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323154449
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Germany Trip [Research Materials, 1992] [OA 6900] [3]
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323154449
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Germany Trip [Research Materials, 1992] [OA 6900] [3]
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13863-003
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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Carol Aarhus Alpha Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Aarhus, Carol, Files
Subseries:
Alpha File, 1990-1992
OA/ID Number:
13863
Folder ID Number:
13863-003
Folder Title:
Germany Trip [Research Materials], 1992 [3]
Stack:
Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
G
19
2
5
4
background
notes
Germany
United States Department of State
June 1991
Bureau of Public Affairs
People
1990): 2.2% of GNP. Flag: Three horizontal
bands: black, red, and gold, from top to
Nationality: Noun and adjective-
bottom.
German(s). Population: About 79 million
(Dec. 1990 est.). Ethnic groups: Primarily
Economy (for original 11 states)
German; Danish minority in the north,
Serbian (Slavic) minority in the east.
GNP (1989): $1.2 trillion. Annual growth
Religions: Almost evenly divided between
rate (1989): 4%. Per capita income: $19,000.
Protestant and Roman Catholic. Language:
Inflation rate (1988): 2.8%. Natural
German. Education: Years compulsory-
resources: Iron, hard coal, lignite, potash,
10. Attendance-100%. Literacy-99%.
natural gas. Agriculture (1.5% of GNP):
Health (in the original 11 states): Infant
Products-corn, wheat, potatoes, sugar
mortality rate (1990)-6/1,000. Life
beets, barley, hops, viniculture, forestry,
expectancy (1990)-women 81 yrs., men 73
fisheries. Industry (40% of GNP): Types—
yrs. Work force: 39 million (1990 estimate).
iron and steel, coal, chemicals, electrical
Includes the 11 million workers in the
products, ships, vehicles, construction.
former GDR.
Trade (1989): Exports -$367 billion:
chemicals, motor vehicles, iron and steel
Official Name:
Government
products, manufactured goods, electrical
products. Major markets (1988)-European
Federal Republic of Germany
Type: Federal republic.
Community 54%, other European countries
Founded: 1949 (Basic Law, i.e., constitution,
19%, US 8%, developing countries 7%,
Profile
promulgated on May 23, 1949). On October
Soviet Union 2%. Imports-$269 billion:
3, 1990, the Federal Republic of Germany
food, petroleum products, manufactured
and the German Democratic Republic
goods, electrical products, automobiles,
Geography
unified in accordance with Article 23 of the
apparel. Major suppliers (1988)-European
FRG Basic Law. Branches: Executive-
Area: 357,000 sq. km. (137,838 sq. mi.);
Community countries 52%, other European
president (titular chief of state), chancellor
about the size of Montana. Cities:
countries 16%, US 7%, developing countries
(executive head of government).
Capital-Berlin (population about 3.4
10%, Soviet Union 2%. Exchange rate
Legislative-bicameral parliament.
million). Seat of government-Bonn (pop.
(November 1990):- 1.50 Deutsche marks=US
Judicial-independent, Federal
287,000). The permanent seat of
$1.
Constitutional Court. Subdivisions: 16
government for a unified Germany will be
Laender (states)-Baden-Wuerttemberg,
addressed by the all-German Parliament
Membership in
Bayern (Bavaria), Berlin, Brandenburg*,
elected on December 2, 1990. Other cities-
International Organizations
Bremen, Hamburg, Hessen (Hesse),
Hamburg (1.6 million), Munich (1.2 million),
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern*, Niedersachsen
Cologne (946,000), Frankfurt (635,000).
Council of Europe, North Atlantic Treaty
(Lower Saxony), Nordrhein-Westfalen
(Dec. 1990 est.) Terrain: Low plain in the
Organization (NATO), INTELSAT,
(North Rhine-Westphalia), Rheinland-Pfalz,
north; high plains, hills, and basins in the
European Community (EC), Western
Saarland, Sachsen (Saxony)*, Sachsen-
center and east; mountainous Alpine region
European Union (WEU), Organization for
Anhalt*, Schleswig-Holstein, Thueringen
in the south. Climate: Temperate; cooler
Economic Cooperation and Development
(Thuringia)*. (* = formerly part of the GDR)
and rainier than much of the US.
(OECD), and the United Nations and UN-
Major political parties: Christian
related agencies, including the General
Democratic Union (CDU); Christian Social
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
Union (CSU); Social Democratic Party
International Atomic Energy Agency
(SPD); Free Democratic Party (FDP);
(IAEA), International Bank for
Greens/Alliance 90; Party of Democratic
Reconstruction and Development (World
Socialism (PDS). Suffrage: Universal at 18.
Bank), and International Monetary Fund
Central government budget (1990): $245
(IMF).
billion. Defense budget (original 11 states,
Kanskrona
Holsingtorg
former GDR, the poor infrastructure in
Kristiansted
Germany
SWEDEN
this area, the environmental damage in
Veile
Kalarldborg
International boundary
eastern Germany brought on by years
Kolding
ENMARK
Malmo
Ystad
State (Land) boundary
Slage/se
Kage
Eshjerg
Bornholm
of mismanagement under communist
National capital
Odense
Korsor
Nasstved
Trelleborg
(DENMARK)
Ronne
State (Land) capital
rule, and difficulty in resolving
Railroad
Senderborg
property ownership in the former GDR.
Autobahn
Other road
Flensburg
Becoynavn
Rügen
Baltic Sea
SCHIESWIG
Gedser
Sassnitz
Kiel
Puttgarder
HISTORY
0
50
100 Kilometers
HOLSTEIN
Bay
Pomeranian
Mecklenburger
Kiel
Straisung
Bay
0
50
100 Miles
Bucht
Rostock
Germanic tribes, migrating south and
Swinoujscie
Lübeck
west, entered the present territory of
North Sea
0
HAMBURG
Bremerhaven
MECK ENBURG VORPOMMERN
Vithelmshaver
Germany nearly 4,000 years ago. They
Namburg
Schwerin
Servecin
3
Emden
BREMEN
pushed back the Celts and were
Groningen
Bremen
strongly established before
Oldenburg
Wittenberge
Gorzow
BRANDENBURG
encountering the Romans moving north
NETHERLANDS
Wielkopolski
NIEDERSACHSEN
Berlin
under Varus, one of Augustus'
Amsterdam
SACHSE
POLAND
Hannover
Potsdag
Frankfurt
generals. The Germans annihilated the
Osnabrock
Utrecht
Enschede
BERLIN
Roman forces and killed Varus in the
Amhem
Braunschweig
52-
Retterdam
Bielefeld
Magdeburg
Zielona
battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD,
Münster
ANHAL
Spree
Gora
Oder
Dessau
Cottbus
effectively stopping Roman expansion
Eindhoven
Duisburg
Gottingen
Dortmund
Halle
on the Danube-Rhine line.
Antwerp
Essen
Leipzig
Dusseldorf
SACHSEN
Görlitz
Kassel
Thus, much of Germany did not
NORDRHEIN-WESTFALEN
Dresden
Jelenia
Brussels
Cologne
Eisenach
Efurt
Gota
Maastricht
Bad
Chergnitz
experience Latin culture directly and
Siegen,
Hersfeld
Jena
WNI9738
(KerkMark Stadt)
Decin
Aachen
THURINGEN
Gera
adopted Christianity later than did the
Bonn
Liege
Zwickau
Meuse
HESSEN
Usti Labem
Roman world. The baptism of Clovis in
Charler
Hradec
Koblenz
Kralove
Hot
496 AD opened the way for widespread
Frankfurt
Wiesbaden / am Main
Cheb
Prague
conversion of the Germanic tribes and
Main
LUX.
Mainz
Bamberg
Laxembourg
RHEINLAND
Würburg
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
culminated three centuries later with
PFALZ
Rhein-Main-
Pizen
Mannheirne
Donsu-Kanal
the crowning of "Karl the Great"
SAARLAND
Nümberg
Heiderberg
(Charlemagne) in 800 as Holy Roman
Metz
Searbrücken
BAY
E
N
Heilbronn
Ceske
Emperor. For the next 1,000 years,
Karisruhe
Regensburg
Budéjovice
decentralizing forces dominated
Nancy
Stuttgart
Danube
Passau
Strasbourg
German politics, leaving power largely
Isar
FRANCE
Utm
Linz
in the hands of local princes, often with
Denube
BADEN-
Augsburg
WURTHEMBERG
Munich
devastating consequences. The Thirty
48
according to
signed
Freiburg
Years' War (1618-48), a series of
the Democrated REDUCAL
France,
Mulhouse
Konstanz
Salzburg
AUSTRIA
-
conflicts between Protestant and
processings. Parkament -
Garmisch-
government
Bodensed
Partenkirchen
Base
Catholic forces, decimated Germany's
Zurich
Satzach
Besançon
SWITZERLAND
Innsbruck
population. After the war, an uneasy
balance remained between Protestant
and Catholic states, which continued to
PEOPLE
scholars, and scientists have always
war against each other periodically.
The population of the unified FRG is
enjoyed prestige in Germany.
The rise of Prussian power in the
primarily German; however, there are a
With per capita income levels
19th century, supported by growing
substantial number of foreign guest
approaching $20,000 in the original 11
German nationalism, eventually ended
workers and their dependents. An
states, postwar Germany has become a
the inter-state fighting and resulted in
ethnic Danish minority lives in the
broadly middle class society. A
the formation of the German Empire in
north, and a small Slavic minority
generous social welfare system
1871 under the chancellorship of Otto
known as the Sorbs lives in eastern
provides for universal medical care,
von Bismarck. Although authoritarian
Germany. Renowned for their
unemployment compensation, and other
in many respects, the empire
economic productivity, Germans are
social needs. Modern Germans also are
eventually permitted the development
well-educated. Since the end of World
mobile; millions travel abroad each
of political parties and Bismarck was
War II, the number of youths entering
year.
credited with passing the most
universities has nearly tripled, and the
With unification on October 3, 1990,
advanced social welfare legislation of
trade and technical schools in the
the FRG has started the major task of
the age. Dynamic expansion of military
original 11 states of the FRG are
bringing the standard of living of
power, however, contributed to tension
among the world's best.
Germans in the former GDR up to the
on the continent. The fragile European
German culture has produced some
levels of western Germany. It appears
balance of power broke down in 1914,
of the greatest artists and intellectuals
that this will be a lengthy and difficult
and World War I left millions dead and
of all time. Composers, artists, writers,
process, due to the relative inefficiency
led to the collapse of the empire.
of the industrial enterprises in the
2
The Weimar Republic
At Potsdam in August 1945, the
a brief period under Ludwig Erhard
United States, the United Kingdom,
(1963-66) who, in turn, was replaced by
The postwar Weimar Republic (1919-
and the Soviet Union agreed to a broad
Kurt Georg Kiesinger (1966-69).
33) sought to draw on Germany's liberal
program of decentralization, treating
Kiesinger's 1966-69 "Grand Coalition"
traditions but was handicapped by
Germany as a single economic unit with
included the CDU/CSU and the Social
terrible economic problems-the
some central administrative
Democratic Party (SPD). Governments
inflation of the early 1920s and the
departments. These plans failed,
between 1949 and 1966 were all formed
post-1929 world depression-as well as
primarily because of inter-Allied
by the united caucus of the Christian
the political legacy of the Versailles
conflict. The turning point came in 1948
Democratic Union (CDU) and Christian
Treaty, which imposed a heavy burden
when the Soviets withdrew from the
Social Union (CSU), either alone or in
of reparations and loss of territory.
Four Power governing bodies and
coalition with the smaller Free
The new experiment in republican,
blockaded Berlin.
Democratic Party (FDP).
parliamentary democracy was unable to
In the 1969 election, the Social
harness the resulting surge of political
Political Developments
conflicts, and the republic suffered from
Democratic Party (SPD), headed by
a succession of weak governments
in West Germany
Willy Brandt, gained enough votes to
formed by multi-party coalitions.
form a coalition government with the
The United States and the United
FDP. Chancellor Brandt remained
The National Socialist (Nazi) Party,
Kingdom moved to establish a nucleus
led by a demagogic ex-corporal, Adolf
head of government until May 1974,
for a future German government by
Hitler, stressed nationalist themes,
when he resigned after a senior
expanding the size and powers of the
member of his staff was arrested and
such as the alleged betrayal of
German Economic Council in their two
Germany by German republican
accused of being an officer in the East
zones. The program provided for a
representatives at Versailles, promised
German intelligence service.
West German constituent assembly, an
Finance Minister Helmut Schmidt
to put the unemployed back to work,
occupation statute governing relations
and blamed many of Germany's ills on
between the Allies and the German
formed a government and received the
alleged Jewish conspiracies. Its
unanimous support of coalition
authorities, and the economic merger of
electorate expanded rapidly in the
members. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, a
the French with the British and
early 1930s, but the Nazi party never
American zones.
leading FDP official, became the vice
achieved a majority prior to coming to
chancellor and foreign minister.
On May 23, 1949, the Basic Law, or
power. Only after months of deadlock
Schmidt, a strong supporter of the
constitution, of the Federal Republic of
was Hitler asked to form a government
Germany was promulgated. The first
European Community (EC) and the
as Reich Chancellor in January 1933.
Atlantic alliance, emphasized his
federal government was formed by
After President Paul von Hindenburg
Konrad Adenauer on Sept. 20, 1949.
commitment to "the political unification
died in 1934, Hitler assumed that office
The next day, the occupation statute
of Europe in partnership with the
USA."
as well. Once in power, Hitler and his
came into force, granting full powers of
party first undermined then abolished
In October 1982, the SPD/FDP
self-government with certain
democratic institutions and opposition
coalition fell apart and the FDP joined
exceptions.
forces with the CDU/CSU to elect
parties and installed a program of
The FRG quickly progressed
CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl as
racism that resulted in the deliberate,
toward fuller sovereignty and
widespread extermination of Jews and
chancellor. Following national elections
association with European neighbors
other minority groups during World
and the Atlantic community. The
in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm
War II. In the 1930s, Hitler also began
control of both the government and the
London and Paris agreements of 1954
to restore Germany's economy and
CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of
restored full sovereignty to the FRG
military strength. His ambitions led
when they went into effect on May 5,
an absolute majority, due to the entry
Germany into launching World War II
1955 and opened the way for German
into the Bundestag of the Greens, who
and suffering destruction, defeat, and
received 5.6% of the vote.
membership in the North Atlantic
loss of territory.
Treaty Organization (NATO) and the
In January 1987, the Kohl/Genscher
After Germany's unconditional
Western European Union (WEU).
government was returned to office, but
surrender on May 8, 1945, the United
The three Allies retained
the FDP and the Greens gained at the
States, the United Kingdom, and the
occupation powers in Berlin and certain
expense of the larger parties. Kohl's
USSR occupied the country and
responsibilities for Germany as a whole.
CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the
assumed responsibility for its
Under the new arrangements, the
CSU, slipped from 49% of the vote in
administration. The commanders-in-
1983 to 44%. The SPD fell to 37%.
Allies stationed troops within the FRG
chief exercised supreme authority in
Long-time SPD Chairman Brandt
for NATO defense, pursuant to
their respective zones and, sitting as
stationing and status-of-forces
subsequently resigned in April 1987
the Allied Control Council (ACC), acted
agreements. With the exception of
and was succeeded by Hans-Jochen
in concert on questions affecting the
45,000 French troops, Allied forces
Vogel. The FDP rose from 7% to 9%,
whole country. France was later
were under NATO's joint defense
their best showing since 1980. The
invited to join the ACC and was given a
command.
Greens also significantly strengthened
separate zone of occupation.
Political life in the FRG was
their place in the Bundestag, rising
remarkably stable and orderly. The
from 5.6% (1983) to 8.3% (1987).
Adenauer era (1949-63) was followed by
3
Political Developments
strains on FRG-GDR relations in the
unabated, and pressure for political
In East Germany
1950s. On August 13, 1961, the GDR
reform mounted. On November 4, a
began building a wall through the
demonstration in East Berlin drew an
In the Soviet zone, the Social Demo-
center of Berlin, effectively dividing the
estimated 500,000-1 million East
cratic party was forced to merge with
the Communist party in 1946 to form a
city and slowing the flood of refugees
Germans. Finally, on November 9, the
to a trickle. The Berlin Wall became
new party, the Socialist Unity Party
Berlin Wall was opened, and East
the symbol of the East's political
(SED). The October 1946 elections
Germans were allowed to travel freely.
debility and the division of Europe.
Thousands poured through the Wall
resulted in coalition governments in the
In 1969, FRG Chancellor Brandt
into the western sectors of Berlin, and
five Land (state) parliaments with the
announced that the FRG would remain
on November 12, the GDR began
SED as the undisputed leader.
firmly rooted in the Atlantic alliance
dismantling it.
A series of people's congresses were
but would intensify efforts to improve
On November 28, FRG Chancellor
called in 1948 and early 1949 by the
relations with Eastern Europe and the
Kohl outlined a 10-point plan for the
SED. Under Soviet direction, a
GDR.
peaceful unification of the two
constitution was drafted on May 30,
The FRG commenced its Ostpolitik
Germanys based on free elections in the
1949, and adopted on October 7, which
by negotiating non-aggression treaties
GDR and a unification of their two
was celebrated as the day when the
with the Soviet Union, Poland,
economies. In December, the GDR
German Democratic Republic was
Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and
Volkskammer eliminated the SED
proclaimed. The People's Chamber
Hungary. The FRG's relations with
monopoly on power, and the entire
(Volkskammer), the lower house of the
the GDR posed particularly difficult
Politburo and Central Committee-
GDR parliament, and an upper house,
questions. Though anxious to relieve
including Krenz-resigned. The SED
the States Chamber (Laenderkammer),
serious hardships for divided families
changed its name to the Party of
were created. (The Laenderkammer
and to reduce friction, the FRG under
Democratic Socialism (PDS) and the
was abolished in 1958.) On October 11,
Brandt was intent on holding to its
formation and growth of numerous
1949, the two houses elected Wilhelm
concept of "two German states in one
political groups and parties marked the
Pieck as president and an SED
German nation."
end of the former communist system.
government was set up. The Soviet
Relations improved, and, in
Prime Minister Hans Modrow headed a
Union and its East European allies
September 1973, the FRG and the GDR
caretaker government which shared
immediately recognized the GDR,
were admitted to the UN. The two
power with the new democratically
although it remained largely
Germanys exchanged permanent
oriented parties. On December 7, 1989,
unrecognized by non-communist
representatives in 1974, and, in 1987,
agreement was reached to hold free
countries until 1972-73.
GDR head of state Erich Honecker paid
elections in May 1990 and rewrite the
The GDR established the structures
an official visit to the FRG.
GDR constitution. On January 28, all
of a single-party, centralized
the parties agreed to advance the
communist state. On July 23, 1952, the
German Unification
elections to March 18, primarily
traditional Laender were abolished and,
because of an erosion of state authority
in their place, 14 Bezirke (districts)
During the summer of 1989, rapid
and because the East German exodus
were established. All effective
change in the GDR ultimately led to
continued with over 117,000 leaving for
government control was in the hands of
German unification. Growing numbers
the West in January and February
the SED and almost all important
of East Germans emigrated to the FRG
1990.
government positions were held by
via Hungary after the Hungarians
In early February 1990, the
SED members.
decided not to use force to stop them.
Modrow government's proposal for a
The National Front was an
Thousands of East Germans also tried
unified, neutral German state was
umbrella organization nominally
to reach the West by staging sit-ins at
rejected by Chancellor Kohl, who
consisting of the SED, four other
FRG diplomatic facilities in other East
affirmed that a unified Germany must
political parties controlled and directed
European capitals. The exodus
be a member of NATO. Finally, on
by the SED, and the four principal
generated demands within the GDR for
March 18, the first free elections were
mass organizations (youth, trade
political change, and mass
held in the GDR, and a government led
unions, women, and culture). However,
demonstrations in several cities—
by Lothar de Maiziere (CDU) was
control was clearly and solely in the
particularly in Leipzig-continued to
formed under a policy of expeditious
hands of the SED. Balloting in GDR
grow. On October 7, Soviet leader
unification with the FRG. The freely
elections was not secret. As in other
Mikhail Gorbachev visited Berlin to
elected representatives of the
Soviet bloc countries, electoral
celebrate the 40th anniversary of the
Volkskammer held their first session
participation was consistently high,
establishment of the GDR and urged
on April 5, and the GDR peacefully
with nearly unanimous candidate
the East German leadership to pursue
evolved from a communist to a
approval.
reform.
democratically elected government.
On October 18, Erich Honecker
Free and secret communal (local)
Inter-German Relations
resigned as head of the SED and head
elections were held in the GDR on May.
of state and was replaced by Egon
The constant stream of East Germans
6, and the CDU again won. On July 1,
Krenz. But the exodus continued
fleeing to West Germany placed great
the two Germanys entered into an
economic and monetary union.
4
Four Power Control Ends
German elections were held for the first
Principal Government Officials
time since 1937. The CDU/CSU
During 1990, in parallel with internal
received 44% of the vote and the FDP
President-
German developments, the Four
received 11%, giving the governing
Richard von Weizsaecker
Powers-the United States, Britain,
coalition 55% of the vote and 398 of 662
France, and the Soviet Union-
President of the Bundestag-
seats in the Bundestag. The SPD
negotiated to end Four Power reserved
Rita Suessmuth (CDU)
opposition won 34% of the vote and 239
rights for Berlin and Germany as a
Chancellor-Heimut Kohl (CDU)
seats. Under the special provisions of
whole. These "Two-plus-Four"
Vice Chancellor-
the first all-German elections, parties in
negotiations were mandated at the
Hans-Dietrich Genscher (FDP)
the former GDR who received 5% of
Ottawa Open Skies conference on
Minister of Defense—
the vote in that area were also able to
February 13, 1990. The six foreign
Gerhard Stoltenberg (CDU)
receive representation. The Party of
ministers met four times in the ensuing
Democratic Socialism received 10% of
Minister for Foreign Affairs-
months in Bonn (May 5), Berlin (June
the vote in the former GDR and 17
Hans-Dietrich Genscher (FDP)
22), Paris (July 17), and Moscow
(September 12). The Polish Foreign
seats in the Bundestag, and an alliance
Ambassador to the US-
Dr. Juergen Ruhfus
Minister participated in that part of the
of the Greens and several left-wing
Paris meeting that dealt with the
organizations (Alliance 90) won 6% of
Ambassador to the UN-
Polish-German borders.
the vote in East Germany and 8
Detlew Graf zu Rantzau
Bundestag seats. However, in West
Of key importance was overcoming
Germany, since the Greens won only
The FRG maintains an embassy
Soviet objections to a united Germany's
in the United States at 4645
membership in NATO. This was
4.7% of the vote, they did not receive
any Bundestag seats.
Reservoir Road NW, Washington,
accomplished in July when the
DC 20007 (tel. 202-298-4000).
alliance-led by President Bush-
FRG consulates general are
GOVERNMENT
issued the London Declaration on a
located in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago,
transformed NATO. On July 16,
The government is parliamentary and
Detroit, Houston, Los Angeles, San
President Gorbachev and Chancellor
based on a democratic constitution that
Francisco, Seattle, and New York.
Kohl announced agreement in principle
emphasizes the protection of individual
Consulates are located in Miami
on a united Germany in NATO. This
and New Orleans.
liberty and divided power in a federal
cleared the way for signing the "Treaty
structure. The chancellor (prime
on the Final Settlement With Respect
minister) heads the executive branch of
justice, and courts with jurisdiction in
to Germany" in Moscow on September
the federal government. The
administrative, financial, labor, and
12.
president's duties (chief of state) are
social matters. The highest court is the
In addition to terminating Four
largely ceremonial; power is exercised
Federal Constitutional Court which
Power rights, the treaty mandates the
by the chancellor. Although elected by
ensures a uniform interpretation of
withdrawal of all Soviet forces from
and responsible to the Bundestag
constitutional provisions and protects
Germany by the end of 1994, makes
(lower and principal chamber of the
the fundamental rights of the individual
clear that the current borders are final
parliament), the chancellor cannot be
citizen as defined in the Basic Law.
and definitive, and specifies the right of
removed from office during a 4-year
a united Germany to belong to NATO.
term unless the Bundestag has agreed
Political Parties
It also provides for the continued
on a successor.
presence of British, French, and
Christian Democratic Union/
The Bundestag, also elected for a 4-
American troops in Berlin during the
year term, consists of 662 deputies.
Christian Social Union (CDU/CSU)
interim period of the Soviet
The first elections for an all-German
An important aspect of postwar
withdrawal. In the treaty, the
Bundestag were held on December 2,
German politics has been the
Germans renounced nuclear, biological,
1990. The Bundesrat (upper chamber
emergence of a moderate Christian
and chemical weapons and stated their
or Federal Council) consists of 68
party, the Christian Democratic Union,
intention to reduce German armed
members who are delegates of the 16
operating with a related Bavarian
forces to 370,000 within 3-4 years after
Laender. The legislature has powers of
party, the Christian Social Union.
the conventional armed forces in
exclusive jurisdiction and concurrent
Although each party maintains its own
Europe (CFE) agreement (signed in
jurisdiction (with the Laender) in fields
structure, the two form a common
Paris on November 19, 1990) enters
specifically enumerated by the Basic
caucus in the Bundestag and do not run
into force.
Law. The Bundestag bears the major
opposing campaigns. The CDU/CSU is
Conclusion of the final settlement
responsibility, and the role of the
loosely organized, containing Catholics,
cleared the way for unification of the
Bundesrat is limited except in matters
Protestants, rural interests, and
FRG and GDR. Formal political union
concerning Laender interests, where it
members of all economic classes. It is
occurred on October 3, 1990, with the
can exercise substantial veto power.
generally conservative on economic and
accession (in accordance with Article 23
The FRG has an independent
social policy and more identified with
of the FRG's Basic Law) of the five
federal judiciary consisting of a
the Roman Catholic and Protestant
Laender, which had been reestablished
constitutional court, a high court of
churches than are the other major
in the GDR. On December 2, 1990, all-
parties, although its programs are
5
pragmatic rather than ideological.
representation in the next German
been a strong advocate of closer
Helmut Kohl has served as chairman of
election, when the 5% hurdle will apply
European economic integration, and its
the CDU since 1973; Theo Waigel
throughout all of Germany.
economic and commercial policies are
succeeded the late Franz Josef Strauss
Greens In the 1970s,
increasingly determined by agreements
as chairman of the CSU in 1988.
environmentalists organized politically
among EC members.
Social Democratic Party (SPD)
as the Greens. Opposition to expanded
Outside the EC, the United States,
The SPD is the other major party in the
use of nuclear power, to NATO
Austria, and Switzerland are the FRG's
FRG and is one of the oldest organized
strategy, and to aspects of highly
major trading partners. The United
political parties in the world.
industrialized society were the
States had sales of about $20 billion (a
Historically, it advocated Marxist
principle campaign issues. The Greens
7.6% share of the FRG import market)
principles, but in the "Godesberg
received 8% of the vote in the January
in 1988. In that year, the FRG
Program," adopted in 1959, the SPD
1987 West German national election.
exported goods valued at about $25
abandoned the concept of a class party,
However, in the December 1990 all-
billion to the United States (an 8%
while continuing to stress social welfare
German elections, the Greens in
share of the US import market),
programs. Although the SPD originally
western Germany were not able to
including motor vehicles, machinery,
opposed West Germany's 1955 entry
clear the 5% hurdle required to win
chemicals, and electrical equipment.
into NATO, it now emphasizes German
seats in the Bundestag. It was only in
US sales to the FRG are concentrated
ties with the alliance. However, the
the territory of the former GDR that
in chemicals, machinery, edible fats and
SPD often has opposed specific NATO
the Greens, in an alliance with Alliance
oils, aircraft, electrical equipment, and
programs and has advanced its own
90 (a loose grouping of left-wing
motor vehicles.
proposals under the banner of "security
political entities with diverse political
The FRG has followed a liberal
partnership" with the East. The SPD
views), were able to clear the 5% hurdle
policy toward foreign investment.
has a powerful base in the bigger cities
and win Bundestag seats.
About 65% of US capital invested in the
and industrialized Laender. Bjoern
FRG is in manufacturing-the largest
Engholm became the SPD chairman in
ECONOMY
share in the automobile industry-and
May 1991.
another 25% is in petroleum. Total US
The Free Democratic Party
Germany ranks among the world's most
assets in the FRG amounted to $20
(FDP) The FDP has traditionally been
important economic powers. From the
billion at the end of 1988. German
composed mainly of middle- and upper-
1948 currency reform until the early
class Protestants who consider
1970s, it experienced almost continuous
capital has come increasingly to the
United States. At the end of 1988, net
themselves "independents" and heirs to
economic expansion, but real growth in
FRG direct investment amounted to
the European liberal tradition.
gross national product (GNP) slowed
$27 billion.
Although the party is weak on the state
and even declined from the mid-1970s
level, it has participated in all but three
through the recession of the early
postwar governments and has spent
1980s. Since then, however, the FRG
Principal US Officials
only 7 years out of government in the
has experienced 8 consecutive years of
40-year history of the Federal
economic growth. The German
Ambassador-Vernon A. Walters
Republic. Otto Graf Lambsdorff was
economy grew 4% in 1989 and should
Deputy Chief of Mission-
elected chairman of the FDP in 1988. A
equal that performance again in 1990.
George F. Ward
leading figure in the party is Hans-
Germans often describe their
Minister-Counselor for Political
Dietrich Genscher, who has served
economic system as a "social market
Affairs-Douglas H. Jones
since 1974 as the West German Vice
economy." Competition and free
Minister-Counselor for Economic
Chancellor and Foreign Minister in
enterprise are fostered as a matter of
Affairs-Donald B. Kursch
coalition governments with both the
government policy. However, the state
Minister-Counselor for Commercial
SPD and the CDU/CSU.
also intervenes in the economy through
Affairs-John W. Bligh, Jr.
The Party of Democratic
the provision of subsidies to selected
Minister-Counselor for Adminis-
Socialism (PDS) Under chairman
sectors and the ownership of some
trative Affairs-Harold W. Geisel
Gregor Gysi, the PDS is the successor
segments of the economy, including
party to the SED (communist party).
such public services as railroad, airline,
Minister-Counselor for Consular
and telephone systems. The German
Affairs-Norman A. Singer
Established in December 1989, it
government also provides an extensive
Minister-Counselor for Public
renounced most of the extreme aspects
network of social services.
Affairs-Cynthia J. Miller
of SED policy, but has retained much of
the ideology of the SED. In the
The FRG economy is heavily export
The US embassy is located at
December 1990 all-German elections,
oriented, with one-third of its national
Deichmanns Aue 29, 5300 Bonn 2
the PDS gained 10% of the vote in the
output shipped abroad annually. As a
(tel. 0228-3391). A US embassy
territory of the former GDR and 17
result, exports have traditionally been
office is in Berlin, and consulates
seats in the Bundestag. However,
a key element in German
general are at Frankfurt, Hamburg,
having won only 0.3% of the vote in
macro-economic expansion. Over the
Munich, and Stuttgart. A consulate
western Germany, it is questionable
past 2 years, however, domestic
general is scheduled to open in
whether the PDS will win
demand has been the main engine of
1991 in Leipzig.
economic growth. The FRG has long
6
With the unification of the two
US-GERMAN RELATIONS
exchange programs, booming tourism
German states, the FRG faces the
in both directions, and the presence in
US-German relations have been a focal
complex task of rapidly introducing a
the FRG of large numbers of American
market economy in the East. Since
point of American involvement in
military personnel and their
overall productivity in the former GDR
Europe since the end of World War II.
dependents.
The FRG stands at the center of East-
was less than half that in the FRG,
The United States and the FRG
closing the economic gap between East
West relations, as well as of US
have built a solid foundation of bilateral
and West will be a major undertaking.
relations with the West Europeans in
cooperation in a relationship that has
The poor condition of basic
NATO and the European Community.
changed significantly over four
But German-American ties extend
infrastructure and widespread
decades. The historic unification of
back to the colonial era. More than 7
environmental damage in the East will
Germany and the role played by the
further complicate the process of
million Germans have immigrated over
United States in that process has
economic integration. Private
the last three centuries, and today
served to strengthen ties between the
investment in eastern Germany has
nearly 25% of all US citizens can claim
two countries. The relationship now
been slower than expected, in large
German ancestry. In recognition of this
constitutes a mature partnership but
part since the issue of property
heritage and the importance of modern-
remains subject to occasional
ownership in the former GDR has
day US-German ties, Congress has
misunderstandings and differences.
declared October 6 to be "German-
proven difficult to resolve. But most
These strains tend to reflect the
observers nevertheless continue to
American Day."
importance, variety, and intensity of
believe that after an initial period of
The US objective in Germany
US-FRG ties and respective interests
economic adjustment, eastern Germany
remains the preservation and
rather than fundamental differences.
will enter into an era of rapid and
consolidation of a close and vital
German-American political,
sustained economic growth.
relationship with the FRG not only as
economic, and security relationships
friends and trading partners but also as
continue to be based on close
FOREIGN RELATIONS
allies sharing common institutions.
consultation and coordination at the
During the 45 years in which Germany
The unified Germany continues to
most senior levels. High-level visits
was divided, the US role in Berlin and
emphasize close ties with the United
take place frequently, and the United
the large American military presence in
States and the FRG cooperate actively
States, membership in NATO, progress
West Germany served as symbols of
in international forums.
toward further West European
US commitment to the preservation of
integration, and improved relations
peace and security in Europe. Since
BERLIN
with Eastern Europe. The FRG took
German unification, the US
part in all of the joint postwar efforts
commitment to these goals has not
The Final Settlement Treaty ends
aimed at closer political, economic, and
changed. American policies continue to
Berlin's special status since 1945 as a
defense cooperation among the
be shaped by the awareness that the
separate area under Four Power
countries of Western Europe. The
security and prosperity of the United
control. By the terms of the treaty
FRG is also a strong supporter of the
States and Germany depend-to a
between the FRG and the GDR, Berlin
Conference on Security and
major degree-on each other.
becomes the capital of a unified
Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), which
As allies in NATO, the United
Germany, but a decision on the seat of
seeks to reduce tensions and improve
States and Germany work side by side
government has been left to the
relations among the European nations,
to maintain peace and freedom. This
Bundestag elected in December 1990.
the US, and Canada.
unity and resolve made possible the
Berlin is also one of the Federal
During the postwar era, the FRG
successful conclusion of the 1987 US-
Republic's 16 Laender. Its first united
sought to improve its relationship with
USSR Intermediate-Range Nuclear
government since 1948 also was elected
the countries of Eastern Europe,
Forces Treaty (INF), the Two-plus-
on December 2, 1990.
initially establishing trade agreements
Four process which led to the Final
The opening of the Berlin Wall on
and, subsequently, diplomatic relations.
Settlement Treaty, and the November
November 9, 1989, was a watershed in
With unification, German relations with
1990 conventional armed forces in
the developments which culminated in
Eastern Europe have intensified. The
Europe (CFE) agreement.
German unity on October 3, 1990. The
FRG and Poland signed a treaty
As two of the world's leading
infamous 165-kilometer (103 mi.) wall
confirming the Oder-Neisse border on
trading nations, the United States and
surrounding the Western sectors of the
November 14, 1990, and are negotiating
the FRG share a common, deep-seated
city has been torn down, and the city is
a: broader agreement to cover bilateral
commitment to an open and expanding
being physically reunited as streets,
relations. The FRG has also concluded
world economy. After the United
subways, and rail lines are rejoined.
four treaties with the Soviet Union
States, Germany is the world's second
Shortly after World War II, Berlin
covering the overall bilateral
leading trading nation. It is the fourth
became the seat of the Allied Control
relationship, economic relations, the
largest trading partner of the United
Council, which was to govern Germany
withdrawal of Soviet troops in the
States.
as a whole until the conclusion of a
territory of the former GDR, and FRG
Personal ties between the United
peace settlement. In 1948, however,
support for these troops.
States and the FRG extend beyond
immigration to include lively foreign
7
the Soviets refused to participate any
Travel Notes
longer in the quadripartite
administration of Germany. At the
Climate and clothing: Germany is in
international, are efficient, although it
same time, they also refused to
the temperate zone but is cooler than
is still difficult to telephone from the
continue to cooperate in the joint
much of the United States, especially
territory of the former GDR. Bonn is 6
administration of Berlin, drove the
in summer. Lightweight summer
hours ahead of eastern standard time.
government elected by the people of
clothing is seldom needed.
Transportation: Frankfurt's interna-
Berlin out of its seat in the Soviet
Customs and Immigrations: No visa
tional airport is a center of European
sector, and installed a communist
is required of US citizens.
air traffic. Most airlines operate
regime in its place.
Innoculations are not required.
services to the FRG. Express trains
Between then and unification, the
are available. An extensive network of
Western Allies continued to exercise
Health: Community sanitation and
highways (Autobahnen) connects most
supreme authority (effectively only in
cleanliness standards are high.
their sectors) through the Allied
Drinking water, dairy products, and
major cities. Car rentals are expensive
Kommandatura. To the degree
other foods are under strict govern-
but widely available. Third-party
compatible with the city's special
ment control and generally meet or
liability insurance is mandatory. Mass
exceed US standards.
transportation facilities (trains, street-
status, however, they turned over
cars, subways) are crowded but
control and management of city affairs
Telecommunications: Telephone
efficient. Taxis are available in all
to the Berlin Senat (executive) and
and telegraph services, domestic and
cities.
House of Representatives, governing
bodies established by constitutional
governments on foreign policy
Berliners' energy and spirit, have been
process and chosen on the basis of free
questions involving unification and the
encouraging. Berlin's morale has been
elections. The Allies and the German
status of Berlin.
sustained, and its industrial production
authorities in the FRG and West Berlin
The Quadripartite Agreement on
has considerably surpassed the prewar
never recognized the communist city
Berlin in 1971 also provided for
level. Although the Allies'
regime in East Berlin or GDR
practical improvements in the life of
responsibility has ended, they have
authority there.
Berliners. It made possible unhindered
been asked to maintain a military
During the years of Berlin's
civilian access to Berlin and greater
presence in the city until the Soviets
isolation 176 kilometers (110 mi.) inside
freedom of movement between the
have withdrawn completely.
the former GDR, the Western allies
eastern and western sectors for a
encouraged a close relationship
period of 20 years, in addition to
between the government of West
containing a Soviet acknowledgment of
Published by the United States Department
Berlin and that of the FRG.
the ties that had grown between West
of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
Office
Representatives of the city participated
Berlin and the FRG, including the
of Public Communication
Washington, DC
as non-voting members in the FRG
latter's right to represent Berlin
June 1991
Editor: Susan Holly
parliament; appropriate West German
abroad.
Department of State Publication 7834
agencies, such as the supreme
Between 1948 and 1990, major
Background Notes Series
This material is
administrative court, had their
events such as fairs and festivals were
in the public domain and may be reprinted
permanent seats in the city; and the
sponsored in West Berlin, and
without permission; citation of this source
is appreciated.
governing mayor of Berlin took his or
investment in commerce and industry
her turn as president of the Bundesrat.
was encouraged by special
For sale by the Superintendent of Docu-
In addition, the Allies carefully
concessionary tax legislation. The
ments, US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402.
consulted with the FRG and Berlin
results of such efforts, combined with
effective city administration and the
# U.S. Government Printing Office : 1991 282-526/20518
GRÜSS GOTT AND WELCOME TO MUNICH
AMERICAN CONSULATE GENERAL MUNICH. GERMANY
SEPTEMBER 1988
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
SOME FACTS ABOUT BAVARIA
5
SECURITY
7
CLIMATE AND CLOTHING
8
COMMUNICATIONS
9
Telephones
9
Telex and Telefax
10
Commercial Cables
10
Mail
10
Radio and Television
10
English-Language Publications
10
MONEY AND BANKING
11
RELIGIOUS SERVICES
12
PLACES OF INTEREST
13
Munich
13
Outside Munich
16
SUGGESTED RESTAURANTS
18
Typically Bavarian - Old Munich
18
International Restaurants
19
Wine Places
20
Vegetarian Restaurants
21
NIGHTCLUBS, DISCOS, BARS
22
SHOPPING
23
Antiques
23
Auction Houses
23
China and Crystal
24
Clothing
24
Cosmetics
25
Delicatessen
25
Department Stores
26
Furs
26
Jewelry
26
Shoes
27
Toys
27
Military Facilities
27
GENERAL TRAVEL TIPS
28
Working Hours
28
Holidays
28
Time
28
Tipping
29
Local Transportation
29
FOR REFERENCE
30
Clothing Sizes
30
Weights and Measures
31
Temperatures
31
- 5 -
SOME FACTS ABOUT BAVARIA
Population - 10,800,000
Area - 70,547 square kilometers (27,251 square miles)
Bavaria is the largest of the ten constituent Länder, or states,
of the Federal Republic of Germany.
Capital City - Munich (population, incl. suburbs 1,270,000)
Other Principal Cities
Nürnberg
(468,000)
Erlangen
(84,000)
Augsburg
(210,000)
Bamberg
(73,000)
Regensburg
(125,000)
Bayreuth
(62,000)
Würzburg
(120,000)
Religion - Predominantly Catholic (74%)
Governmental Structure - Within the Federal Republic, Bavaria
is the sparkplug of the federal idea. Bavaria formally calls
itself the Free State (Freistaat) of Bavaria, and it is the only
German state (Land) to have its own border police and a second
chamber in its state (Land) parliament. Moreover, Bavaria is
unique in that it has its own Christian Democratic party, the
Christian Social Union, which is affiliated with, but separate
from, the Christian Democratic Union which otherwise exists
throughout the Federal Republic.
Bavaria's governmental structure, at the Land level, is similar
to the federal structure. Bavaria has two houses of parliament
and, as in Bonn, the upper house has little constitutional power.
In fact, however, the Bavarian Senate exercises a fair amount of
political influence "behind the scenes" when legislation is being
formulated. The proportional representation system of Bavaria is
essentially the same as the federal system.
Bavarians are for the most part a conservative people. This
stems partly from the region's predominantly rural nature, partly
from their 775 kilometer border with both Czechoslovakia and the
GDR, which makes Bavarians very conscious of Soviet power and
designs, and from the large number of refugees from the east,
mostly ex-Sudeten Germans, who now reside here. It is not sur-
prising, therefore, that the CSU controls the Land government,
with an absolute majority, nor that the CSU itself is more
conservative than its CDU non-Bavarian partner. Industrializa-
tion has brought changing political patterns, however, and the
SPD gained strength in the sixties before slipping again in the
1970s. However, the SPD cannot challenge the CSU on a Land-wide
- 6 -
basis, even in coalition with the FDP. In the national, state
and local government elections of 1986 and 1987, the SPD fell to
second place behind the CSU in total votes in every voting
district. Nonetheless the SPD has retained control of the Lord
Mayor's Office in Munich, Nürnberg and Augsburg where moderate
SPD candidates were able to win support from independent voters.
The dominant political figure in Bavaria continues to be
Minister-President Franz Josef Strauß, who is also Chairman of
the CSU and was the unsuccessful Chancellor candidate of the CDU/
CSU in the 1980 federal election. Other political leaders are
Dr. Theo Waigel, CSU caucus leader in the Bundestag, and Karl-
Heinz Hiersemann (SPD), leader of the socialists in the Landtag.
In the January 1987 Bundestag elections, the CSU won 55.1 percent
of the vote in Bavaria, while the SPD, Greens and FDP won 27.0,
7.7 and 8.1 percent, respectively.
- 7 -
SECURITY
Security measures at airports are rigidly enforced to ensure the
safety of all travelers. As in the United States and most other
countries, carriers cannot be expected to accept aboard any
person who has not undergone the required security checks.
Although Munich is proved to be relatively free of street crime
(this is true of most of Bavaria) you should follow other safety
and security precautions similar to the ones followed in the
United States:
-- Cars must be locked (required by law in Germany);
-- Seat belts must be worn (also required by law);
-- Personal property should not be left visible in a car;
-- Hotel rooms and apartments should be kept locked;
-- Windows should be locked at night and when leaving the
apartment;
-- Valuables should be deposited at the reception desk of
the hotel.
Any theft in a hotel should be immediately reported to the hotel
authorities and/or the German police.
German police - Tel: 110
Protection of high-ranking official visitors is jointly arranged
by the Consulate General, the security personnel arriving with
the visitors (if any), and the German police, depending upon the
security risk involved in each visit.
8 1 I
CLIMATE AND CLOTHING
The climate is comparable to that of northern parts of the U.S.
Winters are cold, and heavy snowfalls occur between December and
March. In spring and fall periods of pleasant, clear, warm
weather are interspersed with stretches of rain and cloudiness.
The temperate summers are relatively short with a fair amount of
rain.
A southerly wind, called the Föhn, occurs in areas near the Alps,
including Munich, mainly in the fall and spring. It creates an
anticyclonic atmosphere and a drop in barometric pressure which
local residents blame for headaches, listlessness, insomnia and
irritability. On the plus side, it produces unusually clear
views of the Alps.
Bavarians, in general, are relaxed in their approach to dressing.
However, people dress somewhat more conservatively in Germany
than in the United States. It is customary for men to wear
black shoes and dark suits to all official events, including
luncheons, receptions, and dinners, unless more formal attire is
called for. Women need a cocktail dress, but will otherwise
find themselves in wool for most of the year - suits or wool
dresses. Should you unexpectedly need formal attire, rental is
possible through local shops, but it is very expensive.
Male visitors should bring a dark suit, particularly if they
expect to attend official events. Female visitors will find
that suits and cocktail dresses are most useful. All visitors
should bring a rain coat and umbrella. In winter, warm clothing
and boots or water-proof shoes are a necessity.
