 137 in milk
number of condemned carcasses was
is 1000Bq/l and in beef and pork 1000 Bq/
about 500 of the altogether 130 000
kg.
slaughtered reindeer in 1988 and, the
cumulative compensation paid by the
The agricultural products in the whole
Finnish government to reindeer owners
country were only sligtly contaminated.
was about 300 000 FIM.
The activity concentrations were well
below the intervention levels. In most
cases cesium 137 activity was less than
The lake fish were, and still partly
one tenth of the intervention level. Some
are, the greatest concern for high
non-agricultural products like game
cesium concentration. People eating lake
meat, reindeer, lake fish and mushrooms
fish every day, could accumulate
cesium so much that the annual doses
contained occasionally higher concen-
would rise above the level of 5 mSv.
trations.
Thus, STUK gave a recommendation
The public has been advised by STUK
that fish taken from lakes in the highest
about the use of mushrooms. Lactarius
fall-out areas should not be eaten as a
mushrooms should be boiled twice. The
main dish more than two or three times
cesium is effectively removed by this
a week. In 1988, this recommendation
treatment to about five percent of the
was modified to cover only predatory
original concentration.
fish.
6
2
3
4
5
1
6
7
8
Figure 5. Sources of radiation received by Finns in 1988.
1.
Radon
4
mSv
2.
Natural radioactive substances in the body
0.4
mSv
3.
Natural radioactive substances, external radiation
0.8
mSv
4.
Cosmic radiation
0.3
mSv
5.
Use of radionuclides
0.1
mSv
6.
Medicine, x-ray
0.7
mSv
7.
Chernobyl, external dose
0.1 mSv
8.
Chernobyl, internal dose
0.1 mSv
Activity in Humans
In 1989 the internal dose caused by
cesium was about 0.1 mSv. This is about
The internal radiation dose to human is
2% of the dose due to radiation of natu-
established by measuring the amount of
ral origin (Figure 5).
radioactive substances in the body.
These measurements are made with a
whole-body counter. The amount of
cesium in Finns has been studied since
Information demand
the middle of the 1960s. After the Cher-
nobyl accident these studies were ex-
The demand for information after the
panded through measurements of a
accident was enormous. Informing the
reference group of people that represent
public and the media, recommendations
the whole Finnish population.
and restrictions and reactor safety in
general were the key issues in the dis-
In autumn 1989, the average amount of
cussions and in the work of the auth-
cesium 137 in Finns was 1200 Bq. At its
orities. This apparently permanent state
highest, in summer 1987, the activity of
of affairs presents the Finnish Centre for
the body was twice as high. The contri-
Radiation and Nuclear Safety and other
bution of nuclear tests is about 100 Bq.
authorities with a new challenge. Inter-
In the middle of the 1960s, the amount of
national cooperation on these issues is
nuclear test cesium in Finns was about
extensive. In 1986, Finland signed the
1000 Bq.
Convention on Early Notification of a
7
Nuclear Accident. In addition, bilateral
environmental contamination following a major
information exchange has been im-
nuclear accident, IAEA-SM-306, Vienna, Austria,
1989.
proved through agreements between
the Nordic countries and the Soviet
Blomqvist L, Mustonen R, Paakkola O and Salmi-
Union.
nen K, Economic and social aspects of the Cherno-
byl accident in Finland, Finnish Centre for Radi-
References
ation and Nuclear Safety, in press.
Saxen R, Rantavaara A, Arvela H and Aaltonen H.,
Environmental Radioactivity in Finland after the
Written by Hannu Arvela, Tech. Lis., Finnish Centre
Chernobyl Accident, International symposium on
for Radiation and Nuclear Safety.
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Fin-
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
nish information service abroad, and is intend-
in your country
ed to be used for reference purposes. It may
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
be freely used in preparing articles, speeches,
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
broadcasts, etc. No acknowledgment is neces-
Finland
sary. Please note the date of preparation.
Helsinki 1990. The Finnish Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
NOVEMBER 1990
Radon in Finland
In most countries, the highest contribu-
The new methods were soon applied in
tion to the average radiation dose of the
a survey of a potential highrisk area. In
inhabitants is made by radon, a radioac-
the 1955-70 lung cancer statistics, the
tive gas occurring everywhere in nature.
municipalities with the highest lung
In houses and other closed spaces, ra-
cancer incidences (more than 10⁻³ per
don accumulates in indoor air, the con-
annum in men) were clustered in a rural
centration being several times higher
area in eastern Finland known for its
than in outdoor air. In certain circum-
minor uranium deposits. In a survey
stances, the concentration in dwellings
conducted in 1981, the radon concen-
may be so high that the annual radiation
trations there were not elevated as com-
dose arises to a value several times hig-
pared with other parts of the country.
her than the maximum dose permitted
Vice-versa, in an area in southern Fin-
in radiation work.
land where the highest concentrations
were found, the lung cancer incidence
Early research
was slightly lower than the average.
An indoor radon concentration higher
In Finland, the large contribution of
than 10,000 Bq/m⁻³ was first discovered
radon to the radiation risk was gradually
in autumn 1981. The residents were in-
understood during the 1970s. Private
formed and advised on how to decrease
drilled wells with sometimes very ra-
the concentration. Even in the worst
don-rich water were first recognized as
case in which instantaneous radon con-
potential sources of high radon gas con-
centration up to 100,000 Bq/m⁻³ was
centration in indoor air. Other sources
measured, no drastic action was taken.
were not regarded as notable, until new
measurement methods for radon in
The house was mitigated in connection
with a mitigation research programme
indoor air made large scale surveys in
several years later.
dwellings possible. In 1980, several
houses were found in which the annual
The scientists, however, did not ignore
radiation dose exceeded the limit set
the problem. Numerous houses were
for radiation workers. High concen-
found where the action level of 800 Bq/
trations were found independently of
m³ was exceeded. Although the media
whether there was a drilled well in the
had published the news about sen-
house or not. Now, for a decade it has
sationally high radiation doses, most
been known that the major contribution
people did not react because no health
to radon in indoor air comes directly
effects could be seen. Therefore, survey
from the ground.
and research were seen as the only way
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
6.3.7.4.
HELSINKI FINLAND
of promoting a rational solution to the
geological maps. STUK helps the mu-
problem.
nicipal health authorities by devising ra-
don measurement plans and radon prog-
nosis maps. The former helps the local
Administrative action
health authorities to find the dwellings
where 800 Bq/m3 is exceeded. The radon
In 1986, the National Board of Health
prognosis map helps the municipalities
sent the local public health authorities a
to take radon-prone areas into account
directive on radon in dwellings. Accord-
in their physical planning. Both the
ing to this, the municipal public health
measurement plan and the prognosis
authorities are obliged, in cooperation
maps are based on the results from exist-
with the Finnish Centre for Radiation
ing houses in the area and on the geo-
and Nuclear Safety (STUK), to identify
logical information. For the prognosis
the dwellings in which the annual aver-
maps, it is sometimes necessary to per-
age radon concentration exceeds 800
form field measurements or analyze
Bqm³.
local samples in the laboratory.
The Ministry of the Environment has
The first map on the geographical dis-
funded a civil engineering programme
tribution of radon in Finland was pub-
on the incorporation of radon aspects in
lished in 1983 and showed the salient
building legislation and practice. The
features of the distribution. The later
large-scale survey conducted by STUK
measurements have not changed the
has made the radon problem known
overall impression (Figure 1). There are
through the media. Guides and informa-
large differences between the municipal
tion booklets have been published by
mean concentrations in different parts
the authorities in house building, radi-
of the country. The individual concen-
ation protection and public health.
trations vary within a municipality, the
highest concentrations being sometimes
a hundred times higher than the mean.
Measurement and data
collection
Reasons for high radon
The early research with the large-scale
concentrations
surveys taught how easy it is to lose the
perspective in the evaluation of indoor
Uranium in the bedrock is the origin of
radon measurements. What is high in
radon, but the differences between dif-
one area may be low in some other area.
ferent parts of the country cannot be
Measuring instantaneous concentration,
explained by the uranium concentration
a practice common in earlier radon con-
in the bedrock alone. The existence of a
trol of mines, may lead to unnecessary
uranium mineralization or mine is an
confusion, because the temporal vari-
equally misleading factor. The bedrock
ation is very large. Therefore, a mini-
around a mineralization often has a low
mum integration time of two months is
uranium concentration and thus the in-
demanded in the sanitary evaluation of
door concentrations are low. In most
dwellings. The same method is used all
cases the most apparent geological par-
over the country to obtain comparable
ameter is the air permeability of the
results. The radon dosimetric service of
ground on which the house has been
STUK can satisfy the demand. The ca-
built.
pacity of this service, using mailed alpha
track dosimeters, has been gradually rai-
During the heating season the pressure
of the indoor air is lower than that in the
sed to 20,000 measurements a year.
ground air or outdoor air. The under-
STUK has a database on radon concen-
pressure sucks ground air into the house.
trations in more than 30,000 Finnish
The radon concentration of the ground
houses. The coordinates and supplemen-
air is normally more than a hundred
tary information on the constructional
times higher than that of the indoor air.
details are known for about 20,000
Houses on very permeable ground types,
houses. The results of radon concentra-
e.g. coarse sand, suck in ground air ef-
tion measurements are seasonally ad-
ficiently and therefore their indoor ra-
justed to represent annual averages. The
don concentration is high. In Finland, the
residents or owners are not registered.
most permeable geological formations
The data processing system makes it
are the eskers, long ridges of sand
possible to draw maps of the results in
stretching across the whole country.
any scale and form and to find the geo-
They were formed by sand and gravel
logical properties of the location from
deposited in the bottom of streams in
2
31.3.1983
Säteilyturvakeskus
Finnish Centre
for Radiation and
Norway
Nuclear Safety
X
2154
DWELLINGS
108
LOCALITIES
INDOOR RADON
ARITHMETIC MEAN
X
25 Bq/m3
USSR
III₃
25 40
40 64
64-100
100-160
160
<
100 Bq/m3
100-200 Bq/m3
200-300 Bq/m3
300-400 Bq/m³
x
400-600 Bq/m³
>
600 Bq/m³
X
III
O
II
100 km
1₂
100 km
STUK 4.4.1990
Fig. 1 Radon maps of Finland in 1983 and 1990. The former presents the geometric means of indoor radon
concentration in 108 municipalities and is based on measurements in 2154 detached houses.
The map for 1990 is based on measurements in about 20000 detached houses, the geographical coordinates of
which are known, and gives the arithmetic mean of houses in 10x10 km² squares.
Fig. 2 Maps of results of measurements are
provided for the municipalities. The colours of
TAMPERE, PISPALANHARJU
the symbols indicate the level of indoor radon
concentration in an esker area.
Näsijärvi
00
00
Pyhäjärvi
00
RADON CONCENTRATION
Below 100 Bq/M³
100 200 Bq/M³
60
200 400 Bq/M³
400 800 Bq/M³
800 2000 Bq/M³
Over 2000 Bq/M³
500 M
3
the continental ice during the last Ice
not in conflict with the risk estimates of
Age some 10,000 years ago. The Finnish
the International Commission on Radio-
equivalent of the word esker, "harju" is
logical Protection. These statements
also used for sand formations which
were not taken into account because the
were deposited along the margin of the
public had expected the effect to be
ice during the periods when melting
more evident. Simultaneously, the poss-
temporarily stopped. The ice-marginal
ible effects of the Chernobyl accident
formations may also be very permeable,
causing hundred times lower effective
although sometimes clay layers act as
doses in Finland were taken very seri-
barries.
ously.
The eskers and ice-marginal formations
Dose estimation seems to be the weak-
have a great impact on the Finnish radon
est point in the epidemiological studies
map. Some of the big inland towns have
performed so far. Further mapping and
been built on these formations, and con-
research in STUK helps to reconstruct
sequently, the largest clusters of houses
the past exposures more accurately than
exceeding 800 Bq/m³ can be found
earlier. Thus, it may simultaneously
there. In the past, the low level of ground
serve as a basis for both mitigation ac-
water in the eskers did not favor building
tivities and further study on the signifi-
on them, but now they are ideal devel-
cance of radon.
opment areas for the growing towns.
There are 20,000 30,000 Finnish houses
needing mitigation according to the 800
References:
Bq/m3 action level. So far, about 2,000
have been found, but the number of
Castrén O, Asikainen M, Annanmäki M, Stenstrand
mitigated houses is hardly more than
K. High natural radioactivity of bored wells as a
150.
radiation hygienic problem in Finland. Proceed-
ings of IVth International Congress, International
Radiation Protection Association, Paris 1977:1033-
1036.
Present attitudes
Castrén O, Winqvist K, Mäkeläinen I, Voutilainen
A. Radon measurements in Finnish houses. Radi-
An epidemilogical case-control study has
ation Protection Dosimetry 1984: 7: 333-336.
been performed in Finland on radon as
Castrén O, Voutilainen A, Winqvist K, Mäkeläinen
a possible cause of lung cancer. The
I. Studies of high indoor radon areas in Finland.
statistical power of the study was lower
Science of the Total Environment 1985: 45: 311-
318.
than expected. The preliminary results
in 1987 could not show a positive con-
Castrén O, Dealing with radon in dwellings: the
nection between radon and lung cancer.
Finnish experience. Proceedings of the Second
APCA International Specialty Conference on In-
The media presented this finding as a
door Radon. Air Pollution Control Association,
proof that radon is quite harmless and
Pittsburgh 1987: 45-56.
does not cause lung cancer. This may
have been the crucial message that stop-
ped many mitigation and measurement
Written by Mr. Olli Castrén, Head of the Labora-
projects. However, the experts said that
tory for Natural Radiation, Finnish Centre for
the result does not prove anything and is
Radiation and Nuclear Safety, Helsinki.
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Finnish
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
information service abroad and is intended to
in your country
be used for reference purposes. It may be freely
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
used in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts,
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
etc. No acknowledgment is necessary. Please
Finland
note the date of reparation.
Helsinki 1990. The Finnish Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
NOVEMBER 1990
International agreements - a prerequisite
for the use of nuclear energy
Finland has used nuclear energy in the
international aspects. First of all, the
electricity production since 1977 when
worldwide use of nuclear energy shall
the first commercial nuclear power plant
not increase the number of the countries
unit, Loviisa 1, was taken into operation.
having nuclear weapons. Another inter-
Three other nuclear power plant units
national aspect is the safety and security
were commissioned by 1980: TVO I in
of the use of nuclear energy.
1978, TVO II and Loviisa 2 in 1980.
The nuclear power plant units at Loviisa
are pressurized water reactors, and the
Nuclear energy for peaceful
two units at Olkiluoto are boiling water
purposes
reactors. The supplier of the Loviisa 1
and 2 units was V/O Atomenergoexport,
The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
the Soviet Union. However, an essential
Nuclear Weapons was established in
part of the design and construction
1968 and it came into force in 1970¹. The
work was carried out by the owner of the
Treaty became valid in Finland in 1970,
plant, Imatra Power Company Ltd. The
too.
supplier of the TVO I and II units was Ab
Asea-Atom, Sweden. The owner of the
Based on the Treaty, the agreement on
plant is Industrial Power Company Ltd.
the safeguards control of nuclear ma-
Loviisa 1 and 2 units are situated on the
terials was signed by Finland and the In-
southern coast of Finland, and TVO I and
ternational Atomic Energy Agency
II on the western coast (see Fig. 1). In ad-
(IAEA)². This agreement was the first
dition, a research reactor, TRIGA MARK
one for the implementation of the IAEA
II, is operated by the Technical Research
safeguards controls based on the Treaty:
Centre of Finland in Espoo, near to Hel-
The agreement is consistent with the
sinki.
IAEA document INFCIRC 153³.
All the nuclear power plant units in Fin-
The main purpose of the safeguards
land are designed and constructed in
controls based on the agreement is to
accordance with the Finnish safety regu-
verify that nuclear material in peaceful
lations, which are generally consistent
activities is not diverted to nuclear
with the regulations in other western
weapons or other nuclear explosive
countries. The regulatory body for the
devices. According to the Finnish nu-
safety of the use of nuclear energy is the
clear energy law, STUK is the authority
Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nu-
responsible for the national safeguard
clear Safety (STUK).
controls. STUK reports to the IAEA on
the use and transport of nuclear ma-
The use of nuclear energy has many
terials. The IAEA evaluates the reports
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
6.3.7.6.
HELSINKI FINLAND
Norway
Arctic Circle
Sweden
USSR
Gulf of Bothnia
X Olkiluoto
Rauma
Loviisa
Helsinki
60° north parallel
Gulf of Finland
N
Scale
0
100
200 km
Baltic Sea
Figure 1. Olkiluoto and Loviisa Nuclear Power Plants in Finland
and carries out inspections at the Finn-
measurement methods, and the train-
ish nuclear facilities. In 1989, the IAEA
ing of the IAEA inspectors.
carried out 22 inspections in Finland.
Finland has bilateral agreements in the
Since 1988 Finland has had a Support
field of nuclear energy with the United
Programme for the IAEA safeguards.
Kingdom (since 1969), the Soviet Union
The purpose of the Support Programme
(since 1969), Sweden (since 1969), the
is to help the IAEA in its safeguards
United States (since 1970), Canada (since
control. The main areas in the Support
1976) and Australia (since 1980)⁴⁻⁹. These
Programme are the development and
agreements restrict the use of the ma-
field testing of the nuclear material
terials and information exhanged under
2
the agreement in question to peaceful
in nuclear reactors, nuclear fuel cycle
purposes. They also aim to enhance co-
facilities, radioactive waste management
operation in the field of nuclear energy.
facilities, transport and storage of nu-
clear fuels or radioactive wastes, manu-
The countries with a developed wide
facture, use, storage, disposal and trans-
nuclear industry agreed in 1978 on the
port of radioisotopes, and use of radio-
guidelines they follow in the interna-
isotopes in space objects. Other nuclear
tional nuclear trade. These guidelines,
accidents may also be reported in ac-
so called London guidelines, are pub-
lished by the IAEA, document INFCIRC
cording with the Convention. The Con-
vention applies to any accident from
254¹⁰. Finland observes these guidelines.
which a release of radioactive material
An important aspect of the peaceful use
occurs or is likely to occur and which has
of nuclear energy is the security of the
resulted or may result in an interna-
international transport of nuclear ma-
tional transboundary release that could
terials. For this purpose, the Convention
be of radiological safety significance for
on the Physical Protection of Nuclear
another state.
Materials was drawn up under the IAEA
auspices¹¹. Since 1989, the Convention
In addition to the Early Notification
has been valid in Finland.
Convention, Finland has made agree-
ments with the Nordic countries and the
Soviet Union concerning the notifica-
International co-operation is
tion of a nuclear accident and the ex-
required for assuring nuclear
change of information on nuclear facil-
safety
ities. The agreement with the Soviet
Union14 requires direct notification to
Ensuring the safe use of nuclear energy
the other party on the accidents speci-
is of high importance. The task is, how-
fied in the Early Notification Conven-
ever, very demanding and requires close
tion. In addition, other nuclear accidents
international co-operation.
must be notified if they may cause a
STUK, the regulatory body in Finland, is
transboundary release of radiological
actively involved in international co-
safety significance to the other party.
operation, mainly through the IAEA and
Furthermore, other exceptionally high
OECD/Nuclear Energy Agency. It has also
radiation levels, which may have radio-
close bilateral co-operation with the
logical safety significance to the other
safety authorities in the Nordic coun-
party, are to be notified if they occur
within 300 km from the border between
tries, the Soviet Union and the United
States. The nuclear safety in Finland is
the parties. The agreement also requires
discussed in detail elsewhere in "Finn-
the exchange of information on nuclear
ish Features" (J.Laaksonen)
facilities within 300 km from the border
between the parties. This covers infor-
Nuclear accidents may have
mation on the design data and on the
operation experience of the facilities con-
transboundary radiological
cerned.
effects
The agreements between the Nordic
The Chernobyl accident in the Soviet
countries¹⁵⁻¹⁷ require direct reporting
Union in 1986 clearly indicated that
on exceptionally high radiation levels or
nuclear accidents may have radiological
abnormal safety related incidents at nu-
consequences in other countries. There-
clear facilities, which are reported to the
fore, early information on such accidents
public or which increase the prepared-
should be available. It is also important
ness of the authorities. Such accidents
that international assistance in the case
which reguire reporting based on the
of a nuclear accident is provided, if
Early Notification Convention are also
needed.
to be directly reported. In addition, these
agreements require exhange of infor-
Under the IAEA auspices, the Conven-
mation on the design data and on the
tion on Early Notification of a Nuclear
operation experience of the nuclear fa-
Accident and the Convention on Assist-
cilities.
ance in the Case of Nuclear Accident or
Radiological Emergency were estab-
lished in 1986¹²⁻¹³.
Third party liability is necessary
in the case of a nuclear accident
Finland joined the Early Notification
Convention in 1987 and will join the
Liability and compensation for damage
Assistance Convention in 1990. The Early
caused by a nuclear accident are import-
Notification Convention covers accidents
ant issues that had been recognized
3
throughout the world, even before the
7. Agreement on co-operation between the
accidents at Harrisburg and Chernobyl.
Government of the United States of America
Transboundary effects from the Cherno-
and the Government of the Republic of Fin-
land Concerning Civil Uses of Atomic En-
byl accident indicated, however, many
ergy, 1970
issues where liability and compensation
aspects raised much international dis-
8. Agreement between the Government of the
Republic of Finland and the Government of
cussion.
Canada Concerning the Uses of Nuclear
Material, Equipment, Facilities and Informa-
Since 1972, Finland has been a party to
tion Transferred between Finland and Cana-
the Paris Convention on Third Party Lia-
da, 1976
bility in the Field of Nuclear Energy of
9. Agreement between the Government of the
29th July 1960¹⁸, and since 1977 to the
Republic of Finland and the Government of
Brussels Convention, Supplementary to
Australia Concerning the Transfer of Nu-
the Paris Convention¹⁹. According to the
clear Material between Finland and Austra-
lia, 1980
nuclear liability law in Finland, the licen-
see of a nuclear facility is required to
10. Guidelines for the export of nuclear material
compensate for damage caused by an
equipment or technology, Information Cir-
cular, IAEA, INFCIRC 254, 1978
accident in his facility up to 100 Million
Special Drawing Rights, definied by the
11. Convention on the Physical Protection of
International Monetary Fund. Above this,
Nuclear Materials, 1980
damages are to be paid by Finland and
12. Convention on Early Notification of a Nu-
by other parties to the Paris and Brussels
clear Accident, 1986
Conventions up to 300 Million Special
13. Convention on Assistance in the Case of a
Drawing Rights, as the 1982 Amendment
Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emerg-
to the Brussels Convention has stipu-
ency, 1986
lated.
14. Agreement between Finland and the Soviet
Union on the Early Notification of a Nuclear
References
Accident and on the Exchange of Informa-
tion on Nuclear Facilities, 1987
1. Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
15. Agreement between Finland and Sweden
Weapons, 1970
on the Early Notification of a Nuclear Acci-
2. Agreement between the Republic of Finland
dent and on the Exchange of Information on
and the International Atomic Energy Agency
Nuclear Facilities, 1987
on Safeguards, 1971
16. Agreement between Finland and Norway on
3. The structure and content of agreements be-
the Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident
tween the agency and states required in con-
and on the Exchange of Information on Nu-
nection with the Treaty on the Non-Prolifer-
clear Facilities, 1987
ation of Nuclear Weapons, Information Cir-
17. Agreement between Finland and Denmark
cular, IAEA, INFCIRC/153 (corrected), 1972
on the Early Notification of a Nuclear Acci-
4. Agreement between the Government of the
dent and on the Exchange of Information on
United Kingdom of Great Britain and North-
Nuclear Facilities, 1987
ern Ireland and the Government of the Repub-
18. Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in
lic of Finland on Co-operation in the Peaceful
the Field of Nuclear Energy, 1960
Uses of Atomic Energy, 1969
19. Convention Supplementary to the Paris Con-
5. Agreement between the Government of the
vention of 29 July 1960 on Third Party Lia-
Republic of Finland and the Government of
bility in the Field of Nuclear Energy, Brussels
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on Co-
Convention, 1963
operation in the Peaceful Uses of Atomic En-
ergy, 1969
6. Agreement between the Government of the
Republic of Finland and the Government of
Written by Mr. Hannu Koponen, Deputy Director
Sweden on Co-operation in the Peaceful Uses
of the Department of Nuclear Safety, the Finnish
of Atomic Energy, 1969
Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety.
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Finnish
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
information service abroad and is intended to
in your country
be used for reference purposes. It may be freely
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
used in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts,
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
etc. No acknowledgment is ne cessary. Please
Finland
note the date of reparation.
Helsinki 1990. The Finnish Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
Environmental Policy in Finland
DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRON-
phorus loading by about 75 per cent. In
MENTAL PROTECTION
1988, about 85 per cent of municipal waste
water was treated by biological-chemical
Before the 1960s, environmental protec-
methods and 13 per cent by chemical
tion in Finland was seen very much in
methods. According to the general classi-
terms of nature conservation. Since the
fication, about 80 per cent of Finland's total
end of the decade, however, both public
lake area is excellent or good quality. Apart
and political decision-makers came to see
from eutrophication, the lakes are also
environmental protection in a wider con-
threatened by acidification due to depo-
text. The 1960s saw the first attempts to
sition of air pollutants, mainly of trans-
promote pollution control through the en-
boundary origin. The water quality of rivers
actment of new legislation concerning
is not so good. Along about 45 per cent of
waters, public health and chemicals.
their total length it is excellent or good, and
Finnish environmental policies began to
along about 30 per cent adequate or poor.
take shape in the early 1970s. European
Nature Conservation Year in 1970 and the
In the 1970s new legislation was drafted
United Nations Environmental Conference
on, for instance, the prevention of oil pol-
in 1972 may well be said to have marked a
lution and the conservation of certain rare
turning point in the development of Finnish
animal species. In 1978 the Waste Man-
environmental policies.
agement Act was enacted and in 1982 the
Clean Air Act.
The early 1970s were a time for debate
and pamphleteering, but during the 1970s
Economic growth and prosperity in the
concrete progress was also made, es-
early 1970s contributed to the demands for
pecially in water pollution control. Legis-
environmental protection. The working
lation was enacted and an efficient control
environment was also improved signifi-
organization, the National Board of Waters
cantly through new organization and legis-
(since 1986 the National Board of Waters
lation. During the economic recession of
and Environment) was established in 1970.
the mid-1970s, however, investment in
Eutrophication, however, still remains a
pollution control decreased. The oil crises
major problem, especially in the Gulf of
promoted energy-saving measures, thus
Finland, which is a part of the Baltic Sea.
initiating a trend beneficial to environmen-
Finland also contributes to the nutrient
tal protection for several years to come.
load, although the loads from Russia and
The Ministry of the Environment, respon-
Estonia are bigger. BOD (Biological Oxy-
sible for both environmental protection and
gen Demand) discharges originating from
for building and housing, was established
communities fell by about 70 per cent
in 1983. Since then new environmental
between 1970 and 1986 and their phos-
acts regulating noise abatement, control of
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
8
HELSINKI FINLAND
chemicals, hazardous wastes, extraction
has been levied since 1990. This tax has
or quarrying of soil and bedrock materials
also applied to nitrogen from the beginning
and the protection of scenic rivers, wilder-
of 1992.
ness areas, several specific natural areas
and the built environment, have been
passed. Regional and municipal environ-
Environmental protection in
mental protection institutions have been
different sectors of the
greatly strengthened.
economy
During the late 1980s, environmental
The environmental effects of agriculture
issues became one of the primary topics in
on watercourses were recognized during
public debate and policies. Serious global
the 1970s, but it was not until the 1980s
threats such as ozone depletion and global
that the importance of these effects was
warming came to dominate the headlines.
recognized more widely. As the pollution
At the beginning of the 1980s, environ-
load caused by industry and communities
mental protection was still seen as a sep-
has been reduced, the relative importance
arate sector of government policy, further
of agriculture and fish farming in the eu-
divided into sectors such as air and water
trophication of surface waters has in-
pollution control, noise abatement, and
creased. Groundwaters have remained
waste management. However, in the
fairly unpolluted SO far, but in some agricul-
course of the decade it became obvious
tural areas higher concentrations of ni-
that environmental policy should be inte-
trates have been observed. Agriculture
grated with policies concerning the econ-
accounts for about 30 per cent of the total
omy, energy, industry, transport, agricul-
atmospheric emissions of nitrogen in
ture and forestry.
Finland.
According to present goals, non-point
Environment and economics
source pollution caused by agriculture, for-
estry, and fish and fur farming will have to
Since the beginning of the 1980s the total
be reduced in the same proportion as other
annual expenditure on environmental pro-
activities polluting inland waters and the
tection has ranged between 0.8 and 1.1
sea.
per cent of GNP, and government expen-
The means being used are economic in-
diture between 0.3 and 0.4 per cent of total
struments and education, training and in-
national budget expenditure. The decisions
formation, e.g. guidelines on good agricul-
made on the reduction of sulphur dioxide
tural - including animal husbandry - prac-
and nitrogen oxide emissions, implemen-
tices. Regulatory measures have been
tation of the Water Pollution Control Pro-
taken to reduce loading caused by cattle
gramme and other improvements in
and pig farms. The Central Union of Agricul-
environmental policy are expected to in-
tural Producers has recently published an
crease annual expenditure on environmen-
environmental protection programme for
tal protection to between 1.5 and 2.0 per
farmers.
cent of GNP during the 1990s.
