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Poland / Detroit 4/17/89 [OA 8747]
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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Mark Davis Subject Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Davis, Mark, Files
Subseries:
Subject File, 1989-1991
OA/ID Number:
13873
Folder ID Number:
13873-014
Folder Title:
Poland / Detroit, 4/17/89
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Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
G
19
2
6
6
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: HAMTRAMCK
CITY HALL
MONDAY, APRIL 17, 1989/NOON
THANK YOU PAUL. CARDINAL SZOKA (SHA-KA). BoB,
THANK YOU FOR THAT PRESENTATION. It's GOOD TO SEE THE
MICHIGAN DELEGATION HAS TURNED OUT FOR THIS EVENT.
BREAD AND SALT ARE BOTH OF THE EARTH, AN ANCIENT SYMBOL
OF A LIFE LEAVENED BY HEALTH AND PROSPERITY.
- 2 -
IN THIS SAME SPIRIT, I WISH YOU ALL THE SAME. Now, IF
I MAY, I WANT TO ADDRESS THE HEALTH AND PROSPERITY OF A
WHOLE NATION -- THE PROUD PEOPLE OF POLAND.
AMERICANS ARE NOT MILDLY SYMPATHETIC SPECTATORS OF
EVENTS IN POLAND. WE ARE BOUND TO POLAND BY A VERY
SPECIAL BOND, A BOND OF BLOOD, OF CULTURE AND SHARED
VALUES. So IT IS ONLY NATURAL THAT, AS DRAMATIC CHANGE
COMES TO POLAND, WE SHARE THE ASPIRATIONS AND
EXCITEMENT OF THE POLISH PEOPLE.
- 3 -
IN MY INAUGURAL ADDRESS, I SPOKE OF THE NEW BREEZE
OF FREEDOM GAINING STRENGTH AROUND THE WORLD. "IN
MAN'S HEART," I SAID, "IF NOT IN FACT, THE DAY OF THE
DICTATOR IS OVER. THE TOTALITARIAN ERA IS PASSING, ITS
OLD IDEAS BLOWN AWAY LIKE LEAVES FROM AN ANCIENT
LIFELESS TREE."
I SPOKE OF THE SPREADING RECOGNITION THAT
PROSPERITY CAN ONLY COME FROM A FREE MARKET AND THE
CREATIVE GENIUS OF THE INDIVIDUAL.
- 4 -
I SPOKE OF THE NEW POTENCY OF DEMOCRATIC IDEAS -- OF
FREE SPEECH, FREE ELECTIONS AND THE EXERCISE OF FREE
WILL.
WE SHOULD NOT BE SURPRISED THAT THE IDEAS OF
DEMOCRACY ARE RETURNING WITH RENEWED FORCE IN EUROPE --
THE HOMELAND OF PHILOSOPHERS OF FREEDOM WHOSE IDEALS
HAVE BEEN so FULLY REALIZED IN AMERICA.
- 5 -
VICTOR Hugo SAID: "AN INVASION OF ARMIES CAN BE
RESISTED, BUT NOT AN IDEA WHOSE TIME HAS COME. " MY
FRIENDS, LIBERTY IS AN IDEA WHOSE TIME HAS COME IN
EASTERN EUROPE
FOR ALMOST HALF A CENTURY, THE SUPPRESSION OF
FREEDOM IN EASTERN EUROPE, SUSTAINED BY THE MILITARY
POWER OF THE SOVIET UNION, HAS KEPT NATION FROM NATION,
NEIGHBOR FROM NEIGHBOR.
- 6 -
As EAST AND WEST SEEK TO REDUCE ARMS, IT MUST NOT BE
FORGOTTEN THAT ARMS ARE A SYMPTOM, NOT A SOURCE, OF
TENSION. THE TRUE SOURCE OF TENSION IS THE IMPOSED AND
UNNATURAL DIVISION OF EUROPE.
How CAN THERE BE STABILITY AND SECURITY IN EUROPE
AND THE WORLD AS LONG AS NATIONS AND PEOPLES ARE DENIED
THE RIGHT TO DETERMINE THEIR FUTURE -- A RIGHT
EXPLICITLY PROMISED THEM BY AGREEMENTS AMONG THE
VICTORIOUS POWERS AT THE END OF WORLD WAR Two?
- 7 -
How CAN THERE BE STABILITY AND SECURITY IN EUROPE AS
LONG AS NATIONS, WHICH ONCE STOOD PROUDLY AT THE FRONT
RANK OF INDUSTRIAL POWERS, ARE IMPOVERISHED BY A
DISCREDITED IDEOLOGY AND STIFLING AUTHORITARIANISM?
THE UNITED STATES HAS NEVER ACCEPTED THE LEGITIMACY OF
EUROPE'S DIVISION. WE ACCEPT NO SPHERES OF INFLUENCE
THAT DENY THE SOVEREIGN RIGHTS OF NATIONS
YET THE WINDS OF CHANGE ARE SHAPING A NEW EUROPEAN
DESTINY. WESTERN EUROPE IS RESURGENT.
- 8 -
EASTERN EUROPE IS AWAKENING TO YEARNINGS FOR DEMOCRACY,
INDEPENDENCE AND PROSPERITY. IN THE SOVIET UNION
ITSELF, WE ARE ENCOURAGED BY THE SOUND OF VOICES LONG
SILENT, AND THE SIGHT OF THE RULERS CONSULTING THE
RULED. WE SEE "NEW THINKING" IN SOME ASPECTS OF SOVIET
FOREIGN POLICY. WE ARE HOPEFUL THAT THESE STIRRINGS
PRESAGE MEANINGFUL, LASTING AND MORE FAR-REACHING
CHANGE.
- 9 -
LET NO ONE DOUBT THE SINCERITY OF THE AMERICAN
PEOPLE AND THEIR GOVERNMENT IN OUR DESIRE TO SEE REFORM
SUCCEED IN THE SOVIET UNION. WE WELCOME THE CHANGES
THAT HAVE TAKEN PLACE, AND WE WILL CONTINUE TO
ENCOURAGE GREATER RECOGNITION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, MARKET
INCENTIVES AND ELECTIONS.
EAST AND WEST ARE NEGOTIATING ON A BROAD RANGE OF
ISSUES, FROM ARMS REDUCTIONS TO THE ENVIRONMENT.
- 10 -
BUT THE COLD WAR BEGAN IN EASTERN EUROPE; IF IT IS TO
END, IT WILL END IN THIS CRUCIBLE OF WORLD CONFLICT --
AND IT MUST END. THE AMERICAN PEOPLE WANT TO SEE EAST
AND CENTRAL EUROPE FREE, PROSPEROUS AND AT PEACE. WITH
PRUDENCE, REALISM AND PATIENCE, WE SEEK TO PROMOTE THE
EVOLUTION OF FREEDOM -- THE OPPORTUNITIES SPARKED BY
THE HELSINKI ACCORDS AND DEEPENING EAST-WEST CONTACT.
IN RECENT YEARS, WE HAVE IMPROVED RELATIONS WITH
COUNTRIES IN THE REGION.
- 11 -
IN EACH CASE, WE LOOKED FOR PROGRESS IN ITS
INTERNATIONAL POSTURE AND INTERNAL PRACTICES -- IN
HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURAL OPENNESS, EMIGRATION ISSUES,
OPPOSITION TO TERRORISM. WHILE WE WANT RELATIONS TO
IMPROVE, THERE ARE CERTAIN ACTS WE WILL NOT CONDONE OR
ACCEPT -- BEHAVIOR THAT CAN SHIFT RELATIONS IN THE
WRONG DIRECTION: HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES, TECHNOLOGY THEFT,
AND HOSTILE INTELLIGENCE OR FOREIGN POLICY ACTIONS
AGAINST US.
- 12 -
SOME REGIMES ARE NOW SEEKING TO WIN POPULAR
LEGITIMACY THROUGH REFORMS. IN HUNGARY, A NEW
LEADERSHIP IS EXPERIMENTING WITH REFORMS THAT MAY
PERMIT A POLITICAL PLURALISM THAT ONLY A FEW YEARS AGO
WOULD HAVE BEEN UNTHINKABLE. AND IN POLAND, ON APRIL
5, SOLIDARITY LEADER LECH WALESA AND INTERIOR MINISTER
KISZCZAK SIGNED AGREEMENTS THAT, IF FAITHFULLY
IMPLEMENTED, WILL BE A WATERSHED IN THE POSTWAR HISTORY
OF EASTERN EUROPE.
- 13 -
UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE ROUNDTABLE AGREEMENTS,
THE FREE TRADE UNION SOLIDARITY WILL BE FORMALLY
RESTORED, A FREE OPPOSITION PRESS WILL BE LEGALIZED,
INDEPENDENT POLITICAL AND OTHER FREE ASSOCIATIONS WILL
BE PERMITTED, AND ELECTIONS FOR A NEW POLISH SENATE
WILL BE HELD. THESE AGREEMENTS TESTIFY TO THE REALISM
OF GENERAL JARUZELSKI AND HIS COLLEAGUES.
- 14 -
AND THEY ARE INSPIRING TESTIMONY TO THE SPIRITUAL
GUIDANCE OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH, THE INDOMITABLE SPIRIT
OF THE POLISH PEOPLE -- AND THE STRENGTH AND WISDOM OF
LECH WALESA
POLAND FACES, AND WILL CONTINUE TO FACE FOR SOME
TIME, SEVERE ECONOMIC PROBLEMS. A MODERN FRENCH WRITER
OBSERVED THAT COMMUNISM IS NOT ANOTHER FORM OF
ECONOMICS. IT IS THE DEATH OF ECONOMICS.
- 15 -
IN POLAND, AN ECONOMIC SYSTEM CRIPPLED BY THE
INEFFICIENCIES OF CENTRAL PLANNING, ALMOST PROVED THE
DEATH OF INITIATIVE AND ENTERPRISE. ALMOST. BUT
ECONOMIC REFORMS CAN STILL GIVE FREE REIN TO THE
ENTERPRISING IMPULSE AND CREATIVE SPIRIT OF THE POLISH
PEOPLE.
THE POLISH PEOPLE UNDERSTAND THE MAGNITUDE OF THIS
CHALLENGE. DEMOCRATIC FORCES IN POLAND HAVE ASKED FOR
THE MORAL, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SUPPORT OF THE WEST.
- 16 -
AND THE WEST WILL RESPOND. MY ADMINISTRATION IS
COMPLETING A THOROUGH REVIEW OF OUR POLICIES TOWARD
POLAND AND ALL OF EASTERN EUROPE.
I HAVE CAREFULLY CONSIDERED WAYS THE UNITED STATES
CAN HELP POLAND. WE WILL NOT ACT UNCONDITIONALLY. WE
WILL NOT OFFER UNSOUND CREDITS. WE WILL NOT OFFER AID
WITHOUT REQUIRING SOUND ECONOMIC PRACTICES IN RETURN.
- 17 -
WE MUST REMEMBER THAT POLAND IS STILL A MEMBER OF THE
WARSAW PacT. WE MUST TAKE NO STEPS THAT COMPROMISE THE
SECURITY OF THE WEST.
THE CONGRESS, THE POLISH-AMERICAN COMMUNITY, THE
AMERICAN LABOR MOVEMENT, OUR ALLIES AND INTERNATIONAL
FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS, MUST WORK IN CONCERT IF POLISH
DEMOCRACY IS TO TAKE ROOT ANEW, AND SUSTAIN ITSELF. WE
CAN AND MUST ANSWER THIS CALL TO FREEDOM.
- 18 -
AND IT IS PARTICULARLY APPROPRIATE, HERE IN HAMTRAMCK,
FOR ME TO SALUTE THE MEMBERS AND LEADERS OF THE
AMERICAN LABOR MOVEMENT FOR HANGING TOUGH WITH
SOLIDARITY THROUGH ITS DARKEST DAYS.
THE POLES ARE NOW TAKING CONCRETE STEPS THAT
DESERVE OUR ACTIVE SUPPORT. I HAVE DECIDED ON SPECIFIC
STEPS BY THE UNITED STATES, CAREFULLY CHOSEN TO
RECOGNIZE REFORMS UNDERWAY, AND TO ENCOURAGE REFORMS
YET TO COME ONCE SOLIDARITY IS LEGAL:
- 19 -
-- I WILL ASK CONGRESS TO JOIN ME IN PROVIDING
POLAND ACCESS TO OUR GENERALIZED SYSTEM OF PREFERENCES,
WHICH OFFERS SELECTIVE TARIFF RELIEF TO BENEFICIARY
COUNTRIES.
-- WE WILL WORK WITH OUR ALLIES AND FRIENDS IN THE
PARIS CLUB TO DEVELOP SUSTAINABLE NEW SCHEDULES FOR
POLAND TO REPAY ITS DEBT, EASING A HEAVY BURDEN SO THAT
A FREE MARKET CAN GROW.
- 20 -
-- I WILL ALSO ASK CONGRESS TO JOIN ME IN
AUTHORIZING THE OVERSEAS PRIVATE INVESTMENT CORPORATION
TO OPERATE IN POLAND, TO THE BENEFIT OF BOTH POLISH AND
U.S. INVESTORS.
-- WE WILL PROPOSE NEGOTIATIONS FOR A PRIVATE
BUSINESS AGREEMENT WITH POLAND TO ENCOURAGE COOPERATION
BETWEEN U.S. FIRMS AND POLAND'S PRIVATE BUSINESSES.
BOTH SIDES CAN BENEFIT.
- 21 -
-- THE UNITED STATES WILL CONTINUE TO CONSIDER
SUPPORTING, ON THEIR MERITS, VIABLE LOANS TO THE
PRIVATE-SECTOR BY THE INTERNATIONAL FINANCE
CORPORATION.
-- WE BELIEVE THAT THE ROUNDTABLE AGREEMENTS CLEAR
THE WAY FOR POLAND TO BE ABLE TO WORK WITH THE
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND ON PROGRAMS THAT SUPPORT
SOUND, NEW, MARKET-ORIENTED ECONOMIC POLICIES.
- 22 -
-- WE WILL ENCOURAGE BUSINESS AND PRIVATE NON-
PROFIT GROUPS TO DEVELOP INNOVATIVE PROGRAMS TO SWAP
POLISH DEBT FOR EQUITY IN POLISH ENTERPRISES; AND FOR
CHARITABLE, HUMANITARIAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS.
-- WE WILL SUPPORT IMAGINATIVE EDUCATIONAL,
CULTURAL AND TRAINING PROGRAMS TO HELP LIBERATE THE
CREATIVE ENERGIES OF THE POLISH PEOPLE.
- 23 -
WHEN I VISITED POLAND IN SEPTEMBER, 1987, I TOLD
CHAIRMAN JARUZELSKI AND LECH WALESA THAT THE AMERICAN
PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENT WOULD RESPOND QUICKLY AND
IMAGINATIVELY TO SIGNIFICANT INTERNAL REFORM OF THE
KIND WE SEE NOW. BOTH OF THEM VALUED THAT ASSURANCE.
So IT IS ESPECIALLY GRATIFYING FOR ME TO WITNESS THE
CHANGES NOW TAKING PLACE IN POLAND, AND TO ANNOUNCE
THESE IMPORTANT CHANGES IN U.S. POLICY. THE UNITED
STATES KEEPS ITS PROMISES.
- 24 -
IF POLAND'S EXPERIMENT SUCCEEDS, OTHER COUNTRIES
MAY FOLLOW. WHILE WE MUST STILL DIFFERENTIATE AMONG
THE NATIONS OF EASTERN EUROPE, POLAND OFFERS TWO
LESSONS FOR ALL. FIRST, THERE CAN BE NO PROGRESS
WITHOUT SIGNIFICANT POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC
LIBERALIZATION. SECOND, HELP FROM THE WEST WILL COME
IN CONCERT WITH LIBERALIZATION. OUR FRIENDS AND
EUROPEAN ALLIES SHARE THIS PHILOSOPHY.
- 25 -
THE WEST CAN NOW BE BOLD IN PROPOSING A VISION OF
THE EUROPEAN FUTURE: WE DREAM OF THE DAY WHEN THERE
WILL BE NO BARRIERS TO THE FREE MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE,
GOODS AND IDEAS. WE DREAM OF THE DAY WHEN EASTERN
EUROPEAN PEOPLES WILL BE FREE TO CHOOSE THEIR SYSTEM OF
GOVERNMENT AND TO VOTE FOR THE PARTY OF THEIR CHOICE IN
REGULAR, CONTESTED ELECTIONS.
- 26 -
WE DREAM OF THE DAY WHEN EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
WILL BE FREE TO CHOOSE THEIR OWN PEACEFUL COURSE IN THE
WORLD, INCLUDING CLOSER TIES WITH WESTERN EUROPE. AND
WE ENVISION AN EASTERN EUROPE IN WHICH THE SOVIET UNION
HAS RENOUNCED MILITARY INTERVENTION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF
ITS POLICY -- ON ANY PRETEXT
WE SHARE AN
UNWAVERING CONVICTION THAT ONE DAY ALL THE PEOPLES OF
EUROPE WILL LIVE IN FREEDOM.
- 27 -
NEXT MONTH, AT A SUMMIT OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
ALLIANCE, THE LEADERS OF THE WESTERN DEMOCRACIES WILL
DISCUSS THESE CONCERNS. THESE ARE NOT BILATERAL ISSUES
BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND THE SOVIET UNION. THEY
ARE, RATHER, THE CONCERN OF ALL THE WESTERN ALLIES,
CALLING FOR COMMON APPROACHES. THE SOVIET UNION SHOULD
UNDERSTAND, IN TURN, THAT A FREE DEMOCRATIC EASTERN
EUROPE AS WE ENVISION IT WOULD THREATEN NO ONE AND NO
COUNTRY.