- 9 -
COMMUNICATIONS
Telephones - In Germany, the telephone system is maintained by
the postal service. Two or three 10 Pfennig coins are needed
for a local call of 8 minutes of conversation.
One can dial any long-distance call within Germany. For this a
good supply of one-Mark pieces is needed. Put several into the
phone before dialing. Those unused will be returned automati-
cally at the end of the call. Rates are cheaper between 1800
and 0800.
Direct dial calls may also be placed to a large number of other
countries, including the United States. The prefix for the
United States is 001, followed by the area code and phone number
desired. U.S. area codes can be obtained from the Fernsprech-
auskunft Ausland (International Information) by dialing 00118.
English is spoken.
Collect calls to the United States are accepted at the person-
to-person rate.
Credit Card Calling - You can also call the United States at
U.S. rates by placing a credit card call from your hotel phone
or any pay phone and have your call charged to your credit card
(American Express, Visa, Diner's Club, MasterCard). Follow the
steps listed below:
1. Have your credit card ready to which you want the call billed
along with the area code and phone number you want to reach.
2. Dial the access number to the USA from any German phone:
01-30 20 28
3. When the operator in the States answers, provide the
requested information and await your connection.
4. If you have an AT+T credit card you can call the U.S. at U.S.
transatlantic rates (roughly 1/2 to 1/3 those charged by the
Bundespost) by dialing 0130 00 10, wait for long pause, and
give the AT+T operator the number you are calling and your
AT+T credit card number.
U.S. transatlantic phone rates plus an operator assistance
surcharge of $2.50 per call are levied (also on calls to U.S.
directory assistance and to "800" numbers). Only $1.50 is levied
if number is either busy or does not answer. The U.S. operator
will complete calls to any country, but calls through the U.S.
back to Europe are not economical.
- 10 -
Telephones at hotels are maintained by private companies which
assess surcharges. These increase the telephone bill consider-
ably. Rates are often three times as high as for a call made
from a public phone. We suggest checking the rates with the
hotel receptionist before calling family or friends in the
United States. Government travelers may make official calls
through the Consulate General switchboard.
To reach a military number from a civilian telephone in Munich,
dial "6229" and then desired extension. In order to obtain
information on U.S. military numbers in Munich, call 6229-113.
Telex and Telefax - also a part of the postal service - are
widely used in Germany and available at most hotels.
Commercial Cables - can be sent from post offices or by phone.
Mail - is delivered once a day, usually in the morning.
Stamps may be purchased at post offices or hotels.
Radio and Television - Bavaria has its own radio and TV
networks. In addition, the American Armed Forces Network
operates a radio station in Munich. (AFN-TV is beamed only into
the military housing area).
There are also two Government-operated and various cable TV
networks and visitors to Munich are able to view Austrian TV.
The larger hotels have radio and TV sets in most rooms.
Normally there is no charge for this service.
English-Language Publications - The International Herald Tribune
and major U.S. magazines are available locally at hotels and at
the main railway station. Various British papers and magazines
are also sold. U.S. Military bookstores carry a wide variety of
U.S. magazines and paperbacks, as well as the Stars and Stripes
and the International Herald Tribune.
- 11 -
MONEY AND BANKING
The monetary unit is the Deutsche Mark (DM) divided into 100
Pfennigs. It is a strong and readily convertible currency.
Denominations
Notes:
DM 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 1,000
Coins:
Pfennigs 1, 2, 5, 10, 50; DM 1, 2, 5
Germany has no currency restrictions. On entering and leaving
the country visitors are allowed to take unlimited amounts in
German and foreign currencies.
The exchange rate fluctuates daily. At present (August 1988) it
is about DM 1.87 to the dollar.
Personal checks cannot easily be cashed in business places or
hotels. The use of traveler's checks is highly recommended.
German banks charge a fee for cashing U.S. bank checks and often
will not pay out the money until they have made certain that the
check is covered.
Banking Hours: Mon-Fri 0830-1200 or 1300, and 1430-1600, Thu
until 1730.
Official visitors may exchange money through the cashier at the
Consulate General, Mon-Fri 1000-1200. Either Deutsche Marks or
U.S. dollars may be obtained for traveler's checks or personal
checks drawn on a U.S. bank. Official visitors are encouraged
to use this facility; the exchange rate offered by banks and
hotels is less favorable.
International credit cards, such as American Express, Diner's
Club, Eurocard, MasterCard, VISA, are generally accepted at
airlines, car rental companies, most of the larger hotels, some
restaurants, major shops, but not the German Federal Railways.
- 12 -
RELIGIOUS SERVICES
Roman Catholic Services
Perlacher Forst Chapel, U.S. Army Housing Area
Sunday: 0900 and 1230
Dom (Frauenkirche), Frauenplatz
Sunday and Holiday: 0630, 0800, 0930, 1100, 1200, 1800
St. Peter, Rindermarkt
Sunday and Holiday: 0700, 0800, 0900, 1015, 1115, 1200, 1830
St. Kajetan (Theatinerkirche), Odeonsplatz
Sunday and Holiday: 0800, 0915, 1030, 1200, 1830
Protestant Services
Chapel, Perlacher Forst, U.S. Army Housing Area
Sunday: 1100
St. Matthaeus, Sendlinger-Tor-Platz
Sunday: 0830, 1000
St. Markus, Gabelsbergerstrasse
Sunday: 0930, 1115
Jewish Service
Chapel, Perlacher Forst, U.S. Army Housing Area
Friday: 2000
Other
American Episcopal Church, Seybothstrasse 40
Sunday: 0800, 1130
Church of Christ, Joergstrasse 2
Sunday: 1015
Christian Science, Clemensstrasse 113a
Sunday: 1115
Latter Day Saints (Mormon), Hofbrunnerstr. 85
Sunday: 1200-1500
International Baptist Church, Holzstrasse 9
Sunday: 1245
Islamic Religious Service for Muslims
Contact Mr. Abdul Raham Ali at 6229-8329/6437 for information
- 13 -
PLACES OF INTEREST
Munich
(Note: Most museums are closed Mondays)
Alte Pinakothek
One of the 7 largest art galleries in
Barerstraße 27
the world. 14th - 18th century European
Tel: 23 80 52 16
paintings. Large Rubens collection.
Open daily (except Mon) 0900-1630,
evening: Tue and Thu 1900-2100.
Entrance fee DM 4.00. Sun and holiday
free.
Neue Pinakothek
Features European paintings and sculp-
Barerstraße 29
tures of the 19th century. Opening
Tel: 23 80 29
times and fees same as for Alte
Pinakothek. Open evenings on Tuesday
only.
State Gallery of
Features international paintings and
Modern Art
sculptures of the 20th century. Open
Prinzregentenstr. 1
daily (except Mon) 0900-1630, Thu eves
Tel: 29 27 10
1900-2100. Entrance fee DM 3.50; Sun
and holidays free.
Residenz
Formerly the residence of the royal
Max-Joseph-Platz 3
family, today a museum which is well
Tel: 22 46 41
worth a tour. Period rooms from four
centuries, with rich collections of
porcelain, silver plate, tapestries and
exquisite furniture. The oldest part is
the Renaissance Hall of the Antiquarium.
The museum contains the ornate apartments
known as the "Reiche Zimmer" with the
State Bed Chamber, decorated after
designs by Fr. Cuvillies the Elder,
magnificent memorials of the Rococo Age.
Open Tue-Sat 1000-1630, Sun and holidays
1000-1300. Entrance fee DM 2.50.
Treasury in the
One of the most important collections of
Residenz
the European goldsmith's art and of
Max-Joseph-Platz 3
examples of Italian glass and stone
Tel.: 22 46 41
cutting. Crown jewels. Open Tue-Sat
1000-1630, Sun and holidays 1000- 1300.
Entrance fee DM 2.50.
Altes Residenz
The most important example of an 18th
Theater (Cuvillies)
century theater with tiered boxes. Open
Residenzstraße 1
Mon-Sat 1400-1700, Sun and holidays
Tel: 22 46 41
1000-1700. Entrance fee DM 1.50.
- 14 -
Nymphenburg Palace
Built from 1664 on as the summer resid-
Tel: 1 79 08
ence of the Bavarian electors. From 1702
on enlarged. Frescoes by J.B. Zimmer-
mann. Ludwig I "Gallery of Beauties".
Beautiful park with four pavilions
(Pagodenburg, Badenburg, Madgalenen-
klause, Amalienburg). Open daily
(except Mon) 0900-1230 and 1330-1700.
Entrance fee DM 2.50. Badenburg,
Pagodenburg, Magdalenenklause daily
(except Mon) 1000-1230 and 1330-1700.
Entrance fee for all, incl. Amalienburg
and Marstallmuseum, DM 5.00.
Amalienburg
A pavilion dedicated to hunting, unsur-
in Nymphenburg Park
passed as an example of court rococo.
Open daily 0900-1230 and 1330-1700.
Entrance fee DM 2.00.
Marstallmuseum
In south wing of Nymphenburg Palace.
Former court coach house of Bavarian
electors and kings. State coaches,
sledges, harness and riding equipment.
On first floor collection of Nymphenburg
Porcelain which documents the production
from 1747, when the factory was founded,
to the present time. Open daily (except
Mon) 0900-1200 and 1300-1700. Entrance
fee DM 2.00.
Nymphenburg Porcelain
Sales rooms open Mon-Fri 0800-1230 and
Factory
1300-1700 (for groups by appointment
only).
Schackgalerie
Count Schack's collection consisting of
Prinzregentenstr. 9
paintings of Böcklin, Feuerbach, Lenbach
Tel: 22 44 07
Schwind and Spitzweg. Open daily
(except Tue) 0900-1630. Entrance fee
DM 2.50. Sun and holidays free.
The Glockenspiel
Takes place daily at 1100 (and 1700
Marienplatz
during summer months) in the spire of
the town hall.
Bayerisches
European sculptures, paintings, handi-
Nationalmuseum
craft, Middle Age to 19th century. Open
Prinzregentenstr. 3
Tue-Sun 0930-1700. Entrance fee DM 3.00.
Tel. 2 16 81
- 15 -
Staatliche
Collection of Greek vases, Greek,
Antikensammlung
Etruscan and Roman small plastic art,
Königsplatz 1
antique jewelry. Open Tue, Thu-Sun
Tel: 59 83 59
1000-1630, Wed 1200-2030. Entrance fee
DM 3.50. Sun free.
Glyptothek
Collection of Greek and Roman sculptures.
Königsplatz- 3
Open Tue, Wed, Fri-Sun 1000-1630, Thu
Tel: 28 61 00
1200-2030. Entrance fee DM 3.50. Sun
free.
Deutsches Museum
The world's largest technological museum.
Ludwigsbrücke
Open daily 0900-1700. Entrance fee
Tel: 2 17 91
DM 5.00.
The Olympic Grounds
Olympic site and still an active sports
Tel: 30 61 34 24
center. The Olympic Tower (920 m), with
a panoramic view of Munich, is open
daily. from 0800-midnight. Admission
DM 4.00.
Alter Peter
Munich's oldest and most beloved church.
Rindermarkt
Tower (92 m) open to the public: Mon-Sat
0900-1700, Sun 1000-1900, holidays 1000-
1800. Admission DM 2.00.
Viktualienmarkt
Colorful open air market which sells all
Rindermarkt
types of food from local products to
French cheeses and wine.
BMW Museum
A collection of aircraft engines, motor-
Petuelring 130
cycles and automobiles designed and
across from
produced by the Bavarian Motor Works AG
Olympic Grounds
from 1919 to the present time. Open
Tel: 38 95 33 07
daily 0900-1700. Entrance fee DM 4.50.
Löwenbräu Brewery
Löwenbräu, one of Munich's seven
Nymphenburger Str.
breweries, is the most famous worldwide.
Tel: 1 50 24 15
A tour is offered almost daily, usually
at 0900. It is advisable, however, to
check with the brewery before going
there.
Munich Zoo Hellabrunn
The world's first geographic ZOO. It
Tel: 62 50 80
offers a selection of over 4000 animals
in their imitated natural surroundings,
including the biggest display in Europe
of polar animals. There is also an
aquarium, terrarium, children's zoo,
restaurant and beer garden. Open daily
0800-1800. Admission DM 5.00.
- 16 -
Outside Munich
Schlos Sc leißheim - Palace in baroque style, significant
collection of paintings. Location about 10 miles north of
Munich. Open daily (except Mon) 1000-1230, 1330-1700. Entrance
fee DM 3.00.
Lustheim Castle - in Schleißheim Park. Collection of Meißen
porcelain. Open daily (except Mon) 1000-1230, 1330-1700.
Entrance fee DM 2.00.
Hohenschwangau Castle - a jewel of German romanticism, had its
most important epoch shortly after its construction in the 12th
century when it became a center of the minne-song. Rebuilt
between 1832-36 by King Maximilian II, father of King Ludwig
II. 14 furnished rooms are open to the public. Open April 1 -
September 30: 0900-1730; October 1 - March 31: 1000-1600.
Closed Dec mber 24 afternoon. Guided tours only.
Neuschwanstein Castle near Füssen - King Ludwig II's most
famous castle. Minstrel's Hall and Throne Room decorated with
subjects from Richard Wagner's operas. Magnificent mountain
scenery. 6 hour round trip from Munich. Open April 1 -
September 30: 0900-1730; October 1 - March 31: 1000-1600.
Closed November 1, December 24, 25, 31, January 1, Shrove
Tuesday. Guided tours only. Very crowded in summer months.
Herrenchiemsee New Palace - Imposing edifice built by King
Ludwig II after Versailles on an island of the Chiemsee.
Lavishly decorated. 2 hour round trip from Munich.
Linderhof astle - King Ludwig II's elegant palace set amidst
the Ammer 1 Mountains. Park with grotto and Moorish kiosk. 3
hour roun trip from Munich.
Wieskirche - Famous rococo church. May be visited enroute to
Neuschwans ein.
Oberammergau - Setting of the famous Passion Play. 3 hour
round trip from Munich.
Schachen Hunting Lodge near Garmisch - Built by King Ludwig II
on a high peak (1,872 m). Ornate hall, wonderful view of the
Wetterstein and the Werdenfels country.
Garmisch-Partenkirchen - Famous health resort and ski area.
Site of a U.S. Forces recreational complex. The Zugspitze,
Germany's highest mountain, can easily be reached from Garmisch.
Don't mis the beautiful "Partnachklamm" (Partnach gorge), a
half kilometer ribbon thin cut through the mountains near the
Olympic sk1 jumps. 2-1/2 hour round trip from Munich.
- 17 -
Berchtesgaden - Beautiful Bavarian mountain region with the
added attraction of Königssee, a lake surrounded by mountains
(boat cruises available). Special tours to Obersalzberg,
Hitler's famous alpine resort. Site of a U.S. Forces
recreational complex. 5 hour round trip from Munich.
Ottobeuren - A jewel of German baroque architecture, the
Benedictine Abbey of Ottobeuren stands surrounded by hills to
which the Alpine foothills of the Allgäu form the background.
The Abbey church is the largest of its style in Germany (3 hour
round trip from Munich).
Dachau Concentration Camp - At one time a camp for political
prisoners, the Dachau Concentration Camp is today a memorial,
with a historic museum, commemorating the lives and deaths of WW
II prisoners. Open daily (except Mon) from 0900-1700. Movie in
English at 1130 and 1530. No admission charge. Public trans-
portation: S-Bahn No. 2 to Dachau Railway Station, then Bus No.
3 to the Concentration Camp. Approximately 1 hour round trip
from Munich.
- 18 -
SUGGESTED RESTAURANTS
Typically Bavarian - Old Munich
FRANZISKANER AND FUCHSENSTUBEN,
Perusastraße 5, Tel. 231 81 20. For Munich inexpensive.
Open daily 0830-2400.
HOFBRÄUHAUS
Am Platzl 9, Tel. 22 16 76. Rough but interesting. Music
downstairs in beer hall only. Open daily 1000-2400.
LOWEN WIRTSHAUS
Am Platzl 4, Tel. 228 39 09. Typical Bavarian meals, open
all night. Live Bavarian music on weekends. Reasonable
prices.
NURNBERGER BRATWURSTGLÖCKL
Am Dom, Frauenplatz 9, Tel. 22 03 85. Cozy small
restaurant. Reservations necessary for larger groups.
Medium price range.
PETERHOF
Marienplatz 22, Tel. 24 20 08. Situated across from the
"Glockenspiel" chimes. Medium price range. Open daily
0900-2400.
PLATZL
Münzstraße 8, Tel. 29 31 01. Features Bavarian show with
music. Good food. Medium price range. Open daily
1830-2300.
RATSKELLER IM RATHAUS
Marienplatz 8, Tel. 22 03 13. Restaurant in Munich's town
hall. Good food. Medium price range. Open daily 0900-2400.
SPATENHAUS
Residenzstraße 12, Tel. 22 78 41. Medium price range. Open
daily 1100-2400, downstairs 1100-1430 and 1800-2400.
SPÖCKMEIER
Rosenstraße 9, Tel. 26 80 88. Medium price range. Open
daily 0900-2400.
- 19 -
International Restaurants
AUBERGINE
Maximiliansplatz 5, Tel. 59 81 71. The only 3 star Michelin
restaurant outside France and Belgium. Very expensive.
Sun, Mon and holidays closed.
AUSTERNKELLER
Stollbergstraße 11, Tel. 29 87 87. Seafood. Open Tue-Sun
1800-2400. Mon closed.
A. BOETTNER
Theatinerstraße 8, Tel. 22 12 10. Lobster, oysters,
caviar. Open Mon-Sat 1100-2400, closed Sun, holidays and
Sat evenings.
BOUILLABAISSE
FalkenturmstraBe 10, Tel. 29 79 09. French cuisine. Open
Mon 1200-1430, Tue-Sat 1200-1430 and 1800-2400. Cosed Sun,
Mon and holidays.
GOLDENE STADT
Oberanger 44, Tel. 26 43 82. Bohemian cuisine. Medium
price range. Open Mon-Sat 1130-1500 and 1800-2300. Sun
closed.
KÄFER-SCHÄNKE
Schumannstraße 1, Tel. 416 82 47. 1 star Michelin. Fairly
expensive. Open Mon-Sat 1130-2400. Sun and holidays closed.
LA MER
Schraudolphstraße 24, Tel. 272 24 39. Open evenings only.
Mon closed.
LE GOURMET
Ligsalzstraße 46, Tel. 50 35 97. French Cuisine. Expensive.
Open Mon-Sat 1800-2400. Sun closed.
MANDARIN
Ledererstraße 11, Tel. 22 68 88. Chinese, one of the finest
in Munich. Fairly expensive. Open daily 1130-1500 and
1800-2300.
MIFUNE
Ismaninger Straße 136, Tel. 98 75 72. Japanese cuisine.
Open daily 1200-1400 and 1800-2300.
MYKONOS
Georgenstraße 105, Tel. 271 67 42. Greek cuisine. Medium
price range. Open daily 1800-2400.
- 20 -
OPATJA
Briennerstraße 41, Tel. 59 12 02 and Rindermarkt 2, Tel.
268 35 23. Yugoslavian cuisine. Medium price range. Open
Mon-Sat 1130-2400. Sun closed.
PIROSCHKA
Prinzregentenstraße 1, Tel. 29 54 25. Hungarian cuisine.
Music. Medium price range. Open Mon-Sat 1830-0230. Sun
closed.
PREYSING KELLER
Innere Wiener Straße 6, Tel. 48 10 15. Gourmet specialities.
Expensive. Open Mon-Sat 1800-0100. Sun and holidays closed.
SCHÖNFELDER HOF
Schönfeldstraße, Tel. 28 53 57. Across the street from the
Consulate. Small beergarden, medium price range.
SCHWARZWALDER
Hartmannstrasse 8, Tel. 22 72 16. Excellent cuisine.
Expensive. Open daily 1200-1500 and 1800-2400.
SAVARIN
Schellingstraße 122, Tel. 52 53 11. French cuisine.
Expensive. Open Tue-Sat evening. Closed Sun and Mon.
TANTRIS
Johann-Fichte-Straße 7, Tel. 36 20 61. Excellent cousine.
Expensive. Open Tue-Fri 1200-1500 and 1830-2400, Mon and
Sat 1830-2400. Closed Sun and holidays and Mon and Sat noon.
ZUR KANNE
Maximilianstraße 36, Tel. 22 12 36. Gourmet restaurant.
Expensive. Open Mon-Fri 1200-1430 and 1800-0100, Sun 1800-
0100. Sat closed.
Wine Places
PFÄLZER WEINPROBIERSTUBE
Residenzstraße 1, Tel. 22 56 28. Open daily 1000-2400.
RATSKELLER SCHOPPENSTUBEN
Rathaus, Tel. 22 03 07. Open Mon-Fri 1500-2400.
SUDTIROLER TORGGELSTUBEN
Am Platzl 6, Tel. 29 20 22. Open Mon-Sat 1700-0100.
WEINKELLER ST. MICHAEL
Neuhauser Straße 11, Tel. 260 30 01. Sun and holidays closed.
WEINSTUBE HOLZBAUR
Frauenstraße 10, Tel. 22 41 41. Sun and holidays closed.
- 21 -
Vegetarian Restaurants
JAHRESZEITEN
Sebastiansplatz 9, Tel. 260 95 78.
VITAMIN
Herzog-Wilhelm-Straße 25, Tel. 260 74 18. Sun closed.
ZORBA
Hackenstraße 2, Tel. 26 55 96. Open Sun-Thu 1200-0300 and
Fri-Sat 1200-0100.
- 22 -
NIGHTCLUBS, DISCOS, BARS
AQUARIUS NIGHTCLUB DISCO
Leopoldstraße 194, Tel. 34 09 71
BAVARIA NIGHTCLUB
(Park Hilton) Am Tucherpark 7, Tel. 384 50
BAYERISCHER HOF-NIGHTCLUB
Promenadeplatz 2-5, Tel. 212 09 94
CHARLY M.
Maximiliansplatz, Tel. 59 52 72
GRATZER'S LOBBY
Beethovenplatz 2, Tel. 53 11 54
HARRY'S NEW YORK BAR
Falkenturmstraße 9, Tel. 22 27 00
KAY'S BISTRO
Utzschneiderstraße 1, Tel. 260 35 84
LENBACH-PALAST-KÜNSTLERTREFF
Lenbachplatz 3, Tel. 59 50 80
MAXIM INTERNATIONAL NIGHT CABARET
Färbergraben/Altheimer Eck, Tel. 260 38 85
ROUND UP
Leopoldstraße 23, Tel. 39 79 26
SUNSET DISCOTHEK
Leopoldstraße 69, Tel. 39 93 03
VIBRAPHON NIGHT CLUB
(Sheraton Hotel) Arabellastraße 6, Tel. 92 40 11
- 23 -
SHOPPING
On weekdays most stores open between 0800 and 0900 and close at
1800 or 1830. On Saturdays they close at noon or 1300, except
on the first Saturday of each month (Langer Samstag), when most
shops stay open until 1800.
Antiques
ANTIK-HAUS
Neuturmstraße, near Hofbräuhaus. Three stories of
different types of antiques from different dealers for
sale directly off the floor.
BERNHEIMER
Lenbachplatz 3. Deals especially in antique rugs and
furniture. Very expensive and very exclusive.
KUNSTBLOCK
Ottostraße
A WORD OF CAUTION: Individuals who do not have the
expertise to identify genuine antiques as opposed to old
items, should request a Certificate of Authenticity when
purchasing such items. However, the technical definition of
what constitutes an antique is different from country to
country. Therefore, even given a certificate, it behoves
one to have clear knowledge of what the various terms my
signify when used in a specialized context. The Certificate
of Authenticity will also be useful, and in some cases
essential, in determining the value for insurance purposes
when shipping such items to the United States.
Auction Houses
NEUMEISTER
Briennerstraße
RUF
Gabelsbergerstraße
- 24 -
China and Crystal
GLAS UND WOHNEN
Kardinal-Faulhaber-Straße 5
GLASMUHLE
Sendlinger Straße 7
KUCHENREUTHER
Sonnenstraße 22
MEISSNER PORZELLAN
Maximilianstraße 15, next to Hotel Vier Jahreszeiten
NIEGERWALD
Residenzstraße 19-20
NYMPHENBURGER PORZELLAN
Odeonsplatz 1
Clothing
LODEN-FREY
Maffeistraße 7. Most important source of traditional
Bavarian apparel for men, women and children.
Expensive.
MODEHAUS MÄNDLER
Theatinerstraße 7. Latest fashions, also small sizes.
Expensive.
ECKERLE MODEN
Theatinerstraße 3. Sporty yet elegant wear for ladies
and men, relatively expensive.
WELLER HERRENMODEN
Perusastraße 1. Men's clothing, moderate prices.
MUHLHÄUSER AM DOM
Kaufingerstraße 25. Ladies only. Moderate prices.
MODEHAUS SARTORIUS
Theatinerstraße 40. Women only. Moderate prices.
KONEN BEKLEIDUNGSHAUS
Sendlinger Straße 2. Very moderate prices.
BECK
Marienplatz. Moderate prices.
- 25 -
ADLER
Prielmeyerstraße 1. Wide selection from sporting wear
to Bavarian Trachten. Moderate prices.
UNUTZER SPORT
Maximilianstraße 23 and Residenzstraße 15. Sporty,
casual wear, men and women, expensive.
KRINES MIEDER
Residenzstraße 18. Lingery.
French and Italian haute couture boutiques are located on
Maximilianstraße. Very expensive.
Cosmetics
DISCOUNT PARFUMERIE
Prielmeyerstraße 1
DOUGLAS PARFUMERIE
Theatinerstraße 40
G. MOLL
Residenzstraße 18
KORON PARFUMERIE
Mazaristraße 1
Delicatessen
DALLMAYER
Dienerstraße 15, is not a shopping center but it's
Bavaria's largest and most extensive delicatessen; if
you are a gourmet, you'll love shopping here. Look
upstairs too, for a beautiful gift shop, table
services, and a small lunchroom.
KÄFER
Schumannstraße 1 (though it looks as if it were on
Prinzregentenstraße, look for orange awnings). Another
dream for those fond of shopping for fine food. Wander
upstairs, past the display of salads, pastries,
cheeses, fish, meat, wine, foreign delicacies, etc. A
lunchroom is over the store area.
- 26 -
VIKTUALIENMARKT (open air market)
located on Rindermakrt, near the Rathaus and
Marienplatz, offers fresh meats and fish, fruits,
vegetables, spices, flowers, wine and cheese. Even if
you don't want to shop, it is an experience to just
stroll around the market.
Department Stores
HERTIE
Bahnhofplatz 2, across the railroad main station.
KARSTADT
Neuhauser Straße
KAUFHOF
Stachus and Marienplatz
Furs
RIEGER PELZE
Isartorplatz
PELZHAUS IM KARLSTOR
Neuhauser Straße 34 and Karlsplatz 10
PELZHAUS SCHWABE
Kaufingerstraße 23
Jewelery
CARTIER
Briennerstraße 12
HEIDEN JUWELIER
Promenadeplatz 6, in the Hotel Bayerischer Hof
HEMMERLE JUWELIERE
Maximilianstraße 14
HIRSCH
Theatinerstraße 33
KLEEMANN
Theatinerstraße 44
- 27 -
Shoes
BALLY
Theatinerstraße 36 and 46. Men and women only,
expensive.
SALAMANDER
Weinstraße 7
BARTU
Lenbachplatz 9
SAURO
Karlsplatz 10
ITALY NINETTA
Theatinerstraße 15 and 31
SCHUHHAUS THOMAS
Neuhauser Straße 14
Toys
FISCHER AM STACHUS
Sonnenstraße 2
OBLETTER
Karlsplatz 11-12, Marienplatz 19
SPIELWAREN SCHMIDT
Neuhauser Straße 20
Military Facilities, McGraw Kaserne, Perlacher Forst
CLASS VI STORE
Tue-Fri 1000-1800, Sat 1000-1500, Sun and Mon closed
COMMISSARY
Mon-Wed, Fri 1000-1800, Thu 1100-1900, Sat 0900-1400,
Sun closed
BAVARIAN ROSENTHAL SHOP
Mon-Fri 1000-2000, Sat 1000-1800, Sun 1000-1700
OPTICAL SHOP
Tue-Fri 1000-2000, Sat 1000-1800, Sun and Mon closed
WEDGEWOOD SHOP
Mon-Sat 1000-2000, Sun 1200-1800
- 28 -
GENERAL TRAVEL TIPS
Working Hours
Business Offices - Usually 0830-1700; factories usually start
earlier; streets are active with traffic by 0700.
Stores - On weekdays most stores open between 0800 and 0900
and close around 1800 or 1830. On Saturdays they close at noon
or 1300, except for the first Saturday of each month (Langer
Samstag), when most downtown shops stay open until 1800.
Government Offices are usually open from 0830 to 1700, except
for Friday afternoons, when most offices close at 1500.
Holidays
Not uniformly observed throughout Germany. In Bavaria, the
following holidays are observed and all stores, business and
governmental offices are closed.
January 1
New Year's Day
January 6
Epiphany
Good Friday
Easter Monday
May 1
Labor Day
Ascension Day
Whitmonday
Corpus Christi Day
June 17
Day of German Unity
August 15
Assumption Day
November 1
All Saints Day
Repentance Day
December 25
Christmas Day
December 26
Second Christmas Day
In general, the months of July and August, and the periods
before and after the Christmas and Easter holidays, tend to be
slow business periods.
Time
Add one hour to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 6 hours to Eastern
Standard Time (EST). In 1980 Germany introduced daylight saving
time.
- 29 -
Tipping
Tipping is common in Germany. You are expected to tip when the
service merits it.
It is customary to tip from 5-10% of the bill for meals served
in hotels and restaurants. The tip is given to the waiter when
paying the bill rather than leaving it on the table as is done
in the U.S. This is in addition to the 15% service charge
included in the menu prices. At hotels, moderate tips of DM
1.00 per suitcase are in order for bellboys. It is also
expected to leave a small amount in the hotel room for the
cleaning force prior to departure. Hotel bills also have a 15%
service charge included.
On trains, no tips are expected from passengers except when they
eat in dining cars; then a tip of 5-10% of the bill would be
appropriate.
Taxi drivers are usually given a tip of DM 1.00 or DM 2.00 for
fares up to DM 10.00; about 10% for fares over DM 10.00.
In barbershops, men tip about DM 2.00 for a haircut. A woman
tips her hairdresser about DM 3.00.
Local Transportation
Taxis - Taxis are metered; fares are based on time and
distance. The initial fare is about DM 3.00; the price is
about DM 1.50 per kilometer (about 2/3 mile). Cabs may be
ordered by phone or picked up at stands. Phone: 21611.
Bus, Streetcar, Subway - Tickets may be purchased at the
kiosks in the subway stations, from the driver on the bus or
from vending machines in the stations or on the back of a
streetcar or bus. If you are visiting for one or two days and
traveling a lot the 24 hour ticket is best. If you are here for
two weeks or more and travel a lot (other than at morning rush
hour) the best buy is the Green Card. If you use public trans-
portation only once or twice during your stay it is easiest to
purchase a single trip ticket. All tickets except the green
card must be cancelled (i.e. validated) in one of the blue
machines at the entrance of the subway or on board of the
streetcar or bus. FAILURE TO GET YOUR TICKET VALIDATED
(CANCELLED) CAN COST YOU DM 40.00.
- 30 -
FOR REFERENCE
Clothing Sizes
German sizes have not been standardized in the same manner as in
the United States. Cut and size vary between manufacturers.
Better try it on!
Women's
Dresses and Suits
U.S.
8/30
10/32
12/34
14/36
16/38
18/40
German
36
38
40
42
44
46
Shoes
U.S.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
German
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
Hosiery sizes for women are the same as in the United
States, i.e., 8-11, but the lengths are given in
centimeters: long - 90 cm; medium - 84 cm; short - 80 cm.
Men's
Suits and Overcoats
U.S.
36
38
40
42
44
46
German
48
50
52
54
56
58
Shirts
U.S.
14
14.5
15
15.5
16
16.5
German
36
37
38
39
40
41
Shoes
U.S.
9
10
11
12
13
14
German
40
41
42
43
44
45
Hats
U.S.
6.3/4
7
7.1/4
7.1/2
7.5/8
German
54
57
58
60
61
- 31 -
Weights and Measures
Listed for your convenience are some commonly used metric
weights and measures with their United States equivalent:
Weight
gram (g)
=
15.432 grains
pfund (pfd) *
=
1.1023 lbs
kilogram (kg)
=
2.2046 lbs
* The German pfund (pound) is approximately 10% more than
the English pound. It is the equivalent of 500 grams or 1/2
kilogram.
Capacity
1 liter (1)
=
1.0567 liq.qt.
Length and Distance
millimeter (mm)
=
0.03937 inch
centimeter (cm)
=
0.3937 inch
meter (m)
=
39.37
inches
kilometer (km)
=
0.62137 mile
Temperatures
The thermometer unit in Germany is centigrade. The centigrade
thermometer has zero, 0, as the freezing point and 100 as the
boiling point. To convert to degrees Fahrenheit, multiply
degrees centigrade by nine fifth and add 32.
(Formula is C X 9/5 + 32 = F)
Facts
about Germany
The Federal Republic
of Germany
BERTELSMANN
LEXIKON VERLAG
Published by Lexikon-Institut Bertelsmann
Editors: Karl Römer (responsible), Ulrich K. Dreikandt.
Claudia Wullenkord
Contents
Layout: Günter Hauptmann
Pictorial editor: Elisabeth Lezius
Graphics: HTG-Werbung Tegtmeier + Grube KG., Bielefeld
Preface
Maps: Kartographisches Institut Bertelsmann, Gütersloh.
and Karl Wenschow GmbH, Munich
Country, people, history
The country
1
English: Diet Simon, 5000 Cologne 51
The people
1
The federal states
Sixth revised edition
2
Editorial deadline: 15 August 1987
A brief German history up to 1945
4
The division of Germany
6
The Federal Republic of Germany from 1949 to the present
8
State, politics, the law
The Basic Law
9
The constitutional bodies
9
The legal system
10
Political parties and elections
11
Federal, regional and local government
12
Regional planning and rezoning
12
The Federal Republic of Germany in the world
13
Public finance
14
Public service
14'
Internal security
15.
Defence
15.
Economics
The economic system
16
Employment
16
Incomes and prices
17
Consumer protection
17
Farming, forestry, fishing
18
Industry
18
Raw material and energy supplies
19
The crafts
20
Production:
Commerce
20
©Verlagsgruppe Bertelsmann GmbH
Intra-German trade
20
Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag GmbH. Gütersion. 1979 1988 F
Foreign trade
21
All rights reserved
Cooperation with developing countries
21
Mohndruck Graphische Betriebe GmbH. Gütersion
Money and banking
22
Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany
Fairs and exhibitions
221
Transportation
230
6
Contents
The Post
238
Tourism
240
Society, welfare, leisure
Preface
Social
246
In
I relations
251
W
codetermination
There are many reasons for taking an interest in the Federal Repub-
257
Social security
lic of Germany. Many people see it first and foremost as a modern,
263
Integration, burden-sharing, compensation
efficient industrial country whose products are spread throughout
270
Assets for all
the world. Others tend to associate it more with the great German
272
Housing and urban works
traditions in the arts and sciences. Still more have in mind the coun-
275
Protection of the environment
try attracting the tourist, with its green rolling hills and romantic old
280
Women in society
towns. Those interested in politics will be aware that there is still an
287
The young
unsolved "German question" and will want to know its origins. And
292
Health
those convinced of the importance of social questions will want to
297
Sport
learn about the major tranformations which the Federal Republic of
300
Leisure and holidays
Germany has undergone in recent decades. And then there will be
305
Religion and churches
those who simply want to know more about the country whence the
307
Clubs, associations, civic action groups
Germans one meets the world over as tourists, technicians or busi-
313
Mass media and public opinion
nessmen come.
316
The press
This book is designed to help all those who, for whatever rea-
319
Broadcasting
sons, seek information about the Federal Republic of Germany. In
324
68 short chapters it deals with the country's geography and demog-
Education, science, culture
raphy, its history, the political system and practical politics, the
Cultural diversity
economy with all its branches, the social structure and the cultural
330
Schooling
life. We have tried to assemble as much reliable information as pos-
332
/ocational training
sible in a limited space in order to help readers broaden their knowi-
Universities
338
edge and understanding of the country. In doing this, however, it
Research
343
was also necessary to include some statistical information though
350
Adult education
this has, whenever possible, been presented in a graphic form to
355
leitgeist: spiritual trends of recent decades
ease comprehension. Although we would, of course, be pleased if
iterature
359
the reader were to be enticed from time to time to read on, each
364
he book trade and libraries
chapter is self-contained, but as some subjects are treated under
ine arts
370
various aspects in several chapters, it is advisable to refer to the in-
rchitecture
374
dex when seeking particular information as cross references are
fu;
380
collections, exhibitions
only occasionally given.
lus
384
Readers may also wish to direct an inquiry to an organisation or
heatre
390
office in the Federal Republic. For this purpose, addresses of asso-
inema
395
ciations, institutions and authorities are given at the end of relevant
estivals
399
chapters.
403
Many experts and institutions, too numerous to list, have helped
ibliography
us in the making of this book. We thank them all.
dex
406
408
Lexikon-Institut Bertelsmann
1
Country
People
History
The country
The people
The federal states
A brief German history up to 1945
The division of Germany
The Federal Republic of Germany from 1949
to the present
The country
11
The country
ny lies in the centre of Europe, between the Scandinavian
countries to the north, the Alpine countries to the south, the coun-
tries in Atlantic Western Europe and in continental East Europe. It
ranges from the high southern Alps to the North and Baltic Seas.
There are no natural barriers to the west, east and north, which is
why Germany has always been a region of migration, seeing the ex-
change of peoples, cultures, economic, social and intellectual for-
ces and ideas, als well as political clashes.
Germany has been divided since the end of World War II. A fron-
tier 1,378 kms long separates the two states in Germany: the Fed-
eral Republic of Germany in the West and the German Democratic
Republic (GDR) in the East. On the Eastern side the frontier is her-
metically sealed off by various installations and is tightly guarded
(see p. 72).
The sovereign territory of the Federal Republic of Germany com-
prises 248,708 sq. kilometres. The longest north-south distance is
867 kms, the longest west-east 463 kms. At its narrowest place the
Federal territory measures 225 kms between France and the GDR.
The circumference of all the border lines totals 4,231 kms on land
and 572 kms on sea.
Landscapes. The German landscapes are extraordinarily varied
and attractive. In a small area abound low and high mountain
ranges, upland plains, terrace-country, hill, mountain and lake ter-
The location of the Federal Republic of Germany in Europe and the world
rains and wide, open lowlands.
There are three main topographical regions, the North German
Plain or Lowland, the Central German Uplands and the Alpine Foot-
the River Donau (Danube). The main characteristics of this land-
hills. The present Federal Republic comprises parts of all three.
scape are moors, lake-studded ranges of rounded hills (Chiemsee,
The German share of the Alps is limited to the Allgäu (Mädele-
Starnberger See, Ammersee) and small villages.
ga
645 m), the Bavarian Alps (Zugspitze, 2,962 m) and the
The Central Uplands contain high plains, undulating hills, volcanic
B
gaden Alps (Watzmann, 2,713 m). Genuine high alpine fea-
formations, troughs and basins. Nowadays, roads through moun-
ture. with sharply jagged peaks, deep valleys and fast-flowing
tain gaps and depressions and along river courses, which over mil-
streams give them their character. In this alpine mountain world lie
lions of years have carved deep, broad valleys, make the Central
picturesque lakes, such as the Königssee near Berchtesgaden, and
Uplands easily accessible to traffic.
popular tourist resorts such as Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Berchtes-
In south-west Germany, and rising along the climatically favoured
gaden or Mittenwald.
Upper Rhenish Lowlands, is the Black Forest (Schwarzwald). This
Running up to the Alps is a wide, hilly upland, the Alpenvorland. it
ascends to 1,493 metres in the rugged southern part (Feldberg)
has average elevation of 500 metres and gradually stopes away to
and contains many health resorts.
Extending eastwards of the Black Forest like the steps of a stair-
12
Country, People, History
case in the Swabian-Franconian terrace country. This consists of
The three main
usually fertile, densely populated basins and the rough highlands of
topographical regions
the Swabian-Franconian Alb, which protrude with an impressively
Kist
of the Federal Republic
high steep terrace of about 400 metres out of the lower zone.
of Germany
e east, this landscape is bounded by the frontier ranges of
**Deck
t
arian-Bohemian Forest (1,456 m high at the Grosser Arber)
and the Upper Palatinan Forest.
Hamburg
In a narrow valley between Bingen and Bonn the River Rhein
(Rhine), the most important German north-south transport axis,
slices through the Rhenish Slate Mountains (Rheinisches Schie-
Prement
fergebirge) whose low-fertility highlands and mountain terrains of
Hunsrück, Taunus, Eifel and Westerwald are considerably less
Berlin (West)
densely populated than the protected left and right-Rhenish wine-
growing and tourist-frequented valleys.
Hannover
Between the Rhineland in the west and Thuringia in the east lies
the Hesse Central Upland, which has a variety of scenery, from hill
areas averaging 500 to 600 metres in altitude to river basins and val-
Munster9
leys. Old trade routes (e. g. the Salt Road) circumvent the once vol-
Bucht
canically active heights of Vogelsberg and Rhön, run through the
Dortmund
North German Lowland
Hessische Bergland and through the Leine Trough (Leinegraben)
Central German Uplands
or through the Weserbergland into the North German Lowland.
Düsseldon
Alpine foothills and Alps
Heights and ranges
At the frontier with the German Democratic Republic (GDR) the
Kolno
massive Harz mountain range rises up to 1,100 metres. It forms its
are
Regished
own climatic region with bleak mountain winds, cool summers and
Bonno
snow-rich winters.
The North German Lowland between the North and Baltic Sea
coasts and the fringe of the Central Uplands has a very uniform
1980K
Frankfurt
Fichwish
character, its surface having been graven by Ice Age glaciers.
The North Sea is part of the Atlantic Ocean and has very marked
Rhein
Moln
Warzburg
tides and swell. Off the coast many islands rise out of the shallow
tidal flats (Wattenmeer). Among the best known are the beach re-
Ludwigshafen
Medicim
Nümberg
sorts of Sylt and Norderney. For protection from floods the inhabit-
Saarbrücken
Pfsixer
Wald
ants of the North Sea coast have put up dikes, behind which
Kraichgan
gro spreads a fertile marsh region used for animal grazing and crop
Sixty-five kilometres (40 miles) off the North Sea coast lies
the
Issive red cliff island of Heligoland (Helgoland).
Stuttgart
isar
The Baltic Sea coast consists partly of flat sand shore and partly
of steep cliffs. Between the North and Baltic Seas lies the low hill
Donau
Augsburg
country called "Holsteinische Schweiz," a wooded, domed land-
München
Freiburg Bill
scape with picturesque lakes such as Plöner See and Ukleisee.
emergen
The North German Lowland is not completely flat, however, but is
CARD
708
interspersed with hills like that of the Wilseder Berg on Lüneburg
Salzburger
Heath which rises to 169 metres. Wide Lowland indentations pene
Allgsbeds
0
50
100
150
200 km
14
Country, People, History
The country
15
Rivers, lakes, mountains, Islands
continental type of climate also strengthens towards the north, in
Rhein (below Konstanz)
Donau (as far as Passau)
865 kms
part supported by the rising relief.
Elbe (below Schnackenburg)
647 kms
Average temperatures of the coldest month of the year (January)
mund-Ems Canal
227 kms
range from 1.5° C in lowland areas and below - 6° C in the moun-
and Canal (inside the Federal
269 kms
tains. In high summer, average temperatures of the warmest month
ublic of Germany)
(July) lie between 17° and 18° C in the North German Lowland,
Luersee (Eder Valley reservoir)
259 kms
202 mill. m³
while in the Upper Rhine trough and protected valleys they rise to
Bodensee (Lake Constance) (total area)
538 sq. kms
20° C. The annual average temperature is around 9° C. The situation
(German part)
305 sq. kms
of the Central Uplands varies the climate of the individual regions.
The moist, Atlantic air masses always reach the mountains from a
Zugspitze (Bavarian Alps)
Watzmann (Bavarian Alps)
2,962 m
southerly to north-westerly direction so that precipitation here can
Feldberg (Black Forest)
2,713 m
reach up to 2,000 mm a year, while in the basins and depressions
Grosser Arber (Bavarian Forest)
1,493 m
and along the eastern mountain fringes it can be as low as 500 mm a
1,456 m
year (for example in the Mainz depression).
Fehmarn Island
More characteristic than the regional distribution of climate types
Sylt Island
185 sq. kms
is the frequent change between moist-cool (in winter moist-mild)
99 sq. kms
weather with Atlantic low pressure troughs on the one hand and
dry-warm (in winter dry-cold) high pressure situations on the other.
trate into the Central Upland, such as the Lower Rhenish Bight
In winter the warm, dry "Föhnwind" ("snow-devourer") coming over
(with the Cologne Bight) between the Eifel and the Bergisches
the northern Alps to the Bavarian plateau often makes itself felt. The
Land, or the Westphalian or Münsterland Bight between Sauerland
period between the last frost in spring and the first frost in autumn,
and Teutoburg Forest. With their fertile loess soils they have always
which is important for vegetation and agriculture, averages 205
been preferred areas of settlement and trade, as have the entire
days in Berlin, 212 in Wiesbaden and 250 on Heligoland.
northern Harz approaches.
Because of the steady upward incline from the coastal regions of
the north to the Bavarian Plateau and Alpine regions of the south-
east, the majority of Germany's rivers-the Rhein, the Ems, the
Weser and the Elbe-flow north and drain into the North Sea. The
exception is the Donau (Danube), which runs into the Black Sea
and links Germany with Austria and Southeast Europe.