The Finnish economy has always relied on
Economic instruments used in Finland have
forestry and, consequently, forest man-
taken the form of either government sub-
agement is based on the concept of sus-
sidies (e.g. interest subsidies, loans and
tainability. Research on forestry and for-
guarantees) to investments in public or
estry practices has long traditions in
private pollution control, or environmental
Finland, and forest owners are obliged to
charges or taxes (e.g. oil combating
renew their forests after felling. Regener-
charges, charges on non-recyclable pack-
ation is carried out annually on approxi-
aging, pesticide charges and water protec-
mately 200 000 250 000 hectares of
tion fees). The subsidies have not been
forest, some 120 000 hectares of this being
substantial and the charges and taxes
regenerated artificially. The proportion of
have normally been rather modest. The
artificially regenerated, i.e. man-made, for-
excise duty on unleaded petrol was re-
ests is thus increasing slowly. However,
duced in the late 1980s and an additional
since native species are used, the man-
charge, based on the carbon content of the
made forests differ only slightly from man-
fuel, was imposed on all fossil fuels and
aged, naturally regenerated stands.
peat in 1990. A tax on fertilizer phosphorus
2
Legislation and control of forestry prac-
bleaching. The flash smelting process, re-
tices have also succeeded in preventing
generation of pickling acid in metal indus-
the destruction of Finland's timber; in fact,
tries and fluidized bed combustion are also
the growth and yield of Finnish forests
worth mentioning.
have increased since the 1950s. This is
Since the early 1980s, more and more
mostly thanks to more efficient forestry
attention has been given to the develop-
practices, such as forest fertilization,
ment of new process technologies, or clean
ditching and draining of bogs and felling of
technologies rather than traditional end-of
old and unproductive forest. Some scien-
pipe treatment techniques. In 1988 the
tists have even attributed this growth to the
Confederation of Finnish Industries issued
fertilizing effects of nitrogenous emissions.
new guidelines for environmental care and
The State, companies and private forest
protection in Finnish industry. The guide-
owners nowadays show growing concern
lines emphasize a holistic approach ac-
for environmental factors in forest man-
cording to which natural resources are
agement. The recommended methods in-
used economically and the adverse effects
clude natural regeneration, use of light
of production minimized.
machinery in soil preparation, a mixture of
hardwoods with conifers, and a use of
It seems that the development of environ-
buffer zones around areas undergoing re-
mentally sound consumer products, in
generation cutting and soil preparation.
which the entire life-cycle is taken into
Logging, which is based on cut-to-length
account, will be the next step in the produc-
methods, enjoyed a period of rapid ad-
tion sector. Public authorities are trying to
vance in the 1970s and especially in the
help increase the demand for and produc-
1980s. Ecologically and ergonomically
tion of these products by setting up an
sounder machines and methods were de-
environmental labelling system in co-oper-
ation with other Nordic countries. The first
veloped, resulting in less damage to the
authorizations for use of the Nordic envi-
remaining trees in connection with thin-
ning.
ronmental. label were given to three Finn-
ish paper products at the end of 1991.
Despite the fact that production, and both
private and public demand, grew markedly
The Finnish economy is more energy-in-
tensive than that of most other industrial-
during the 1970s and 1980s, industrial
pollution decreased substantially. During
ized countries, mainly due to the climate
the 1980s, sulphur emissions were cut by
and the structure of industry. Finland has a
nearly 60 per cent and discharges of oxy-
rather diversified energy supply.
gen consuming substances, mostly from
Most fossil fuels are imported. Less than
the pulp and paper industries, by some 50
one-third of primary energy consumption
per cent. Although total consumption of
is covered by indigenous energy sources.
industrial energy increased during the
Nuclear energy accounts for 15 per cent of
1980s, energy efficiency improved. Fully
total energy consumption.
halogenated chlorofluorocarbons will be
Combined heat and power generation is
phased out by the end of 1994, the necess-
widely used in Finland. About 30 per cent
ary measures being well under way.
of all electricity is generated together with
This progress is largely a result of the
steam for district heating and industrial
development of new technologies, i.e. bet-
purposes. District heating systems serve
ter purification techniques and cleaner
about 60 per cent of all flats.
processes producing less waste and
Environmental problems associated with
emissions, and the investments made by
various energy production methods in Fin-
industry in these technologies during the
land include emissions from the use of
1980s. Development has been guided by
fossil fuels, the damage caused to ecosys-
the new environmental legislation and more
tems by hydro-electric schemes and the
stringent enforcement of existing legisla-
harm caused by peat extraction.
tion, and also by the international agree-
The use of hydropower can no longer be
ments that Finland has signed.
raised in Finland, as almost all the potential
Important examples of cleaner technology
that might still be harnessed is protected.
developed in Finland are several improve-
The use of peat has been criticized for
ments in kraft pulp and paper production,
contributing to the greenhouse effect
the latest achievement being chlorine-free
through combustion and drainage of bogs.
3
At present, Finland has four nuclear power
ally. Approximately one-fifth is recycled.
plants. Debate on the possible construc-
Some four-fifths is deposited in landfills
tion of a new plant has reawakened during
normally managed by local authorities.
the past few years, partly because of in-
Other wastes generated can be estimated
dustry's growing energy needs in the 1990s
as follows:
and partly due to the need to reduce CO2
emissions.
- industrial waste
Environmental policy and energy policy
11.5 million tonnes
are becoming increasingly integrated. For
- sewage sludge
1 million tonnes
Finland, the premises for its energy econ-
- construction and
omy include the following commitments
demolition waste
5-10 million tonnes
through international agreements and dec-
- waste from mining,
larations or decisions of its own:
digging, excavation
and the like
21 million tonnes
- reduction of sulphur dioxide by 80 per
- waste from agriculture
cent from the 1980 level by the early
and forestry
23 million tonnes.
years of the 21: st century;
- reduction of nitrogen oxides by 30 per
Some 50 per cent of industrial waste is
cent from the 1980 level by the end of
utilized, whereas 65 per cent of sewage
the current decade; and
sludge, 15-20 per cent of construction
- carbon dioxide emissions must not grow
waste, 10 per cent of mining, digging and
towards the end of the 1990s, and must
excavation waste, and 85 per cent of agri-
gradually decline.
cultural and forestry waste are utilized.
Some 165 000-170 00 tonnes of hazard-
Finland has an efficient system of public
ous waste is generated annually, 60 per
transport. Long distances and sparse popu-
cent being utilized as raw material or
lation prevent rail traffic from playing a
energy. About half the annual amount of
more significant environmental role, con-
hazardous wastes generated is treated at
sidering the technological standard and
the national hazardous waste treatment
potential of the Finnish State Railways.
plant Ekokem Oy Ab, which was set up in
1984. About one-fourth of the hazardous
Today's traffic in Finland accounts for some
50 per cent of all nitrogen oxide and hydro-
waste is treated at source, generally in
industrial establishments. When the re-
carbon emissions and for almost 30 per
cent extension to the national Ekokem
cent of carbon dioxide emissions.
plant goes into operation only a negligible
Motor vehicle exhaust gas emissions have
portion of hazardous wastes will remain
been restricted since 1981. Emission limits
untreated. The emissions and discharges
for new passenger cars were tightened in
from the plant are extremely low.
1988. The emissions of passenger cars
are expected to fall by some 80 per cent
from the present level.
Nature conservation
The first restrictions on gaseous emissions
Conservation of biological diversity is one
from heavy-duty diesel engines came into
of the main objectives of protection of
force at the beginning of 1989 and were
natural resources and nature conservation
tightened at the beginning of 1991 (ECE
in Finland.
49/01). More stringent emission standards
The total coverage of the different types of
are coming into force in stages in 1992-93
nature reserve established under the
and 1995-96.
Nature Conservation Act of 1923 or the
Wilderness Act of 1990 is (1.4.1991) 2.84
Waste management
million hectares (land areas 2.64 million
hectares of this), i.e. 8.4 per cent of the
Total annual waste generation in Finland
country's total area.
amounts to 65-70 million tonnes, of which
Most of the nature reserve network in
nearly half is recycled.
Finland is a product of long-term nature
Municipal waste management services
conservation planning. It was set up primar-
handle 3.1 million tonnes of waste annu-
ily in the 1970s. This planning first dealt
4
with national parks and strict nature re-
stratospheric ozone layer, biodiversity and
serves, then with peatlands and wetlands.
the forest cover, and for combating climate
Oflate, national conservation programmes,
change. More regional issues of special
e.g. for rich deciduous forests and coastal
importance for Finland in its international
areas (inland lakes and sea coast), have
co-operation are protection of the Baltic
intensified. Through implementation of the
Sea and reduction of long-range trans-
conservation programmes, the size of the
boundary air pollution. Finland is an in-
areas protected will increase by a further
itiator of most of these, together with a
330 000 hectares. Over 8000 kilometres of
number of other international activities
lake and coastal shoreline (about 5 per
which are sooner or later likely to take the
cent of the total) will be kept free from
form of international environmental law.
building and in a natural condition. Some
The most important sectors in Finland's
gaps still exist. It is, for instance, obvious
contributions to development assistance
that the protected area of old forest in
are forestry, water supply and sanitation,
southern Finland is too small to effectively
demographic issues, and basic services in
maintain its unique fauna and flora.
the fields of health, education and human
Individual trees, groves of trees, geologi-
settlement.
cal formations and other such objects of
In Europe (and North America) Finland
conservation value can be protected as
considers the Conference on Security and
natural monuments under the Nature Con-
Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) an im-
servation Act.
portant forum for the promotion of environ-
Wild species of flora and most fauna are
mental issues. In the implementation of
also protected under the Nature Conser-
environmental policy, the United Nations
vation Act. Special attention has focused
Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)
on the conservation of endangered species.
and the Organization for Economic Co-
It has been possible to assess the status of
operation and Development (OECD; this
nearly half the 40 000 species of wild
organization is also a forum for co-oper-
organisms (not including unicellular or other
ation between European and Northern
true micro-organisms) found in Finland.
American countries and Japan, Australia
The number of endangered species is about
and New Zealand) will, in the Finnish view,
1,670, i.e. 9.5 per cent of the total studied.
continue to play a major role alongside
Measures taken to conserve endangered
many other bodies. In European integration
species include sophisticated rescue plans
in Western Europe, the objective of the
specific to one species or group of species.
Finnish Government is to promote more
At present, ten such rescue plans have
stringent and more uniform environmental
been approved and 100 are under prep-
restrictions and norms, harmonization of
aration.
energy and environmental taxation, and
the development of European environmen-
tal administration. Together with the other
INTERNATIONAL
EFTA countries, Finland is striving for full
CO-OPERATION
participation in the work of the European
Finland recognizes the responsibility that
Environment Agency.
is borne by the affluent industrialized
Nordic co-operation in environmental pro-
nations in the present global environmental
tection has long-standing traditions and is
situation. The industrialized countries use
of particular importance to Finland.
the bulk of the world's natural resources
As early as the 1970s, the Nordic countries
and are also the main sources of atmos-
(Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and
pheric and oceanic pollution.
Sweden) concluded agreements on CO-
In international efforts concerning global
operation in environmental protection and
environmental problems Finland stresses
nature conservation (oil pollution 1971,
two issues: the protection of global com-
right of equal access in environmental
mons and environmental protection in the
matters involving a transboundary element
context of North-South co-operation.
to legal and administrative authorities by
In global issues Finland's priorities have
the citizens and public institutions of a
been to establish firm international com-
neighbouring country 1974, general CO-
mitments for the protection of oceans, the
operation 1974, nuclear power plants
5
1976). The Nordic Programme for the En-
Inspired by the 1972 UN Conference on
vironment formulated by the Council of
the Human Environment, Plenipotentiaries
Ministers and approved in Helsinki in
of the littoral states of the Baltic Sea signed
January 1989 emphasizes cross-sectoral
the Convention on the Protection of the
integration of the principles of sustainable
Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area
development into the work of the Council.
in 1974 (the Helsinki Convention). The
Central and Eastern European countries
Convention covers all human activities
are engaged in major political and econ-
which may have an impact on the marine
omic reform. The alarming state of the
environment. Although tangible improve-
environment in these countries has now
ment in the environment of the Baltic Sea
come to light. Because rebuilding their
has resulted from co-operation within the
economies will not be helped by short-term
framework of the Convention, the present
solutions, the conditions for sustainable
state of this body of water gives cause for
development will have to be created gradu-
great concern.
ally, e.g. simultaneously with renewal of
In consequence, the Prime Ministers of the
their production facilities.
Baltic region met in Ronneby, Sweden in
The Government of Finland has a special
September 1990 and adopted the Baltic
East European Strategy, with special
Sea Declaration. The Declaration calls for
budgetary resources allocated to support
the elaboration of a Joint Comprehensive
the economic transformation of Central
Programme to restore the Baltic Sea to a
and Eastern European countries. Environ-
sound ecological balance. A high-level task
mental co-operation is an important element
force was established to prepare the pro-
in this strategy.
gramme, which will be considered at min-
Co-operation in environmental protection
isterial level in April 1992.
plays a key role in the Strategy. An Environ-
Following a Finnish proposal made in 1989,
mental Review and Priority Action Pro-
the first Ministerial Meeting on the Protec-
gramme for St. Petersburg, the St. Peters-
tion of the Arctic Environment was held in
burg region, Karelia and Estonia has been
Rovaniemi, Finland, in June 1991. The
drawn up to determine the main environ-
ministers adopted and signed a Declar-
mental problems and the main ways of
ation on the Protection of the Arctic En-
reducing them. Finland has a vital interest
vironment. They also adopted an Arctic
in reducing emissions of industrial pol-
Environmental Protection Strategy and
lutants in the Kola industrial region. The
agreed upon follow-up work, which focuses
first and therefore most important agree-
on four main areas: the protection of the
ment to this effect was concluded in 1989.
Arctic Sea areas, the Arctic Monitoring and
Finland has close contacts with Estonia in
Assessment Programme (AMAP), emerg-
environmental matters. Environmental co-
ency prevention, preparedness and re-
operation with Estonia will be strengthened
sponse, and conservation of Arctic flora
and fauna.
further and promoted with Latvia and
Lithuania.
Environmental co-operation between
Finland and the Soviet Union was active
and covered a multitude of issues. It will
continue between Finland and Russia and
Written by Mr. Olli Ojala, Director General,
be formalized and extended as soon as
Environmental Protection Department,
possible.
Ministry of the Environment, Helsinki.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
6
FINNISH FEATURES
The Finnish Initiative for the Protection of
the Arctic Environment
International cooperation is an essential
its deep concern for the rapid deterioration
part of Finland's foreign policy. In recent
of various parts of the Arctic region. The
times, the environment has been given a
alarm caused by this development is
high priority in international cooperation;
underlined by the extremely fragile eco-
one could even deem it a new dimension in
systems prevailing in that region.
international politics.
The Finnish Government believes that the
With due regard to the enormous global
problem of pollution in the Arctic calls for
environmental threats, Finland is quite
multilateral cooperation and that the eight
naturally interested in the protection of her
Arctic countries should assume the pri-
own environment especially and, at the
mary responsibility for finding a solution to
same time, in the identification of the
the problem of protecting the Arctic envi-
sources of pollution in her neighbouring
ronment, regardless of the fact that pollu-
areas.
tion of air and sea in the Arctic often orig-
In international cooperation, the Arctic en-
inates in countries beyond this circle of
vironment has been largely ignored until
eight.
quite recently. In January 1989, the Finn-
The new era of detente between the super-
ish Government took the initiative for the
powers made it possible to take this initiat-
protection of the Arctic environment.
ive concerning a strategically sensitive
In a letter to the six other Arctic countries,
area. But the political momentum was there
Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Norway,
and Finland began to move on.
Sweden, the United States and the Soviet
The Finnish proposal was favourably re-
Union, the Finnish Government expressed
ceived by the other Arctic countries. The
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
8
HELSINKI FINLAND
first consultative meeting was held in Ro-
The Strategy concentrated on six pollutants
vaniemi, in September 1989, the second
of special concern: oil, acidification, per-
one in Yellowknife, Canada, in March 1990
sistent organic contaminants, radioactivi-
and the third one in Kiruna, Sweden, in
ty, noise and heavy metals.
January 1991.
According to the Strategy, the Ministers
A ministerial conference on the protection
commit themselves to implement the fol-
of the Arctic environment was held in Ro-
lowing measures:
vaniemi, the capital of the Finnish Lapland,
in June 1991. The conference was opened
by Dr. Paavo Väyrynen, Minister for Foreign
- Arctic Monitoring and Assesment Pro-
Affairs, and chaired by Ms. Sirpa Pietikai-
gramme (AMAP) to monitor the levels of
nen, Minister of the Environment.
anthropogenic pollutants in all compo-
nents of the Arctic environment,
Besides the eight Arctic countries, the Fed-
eral Republic of Germany, Poland and the
United Kingdom attended the conference
- protection of the marine environment in
as observers. The United Nations Environ-
the Arctic,
ment Programme (UNEP), and the UN
Economic Commission for Europe (ECE)
- emergency prevention, preparedness
were also represented as observers, as
and response,
well as the International Science Com-
mittee (IASC), the Inuit Circumpolar Con-
ference (ICC), the Nordic Saami Council
- conservation of Arctic flora and fauna.
and the USSR Association of Small Peo-
ples of the North.
The Rovaniemi Conference was not an
The conference was a historic occasion in
end as such, vice versa, it was a starting
the sense that it was the very first time that
point for a continuing process which may,
all the Arctic countries had an internal
in the future, spread to other areas of
meeting at a governmental level. On the
peaceful cooperation in the Arctic for the
whole, the conference turned out a suc-
benefit, above all, the indigenous peoples
cess.
living in that unique region.
The ministers adopted and signed a Dec-
laration on the Protection of the Arctic
Environment. Moreover, they adopted an
Arctic Environmental Strategy and com-
mitted themselves to take steps towards
its implementation and to consider its fur-
Written by Mr. Risto Rautiainen, Counsellor,
ther elaboration.
Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Helsinki
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sánomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
Social Security in Finland
The objective of Finnish social security is
security system is how to meet the increas-
to guarantee people a uniform level of
ing pension outlays foreseen for the 21st
basic services and a minimum income
century. Although the statutory retirement
security regardless of the individual's place
age is 65 years, the average age for early
of residence or economic status. In gen-
retirement and disability pensions is now
eral, entitlement to basic services and
58. It is important to raise this average
financial benefits is contingent upon per-
retirement age, as the population will be
manent residence in Finland - and not
aging rapidly and the labour supply shrink-
upon a person's employment status or
ing considerably after the year 2000. The
citizenship. Social and health services are
shortage of manpower and the concurrent
provided by local authorities, either free of
rapid increase in pension expenses present
charge or at a reasonable fee.
a threat to the country's economy, to the
The Finnish social security system involves
continued funding of pensions and to the
a number of unique characteristics. For
availability of essential services.
example, fathers are granted a paternity
leave that allows them to help care for
newborns. Parents may choose to place
Bulk of services funded by tax
their children in municipal daycare centres
revenues
or, without losing their jobs, to care for their
The provision of social and health services
children at home with the help of a home
is the responsibility of Finland's local auth-
care allowance provided by the State. Sev-
orities. They may choose to arrange for
erely disabled individuals enjoy a statutory
these services on their own or jointly with
right to housing, transport and interpret-
neighbouring authorities, or they may con-
ation services.
tract to buy them from outsiders. Private
The recession of the early 1990s has given
services complement those that are pub-
rise to lively debate about social and health
licly provided, but account for only a small
services, and of the possibility that free
portion of the total. For instance, three-
provision of those services may have to be
quarters of consultations with physicians
discontinued or the scale of subvention
take place at municipal health centres, the
paired down. In draughting the 1992 budget,
remaining one-fourth being at private prac-
plans were initially made to introduce fees
tices.
for certain health services that had hitherto
Local authorities are responsible for cover-
been free of charge. These plans have
ing the bulk of the costs out of their own tax
now been temporarily abandoned, but cer-
revenues. The central government, in turn,
tain benefits, such as the earnings-related
pays for 29-66 per cent of the real costs of
daily unemployment and national sickness
municipal services, in accordance with the
allowances, were trimmed slightly.
economic resources of the local authority
The greatest challenge facing the Finnish
in question. Certain social contributions,
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
9
HELSINKI FINLAND
such as child allowances and home care
entitled to take a further six-day paternal
allowance, are paid entirely by the central
leave at any time during the parental leave
government.
period.
On average, fees paid for services cover
When a child is born, parents receive a
10 per cent of the real costs. The largest
State-funded maternity package, includ-
revenues accrue from daycare services
ing baby clothes and other childcare
and from institutional and home care for
necessities.
the elderly. Fees for these services are
Alternatively, parents may choose to take
scaled according to the user's ability to
the value of the maternity package in cash.
pay. Consultations with a physician, lab-
The vast majority choose the package,
oratory tests and X-rays are free of charge
because its real value far exceeds the
at municipal health centres. Daily hospital
nominal value (FIM 700 in 1992).
rates (FIM 115 in 1992) cover everything,
including tests, surgery and medication,
food, hygiene and other upkeep.
Municipal daycare or home
General sickness insurance and general
care allowances
pension insurance is paid for by employers
After the parental leave, parents have a
and employees, the central government
statutory right to choose between munici-
and local authorities. Earnings-related pen-
pal daycare or child home care allowance,
sion insurance is funded by employers.
the latter facilitating the care of children by
The costs of unemployment insurance are
their own parents. Local authorities are
paid for by employers, the central govern-
responsible for providing daycare for all
ment and, to a lesser extent, by employees.
families requiring such services.
The choice between daycare and a home
Paternity leave proves popular
care allowance is now available to parents
Childcare has been the focus of a great
of children under three years of age. Ac-
deal of attention in Finland, as nearly 80
cording to plans, the same opportunity will
per cent of mothers with children under
gradually be made available to parents of
school-age work full-time. Only 12 per cent
all children under seven years of age by
1995. In 1993, the entitlement will be ex-
of women in Finland are employed part-
tended to all families with children under
time. Consequently, childcare is heavily
subsidized by central and local govern-
four years of age.
ment.
It is quite common for parents to first care
Parents - either mother or father - care for
for their children at home, with the help of
a home care allowance, for several months
their children at home until the age of 11
to a year. After the initial period, they are
months. A parent staying at home with a
still entitled to place their child in a munici-
child is granted parental leave, after which
she/he is entitled to return to her/his reg-
pal daycare centre. Parents retain their
ular job. The national sickness insurance
jobs throughout the period spent at home
with their infant.
system pays a parenthood allowance,
usually equivalent to 75 per cent of the
In 1992, the basic home care amount is
recipient's normal earnings, for the dur-
FIM 1951 per month. A sibling increase of
ation of the parental leave. If a parent has
FIM 390 is granted for each additional child
not been employed prior to taking parental
under the age of seven. Low-income fam-
leave, she/he receives a minimum daily
ilies are entitled to a supplementary home
allowance of FIM 63.
care allowance of up to FIM 1,561 per
month. In addition to this State-sponsored
Parenthood allowances are paid for a period
allowance, many local authorities pay an
of 275 weekdays. Of this total, 100 days
extra municipal allowance for home child-
are reserved for the mother's use immedi-
care; they do so in the hope that more
ately prior to, and following, childbirth. How
families will themselves tend their infants
the rest of the leave time is spent is left to
and children who need more looking after.
the parents' discretion. The father may
take 6-12 days of parental leave at the
The monthly charge for daycare varies
child's birth, thus enabling him to get ac-
according to the size of the family, the
quainted with the new family member along-
number of children and the family's in-
side the mother. In addition, fathers are
come. Full-day childcare normally costs
2
between FIM 300 and FIM 1300, whereas
The system of national sickness insurance
low-income families may qualify for day-
promotes the health of all citizens. Nation-
care free of charge.
al sickness insurance provides partial com-
Childcare is available either at daycare
pensation for the use of private medical
centres or in 'family daycare'. At daycare
services and covers the costs of tests,
centres, children are looked after by trained
treatment, medication and transport. Na-
pre-school teachers, social educators and
tional sickness insurance pays an earn-
child nurses. Family daycare workers are
ings-related allowance, generally corre-
employed by local authorities. Training is
sponding to some 75 per cent of the recip-
available for family daycare workers.
ient's earnings. In 1992, persons with no
Parents of children under seven years of
income are entitled to a daily sickness
insurance allowance of FIM 63. The entire
age are entitled to shorten their working
day to six hours or their work week to 30
population is covered by national sickness
insurance.
hours. The central government pays par-
ents choosing to work fewer hours FIM 488
per month as partial compensation for loss
Two types of unemployment
of earnings. Nevertheless, rather few par-
benefit
ents choose to take advantage of this
benefit.
During a recession, unemployment bene-
fits take on added importance. Finland has
two types of unemployment security: the
Public health services
State-sponsored national unemployment
The objective of public health care is to
allowance and earnings-related unemploy-
provide equal access to health care ser-
ment benefits. The latter are provided
vices independent of the individual's place
through unemployment insurance. The
of residence or economic status. Health
basic daily allowance is FIM 116. Because
services are divided into two main catego-
payment of such benefits is contingent
ries: primary health care and specialized
upon need, a spouse's earnings may render
care. Local authorities or federations of
a person ineligible.
them provide the bulk of health services in
Most employees are covered by their own
Finland. Private health care complements
sector's unemployment fund, in which case
the country's public health service.
they are entitled to an earnings-related
Municipal health centres, which are charged
daily allowance corresponding to about 60
with providing all primary health services,
per cent of their normal pay.
form the backbone of the primary system.
Hospital care in Finland is mainly provided
by local authorities and federations there-
Written by: Ms. liris Sauli, Press Officer,
of, but there are also a number of private
Information Unit, Ministry of Social Affairs and
hospitals and nursing homes.
Health, Helsinki
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
FINNISH FEATURES
The Finnish Orthodox Church
History
ters. As early as 1918 the Finnish Govern-
The roots of the Finnish Orthodox Church
ment had endorsed, through a special de-
lie in the missionary work done at the
cree, its status as the second national
beginning of the second millenium in the
church, the other being Evangelical Lu-
theran. The Current Act on the Orthodox
easternmost area settled by Finnish tribes,
that is, the province of Karelia. This primar-
Church of Finland dates from 1969, with a
ily originated from the monasteries, and
supplementary Decree the following year.
was carried out by Orthodox monks. The
monastery at Valamo, founded according
to tradition by the Greek-born monk Ser-
gius and his younger assistant Herman,
was the most important base. As time went
by, several other monasteries were found
to back up the Church's work. The Ortho-
dox parts of Karelia did not form part of
Sweden-Finland politically until the latter
half of the 16th century, and even more
extensively in the 17th century.
In 1809-1917, when Finland was a Grand
Duchy of the Russian Empire, a separate
diocese was established for the Orthodox
parishes (1892), centred on Vyborg
(Karelia). When Finland became independ-
ent in 1917, the Church's administrative
links with the Russian Church were bro-
ken. After various intermediate stages, the
Orthodox Church's standing in Finland was
formalized through government action: in
1923 it canonically became an autonomous
Orthodox church under the Ecumenical
A Finnish icon painted by Petros Sasaki.
Patriarch of Constantinople, gaining ex-
It shows Sergius and Herman, the
missionaries of Karelia, with the
tensive self-government in internal mat-
New Valamo Church in the background.
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
10
HELSINKI FINLAND
SYNDESMOS,
the World
Fellowship of
Orthodox
Youth, held its
General
Meeting at
Uusi Valamo
Church in
1980.
Church administration and
taxes and paid to the Church by the State
economy
on a monthly basis. The salaries of the
Orthodox clergy, for instance, come out of
Administratively, the Finnish Orthodox
this money. The central and diocesan ad-
Church, which has about 56,000 mem-
ministrations are financed by the State.
bers, is divided into three dioceses: Karelia,
Helsinki and Oulu. The bishop of the dio-
cese of Karelia is also archbishop, the
Training of the clergy and
other bishops being metropolitans. There
religious instruction
is also an assistant bishop, called Bishop
of Joensuu, in the diocese of Karelia.
In 1918-88 the Orthodox clergy were trained
at a seminary maintained by the State. In
The dioceses are further divided into 25
1988, however, this was placed under the
parishes, many of which cover an exten-
University of Joensuu, which has a Depart-
sive geographical area. There are some
ment of Orthodox Theology for the pur-
140 churches and chapels, and 104 clergy,
pose. There is also an Orthodox seminary
22 of whom are in retirement. There is one
subordinate to the Church, which is re-
monastery and one convent.
sponsible for service rituals and liturgical
Most parishes use only Finnish for ser-
practices. The University trains teachers of
vices, though Church Slavonic is also used
religion and cantors as well as Orthodox
regularly in Helsinki and occasionally in
priests.
some other places under certain conditions,
Religious instruction in public schools is
as are Swedish and Greek, for instance.
confessional, and if there are enough of
The Church's supreme decision-making
them, Orthodox pupils are entitled to sep-
body is the General Assembly, made up of
arate instruction. In other cases, the Church
representatives of the clergy and laymen,
usually arranges Orthodox teaching for
to which the bishops belong by right. De-
groups too small to warrant this.
cisions on doctrines and canons must be
Orthodox services get their own share of
ratified by the Bishops' Synod. General
television coverage and a very substantial
Assembly decisions can only become acts
proportion of radio time. The Orthodox
and decrees following approval by the Finn-
periodicals with the biggest circulations
ish State.
are Aamun Koitto and Ortodoksiviesti. A
The Church is primarily financed out of the
theological yearbook and a periodical on
'church tax' collected with the other national
Orthodox culture are also published. The
2
Church's own publications committee takes
various parts of the country. This art form
growing responsibility for all Orthodox litera-
has awakened interest outside the Ortho-
ture published.
dox Church, too, like many other manifes-
tations of Orthodox tradition and culture.
Extensive international
Despite many serious problems caused by
the last war, the Orthodox Church has won
contacts
an established standing as an integral and
The foreign and ecumenical contacts of
highly respected part of Finnish spiritual
the Orthodox Church of Finland have been
life and society in the post-Independence
growing steadily ever since the '60s. The
period. In a country which belongs to the
Church is now a member of the World
Western world, it strives to uphold and
Council of Churches and engages in nu-
promote the age-old heritage of the East-
merous theological dialogues with other
ern church.
churches, and with Orthodox churches in
other countries.
Since the Second World War, in particular,
there has been a growing interest in reviv-
ing the tradition of icon painting and there
Written by John, Archbishop of Karelia and
are several active groups at the moment in
All Finland.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
3
FINNISH FEATURES
MARCH 1989
Churches and religion in Finland
Historical background
sion, built one in Turku in 1249 and an-
other in Viipuri the following century. The
The Middle Ages. Christian influences
Franciscans did not establish themselves
from both East and West reached Finland
in Finland until the 15th century; their
a thousand years ago. Missionary efforts
monasteries were in Viipuri, Rauma and
on the part of the Western church were,
the busy harbour on the island of Kökar.
however, stronger, and by the beginning
Saint Bridget of Sweden, perhaps the
of the 14th century most of Finland was
most important religious personality of
under Swedish domination and the Ro-
Scandinavia, founded an order for
man Catholic Church.
women, which included the convent es-
tablished in Naantali at the end of the
The Catholic Church brought European
civilization to Finland. It united dispersed
15th century.
tribes into a single nation and provided an
The Reformation. The Protestant Refor-
advanced system of administration. The
mation reached Sweden and Finland by
church ministered to the destitute and in-
the 1520s. Its strength derived not from
firm by maintaining houses for the poor
the people or the clergy but from the fact
and hospitals. It fostered learning and the
it was instituted by royal decree. One as-
arts. Eighty stone churches, their frescoes,
pect of Luther's doctrine especially inter-
wood carvings, sacred relics, altar cloths
ested Gustavus Vasa: it entitled him to
and vestments remind us of the high stan-
break the secular power of the church and
dard of both Finnish and imported art.
transfer its income and property to the
The church was responsible for higher
state.
learning and for teaching the common
people as well. By the end of the Middle
The first step towards reformation was
Ages Finns had learned to live with the
taken at the Västerås Riksdag in 1527.
church and its sacraments. The Bishop of
Unfortunately, culture suffered along with
Turku was the most powerful man in medi-
the financial position of the church since
eval Finland. He also represented the
the only university in the realm was closed
and schools went into a decline. Sweden
Finns in the Royal Council of Sweden.