- 28 -
SUCH AN EVOLUTION WOULD IMPLY, AND REINFORCE, THE
FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OF EAST-WEST RELATIONS IN ALL
DIMENSIONS -- ARMS REDUCTIONS, POLITICAL RELATIONS,
TRADE -- IN WAYS THAT ENHANCE THE SAFETY AND WELL-BEING
OF ALL OF EUROPE. THERE IS NO OTHER WAY.
WHAT HAS BROUGHT US TO THIS OPENING? THE UNITY AND
STRENGTH OF THE DEMOCRACIES, AND SOMETHING ELSE -- THE
BOLD NEW THINKING IN THE SOVIET UNION; THE INNATE
DESIRE FOR FREEDOM IN THE HEARTS OF ALL MEN.
- 29 -
WE WILL NOT WAVER IN OUR DEDICATION TO FREEDOM NOW. IF
WE ARE WISE, UNITED AND READY TO SEIZE THE MOMENT, WE
WILL BE REMEMBERED AS THE GENERATION THAT HELPED ALL OF
EUROPE FIND ITS DESTINY IN FREEDOM.
Two CENTURIES AGO, A POLISH PATRIOT NAMED THADDEUS
Kosciuszko (KOSH-SCHOO-SKOH) CAME TO THESE AMERICAN
SHORES TO STAND FOR FREEDOM.
- 30 -
LET US HONOR AND REMEMBER THIS HERO OF OUR OWN STRUGGLE
FOR FREEDOM BY EXTENDING OUR HAND TO THOSE WHO WORK THE
SHIPYARDS OF GDANSK, AND WALK THE COBBLED STREETS OF
WARSAW. LET US RECALL THE WORDS OF THE POLES WHO
STRUGGLED FOR INDEPENDENCE: "FOR YOUR FREEDOM AND
OURS." LET US SUPPORT THE PEACEFUL EVOLUTION OF
DEMOCRACY IN POLAND. THE CAUSE OF LIBERTY KNOWS NO
LIMITS; THE FRIENDS OF FREEDOM, NO BORDERS.
- 31 -
GOD BLESS POLAND, AND GOD BLESS AMERICA. THANK
YOU.
#
#
#
PRESS RELEASE
THE VICE PRESIDENT
OFFICE OF THE PRESS SECRETARY
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
CONTACT: 202/456-6772
Friday, January 29, 1988
EXCERPTS FROM REMARKS FOR
VICE PRESIDENT GEORGE BUSH
SERTOMA CLUB "FREEDOM BANQUET"
COUNCIL BLUFFS, IOWA
FRIDAY, JANUARY 29, 1988
Freedom is real; it's tangible; you may not be able to hold
it in your hand but you can feel it and you can see it. You can
feel freedom when you worship in the church of your choice. You
can feel freedom when you travel through our great country
without passing security check points. You can see it every time
you pick up a newspaper or watch the evening news.
As a nation, our first responsibility is to defend freedom.
A country like ours, born out of the struggle against tyranny,
should never apologize for helping others win their freedom.
I've been to 74 foreign countries. I can tell you there isn't
another country like ours in the entire world. We live in the
freest, the fairest, the most generous nation on the faith of the
earth. And I will never apologize for the United States of
America. I will stand up for her and help her spread the light
of freedom.
* * *
A lot of people talk about Communism, but Barbara and I
actually lived in a Communist country when I was Chief of the
Liaison Office in Peking.
I will never forget seeing the six-year-old kids walking by
the Embassy every Friday afternoon on their way to Marxist
regimentation classes, where they would sit on three-legged
stools and listen to lectures about the central government's
control of their lives and how important that was. Just think
how different it is for these kids.
Last September, I traveled to Poland. While I was there, I
met with General Jaruzelski, Poland's Communist leader. He's
tough, he's strong, and he sees himself, by the way, as
Gorbachev's best friend in Eastern Europe.
-more-
2
I. also met with Lech Walesa, the leader of the outlawed
labor union Solidarity, and I invited him to go with me to. the
church of Father Popieluszko, the martyred priest who was
tortured and murdered by the Polish secret police simply because
he preached about his faith in God.
We weren't sure how the Polish security would react to my
invitation to Walesa. As it turned out, they let him ride in my
car, but as a symbol of protest they removed the Polish flag from
the front fender. That didn't matter, though, because we still
had the Stars and Stripes flying from our left fender. We drove
to downtown Warsaw to the church where Father Popieluszko had
preached.
On his grave, we laid a little Solidarity banner on behalf
of all of us, the American people. There I stood next to Lech
Walesa, a symbol not only of trade unionism, but of the Polish
people's desire for greater freedom. Barbara had her arm around
Mrs. Popieluszko, grieving for a fallen son who was cut down by
the Polish regime.
After that, Walesa and I climbed to the top of the church
and flashed the sign of the "V" for Solidarity to the thousands
of Poles who had gathered below, cheering, "Long Live Reagan,"
"Long Live Bush," "Long Live the United States of America."
Walesa couldn't believe that I, the Vice President of the United
States, would stand with him -- in public, in downtown Warsaw,
before this crowd of thousands of people.
Later that night, I went on Polish TV for five minutes,
uncensored, and talked about Solidarity, Walesa, and freedom --
the first time that those three words had been spoken together
since the crushing of Solidarity in Gdansk in 1981.
All of this reaffirmed my conviction that no other country
has the same innate honor and decency as the United States of
America. No other country can stand up for freedom and human
rights the way we can. It brought home to me once again --
because I had seen it many times before -- how the world looks up
to the United States for leadership.
####
Poland, History of 637
nphony
Mass media of communication. The regular broad-
pean history. Emerging from a loose union of Slavic
and
casting of a radio program for general reception was be-
tribes in the 9th century, Poland had become by the late
and
gun by the Polish radio cooperative in 1926, and by Sep-
Middle Ages a virtual empire with the highest level of
interna-
tember 1939 there were 10 radio stations and around
civilization in eastern Europe; it was a bulwark of the
1,000,000 subscribers. After World War II Polish radio
Roman Catholic faith there. Polish political theory, cul-
azowsze
began anew. Experiments with television were begun in
ture, and science had a vitalizing effect on the mainstream
and
1948, and regular broadcasting started in 1956, first in
of European thought, and ideals such as religious tolera-
as
the
Warsaw and then in Łódź. By the 1970s the National
tion were pioneered in Poland at a time when most of
Colle-
Committee of Polish Radio and Television had at its dis-
Europe was engaged in bitter persecution. Although it
music
posal almost 20 radio stations and more than half a dozen
virtually disappeared as a state after the three partitions
no
com-
television centres. On a ratio per thousand people, how-
of the late 18th century, Poland was re-established after
proba-
ever, Poland still held a low place among European coun-
World War I. Its invasion by Germany in 1939 was the
of
mu-
tioni
tries in respect of subscribers to radio and television.
event that marked the outbreak of World War II.
The beginnings of the Polish press date from the 16th
This article is divided into the following sections:
arts
century, when irregularly printed information sheets and
chief-
leaflets began to appear. In 1661 the first permanent peri-
I. Poland during the Middle Ages, 966-1492
miles
of
odical, the Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny ("Current
The founding of the Piast Kingdom, 966-1025
and
Polish Mercury"), was published in Kraków. The growth
Unity and disintegration, 1025-1241
The Mongol invasions and the re-establishment
tstanding
of the periodical press continued through the period of
of the kingdom, 1241-1382
ptych
of
foreign domination, and before World War II there were
The Jagiellon dynasty, 1382-1492
Kraków,
more than 2,500 publications, some of them in the lan-
II. The Polish Commonwealth, 1492-1795
of
the
guages of minority groups, although average circulation
The "Golden Age" of the Polish-Lithuanian
under
was small. The most readable daily, the Ilustrowany Kur-
Empire, 1492-1572
ndividual
ier Codzienny, had a circulation of only 150,000. By 1975
The "Silver Age" of the Royal Republic, 1572-1648
Ren-
the leading dailies were Trybuna Ludu (organ of the Pol-
The Iron Era period of wars and disintegration, 1648-97
tecture
of
ish United Workers' Party), Zycie Warszawy (independ-
The Saxonian era and the Russian
of
the
old
protectorate, 1697-1763
ent), Dziennik Ludowy (organ of the Supreme Executive
The
classi-
Reform and partition during the reign
of the United Peasant Party), and Kurier Polski (organ
of Stanislaw II Augustus Poniatowski, 1764-95
ginning
of
of the Democratic Party). Most of the dailies, and polit-
III. Poland under partition, 1795-1914
Varsaw,
as
ical and social writings generally, are issued under the
Foreign rule and the Duchy of Warsaw, 1795-1815
Prasa imprint, and distribution is in the hands of Ruch,
The Kingdom of Poland and the other
the
second
a nationwide group.
Polish lands, 1815-31
developing
Russian reprisals and the January
specific
PROSPECTS
Insurrection, 1831-64
achieved
The founding of modern Poland, 1864-1914
Jan
Ma-
Poland is a proud country with roots deep in the past.
IV. Modern Poland, since 1914
of
land-
Its cultural life, in particular, has been very rich, drawing
The founding of the Second Republic, 1914-21
on a thousand years of tradition and sustaining the na-
Poland between the wars, 1921-39
theatre
tional spirit when Polish frontiers and indeed the Polish
Poland during World War II (1939-45)
state collapsed as a result of the country's unfavourable
Poland after World War II
ystery
and
theatre,
historical and geographical position. Since the blows suf-
cen-
fered during World War II, the government has attempted
I. Poland during the Middle Ages, 966-1492
17th
and
ballet
to build a new state without losing sight of tradition. By
THE FOUNDING OF THE PIAST KINGDOM, 966-1025
of
the
the 1970s much had been accomplished in economic
Early origins. The Poles belong to the North Indo-Eu-
last
king,
growth, especially in heavy industry, and in reform of
ropean language group comprising the Slavs, the Balts,
public
Pol-
education and cultural life. But, as Polish experts ac-
and the Germans. The primordial homeland of the Slavs
Warsaw
and
knowledged, much remained to be done in both eco-
can be located in the immediate vicinity of the most
of
this
nomic and social life to raise standards to those of west-
ancient settlements of the Germans and Balts, the area
gure
and
author
ern Europe.
(J.A.K./A.H.D.)
occupied by the "Poles" lying in the basins of the Oder
the
Polish
and Vistula rivers. The Polish nation originated from a
bibliography. The quinquennial Poland, a Handbook is
the
survival
a comprehensive outline of the country and its society issued
union of such West Slavic tribes as the Polanians (Po-
actors
and
by the government of Poland; an extensive list of Polish-lan-
lanie), Vistulans (Wiślanie), Silesians (Slęzanie), East
ieved
major
guage publications available in English translation, Polish
Pomeranians (Pomorzanie), and Mazovians (Mazo-
acting
and
Books in English, 1945-1971 (1974), compiled by JANINA
wianie). These "Polish" tribes shared a basically com-
During
the
HOSKINS, was issued by the U.S. Library of Congress; the basic
mon culture and language and were much more closely
fficial
title
is
Polish source is KAROL J. ESTREICHER, Bibliografia Polska (39
related to each other than, for example, the Germanic
Wrocław
Laborr
in
vol., 1870); the most extensive reference work is the Wielka
tribes who founded the Franconian or German kingdom
experimental
Encyklopedia Powszechna PWN, 13 vol. (1962-70), published
of
theatri-
by the Polish Academy of Sciences; R.H. OSBORNE, East Cen-
about 800-1024. Chronicles and geographical descrip-
tral Europe, ch. 8 (1967), a concise geographical summary of
tions of Carolingian, Saxonian, Arabian, and Byzantine
Grotowski,
facts about the land and its people; INSTITUTE OF BRITISH GEOG-
origin have described in some detail these Polish tribes,
States,
where
RAPHERS, Problems of Applied Geography: Proceedings of
their names, and the regions where they lived. The Pola-
The
and
its
the Anglo-Polish Seminar, Keele, Sept. 9-20, 1962 (1964),
nie tribe (open-country dwellers) lived in the fertile Polish
Polanie
important
contains important contributions on contemporary industrial-
heartland crossed by the Warta River, and this was the
tribe
Konstantin
ization and urbanization in Poland and on their influence on
group after which the later Polish nation was named.
the
early
dec-
land use and agriculture; J. BOGUCKI, The Fine Arts in Poland
Besides the Polanie tribe, there were approximately 20
Today (Eng. trans. 1967); J.Z. LOZINSKI and A. MILOBEDSKI,
Polish tribes that formed small states between the years
from
before
Guide to Architecture in Poland (Eng. trans. 1967), includes
800 and 960. The individual tribes owed allegiance to
company,
an introductory outline that concisely describes the develop-
others,
ment of architecture in the territory that constitutes Poland
regional leaders, chosen from an assembly of all free
was
today, with maps of selected architectural monuments and
Polish males as commanders in case of war. These were
at
this
peri-
and
tech-
a list of all the buildings located; J.C. FISHER (ed.), City and
the beginnings from which the dynasties of hereditary
After
World
Regional Planning in Poland (1966), a comprehensive rec-
kings, princes, or dukes slowly evolved. Each tribe com-
succes-
ord of city and regional planning in Poland from theories
manded several well-fortified castles or fortresses, the
and methods to specific case studies; Polish Statistical Year-
larger castles developing into principalities or "castle dis-
'60s
when
book, up-to-date statistics published annually.
tricts." There were usually fortified city-settlements (sub-
the
forefront
quality
of
urbia) near all the larger castles even in very early times.
the
cinemas
Inhabited by artisans, workmen, and merchants, these
both
in
other
Poland, History of
cities also served as refuges on occasion. As early as
Poland is a nation whose often tragic history is yet
900-1025, along the Baltic Sea coast, there were large
coloured by past eminence and a vital role played in Euro-
trading centres with between 6,000 and 10,000 inhabi-
tants; these included Wolin (Wollin) and Szczecin (Stet-
636 Poland
came to the fore, to be succeeded in the 19th century by
tional competitions. The leading contemporary symphony
a flowering of literature and music. Until the 20th cen-
orchestras-the National Philharmonic of Warsaw and
tury, cultural life was mainly focussed on and supported
the Great Symphonic Orchestra of the Polish Radio and
by the nobility and, latterly, by the merchant bourgeoisie.
Television, from Katowice-have also achieved interna-
Fundamental changes in Poland's cultural life really
tional successes.
occurred only after 1945, when great social changes, to-
Folk music continues to be propagated by Mazowsze
gether with a quite different revolution wrought by the
and Śląsk, two representative song and dance groups, and
introduction of mass media, made culture available to
other musical forms by such chamber groups as the
the masses. This process contributed to the rapid decline
Capella Bydgostiensis and the Musicae Antiquae Colle-
Inter-
of folk culture and its regional variations.
gium Varsoviense. Many festivals and international music
The ethnic basis of folk culture. The traditional folk
competitions are held in Poland, the Chopin piano com-
culture of Poland is disappearing rapidly. In the Little
petition, which takes place every five years, being proba-
Poland region, however, there is still a marked distinction
bly the best known. Poland also has a rich variety of mu-
tions
between the Lachy (extra-Carpathian peoples) and the
sical societies and magazines devoted to music.
Górale, or mountain people (from góra, "mountain").
The visual arts. The oldest examples of the visual arts
The Górale of the Podhale area, in particular, have a
in Poland are survivals from the prehistoric period, chief-
most distinctive folk culture, with characteristic cos-
ly pottery. From the Middle Ages many fine examples of
tumes, decoration, architecture, and music. The Górale
Romanesque and Gothic architecture, both secular and
living in the Silesian part of the Carpathians form a
religious, have been preserved, together with outstanding
similarly distinctive group. Also in Silesia, the folk tradi-
sculptures, among which the wooden altar triptych of
tion of the ancestral Polish population around Opole is
Veit Stoss, in the Church of the Virgin Mary in Kraków,
very distinctive. In Great Poland, the Sieradzanie from
is the most famous. The architecture and sculpture of the
the middle Warta, the Kujawiacy from the upper Noteć,
Renaissance and Baroque periods were formed under
and the Krajniacy of the Pomeranian frontier all have
Italian influence but nevertheless developed individual
their own folk culture. In Mazovia, the inhabitants of the
Polish forms, as, for example, in the characteristic Ren-
Łowicz area are noted for their costumes and decorative
aissance attics. The best preserved urban architecture of
skills, and the Kurpie from the middle Narew, together
the late Middle Ages and Renaissance is that of the old
with the inhabitants of the Opoczno area, to the north
town in Kraków, together with Wawel Castle. The classi-
of the Holy Cross Mountains, are also significant. In
cism of the end of the 18th century and the beginning of
Pomerania the Kashubians are the most distinct folk
the 19th left its most valuable monuments in Warsaw, as
group, followed by the Kociewacy from the lower Wisła,
can be seen in the palace in Łazienki Park.
and the Borowiacy from the Tuchola area. Among the
Painting attained its greatest development in the second
Polish population of former East Prussia there is a sharp
half of the 19th century, representing styles developing
cultural distinction between the Catholic Warmiacy, from
at that time in western Europe, but again with specific
the Olsztyn area, and the Protestant Mazurians, who are
national characteristics. The greatest fame was achieved
very close to the neighbouring Kurpie.
by the creator of monumental historic pictures Jan Ma-
Literature. The oldest traces of Polish folklore are
tejko, by Henryk Siemiradzki, and by a number of land-
preserved in the medieval Latin works of the chroniclers,
scape and genre painters.
Early
who handed down numerous lay and religious legends.