Lakes are found in regions covered by ice in the Ice Age in the
North German Lowland and in the alpine fringe. Only the circular Ei-
fel Maars (Eifelmaare) are of volcanic origin. In the Eifel, Sauerland
and Harz, reservoirs have been built. The largest natural lake is
instance Austria. (Bodensee), situated between Germany, Switzer-
tion throughout the year. In the north-west the climate is more
Climate. Germany is situated in the temperate zone, with precipita-
cean-determined with moderately warm summers and mostly mild
vinters. Towards the east and the south-east it becomes continen-
al in character, with warm to hot summers and cold winters. The
Population density
Kiel
The people
Lubeck
ferman nation, comprising more than 73 million people, lives in
two states: just under 57 million in the Federal Republic of Germany
Wilhelmshaveg Brememaren Hamburg
(with West Berlin) and just under 17 million in the German Demo-
cratic Republic (with East Berlin). Millions of everyday occurrences
Oldenby
testify to the feeling of the inhabitants of the two states that they
Bremen
belong to one people, to one nation.
Berlin (West)
The population of the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1986 the
Federal Republic and West Berlin were inhabited by about 61.1 mil-
Honnover
Wallsburg
lion people, including around 4.5 million foreigners. Only 100 years
unechweig
previously there were merely 20 million people in the same area. At
e
Hildesheim:
Münstere
Bickfold
Salzgitter
Under 25 inhabitants per km2
that time 85 people had to share one square kilometre of land; to-
Reckling-
25- 50 inh. per km2
day it is 245 people. In Europe only the Netherlands and Belgium
nausen
Harom
Paderbern
Heme
50-100 inh. per km²
have higher population densities. The greatest population increase
Duisbur a Dortmum
Gottingen
100-200 inh. per km²
Krefelde
occurred in the years immediately following World War II, when
Mönchen-
SWuppertel
Kasse/C
More than 200 inh. per km²
more than 14 million refugees and expellees from Germany's for-
gladbach.
COR
Solingen
Towns with 50,000 100,000 inh.
mer eastern territories and from the GDR came in (see p. 66, 71/72).
Leverkusen
100,000 500,000 inh.
The construction of the Berlin wall by the communist GDR regime in
OF
Slegen
500,000 1,000,000 inh.
O
1961 put an abrupt stop to the influx of refugees from the GDR. In
Bonn
More than 1,000,000 inh.
the ensuing years 65% of the population growth was due to foreign
*
workers coming into the Federal Republic, mainly from Mediterra-
renkfult
asbaden
nean countries. The largest single contingent were Turks.
Ovenbach
Since 1974 the population has been declining. The Federal Repu-
Main
Würzburg
blic cannot depend on natural growth since the birthrate has been
Trier
falling for years and is no longer even able to offset the death rate.
Ludwigsh Mannhelm
Prianger
Fürtb
At 10.3 births per 1,000 inhabitants per year the Federal Republic
ornaisersidatem
(Numberg
Heldelborg
has the lowest birthrate in the world. The decline in the population is
Saarbrückemer
expected to continue.
Heilbroon
Kaitsruhe
Regensburg
The
pulation is distributed very unevenly. Major conurbation
CRU
Piorzherm
an
the Rhein-Ruhr (Essen, Dortmund, Köln [Cologne], Düs-
Stuttgart
se,
region, the Rhein-Main area around Frankfurt, the Rhein-
Neckar (Mannheim, Ludwigshafen) area, the Swabian industrial belt
B. = Bochum
Augsburg
round Stuttgart and the concentrations around the cities of Bre-
D. = Düsseldorf
München
E. Essen
nen, Hamburg, Hannover, Nürnberg (Nuremberg) and München
G. = Gelsenkirchen
Freiburg
Munich). Population density is greatest in the Ruhr district, where
H. = Hagen
M. = Mülheim
% of the federal German population live on only 2% of its sovereign
on Ruhr
a = Oberhausen
rea. In the central part of this German industrial heartland the ex-
Konstanz
R. Remscheid
reme population density of 5,500 per square kilometre is reached.
0
50
100
150
200 km
18
Country, People, History
The people
19
Without any clearly recognisable demarcation the cities of this re-
gion abut one another and form what is already sometimes referred
Age structure of the population in 1986
to as "Ruhr City" (Ruhrstadt), with more than four million inhabit-
Male
Female
Age in years
Age in years
ants. Contrasting with these very densely settled areas are a num-
ber of thinly populated ones such as the heath and moorland areas
90
90
North German Plain, parts of the Eifel mountain region, the
an Forest, Upper Palatinate and, above all, peripheral areas
80
80
abutting the frontier between the two German states.
FEMALE-
World War II
Births gap
SURPLUS
Every third inhabitant of the Federal Republic lives in a large town
fallen
in World Warl
or city-some 20 million people in 64 towns with more than 100,000
70
Births gap 70
in World War
population in 1986. The worldwide process of the rural exodus, that
is of fast-growing city and shrinking small town or village popula-
60
60
tions, is no longer taking place in the Federal Republic of Germany,
Births gap
Births gap
however. Many Germans still live in small towns or villages: 25 milli-
during
during
50
economic crisis
economic crisis 50
ons (40%) in communities with fewer than 20,000 inhabitants, and of
around 1932
around 1932
these, 3.8 million in villages with fewer than 2,000.
40 Births gap
Births gap 40
at end of
at end of
World War II
World War II
30
30
The largest citles (1986)
City
20
20
Inhabitants City
MALE-
Inhabitants
in 1,000s
SURPLUS
in 1,000s
10
10
Berlin (West)
1,860
Wiesbaden
Hamburg
267
1,580
Mönchengladbach
Births gap through
Births gap through
München (Munich)
254
1,267
0
family planning
family planning
Köln (Cologne)
Braunschweig
0
916
500 400 300 200 100 0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Essen
(Brunswick)
248
620
Kiel
246
Thousands per age-year
Thousands per age-year
Frankfurt/Main
595
Dortmund
Augsburg
245
572
Aachen
Düsseldorf
239
562
Oberhausen
Stuttgart
223
562
Krefeld
Bremen
217
The German tribes. The German nation grew out of a number of
526
Lübeck
Duisburg
210
tribes. There were Franks and Saxons, Bavarians and Swabians be-
518
Hagen
Hannover (Hanover)
206
508
Mainz
fore there were "Germans." Indeed, it is safe to say that the differ-
Nürnberg
189
Saarbrücken
ences between them are felt to this day. The old tribes have, of
(Nur
erg)
186
465
Kassel
Bo
184
course, long since lost their original character. Tribal duchies had
382
We
Freiburg
184
already disappeared by the first few centuries of German history
377
Herne
Bielefeld
172
300
and were succeeded by regional autocracies which, if anything, had
Mannheim
Mülheim an der Ruhr
171
295
no more than their names in common with the old tribal domains.
Hamm
Bonn
166
291
Gelsenkirchen
Solingen
But each in its own way continued the tribal tradition. The German
158
285
Münster
Leverkusen
155
nation has always consisted of larger and smaller units and particu-
270
Osnabrück
Karlsruhe
153
larism, which has been a constant factor in German history, conti-
268
Ludwigshafen
153
nues to have manifold effects in the present, for example in the fed-
eral state form of government and in the large number of cultural
centres. We shall come across this phenomenon in its positive and
negative aspects on many pages of this book.
uliarities in styles of building and settlement, customs and folkior
remain. Then, of course, there is the cuisine, with each Germa
0
When speaking of German tribes today one should not try to de-
fine them too rigidly. They are historically evolved regional groups,
tribe proudly laying claim to many tasty specialities of its own!
each feeling itself to be quite distinct from the others and leading a
vigorous life of its own. In the south of the Federal Republic live Ba-
The German language. What really distinguishes German tribe
varians, Swabians and Franks, in the centre Rhinelanders, Palati-
from one another are their dialects. Even though the great post-wa
and Hessians, in the north Westphalians, Lower Saxons,
migrations and the impact of radio and television have resulted i
swig-Holsteiners and Frisians. That is only a rough categori-
much adaptation and blurring the dialects remain very much alive
on, for each tribe is, in turn, sub-divided into smaller elements
Except for those who have learned the standard language E
characteristics. (Upper and Lower Bavarians, for example) which all have marked
school, people as a rule can be identified as Hessians, Hambur
gians, Thuringians and so forth by the dialect colouring of a particu
By no means are the tribes identical with the populations of the
lar region, even though they may be trying to speak the purer "Hig
individual federal states (Bundesländer) which make up the Federal
German" (Hochdeutsch). And those who give their dialects fre
Republic. To a large extent the states were formed only after World
rein can run into quite a bit of bother trying to understand people C
War II with the involvement of the occupation powers and in most
other tribes. If, say, an Upper Bavarian and a Lower Saxon wer
cases the boundaries drawn did not take tradition into account.
both to speak pure dialect they would probably need an interprete
Thus the "Land" of Nordrhein-Westfalen (North-Rhine-Westphalia)
to converse. It's the same with dialects as it was with the tribes
unites Rhinelanders and Westphalians, neither of whom can find
There was Franconian, Saxon and Bavarian before there was Ger
man.
much in common with the others' perception of history, character
traits and temperament. But even those "Länder" which existed be-
For a long time the German language existed only in the form C
fore 1945 owe their present territorial status to political events-
its various regional vernaculars. Written German has evolve.
conquests. hereditary successions, marital pacts-and their fron-
through a long process concluded only in the 18th century. Marti.
tiers have little in common with the old tribal ones. For example, in
Luther's widely disseminated translation of the bible from Gree
Bayern (Bavaria), territorially one of the most stable German re-
and Hebrew into the vernacular German in the 16th century was a:
gions, one finds not only Bavarians but also Franks and Swabians.
important, although not the only milestone.
Inter-tribal rivalries can be quite an important political factor in such
The oldest known record of written German dates from about
cases. This IS why great care is taken to ensure that all the tribes
770. It is a small Latin-German dictionary, the so-called "Abrogans.
inhabiting a "Land" are adequately represented in its important
Texts from that early time and following centuries up to about 1500
public institutions.
can no longer be understood by present-day Germans without spe
Beyond politics, tribal idiosyncrasies are the subject of ineradi-
cialised study. They would have to learn the older forms of Germa:
cable stereotyped ideas. Rhinelanders are thought to be easy-go-
like foreign languages.
ing, Swabians thrifty, Westphalians phlegmatic and so forth. There
Today, German is the mother tongue of more than 100 millio:
are. of course. traits of behaviour and character which are more
people. As well as being spoken in the two German states it is als
typical of one tribe than another. but "tribal character put in too
the official language in Austria and Liechtenstein and one of the off:
individual. simple a formula is invariably wrong and unjust when applied to the
cial languages in Switzerland. In international political and ecc
nomic usage German plays a lesser role than English, French, Rus
expulsion of millions of Germans from the eastern territories
sian and Spanish. Its importance is greater in the cultural fielc
45 and the flight of millions more from the GDR has placed
every tenth book in the world is published in German; among th
Sh
is. East Prussians, Pomeranians, Brandenburgers. Saxons
languages most frequently translated into others it comes third at
and Thuringians in the midst of the other tribes. This mixing was fur-
ter English and French, and it is the language into which most trans
ther accelerated by the mobility of modern industrial society. But
lation is done.
despite so many differences having been levelled out. marked pec-
A fear sometimes expressed that the division of Germany will ulti
mately also split the language into "West German" and "East Ger
Country, People, History
The people
23
closas
Personal names and modes of address. German personal name:
consist of two parts, the first name (or Christian name), "Vorname
brozarm dheomnds. hum,
("fore-name") in German and the surname or family name, "Fami
to Scempt
lienname" or "Nachname" ("after-name") in German. Parents de-
par fair
cide what their children will be called. They can give them severa
balumere.
first names, if they wish, in which case one of them, mostly the firs
Techneye posulmen. Receivery
one, is the main one, the "Rufname," or "calling-name" used wher
addressing a person. There can be the most varied reasons for the
perruces zans Refuccent
Formborn ABPque usere
choice of a certain first name. One big factor is that people want i
Poosffi: ab
to sound good. Sometimes the name of a respected person is
chosen, in the case of Catholics often the name of a saint. Gen-
face cemerciae
are reaffi Abmeru
erally, though, first names are pretty much a matter of fast-chang
ing fashion.
descreppendr
The child inherits the family name from its parents who have
an drice œr, carde. abjit
themselves adopted the name at marriage. Formerly the husband's
perri. Longert. pumari. al
name used to become the family name when a coupte married. If
eft Procruft: dear. sidection
Abdicat.
say, Inge Koch and Paul Weber married, the woman from then or
was named Inge Weber. Now spouses can choose whether the
man's or the woman's surname is to be the common family name: ir
mean.
our example they could call themselves Koch or Weber. The spouse
pudat paymble
who takes on the other's name can, but need not, place his or he:
lencaton
own former surname in front of the joint new one, thus: Inge Koch
Weber or Paul Weber-Koch.
A few surnames are widely spread in areas where German is spo-
ken. The most common of all is Müller (the same as Miller in Eng-
Abrogans handwriting (8th century; Stiftsbibliothek St. Gallen)
lish); it's thought that there are about 600,000 people with that
name in the Federal Republic of Germany. Almost as many are
called Schmidt (Smith) or variations of it like Schmid or Schmitt
man' does not stand up to close scrutiny. It is true that some vo-
Next in order of frequency are Maier (also Mayer, Meier, Meyer)
Schneider, Hofmann (or Hoffmann), Fischer and Weber.
cabulary in the two states varies and that in each new words have
To address someone formally in German one uses the pronour
been created to describe new institutions which are not always im-
mediately understandable in the other. Under the influence of the
"Sie" (like "vous" in French) and the surname after "Herr" (Mr.) O.
"Frau" (formerly only "Mrs.," literally "Woman"): Herr Weber, Frau
communist ideology in the GDR some words and concepts have
Koch. The title of "Fräulein" (for "Miss", literally "Little Woman") for
aken he on completely different meanings. On occasions. although
unmarried women seems to be going out of use. Relatives, friends
hil
language is being used in East and West. utterly different
and youngsters address each other with "Du" (like the French "tu"
ay be expressed. Apart from this. though. there have al-
and first names. This informal address has lately been gaining more
been regional differences in German without its unity having
uffered. The basic vocabulary and grammatical construction re-
and more ground; often people these days like to change over from
"Sie" to "Du" after they have known each other for only a short
nain the same in East and West. There is no "growing apart" lin-
while.
juistically. On the contrary, the language common to both is one of
he strong clasps holding the two parts of the divided nation to-
gether.
2 4
The Bundesländer
The federal states
(Federal States)
Schleswig
Kiel
deral Republic of Germany consists of the "Länder" (states)
Holstein
Hessen (Hesse), Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony), Nordrhein-West-
den-Württemberg, Bayern (Bavaria), Bremen, Hamburg,
Hamburg
1
falen (North-Rhine-Westphalia), Rheinland-Pfalz (Rhineland-Palati-
nate), Saarland and Schleswig-Holstein as well as the "Land" of
and economic system of the Federal Republic.
Berlin which has a special status but is fully integrated in the legal
Bremen
This chapter contains thumbnail profiles of the federal states. In
Niedersachsen
peripherally. this context, the 1,000-year German history can be dealt with only
Berh
Hannove
(Wes
Germany always consisted of small states, but the map looked
different from century to century. The major changes in most recent
On Berlin's
history came with the Napoleonic wars in the early 19th century, the
special state
Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the German defeat in World War
see p. 76-8
II. It resulted in the occupation and division of Germany and the dis-
Nordrhein Westfalen
solution of Prussia, the largest German state. Most of the present
Düsseldorf
federal states came into being after 1945 in what were then occupa-
constitutions. tion zones. From 1946 to 1953 they gave themselves democratic
Bonz
Hesser
Rheinland
Wiesbaden
Pfalz
Mainz
Saarland
Saarbrücken
Baden-
Bayern
ad
Württemberg
Stuttgart
Württemberg
München
Baden-Württemberg It lies in the southwest of the Federal Repub-
borders on France and Switzerland, the Rhein (Rhine) River
rming most of the frontier. Along the Upper Rhenish Lowland
es the Black Forest, a densely wooded Central Upland whose
althy highland climate makes it a popular recreation area. In the
0
50
100
150
200 km
Country, People, History
The federal states
ics, fine-mechanics, chemicals and optics. Agriculture is also a ma-
jor economic factor in the state. Many farmers specialise in cattle
raising. Cereals, fruits, vegetables, tobacco and wine are grown.
Baden and Württemberg wines are much appreciated by connois-
seurs.
Baden-Württemberg is the only federal state which came into be-
ing as the result of a popular referendum. At war's end the occupa-
tion powers first formed three states of the old states of Baden and
Württemberg, but in 1951 a large majority of the population voted
for their merger. The strongest political party has long been the
Christian Democratic Union (CDU) which has provided the state
premier (Ministerpräsident) since 1953. The German southwest
having traditionally been a stronghold of liberalism, the Liberal Free
Democratic Party (FDP) had a very strong position in the beginning;
in the meantime its share of votes has levelled out to that in the
other states.
Black Forest farmhouse
south Baden-Württemberg extends to Lake Constance (Boden-
see). the "Swabian sea." Apart from the Rhein and the Donau (Da-
nube), the Neckar is Baden-Württemberg's major river. The state
capital. Stuttgart, lies in the middle of the Neckar basin.
Bayern (Bavaria)
Baden-Württemberg's economic and financial strength is above
the federal average. it is the most industrialised of the federal
states. Industrial centres are Mannheim, Karisruhe, Pforzheim, Heil-
Bayern is the biggest federal state in area, about the size of Bel-
bronn. Stuttgart and Ulm. A number of products are world-re-
gium and the Netherlands together. It occupies the entire eastern
nowned. such as cars from Daimler-Benz (Mercedes). jewelry from
half of southern Germany. To the south it borders on Austria and in
Pforzheim, Black Forest (Schwarzwald) clocks. but also electron-
the east on Czechoslovakia. Its landscape attractions-the moun-
tain world of the Alps, the lakes in the hilly Alpine uplands. the Ba-
35.751 km2
varian Forest with the first German national park-as well as its rich
on: 9.3 million
heritage of cultural monuments make Bayern one of the most popu-
hts per km2: 260
lar tourist regions.
Capital: Stuttgart
In the midst of the Alpine uplands lies the state capital of Bayern.
Parliament: Landtag, elected for 4 years
München (Munich) whose population has swelled to more than a
Executive: State Government (Landesregierung)
Administrative structure: 4 government districts (Regierungsbezirke).
million since the war. Many call it "Germany's secret capital." The
9 urban counties (Stadtkreise), 35 rural counties (Landkreise)
Donau (Danube) valley separates the alpine uplands from the Fran-
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 33.651
conian Alb. Apart from München, south of the Donau cultural and
economic life is dominated by the old imperial city of Augsburg.
28
Country, People, History
The federal states:
29
Bayern is one of the oldest and most constant German states. It
was ruled by the Wittelsbach dynasty for almost three quarters of a
millennium.
Full of pride over their long history, the Bavarians tenaciously de-
fend their independence vis a vis the central power. For example,
the "Free State of Bavaria" is the only federal state which puts up its
own frontier markers. Since the war the strongest political Party in
Bayern has been the Christian Social Union (CSU). It has had an ab-
solute majority in the state parliament (Landtag) since 1962 and has
ruled alone since 1966.
Garmisch-Partenkirchen and Zugspitze mountain
North of the Donau, the former imperial free city of Regensburg,
Bremen
the bishops' residences of Würzburg and Bamberg, the Wagner
town of Bayreuth and above all the metropolis of Franconia, Nürn-
berg (Nuremberg), call the cultural and economic tune.
The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen, the smallest federal state,
The northern parts of Bayern are more strongly industrialised
consists of the cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven, located 60 ki-
than the southern, disregarding München, Augsburg and Ingolstadt
lometres from each other along the mouth of the Weser River. Bre-
for the moment. Processing and refining industries dominate. Other
men is the Federal Republic's second largest and one of the
important branches are electrical engineering and textiles, mechan-
world's leading sea ports.
ical engineering and vehicle manufacture and chemicals. Much of
Bremerhaven has grown from Bremen's outport into one of main-
Bayern lives on agriculture and forestry. Hundreds of breweries
make the famous Bavarian beer.
land Europe's largest fishing ports. Industry is closely linked with
the port. Shipbuilding remains a major one. Many imported raw ma-
terials, including coffee, tobacco, cotton and jute, to name but
553 km²
some, are processed and refined.
on: 11 million
nts per km2: 156
Capital: München (Munich)
Area: 404 km²
Parliament: 1. Landtag, elected for 4 years; 2. Senate as representation of
Population: 657,500
social, economic, cultural and municipal corporations
Inhabitants per km²: 1,627
Executive: State Government (Staatsregierung)
Capital: Bremen
Administrative 25 structure: 7 government districts (Regierungsbezirke),
Parliament: Bürgerschaft, elected for 4 years
urban counties (Stadtkreise), 71 rural counties (Landkreise)
Executive: Senate
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 31,483
Administrative structure: 2 urban counties
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 41,456
20
Area: 755 km2
Population: 1.58 million
Inhabitants per km2: 2,098
Parliament: Bürgerschaft, elected for 4 years
Executive: Senate
Administrative structure: 7 districts
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 57,665
Republic of Germany's main trading port and can handle large
ocean-going ships. The harbour area comprises 75 km², of which 16
km² are a free port zone. in addition to industries typical of ports,
such as shipyards, refineries and imported raw material processing
enterprises. Hamburg has a wide range of consumer goods indus-
tries.
The Great Hall of Bremen Rathaus
Like Bremen, Hamburg still proudly calls itself "Hanseatic" and
has undergone a very similar development. It was founded in the
Bremen was founded in the 8th century. In the late Middle
early 9th century, so is a little younger than its rival, but over the
Ages-together with Hamburg and Lübeck-it became one of the
centuries has vastly outgrown it. In the 19th century it became the
leading members of the Hanseatic League. an association of towns
second largest German city after Berlin. Since the end of World
which dominated trade in the North and Baltic Sea region from the
War II, except for the period from 1953-1957, Social Democrats
14th to the 16th centuries. This era is still recalled by the official
have ruled Hamburg alone or together with junior coalition partners.
name. The city was able to keep its independence throughout the
turmoils of history. Since World War II the Social Democratic Party
Hamburg harbour
(SPD) has had the strongest following. In several legislative periods
it had an absolute majority in the state parliament. the "Bürger-
schaft." and ruled alone.
urg
The Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, *Germany's gateway to
the world" before the division. lies some 120 kms above the point
where the Elbe River enters the North Sea. Hamburg is the Federal
The federal states
33
32
Country, People, History
Hessen (Hesse)
The federal state of Hessen lies in the centre of the Federal Re-
public. Between the Odenwald and Taunus uplands lies the Rhein-
Main plain where one of the Federal Republic's major economic re-
gions has developed. It includes the metropolis of Frankfurt. Here
motorways, railways and inland waterways run together and Frank-
furt airport is the turntable of European civil aviation. The focus of
industrial production lies in the fields of chemistry, electro-technol-
ogy, rubber and leather goods, machinery and cars. Another indus-
Frankfurt on Main
trial centre has grown up around Kassel in north Hessen.
In the scenically attractive upper Lahn valley between the Taunus
and Westerwald areas lie the university towns of Marburg and
Reformation. Previously and subsequently it was almost always te:
Giessen as well as Wetzlar, known for its optical industry. On the
ritorially fragmented. Only after World War Il were the old Hessia
periphery of the Taunus upland rise many mineral springs, around
areas reunited as the federal state of Hessen. From 1950 to 198
which spa resorts have developed, the state capital of Wiesbaden
the Social Democratic Party (SPD) had the largest following, sinc
being the major one. In the partly loess-covered fertile lowlands
then the leading party has been the conservative Christian Demc
north of the Main, cereais, vegetables and sugar beet are grown;
cratic Union (CDU).
stock raising and forestry dominate in the higher regions. The
"Bergstrasse" south of Darmstadt and the "Rheingau" rank with the
best German wine growing areas.
In German history Hessen only briefly played an important role as
a state, namely in the 16th century, when the Hessian Landgrave
lip the Magnanimous became one of the political leaders of the
Area: 21,114 km2
Population: 5.5 million
Inhabitants per km²: 262
Niedersachsen (Lower Saxony)
Capital: Wiesbaden
Parliament: Landtag, elected for 4 years
Executive: State Government (Landesregierung)
Administrative structure: 3 government districts (Regierungsbezirke),
The federal state of Niedersachsen occupies the northwest
5 urban counties (Stadtkreise), 21 rural counties (Landkreise)
the Federal Republic, extending from the North Sea coast with th
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 34,494
East Frisian Islands to the central German uplands with the "Wese
34
Industry is concentrated in the densely inhabited areas between
low and uplands (Hannover conglomeration and Harz plains) and
the port towns of Emden (vehicle assembly), Wilhelmshaven (the
biggest German oil-landing port) and Cuxhaven (fish processing).
Of big economic importance is the extraction of petroleum and nat-
ural gas in the Emsland and the German North Sea sector. The
state capital of Hannover has made a name for itself all over the
world as an industrial and trade-fair city. Wolfsburg, located be-
tween the Heath and the Harz, is the seat of the Volkswagen com-
pany. The main tourist resorts are the East Frisian Islands, the Harz
mountains and the Lüneburg Heath.
Niedersachsen comprises nearly all of the area of the powerful
medieval Duchy of the Saxons, which broke up already in the 12th
century. The name of "Saxony" shifted up the Elbe as a result of dy-
nastic changes, finally coming to refer to a central German region
which now belongs to the German Democratic Republic. To distin-
guish from this, the name "Lower Saxony" came to be used for the
old Saxonian core area.
The present federal state was formed in 1946 of the Prussian pro-
vince of Hanover and the states of Braunschweig, Oldenburg and
Schaumburg-Lippe. In the early years rightwing parties and parties
of a regional character had strong positions in the state. Since the
early 1960's parliamentary representations in Lower Saxony have
Mills in Greetsiel. East Friesland
become similar to those in other Länder. Both the CDU and SPD.
the large parties, have ruled the state both alone and in coalition
bergland and the western "Harz" in the south, from the "Emsland"
with other parties. Since 1986 Lower Saxony has been governed by
at the Dutch border in the west to Lüneburg Heath and Elbe River in
a coalition of the CDU and FDP.
the east. Next to Bayern (Bavaria). Niedersächsen IS the maior
cultural region of the Federal Republic, particularly as a supplier agri- of
highly developed. Along the lower Elbe and south of Emaen fruit
cereals. sugar beet. feed maize and potatoes. Stock keeping is
and vegetables are grown.
Area: 47,438 km²
Population: 7.2 million
Inh
per km 152
Ca
annover
Pan
Nordrhein-Westfalen (North-Rhine-Westphalia)
Landtag, elected for 4 years
Executive: State Government (Landesregierung)
Administrative 9 structure: 4 government districts (Regierungsbezinke)
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 26.405
urban counties (Stadtkreise). 38 rural counties (Landkreise)
Nordrhein-Westfalen lies in the west of the Federal Republic and
borders on Belgium and the Netherlands. It is the most populous
federal state. Almost a third of the population of the Federal Repub-
36
Country, People, History
The federal states
37
Northeast of the Ruhr region, stretching to the Teutoburg Forest,
lies the Münsterland Bight with the university town of Münster as
the central point. Here, as in neighbouring areas, agriculture is the
main pursuit, with wheat, barley and sugar beet growing, beef cattle
raising, pig fattening and horse breeding. The forest-rich highlands
of the "Sauerland," "Siegerland," "Bergisches Land" and northern
"Eifel" in the south of Nordrhein-Westfalen are popular recreation
areas and vitally important drinking water sources for the industrial
conurbations along the Rhein and Ruhr rivers. Nordrhein-West-
falen's lively economic activity is reflected in its densely knit net-
work of transport facilities linking the many cities: Köln, Essen,
Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Duisburg, Bochum, Wuppertal, Bielefeld,
Gelsenkirchen, Solingen, Leverkusen and Paderborn, to name but
some. South of Köln on the Rhine lies Bonn which up to 1949 was a
medium-sized university town and since then has been the capital
of the Federal Republic.
The state of Nordrhein-Westfalen was formed in 1946 mostly of
areas which had belonged to Prussia since the early 19th century
but had formed no political unit. Party-political power relationships
Power station in the Ruhr region
in the state have changed frequently. Both Christian Democrats
(CDU) and Social Democrats (SPD) have ruled both in coalition with
lic lives there. The core area of the Rhenish-Westphalian industrial
the Free Democrats (FDP) and alone. Since 1980 the SPD has had
landscape is the Ruhr region, one of the richest bituminous coal-
an absolute majority in the state parliament (Landtag).
bearing areas of the world and long one-sidedly characterised by
mining, steel and iron-making industries. Meanwhile other indus-
tries have come, such as electronics, chemicals, synthetic fibres,
paints, aluminium smelting and petroleum processing. There are
also textiles and automobile manufacture, mechanical engineering,
cement and glass works and large breweries. Between Köln (Co-
logne) and Bonn, in the Ville upland, the Federal Republic's largest
brown coal deposit is mined.
Rheinland-Pfalz
4,068 km²
tion: 16.7 million
Inhabitants per km2: 489
Capital: Düsseldorf
Parliament: Landtag, elected for 5 years
The federal state of Rheinland-Pfalz borders on Belgium, Luxem-
Executive: State Government (Landesregierung)
bourg and France. In the mountainous Eifel landscape a conspic-
Administrative structure: 5 government districts (Regierungsbezirke),
uous feature are the small, almost perfectly circular volcanic lakes.
23 urban counties (Stadtkreise), 31 rural counties (Landkreise)
The valleys of the Rhein and Mosel (Moselle) are preferred habita-
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 30,843
tion and economic areas. Centres are the old Roman towns of Ko-
blenz (Coblence), Trier, Mainz and Worms as well as the cities of
38
Kaiserslautern, Frankenthal, Mainz and Koblenz; shoe factories in
Pirmasens; jeweiry making in Idar-Oberstein.
The state of Rheinland-Pfalz was formed in 1946 of Bavarian,
Hessian and Prussian lands which previously had never belonged
together. The Christian Democrats (CDU) have been the strongest
political party uninterruptedly since 1947. They have ruled in coali-
tion with the Social Democrats, Free Democrats or alone.
Saarland
Apart from the city-states, Saarland is the smallest federal state.
It lies in southwest Germany and borders on France and Luxem-
Rhine valley grape harvest
bourg. The economic centres lie in the Saar Valley around Saar-
Ludwigshafen and Kaiserslautern. The mid-Rhenish valley with its
louis, Neunkirchen and the state capital of Saarbrücken. The Saar-
land's coal is smelted with iron ore from the neighbouring French
many castle ruins is one of the most beautiful German landscapes:
Lorraine to iron and steel.
many in the world may see it in front of their mind's eye when they
think of Germany.
There are also metal processing, mechanical engineering, chemi-
With two thirds of the German vineyards. Rheinland-Pfalz is the
cal, ceramic and glass industries. France is the main trading partner
Federal Republic's main wine-growing region. The best-known
for Saarland's economy.
wine-growing districts are Rheinpfalz. Rheinhessen. Mosel-Saar-
Saarland was formed as a political unit in 1920 by the Versailles
Ruwer. Nahe. Mittelrhein and Ahr. Rheinland-Pfalz also has indus-
peace treaty, separated from Germany and placed under the ad-
ministration of the League of Nations. France obtained preferential
try: chemical works in Ludwigshafen: mechanical engineering in
economic rights and great political influence. In a 1935 referendum
the Saarland population voted to return to Germany. After World
Area: 19.848 km²
Po
on: 3.6 million
In
per km2: 182
Area: 2,569 km²
Ca
Mainz
Population: 1.0 million
Parliament: Landtag. elected for 4 years
Inhabitants per km²: 406
Executive: State Government (Landesregierung)
Capital: Saarbrücken
Administrative structure: 3 government districts (Regierungsbezirke).
Parliament: Landtag, elected for 5 years
12 urban counties (Stadtkreise). 24 rural counties (Landkreise)
Executive: State Government (Landesregierung)
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 28.432
Administrative structure: 6 rural counties (Landkreise)
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 27,769
40
Country, People, History
The federal states
41
Area: 15,727 km²
Population: 2.6 million
Inhabitants per km²: 166
Capital: Kiel
Parliament: Landtag, elected for 5 years
Executive: State Government (Landesregierung)
Administrative structure: 4 urban counties (Stadtkreise), 11 rural counties
(Landkreise)
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 25,724
the east it has a hilly lake landscape. Off the west coast lies a 15 to
30 km wide tidal flat zone in which lie the north Frisian islands of
Sylt, Amrum and Föhr and the Halligens. Also part of Schleswig-
Holstein is the red-stone cliff island of Heligoland rising steeply
from the North Sea.
The eastern seaboard region is strongly featured with excellent
natural harbours, notably Flensburg, the state capital of Kiel and the
Saarbrücken
old Hanseatic city of Lübeck. From the Baltic Sea ports there are
ferry connections to Denmark, Sweden and Finland. The shortest
War II France made a new attempt to annex the Saarland step by
transport route between the Federal Republic and Scandinavia is
step. The population resisted these strivings and also rejected an
the socalled "birds flight line" over the island of Fehmarn. The
interim "Europeanisation" of their land. On the basis of an unmis-
"Nord-Ostsee-Kanal" ("Kiel Canal") links the lower Elbe with the
takable expression of the will of its inhabitants, Saarland became a
Kiel Bay. It is the most-used waterway in the world.
federal 1957. state of the Federal Republic of Germany on January 1,
From 1957 to 1985 the leading governing party was the Chris-
Baltic coast near Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein
Party (SPD) has governed.
tian Democratic Union (CDU); since then the Social Democratic
S
wig-Holstein
The northernmost federal state lies between the North and Baltic
Seas and in the north borders on Denmark. In the west the state
consists of fertile marshland, in the centre it is dry and sandy and in
History
The federal states
Schleswig-Holstein is still predominantly agricultural, with
basis emphasis for on cattle and pig raising. The agricultural produce is the
Area: 480 km²
a food industry. The Baltic Sea ports are dominated the
Population: 1.9 million
the shipbuilding. In the south of the state, where access to the Elbe by
Inhabitants per km²: 3,892
dustries proximity of Hamburg offer favourable site conditions, other and
Partiament: Abgeordnetenhaus (House of Deputies), elected for 4 years
a have been growing up in recent years. The North and in-
Executive: Senate
bathing Of resorts and the "Holsteinische Schweiz" cater Baltic
Administrative structure: 12 districts
tion and coastal protection along the North Sea.
S. special importance to Schleswig-Holstein are land reclama- to tour-
Gross Domestic Product per capita: DM 39,242
Schleswig-Holstein was a subject of contention between
wars many it and Denmark for a thousand years. After two German-Danish Ger-
The major products are electrical appliances, machinery, gar-
vince in finally came to Germany in 1864 and became a Prussian
ments, optical goods, pharmaceutical products and printed goods.
Many of the large enterprises based in the Federal Republic have
Schleswig, where there is a small Danish minority, stayed with South
Schleswig voted in a 1920 referendum to join Denmark. northern
1866. The predominantly Danish population in pro-
Memorial Church and Kurfürstendamm in Berlin
the state. Since 1950 the Christian Democrats (CDU) have fed-
eral many. In 1946 Schleswig-Holstein was made an independent Ger-
a South leading government party. The Danish minority are been
the state Schleswig Voters' Association, which sends one organised deputy to in
parliament (Landtag).
Berlin
CINZAI
(West)
in every rises respect. Like Bremen and Hamburg it IS a city-state. states
The Land of Berlin has a special status amongst the federal
only a half city, the Western part of Berlin. and is not but
with the Berlin in problem and the city's special political status history of
fically connected with the rest of the federal area. The geo-
Before detail in the chapter "The division of Germany, are dealt
World War II the Reich capital of Berlin was a p. 76-80.
role. turntable Even and centre of European trade. The division transport
SO. West Berlin is still Germany's largest industrial cost it city. this
44
Country, People, History
branches in Berlin (West). Berlin (West) is also one of Europe's ma-
jor congress and trade-fair cities. As a city of the arts and theatre it
enjoys international renown. Part of the city area consists of large
forests and lakes.
A brief German history up to 1945
Founded in the 13th century, Berlin became the residence of the
argraves of Brandenburg in the 15th century. With the rise of
Brandenburg-Prussia its importance grew. A metropolitan develop-
Up to last century it was a widely held belief that German history be-
ment began when Berlin became capital of the German empire in
gan in the year A. D. 9. That was when Arminius, a prince of a Ger-
1871. In the 1920s Berlin was the third largest city of the world. It
manic tribe called the Cherusci, vanquished three Roman legions in
suffered severe destruction in World War II. After the division of the
the Teutoburg Forest (south-east of modern-day Bielefeld). Armi-
city, largescale reconstruction of the western part, aided by funds
nius, about whom not much else is known, was regarded as the first
from Bonn, was begun. A 1950 constitution gives Berlin (West) the
German national hero and a huge memorial to him was built near
status of a federal state. For decades the Social Democrats (SPD)
Detmold in the years 1838-1875.
were the strongest party, governing with changing coalition parties.
Nowadays a less simplistic view is taken. The fusing of a German
After severe losses of votes in 1981, the SPD had to cede the city's
nation was a process which took hundreds of years. The word
government to the Christian Democrats (CDU) who have been gov-
"deutsch" (German) probably began to be used in the 8th century
erning together with the FDP since 1983.
and initially defined only the language spoken in the eastern part of
the Francocian realm. This empire, which reached the zenith of its
The reader will come across references to the federal states at
power under Charlemagne, incorporated peoples speaking Ger-
many other places in this book. More information is to be found par-
manic and Romance dialects. After Charlemagne's death (814) it
ticularly in the chapters "The people," "A brief German history" and
soon fell apart. In the course of various inheritance divisions, a west
"Federal, regional and local government."
and an east realm developed, whose political boundary approxi-
mately coincided with the boundary between German and French
speakers. Only gradually did a feeling of cohesion develop among
the inhabitants of the eastern realm. Then the term "deutsch" was
transferred from the language to its speakers and ultimately to the
region they lived in, "Deutschland."
The German western frontier was fixed relatively early and re-
mained fairly stable. But the eastern frontier moved to and fro for
hundreds of years. Around 900 it ran approximately along the Elbe
and Saale rivers. in subsequent centuries German settlement,
partly peaceful and partly by force, expanded far eastward. This ex-
pansion stopped only in the middle of the 14th century. The ethnic
boundary then made between Germans and Slavs remained until
World War II.
High Middle Ages. The transition from the East Franconian to the
German "Reich" is usually dated from 911, when, after the Carolin-
gian dynasty had died out, the Franconian duke Conrad I was
elected king. He is regarded as the first German king. (The official
title was "Frankish King," later "Roman King," from the 11th century
the name of the realm was "Roman Empire," from the 13th century
"Holy Roman Empire," in the 15th century the words "of the Ger-
man Nation" were added.) It was an electoral monarchy, that is to
say that the high nobility chose the king. In addition, "dynastic right"
also applied and so the new king had to be a blood relation of his
also predecessor. This principle was broken several times. There
a number of double elections. The medieval empire had was
capital city; the king ruled roving about from place to place. There no
were no imperial taxes; the king drew his sustenance mainly from
"imperial estates" he administered in trust. His authority was not al-
/S recognised by the powerful tribal dukes unless he was militar-
owerful and a skilful forger of alliances. Conrad's
firy I (919-936), was the first so succeed in this, and successor, to an
ruler greater extent his son. Otto I (936-973). Otto made himself the even
he of the realm. His great power found obvious expression when real
was crowned Emperor in 962 in Rome.
From then on the German king could claim the title Emperor. The
rule emperorship was conceived as universal and lent its incumbent
full over the entire Occident. However, this notion never the
of king the had to make his way to Rome. With that began the Italian the
political reality. For the coronation as emperor by the Pope became
Emperor Charles IV and the seven elector princes
of German kings. For 300 years they were able to retain policy
(heraldry book, around 1370, Bibliothèque Royale Albert 19, Brussels)
upper and central Italy but because of this were diverted from control
fered portant tasks in Germany. And so Otto's successors inevitably im-
The end of Hohenstaufen rule (1268) meant the end of the universal
a new big setbacks. However. under the succeeding Salian suf-
Occidental emperorship, too. Internal disintegrative forces pre-
upswing occurred. With Henry III (1039-1056) the German dynasty
vented Germany from becoming a national state, a process just be-
kingship and emperorship reached the zenith of its power,
ginning then in other west European countries. Here lies one of the
(1056-1106) was not able to hold this position. In a Henry
taining above all a supremacy over the Papacy. main- IV
roots for the Germans' becoming a "belated nation."
Pope Gregory VII over whether bishops and other influential quarrel church with
Late Middle Ages to modern times. Rudolf I (1273-1291) was the
was officials should be appointed by the Pope or the temporal ruler
first Habsburg to take the throne. Now the material foundation of
superficially successful. But Gregory retaliated by excommuni- he
the emperorship was no longer the lost imperial estates but the
church cating Henry, who thereupon surrendered his authority over
"house estates" of the dynasties and house power politics became
vable by doing penance to the pope at Canossa (1077), an the
every emperor's main preoccupation. The "Golden Bull" (imperial
the loss of power by the emperorship. (To this day Germans irretrie-
constitution) issued by Charles IV in 1356 regulated the election of
phrase "A walk to Canossa" for someone having to eat humble use
the German king by seven electors privileged with special rights.
pie.) In From then on emperor and pope were equal-ranking
These sovereign electors and the towns, because of their econ-
1138 the century of rule by the Staufer or Hohenstaufen powers.
omic power, gradually gained influence while that of the small
nasty began. Frederick I Barbarossa (1115-1190). in wars with dy-
counts, lords and knights declined. The towns' power further in-
pope. the upper Italian cities and his main German rival, the Saxon the
creased when they linked up in leagues. The most important of
Henry the Lion. led the empire into a new golden age. But
these. the Hanseatic League, became the leading Baltic power in
th
began a territorial fragmentation which ultimately weakened un-
the 14th century. To this day the city-states of Hamburg and Bre-
itral power. This weakening continued under Barbarossa's
men proudly call themselves "Hanseatic cities."
despite successors, Henry VI (1190-1197) and Frederick II
From 1438 the crown-although the empire nominally was an
and the great power vested in the emperorship. (1212-1250) The
electoral monarchy-practically became the property of the Habs-
temporal princes became semi-sovereign territorial religious rulers.
burg dynasty which had become the strongest territorial power. In
the 15th century demands to reform the empire increased. Maximi-
48
Country, People, History
A brief German history up to 1945
49
lian I (1483 to 1519), the first to accept the imperial title without a
of
papal coronation, tried to implement such a reform but without
much success. The institutions newly created or reshaped by
him-Reichstag (Imperial Diet), Reichskreise (Imperial Counties),
Reichskammergericht (Imperial Court)-lasted until the end of the
Reich (1806), but were not able to halt its continuing fragmentation.
C
pently, a dualism of "Emperor and Reich" developed: the
h
the Reich was offset by various institutions-electoral
princes, princes and municipalities. The power of the emperors was
curtailed and increasingly eroded by "capitulations," which they ne-
gotiated at their election with the electoral princes. The princes, es-
pecially the powerful among them, greatly expanded their rights at
the expense of imperial power. But the Reich continued to hold to-
gether, the giory of the imperial idea had remained alive and the
small and medium territories were protected in the Reich system
from attack by powerful neighbours.
Farmers in revolt (woodcut by Hans Burgkmair, 1525)
The towns became centres of economic power, profiting above
all from growing trade. In the burgeoning textile and mining indus-
tries, forms of economic activity grew which went beyond the guilds
Germany. After his abdication the empire was split up. The German
territorial states and the west European national states together
system of the craftsmen and, like long-distance trading, were be-
ginning to take on early capitalistic traits. At the same time an intel-
now formed the new European system of states.
lectual change was taking place, marked by the Renaissance and
At the time of the Peace of Augsburg, four fifths of Germany were
Humanism. The newly risen critical spirit turned above all on church
Protestant but the struggle between the faiths had not ended with
abuses.
it. In following decades the Catholic church was able to recapture
many areas (Counter-Reformation). The differences between the
Age of religious schism. The smouldering dissatisfaction with the
faiths sharpened, religious parties-the Protestant Union (1608)
church broke out, mainly through the actions of Martin Luther from
and the Catholic League (1609)-were formed. A local conflict in
1517, in the Reformation which quickly spread. Its consequences
Bohemia then triggered off the Thirty Years War which widened into
went far beyond the religious sphere. The entire social structure be-
a European conflict over religious and political differences. Be-
gan to stir with chance. In 1522/23 the Reich knights rose up and in
tween 1618 and 1648 much of Germany was devastated and depop-
1525 the Peasants' Revolt broke out, the first larger revolutionary
ulated. The 1648 Peace of Westphalia brought the cession of terri-
movement in German history to strive for both political and social
tories to France and Sweden and confirmed the withdrawal of Swit-
change. Both uprisings failed or were bloodily quelled. The territo-
zerland and the Netherlands from the Reich. The Reich institutions
rial princes profited most from the Reformation. After changing for-
were accorded all major sovereign rights in religious and temporal
gi tunes war they were given the right to dictate their subjects' reli-
matters and the right to enter alliances with foreign partners.
ed
1555 Peace of Augsburg. This accorded the Protestants
Age of Absolutism. The almost sovereign principalities took over
sion of Germany was established.
nts with those of the Catholics. With that, the religious divi-
the absolutist form of government modelled on the French. Absolu-
On the imperial throne at the time of the Reformation was
tism gave the ruler limitless power while at the same time allowing
Charles V (1519-1556), heir to the biggest realm since the time of
tight administrations to be built up, an organised fiscal policy to be
Charlemagne but also the last Holy Roman emperor to aspire to the
introduced and new armies to be mobilised. Many princes aspired
medieval ideal of universal empire. His international political inter-
to making their residences cultural focal points. Some of them-re-
ests were too demanding for him to be able to assert himself within
presentatives of "enlightened absolutism"-encouraged learning
and philosophy, albeit within the confines of their power interests.