Most of the 140 Finns registered at medi-
accepted the Confirmation of Augsburg at
eval universities embarked on their studies
Upsala in 1593. Lutheranism had become
with the support of the cathedral chapter.
a state religion. It also guaranteed the
unity of the realm and tolerated no devi-
There were six monasteries in Finland dur-
ation.
ing the Middle Ages. The Dominicans,
The Reformation severed all ties to Rome.
who arrived during the period of conver-
The Pope's power was replaced by that of
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification
HELSINKI FINLAND
IO.I
the King of Sweden, who stripped the
The church as a pillar of the nation. The
church of its income and property. Mikael
Winter War against the Soviet Union
Agricola translated the New Testament
(1939-40) has been characterized a
into Finnish and created the written Finn-
struggle for home, faith and fatherland.
ish language. Divine services gradually
The church was a source of support and
became more Lutheran and were con-
unity in this struggle. The will to defend
ducted in the vernacular. The monasteries
one's country had religious overtones.
were closed, and priests allowed to marry.
The administrative and financial indepen-
dence of the church increased during the
In the period of orthodoxy at the turn of
war with the establishment of the Central
the 17th and 18th centuries the church
Fund of the Church (1941) and the Ec-
again had a similar cultural monopoly to
clesiastical Board (1944). Links with the
that of the Middle Ages. The church
labour movement were also improved
preached loyalty to the state, instilled a
during the Second World War.
strong sense of Christian morality in the
people and taught the Finns to read.
The church took on new tasks after the
war, for example family counselling. Other
Pietism, which emphasized the individual
lay counselling expanded rapidly, as did
and appealed to the emotions, gained a
work with young people.
foothold at the beginning of the 18th
century. Based on pietism, traditional reviv-
In the mid-sixties Finnish culture was
alist movements emerged at the begin-
shaken by migration from rural to urban
ning of the last century. These were Pie-
areas, immigration, growing influences
tism, Evangelism, and Laestadianism.
from abroad, the pluralistic image of the
They have remained typical features of re-
world conveyed by television, and the
ligious life in Finland.
universal crisis of authority. The church,
too, was branded undemocratic and con-
Arising as they did during the first half of
servative. From the 1970s on discussion
the 19th century, these movements were
of ethics and way of life and interest in
opposed by both the state and the clergy.
religion have increased.
It was feared that they would cause pol-
itical unrest and arouse Russian suspi-
The position of churches and
cions. The leading clergy also suspected
that they opposed the established church
religious denominations
and were spreading heresy. They were
Up to the end of the last century every
denied the right to assemble, and the move-
Finn had to belong to either the Lutheran
ments of their leaders were restricted.
or the Orthodox Church. It was not until
the 1889 Act on Nonconformity that the
The 19th century. Swedish domination of
position of other Protestant Churches was
Finland came to an end in 1809, when
made official and membership in them
Finland became a Grand Duchy of the
permitted. The Baptists and Methodists
Russian Empire. Although the ruler was
were the first religious denominations to
now an Orthodox emperor rather than a
gain official recognition.
Lutheran king, the Lutheran Church re-
mained the state church of Finland. The
Freedom of religion was guaranteed in
Ecclesiastical Act of 1869 loosened the
1923. It granted citizens the right to freely
bonds between church and state and in-
found religious denominations or to re-
creased the independence of the church.
main entirely outside them. The state no
The supreme decision-making body of
longer affirmed the Lutheran faith, thereby
the church, the synod, was founded.
assuming a neutral attitude to religion.
The rights and duties of citizens do not
The church in independent Finland. Fin-
depend on the religious denomination to
land endured civil war before indepen-
which they belong or on whether they
dence became a reality. Virtually the entire
belong to such a community at all.
clergy supported bourgeois Finland. Ties
between the church leadership and the
Schools give religious instruction accord-
organized working class remained distant,
ing to the confession of the majority of the
while the victors began to see the church
pupils in the school. If at least three pupils
as the protector of the legal order, the
belong to a particular denomination, their
national tradition and Western culture. It
parents or guardians can demand instruc-
was expected to foster moral citizens,
tion in that confession. Pupils who do not
loyal to the state.
belong to any denomination study various
2
world views, if their parents or guardians
The church council is the supreme deci-
SO desire.
sion-making body in the parish. All con-
firmed members of the parish over the age
The Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Fin-
of 18 have the right to vote and hold of-
land has more independence vis-à-vis the
fice.
state than the Lutheran Churches of the
other Nordic countries. The legal status of
The supreme decision-making body for
the Evangelical-Lutheran Church is de-
the entire church is the synod, which de-
fined in the Constitution and in a separate
termines the doctrines, policies and finan-
Ecclesiastical Act.
ces of the church. Dioceses are headed by
a bishop and a cathedral chapter.
In independent Finland the state has
taken over some of the functions that for-
Finances. The parishes obtain 90 % of
their income in the form of a church tax
merly belonged to the church. Neverthe-
less, the Evangelical-Lutheran and Ortho-
levied along with state and local taxation.
dox Churches still have duties that could
This tax is paid both by individual par-
ishioners and by companies and associ-
in principle be performed by either the
ations. In 1987 the parishes had income
state or local government. The parishes
keep local population registers of their
from taxes totalling FIM 2,493 million.
The state bears the cost of the work done
members, and people belonging to other
denominations and those listed on the
by the church in the armed forces and
civil population register are buried in the
prisons.
more than one thousand cemeteries
Personnel. The diverse activities of the
maintained by the Lutheran parishes. The
Lutheran Church are reflected in the
relationship of the Orthodox Church to
structure of its personnel. It is unlikely that
the state is virtually the same as that of the
there are many churches in the world
Evangelical-Lutheran.
where only one in ten employees is a
parish priest. In 1987 there were some
The Evangelical-Lutheran
18,000 employees.
Church
Activities. Active members of the Lu-
theran Church attend services at least
Membership. In 1987 the Evangelical-
once a month, take communion some-
Lutheran Church of Finland had more
what less often, participate in small group
than 4.6 million members, of whom 4.4
activities and vote in parish elections. Al-
million, or 88.6 % of the population, are
though the majority of church members
registered with a parish.
seldom take part in such functions, they
Administration. The Evangelical-Lutheran
still prefer to marry in church, have their
Church comprises eight dioceses and
children baptized, send them to parish
approximately 600 independent parishes.
nursery schools and have them con-
The average parish has 7000 members,
firmed. They also want a Christian burial
with the smallest parishes comprising
for themselves and relatives.
only a few hundred members and the
The church best reaches its members
largest tens of thousands.
through various church services, and
Parish priests
Parish lecturers
Church musicians
Lay counsellors
Youth work
Work with children
Finances
Office work
Gardener and cemetery
Church service work
Kitchen and cleaning
Technical
Figure 1. The number of
Other
Lutheran parish em-
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
ployees by function,
1987.
Includes all permanent positions and contract posts
3
Small groups of adults
4.6% of population
Counselling
6.9% of population
Scouting
8.9% of 7---14 year olds
Outings and camps
14% of population
Youth work
10.8% of 15-18 year olds
Pre-youth work
18.2 % of 7-14 year olds
Sunday school
17.8% of 5-11 year olds
Communion
37% of adults
Nursery schools
54.9% of 4-6 year olds
Church functions
17% of adults a month
Divine service etc.
60% of adults a year
Marriages
83.3% of wedded couples
Confirmation
92.4% of 15 year olds
Baptism
90% of babies
Burials
95.4% of funerals
o
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Accessibility (%)
Figure 2. Accessibility of church activities, 1987
every Finn attends an average of at least
church collections for foreign aid have
one service every year. More than 90% of
increased many times over.
all babies are baptized, and an even higher
The church has a wide net of international
percentage of children are confirmed.
contacts. These are officially handled by
Only about 1% of Finns are buried with-
the Council for Foreign Affairs under the
out a church service, and as many as 80%
chairmanship of the Archbishop. The
of couples are married in church.
most far-reaching connections are those
In the last few decades the Evangelical-
that have been forged with inter-church
Lutheran Church of Finland has started to
organizations, primarily the Lutheran
show far greater awareness of its interna-
World Federation and the World Council
tional responsibility. This is reflected in
of Churches. Links with individual
increased support for missionary work
churches are strongest with those in the
and development aid and in a greater
Nordic countries and with the Russian
interest in ecumenical work. Support for
Orthodox Church.
missionary work has more than doubled
In 1987 the missionary organizations of
since the mid-1970s, and the proceeds of
the Lutheran Church were working in a
100%
95%
90%
85%
80%
Ф
75%
1971
1975
1979
1983
1987
Figure 3. Percentage of
people baptized, confirmed
Confirmed
Baptized
and married and of those
Members of church
Married
belonging to the church,
1970-1987
4
On January 7, 1985 Pope John Paul II received in private audience the heads of the churches in
Finland: Paul Verschuren, the Catholic Bishop of Helsinki, John Vikström, Archbishop of the
Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Finland; and Paul, Archbishop of the Finnish Orthodox
Church.
total of 27 countries in Africa, Asia,
to be politically aligned towards the
Oceania and Europe, but the focus is
centre and moderate right.
increasingly switching to Asia. The total
number of Lutheran missionaries was 606
The Orthodox Church
in 1987. Other churches had somewhat
Christian influence reached the eastern-
more than 400 missionaries.
most part of Finland, Karelia, from Novgo-
According to a report by the Finnish Min-
rod in the 12th century. The word of God
istry for Foreign Affairs, Finnish Lutheran
was spread by monks and their monaste-
missionaries and lay workers are much
ries developed into bastions of the faith.
appreciated for the work they do to help
From 1809 Finland was a Grand Duchy
people at the grass roots level, and their
of Imperial Russia, and the Orthodox
projects are considered worthwhile in
Church was the Emperor's church and a
both financial and practical terms.
part of the Russian state church. Ortho-
dox Christianity spread to western Finland
Christian organizations have largely been
chiefly through Russian soldiers and
responsible for missionary and evangelical
merchants.
work, but they have also been involved in
In the late 19th century attempts were
a certain amount of work with children
made to use the Orthodox Church as a
and young people, counselling and re-
vehicle of Russification. In the aftermath
lated activities, and publishing. The bulk
of the Russian Revolution and Finnish In-
of the professional training of church em-
dependence, the church's ties with the
ployees is seen to by these organizations.
Patriarchate of Moscow were broken, and
Revivalist movements are now an ac-
in 1923 it received autonomous status
cepted element of the Lutheran Church
under the Patriarch of Constantinople.
and national culture, and the previously
The early years of independence saw an
negative attitude of these movements
increasing tendency towards Finnishness
towards many areas of culture has mel-
in the Orthodox Church in this country.
lowed. They are now seen as part of the
During the Second World War the church
church's heritage, with a considerable im-
lost its monasteries and 90 % of its assets,
pact on decision-making within the
and more than two-thirds of its members
church. Support for them is strongest in
had to flee their homes. The end of the
rural areas, which explains why they tend
war ushered in a period of vigorous re-
5
building, with the state funding the build-
Protestant minorities. Anglo-American
ing of new churches, chapels, vicarages
Christianity spread to Finland in the sec-
and cemeteries. Valamo monastery and
ond half of the 19th century, and a num-
Lintula convent were reopened at Heinä-
ber of Protestant denominations, among
vesi.
them the Baptists, Methodists, Salvation
Membership of the Orthodox Church has
Army and Adventists, became established
fallen off as a consequence of the large
in the country. Although support for these
proportion (close on 90 %) of marriages
churches has gradually increased, their
between Lutherans and Orthodox; the
membership remains under 1% of the
children of these marriages are usually
total population. Growth has been great-
baptized Lutherans. The Orthodox
est in the Pentecostal movement, which
Church currently has 56,000 members.
reached Finland at the beginning of the
present century and now has a member-
Membership of the Orthodox Church may
ship of 48,000.
have decreased, but interest has grown,
particularly in the Orthodox traditions of
Judaism. Judaism was brought to Fin-
Karelia and in the worshipping life of the
land in the early 19th century by mer-
church. Valamo and Lintula have become
chants and by men serving with the Im-
important centres of both pilgrimage and
perial Russian army. By the end of the
tourism, and Valamo alone attracts more
century the number of Jews had risen to
than 100,000 visitors a year.
1,000, which is roughly what it is at pres-
ent. In the early years of the present cen-
Other churches and religious
tury, Helsinki, Viipuri and Turku got their
communities
own synagogues.
Islam. The first Muslims also came to Fin-
Catholic Church. After the Reformation,
the Catholic Church disappeared from
land with the Russian army. The founda-
Finland for centuries, finally being official-
tions of the present community of a thou-
ly reinstated in 1929 when it was regis-
sand or so Muslims were laid by the ar-
tered as the Catholic Church in Finland. It
rival of Tartarian merchants from Turkey at
the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.
has a membership of around 4,000, the
majority of whom live in Helsinki and the
The majority of Finnish Muslims, who are
other major cities of southern Finland.
Sunnites, live in the metropolitan area and
There are five parishes and one indepen-
belong to the Finnish Islam congregation,
dent diocese that covers the whole coun-
which was registered in 1925.
try. The majority of the priests and nuns
Other religious communities. There are
are from the Netherlands and Poland.
about 30 other registered religious com-
Finland has diplomatic relations with the
munities in Finland besides those men-
Vatican.
tioned above.
Figure 4. Total membership of major churches and religious communities, January 1988
Muslims
1000
Jews
1300
Methodists
1800
Baptists
3000
Roman Catholics
4000
Mormons
4100
Seventh Day Adventists
5200
Free Church
12500
Jehovah's Witnesses
13000
Pentecostalists
48000
Orthodox Church
56500
Evangelical Lutherans
4,6 million
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
Membership
6
Ecclesiastical art
20th century. Known as National Roman-
ticism, the Finnish equivalent of Jugend
Medieval ecclesiastical art. In the Middle
flourished in the early years of the present
Ages, when reading was a rare skill, wall
century. The ideals of this artistic trend are
paintings, sculptures and textiles played
embodied in the churches designed by
an important role in teaching. The wall
Lars Sonck (died 1956) - Tampere Ca-
paintings usually depict events in the li-
thedral, Kallio Church in Helsinki and St.
turgical year, scenes from the Bible and
Michael's Church in Turku. Functional-
the lives of the saints. The oldest paintings
ism, which arose in the 1930s, strove for
preserved in Finland date from the early
clarity and efficiency of design. Its most
14th century.
celebrated exponent is Alvar Aalto (died
Altarpieces and frescoes. Many of the
1976), whose churches include The
17th and 18th century altarpieces and
Church of Three Crosses at Vuoksenniska,
frescoes are the work of untrained Finnish
the Cross of the Plains in Seinäjoki and
masters. The foremost 18th century
the Church of the Cross in Lahti.
church artist, Mikael Toppelius (died
1827), decorated as many as forty
Orthodox church buildings. None of the
churches, most of them in Ostrobothnia.
Orthodox churches within Finland's pres-
Renowned church artists of more recent
ent territory are older than 200 years. The
times include Hugo Simberg (died 1917),
oldest ones, which were usually built of
who painted the frescoes in Tampere Ca-
wood, have either been destroyed or are
thedral, and Magnus Enckell (died 1925)
in the part of Karelia that now belongs to
and Lennart Segerstråle (died 1975),
the Soviet Union. There is a strong flavour
both of whom painted numerous altar-
of Byzantium and Russian Nationalism to
the Orthodox churches built in this coun-
pieces.
try. The small village chapels and tsasou-
Orthodox ecclesiastical art. The finest
nas built in recent years, though, have a
examples of Orthodox ecclesiastical art in
closer affinity with the wooden architec-
Finland are from the churches and mon-
ture of Karelia. The redbrick Uspensky
asteries that Finland lost to the Soviet
Cathedral in Helsinki is the biggest Ortho-
Union after the last war. A unique collec-
dox church in Western Europe.
tion of over 2,000 items, including icons,
textiles and sacred objects, is housed in
Features of Finnish religiosity
the Orthodox Church Museum in Kuopio.
Medieval stone churches. The majority of
Since the last war, secularization has
Finland's medieval buildings are stone
taken an increasingly strong hold on all
churches. The oldest, dating from the
Nordic countries, and there is a clear de-
13th century, are in Åland. These are rec-
marcation between the sacred and the
tangular and built of natural stone. The
profane. Values based on religion are
only cathedral from the Middle Ages is
losing their status in society, and are
Turku Cathedral, which was consecrated
being replaced by whole new sets of
in 1300.
values and morals that have only tenuous
links with religion and the church. Secu-
Old wooden churches. It was not until the
larization has made the greatest inroads in
17th and 18th centuries that the church,
the big urban centres such as Helsinki and
impoverished by the Reformation, was
Tampere.
able to create new architecture, mainly in
wood. The builders rarely had any formal
The traditional Lutheran and Orthodox
training, and yet were often the founders
Churches have seen a steady decrease in
of whole dynasties of builders. The first
the proportion of the population they re-
cruciform churches with belfries date from
present, whereas the total membership of
the 18th century.
other denominations has risen slightly.
19th century. The churches built in the
Nevertheless, the greatest increase has
last century were mainly in Empire style
been in the number of people without al-
(Neoclassicism), for example, C. L. En-
legiance to any church or faith.
gel's Helsinki Cathedral, or Neogothic,
Recent years in particular have seen a re-
which became dominant in midcentury
awakening of interest in religion. Contrary
and is represented by the church at Keri-
to expectations some years ago, revivalist
mäki, said to be the biggest wooden
movements are now stronger than ever,
church in the world, which seats up to
and the number of new sects has multi-
5,000 people.
plied. The media, too, are showing greater
7
Weekly
5
Monthly
12
At least once a year
43
More seldom
24
Never
16
0
10
20
30
40
50
Percentage
Figure 5. Church attendance rates, 1987. (Survey by Research Institute of Lutheran Church
and Finnish Gallup Ltd.)
interest in religious life, and big religious
council acts as the cooperative organ for
gatherings and conversions of public fig-
all churches and Christian communities in
ures are reported in the press. Ethical
Finland. The Pentecostalists are the only
questions and problems related to daily
Christian community completely outside
life are perceived as issues affecting the
it.
future of the human race, an awareness
that has spurred the church to open a dia-
Members of the Finnish
logue between different ideologies and
Ecumenical Council, 1987
schools of thought. Although many of the
traditional functions of the church have
The Evangelical-Lutheran Church
weakened, they have been replaced by
The Orthodox Church
others, often by entirely new ones.
The Catholic Church in Finland
The Swedish-speaking Mission Covenant
Ever since the Second World War, attend-
Church
ance at divine service has been low by in-
The Swedish-speaking Baptist Mission
ternational standards, with only 3 or 4%
The Finnish-speaking Methodist Church
of the population going to church every
The Swedish-speaking Methodist Church
week. According to a recent survey, 17 %
The Salvation Army
of Finns go to church at least once a
The Olaus Petri Congregation (a Finland-
month and 60 % at least once a year. The
based congregation of the Lutheran
typical Finnish churchgoer attends divine
Church of Sweden)
service a few times a year, particularly on
The Anglican Church
the big feasts. A far greater number of
The Seventh-Day Adventist Church, the
people follow the services on radio and
Evangelical Free Church and a number of
TV than actually go to church.
Christian organizations are observer mem-
bers.
Ecumenicalism and inter-
national responsibility
Written by Harri Heino, Director of the Re-
The Finnish Ecumenical Council. This
search Institute of Lutheran Church
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Finnish
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
information service abroad, and is intended to be
in your country
used for reference purposes. It may be freely used
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts, etc. No
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki
acknowledgment is necessary. Please note the date
Finland
of preparation.
Helsinki 1989. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
JANUARY 1985
The ancient religion of the Finns
The Finno-Ugric languages
called Finland Proper, witnessed
numerous cultural innovations that gave
The unlettered culture of the Finnish
Finland her own individual character. This
people was for the historians of the
was the nucleus area of the Proto-Finnic
ancient world a complete terra incognita
language, of folk poetry in Kalevala metre,
until Tacitus, in the year 98 AD,
of agricultural methods, and so on. It was
mentioned in his Germania a people called
from these new areas of settlement that
the Fenni, living somewhere in the
the peasant way of life spread north and
northeastern Baltic region "in unparallelled
east and integrated the nomadic hunting
squalor and poverty". The northern area
and fishing communities. Numerous layers
referred to by Tacitus was at that time
of folklore reflect the interaction of
already inhabited by peoples of various
ethnic and historical origin, and it is
cultural phenomena from three ecological
regions: the Arctic, the Woodland and the
questionable whether the barbarians of
Steppe.
whom he spoke were in fact the
forefathers of the present Finns or the
Lapps.
Finland: meeting place for
History of Finnish settlement
eastern and western cultural
influences
Recent archeological research findings
prove that there has been continuous
The position of Finland as the most
settlement in Finland since the mesolithic
northerly meeting point for eastern and
Suomusjärvi culture, i.e. for about 9,000
western European cultural influences was
years. It is nowadays commonly agreed by
already established by the Bronze Age,
linguistic researchers that a Finno-Ugric or
when the Scandinavians reached the
Uralic language had spread to Finland by
southwest coast of Finland. The hunting
the time of the neolithic comb pottery
and fishing economy continued in the
period at the latest (c. 4 200 - 2 200 BC).
central regions, this having been the
During the Iron Age (c. 500 BC-400 AD)
predominant way of life of the early
five different areas of settlement emerged,
Finno-Ugrians. Contrary to former
cultural elements of which can still be
hypotheses, the Finno-Ugric peoples
discerned in modern Finnish society. The
probably never had a common home in
most important area was the coastal
the region of the Volga. They inhabited far
region from Porvoo to Vaasa. This area,
wider areas, from the Urals to the Baltic.
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
10.1
HELSINKI FINLAND
A nomadic way of life was a necessity
and the shamanistic tradition associated
imposed by their economy.
with them. This embraced the idea of
souls in contact with one another.
In the historical era Finland remained a
crossroads for two cultures. Christianity
According to this both humans and
came to Finland from two directions from
animals had guardian spirits. These spirits
were contacted in ceremonies before and
the 11th century onwards. One was
Karelia, which had in the Viking era been
after hunting. The shaman, on behalf of
under the influence of the
the community, conducted a ceremony
Byzantine-Russian Church of Novgorod.
during which he fell into a trance and
In many periods of history the province of
became his own guardian spirit, his alter
Karelia proved significant as a cultural
ego, then seeking the guardian spirit of
bridge between East and West, and also
the game in question. Every species of
between North and South. The position of
animal had its own guardian spirit, which
had to be consulted by the shaman in
Karelia between conflicting groups was
not easy in the 16th and 17th centuries in
order to ensure success in hunting. The
particular, when Russia and Sweden were
purpose of the ceremony after the hunt
repeatedly at war. The people of Karelia
was to guarantee a sufficient supply of a
were split by political, economic and
particular game species in the future too,
religious disagreement and pushed the
by returning a game animal to the keeper
borders of the traditional Karelian way of
of its species.
life further to the east. The
The points at which game was most easily
Greek-Orthodox tradition, which had its
accessible can be concluded from the
roots in Byzantine culture, gradually
location of the rock paintings, along the
became adopted as the religion of the
waterways. The paintings referred to
Karelians. A sort of symbiosis developed
sacred places at which it was possible to
that was quite the opposite of the western
contact the keeper of a game species and
form of Christianity.
to request success in the hunting of this
Three crusades were made to the
species. Similar to these are e.g. the
sacred places of the Lapps with their seita
southwestern part of Finland, in 1155,
idols. The rock paintings with elks depict
1238 and 1293. Over the centuries a
the guardian spirit and the keeper of the
syncretistic religiousness emerged.
elk. Pictures might be painted before the
Present-day life in both eastern and
hunt, to guarantee success, or afterwards,
western Finland displays clear relics of a
to guarantee future luck in hunting. The
pre-Christian religion. In the Orthodox
anthropomorphic figures could represent a
region it was still known as late as about
1900 for the head of the household to
shaman, a person capable of contacting
execute the traditional rites immediately
the spirits. Other pictures, different living
after the Orthodox priest had blessed a
creatures and abstract symbols represent
the shaman's animal helpers.
new home; the purpose of the rites was to
make the guardian spirits favourably
disposed towards the new inhabitants.
Oral tradition
The basis of folk material on Finnish
Rock paintings and animal
mythology and world-view is to be found
ceremonies
in the old Finnish poems. Inspired by the
epic the Kalevala, systematic collection
Finnish rock paintings represent the
was caried out in the 19th and early 20th
philosophy of Stone and Iron Age man
centuries. Between 1908 and 1948 material
and his life as a hunter. The drawings on
from the archives was collected in the 33
vertical rock faces reflect his world view,
volumes of the Ancient Songs of the
in which elks play a central role. Close on
Finnish People. Other folk material, either
70 % of the motifs in a total of 33
published or in the archives of the Finnish
prehistoric rock paintings discovered in
Literature Society, consists of beliefs,
1978 show elks and human figures.
legends, myths, all in prose form, and the
Comparison with corresponding material
poetic genres of incantations and laments.
from north Eurasian hunting cultures
These genres of the oral tradition contain
indicates that the Finnish rock paintings
mythological motifs, from which it can be
are manifestations of animal ceremonies
concluded that they extend back to the
2
Kuusankoski, Pakanavuori.
Rock painting enhanced with
chalk. Human figure with other
figures only partly visible.
(Museovirasto)
Ristiina, Astuvansalmi.
Part of a rock painting. Elk
and boat figures. The elk's
heart is marked. The legs
have broken off.
(Museovirasto)
3
Proto-Finnic era. The epic poetry has
of the Psalms of David. Appended to the
thematic corespondences with many old
foreword to this book is a short list of the
myths of other peoples. Of greatest
deities worshipped by the Finns in the
significance here is a cosmogonic myth in
regions of Häme and Karelia. The list
the song of the creation of the world, in
contains eleven deities from Häme under
which the hero, Väinämöinen, enters the
the sub-heading of piru, the devil, and
primaeval waters and then creates the
twelve Karelian gods. The Häme list
cosmos from the broken pieces of an
appears in the light of subsequent
eagle's egg. Variants of this song contain
tradition to be thoroughly heterogeneous;
many other cosmogonic motifs, such as
it contains cultural heroes Väinämöinen,
the forming of the primaeval seabed and
Ilmarinen), the guardian of the home
the freeing of the sun and the moon from
(Tonttu), wealth (Kratti), the forest
the belly of a fish. The demiurges and
(Tapio), and water (Ahti). Also included
heroes of the oldest myths of origins of
are spirits belonging to the realm of
the Proto-Finnic people were
etiological tales, e.g. the ghost of a slain
theriomorphic. In later periods of cultural
child (Liekkiö). There are two spirits of
development they were replaced by
nature, those of the forest (Hiisi) and of
anthropomorphic equivalents, the most
water (Weden emä). The other ten deities
important being Väinämöinen and
belong to the Karelian calendar, i.e. they
Ilmarinen. Väinämöinen is described in
are actualised in the domain of a given
folklore as the patron of marriage and as a
occupational group in given situations,
shaman who achieved his goal by ritual
such as at the beginning or end of a given
techniques. In Ilmarinen two layers of
period of time. The deities that belonged
tradition are combined: the older
to the pre-Christian tradition were the
represents him as a deity, the younger as
supreme god Ukko, his wife Rauni, and
a cultural hero, a smith who forged the
above all Kekri, whose feast was
firmaments.
celebrated at the end of the agricultural
Incantations are another rich source of
and cattle-breeding year. The seven other
Finnish mythology. At healing ceremonies
names on the list are of Byzantine origin,
but free from their Christian connotations.
the disease is diagnosed by reverting to its
origins, from which all present forms are
They were saints of the Christian church
derived.
year that had lost their original character
to such an extent that Agricola took them
The origin of convulsions, for example, is
for heathen deities.
an incantation that tells in the prologue of
a mighty oak tree that stretched up to
Agricola's list of deities was not only the
heaven, masked the sun and the moon
most important but for two hundred years
and restricted the free movement of the
also the only literary basis for Finnish folk
clouds. A woodcutter is required and
religion. Following Agricola it was 1766
sought in heaven and earth. Finally a
before any new material came to light,
dwarf is found who fells the tree with a
when Henrik Gabriel Porthan, professor of
single blow, and the light of heaven shines
rhetoric at the University of Turku,
again. This myth was used in healing
published the first volume of his work De
ceremonies because of the results of the
poesi Fennica. The influence of Porthan is
felling: convulsions spring from the
also recognisable in the dissertation by
splinters that fly about as the oak falls into
Kristian Lencqvist entitled De superstitione
the sea. The oak in the prologue to the
veterum Fennorum theoretica et practica
incantation symbolises the cosmic tree,
of 1762, and in Kristfrid Ganander's
the tree of life or the column through the
Mythologia Fennica of 1789. In his
centre of the earth.
dictionary Ganander lists all Finnish and
Lapp mythological names and concepts in
alphabetical order. This work also has
explanations, so it replaced Agricola's list
First literature references and
as the basic source of pre-Christian
Finnish belief and became the most
mythological studies
important work before the publication of
The first literary source of Finnish folk
the Kalevala, the masterpiece by Elias
religion was by the Finnish Lutheran
Lönnrot, in 1835. The Kalevala can be
reformer, Bishop Mikael Agricola (1508-
considered from three angles. To begin
1557), who in 1551 published a translation
with it is a portrayal of Finnish mytholoy
4
Shaman's drum. Pictures 1 and 2 show the front and back of the same shaman's drum from
Lapland. The back is a wooden frame with a handle in the middle. Leather was streched across this
frame and decorated with various magical figures.
Drums like this were primarily used for telling the future. The shaman would hold the drum in his
lap (picture 3), place a copper ring on the leather cover and then beat the drum with his drumstick.
The copper ring would begin to jump, and the shaman would predict the future according to which
figures it touched.