Theatre and motion pictures. A Polish religious theatre
literature
From the Renaissance period, many texts of Polish folk
existed in the Middle Ages, with initially mystery and
plays survive. The systematic collection of songs and
later morality plays. In the 16th century the court theatre,
other works, which were to prove a stimulus to much of
with the first native dramas, appeared. In the 17th cen-
Polish culture, was not started until the end of the 18th
tury and at the beginning of the 18th, opera and ballet
and the beginning of the 19th century.
troupes, mostly foreign, performed in the courts of the
The first half of the 19th century witnessed the flowering
kings and the magnates. Only in the reign of the last king,
of the three greatest Polish poets (Adam Mickiewicz,
Stanisław II August Poniatowski, did the first public Pol-
Juliusz Słowacki, and Zygmunt Krasiński), while in the
ish national theatre come into being, first in Warsaw and
second half, and at the beginning of the 20th century, the
later in other towns. The most outstanding figure of this
great Polish prose writers-including the Nobel Prize
period of the theatre was the actor, director, and author
winners Henryk Sienkiewicz and Władysław Reymont-
Wojciech Bogusławski. After the downfall of the Polish
were active.
state, the theatre played an enormous part in the survival
Music. The dance rhythms of the krakowiak, mazur
of the Polish language and spirit. Among the actors and
(mazurek, kujawiak, oberek), and polonaise are partic-
actresses of this period, Helena Modjeska achieved major
ularly characteristic of Polish folk music. The music of
international status. In the interwar period, acting and
the Górale of the Podhale has a different character: in
staging in Poland reached a very high level. During the
contrast to the monodic, or elegiac, music of other re-
1960s, the Polish Laboratory Theatre (the official title is
The
gions, it is polyphonic, blending a number of discrete
Teatr 13 Rzędów, "Theatre of 13 Rows") in Wrocław
melodies. The oldest remnants of church music stem
gained an international reputation for its experimental
tory
from the Middle Ages, and the most outstanding works-
work in the training of actors and in methods of theatri-
The
notably the compositions of Wacław of Szamotuły and
cal production. Under the direction of Jerzy Grotowski,
Mikołaj Gomółka-date from the 16th century. The
it toured western Europe and the United States, where
development of modern musical forms-symphony,
many critics have acclaimed its artistic theories and its
opera, and chamber music-may be traced from the end
performances as representative of the most important
of the 18th century. Folk music was a major source of
new direction in theatre since the work of Konstantin
musical content (as in the opera Krakowiacy i Górale
Stanislavsky at the Moscow Art Theatre in the early dec-
[The Cracovians and the Highlanders]), and, inspired by
ades of the 20th century.
it, the most famous of Polish composers, Frédéric Cho-
The beginnings of Polish cinema date from before
pin, composed much of his work for the piano. In the
World War I. In 1909 the first film-producing company,
second half of the 19th century, Stanislaw Moniuszko
Sfinks (Sphinx), was formed, and this, with others, was
created the popular operas Halka, Straszny Dwór, and
active in the interwar period. Film production at this peri-
Hrabina and also was a leading exponent of the solo song.
od was not, however, marked by a high artistic and tech-
At the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the
nical level, despite many ambitious attempts. After World
20th, famous Polish performers came onto the world
War II, Polish films had a series of international succes-
stage, the pianists Ignacy Paderewski and Artur Rubin-
ses, and particularly in the 1950s and early '60s when
stein heading a procession of violinists, conductors, and
Andrzej Wajda and Andrzej Munk came to the forefront
singers. The most outstanding composer of the first half
as directors. By the early 1970s, however, the quality of
of the 20th century was Karol Szymanowski, and con-
films had diminished, and the number of both cinemas
temporary Polish composers are known far beyond the
and audiences decreased, a trend also observable in other
national boundaries, having won many prizes in interna-
countries.
638 Poland, History of
tin), on the mouth of the Oder River, and Truso (later
added Silesia and Little Poland to his other conquests.
Elblag) and Gdańsk (Danzig), founded before 990 on
This established Mieszko as the ruler of an empire cover-
the mouth of the Vistula River. The ancient foreign trade
ing about 96,500 square miles (or 250,000 square kilo-
routes linking this area with distant regions stimulated
metres) and populated by 1,250,000 people. Poland was
the founding and development of small states. The most
now larger and more powerful than the Scandinavian
significant trade route from East to West connected Ratis-
countries, Hungary, or Bohemia. Of decisive importance
bon (now Regensburg)-Vienna and Cracow with Kiev
for the later development of internal unity was the fact
and Byzantium (now Istanbul). A well-developed mone-
that Mieszko submitted to the formal supremacy of the
tary exchange system made it possible for the individual
Holy See in Rome around 990. He took this step in order
dukes to raise tariffs and tributes, in this manner exerting
to avoid being subjected to the authority of the German
their sovereign rights on the monetary economy. In all
Church.
probability, mining of precious metals and iron ores must
Bolestaw I the Brave, 992-1025. The eldest son of
have taken place in Upper Silesia and in the Polish Cen-
Mieszko I, Bolesław, further enlarged his empire, going
tral Highlands at that time.
beyond the ethnic boundaries of the Polish tribes. With
Because of its advantageous location with regard to for-
Bolesław's help, the Holy Roman emperor Otto III set up
eign trade, the region grew into a larger state under the
his own Polish metropolitanate (church province), with
dynasty of the Wislanie (or Vistulans). One of the dynas-
the bishoprics of Cracow, Wroclaw, and Kolobrzeg and
ty's dukes was described as very powerful as early as 875,
the archbishopric of Gniezno, at the Congress of Gniezno
and, in all probability, his rule already extended over the
(1000). The first bishop of Prague, Adalbert (Voytěch),
Lędzianie (who lived either on the upper Vistula or the
became the national patron saint of Poland in that year,
upper Warta River) and perhaps even over some of the
following his martyrdom in 977 during his missionary
East Slavonic tribes on the Bug and San rivers. Around
work with the heathen Prussians in Samland in east Prus-
875 to 880 his state and Silesia came under the sovereign
sia. When Otto III died, Boleslaw I conquered Bohemia,
rule of the Great Moravian Empire, led by Prince Svato-
Moravia, the German borderlands in Lusatia (Lausitz),
Introduc-
pluk (ruled 870-894). Under his reign, Christianity was
west of the Oder River, and probably also Slovakia be-
tion of
introduced in both its Latin and Greek forms through the
tween 1003 and 1004. But the new king of Germany,
Christian-
disciples of "the apostles of the Slavs," Cyril (died 869)
Henry II (ruled 1002-24), reconquered Bohemia and
ity
and Methodius (died 885). Destroying the Great Mo-
also led three campaigns against Bolesław I, without suc-
ravian Empire, the Magyars conquered and settled the
cess. In 1018 Boleslaw turned east, occupying Kiev for a
Hungarian lands from about 896 to 907. This restored
short period and regaining the borderland at the Bug and
the independence of southern Poland for a short time
San rivers, which had belonged to Poland before 981.
until it came under the control of the Bohemian dukes
Boleslaw I was crowned king (presumably with the con-
Boleslav I (died 972) and Boleslav II (ruled from about
sent of the Holy See in Rome) in 1024-25, and the new
973 to 999).
kingdom became gradually known under the name of
Both the Latin and Eastern Orthodox faiths were al-
Poland (Polonia) even during his reign. After his death
ready well established in the area by this time, and the
the Polish monarchy came to be the secular symbol of the
first bishopric of Cracow was established in 969. Even
country's unity, in spite of all the partitions and divisions
though nothing is known about a local dynasty, a terri-
that the future held in store.
torial association was formed a few decades later, consist-
ing of the tribes of southern Poland, commonly known as
UNITY AND DISINTEGRATION, 1025-1241
Little Poland (Małopolska). Little Poland, with the ex-
Attempts to expand Polish domination. Mieszko II
ception of a few border regions, covered the same area as
Lambert, 1025-34. One of the younger sons of Boleslaw
the bishopric of Cracow.
I, Mieszko II Lambert was well educated but did not
The Piast dynasty. The second and politically more
possess the strategic and statesmanlike talents of his fa-
important founding of a state took place under the Pola-
ther. After victorious campaigns against the barbarian
nie dynasty. The descendants of "Piast," the legendary
Polabs in 1030, he attacked the German king Conrad II,
founder of the dynasty-Siemowit (Ziemowit), Leszek
who, in alliance with the Russian grand prince Yaroslav
(Lestko), and Siemomys} (Ziemomysł)-united the
of Kiev, attacked Poland (1031), further supported by
lands around Poznań, Kruszwica, Gniezno, and Kalisz,
rebellions within the country. Eventually, about 1033,
and this region later became known as Great Poland
Mieszko was forced to recognize German supremacy. His
(Wielkopolska).
death in 1034 thus came at the height of a crisis. The
Mieszko I, c. 963-992. Siemomysł's son, Mieszko I, was
boom in foreign trade that had been a factor in the estab-
the first of the Piast dukes to have his biography recorded
lishment of the Piast empire had come to a close; the
in detail in the chronicles of that time. Through his desire
regional overlords were in a state of rebellion, and the
to conquer Western Pomerania along the Oder River to
barbarian insurrections deeply affected the barely estab-
the trading cities of Szczecin and Wolin, Mieszko I came
lished organization of the church. Chaos followed for the
into contact with the German kingdom, whose ruler Otto
next few years (1034-39), the Bohemian duke Bretislav I
I the Great (the Holy Roman emperor) had conquered
occupying Silesia, totally devastating Great Poland, and
and subjugated Bohemia in 950 and all the Polabic tribes
resettling many of its inhabitants in Bohemia. The
(between the Elbe and the Oder rivers) between 936 and
coastal regions from Szczecin to Gdańsk seceded from
955. This extended the sovereignty of the German king to
the Polish crown for about a century. The bishopric of
the Oder River, and, for the time being, Mieszko ac-
Kołobrzeg-and with it the entire Christian movement in
knowledged Otto's supremacy and entered into a close
Western Pomerania-foundered again.
trade and cultural relationship with the Duchy of Saxony,
Casimir I the Restorer, 1039-58. A former monk, Cas-
Otto's homeland. To counter the German threat, Mieszko
imir (Kazimierz) I slowly restored Poland with the
I entered into an alliance with the Bohemian duke Boles-
help of the German king Henry III. Both Great Poland
lav II, marrying his sister, Dubravka (Dabrówka), in
and Little Poland recognized Casimir I as their duke in
965. Baptized in 966, he promoted the general spread of
1039-40. Mazovia followed in 1047 and Silesia recog-
Christianity in his lands, although a few small Christian
nized him in 1050, but Casimir had to pay tribute to Bo-
communities had already been in existence. In conse-
hemia for Silesia.
quence, the year 966 is considered to be the year that
Bolestaw II the Bold, 1058-79. Casimir's successor,
marks the founding of Poland. The bishopric of Poznań
Boleslaw II, continued the power politics of Boleslaw I,
was established in 968 and placed under the sovereignty
leading many successful campaigns into Hungary
of the archbishopric of Magdeburg. During the Great
(1060-77) and Kiev (1068-77). He also maintained the
Slav Rebellion in 983, Germany lost its territory east of
independence of Poland from Germany by skillfully tak-
the Elbe and Saale rivers. In tacit agreement with Ger-
ing advantage of a controversy between the German king
many, Mieszko I conquered the entire coastal region of
Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII. With the help of the
the Baltic Sea, including Szczecin, during 967 to 990.
Pope. he also renewed the crown of Poland. But after
After dissolving his treaty with Bohemia, he further
Henry IV had regained power (1077), a party of Polish
Poland, History of 639
conquests
nobles rebelled in his favour against Boleslaw. For rea-
that had lost a sphere for its activities in Palestine, was of
unknown, Boleslaw had decreed the execution of
dangerous consequence for Poland. His lands harried by
cover-
sons Bishop Stanislaw of Cracow in 1078, and this led to
heathen Lithuanians, Jatvingians, and Prussians, Duke
kilo-
rebellion. Boleslaw was forced to flee to Hunga-
Konrad I of Mazovia (died 1247) called for help from
Poland
was
andinavian
open where he died in exile in 1081. His younger brother
the Teutonic Order in 1225-26, leaving them the lands of
importance
Wladysław ry, I Herman (1079-1102) sided with the impe-
Chelmno (Kulm) east of the lower Vistula River as a
the
fact
rial party and in 1088-89 married Judith, Henry's sister,
territorial base for combat and control of the Prussians in
of
and relinquished all claims to the Polish crown.
1228-30. The grand master of the Teutonic Knights, Her-
the
order
Boleslaw III the Wry-Mouthed, 1102-38. Władysław's
mann von Salza, received sovereign rights over the "mas-
in
German
younger son, Boleslaw III, again strengthened the posi-
terless heathen country" of the Prussians in the Golden
tion of the Polish monarchy, expelling his elder brothers
Bull of Rimini (1226) from the emperor Frederick II
and his half brother Zbigniew (1107). Two years later he
and in the Privilegium of Rieti (1234) from Pope Gregory
son
of
drove back a campaign of the German king Henry V into
IX. His Order then tried to create an independent state, in
going
With
Silesia. In difficult campaigns, he reconquered all of the
spite of Konrad I's claim to sovereignty over the land. In
Western Pomeranian lands during 1113-22 and incorpo-
the event, the Order established a system of local govern-
III
set
up
with
rated Eastern Pomerania and Gdańsk into Poland. Boles-
ment in Chelmno and in Prussia. The subjugation and
law then ordered the final and complete Christianization
Christianization of Prussia was completed by 1283. The
Supremacy
and
of
Gniezno
of Western Pomerania and forced Polish rule on the land
Teutonic Order soon became the principal military power
of the
(Voytech),
of Lubusz (Lebus), on the Oder, thus restoring the pre-
in Europe, for it was in possession of about 20 provinces
Teutonic
vious boundaries of the empire of Mieszko I. But the
(bailiwicks) in Germany and Italy alone and received
Order
that
year,
reinforcements from all the knightly bodies in Europe for
missionary
German emperor Lothair finally pushed the German
east
Prus-
frontier to the banks of the Oder and the western shores
its wars.
Bohemia,
of the Neisse (Nysa) River. Boleslaw was forced to swear
Internal developments. In Poland the era of knight-
allegiance to Lothair in return for Western Pomerania
hood, from about 1025 to 1241, saw the emergence of a
(Lausitz),
and the island of Rügen in 1135.
Latin church organization and, in architecture, the de-
lovakia
be-
Germany,
The period of division. Endeavouring to reconcile the
velopment of the Romanesque style. By now the Polish
and
separatist demands of the provinces with the needs of
aristocracy owned large landed estates and also occupied
national unity, Boleslaw III divided Poland among his
the most important administrative positions at court and
ithout
suc-
for
sons, with the result that Poland ceased to be a united
in the provinces. With the division of the country into six
Kiev
a
Bug
state for two centuries. The eldest son, who was already
to nine provinces and the continuous partition of the
and
prince of Silesia and also owned Pomorze (Pomerania),
country itself from 1138 on, similar posts were also estab-
981.
the
was to have seniority over his brothers and rule over "the
lished within each individual duchy. The division into
con-
the
land of the senior," with its capital in Cracow; this terri-
castle districts, each under a feudal baron, remained with-
new
tory stretched from western Little Poland to central Po-
in the individual sections of the country. Fortified by
name
of
his
death
land and on to the Baltic shore (eastern Pomerania and
mighty ramparts, the cities were under the patronage of
of
the
Gdańsk). His brothers ruled over Great Poland with
the chief castles. The internal unity of the Polish nation
Poznań and western Kujavia; Mazovia (in the basin of
remained intact in spite of the many partitions and, in
divisions
the middle Vistula) and eastern Kujavia (within the Vis-
accordance with Polish law, the dukes exercised no per-
tula bend); and Sandomierz (east of Little Poland)
sonal power but a collective sovereignty. From about
The seniority system. A "seniority constitution" was
1058 Cracow was considered the common capital for
Mieszko
Il
also introduced with this arrangement, but the plan im-
about five centuries. The most important protector of the
Boleslaw
mediately led to strife. The first "senior," Władysław II
unity of Poland was the metropolitanate of Gniezno. The
did
the Exile (1138-46), was forced into exile and fled to
church supremacy of Magdeburg was once again postu-
not
of
Germany. His brother Boleslaw IV the Curly, hereditary
lated in 1133, but it was definitely rejected and Gniezno
his
fa-
duke of Mazovia, asserted himself as senior between 1146
won recognition as its own church province. The arch-
barbarian
and 1173, but this led to conflict with the German emper-
bishopric of Gniezno held the largest estates in Poland
Conrad
II,
Yaroslav
or Frederick I Barbarossa, who intervened twice (1163
(1136), controlling 149 cities and villages. The oldest
oported by
and 1172) to secure Silesia for the sons of Władysław II.
monastery of Poland was established about 1044 in Ty-
bout
1033,
Defex
Wladyslaw's sons divided it among themselves and found-
niec (near Cracow) by the Benedictines. The Order of
emacy.