The policy of state control of all economic life also allowed the ab-
solutistically ruled states to gain in economic strength. Thus lands
such as Bavaria, Brandenburg (the later Prussia), Saxony and Han-
over were able to develop into power centres in their own right.
Austria, which repelled the attacking Turks and acquired Hungary
as well as parts of the formerly Turkish Balkan countries, rose to a
large power. A rival to it developed in the 18th century in the form of
sia which, under Frederick the Great (1740-1786), grew into a
rank military power. Both states pursued European big power
policies.
Age of the French Revolution. The nudge which brought the crum-
bling Reich crashing down came from the West. Revolution broke
out in France in 1789. Under pressure from the middle classes, the
feudal social order which had existed since the early middle ages
was swept away; a division of powers and human rights were to as-
sure the liberty and equality of all. The attempt by Prussia and Aus-
tria to intervene by force in the events in the neighbouring country
failed ignominiously and triggered a counter-thrust by the revolu-
tionary armies. Under the stormy advances of the forces of Na-
poleon who had assumed the revolutionary heritage in France the
Reich finally collapsed. France took the left bank of the Rhine. To
compensate the former owners of these areas for their losses. an
enormous territorial reshuffling took place at the expense of the
smaller and particularly the religious principalities. By the "Reichs-
deputationshauptschluss* of 1803 some four million subjects had
changed rulers. The medium-sized states were the beneficiaries. In
Fireworks at the court of Dresden
1806 most of them grouped together under French protection in
(copper etching by Johann August Corvinus, 1719)
the "Rheinbund" (Rhenish League). In the same year Emperor
Franz II laid down the crown and with that the Holy Roman Empire
change. First in the "Rheinbund" states and then in Prussia (in the
of the German Nation ceased to be.
latter connected with names like Stein, Hardenberg, Scharnhorst,
The French revolution did not spread into Germany. Although
W. von Humboldt) reforms were begun, aimed at breaking down
there. too, various individuals had over the years tried time and
feudal barriers and creating a society of free, responsible citizens.
The objectives were abolition of serfdom, freedom of trade, munici-
again to do away with the barriers between the aristocracy and the
common people and although leading thinkers welcomed the over-
pal self-administration, equality before the law, general conscrip-
throw in the west as the start of a new era one major reason why the
tion. But many reform moves were pulled up short. Participation by
spark could not catch easily was that. in contrast to the centrally
the populace in legislation was refused almost everywhere. Only
d France. the federalistic structure of the Reich hampered
hesitantly did some princes grant their states constitutions. espe-
cially in southern Germany.
read of new ideas. Another big reason was that France. the
motherland of the revolution, opposed the Germans as an enemy
and an occupying power. Indeed, the struggle against Napoleon
The "German Confederation." After the victory over Napoleon the
forged a new national movement which culminated in wars of libera-
Congress of Vienna (September 1814 to June 1815) redrew the
tion. But Germany did not remain unaffected by the forces of social
map of Europe. The hopes of many Germans for a free, unitary
nation-state were not fulfilled. The "Deutscher Bund" (German
Roman-German Empire
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Confederation) which replaced the old Reich was a loose asso-
ciation of the individual sovereign states. Its sole organ was the
"Bundestag" (Federal Diet) in Frankfurt, not an elected but a
delegated diet. It was able to act only if the two great powers. Prus-
sia and Austria. agreed. It saw its main task in the ensuing decades
in suppressing all aspirations and efforts aimed at unity and free-
Press and publishing were subject to rigid censorship, the
sities were under close supervision and political activity was
ally impossible.
Meanwhile a modern economic development which worked
against these reactionary tendencies had begun. In 1834 the *Ger-
man Customs Union" (Deutscher Zollverein) was founded. creating
a unitary inland market. In 1835 the first German railway line went
into operation. Industrialisation began. With the factories there
grew the new class of factory workers. At first they found better in-
comes; but the rapid growth of the population soon led to a labour
surplus. And since there were no social welfare provisions. the
mass of factory workers lived in great misery. Tensions exploded
violently, for example in the 1844 uprising of the Silesian weavers.
which was harshly put down by the Prussian military Very hesitantly
at first, a workers' movement began to form.
The 1848 revolution. In contrast to the revolution of 1789 the
French February revolution of 1848 found immediate response in
Germany. In March there were uprisings in all states and these
forced many concessions from the stunned princes 7 May the Na-
tional Assembly (Nationalversammlung) convened 7 Frankfurt S
National Assembly in Frankfurt, 1848 (lithograph)
Paulskirche (St. Paul's Church). It elected Austrian archduke Jo-
hann Imperial Administrator (Reichsverweser) and set -D a Reich
proffered Friedrich Wilhelm IV (Frederick William) of Prussia the
Ministry which. however, had no powers or authority The tune was
hereditary German imperial crown. The king turned it down, not
called in the National Assembly by the Liberal centre which strove
wanting to owe imperial majesty to a revolution. In May 1849 popu-
for a constitutional monarchy with limited suffrage The splintering
lar uprisings in Saxony, the Palatinate and Baden which aimed at
of the National Assembly from Conservatives to Radical Democrats
enforcing the constitution "from below" failed. That was the seal on
which already indicated the spectrum of parties to come made :! dif-
the failure of the whole revolution. Most of the achievements were
ficult to draw up a constitution. But not even the Liberal centre
rescinded. the constitutions of the individual states reactionarily re-
could overcome the differences between the protagenists of grea-
vised. In 1850 the German Confederation was refounded.
ermany" and "smaller Germany" concepts. that :S a German
with or without Austria. After hard bargaining a democratic
The rise of Prussia. The 1850's were years of great economic up-
tution was drawn up which attempted to combine old and
swing. Germany became an industrial country. Although its produc-
new ideas and required a government responsible to parliament.
tion output still lagged far behind England's it outpaced it in growth
But when Austria insisted on bringing into the future Reicn its entire
rate. Pacemakers were heavy industry and machine manufacture.
realm. encompassing more than a dozen different peoples the
Prussia also became the predominant economic power of Ger-
"smaller Germany" concept won the day and the National Assembly
many. The economic power strengthened the political self-confi-
dence of the liberal middle class. The German Progress Party
56
Country, People, History
A brief German history up to 1945
57
(Deutsche Fortschrittspartei), set up in 1861, became the strongest
party in the Prussian diet and denied the government the funds
when it wanted to make reactionary changes in the structure of the
army. The newly appointed Prime Minister (Ministerpräsident), Otto
von Bismarck (1862), took up the challenge and for some years
governed without parliamentary approval of the budget which was
required by the constitution. The Progress Party dared offer no
f
esistance than parliamentary opposition however.
arck was able to offset his precarious position on the do-
mestic front by foreign policy successes. In the German-Danish
war (1864) Prussia and Austria forced the Danes to cede the duch-
ies of Schleswig and Holstein (now forming Federal Germany's nor-
thernmost state) which they initially administered jointly. But Bis-
marck had from the outset pursued the annexation of the two duch-
ies and steered for open conflict with Austria. In the Austro-Prus-
sian War (1866) Austria was defeated and had to leave the German
stage. The German Confederation was dissolved and replaced by
the North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund) of states
north of the River Main, with Bismarck as Federal Chancellor (prime
minister).
The Bismarck Reich. From then on Bismarck worked towards
"smaller:German" unity. He broke France's resistance in the war of
1870/71, triggered off by a diplomatic conflict over the succession
to the Spanish throne. Defeated France had to cede Alsace-Lor-
Proclamation of Wilhelm / as German emperor in the Versailles Hall of
raine and pay huge reparations. In the patriotic enthusiasm of the
Mirrors, 1871 (painting by Anton von Werner)
war, the southern German principalities joined up with the northern
confederation to form the German Empire (Deutsches Reich). At
states, with their longer parliamentary tradition, reformed their elec-
Versailles near Paris, on the vanquished enemy's territory, King Wil-
toral laws after the turn of the century and Baden, Württemberg and
helm (William) I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor on
Bavaria made theirs the same as the Reich laws. Although Ger-
January 18, 1871.
many's becoming a modern industrial country strengthened the in-
German unity had not come about by popular decision "from be-
fluence of the economically successful middle class, the people
low" but by a treaty between princes, "from above." Prussia's pre-
who still called the tune in society were the aristocrats, above all in
dominance was stifling. To many the new Reich seemed like a
the army officer corps where they predominated.
"Greater Prussia." The Reichstag (Imperial Diet) was elected by
Bismarck ruled as Reich Chancellor for 19 years. Through a con-
un
and equal suffrage. Although it had no say in the formation
sistent peace and alliance policy he tried to give the Reich a secure
of
binet, it could influence government by its participation in
position in the new European balance of power. In contrast to this
law. king and its budgetary right. Although the Reich Chancellor
farsighted foreign policy was his home policy. He had no under-
(chief minister) was accountable only to the Kaiser (emperor) and
standing for the democratic tendencies of his time. To him, political
not to parliament he did have to try to get majorities for his policies
opposition was "hostility to the Reich." Bitterly, but ultimately
in the Reichstag. Suffrage in the Länder (states) still varied. In
vainly, he fought the left wing of the liberal middle class, political Ca-
eleven it was still class suffrage, dependent on tax paid; in four
tholicism and especially the organised labour movement which for
there was still the old division into estates. The south German
12 years (1878-1890) was practically under a ban by an Anti-So-
Hence
class. despite progressive social legislation, vastly were growing alienated working from
the
The Welmar Republic. Power fell to the Social Democrats. Their
the state. Bismarck ultimately became a victim of his own system
majority had long since abandoned the revolutionary notions of ear-
when he was dismissed in 1890 by the young Emperor Wilhelm II.
lier years and saw its mission as securing an orderly transition from
Wilhelm Il wanted to rule himself but he lacked the knowledge
the old to the new form of state. Private ownership of industry and
and staying power. More by speeches than by actions he created
agriculture remained untouched. The mostly anti-republican civil
the impression of a peace-threatening dictator. Under him there
servants and judges were taken over without exception. The impe-
ook place a transition to "Weltpolitik" (world policy), with Germany
rial officer corps retained command of the armed forces. Attempts
ng to shorten the lead of the great imperialist powers and
by radical leftists to drive the revolution on in a socialist direction
reby becoming more isolated. In his home policies Wilhelm II
were quelled militarily. In the National Assembly elected in January
soon took a reactionary course after his attempt to win the working
1919, which convened at Weimar and drew up a new Reich consti-
class over to a "social emperorship" failed to bring the quick suc-
tution, three unconditionally republican parties-Social Democrats.
cess he had hoped for. His chancellors had to rely on changing
German Democratic Party and the Catholic Centre-had the major-
coalitions of conservatives and national liberals. Social Democrats,
ity. But through the 1920s the parliamentary parties and popular for-
although one of the strongest parties, obtaining millions of votes,
ces which were more or less hostile to a democratic state went
continued to be excluded from any participation in government.
from strength to strength. The Weimar Republic was a "republic
without republicans," rabidly fought by its opponents and only half-
World War I. The assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne on
heartedly defended by its supporters. Especially the postwar econ-
June 28, 1914, triggered off the outbreak of World War I. The ques-
omic misery and the oppressive terms of the peace of Versailles
tion as to who was to blame for this war remains in dispute. Cer-
Germany had to sign in 1919 bred deep scepticism towards the re-
tainly, Germany and Austria on the one side. France. Russia and
public. Growing domestic instability was the result.
Britain on the other, did not consciously seek it but they were pre-
In 1923 the confusion of the postwar era reached its peak (infla-
pared to risk it. From the start, all had definite war aims for which
tion, Ruhr occupation by France, Hitler coup, communist overthrow
military action was at least not unwelcome. The Germans failed in
attempts). This was followed by economic recovery and with it
their aim quickly to vanquish France. The fighting in the west after
some political pacification. The foreign policy of Gustav Strese-
the defeat of Germany in the Battle of the Marne soon froze into
mann regained political equality for defeated Germany through the
trench warfare. ultimately peaking in senseless material attrition
Pact of Locarno (1925) and accession to the League of Nations
with enormous losses on both sides. With the outbreak of war. the
(1926). The art and sciences experienced a brief. intensive flower-
Kaiser receded into the background. As it progressed. the weak
ing in the "golden 20's." After the death of the first Reich President.
Reich Chancellors hat to submit more and more to the will of the
the Social Democrat Friedrich Ebert, the former Field Marshal Hin-
army supreme command. whose nominal chief was Field Marshal
denburg was elected head of state in 1925 as the candidate of the
Paul von Hindenburg, and whose real head was General Erich Lu-
Right. Although abiding strictly by the constitution, he never deve-
dendorff. The entry into the war of the United States in 1917
loped a personal commitment to the republican state.
brought the decision which had long been developing and which
The ultimate collapse of the Weimar Republic began with the
could no longer be changed by the revolution in Russia and the
world economic crisis in 1929. Left and right-wing radicalism ex-
peace in the east. Although the country had bled dry. Ludendorff,
ploited unemployment and the general deprivation to their ends. No
completely misjudging the situation. continued until September
more majorities capable of government could be found in the
1918 to insist on peace through victory but then surprisingly de-
Reichstag, the cabinet being dependent on the support of the con-
ed an immediate armistice. Hand in hand with the military col-
stitutionally very strong Reich President. From 1930, the up to then
went the civilian. Unresisting, the Kaiser and the princes
insignificant National Socialist movement of Adolf Hitler which
yielded their thrones in November 1918. Not a hand stirred to de-
fused extreme anti-democratic tendencies and a raging anti-Semi-
republic. fend a monarchy which had lost all credibility. Germany became a
tism with pseudo-revolutionary propaganda gained strength in
leaps and bounds and by 1932 had become the strongest party. On
January 30, 1933, Hitler became Reich Chancellor. Apart from mem-
60
Country, People, History
A brief German history up to 1945
61
In the few years of the turbulent Weimar Republic the majority of
Germans had not acquired any deep-rooted affinity to freedom and
democracy. More than anything else, years of political turmoil, vio-
lence between the various camps-including bloody street bat-
tles-and the mass unemployment engendered by the world econ-
omic crisis had shattered confidence in government. Hitler, on the
other hand, succeeded with job-creation and armament production
programmes to reinvigorate the economy and quickly reduce un-
employment. He was favoured in this by the world depression com-
ing to an end. His position was also bolstered by foreign policy suc-
cesses.
In 1935 the Saar region, until then administered by the League of
Nations, returned to Germany and the same year the Reich re-
gained its defence sovereignty. In 1936 German troops moved into
the up to then demilitarised Rhineland. In 1938 Austria was joined to
the Reich and the Western powers allowed Hitler to annex the Su-
detenland. All this helped him quickly to achieve his political ends,
although in all classes of society there were people who coura-
geously resisted the dictatorship.
Immediately after taking power, the regime began to carry out its
anti-Semitic programme. Step by step the Jews were stripped of all
human and civic rights. Those who could tried to escape the perse-
cution by fleeing abroad. The persecution of political opponents
and the suppression of freedom of opinion also drove thousands
Gustav Stresemann addressing the League of Nations in Geneva in 1926
out of the country. Many of the best German writers, artists and
scientists fled the country-an irredeemable loss to German cul-
bers of his own party his cabinet included politicians of the.right and
ture.
non-partisan specialist ministers, so that it was hoped that sole rule
by the National Socialists could be prevented.
World War II and Its consequences. Hitler was not to be satisfied.
From the outset he prepared for a war he was willing to wage to
The Hitler dictatorship. Hitler soon rid himself of his allies. An En-
subjugate Europe. With his attack on Poland on September 1, 1939,
abling Act, approved by all the middle-class parties, gave him prac-
he unleashed World War II, which lasted five and a half years, devas-
tically limitless power. He banned all parties but his own. The trade
tated much of Europe and killed 55 million people.
unions were smashed, basic rights virtually removed and press
The German armies defeated Poland, Denmark, Norway, Holland,
pm abolished. The regime exercised ruthless terror and vio-
Belgium, France, Yugoslavia and Greece. In the Soviet Union they
against anyone who stood in its way. Thousands disappeared
advanced to a position just short of Moscow and in North Africa
without trial in hastily constructed concentration camps. Parliamen-
they threatened the Suez Canal. Harsh occupation regimes were
tary institutions at all levels were abolished or made powerless. The
set up in the conquered countries. They were fought by resistance
"Führer" (Leader) principle advanced everywhere. When Hinden-
movements. In 1942 the regime began the "Final Solution of the
burg died in 1934, Hitler united in his person the offices of president
Jewish Question": all the Jews the regime could lay its hands on
and chancellor. By this he gained control as commander in chief of
were taken to concentration camps in occupied Poland and mur-
the armed forces which up to then had still had a certain inner life of
dered. The total number of victims is estimated at six million. The
their own.
year this inconceivable crime began brought the turning point in the
62
Country, People, History
A brief German history up to 1945
63
smashed. The most urgent things to sustain life were lacking. Milli-
ons of Germans were captives, millions homeless, millions in flight.
Germany appeared to have no future.
Frankfurt, 1945
war. From then on Germany and its allies, Italy and Japan, suffered
setbacks in all theatres.
The terror of the regime and the military setbacks strengthened
resistance against Hitler in all classes of society. A coup attempt on
July 20, 1944, carried out mainly by officers, failed. Hitler survived
the bomb attack in his headquaters and struck back mercilessly.
More than 4,000 people from all walks of life who had been involved
with the resistance were executed in the ensuing months. Out-
standing figures of the resistance, whose names stand also for
many nameless, were General Ludwig Beck, Colonel Count Stauf-
fenberg and the former Leipzig Mayor, Carl Goerdeler.
The war continued, Hitler prosecuting it under enormous losses,
unt
ntire Reich area was occupied by enemies. Then, on April
30,
the killed himself. Eight days later the successor he had
willed-by testament, Grand Admiral Dönitz, carried out the uncondi-
tional capitulation and was arrested shortly afterwards by the vic-
tors.
Germany had suffered the greatest defeat in its history. Most
towns lay in ruins, a quarter of all houses were destroyed or heavily
damaged. The economy and transportation networks were
The division of Germany
65
The division of Germany
the war was still in progress the allies considered what should
he with defeated Germany. They were determined to make it
impossible for it ever to wage an aggressive war again. The surest
way of doing this appeared for a while to be splitting the Reich into
several states. But as the end of the war approached this plan was
abandoned. Germany was to be completely disarmed, militarily oc-
cupied and put under the authority of the victors, but remain intact.
That it was ultimately divided after all, and remains so to this day,
was due to postwar world-political developments.
The Potsdam Conference and the eastern territories. After the
capitulation of the German forces on May 8, 1945, the victorious
powers-the USA, the Soviet Union, Great Britain and France-in
line with an agreement reached in September 1944, the so-called
"London Protocol," divided Germany into four occupation zones.
The military commanders of the four zones together constituted the
Allied Control Council which assumed supreme authority in Ger-
many. The capital, Berlin, belonged to none of the zones, being
jointly administered by the four powers, each occupying a sector of
Potsdam conference, 1945. Seated left to right: Attlee, Truman, Stalin
the city.
The Allied Control Council held its first session on July 30, 1945.
(now Kaliningrad) and the area adjacent to it," i. e. all of northern
At the same time a meeting was taking place at Potsdam, near Ber-
East Prussia. The US President and British Prime Minister pledged
lin, of the heads of government of the United States, the Soviet Un-
their support of the proposal.
ion and Great Britain.
These decisions affected about a quarter of the Reich area. Indu-
The decisions reached at this trilateral conference were summa-
bitably Poland was entitled to compensation for the monstrous suf-
rised in an official "Protocol" signed on August 2, 1945, by J. V.
ferings and losses inflicted on it by the war. That this was to take the
Stalin for the Soviet Union, Harry S. Truman for the USA and C. R.
form of a westward territorial expansion was due above all to the
Attlee for Great Britain. This "Protocol" which later became known
fact that the Soviet Union annexed about 200,000 square kilometres
as the "Potsdam Agreement" contained a number of provisions
of eastern Polish territory in 1939. This had been made possible at
which decisively influenced Germany's future.
the time by an agreement between Hitler and Stalin on the "deline-
e of the main ones is the declaration by which the three pow-
eaffirm their opinion that the final delimitation of the western
ation of mutual spheres of interest in eastern Europe." In the
course of the war the Soviet Union advocated compensation to Po-
fer of Poland should await a peace settlement" but that "pend-
ing the final determination of Poland's western frontier" the "former
land for this loss in the form of German territory. Poland was
"shifted westwards," as it were.
German territories" east of the Oder or western Neisse rivers
should come under Polish administration. "Agreement in principle"
The German eastern territories concerned-totalling 114,000
was also reached at Potsdam on the Soviet proposal "concerning
square kilometres-comprised East Prussia, Silesia and part of
the ultimate transfer to the Soviet Union of the city of Königsberg
Pomérania and Brandenburg. They had been inhabited by Germans
for centuries and were diffused with German culture. They were
economically important as agricultural surplus areas, producing
cupation zone, soon revised its policy: on July 6. 1950. it concluded
food for 13.5 million people. Other important economic interests in-
with Poland the "Agreement of Zgorzelec (Görlitz) in which it re-
cluded the Silesian mines which produced almost a fifth of Ger-
cognised the Oder-Neisse line as the final German-Polish frontier.
many's coal.
The Federal Republic of Germany, however, referred to the Pots-
dam Agreement which deferred settlement of the frontier issue to a
Expulsion of Germans and the Oder-Neisse line. The "Protocol" of
peace treaty with all Germany and it insisted that the expellees
the tripartite Potsdam Conference also contained the portentous
should not be deprived of the right to their homeland. At the same
eement according to which the three signatory powers recog-
time it emphasised that it had no intention of changing the border
d the necessity of a "transfer" of the German parts of the popu-
by force. Nevertheless, for a long time the contrasting views on the
on from Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary to Germany. This
frontier issue prevented the normalisation of relations with Poland.
agreement, though sounding dry and matter-of-fact, caused a great
In the "Charta der deutschen Heimatvertriebenen" (Charter of Ger-
deal of suffering and misery to millions of people.
man Expellees) of August 5, 1950 the expellees foreswore revenge
Although the agreement did not relate to the German areas put
and violence while reaffirming their right to their homeland and
under Polish administration nor those allotted to the Soviet Union,
equal participation in the reconstruction of Germany and Europe.
Poland and the Soviet Union achieved a fait accompli. As soon as
The Treaty of Warsaw of December 7, 1970 between the Federal
the Soviet armies came on to German soil, a huge refugee move-
Republic of Germany and the People's Republic of Poland opened
ment to the west began. Up to the time of the Potsdam Conference
the way to understanding between the two states. The treaty lays
four million Germans had already left their homelands in the eastern
down that the Oder-Neisse line forms Poland's western state fron-
territories. Now, without this being covered by the Potsdam deci-
tier. The Federal Government has made clear that it acts only on be-
sions, most of the 5.5 million Germans still living in the German terri-
half of the Federal Republic of Germany, that is that does not com-
tories east of the Oder and Neisse rivers were expelled by force.
mit a reunited Germany. The treaty does not impinge on the rights
At the same time most of the 3.5 million Sudeten Germans who
and responsibilities of the four powers in respect of Germany as a
lived in Czechoslovakia were expelled. On top of that there were
whole and Berlin, nor does it replace the still lacking peace treaty.
about five million Germans who lived in other East and Southeast
Both sides underlined the inviolability of their existing borders "now
European states and were either expelled or deported or stayed
and in the future" and declared that "they have no territorial claims
where they were. Altogether 15 million Germans were refugees, de-
whatsoever against each other."
portees or expellees at war's end and in the immediate postwar
years up to 1950. How many of them died can only be roughly esti-
Germany under occupation rule. Another important topic of the
mated; the number is likely to be more than two million. The expel-
Potsdam Conference was what was to be done with defeated Ger-
lees were distributed to all occupation zones. By far the majority of
many. In this respect agreement was reached on the following
them came to the area which later became the Federal Republic of
principles: total disarmament and demilitarisation, destruction of
Germany. To find them food, clothing and housing in the devas-
the war potential, destruction of National Socialism, decentralisa-
tated, starving country was very difficult in the beginning. However,
tion of the economy and reconstruction of political life on a demo-
the exiles received help to build new livelihoods. the funds for this
cratic basis. No central German government was to be formed until
being raised through levies on assets which had remained intact
further notice; there could, however, be several German central ad-
("Lastenausgleich"-"burden-sharing") The economic recovery
ministrations as support organs for the Control Council.
which began after the foundation of the Federal Republic eased the
It soon became apparent that each of the victorious powers in-
integration of the refugees. The exiles have found a new home-
terpreted the Potsdam Agreement in its own way and in line with its
own interests. France, for example, especially distrustful of all Ger-
pulsion and severance of the territories east of Oder and
man strivings for unity, prevented by its veto the establishment of
Neisse were generally felt in Germany to be unjust. All political part-
the intended German central authorities. The sharpest differences
ies-initially even the Communists-rejected them. However, the
German Democratic Republic (GDR) formed out of the Soviet OC-
existed from the outset, however, over the question of what the
democratisation of Germany was to look like. Despite these differ-
68
Country, People, History
The division of Germany
69
ences of opinion on details, however, the Western powers were
Germany in 1945
agreed on the basic principles of the future German order of state
and society: parliamentary democracy, legal security, civic liberties,
human rights, private property and private enterprise were to them
under Soviet
administration
an inseparable whole. For the Soviet Union, however, "democrati-
under Polish
sation" according to Leninist doctrine was possible only in a social-
administration
ist order in which the state-and with that the communist party
a
ling it-controls the decisive means of production.
Berlin
amental as these differences were, they comprised only one
aspect of the overall East-West conflict which assumed world di-
under
Soviet zone
Polish
mensions and soon turned into the "cold war." Under these circum-
administration
stances the cooperation of the four powers in Germany practically
came to an end at the turn of 1947/48. In March 1948 the Soviet Un-
ion left the Allied Control Council in Berlin. The relationship be-
tween the former allies turned into open hostility, indeed came
almost to the brink of war, when in 1948/49 the Soviet Union
made the ultimately futile attempt to incorporate the parts of Ber-
lin occupied by the Western powers into its sphere of power
(see p. 76).
New political beginning in the occupation zones. In the meantime
Germany within the borders of 1937
the building up of German political parties and administrative or-
gans had begun in the different occupation zones. This proceeded
"
Western zones and Western sectors of Berlin* (Federal Republic of Germany from 1949)
very fast and under rigid direction in the Soviet zone where already
Soviet zone and Eastern sector of Berlin* (German Democratic Republic from 1949)
in the summer of 1945 political parties on a zonal scale were al-
German eastern territories under Polish or Soviet administration
lowed and several central administrations for the zone established.
The occupation power favoured the Communist Party (KPD). In
. On:special status of Berlin see p. 77-80
April 1946 the Social Democratic Party (SPD) which had a larger fol-
lowing than the KPD was forced to merge with it to form the Sozia-
ministrative organs were only beginning to form. But since the de-
listische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (SED, Socialist Unity Party of
privation of the ruined country could only be overcome with large-
Germany). A vote among SPD members about the merger was pre-
scale planning across state and zonal frontiers and the four-power
vented in the Soviet zone. Such a vote did take place in the Western
administration was not functioning, the USA and Great Britain de-
sectors of Berlin; there 82% of those who voted were against merg-
cided in 1947 to unite their two zones in economic matters. This
ing with the KPD. Although in the 1946 local government and Land-
"united economic area," also called "Bizone," was the germcell of
tag elections the SED won the most votes in the Soviet zone, the
the later Federal Republic of Germany. The Frankfurt "Economic
O
arties, too, although they were greatly hindered, did well.
Council" made up of Länder delegates and the "Administrative
hen the SED-except in Berlin (West)-has never again
Council" it appointed in turn were the first steps towards a future
COP sted free elections.
parliament and a future government.
In the three Western zones the development of political life pro-
ceeded from the bottom to the top. Political parties were allowed
Foundation of the Federal Republic of Germany. In the early sum-
initially only at local level; after the Länder had been constituted,
mer of 1948, when all hopes of solving the Germany problem to-
also at state level. Mergers at zonal level occurred only later. In
gether with the Soviet Union had been abandoned, the Western
1946/47 Landtag elections took place in all states. Zonal level ad-
powers gave the signal for the establishment of a West German
People, History
The division of Germany
state. They proposed that a national assembly work out a constitu-
tion. The suggestion met with resistance from most German politi-
Konrad Adenauer was elected the first Federal Chancellor
(Bundeskanzler).
cians who feared that in this way they would be cementing the divi-
sion of Germany. After long negotiations it was decided to form a
When it was founded the Federal Republic of Germany did not
"Parliamentary Council" of delegates from the Länder parliaments
have full sovereignty. Supreme authority remained with the three
draw up a "Basic Law" (Grundgesetz). The choice of this term in-
Western occupation powers. In the following years the occupation
d of the word "constitution" (Verfassung) was to underline the
regime was eliminated step by step. On May 5, 1955, with the com-
that it was not to be the final constitution of a separate state but
ing into force of the Paris Agreements, full sovereignty was res-
only a temporary makeshift solution.
tored to the Federal Republic. From a vanquished enemy it had
The Parliamentary Council convened on September 1, 1948 in
turned into a partner of the Western powers.
Bonn. A leading figure of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU),
Konrad Adenauer, the former Chief Mayor (Oberbürgermeister) of
The German Democratic Republic. In the Soviet zone the esta-
Köln (Cologne), was elected its president. In a period of seven
blishment of state organs and changes to the structure of society
months this body wrote the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of
on the Soviet model had, as mentioned earlier, begun early. But in
Germany. On May 8, 1949 it was adopted by the Parliamentary
its propaganda the Socialist Unity Party (SED) always portrayed it-
Council by 53 votes to 12. It then required adoption by the assem-
self as the pioneer of German unity and accused the West German
blies of two thirds of the participating Länder. In the ensuing weeks
parties of betraying the national cause. This was also the reason
10 of 11 Länder parliaments gave their approval. On May 24, 1949
why it allowed the western state foundation to take place first. Only
the Basic Law went into force. Only the Bavarian Landtag refused
after the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany was the Ger-
ratification because it felt the central organs had been given too
man Democratic Republic (GDR-Deutsche Demokratische Repu-
much power at the expense of the Länder. Despite this. Bayern
blik) founded on October 7, 1949 in the eastern sector of Berlin. Ac-
nevertheless recognised the Basic Law as being legally binding.
cording to its constitution it appeared to be a parliamentary democ-
The authors of the Basic Law emphasised in several points the
racy. But in reality the communist SED from the outset dominated
provisional nature of their work. The preamble declared (and de-
all political activity and its leading organ, the Politbüro, to all intents
clares to this day) that the Basic Law had been adopted "to give a
and purposes governed dictatorially.
new order to political life for a transitional period. The German peo-
In the summer of 1952 the SED proclaimed the "building up of so-
pie in the West German Länder had "also acted on behalf of those
cialism." From then on the transformation of the social and state or-
Germans to whom participation was denied," that IS to say the in-
der along communist lines was continued at an accelerated pace
habitants of the Soviet zone. The preamble goes on: "The entire
and in all openness. Already in 1950 the GDR had become a mem-
German people are called upon to achieve in free self-determina-
ber of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, COMECON.
tion the unity and freedom of Germany." And the last article of the
and its accession to the Warsaw Pact in 1955 completed its integra-
Basic Law states: "The Basic Law shall cease to be in force on the
tion in the eastern bloc.
day on which a constitution adopted by a free decision of the Ger-
The political pressures and the economic difficulties aroused
man people comes into force." Restoration of Germany as a united
great dissatisfaction among the GDR's population. An uprising
state was the declared supreme objective of all political parties and
broke out on June 17, 1953 which was bloodily put down by Soviet
fewere probably so pessimistic at the time to assume that its real-
troops stationed in the GDR. Day by day people fled from the GDR
would still be far off even decades later.
to the Federal Republic, especially to West Berlin. To prevent "flight
the coming into force of the Basic Law. the Federal Republic
from the Republic" the GDR authorities from 1952 onwards con-
of Germany had come into existence. On August 14. 1949 the first
structed along the entire demarcation line with the Federal Re-
election of its parliament, the Deutscher Bundestag, took place.
public extensive barriers with barbed wire fences and minefields-
The great majority of voters gave their support to parties which
the most heavily guarded frontier in Europe. But for a long time ref-
backed the Basic Law which thus gained democratic approval.
ugees were still able to go unhindered through East Berlin to West
Then the federal organs were constituted. On September 15. 1949
Berlin and fly from there to the West. In 1961 this escape route was
cut off by the construction of the Berlin wall (see p. 77). By then
72
Country, People, History
The division of Germany
73
The German Democratic Republic (GDR)
(1986 statistics. All data include Berlin [East])
Area: 108,333 sq. kms, of which 6.22 million hectares are under agriculture
ation: 16.6 million (153 per sq. km)
ly employed: 8.6 million, of whom 49.1% are women
of government: Berlin (East)*
Biggest cities (population): Berlin (East) 1,223,000, Leipzig 552,000,
Dresden 520,000, Karl-Marx-Stadt (Chemnitz) 314,000
Collective head of state: 31-member Council of State (Staatsrat); chairman:
Erich Honecker
Government: Council of Ministers (Ministerrat); chairman: Willi Stoph
Parliament: 500-member People's Chamber (Volkskammer), elected for 5
years; president: Horst Sindermann
Political parties: Socialist Unity Party of Germany (Sozialistische Einheitspar-
tei Deutschlands, SED), 2.3 million members; Secretary-General: Erich
Honecker. In addition there are four other parties and many mass organ-
izations which are united together with the SED in the National Front of the
GDR (Nationale Front der DDR)
Currency: 1 Mark = 100 Pfennig
.
Declared capital by the GDR. In the view of the Federal Republic of Germany and the three
The border between East and West Germany
Western powers (USA, Great Britain, France) the four-power status still applies to all of Berlin,
that is to say also to Berlin (East).
the only legitimised German state. In so doing it can point to its
democratic legitimation through free elections which the GDR can-
some 3.5 million people had fled from the Soviet zone, respectively
not. This was why in the first few years Bonn responded to the GDR
the GDR, to the West. Even to this day, despite the dangers faced
offers of all-German consultations by demanding free elections in
at the frontier, a few hundred GDR inhabitants risk flight every year,
all of Germany. The GDR rejected this. But both states continued to
but their chances are slim. Many have died or been injured in the
declare the restoration of German unity the supreme objective of
attempt by gunfire or exploding mines.
their policies.
The refugee exodus had badly weakened the GDR's economy
Great dissension developed between government and opposi-
because it reduced the important labour force. After the construc-
tion in the Federal Republic over how this objective was to be
tion of the wall there was a certain amount of consolidation and an
achieved. The Christian Democrat government of Konrad Adenauer
economic recovery began. The standard of living rose considerably,
initially pursued the Federal Republic's integration in the Western
although it remained far behind that of the Federal Republic.
alliance system because it wanted to secure the freedom of the
Among the eastern bloc countries the GDR moved up to second
Federal Republic and was unable to achieve a solution to the Ger-
place after the Soviet Union in terms of industrial production and
man question without the support of the West against the hegemo-
eign trade. Internationally, too, it gained in weight. It won influ-
nial aims of the Soviet Union. The opposition, then mainly compris-
e, especially in a number of ideologically close Third World
ing Social Democrats, took the contrasting stand, arguing that the
untries. All these successes notwithstanding, the SED leader-
integration in the West was disastrous because it barred the way
ship has not dared to submit to a free election by the population. To
to German unity, a way which had to be kept open for all eventuali-
this day voting is by unitary lists which are dominated by the com-
ties.
munist SED.
A chance to solve the German question appeared to come in
March 1952. At that time the Soviet Union presented the Western
Reunification of Germany. Thus from 1949 there were two states
powers with a draft treaty with Germany and called upon them to
on German soil. The Federal Republic of Germany regards itself as
enter into negotiations without delay. In the ensuing exchange of
notes the Western powers for their part declared that before nego-
tiations about a peace treaty could start, internationally controlled
free elections for the formation of a German government would
have to take place. A United Nations commission formed to this end
was refused entry into the GDR. It has remained a point of dispute
to this day whether the Soviet note aimed only to disturb the then
oping integration of the Federal Republic into the Western de-
system-for which there is strong evidence-or whether its
seriousness could and should have been tested further.
In 1955 the incorporation of both German states in their respec-
tive Western and Eastern alliance systems was concluded. And
with that what the German question also moved into a new stage.
The GDR dropped its reunification slogans and from then on pro-
posed merely a confederation of both states. The Federal Republic
stuck to its stand that reunification could come only out of all-Ger-
man free elections and that it alone had the right to speak in the
German-German talks:
name of all Germany. Bonn treated other states' establishment of
Chancellor Brandt and GDR Prime Minister Stoph in Kassel, 1970
diplomatic relations with the GDR as an "unfriendly act"-the so-
called "Hallstein doctrine" of 1955. By this doctrine it prevented, far
and autonomy in internal and external affairs. The conclusion of the
into the 1960's, non-eastern bloc countries from establishing diplo-
treaty was accompanied by a "Letter from the Government of the
matic links with the GDR. But in time this policy became more and
Federal Republic of Germany on German Unity" which states that
more difficult to sustain. Given the international political climate it
the treaty does not contradict the political goal of the Federal Repu-
seemed unrealistic to expect reunification of Germany in peace and
blic of Germany to work for a state of peace in Europe in which the
freedom in the foreseeable future. And so the attempt had to be
German nation will regain its unity through free self-determination.
made to put the relations between the two German states on a new
The "Basic Treaty" created the prerequisites for step by step ex-
footing.
pansion of cooperation. To this end it provided for follow-on nego-
tiations aimed at further agreements. So far accords have been en-
"Regulated co-existence." Since 1949 there had always been con-
tered into in the fields of health and veterinary science, posts and
tacts in practical questions, such as trading matters, between the
telecommunications, cultural cooperation, non-commercial finan-
two German states. But only in the changed climate created by the
cial transactions, protection and maintenance of border water-
treaties with the East European states and the Berlin Agreement,
courses and improvement of transport routes to Berlin (West).
the first talks at government level were begun under the Bonn gov-
Each of the two states has set up a "permanent mission" in the
ernment of Willy Brandt formed in 1969. On December 17, 1971 the
other's centre of government.
two German states signed an agreement on transit traffic of civilian
Even today, however, relations between the two German states
persons and goods between the Federal Republic of Germany and
are still far from normal. The border barriers erected by the GDR
Berlin (West) and on May 26, 1972 a treaty on transport matters was
have lost none of their horror. People trying to get from the GDR to
cluded which provided primarily for practical improvements for
the West are still shot at. The improvements in travel are still mainly
llers in either direction. Following extremely difficult negotia-
one-sided, that is, it has become much simpler for inhabitants from
IS a "Treaty on the Basis of Relations between the Federal Repu-
the Federal Republic to visit the GDR. Conversely, inhabitants of
blic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic" was signed
the GDR, with few exceptions, are allowed to leave their state to
on December 21, 1972. The two states committed themselves to
visit the Federal Republic only when they are in retirement. Since
developing normal good-neighbourly relations, refraining from the
the conclusion of the agreements millions of West Germans have
threat or use of force and respecting each other's independence
made use of the improved travel possibilities and visited the GDR.
Berlin
1944, the city was put under the joint administration of the four vic-
torious powers. Each of them-France, Britain, the Soviet Union
and the USA-occupied a sector of Berlin which together formed
an island, as it were, in the middle of the overall Soviet occupation
zone. This "island" location gave rise to the Berlin problem.
As the East-West conflict worsened, the joint four-power admin-
istration of Berlin proved as impossible as that of all Germany. Un-
der Soviet pressure, the city was politically and administratively split
in 1948. But the Soviet Union did not want to tolerate the existence
of a "Western enclave" within its occupation zone and tried to push
the Western powers out of Berlin.
In June 1948 the Soviets paralysed all passenger and goods
transportation between Berlin and West Germany. The aim was to
starve the Western part of the city into submission. But for 10
months the Western powers managed to keep the two million Ber-
liners in the Western part of the city supplied with their most urgent
needs by air, through the famous Berlin airlift. Finally, in May 1949,
the Soviet Union lifted the blockade. Then, in 1958, followed another
West
attack: the Soviet Union issued an ultimatum to the Western pow-
East
ers to agree to the transformation of West Berlin into a "demilita-
rised free city." Resolutely the Western powers rejected the de-
mand. Thwarted in achieving its objective in this way, the Soviet
The GDR leadership looks with distrust on the increased contacts
Union first set about solving a particularly pressing problem it faced
between Germans from west and east, seeing in them a threat to
in its own way. This was the flight of hundreds of thousands of
the stability of their system. To deter inhabitants of the Federal Re-
GDR inhabitants every year through the open sector boundary in
public from visiting the GDR it drastically raised in 1980 the obliga-
Berlin. On August 13, 1961 the GDR, with Soviet backing, sealed off
tory amount which visitors have to convert into East Germant marks.
the sector boundary by constructing a wall right across the city
The number of visits fell appreciably as a result. The Federal Gov-
which, in the passage of time, was consolidated into a deep system
ernment has urged the GDR on many occasions to lower the com-
of anti-escape barriers. Berlin was now also a physically cleaved
pulsory exchange sum again. But so far it has only been cut a little
city.
for pensioners.
In 1949 the eastern sector of Berlin, in violation of the city's four-
In all fields the GDR tries to limit alien ideas and opinions coming
power status, was declared the capital of the just founded GDR. As
in. Newspapers and books from the Federal Republic are let in only
time went by the eastern sector was increasingly integrated into the
exceptionally and after thorough screening. Journalists from the
GDR system. This violates the "London Protocol" of September
West are subjected to hindrances in the GDR and risk expulsion if
1944 in which initially Great Britain, the USA and the Soviet Union,
its authorities dislike the way they report. However, inhabitants of
and later France, agreed that all of Berlin would belong to none of
DR make full use of the possibility of unhindered reception of
the occupation zones and that hence this area is subject to special
sion and radio programmes from the Federal Republic.
status. The West still holds to this legal position.
The Basic Law of 1949 and the Berlin Constitution of 1950 pro-
Divided Berlin. The division of Germany repeats itself on a smaller
ceeded from the premise that Berlin (West) is a Land of the Federal
scale, but no less cruelly for the people concerned, in the division of
Republic. The Western powers declared that this regulation is irrec-
Berlin. The Reich capital was conquered by Soviet troops in the last
oncilable with the four-power status of Berlin and retained supreme
few days of World War II. As agreed in the "London Protocol" of
government authority for themselves. But they permitted West Ber-
3
Country, People, History
to represent Berlin (West) to the outside world. Traffic on roads,
railways and waterways between Berlin and West Germany has
been put on a secure legal footing by the Four Power Agreement
and subsequent bilateral agreements between the two German
states. After years of prohibition, Berliners in the Western half of
the city were now again able to visit the eastern sector and the GDR
at large. Telephone services between the two parts of the city, su-
spended for years, were resumed.
In line with the unchanged legal standpoint of the Western pow-
ers, Berlin (West) is still not a part of the Federal Republic of Ger-
many nor is it governed by it. This is why federal laws are not directly
applicable in Land Berlin but are taken over in a special proce-
dure. But the existing economic, financial, legal and cultural ties be-
tween Berlin (West) and the Federal Republic of Germany are being
maintained and developed further. The federal government makes a
substantial contribution to the budget of Land Berlin.
Bellevue Palace, the Berlin residence of the Federal President
Border crossing point from Berlin (West) to Berlin (East)
lin's integration into the legal, economic, fiscal, monetary and social
systems of the Federal Republic of Germany. For years the eastern
side raised no objections to this. But after construction of the divid-
ing wall it turned increasingly against West Berlin's ties with the
Federal Republic. Almost all Berlin activities of the Federal Republic
were claimed to be illegal. The free part of Berlin was to be an "inde-
pendent political unit" devoid of any ties with the West German
state. To underline this demand the GDR persistently obstructed
traffic between Berlin and West Germany. Travellers to Berlin had to
put up with arbitrariness and chicaneries. More than once the situa-
tion on the transit routes through GDR territory assumed crisis pro-
portions.
The Berlin Agreement. Since the Berlin problem had proved a
stumbling block to a general policy of detente in Europe, the four
powers in March 1970 began negotiations over Berlin. The outcome
was in the Quadripartite Agreement of September 3, 1971 which en-
te
to force on June 3, 1972. It brought no final solution of the
B
oblem, the signatories not even being able to agree on its
geog aphical area of application, which in the Western interpreta-
tion covers all Berlin, in the Soviet only West Berlin. But the agree-
ment contains practical regulations which have helped the city's situa-
tion. The Soviet Union no longer disputes the right of the Western
powers' presence in Berlin and accepts the existing ties of the part-
city to the Federal Republic of Germany, including the right of Bonn
80
Country, People, History
The division of Germany
81
Berlin (West) sends 22 deputies to the Bundestag in Bonn and
most 40% of the inhabitants of the Federal Republic have relatives
thr
the European Parliament, though these delegates are not
or acquaintances in the GDR; leading Federal German politicians
e
by the population at large, but by the city parliament, the
were born on what is now GDR territory, leading GDR politicians in
dnetenhaus. They are not entitled to vote in plenary divi-
what is now the Federal Republic.