5
through the epic poems collected by Elias
Its basic features were also evident in
Lönnrot; secondly, it represents the
many other traditional acts, in the
mythological dream of the Finnish people,
calendar rites, the Kekri festival celebrated
and finally it is, in the compilation of Elias
on around November 1, and in the various
Lönnrot, a statement of the world-view of
rites of passage.
the Finnish people.
Uno Harva writes of the social role of
ancestors in peasant-agrarian society:
Cosmology
"There are countless examples to prove
that those who had passed on into the
The Finnish cosmology contained in
underworld played a particularly important
sources displays the symbolic structure
role in the beliefs of the ancient Finns. The
characteristic of most northern folk
object of worship proper was not,
cultures. The region inhabited was
however, the dead person himself but all
regarded as an island surrounded by a
the dead of each individual family, whose
stream. The earth was round, and above it
descendants were entrusted with the
stood the mighty vault of the heavens.
sacred duty of continuing their work and
The circular stream surrounding the world
fulfilling their wishes. This custom lay at
was regarded as the border between the
the base of the ancient Finnish
living and the dead. The idea that the
community. The dead were the guardians
dead must cross this stream in order to
of morals, the judges of customs, and
reach Tuonela, the kingdom of the dead,
they maintained the order of society. In
is not, however, of Finnish origin and is
this respect not even the god of the upper
part of the mythical tradition of the
regions could compete with them."
eastern cultures. According to the belief
(Harva 1948, 510-511). The Finns
of the northern peoples the dead cross
conceived of the family as a unit,
this stream in the far north. There lies the
regardless of whether its members resided
village of Pohjola with its iron gate, on the
on earth or in the underworld. The vital
other side of the terrible waterfall of
point of burial customs was to afford the
Tuonela, which turns everything upside
dead the rites of separation, transition and
down. Tuonela is thus a reversal of the
incorporation into the fellowship of the
world of the living. Before the gates of
family dead, and furthermore
Pohjola lies the intersection of heaven and
reorganisation of the remaining
earth. This intersection, opposite Pohjola
community. The dead had a dual function
on the south side, was the realm of the
in ancient Finnish society: they were cared
dwarf lintukotolainen (dweller in the land
for so that they would protect and watch
of birds) or taivaanääreläinen (dweller of
over the prosperity of the family, but they
the horizon). This was also regarded as
also aroused fear, because it was
the destination of migratory birds.
accepted that they would punish anyone
The cosmos was divided into three zones:
who neglected the rites or who did not
the upper world, the middle world and the
conform with the customary norms. In
underworld. This tripartite structure is one
former times the worship of the dead used
of the oldest north Eurasian folk beliefs.
to take place at sacrificial trees or stones.
The three cosmic planes were joined
The first fruits and the first newborn cattle
together by the cosmic tree, the cosmic
would be sacrificed to them as their share
column or the cosmic mountain located in
of the annual harvest. The sacrifice was in
the centre of the world. The top of the
the nature of an obligatory offering. The
column was attached to the North Star,
family also organised the burial
about which the heavens rotated. The
ceremonies and the periodic memorial
Finns also likened the North Star to a
festivals. There were, however, major
hinge and spoke of the "heavenly hinge",
differences between the Lutheran and the
likewise the "north pin", the "celestial
Orthodox regions. In the Lutheran region
keeper", the "pole star" and the
the final departure of the dead took place
"heavenly pole".
at the burial on the third day after death.
No memorial feasts were held. In the
Orthodox region of Karelia the old
tradition of holding memorial ceremonies
The ancestor cult
in the cemetery continued until the 19th
The worship of dead ancestors was a
century. Death was followed by a critical
fundamental part of Finnish folk religion.
period, until the kuuznedäliset, the
6
"six-week festival". Six weeks after the
bear skull rite. These acts were symbolic
death of a pokoiniekka (a person not yet
for the death of the bear, its burial and its
incorporated into the fellowship of the
resurrection. Hunting rites have structural
dead) the family would by night hold the
similarities with the cult of the dead, in
"final wedding", granting the deceased
which the emphasis lies on the
his or her new status among the non-living
preservation of the existing social order
members of the family. In addition there
and its institutions. Like the death ritual,
were two calendary memorial feasts. One
the bear ceremony was also called a
was in spring, on the second Tuesday
"wedding", kouvon häät. During the cult
after Easter and was called ruadintsa. The
drama a bride was chosen for a he-bear, a
other was called muistinsuovatta
bridegroom for a she-bear.
(Memorial Saturday) and took place in the
autumn, on the Saturday before October
26. One special memorial feast was the
Gods and guardian spirits
piirut. This was arranged by the family in
Finnish mythology has no divine
honour of a very important ancestor, such
hierarchy, although incantations address
as a former head of the family. It was a
general feast for the whole kin, it was not
Ukko as the supreme god in heaven. Ukko
tied to a specific date and would be held
was primarily the god of thunder, as is
whenever the relative felt it was
indicated by the Finnish word for thunder,
ukkonen. In his list of deities Agricola
necessary.
gives a valuable indication of the cult of
One special group of ancestors in Finnish
Ukko: "And when the seeds had been
folk religion consisted of those who had
sown in spring, a toast was drunk to
no place at all in the community of the
Ukko. This was to seek Ukko's bushel;
dead. These were called sijattomat sielut
both maidens and women drank freely.
(restless souls). Their restlessness was
Many disgraceful things were performed,
caused by inadequate or missing rites in
as could be both seen and heard." The
preparation for their journey to the land of
17th century report thus gives an
the dead. It was believed that they
interpretation of the reference to the "holy
haunted the house, for no fault of their
wedding" that is missing in Agricola.
own or because they were guilty.
The tietäjä, the seer corresponding to the
shaman of the hunters in the agricultural
community, called on Ukko not only as
Hunting rites
the god of rain and storm. Ukko was also
The first description of a Finnish bear feast
called on in many difficult situations, such
was given by Bishop Isak Rothovius, who
as confinements, curing the sick, when
founded the University of Turku in 1640.
luck in the hunt was vital, and so on.
He criticised the Finns for their myths and
Another deity was Ilmarinen, who
said in a sermon: "When they kill a bear,
according to Agricola was the ruler of
they hold a feast, drink out of the bear's
peace and the weather. The name
skull and imitate its growling in order to
Ilmarinen is a derivative of the word ilma,
ensure successful hunting and plenty of
meaning weather or air, in some dialects
game in the future." The sources
also storm, thunder storm, hurricane and
providing information about bear feasts
sky. According to one report from the
contain detailed descriptions of all the
17th century Ilmarinen was the god of
rituals and epic poems and incantations
wind. This report is the oldest evidence of
referring to the mythical origin of the bear.
Ilmarinen, who can be traced back to the
These etiological poems and incantations
Perm god Inmar, the god of the Votyaks.
were recited either during the bear feast or
The syllable inm in his name is the
when the cattle were put out to pasture in
etymological counterpart to the Finnish
summer. In the latter case the aim was to
ilma. As has already been mentioned,
protect the cattle from the bear.
folklore describes Ilmarinen as a cultural
hero and also as a smith.
According to one description from the
17th century the bear feast consisted of
Finnish folk belief refers to many local
three consecutive acts: the killing of the
guardian spirits called haltijat. The word
bear, the feast proper (karhunpeijaiset or
denotes male or female guardian spirits in
karhuvakat, i.e. a bear-drinking feast in
the role of occupants, owners or rulers.
honour of the slaying of the bear), and the
Every guardian spirit normally possessed a
7
special domain over which it had
the allocation of the fields of responsibility
command and from which it also took its
attributed to the spirits was continued in
name, such as forest spirit. The guardian
the Catholic calendar of the saints. As
spirits of the various buildings and
patrons of various economic activities the
localities watched over their domain and
saints entered into the former system of
the economic or other activities conducted
guardian spirits.
here. The domain of the house spirit
embraced the house and yard, the spirit
protecting the cows the cowshed, the riihi
spirit the threshing and drying sheds, and
Written by Professor Juha Pentikäinen,
so on. The specification of the roles and
University of Helsinki
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Finnish
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
information service abroad, and is intended to be
in your country
used for reference purposes. It may be freely used
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts, etc.
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki 12
No acknowledgment is necessary. Please note the
Finland
date of preparation.
Helsinki 1984. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
Education in Finland
General education
In 1990 there were 480 senior secondary
The general education system in Finland
schools in Finland, 17 of which were
comprises comprehensive school and
evening schools. Senior secondary schools
senior secondary school. The nine-form
provide pupils with a general education
comprehensive school is compulsory; pu-
leading to national matriculation examina-
pils not earning a leaving certificate in the
tions. Finland's senior secondary school
requisite nine years attend an additional
network covers the entire country. Over
tenth year. The curriculum is intended to
90% of all pupils who complete compre-
provide all pupils with a largely standard
hensive school immediately apply for sen-
education; a leaving certificate qualifies
ior secondary school or vocational train-
pupils for all courses of further study for
ing. There are currently some 100,000
which a standard education is required.
pupils enrolled at senior secondary schools.
Comprehensive school is divided into a
Secondary education is developing towards
six-year lower level and a three-year upper
the "formless" senior secondary school,
level. The lower level is taught by class
which is already in operation on an exper-
teachers who are currently required to
imental basis in some localities. These
have a university degree. The upper level
schools have already gone over to flexible
is taught by subject teachers who have
groupings based on the individual pupil's
completed a degree in their own field plus
study programmes. For example, all senior
teacher education at a university.
secondary schools specializing in sport
Finland currently has around 5,000 com-
are formless. There are also senior sec-
prehensive schools, with a total of 600,000
ondary schools specializing in languages,
pupils; 6-7% of these schools teach in
music and art subjects. There are plans to
Swedish. The central government subsi-
increase collaboration between senior sec-
dizes some 70% of the cost of comprehen-
ondary schools and vocational schools so
sive education. State subsidies are scaled
that different subjects can be combined
in accordance with the tax revenues and
into a single course of study, and also SO
budgets of each municipality. Comprehen-
that these courses of study can be taken in
sive education is free of charge for all
both senior secondary schools and vo-
pupils. Since 1983 Finland has no longer
cational schools. All these systems are
made exemptions from compulsory edu-
currently under trial.
cation, whereafter municipalities have been
Teaching in senior secondary schools is
obliged to make provisions for the dis-
free of charge, and pupils also get free
abled. Only 0.04% of comprehensive
school meals. Schools can arrange trans-
school pupils leave without a certificate
portation to school for their students, or
which shows that Finnish schools provide
pay travel expenses for journeys to and
care and education with an outstanding
from school. Pupils are also supported by
success rate.
a state grant. Because senior secondary
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
11
HELSINKI FINLAND
A comprehensive
school class
on the Arctic Circle -
the University of
Lapland.
There are seven uni-
versities with only one
branch of science: the
Helsinki University of
Technology, Tam-
pere University of
Technology, Lap-
peenranta University
of Technology, Hel-
sinki School of Econ-
schools do not award vocational qualifi-
omics and Business Administration, Swed-
cations, matriculated students have to ap-
ish School of Economics and Business
ply for further education either at univer-
Administration, Turku School of Econom-
sities or for courses at vocational schools
ics and Business Administration, College
requiring the matriculation examination.
of Veterinary Medicine.
The educational institutes which provide
Higher education
the highest level of teaching in music,
drama and the applied arts are the Sibelius
The Finnish higher education system con-
Academy, the Theatre Academy and the
sists of 20 universities. The universities
University of Industrial Arts. The highest
are widely distributed throughout the
level of art teaching is provided by the
country, and have study places for over a
Academy of Fine Arts, which will be incor-
fifth of each age group. The Finnish univer-
porated into the higher education system
sity model is based on the link between
at the start of 1993.
teaching and research. Finland's univer-
Occupational trends and an attempt to
sities are also the country's most impor-
tant research institutes. Their role is of
raise the general level of education are the
main principles underlying the decision to
primary importance, particularly in basic
develop vocational education to a level
research. All the universities have the right
comparable with the current university sys-
to award doctorates.
tem: the first pilot Higher Institute of Vo-
Ten universities teach more than one disci-
cational Education opened in the autumn
pline. The oldest and largest is the Univer-
of 1991.
sity of Helsinki. It was originally founded in
1640 in Turku, the
former capital of Fin-
land, and was moved
to Helsinki after the
Great Turku Fire.
Other multi-discipli-
nary universities are
the University of
Turku, the Åbo
Akademi, the Univer-
sity of Tampere, the
University of Jyväsky-
lä, the University of
Joensuu, the Univer-
sity of Vaasa, the Uni-
versity of Kuopio, the
University of Oulu, and
the newest and most
northerly university -
The University of Helsinki
2
The Helsinki University
of Technology
Architect: Alvar Aalto
All the universities are
state universities, and
are directly answer-
able to the Ministry of
Education. They
nevertheless have a
great deal of auton-
omy in internal mat-
ters. The resources for
universities are allo-
cated in the State
Budget. Universities
account for about 3%
of the State Budget and about 15% of
increased. The practical goal has been to
expenditure on education.
reduce the time taken to complete doctoral
The whole age group finishing compre-
degrees.
hensive education and senior secondary
Increasing international contacts is also an
school is eligible to continue studying at a
important goal from the educational point
vocational institute or university. Each year
of view. The aim is for as many university
the universities take in 17,000-18,000 new
students as possible to spend time study-
students. Competition for university places
ing at foreign universities or other insti-
is high. There is 'numerus clausus' in all
tutes. In addition to exchange programmes,
disciplines. Universities select their own
further inter-university collaboration is
students.
needed. In order for student exchanges to
Universities do not charge tuition fees, so
succeed the number of internationally com-
in this respect studying in Finland is free. A
patible courses offered by the universities
special financial aid system has been set
will have to be increased.
up to cover study expenses.
The development of a more efficient adult
The total number of students attending
education system will increase the work
universities is 120,000. There are 8,000
load of universities. All universities now
teaching staff and a total of 13,000 staff
have separate further education centres.
altogether. Each year 9,000 first degrees
The education provided by the open uni-
and over 1,000 postgraduate degrees are
versity system has multiplied in recent
completed. Over half of university students
years as has the basic adult education.
are women. Men are still in a clear majority
The higher educational levels of the popu-
only in technical and scientific subjects.
lation and rapid changes in occupational
The proportion of women doing postgradu-
trends are increasing the demand for adult
ate research has risen in recent years, and
education in universities.
is now nearly 40%.
Research and development is an area of
The universities currently arrange courses
society where rapid changes have also
in different disciplines to produce around
taken place in recent years in Finland.
150 different study programmes. These
Universities have paid particular attention
courses lead to an M.A. level first degree,
to safeguarding basic research side by
which extends to 160-180 credit weeks
side with rapid technical and other applied
and takes 5-6 years of full-time study. The
scientific research and product develop-
quality and the development requirements
ment. More than half of the universities'
of the degree system are now being as-
research is basic research. Environmental
sessed.
research and bio sciences are another
Postgraduate research has been rational-
area which will gain priority in the next few
ized by creating postgraduate research
years. Many universities have also estab-
programmes for all disciplines which are to
lished centres providing research and de-
be implemented as a collaborative effort
velopment services, particularly in the fields
by the different universities. International
of technology and bio sciences.
contacts, and co-operation with industry
In a country like Finland the importance of
and other areas of business have been
education and universities is particularly
3
pressing. Mental and material welfare is
eligible to study at a vocational institute,
largely dependent on the research results
and more than half of those who have
of Finland's universities, and on the expert-
completed their senior secondary education
ise under and postgraduate and the further
continue their studies in a vocational insti-
education programmes can provide. Uni-
tute. The structure of studies, the study
versities are a central part of Finland's
programme and length of study time de-
national effort to encourage innovation.
pend on the student's basic education,
although all students are entitled to sit for
the same vocational diplomas regardless
Vocational education
of educational background.
in Finland
There are three levels of diploma courses.
In Finland the concept of vocational edu-
The student can complete a school, an
cation is used in a broad sense to describe
institute or a higher institute level diploma.
educational courses needed for an occu-
The lowest diploma is the school level
pation, trade or profession. Thus, the con-
diploma and takes an average of two to
cept also covers education provided by a
three years to complete. The completion of
higher institute of vocational education
an institute-level diploma takes 3-5 years.
other than a university. Finnish vocational
The highest vocational education diploma
institutes offer a wide range of educational
is a higher institute diploma and 5-6 years
programmes of varying length and level
on average are needed to graduate. The
leading to different diplomas and degrees.
two higher diplomas require a 12-month
traineeship. The courses for matriculated
Vocational training is usually provided in
student have a syllabus which is 0.5-1.5
institutes. However, almost all occupational
years shorter than the corresponding
sectors include a period of practical train-
courses for comprehensive school leavers.
ing in study-related employment. Another
characteristic of the Finnish system is that
the various educational sectors have their
Adult education
own separate teaching facilities. Commer-
There are more than 100 institutes and a
cial and business administration subjects
are taught in commercial colleges and
total of 1,000 organizations engaged in
forestry and wood processing subjects in
adult education. They offer citizens ample
their own teaching units. Legislation per-
scope for self-improvement and promotion
mits the establishment of joint vocational
of their professional skills, for obtaining
institutes and this is in fact becoming more
information, and for hobbies. Some 1.6
million people make use of this service.
common.
There are a total of 540 vocational edu-
cation institutes in Finland, and 50 of these
General adult education
teach in Swedish. In 1991 a total of 165,000
General education is the oldest form of
students attended these institutes. There
adult education in Finland. The first edu-
are enough study places for all who wish to
cational organizations were set up to rec-
study in a vocational institute and have
tify shortcomings in the educational sys-
completed their comprehensive school
tem at a time when only a small minority of
education. Opportunities to study are equal
the nation was privileged enough to go to
throughout Finland.
elementary school. Now these same or-
Some 45% of the vocational institutes are
ganizations provide up-to-date teaching in
owned by local authorities and 35% by the
general subjects, as well as in social stud-
State; 20% are privately owned. The ma-
ies, and hobby-related subjects and vo-
jority of vocational institutes owned by lo-
cational skills. They allow people to de-
cal authorities are maintained by a feder-
velop their own cultural identity, to under-
ation of two or more local authorities. The
stand and to make their own impact on the
privately-owned institutes are also subject
changes now taking place in the world.
to public supervision and receive substan-
Adult education institutes have the most
tial state subsidies. The education is free
comprehensive network. Local authorities
for all students and the financial and social
operate 278 of these institutes. The insti-
benefits are the same regardless of the
tutes organize courses in music and other
institute's ownership.
art subjects, foreign languages, practical
Those who have finished their comprehen-
subjects and physical education. Some
sive school or senior secondary school are
60,000 students study in these institutes.
4
Study centres are maintained by cultural
80,000 students using these services every
organizations and offer citizens an oppor-
year. One-third of the students are at the
tunity to study general and civic subjects.
basic level and two-thirds in further and in-
They arrange study circles, courses and
service training. Vocational adult education
lectures and train instructors. There are 11
centres are operated by local authorities.
study centres in Finland with 650,000 stu-
There are some 540 vocational education
dents taking part in their education pro-
institutes in Finland. They provide vo-
grammes every year.
cational training for the young, but are
Folk high schools are boarding schools,
increasingly engaged in providing vo-
and are usually privately owned. The or-
cational training for adults as well. Some
ganizations that maintain them are indica-
150,000 students attend their adult edu-
tive of the diversity of Scandinavian so-
cation courses annually, 10% are in basic
ciety. Finland has 93 folk high schools
training and the rest in further or in-service
which provide teaching in social studies
training. The state, local authorities and
and hobby-related subjects, in addition to
private organizations maintain these vo-
comprehensive and senior secondary
cational institutes.
school courses and open university teach-
Special vocational institutes, of which there
ing and vocational training. Folk high school
are 56, are owned by the business sector
study programmes range from short
and provide corporate staff training. They
courses lasting only a couple of days to
also arrange long-term further training and
extended study periods. Some 70,000
short-term in-service training. The annual
people study in folk high schools every
number of students is about 130,000.
year.
Vocational correspondence institutes and
Summer universities offer open university
apprenticeship training programmes are
type courses and career training. Their
also engaged in vocational adult education.
syllabi also include language courses and
There are also exams which provide vo-
general education. There are 20 summer
cational qualifications.
universities in Finland. The summer uni-
versities are regionally organized and pri-
The state, the local authorities, sponsoring
vately run, with 60,000 students a year.
organizations for vocational institutes,
employers and students all contribute to
Evening schools teach a senior secondary
the funding of adult education. General
school course of study providing those
and self-motivated vocational training for
who work daytime an opportunity to com-
adults in Finland are mainly funded by the
plete the comprehensive or senior second-
state, but also by the local authorities. The
ary school syllabus or take individual
state is responsible for the costs of adult
courses. There are 47 such schools in
training as a mean of manpower policy and
Finland with 20,000 students a year. As a
employers for staff training.
rule, these schools are run by the local
authorities.
Vocational adult education
Vocational adult education centres pro-
vide basic, further and in-service training.
There are 42 of these centres with some
Ministry of Education, Helsinki
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
Wind Energy in the Arctics
Wind power technology has seen rapid
Wind energy technology
advances in the last decade. The world's
wind turbines generate over three TWh of
Wind power is generally harnessed at
electricity a year, and in some countries
stations with an average output of 200-400
wind power now makes a substantial contri-
kW. The output of the world's largest wind
bution to local power supplies. In the I990s
power stations currently exceeds 1 MW.
the competitiveness of wind energy is ex-
Wind power stations are often built in groups
pected to improve sufficiently for it to be-
as wind 'farms' with gross outputs of up to
come a viable alternative technology.
several dozen megawatts. Finland's few
wind stations have an average output of
Finland has made a late start in research
slightly more than 200 kW. Finland's first
and development on wind energy. The first
wind farm is currently under construction in
official research project was launched in
Korsnäs, a municipality on the west coast,
1988 under NEMO¹, in which the feasibility
some 40 km south of Vaasa. The farm will
of harnessing wind power in Finland has
comprise four 200 kW units.
been subject to close scrutiny.
Although complete wind power stations are
Finnish wind conditions offer good pros-
not manufactured in Finland, we are an
pects for the large-scale harnessing of wind
important exporter of key parts for wind
energy - possibly even the best in Europe.
technology; Finland specializes in trans-
Until now we have seen only 'the tip of the
mission equipment, generators and rotor
iceberg' as far as Finland's northernmost
blades. One in ten wind turbines has Finn-
polar region is concerned. Although Arctic
ish 'innards'. Moreover, Finnish industry
Lapland now shows great potential as a
has wellestablished expertise in offshore
source of wind power, the prospect is chal-
and Arctic technology, which is of great
lenging: Arctic winds are strong, but local
value for the development of wind power in
conditions are severe. If a workable tech-
the 1990s.
nology can be developed to withstand these
icy and snowy conditions, there is nothing to
Wind conditions in Finland
prevent Lapland from generating enough
The output of wind power stations is pro-
power for the whole of Finland, and possibly
portional to local wind velocity: wind power
even for export.
(P) equals to wind velocity (v) cubed (P=v3).
1. The NEMO research programme is an official energy technology research project initiated by the Ministry of
Trade and Industry. NEMO researches and develops new energy production technologies, such as solar and
wind power, energy storage and hydrogen technology. The five-year programme was launched in 1988. Its total
budget is FIM 65 million. Industry has sponsored and taken an active part in the programme.
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
12
HELSINKI FINLAND
1
Freezing in win-
ter presents the
major obstacle
for exploiting
wind power in
Arctic conditions.
Wind gauges at
Pyhätunturi in
December.
If, for instance, the wind velocity doubles
Where lack of space is a problem on the
the power station's electrical output increas-
Continent, Finland's major obstacle is the
es eightfold. The costeffectiveness of wind
limitations set by existing power networks.
power is therefore contingent on careful
Power generation and consumption have
siting of the turbine.
to be carefully coordinated. In winter, just
Wind conditions in Finland's offshore,
when power consumption is at its peak, the
coastal and archipelagic regions are excel-
likelihood of windless periods is greatest.
lent. The average velocity of coastal winds
As long as wind power contributes no more
is 5-6 m/s, of archipelagic winds 7 m/s, and
than 10-15% of Finland's total electricity
of offshore winds up to 9 m/s. A 200 kW
generating capacity, interruptions can be
coastal wind turbine can generate 300-400
compensated for by other power stations in
MWh of electricity a year, which is adequate
the network, i.e. wind energy will have to be
for around a hundred households.
stored away for windless periods. The 10-
15% limit roughly corresponds to the gross
The NEMO research programme has as-
wind power capacity of the west coast of
sessed Finland's potential for producing
Finland.
wind energy. In terms of siting, there is
approximately 2000 km² of land on the
coast and in the archipelago (2% of the
Mean monthly wind speed m/s
combined surface area of the coastal strip
12
and islands) where it is sufficiently windy
and there are no constraints on usufruct.
9
The best coherent area for harnessing wind
power lies on the west coast. This region
alone could produce 6-8 TWh/yr, which
6
corresponds to 10-15% of Finland's annual
electricity generation.
3
Future wind power stations could be sited
offshore or on skerries as lighthouses and
navigation marks are. Owing to the good
0
wind conditions, a 10 km X 10 km marine
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month
area can generate about 1 TWh of elec-
tricity a year. Finland has over 50,000 km²
Pyhätunturi
of suitable offshore territory, which is enough
Sodankylä
to generate ten times more electricity than
Finland needs. Offshore wind turbines would
Velocity readings taken at two stations in Lapland
be powerful, with a capacity of not less than
north of the Arctic Circle. Sodankylä is typical
1-3 MW.
low-lying land, Pyhätunturi is fell terrain. In winter
Wind power has good potential in Finland.
winds can blow up to four times faster on the fell
summits.
2
Arctic wind power
A single fell could generate 5-15 GWh wind
electricity a year. The fells of Lapland have
The wide-scale harnessing of wind power
several summits and form chains. Ounas-
calls for careful siting, with due consider-
tunturi alone has capacity to generate over
ation to limitations set by existing power
1.5 TWh electricity, and Pyhätunturi 0.4
supply networks. The combined use of wind
TWh. The total wind power potential of the
power and hydroelectric power offers a
Lapland fell area is about 14 TWh/yr. This
potential solution. During windy periods,
would correspond to about 10,000 fell-top
water can be saved; hydroelectric power in
wind stations. Considering
turn can compensate for calm periods.
Lapland meets the requirements for an
the vast size of Lapland (a third of Finland's
arrangement of this kind. Low wind read-
total area, i.e. 100,000 km²) wind turbines
ings have, however, previously precluded
are unlikely to cause a visual intrusion in the
Typical fell terrain
in Lapland. On
fells the average
wind velocity
reaches up to
8-9 m/s,
on low-lying land
only 3 m/s.
the option of siting wind power stations in
last of Europe's wildernesses. Wind energy
polar regions.
constitutes a very small ecological hazard,
provided strict attention is paid to the en-
The terrain in Lapland is dominated by
vironment right from the start.
fellsand fell chains. Fells are not mountains
but hills typically only 300-700 m high.
Aside from its promising wind power poten-
Anemometric readings have generally been
tial, Lapland has a well-established hydro-
taken on flat land between the fells where
electric network to its advantage. Kemijoki
the winds are weak, reaching an average of
Oy and Oulujoki Oy, local hydroelectric
only 3 m/s. In 1988-1990 NEMO took read-
power producers, generate a valuable 6
ings on the peaks of the fells, and the results
TWh supply a year. The Hydroelectric power
were surprising: on fell summits 400-600 m
capacity is over 1,200 MW. Wind stations
above sea level the wind blows at an aver-
would thus have a convenient reserve and
age of up to 8-9 m/s. This is accounted for
distribution system at their disposal, right
by the 'speed-up' effect, which occurs when
next door. Energy storage is thus unlikely to
a weak wind blowing over low-lying land
present a problem in Lapland.
and gains momentum as it is forced through
Lapland produces hydroelectric power for
the space between two fells. A wind power
southern Finland. The same network could
station sited on the summit of a fell would
be used for wind power. Lapland is also
thus generate 10-20 times more power
linked to Sweden's and Norway's electricity
than a station only a kilometre away on low
networks, which would allow Finland to
lying land.
export wind electricity.
3
oped for greater weather-resistance, SO
that wind farms can eventually be erected in
these windiest parts of Europe.
The main risk is in the stations freezing over
and in snow jamming the rotor blades. In
winter, the rotors are liable to be coated in
snow up to one metre thick, which could
damage the power station or, at worst, ruin
the rotor.
To solve these purely technical problems,
northern Finland's major hydroelectric power
company (Kemijoki Oy) and NEMO are
making a concerted effort to develop wind
power stations for Arctic conditions. Fin-
land's well-established expertise in Arctic
technology is being put to good use. Joint
projects are under way: the freezing of rotor
blades is being investigated and ice repel-
lant blade materials are being developed. A
70 kW trial wind power station has been
erected in Enontekiö to test the suitability of
a full-scale power plant in local conditions.
There are plans to build a 1-2 MW wind
farm in a few years' time after further ex-
perience has been gained.
In parallel with technological development,
NEMO has conducted research on Arctic
Kemijoki Oy's 70 kW trial wind power station at
winds and their properties. Factors such as
Enontekiö.
velocity, gustiness, water content, temper-
ature and other physical factors all have an
effect on freezing and electricity generation
New technology under
at wind stations.
development
Undaunted by the winds and snows, re-
Lapland doubtless has excellent potential
search teams have made good progress in
for harnessing wind power on a large scale;
Lapland. The ultimate goal is to set up an
it meets the natural requirements and has
Arctic wind power plant. If this succeeds,
an existing energy supply network. En-
Finland will have the option of a new, cost-
effective, reliable and ecologically sound
vironmental conditions nevertheless setrig-
orous standards for technology. Regret-
domestic source of energy.
tably, the wind power stations now in use
have not been designed for Arctic con-
Written by: Peter Lund, Dr. Techn., Head of
ditions. The technology needs to be devel-
Research University of Technology, Helsinki
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
Finnish Cultural Policy
Cultural policy in Finland has evolved in
Regional distribution and
close connection with the rise of national
financing of culture
awareness and the nation-state. From the
19th century onwards, the main aim of
Cultural policy has been defined gradually
cultural policy has been to ensure the
through legislation and this process con-
future of Finnish elite arts by safeguarding
tinues, partly in close cooperation with
their structure.
educational reform. An extensive proposal
There have been many sources of cultural
on the division of duties and expenses
policy in Finland, one of the most important
between central and local government, in
being government, which long considered
preparation throughout the 1980s and now
sound cultural development impossible
finished, is being debated by Parliament. If
without regulations and standards. Reac-
this proposal is enacted, it will convert
tions to this attitude have been political on
government from policy planner and source
the one hand and an outgrowth of increas-
of financing into a virtually automatic source
ing internationalization on the other. Fur-
of funds whose contribution would be based
thermore, market forces have established
mainly on local population and on the tax
themselves in the popular music and TV
base of the local authority.
sectors in particular.