His
Miects
ed the lineage of the Silesian Piasts; yet another son be-
the Cistercians led the second wave of founding monas-
reigns
The
came the third senior. Of these sons, Mieszko III the Old
teries, mainly from Morimond (Burgundia) and Alten-
crisis.
estab-
(1173-77) was exiled from Cracow during a rebellion in
berg (near Cologne).
the
the
1177 but succeeded in retaining his hereditary land,
close;
and
and
the
Great Poland. His youngest brother, Casimir II the Just
THE MONGOL INVASIONS AND THE RE-ESTABLISHMENT
Spelk
estab-
(1177-94), succeeded as senior after him and, in 1186,
OF THE KINGDOM. 1241-1382
the
also acquired Mazovia, thus becoming the ancestor of the
The Mongol invasion (1241-42), in Poland's period of
for
Bretislav
I
Mazovian line of the Piasts. After the Congress of Łęczy-
division, turned the tide of Poland's history. The Mongol
oland,
and
ca in 1180, the land of the senior-Little Poland with its
leader Batu Khan first conquered Kiev and most of the
The
capital, the city of Cracow-became a hereditary land
Russian principalities before defeating the Polish army at
emia.
from
like the other lands. Both Pope Alexander III and the
Chmielnik and the Silesian knights of the Teutonic Order
ceded
ishopric of
emperor Frederick I recognized this decision, but one of
at Legnica (Liegnitz; 1241). This frustrated the attempt
ovement
in
its great disadvantages was that the internal unity of Po-
of the two Silesian dukes Henry I (1201-38) and Hen-
land would be constantly exposed to foreign hereditary
ry II (1238-41) to unite all the Polish lands. The Mon-
monk,
Cas-
claims as a result. Leszek the White was the last duke who
gols retired in 1242 in order to elect a new great khan in
the
claimed the honour of senior with some success, but he
Mongolia but still remained masters, for another 50
with
Poland
was assassinated together with other Piast dukes in 1227.
years, of Red Ruthenia (Red Russia), east of Little Po-
duke
in
Territorial losses. The internal disintegration of Po-
land; from this base their repeated raids devastated Po-
The
land led to the secession of the lands along the Baltic Sea
land. Meanwhile, Great Poland and especially Mazovia
Mongol
esia
recog-
to
Bo-
and other border regions. Boguslaw I (who ruled about
suffered from raids by the heathen Lithuanians
raids
bute
1156-87), the son of Warcisław I, was forced to yield
(1246-1307) and Jatvingians (1248-82). The Mazovian
successor,
Western Pomerania to the Danish crown. Even the reign-
border region around Drohiczyn on the Bug River was
Boleslaw
I,
ing governor of Eastern Pomerania and Gdańsk, Święto-
lost to Mongol Red Ruthenia around 1241-52, and the
Hungary
pelk I (died 1266), took advantage of the weakness of the
land of Lubus with its river passage across the Oder River
Piasts. Instrumental in the assassination of Leszek the
ntained the
to the Askanians of Brandenburg, about 1249-52.
illfully tak-
White, he asserted his country's independence and styled
Attempts at reunification. When Bishop Stanislaw was
king
himself sovereign duke of Eastern Pomerania, though
canonized in 1253, Poland acquired a new national pa-
erman
help
of
the
regarded as a usurper by the Piasts.
tron saint whose cult spread rapidly in the church prov-
But
after
The Teutonic Order. The establishment of the Order
ince of Gniezno. As part of the community of the Holy
of Polish
of the Teutonic Knights, a German crusading organization
See, Polish church members contributed. the special levy,
640 Poland, History of
Peter's Penny, to Rome. The Synod of Łęczyca (1285)
some of the lands in the west that had been annexed by
further promoted unity by demanding the advancement
Brandenburg. Between 1340 and 1352 Casimir won Red
of the Polish language. The Bohemian king Vaclav II
Ruthenia with the cities of Przemyśl, Lwów (Lvov), and
(1278-1305) attempted a new dynastic reunification of
Halicz; and in 1366 he extended his rule over the Ruth-
Poland. Establishing his sovereignty over most of the
enian principalities of Chelm, Betz, Włodzimierz, and
Silesian duchies around 1289-91, he also gained suprem-
Podolia. Poland had now become a power, and at the
acy over the Duchy of Cracow in 1291-92.
Congress of Cracow, Casimir functioned as a mediator
Przemysł II. His opponent was Przemysł II (1279-
between Emperor Charles IV of Bohemia and Louis
96), who had reunited Great Poland (including Gniezno)
(Ludwig) I of Hungary. Casimir died in 1370 without a
in 1279 and Eastern Pomerania in 1294 and who be-
male heir, but in his will he appointed his grandson Casi-
came the first Piast duke to regain direct rule over more
mir to be prince of Pomerania and awarded him parts of
Re-estab-
than just a sector region. His coronation by the arch-
the Polish territory to tie Western Pomerania to Poland.
lishment
bishop in 1295 in Gniezno re-established the kingdom of
Louis I of Hungary, 1370-82. Poland nevertheless re-
of the
Poland. Przemysł was assassinated in 1296, however,
mained a unified kingdom under Casimir's successor, his,
kingdom
presumably at the instigation of the Margrave of Branden-
nephew Louis I of Hungary. The only losses were some
burg.
border areas annexed by Brandenburg and Lithuania.
Vaclav II. Vaclav (Wacław) II (1300-05) of Bohe-
Louis, however, regarded Poland as his secondary king-
mia, who succeeded him as king, ruled over about two-
dom, and a specially appointed governor took over the
thirds of all Polish territory. Vaclav II himself considered
administration of Halicz Ruthenia. The Polish aristocra-
these lands as almost an extension of Bohemia and, con-
cy, a deciding factor in the succession to the throne of
sequently, as part of the Holy Roman Empire. His early
Poland in 1370 and 1382, obtained from Louis the grant
death in 1305 and the assassination of his son Vaclav
of special privileges at Kosice (Kaschau; 1374), which
(Wacław) III the following year left both the Polish and
formed the basis of a Polish "Magna Carta."
the Bohemian thrones vacant.
Internal developments and reform. Construction of
Władysław I the Short, 1314-33. The opportunity had
cities and buildings. The years from 1320 to 1382 marked
now arrived for the minor Piast prince Władysław the
the founding of new cities. During the reign of Casimir
Short to establish himself. Władysław cleverly availed
the Great, as many as 47 new cities were founded in Little
himself of the support of Hungary and the traditional
Poland and 32 in Great Poland. Casimir also established
protection of the Holy See. He occupied Little Poland in
local courts of justice for the cities of Little Poland
1305 and sought the help of the Teutonic Order to regain
(1356) and Great Poland (1365), in order to separate his
Eastern Pomerania in 1308. The Teutonic Knights, how-
country from the jurisdiction of Magdeburg and the need
ever, bought the interests to these lands from the Bran-
for its appellate court. A great builder, Casimir was said
denburg rulers and established themselves as the legal
to have found a country of wood and left a country of
authority, incorporating Eastern Pomerania into Prussia.
stone: he ordered the construction of 53 castles and forti-
By 1314 Władysław had secured Great Poland, and in
fications for 27 cities, and during his reign numerous
1320 he was crowned king of Poland as Władysław I with
Gothic town halls and merchant houses were erected.
the consent of the Roman Curia. This act restored the
Role of the nobility. Even though a new social class of
Polish Crown through a national dynasty, and for the
burghers and merchants evolved in the cities of Poland,
next 475 years the crown was to remain the symbol of
the aristocracy remained the most influential group in
unity for Poland. The Piast dukes welcomed immigrant
politics. The first confederation of nobles in Polish histo-
Germans and Flemings into Polish territories, and reset-
ry was founded in Great Poland in 1352-56. Since the
tlement took place according to the municipal law of
previous official positions in the separate palatinates of
Magdeburg, based on German law, which was applied
Poland had long before become the benefices of the aris-
first to the great old cities of Wroclaw (1241), Poznań
tocracy, Casimir and Louis appointed a governor (staros-
(1253), and Cracow (1257).
ta capitaneus) for each section of the country, after the
Struggle against the Teutonic Order. The new king
example set by Vaclav II (1291). The office of starosta
Władysław I, faced the opposition of a coalition between
remained the most important branch of executive power
Bohemia and the Teutonic Order. The new Bohemian
during the next 470 years. In the Statute of Wiślica
king, John of Luxemburg, laid claim to the Polish crown,
(about 1346) Casimir codified the law that was in force
and almost all of the Piast dukes in Silesia had recognized
in Little Poland. This jus Polonicum-the law of the
him as their feudal lord by 1327-29. Only the little prin-
nobility (as opposed to the jus Teutonicum, which was
cipality of Wieluń (1321-29) was loyal to Władysław I.
the law for the burgher-peasant population of Poland)-
He instituted lawsuits against the Teutonic Order for the
was later extended and applied throughout Poland, in-
sovereignty of Eastern Pomerania but without success.
cluding Red Ruthenia and Podolia.
The Teutonic Knights and the Bohemians terribly devas-
The church. The Catholic Church influenced the char-
tated Great Poland, especially in the war of 1328-32.
acter of public life in Poland. Poland had lost Silesia in
Alliance with Hungary and Lithuania. At the Battle of
1348, but the Silesian bishopric of Wrocław remained
Płowce (1331), however, Władysław drove them back
under the church authority of Gniezno for another 400
and, in alliance with Hungary and Lithuania, secured
years. The Dominican, Franciscan, and Augustine mendi-
Poland. Ties with Hungary were strengthened by the
cant preaching orders had already built 80 monasteries in
marriage of Władysław's daughter Elizabeth (Elzbieta)
the metropolitanate of Gniezno by 1382. Yet, in spite of
Relig
to the new Angevin king of Hungary, Charles I, in 1320,
the power of the Catholic Church, the ideal of religious
and the Polish crown prince Casimir (Kazi-
tolerance became so entrenched in the consciousness of
mierz) was married to the Lithuanian princess Anna
the Polish people that Casimir the Great found it advisa-
(Aldona) in 1325, thus creating a pact with Lithuania.
ble to establish it as one of his basic policies. In addition
Casimir III the Great, 1333-70. Władysław's son Casi-
to Gniezno, the metropolitanate of Halicz-Lwów was es-
mir was a highly talented statesman and administrator.
tablished; and a separate Eastern Orthodox metropolitan-
During the congresses of Trenčin and Vysehrad in Upper
ate in Halicz (later Lwów), and an Armenian bishopric
Hungary (Slovakia), he persuaded John I of Luxemburg
(later archbishopric) of Lwów were founded. Casimir's
to relinquish his claims to the Polish crown. In return,
kingdom was the only continental European country
after an unsuccessful campaign in 1348 and in face of the
where several Christian creeds were able to live side by
Silesian Piast dukes' support of the Bohemian crown,
side for any length of time two centuries before the Ref-
Casimir was forced to renounce finally all demands on
ormation.
Silesia, the country's most densely populated and wealthi-
Protection of the Jews. Casimir the Great also provid-
Treaty of
est region. In the Treaty of Kalisz in 1343, Casimir relin-
ed, with the Statute of Wiślica (1346), protection for the
Kalisz
quished all claims to Eastern Pomerania in favour of the
Jews from pogroms and ritual murders at the hands of
Teutonic Order-for the time being. Instead, he coerced
the Christians. When the Black Death raged through the
the Piast dukes of Mazovia to recognize him as their
German lands between 1348 and 1352, over 300 Jewish
overlord and seized parts of Mazovia. He also regained
communities were either destroyed or expelled from their
Poland, History of 641
nnexed
by
homelands. The survivors migrated to Poland. Ever
sia and of Courland, to the Teutonic Order in 1398 in
won
Red
since, the majority of Polish Jews has consisted of Ash-
return for the cessation of all hostilities between them.
and
kenazim (from Germany). Retaining their own Middle
He suffered a grave defeat in 1399, however, on the
Defeat
the
Ruth-
High German language-later evolved into Yiddish-
Vorskla River against the Mongols of the Golden Horde,
by the
and
most of the Jews rejected any language assimilation until
which ended Lithuania's eastward expansion. Vytautas
Mongols
at
the
their near extermination by the Nazis during World War
also supported rebellions in the still pagan Samogitia
mediator
II. The Poland of Casimir thus developed into a cosmo-
(1401 and 1409), which prompted the Teutonic grand
and
Louis
politan empire: Poles, Germans, Ruthenians, Flemings,
master Ulrich von Jungingen to declare war against
without
a
Walachians, Jews, Armenians, and even Tatars and Kara-
Władysław II in 1409. The Teutonic Knights suffered a
Casi-
ites living together. There were then about a dozen
decisive defeat in the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg)
parts
of
to
Rending
official languages of administration and worship. Reli-
in 1410, which broke the power of the Teutonic Order.
Poland.
gious and political tolerance was reflected in the founding
The first Treaty of Toruń (1411) returned Samogitia to
theless
re-
in 1364 of the University of Cracow, after Prague the
Lithuania; the return of Eastern Pomerania to Poland
cessor,
his
Cracow
second oldest university in Central or Eastern Europe,
was discussed at the Council of Constance (1414-18)
vere
some
whose brilliant faculty of law prepared for the later jurid-
and was a factor in two later wars (1421-22 and
Lithuania.
ical thinking during the Renaissance in Europe.
1431-35), but the Order remained in possession of the
king-
territory. When the Protestant Hussite rebellion broke out
over
the
THE JAGIELLON DYNASTY, 1382-1492
in 1419, Władysław II favoured the Hussites, even pro-
aristocra-
Jadwiga and Władysław II Jagietto. The union be-
moting his relative Sigismund (Zygmunt) as the Hussite
throne
of
tween Poland and Hungary was broken with the death of
candidate for the Bohemian throne in 1422. Because this
the
grant
Louis because the Hungarian aristocracy chose his eldest
brought him under suspicion of being a heretic and friend
which
daughter, Maria, to be their queen, whereas the Polish
of the heathens, Władysław felt obliged to issue the
Edict of
aristocracy gave preference to his ten-year-old daughter
strong Edict of Wielun in 1424, against Hussite trends
Wielun
of
Jadwiga (1384). This was the first step in the direction of
among the Polish nobility, and he crushed a pro-Hussite
marked
developing an elected Polish monarch. The Polish aris-
confederation of the lower Polish nobility in 1438-39.
Casimir
tocracy favoured a dynastic alliance with Lithuania,
Władysław had obtained 16 mainly German mountain
in
Little
especially in order to regain Red Ruthenia and Podolia,
cities in the Spisz (south of the High Tatra Mountains) in
established
which had become estranged from Poland under Louis's
1412, thus giving Poland a share in the mining activities
Poland
regime.
of upper Hungary, the richest in Europe at that time.
eparate
his
Union of Poland and Lithuania. The grand duke of
Wiadysław III, 1434-44. Władysław II was succeeded
the
need
Lithuania (from-1377 to 1401), Jagiello (Iogaillas), was
on his death by his ten-year-old son, Władysław III, the
was
said
still a heathen; but after adoption by the widow queen
chief position in the realm being held by the most emi-
country
of
Elizabeth in the Union of Krewo (1385), he was married
nent of the Cracow magnates, Zbigniew of Oleśnica, bish-
and
forti-
to the crown princess Jadwiga. Jagiello thus accepted the
op of Cracow and one of the previous king's chief advis-
numerous
Catholic faith and became the recognized "Master and
ers. Władysław III renewed the Polish-Hungarian union
King of Poland" under the assumed name of Wladyslaw
with the help of the Hungarian commander in chief János
class
of
II Jagiello in 1386. This procedure created a Polish-
Hunyadi (1443-44). Under the influence of the strongly
Poland,
Lithuanian union, a union that continued under the Ja-
Catholic Zbigniew of Oleśnica, he organized a crusade in
group
in
giello dynasty during the following 183 years. But the
order to save Byzantium, which was then threatened by
histo-
effect was that Poland was able to incorporate, during
the Ottoman Empire. Władysław died when only 20 in
Since
the
1385-86, a state about four times as large as the original
the catastrophic defeat of Varna (1444) on the coast of
atinates
of
Polish realm. The bishopric of Wilno was established in
the Black Sea. The Ottoman troops conquered Byzantium
the
aris-
1387 to convert the Lithuanian people to the Catholic
in 1453 and marched immediately against Hungary. The
(staros-
faith. Another area belonged to the Eastern Orthodox
threat was delayed for some decades, however when
after
the
Church. The polyethnic, multireligious, and legal-con-
Hunyadi defeated the Ottomans in 1456. But the Hungar-
starosta
stitutional structure of the Jagiello empire was more com-
ian imperial administration of Hunyadi terminated the
power
plicated than ever before. The authority of Wladysław
Polish-Hungarian union.
Wiślica
II also included the old Russian capital Kiev, which
Casimir IV Jagiellończyk, 1447-92.
The
younger
in
force
had come under Lithuanian suzerainty in 1366 and was
brother of Władysław III, Casimir, had been ruling as the
of
the
now reduced to the status of a residential border town, set
grand duke of Lithuania since 1440, but it was only after
which
was
up as a buffer against the Mongols and Tatars. To the
a long interregnum in Poland that he was finally recog-
Poland)-
southeast of these lands stretched more than 58,000
nized as the king. He signed a treaty with Moscow that
oland,
in-
square miles (or about 150,000 square kilometres) of
established the Lithuanian boundary about 90 miles (150
almost uninhabited steppe country, which belonged to
kilometres) west of Moscow. This secured the eastern
the
char-
Lithuania in name only. The annexation of Lithuania
boundary for 37 years. The peace in the east became
Silesia
in
secured the eastern boundaries of Poland against the at-
important when, in 1454, uprising against the rule of the
remained
tacks of the Mongol and Tatar tribes as well as against
Teutonic knights broke into the open, led by the cities of
400
those from the great principality of Moscow, then under
Gdańsk, Torun, and Elblag, which requested Casimir IV
mendi-
Mongol and Tatar control. It meant also, however, that
to integrate the Prussian-Eastern Pomeranian lands of
asteries
in
in
Religion
Poland had to defend Lithuania against the incursions of
the Teutonic Knights with Poland (1454). This marked
spite
of
the Teutonic Order. With the help of the Lithuanians
religious
tolerzar
the start of the Thirteen Years' War against the Teutonic
(1387), Poland was able to renew the incorporation of
Order. The second Treaty of Toruń (1466) recovered for
busness
of
Red Ruthenia and Podolia and to assert its authority over
Poland the former Eastern Pomerania (which received
it
advisa-
the principality of Moldavia (1387-1497), until then a
the new name of Royal Prussia), along with the bishopric
addition
minor country under Hungarian rule. This meant access to
of Warmia (Ermland). The rest of the territory of the
was
es-
the direct trading route to the Orient, and Poland now
Teutonic Knights acknowledged the king of Poland, and
tropolitan-
became a partner in the rich Oriental commerce that
Königsberg became the new residence of the Order's
bishopric
flowed via the cities of Kaffa (Feodosia, in the Crimea)
grand master. Poland won back the access to the Baltic
Extension
Casimir's
and Akkerman (now Belgorod-Dnestrovsky).