AB sions in the Bundestag on legislative matters or in the election of
That is a degree of personal intertwinement that can rarely occur
the Federal Chancellor. The same holds for the Berlin representa-
between alien nations. But above all, the inhabitants of both the
tives in the Bundesrat (Federal Council, the assembly of federal
Federal Republic and the GDR continue to feel as members of one
states). In Bundestag and Bundesrat committees and in the Euro-
German nation, linked by a common language and history and many
pean Parliament, however, the Berlin representatives do have full
other common heritages which cannot simply be wiped away from
voting powers and in the Federal Convention (Bundesversamm-
one day to the next. This is why it is out of the question for the Fed-
lung) they participate in the election of the Federal President. The
eral Republic of Germany to recognise the GDR as a foreign coun-
Governing Mayor (Regierender Bürgermeister) of Berlin (West) is,
try in terms of international law. According to the Basic Law an in-
in rotation with the heads of government of the federal states (Bun-
habitant of the GDR is just as much a German citizen as any inhabit-
desländer), President of the Bundesrat and thus deputy to the Fed-
ant of the Federal Republic. In trade, the Federal Republic imposes
eral President every 11 years. The Federal President has an official
no import duty on products coming in from the GDR. For mail to the
residence in the city and many federal authorities and institutions
GDR, inland postage is charged. From the point of view of the Fed-
eral Republic there is a very special relationship between the two
are based there.
The Quadripartite Agreement has by no means done away with all
German states: as part-states in Germany they are independent of
points of dispute. There are still periodic frictions with the Soviet
each other, but not foreign countries to each other. The Federal
Union-and the GDR-over the interpretation of individual provi-
Constitutional Court has confirmed these principles. It has ruled
sions. But all in all the agreement has made the future of Berlin
that the Basic, Treaty between the Federal Republic of Germany
the German Democratic Republic is compatible with the Basic
(West) more secure.
Since then much thought has been devoted to how this future
Law, emphasising at the same time that it is the duty of all organs
should look. Berlin (West) had to redefine its role once it was no
of the Federal Republic of Germany to work towards restoration
longer capital or "front city" in the "Cold War." Much has happened
of unity of government and to avoid any action that would thwart re-
meanwhile in the economic field but much remains to be done. As a
unification.
result of the years of insecurity the city's economic development
The GDR takes a totally different stand on this issue. It refuses to
has not been able to keep pace with average growth in the Federal
acknowledge any special relationship between the two German
Republic. Many people of working age have left, giving the city an
states. As far as it is concerned, there is the same international le-
unfavourable age structure. Here Bonn tries to help, giving tax ad-
gal relationship between them as between any other two states. In
vantages for investments in the city and, through financial incen-
recent years the GDR has even moved away from the concept of a
tives, trying to encourage young people to settle there. Its isolation
common German nation. Whereas in its 1968 constitution it still saw
thstanding, Berlin (West) has remained a major cultural cen-
itself as a "socialist state of the German nation" and proclaimed as
S theatres, orchestras and museums enjoying world renown.
an objective "the gradual rapprochement of the two German states
Whatever the future may hold in store for Berlin, one thing is cer-
until their unification," its new 1974 constitution struck out all refer-
tain: nowhere are people as aware of Germany's division as there.
ences to the continuing existence of a German nation. Since then
Within sight of the wall one cannot forget that the national question
the GDR insists that the two are now completely separate nations.
This abrupt about-turn has no basis in reality. The brusque demar-
is still unsolved.
cation apparently serves the purpose of nipping in the bud
The national question. In the national question there are incompat-
newly awakened hopes among the GDR population of reunification,
ible differences between the two states in Germany. The Federal
or at least of closer relations between the two states.
Republic of Germany continues to maintain that Germans in East
The "German question," that is the entire complex of issues con-
and-West form one nation. There are good grounds for this view. Al-
cerning divided Germany, has of late come back into the headlines
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not only that of the the "German German question" has long been settled, for many and
falsely on both sides of the frontier it is still a painful reality
Germans an issue until the entire German nation gets the framework opportu-
will nity remain to exercise its right to self-determination within the
of a peaceful order in Europe.
ended. Occupation troops became stationed troops with contrac-
The Federal Republic of Germany
tually regulated status. The Federal Republic became sovereign.
from 1949 to the present
The policy of rearmament and Western integration was subject to
impassioned dispute. The mainly Social Democrat opposition re-
jected it, their main argument being that it prevented Germany's re-
The two major political parties, the conservative Christian Demo-
unification (see p. 72-74). Adenauer was, however, able to point to
cr alliance (CDU/CSU) and the Social Democratic Party (SPD),
broad popular backing. In the 1953 Bundestag election his party
ut of the August 14, 1949 Bundestag election almost equally
scored enormous gains and in 1957 it even won an absolute major-
Together they received more than 60% of the votes. There
ity.
was a broad body of public feeling that in view of the country's diffi-
cult situation they should go into a "grand coalition" and govern to-
The "economic miracle." But these electoral successes were not,
gether. But grave political differences and perhaps even more the
of course, primarily due to foreign policy. What probably swayed
wilful personalities of the two party leaders, Konrad Adenauer of the
most voters was the astounding economic recovery made possible
CDU and Kurt Schumacher of the SPD, stood in the way. Thus a
by the economic policies of the Adenauer government. Several fac-
coalition between CDU/CSU, Free Democrats (FDP) and Deutsche
tors converged to cause this so-called "economic miracle." Ade-
Partei (a small right-of-centre party) which had already been prac-
nauer's economics minister, Ludwig Erhard, energetically pro-
tised in the Frankfurt Economic Council, was continued. This con-
moted private initiative according to market economy principles.
stellation lasted until 1966. The CDU/CSU governed with one or two
The initial spark was provided by the economic aid given by the USA
small partners, the SPD forming the opposition.
within the framework of the Marshall Plan. Also significant was that
the Federal Republic had no military expenditure and that in the ref-
Decision for the West. The office of Federal Chancellor was taken
ugees from the East it had a large reservoir of people ready to work
by 73-year-old Konrad Adenauer. He remained head of government
hard. Production figures and profits rose quickly and so did in-
for 14 years, a period of office longer than the entire Weimar Repu-
comes. In the early 50's full employment was achieved. The stand-
blic between the two world wars.
ard of living of a broad section of the population rose noticeably and
When it came into existence the Federal Republic of Germany
with that there grew the readiness to settle permanently for the
was no sovereign state. in an Occupation Statute the three Western
West German state system originally conceived as provisional.
powers retained supreme authority in many fields. Adenauer saw as
Carried by solid majorities, Adenauer continued his Western-or-
his most important objective gradually to regain the freedom of ac-
ientated policy. Apart from the unification of Western Europe, rec-
tion for the new German state. The best means of achieving this
oncillation with the "hereditary enemy," France, was close to his
was, to his mind, the greatest possible integration of the Federal
heart. For its sake he was willing to agree to a "European" settle-
Republic of Germany with the gradually forming Western commu-
ment for the Saar region which France had taken out of its occupa-
nity.
tion zone in 1946 and tied closely to itself. But in a 1955 plebiscite
World-political events favoured this approach. East-West ten-
the Saar population rejected the intended statute which was to be
sions sharpened even more, climaxing in the outbreak of the Ko-
guaranteed by the Western European Union. In 1957 the Saarland
rean war in the summer of 1950. That year the Federal Republic
became a Land of the Federal Republic of Germany. A big step to-
joined the Council of Europe, negotiations began over a West Euro-
wards West European unification came with the 1957 Treaties of
pean coal and steel community and Adenauer made the Western
Rome founding the European Economic Community (EEC). The six
rs the offer of mobilising German troops for a European De-
founding states have meanwhile been joined by six more.
Community. In several stages and not without setbacks the
integration of the Federal Republic with the Western alliance sys-
After Adenauer. Adenauer's star began to sink in the late 1950's.
tem proceeded. Under the Paris Agreements of 1954 it became a
Home policy crises and electoral losses in the 1961 Bundestag poll
member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). With the
gave rise to criticism within his own party. In 1963 he resigned at the
coming into force of these treaties on May 5, 1955 occupation rule
age of 87. The party chose Ludwig Erhard to succeed him. The le-
88
Country, People, History
The Federal Republic of Germany from 1949 to the present 89
gendary man of the "economic miracle" was less successful as
head of government. Although winning a convincing electoral vic-
tory in 1965, when economic recession set in a year later differ-
ences in the coalition government camp over how to deal with it cul-
m
in his resignation.
blitical parties entered negotiations which brought a com-
ple new constellation. A grand coalition was formed by the
CDU/CSU and the SPD, with the CDU's Kurt Georg Kiesinger as
Federal Chancellor and Willy Brandt of the SPD as Foreign Minister.
The Free Democratic Party, with only 49 Bundestag seats, became
the opposition, no other parties having been represented in the
house since 1961.
With a programme of fast-acting measures the grand coalition
government quickly overcame the recession. In foreign policy it
continued the course of integration with the West which the SPD
had meanwhile espoused. The main home policy project of the
grand coalition was the enactment of legislation for a national
emergency, lacking until then in the Basic Law. The drafting of
these provisions led to:acrimonious public dispute, critics fearing
Government quarter in Bonn
they would curb civil liberties. In the course of the debate the bills
were greatly modified. In 1968 the Bundestag adopted the emerg-
topple it through a vote of no-confidence. Premature elections that
ency laws (Notstandsgesetze).
same year strengthened the coalition.
In May 1974 a close aide of Chancellor Willy Brandt was un-
The Social-Liberal coalition. After the 1969 Bundestag election
masked as a spy for the GDR. Brandt assumed political responsibil-
there was a reversal of the party-political fronts. Social Democrats
ity for the affair and resigned. He was succeeded by Helmut
(SPD) and Liberals (FDP), who together had only a narrow majority,
Schmidt (SPD) and Hans-Dietrich Genscher (FDP) became the new
formed a coalition government, with Willy Brandt (SPD) as Chancel-
Foreign Minister. The coalition was also continued after the 1976
lor and Walter Scheel (FDP) als Foreign Minister. For the first time
and 1980 elections.
in its history the CDU/CSU alliance had to go into opposition. The
Whereas in the first years of the SPD-FDP coalition, foreign pol-
new government tackled an extensive programme of domestic re-
icy had been in the foreground, from 1973 onwards public interest
forms. But above all it set new importance on foreign and intra-Ger-
turned more and more to economic and social policy. The oil price
man policies. While clinging to the Federal Republic's incorporation
explosion, the world economic recession and the constantly rising
in the Western alliance system, it strengthened the up to then only
number of unemployed hit the Federal Republic hard. The gross na-
hesitant efforts to settle with its eastern neighbours the questions
tional product stopped growing, more and more enterprises were
remaing open since World War II. This objective was served by a
collapsing, it was becoming more difficult to fund the social security
lost of treaties concluded from 1970 to 1973. They put rela-
system and the public debt assumed menacing dimensions.
th
ith the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia and the GDR
Dissension grew between the ruling SPD and FDP parties-and
on new foundations and strengthened the viability of Berlin (West)
also within the chancellor's SPD-over how to tackle the crisis, as
(see p. 74-76 and 136-139).
well as over foreign and defence policies. These differences ulti-
This new "Ostpolitik" (eastern policy) was highly controversial.
mately led to their coalition government's breaking apart.
The disputes over it rank as some of the most dramatic since 1949.
In spring of 1972 the SPD/FDP government lost its Bundestag ma-
The coalition of the centre. The withdrawal from the coalition by
jority, but the opposition could not muster the necessary votes to
the FDP Liberals left the Social Democrats unable to govern be-
90
Country, People, History
cause on their own they had no parliamentary majority. On 1 Oc-
tober 1982 the allied CDU/CSU Conservatives and most of the FDP
State
MPs in the Bundestag carried a vote of no-confidence in the Social
Democrat chancellor, Helmut Schmidt, and elected CDU chairman
ut Kohl to take over. He formed a coalition government of his
Politics
the Bavarian CSU and the FDP, whose chairman, Hans-
ch Genscher, remained vice-chancellor and foreign minister.
The new government declared a crash programme focusing on
The Law
righting the state's accounts, creating jobs, bringing welfare bene-
fits into line with economic potentials and conducting foreign policy
on the basis of existing treaties. After putting in train the most ur-
gent measures, the Kohl-led government put these policies to the
voters in a premature election in March 1983. It received a clear ma-
jority.
Against much domestic resistance the coalition government
implemented the deployment of US nuclear missiles in the country
as decided by NATO in 1979. The "ice age" many had predicted
would ensue in East-West relations did not come. Negotiations with
the GDR further eased human contacts. State debt was substan-
tially reduced, the way was cleared for tax cuts and social security
was put on a solid financial foundation. The economy underwent a
new upswing and prices stayed stable. Employment also increased,
halting the dramatic rise in joblessness, albeit at a high level. There
are still more than two million people out of work. The January 1987
federal election confirmed the successful course of the govern-
ment. In its programme, "Preserving Creation-Winning the Fu-
ture" it outlined the major policy goals up to 1990: protection of the
environment, safeguarding peace, economic stability.
The Basic Law
The constitutional bodies
The legal system
Political parties and elections
Federal, regional and local government
Regional planning and rezoning
The Federal Republic of Germany in the world
Public finance
Public service
Internal security
Defence
The Basic Law
93
The Basic Law
The Basic Law (Grundgesetz) of the Federal Republic of Germany
was created in 1949 "to give a new order to political life for a trans-
itional period." Since then almost four decades have passed. The
provisional constitution has become permanent for the foreseeable
future and has proved a viable foundation for a stable, democratic
system of society.
The authors of the Basic Law had seen under the Hitler dictator-
ship how the law and human dignity had been trampled underfoot
and they remembered how in the final phase of the Weimar Repub-
lic a weak democracy had succumbed almost without resistance to
the forward-surging tyrants. These were the things uppermost in
their minds as they went about their work. Many provisions of the
Basic Law testify to their eagerness to avoid the kinds of mistakes
which contributed to the collapse of the first German republic.
The basic rights. The first 17 articles of the Basic Law list the main
basic rights. It is no coincidence that it begins with them, underlin-
Signing the Basic Law, 1949.
At the table: Reinhold Maier; partly hidden by the microphone:
ing that the state is there for people's sake and not vice versa, that
Théodor Heuss; left of him: Paul Löbe, Carlo Schmid
it is not to rule but to serve.
Part of the basic rights are such classic liberties as freedom of
faith and conscience, of expression, assembly and movement,
other things that "illegitimate children shall be provided by legisla-
postal privacy and the right to property. The authors of the constitu-
tion with the same opportunities for their physical and spiritual de-
tion added the right of conscientious refusal of military service and
velopment and their place in society as are enjoyed by legitimate
the equality of men and women. Some basic rights may be res-
children."
tricted by laws within narrow bounds. No law is allowed to violate
No such legislation had been enacted up to 1969. Thereupon one
interested party filed suit with the Federal Constitutional Court
the essence of a basic right.
A catalogue always leaves gaps. These are closed by the first
which, in turn, ordered the Bundestag to fulfil within a specified time
articles of the Basic Law which comprehensively guarantee
the duty commanded by the Basic Law. Soon afterwards the rele-
e's dignity and freedom of action and the equality of all before
vant law was enacted.
By its accession to the European Convention for the Protection
The law. basic rights are directly applicable law. Here lies one of the
of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in 1952 the Federal
major advances on earlier German constitutions, whose basic
Republic of Germany committed itself to the principle of interna-
rights catalogues were more in the nature of non-binding pro-
tional control of human rights. Article 25 of this convention entitles
gramme declarations. The parliaments as lawmakers are just as
citizens of signatory countries to file complaints, even against their
strictly bound to the basic rights as the governments, the courts,
own states, before the European Commission and the European
the administration, the police and the armed forces.
Court. The Federal Republic also ratified the international human
The following is a famous example of how respect for a basic
rights convenants of the United Nations in 1973.
right was enforced. Article 6 of the Basic Law stipulates among
94
State, Politics, The Law
The Basic Law
95
The foundations of the state order. Four principles govern the
state order of the Federal Republic of Germany. It is a democracy,
The national anthem
ruled by law, a social welfare state and a federation.
The democratic principle means that the people are the sover-
The national anthem of the Federal Republic of Germany is
The Basic Law has implemented this constitutional principle in
the "Lied der Deutschen" or "Deutschlandlied." The lyrics of
rm of a representative democracy: the people exercise state
the three-verse song are by August Heinrich Hoffmann
power indirectly through elected representatives. In general, direct,
(1798-1874), the melody is that of "Gott erhalte Franz den
free, equal and secret elections all citizens from the age of 18 elect
the deputies of the German Bundestag who in turn elect the Fed-
Kaiser" ("God Save Emperor Francis") by Joseph Haydn
eral Chancellor. At federal level forms of direct democracy, such as
(1732-1809). On state occasions the third verse is sung:
popular petition or referendum, no longer apply, although they do in
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit
(Unity, justice and freedom
some federal states.
Für das deutsche Vaterland!
for the German fatherland!
The principle of constitutionalism implies that all state actions are
Danach lasst uns alle streben
Fraternally, with heart and
subject to law and justice. This makes state activity predictable and
Brüderlich mit Herz und Hand!
hand, let us all strive
examinable for the citizen. It is at the same time, however, a com-
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit
mitment to real justice, to which the legislative is also bound. Injus-
for this! Unity, justice and
Sind des Glückes Unterpfand-
tice remains injustice, even if it has become law. Such a law would
freedom are the pledges of
Blüh im Glanze dieses Glückes,
be unconstitutional and could be invalidated by the Federal Consti-
happiness. In their radiance
Blühe, deutsches Vaterland!
tutional Court. The exercise of state power is entrusted to legisla-
flourish German fatherland!)
tive, executive and judiciary bodies, independent of each other ac-
August Heinrich Hoffmann (mostly called Hoffmann von
cording to the principle of the division of powers. The legality of all
Fallersleben) was professor of German and literature at the
acts of state can be tested by independent judges if the person af-
fected sues. A call against all forms of tyranny is contained in a Ba-
university of Breslau (now Wroctaw) and a famous poet. He
wrote the song in 1841. Germany was then a country torn
sic Law article giving all Germans "the right to resist any person or
apart. It consisted of more than 30 independent states, many
persons seeking to abolish the constitutional order should no other
of which were under despotic rule. The liberal-minded mid-
remedy be possible."
dle class were striving for a unified Germany with a liberal
The principle of the social welfare state is a modern supplement
constitution. It was to this yearning that Hoffmann gave ex-
to the inherited concept of constitutionalism. It obliges the state to
pression in the song and in this other poems. The Prussian
protect the socially weaker and always to strive for social justice.
Social basic rights-e. g. the rights to work, to education and train-
government considered him a dangerous revolutionary and
in 1842 dismissed him from his university post without a pen-
ing, to housing, to recuperation and to social security-are not ex-
pressly mentioned in the catalogue of basic rights. But with the
sion. The first verse of the song begins with the words
principle of the social welfare state, constitutional onus to imple-
"Deutschland, Deutschland über alles" ("Germany, Germany
above all else"). But by that Hoffmann meant that he felt
ment social justice is placed on legislation and the judiciary.
umerous federal laws and court judgments bear witness to the
more committed to Germany as a whole than to any one of
cess of this endeavour. The authors of the Basic Law delib-
its many smaller states, and that was how he was under-
ately omitted to prescribe any particular social and economic or-
stood in his day. Later, however, the words "über alles"
der. By and large, the Basic Law is neutral in respect of economic
("above all else") were misunderstood and misused to ex-
press national arrogance and imperialist designs. To avoid
policy.
The principle of federalism enables regional distinctions to be
such misinterpretations only the third verse is sung on cere-
monial occasions.
taken into account. It gives room for initiative which, in a centralised
state, would hardly have a chance. Finally, it distributes power and
thus prevents the possible abuse of it by central bodies.
The Basic Law
97
96
State, Politics, The Law
erto rested with the Western allies from the time of the postwar oc-
cupation.
But some provisions of the Basic Law cannot be changed at all,
not even with a two-thirds majority. These are the federative struc-
ture, the division of powers, the principles of democracy, constitu-
tionalism, social welfare and the commitment to the dignity of man
and a system of inviolable basic rights. These provisions are, in-
deed, so fundamental that their elimination would bring down the
entire structure of the Basic Law.
After almost four decades the ideas of the Basic Law have by and
large become social reality. Like no former German constitution it
has taken root in the minds of the citizens. It has brought forth a
state which has been spared constitutional crises. This stability
contributes substantially to the society's political credibility and to
the well-being of its citizens.
The arms of the Federal Republic of Germany
boe nameD to 108261010
G boo (wetper won) URICE:
The federal flag
Changes to the Basic Law. The Basic Law can be changed only
with the approval of two thirds of the members of the Bundestag
and two thirds of the votes of the Bundesrat. Since a party or a coa-
lition of parties would rarely command two-third majorities in both
the Bundestag and the Bundesrat-only the grand coalition from
1969 has done so far-very broad consensus is required to
ge the Basic Law, which as a rule has to include part of the op-
position. In most cases this consensus is achieved only after hard
and long negotiations. The most incisive changes of the Basic Law
have been the "defence addenda" of 1954/1956 and the "emerg-
ency constitution" of 1968. The defence addenda regulated the
constitutional position of the armed forces which were set up with
the accession of the Federal Republic to the Western alliance sys-
tem. The emergency constitution set the framework for wider exec-
utive powers in internal or external emergencies which had hith-
The constitutional bodies
99
The Bundestag. The Deutscher Bundestag (House of Representa-
tives) is the popularly elected federal chamber of parliament of the
The constitutional bodies
Federal Republic of Germany. It is elected for four years in general,
direct, free, equal and secret elections by a system of "personal-
ised proportional representation" (see p. 121). Its main tasks are
The exercise of state power has been assigned by the Basic Law to
legislation, the election of the Federal Chancellor and controll of the
the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. Together they em-
government. In Bundestag plenary session the big issues of home
body the democratic federal system of government based on the
and foreign policy are debated. Television coverage of proceedings
rule of law which the Basic law prescribes.
increases public awareness. Whether it contributes to the objectiv-
ity of parliamentary debates is in dispute.
The Federal President. The head of state of the Federal Republic of
The extensive preparatory work in legislation takes place not in
Germany is the Federal President (Bundespräsident). He is elected
plenary session but in committees. This is due to the great number
by the Federal Convention (Bundesversammiung), a constitutional
of detailed issues usually involved. The plenary assembly would
body which convenes only for this purpose. It consists of the Bun-
simply be overtaxed in time and expertise if it had to cope with so
destag deputies (including those from Berlin [West]) and an equal
much detail. The Bundestag committees correspond to the various
number of members elected by the assemblies of the Länder. The
government departments. The parliament's budget sovereignty
term of office is five years. Re-election is permitted only once. The
lends corresponding prestige and importance to the fiscal commit-
President represents the Federal Republic in its international rela-
tee. Any citizen can turn with requests and complaints to the peti-
tions. He concludes agreements with foreign states in its name. He
tions committee.
accredits and receives ambassadors, appoints and dismisses fed-
Bills can be introduced by any Bundestag deputy (MP), by the
eral judges, federal civil servants, officers and non-commissioned
Bundesrat (Federal Council) or-most frequently-the Federal
officers of the armed forces. The President can pardon convicted
Government. They go through three Bundestag readings and as a
criminals. He checks whether laws have come about by the proper
rule are referred to the relevant committee once. The final vote is
constitutional procedure and publishes them in the Federal Law
The Bundestag in session
Gazette (Bundesgesetzblatt). He proposes to the Bundestag a
candidate for the office of Federal Chancellor and on the sugges-
tion of the Chancellor appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers.
If a motion of no-confidence in the Federal Chancellor is carried
by the Bundestag, the President of the Federal Republic of Ger-
many may, upon the proposal of the Federal Chancellor, dissolve
the Bundestag. Premature elections were brought about in this way
in 1972 and again in 1983.
The tasks of the President are mainly of a representational na-
He can advise, warn and encourage-this last includes the
ding of decorations.
y and large the Presidency has been given merely titular powers
because of the experiences of the Weimar period. The constitution-
ally strong position of the Reich President in the final phase of the
Weimar Republic contributed to the collapse of parliamentary
democracy. The office of Federal President demands of its incum-
bent special political sensitivity and the ability to mediate. Almost all
presidents to date, because of their personalities, have also exer-
cised no small measure of political influence.
The constitutional bodies
101
100
State, Politics, The Law
Theodor Heuss
Heinrich Lübke
Gustav Heinemann
Konrad Adenauer
Ludwig Erhard
Kurt Georg Kiesinger
Karl Carstens
Richard von Weizsäcker
Willy Brandt
Helmut Schmidt
Helmut Kohl
Walter Scheel
The Presidents of the Federal Republic of Germany
The Federal Chancellors
1st term
1949-1954
Konrad Adenauer (CDU)
1st cabinet
1949-1953
Theodor Heuss (FDP)
2nd term
1954-1959
2nd cabinet
1953-1957
1959-1964
1st term
3rd cabinet
1957-1961
Heinrich Lübke (CDU)
2nd term
1964-1969
4th cabinet
1961-1963
1969-1974
Ludwig Erhard (CDU)
1st cabinet
1963-1965
tav Heinemann (SPD)
1974-1979
2nd cabinet
1965-1966
Scheel (FDP)
1979-1984
Kurt Georg Kiesinger (CDU)
1966-1969
arstens (CDU)
1984-
Willy Brandt (SPD)
1st cabinet
1969-1972
ard von Weizsäcker (CDU)
2nd cabinet
1972-1974
Helmut Schmidt (SPD)
1st cabinet
1974-1976
2nd cabinet
1976-1980
3rd cabinet
1980-1982
Helmut Kohl (CDU)
1st cabinet
1982-1983
2nd cabinet
1983-1987
3rd cabinet
1987-
The constitutional bodies
103
102
State, Politics, The Law
taken after the third reading. A bill (providing it does not change the
The various Länder having varying interests, voting majorities of-
constitution) is passed if it gets a majority of the votes cast. (In
ten change in the Bundesrat. Bundesrat members are not, how-
cases, however, it still requires the approval of the Bundesrat
ever, only ministers of their respective Länder but at the same time
also members of political parties, so that party-political interests do
me law.)
deputies are not bound by mandates and instructions but
play a role apart from Länder interests. This is why Bundesrat votes
often split along party lines. For the federal government this can
subject only to their conscience. In line with their party allegiances
they form parliamentary groups (Fraktionen). Freedom of con-
spell trouble if the party which is in opposition in the Bundestag
science and solidarity with party colleagues can on occasion col-
commands the majority in the Bundesrat.
lide. If a deputy feels he can no longer identify with the policies of
According to a fixed rota the Bundesrat elects from among the
his party and leaves it he does not lose his Bundestag seat. It is on
Länder prime ministers (Ministerpräsidenten) its President for a
this point that the deputy's independence becomes most evident.
year. The Bundesrat President exercises the powers of the Federal
The relative strengths of the party groups in the house determine
President if the latter is prevented from so doing.
the allocation of seats on the various committees. The President
(Speaker) of the Bundestag is elected, according to old German
The Federal Government. The federal government (Bundesregie-
rung) in Bonn consists of the Federal Chancellor and the Federal
constitutional custom, from the ranks of the strongest parliamen-
tary party. The two allied Christian CDU and CSU parties have since
Ministers. The Federal Chancellor is nominated by the Federal Pre-
1949 formed one joint parliamentary group in the Bundestag which
sident and elected by the Bundestag. In making his proposal, the
Federal President takes into account the voting strengths in the
has mostly been the strongest party grouping.
The Bundestag deputies are paid a "compensation" (Entschädi-
Bundestag. He will nominate only a candidate who has prospects of
gung) corresponding to the importance of the office of MP. Anyone
being elected. The Federal Ministers are nominated by the Chancel-
who has been a member of parliament for at least six years is paid a
lor and formally appointed by the Federal President.
pension upon reaching retirement age. The federal deputies are en-
The Federal cabinet after its nomination on March 12, 1987. First row, third
titled to travel free of charge on German Federal Railways and on
from left: President Richard von Weizsäcker
domestic flights of Lufthansa Airlines.
The Bundesrat. The Bundesrat (Federal Council) also participates
in legislation. It is not elected but consists of members of the Län-
der governments or their delegates. Each Land has at least three
votes. Länder with larger populations have four or five votes. A
Land's votes can be cast only as a block.
Laws require the formal approval of the Bundesrat in cases de-
fined by the Basic Law, especially when the law concerned touches
ticularly strongly on Länder interests. This is the case in more
half of all laws, above all those which intervene in the financial
dministrative sovereignty of the Länder. In the remaining
cases-that is those for which Bundesrat approval is not manda-
tory-the Bundesrat has the right of objection, though this can be
overruled by the Bundestag. If Bundesrat and Bundestag cannot
reach agreement, a mediation committee composed of members of
both chambers must be convened and this, in most cases, is able
to work out a compromise. In the 10th legislative period
(1983-1987) the mediation committee was called to intervene on
six bills.
104
State, Politics, The Law
The constitutional bodies
105
The Federal Chancellor has a strong position. This is why the
Federal Republic's system of government is often referred to as a
Berlin*
"chancellor democracy." The chancellor is the only member of gov-
Food,
Agriculture
and Foresty
Environment,
and Reactor Safety
On Berlin's special status see p. 77-80
ernment elected by parliament and he alone is responsible to it. He
determines the guidelines of government policy. The ministers di-
rect their departments within these guidelines, independently and
Bundesrat
Nature Protection
Schleswig-
Holstein
under their own responsibility.
Mindful of the Weimar Republic experiences, the Basic Law intro-
duced the "constructive vote of no-confidence." It is to prevent op-
Economic
Cooperation
position groups who agree only on the rejection of government pol-
Saarland
icy but not on any alternative programme of their own from being
able to overthrow the government. If a Bundestag majority wants to
Economics
Transportation
pass a vote of no-confidence in the chancellor they must, under this
Education
and Science
Rhineland-
Palatinate
provision, at the same time elect his successor in a majority vote.
Of the two attempts to bring down a chancellor with the aid of a
constructive no-confidence vote, only one has succeeded. A no-
confidence motion in 1982 removed Helmut Schmidt from office
State structure of the Federal Republic of Germany
Finance
Youth, Families,
Women and Health
North-Rhine
Westphalia
and Chancellor Helmut Kohl was elected to succeed him. There is
no Basic Law provision for no-confidence motions against individ-
ual federal ministers.
Federal President
Federal Convention
Federal Chancellor
The Federal Ministers:
Research and
Technology
Länder parliaments
Länder governments
Lower
Saxony
Federal Constitutional
Court
The Federal Constitutional Court. An institution for which there
was no counterpart in German constitutional life before the founda-
tion of the Federal Republic is the Federal Constitutional Court
Justice
Defence
Hesse
(Bundesverfassungsgericht) It is the guardian of the Basic Law.
The Federal Constitutional Court rules, for example, in disputes be-
Regional Planning
and Urban
Development
tween Bonn and the Länder, or between individual federal bodies.
Only this court has the power to declare that a party is out to undo
Labour and
Hamburg
the free, democratic order of the Federal Republic and is thus act-
Social Welfare
ing anti-constitutionally, in which case it orders the party's dissolu-
Interior
tion. It examines federal and Länder legislation as to its conformity
with the Basic Law. If it rules a law unconstitutional that law can no
Post and Tele-
communications
Bremen
longer be applied. The court acts in these and many other matters
only if called upon by certain bodies, such as the federal govern-
ment, Länder governments, parliament, lower courts, etc.
Bundestag
Foreign Affairs
Intra-German
Relations
Bavaria
Every citizen also has the right to turn to the Federal Constitu-
tional Court with a constitutional complaint if he feels his basic
rights have been violated by the state. Before doing so he must as a
rule have been unsuccessful in the responsible lower courts, how-
Baden-
Württem-
berg
ever.
So far the Federal Constitutional Court has passed judgment in
well over 65,000 cases. Some attracted the greatest possible public
interest. The court has overturned important laws and given restric-
106
State, Politics, The Law
tive interpretation to international agreements. The court has rep-
eatedly stressed, however, that it does not see its task as prescrib-
ing a certain course of political action to the state bodies. To a high
aree the Federal Constitutional Court has contributed to filling
The legal system
etter of the Basic Law with life. Giving substance to the basic
its is the most important part of its work.
The law of the Federal Republic of Germany is predominantly writ-
The Federal Constitutional Court is located at Karlsruhe. It con-
ten law, most of it federal. It comprises more than 4,000 laws and
sists of two senates, each with eight judges. The Bundestag and
ordinances having the force of law. There are also Länder laws,
the Bundesrat elect half each. The term of office is twelve years.
which apply mainly to cultural affairs, i. e. education. Other sources
Re-election is not possible.
are customary and case law.
Precedence also plays a part in legal practice. In most cases it
appears meaningless to begin proceedings if higher courts have
consistently dismissed similar suits. But fundamentally no judge is
bound by any superior court's ruling on a similar case, with the ex-
ception of some by the Federal Constitutional Court, which are
binding on all other courts.
The state based on the rule of law. Historically Federal German law
goes back partly to Roman law and partly to numerous regional
German sources of law. In the 19th century, a centralised private
law for the entire German Reich was created for the first time. The
Civil and Commercial Codes to this day preserve the liberal spirit in
which this occurred. They are dominated by the principle of free-
dom of contract.
The constitutionalist tradition becomes most clear in criminal law
and criminal procedure. Here the tenet applies that no offence (act
or omission) may be punished unless its punishability had been laid
down before it was committed (nulla poena sine lege). This means
that a criminal court judge is banned from pronouncing sentence
on the basis of analogus application of legal provisions. The admin-
istration of justice is entrusted to judges who, as a rule, cannot be
dismissed or transferred against their will and who are subject only
to the law.
Almost all these fundamental principles were already laid down
by the 19th century judiciary laws: a Judicature Act (regulating
structure, organisation and jurisdiction of courts), the Code of Civil
Procedure and the Code of Criminal Procedure. It has gone largely
unnoticed abroad that both the Civil Code, which went into force on
January 1, 1900, and the Civil and Criminal Procedure Codes (both
dating from 1877) were wrested by liberal and democratic forces
from the imperial government towards the end of the last century in
long drawn-out parliamentary reform struggles.
State, politics, the law
The legal system
109
108
Some German codified laws have found their way into foreign le-
Civil courts
gal systems. For example, the Civil Code was the model for its Japa-
3rd
nese and Greek counterparts.
instance
citizen and public administration. While the principles of con-
stitutionalism had already been implemented in criminal and civil
procedures, in the relationship of the citizen to public administra-
tion the authoritarian state thinking continued to dominate for a
2nd
long time to come. It took more than 100 years of development in
instance
Civil Senate
legal policy to overcome it.
Higher Regional Court:
"Administrative Courts" were established in several German Län-
der in the 19th century to control the public administration in the in-
terests of the legal protection of the individual citizen. These courts
were set up in Hesse in 1832, Baden in 1863, Württemberg in 1876,
1st or 2nd
Bavaria in 1879 and in Prussia only in 1883. But even then, only cer-
instance
Civil chamber
Chamber for
Civil chamber
Chamber for
trade matters
trade matters
tain, legally listed types of administrative acts could be contested
Regional Court
Regional Court
before these courts by those they concerned. It took until 1949 for
the Basic Law to give everyone throughout the Federal Republic re-
course to contesting in court any administrative act concerning
Professional
them if they felt it was unlawful or had come about through the
1st
Appeal
judge
instance
abuse of power, thereby violating basic civic rights. This applies to
Single judge
Revision
Local Court (Amtsgencht)
Trade judge
all types of administrative acts, be they tax assessment notices or
the decision whether or not to promote a school pupil to the next
grade, be it withdrawal of a driving licence or the refusal of a build-
ing permit. The condition is that the plaintiff himself must be af-
ments when legislating. In Articles 20 and 28 the Basic Law com-
fected by the administrative act; it is not possible for anyone else to
mands that the democratic and social order be expanded. In this
file a complaint, unless they themselves are affected.
spirit a great deal of labour and social welfare legislation has been
The order achieved by the constitutional state is crowned and
enacted since the formation of the Federal Republic which assures
guarded by the Basic Law and the jurisdiction of the Federal Consti-
the individual financial support in situations over which he has no
tutional Court respectively. The Basic Law guarantees to all Ger-
control, such as illness, accident, invalidity, old age and unemploy-
mans (and in parts also to resident foreigners) a catalogue of basic
ment. It also helps those who are partially or wholly to blame for
rights going far beyond the classic human rights. It also guarantees
their own predicament to make a new start.
the principles of the modern state based on the rule of law, such as
A very impressive example of the legal fulfilment of the social wel-
e ban on retroactive punishment and on the death penalty.
fare state principle is labour law. Originally it was set out in only 20
Anyone can turn to the Federal Constitutional Court with a com-
sections of the Civil Code under the heading of the "service con-
Maint of unconstitutionality provided he has exhausted all other le-
tract." Now federal German labour law comprises a great number of
gal instances or if the progression through all the instances offered
laws and collecive agreements. Of particular importance are the La-
no effective legal protection. The Federal Constitutional Court can
bour Courts Act, the Collective Agreements Act, the Works Consti-
respond to such a complaint by ruling a law invalid if it does not con-
tution Act and laws on codetermination.
form to the Basic Law.
Organisation of the legal system. The Federal German courts sys-
Justice in the social welfare state. In the 20th century it became
tem is marked by completeness of legal protection and far-reaching
ever more necessary to take into account social welfare require-
specialisation. It consists of five branches:
State, politics, the law
The legal system
111
110
The so-called "ordinary courts" are responsible for penal
Criminal courts
matters, civil matters except labour law and the area of voluntary ju-
risdiction (which includes notary, inheritance and wardship mat-
Federal Court
88888
). There are four types: Local Court (Amtsgericht), Regional
ot Justicer
Revision Chamber and
2nd instance for
t (Landgericht), Higher Regional Court (Oberlandesgericht),
state-endangering crimes
deral Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof). In penal matters, de-
Criminal Senate
pending on the type of case, each of the first three courts named
can be responsible, in civil proceedings it will be either the Amts-
gericht or the Landgericht. Two or more courts can be appealed to
Higher
88888
on points of fact or law.
Regional
The labour courts. These are of three types: Local Labour
Court
Revision Court
1st instance for violation
of state interests
Court (Arbeitsgericht), Regional Labour Court (Landesarbeitsge-
Criminal Senate
Criminal Senate
richt) and Federal Labour Court (Bundesarbeitsgericht). They are
responsible for employer/employee disputes, disputes between
trade unions and employers and matters concerning the works
constitution and worker participation (co-determination).
The administrative courts-Local Administrative Court (Ver-
Regional
88188
Court
Appeal Court and 1st
Only appeal court
waltungsgericht), Higher Administrative Court (Verwaltungsge-
instance for serious crimes
*As Jury Court
richtshof or Oberverwaltungsgericht) and Federal Administrative
Grand Criminal
Small Criminal Chamber
for especially
Chamber*
serious crimes
Court (Bundesverwaltungsgericht)-handle all administrative law
proceedings except those falling under the jurisdiction of the social
and fiscal courts and disputes of constitutional law.
The social courts-Local Social Court (Sozialgericht), Higher
Local
Social Court (Landessozialgericht) and Federal Social Court (Bun-
Private suits and
More serious crimes,
Court
Serious crimes,
petty crimes
maximum penalty
larger trials
dessozialgericht)-ruie on disputes in the entire field of social in-
3years imprisonment
Single judge
Jury Court
Extended Jury Court
surance.
The fiscal courts-Finance Court (Finanzgericht) and Federal
Judges
Jury
Appeal
Revision
Fiscal Court (Bundesfinanzhof)-deal with taxation and allied mat-
ters.
Separate from these five branches is the Federal Constitutional
resolve. This is why consideration is now being given to shortening
Court which is not only the highest court in the land but also a con-
and simplifying proceedings at all court levels.
stitutional body.
The administration of justice is carried out in the Federal Repu-
The system of appeals is complex and provides for numerous
blic by more than 17,000 professional judges, more than three quar-
ossibilities for review. In principle, there are two stages of appeal.
ters of whom are assigned to the ordinary courts. Judges are ap-
e first stage (Berufung, appeal) permits a review on points of fact
pointed for life and their administration of justice is subject only to
law, which means that new evidence can be introduced at this
the spirit and letter of the law. At the Amtsgericht level most of the
hearing.
voluntary judicial matters are taken care of by higher-ranking court
Recourse to the second stage (Revision, revision), on the other
officials who have received special training but are not judges. In
hand, leads only to an examination as to whether the law has been
several types of court lay judges sit with the professional. Through
properly applied and the essential procedural formalities observed.
their experience of life or specialised knowledge in certain fields-
Increasing use is being made of the individual's right of recourse to
labour and welfare law, for example-they help the courts to make
courts of first instance and to appellate courts. The result is that
realistic decisions. Over and above that they embody part of the cit-
courts are over-burdened and cases are taking ever longer to
izen's direct responsibility for the state.
112
State, politics, the law
The legal system
113
The public prosecutors (state attorneys), of whom there are
ests have been violated by public agencies can turn to him with a
about 3,700, are public servants who, in contrast to the judges, are
complaint. The data ombudsman reports annually to the Bundes-
subject to the orders of their superiors. About 50,000 lawyers prac-
tag. The federal states also have data protection ombudsmen. Busi-
a free profession as independent advisers and representatives
ness enterprises using data are also obliged to name a data protec-
legal matters. By representing their clients in court they help to
tion ombudsman. These enterprises are also subject to supervision
inister justice. They are subject to certain duties, adherence to
by the relevant authorities in the various Länder which monitor ad-
which is watched over by courts of honour. More recent legislation
herence to data protection regulations.
has clarified these duties.
The constitutional dimension has been made clear by a 1983 ru-
Professional judges, public prosecutors and attorneys-at-law
ling of the Federal Constitutional Court. It saw in Article 2 of the Ba-
must be "qualified to be a judge." That means they must have grad-
sic Law the citizen's right to self-determination about his personal
uated in law from a university and completed practical training, and
data. The conclusions drawn from this judgment are reflected in the
have passed final state examinations.
1987 Census Act, which fully provides for the protection of personal
privacy.
Data protection. The development of electronic data processing
The data protection legislation of the Federal Republic is among
has created new problems in the law and the legal order. Compu-
the most modern and comprehensive in the world. It has helped
ters are used in almost all fields in modern industrial society. Be it in
sharpen public awareness of the need for data protection. To re-
accounts handling in banks, seat reservations with an airline, the is-
main responsive to technical developments which will continue to
suing of tax statements by the internal revenue or the collection of
be subject to rapid change it must remain open to adaptation like
information on lawbreakers by the police, electronic data process-
hardly any other legislation.
ing has become indispensable everywhere. It enables vast amounts
of data to be stored for retrieval at any time. This modern technolo-
gy has greatly eased and speeded up the work of many firms and
authorities. For example, the statutory German pensions insurance
can now process pension applications much faster than before and
the police have achieved great successes in apprehending crimi-
nals with the aid of computers. At the same time, however, it has
become clear that modern data technology also poses dangers.
The stored data can be used illicitly and fall into the wrong hands.
Anyone who possesses enough data gains insight into people's
privacy, which must remain inviolable.
To avert these dangers data protection in the Federal Republic
began to be regulated by federal and state legislation in 1977.
These laws stipulate what personal data authorities and business
terprises may store. In all other cases the storing of such data is
idden. Personnel of agencies processing. data are bound to se-
cy. The citizen has a legal entitlement to obtain from every data
processing agency information on the data it holds on him. He can
demand the correction of wrong data, the blockage of disputed
data and the removal of any that have been improperly obtained. To
control public data processing the Federal President, on the rec-
ommendation of the Federal Government, appoints a Federal Com-
missioner for Data Protection who exercises the office independ-
ently of other authorities. Any citizen who feels that his data inter-
116
State, politics, the law
Political parties and elections
117
contrast to the Catholic Centre Party (Zentrumspartei) of the Wei-
mar period the CDU and CSU sought their electoral support among
both of Germany's two major Christian creeds, Roman Catholicism
and Protestantism. The FDP laid claim to the heritage of German lib-
eralism which was shared by quite a number of parties before
1933.
In the four decades since their establishment all the parties have
undergone significant changes. Nowadays all perceive themselves
as "popular" parties representing all classes of people.
The SPD, CDU and FDP all have very distinct right and left wings.
This is not only due to their histories but also because in a modern
parliamentary democracy with only few big parties all kinds of views
and positions seek integration in these "popular" groupings which
appeal to a broad spectrum of voters.
In 1983 "The Greens" (Die Grünen) won seats in the Bundestag
for the first time, after they had been in several state parliaments
previously. "The Greens" developed into a political party out of a
radical environmentalist movement, uniting opponents of nuclear
Hans-Jochen Vogel, party chairman of the Social Democrats,
campaigning for his party
power and other protest groups and representing pacifist tenden-
cies. The new party's organisation and programme are not yet very
firm. It finds most of its support in the young generation. The
name which the Hitler regime outlawed in 1933. The other parties
Greens have had a federal organisation only since 1979.
saw themselves as completely new formations, building only in part
The emergence of The Greens has brought some changes in the
on the traditions of the Weimar Republic between the world wars. In
political landscape. For more than 20 years there had been practi-
cally a three-party system in the Bundestag (where the CDU and
The state (Länder) parliaments
Party congress of The Greens in Hanover, 1986
Land
Elec- Total CDU* SPD FDP Greens** Others
tion
number
SIZUAL GEVAUTRE
year
of deputies
DIE GRÜNEN
O.