This will mean that the responsibility for
The identity created by a uniform national
development already borne by the munici-
culture is now eroding or at least becoming
palities will be further decentralized with
less strictly defined. The technology in-
the duties of the central government con-
creasingly linked with different forms of
centrating on higher education, grants to
culture demands and favours pluralism, an
artists, and on a few state cultural insti-
absence of standards, and a 'pick and
tutions and major cultural events. The con-
choose' approach. However, the strength
trol network required by change on this
of the national cultural heritage is apparent
scale is still in the planning stage, with new
in how imported elements are screened,
statistical methods serving as the foun-
approved or rejected.
dation.
A powerful thrust towards internationaliz-
In the future, it is also conceivable that
ation has been a salient feature of social
government officials will leave their desks
development. This phenomenon is particu-
and go see where cultural growth is
larly conspicuous in popular culture,
strongest. At present, such field obser-
although more general criteria for quality
vations and data are collected in the main
and success have also become increas-
by only two small but active research
ingly international. Pressure to conform
centres. One of these, the research and
also contributes here.
publication unit of the Arts Council of
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13
HELSINKI FINLAND
Finland, operates under the Ministry of
tutions and general municipal cultural ac-
Education. It has concentrated on a hori-
tivities. On average, some 40% of the
zontal survey of the status of artists in
funds come from the central government
Finland, which is now being conducted for
and 60% from local tax revenues. The
the second time (the first such study was
coming reform of state subsidies will be
made in the 1970s). The other research
more effective than the present system in
centre is the Research Unit for Contempor-
gauging communities' attitudes towards
ary Culture at the University of Jyväskylä;
the arts. Local government will then be
as its name implies, it focuses on cultural
able to focus on an important sub-area of
sociology, attitude changes, reception pro-
culture. Municipal culture officials believe
cesses, the significance of criticism and
strongly in everyday 'latent creativity', which
the links between culture, art and market
can revise perspectives while still relying
forces.
on the existing cultural heritage. Empha-
The advice of experts system on the
sizing the importance of regional cultural
National and regional Arts Councils is a
identities and the responsibility they entail
crucial factor in support of the arts. The
is thereby taking precedence over rectify-
purpose of the National Arts Councils and
ing imbalanced regional development.
the Arts Council of Finland, which were
founded in 1968, is primarily to promote
the creative and performing arts by
awarding personal grants and by advising
Building for culture
the Ministry of Education. The regional
One of the basic requirements for local
Arts Councils have a similar brief within
cultural endeavours is the availability of
their respective regions. Support for ama-
proper premises. Although all manner of
teur pursuit of the arts is channelled through
experiments in bringing culture to the great
the regional Arts Councils, since they have
outdoors, be it exhibitions, drama, con-
a better view of the microstructure in which
certs or meetings, can be arranged in
the various amateur groups in their region
summer, there must also be provisions for
function. The aim has been to shift de-
winter. An important goal in the construc-
cision-making authority from the Ministry
tion of cultural facilities has been to inter-
to lower levels and also to create contacts
connect different functions, making the
between segments of public administration.
premises easy to approach and promoting
The sectoral orientation of National Arts
synergy. Some 200 libraries, 30 culture
Councils and the procedure by which nomi-
centres and many community and sports
nations preceding appointments are made
buildings were built in the 1980s. Schools
favour the organized arts and well-estab-
are often designed to serve as functional
lished forms of activity. In Finland, how-
centres in their catchment area. Cultural
ever, the areas outside the official arts
building projects have raised Finland's
administration have increased steadily. The
national profile, and even on the local level
rigid division of councils by section seems
such buildings are often splendidly ap-
unwittingly to reinforce a territorial jealousy
pointed and uniformly impressive. In times
that is damaging to art itself. Hence, the
of scarce resources, the construction of
status of young artists, new art forms fre-
expensive new buildings is not feasible,
quently arising from international trends
and resources are now being channelled
and multi-media productions have been
to the renovation of existing premises to
cited as areas worthy of special support.
cater for a variety of events.
Cultural activities incorporating local fea-
The most significant government construc-
tures are primarily the responsibility of the
tion project is the new opera house in
municipalities. Legislation which came into
Helsinki. This project was motivated by the
effect in 1980 provides state support for
increasing national and international im-
local cultural activity and also requires
portance of Finnish opera and ballet. The
local authorities to promote such efforts.
state has also subsidized construction of
The basic cultural services were defined
new theatres in Tampere, Lahti and Jy-
as public libraries, adult education insti-
väskylä, and renovation of the oldest theatre
tutes, music schools, cultural and art insti-
in Finland, the Swedish Theatre in Turku.
2
The role of literature in Finnish
that men usually read only works by men,
culture
whereas women read works by men and
women fairly equally.
Throughout our history as a nation, Finnish
arts and culture have been dominated by
organizations. These organizations were
Audio-visual culture
first formed by sponsors and patrons, and
Literature now risks erosion of its strong
subsequently by professionals. Sponsor-
position due to the profusion of TV and
ship organizations founded in the 19th
video. The status of these media was exam-
century had both language and political
ined in great detail in an extensive series of
party affiliations. One of the oldest of such
committee reports on topics ranging from
organizations is the Finnish Literature So-
film production subsidies to training in com-
ciety, founded in 1831 to cultivate the Finn-
munications and production archiv-
ish language, promote literature in Finnish
ing. It is unfortunate that the proposals,
and disseminate information on Finland
which aim for the best possible solutions,
and its history. The Society published the
apparently face insurmountable obstacles
Kalevala and Kanteletar, the classic sym-
in the present economic situation.
bols of Finnish literature compiled by Elias
Lönnrot, but also commissioned transla-
Interaction between the audio-visual me-
tions into Finnish of such world classics as
dia and culture will remain one of the major
Shakespeare and Schiller. The Society
issues of cultural policy in the near future;
now concentrates on publications and re-
this also applies to public subsidies. Audio-
search, and the Finnish Literature Informa-
visual communications have a strong influ-
tion Centre, which maintains international
ence on all levels of society. For example,
literary contacts, organizes seminars and
a decision was recently taken to set up a
visits, and commissions translations, op-
third national TV channel, the idea being to
erates under its auspices.
promote domestic programme production.
Transnational audio-visual communi-
Literature, reading and the availability of
cations are also an important factor in
books have always been important el-
developing international relationships.
ements of Finnish cultural policy. Current
central government subsidies to literature
On the local level, video workshops have
total FIM 30 million, of which authors re-
been established to promote amateur video
ceive 80%. This does not include the public
production and as a part of municipal cul-
library subsidies, which amount to FIM 900
tural activities for adolescents. Progress in
million. In 1988 the 500th anniversary of
communications has led to new pro-
printing in Finland was celebrated under
fessions; these have been included flexibly
the theme Per libros ad conscientiam,
in planning for education policy. Although
'Awareness through books'. Finland is one
people involved in branches of the arts
of the leading countries in Europe in titles
making use of new technology are estab-
published per capita.
lishing themselves as artists and have
been admitted to the grant system for the
The number of books lent by public li-
arts, open minds and fresh outlooks are
braries is increasing; in 1986, total circu-
lation exceeded 80 million books. This has
still needed to break down traditional preju-
dices.
inevitably affected book sales adversely,
and 10% of the appropriations for library
Effective copyright protection is essential
acquisitions is nowadays set aside for
in the new international culture and com-
grants to authors to balance the gap be-
munications policies. The Nordic countries
tween the number of books sold and the
have cooperated in reforming their copy-
number of books read.
right legislation since the 1970s and a
Finnish reading habits have remained re-
national committee was set up in Finland
for this purpose. The status of copyright
markably constant even at a time when
organizations has improved, thereby facili-
many other sectors of culture show a div-
tating cooperation between artists, cultural
ision by social group into separate cul-
workers and organizations of the culture
tures. The works of Väinö Linna and Mika
Waltari in particular are favourites of Finns
industry. In 1990, annual copyright roy-
alties totalled over FIM 200 million. Part of
from all walks of life. In contrast, the many
this amount comes from a fee included in
important Finnish women authors enjoy no
such universal appeal; research shows
the price of blank audio tapes; part of the
3
income from these fees goes directly to
ation for the uniqueness of minority cul-
artists and part promotes programmes of
tures is connected to a broader under-
benefit to them.
standing of multi-cultural reality. As the
significance of national frontiers declines
The culture of Finnish speakers
and Europe integrates, people have greater
mobility and societies open up ideologi-
of Swedish and of other
cally as a result. This will also encourage
minorities
initiatives on the part of individual citizens
Apart from Finnish-language culture, the
and communities.
status of the Swedish-speaking minority
As a long-established European cultural
and their culture in Finland has always
region, Finland has the means to both
been upheld. The significance of the Swed-
understand the need to protect unique-
ish cultural heritage to the entire nation is
ness and the self-esteem necessary for
well understood. Music and literature are
even a small cultural community to make
traditionally strong in Finland's Swedish-
contacts and maintain cultural cooperation
language culture. The principle of language
with others. Participation in Nordic cooper-
equality has been implemented in many
ation is the forum closest to us historically,
organizational culture and leisure activities.
but other contacts in the Baltic region and
In the same manner, the culture and
Russian Karelia have been important for
education opportunities of the Finnish-
stimulating the development of folk cul-
speaking population of Sweden and the
ture, tradition and the arts, despite political
preservation of the special features of their
vicissitudes over the years.
culture have been supported.
The Saami people are the oldest ethnic
group in northern Europe. They speak a
The cultural policies of the Council of
Finno-Ugric language and have a culture
Europe and the EC also concern issues
of their own. Preserving their language
which we find current and challenging.
and culture and finding opportunities to
Without any false pride we may say that
develop and practice traditional trades such
culture and the arts are still seen as every-
as handicrafts are the Saamis' main con-
man's right in Finland. Their users are not
cern. Saami can be used as the teaching
screened by wealth or background and the
language in school, and Saami arts organ-
purpose of culture is, on many levels and in
izations receive joint Nordic subsidies.
many ways, to help people enjoy a rich-
The Romanies are the only other signifi-
ness of thought and a full life.
cant ethnic minority in Finland. The aver-
age educational level of the Romany people
is lower than that of the rest of the popu-
lation; low educational motivation fosters a
Written by Dr. Irmeli Niemi, Director General,
high rate of illiteracy. However, appreci-
Ministry of Education, Helsinki
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1992
4
FINNISH FEATURES
George August Wallin (Abd al-Wali)
- Finnish Orientalist
bic-Islamic empire in the eighth century
AD.
Oriental studies were instituted in Finland
back in 1640, when the first university was
founded in the city of Turku, the capital of
Finland at that time. Throughout its history
a number of scholars at Turku University
have researched various fields of Arabic
and Islamic culture and language. Today
these studies also form a core syllabys in
the Department of Asian and African stud-
ies at the University of Helsinki.
Certain Scandinavian orientalists took an
interest in the Arabic-speaking area, es-
pecially the Eastern part of it, which they
recorded and described on the basis of
first-hand experience.
They have made an invaluable contribution
to Arabic studies in Finland by conveying
an accurate picture of the Arabic-speaking
area through their research, investigations
and expeditions to a variety of locations
and through their study of Arabic culture
Abd al-Wali in an Arabic costume. The portrait
and Islam.
hangs in the main hall of the University of
Helsinki.
They instituted the teaching of Arabic
language and culture at the University,
Relations between Arabs and Scandina-
inspiring new generations of orientalists to
vians date back to the eighth century AD.
carry the banner on. For the Finnish orien-
This fact is confirmed by the famous Arab
talists, exploring and researching the Arab-
explorer Ahmed Ibn Fadian in his travel
Islamic heritage was a purely academic
account from the year 922 AD (edited by D.
exercise, unclouded by fanaticism or preju-
Sami al-Dahhan, Damascus, 1959), which
dice, and free from expansionist or col-
is considered by academic institutions and
onial motives. Furthermore, Finnish and
experts in the field to be one of the most
Scandinavian museums do not contain
important available sources on the Vikings.
any objects or antiquities that have been
Finnish museums provide further proof of
plundered from the Arabic region.
these relations in the form of small antiqui-
Finnish orientalists have previously been
ties, coins in particular, which date back to
treated unfairly or overlooked by other
the Abbasid period. These coins were
researchers. Now two historians, Yousef
brought to the North by the Vikings who
Yazbik and Samir Chibli have published a
travelled on trade routes through the Ara-
book about George August Wallin (Abd al-
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13
HELSINKI FINLAND
Wali) called "Suwar min shamali jazirat al-
to Palestine. He returned to Cairo in June
Arab", in the Arabic language.
1847. At the end of the year Abd al-Wali
George August Wallin, arabist and the
made his third trip, his longest, setting out
most famous of the Finnish orientalists,
from Egypt to the Red Sea, then on to the
was born in 1811 on an island in the Aland
port of Muwaylih on the west coast of the
archipelago between Finland and Sweden.
Arabic Peninsula, and from there across
At the age of six Wallin moved with his
the desert to Baghdad, Ispahan and Shiraz
family to Turku in southwest Finland, where
in Persia. He then returned to Baghdad
he went to school. In 1829 he moved to the
and went on to Damascus, Beirut and to
new capital of Finland, Helsinki, and began
Alexandria by sea. He arrived in Cairo in
his study of Oriental languages, special-
June 1844 and from there he returned to
izing in Arabic language and culture. His
Alexandria and Europe, passing through
first dissertation, written in 1839, and
London to receive the Royal Geographical
entitled "A comparison between literary
Society prize in 1850, in recognition of his
and spoken Arabic", qualified Wallin for the
having been one of the first Europeans to
University of St. Petersburg in Russia., At
cross the North of the Arabic Peninsula.
that time Finland was a Grand Duchy of
On returning to Helsinki Wallin defended
Russia following Russia defeat of Sweden
his second dissertation on Ibn al-Farid.
in the 1809 war. Wallin stayed on at St.
Abd al-Wali was appointed to the chair of
Petersburg for two years, deepening his
Oriental studies at the University of Helsin-
knowledge of Arabic under his Egyptian
ki. His tenure was to be sadly brief, as
professor, sheik Muhammed Ayyad al-Tan-
Wallin died on the October 23, 1852, one
tawi. Tantawi was one of the most dis-
day before his 41 st birthday.
tinguished professors ever to have taught
Abd al-Wali brought back some Arabic
Arabic in St. Petersburg. Wallin also set
manuscripts and his own diaries, in which
about studying Arabic poetry and "Maqa-
he copiously recorded his impressions and
mat al-Hariri" (a well-known work of rhyth-
experiences during his trips. These docu-
mic prose by al-Hariri from the eleventh
ments are preserved in the library of the
century) and "A Thousand and One Nights".
University of Helsinki. Wallin's untimely
Curiosity and thirst for knowledge about
death prevented him from publishing the
Islam and life on the Arabic Peninsula
material, which is widely regarded as a
offered perhaps the main incentive for
cultural and scholarly treasure trove. Never-
Wallin to leave his native country, in spite
theless, a catalogue of this material has
of the hazards of travelling at that time,
been published by Jussi Aro, a latter Finn-
especially in the desert, without any
ish orientalist/together with two Lebanese
comforts or modern conveniencies, under
historians, Samir Chibli and Yousef Yazbik.
a burning sun and exposed to the bites of
The book "Suwar min shamali jazirat al-
insects. Camels and donkeys were the
Arab" ("The View of the Picture of the
only means of transportation and the trav-
Arabic Peninsula") covers a wide range of
eller was often forced to proceed by foot.
the Arabic-speaking world, in particular the
After receiving a scholarship from the Uni-
Arabic Peninsula, its topography, people,
versity of Helsinki, Wallin embarked on his
language, civilization and religions. It also
journey in July 1843. Following a brief
assesses this area's contribution in pro-
soujourn in Paris he proceeded to Cairo in
moting culture and civilization in the entire
January 1844, where he stayed one year.
world.
In April 1845 he left Cairo to travel through
Wallin is buried in Helsinki, where his grave-
the Sinai and the al-Jawf. After four months
stone is engraved with his Arabic name,
he reached Mecca, where he performed
Abd al-Wali, in Arabic script.
the ceremonial rituals of pilgrims. He also
recited ritual prayers and named himself
al-Haj Abd-al-Wali. In March 1846 he re-
Written by: Faruk Abu-Chacra, Senior Lecturer in
turned to Cairo, resting briefly before set-
Arabic, Department of Asian and African Studies,
ting out on his second trip in 1846, this time
University of Helsinki, Finland
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
FINNISH FEATURES
MAY 1991
Finland Builds for Music
An astonishing number of concert halls
equipped for theatrical performances as
were built or begun in Finland during the
well.
1980s. Some of these are separate build-
ings; others are incorporated into cultu-
In concert halls and cultural centres,
ral centres which also house a library, art
architecture and other art forms can be
exhibition rooms, a cinema and the oc-
found in happy union. Architecturally,
casional adult education institute. Many
these buildings are better than average,
municipalities have constructed such
since the architect is without exception
buildings, having completed their sports
in a position to use unusually expensive
centres; the current trend is towards
materials and also to adopt bolder
investments in more intellectual culture,
forms in his design.
which is a good thing.
In the case of many of these buildings
But why concert halls? We Finns con-
the design was commissioned on the
sider ourselves a musical nation. In this
basis of a competition. In Finland, gen-
we do not merely build on the reputation
eral design competitions provide young
of Sibelius; a strong tradition of com-
architects with an opportunity to design
posers and performers has evolved
large projects. This was the case with
since his time as well. The belief in the
the Kajaani Cultural Centre (500 seats);
existence and vitality of musical culture
the designers, Sinikka Kouvo and Erkki
explains the effort which is, after all, re-
Partanen, were still students when they
quired for an undertaking on the scale of
won the competition. There is of course,
a concert hall.
a certain risk involved in designing an
These buildings are really quite large,
enormous cultural centre as one's first
since the size of the main hall must be
design project, since inexperience tends
such as to accommodate symphony
to manifest itself visibly in detailing.
orchestras. However, small munici-
palities with no orchestra of their own
The most original building architec-
have also constructed concert halls. One
turally is Kouvola Hall, built in 1982 (300
example is the main hall (500 seats) in
seats). Architect Erkki Valovirta wanted
the House of Culture, designed by Anna
to harmonize the building with the sur-
Brunow and Juhani Maunula, in Kuu-
rounding low-rise housing, and it re-
sankoski, an industrial community in
sembles a hilly landscape. However, the
southeastern Finland. Local authorities
most common style of expression is the
have found it worthwhile to build venues
kind of Modernism that has its roots in
the 1930s.
of such a size that guest performances
even by large orchestras from Helsinki
or abroad can be arranged. However,
The acoustical school
these halls are mainly used for func-
tions such as conferences which require
These new concert halls have well-
a large space, and they are usually
known predecessors: the House of Cul-
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13
HELSINKI FINLAND
Anna Brunow and Juhani
Alvar Aalto: The House of Culture, 1958
Maunula: Kuusankoski Cultural
Centre, 1985
to
Erkki Valovirta:
Kouvola Hall, 1982
Photo: Simo Rista
Alvar Aalto:
Finlandia Hall, 1975
Photo: Kari Hakli
ture (1958) and Finlandia Hall (1971-75),
both in Helsinki and both designed by
Finland's most famous architect, Alvar
Aalto. The House of Culture has an un-
usual shape; in order to fit a concert hall
on the restricted plot, Aalto made use of
the ancient Greek amphitheatre layout.
With Paavo Arni as consultant expert,
Aalto managed to create an acoustically
excellent hall, which the Finnish Radio
Symphony Orchestra still use.
The large hall at Finlandia Hall, seating
1.750, is also fanshaped. However, Aalto
did not succeed as well with the acous-
tics as he did in the House of Culture.
Major repairs have been necessary to
correct the acoustics, and though it is
now possible to control the acoustics
electronically, it has been discussed,
whether to leave the Finlandia Hall
for conference use and to build a com-
Sakari Aartelo and Esa Piironen: Tampere Hall,
pletely new concert hall. The first
1990. Photo: Simo Rista
meeting of the Conference on Security
and Cooperation in Europe was held at
Finlandia Hall in 1975, and the tenth
anniversary meeting of foreign sec-
retaries in 1985.
Aalto's designs were perhaps primarily
architectural rather than primarily
acoustic. Subsequently built concert
halls are almost invariably rectangular in
shape. This layout has proved its value in
many older concert halls abroad. All the
new concert halls in Finland have em-
ployed the same person as consultant
acoustics expert, making one wonder to
what extent this expert's opinions affect
the architecture of the buildings.
The fact is that Finland's concert halls are
strikingly similar in appearance. They
are all oblong rooms, with spatial drama
visible only in the vertical dimension, in
Arto Sipinen: Espoo Cultural Centre, Tapiola
the design of the seating and the ceiling.
1989
The panelling in the walls is there for
acoustical reasons, and it seems as if the
Eero Hyvämäki, Jukka Karhunen, Risto Parkki-
architect has had very little leeway in
nen: Opera Building for Helsinki. Under construc-
each case. Nearly all the halls have simi-
tion, will be finished im 1993
lar light 'Finnish' wood panelling, with
rather little of the architect's personality
visible. Compared with Alvar Aalto's
bold experiments with the House of
Culture and Finlandia Hall, these new
halls are competently but diffidently de-
signed.
The acoustics expert referred to above is
architect Alpo Halme. He worked in-
itially as assistant to Paavo Arni in desig-
ning the acoustics at Finlandia Hall, but
has since become an expert in his own
right. Halme claims that he uses more
models than anyone else in the world for
acoustical tests. He says he tries not to in-
fluence the architecture of the concert
halls, which is why he gives the architect
ambitious project of all both in size and
only a schematic diagram of the floor
in artistic aims. The building, scheduled
plan. It is not his fault, he says, if every
for completion in 1993, already domi-
architect shows a predilection for light-
nates the view over Töölönlahti bay in
coloured wood.
the heart of Helsinki. The tower over the
An original exception to this category is
stage stands 52 metres high. The large,
Tampere Hall, designed by Sakari Aarte-
traditionally horseshoe-shaped audi-
lo and Esa Piironen on the basis of their
torium will seat nearly 1.400, while the
winning entry in the design competition;
studio stage seats 200 to 500.
the building was completed in 1990. The
The opera house, designed by architects
concert hall seats nearly 1.900, and is
Eero Hyvämäki, Jukka Karhunen and
thus the largest in Finland. Tampere is a
Risto Parkkinen, is comparable to the
fairly large city, and it is now increasing
new Opéra in Paris, the design com-
the size of its Philharmonic Orchestra to
petition for which was organized a few
90 members. The concert hall is a free-
years ago. Both buildings represent a
form shape, far from the conventional
kind of technically-inclined Post-
box form: to enter it is almost like going
Modernism. Hyvämäki feels that the
into the belly of a whale.
building incorporates the architectural
ideals of the past; after all, the design
competition was held some fifteen years
Concert halls as a calling
ago. The results of a competition organ-
Specialization is common in many fields
ized now would be quite different.
of architecture. Hospitals, for example,
The present Helsinki opera house was
require a lot of experience from the de-
originally a Russian theatre; it dates from
signer. What about cultural centres and
the late 19th century. How can an art
concert halls? Architect Arto Sipinen has
form as conservative as opera feel com-
designed three large buildings, two cul-
fortable in a modern building? Perhaps
ture centres and one concert hall, and it
the traditional operas lined up for the
is not surprising that they are similar in
future - Strauss, Wagner and Verdi -
architecture. They all feature airy foyers
would be better suited to the existing
giving onto the surrounding landscape
building. On the other hand, the large-
in contrast to the enclosed space of the
scale Finnish operas written in the past
concert hall proper.
few years will finally have a decent set-
The earliest, the Imatra Cultural Centre
ting.
(550 seats, completed in 1986), still
Finnish composers have been remark-
shows a certain hesitation in the archi-
ably active in contributing to opera. The
tect's style. However, the materials typi-
major component in this phenomenon is
cal of Sipinen, white quartz sand blocks
probably the success of the Savonlinna
and large glass surfaces are already the-
Opera Festival. The works, most of
re. In his later works, Mikkeli Concert Hall
which have been performed abroad as
(694 seats) and Espoo Cultural Centre in
well, have hitherto been based on Fin-
Tapiola (812 seats), Sipinen makes use
nish historical subjects. It remains to be
of Finnish Lapp marble or Italian traver-
seen whether a modern state-of-the-art
tine. His architectural style also proceeds
opera house will inspire such heights of
towards a sound control of the whole,
'Avant-Garde' as were experienced in
with simple materials counterbalancing
the early days of Modernism in
rich forms.
the 1920s.
The opera house
The new opera house is a special case in
Written by Mr Asko Salokorpi,
the list of concert halls. It is the most
Architectural historian
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
The Finnish Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
The Finnish Art Grant System
The State art grant system is based on an
Grants awarded by
act from 1967 pertaining to the promotion
of art and on an act from 1969 on honorary
regional arts councils
professorships and State grants for artists.
Regional arts councils are entrusted to
The Ministry of Education, the Arts Council
award one, three and five-year grants and
of Finland and National Arts Councils dis-
project grants; in 1969-88 they distributed
tribute grants on the national level, and
a total of FIM 65 million in grants. Within a
regional arts councils on the regional level.
set budget, these committees can them-
The primary goal of the State art grant
selves determine the respective proportions
system is to promote the development of
of money spent on grants and State subsi-
Finnish art.
dies awarded to organizations. During the
last 20 years, there has been a clear lean-
ing towards grants, i.e., the promotion of
ART GRANTS
the professional arts. This trend has been
Type and number of grants
consistent, especially after an act on
municipal cultural activities (1981) was
Artists from different fields are sponsored
passed and municipalities began receiv-
in their work and studies with one, three
ing State subsidies to finance art societies.
and five-year grants. There are also 15-
year grants available to provide artists with
Entrusting grant distribution to regional
long-term financial backing for continuing
arts councils furthers regional equality and
facilitates swift detection of new talent and
their work. The total number of grants
innovative art.
distributed annually is 182, but the actual
number of artists receiving grants is
greater, because one-year grants can be
Recipients and prerequisites
divided between two artists.
Long-term State grants are awarded to
In addition, a sum equivalent to at least fifty
accomplished full-time artists who are
art grants is annually allocated as special
neither employed nor occupy a permanent
project grants for individual projects.
post in the field of art. As a rule long-term
The grants are tax-exempt and correspond
grants are awarded to artists under 40
to State wage class A 9 (FIM 5,556/month
years of age for exceptional reasons only.
in 1991). In 1991, 438 artists received this
Other State grants and project grants are
grant. In the national budget FIM 30.9
awarded to artists and critics and, in recog-
million was allocated for art grants and FIM
nition of special achievement, to teachers
3.2 million for project grants. There is a
working at art schools, and other art in-
special statute prescribing how the annual
structors and scholars specializing in art or
grants are to be apportioned between art-
art history. For the three and five-year
ists from different fields, translators and
grants, priority is given to artists who have
critics. Each field's share of the grants in
already distinguished themselves in the
1987-90 is presented in the figure below.
creative arts, but are neither employed nor
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13
HELSINKI FINLAND
1
occupy a permanent post in the field of
The National Arts Councils award one,
arts.
three and five-year grants in their respect-
An arts council may stipulate that the grant
ive fields. They also give expert state-
recipient not be allowed to seek salaried
ments on the awarding of all the other
employment. Other conditions may also
grants. The Arts Council of Finland is re-
be set to ensure that the grant money be
sponsible for awarding critics' grants and
used for suitable purposes only.
project grants, and the Ministry of Edu-
Linguistic and regional equality must be
cation for long-term grants based on the
given due consideration in the awarding of
proposal of the Arts Council of Finland.
grants.
Grants can be awarded to provide artists
Honorary Arts Professorships
with sufficient financial backing for continu-
From candidates nominated by the Arts
ing their work or, with the exception of long-
Council of Finland the President elects an
term grants, to sponsor studies and follow-
Honorary Arts Professor, either for a five-
up training either in Finland or abroad.
year term or permanently. There are cur-
Project grants can also be granted as
rently 11 Honorary Arts Professors, two of
fixed-term or lump sum grants and artist
whom have permanent tenure.
allowances, and joint grants can be
An appointed candidate has to be an out-
awarded to two or more artists or teams
standingly accomplished artist. Honorary
comprising one or more artists and their
Arts Professors are required to practice
assistants. Grant applications can be sub-
actively in their field. They alternatively
mitted for specific projects, for covering
lecture at institutions of higher education
working costs, for performance, display
and give expert advice to working artists.
and publishing costs and for research in
The salary of an Honorary Arts Professor
the field of art. In 1991 the grants ranged
corresponds to State wage class A 24
from FIM 5,000 to 50 000 (the average was
(averaging FIM 13,500/year in 1991) and
FIM 20,000).
is classified as taxable income.
The applicant shall give an account of how
the grant money is to be used in a manner
specified by the arts committee in ques-
Other grants
tion.
Aside from statutory grants, artists are
promoted and sponsored through profits
from State betting and lotteries distributed
Expert committees
through the State budget and used for
A set of expert committees has been set up
children's art project grants and awards,
under the Ministry of Education to award
State awards, refunding of library expenses
grants and give expert opinions. There are
and supplementary artist pensions.
National Arts Councils for the following
In 1991, the sum appropriated for chil-
fields: literature, the visual arts, music,
dren's art project grants and awards to-
drama, architecture, the applied arts, film,
talled FIM 700,000, State awards FIM
photography and dance. The chairmen of
750,000 and library expense refunds FIM
the committees and four members ap-
17.5 million. A sum corresponding to 65
pointed separately by the Council of State
total pensions is distributed to artists in the
form a central committee. Each province
form of either total or partial artist pensions
has its own arts committee responsible for
annually. The pension is calculated ac-
the advancement of local arts.
cording to State wage class A 14 (FIM
Members of National Arts Councils should
5,206/month in 1991), and is taxable in-
be distinguished artists or experts in the
come. Supplementary artist pensions were
field in question. Members of Regional
granted to some thousand artists in 1991.
Arts Councils should be experts in a special
Artists also receive grants from royalties
artistic field or on regional cultural policy.
paid to channelled foundations specifically
Members of National Arts Councils are
founded for this purpose.
appointed for a three-year term by the
Several private foundations and funds in
Council of State from among candidates
Finland award grants to artists. Their sup-
nominated by central art organizations and
port accounts for one third of the total sum
institutions representing the field in ques-
of grants and awards.
tion. The Provincial Governments observe
a corresponding procedure.