Sea that it had lost in 1308-09, and Polish rule
of Polish
country
Władysław II and Vytautas. Władysław II and Jadwi-
now stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea for a
rule
side
by
ga reigned together until Jadwiga's death in 1399. Wład-
period of 32 years. Poland became a trading partner
the
Ref-
ysław then ruled as the sole king of Poland (1399-1434).
with access to the most profitable trading routes crossing
In Lithuania, Władysław found it expedient to acknowl-
the European continent.
provid-
edge his cousin Vytautas (Witold; 1392-1430), first as
Extension of the empire. The King's main interest still
for
the
governor, then as duke (1401), and finally as grand duke
lay with the so-often-attempted union with Bohemia and
hands
of
of Lithuania (1413). But he himself kept supreme com-
Hungary. Casimir IV succeeded in temporarily acquiring
rough
the
mand. To free his hands to attack the Tatars and annex
the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1471 (finally acquired
Jewish
Moscow, Vytautas surrendered the Duchy of Samogitia
1478-79), for his oldest son Władysław (Vladislav). The
from
their
(Žmudź), which linked the Teutonic Order lands of Prus-
smaller Bohemian lands, Moravia and Silesia, remained
642 Poland, History of
under the rule of Matthias I Corvinus, the son of János
Hunyadi. But after the death of Matthias, even Moravia,
man rule in 1475, and from 1492 they undertook pillag-
Silesia, and Hungary finally recognized Władysław as
ing and slave raids into Red Ruthenia and Little Poland.
their king (1491-92). The result of this dynastic union
The Tatars of the Crimea pushed into Polish territory
was the creation of one of the largest empires in Europe.
with the aid of the Ottomans, reaching Cracow sin
1498-99. Now Moldavia had also come under the influ-
By 1491-92 Casimir IV controlled an area of at least
336,000 square miles (870,000 square kilometres), while
ence of the Ottomans and Tatars. John Albert, the bril.
liant Polish commander in chief, had always been victo.
his son Wladyslaw ruled the Bohemian lands of the crown
of Vaclav and the Hungarian lands of the crown of
rious against the Tatars, but he suffered a heavy defeat at
Stephen, an area of at least 174,000 square miles (450,000
the 1497. hands of the Moldavians in the forests of Suceava
in
square kilometres). This agglomeration of states was,
Russian invasion. Tsar Ivan III the Great took advan-
however, as much torn by internal strife as it was exposed
tage of the situation, and, allying himself with the Tatars
to external danger-the greatest external threat coming
of the Crimea, he attacked Lithuania twice (1486-94 and
from the Ottoman Empire and its ally, the tsar of Moscow.
1500-03), capturing all the principalities on the Oka and
Growth of the power of the nobility. Political authori-
Desna rivers as far as the middle of the Dnieper River.
ty in Poland was gradually taken over by the aristocracy.
Another ally of Russia, the German emperor Maximilian
Aided by the mechanism of the election of kings, the
I, laid claim to Bohemia and Hungary and prompted the
many wars, and the tax exemptions, they were able to
states of the Teutonic Order to rebel against Poland. The
slowly reorganize the kingdom into a monarchy of the
result was that the grand master Frederick of Saxony
estates. The main organ of aristocratic authority was the
(1498-1510) refused to swear his oath of allegiance, and
Privy Council (1385-1493), which became the Senate
his successor, Albert (Albrecht) of Hohenzollern, a cous-
Privileges
after 1493. The rights and privileges of the nobility were
in of the elector of Brandenburg, went so far as to enter
of the
successively established between 1422 and 1433, securing
into an alliance with Russia (1517). Poland supplied
nobility
for them the right to a voice in political matters, their
armed help to Lithuania, but in spite of this Russia took
factual exemption from taxation, and finally the political
the city of Smoleńsk (1514) in the course of two wars
and judicial maxim of habeas corpus, or no imprison-
(1507-08 and 1512-22). After this, at the First Congress
ment without trial. After the Union of Horodlo (1413),
of Vienna (1515), Maximilian changed sides, renouncing
the regional assemblies slowly grew into provincial diets
the help of both Russia and the Teutonic Order. Instead,
(sejmiki), becoming recognized as standing establish-
he entered into a mutual hereditary agreement with the
ments in all parts of the country with the Privilegium of
Jagiellon kings with respect to the succession in Bohemia
Nieszawa (1454). In addition to the Polish diet (sejm),
and Hungary.
the Prussian diet held a special position with its own
Alliance with the Turks. The Ottoman troops advanced
particular law. The lower nobility represented its own
all the way through Little Poland (1524), under the
interests (which were usually directed against the special
leadership of their Sultan Süleyman I the Magnificent,
hegemony of the aristocracy) through elected delegates.
and at the first Battle of Mohács (1526) they con-
Development of parliamentarianism. These delegates
quered the greater part of Hungary, killing King Louis II,
marked the beginning of parliamentarianism in Poland
the last Hungarian Jagiellon. The Ottomans next posed
when they assembled for the first time in a House of
great threat to Vienna (1529), and Poland found it wise to
Legates at Piotrków (1493). After this, the Polish Senate
conclude a perpetual peace agreement with them in 1533.
became the upper house and the House of Legates be-
This did not, however, prevent the Muslims from threat
came the lower house of the Polish Parliament, of Sejm.
ening Poland's southern boundaries from bases in Hun
Lithuania also absorbed the culture and the system of
gary-a threat that was to last for about 140 years.
government of Poland through the German municipal
Re-establishment of Polish security. Renewed Molda-
laws, introduced by the Polish burghers. According to the
vian and Russian attacks were repelled by the Polish
statutes of 1386-87, at first only the newly converted
troops under the brilliant leadership of Jan Tarnowski
Catholic nobles were equal to the nobility of Poland,
Sigismund I the Old was able to incorporate the Duchy of
excluding the Eastern Orthodox Boyars, many of whom
Mazovia into his empire after the death of the last of the
seceded to the Tsar of Russia. But the Lithuanian and
Piasts in Mazovia (1524-29). His campaign from 1519
Ruthenian nobles were gradually assimilated into the Pol-
to 1522 also secured Polish sovereignty over Prussia. Al-
ish sphere of interests, and in 1447-93, the first diets of
bert of Hohenzollern became the first secular duke of
the great principality were formed.
Prussia to swear an oath of allegiance to Sigismund
(1525), and the land came to be known as Ducal Prussia.
II. The Polish Commonwealth, 1492-1795
Sigismund II Augustus, 1548-72. The son of Sigis-
THE "GOLDEN AGE" OF THE POLISH-LITHUANIAN
mund the Old, Sigismund Augustus, was the last Polish
EMPIRE, 1492-1572
Jagiellon. Trying to insure his country against the threats
After the death of Casimir IV, his second son, John Albert
from the Ottoman and Russian empires, he sought alli-
(1492-1501), ascended the throne of Poland, and the
ances with the emperor Charles V and the Roman king
two countries were temporarily separated, his third son,
Ferdinand I (1549). This at least brought him Charles's
Alexander, becoming grand prince of Lithuania. John
final renunciation of any intervention on his part in set-
Union of
Albert died early, and Alexander succeeded him as king
tling the question of the constitutional position of both
Mielnik
of Poland (1501-06) through the Union of Mielnik
Royal and Ducal Prussia. For 24 years Tsar Ivan IV the
(1501). Poland and Lithuania were thus united again. A
Terrible had led a war of conquest in order to obtain the
statute of 1499 called the combined kingdoms a "repub-
remains of the lands of the Teutonic Order in Livonia
lic" for the first time, terming the Union of Mielnik an
(1558-82), and he succeeded in occupying part of the
indivisible body. The social, economic, and constitutional
territory. This prompted Sigismund Augustus to enter
union became even further consolidated under the reign
into an agreement (the Union of Wilno [1561]), with
of the fourth of the Jagiellon brothers (Casimir IV's
the last grand master of the Order, Wilhelm Ketteler,
sons), King Sigismund I the Old (1506-48). Ruled by
integrating Livonia directly with Poland while Courland
the eldest of the Jagiellons, Władysław (1491-1516) and
(now a secular duchy) had to recognize the authority of
his son Louis II (1516-26), the combined Kingdom of
Poland. This antagonized Russia, which invaded Poland
Bohemia and Hungary remained only loosely connected
and conquered the lands of Połock on the Dvina River in
with the unified Kingdom of Poland-Lithuania.
the first Nordic War (1563-70). Under pressure of the
The Ottoman incursions. The Ottoman Empire direct-
threat posed by Russia and also because there was no heir
ed its attacks mainly against the unified states of the
to the throne, the Sejm combined the former crown lands,
Jagiellons, conquering the commercial trading cities of
Lithuanian, Royal Prussia, and Livonia in the Union of
Kaffa (1475), Kilia, and Akkerman (1484). This meant
Lublin, creating a unified and indivisible republic (1569).
that Poland was now cut off entirely from the trade with
Unification of the kingdom. The Polish population
the Orient. In addition, Poland found yet another enemy
now began to integrate the nobility, the burghers, and a
in the Tatars in the Crimea. These had come under Otto-
large part of the peasantry in the Lithuanian-Ruthenian
Poland, History of 643
pillag-
regions in the east. From about 1420, but in particular
and write by 1550-80. Young Poles studied at major for-
between 1540 and 1580, the people of densely populated
eign universities, particularly at Padua, at Bologna, and
Mazovia began to migrate. Resettling, they colonized the
at the Sorbonne, as well as at the Protestant universities
High level
in
enormous virgin forests in the west of Lithuania- partic-
of Wittenberg, Leipzig, Königsberg, Tübingen, and Basel.
of
influ-
ularly Podlasie. Moving south, they also settled in the
The department of astronomy at the University of Cra-
education
bril-
Duchy of Prussia. As early as 1582, there were more than
cow achieved world renown through Nicolaus Coperni-
victo-
150,000 Jews among the many nationalities of the Polish
cus (Mikolaj Kopernik; 1473-1543) and his work on the
Commonwealth, more than in all the rest of Europe. The
at
motions of the planets. Polish literary language came into
two main parts of the country that comprised the Polish
in
its own, supplanting the use of Latin alone by scholars.
Republic-the crown lands and Lithuania-each retained
The first Polish books were printed between 1514 and
advan-
Serldish-
its own ministers, treasury, and army. Unification was
1524, and the first Polish translation of the Bible ap-
Tatars
of
finally accomplished by the consolidation of a common
peared in 1534. Although still partly German, the
Sejm
elective kingdom with a functioning Sejm, or Diet, con-
and
burgher class was now integrated completely into the
sisting of two houses. The upper house seated about 100
and
cultural mainstream of Poland. It was also of the greatest
River.
senators, and the lower house approximately 150 dele-
significance that the political science philosophy of Greco-
imilian
gates. This arrangement created a Royal Republic in
Roman antiquity found general acceptance at this
the
1569, with a constitution that was in many ways similar to
time, inspiring such works on the theory of political sci-
The
Rebelers
the constitutions of England and Hungary, and it re-
of
ence as Andrzej Frycz-Modrzewski's De Republica
the
Saxony
mained basically unchanged for the next 226 years.
Teutori
Emendanda ("Of the reform of the Republic"; 1551),
Constitutional change. Between 1493 and 1569 the
and
Order
which was translated into almost every language spoken
Polish Estate Kingdom slowly evolved into a parliamenta-
cous-
in Europe.
enter
ry monarchy, which was governed almost entirely by the
The Reformation. The Reformation came to Poland
applied
nobility. The Sejm of Piotrków, in 1493, was the first of
from Germany, Italy, France, and Bohemia between the
took
about 200 diets that would be convened in the course of
a
years 1523 and 1526. Lutheran and Calvinist denomina-
the next 300 years. From the assembly of the Sejm of
wars
tions were established alongside the originally Hussite Bo-
ongress
Mielnik in 1501, the king was regarded as the president of
hemian Brethren and the Anti-Trinitarians, or Arians
uncing
the Senate, and in 1505 the constitutional act Nihil Novi
(from about 1562-65). Under the spiritual leadership of
nstead,
("No innovations") decreed the making of laws to be the
Laelius Socinus (1525-62) and Faustus Socinus (1539-
the
sole right of Parliament. The supreme authority of the
1604) the Arians strove for both a rational secular-
ohemia
aristocracy led to a constantly growing opposition from
ization of religious life and a radical change in society,
the ranks of the lower nobility, who were incensed at the
including the liberation of the peasantry. In spite of the
vanced
aristocracy's virtual escape from the burdens of taxation.
first suppressive edicts of 1520-26, the Reformation
the
The lower nobility at last secured their own appointment
gained strength, particularly after the Sejm suspended the
to the supervision of the highest courts of appeal and
secular execution of ecclesiastical sentences (1552). Af-
con-
secured the formal recognition of their equality with the
ter this, Poland was the only country in Europe without
II,
aristocracy, together with the prohibition of titles (e.g.,
a
duke, prince, margrave, count). The superiority of the
religious persecutions for about the next 130 years. The
Lutheran, Calvinist, and Hussite denominations consoli-
wise
to
aristocracy over the lower nobility continued, however,
dated in 1570 at the Concord of Sandomierz, but this soon
1533.
since the aristocracy still remained in possession of the
disintegrated because of dogmatic differences. The Com-
threat-
wealthiest estates of the country, while the lower nobility
pact of Warsaw in 1573 removed the Catholic Church
Hun-
were very often poor and propertyless.
Trade and wealth. The "Golden Age" of Poland ex-
from its dominant position, introducing the constitu-
tional equality of all religions-the first enactment in
Molda-
pressed itself in the wealth of the country and a favoura-
Europe of complete religious tolerance. The Reformation
Polish
ble boom in its foreign trade. Raw materials such as
had affected about one-sixth of all parishes in the Polish
howski.
grain, lumber, cattle livestock, hemp, flax, and potash
and Lithuanian regions by 1562-91. The Eastern Ortho-
of
showed a lively export trade, especially to the Nether-
lands and to England, by way of the autonomous free
dox Church was hardly touched by the Reformation,
of
the
of
1519
Flank
republic of Gdańsk (Danzig), which controlled about 80
which received its greatest support from the nobility and
the educated burgher classes, while the lower middle class
Al-
percent of Poland's foreign trade on the basis of its mo-
and the peasantry in general remained Catholic. The ef-
of
nopoly (jus stapulae). Second only to Amsterdam, Gdańsk
ismund
Ducal
became the most important trading city of central and
fects of the Reformation persisted only among the Ger-
Prussia
eastern Europe by 1576. The production of raw materials
man population of Great Poland and that of Royal Prus-
russia.
was in the hands of the propertied Polish nobles, now
sia (Gdańsk), in addition to a few larger cities, such as
Sigis-
Warsaw and Wilno.
Polish
turned into farming entrepreneurs.
threats
The exploitation of the peasantry. The nobles extend-
THE "SILVER AGE" OF THE ROYAL REPUBLIC, 1572-1648
alli-
ed their previous manorial domination over the peasant
class with statutes passed in 1496, 1518-20, 1532, and
The Interregnum and reform of the monarchy. Con-
king
1543 that reduced the peasants to virtually the same sta-
stitutional reform. The Interregnum, or period without
tus as property; they came under the jurisdiction of the
a ruler, lasted from 1572 to 1575. During this time the
in
set-
republican constitution was further improved and ex-
both
nobles and, as a result, lived under conditions of virtual
IV
slavery as cheap labour for the nobles' farmstead econo-
tended. The election of Henry III of Valois (1573-74)-
the
the
my. The discovery of the Americas paved the way to the
King Henry III of France from 1574-introduced and
second feudal system in Poland, made possible by the
established the basic rule that not only the council of the
Livonia
imports of gold and silver from the American continent.
aristocracy but also all nobles and squires should elect the
of
the
enter
In contrast, the same era led to the establishment of
king. This meant a formal victory for the lower nobility
with
modern manufacturing plants and industrial enterprises
and the founding of the Polish rule by the nobility. The
letteler,
ism. in western Europe, ushering in the period of early capital-
fundamental basis of the constitution, the "Henrician
burland
Articles" of 1573, required the king to swear an oath
of
Just as in other countries, the wealth of the Golden Age
reducing his authority to no more than that of a contract
Poland
led to a gradual currency inflation in Poland. Rather than
partner in a sovereign nation of nobles. The king was also
tiver
in
being invested in industrial developments, the money was
obliged to convoke the Sejm every two years; and in the
of
the
spent on luxury items for the nobles and, above all, on
grandiose building constructions.
periods between the sessions he was to be advised by a
heir
Cultural developments. The Renaissance and the Age
group of senators. Should the king fail to observe any of
lands,
of
of Humanism set their stamp for ever after on the spiri-
these articles, the nation was ipso facto obsolved from its
allegiance.