Baden-Württemberg
1988
125
66
42
7
10
-
Bayern
1986
204
128
61
-
15
-
Bremen
1987
100
25
54
10
10
1
Hamburg
1987
120
49
55
8
8
-
sen
1987
110
47
44
9
10
-
dersachsen
1986
155
69
66
9
11
-
ordrhein-Westfalen
1985
227
88
125
14
-
-
Rheinland-Pfalz
1987
100
48
40
7
5
-
Saarland
1985
51
20
26
5
-
-
Schleswig-Holstein
1988
74
27
46
-
-
1
Berlin (West)
1985
144
69
48
12
15
-
. In Bayern CSU
.. Other names used in some states. e.g. "Alternatives"
... On the special status of Berlin see p. 76-80
Political parties and elections
115
Political parties and elections
in any democracy political parties are among the most important
political institutions. The Federal Republic's Basic Law takes due
account of this in devoting to them an article of their own (Art. 21),
in contrast to former German constitutions which made almost no
mention of them. The Basic Law defines their task as participating
"in the forming of the political will of the people." The parties must
be democratically structured and render public account of the
sources and expenditure of their funds and their assets. Details are
Herman Kaij
Bez-Versit
laid down by the Parties Act of 1984.
The parties. There are at present five parties in the Bundestag, the
Christian Social Union (CSU) chairman Franz Josef Strauss
House of Representatives in Bonn. They are the Social Democratic
campaigning in Augsburg
Party of Germany (SPD), the Christian Democratic Union of Ger-
many (CDU), the Christian Social Union (CSU) in Bayern (Bavaria),
tional level, in the Bundestag, the two sister parties form one joint
the Free Democratic Party (FDP) and The Greens (Die Grünen). The
parliamentary CDU/CSU block.
CDU has no membership in Bavaria, leaving the field there to its sis-
The four parties came into being from 1945 to 1947. The SPD was
ter party, the CSU, which in turn operates only in Bayern. At na-
a re-creation of the former mainly labour-oriented party of the same
Christian Democrat (CDU) chairman and Federal Chancellor
Martin Bangemann, party chairman of the Free Democrats, during the 1987
Helmut Kohl at the "Germany meeting" of his party in Dortmund, 1987
election campaign
Zukunit
sta
EDP
Zukunft
durch
Leistung.
Darum:
Zukunf
Zweitstimme
dur
F.D.P.
Bohr
bester
NO
Le
Geißler
Kohi
Dregger
Strauß
Political parties and elections
119
118
State, politics, the law
Party bans. "Parties which, by reason of their aims or the behaviour
CSU have always formed one group), and each of the parties has
of their adherents, seek to impair or abolish the free democratic
been the coalition partner of the other two on one or more occa-
principle or to endanger the existence of the Federal Republic of
The Greens are a fourth grouping in the house. Initially none
Germany" (Art. 21 of the Basic Law) can be ruled unconstitutional
other three parties would coalesce with them. The first coali-
by the Federal Constitutional Court upon application and thereupon
ith The Greens was established by the SPD at state level in
disbanded. According to this provision the Socialist Reich Party
Hesse in 1985. This government partnership lasted only 14 months
(Sozialistische Reichspartei), probably the most extreme postwar
before it broke apart.
right-wing party, was outlawed in 1952. In 1956 the Communist
Party of Germany (Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands, KPD) was
Small parties and the five per cent barrier. There has always been
also ruled to be unconstitutional.
a fluctuating number of smaller parties which have also tried to get
into the parliaments. In the first Bundestag election in 1949, these
smaller parties together polled 27.9% of the votes, compared with a
Bundestag elections performance
mere 1.3% in the 11th Bundestag poll in 1987. This decline is mainly
50%
the result of a "five per cent debarring clause" now contained in
45
all state and federal electoral laws. This clause stipulates that
40
only parties gaining at least 5% of the votes in the given election
35
area can send deputies into parliament. The Federal Constitutional
30
Court has expressly ruled that this provision conforms to the Basic
25
Law. Extreme right or left-wing parties have rarely overcome this five
20
per cent hurdle. The Communist Party of Germany (Kommuni-
15
stische Partei Deutschlands, KPD) was only once represented in
10
the Bundestag, with 15 deputies, from 1949 to 1953. The commu-
5
nist groupings which exist today have so far failed to move into any
0
1949
1953
1957
state or federal parliament, although they are represented on a
1961
1965
1969
1972
1976
1980
1983
1987
number of municipal councils. Of the more extreme right wing part-
THE
SPD
CDU
CSU
FDP AMERICA Greens - Others
ies, only the German Reich Party (Deutsche Reichspartei) has had
a small Bundestag representation-five deputies in the 1949-1953
Bundestag seats held*
parliament. The ultra-right-wing National Democratic Party (Natio-
naldemokratische Partei, NPD) was represented in a number of
1949
136
C118
24
53
79
state assemblies (Landtage) from 1966 to 1972 but lost all its seats
1953
162
197
52
53
45
1957
181
222
55
43
18
in subsequent elections.
The five per cent clause is waived for the representations of eth-
1961
203
2015
50
67
minorities. This is why the Southern Schleswig Voters Associa-
1965
217
202
49
50
n (Südschleswigscher Wählerverband), representing the Danish
1969
237
201
49
31
minority, has one deputy in the Landtag of the northernmost state
1972
242
186
48
42
1976
224
of Schleswig-Holstein although it accounts for less than five per
201
53
40
1980
228
185
52
54
cent of the votes.
The results of local government elections sometimes differ
1983
202
202
53
35
28
1987
193
greatly from the federal and state elections. At community level so-
185
49
48
44
called "town hall parties" often play a major role. These are small
'at the start of the legislative term in each case: including the deputies from Berlin (West)
groups of voters, on the whole concerned purely with local affairs,
SPD
CDU
CSU
FDP
Greens
Others
and independent of the main political parties.
120
State, politics, the law
Political parties and elections
121
The German Communist Party (Deutsche Kommunistische Par-
are no run-up primary elections. Candidates are chosen only by the
tei, DKP) has taken over its political heritage without, however, at-
members of the parties.
taining the importance of the former KPD. Neither the Federal Gov-
The electoral system for the Bundestag is complicated. It is a so-
ent nor the Bundestag or Bundesrat have so far made use of
called "personalised proportional representation" system, that is to
ght to seek the outlawing of the DKP, or the other communist
say a mixture of first-past-the post constituency voting and national
S which have formed meanwhile, through the Federal Consti-
representation by party lists. Half the Bundestag members (not
counting those of Berlin [West], who do not have full voting pow-
tutional Court.
ers), 248 in all, are elected according to the simple majority system
Membership and finances. In 1986 the parties represented in the
in the constituency, the remaining 248 from lists nominated by the
Bundestag had the following memberships: the SPD 919,000, the
Land groupings of the parties. Every voter has two votes, one for a
CDU 719,000, the CSU 183,000, the FDP 67,000, The Greens 39,000.
local candidate, the other for a party. Distribution of all votes cast is
Of the other national parties the only ones with notable member-
done in such a way, however, that the Bundestag is constituted al-
ships were the DKP with 57,000 and NPD with 6,000.
most in proportion to the votes cast (barring the votes for the be-
All parties ask their members to pay subscriptions, but these
low-5% parties). If a party wins more direct mandates in the consti-
cover only a small part of their financial requirements. Nor do grants
tuencies (i. e. has more "first-past-the-post" winners) than it would
they receive from political sympathisers suffice. Moreover, grants
be entitled to by its Land list share, it keeps these so-called addi-
pose the danger of the donor's trying to sway the party to his will or
tional seats. In that event the Bundestag consists of more than the
expecting something in return. This is why the Parties Act stipu-
usual 496 members with full voting rights. The Bundestag deputies
lates that donations in excess of DM 20,000 a year have to be pub-
representing Berlin (West) are elected by the Berlin Chamber of
licly declared. Over and above their own revenues, the parties re-
Deputies from its own members.
ceive state subsidies for their election campaigning costs. All part-
The Federal Republic's citizens show keen political interest in all
ies which win at least 0.5% of the votes-and that includes many
elections. Participation in the 1987 Bundestag poll was 84.3%. Even
small ones-receive DM 5 per vote from public revenue.
local government elections attract up to 80% turnout.
The parties in the Bundestag:
1987 Bundestag election
Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands
Ollenhauerstr. 1
Party list
%
Deputies
5300 Bonn 1
Party
votes
(Berlin deputies
bracketed)
Christlich-Demokratische Union Deutschlands
Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 73-75
SPD
14,025,763
37.0
186 (7)
5300 Bonn 1
CDU
13,045,745
34.5
174* (11)
CSU
3,715,827
9.8
49 -
Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern
3,440,911
9.1
46 (2)
Nymphenburger Str. 64
Greens
3,126,256
8.3
42 (2**)
8000 München 2
512,817
1.3
- -
rs
Total
37,867,319
100.0
497 (22)
Freie Demokratische Partei
Baunscheidtstr. 15
5300 Bonn 1
. Including one additional seat in Baden-Württemberg
.. Deputies of the "Alternative list" (AL)
Die Grünen
Coimantstr. 36
The electoral system. Elections for all legislative bodies are gen-
5300 Bonn 1
eral, direct, free, equal and secret. Every German who has attained
the age of 18 is eligible to vote and to stand as a candidate. There
Federal, regional and local government
123
works closer to the people within the framework of a federal state
or region. To the citizen it is nearer and more familiar than the ad-
Federal, regional and local government
ministration in the federal capital. The regional government for its
part is better able to act on its knowledge of regional requirements
and conditions. It can contribute, for example, to the preservation
The name "Federal Republic of Germany" already expresses the
of cultural characteristics and regional ethnic peculiarities. A re-
federative structure of the West German state. The Federal Repub-
gional government is also able, in certain fields such as education,
lic consists of the "Länder" (federal states, see p. 24-44).
to test new systems which may later serve as national models.
The Länder were partly reconstituted, partly newly created after
Parties which are in opposition at national level are often at the
1945. They are no mere provinces but states in their own right with
same time in government in several states. Thus all parties have the
their own sovereign powers. Each Land has its own constitution
chance democratically to carry responsibility and prove their ability
(Landesverfassung) which must conform to the principles of the re-
to govern.
publican, democratic, social state based on the rule of law, as laid
But above all, the federal states, especially by their participation
down in the national constitution, the Basic Law (Grundgesetz).
in national legislation through their assembly, the Federal Council
Apart from that the Länder are free to shape their constitutions as
(Bundesrat) can contribute to the balance of power. This role is
seen as so fundamental that both the federal structure and the
they wish.
states' participation in federal legislation are laid down as irremov-
German traditions. The federative structure is an old German con-
able by the Basic Law.
stitutional tradition, interrupted only by the Hitler regime. German
federalism has historic roots and in the past was often lamented as
The powers of the federal states. The powers of the Federal
an expression of national fragmentation or even as a national mis-
Republic in legislation and administration under the original 1949
fortune. Today the federal structure is proving a great advantage. it
text of the Basic Law appear very restricted in comparison to those
makes it possible to a great extent to do justice to regional peculi-
of the states. However, the Federal Republic's economic and social
arities, wishes and special problems.
development has been such that the Basic Law has empowered
In several countries the concentration of administration, industry,
Bonn to legislate in ever more spheres, owing to their supraregional
commerce and cultural facilities in the capital city, or in few large
importance.
centres, has proved to be a disadvantage. All over the world the call
The states have nevertheless retained important lawmaking
for regionalisation is becoming stronger. The traditional German
fields. These include local government law, parts of environmental
federalism has contributed to the Federal Republic's being spared
protection (a competency currently very much in dispute) and the
such difficulties.
major part of the police system. Police law is, however, to be stan-
There has been barely any manifestation in the Federal Republic
dardised in all the states to improve crime prevention and detection
of Germany of the centrifugal tendencies often cited as drawbacks
across inter-state boundaries.
of federalism. Small in area in any case, it is well served by all means
The Länder's principal field of lawmaking is in cultural affairs. Ele-
f. transport and its population is more unitary than those of many
mentary, secondary and special schools (e. g. for the handicapped)
ther countries. The once very marked tribal differences have been
are under state jurisdiction, as is the increasingly important field of
blurred somewhat by the great postwar population movements and
adult education. Major aspects of vocational and university educa-
the great mobility modern economic life entails.
tion are also regulated by Länder laws. For these two last, however,
as well as for further vocational training, federal lawmakers also
Why federalism? Paradoxical as it may appear, the sense of feder-
have some jurisdiction. Overall, however, the autonomy of the
alism must today be seen more from the point of view of the state
states is most strongly felt in cultural life (see also p. 330/331).
as a whole. Democracy becomes more lively if the citizen can take
The major activity of the states is administration. Apart from the
part in the democratic process through elections and referendums
few federal authorities with regional branches (for example the cus-
at the more readily understandable regional level. Administration
toms and armed forces administrations) the states are solely
124
State, politics, the law
Federal, regional and local government
125
responsible for applying federal laws. This is also German tradi-
tion.
By and large, the states implement federal legislation independ-
nd free of detailed directives from the federal authorities. The
government merely ensures that this implementation is con-
sistent with the body of valid laws. Only a few administrative tasks,
expressly listed in the Basic Law, are carried out by the states on
instruction from Bonn. In these matters the states are also subject
to federal directives in regard to the execution of the law.
In Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, Lower Saxony, North-
Rhine Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate there is between the
Land government and the rural and urban counties (Landkreise,
Stadtkreise) the administrative level of government districts (Re-
gierungsbezirke). A Regierungsbezirk is headed by a district com-
missioner (Regierungspräsident) appointed by the Land govern-
ment.
Local self-government. Local government, as an expression of
Town hall in Schwalenberg, Weserbergland
civic freedom, has a long and great tradition in Germany. It may be
traced back to the privileges of the free towns in the Middle Ages,
when civic rights freed people from the bonds of feudal serfdom.
("Stadtluft macht frei - town air makes free," a German saying of
New city hall in Mainz
the time went.) In modern times local government is primarily
linked, however, to the great reforms of the Prussian minister Frei-
herr vom Stein, in particular the Municipal Ordinance of 1808.
This tradition of civic liberty is manifested in the self-government
of towns, communes and counties expressly guaranteed by the Ba-
sic Law and all state constitutions. The Basic Law stipulates two
things: the states must guarantee to local governments the rights
to regulate their own communal affairs - within the framework of the
law; all towns, communities and counties must be democratically
organised. For historical reasons the municipal constitutions vary
greatly from state to state. But local administrative practice is by
large the same everywhere.
ery community governs itself in all local affairs. This includes,
ove all, local public transport, local roadbuilding, electricity, water
and gas supplies, housing construction, building and maintenance
of elementary and secondary schools, theatres and museums, hos-
pitals, sports facilities and public baths, adult education and youth
welfare. In these fields of self-government local authorities are sub-
ject only to legal control by the Land. That is to say that the Land is
only allowed to ensure that the law is abided by; the purpose of its
actions is determined by each community itself.
126
State, politics, the law
Many of the tasks named overtax the financial and organisational
resources of small municipalities but these affairs can be taken
by the next higher level of local government, the county, or
" The "Kreistag," the "parliament" of the county, is directly
ed by the local population, as are the representations of the
towns and communes.
Municipalities and counties also implement many federal and
state laws. In this they are subject not only to legal control by the
Land but in some cases are given detailed directives to work to.
Current problems of self-government. Local self-government and
communal autonomy must wither if local authorities lack the money
they need to fulfil their tasks. This is why the question of adequate
funding of the communities is at the centre of many discussions.
The major communal revenues are taxes. The communities have
a constitutional claim to income from certain taxes. The major ones
are trade tax and land tax as well as a number of minor taxes such
as dog tax and beverage tax. On top of that the communities re-
ceive shares of other tax revenues from the federation and the
states, e.g. from income taxes. In return, they must transfer part of
their income from business tax to the federation and the states.
Various legislative measures of the federation to ease taxes have
greatly reduced income from business tax, the major source of
communal revenue, in recent years. That is why most towns and
communes no longer take in enough taxes to be able to meet their
tasks. Therefore local governments are demanding a far-reaching
reform of the system of communal taxes. In response the federal
states have set up a working group to devise a new system.
There is agreement that municipal self-government must be pre-
served and strengthened. It gives the citizen scope for almost day-
by-day codetermination and control, whether it be through conver-
sation with elected communal representatives, or through access
to communal development plans and budgetary data. Thus towns
d local governments in a sense are the state's smallest political
is, whose independent and democratic functioning is a prerequi-
site of freedom and justice in government and society.
Regional planning and rezoning
129
Settlements cover only about 12% of the Federal Republic of
Germany but the population density varies considerably by regions.
Regional planning and rezoning
Great problems are posed by the expansion of already densely set-
tled regions since the recreational areas and green zones that still
exist near them are indispensable. Hence one of the major tasks of
Working and living conditions are not the same all over the Federal
regional planning is to protect these areas. Thus necessary mea-
Republic. Life in a densely inhabited industrial area is unavoidably
sures should be implemented in such a way that as few as possible
different from that in a thinly populated rural one. Every inhabitant
of these green zones are lost and as many new ones as possible
should nonetheless be able to live in an environment in which ele-
are created.
mentary needs of life can be satisfied. That means adequate provi-
In less densely settled areas the differences between centres
sion must be made for the various spheres of human life-housing,
and villages are even more apparent. The population of rural re-
employment, care, recreation, education, transport, communica-
gions continues to decline as young people move to the conurba-
tion. Society, the economy and the environment must be in optimal
tions.
In the less developed areas living and working conditions overall
balance.
are worse than the federal average. This is particularly so in areas
Tasks of regional planning. Such a balance does not come about
solely dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. Here there are
of its own accord. The state must contribute to the best possible
too few non-agricultural employment opportunities and social and
distribution of housing, jobs and recreational areas, cultural and so-
cultural facilities. Priority measures for improving living and working
cial facilities and their linkage by transportation and communication
conditions in these regions are the attraction of industrial and ser-
systems. This is the broad field covered by regional planning.
vice enterprises, the construction of universities and hospitals and
The general principles and aims of regional planning are set out in
the improvement of transportation facilities.
the Federal Regional Planning Act (Bundesraumordnungsgesetz)
But the areas with partially outdated one-sided industrial struc-
of 1965. All three levels of government-federal, state and local-
tures, including parts of the Ruhr region and the Saarland as well as
are charged with its implementation. Every four years the Federal
the shipbuilding locations on the coast, have been showing structu-
Government publishes a regional planning report-the most recent
ral problems for a number of years. High environmental strains from
was in 1986- in which it accounts for the most important regional
heavy industry, low residential quality and lack of green areas for
developments and what has been done in the field. Guidelines of re-
recreation combine. Moreover, the rate of unemployment there is
gional planning policy are the Federal Regional Planning Pro-
often as high as in structurally weak rural regions. New industries
gramme of 1975 and the "Programmatical Priorities of Regional
and modern technologies and services are to be attracted to res-
Planning", whose implementation is the task of the Länder, which
tore a broader, viable economic basis.
are responsible for the concrete realisation of regional planning and
Preference is given to the so-called "Zonal Fringe Region" (Zo-
settlement policy, with local government also taking part in it.
nenrandgebiet), a 30 to 50 km belt abutting the GDR and Czecho-
The areas of emphasis in regional planning policy lie in the over-
slovakia. Here regional planning faces particular difficulties be-
dened conurbations, the economically retarded areas and the
cause the enforced drawing of the boundary has arbitrarily cut
tier zone abutting the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and
apart formerly viable transportation, economic and cultural units.
Many towns have lost their former hinterlands which now lie over
echoslovakia.
With the expansion of built-up areas and the constantly growing
the border in the GDR. The extensive zonal promotion programme
pollution of the air, soil and water, environmental and nature protec-
has brought some improvement in living and economic conditions
tion are becoming increasingly important. The major ground water
in this region. Special attention is also given to promoting Berlin
reserves and raw material deposits must be safeguarded. Even
(West). Because the city has been deprived of its natural hinterland
fringe areas are being increasingly affected by pollution emanating
special efforts are needed to preserve and enhance its attractive-
from the industrial centres through the natural exchange of air and
ness: One priority in this is stronger economic and transportation
linkage to the federal area.
water over large areas.
Regional planning and rezoning
131
Structural problems. All planning and management notwithstand-
Regional
ing, it must not be overlooked that there are limits to structuring so-
rezoning
ciety and the economy. Overall, the regional and settlement struc-
Kiel
ture of the Federal Republic must be seen as satisfactory, even by
international standards. The infrastructural facilities of communes
and regions have been substantially improved with massive help
Lübeck
from the Federal Government. Despite this, there is still a consider-
Premenhaven
5
Wilhelmshaven
Hamburg
able gap between the strongly growing high-density areas and the
peripheral rural regions. Newly emergent are the problems in the
Oldenburg
Bremen
old industrial areas and the shipbuilding locations. This has made
visible a north-south prosperity gap.
Challenges to regional planning policy are the population decline
Berlin (West)
and the shift in age-structure. The population decline is particularly
Hannover
marked in rural regions and in the conurbation core areas. Hence
greater efforts are needed to assure adequate infrastructures, es-
Osnabrück
pecially transportation, social security and health services.
Bielefeld
Braunschweig
Münster
Local government rezoning. Planning and development can be
Essep
Paderborn
Dortmund
Gounger
Regional Centres
sensibly approached only if there is the greatest possible identity of
Agglomeration areas
administrative, economic and habitation areas. Most of the histori-
Dutsburg
ochum
Areas lagging behind
Wappertal
Kasset
general economic development
cally grown structures of administrative regions dated from pre-in-
Düsseldorf
Specially promoted
frontier regions
dustrial times. To adapt them to the needs of present-day society
Kötn
Siegen
Rachen
sweeping administrative rezoning began in 1968 in all Länder ex-
cept Hamburg, Bremen and Berlin (West) which ultimately reduced
Bonn
Marburg
Gießen
the number of autonomous local authorities (Gemeinden) in the
Fuida
Koblenz
Federal Republic by almost two thirds. Before the reform there had
Frankfürt a.
Wiesbaden
been 24,000; after its conclusion in 1978 there were about 8,500.
The number of county boroughs (kreisfreie Städte) fell from 139 to
Offenbach
Mainz
Würzburg
91, that of counties from 425 to 237. By mergers of smaller commu-
Trier
Darmstadt)
Mannheim
nities, often with nearby conurbations, the number of cities with
Kaiserslautem
Nümberg
more than 100,000 inhabitants rose from 57 to 64.
Saerbrücken
Ludwigshafen
Heidelberg
One of the major aims of the reform, reducing the number of
Regensburg
planning authorities and creating efficient administrative units, has
Karisruhe
Heilbronn
by and large been achieved. But the gain in efficiency has often
Stuttgart
Pforzheim
been at the expense of "nearness to the citizen". Geographically
Tüblingen
and emotionally the administration has moved further away from
Ulm
Augsburg
him. People feel less inclined than before to become directly in-
volved in their local affairs. On the whole, however, rezoning has
München
Freiburg I-Br.)
strengthened local government. For example, it brought full-time
professional administration to rural areas and improved local facili-
Ravensburg
ties for the citizens.
Konstanz
0
50
150
200 km
100
The Federal Republic of Germany
in the world
The Federal Republic of Germany lies in the heart of Europe, at the
line dividing East and West. Its eastern neighbour is the other Ger-
man state, the GDR. The dividing line between them separates not
only Germany but also marks the frontier of two different systems
of society. Nowhere is the difference between East and West
clearer than in this divided country.
The Federal Republic of Germany is one of the major industrial
and trading states with worldwide economic ties. It depends on a
stable and functioning world economic system and hence is directly
affected by all conflicts between North and South, between indus-
trial and developing countries.
Because of its geopolitical location and economic interests, but
also because of the Germans' national cause and the experiences
of recent history, German policies must first and foremost be poli-
cies in pursuit of peace.
The basis of this foreign policy is and will remain the Federal Re-
public of Germany's permanent place in the ranks of the free
democracies, its membership of the European Community and the
North Atlantic Alliance. This poses four fundamental foreign policy
objectives: continuation of the work of European unification, main-
tenance and strengthening of the North Atlantic Alliance, the fur-
ther development of the policy of détente with the East and consoli-
dation of cooperation with Third World countries.
The Federal Republic of Germany at present has diplomatic rela-
tions with 161 states. It has 202 missions abroad, of 128 which are
embassies.
European unification. Since its creation the Federal Republic of
Germany has pursued the aim of European unification. Together
with Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands it es-
tablished the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952 and the
European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy
Community in 1957 which today are most commonly referred to as
the European Community (EC). European Political Cooperation be-
gan in 1970 and since then has become the centrepiece of the for-
eign policies of the member states and a second pillar of European
Unification. The entry of Denmark, Ireland and Britain in 1973,
Greece in 1981 and Portugal and Spain in 1986 brought the number
of EC members to 12. The Single European Act, signed in 1986,
The Federal Republic of Germany in the world
135
134
State, politics, the law
world the European Community has an open trade policy which is
aimed at a market-economy-oriented world economic order and
resists protectionist tendencies. Its economic and trade relations
with countries outside the Community rest on a close-knit net of
trade, cooperation and association agreements. Trend-setting for
the cooperative partnership with developing countries is the pres-
ent Lomé Convention with 66 African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP)
states.
The European Community helps to strengthen freedom and
democracy in Europe. It rests on the solidarity of its members. As
the economically strongest member the Federal Republic of Ger-
many makes substantial financial contributions to expand the Com-
munity. It will continue to promote further development and integra-
tion of the Community to the best of its ability.
The North Atlantic Alliance and the Allies. The North Atlantic Alli-
ance, NATO, is the indispensable foundation for the security of the
Meeting of the European Council in Brussels
free, democratic states of Western Europe. Under its protection,
they were reconstructed after the war. Only under its protection
which came into force on 1 July 1987, marks a decisive stage on the
can they develop further.
To secure the freedom and independence of the country and its
way to European union.
citizens from military and political pressure the Federal Republic
The Single European Act is the basis for
completion of the internal market in the Community by the end
joined NATO in 1955. From the outset it placed its armed forces
completely under the NATO supreme command. Only the balance
of 1992;
creation of a technology and research community;
of forces between NATO and the Warsaw Pact can, in the long
cooperation in preserving and improving the vital natural re-
term, guarantee peace and ensure the continuation of free democ-
racies. To maintain this balance the presence of American and Ca-
sources; further institutional development of the Community;
nadian armed forces in Europe is indispensable.
expansion of European political cooperation into a European
Close and trusting relations, of vital importance to its security,
link the Federal Republic with the United States of America. They
foreign and security policy.
Since the mid-1970s the heads of state and government and their
have grown in more than three decades into a friendship based on
foreign ministers as well as the President of the European Commis-
shared values and long-term identity of interests. This rapport de-
on have been meeting twice a year in the European Council to lay
termines the close cooperation in the alliance, in security policy and
n the guidelines for further development of the Community. The
in all questions concerning Berlin, as well as in foreign, world econ-
opean Parliament, elected directly for the second time by the
omic and monetary policies and also at international conferences
citizens of the member countries in 1984, gives additional impetus
involving the two countries.
The reconciliation with France, begun by the first postwar chan-
to the unification process.
Almost all customs and trade barriers between the member
cellor, Konrad Adenauer, and the treaty of friendship signed by him
states have been eliminated. This has created a common market in
and President Charles de Gaulle in 1963, have grown into a trustful
which more than 300 million people enjoy freedom of movement
partnership. It is the driving force in the European unification pro-
and free exchange of goods takes place. By 1992 this internal mar-
cess. The network of regular mutual consultations provided for by
ket is to be completed by removing all hindrances to the exchange
the treaty has been continually knitted more closely. The semi-an-
not only of goods but also of services. Towards the rest of the
nual summit meetings of the heads of state and government in
State, politics, the law
The Federal Republic of Germany in the world
137
136
In 1970 a treaty was signed in Moscow between the Federal Re-
public of Germany and the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics in
which the two sides renounced the threat or use of force and un-
dertook to settle their disputes only by peaceful means. Borders as
they presently exist in Europe were declared inviolable. In a "Letter
on German Unity", handed over in connection with the signing of
the agreement, the Federal Government declared "that this treaty
does not conflict with the political objective of the Federal Republic
United
of Germany to work for a state of peace in Europe in which the Ger-
man nation will recover its unity in free self-determination".
Also in 1970 a treaty was signed in Warsaw between the Federal
Republic of Germany and the People's Republic of Poland which
laid down that the existing boundary line along the Oder and west-
ern Neisse rivers constitutes the western state frontier of Poland
(see p. 67). This treaty laid the foundations for normalisation and de-
velopment of relations between the two countries. A treaty on mut-
ual relations was entered into with Czechoslovakia in 1973. It esta-
blished that both sides treat as null and void in their relations the
Paris Agreements, 1954.
From left: Mendès-France, Adenauer, Eden, Dulles
Munich Agreement of 1938. Agreement was also reached on the
establishment of diplomatic relations with Bulgaria and Hungary.
which a number of other specialised ministers also take part are of
in a joint declaration of 17 May 1972 the Bundestag emphasised
particular importance. This partnership covers political, economic,
that the treaties of Moscow and Warsaw do not pre-empt a peace
technological and cultural activities, a very far-reaching concep-
treaty for Germany and create no legal basis for the present bor-
tion of European security and a joint vision of the future in
ders. The Bundestag declared that the inalienable right to self-de-
termination is not diminished by the treaties and that the Federal
Europe. The Federal Republic of Germany also maintains friendly relation-
Republic of Germany makes no territorial claims or claims to
ships with other Western states. In particular the cooperation with
change boundaries. In a ruling on both treaties the Federal Consti-
Britain has been consistently expanded and deepened. The two
tutional Court emphasised that by concluding them the Federal Re-
countries' heads of government also meet every half year. Similarly
public of Germany has not prejudiced the territorial status of Ger-
the Federal Republic is closely linked with its other Western neigh-
many or the rights to assets of former inhabitants of areas previ-
bours and allies in a tightly woven fabric of agreements, consulta-
ously under German sovereignty.
tions and mutual visits.
The treaties of Moscow and Warsaw smoothed the way to the
1971 Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin (see p. 78) and the 1972
eguarding peace and pursuing détente. The relationship of the
Treaty on the Basis of Relations between the Federal Republic of
deral Republic to the East European states was initially governed
Germany and the German Democratic Republic (see p. 74/75). Re-
by the confrontation between the Western and Eastern blocs. In
lations between the two Germans states are not part of foreign pol-
1955 Bonn established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union.
icy because in the Federal Republic's view the German Democratic
With the beginning of the worldwide détente efforts a chance deve-
Republic is not a foreign country, but they cannot be shaped inde-
loped to complement the policy of permanent integration of the
pendently of foreign-policy as they are an integral part of the overall
Federal Republic into the Western alliance system with a policy
development of relations between East and West.
aimed at normalisation and good-neighbourly relations with the
The Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic
East. One of the first steps in this direction was the establishment
Republic are members of different alliance systems. The frontier
of diplomatic relations with Romania in 1967.
between them is at the same time the dividing line between the two
The Federal Republic of Germany in the world
141
140
State, politics, the law
most important international tasks of our time, especially vis-à-vis it
the least developed countries. Together with its EC partners
es constructive contributions to the dialogue between indus-
and developing countries, helping in the struggle against hun-
and misery, for improved living conditions and for more transfer
of resources to the developing countries.
The efficiency of the cooperation and increased help is promoted
by a well-functioning world economy, especially by the freest possi- there-
ble exchange of goods. All states and groups of states are
fore called upon to participate with substantial contributions to the
ongoing dialogue and balancing of interests between North and de-
South, regardless of their economic and social orders. A few
cades ago, after the devastation of World War II, the German people
urgently needed outside help to rebuild their country and they
got it. It is therefore self-evident that now the Federal Republic Since of
Germany supports countries which need help to develop.
coming into existence it has spent continuously rising amounts on
The Economic Summit in Bonn, 1985
development aid. By 1986 the official and private aid to developing
countries had totalled almost DM 280,000 million. More increases
Culture in this sense encompasses all the facets of life and
are planned in official aid for the years immediately ahead (see
thought of peoples, including their civilisatory and social problems.
Regardless of differences in scientific and technical development,
also p. 217-221).
cultural exchange presupposes the same dignity of all cultures.
Membership of the United Nations. The Federal Republic of Ger-
The aim of German cultural policy abroad is to break down preju-
many has been a member of the United Nations since 1973 but for a
dices and to strengthen mutual respect between peoples. Through
long time before that had cooperated with its subordinate and spe-
this it also serves to foster economic and political cooperation. Re-
cialised agencies. It takes an active part in the multilateral, interna-
sponsibility for this part of foreign policy rests with the Federal For-
tional cooperation in the world organisation. For the 1987/88 period
eign Office, which cooperates closely in this field with the govern-
the Federal Republic is a member of the UN Security Council for the
ments of the Länder.
second time. In line with the Charter of the United Nations it sup-
The Federal Republic of Germany has cultural agreements with
ports worldwide efforts to secure peace, economic and social
50 countries. Such an agreement is not, however, a prerequisite for
progress and the implementation of human rights and the right of
close cultural exchange. Most of the exchange activities are carried
self-determination of nations. It condemns in the sharpest possible
out by specialised agencies which work independently within a for-
terms all kinds of racism and colonialism and resists with determi-
eign policy framework set by the Federal Government. The four
ation the creation of new spheres of power and influence.
most important are:
The Goethe Institute, which has 155 branches in 66 countries,
Foreign cultural policy has a threefold task:
concentrates on teaching the German language and providing
To promote knowledge and dissemination of the German lan-
comprehensive information about Germany.
The German Academic Exchange Service (Deutscher Akade-
guage in the world;
to convey abroad a comprehensive image of the Federal Re-
mischer Austauschdienst, DAAD) is responsible for exchanges of
public of Germany, reflecting its democratic multiplicity of opinion
postgraduates and students.
Inter Nationes looks after foreign guests in Germany and pro-
and its cultural achievements;
to disseminate knowledge of foreign cultures in the Federal
duces and disseminates all manner of films, tape recordings and
printed matter.
Republic of Germany.
The Federal Republic of Germany in the world
139
138
State, politics, the law
Conference on Confidence and Security-Building Measures and
Disarmament in Europe (CDE) and to agree on a further follow-up
meeting.
Precondition to viable détente is a reduction of military confron-
tation. The Federal Republic of Germany has already made con-
crete contributions to securing peace, disarmament and arms con-
trol in the past, in particular by eschewing ABC weapons, signing
the nuclear test ban treaty, joining the nuclear non-proliferation
treaty and eschewing the export of arms to areas of tension. The
Federal Republic of Germany contributes actively to all efforts to di-
minish the danger of military confrontation and to create a stable
balance of strengh between East and West. Armament control is an
integral part of its security policy. It takes an active part in the var-
ious multilateral negotiations.
Signing the Moscow Treaty, 1970
Creation of conventional stability in Europa is especially import-
ant to the security of our continent. In the field of chemical weapons
alliances and between contrasting systems of society. Following
the federal government is seeking early agreement on a verifiable
two decades in which there were no relations between the two
and worldwide ban. In nuclear arms the USA and the USSR reached
parts of Germany, the Basic Treaty provided the foundation for a re-
a first agreement in 1987 to do away with medium range missiles.
The federal government supports the objective of Geneva talks to
gulated co-existence, humanitarian improvements and more con-
tacts between their inhabitants. With this the Federal Republic pur-
halve the American and Soviet potentials in strategic offensive wea-
sues the aim of keeping alive the feeling of all Germans that they be-
pons as a second step in nuclear disarmament. Bonn's objective in
long together and of mitigating the effects of the division.
respect of American and Soviet short-range nuclear missiles is a
The Federal Republic pursues a policy vis-à-vis the East which
clear, verifiable reduction to equal ceilings.
rests on two principles: maintaining the security of the West by ade-
quate defence capability and simultaneous readiness for dialogue
Policy vis-à-vis the Third World. Cooperation with the countries in
and cooperation with the Soviet Union and the other countries of
the Middle East, Africa, Latin America and Asia has become an ever
central and eastern Europe. This policy is designed for the long
more important element of German foreign policy. This turning tow-
term and makes use of all possibilities for political contacts and
ards the Third World reflects the increased responsibility of the
economic, scientific and cultural cooperation. The goal is lasting
Federal Republic in the world, its global economic involvement and
détente between East and West based on a realistic assessment.
its vital interest in a worldwide peaceful order.
With its policy the Federal Republic of Germany also smoothed
Respect for the self-determination and equal rights of nations is
be way to the convening of the Conference on Security and Coop-
an essential foundation of the policy of the Federal Republic of Ger-
ation in Europe (CSCE). In the Helsinki Final Act (1975) all Euro-
many. It maintains relations with the states of the Third World on a
an states (except Albania), the USA and Canada agreed on a
basis of balanced and egalitarian partnership. It fully backs their
code of conduct for improving their relations and continuing the
claim to independent and sovereign development. It strives for no
CSCE process. The Federal Republic's priorities in this are respect
spheres of influence and wants to export no ideologies; the Federal
for human rights, development of trust between nations, expansion
Republic works towards a world in which all nations determine their
of economic and scientific cooperation, reunion of separated fami-
political, economic and cultural affairs themselves and in which they
lies and the easing of contacts between people. Meanwhile three
cooperate as partners.
CSCE follow-up meetings have taken place in Belgrade, Madrid and
To achieve this objective the prosperity gap between industrial
Vienna. At the last meeting in Vienna the aim was again to achieve
and developing countries in North and South must be narrowed.
progress in all three CSCE fields, to usher in a second phase of the
The Federal Republic faces up to co-responsibility for solving these
State, politics, the law
The Federal Republic of Germany in the world
141
140
most important international tasks of our time, especially vis-à-vis it
the least developed countries. Together with its EC partners
es constructive contributions to the dialogue between indus-
and developing countries, helping in the struggle against hun-
and misery, for improved living conditions and for more transfer
of resources to the developing countries.
The efficiency of the cooperation and increased help is promoted
by a well-functioning world economy, especially by the freest possi-
ble exchange of goods. All states and groups of states are there-
fore called upon to participate with substantial contributions to the
ongoing dialogue and balancing of interests between North and
South, regardless of their economic and social orders. A few de-
cades ago, after the devastation of World War II, the German people
urgently needed outside help to rebuild their country and they
got it. It is therefore self-evident that now the Federal Republic of
Germany supports countries which need help to develop. Since
coming into existence it has spent continuously rising amounts on
The Economic Summit in Bonn, 1985
development aid. By 1986 the official and private aid to developing
countries had totalled almost DM 280,000 million. More increases
Culture in this sense encompasses all the facets of life and
are planned in official aid for the years immediately ahead (see
thought of peoples, including their civilisatory and social problems.
Regardless of differences in scientific and technical development,
also p. 217-221).
cultural exchange presupposes the same dignity of all cultures.
Membership of the United Nations. The Federal Republic of Ger-
The aim of German cultural policy abroad is to break down preju-
many has been a member of the United Nations since 1973 but for a
dices and to strengthen mutual respect between peoples. Through
long time before that had cooperated with its subordinate and spe-
this it also serves to foster economic and political cooperation. Re-
cialised agencies. It takes an active part in the multilateral interna-
sponsibility for this part of foreign policy rests with the Federal For-
tional cooperation in the world organisation. For the 1987/88 period
eign Office, which cooperates closely in this field with the govern-
the Federal Republic is a member of the UN Security Council for the
ments of the Länder.
second time. In line with the Charter of the United Nations it sup-
The Federal Republic of Germany has cultural agreements with
ports worldwide efforts to secure peace, economic and social
50 countries. Such an agreement is not, however, a prerequisite for
progress and the implementation of human rights and the right of
close cultural exchange. Most of the exchange activities are carried
self-determination of nations. It condemns in the sharpest possible
out by specialised agencies which work independently within a for-
terms all kinds of racism and colonialism and resists with determi-
eign policy framework set by the Federal Government. The four
ation the creation of new spheres of power and influence.
most important are:
The Goethe Institute, which has 155 branches in 66 countries,
Foreign cultural policy has a threefold task:
concentrates on teaching the German language and providing
To promote knowledge and dissemination of the German lan-
comprehensive information about Germany.
The German Academic Exchange Service (Deutscher Akade-
guage in the world;
to convey abroad a comprehensive image of the Federal Re-
mischer Austauschdienst, DAAD) is responsible for exchanges of
public of Germany, reflecting its democratic multiplicity of opinion
postgraduates and students.
and its cultural achievements;
Inter Nationes looks after foreign guests in Germany and pro-
to disseminate knowledge of foreign cultures in the Federal
duces and disseminates all manner of films, tape recordings and
printed matter.
Republic of Germany.
142
State, politics, the law
The Institute for Foreign Relations (Institut für Auslandsbezie-
hungen) specialises in organising German exhibitions abroad and
ign exhibitions in Germany.
Public finance
In many countries, more and more tasks which used to have a pri-
vate character are now being taken care of by the state. Conse-
quently, the importance of public finance has grown. This also ap-
plies in the Federal Republic of Germany.
The Federal Republic's total public budget comprises not only
the federal budget but also the budgets of the Bundesländer (fed-
eral states) and about 8,500 communes (local governments) and
associations of communes as well as a number of special accounts.
One must always keep this in mind when making comparisons. For
example, the military expenditure of the Federal Republic is easy to
ascertain because defence is a federal matter and spending on it
appears as a self-contained block in the federal budget. By con-
trast, it is not easy to tot up the total spending on cultural ameni-
ties-education, science, arts, etc.-because it is spread among
the budgets of the Federal Government, the Länder, the communes
and many non-governmental institutions.
The distribution of tasks. The lowest administrative level on which
public services are rendered is the commune (Gemeinde). It deals
with all local affairs. These comprise manifold basic needs of the
public such as water, gas and electricity supplies, garbage dispo-
Federal, State and local government spending (1984)
Total DM 583,600 millions
Categories in percent
Transportation
Defence
Social security
4.7
%
8.5%
Schools,
20.9%
Public security and
universities,
legal protection
research
4.4%
14.7%
Health, sport
6.1%
5.3%
Economic promotion
29.9%
5.5%
Housing and
regional planning
Others
State, politics, the law
Public finance
144
145
sal, maintenance of communal roads and, together with the Länder,
1987 Federal Budget Plan
DM 268,550
administration the schools system and other cultural responsibili-
Revenues in
millions
Federal share of income and
ties.
DM 1,000 millions
corporation taxes 104.97 (39.1%)
e tasks of the Länder lie mainly in the field of culture, primarily
including:
chools and other education facilities. They are also responsi-
wage and salary tax 70.76
or the police forces and public health services.
Federal taxes 51.85
The greatest load of public tasks is carried by the Federal Gov-
(19.3%) including:
ernment. Two large fields predominate: social security and-as al-
Mineral oil taxes 25.90
Tobacco tax 14.85
Other revenues
ready mentioned-defence. in addition the Federal Government
25.38 (9.5%)
has important tasks in many other fields: transport and communica-
Coin revenues
tions (Federal Railways, posts, road construction), education and
0.39 (0.1%)
Federal share of
vocational training, science and research, energy and business
Net borrowing
turnover tax
22.28 (8.3%)
promotion, agriculture, housing and urban works, public health, in-
(including import turnover)
61.20 (22.8%)
ternal security and development aid.
Trade tax 2.48 (0.9%)
Apart from this there are tasks addressed jointly by the Federal
Government and the Länder. These include the expansion and new
Expenditures in
construction of universities, improvement of regional economic
DM 1,000 millions
Education, science,
structures, agricultural structure and coastal protection, as well as
Transportation
research 14.15 (5.3%)
cooperation in education planning and the promotion of science.
26.45 (9.9%)
Social security
including:
87.55 (32.6%)
Financing the public budgets has become more and more diffi-
Road construction 7.56
including:
cult since the mid-1970s. Especially the spending on social security
Subsidies to social welfare
Federal Railways 13.20
insurance 41.74
but also the Federal Republic of Germany's payments to the Euro-
Child benefit 14.00
pean Community have risen enormously since then. All levels of
General financing
War victims welfare 13.00
52.79 (19.7%) including:
Promotion of
government are also finding it increasingly difficult to bear the
Welfare 9.51
assets-building 1.27
growing administrative costs, especially for personnel, and the cost
Debts servicing
of debt servicing. The increasing burden on the state has consist-
(Interest and the like)
31.71
ently narrowed its scope for action and more and more reduced the
Subsidy to
public funds available for investment. That is why consolidation of
Berlin budget 11.86
the public budgets is a high priority task for federal and state gov-
Defence 53.62 (20.0%)
ernments and will remain so in the years to come despite the head-
Other expenditures 23.67 (8.8%)
way already made.
including:
Economic cooperation 6.88
Finance planning. A 1967 Law for the Promotion of Economic Sta-
Housing, regional planning 3.03
Economic promotion 10.31 (3.8%)
(including agriculture)
lity and Growth requires the federal and Länder governments to
entate their budgeting to the main economic policy objectives.
brought into line with the total economically justifiable amount of
ese are stability of prices, high employment, balanced foreign
revenue. The local government regulations of the states stipulate
trade and steady, commensurate growth. The Federal Government
that communal governments must also draw up medium-term fin-
and the Länder must draw up financial plans for their areas of re-
ance plans.
sponsibility in which incomes and expenditure are projected for a
The great importance of the public budgets requires close coor-
period of five years. The main purpose of this finance planning for
dination through all administrative levels. The most important body
several years ahead is, above all, to harmonise public incomes and
of this voluntary cooperation is the Financial Planning Council, set
expenditures with national economic resources and requirements.
up in 1968, in which Federal Government, Länder, communes and
Anticipated budgetary liabilities, listed in order of priority, are to be
the Federal Bank (Deutsche Bundesbank) participate. The Econ-
State, politics, the law
Public finance
147
146
omic Policy Council also has a coordinating and advisory function
are "joint taxes". They are shared between the Federal Government
(see p. 164).
and Länder according to a fixed, in the case of sales tax a periodi-
cally renegotiated distribution scale. The local authorities also re-
ibution of revenues. The major source of the revenue the fed-
ceive a part of the income tax revenue. In exchange they have to
and Länder governments, as well as local authorities, need to
surrender to the Federal Government and Länder part of the trade
carry out their tasks is taxes. There are more than two dozen differ-
tax they raise, which used to be a purely local government tax. An-
ent types. But five of these alone-income, corporation, turnover,
other part of the sales tax goes to the EC.
mineral oil and trade taxes-raise more than four fifths of the entire
Other taxes go to only one level of government. Federal Govern-
tax revenue. Before 1914 the Reich, Länder and communes each
ment sources are the customs and excise duties (after deduction
received about a third of the total tax revenue. With the reweighting
of the EC share), the incomes from finance monopolies (e.g. spirits
of tasks the share of revenue intake has also shifted in favour of
monopoly) and various consumer and traffic taxes (e.g. mineral oil,
central government. Today the Federal Government controls just
tobacco and capital transfer taxes). The Länder receive the motor-
under half of the entire tax revenue.
vehicle, property, inheritance and beer taxes as well as a number of
The distribution of tax revenues among the three levels of gov-
smaller taxes. The communes receive the revenues from real estate
ernment is complicated. Income, corporation and turnover taxes
and local consumption and expenditure taxes.