In the sponsorship of artists commercial
2
organizations have, at most, accounted for
providing jobs for artists in art institutions.
somewhat less than 10% (FIM 52.6 million
Supporting artists through grants is not,
in 1987) of State support of the arts. The
however, a common practice in municipal-
share distributed to individual artists is not,
ities.
however, easily comparable with the grants
system.
Tuulikki Karjalainen
Municipalities contribute a substantial share
Chair of the Arts Council of Finland
in sponsoring culture and the arts and in
The portion allocated for each field of the arts from total grants awarded in
1987-90.
Others
Photography
2.76 %
Film
Dance
3.85 %
5.62 %
3.83 %
Industrial arts
5.60 %
Literature
23.31%
Music
15.16 %
Architecture
2.27 %
Theatre
Visual arts
7.47 %
30.13 %
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Kainuun Sanomain Kirjapaino 1991
3
FINNISH FEATURES
SEPTEMBER 1985
History of Finnish Literature
I Pre-Christian era
or 1544) and a Rucouskirian Bibliasta
Finland has had an unwritten literature:
(Prayerbook form the Bible 1544).
epic and lyric poetry, spells, songs of
Finnish-language literature consisted of
mourning etc, preserved by oral tradition.
modest psalms and occasional poetry.
The oldest Baltic Finnish writing was
Swedish-language literature developed
found in the Novgorod area. It is the
further, thanks to such poets as Jacob
Lightning Spell, written on birch-bark and
Frese (c. 1691-1729) and Gustaf Filip
dating back to the early 13th century. The
Creutz (1731-1785). The most important
collecting of folk poetry on an extensive
writer of this era is Frans Mikael Franzén
scale started at the beginning of the 19th
(1772-1847). He is a pre-Romantic, the
century. The results of the work of collec-
most important poet during the period of
ting have been published in a 33 volume
Swedish rule, whose significance is under-
work called Suomen Kansan Vanhat
lined as a pioneer whom the great poet
Runot (The Old Poems of the Finnish
J. L. Runeberg admired. Franzén finally
People 1908-1948), which contains a
moved to Sweden where he became a
total of some 1 270 000 lines.
bishop.
II Era of Swedish rule
III Era of autonomy 1809-1917
1155-1809
When Finland became an autonomous
Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire, this
Written literature was chiefly in Latin or
meant in the words of Czar Alexander I
the Swedish language. The earliest
that she rose to become a nation among
Finnish writer whose name and identity
nations. The era of autonomy marked a
are known in Jöns Budde, a monk, and
tremendous development in both
the earliest information about his literary
Swedish- and particularly Finnish-lan-
work goes back to 1469. He translated
guage literature in Finland.
religious literature and parts of the Old
Testament into Swedish. His Jöns
The rise of Swedish-language literature
Budde's bok (Jöns Budde's Book
was based especially on the works of
1487-91), written in Swedish, contains
Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804-1877); in
sacred writings, but also tales a little
the mid-century Runeberg was the most
resembling short stories.
highly esteemed writer in the Nordic
countries. He was influenced both by
The father of the Finnish written language
Classicism and Romanticism, writing lyri-
is Mikael Agricola (c. 1510-57). He was a
cal poetry, idyllic epics in hexameter form,
priest, later a bishop, who gained his
and heroic epics on Scandinavian themes.
degree of magister as a pupil of Luther
His influence extended far into the twenti-
and Melanchton at the university of Wit-
eth century, owing to his Fänrik Ståls
tenberg. When he returned to Finland he
sägner (Tales of Ensign Stål I-II 1848,
completed his Finnish translation of the
1860), idealistic, patriotic narrative poems
New Testament (1548). Before that he had
extolling Finnish bravery and endurance.
published a Finnish-language primer (1543
The growing national consciousness was
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13.6
HELSINKI FINLAND
Mikael Agricola
J.L. Runeberg
Elias Lönnrot
given a heroic and tragic background in
At the end of the 19th century, Finnish
these verses about Finnish wars.
literature received powerful impulses from
the Scandinavian, Russian and French
Of more enduring significance to Finnish
realism of the time. In the novels and
culture than Runeberg was Elias Lönnrot
plays of Juhani Aho (1867-1921), Minna
(1802-1884). During his journeys collec-
Canth (1844-1897), Teuvo Pakkala
ting Finnish poetry 1828-45 Lönnrot gath-
(1862-1925), Arvid Järnefelt (1861
ered some 65 000 lines of folk poetry.
- 1932) and the Finland-Swedish August
From his material he composed, with
Tavaststjerna (1860-1898) the new social
some personal additions, the Kalevala, the
criticism concentrated particularly on
Finnish national epic (1835-36, second
questions concerning the poor, workers,
expanded edition 1849). The Kalevala is
women and sexual problems. Literature
the result of Lönnrot's work, for no an-
came down on the side of social progress,
cient Finnish epic ever existed, though
especially against the church.
Lönnrot in the spirit of the Romantics
believed it had. In addition to the Kalevala,
The period of programmatic realism was
Lönnrot published also a collection of lyric
comparatively brief. By the turn of the
Finnish folk poetry called Kanteletar
century it was being replaced by neo-
(1840-41). The influence of both these
Romanticism, influenced by Symbolism,
works in the whole of Finnish culture has
and thanks to Eino Leino (1878-1926)
been fundamental.
and Otto Manninen (1872-1950) poetry
forged ahead of the novel. In Leino's work
The most important philosopher and states-
neo-Romanticism developed into a na-
man in Finland in the 19th century was
tional form, stimulated by the Kalevala,
Johan Vilhelm Snellman (1806-1881). He
was a student of Hegel's thought and
the mythical past of the Finnish people
and Karelianism. This national neo-
demanded a literature that would create
Romanticism culminated in Leino's Hel-
and express the Finnish language and the
kavirsiä (Whitsun Songs I-II 1903, 1916),
Finnish nation. The writer who fulfilled
collections of ballads and legendary
these demands was Aleksis Kivi
poems, in which he adapted the metre of
(1834-1872). He wrote the first Finnish-
the Kalevala to his artistic purposes and
language tragedy, the first comedy, and
combined impulses from the Kalevala
the first novel, his chief work Seitsemän
world and the ideas of Nietzche. In the
veljestä (Seven Brothers 1870), classic of
1910s neo-Romanticism gradually gave
Finnish and world literature. In his main
way to the classical poetry of V.A. Kos-
works Kivi is a realist and a humourist,
kenniemi (1885-1962) and the concise
using as his material the peasant farmers'
expression of ethical individualism of
and craftsmen's life of his home district,
Juhani Siljo (1888-1918).
Nurmijärvi in southern Finland. Kivi's
status in the history of Finnish-language
In the novel, critical realism replaced neo-
literature cannot be compared with that of
Romantic ornamentation, and national
any who came after him, for his work is
idealism and admiration of simple folk
the foundation of Finnish literature.
came under analysis and were shown to
2
Aleksis Kivi
Mika Waltari
Tove Jansson
be out of date. Materialism and egoism
(1901-1944), Uuno Kailas (1901-1933)
are displayed in the short stories and
and P. Mustapää (pseudonym of Martti
plays, often dealing with marriage, of
Haavio, 1899-1973). Along the prose
Maria Jotuni (1880-1943). The idealized
writers of the new generation, the most
picture of ordinary folk fostered by the
significant included Pentti Haanpää
bourgeoisie was examined in a humorous
(1905-1955), satirist and ironist, a master
and critical light by Ilmari Kianto
of the short tale, the working class writer
(1874-1970) and Maiju Lassila (pseudo-
and individual thinker Toivo Pekkanen
nym of Algoth Untola 1868-1918). The
(1902-1957)
and
Mika
Waltari
development culminated in a novel called
(1908-1979), portrayer of the modern
Putkinotko (1919-20) by Joel Lehtonen
middle-class, who won his chief renown
(1881-1934), after Seven Brothers the
after World War II with his historical
most significant Finnish novel when it was
novels, such as Sinuhe (1945).
published.
In prose writing between the world wars
Independence in 1917 and the civil war
the focus, however, was on the works of
between Reds and Whites that ensued in
the older generation, of writers such as
1918, ending in the suppression of the
Lehtonen, Jotuni and Järnefelt already
attempted revolution, are a decisive turn-
mentioned. A vital contribution was also
ingpoint in Finnish history, and had their
made by F.E. Sillanpää (1888-1964),
influence in literature also.
whose novels Hurskas kurjuus (Pious
Misery 1919) and Nuorena nukkunut (Fal-
IV The First Republic 1917-1944
len Asleep While Young 1931) are colour-
ed by a sense of proportion based on a
At the end of the 1910s Finland-Swedish
biological view of life. He was awarded
poetry first introduced a new modernist
the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1939. The
generation of writers with a new concept
chief work of Volter Kilpi (1874-1939),
of literature. Finland-Swedish poetry led
Alastalon salissa (In the Parlour of Alastalo
the way in Scandinavia, with the poets
1933) describing the Finns of the south-
Edith Södergran (1892-1923), Elmer Dik-
western archipelago, marks the advent of
tonius (1896-1961) and Gunnar Björling
the internal monologue to the Finnish
(1887-1960) in the forefront. Poetry dis-
novel and is one of the high points of the
pensed with regular metre and rhyme,
genre.
creating a new kind of imagery and finding
influences from German expressionism
At the end of the 1930s the left-wing
and later Dadaism and elsewhere.
intelligentsia began to organize politically,
and to produce working-class, anti-
The renewing of Finnish-language poetry
militarist and anti-Fascist literature. In
was not SO radical, though modernist tend-
poetry these writers included Arvo Tur-
encies can be perceived in for example
tiainen (1904-1980) and Viljo Kajava
the poetry of Aaro Hellaakoski
(born 1909), while the new social prose
(1893-1952) and later of members of the
was represented by e.g. Helvi Hämäläinen
younger generation: Katri Vala
(born 1907) and Elvi Sinervo (born 1912).
3
V Period after World War II
psychological themes more openly to
Swedish-language poetry.
After the war two lines in both poetry and
prose are visible: the one resorting to
In the novel social realism became more
traditional form and expression, the other
common, often combined with an attempt to
chiefly influenced by European mod-
disclose the tensions, political, sexual and
ernism. In poetry the post-war works of
religious, beneath the surface both in individu-
e.g. Hellaakoski, P. Mustapää and V. A.
als and society. Among the most important
Koskenniemi represent the former. In
writers are Marko Tapio (1924-1973),
prose the most influential traditional novel-
Samuli Paronen (1917-1974), Lassi Sink-
ist has been Väinö Linna (born 1920) with
konen (1937-1976) and Timo K. Mukka
his Tuntematon sotilas (Unknown Soldier
(1944-1973), along with Hannu Salama (born
1954) and Täällä Pohjantähden alla (Here
1936), who in his novel Siinä näkijä missä
Under the North Star I-III 1959-62).
tekijä (Where There's a Deed There's a Wit-
ness 1972) and his Finlandia Series (1976-84)
The so-called modernism of the fifties
has powerfully influenced Finnish social real-
brought a great number of both poets and
ism. Among Finland-Swedish novelists some
prose-writers to the fore. Poetry now
of the most significant are Christer Kihlman
abandoned regular metre and rhyme
(born 1930) and Jörn Donner (born 1933);
almost completely and often expressed
they have written novels examining the way of
itself in unconventional imagery. Poets
life of the Finland-Swedish bourgeoisie, but
who have achieved a significant position
also social reports. The Finnish writer who has
include Helvi Juvonen (1919-1959), Paa-
won the most international fame is the Fin-
VO Haavikko (born 1931), Eeva-Liisa Man-
land-Swedish Tove Jansson (born 1914) with
ner (born 1921), Tuomas Anhava (born
her Muumi books, published from the forties
1927), Lassi Nummi (born 1928), and Mirk-
to the seventies.
ka Rekola (born 1931), together with the
Finland-Swedish Bo Carpelan (born 1926).
In the novel of the 1970s broad and generally
In volume, versatility and quality, and
conventional narration was popular both
from the international recognition he has
among writers and their readers. The past and
received, Haavikko can be considered the
present of Finnish society was charted and the
leading writer of this modernist gener-
problems of the welfare society and urbaniza-
ation.
tion examined, as e.g. in the works of Eila
Pennanen (born 1916), Alpo Ruuth (born
Among the most significant novelists of
1943), Eeva Joenpelto (born 1921), Kalle Pä-
this generation are Antti Hyry (born 1931),
ätalo (born 1919) and Eino Säisä (born 1935).
master of economical expression, Marja-
Psychological and social problems have been
Liisa Vartio (1924-1966), with her sharp-
combined in new ways by e.g. Kerttu-Kaarina
eyed psychological description, Paavo
Suosalmi (born) 1921), Antti Tuuri (born 1944),
Rintala (born 1930), who has exper-
Matti Pulkkinen (born 1944), Olli Jalonen (born
imented with the documentary and collage
1954) and the Finland-Swedish Johan Bargum
novel, and Veijo Meri (born 1928), whose
(born 1943) and Henrik Tikkanen
novels abound in grotesque events and
(1924-1984), expert in the satirical autobio-
absurd humour, and whose war novel
graphical novel. Erno Paasilinna (born 1935) is
Manillaköysi (Manilla Rope 1957) in particu-
also a sharp, satirist, as well as. achieving
lar has aroused considerable response from
important results in the field of the broad
translations into several languages.
historical documentary. Leena Krohn (born
1947) has established her own niche in the
In the 1960s literature became more socially
field of miniature works with philosophical
conscious and political, while shifting from the
colouring and precise, prose, rare in Finland.
often expressionless ambiguity of the previous
decade to a style both more direct and more
Poetry did not develop in the seventies as
resembling everyday speech. In poetry this is
strongly as did prose. It preserved the spoken
reflected e.g. in the works of Pentti Saarikoski
quality but dropped the political content of the
(1937-1983) and the less political poetry of
sixties, and in their stead came either an
Väinö Kirstinä (born 1936). Among the Fin-
intimate individualism or expression seeking its
land-Swedish poets who started in the sixties,
impulses from urban life, rock and pop cul-
one of the most significant is Claes Andersson
ture.
(born 1937), who has brought social and
Written by Pertti Lassila, University of Helsinki,
Department of literature
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Finnish
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
information service abroad, and is intended to be
in your country
used for reference purposes. It may be freely used
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts, etc.
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki 12
No acknowledgment is necessary. Please note the
408501096P
Finland
date of preparation.
Helsinki 1985. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
MARCH 1988
The Birth of Finnish Literature
500 years since the publication
The most important place of study for
of the MISSALE ABOENSE
Finns in the 14th century was Paris. In the
15th century the trend changed, first to
In 1988 Finland celebrates the fifth centen-
Prague and then to Leipzig, then to
ary of the Finnish Book - 500 years after
Rostock and Greifswald. But what kind of
the publication of the first book printed for
literature did medieval Finland have? Un-
Finland. The book was the Missale
fortunately an overall picture is no longer
Aboense, printed by Bartholomeus
available. Wars, unrest and fires destroyed
Ghotan at Lübeck in 1488.
cultural achievements. And what was
preserved from destruction met a hard
fate at the end of the Roman Catholic era.
Literature in medieval Finland
When the Lutheran Reformation, abetted
by King Gustavus Vasa, spread through
From the end of the 12th century Finland
the Swedish realm, "Papist" books lost
was part of the Swedish realm and sphere
their significance, and began to be con-
of influence of the Roman Catholic
sidered downright injurious.
Church. The common culture that held
Fortunately not all books were destroyed,
the Church together extended even as far
though those printed on paper were most
as Finland. In fact the Latin language
likely burnt. But parchment did not burn,
culture achieved a considerable flor-
while in Finland, poor in raw materials,
escence in Finland in the last centuries of
other uses could be found for parchment
the Middle Ages. Young Finns studied
pages. King Gustavus Vasa had organized
eagerly at European universities; virtually
an efficient tax system. The bailiffs re-
all the holders of important cathedral
sponsible for taxation had to send their
offices from the beginning of the 15th
accounts to the king in sturdily bound
century were graduates from some
books. Large-size parchment pages were
European university. The urge to study
particularly suitable as covers for these
was increased by the fact that a clergy-
volumes. A considerable part of the
man had priority to be appointed to an
literature current in medieval Finland has
office in his home bishopric if his merits
been preserved because of this - in the
were equal to those of outsiders com-
form of torn fragments of separate pages
peting for the office. In addition to noble
it is true. This was discovered in the
birth, a university degree was counted as
1840s, and scholars succeeded in assemb-
a merit. The leaders of the Turku bishopric
ling some 10 000 parchment pages, orig-
succeeded in keeping foreing aspirants at
inating from about 1 000 different
a distance.
books. These books were among the most
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13.6.
HELSINKI FINLAND
b
g
(&
THE
MA
THE
Reueredus in rritto pater 7 Dñs.Dns Lonradus
tei It apfice ledis grá pful ecclie Ament Attendens in
fua Diareli libzos mittalio pauritate Еогипосф corrup
nã₃ nã modică. LEt LE hot qrūdem Carerbotii relebrátiú
côlurgé turbacoz et indeuotion?. D 05 libros midales
from peru mDinariñ tue ecclie U Efimiú virû Danielem
R egherjalme pniúficatis parifieñ facce chrologie ptel
Гогё inligné/optime correctos. AC mgrálit ** in(piration
Dina P honorabilem pirū Barcholomeñ Ghotan P
gla milh ibelu rū fuma Diligétia In indita ciuitate lube
reñ impretios. Auttozitate Ozdinaria approbauit 7 rôtir
mauit Et lingulis facerdotiby tue Diorce CE cildé libris
minas legétibz et celebzátibz totientations DI omipote
tis DCI milcoia Et aučte broõs Detri It Dauli cotilus.
quadzaginta Dits indulgétian DC infuctis fibi peniccios
mifetirozbit relatauit Anno Dñi
mooctuagclimooctauo Die pero. rui) ment auguiti.
The woodcut on the initial page of the Missale Aboense is a symbolic representation of the
Cathedral of Turku.
2
important church and spiritual works of
adopted as the official liturgy of the see of
literature of the Middle Ages. The collec-
Turku. This poor bishopric could not
tion, which is kept today in the Helsinki
afford to have its own missal printed, but
University Library, clearly shows that there
its Dominican tradition came to the res-
were extensive and diverse libraries of
cue. At the same time as the Missale
books in medieval Finland.
Aboense was printed, a simultaneous
printing appeared for Dominican needs
On the other hand, there was little
elsewhere in the Scandinavian countries.
literature created in Finland. The most
In the Missale Aboense the only main
significant writer was Jöns Budde, from
difference from this were the necessary
the Brigittine monastery at Naantali, who
local features of the Turku see in the
lived in the latter part of the 15th century.
calendar of saints.
He is the earliest writer known by name in
Finland. His work included the translation
The Missale was commissioned by
of whole books of the Bible into Swedish.
Bishop Konrad Bitz from the Lübeck
No evidence of the literary work carried on
printer Bartholomeus Ghotan. Bitz dated
in Dominican and Franciscan monasteries
his introduction to the book, Turku, 17
in Finland has been preserved.
August 1488, and it was published in the
same year. The Missale was printed on
Missale Aboense
both parchment and paper. This first-born
of Finnish literature ran to some 550 folio
The first book printed for Finland, the
pages. With regard to beauty of typogra-
Missale Aboense, is as its name sug-
phy, it still competes successfully for a
gests a prayer book used for Mass. It
leading place among Finnish books. A
follows the tradition of the Dominican
facsimile edition of the work was brought
liturgy, which around the year 1330 was
out in 1971.
1498,
mille quadringentis-limul ortoginta retentis.
Detena crifti-pro laute Dei Decus ilti.
Пос opus arte meijimprelum Bartholomef.
in urbe lubek relidentis.
Prom
Epo
The Missale Aboense was printed at Lübeck in 1488 by Bartholomeus Ghotan, whose printer's mark
appears at the end of the book.
3
Manuale Aboense
Vital as the aim of translating the Bible
into Finnish was, Agricola was compelled
Finland's second book was also intended
to work on other basic literature in the
for church use. The Manuale Aboense
language of the people. He was indeed a
was a manual for offices to be performed
productive writer: a good 500 pages
outside the normal church service (bap-
coming from his pen were published in
tism, marriage etc.). It was printed by
printed form. Between 1543 and 1552 he
Laurentius Stuchs at Halberstadt in
published nine books in total, all of them
Germany, in 1522. The Manuale is con-
printed in Stockholm by Amund Laurents-
siderably smaller in size than the Missale.
son.
It is not so impressive typographically as
Agricola's first publication was a primer
the Missale either.
called Abckiria, the first edition of which
The story of the Manuale Aboense is
may have appeared in 1543 only some
exciting. It is probable that the book was
twenty years after the publication of the
never used in Finland, and it is uncertain
Manuale Aboense. The publication year
how many copies of the printing in general
of the first edition of the primer is
reached Finland. It was commissioned by
unknown because only pieces of two
the Bishop of Turku, Arvid Kurki, the last
pages have been preserved. The second
Finnish Roman Catholic bishop; he
edition probably appeared in 1551; eight
drowned during a time of war while flee-
pages of this edition still exist.
ing to Sweden in July 1522. But the
The find of the century was made in 1966.
Reformation was also at the door then.
In that year 8 missing pages of Agricola's
The just completed Manuale lost its im-
primer were discovered in the library of
portance, and the book disappeared for
the Västerås see in Sweden. This meant
over 300 years. It was not until 1844 that
that the complete text of the primer was
pages were found in the covers of tax
now available. Furthermore, the Västerås
accounts coming from a hitherto unknown
pages revealed a hitherto unknown third
book. This unknown book was the Man-
edition of the primer, published in Stock-
uale Aboense. A fine facsimile edition of
holm in 1559, two years after Agricola's
it was published in 1980.
death.
Agricola's greatest creative contribution
Literature of the early Reforma-
was a prayer book, Rucouskiria Biblias-
tion period: Michael Agricola
ta (1544), a beautifully printed work of 877
pages. It was primarily intended for the
Finnish connections with the culture of
clergy, as can be seen for instance in the
ample liturgical material. Other publica-
continental Europe continued when the
tions by Agricola include a manual of
Lutheran Reformation was revolutionizing
church offices, Käsikiria castesta ja
the German spiritual landscape. The
muista christikunnan menoista(
Finnish reformer Michael Agricola (ca
and a missal, Messu eli Herran ech-
1510-1557) had studied at Wittenberg
tolinen (1549).
under Luther and Melanchthon. Witten-
berg remained for decades the principle
Agricola, who became Bishop of Turku in
seat of learning for Finns.
1554, is known as the father of the written
Finnish language because of his extensive
One of the chief aims of the Reformation
literary production; his influence is appar-
was to bring the Bible to the common
ent even to this day. Of the 8 500 Finnish
people by translating it into their own
words he used, 4 500 are still in use.
language. Agricola was sent to Witten-
berg in 1536 with the express purpose that
he should be trained to translate the Bible
into Finnish. Even before he left he had
Paulus Juusten
started to translate the New Testament
into Finnish. This task was not, however,
Paulus Juusten (1516-1576) was
completed until twenty years later, in
appointed Bishop of Viipuri in 1554 in the
1543; it was printed in 1548 under the title
same connection as when Agricola
Se Wsi Testamenti. Agricola managed
became Bishop of Turku. He followed
to publish a translation of almost a quarter
Agricola as Bishop of Turku in 1563,
of the Old Testament. This appeared in
remaining in that office until he died.
three volumes between 1551 and 1552.
Juusten also studied at Wittenberg, and
4
Abctiria.
Didiael Vigricola
Chriftiano Ga.
lutem.
Oppe nyt manba ia noori
jodia ombi Sydhen toon.
Jumalan Fellyt / id mielen
obat Somen Exclen.
Sielun birmutta
fen
cas
2ffer oppi than efte.
Clyte muifta Elemes aina
nit Jefus firm Zimons Inina
The beginning of Finnish-lan-
guage literature was marked by
Mikael Agricola's Abckiria,
which was published in 1543. It
was printed in Stockholm by
Amund Laurentsson.
completed his studies at Rostock and
along with other collections in the library.
Königsberg. His period as a bishop was
one of unrest. Agricola had already had to
A second work by Juusten while in Russia
participate in the peace negotiations with
was a catechism, printed in Stockholm in
Russia in 1556-1557, and died from the
1574. Although the catechism was a
strain of the journey. King Johan III
printed publication, not a single copy of it
ordered Juusten to be a member of the
has been preserved. Fortune did not smile
peace negotiations whith Ivan IV (the
upon Juusten's literary work otherwise
Terrible), and Juusten was forced to
either. He did not live to see the publica-
spend almost three years (1570-1572) in
tion of his most important work, a Finnish
Moscow, for some of the time even in
language missal, Se Pyhä Messu, as it
prison.
appeared three weeks after his death in
1575. This missal appears to have been
During his period of imprisonment,
used so much that only two copies with all
Juusten wrote an extensive book of
the pages intact have been preserved. A
homilies in Latin, intended for the clergy,
facsimile edition was published in 1978.
Explicationes evangeliorum domini-
calium et praecipuarum feriarum
Posterity knows the name of Juusten best
totius anni. It contained explanations of
for his chronicle of Finnish bishops,
gospel texts for Sundays and holy days.
Chronicon episcoporum finlanden-
But Juusten did not get his work printed.
sium. This was published in 1784-1800
The manuscript was kept in the Turku
together with an exhaustive commentary
University Library, where in 1827 it burnt
by Henrik Gabriel Porthan.
5
viui ficas tene Didst pectas
wopies all nobis: Der iphmn et cū iplo
in
ipto elt tibi dea
patri omi
potenti in unitate (piritus
fancti
omnis honor It glozia+
fic
Cantus folemnis
any
p
Er omnia fecula feculozii. Amen. Deemus
Deeceptis falutaribus moniti. Et Diuina inftitutione
formati:autemus Dicere.
Ater nofter qui CO in
celis fanctificetur nomen tuum. Adueniat regnū tuñ.
Fiat voluntas tua ficut in celo et in terra. Panem no
frum quottidiamum DA nobis hopie: et Dimitte nobis
Debita nottra: ficut et nos Dimittimus Debitozib3 nrig
Missale Aboense; the parts of the Mass intended to be sung were marked in the printed book by
hand by using Gregorian notation.
6
Jacobus Petri Finno
His concise catechism, Wähä Catechis-
mus, on the other hand, was intended for
Jacobus Petri Finno (ca 1540-1588),
the common people. Our knowledge con-
known as a hymnist, also studied at Wit-
cerning this book is deficient. The oldest
tenberg and Rostock. For a long period he
known edition was printed in 1629 - after
was principal of Turku school. At the
Sorolainen's death. But this edition was
command of King Johan III he was re-
probably not the first; the earliest printing
sponsible for having "some necessary
seems to have vanished beyond recall.
books" published in Finnish, including a
This concise catechism, which was taken
hymn book which appeared in 1583 and
more or less directly from Luther's text,
remained the basis for the Finnish hymn
was highly successful in its purpose.
book for three centuries. Only one copy of
During the 17th century it ran to 11
the first edition is known; this is kept in
editions, and it was for a century the most
the Uppsala University Library. Another of
important religious textbook of the Finnish
Finno's publications was a prayer book,
people.
Yxi wähä Rucous Kiria. This was also
The big achievement of early Finnish-lan-
published in 1583. It was the first Finnish-
guage literature was, however, Sorolai-
language prayer book intended for the
nen's two-part Postilla, a book of
common people, and it created the foun-
sermons. The parts of Postilla were pub-
dation for all the later 17th century prayer
lished in Stockholm in 1621 and 1625, and
book tradition. At the beginning of the
their pages together number as many as
1580s, Finno's Catechismus also ap-
2 300.
peared. The first edition has vanished, and
only the second edition of 1615 has been
Postilla was read right up to the middle of
preserved.
the 18th century. Its importance has been
great, as its influence has been felt both
Finno also brought to publication the Piae
as a book to be read and orally through
Cantiones, a collection of songs in Latin
the sermons of the clergy. Sorolainen's
inherited from the Middle Ages and sung
Postilla was the first extensive indepen-
in Finland. These 74 songs were published
dent literary work published in the Finnish
at Greifswald in 1582. A second edition
language. It was also in its time the only
was printed at Rostock in 1625. Several
extensive collection of sermons to be pub-
new editions of the collection have been
lished in Scandinavia.
printed both in Latin and in Finnish.
Development of literature after
Ericus Erici Sorolainen
the Reformation
Paulus Juusten's successor to the bishop-
Latin, which had been the language of
ric of Turku was Ericus Erici Sorolainen (ca
literature during the Middle Ages,
1546-1625). He had completed his uni-
maintained its position as the language of
versity studies at Rostock. He was
scholars even long after the Reformation.
appointed Bishop of Turku in 1583. Ericus
But in Lutheran countries the language of
Erici Sorolainen is one of the most
the common people became the language
important influences in Finnish literature.
of the Church and of popular education.
His work is a vital part of the flourishing
In Finland Swedish was also used as the
period of Finnish literature at the begin-
language of government, but since the
ning of the 17th century.
majority of the population had Finnish as
His first literary work was printed in 1614;
their mother tongue, literature intended
it was a translation into Finnish of a church
for popular use was also published in
Finnish.
manual, Käsikiria Jumalan Palvelu-
xesta ja Christilisestä Kircon menois-
Up to the beginning of the 17th century,
ta. Another of the works he put together
little literature was published. Agricola's
for practical church needs was a cat-
work as a writer was an exception. For a
echism of over 500 pages, Catechismus
long time even in the 17th century, the
eli Christilisen opin pääcappalet,
literature appearing in Finland was almost
printed in Stockholm in 1614. This thor-
solely religious. It was not until Finland's
ough presentation of Christian doctrine
own university was founded in 1640 that
was primarily intended for the clergy and
academic literature began to appear
students.
alongside religious writings.
7
Thanks to the university, Finland's first
greater than any other factor; even the
printing press was established in 1642.
mass media of today could hardly dream
The first fruits of Finnish literature were
of having a comparable influence.
printed over a period of a good 150 years,
from the appearance of the Missale
Since it proved that Finland could not
Aboense up to the publishing of the first
obtain a printing press that could print the
Finnish-language Bible in 1642, chiefly in
entire Bible in folio size, the work was
the capital of the kingdom, Stockholm,
done in Stockholm at the printing press of
which was only a short sailing distance
Heinrich Keyser. The Bible appeared
under the title of Biblia, Se on: coci
from the centre of Church and govern-
ment in Finland, Turku.