1569).
tual and intellectual life in Poland. The art of book print-
ing (in Cracow alone there were eight printing presses by
Stephen Báthory (Stefan Batory), 1576-86. The next
and
a
1580) and general school education spread. As many as
elected king was Stephen Báthory (Stefan Batory),
one-quarter of the Polish population were able to read
who had defeated his opponent, the emperor Maximilian
II. During his reign the leading statesman Jan Zamoyski
644 Poland, History of
rose to the positions of grand chancellor (1578)
estate owners to reduce them to the state of bonded peas-
and grand hetman (commander in chief; 1580). Zamoyski
ants, and their leaders demanded a position of equality
had been instrumental in gaining the victory for the
with the Polish nobility. The Cossacks remained the fore-
Successful
lower nobility during the Interregnum. Now, Stephen
most social danger in the republic, allying themselves
campaigns
Báthory and Zamoyski defeated Tsar Ivan IV with three
with the Tatars in 1648.
against
brilliant campaigns (1578-81), forcing the Russians to
Poland's access to the Baltic endangered. In 1618 John
Tsar Ivan
return the occupied territories of Livonia and Połock
Sigismund, elector of Brandenburg (1608-20) also be-
IV
by 1582.
came duke in Prussia, and thus the two crowns were now
Sigismund III Vasa, 1587-1632. Bàthory was succeed-
in personal union, though the sovereignty over Ducal
ed by Sigismund III Vasa, who defeated Maximilian of
Prussia remained with the Polish crown. His grandson,
Austria. Since he was also the legitimate king of Sweden
however, the Great Elector Frederick William (1640-
-as the son of John III Vasa of Sweden and of Cather-
88), by clever manoeuvring between Sweden and Poland,
ine, daughter of Sigismund I-Sigismund established a
succeeded in removing Ducal Prussia from Polish sover-
brief Polish-Swedish union, but this soon fell apart as the
eignty by the Treaty of Welawa (Wehlau) in 1657.
result of Swedish-Lutheran opposition to the Catholic
From then on, the Brandenburg state of Prussia be-
faith of their king.
came the most dangerous of Poland's neighbours, not
The Swedish-Polish War of Succession. Revolting
least because Frederick William intended to establish a
against Sigismund III in 1599-1600, Sweden pursued the
territorial connection between Western Pomerania and
Swedish-Polish war for 35 years, but Sigismund never
the Duchy of Prussia, henceforth a leading aim of Bran-
relinquished his demands for the Swedish crown. The
denburg-Prussian politics until the First Partition of Po-
Polish grand hetmans Zamoyski and Jan Chodkiewicz
land about 115 years later. It threatened to cut off Poland
were at first able to repel the attacks of the Swedes against
from its connections with the Baltic Sea.
Livonia (1600-09). They won a famous victory in the
Economic prosperity. The booming years between
Battle of Kirkholm (1605), although outnumbered four
1577 and 1654 became the high point in the history of
to one by the Swedes. In the meantime, a Polish volunteer
Polish economics. At that time, Poland was considered,
corps helped the False Dmitry to gain the tsar's throne in
appropriately, the "granary of Europe." Polish grain was
1605-06. Sigismund found it necessary to openly inter-
exported to France, England, Spain, and sometimes even
vene in Russia (1609-13) when a coup d'etat took place
to Italy and the Near East via Amsterdam, where the
there. Under the leadership of Stanislaw Zółkiewski, the
most important grain stock exchange was located.
Polish army won a brilliant victory at Kłuszyn (1610)
Gdańsk soared in importance to the rank of a trade city
against a sixfold Russian-Swedish majority. Polish troops
of world renown. As a result of this foreign-trade boom,
occupied Moscow (1610-12), but they were driven out
the landowners pushed the farmsteading economy to its
by the new tsar, Michael Romanov (1613-18). The im-
very limits, developing estates into tremendous areas. In
portant fort of Smoleńsk remained with Poland (1618-
many cases the servitude of the peasantry become actual
54).
slavery. This caused a number of small rebellions by the
The Thirty Years' War. At the outbreak of the Thirty
peasants, many of whom escaped into the Ukraine.
Years' War (1618), Sigismund remained officially neutral
The liberum veto. The economic power of the mag-
but favoured the Austrian side. The Prince of Tran-
nates encouraged the forming of groups of supporters
sylvania had advanced and occupied Vienna, but a decisive
among propertyless voters who would keep their votes at
victory by the Polish army in 1619 prepared the way
the disposal of one particular aristocrat, thus enabling the
for the Austrian victory at the Bila HoΓa (Weisser Berg,
magnate to command entire districts of the provincial
or White Mountain) in 1620. Although the Poles
sejm and, if necessary, even to paralyze it. In this way the
won a decisive victory against the Turks also at the Battle
original, formal "democracy of nobles" based on about
of Chocim on the Dniester River in 1621, the Turkish
150,000 voters had evolved into an oligarchy of about
attacks did not cease for another decade. Taking advan-
300 families. This was to prove a decisive factor in the
tage of this Polish predicament, Sigismund's cousin, Gus-
later disintegration of the Polish republic. The undermin-
Swedish
tavus II Adolphus of Sweden, occupied Livonia and its
ing of the power of the sejm culminated in a procedure
occupation
important Baltic seaport Riga (1621). At the Peace of
that made it possible for just one delegate to disrupt it
of Livonia
Altmark, the Swedes temporarily gained possession of
through the liberum veto. The liberum veto was based on
Livonia as well as of some Royal Prussian port cities
the assumption of the political equality of every Polish
(1629-35).
gentleman, with the corollary that every measure intro-
Władysław IV Vasa, 1632-48. A highly talented field
duced into the sejm must be adopted unanimously. Con-
marshal, Sigismund's son Władysław IV (1632-48) as-
sequently, if any single deputy believed that a measure
sured the existence of Poland when he repelled the re-
already approved of by the rest of the house might be
newed attacks of the Turks, Russians, and Swedes
injurious to his constituency, he had the right to exclaim
(1633-34). He also reconquered, in 1635, the Prussian
"Nie pozwalam," ("I disapprove"), the measure in ques-
ports on the Baltic Sea that Sweden had occupied. But his
tion falling at once to the ground. All efforts toward
plans to establish a Polish navy that would hold its own
increasing the power of the central government were held
against the Swedish domination of the Baltic, to regain
to be against traditional freedom and were opposed. This
sovereign rights over Livonia (1639), and to prepare for
principle was extended still further until a deputy, by inter-
an extensive war against the Ottoman Empire (1646-47)
posing his individual veto, could at any time dissolve the
were all frustrated by the disinclination of the Polish
sejm, and all measures previously passed had to be resub-
nobles to wage wars. They wanted peace at any price in
mitted for the consideration of the following sejm. The
order to take advantage of the splendid opportunities
liberum veto was used for the first time during the sejm of
opening up on the European market in the wake of the
1652, but before the end of the 17th century it was used
Thirty Years' War.
so recklessly that all business was frequently brought to a
The Cossack revolt. The prominent powers in north-
standstill. It thus became the chief instrument of foreign
ern, eastern, and southeastern Europe had attacked Po-
ambassadors or native magnates for dissolving inconven-
land constantly and had forced the republic into repeated
ient sessions, as a deputy could always be bribed to exer-
compromises on the question of sovereign rights over the
cise his veto.
Ukraine and the Duchy of Prussia. Meanwhile, the no-
The Counter-Reformation. Poland experienced the ef-
madic Ruthenian-Eastern Orthodox farmers-the Cos-
fects of the Counter-Reformation after the Council of
sacks-had established themselves in the Ukraine, and
Trent (1545-63). Led by prominent scholars such as
their number was steadily growing with the addition of
Cardinal Stanislaus Hosius (Stanisław Hozjusz), who in-
escaping peasants from Poland and Russia. The Polish
troduced the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, in Poland in
landed estate owners could hardly keep them under con-
1564, a total of approximately 50 Jesuit establishments
trol over the vastness of the barely populated steppe that
were founded in the republic between 1564 and 1654.
the Cossacks inhabited. The Cossacks eventually rebelled
The Jesuit colleges in Połock, Smoleńsk, and Cernigov
against the constant attempts on the part of the Polish
and the Jesuit Academy of Wilno (founded in 1578-80)
Poland, History of 645
bonded
peas-
were mainly intended for the conversion of Eastern Or-
of
suffered worst of all, losing all manufacturing establish-
equality
thodox Russia to Catholicism. Through their colleges and
the
ments and industrial enterprises along with three-quarters
fore-
schools, the Jesuits established a dominant influence on
of all their inhabitants. The tremendous costs of the war
themselves
the education of the Polish people that would last for
caused the greatest inflation in the history of Poland.
about two centuries. Piotr Skarga was the most promi-
1618
Religious feeling was fanatically inflamed since the war
John
nent theologian and politician among the Jesuits. The
also
had been conducted in the spirit of a religious struggle,
be-
Order of the Camaldolese also supported the Counter-
and the Protestant parishes almost totally disappeared.
were
now
Reformation. The Counter-Reformation led to religious
The constitutional maxim of religious tolerance was fi-
over
Ducal
disorders; many of the Protestant churches were closed,
nally abandoned in 1648-58.
grandson,
especially in the large royal cities (particularly between
Michael (Korybut) Wiśniowiecki, 1669-73. The short
(1640_
1574 and 1612); and the number of Protestant parishes
and
reign of Michael (Korybut) Wiśniowiecki was dominated
Poland,
diminished, as many of the aristocratic dynasties reverted
'olish
by internal fighting between the Habsburgs, led by the
sover-
to Catholicism. By 1650 there were not more than 270
in
King, and the French-oriented faction that had gathered
1657.
non-Catholic parishes left in the country. Only the estab-
Prussia
around John Sobieski, a military commander of rising
be-
lished German-Lutheran Church in the city republics of
hbours,
fame. The Cossacks seceded again in 1667, allying them-
not
establish
for
Prussia (Gdańsk, Elblag) and the Calvinist Church in
selves with the Ottoman Empire (1668), and in the suc-
a
Lithuania (approximately 140 churches) retained a cer-
herania
ceeding Turkish attack in 1672-73, the Poles lost Po-
and
tain importance. The most significant result of the Coun-
dolia and two-thirds of the Ukraine.
im
of
Bran-
ter-Reformation was the Synod of Brześć in 1596, where-
of
John III Sobieski, 1674-96. A brilliant victory in 1673
Po-
by six of the ten Eastern Orthodox eparchies acknowl-
off
Poland
established the fame of John Sobieski as the "vanquisher
edged the authority of the Holy See in Rome. Declared
of the Turks," a title that brought him the crown of
illegal and schismatic in 1595, the Eastern Orthodox faith
between
Poland in 1674. In spite of his many successes in the fight
was again recognized in 1635. Its spiritual centre became
history
against the Ottomans (1675-76) and despite his libera-
of
the Academy of Kiev, which had been modelled after the
considered,
colleges of the Jesuit order. The Protestant academies of
tion of Vienna in 1683-a crucial factor in the develop-
grain
ment of European history-John III Sobieski was not
was
Gdańsk and Leszno still retained their European distinc-
etimes
able to regain the regions in the southeast of the republic
even
tion, however, and John Amos Comenius, the philoso-
where
the
pher and pedagogue, taught in Leszno.
held by the Ottomans. He also failed in his attempts to
as
located.
secure the return of the Duchy of Prussia to Poland
a
trade
city
THE IRON ERA PERIOD OF WARS AND
through treaties with France (1675) and Sweden (1677).
rade
boom,
DISINTEGRATION. 1648-97
Poland's participation in the Holy Alliance against the
homy
to
its
Ottoman Empire (1684) and the many Turkish cam-
John II Casimir Vasa, 1648-68. The reign of the last
is
areas.
In
paigns of John III Sobieski (1684-92) eventually aided
of the Vasa kings in Poland, John II Casimir, is remem-
ome
actual
the development of Austria and Russia as new great Eu-
bered in history as a period of bloody wars and disasters.
by
the
The Cossack-Russian invasion. The epoch began with
ropean powers. With the Peace of Carlowitz (Karlowice;
Peace of
1699), Poland again received Podolia and the Ukraine
a rebellion of the Ukrainian Cossacks, led by Bohdan
Carlowitz
the
mag-
west of the Dnieper River. Given to Russia for two years
Chmielnicki, who heavily defeated the Polish troops
supporters
in 1667 but never returned to Poland, the city of Kiev was
in 1648 and 1651, establishing their own military state
eir
votes
at
(1651-54) with the armed assistance of the Tatars of the
recognized as part of Russia in the "perpetual peace" in
1686.
nabling
the
Crimea and the Ottomans. In the Union of Pereyaslavl,
provincial
in 1654, the Cossacks acknowledged the authority of the
THE SAXONIAN ERA AND THE RUSSIAN
his
way
the
Russian tsar Alexis Mikhaylovich. On the strength of
PROTECTORATE, 1697-1763
on
about
Cossack aid, Alexis attacked Poland, conquering almost
of
about
Augustus II the Strong, 1697-1733. On the death of
in
the
the 1654-55. entire eastern part of the country, as far as Lwów, in
John III, no fewer than 18 candidates for the vacant Pol-
undermin-
The Swedish invasion. Charles X Gustav of Sweden
ish throne presented themselves. The successful competi-
procedure
it
took advantage of the Polish predicament and occupied
tor was Frederick Augustus I, elector of Saxony, who
disrupt
the Polish and Lithuanian lands of the republic in 1655,
renounced Lutheranism for the crown. Under his reign as
based
on
receiving some support from the native aristocrats and
Augustus II the Strong, Poland experienced a new wave
ery
Polish
from Frederick William of Brandenburg. John Casimir
of wars and catastrophes. The planned union between the
sure
intro-
usly.
Con-
fled to Silesia, and the majority of the nobles (among
industrially developed Saxony and raw material-produc-
them the future king John III Sobieski) recognized
ing Poland would have been advantageous for the econo-
a measure
be
Charles as their king, particularly after he had promised
my of both countries, but that did not materialize since
might
to reconquer the eastern part of Poland from the Rus-
the King, as ambitious as he was lacking in talent, became
to exclaim
sians and Cossacks. The extraordinary brutality of the
involved in a war with Sweden through his alliances with
in
ques-
toward
Swedish army, however, gave rise to a general revolt
Peter I the Great of Russia and King Frederick IV of
Denmark.
held
against Charles, and the Swedes were not able to take the
were
two largest cities of Poland (Gdańsk and Lwów). The bril-
The Northern War. These allies attacked Sweden and
osed.
This
liant grand hetman Stefan Czarniecki eventually de-
began the Northern War (1700-21). The Swedish king
by
inter-
stroyed the Swedish and defeated Frederick William's
Charles XII repelled Denmark and Russia in 1700 and
issolve the
Brandenburg army between 1655 and 1657. In the treaties
marched from Livonia into Poland (1701-02), the latter
be
resub-
of Welawa (Wehlau), Bromberg (Bydgoszcz), and Oliwa
serving him as the base for his future military operations.
sejm.
The
of
(Oliva, 1660), Poland recognized the "superior power of
Appointing Stanislaw Leszczyński (Stanisław II) as pup-
he
sejm
government" of Frederick William over the Duchy of
pet King (1704), Charles XII invaded Saxony in 1706
was
used
Prussia but reserved the right to reversion with regard to
and forced Augustus to abdicate. During the civil war of
Civil war
ought to a
the duchy and did not relinquish this right until 1773.
1704-10, Swedish troops totally devastated Poland, and
of 1704-10
of foreign
Settlements and social consequences of the wars. The
the Saxonian and Russian armies fared little better. Cul-
inconven-
Ukraine again entered into a union with Poland in 1658,
tural losses were enormous, and one-third of all Polish
to
exer-
and Russia was decisively defeated in 1660-62. Neverthe-
cities lay in ruins. Although by 1702 the population had
less, Russia obtained Smoleńsk and the eastern half of the
recovered again, reaching about 8,000,000, war and then
the
ef-
Council of
Ukraine in the truce of Andruszów (Andrusovo; 1667),
the bubonic plague of 1709 took their toll, and other
S
such
as
after the rebellion of Jerzy Lubomirski against the King
disasters reduced the population to about 6,400,000. Po-
who
of Poland. Having been instrumental in bringing about
land was spared any further Swedish occupation when
),
in-
Poland in
the greatest catastrophe in the history of Poland, John II
the Swedish troops advanced into the Ukraine, where
Casimir finally abdicated in 1668. The war, the bubonic
they suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Poltava
blishments
1654.
plague, slave raids, and mass murders had reduced the
(1709). Stanislaw Leszczyński escaped from Poland in
and
total population to approximately 4,000,000 people, or
1710, and Augustus П again assumed the crown with the
Cernigov
1578-80)
45 percent of the former total population. (This was
particular support of Peter the Great of Russia. Breaking
about twice the number lost in World War II.) The cities
all agreements with Poland, the Tsar annexed Swedish-
held Livonia (1710), the very land that had given Augus-
646 Poland, History of
tus II the pretext to start the war. Then the Tsar turned
name of the Russian empress, demanded absolute religious
east and put down the last Cossack rebellion in the Polish
and political equality with the Catholic population of
Ukraine (1702-04), which the Polish Sejm had provoked
Poland. He was well aware that an aristocratic and
by despotically deciding to disband the Cossacks in 1699.