The highest revenues are brought in by income tax. This is the
Tax revenues in the Federal area (in millions of DM)
one which most strongly affects the average person. Dependently
employed, i. e. wage-earning or salaried workers and public ser-
1970
1980
1986
Tax type
vants, have it deducted from wages or salary by the employer who
remits it to the tax office (the "pay-as-you-earn" principle). The rate
Shared taxes
99,949
267,300
333,675
of taxation rises with income. After allowance of a number of certain
35,086
111,559
152,233
Wage
Income (excl. wage tax)
16,001
29,881
non-taxable sums it comprises at present at least 22% and at most
36,796
2,021
4,175
8,121
56%.
Capital gains
8,716
21,322
32,301
Corporation
Apart from tax revenues a major source of public finance is gov-
Turnover, import turnover
38,125
93,448
111,139
ernment borrowing. The Federal Republic's budgets in 1986 were
Federal taxes inc. EC shares
27,396
46,053
56,351
DM 792,600 million in debt, which broke down to about DM 13,000
2,871
4,603
5,239
Customs, excise
per inhabitant. This was a high level of public debt. In recent years
7,718
12,906
16,282
Tobacco, coffee, sugar
new borrowing at the three national budget levels was cut by means
2,228
3,885
4,065
Spirits monopoly
a consistent retrenchment policy. This consolidation course is to be
Mineral oil
11,512
21,351
25,644
Other consumer
451
780
934
continued in principle to cut the debt burden further.
948
39
9
Surcharge
Other
1,667
2,490
4,177
Financial equalization. The tax-raising capability of the Länder va-
änder taxes
9,531
16,072
21,255
ries considerably because their natural conditions and economic
operty
2,877
4,664
4,396
structures are also very different. Thus there are financially strong
6,585
9,356
otor vehicles
3,830
states like Baden-Württemberg, Hamburg and Hesse and finan-
Beer
1,175
1,262
1,263
cially weak states like Lower Saxony, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saar-
Other
1,650
3,560
6,239
land, Schleswig-Holstein and Bremen. These differences in tax-
Local government taxes
15,679
35,736
41,155
raising potential are by and large balanced out by a "horizontal fi-
2,683
5,804
7,636
Land
nancial equalization". This is achieved in part by a differential shar-
Trade (profits and capital)
10,728
27,091
31,987
2,267
1,532
ing of the Länder's turnover tax income, partly by equalization
Other
2,597
payments by the financially stronger to the weaker Länder. In addi-
Total
152,555
364,918
452,437
tion the federation supports the financially weak Länder to improve
further their financial capacity.
148
State, politics, the law
A "vertical financial equalization" takes place between Länder
and local authorities. The tax and other revenues of the communes
dequate for their tasks. The municipal administrations there-
Public service
ar
f
bend on subsidies from the Länder. Some of these are tied
cific purposes but others are freely disposable. This munici-
to pal financial equalization aims at reducing the differences between
For the average citizen the state as such is an abstract concept. It
communes with high tax revenues and those with low tax reve-
takes on flesh and blood only in the person of its servants. In the
Federal Republic some 4.4 million people are in direct public em-
nues.
ployment, 3.6 million full-time, in federal, state and local govern-
ment and in public corporations and institutions. Only some of them
carry out administrative work in the strictest sense. Public servants
include various groups, e.g. departmental civil servants and dust-
men, swimming baths supervisors and professors, judges and
nurses, teachers and engine drivers but also the soldiers of the
Federal Armed Forces.
Professional civil servants. About 40% of the public servants com-
prise what are called "Beamte" in German, meaning permanent civil
servants. The permanent civil service is a specifically German char-
acteristic. The Basic Law has retained this proven institution which
in the democratic, constitutional state of the Federal Republic has
proved an objective administrator of the common good. The Basic
Law expressly rules that "the law of the public service shall be regu-
lated with due regard to the traditional principles of the professional
civil service". The professional civil service is to ensure that public
tasks are carried out reliably and free of extraneous influences at all
times.
The Basic Law entrusts the civil servant with "the exercise of
state authority." This authority is exercised by an official, for exam-
ple, when he orders the demolition of a dangerously delapidated
house, regulates traffic, imposes a fine or chases a robber with a
pistol. The public servant's "status, service and loyalty are go-
verned by public law".
The "Beamter" has a special obligation of loyality to his employer.
He is dutybound at all times to defend the free democratic order as
laid down by the Basic Law. All his actions must be aimed at the
common good and conform to administrative law. Even where he
has scope for decision he may never take action as he thinks fit but
only in line with duty-abiding discretion. His superior can demand
obedience from him, yet he remains responsible himself for the le-
gality of his actions. Even in his basic rights the Beamter is subject
to certain limitations. Although Beamte, like all citizens, have the
right to become politically active they are obliged to exercise mod-
State, politics, the law
Public service
151
150
eration and restraint. They also have the "right of association," that
rejection must be justified with facts which can be reviewed by an
is the right to form professional groups, but are not allowed to
independent court.
The appointment practice for federal and Länder civil servants
as well as special duties, the Beamte also have special rights.
was, and is, not uniform everywhere. A decision by the heads of the
ule Beamte are appointed for life. For the period of their active
federal and state governments in 1972, the so-called "radicals de-
employment and in retirement they and their families have a claim to
cree" (Radikalenerlass), brought no clarification at the time. De-
welfare benefits from their employer. If they become incapacitated
pending on political standpoints, individual cases of rejection were
or when they reach retirement age they are paid a civil-service pen-
used as arguments in the occasionally vehement debate over an
appointment procedure which did justice to all the requirements of
sion. Status and pay in the civil service are hierarchically structured.
a state based on the rule of law.
Every Beamter belongs to one of four "service grades": sub-cleri-
Meanwhile highest court rulings have pointed the way to a proce-
cal, clerical, executive or administrative service. Which of these
dure conforming to the principle of the rule of law. Accordingly, the
categories he is grouped in is determined by educational standards
Federal Government in 1979 adopted new "Principles for Testing
achieved and professional qualification. Generally, the highest
Loyalty to the Constitution" ("Grundsätze für die Prüfung der Ver-
grouping requires a university degree. Moving from a lower to a
fassungstreue") for the federal administration.
higher category is possible only under certain conditions, although
it has in recent years been eased. Within the various grades there
are several differently remunerated levels.
Wage and salary earners in the public service. About 60% of pu-
blic employees are wage and salary earners without Beamter sta-
tus. In many respects they have the same rights and status as their
colleagues in private enterprise. They have therefore to pay contri-
butions into the social insurance schemes and are not from the out-
set employed for life. They become indismissable only after 15 ye-
ars and after the age of 40. Over the years their status has, how-
ever, been more and more adapted to that of the permanent civil
servants.
Yet significant differences remain in their legal position although
sometimes non-Beamte public employees do the same, or similar,
jobs as their Beamte colleagues.
The problem of extremists. The public service, above all its perma-
nt civil servants, put the constitution and legislation into practice.
this they implement the order of the state. For this reason most
states put their civil servants under higher than normal obligations
of loyality. They demand that they be always ready to defend and
promote the constitutional order.
However, the procedures according to which civil servants are
appointed vary. Many countries have chosen very pragmatic ways.
For the Federal Republic of Germany, the Federal Constitutional
Court has laid down that an applicant's loyalty to the constitution
must be tested as one prerequisite for his employment, but that a
Internal security
153
Internal security
Maintenance of public security and order is one of the state's most
important tasks. In the Federal Republic it is carried out by federal
and state (Land) authorities.
The police of the Länder. Principally the police forces are under the
jurisdiction of individual federal states. The federal states having
legislative power in this field, there are eleven different Land police
laws which are nevertheless similar in many major points. Close
cooperation between the state police forces is assured by regular
conferences of the Land interior ministers which the Federal Minis-
Police attending to a traffic accident
ter of the Interior also attends.
Police tasks are varied. The police body with which the citizen
In internal emergency the Federal Border Guard can be assigned
has most contact is the traffic police. No less important to internal
special tasks. In particular, they can be brought in to avert a threat
security are general police forces (Schutzpolizei, Bereitschaftspoli-
to the existence of the free democratic order of the Federal Repu-
zei and Wasserschutzpolizei) as well as criminal police, the only
blic or a federal state. In an external emergency, i. e. an armed at-
plainclothes part of the forces. In crime-fighting the focus is on vio-
tack on federal territory from outside, the Bonn government can, if
lent crime, theft, fraud, juvenile delinquency and narcotics crime,
necessary, deploy the BGS in the entire federal area.
and on an increasing scale political extremism and politically moti-
vated terrorism. For police training and for manpower support of
The Federal Criminal Police Office. The Federal Criminal Police Of-
the regular forces, the states also keep uniformly trained Alert For-
fice (Bundeskriminalamt, BKA), which is based at Wiesbaden and
ces (Bereitschaftspolizei) numbering about 25,000 men. The Alert
has a main directorate near Bonn, is the centre for cooperation be-
Forces are uniformly equipped by the federation and their opera-
tween federal and state law-enforcement agencies. It collects infor-
tional readiness is kept under constant review.
mation and documentation for crime-fighting by the police and eval-
uates them. The BKA has technical and identification facilities and
The Federal Border Guard. The Federal Border Guard (Bundes-
functions as the national centre for INTERPOL, the international cri-
grenzschutz, BGS) is a federal police force responsible to the Fed-
minal police organisation.
eral Minister of the Interior. Its overall strength is 22,600 men. The
The BKA handles serious crimes itself, e.g. international drug
in task of the BGS is controlling the Federal Republic's external
trafficking, or when it is asked to do so by a Land. A BKA security
ders. It checks incoming and outgoing traffic. In the frontier re-
group based in Bonn protects the federal constitutional organs and
gion it has to ward off threats and remove disturbances.
their guests. BKA personnel strength has been almost quadrupled
The Federal Border Guard also keeps watch on federal installa-
since 1969 to 3,500. This was an important contribution to streng-
tions (e. g. the official residence of the Federal President and the
thening internal security in the Federal Republic of Germany, espe-
Federal Chancellery) and threatened foreign missions, and it is
cially to fighting violent crime by terrorist groups and serious crime
used for security work during state visits and similar events. A spe-
in general.
cial border police guard operative since 1973, the "Grenzschutz-
gruppe 9" (GSG 9), won worldwide recognition when in October
The authorities for protection of the constitution. Protection of
1977 it freed 86 hostages held by terrorists in a Lufthansa airliner at
the free, democratic basic order against its removal and undermin-
ing is defined as "Verfassungsschutz" (protection of the constitu-
Mogadishu, Somalia.
154
State, politics, the law
tion) by the Basic Law. In order effectively to provide this protection
the relevant federal and Länder authorities collect information
about extremist and security-threatening activities and evaluate it
Defence
f
federal and Länder governments, for executive authorities
Another courts. important field of activity in protecting the constitution is
The security policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is aimed at
counter-espionage, that is fighting the secret service activities of
protecting its peace, freedom and independence. This requires the
foreign powers in the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany.
ability to withstand any political blackmail and to make any attempt
The federal authority charged with these tasks and the central
at the use of military force an intolerable risk for a possible
collecting point for documents relating to them is the Federal Office
aggressor.
for the Protection of the Constitution (Bundesamt für Verfassungs-
Defence capability and readiness to seek détente are the two
schutz, BfV) in Köln (Cologne). The BfV is accountable to the Fed-
components of this security policy. This is why the Federal Republic
eral Minister of the Interior. It cooperates with the corresponding
of Germany is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
agencies of the federal states. The agency is a pure information-
(NATO) pact while at the same time taking part actively in interna-
gathering service. It has no executive police powers.
tional détente efforts. It is guided by the fundamental principle not
The federal and Länder authorities for the protection of the con-
to become a nuclear power.
stitution are subject to several levels of control. It is exercised by
the responsible ministers, the parliaments and the Commissioners
The task of the armed forces. The Bundeswehr (Federal Armed
for data protection. The agencies are also subject to control by the
Forces)-the official name of the armed services-exists to safe-
courts, public opinion and the media.
guard peace. Its existence is a prerequisite for a policy of détente. It
provides the biggest contingent of conventional troops of NATO in
Europe.
NATO exercise
Defence
157
State, politics, the law
156
Forces comparison central Europe (soldiers, tanks, fighter planes)
The Bundeswehr has the tasks
peacetime, together with the troops of the allies, to deter con- an
NATO
WARSAW PACT
emy in from threatening or using military force by maintaining
2,800,000
III
4,000,000
ant operational readiness;
in crises to help enable the political leadership to negotiate
without having to submit to foreign political will,
state of defence, to preserve or restore the inviolability defensive of
17,825
32,200
the effort with its allies near the border (forward defence).
territory in a of the Federal Republic by means of a joint
of its high population density and its high level vulnerable of indus- to
3,697
7,465
Because the Federal Republic of Germany is highly with the
trialisation attack. A strip only 100 kms wide west of the border and 25% of
any of the Warsaw Pact houses 30% of its population on the
states industrial capacity. War action of any appreciable duration meant to be
its of the Federal Republic would destroy what is is vital.
The Bundeswehr comprises three services, the Army (Heer), Air
territory defended. This is why the forward defence principle
Force (Luftwaffe) and Navy (Marine). It is now indisputably one of
the well-equipped forces in the North Atlantic Alliance. The fighting
organisation of the Bundeswehr. In the Federal for Republic men. The of
strength and the efficiency of the three services have been im-
The there is general compulsory military service June 1989 it
proved and strengthened by introduction of new and modernisation
Germany military service currently lasts 15 months; from 1 con-
of existing weapons systems and armaments. Things will keep de-
basic extended to 18 months. The Bundeswehr is no purely soldiers
veloping in this field.
will be As a highly technical fighting force rank-and-file it needs sol-
Longer-serving soldiers can take part in courses and sit exams
scripted army. at its disposal longer. Currently 495,000 in the
during their service which will later help them in their working lives.
who are non-commissioned officers and officers are serving are career
Since 1973 the Bundeswehr has had universities of its own where
diers, Bundeswehr. About half of them are conscripts, the rest of to
future officers can study in various fields and obtain qualifications
servicemen or volunteers who have signed on for periods up
which are also recognised in civilian life. The Command and Staff
College of the Bundeswehr trains officers for senior posts.
15 years.
Bundeswehr and society. The Bundeswehr is responsible to the
political leadership. The primacy of parliament and political leaders
Armed forces manpower
is guaranteed by supreme command resting with the Federal Minis-
Army
ter of Defence in peacetime and with the Federal Chancellor in the
event of war. Parliamentary control of the Bundeswehr is exercised
by the committess of the Bundestag, especially the Defence Com-
110,700 Airforce
mittee.
A parliamentary control function is also exercised by the Defence
Commissioner of the Bundestag (Wehrbeauftragter), who is
elected by the parliament for a term of five years. It is his job to safe-
38,300 Navy
guard the constitutional rights of servicemen. Every serviceman
has the right to turn to him directly with complaints without going
through his superiors. The Defence Commissioner is empowered
6,000 Reservists
to demand information and access to files from military offices and
to visit any Bundeswehr installation unannounced.
State, politics, the law
158
the civic duty to do military service the individual of the has Ba- a
Economics
As well as to refuse for conscientious reasons. Article 4 conscience
ic right rules that no-one can be compelled against his recog-
Law service including the use of arms. For anyone service is
to render war conscientious objector the duty to do military civilian ser-
nised cancelled. as a Instead, he must do 20 months of substitute
vice social institutions, e. g. hospitals.
in of the Federal Republic are prepared if necessary resort to
The citizens their democratic system of values and way of life by and re-
defend force. They want a military balance with the than East 40 years
to armed the which has existed in Europe for more the North At-
gard peace partly due to German security policy within of the citiz-
as being Alliance. An essential factor in the broad approval alliance never
lantic is the declared will of all members of the Western
ens to use their weapons except in response to an attack.
Civil defence. measures in the non-military sector. It lies mainte-
Civil defence involves preparation and exclusively execution of in
all defence jurisdiction of civilian authorities. Its main tasks are protec-
the of national administration and government functions, of pro-
nance life and health of the population from the effects war, ef-
tion vision of of supplies vital to survival of the population and defence
The economic system
forts and support of the armed forces.
Employment
main task of civil defence is protection of the population. Agency The
The authority for this is the Federal Civil Defence responsible
Incomes and prices
central für Zivilschutz). Among other things it construction is in
Consumer protection
(Bundesamt and alerting services, air rescue, shelter Federal
Farming, forestry, fishing
for warning buildings, schools and hospitals. The job of Selbstschutz) the
Industry
residential Self-Protection Association (Bundesverband für den
is and to means of protection. So far more than 5.5 million people
instruct the population about the effects of offensive weapons have
Raw material and energy supplies
The crafts
Commerce
taken part in its courses.
Intra-German trade
Foreign trade
Cooperation with developing countries
Money and banking
Fairs and exhibitions
Transportation
The Post
Tourism
The economic system
161
Restraints of Competition (Cartel Act), first enacted in 1957 and
substantially improved meanwhile. It forbids concerted practices
and agreements which influence market conditions by restricting
The economic system
competition. Enforcement of the law is the function of the Federal
Cartel Office (Bundeskartellamt) in Berlin (West) and the cartel of-
e Federal Republic of Germany is one of the major industrial
fices of the Länder.
countries. In terms of overall economic performance it comes
The driving force of the market economy is the striving for profit.
fourth in the world; in world trade it even takes second place. Its
This is why it is bound to fail wherever no profits are, or can be
Gross National Product-i. e. the value of all goods and services
made. For this reason a number of sectors of the German economy
produced for the market-has more than doubled from 1960 million to
were never completely subject to the market economy system, for
1986. (Expressed in 1980 prices it has risen from DM 731,700 DM
example agriculture, parts of the transportation system and hard-
to DM 1,618,400 million. In terms of market prices it rose from
coal mining. Above all for social reasons agriculture cannot be com-
303,000 million to DM 1,949,000 million.) Since in this period the
pleteley exposed to free market competition. Moreover, it is subject
number of gainfully employed and the average working time have
to the EC regulations governing the agricultural market codes. The
diminished, the growth of the GNP is due to a mighty rise in produc-
German Federal Railways (Deutsche Bundesbahn) and the German
tivity. The Federal Republic was also hit by the worldwide recession
Federal Post Office (Deutsche Bundespost) are publicly owned.
which began in 1974. The slowing of economic growth and the ris-
They cannot orientate their activities purely to profit but have to
ing unemployment have been its most pressing problems. A have new
serve the general public. The railways must, for example, offer
orientation of economic and government spending policies
meanwhile reinvigorated the forces of growth.
Gross Domestic Product of important industrial states 1985
3,947
USA
Social market economy. The Federal Republic's economic system
16,495
has developed since the war into a socially responsible market
economy coupled with macroeconomic management. This system
1,328
Japan
10,998
rejects equally the old-style laissez-faire and government interven-
tionism. It combines the free initiative of the individual with the
625
Federal Republic
principles of social progress. The Basic Law, which guarantees
of Germany
10,243
freedom of private enterprise and private property, stipulates that
these basic rights be exercised to the public good. Under the tenet
510
France
9,245
of "as little government as possible, as much government as neces-
sary" the state has a mainly regulatory function in the market econ-
450
Great Britain
7,948
omy. It sets the general framework of conditions within which mar-
ket processes take place. The question as to which and how many
359
Italy,
6,284
goods are produced and who gets how much of what is decided
above all in the marketplace. In the Federal Republic there is almost
346
Canada
13,633
no state intervention in price and wage fixing.
Market economy. The prerequisite for the functioning of the market
164
Spain
4,248
mechanism is competition. Without it there can be no market econ-
But competition demands effort. And so it is understandable
GDP
GDP
omy. that entrepreneurs time and time again try to neutralise competi-
in 1,000 million US dollars
per capita in US dollars
tion, be it by agreements between competitors or by mergers of
firms. To prevent such attempts is the objective of a Law against
Source: OECD, Main Economic Indicators, March 1987
163
The economic system
162
Economics
Use of Gross National Product 1986 (DM 1,949,000 millions)
Generation of Gross Domestic Product 1986 (DM 1,944,000 millions)
Agriculture,
External
1.7%
Goods production
forestry, fishing
41.7%
Private consumption
55.5%
5.5%
contribution
15.7%
19.4%
di transport
14.4%
State,
Gross investments
private households
19.7%
26.4%
State consumption
Service enterprises
of this responsibility. To a large degree the stability of the economic
socially acceptable fares and the post office cannot exclude remote
villages from its services.
system is due to them. The realistic policies of the trade unions
have in recent years contributed to limiting the effects of the oil
The shortage of housing resulting from the war initially led to the
housing market being state-controlled. In the meantime it has by
price crises on the Federal Republic's workers. Here the specific
form of trade unionism which has grown in West Germany since the
and large become free again. The state does, however, watch that
war shows its worth. The trade unions of the Federal Republic of
competition on it does not result in socially intolerable conditions.
The most important measures to this end are laws protecting ten-
Germany are "unitary trade unions" in a double sense: each repres-
ents all the workers in an entire branch of industry (i. e. not only the
ancy, the payment of rent supplements to low-income households,
members of a certain craft or skill) and they are party-politically and
the promotion of building projects and the modernisation of hous-
denominationally neutral (i. e. not split into various allegiances).
ing. In a number of vocations, in which in principle there is free
This structure gives them their strength, spares them rivalries and
competition, lawmakers have made entry into the market depend-
ent on certain prerequisites. Thus craftsmen and retail traders must
makes them pillars of social stability.
prove they have the necessary professional qualifications before
Social welfare. One major reason why hitherto it has been possible
they can set up in business. For other vocations the state demands
to avoid social unrest in the Federal Republic better than in other
special training and a minimum age, for example in the fields of
countries is that its inhabitants are protected by a close social sec-
health, legal practice, accountancy and taxation consultancy.
Industrial relations. In the labour market, too, the free play of for-
Distribution of National Income 1986 (DM 1,514,200 millions)
ces applies. There is free collective bargaining. That is to say that
labour-employer agreements on pay, working hours, vacation enti-
tiements and general working conditions are freely negotiated. The
organisations of the two parties to the agreements, the trade un-
Income from
68.6%
and the employers' associations-often called "social part-
entrepreneurial
n Germany-thus play an important role in economic life.
activity and assets
ed, their main task is to represent their members' interests
Income from
with determination and, on occasions, with hardness. However, at
dependant
31.4%
employment
the same time they bear a large measure of responsibility for the
economy as a whole. The way they conduct their bargaining can
greatly influence the functioning of the economic system.
Labour and employers in the Federal Republic have been aware
The economic system
165
Economics
164
network. Social protection is considerable, especially accident for em- or
Gross National Product of the Federal Republic of Germany
in actual annual prices and prices compared with 1980
urity ployees. Whether an employee is old or sick, injured by ret-
1,950
less, affected by the bankruptcy of his employer or taking
ing in a more promising occupation-most of the financial prob-
1,800
solved by the welfare system.
1,650
ms This are support is not charity. It is based on a system of solidarity. of
1,500
in employment pay contributions to the various branches
Those the social insurances and are thus assured of getting what they
1,350
1,200
need when they need it.
However, the social system extends far beyond the employees'
1,050
contributions. It includes child benefit for every child, rent supple- vic-
900
ments, social benefits for the needy and compensation of war
tims. The entire public and private expenditure on social security
750
amounts to about a third of the national product.
600
450
Overall economic development. Undesirable developments counter can
300
also happen in a market economy. The state must try to
them by means of budgetary, taxation, welfare and competition pol- for
icies. Since 1967 the Federal Republic has had an instrument
1960
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
management of the economy. It demands that stability of prices, under a
GNP in actual annual prices
GNP in 1980 prices
level of employment and external economic balance it
(DM 1,000 mill.)
(DM 1,000 mill.)
high conditions of steady and adequate growth be secured. However, hard-
is not only the state which is called upon to implement these Bank
wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung) was set up. This panel of five inde-
to-reconcile aims. The independent German Federal
pendent economic experts (popularly known as the "five wise
(Deutsche Bundesbank) as well as the trade unions and employers'
men") draws up an evaluation of overall economic developments
associations, who determine incomes policy, also bear decisive re-
every autumn which is to help all concerned in economic decision-
sponsibility for the way the economy fares. The following bodies
taking.
participate in the coordination of economic and fiscal policy:
Every January the Federal Government presents to the Bundes-
The Economic Policy Council consists of the federal ministers of
tag and Bundesrat the annual economic report which contains a re-
economics and finance, one member from each Land government
sponse to the annual assessment of the Board of Experts, an out-
and representatives of the communes and associations of com-
line of the economic and finance policy objectives pursued by the
The Federal Bank can also take part in the consultations
Federal Government in the current year and of the planned econ-
munes. which take place twice a year. The council tries to achieve as unitary The
omic policy.
an similarly composed Financial Planning Council (Finanzplanungsrat) finance
approach to cyclical policy as possible by all concerned.
Current objectives. Although in recent years economic growth
has the task of coordinating federal, Länder and communal
has increased, prices have remained stable and the number of peo-
ple employed has also been rising, the persistent high unemploy-
planning. Bonn and the Länder are committed to drawing up finance plans
ment remains a serious problem. To reduce it is a central task of
for several years ahead so that public revenues and expenditure
economic policy. The key to more employment lies in higher invest-
can be harmonised with the needs and capacity of the national
ment. To ensure adequate profitability for investments the Federal
Government is trying to strengthen the market's own forces, espe-
economy. In 1963 the Board of Experts for the Assessment of Overall Econ-
cially the incentives for individual performance. The influence of the
omic Trends (Sachverständigenrat zur Begutachung der gesamt-
state on the economy is being reduced, regulations hindering the
Economics
166
are being eliminated. This makes possible freer competition this di-
market and adaptation to new developments. Important impetus in set in
rection is coming from a major tax reform which has been and fur-
Employment
ain. Among measures to cut unemployment are retraining chang-
r-training programmes to keep workers fit for constantly small
demands on them. The Federal Government's policy on
In the first decades of the Federal Republic's existence the great-
g medium-sized businesses is designed to help them improve
est influence on its labour market was the influx of expellees from
and their efficiency, which also contributes to the protection and crea-
the eastern territories and refugees from the GDR. Despite great
economic difficulties it was possible to integrate these millions of
tion of
Federal jobs. Republic of Germany favours free world trade of and its
people into the work process. Indeed, they contributed greatly to
The all forms of protectionism. Because it exports a third Federal
the Federal Republic's economic advancement.
rejects GNP it depends on open markets. For the economy of the
The labour force (including self-employed) rose from 20.4 million
it is vital for the European internal market to be expanded held
in 1950 to 27.2 million in 1965. From about 1960 onwards the in-
Republic outside the European Community for old markets to be is
crease of the workforce was due mainly to ever larger numbers of
and and ones developed. The market economy course at home trade
foreign workers streaming into the Federal Republic. In 1965 the
matched new by persistent pursuit of open markets and free
number of "guest workers" (Gastarbeiter), as they are popularly
called, had risen above a million and in 1973, at the peak of foreign-
worldwide.
worker employment, it was more than 2.6 million. Since then, rec-
ruitment of foreign workers has been cut, with the exception of
those from European Community member countries. In 1986 there
were 1.6 million foreign workers in the Federal Republic. The big-
gest contingent are the Turks, followed by Yugoslavs, Italians,
Greeks, Austrians and Spaniards.
For a decade and a half, from the late 1950's to the early 1970's,
the Federal Republic enjoyed full employment; there was, in fact, a
Gainfully employed by vocational status
3.7
%
11.3%
13.2%
9.4%
1958
1986
24.5
25.8
mill.
mill.
75.5%
86.9%
Dependently
Assisting
Independents
employed
family members
Employment
169
Economics
168
shortage. With an annual average of around 150,000 time the
Unemployed and job vacancies (in millions, annual average)
2.4
2.4
labour number of jobless fell to its lowest level in 1970. At the the same labour
almost 800,000 job vacancies. Thereafter has
re were diminished gradually and the number of unemployed and since
2.1
2.1
ce rising since 1974. It rose above one million in 1975 Almost every
been 1982 there have been more than two million jobless.
1.8
1.8
tenth capable of working is without a job.
person various reasons for the high unemployment. A 1970's. major
1.5
1.5
There are certainly the international economic crisis of the indus-
The countries was exacerbated by the explosion of petroleum for weak
one inflationary was development which appeared in all Western and
1.2
1.2
trial material prices. But there are also causes
0.9
0.9
other growth raw and unemployment at home. The consumption proportion
0.6
0.6
Gainful employment by economic sectors (in 1,000s; annual averages)
0.3
0.3
1970
1980
1986
1960
0
0
Sector
19501)
55
60
65
70
75
80
85 86
Agriculture, forestry,
livestock-breeding, fishing
3,623
2,262
1,436
1,345
Unemployed
Job vacancies
1)Without Saarland
767
513
486
1,159
Self-employed
1,931
1,200
680
610
Assisting family members
533
295
243
249
of GNP rose consistently until 1982. This took place at the expense
Dependently employed
12,518
13,024
11,633
10,544
of investments and hence growth and employment. This develop-
Industrial production
ment was exacerbated by a high public debt and ever more bu-
653
565
544
808
reaucratic hindrances to industry.
Self-employed
145
83
69
Assisting family members
248
12,226
10,985
9,931
The policy followed since 1982, which has been more strongly
Dependently employed
11,462
aimed again at improving the conditions for growth and reducing
4,515
4,655
4,841
4,678
hindrances to employment, has noticeably improved the employ-
Commerce and transportation
664
623
647
ment situation in recent years. While the number of people in work
766
Self-employed
207
96
79
dropped by almost a million from 1980 to 1984, from 1984 to 1986
Assisting family members
272
3,467
3,784
4,122
3,952
almost 400,000 new jobs became available. This stopped unem-
Dependently employed
ployment rising further, but there has been no significant drop. The
6,727
8,392
9,219
Other sectors (services)
5,591
main reason for the persistent joblessness lies in the development
747
541
606
660
of the population. While the population is declining as a whole, the
Self-employed
96
89
181
180
number of people able to work is rising. Additionally, many more
Assisting family members
4,869
5,941
7,636
8,383
Dependently employed
women now seek employment. Moreover, jobs are being lost
26,668
26,302
25,786
through rationalisation and the use of robots, computers and mi-
26,247
Total
crochips, as well as through worldwide structural changes in a
3,284
2,690
2,361
2,424
Self-employed
955
847
number of industries, for example coal, steel and shipbuilding.
2,632
1,732
Assisting family members
22,246
22,986
22,515
Some groups are especially hard hit by unemployment, such as
Dependently employed
20,331
workers with inadequate vocational qualifications and the older and
170
Economics
Employment
171
long-term unemployed. The government and industry are making
great efforts to help them. Because of the increasing use of modern
technology, vocational qualification is very important. But it is also
important that the social security system should guarantee those
affected by unemployment an adequate subsistence basis.
Unemployment insurance. Since 1927 there has been a statutory
mployment insurance scheme in Germany. It is covered today
(ork Promotion Act (Arbeitsförderungsgesetz) of 1969. The
ty administering the scheme is the Federal Institute for Em-
ployment (Bundesanstalt für Arbeit) in Nürnberg (Nuremberg). Re-
sponsible to it are about 150 local labour exchanges (Arbeitsämter)
with many sub-branches. All employees (except the Beamte, the
professional civil servants), are subject to obligatory insurance (i.e.
payment of contributions into the scheme), regardless of how
much they earn. Funds for the insurance are provided by both the
employee and the employer. Any unemployed person whose previ-
ous employment was subject to insurance contribution and who is
ready to accept "tolerable" employment offered by the labour ex-
change is entitled to draw unemployment benefits. The "unemploy-
ment benefit" (Arbeitslosengeld) is up to 68% of the last net pay. As
Foreign workers in a Ruhr coal mine
a rule it is paid at most for one year, in the case of older unemployed
people at most for 32 months. Thereafter anyone who is still unem-
important function is the promotion of vocational training. The ag-
ployed can apply for "unemployment support" (Arbeitslosenhilfe)
ency gives juveniles and adults subsidies and loans for vocational
which can be up to 58% of the net wage or salary, other sources of
training if they cannot raise the funds themselves. It also promotes
income, including those of other family members, being taken into
vocational further training and re-training in other skills. If further
account.
training or re-training is necessary, e. g. to end unemployment or to
acquire a lacking vocational qualification, the agency covers the
Labour promotion. The Institute for Employment has many other
costs arising from participation under certain conditions and pays a
tasks, e.g. job placement and vocational guidance. A particularly
sustenance benefit.
Over and beyond this the agency also promotes vocational ad-
Foreign workers in the Federal Republic of Germany
vancement by granting sustenance loans or covering costs during
training. These benefits from the agency help especially the unem-
Country of origin
1973
1976
1979
1986
ployed to adapt their skills to the rapidly changing demands on the
Total
labour market.
2,595,000
1,921,000
From:
1,934,000
1,592,000
Labour market and vocational research is another of the Insti-
G
250,000
tute's functions. It continuously observes the type and extent of
173,000
140,000
102,000
450,000
279,000
300,000
employment and development of the labour market, the vocations
P
193,000
85,000
62,000
59,000
35,000
and vocational training opportunities. The research findings are
Spain
190,000
108,000
Turkey
90,000
66,000
submitted to the Federal Minister for Labour and Social Affairs as
605,000
521,000
540,000
Yugoslavia
513,000
an aid to decision-making.
535,000
387,000
Other countries
367,000
295,000
480,000
391,000
438,000
388,000
GERMANS/GERMANY / 111
GENIUS also see TALENT
Every man of genius sees the world at a different angle from his fel-
lows.
HAVELOCK ELLIS, quoted in Columbia Forum, Winter 1969
Evidently one characteristic of genius is to search for relevance in the
apparently commonplace and frivolous.
DAVID ELKIND, New York Times, May 26, 1968
A man possesses talent; genius possesses the man.
ISAAC STERN, "Previn and the Pittsburgh," PBS, Apr. 23, 1978
Genius is a spiritual greed.
V.S. PRITCHETT, The Mythmakers, 1979
Give me a condor's quill! Give me Vesuvius's crater for an inkstand!
HERMAN MELVILLE, Moby-Dick, 1851
When I am finished painting, I paint again for relaxation.
PABLO PICASSO, quoted in Françoise Gilot, Life with Picasso, 1964
I don't know why God or gods, or whoever it was, selected me to be
the vessel. Believe me, this is not humility, false modesty; it is simply
amazement.
WILLIAM FAULKNER, letter to Joan Williams, 1953, Selected Letters of
William Faulkner, Joseph Blotner, ed., 1977
The average underdeveloped mind thinks that any genius is weird.
EDWARD J. DALY, interview in Newsweek, Apr. 23, 1979
Before I was a genius, I was a drudge.
IGNACE PADEREWSKI, quoted in Writer's Digest, Apr. 1967
GERMANS/GERMANY
People without nuances.
JOSEPH GOEBBELS, The Secret Conferences of Dr. Goebbels, Willi A.
Boelcke, ed., 1970
I've never met a relaxed German.
HEINRICH BÖLL, quoted in Time, May 21, 1973
112 / GHETTOS
How can you expect the Germans to revolt when they don't even dare
walk on the grass?
JOSEPH STALIN, quoted in Newsweek, Sept. 13, 1965
As soon as six or seven Germans arrived in any place they founded a
choir or singing group almost as quickly as they built a brewery.
RICHARD O'CONNOR, The German-Americans, 1968
When you start a sentence in German, you have to know in the begin-
ning what the end will be.
OTTo FRIEDRICH, Before the Deluge, 1972
GHETTOS also see BLACKS
The section of the niggers where a nickel costs a dime.
LANGSTON HUGHES, quoted in Vital Speeches, Sept. 15, 1970
Six blocks of cruelty.
NTOZAKE SHANGE, For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide
(drama), 1975
It's a kind of concentration camp, and not many people survive it.
JAMES BALDWIN, A Rap on Race, 1971
You mustn't forget that the key feature of living in an oppressed con-
dition is the assassination of all hope.
LIVINGSTON WINGATE, quoted in Newsweek, Apr. 19, 1971
You can view our communities as war-torn areas. And our people as
those who view the police and other authorities as occupying forces.
ARTHUR BARNES, interview in New York Post, Aug. 14, 1975
Living in a frustrating, stress-inducing environment like a ghetto every
day of your life makes many people walking powder kegs. There's a
pent-up rage that isn't ventilated elsewhere; when something happens
to trigger that rage, it can be murderous.
DR. LAMAURICE GARDNER, quoted in Newsweek, Jan. 1, 1973
Form is everything in the ghetto and substance is nothing-it's not
what you say, man, it's how you lay it down that counts.
REGINALD BRAGONIER, JR., New York Times, Sept. 7, 1975
PN6081
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WH
The
Quotable
Quotations
INFORMATION
Book
Compiled
by Alec Lewis
THOMAS Y. CROWELL, Publishers
New York Established 1834
35.00
230
GENIUS
5 I am not in the giving vein to-day.
sign, that the dunces are all in
GIBBON,
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) English
confederacy against him.
Edward
dramatist. Richard III, IV:2
Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) Irish-born
Anglican priest and writer. Thoughts on Various
(1737-94) British historian whose monumental The
GENIUS
Subjects
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
(1776-88) caused considerable controversy for its
See also talent, talent and genius
GERMANY
treatment of Christianity.
1 Genius is an infinite capacity for
Quotations about Gibbon
taking pains.
See also Europe, Hitler, Nazism, World War II
Proverb
1 Gibbon is an ugly, affected,
1 Hamelin Town's in Brunswick,
disgusting fellow, and poisons our
2 Genius (which means transcendent
By famous Hanover city;
literary club for me. I class him
capacity of taking trouble, first of
The river Weser, deep and wide,
among infidel wasps and venomous
all).
insects.
Washes its wall on the southern side;
Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) Scottish histori-
James Boswell (1740-95) Scottish lawyer and
an and essayist. Frederick the Great, Vol. IV,
A pleasanter spot you never spied.
writer. Diary, 1779
Ch. 3
Robert Browning (1812-89) British poet.
The Pied Piper of Hamelin
2 Johnson's style was grand, Gibbon's
3 Great Wits are sure to Madness
elegant. Johnson marched to kettle-
near alli'd
2 Don't let's be beastly to the
drums and trumpets. Gibbon moved
And thin Partitions do their Bounds
Germans.
to flutes and hautboys.
divide.
Noël Coward (1899-1973) British dramatist.
George Colman the Younger (1762-1836)
John Dryden (1631-1700) British poet and
Title of song
British dramatist. Random Records
dramatist. Absalom and Achitophel, I
3 Deutschland, Deutschland über alles.
Quotations by Gibbon
4 Genius is one per cent inspiration
and ninety-nine per cent
Germany, Germany before all else.
3 To the University of Oxford I
perspiration.
Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben
acknowledge no obligation; and she
(1798-1876) German poet. German national an-
Thomas Edison (1847-1931) US inventor.
will as cheerfully renounce me for a
them
Attrib.
son, as I am willing to disclaim her
for a mother. I spent fourteen
5 True genius walks along a line, and,
4 Germany will be either a world
months at Magdalen College: they
perhaps, our greatest pleasure is in
power or will not be at all.
proved the fourteen months the
seeing it so often near falling,
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) German dictator.
most idle and unprofitable of my
without being ever actually down.
Mein Kampf, Ch. 14
whole life.
Oliver Goldsmith (1728-74) Irish-born British
Autobiography
writer. The Bee, "The Characteristics of Great-
5 How appallingly thorough these
ness'
Germans always managed to be,
4 Crowds without company, and
how emphatic! In sex no less than
dissipation without pleasure.
6 Most of the knowledge and much of
the genius of the research worker
in war - in scholarship, in science.
Referring to London. Autobiography
lie behind his selection of what is
Diving deeper than anyone else and
5 The romance of Tom Jones, that
worth observing. It is a crucial
coming up muddier.
exquisite picture of human manners,
choice, often determining the
Aldous Huxley (1894-1964) British novelist.
will outlive the palace of the
success or failure of months of
Escurial and the imperial eagle of
work, often differentiating the
6 All free men, wherever they may
the house of Austria.
brilliant discoverer from the
live, are citizens of Berlin. And
Autobiography
plodder.
therefore, as a free man, I take
Alan Gregg (1890-1957) The Furtherance of
pride in the words Ich bin ein
6 The various modes of worship,
Medical Research
Berliner.
which prevailed in the Roman
world, were all considered by the
John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917-63) US
7 The true genius is a mind of large
people as equally true; by the
statesman. Speech, City Hall, West Berlin, 26
general powers, accidentally
June 1963
philosopher, as equally false; and by
determined to some particular
the magistrate, as equally useful.
direction.
7 The German Empire has become a
And thus toleration produced not
Samuel Johnson (1709-84) British lexicogra-
world empire.
only mutual indulgence, but even
pher. Lives of the English Poets, 'Cowley'
religious concord.
Wilhelm II (1859-1941) King of Prussia and
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Ch. 2
8 A genius! For thirty-seven years
Emperor of Germany. Speech, Berlin, 18 Jan
1896
I've practiced fourteen hours a day,
7 The principles of a free constitution
and now they call me a genius!
are irrecoverably lost, when the
8 America
is the prize amateur
Pablo Sarasate (1844-1908) Spanish violinist
legislative power is nominated by
and composer. On being hailed as a genius by
nation of the world. Germany is the
the executive.
a critic. Attrib.
prize professional nation.
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Ch. 3
Woodrow Wilson (1856-1925) US statesman.
9 When a true genius appears in the
Speech, Aug 1917. Mr Wilson's War (John Dos
8 His reign is marked by the rare
world, you may know him by this
Passos), Pt. III, Ch. 13
advantage of furnishing very few
Ref.
PN6081
m29a
WH
THE MACMILLAN
DICTIONARY
OF QUOTATIONS
MACMILLAN PUBLISHING COMPANY New York
151
Leisure
People wash their dirty linen at home. France
A
other men are specialists, but his special-
has more need of me than I of France.
ises
omniscience.
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930)
to the French Senate in 1814
of Mycroft Holmes
In Poland everyone is a leader.
A stemed blockhead is a greater blockhead
Lech Walesa (b. 1943)
than ignorant one.
We want a few mad people now. See where
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
the sane ones have landed us!
We
your learning, like your watch, in a
Poulengey, Saint Joan
pocket: and do not merely pull it out
George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)
and
wake it; merely to show that you have
one
Omnium consensu capax imperii nisi
Lord Chesterfield 694-1773)
No imperasset. one would have doubted his ability to
English statesman and man of letters
reign had he never been emperor.
Periamen is the dotage of knowledge.
Tacitus (c. 55-c. 120)
Holbrook Jackson (1874-1948)
Roman historian
British author
of Emperor Galba
Erudition. Dust shaken out of a book into an
So long as the people of any country place
empay skull.
their hopes of political salvation in leadership
Ambrose Bierce (1842-1914)
of any description, so long will disappoint-
American author
ment attend them.
William Lovett (1800-1877)
Some people will never learn anything; for this
English Chartist leader
reason, because they understand everything
too we'll.
SEE Defoe on GENERALS; Ledru-Rollin
Alexander Pope (1688-1744)
on MOBS; Halifax on OBEDIENCE;
Rogers on POLITICAL PARTIES
The uun who is too old to learn was probably
always 100 old to learn.
Learning
Henry S. Haskins (b. 1875)
A little learning is a dangerous thing;
American author
Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian
spring:
With HIM enough of learning to misquote.
There shallow draughts intoxicate the
Lord Byron (1788-1824)
brain,
SET Young on QUOTATIONS; Penn on
And drinking largely sobers us again.
RI ADING; SCHOLARSHIP; Hazlitt on
Alexander Pope (1688-1744)
SHAKESPEARE
A learned fool is one who has read everything,
Lebanon
and simply remembered it.
Here, even the law of the jungle has broken
Josh Billings 1818-1885)
down
Amer can humorist
Walid Jumblatt (b. 1949)
His knowledge of books had in some degree
Leader of the Lebanese Druze
diminished his knowledge of the world.
The Left
William Shenstore 714-1763)
Lettwingers are incapable of conspiring
English poet
because they are all egomaniacs.
Learning. The kind of ignorance distinguishing
Norman Mailer (b. 1923)
the studious.
SEE COMMUNISM; MARXISM;
Ambrose Bierce 842-1914)
SOCIALISM
American author
Leisure
No person ever knew so much that was so
A perpenal holiday is a good working defini-
little of purpose.
tion of hell.