Pyhä Ramattu suomexi in 1642, in an
edition of 200 copies. Typographically
the final result was splendid. The Bible of
1642, together with the Missale
The first complete Bible in the
Aboense, is the undisputed gem of
Finnish language, 1642
Finnish literature.
The early period of Finnish literature,
Many years passed before Finns could
which began with the publication of the
read the Bible in its entirety in their own
Missale Aboense in 1488, ended in 1642.
mother tongue. In 1638 the government
The appearance of the first entire Bible in
set up a new committee to translate the
Finnish and the founding of the printing
Bible; its work was completed in 1641.
press in Turku form a clear watershed in
According to its commission, the commit-
the history of the book in Finland.
tee was to write good and pure Finnish
that could be understood by Finns all over
the country. The importance of the Bible
Written by Esko Häkli, Director of the Helsinki
as a unifier of the language was in fact
University Library
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Finnish
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
information service abroad, and is intended to be
in your country
used for reference purposes. It may be freely used
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
in preparing articles, speeches, broadcasts, etc.
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki
No acknowledgment is necessary. Please note the
Finland
date of preparation.
Helsinki 1988. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
Music Competitions in Finland
There are nowadays almost 20 different
that occasion there were 26 competitors
music competitions in Finland, of which
from sixteen different countries, includ-
three are international: The Jean Sibelius
ing four Finnish participants.
International Violin Competition, the
Mirjam Helin International Singing Com-
In 1975, Yuval Yaron of Israel triumphed
petition, and a newcomer, the Inter-
over a strong field of 50 participants, four
national Paulo Cello Competition.
of them Finnish. Other prize winners
were Ilja Grubert, representing the
The oldest and most famous Finnish
Soviet Union, and Eugen Sarbu, repre-
competition is the Jean Sibelius Violin
senting Romania - both famous vi-
Competition, created by the Sibelius
olinists.
Society. When the competition first took
place in 1965, only one other regular
In 1980 the prizes went again to the
Finnish music competition existed: the
Soviet Union: 21-year old Viktoria Mullo-
Maj Lind Piano Competition, which be-
va won and Sergei Stadler took second
gan in 1945.
place. For the first time there were Finn-
ish finalists: Pyry Mikkola and Kaija Saa-
In music circles the Jean Sibelius Com-
rikettu. The first place in the 1985 compe-
petition was welcomed with enthusiasm.
tition was shared between Ilja Kaler from
When the well-known mathematician
the Soviet Union and Leonidas Kavakos
and academic Rolf Nevanlinna was
from Greece. Benita Nordell of Finland
asked for his opinion on the first Sibelius
reached the final.
Competition, he said: "The fact that a vi-
olin competition of very high standard is
By 1990 the Jean Sibelius Violin Compe-
now competing with the eternal local
tition had attracted strong contestants
basketball and wrestling competitions or
for 25 years, and was rightly proud of its
Eurovision contests, is unique to our
roster of winners. In that year, however,
experience".
the field was weak, and no first prize was
awarded. Cristina Anghelescua from
Nineteen-year old Oleg Kagan, a Soviet
Romania was considered the best, and
prodigy, won the first competition.
received second prize. 16-year-old Jaak-
Thirty-five violinists from 17 countries
ko Kuusisto of Finland was placed fourth
participated, among them one Finnish
- the highest place any Finn has achieved
contestant, Jorma Rahkonen, then con-
in the Sibelius Competition.
cert master of the National Opera and
now concert master of the Radio Sym-
Among possible reasons for the decline
phony Orchestra.
in the quality of the violinists are, first, the
small amounts awarded to prize-win-
In 1970, Liana Isakadze and Pavel Kogan,
ners: 5,000, 4,000 and 3,000 US dollars
both representing the Soviet Union
for Ist, 2nd and 3rd places respectively.
shared first place in the competition. On
Second, the number of world violin
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
13
HELSINKI FINLAND
Oleg Kagan, 19, winner
of the 1965 Jean
Sibelius International
Violin Competition and
Mrs. Aino Sibelius, 94.
competitions has dramatically in-
ner of the men's category was Vladimir
creased. And third, Helsinki is not at its
Tshernov from the Soviet Union. The
most inviting in December, although the
East-German Olaf Bär placed second and
traditional Finnish hospitality has always
the Chinese Fu Hai-Jing was awarded
pleased the competitors.
third prize. All three were baritons.
When the Mirjam Helin International
The Mirjam Helin Competition has, as
Singing Competition was being planned,
was its intention, brought Finland con-
the natural choice was August, during
siderable international publicity. In the
the Finnish summer. Any other season
second competition which took place in
might have presented a risk for the
August 1989, Finland was not rep-
singers' voice. Mirjam Helin is a Finnish
resented in the final round. The Hun-
singing teacher and patron of music,
garian soprano, Andrea Rost, won the
who conceived the idea of a competition
women's category and René Pape from
when she was over 70. The Finnish Cul-
East Germany triumphed in the men's
tural Foundation accepted its organiza-
competition. Both received 80,000 FIM
tion.
(appr. 21,000 US dollars). This time Asia
was represented in the final by the Japa-
Sixty young singers participated in the
nese baritone Satosi Mizuguchi. A total
first competition in 1984. The prizes were
remarkable: 60,000 FIM (appr. 12,000 US
of 57 competitors took part. The compe-
tition is held every five years and the next
dollars) for the winner, 40,000 FIM (appr.
one will be in 1994.
8,000 US dollars) for the runner-up and
25,000 FIM (appr. 5,000 US dollars) for
Good prizes are also used as a lure for the
the contestant who took third place, in
first International Paulo Cello Compe-
both the men's and the women's cat-
tition, which will take place in Helsinki in
egories. A stellar jury was assembled:
November 1991. The first, second and
Kim Borg, Sena Jurinac, Matti Lehtinen,
third places are worth 20,000, 12,000 and
Jevgeni Nesterenko, Birgit Nilsson, Aase
8,000 US dollars. Professor Arto Noras,
Nordmo-Lövberg, Anna Reynolds and
Artistic Director of the Naantali Music
Irmgaard Seefried.
Festival and Finland's most famous
cellist, is responsible for setting up the
The singers from People's Republic of
competition. The competition is financed
China were the great sensation of this
by the Paulo Foundation. Its Inter-
first competition. It was a surprise to see
national jury is of great authority and
how well the western song tradition is
the programme is demanding.
represented in China. The winner of the
women's category was the mezzo-sopra-
Finnish pianists get their chance in the
no Liang Ning (nowadays Ning Liang).
national Maj Lind Piano Competition,
The coloratura-soprano Dilbér placed
which began in 1945. Maj Lind (1876-
second. Both of these ladies were from
1942) was a wealthy patron of music and
the Peoples Republic of China. The win-
a skilled amateur pianist who had stud-
2
Mirjam Helin
International
Singing Com-
petition 1984,
Liang Ning
and Vladimir
Tshernov.
ied the piano in St. Petersburg. In her will
ist, Olli Mustonen, only shared second
she bequeathed a fifth of her estate to the
prize in 1982. Matti Raekallio, perhaps
Sibelius Academy "for developing piano
the most virtuoso pianistic talent in Fin-
playing".
land today, was also awarded second
The Maj Lind Competition is designed for
prize in 1973.
15 to 30-year-old pianists. In the begin-
Young singers have been raised to
ning it was held every year, and every
national fame by two competitions:
important Finnish pianist stood a chance
the Lappeenranta National Singing
of winning. Yet, there was difficulty in
Competition and the Timo Mustakallio
finding enough competitors. During the
Singing Competition. The Lappeenranta
sixties there were often only 3 or 4 com-
Competition is held every three years.
petitors annually.
Men and women each have their own
In 1963 the winner of the Maj Lind Com-
category. Jorma Hynninen was the
petition was Juhani Raiskinen, who sub-
men's category winner in the first Lap-
sequently raised the Finnish National
peenranta Competition in 1969. Soprano
Karita Mattila and bassbaritone Petteri
Opera to international fame as its Direc-
tor from 1974 to 1984. The fact that he did
Salomaa won the competition in 1980.
not play in the final round was noted by
Both are now internationally famous
the music critic of Helsingin Sanomat:
Finnish singers. The previously un-
"Because the winner didn't appear in the
known cantor-organist, soprano Soile
Isokoski, was the winner of the women's
event announced as being the final,
there was no possibility of further evalu-
category in 1987. Thus the competition
ating his playing", the critic complained.
boasts the discovery of perhaps the most
beautiful Finnish female voice of our
In 1970 the Maj Lind Piano Competition
time.
was reorganized. It would be held every
three years, and no longer be a one-day
The Timo Mustakallio Singing Compe-
event. Any participant who bypassed the
tition at the Savonlinna Opera Festival
final round would forfeit his or her right
began in 1974. The operatic tenor Musta-
kallio (1929-1984; after 1979 Artistic Di-
to first prize. As a result of these changes,
public and media interest increased.
rector of the Opera Festival) donated the
Nowadays the competition is an import-
competition prize, a scholarship in-
ant Finnish musical event which does not
tended to support further studies
suffer from shortage of participants.
abroad. Its goal is to reward not the tech-
nically superior singer, but the one who
Many top level Finnish pianists have won
possesses the greatest and most prom-
prizes in the Maj Lind Piano Competition,
ising talent, whose voice quality merits
for example: Eero Heinonen, Risto Lau-
speedy development.
riala, Arto Satukangas and Juhani
Lagerspetz. Nevertheless, the inter-
The Mustakallio Competition lasts one
nationally most succesful Finnish pian-
day and its results are often given out in
record time. Martti Talvela will an-
3
nounce the results in five minutes" the
Organists have their own competition in
speakers used to say firmly. Talvela,
the Lahti International Organ Festival. In
Finland's outstanding basso, was; a
1980 the competition was national, the
mainstay of the two-person jury for the
winner being Olli Porthán. In 1984 the
competition for many years. "Success
Nordic competition was won by Maija
depends on the singer's personality, the
Lehtonen, and in the international 1989
ability to endure solitude, and the mas-
event no first prize was awarded.
tering of one's self", Talvela advised the
winner of the 1983 competition.
The Crusell Week of Uusikaupunki has
been arranging competitions for wood-
A number of major talents have been un-
wind instrumentalists every second year
covered via the Mustakallio Competition.
since 1982. Nordic clarinetists, oboists
Its first winner was the mezzosoprano
and flutists have all been able to measure
Leena Kiilunen, nowadays a well-known
their talents. Clarinetist Anna-Maija Kor-
singer in Holland. Walton Grönroos, fu-
simaa has won the competition twice. In
ture Director of the Finnish National
July 1991 the first national viola compe-
Opera, made his breakthrough in the
tition was held in Sotkamo.
competition of 1975. Soprano Raili Vilja-
kainen was the winner the following
During the Kangasniemi Music Festival,
year. Since 1989, the Timo Mustakallio
a song competition has been held every
Singing Competition has become a bien-
year since 1987. A newcomer is the Ta-
piola Competition, which occurs during
nial event. Despite a significant number
the Lappajärvi Music Days. This compe-
of participants, there was not enough
tition is designed for singer/pianist duos
new talent to justify an annual compe-
from Finland and abroad. The large
tition.
number of participants in this August
Of the national competitions, the most
competition has surprised its organizers.
important are the Kuopio Violin Compe-
A considerable proportion of youth com-
tition (every five years) and the Turku
petitions are concentrated in Jyväskylä.
Nordic Cello Competition (since 1978
The Ilmari Hannikainen Piano Com-
every four years). Hannele Segerstam
petition has been held there every three
was the winner of the first Kuopio Violin
Competition, held in January 1967. Fi-
years since 1975, together with the Juha-
ni Heinonen Violin Competition, (since
nalists also included Jorma Rahkonen,
1977) and the K. V. Leino Guitar and Ac-
Seppo Tukiainen, Olavi Pälli, Ilkka Talvi
cordion Competitions (since 1986). The
and Erkki Kantola - all important Finnish
Jyväskylä Conservatory has arranged all
violinists. The competition proved what
these competitions, designed for music
had been hoped for: in the face of general
school students. In the piano and violin
Finnish prejudice talented violin solists
competitions there are prizes for the top
were coming of age. According to the
participants in two age categories: 15
competition commentator, Professor
and younger, and 16 and older.
Erik Tawaststjerna, these prejudices
were "only nonsense". The Turku Cello
In 1986 the first piano competition for
Competition, arranged by the Musical
children and young people was arranged
society of Turku, was held for the first
and held by Fazer Music. There are three
time in January 1972. Martti Rousi (1982)
age categories: 6-9, 10-12 and 13-15-
and Riitta Pesola (1986) are the best
year-old competitors. The competition
known winners of the Turku Compe-
takes place every other year.
tition. In 1990 at attempt was made to
make the competition Nordic, with little
success: there were only two partici-
pants from abroad and neither reached
the final.
Written by: Mr. Hannu-llari Lampila, Music critic.
For further information please contact:
For free background use.
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
in your country
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Kanavakatu 3 C, 00160 Helsinki
Finland
Helsinki 1991. The Finnish Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
NOVEMBER 1982
Finnish Christmas Table
Christmas is the most traditional of Finnish
the rest of the salt and the dill over the
festivals. It is time for the family, close
fish. Cover the dish tightly with aluminium
relatives, friends without family, but above
foil. Put a small weight on top and store in
all for the children. The good old
a cool place.
traditional dishes appear on the Christmas
dining table year after year. Casserole
4. Scrape off all the seasoning and cut
dishes - Finnish cuisine at its best - can
the fillets down to the skin into thin,
easily be made a few days beforehand.
oblique slices before serving.
Hint
Freshly-salted salmon
Freshly-salted salmon does not require any
Preparation time: about 25 minutes
sort of dressing, especially when served at
Salting time: 1-3 days
Not suitable for freezing
Christmas. However, mustard dressing
goes very well with this dish.
large piece of salmon, about 4 ½ lb. (2
Prepare as follows just before serving the
kg)
salmon: Mix together 3 tablespoons
1/3 cup (1 dl) coarse salt
darkish prepared mustard, 2 tablespoons
4 tablespoons sugar
sugar and 4 tablespoons wine vinegar.
3-4 teaspoons roughly-ground white
Add 3/4 cup (2 dl) oil, preferably olive oil,
pepper
in a thin stream while beating at the same
plenty of fresh dill
time. Last of all, mix in plenty of
finely-chopped fresh dill.
1. Fillet the salmon unless bought already
filleted. Do not, however, remove the
skin.
Casseroles
2. Wipe the fillets with paper towels
Casserole dishes form the main part of the
without rinsing.
hot dishes served at Christmas. They are
very useful from the hostesses' point of
3. Sprinkle the bottom of a suitable-sized
view because they can be prepared well in
dish with salt and place one of the fillets,
advance. They keep well for two or three
skin side down, on top. Spread the
days when stored in a cool place - the
seasoning over both the fillets, placing the
flavor of the rutabaga casserole, for
other fillet, skin side up, on top. Sprinkle
instance, improves with reheating.
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
HELSINKI FINLAND
15.4
Homemade casseroles are Finnsh cuisine
3/4 cup (2 dl) rice
at its best: nutritiuos and much easier to
1 1/2 cups (4 dl) water
prepare than one would imagine and also
1/2 cup (1,2 dl) milk
exceptionally economical.
3 teaspoons salt
3 lb. (1 1/2 kg) carrots
3/4 cup (2 dl) milk or a mixture of cream
and milk
Rutabaga casserole
1/4 cup (50 g) butter
3 eggs
Preparation time: 25-30 minutes
1 teaspoon grated nutmeg
Boiling time for the rutabagas:30-40
1 tablespoon sugar
minutes
2 teaspoons salt
Cooking time 1 /2-2 hours
Coating: dried breadcrumbs butter
Oven temperature: 350°F(175°C)
Suitable for freezing
1. Cook the rice as for the previous
recipe.
2 large rutabagas, 3 1/2 lb. (about 1 1/2
2. Peel and grate the carrots.
kg)
1 1/2 cups (4 dl) cream or mixture of
3. Mix the grated carrots, milk, melted
cream and milk
butter, eggs and spices into the rice
3/4 cup (2 dl) dried breadcrumbs
pudding.
1/3 cup (1 dl) dark syrup
4. Pour the mixture into a greased baking
1 egg
dish. Sprinkle with dried breadcrumbs and
1 1/2 teaspoon ground ginger
dot with butter. Bake in the oven until
1/2 teaspoon white pepper
brown all over.
1/2 teaspoon grated nutmeg
1 tablespoon salt
Coating: dried breadcrumbs, butter
Glass master's herring
1. Scrub and peel the rutabagas. Cut up
into large pieces and boil in slightly-salted
Preparation time: 30 minutes
water until soft.
Soaking time: 12 hours
Marinading time: 2-3 days
2. Strain, keep the cooking liquid, and
mash or blend the rutabagas in a kitchen
4 good-sized herrings
blender.
3 red onions
3 Mix in the cream and dried breadcrumb
2 carrots
paste, dark syrup, beaten egg and spices,
30 whole allspice and white peppercorns
and as much of the cooking liquid as is
4 bay leaves
needed to give a loose soft consistency.
Marinade: 1 1/4 cups (3 dl) vinegar
1 1/4 cups (3 dl) sugar
4. Turn into a greased baking dish, press
2 1/2 cups (6 dl) water
the surface with a fork to make a pattern,
sprinkle over a thin coating of dried
1. Soak the fish overnight in cold water or
breadcrumbs.
equal portions of water and milk. The
5. Dot the top with butter and bake in the
liquid can be changed occasionally.
oven.
2. Prepare the marinade; boil up all the
NOTE: The flavor of the rutabaga
ingredients and leave to cool at room
casserole can be further enhanced by
temperature.
adding some lightly-fried, grated onion.
3. Remove the gut and inside belly
membrane with, for instance, kitchen
scissors. Rinsce well and dry with paper
towels. Cut up into shortish sections.
Carrot casserole
4. Peel the onions and carrots and cut
into rings.
Preparation time: 40 minutes
Cooking time: 20 minutes + 1/2hours
5. Fill a suitable glass jar with alternate
Oven temperature: 350 °F (175 °C)
layers of fish slices, onions and carrots,
Suitable for freezing
and the spices. Pour over the liquid.
2
I
6. Cover the jar and store in a cool place
a pastry crust. Prepare the pastry by
for at least two days. The herrings will
mixing about 2 cups (800 g) rye flour in
keep for a couple of weeks in a cool place,
one litre of water. The pastry is then rolled
but they are at their best after 4-5 days.
out or patted over the surface of the ham
to give a crust about 1/2 inch (1 1/2 cm)
Hint
thick. No salt should be added to the
pastry. If the ham happens to be too salty,
Different spices can also be used: thin
the pastry crust will absorb the excess
slices of horseradish or celery seeds,
salt.
mustrad seeds.
The fish can also be filleted and the skin
Hint
removed. Soaking is not then required.
The meat juices which collect in the
roasting pan can be used to make a tasty
Baked ham
gravy. Be careful, however, it will be rather
salty. One well-tried method is to mix in
Preparation time: 10 minutes
some apple sauce flavour with ground
Cooking time: 45-55 minutes/2 lb. (1 kg)
ginger and mustard, and serve together
Oven temperature: 250-300 °F (125-
with the warm ham.
150 °C) and 440 °F (225 °C)
Ready-salted ham 10-15 lb. (5-8 kg)
Baked lutefish
Coating: 2-4 tablespoons homemade
mustard (see below)
Preparation time: 10 minutes
2-4 tablespoons brown sugar
Cooking time: 40-50 minutes
2-4 tablespoons dried breadcrumbs
Oven tmperature: 400 °F (200 °C)
cloves for decorating
5 to 6 lb (2-3 kg) lutefish
1. Place the ham on a wiregrid in the
1 1/2 tablespoons salt
roasting pan, skin side up. Push a roasting
thermometer into the thickest part of the
1. Set the pieces of fish on aliminium foil
ham making sure it does not touch the
or roasting film and sprinkle with salt.
bone.
Wrap up tightly.
2. Put the ham in the oven. It is difficult
2. Placein a ceramic baking dish or
to give a precise roasting time, it is best to
enamel pan.
go by the roasting thermometer. When it
3. Bake in the oven for 40-50 minutes
reaches 170 °F (77 °C) the meat is
depending on the amount of fish
cooked.
4. Discard the liquid formed in the packet.
3. Remove from the oven and let it stand
for a moment. Remove the skin and as
Serve with boiled potatoes and white
much of the underlying fat as required.
sauce seasoned with freshlyground
allspice or white pepper and salt.
4. Mix together the ingredients for the
coating and smear over the ham. Put back
into the oven at 440 °F (225 °C) for ten
Variation
minutes or until golden brown all over.
Boiled lutefish
Decorate the surface of the ham with the
cloves.
Preparation time: 5 minutes
Cooking time: about 20 minutes.
NOTE: if the ham is cooked at a lower
temperature less liquid will be lost and the
4-6 cups (1-1 1/2 I) water
meat will be much more succulent. Of
5 to 6 lb. (2-3 kg) lutefish
course the lower the temperature, the
(1 1/2 tablespoons salt)
longer the cooking time.
1. Bring the water to the boil and add the
pieces of fish.
Variation
NOTE:do not cook the lutefish in an
Many people consider that the meat will
aluminium saucepan, any residual lye will
be much juicier if the ham is covered with
corrode the aluminium. Pour off the
4
cooking liquid. Serve in the same way as
5 tablespoons margarine
for baked lutefish.
3/4 cups (2 dl) white flour
6 cups (1 1/2 I) milk
salt to taste
Hint
The pieces of fish will retain their shape if
1. Melt the margarine in a saucepan, add
they are boiled tied up in a cheesecloth.
the flour and stir well
2. Add the milk gradually while stirring
and allow to boil gently for about 10
White sauce
minutes.
Preparation time: 5-10 minutes
3. Season with salt. When ready the
Cooking time: about 10 minutes
sauce should be smooth and shiny.
5
Liver pâté
about 1 lb. (400 g) dried mixed fruit
Preparation time: 30 minutes
8 cups (2 I) water
Cooking time: 2 hours
3/4 cup (1 1/2 dl) sugar
Oven temperature: 350 o F (175 °C)
stick of cinnamon
Not suitable for freezing
(dash of salt)
3 tablespoon potato starch
1 lb. (1/2 kg) ground liver
3/4 cup (2 dl) dried breadcrumbs
1. Rinse the mixed fruit in cold water and
1 1/2 cup (4 dl) cream
leave to soak overnight in water
2 onions
containing a little sugar.
2 tablespoons butter
4 tablespoons potato starch
2. Boil the fruit in the soaking liquid with
3 teaspoons salt
the cinnamon and a touch of salt if
1 teaspoons sugar
desired.
1 teaspoons ground ginger
3. Continue to boil over a low heat until
1 teaspoon white pepper
the fruit is fully cooked.
2 eggs
fresh side of pork
4. Transfer the fruit with a slotted spoon
1. Line an oblong baking dish with fresh
to the serving dish and remove the stick of
cinnamon
side of pork. When buying the liver ask
your butcher to grind it twice.
5. Thicken the juice: remove the pan from
2. Mix the cream and dried breadcrumbs
the heat, mix the potato starch in a little
cold water and add in a thin stream to the
and leave to swell.
liquid, stirring continuously. Bring quickly
3. Finely chop the onions and fry in butter
back to a boil without stirring.
until transparent. Leave to cool.
6. Pour over the fruit and sprinkle a little
4. Mix together the liver and other
sugar over the top.
ingredients, finishing with the lightly
beaten eggs. Blend together thoroughly.
Christmas rye bread
5. Pour the mixture into the baking dish,
cover tightly with aluminium foil. Set in a
(makes 3 loaves)
pan of water and bake in the oven.
Preparation time: 30 minutes
Rising time: 1 1/2 hours altogether
Baking time: about 40 minutes
Rice porridge
Oven temperature: 400 °F(200 °C)
(for 10 persons) Preparation time: 10
Suitable for freezing
minutes
Cooking time: 40 minutes
4 cups (1 I) buttermilk
Suitable for freezing
2 oz. (50 g) yeast
3/4 cup (2 dl) dark syrup
2 cups (1/2 I) water
2 tablespoons grated orange peel
6 cups (1 1/2 I) milk
1/2 tablespoon roughly ground caraway
1 1/4 cups (3 dl) rice
seeds
2 1/2 teaspoons salt
1 tablespoon salt
1 almond
about 3 cups (8 dl) rye flour
1 1/2 cups (4 dl) graham flour
1. Add the rice to the boiling milk and
about 4 cups (1 I) white flour
water mixture.
1. Warm up the buttermilk.
2. Simmer until cooked. Add the salt and
one almond. Serve with ground
2. Crumble in the yeast and add the syrup
cinnamon, sugar to taste, and milk.
and spices.
3. Mix in the flour and knead thoroughly.
Cover with a cloth and leave to rise. If the
Mixed fruit soup
kitchen is drafty, stand the covered bowl
in warmish water.
Preparation time: 5 minutes
Soaking time: overnight
4. Divide the dough into three and shape
Cooking time: about 15 minutes
each portion into a round loaf. Put in a
6
warm place to rise. Prick with a fork 4. Leave the dough to rest for about one
before placing in the oven.
hour at room temperature.
5. Roll out the dough into a large oblong
again and repeat as in Point 3.
Christmas star
6. Leave the dough to rest for some time
and repeat as in Point 3, adding the final
Preparation time: 20 minutes
portion of butter.
Resting time for pastry: at least 1
hour + overnight
7. All this should be done in the evening
Cooking time: 20 minutes
and the dough then left overnight in the
Oven temperature: 400 °F(200 °C)
refrigerator.
The uncooked pastry can be frozen
8. Roll out the dough into a 1/2 cm-thick
oblong.
Puff pastry:
1 1/2 cups (250 g) white flour (about 4 dl)
9. Cut out a large star from baking paper,
1/3 cup (1 dl) water
place on top of the dough and cut round
1 1/4 cups (250) butter or margarine
the edges with a knife or pastry wheel.
Filling: 3/4 cup (2 dl) cream
Make two pastry stars.
1 tablespoon sugar
10. Prick the stars all over with a fork and
juice of half a lemon
brush the stars with beaten egg, except
300 g apple or prune purée
the edges as it prevents the pastry from
(slices of apple for decorating)
rising in the oven. Bake in the oven. Leave
to cool. Put the filling between the stars
1. Mix together the flour and water but do
just before serving, as otherwise the
not beat.
pastry will become tough.
2. Divide the butter or margarine when
11. Whip the cream for the filling and add
soft into three portions. Roll out the
the sugar and lemon juice.
dough into a large oblong.
12. Place one of the stars on a serving
3. Spread one of the portions of butter
dish. Fill up the centre with the prune or
over the dough right up to the edges. Fold
apple purée, followed by the cream, and
over to give three layers.
then place the other star on top.
7
Grandma's best ginger
2. Beat the eggs and sugar.
cookies
3. Mix the soda in with part of the flour
(makes about 200)
and then combine with the
Preparation time: 30 minutes
syrup-margarine mixture. Add the
Cooking time: 10 minutes/batch
whipped eggs and the rest of the flour. Do
Oven temperature: 400° F(200 °C)°
not knead the final mixture.
4. Cover the dough with plastic wrap and
1 1/4 cups (300 g) margarine
leave overnight in a cool place.
1 1/4 cups (300 g) sugar
3 eggs
5. Roll out the dough, cut up into shapes
1 cup (250 g) dark syrup
and bake the cookies in the oven until
2 teaspoons ground cinnamon
golden brown.
2 teaspoons ginger
2 teaspoons ground cloves
1 tablespoon grated orange rind about 7
cups (1 kg) white flour
3 teaspoons bicarbonate of soda
The article has been published in the book
'Entertaining the Finnish Way', printed in WSOY
Porvoo 1982, pp. 18-26. Copyright Helena Ahti,
1. Boil the syrup and spices, add the
Leena Heikkinen, Viola Järvinen, Marjatta
margarine and beat until the mixture is
Pauloff 1981. The book is available in finnish,
cool.
swedish, english, norwegian, german.
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Fin-
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
nish information service abroad, and is intend-
in your country
ed to be used for reference purposes. It may
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
be freely used in preparing articles, speeches,
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki 12
broadcasts, etc. No acknowledgment is neces-
Finland
sary. Please note the date of preparation.
Helsinki 1988. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
JUNE 1982
National Dress - Symbol of all that is Finnish
The use of national costumes has in
married women wore a coif edged
recent years spread rapidly in Finland
with lace or a headdress made up of
along with the rise in prestige of tra-
drapery over a hard base. Often the
ditional culture in general. At the same
costume also included a pouch worn
time people have become interested in
at the waist, an apron and a shawl. In
the historical background to costumes
the 18th centry the men wore tight
and their correct traditional use. In
knee breeches, and from the beginning
1979 the Finnish National Dress Coun-
ot the 19th century onwards long trou-
cil was set up; it consists of a National
sers, a colourful waistcoat and a white
Dress Board and a national dress offi-
shirt.
cer.
National dress means a specific cos-
The features typical of the Karelian
style of dress were, for the women,
tume, based on research, made up ac-
cording to the traditional costumes
dark one-colour or checked skirts, whi-
te smocks embroidered down the
worn by the rural farming population
front, or a dark, loosish bodice over an
in the 18th and 19th centuries.
ordinary white blouse. On their heads
Folk costumes gradually came into be-
the married women wore a veil or an
ing over the centuries under the in-
embroidered wimple coif of Russian
fluence of particular social, economic
Orthodox origin. The girls in turn wore
and geographical pressures. They also
a red band, or braids decorated with
assimilated features of fashionable
tin studs. The men's costume consis-
dress. The changes in clothing were,
ted of single-colour trousers, a waist-
however, very slow, and once features
coat and a white shirt.
had been assimilated they were retai-
ned for a long time and took on a local
The traditional folk costumes gradually
stamp.
went out of use in the 19th century as
communities became less self-suffi-
There are two chief categories of Fin-
cient, communications improved,
nish folk costumes: Western Finnish
industry and towns grew up.
and Karelian. The Western Finland in-
fluences came from the West, the Ka-
Artists and other educated people be-
relian from the South and East, which
gan to be concerned in the 19th centu-
explains the difference.
ry over the vanishing of folk culture. In
spirit this was closely linked with the
Typical features of the Western Finland
interest in folk costumes that was
folk costumes were skirts with bands
spreading all over Europe and the na-
of colours and striped or patterned
tional strivings in Finland herself, all of
bodices and waistcoats. On their heads
which stressed national originality.