Catholic assembly like the Sejm would never concede such
The Prussian situation. The Hohenzollern prince Fred-
a demand.
erick III had assumed the title of king of Prussia in 1701,
Early in 1767 a confederation was formed at Repnin's
with consent of Augustus but without the approval of
instigation to send a deputation to Catherine, petitioning
the republic, which alone had the power to grant this
her to guarantee the liberties of the republic. Subsequent-
title. In 1715 King Frederick Willaim I tried to acquire
ly, but not without a stubborn resistance, the Sejm accept-
the Polish Prussian territory, again with the approval of
ed Catherine's authority; and the so-called fundamental
Augustus. The intervention of Peter the Great, who resid-
laws were enacted, guaranteeing the liberum veto and all
ed in Gdańsk at the time, frustrated this attempt in 1716,
the other ancient abuses as unalterable parts of a Polish
and the Russian troops remained in control of the south-
constitution ensured by Russia. All the restrictions against
ern coast of the Baltic Sea. Peter the Great thus assumed
the dissidents were repealed at the same time.
the role of protector of the territorial integrity of the
Confederation of Bar. These events led to a Catholic
Polish republic. From then on, Poland was to all intents
uprising known as the Confederation of Bar, aided by the
and purposes a protectorate of the Russian government,
Turks. After four years of fighting (1768-72), the Rus-
and this relationship lasted until the dissolution of the
sian troops were able to gain the upper hand over the
republic in 1795.
confederates. Frederick II of Prussia tried to use this civil
Augustus III, 1733-63. The French-supported candi-
war to achieve a partition of Poland, but he met with the
date, Stanislaw Leszczyński, was elected king for the sec-
resistance of Catherine II. Only the threat of Austrian
ond time after the death of Augustus II in 1733. The
troops advancing against Russia and the Austrian annex-
Russian and Saxonian armies interfered, however, forc-
ation of some Polish territory in the Carpathian Moun-
ing the election of his opponent, Augustus III, the son of
tains (1770) forced Catherine to seek help from the Prus-
Augustus II. It was in his reign that Prussia definitely and
sian king on his terms-namely, the partition of Poland.
conclusively achieved the position of a European power
First Partition, 1772. With the First Partition of Po-
under its king, Frederick II the Great (1740-86). He
land in 1772, the republic lost about 28 percent of its
annexed Silesia between 1740 and 1745, securing control
territory, the Livonian and White Ruthenian regions
of the western boundaries of Poland as well as of Polish
north of the Dvina River and east of the Druć River
foreign trade at the points where it was shipped overland
falling to Russia. Austria received Little Poland south of
to central and western Europe. Inhabited mainly by
the Vistula River and almost all of the Red Ruthenian
Poles, the southeastern half of Silesia still retained close
territory under the name of the Kingdom of Galicia.
political and cultural ties with Poland, but the Prussian
Prussia obtained the smallest but most valuable property,
annexation ended the church sovereignty of the metro-
namely, Royal Prussia, comprising Warmia (Ermland)
politanate of Gniezno over Silesia.
and a part of Great Poland on both sides of the Noteć
The Seven Years' War. During the Seven Years' War
River, though without the cities of Gdańsk and Toruń.
(q.v.; 1756-63), the Russian army used the territories of
Through this annexation Prussia had not only acquired the
Gdańsk, Toruń, and Poznań as operational bases in their
desired land connection between Western Pomerania and
war against Prussia. Frederick II ordered the counterfeit-
East Prussia that it had tried to secure for almost 120
ing of Polish money, a measure that severely damaged
years, but it had also gained control over approximately
Prus
and inflated the monetary system of the republic.
four-fifths of the total foreign trade of Poland. By levying
cont:
Social, religious, and political change. During the long
enormous custom duties on the Polish foreign trade going
forei
and peaceful era between 1716 and 1768, the popula-
via this route, Prussia made this its most important
trade
Population
tion grew rapidly, due to both the steady immigration of
source of income. In fact, the partition of Poland was of
growth
Germans and the mass exodus of an enslaved peasantry
vital importance to Prussia, for it was now able to shake
from Russia. By 1772 Poland's population numbered ap-
off the last vestiges of the old Polish sovereign rights. The
proximately 11,420,000. Comprising more than one-half
treaty of 1773 established the full and complete sover-
of all the Jews in the world, the Jewish population of
eignty of Prussia over its lands.
Poland lived in all parts of the country. The Counter-Re-
The period of reform. The shock of the First Partition
formation reached its zenith under the spiritual leadership
caused political and economic reforms in Poland-as far
of the Jesuits, who trained 20,000 students of noble birth
as Russia would permit. The taxation system and the
annually in their 51 greater colleges and other education-
army were thoroughly reorganized, and with the Perma-
al institutions. In 1717 and 1733, laws were passed that
nent Council, in 1775, Poland installed its first real cen-
restricted the spiritual and secular rights of the dissident
tral government. Many landed estate owners carried out
(non-Catholic) population. Popular education fell to its
individual peasant emancipations, and almost 200,000
lowest level. Spreading through all the other parts of
Germans and at least 300,000 Russians emigrated to Po-
Europe, the Age of Reason affected Poland only by virtue
land, a land that was considered free. Slowly, the cities
of some individual achievements. Parliamentary life came
began to flourish again, and the beginnings of an indus-
to an almost complete standstill. Under the reign of
trial revolution could be observed with the rise in mining
Augustus II only four of a total of 13 sejms came to an
activities, the advances of the textile industry, the found-
orderly conclusion; under Augustus III only one out of
ing of the first joint-stock companies, and the employ-
13 did so, as the result of the use of the liberum veto.
ment of the first machine equipment. Polish intellectual
pursuit and reasoning received fresh impetus when the
REFORM AND PARTITION DURING THE REIGN
Age of Reason was finally accepted. The King promoted
OF STANISLAW II AUGUSTUS PONIATOWSKI, 1764-95
the political theories of such men as Edmund Burke and
A former diplomat, Stanislaw II August Poniatowski
George Washington, while the educated Poles advanced
gained the crown of Poland with the help of Russian
the political theories of Montesquieu and Rousseau. But
troops in 1764. Aided by his relatives, the Czartoryski, he
whatever the theory, the concept of modern democracy,
tried to introduce political reforms, among other things
including all ranks and classes of society, quickly became
the temporary abolition of the liberum veto in 1764-66,
established in Poland. The first governmental department
but his plans failed because of the objections of Catherine
for public education in Europe was established in con-
ments
II the Great, the Russian empress. Taking advantage of
junction with the appointment of an education commis-
Interven-
the religious quarrels in Poland, the Empress sent Prince
sion in Poland in 1773. Its task was the reorganization
tion by
Nikolai V. Repnin as Russian minister to Warsaw with
of the universities of Cracow and Wilno, as well as the
Catherine
instructions that led to further discord in Polish affairs.
supervision of approximately 80 gymnasiums. The print-
the Great
Of Poland's population of 11,500,000, about 1,000,000
ing of books and the publication of magazines and jour-
of Russia
were dissidents, one-half Protestant and one-half Ortho-
nais also flourished.
dox. For these people, who had been largely deprived of
The Constitution of May 3, 1791. The first codified
their rights by the laws of 1717 and 1773, Repnin, in the
constitution in Europe since antiquity and the second in
Poland, History of
647
religious
of
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
and
SWEDEN
Riga
such
Repnin's
(Miteva)
BALTIC
etitioning
SEA
bsequent-
Potock
accept-
Tauroggen
(Polotsk)
damental
Goansk
Onisper
and
(Danzig)
Königsberg
all
Wilno
a
Polish
EAST PRUSSIA
(Vilno)
WHITE
EASTERN
against
POMERANIA
WEST
PROSSIA
Olsztyn
NEW
(Allenstein)
Minsk
(Mog
Catholic
Wolkowysk
RUTHENIA
by
the
Notec
GREAT
the
Rus-
Bobruisk
Gniezno
MAZOVIA
OLAND
PHomel
(Gomel)
over
the
Poznan:
this
(Posen)
POLAND
civil
De Brzesc Litewskin
Pinsk
Warsaw
Pripet
Litovsk)
with
the
SOUTH PRUSSIA
Marshes
Macisjowice
Austrian
annex-
(Rava)
WEST GALICIA
Kowel
Czestochows
RUSSIAN
Moun-
Oder
(Tschenstochau)
LITTLE
Korosten
the
Prus-
NEW
POLAND
Kiev
ESSILESIA
Zamosc
EMPIRE
Poland.
Zytomierz
(Zamostys)
(Lutsk)
(Zhitomir)
of
Po-
KINGDOM OF GALICIA
Cracow
of
its
Tarnow
AUSTRIA
Przemysi
Lwow (Lvov)
regions
Ternopol (Ternopol)*
River
Winnica (Vinniki)
RUTHENIA
south
of
HUNGARY
uthenian
Galicia.
Bonta
property,
Ermland)
Yuzhnyy
Noteć
Bug
Toruń.
the
FIRST PARTITION.
SECOND PARTITION.
THIRD PARTITION.
OTTOMAN
and
1772
1793
1795
EMPIRE
120
Lands annexed by:
Lands annexed by:
Lands annexed by:
ximately
Prusch
Austria
Prussia
Austria
levying
controls
Prussia
Russia
Prussia
going
foreign
0
50
100mi
nportant
trade
Russia
Russia
0 50 100 150km
was
of
to
shake
The partitions of Poland, 1772-95.
The
sover-
the world after the United States, the new Polish constitu-
Little Poland, including Cracow, and Prussia received the
tion passed by the "Four Years Sejm" embodied the fol-
remaining lands, including Warsaw. Stanislaw II abdicat-
Partition
lowing ideas: first, the precept of a "people's sovereign-
ed officially in 1795. For all official purposes, at least, this
far
ty," which included the nobility as well as the metropol-
was the end of the Republic of Poland, which was eradi-
and
the
itan bourgeoisie; second, the constitutional separation of
cated from the map of Europe for the next 123 years.
Perma-
powers between the executive, legislature, and judiciary;
cen-
and third, the responsibility of the cabinet to parliament.
III. Poland under partition, 1795-1914
out
The liberum veto and all the obstructive machinery of the
FOREIGN RULE AND THE DUCHY OF WARSAW, 1795-1815
200,000
anomalous old system were abolished. According to its
The Russian sector. With the Third Partition of Po-
to
Po-
own rules, this constitution had to be revised after 25
land in 1795, the largest part of the territory fell to
cities
years at the latest. But Catherine II considered such a
Russia. Officially, Catherine II called these partitions a
indus-
constitution dangerous to the existence and continuation of
return of Russian territory, even though such a claim
mining
her own autocratic governmental system; she therefore
dated back 450 years. Proclaiming the unity of all Rus-
found-
ordered her troops to invade Poland in 1792, and the
sians, the largest part of the Uniate Church returned to
employ-
reforms were destroyed by force.
the fold of the Eastern Orthodox faith. In spite of this,
ellectual
The Second and Third Partitions. The Russo-Prussian
the Polish constitution and culture remained fairly unaf-
the
treaty of 1793 (the Second Partition) placed almost
fected at first in these "Russian" parts, where at least
romoted
all the Red Ruthenian and White Ruthenian lands under
1,800,000 Poles, including over 640,000 nobles, still held
and
Russian rule, while Prussia received Gdańsk, Toruń,
positions of influence. Because Russia's level of civiliza-
dvanced
Great Poland, and part of Mazovia. The reaction was
tion was still extremely low under the reign of the tsars
But
inevitable, and in 1794 a general popular insurrection
Paul I (1796-1801) and Alexander I (1801-25), the
hocracy,
broke out under the leadership of Tadeusz Kościusz-
government was unable to administer the area without
became
ko against this latest Russo-Prussian humiliation. Kos-
Impress
Polish help. The land had been divided into eight govern-
artment
ciuszko achieved a partial liberation of the peasant class
mental units in 1801; and since the Poles retained basic
in
ments
con-
commis-
educate
and began a general armament of the people, mobilizing
administrative control, the municipal rights, control of
more than 150,000 men. At first the Polish forces were
the Polish county courts and of the Polish Sejm re-
almost. universally successful; but ultimately Kościuszko
mained in force for a number of years (1796-1831). An
as
the
was defeated b: the Russian troops under Aleksandr Su-
added factor was that this region had the highest standard
print-
voroy at the Battle of Maciejowice, and Warsaw capitu-
of civilization, culture, and education within the realm of
jour-
lated at the end of 1794. Now Russia and Austria-joined
the Russian Empire-with the exception of the Baltic Sea
later also by Prussia-agred to the Third Partition of
provinces-and the fundamental principles of the Rus-
codified
Poland in 1795. Russia annexed the entire territory east
sian educational system were based on the essential fea-
in
of the Niemen and Bug rivers, Austria took almost all of
tures of the Polish educational institutions of this region.
648 Poland, History of
The Prussian sector. The Prussian area consisted of
"symbolic capital of the divided Poland," though these in-
the three provinces of West Prussia, South Prussia,
tentions came to an end when Austria annexed the city in
and New East Prussia. Together with the province of
1846. Galicia remained an Austrian hereditary land.
East Prussia, which had not been under Polish rule since
The Kingdom of Poland. The main part of the Duchy
1657, the country came to be known officially as the
of Warsaw was given the title of Kingdom of Poland in
Kingdom of Prussia, a part of the Prussian monarchy.
1815. Approximately four-fifths of its population (over
Of its population of almost 4,000,000, however, about
4,000,000 in 1827) were ethnic Poles, of whom as many
three-quarters were ethnic Poles.
as 325,000 were nobles. This area thus came to be consid-
The Austrian sector. The Kingdom of Galicia, as the
ered as the Polish nucleus. After the Congress of Vienna,
Austrian section was known, was repeatedly reorganized
in 1815, this Congress Kingdom of Poland, or Congress
administratively. Most of the native intellectuals in both
Poland, as it often came to be called, was united with the
the Prussian and the Austrian sections were replaced by
Russian Empire, though it retained its own governmental
German administrators who governed the lands in their
system, its own Sejm, and its own army. Tsar Alexander I
customary autocratic fashion. It is therefore not surpris-
was now in command of about three-quarters of all the
ing that in these areas numerous nationalist secret soci-
historically Polish territories and, being not only the tsar
eties were established.
of Russia but also the king of Poland, he was well advised
The struggle of the patriots. As early as 1768, Polish
to try to win the loyalty of the Polish people.
emigrant groups were formed in Hamburg, Dresden,
The constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, passed be-
Th:
Patriotic
Constantinople, and particularly in Paris. The group of
tween 1815 and 1831, was considered the most liberal in
cor.
and
Polish Jacobins organized in Warsaw and Wilno (1792-
all of Europe. The population of the Congress Kingdom
tion
conspira-
94) had established connections with the French Revolu-
of Poland included more voters than France, whose pop-
Kir
torial
tion, especially through Józef Sulkowski, who had polit-
ulation was six times greater. A severe impediment, how-
societies
ically supervised Napoleon Bonaparte in his capacity as
ever, was the fact that Alexander I reigned with the
secret police inspector (1796) of the French Directoire.
harshness of an absolute monarch from 1819 on, break-
Branching out from their Jacobin origins, the conspira-
ing the constitution several times. This again promoted
torial Society of Polish Republicans, formed in Warsaw
the creation of secret societies, the most consequential of
around 1798-1800, and the Warsaw Society of the
which was the National Freemasonry (1819-25) under
Friends of Science, founded in Warsaw in 1800, served
the leadership of Walerian Lukasiński. Similar secret so-
partially as a cover organization for Jacobin activities.
cieties were founded in Cracow, Poznań, and especially
The centre of the conspiratorial network was in Paris, but
in the University of Wilno, where the Society of the
it gained a particularly strong hold in Galicia after the
Philomats functioned as a front for several conspiratorial
French-Austrian War of 1792-1801. Gen. Jan Henryk
groups. Even Adam Mickiewicz, the greatest Polish Ro-
Dąbrowski, who had gained his fame from the defense of
mantic poet, became involved in the affairs of the Phi-
Warsaw in 1794, established Polish legions in northern
lomats and was sent into exile for some time. The secret
Italy in 1797, recruiting men from Austrian prisoners of
societies (such as the National Patriotic Society) contin-
war of Polish nationality. The legions fought without
ued and flourished, despite repression at the hands of the
any political success against Austria between 1797 and
Russians.
1801.
The Rising of 1830. Alexander's successor, autocratic
Russian rule. Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, the
Tsar Nicholas I (1825-55), planned a military campaign
Russian foreign minister, tried to re-establish the Polish
against France and Belgium after the revolution in
Republic from the sector occupied by Russia. He was
France in July 1830. He was going to send a Polish army
aided in this by the tsar Alexander I. The plan was de-
to accomplish this, but most of the Polish ensigns
signed to create a buffer zone against Prussia, then allied
banded together to create the November Insurrection on
with France. The idea lost its rationale, however, when
November 29, 1830, under their leader Piotr Wysocki.
Napoleon I of France attacked Prussia in 1806 and Rus-
Almost the entire army and the majority of all Polish
sia came to the aid of Prussia. The French advance
politicians joined in the insurrection, and the Sejm pro-
against Poznań and Warsaw paved the way for a general
claimed the ousting of Tsar Nicholas I on January 25,
Polish insurrection against Prussia, led mainly by Jan
1831, an act that led to a formal war between Russia and
Dabrowski and Józef Wybicki.
Congress Poland. The war lasted from January to Sep-
The Duchy of Warsaw. Taking some purely Polish
tember 1831, the superior Russian forces finally defeating
areas of the Kingdom of Prussia, Napoleon I created the
the Poles, who received no response to their appeal for
Duchy of Warsaw, placing it under the rule of the king
western European protection. About 6,000 leaders of the
of Saxony, Frederick Augustus (1807). The constitution
rising were forced into exile during 1831-32, most of
Govern-
dictated by Napoleon I and the introduction of the Code
them emigrating to France in what has become known as
ment under
Napoléon called for the personal liberation of the peas-
the Great Emigration.
Napoleon
ants. But the soil remained fundamentally with the land-
ed nobility, and therefore this liberation promoted rather
RUSSIAN REPRISALS AND THE JANUARY
than alleviated the agrarian population surplus in Central
INSURRECTION, 1831-64
Poland, a condition that had existed already for about
Repression of Poland. The suppression of the Novem-
300 years. Józef Poniatowski (1763-1813), the nephew
ber Insurrection meant heavy reprisals in the Russian as
of the last king, distinguished himself as field marshal
well as in the Prussian Polish areas, even though the latter
during the war of 1809, when the Duchy of Warsaw
had no actual part in it. Extensive confiscations of
acquired the Austrian part of the Second Partition, in-
estates, deportations, and enforced recruiting were de-
cluding Cracow, as well as Zamość, annexed with Galicia
signed to break the national patriotism of the Poles. The
in 1772. Thus, the Duchy of Warsaw had by this time
universities of Warsaw and Wilno were suppressed, and
grown to almost the same size as the Prussian monarchy.