R. W. Emersor 803-1882)
George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)
American essayist, poe: philosopher
Macaulay
More there time means more time to waste. The
worker who used to have only a little time in
He not only overflowed with learning, but
which 111 get drunk and beat his wife now has
stood in the slop.
time to HCI drunk, beat his wife and watch
Sydney Smt- 71-1845)
TV.
English wrter pergyman
Robert M. Hutchins (b. 1899)
of Macaulay as C: ersationalist
American educator, writer
109
Give and Take
Gentlemen
They are a fine people but quick to catch the
I can make a lord, but only God almighty can
disease of anti-humanity. I think it's because
make a gentleman.
of their poor elimination. Germany is a
King James I of England (1566-1625)
headquarters for constipation.
Education begins a gentleman, conversation
George Grosz (1893-1959)
German artist
completes him.
18th century English proverb
Everything ponderous, viscous, and solemnly
He was the product of an English public
clumsy, all long-winded and boring types of
school and university
no scholar, but
style are developed in profuse variety among
Germans.
essentially a gentleman.
H. Seton Merriman (1862-1903)
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
English novelist
Whenever the literary German dives into a
A gentleman is one who never hurts anyone's
sentence, that is the last you are going to see
feelings unintentionally.
of him till he emerges on the other side of his
Atlantic with his verb in his mouth.
Oscar Wilde (1854-1900)
Mark Twain (1835-1910)
Almost an Emperor and not quite a gentle-
Getting On
man.
Lord Ancaster (1867-1951)
Getting on is the opium of the middle classes.
British politician, administrator
Walter James (b. 1912)
of Hugh, 5th earl of Lonsdale
British journalist
He is every other inch a gentleman.
There are only two ways of getting on in the
Rebecca West (1892-1983)
world: by one's own industry, or by the
British author
stupidity of others.
Jean de la Bruyère (1645-1696)
I am parshial to ladies if they are nice. I
French writer, moralist
suppose it is my nature. I am not quite a
gentleman but you would hardly notice it.
No one rises so high as he who knows not
Daisy Ashford (1881-1972)
whither he is going.
British writer of The
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658)
Young Visiters, aged 9
When you are getting kicked from the rear it
It is at unimportant moments that a man is a
means you're in front.
gentleman. At important moments he ought to
Fulton Sheen (1895-1979)
be something better.
American author, clergyman
G. K. Chesterton (1874-1936)
You have to be a bastard to make it, and
Anyone can be heroic from time to time, but a
that's a fact. And the Beatles are the biggest
bastards on Earth.
gentleman is something you have to be all the
time.
John Lennon (1940-1980)
Luigi Pirandello (1867-1936)
The path of social advancement is, and must
Italian playwright, author
be, strewn with broken friendships.
I do not know the American gentleman, God
H. G. Wells (1866-1946)
forgive me for putting two such words
To establish oneself in the world, one does all
together.
one can to seem established there already.
Charles Dickens (1812-1870)
François, Duc de La Rochefoucauld (1613-1680)
The only infallible rule we know is, that the
French writer, moralist
man who is always talking about being a
The trouble with the rat-race is that even if
gentleman never is one.
you win, you're still a rat.
R. S. Surtees (1803-1864)
Lily Tomlin (b. 1939)
English novelist
American comedy actress
SEE Cromwell on The ARMY; Johnson
SEE AMBITION; PROMOTION; Barrie on
on BLOODSPORTS; Wilde on
The SCOTS; SUCCESS; WINNING
EXAMINATIONS; Macaulay on The
Give and Take
NAVY; Congreve on UNIVERSITY
Do unto the other feller the way he's like to do
Germany
unto you an' do it fust.
We Germans will never produce another
Edward Noyes Westcott (1847-1898)
Goethe, but we may produce another Caesar.
American novelist
Oswald Spengler (1880-1936)
German philosopher, historian
Do not do unto others as you would that they
in 1925
should do unto you. Their tastes may not be
the same.
George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)
Crises
58
Abscond. To 'move' in a mysterious way,
When written in Chinese the word crisis is
commonly with the property of another.
composed of two characters. One represents
Ambrose Bierce (1842-1914)
danger and the other represents opportunity.
American author
John F. Kennedy (1917-1963)
The thief. Once committed beyond a certain
Criticism
point he should not worry himself too much
Criticism is the endeavour to find, to know, to
about not being a thief any more. Thieving is
love, to recommend, not only the best, but all
God's message to him. Let him try and be a
the good, that has been known and thought
good thief.
and written in the world.
Samuel Butler (1835-1902)
George Saintsbury (1845-1933)
English author
British literary critic
A thief believes everybody steals.
Of all the cants which are canted in this
Ed (E. W.) Howe (1853-1937)
canting world, - though the cant of hypocrites
American journalist, novelist
may be the worst, - the cant of criticism is the
A burglar who respects his art always takes his
most tormenting!
Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)
time before taking anything else.
O. Henry (1862-1910)
English author
American short story writer
It is the nature of the artist to mind excessively
what is said about him. Literature is strewn
Crimine ab uno disce omnis.
From a single crime know the nation.
with the wreckage of men who have minded
Virgil (70-19 BC)
beyond reason the opinions of others.
Virginia Woolf (1882-1941)
Crimes of which a people is ashamed con-
stitute its real history. The same is true of
A blind man will not thank you for a looking-
glass.
man.
Jean Genet (1910-1986)
18th century English proverb
Far more university graduates are becoming
You should not say it is not good. You should
criminals every year than are becoming
say you do not like it; and then, you know,
policemen.
you're perfectly safe.
Philip Goodhart (b. 1925)
J. M. Whistler (1834-1903)
American artist
British Conservative politician
On an occasion of this kind it becomes more
When rich villains have need of poor villains,
poor ones may make what price they will.
than a moral duty to speak one's mind. It
Borachio, Much Ado About Nothing
becomes a pleasure.
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
Oscar Wilde (1854-1900)
If weakness may excuse, what murderer, what
I like criticism, but it must be my way.
traitor, parricide, incestuous, sacrilegious, but
Mark Twain (1835-1910)
may plead it? All wickedness is weakness.
Do not use a hatchet to remove a fly from
John Milton (1608-1674)
your friend's forehead.
SEE Shenstone on HONESTY; Mencken on
Chinese proverb
POVERTY; Chesterton on PROPERTY;
To many people dramatic criticism must seem
Fletcher on SIN; Emerson on VILLAINS
like an attempt to tattoo soap bubbles.
Crises
John Mason Brown (1900-1969)
The time is out of joint. O cursed spite,
American essayist
That ever I was born to set it right!
I find that when I dislike what I see on the
Hamlet, Hamlet
stage I can be vastly amusing, but when I write
William Shakespeare (1564-1616)
about something I like I find that I am
There can't be a crisis next week. My schedule
appallingly dull.
is already full.
Sir Max Beerbohm (1872-1956)
Henry Kissinger (b. 1923)
British author
The situation in Germany is serious but not
Your manuscript is both good and original;
hopeless; the situation in Austria is hopeless
but the part that is good is not original, and
but not serious.
the part that is original is not good.
Austrian proverb
Dr Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)
collected by
Franklin Pierce Adams (1881-1960)
81
Empire
Eloquence
'There are strings', said Mr Tappertit, in
Ah, si je pouvais pisser comme il parle!
the human heart that had better not be
Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929)
wibrated.
French politician, Prime Minister
Barnaby Rudge
of David Lloyd George
Charles Dickens (1812-1870)
The finest eloquence is that which gets things
The young man who has not wept is a savage,
done; the worst is that which delays them.
and the old man who will not laugh is a fool.
David Lloyd George (1863-1945)
George Santayana (1863-1952)
Welsh Liberal politician, Prime Minister
American philosopher, poet
Genuinely good remarks surprise their author
He is not affected by the reality of distress
as well as his audience.
touching his heart, but by the showy resem-
Joseph Joubert (1754-1824)
blance of it striking his imagination. He pities
French essayist, moralist
the plumage, but forgets the dying bird.
Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
In the midwives' phrase, a perfect conception
pamphleteer, revolutionary
with an easy delivery.
of Edmund Burke
Alexander Pope (1688-1744)
SEE Arnold on RELIGION
L'art de la parenthèse est un des grands secrets
de l'éloquence dans la Société.
Empire
The art of the parenthesis is one of the great
Not once or twice in our rough
secrets of eloquence in Society.
island-story
Nicolas-Sébastien Chamfort (1741-1794)
The path of booty was the way
French writer, wit
to glory.
anonymous
To say that he was not at a loss for a word is
one of the great understatements of all time.
We seem, as it were, to have conquered and
He was not at a loss for 500,000 words and
peopled half the world in a fit of absence of
we heard 'em, every one.
mind.
Cassandra (Sir William Connor) (1909-1967)
Sir J. R. Seeley (1834-1895)
British journalist
English classicist, historian
He talked on for ever; and you wished him to
If Germany is to become a colonising power,
talk on for ever.
all I say is, 'God speed her!'. She becomes our
William Hazlitt (1778-1830)
ally and partner in the execution of the great
English essayist
purposes of Providence for the advantage of
of Coleridge
mankind.
W.E. Gladstone (1809-1898)
When a man gets talking about himself, he
in 1885
seldom fails to be eloquent and often reaches
the sublime.
With a hero at head, and a nation
Josh Billings (1818-1885)
Well gagged and well drilled and
American humorist
well cowed,
And a gospel of war and damnation,
SEE Inge, Junius on PERSUASION;
Has not Empire a right to be proud?
Molière on SPEECHES
A. C. Swinburne (1837-1909)
Embarrassment
To plunder, to slaughter, to steal, these things
Man is the only animal that blushes. Or needs
they misname empire; and where they make a
to.
wilderness, they call it peace.
Mark Twain (1835-1910)
Tacitus (c. 55-c. 120)
We never forgive those who make us blush.
Roman historian
Jean-François de La Harpe (1739-1803)
of the Romans
French poet, playwright
The reluctant obedience of distant provinces
Emotion
generally costs more than it [the territory] is
Half our mistakes in life arise from feeling
worth.
where we ought to think, and thinking where
Lord Macaulay (1800-1859)
we ought to feel.
English historian
J. Churton Collins (1848-1908)
The conquest of the earth, which mostly
English author, critic, scholar
means the taking it away from those who have
The advantage of the emotions is that they
a different complexion or slightly flatter noses
lead us astray.
than ourselves, is not a pretty thing when you
Oscar Wilde (1854-1900)
look into it.
Joseph Conrad (1857-1924)
N
Nagging
growing mind at a naturally barbaric phase
Nagging is the repetition of unpalatable
and they inflame and fix its barbarism.
truths.
H. G. Wells (1866-1946)
Edith, Lady Summerskill (1901-1980)
SEE Aldington on PATRIOTISM
British Labour politician
Nature
Nationalism
Anyone who has got any pleasure at all from
Methinks I see in my mind a noble and
nature should try to put something back. Life
puissant nation rousing herself like a strong
is like a superlative meal and the world is the
man after sleep, and shaking her invincible
maître d'hôtel. What I am doing is the
locks. Methinks I see her as an eagle mewing
equivalent of leaving a reasonable tip.
her mighty youth, and kindling her undazzled
Gerald Durrell (b. 1925)
eyes at the full midday beam.
British conservationist and author
John Milton (1608-1674)
In nature there are neither rewards nor
No man has a right to fix the boundary of the
punishments there are consequences.
march of a nation; no man has a right to say
R. G. Ingersoll (1833-1899)
to his country - thus far shalt thou go and no
American lawyer
further.
However much you knock at nature's door,
Charles Stewart Parnell (1846-1891)
she will never answer you in comprehensible
Irish nationalist politician
words.
Germany will either be a world power or will
Ivan Turgenev (1818-1883)
not be at all.
One impulse from a vernal wood
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)
May teach you more of man,
Mein Kampf
Of moral evil and of good,
It is humiliating to remain with our hands
Than all the ages can.
folded while others write history. It matters
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)
little who wins. To make a people great it is
It is false dichotomy to think of nature and
necessary to send them to battle even if you
man. Mankind is that factor in nature which
have to kick their arses. That is what I shall
exhibits in its most intense form the plasticity
do.
of nature.
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)
A. N. Whitehead (1861-1947)
11 April 1940
British philosopher
Nations whose nationalism is destroyed are
All things are artificial, for nature is the art of
subject to ruin.
God.
Colonel Muhammar Qaddafi (b. 1938)
Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682)
After fifteen years of work I have achieved, as
English physician, author
a common German soldier and merely with
To be natural is to be obvious, and to be
my fanatical will-power, the unity of the
obvious is to be inartistic.
German nation, and have freed it from the
Oscar Wilde (1854-1900)
death sentence of Versailles.
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)
SEE Whistler on ART; Clark on
21 December 1941
BLOODSPORTS; Moore on LOVE; Huxley
on MORALITY
The crazy combative patriotism that plainly
threatens to destroy civilization is very largely
The Navy
begotten by the schoolmaster and the school-
The royal navy of England hath ever been its
mistress in their history lessons. They take the
greatest defence and ornament; it is its ancient
Suicide
256
suffering for the most part, makes men petty
never dallied with the thought of suicide.
and vindictive.
William James (1842-1910)
W. Somerset Maugham (1874-1965)
American psychologist, philosopher
Few can believe that suffering, especially by
It is always consoling to think of suicide: in
others, is in vain. Anything that is disagreeable
that way one gets through many a bad night.
must surely have beneficial economic effects.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
J. K. Galbraith (b. 1908)
American economist
If you are of the opinion that the contempla-
tion of suicide is sufficient evidence of a poetic
There is one psychological peculiarity in the
nature, do not forget that actions speak louder
human being that always strikes one: to shun
than words.
even the slightest signs of trouble on the outer
Fran Lebowitz (b. 1951)
edge of your existence at times of well-being
American journalist
to try not to know about the sufferings of
others and your own or one's own future
There are many who dare not kill themselves
sufferings, to yield in many situations, even
for fear of what the neighbours will say.
important spiritual and central ones - as long
Cyril Connolly (1903-1974)
as it prolongs one's well-being.
British critic
Alexander Solzhenitsyn (b. 1918)
Razors pain you;
One does not love a place less for having
Rivers are damp;
suffered in it.
Acids stain you
Jane Austen (1775-1817)
And drugs cause cramp;
Guns aren't lawful;
How much atonement is enough? The bomb-
Nooses give;
ing must be allowed as at least part-payment:
Gas smells awful;
those of our young people who are concerned
You might as well live.
about the moral problem posed by the Allied
Dorothy Parker (1893-1967)
air offensive should at least consider the moral
American humorous writer
problem that would have been posed if the
German civilian population had not suffered
A lover forsaken a new love may get,
at all.
But a neck when once broken can
never be set.
Clive James (b. 1939)
Australian critic, humorist
William Walsh (1663-1708)
English poet
The only antidote to mental suffering is
physical pain.
However great a man's fear of life suicide
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
remains the courageous act, the clear-headed
act of a mathematician. The suicide has judged
J'aime la majesté des souffrances humaines.
by the laws of chance - so many odds against
I love the majesty of human suffering.
one, that to live will be more miserable than to
Alfred de Vigny (1797-1863)
die. His sense of mathematics is greater than
French poet, novelist, dramatist
his sense of survival.
SEE Byatt on GRIEF; Burke on
Graham Greene (b. 1904)
REBELLION
It is the role of cowardice, not of courage, to
Suicide
crouch in a hole, under a massive tomb, to
Je m'en vais enfin de ce monde, où il faut que
avoid the blows of fortune.
le coeur se brise ou se bronze.
Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592)
And so I leave this world, where the heart
French essayist
must either break or turn to lead.
Just as I shall select my ship when I am about
Nicolas-Sébastien Chamfort (1741-1794)
to go on a voyage, or my house when I
French writer, wit
propose to take a residence, so I shall choose
suicide note
my death when I am about to depart from life.
The prevalence of suicide is a test of height in
Seneca (c. 5-65)
civilization; it means that the population is
Roman writer, philosopher, statesman
winding up its nervous and intellectual system
Dear World, I am leaving you because I am
to the utmost point of tension and that
bored. I am leaving you with your worries.
sometimes it snaps.
Good luck.
Havelock Ellis (1859-1939)
George Sanders (1906-1972)
British psychologist
British actor
suicide note
I take it that no man is educated who has
SEE Webster on CONFESSIONS;
283
Wisdom
The dipsomaniac and the abstainer are not
An intelligent victor will, whenever possible,
only both mistaken, but they both make the
present his demands to the vanquished in
same mistake. They both regard wine as a
instalments.
drug and not a drink.
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)
G. K. Chesterton (1874-1936)
Mein Kampf
Wine gives a man nothing. It only puts in
Even victors are by victories undone.
motion what had been locked up in frost.
John Dryden (1631-1700)
Dr Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)
Thrusting my nose firmly between his teeth, I
There is a devil in every berry of the grape.
threw him heavily to the ground on top of me.
Qu'ran
Mark Twain (1835-1910)
I prefer the gout.
Une victoire racontée en détail, on ne sait plus
Lord Derby (1865-1948)
ce qui la distingue d'une défaite.
British administrator
A victory recounted in detail is hard to
on trying a South African
distinguish from a defeat.
port recommended for gout
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)
sufferers
That is the whole secret of successful fighting.
It's a Naïve Domestic Burgundy without Any
Get your enemy at a disadvantage; and never,
Breeding, But I Think You'll be Amused by its
on any account, fight him on equal terms.
Presumption.
Sergius, Arms and the Man
James Thurber (1894-1961)
George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950)
American humorist, illustrator
You may have to fight a battle more than once
cartoon caption
to win it.
I often wonder what the Vintners buy
Margaret Thatcher (b. 1925)
One-half so precious as the stuff
Nothing except a battle lost can be half so
they sell.
melancholy as a battle won.
from The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám
Duke of Wellington (1769-1852)
trans. Edward Fitzgerald (1809-1883)
When in doubt, win the trick.
Ah! bouteille, ma mie,
Edmond Hoyle (1672-1769)
Pourquoi vous videz-vous?
English writer on cards
Ah, bottle, my friend, why do you empty
yourself?
SEE Shakespeare on FOUL PLAY;
Molière (1622-1673)
Tomlin on GETTING ON; Khrushchev,
Pitt on WAR
Wine makes a man better pleased with
himself; I do not say that it makes him more
Wisdom
pleasing to others.
Some folks are wise, and some are otherwise.
Dr Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)
Tobias Smollett (1721-1771)
Scottish novelist, surgeon
SEE DRINK
Winning
There is somebody wiser than any of us, and
Your first win is like making love and you
that is everybody.
Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
enjoy it so much the first time that you want
to do it again and again.
Every law which originated in ignorance and
Nigel Mansell (b. 1953)
malice, and gratifies the passions from which
on winning South African
it sprang, we call the wisdom of our ancestors.
Grand Prix soon after his
Sydney Smith (1771-1845)
British victory, 1985
English clergyman, writer
I never thought myself beaten so long as I
The fear of the Lord is the beginning of
could present a front to the enemy. If I was
wisdom.
beaten at one point I went to another, and in
Bible, Psalms
that way I won all my victories.
Duke of Wellington (1769-1852)
Truth from his lips prevailed with
double sway,
We will get everything out of her [Germany]
And fools, who came to scoff,
that you can squeeze out of a lemon and a bit
remained to pray.
more.
I will squeeze her until you can hear
Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774)
the pips squeak.
Sir Eric Geddes (1875-1937)
It is the province of knowledge to speak, and
Scottish Conservative politician
it is the privilege of wisdom to listen.
on war reparations after the
Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894)
First World War
American writer, physician
Ref.
PN6081
A53
1989
WH
THE CONCISE COLUMBIA
DICTIONARY OF QUOTATIONS
Robert Andrews
Columbia University Press
New York
GENTLEMAN
378
GERMANY
GERMANY
379
GHOSTS
When Adam delved and Eve span,
GERMANY
quence of a series of unhealthy mani-
GHOSTS
Who was then the gentleman?
AND THE GERMANS
festations.
Ghosts, like ladies, never speak till
-UNKNOWN
-Idem Mein Kampf
An appeal to fear never finds an echo
spoke to.
If a man is a gentleman, he knows
in German hearts.
Germany is like a brave and gallant
-RICHARD HARRIS BARHAM (1788-
quite enough, and if he is not a gen-
-OTTO VON BISMARCK (1815-1898)
horse, highly fed, but without a good
1845) The Ghost
tleman, whatever he knows is bad for
Speech, 1868
rider; as the horse runs here and
him.
Germany, Germany above all-above
there, astray, unless he have a rider
The only ghosts, I believe, who creep
-OSCAR WILDE (1854-1900) A Woman
to rule him, so Germany is also a
into this world, are dead young moth-
all in the world.
of No Importance, Act III
powerful, rich and brave country, but
ers, returned to see how their chil-
-AUGUST HEINRICH HOFFMANN VON
FALLERSLEBEN (1798-1874) Song of
needs a good head and government.
dren fare. There is no other induce-
GENTLENESS
-MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546)
ment great enough to bring the
the German
Table-Talk, No. 885
departed back.
Gentle in manner, firm in reality.
-AQUAVIVA (1543?-1615) Industria
To have a character, and to be Ger-
-SIR JAMES M. BARRIE (1860-1937)
The Germans have a two-track mind,
The Little White Bird
ad Curandos Animæ Morbos
man mean beyond doubt the same.
-JOHANN GOTTLIEB FICHTE (1762-
and an inexcusable habit of combina-
The great mind knows the power of
1814) Speeches to the German People
tion; they always want one thing and
The outward and visible sign of an in-
gentleness,
in Misinterpretation of Man
another, they want to have it both
ward fear.
ways. They are capable of turning out
-AMBROSE BIERCE (1842-1914?) The
Only tries force because persuasion
A true German can't endure a French-
great personalities with antithetic
Devil's Dictionary
fails.
man, but he likes French wine.
-ROBERT BROWNING (1812-1889)
principles of thought and life.
-JOHANN WOLFGANG GOETHE (1749-
Prince Hohenstiel-Schwangau
-THOMAS MANN (1875-
)
Doctor
I don't believe in ghosts, but I've been
1832) Faust, Pt. i
Faustus
afraid of them all my life.
The mildest manners and the gentlest
-CHARLES A. DANA (1819-1897)
Christianity has somewhat softened
heart.
Wherever Germany extends her sway,
the brutal Germanic lust of battle, but
-HOMER (c. 10th-8th C. B.C.) Iliad,
she ruins culture.
Thin, airy shoals of visionary ghosts.
could not destroy it.
xvii, 756 (Pope's tr.)
-FRIEDRICH WILHELM NIETZSCHE
-HOMER (c. 10th-8th C. B.C.) Odys-
-HEINRICH HEINE (1797-1856) His-
(1844-1900) Ecce Homo
tory of Religion and Philosophy in
sey, xi, 48 (Pope's tr.)
Gentleness succeeds better than vio-
Germany
lence.
Life is too short to learn German.
O'er all there hung a shadow and a
-JEAN DE LA FONTAINE (1621-1695)
0 Lord, Thou seest that we have be-
-RICHARD PORSON (1759-1808), attr.
fear;
Fables
come different, that the German na-
A sense of mystery the spirit daunted,
tion is no more a nation without honor,
The only way to treat a Prussian is to
And said as plain as whisper in the
It is only people who possess firm-
a nation covered with shame, a nation
step on his toes until he apologizes.
ear,
ness who can possess true gentleness.
at war within itself, a nation of little
-AUSTRIAN PROVERB
The place is Haunted.
Those who appear gentle generally
courage, a nation of little faith. No.
Members of the German race
THOMAS HOOD (1799-1845) The
possess nothing but weakness, which
Lord, the German nation is strong
look upon beer drinking as an essen-
Haunted House
is readily converted into harshness.
again in its own will, strong in perse-
tial element in man's social and moral
-FRANÇOIS DE LA ROCHEFOUCAULD
verance and strong to make every
It is not only what we have inherited
(1613-1680) Maxims
sacrifice. Lord, we will not let thee go!
nature, and think everybody a Puritan
from our fathers that exists again in
or fanatic who holds different views.
-ADOLF HITLER (1889-1945) May I,
us, but all sorts of old dead ideas and
We were gentle among you, even as a
-J. E. STEBBINS Fifty Years History
1933
all kinds of old dead beliefs and things
nurse cherisheth her children.
of the Temperance Cause, Ch. xix,
of that kind. They are not actually
-NEW TESTAMENT: I Thessalonians,
Germany's military defeat was, alas,
1874
not an undeserved catastrophe, but a
alive in us; but there they are dor-
ii, 7
merited chastisement of eternal retri-
The situation in Germany is serious
mant, all the same, and we can never
The servant of the Lord must
bution. The defeat was more than de-
but not hopeless; the situation in Aus-
be rid of them. Whenever I take up a
be gentle unto all men.
served by us
No, the military
tria is hopeless but not serious.
newspaper and read it, I fancy I see
-Ibid. II Timothy, ii, 24
collapse was itself but the conse-
-VIENNESE SAYING
ghosts creeping between the lines.
PN608
A32
HRC.
t:
FPR
BOOK OF QUOTATIONS
A NEW COLLECTION OF FAMOUS SAYINGS, REFLECT-
ING THE WISDOM AND THE WIT OF TIMES PAST AND
PRESENT AND INCLUDING THE VIRTUOUS, HUMOR-
OUS, AND PHILOSOPHIC COMMENTARY ON LIFE BY
MEN AND WOMEN OF EVERY AGE TOGETHER WITH
RICHES FROM THE PROFOUND WELLS OF THE BI-
BLE, PROVERBS, AND ANONYMITY AS SELECTED BY
FRANKLIN PIERCE ADAMS
I quote others only in order the better
to express myself. - MONTAIGNE
140828
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY : : NEW YORK
PN6081
C65
WH
THE MORROW
BOOK OF
QUOTATIONS
IN
AMERICAN
HISTORY
Joseph R. Conlin
"
WILLIAM MORROW AND COMPANY, INC.
New York
250
ROOSEVELT
We look forward to a world founded upon four essential human
freedoms. The first is freedom of speech and expression-every-
where in the world. The second is freedom of every person to wor-
ship God in his own way-everywhere in the world. The third is
freedom from want
everywhere in the world. The fourth is free-
dom from fear
anywhere in the world.
(Speech to Congress, 6 January 1941)
Yesterday, December 7, 1941-a date which will live in in-
famy-the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately
attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.
(Speech to Congress, 8 December 1941)
Defeat of Germany means the defeat of Japan, probably without
firing a shot or losing a life.
(Message to Winston Churchill, 1942)
We all know that books burn-yet we have the greater knowl-
edge that books cannot be killed by fire. People die, but books
never die. No man and no force can abolish memory.
In this
war, we know, books are weapons.
(Message to American Booksellers Association, 23 April 1942)
It is fun to be in the same decade with you.
(Cable to Winston Churchill, responding to congratulations on his six-
tieth birthday, 1942)
Stalin hates the guts of all your top people. He thinks he likes
me better and I hope he will continue to do so.
(In conversation with Churchill, attributed)
True individual freedom cannot exist without economic security
and independence. People who are hungry and out of a job are the
stuff of which dictatorships are made.
(Message to Congress, 11 January 1944)
You sometimes find something good in the lunatic fringe. In fact,
we have got as part of our social and economic government today a
whole lot of things which in my boyhood were considered lunatic
fringe, and yet they are now part of everyday life.
(Press conference, 30 May 1944)
LLOYD / LODGE
193
even the inherited caution of class or rank, these men, intoxicated,
think they are the wave instead of the float, and that they have
created the business which has created them.
They are gluttons of luxury and power, rough, unsocialized, be-
lieving that mankind must be kept terrorized.
(Wealth Against Commonwealth, 1894)
John Locke (1632-1704): English philosopher
In the beginning, all the world was America.
(Second Treatise on Government, 1690)
Henry Cabot Lodge (1850-1924): Senator from Massachusetts
New England has a harsh climate, a barren soil, a rough and
stormy coast, and yet we love it, even with a love passing that of
dwellers in more favored regions.
(Speech, 1884)
Let every man honor and love the land of his birth and the race
from which he springs and keep their memory green. It is a pious
and honorable duty. But let us have done with British-Americans
and Irish-Americans and German-Americans, and so on, and all be
Americans.
If a man is going to be an American at all let him be
so without any qualifying adjectives; and if he is going to be some-
thing else, let him drop the word American from his personal de-
scription.
(Speech, 1888)
There was no hour down to the end when he would not turn
aside from everything else to preach the doctrine of Americanism, of
the principles and the faith upon which American government
rested, and which all true Americans should wear in their heart of
hearts. He was a great patriot, a great man; above all, a great Amer-
ican. His country was the ruling, mastering passion of his life from
the beginning even unto the end.
(Eulogy for Theodore Roosevelt before Congress, 9 February 1919)
Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. (1902- ): Senator from
Massachusetts
We live in a welfare state which seeks to put a floor below which
no one sinks but builds no ceiling to prevent man from rising.
(Speech, 18 September 1959)
185
GERMANY
Federal Republic
Words by
Music by
AUGUST HEINRICH HOFFMAN von FALLERSLEBEN
FRANZ JOSEPH HAYON
(1798-1874)
(1732-1809)
Maestoso
/
APR-22-92 WED 16:55
Ein - is - his and Recht and Frei - heit für das
MUSIC A/P
dest - sche
Va
-
fer
-
land
!
Da - nach lasst uns al be
FAX NO. 2027070065
sire - ben brü - der - tich mit Herz und Hand ! Ein - ig
mf
In 1950 the Federal Republic adopted the third verse instead as the official words.
P.01
P.
Authorised as National Aothem OC 11 August, 1922 when the First verse of von Fallersieben's poem was sung
186
Words
GHAN/
keit and Recht and
Frei-heit
sind
des
Glück
8
Un
-
ter
cresc
APR-22-92 WED 16:55
-
afand
Blub
in
Glan
#
die
sas
MUSIC A/P
Ghick es
52ic
he
deut
scies
V₂
ter
land /
FAX NO. 2027070065
Free Translation
Unity and right and freedom
For the German futherland;
Let us all pursue the purpose
Brotherly, with heart and hands.
Unity and right and freedom
Are the pawcs of happiness.
Bis
Flourish in this blessing's glory,
Flourish, German fatherland!
Official
were W,
P.02
1965.
184
2. Chick and Friede sei beschfeden
Deutschiend, unitem Vaterland.
Words by
Alle Welt teant sich nach Frieden,
AUGUST
Reicht den Volkem eare Head.
(1798-18
Wenn wir Bründerick was einen,
Schlagen wir des Volkes Feind.
Lasst des Licht des Friedens scheinen,
APR-22-92 16:39
Dass nie eine Matter mehr
Ihren Soke beweint, threa Sohn bewent!
3. Lasst was pflagen, lass: uns bauen,
Lemt and schafft wie wie zuror,
Und der eigen Kraft vertrauend
Steigt einfrei Geschlect empor.
Deutsche.lugend bester Suchem
Unsres Volks in dir vereint,
Winst du Deutschlands neues Leben,
MUSIC A/P
Und die Some scien rie nie
Uber Deatschiana scheant, über Deutschland scheirs.
2. May both joy and peace inspire
Germany, car motherland
Peace is all the world's desire.
To the peoples give your hand.
In fraternity united
We shall crush the people's foe.
May JUI path by peace be Signted
That 10 mother shall again
Mourn her son in woe.
3. Lat DE till and build our ration,
Learn and work as never yet
That a free new generation
Faith in its OWL strength beget
German youth, for whom the striving
Of our people is at one,
FAX NO. 2027070065
You are Germany's reviving
And over our Germany
There is radiant sun.
Author:
in 1950
P.02
P.
02
Wed,
flew to Helsihki
went to Hels. Fair Centre
tacky
cold
/ big
While biguigs went to President's residence
we ran around & took pictures
me
-saw huge Ferries
Barney
come in to dock
MikeyB.
Droveto hotel- excellent milk chocolate !
Out for dinner to Solna
- -had salmon, salad
Called Callenge
w/bread, potato soup
w/lamb, parfact (tyrmin) berry
Junch
excellent food
from
- Dr. Mohr, Jake Susan,
when Call honrey denner dady talked for in whom to on
Manny, Scott
- behind us, PC, Murnane,
BD, Mikey
msg.
- drunkgot thrown out
directions to Solna
go out of hotel, past guest house
at end of that road, cross 3) street
keep going "straight"
ChD Guest Hs.
hotel
Go about 3-4 blocks; twinleft
one block after school (yellow houses
on coiner)
Go about 301 4 blocks.
Solna will be on the left as you get into
a more commercial area.
Small, tables @ window.
Thurs.
Blast wl Susan at rest. (ravintola)
Radproduct 19 Tlakes, yoghurt, croissant
mailed post cards
a.m - 1st saw coverage of LA nots ki Rodney King
Withdrawal/Redaction Sheet
(George Bush Library)
Document No.
Subject/Title of Document
Date
Restriction
Class.
and Type
01. Notes
Handwritten notes by Carol Aarhus, re: trip to Germany. (1
n.d.
P-6, (b)(6)
pp.)
Collection:
Record Group:
Bush Presidential Records
Office:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Aarhus, Carol
Subseries:
Alphabetical File
WHORM Cat.:
File Location:
Germany Trip [Research Materials] [3]
Date Closed:
12/10/2004
OA/ID Number:
06900
FOIA/SYS Case #:
Re-review Case #:
2005-0480-S
P-2/P-5 Review Case #:
MR Case #:
Appeal Case #:
MR Disposition:
Appeal Disposition:
Disposition Date:
Disposition Date:
RESTRICTION CODES
Presidential Records Act - [44 U.S.C. 2204(a)]
Freedom of Information Act - [5 U.S.C. 552(b)]
P-1 National Security Classified Information [(a)(1) of the PRA]
(b)(1) National security classified information [(b)(1) of the FOIA]
P-2 Relating to the appointment to Federal office [(a)(2) of the PRA]
(b)(2) Release would disclose internal personnel rules and practices of an
P-3 Release would violate a Federal statute [(a)(3) of the PRA]
agency [(b)(2) of the FOIA]
P-4 Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential commercial or
(b)(3) Release would violate a Federal statute [(b)(3) of the FOIA]
financial information [(a)(4) of the PRA]
(b)(4) Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential or financial
P-5 Release would disclose confidential advise between the President
information [(b)(4) of the FOIA]
and his advisors, or between such advisors [a)(5) of the PRA]
(b)(6) Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
P-6 Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
personal privacy [(b)(6) of the FOIA]
personal privacy [(a)(6) of the PRA]
(b)(7) Release would disclose information compiled for law enforcement
purposes [(b)(7) of the FOIA]
C. Closed in accordance with restrictions contained in donor's deed of
(b)(8) Release would disclose information concerning the regulation of
gift.
financial institutions [(b)(8) of the FOIA]
(b)(9) Release would disclose geological or geophysical information
FOREIGN POLICY 107
527. Our century is bursting with contradictions.
Gorbachev, M., Pravda, October 16, 1985.
FASCISM
528. Every man is free to express his attitude toward this or that ideology, has the
right to defend or reject it
But no ideology, no philosophy can be destroyed with
fire and sword. We can respect or hate Hitlerism, like any other system of political
views. This is a matter of taste. But to start a war for the destruction of Hitlerism is
to commit criminal stupidity in politics.
Izvestiya, October 9, 1939 (Editorial paraphrasing a Molotov
speech, October 31, 1939).
529. As with any other ideological system, one may accept or reject the ideology
of Hitlerism- that is a matter of political views. But everyone will understand that an
ideology cannot be destroyed by force, that it cannot be eliminated by war. It is there-
fore not only senseless, but criminal to wage such a war- a war for the "destruction
of Hitlerism," camouflaged as a fight for "democracy."
Molotov, V., "Foreign Policy of Soviet Union" (October 31,
1939), Fifth Session of Supreme Soviet, Pravda, November 1,
1939.
530. It must be borne in mind that before attacking the Allied countries the major
fascist states destroyed the last remnants of bourgeois-democratic liberties at home
and established there a cruel terroristic regime, trampled on the principles of the sov-
ereignty and free development of small countries, proclaimed as their own the policy
of seizing foreign territory, and shouted from the housetops that they were aiming at
world domination and the spreading of fascist regimes all over the world; and by seiz-
ing Czechoslovakia and the central regions of Asia, the Axis powers showed they were
ready to carry out their threat to enslave all freedom-loving people.
Stalin, J., "Speech to Moscow Election District" (February 9,
1946), Pravda, February 10, 1946.
GERMANY
531.
We watch with sympathy the efforts of Germany to free herself from the
fetters which bind her feet by dint of the Treaty of Versailles. We would warmly wel-
come the results of these efforts
but of course, only in those cases where the
adjustment of relations does not involve Germany in anti-Soviet combinations.
Germany holds first place in our economic relations with the West.
Litvinov, M., speech on December 4, 1929, Pravda, December
5, 1929, p. 2.
532. [When questioned by Emil Ludwig regarding the respect in Russia for things
American Stalin replied:]
You exaggerate, we have no special respect for everything American
If one is to speak about our sympathies for any nation, or to be more correct,
for the majority of any nation, one would, of course, speak of our sympathies to the
Germans. There can be no comparison between these sympathies and our feelings for
the Americans.
Stalin, J., "Interview with Emil Ludwig" (December 13, 1931),
Bolshevik, no. 8, April 1932, p. 38.
SCQ-E
108 SOVIET AND COMMUNIST QUOTATIONS
533. History has shown that enmity and war between our country and Germany
have been to the detriment of our countries, not to their benefit. Russia and Germany
were the countries that suffered most in the war of 1914-1918. Therefore the interests
of the peoples of the Soviet Union and Germany do not lie in mutual enmity. On the
contrary, the peoples of the Soviet Union and Germany need to live in peace with
each other
We have always stood for amity between the peoples of the USSR
and Germany, for the growth and development of friendship between the peoples of
the Soviet Union and the German people.
Molotov, V., "On Ratification of Soviet-German Non-Aggres-
sion Pact," 4th Session of Supreme Soviet of USSR (August 31,
1939), Pravda, September 1, 1939.
534. We have always been of the opinion that a strong Germany is an indispens-
ible condition for durable peace in Europe. It would be ridiculous to think that Ger-
many could be put aside and simply struck off the books. The powers which cherish
this foolish and dangerous dream ignore the deplorable experience of Versailles
Molotov, V., "Foreign Policy of the Soviet Union" 5th Session
of the Supreme Soviet (October 31, 1939), Pravda, November
1, 1939, p. 1.
535. We know, for example, that in the past few months [August-October 1939]
such concepts as "aggression" and "aggressor" have acquired a new concrete connota-
tion, a new meaning.
Today, as far as the European great powers are concerned, Germany is in
the position of a state which is striving for the earliest termination of the war and for
peace, whereas Britain and France which but yesterday were declaiming against
aggression are in favor of continuing the war and are opposed to the conclusion of
peace. The roles, as you see, are reversed.
Molotov, V., "Foreign Policy of the Soviet Union," 5th Session
of the Supreme Soviet (October 31, 1939), Pravda, November
1, 1939.
536. Of no little importance in this respect was also the fact that fascist Germany
suddenly and treacherously violated the non-aggression pact she had concluded with
the USSR in 1939, ignoring the fact that the whole world would regard her as an
aggressor. Naturally, our peace-loving country, not wishing to take the initiative in
breaking a pact, could not report to perfidy.
Stalin, J., On Great Patriotic War of Soviet Union (Foreign Lan-
guages Publishing House, Moscow, 1946), p. 8.
537. Question: Do you think the four zones of Germany should in the near future
be united as regards economic administration, with the aim of restoring Germany as
a peaceful economic unit and thus lightening the burden of occupation for the four
powers?
Stalin: Not only the economic but the political unity of Germany must be
restored.
Stalin, J., Answers to questions of Hugh Baillie, President,
United Press, October 1946, Pravda, October 30, 1946.
538. Germany, not wishing to cooperate with the USSR, attacked the USSR.
Could the USSR have cooperated with Germany? Yes, the USSR could have cooper-
ated with Germany, but the Germans did not wish to cooperate. Otherwise the USSR
would have cooperated with Germany as with any other country.
Stalin, J., "Interview with Harold Stassen" (April 9, 1947),
Pravda, May 8, 1947, p. 1.
FOREIGN POLICY 109
539. By concluding the non-aggression pact with Germany, Soviet diplomacy
frustrated the schemes of the British and French reactionaries, who counted on the
isolation of the Soviet Union, and on directing German aggression against it. By this
pact Soviet diplomacy created the possibility of a further strengthening of the defense
of their own country, inasmuch as it secured a prolongation of the respite, and com-
pelled Hitlerite German diplomacy to recognize before the whole world the might of
the USSR and their fear of eventual participation of the Soviet country in the struggle
against Germany on the side of the Anglo-French bloc.
"Third Volume of History of Diplomacy," Bolshevik, no. 10,
May 1946, pp. 74-75.
540. There can be no doubt that, given the peace-loving policy of the German
Democratic Republic together with the peace-loving policy of the Soviet Union which
possess the sympathy and support of the peoples of Europe, the cause of peace in
Europe can be assured.
European and consequently international peace cannot be insured with-
out the correct solution to the German question.
Malenkov, G., speech on 32nd Anniversary of Revolution
(November 6, 1949), Pravda, November 7, 1949.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
541. The Soviet Union does not belong to the League of Nations because it is
completely opposed to imperialism and to the oppression of colonial and subjugated
countries.
Stalin, J., "Interview with Foreign Workers Delegations"
(November 5, 1927). Leninism (Cooperative Publishing Society
of Foreign Workers, Moscow, 1934), vol. 1, p. 401.
542. An equally striking indication of the solidarity of the front of the United
Nations is to be seen in the decisions of the Dumbarton Oaks Conference on postwar
security. There is talk of differences between the three powers on certain security
problems. Differences do exist, of course, and they will arise on a number of other
issues as well. Differences of opinion are to be found even among people in one and
the same party. They are all the more bound to occur between representatives of dif-
ferent states and different parties. The surprising thing is not that differences exist,
but that these differences do not transgress the bounds of what the interests of unity
of the three great powers allow, and that in the long run they are resolved in accor-
dance with the interests of that unity
It is well known, however, how futile the
efforts of the fascist politicians to disrupt the alliance of the great powers have proved.
That means the alliance between the USSR, Great Britain and the United States is
founded not on casual, short-lived considerations but on vital and lasting interests.
Stalin, J., "Statement at the Meeting of the Moscow Soviet of
Deputies of the Working People" (November 6, 1944), Pravda,
November 7, 1944.
543. Question: What importance do you attribute to UNO as a means of preserv-
ing international peace?
Answer: I attribute great importance to UNO since it is a serious instrument
for preservation of peace and international security. Strength of this international
organization consists in the fact that it is based on the principle of the equal rights of
states and not on the principle of domination over others. If it can preserve in future
NATION AND SOVIET GLOBAL HEGEMONY 199
1015. The course of events dictated realistic corrections in the tactical and strategic
plans of communists
[this] experience [in the Baltic countries as in Afghanistan]
has general application
demonstrating how a new breakthrough into the imperi-
alist system may be accomplished, how another step forward is made in the world-
revolutionary process
a further broadening and strengthening of the base for
socialist revolution [in the USSR] is achieved.
Kommunist, February 1980.
Poland
1016. Soviet ambassador to Poland, B.I. Aristov, brought to the attention of Com-
rades S. Kania and W. Jaruzelski
that counterrevolutionary forces are widely
and illegally conducting a campaign of lies and slander against the Soviet Union and
its domestic and foreign policy. Such activities
arouse in Poles feelings of enmity
and hatred for the Soviet state and the Soviet poeple
[this activity] is being con-
ducted by such counterrevolutionary organizations as Kos-Kor, the "Confederation
for an Independent Poland," and the extremist leaders of "Solidarity."
Pravda, September 19, 1981.
1017. In your struggle [with counterrevolution and the vile slanders of the USSR],
you may count on true revolutionary solidarity of the workers of our country [USSR]
and on fraternal internationalist aid and support.
Letter from Kiev factory workers, Pravda, September 19, 1981.
1018. The fraternal parties reaffirm their solidarity with the communists and all
patriots of socialist Poland in their struggle with anti-popular forces of counterrevolu-
tion and anarchy, and for overcoming the crisis and strengthening socialism and the
leading role of the Polish worker's party [communist] in society, for the assured devel-
opment of the Polish People's Republic as an inseparable link within the socialist
commonwealth.
Pravda, November 5, 1981.
1019. The Polish army eliminated the threat of a counter-revolutionary coup [in
January 1981].
Red Star, January 13, 1982.
1020. The USSR and Poland strongly condemn and reject interference by the USA
and other capitalist countries in the internal affairs of Poland. This is the crudest pos-
sible violation of generally accepted norms of international law
It is stressed that
all calculations on subverting the foundations of socialism in Poland, including those
coming from abroad, will inevitably fall.
"Joint Soviet-Polish Communique," Pravda, March 3, 1982.
Hungary
1021. Once order has been restored in Hungary and its government considers the
presence of Soviet troops to be no longer necessary, the Soviet Union on its part will
under no circumstances insist that its forces remain there.
Pravda, November 23, 1956.
1022. Could the Hungarian people in the recent days of the counterrevolutionary
mutiny have curbed the fascist cutthroats so quickly and so decisively, had it not been
for the timely help of the Soviet Union?
Izvestiya, March 9, 1957.
PN6081
B72
WH
Brassey's Soviet
and Communist
Quotations
Compiled and Edited by
ALBERT L. WEEKS
11
PERGAMON-BRASSEY'S
INTERNATIONAL DEFENSE PUBLISHERS
(a member of the Pergamon Group)
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