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
15.5
HELSINKI FINLAND
A typical dress from the Western part of Finland
One of the main tasks of the Students'
The undertaking has been commercial
Ethnological Museum established in
and working methods have, for cost
1874 was to collect traditional folk cos-
reasons, been mechanised.
tumes. Thanks to these students' activ-
ities Finland has valuable collections of
It is, however, typical of contemporary
folk costumes, now preserved at the
interest in national costumes that
National Museum in Helsinki. In the
more and more people want to make
1880s the educated circles in the cap-
their costumes themselves. Traditional
ital, Helsinki, were fired with the idea
methods producing costumes by hand
of reinstating the old folk costumes, as
are considered important. Increasing
had already been done in, for example,
attention is likewise being paid to the
Sweden and Germany. It was hoped
correct use of costumes.
that in this way the prestige of tradi-
Since national dress is a continuation
tional costumes would thus also rise
of the folk tradition of festive dress, it
among the ordinary people.
can be worn at all manner of events -
From the very beginning the Finns
family, school, local and folk festivals,
have been accustomed to turning to
at church events and on occasions
experts in devising new national dress
organised by popular movements. It
models. The first enthusiastic expert in
should not be worn as an everyday
this task of imitation was the custodian
working dress.
of the museum, Theodor Schvindt, and
National dress is an entity in itself,
he was followed by other experts.
with all its components chosen from
The popularity of national costumes
the same era. Thus no accessories that
has fluctuated greatly over the dec-
do not belong to the costume should
ades. There were peak periods in the
de worn. Also part of the entity are the
1930s and 1950s. At the moment na-
right jewellery, headdress, stockings
tional dress is again greatly favoured
and shoes.
for festive occasions and costumes are
made at countless courses all over the
Only the jewellery belonging to a par-
ticular costumes should be worn. Cop-
country.
ies of ancient ornaments do not be-
The Helmi Vuorelma establisment in
long to national dress, because they
Lahti has been making national cos-
represent the fashions of a different
tumes since the turn of the century.
era, as do modern ornaments. The
2
A dress from Lavansaari
clasp fastening the opening of the
ple by winding a length of tape round
smock should be so high that it fastens
the leg 2 or 3 times and tucking the
the opening all the way. According to
ends in. Bands for stockings may be
the rules of the orders of knighthood
made from woollen thread the colour
decorations may be worn with national
of the costume.
dress, but in the case of medals
awarded by organisations, only the
The length of the women's dress must
highest is worn.
not vary according to the prevailing
fashion, and the skirt must come down
It is hoped that women will wear their
to at least midcalf, preferably just
headdresses in the traditional way,
above the ankle. This also applies to
girls wearing girls' headdresses and
girls' dresses.
adults those of married women. The
lace of the hard headdress should be
Suitable for wearing with all women's
placed smoothly across the hair and
national costumes are black buckled
should not stand up like a frill. The
shoes, lace-up shoes or slip-ons, which
veils belonging to the Karelian dress
must have a low heel, may not be
are fastened according to the local
open at the toes or heels, nor may they
custom.
have turn-up toes. Patent-leather,
suede and wedge-heel shoes are not
The girls' headdresses and bands are
suitable for wearing with national cos-
placed round the head at or just above
tumes. Men may also wear shoes with
the hairline and are tied over the hair
buckles or laces.
at the back, with the bands down the
back.
"Lipokas" open-type shoes with laces
the colour of natural leather may also
With their national dress women
be worn with the folk costumes from
should wear white or natural black
Karelia, Savo, Central and Northern
woollen stockings or white cotton
Finland, and men may also wear lace-
stockings, unless any other colours are
up shoes of the same leather.
mentioned in the instructions for that
particular costume. They may, in the
The modern handbag does nothing to
traditional way, come up to the knee or
enhance our beautiful national dress,
just above the knee, in which case they
and performing groups in particular
are fastened below the knee, for exam-
should also note this. Instead of a
3
handbag women may carry e.g. a little
costumes are based on tradition, pro-
bundle, a purse of leather or crocheted
vides guidance in the use of national
thread, a little wooden casket or a bas-
costumes and decides on other issues
ket.
connected with folk costumes.
There is one widespread folk tradition
The national dress officer is employed
attached to national dress that has
by the organisation to provide prac-
been forgotten with the use of folk cos-
tical advice in matters connected with
tumes. Hearsay seldom extends so far
national dress, handle public relations,
back that it can throw any light on the
act as secretary to the Council and the
use and making of costumes. As the
Board, and to prepare and execute
popularity of national dress has rapidly
their decisions. The officer is further in
increased in recent years, many ques-
charge of the national dress archives,
tions and problems connected with
which try to include entries on all folk
folk costumes have come to light.
costumes in Finland - about 200 in
The National Museum and the mu-
the Finnish-speaking area. There are a
seum authorities, which have traditio-
further 170 national costumes in the
nally dealt with matters concerning na-
Swedish-speaking area, and these
tional dress in Finland, felt they were
have been handled from the start by
no longer empowered to provide
the Brage Society.
practical advice on folk costumes. It
The chief tasks of the Finnish National
therefore became necessary to estab-
Dress Council are at present research
lish a nation-wide organisation chiefly
into ways of making folk costumes and
representing folk costume wearers, to
their application to the present day.
handle matters connected with natio-
General instructions are being com-
nal dress. This organisation is the Fin-
piled garment by-garment. More ex-
nish National Dress Council.
tensive teaching material is also being
The Finnish National Dress Council
prepared on the basis of the same re-
search for teachers on national dress
was established in 1979 on the basis of
an experimental project by six national
courses.
organisations. The Council consists of
One important form of activity is the
a National Dress Board and a national
training of regional national dress ad-
dress officer. Represented on the
visors begun last year. A national
Council are the founder organisations
dress expert has been trained for every
and two experts elected annually from
home industry association and a few
relevant undertakings. It is the Coun-
home craft schools. The aim is thus to
cil's task to promote research, training,
revive some of the manufacturing
information and publication work con-
methods that have been forgotten and
nected with national dress. It both
restore a more traditional look to na-
maintains the organisation and carries
tional costumes.
out practical measures. It appoints the
National dress is the continuation of
National Dress Board and its chairman
the folk tradition of festive dress. In
in accordance with the Board regula-
tions. It hires staff, maintains an office
making and wearing folk costumes we
should remember and at the same
and supervises practical activities.
time carry on the rich tradition
The National Dress Board acts as the
inherited from previous generations.
expert organ on matters of national
dress. It directs the assembling of new
Written by Ritva Somerma, National dress
national costumes, checks that existing
officer, The Finnish National Dress Council
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Fin-
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
nish information service abroad, and is intend-
in your country
ed to be used for reference purposes. It may
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
be freely used in preparing articles, speeches,
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki 12
broadcasts, etc. No acknowledgment is neces-
Finland
sary. Please note the date of preparation.
Helsinki 1988. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
National Parks in Finland
A Safeguard for Nature
Not many countries in Europe can claim
This national park, Finland's premier park,
any appreciable degree of unspoilt nature.
is readily accessible to visitors from the
Thanks to the fell country and vast bogs
south. There is an airport at Ivalo and
of Lapland, the large number of water-
regular coach services are operated from
ways throughout the country and the
Rovaniemi. The park lies between High-
coastal archipelago, Finland is one of the
way 4 and the Soviet border. There are
fortunate few. Economic activity is rapidly
many tourist services ranging from hotels
altering the natural environment in Fin-
to fell huts and from cross-country skiing
land, too, though there is still plenty of
tracks and hiking trails to downhill skiing
unspoilt nature left. The best areas have
slopes on the outskirts of the park along
been set aside permanently as nature con-
the highway.
servation areas; national parks, strict
nature reserves, peatland reserves and
The park contains fell huts open to all
other nature reserves.
comers, but which can only be located
using map and compass. They provide
The Urho Kekkonen National
overnight accommodation only; you must
Park
carry your own provisions and gear with
you in your rucksack. The uninitiated can
Dr. Urho Kekkonen, Finland's long-serving
easily lose their way in this vast park of
President, received a very unusual
more than a quarter of a million hectares,
birthday gift a few years ago. The
and many have perished in the severe and
President's gift from the nation on his 80th
rapidly changing conditions through lack
birthday was a - to him - familiar and
of proper equipment and experience.
much appreciated region, for he had hiked
and skied in the area during visits to
The national park is subject to the rules
Lapland. This fell and forest wilderness
applicable to a nature reserve: moving
was equally well known to thousands of
around the park is open to everyone as
other ramblers.
long as a motorized vehicle is not used;
berry-picking and mushrooming are
Finland's mighty wood-processing
allowed; fishing is subject to the purchase
industry had long cast a covetous eye at
of a licence; open fires are allowed only on
the area. But the Finnish government and
sites set aside specifically for the purpose;
Parliament stood their ground and so this
hunting in general and the harassment of
fine area was designated a national park
reindeer are prohibited, as is the bringing
dedicated to President Kekkonen.
of pet animals into the park. The border
tern border of Finland.
Lapland between European Highway 4
ekkonen National Park is situated
zone is strictly off limits. Park rangers see
Lemmenjoki can be reached from Inari by
to it that the regulations are strictly
coach to Njurkulahti, which has tourist
observed.
services. Njurkulahti is the point of depar-
One can make a day trip to the national
ture for river boats that ply the River
park from the highway or hike through the
Lemmenjoki to the heart of the national
park for weeks on end. Local reindeer
park. Lemmenjoki Valley is a magnificent
natural formation. The well-known
herders will provide reindeer rides in the
winter. And in the summer a boat ride on
Ravadasköngäs Falls, well worth a visit,
the Lokka reservoir to the park outskirts is
are nearby.
an unforgettable experience. The in-
Information about Lemmenjoki National
habitants of Vuotso village have fast boats
Park is available from the Finnish National
and the skill required for boating in these
Board of Forestry, Inari Management
hazardous waters.
Area, at 99800 Ivalo.
Information about Urho Kekkonen Na-
tional Park is available from the national
park office at 99690 Vuotso.
Oulanka - Land of Bears and
Rapids
Lemmenjoki Gold Country
Scientists and students at the University
of Oulu, Oulanka Biological Station have
Lemmenjoki National Park in north-
access to some very fine areas in the
ernmost Lapland is even larger than Urho
immediate surroundings of the station:
Kekkonen National Park. It is also the
calcareous fens, lush meadows and
largest forestclad national park in all
broadleaf woods complete with rare
Europe. Taken together, Övre Anarjokka
plants, animal species representative of
National Park on the Norwegian side and
the Siberian, European and Arctic fauna
Lemmenjoki add up to the most extensive
types, including large predators and rare
area of national park in Europe, covering
birds. The biological station lies in the
more than 400,000 hectares.
centre of Oulanka National Park, in the
Lemmenjoki is a remote and quiet fell, bog
valley of the River Oulanka near the Kiu-
and forest wilderness, home of the brown
taköngäs Rapids, the park's most cele-
brated attraction.
bear, wolf, wolverine, golden eagle, otter
and arctic fox. One can ramble through
The national park is crossed by a well
the park for weeks without encountering
marked and signposted 70-kilometre route
other humans. Fell huts are few and far
known as the 'Bear's Round'. It starts
between, and indeed visitors must be
outside the park from the Salla- Kuusamo
prepared to manage on supplies carried on
road and takes the visitor to Rukatunturi
their backs. Getting lost is easy enough in
Fell. The major sights of the park, the
the summer; in the winter only the really
rapids of Kiutaköngäs and Taivalköngäs
tough should tackle Lemmenjoki.
and the breathtaking precipices of
A special feature of Lemmenjoki National
Ristikallio, are to be found along the
Park is the presence of Lapp settlement
route, as are the huts, open fire sites and
around the park. Indeed Lisma, a very
camping grounds.
genuine fell Lapp village, lies wholly within
The information centre of the park and
park limits. The traditional occupations of
camping ground lies in the Kiutaköngäs
these inhabitants of the wilderness, rein-
area in the heart of the national park. The
deer-herding, fishing, berry-picking and
area is the starting point for two nature
grouse-snaring, are still pursued in the
trails, both of which provide an excellent
national park. The rambler may also pick
introduction to the varied natural
berries freely and, having purchased a
surroundings of the national park. Rowing
licence, fish; hunting is prohibited though.
boats can also be hired here for the River
Another feature of the national park is
Oulanka, and fishing licences can be
panning for gold. Several panners work in
purchased.
the park, washing gold in the traditional
Information about Oulanka National Park
manner. Gold does occur, though finding
is available from the national park informa-
some calls for strenuous efforts. There is
tion centre at 25 Kiutaköngäs, 93999
really nothing romantic about it.
Kuusamo.
3
In the Archipelago Sea National Park the visitor is well advised to travel by
his own boat.
Linnansaari -
Pearl of Finland's Lake District
Linnansaari's main island has camping
Linnansaari National Park lies in the
grounds, a nature trail, routes and a farm
labyrinthine archipelago of Lake Hau-
museum. Development of the park's
kivesi, surrounded by vast expanses of
service facilities is still under way. The
water. This is an ideal area for boat tours,
park ranger, whom the visitor is likely to
where one can row for days in what
run into, will provide additional informa-
tion about the scenic attractions of the
always seems new scenery. Boats can be
hired at Myllyranta camping ground in
area.
Rantasalmi, Porosalmi holiday village or
The most interesting of the animals to
Oravi. Taxi boat transport is also available
inhabit Linnansaari waters is the endan-
to Louhimaa on Linnansaari, the chief
gered Saimaa seal, whose population
island of the national park.
numbers about 100. Twenty or so of the
The rower must observe certain rules:
seals live in Lake Haukivesi and, being
open fires are not allowed except at
curious animals, they may surface around
specifically designated sites, the use of a
your boat. Birds typical of Linnansaari are
the eerie-voiced black-throated diver of
portable cooker is recommended, a tent
can only be pitched on camping sites,
open waters and the flute-songed golden
oriole of birch woods.
traces of camping must not be left on
shores and nesting birds must not be
Information about Linnansaari National
disturbed. Providing these rules are
Park is available from the Finnish National
observed, however, the boater is free to
Board of Forestry, Savonlinna Manage-
turn his prow into the park area and enjoy
ment Area at Akselinkatu 8, 57130 Savon-
Finnish lake scenery at its best.
linna.
4
Owing to its smaller size this national park
does not offer opportunities for the kind of
wilderness trekking found in the large
parks of the north. Seitseminen is a park
for day visits or stays of two to three days.
Tents can be pitched in the camping
ground, where open fires are also allowed.
There is no overnight hut accommodation.
The Pitkäjärvi loggers' camp in the heart
of the park is intended for use by groups
and those engaged in environmental
studies.
Seitseminen National Park provides
guided tours in the summer; the guides
can be reached at the Kovero Farm
museum. Additional information about the
park is available from the Finnish National
Board of Forestry, Parkano Management
Area at 39700 Parkano.
Amidst the Archipelago
Finland's southwestern coastal archi-
pelago, the Archipelago Sea, is a unique
area comprising hundreds of islands and
islets in all island zones, in groups and as
individual islands separated by open ex-
panses of water. A maritime climate,
calcareous soil, rapid land uplift and cen-
turies of fishing and farming have com-
bined to create habitats in which many
rare and 'choosy' species of plant thrive.
Many of the animals in the area are
Seitseminen -
uncommon elsewhere in Finland: the grey-
Call of the Primeval
lag goose, razorbill, nutcracker, white-tail-
Seitseminen National Park is the best
ed eagle and grey seal.
equipped national park in southern Fin-
The Archipelago Sea National Park is un-
land. The park has several good routes,
like any other national park. It does not
nature trails, signposts and signboards.
consist of any defined land and water
Kovero Farm serves as a temporary in-
area, but of rather widely dispersed islands
formation centre until a new centre is
and islets. Islands in private ownership lie
built. The national park is crossed by
between these, and the State does not
Pirkan Taival, a provincial hiking route. In
intend to incorporate them in the national
the winter Seitseminen offers tracks for
park. The inhabitants of the archipelago
cross-country skiing.
and summer visitors live on privately-
For the nature lover Seitseminen National
owned land. The national park backs the
preservation of human settlement and
Park offers a number of interesting fea-
traditional occupations in the area. The
tures. The virgin forests of Multiharju and
Pitkäjärvi are the most impressive in
park offers employment in ranger and
maintenance duties.
southern Finland. The forests are home to
many retiring species: the pygmy owl,
The best way to get around in the national
hawk owl, three-toed woodpecker, red-
park is by boat. The park provides
breasted flycatcher, pine marten, flying
overnight and anchorage facilities for the
squirrel and lynx. The bogs and lakes in
boater. Although landing on the other
the area may turn up the willow grouse,
islands is allowed, care must be taken to
crane, whooper swan, golden plover and
avoid disturbing nesting birds and grazing
spotted crake.
cattle. Dogs must not be let loose on the
5
D
40
70°
Finnish National Parks
NORWAY-
Kevo
and Strict Nature Reserves open to the public
Malla
LEMMENJOKI
URHO KEKKONEN
68°
NATIONAL PARK
PALLAS-OUNAS
Sompio
TUNTURI
PYHATUNTURI
polar circle
OULANKA
National Parks
RIISITUNTURI
Strict nature reserves
open to the public
SOVIETION-
ROKUA
HIIDENPORTTI-
641
TIILIKKAJÄRVI
SALAMAJÄRVI
PATVINSUO
Koivusuo
-SWEDEN-
Salamanperä
PETKELJARVI
PYHA-HAKKI
KAUHANEVA-POHJANKANGAS
LINNANSAARI
LAUHANVUORI
HELVETINJARVI
SEITSEMINEN
ISOJARVI
Vaskijärvi
Sinivuori
LIESJARVI
Karkali
EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO
60°
SHOUTHWESTERN
ARCHIPELAGO
0
100
200
islands. Landing on the best bird islands is
and areas open to everyone, allowing free
prohibited during the nesting season.
movement on one's own. In contrast, the
The purchase of land for the Archipelago
strict nature reserves have been establish-
Sea National Park and the renovation of
ed solely for scientific purposes. There are
structures and building up of services is
paths open to the public in a few of these
still under way. Communications, too,
reserves. A permit in writing from the
have yet to be arranged. At present the
Finnish National Board of Forestry is re-
park can be visited by boat on one's own
quired for access elsewhere. Public access
or using the vessels that operate through
paths of this type are available in Kevo,
the area (such as the m/s Utö from Turku,
Malla, Sompio, Vaskijärvi and Karkali.
the m/s Rosala from Kasnäs, the m/s
The 40-kilometre path at Kevo runs
Kristiina from Prostvik in Nauvo and the
through magnificent fell scenery and a
water bus to Nötö from Turku). Nötö is
gorge. The 11-kilometre path at Malla runs
the most central island in the Archipelago
in areas of rich fell flora. Sompio's paths
Sea, and has a shop, filling station, a
are closely linked up with Urho Kekkonen
telephone and an outdoor recreation area.
National Park. Vaskijärvi's two short paths
Information about the Archipelago Sea
meander through a bog wilderness.
National Park is available from the Finnish
Karkali's nature trail runs through fine
National Board of Forestry, Hämeenlinna
broadleaf vegetation.
Management Area at P.O. Box 147, 13101
Hämeenlinna.
Peatland Reserves
Finland holds the world record for the
Strict Nature Reserves
number of bogs and for bog drainage for
Dedicated to Research
afforestation purposes. Bogs have de-
clined enormously in area owing to drain-
There are 22 national parks in Finland,
age. At present, several peatland reserves
scattered throughout the country. They
are being established, the chief aim being
are designed to serve as scenic attractions
to preserve bogs from drainage.
7
One example of these peatland reserves is
Isoneva in Pomarkku municipality, which
offers a nature trail through peatland and
a bird observation tower. Birds occurring
in the area include the crane, golden
plover, several aquatic birds and waders.
There are bogs in many national parks,
including the Patvinsuo, Kauhaneva-
Pohjankangas and Riisitunturi national
parks. The accessibility, structures and
services available in the peatland reserves
and many national parks are still not all
they should be, however.
Monuments to the Ice Age
When the continental ice sheet receded
some 10,000 years ago, the meltwater
streams gave rise to eskers and moraines.
These two characteristic features have left
their imprint on the Finnish landscape,
especially as they cross bodies of water.
Eskers are important economically owing
to the sand and gravel they contain, and
the establishment of esker reserves is
expensive and difficult. Finns are trying to
The bird sanctuary at Siikalahti in Parikkala
prevent the destruction of eskers by the
is easily accessible by way of nature trails
enactment of new legislation.
and duckboards.
The best known esker in Finland is Pun-
kaharju, which runs across beautiful lake
scenery. It has long been managed as a
spotted crake and a very large thrush
conservation area. There are many similar
nightingale population.
and smaller eskers in various parts of the
Siikalahti is an unusual bird 'refuge' in that
country. Eskers offer hikers and nature
it has not been placed under protection.
lovers magnificent scenery.
Private landowners can do as they please
in the area, and this includes hunting. A
Avian Paradise
drainage plan aimed at reclaiming land for
Siikalahti in Parikkala municipality is a well
cultivation constitutes the biggest threat
known bird water. The World Wildlife
to the area. Waste water discharged into
Fund has arranged for easy public access
Siikalahti is increasing eutrophication and
along a nature trail and wooden causeway
silting up the inlet all the time. Siikalahti
to the centre of the wetland, where there
sorely needs conservation measures: rais-
is a bird observation tower that affords an
ing of the water level, cutting of aquatic
excellent view over the whole of the inlet.
plants and partial dredging.
Siikalahti harbours many endangered and
rare species of birds: the marsh harrier,
Written by Dr. Pekka Borg, Head of the Urho
little gull, bittern, little bunting, moorhen,
Kekkonen National Park
For further information, please contact:
The National Board of Forestry
The Forest Research Institute
Office of National Parks
Unioninkatu 40 A
P.O.Box 233
00170 Helsinki, Finland
00121 Helsinki, Finland
tel. (9)0-661 401
tel. (9)0-61 631
(Pallas-Ounastunturi and Pyhätunturi National
Parks)
Helsinki 1986. Government Printing Centre
FINNISH FEATURES
DECEMBER 1982
Christmas in Finland: a winter fairytale
It has sometimes been said that northern
play or sketch for the amusement of their
people appreciate Christmas the most,
own staff.
and this does actually seem to be true.
The first Sunday in Advent officially opens
After the long, dark and often very wet
the Christmas season, the church
autumn, Christmas marks the turning
resounding to the strains of Vogler's
point of the year: light begins to win over
"Hosanna". And people flock to hear it.
darkness. It's time to celebrate. Preparing
All over the country there are advent
for the year's biggest festival also makes
concerts in the evening.
the autumn go faster.
It is around this time that the Christmas
Christmas in Finland is not just Christmas
lights come on in shops and offices. The
Eve and the two days that follow. It is
centres of towns are full of light.
preceded by a lengthy and cheerful period
Pietarsaari, a town on the west coast of
of busy preparation. For the Church,
Finland, has had a Christmas street
Christmas begins with the first Sunday in
(Storgatan) ever since 1840's. Suspended
Advent, but long before this, as early as
over the street are three giant decorations:
October, countless associations have
a cross symbolizing faith, an anchor
already set about getting into the holiday
representing hope, and a heart, the
spirit. The first off the line are generally
symbol of love. In the olden days they
the women's organizations, planning their
were lit with candles; nowadays the
Christmas bazaars. Members get together
candles are electric. Only war, the start of
in the old Finnish tradition, most often to
the oil crisis and the introduction of an
make Christmas decorations. These
outdoor Christmas tree have temporarily
evening gatherings could also be regarded
interrupted their use.
as the first Christmas parties, called by the
delightful name of "Pikkujoulu", meaning
On December 13th the Swedish-speaking
"Little Christmas", since they always
schools and homes of Finland celebrate
include some type of Christmas
Lucia's Day, a practice which spread from
programme, talks, music and special
Sweden in the early 1920's. The daughter
seasonal delicacies.
of the family wakes her parents with
morning coffee, dressed in white, with a
The "pikkujoulu" has been part of the
red belt and a crown of candles. The
Finnish tradition since the 1920's, and
costume is reminiscent of the virgin martyr
every employer of any size arranges one
of Sicily: the white dress her innocence,
for his staff. Every organization throws a
the red belt her martyrdom and the crown
party too. Even town councils may forget
- symbol of a halo - her holiness. This
their political differences and join forces
crown is usually decorated with lingon
for one happy evening. They may put on a
springs and threaded with a red ribbon.
MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS
Classification:
15.6
HELSINKI FINLAND
Lucia is accompanied by her brothers and
and children who have grown up and
sisters in the role of servants and pages,
moved away from home try to be with
all singing together. This custom is also
their parents for the holiday. Christmas
becoming popular among Finnish-
Eve is still a working day, however: the
speaking people. Lucia's Day used to co-
shops are open until midday. This
incide with the shortest day of the year,
provides one last chance to buy those few
which is why Lucia, the queen of lights,
last gifts and dainties for the table. At
has gained such popularity in the north.
precisely 12 noon the "Peace of
Christmas" is proclaimed in Turku, the
Little by little the advent decorations are
former capital of Finland, along with
brought out. The children hang up their
adminitions and greetings dating from the
advent calendars, and families count the
Middle Ages. Most Finns listen to this
days to Christmas with the help of advent
ceremony on the radio, and it marks the
candles. The first candle is lit on the first
beginning of the feast. Nowadays most
Sunday, the first and second on the
families take the first part of their
second Sunday, and so on until the fourth
Christmas meal at this point.
is lit on the fourth Sunday, forming a
At sunset on Christmas Eve, families make
slanting row. This decoration originally
their way to the churchyard, where a
came from Sweden and Germany and
service is often held at around 5 o'clock.
found its way to Finland in the 1930's.
Candles are placed on the graves of loved
Christmas cards are posted, decorations
ones, sometimes possibly a wreath, but
made or bought. The baking is also done
most families have already done this on All
well in advance.
Saint's Day.
On the last Sunday before Christmas it is
A Finnish graveyard is a breath-taking
time to start looking for a Christmas tree,
sight on Christmas Eve. Thousands of
ready to be carried in the day before
candles shining out across the snow are a
Christmas Eve, turned to show its finest
sight no foreigner will ever forget. In many
branches, and decorated. The Finns like to
towns former soldiers go in procession to
include rows of national flags, a reminder
visit the graves of fallen comrades, and a
of friendship among peoples. Another
guard of honour stands with drawn
item is geometric mobile made of straw
swords by the large cross dedicated to
called a "himmeli" - very difficult and
their memory. In Helsinki representatives
time-consuming to make. The straw,
of various social organizations and army
which must be straight and of good
officers stand guard by the tomb of
quality, is first softened in the warmth of
Marshal Mannerheim. Usually a hymn or
the sauna, then cut into sections of equal
two is sung, including Luther's "Ein' feste
length. The straws are then threaded to
Burg". For many Finns this is the most
make triangels, squares and eight-sided
serious moment of the entire holiday.
figures. Finally these figures are combined
to make bigger and bigger shapes. Wood
Back at home, the excitement mounts as
shavings may also be cleverly moulded to
the family awaits a quite different aspect
make stars with which to decorate the
of Christmas: the arrival of Father
home, and of course there are many other
Christmas. The Finnish Father Christmas
trinkets too. Almost everyone puts out a
is a more earthly equivalent of St.
bundle or two of oats for the birds. The
Nicholas. Finland differs from most other
candles on the tree are lit for the first time
countries in that Father Christmas really
the day before Christmas Eve.
does visit the home in person on
Christmas Eve. Most often it is in fact
The sauna is integral part of the Finnish
father dressed up, but it may be a
Christmas. Even in the early years of this
neighbour or relative. The children dress
century people were still excepted to
up as Father Christmas' little helpers: red
"attend" the sauna on Christmas Eve.
tights, a long red cap, and a grey cotton
And still, anyone, travelling around the
suit also decorated with red. On his
Finnish countryside on Christmas Eve will
arrival, Father Christmas always asks the
see smoke rising from almost every sauna
same question: "Are there any good
house.
children here?", and the answer is always
Christmas Eve is the highlight of the year
an enthusiastic "Yes". Father Christmas
in Finland, and not Christmas Day.
generally brings in a big basket with all the
Families get together for the occasion,
presents, the children sing to him and may
even sing a ring game with him. Then
and sing hymns at home. Nowadays
Father Christmas tells them how far he
Christmas Day is a time to spend with
has come, all the way from Lapland, a
family and relatives.
long, long journey. He lives at
Korvatunturi, a fell in eastern Lapland.
The day after Christmas, which the Finns
(The Finnish Broadcasting Company
know as St. Stephen's Day, is also a
placed him there in 1927, and he has had
holiday and used to be the day for sleigh
rides. Nowadays, however, there are few
his headquarters there ever since.) Father
horses left. The New Year is a kind of
Christmas can't afford to spend long in
any one place. As soon as the children
repeat Christmas, and all the Christmas
fare is once more brought out. But New
and adults have sung him one last song,
Year's Eve is also a time for magic!
he takes up his stick and tramps off in his
felt boots and furs. His little helpers are
Fortunes in the coming year are told from
left to hand out the presents.
objects hidden under cups, or by
interpreting the meaning of tin molten
Not until this most important event on the
over the fire and cast into a bucket of cold
programme has been taken care of is the
water. The resulting piece of "sculpture"
main Christmas meal served. Now the
is held up to the wall, and the images
table is decked with the best mother can
formed by its shadow are omens of the
provide.
future. Christmas ends with Twelfth
Christmas Day itself, which in many
Night.
countries is the high point of the holiday
Christmas is a festival centred on the
season, is almost an anti-climax in
family and in particular the children. It is
Finland. It has traditionally been a quiet
the season to recall what tends to get
day of devotion, when the only activity
forgotten the rest of the year but which is
used to be attendance at church. Even
nevertheless important: other people,
nowadays the churches are full on
roots and traditions, and the idea of peace
Christmas morning, even though in many
on earth and goodwill to all men.
places the service begins at 6 a.m. Some
people prefer to read the Christmas story
Written by Kaisu Vuolio
For further information please contact:
This fact sheet is produced as part of the Fin-
The Finnish Embassy or Consulate
nish information service abroad, and is intend-
in your country
ed to be used for reference purposes. It may
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs
be freely used in preparing articles, speeches,
Lönnrotinkatu 4 B, 00120 Helsinki 12
broadcasts, etc. No acknowledgment is neces-
Finland
sary. Please note the date of preparation.
Helsinki 1988. Government Printing Centre