Polish students compelled to go to St. Petersburg (now
The failure of Napoleon's war against Russia in 1812,
Leningrad) and Kiev in Russian Poland. The remainder
however, meant that by 1813 the Duchy of Warsaw had
of the Uniate Church was abolished and converted to
come under Russian administration.
Eastern Orthodox between 1831 and 1839, though con-
tinuing to exist in Congress Poland until 1875 and in
THE KINGDOM OF POLAND AND THE OTHER
Galicia until 1945. The Organic Statute of 1832 replaced
The
POLISH LANDS, 1815-31
the constitution, the Sejm, and the army in the Kingdom
Organ
The Congress of Vienna (1814-15) established the terri-
of Poland; and the land was united with the Russian
Statute
torial division of Poland (within the boundaries of 1772)
Empire in a true union, although officially the kingdom
until 1918. In accordance with the Prussian demands, the
retained a few autonomous rights.
Grand Duchy of Poznań was detached from the authority
Polish nationalist groups. The conservative group of
of the Duchy of Warsaw and incorporated into the Prus-
emigrants led by Adam J. Czartoryski, the "king in ex-
sian monarchy. Cut off from the Duchy of Warsaw as
ile," tried to solve the Polish question through legal and
well, the "Free City of Cracow" was designated to be the
diplomatic means. His minimum goal was the restoration
Poland, History of
649
of the legal status of 1815, which had been violated from
ment" was detected by the Russian administrative au-
the very beginning. The radicals had splintered into many
thorities on April 10-11, 1864. The defeat was followed
factions, but the Polish Democratic Society founded in
by executions, confiscations, and deportations, and all
1832 soon emerged as the leading organization. Its Mani-
hopes for the Polish people to establish an autonomous
festo of Poitiers of 1836 was less realistic than the pro-
national state were ended for the next half century. The
gram set up by the conservative side, because its revolu-
Russian government did proclaim, however, the libera-
tionary agenda demanded an independent Poland within
tion of its peasants on March 13, 1861, and it extended
the borders of 1772. But the Manifesto proclaimed the
this to the Kingdom of Poland on March 2, 1864. By so
idea of a land reform without compensation to the present
doing, it took the most important traditional premise for
owners, and this drew many supporters. In the years
the revolution out of the hands of the revolutionaries.
between 1833 and 1846, emissaries and leaders of the
The agrarian policy, however, was expressly calculated
Liberation
partisans of the "left" established secret revolutionary
to stir up ill feeling between the peasants and the coun-
of the
cells in all parts of Poland. These cells were persistently
try gentry, whom Russia was determined to punish in ev-
peasants
traced down by the authorities, and thousands of their
ery way for their leading part in the insurrection. Yet the
members were deported or imprisoned.
agrarian reforms accelerated the growth of towns and in-
The 1846 insurrection. The Polish Democratic Society
dustry and the new social structure produced both finan-
gained a certain influence in the country with the installa-
ciers who exploited the great possibilities of the Russian
tion of a committee in Poznań between 1839 and 1846.
market and a new working class, among whom the first
The
This committee drew up a plan for a general revolution,
socialist organizations began their secret activity.
constits
but the Prussian police discovered it in 1846. In spite of
this, a central government in Cracow, under the revolu-
THE FOUNDING OF MODERN POLAND, 1864-1914
Kingdom
tionary leaders Jan Tyssowski and Edward Dembowski,
After the failure of the January Insurrection, a policy of
tried to get an insurrection started. The uprising spread to
harsh repression fell upon the Poles remaining in the
Galicia, where Austrian troops soon put it down, at the
Russian and Prussian sectors. The Russian sector was
same time inciting the local population so that many
now offically named the Western Region of the Russian
Galician peasants turned against the revolutionaries. The
Empire, and its governor general, Mikhail Nikolayevich
failure of the 1846 revolt severely weakened Polish par-
Muravyov (who became known as the "Hangman of
ticipation when a general revolutionary wave swept
Wilno"), made every effort to stamp out Polish culture
through Europe during the early spring of 1848-49. Orig-
altogether.
inally, Prussia and Austria had nominally supported Pol-
Russification. The Kingdom of Poland was reorga-
ish demands for independence, but now attempts by the
nized into the Land of the Vistula under a purely Russian
Poles to establish a real independence were resisted by
administration. The University of Warsaw became a
Loantic
armed force in both countries. The course of this revolu-
Russian university in 1869. Russification of all secondary
grolu-
tionary struggle showed clearly that the fight was no
schools was implemented during the years 1869 to 1874
Entry
longer only about the ideal of a unified republic based on
and of all other public schools after 1885: the Russians
Balism
the boundaries of 1772 but also about the Romantic Ideal-
very successfully accomplished their aim of keeping illit-
ism of the time, which favoured individualistic, linguisti-
eracy among the common people at as high a level as
cally and culturally separated nationalities. On the other
possible. Consequently, by 1905 there were relatively
hand, nationalist ambitions now extended beyond the
fewer schools and students in the Land of the Vistula
borders of 1772 for the first time. The Polish question
than there had been in 1815. Nearly all private schools
also gained more impetus on the international scene.
and all social and political activities were prohibited.
Adam Mickiewicz founded a new Polish legion in Italy
Prussian and Austrian Poland. Following the Russian
and a little later published the moderate socialist newspa-
example Otto von Bismarck, the German chancellor, in-
per La Tribune des Peuples in Paris (1848-49). The
stituted a similar policy, and the Prussian sector was
landed gentry of Poznań financed the Neue Rheinische
incorporated into the newly founded German Reich. In
Zeitung ("The Newspaper of the Rhineland"), the journal
1872 the entire school system was Germanized. The Col-
through which Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1849
onization Law of 1886 tried to integrate German peas-
proclaimed the national liberation of Poland to be the
ants into the native Polish population. Polish autonomy
most important task of the workers' movement of Eu-
was able to achieve some success only in the Austrian
rope.
sector, where its most important agency was the Galician
Alexander II and the rising of 1863. The Eastern Ques-
Provincial Sejm (Diet). The Poles in Austria became the
tion and the Crimean War (1853-56) caused violent
country's second nationality, and they were allowed to
upheavals within the Russian Empire, which motivated
participate in the government at Vienna and retained
Alexander II (1855-81) to take a more conciliatory
sovereignty over the Ruthenes in Galicia. Galicia itself
Galicia
stand toward the Kingdom of Poland. A series of reforms
became the haven of Polish culture, with the University
were implemented, in their later stages by the autocratic
of Cracow, the University of Lwów, and the Academy of
Count Aleksander Wielopolski, who was installed in high
Sciences attracting many Polish intellectuals.
office and stood for a national policy of loyal union with
Industrial growth and social change. The development
Russia. His methods and character lost him the support
of modern industry, notably the textile and metal manu-
of the moderate gentry, however, and aroused the out-
facturing industries, as well as mining, made Congress
right enmity of the young patriotic radicals, who were
Poland after the abolition of the customs barrier with
influenced by ideas expressed by Napoleon III of France
Russia the most dynamic, industrialized part of the Rus-
and by the national reunification of Italy (1859-60).
sian Empire until about 1890. In Congress Poland alone
(The left wing of these radicals became linked with the
there were more than 400,000 industrial workers by
Russian liberal movement and the international emi-
1910. It was mainly Polish intellectuals who stimulated
grants in London centred around Karl Marx and Alek-
industrialization in the Russian and Austrian sections,
sandr Herzen.) Religious ceremonies became occasions
whereas German intellectuals led the industrialization
of political demonstrations, rioting broke out in Warsaw,
program of the Prussian part-particularly in Upper Si-
and the situation culminated in the widespread insurrec-
lesia, with its 200,000 Polish miners. Due to the many
tion of January 22, 1863, sparked off by Wielopolski's
agrarian crises between 1846 and 1892, most of the
The
plans to press the revolutionary youth of the cities into
3,200,000 descendants of the former nobility moved to
Organic
the Russian army. The revolutionaries had relied on
the cities in the Russian sector, where they formed the ma-
Statute
French and Austrian support, but these hopes proved to
jority of the liberal professions. In the Polish regions of
be in vain; and to make matters worse, Prussia again co-
eastern Germany, Congress Poland, and West Galicia,
operated with Russia. As before, the ethnic groups in the
the intellectual classes were mostly without property and
Russian sectors-Poles, Lithuanians, and the Catholic
therefore dependent on wages, whereas the Poles in the
White Ruthenes-united in a common war against the
Western Region of the Russian Empire and in East Gali-
Tsar that lasted for 15 months, though the insurrection
cia were mainly wealthy landowners or belonged to the
was finally crushed when the rebel "National Govern-
city bourgeoisie. One of the main features of the period
650 Poland, History of
was the mass emigration of Poles from their native lands
man governor general in Warsaw and an Austro-Hungar-
into the more industrialized parts of Germany, a move-
ian one in Lublin. The political groups in both of these
Mass
ment that was to continue for decades to come. Thus, by
zones separated into those who believed in adopting a
emigration
1910 more than 100,000 miners of Polish descent were
passive stance and the activists. With the majority of the
to
working in the industrial Ruhr district. The rural popula-
PPS and the left-wing intellectuals on their side, the activ-
Germany
tion of Congress Poland and Galicia was mostly illiterate,
ists established the Central National Committee (CKN) in
and poverty increased there to such an extent that at least
December 1915, their goal being to re-establish a Polish
3,500,000 people emigrated between 1890 and 1914,
republic with the help of the Central Powers.
mainly to the United States.
Creation of a Kingdom of Poland. At the request
of
Development of political parties. The first permanent
the German commander, Gen. Erich Ludendorff, and the
political parties were established in Congress Poland and
German governor general, Hans Hartwig von Beseler,
in exile between 1891 and 1893. The Polish League (LP),
the German and Austrian emperors proclaimed a new
founded in 1886-87, was reorganized as the National
Kingdom of Poland on November 5, 1916. The kingdom
League (LN) by Roman Dmowski in 1892-93 and later
consisted of both the occupied zones but comprised on-
became the nucleus of National Democracy (ND), which
ly about one-sixth of the territory established in 1772.
was the strongest bourgeois party between 1905 and
The hopes of both monarchs for more support among
1939. The Polish Socialist Party (PPS) was founded in
the Polish volunteer troops in the Austro-German fight
1892-93 under the patronage of Boleslaw Limanowski
against Russia were in vain, for German aspirations did
and subsequently, under the leadership of Józef Pilsud-
not match the expectations of the Poles, who had envis-
ski, became the strongest socialist party (with about 50,-
ioned an eastward expansion of the Kingdom of Poland.
000 members) in the entire Russian Empire during the
Ludendorff, in turn, tried to establish what he himself
Russian Revolution of 1905. The left-wing socialist party
termed "a national kingdom of Lithuania" in the eastern
(SDKP; from 1900 SDKPiL, Social Democracy of the King-
regions. All these elements now gave the first incentive
dom of Poland and Lithuania), founded in 1893 and led
to an internationalization of the Polish question.
by Rosa Luxemburg and Junian Marchlewski, remained a
The Russian Revolution. The Russian Revolution in
minor party in comparison. The 1905 revolution, which
March 1917 brought about the two Poland proclamations
swept over Russia, changed political life in all the Pol-
of the Soviet of Petrograd and the provisional govern-
ish regions. The National Democracy, led by Roman
ment of Russia. These recognized Poland's right to inde-
Dmowski and supported by the majority of the landed
pendence, while the latter insisted on a military alliance
gentry and the bourgeoisie, restricted its national plat-
with Russia. After this, three Polish army corps were
form to the demand for Polish autonomy. For this reason
formed from the ranks of the Russian army between
it was allowed to operate legally not only in Congress
May 1917 and May 1918, and France also recruited a
Poland but in Russian Poland, too, after 1905. The same
Polish volunteer army. Founded by Dmowski on August
party also controlled the Polish faction in the Rus-
15, 1917, in Lausanne, the Polish National Committee
The
sian Duma, or Parliament (1905-17). The PPS split in
(KNP) worked closely with the governments of the
Nat
1905-06: the patriotic wing under Józef Pilsudski and
Western Allies. In the Kingdom of Poland, Pilsudski and
Coo
Tomasz Arciszewski retained its "radical program for
the Polish Legion, now reorganized as the Polish Auxilia-
independence," in accordance with the teachings of Fried-
ry Corps, with about 20,000 men, clashed with the Central
rich Engels, and took part in the abortive revolution of
Powers. Pilsudski and the majority of his corps were in-
1905 against the Russian government; the left wing ad-
terned in July 1917. The grant of a limited Polish self-
justed its program to an internationalist standpoint and
government in the Kingdom of Poland and the installation
so found it easy later on to merge with the SDKPiL, on the
of a Regency Council on September 12, 1917, came too
extreme left. The introduction of universal suffrage in
late to overcome the distrust that now divided the Central
Austria, including the Austrian sector of Poland (Gali-
Powers and the Poles.
cia), for the parliament in Vienna in 1907 promoted the
The fight for self-determination. The October Revolu-
founding of the agrarian Polish Peasant Party (PSL).
tion in Russia, as well as the proclaimed principle of the
This party soon spread its influence to southern Congress
"right for self-determination of all nations" as stated by
Poland, but it split in 1913 into a moderate majority and
both Lenin and the U.S. president Woodrow Wilson
a radical left. Only in Prussia was the repression of Polish
(though both with very different interpretations), gave
cultural and political life continued, and after 1905 this
the Polish question international significance. President
policy was pursued in an even more severe form. This
Wilson demanded the creation of an "independent Polish
was the main reason why the Polish National Democrats
state" with a free and secured access to the sea in his
regarded the German Reich rightfully as their main op-
well-known "14-points speech" of January 8, 1918. This
ponent from 1905 on.
program was ratified as an integral part of the future
peace settlement by the governments of France, Great
IV. Modern Poland, since 1914
Britain, and Italy on June 3, 1918. The Central Powers
THE FOUNDING OF THE SECOND REPUBLIC, 1914-21
used the "right for self-determination of all nations" in
Events during World War I. At the outbreak of World
the peace negotiations of Brest-Litovsk (now Brest, Belo-
War I, the governments of Austria and Russia tried to use
russian Soviet Socialist Republic) in February-March
the Polish question as a political weapon. On August 16,
1918 as a pretext for the separation of the Kingdom of
1914, the Austrian government allowed the formation of
Poland from the Russian Empire, but they apportioned
a Supreme National Committee (NKN) in Galicia, and the
the Chelm province, with its predominantly Polish pop-
organization of a Polish legion recruited mainly from the
ulation, to the Ukraine on February 9, 1918. This in-
Pilsudski
membership of the followers of Józef Pilsudski. The ulti-
furiated Polish opinion.
and
mate goal of Austrian policy was the incorporation of
Re-establishment of the state. The military collapse of
Dmowski
Congress Poland into Galicia. On August 14, 1914, the
Austria in October 1918 led to the formation of a Polish
Russian government recognized the basic right of the
Liquidation Commission in Cracow on October 28, 1918,
Poles to autonomy, particularly in the lands that the
which assumed power in Western Galicia. On November
Russian troops hoped to conquer. The Polish National
7 a Provisional Government of the Polish Republic was
Committee (KNP) was formed in November 1914-its
established in Lublin. With the collapse of the German
chief members coming from the National Democrats, led
Reich in November 1918, Pilsudski was freed from his
by Roman Dmowski. The KNP supported the Russian war
internment in Germany. Returning to Warsaw, he took
effort, and Russian forces conquered almost all of Galicia
control of the whole of Poland on November 11, 1918.
in 1914.
The administrations for the regions of Cracow and Lub-
Division of Congress Poland. The troops of the Cen-
lin also put themselves under his command. November
tral Powers-Germany and Austria-Hungary-were able
11, 1918, has thus been generally recognized as the day of
subsequently not only to retake Galicia but to advance
the founding of the Second Polish Republic.
deep into Congress Poland. The Central Powers divid-
The Second Polish Republic. To begin with, the Sec-
ed it into two military occupation zones, with a Ger-
ond Polish Republic consisted of the Kingdom of Poland
Poland, History of 651
ustro-Hungar.
it existed in 1916, the Duchy of Cieszyn, and West
western Ukraine-far beyond the boundary lines of the
both
of
these
as Galicia. Poland's losses during World War I numbered
Second Partition of 1793-without meeting any serious
adopting
about 800,000 dead as well as the destruction of the
resistance from the Red Army until December 1919, be-
a
ajority of the
majority of industrial plants, communications, and the
cause the Russians were still embroiled in civil war. The
the
activ-
serious disruption of the Polish monetary system and
Soviets launched a military offensive against Poland be-
(CKN)
in
economy.
tween February and May 1920. The militarily and politi-
blish
a
Polish
Internal developments. Pilsudski secured his position
cally ill-advised Polish advance against Kiev in June 1920
of power in the country by reaching an agreement, in
led to the Polish-Soyiet war that had been brewing for
request
of
January 1919, with the Polish National Committee
the past one and a half years. The Red Army, under the
and
the
(KNP) in Paris, headed by Roman Dmowski. The KNP
command of Mikhail Tukhachevsky, advanced, reaching
von
Beseler,
was the recognized official Polish delegation at the Paris
the vicinity of Toruń, Warsaw, and Lwów by July and
a
Peace Conference. Ignacy Jan Paderewski, a close asso-
new
August 1920. The Polish forces led by Pilsudski defeated
Defeat of
The kingdom
ciate of Dmowski, formed a government in Warsaw in
the Red Army decisively, however, in a battle on the
the Red
omprised
1919, but the executive power remained in the hands of
on-
Vistula between August 16 and 28. This victory crushed
Army
in
1772.
Pilsudski, as the Polish "chief of state," from November
the Bolsheviks' last chance of a widespread revolution in
pport
22, 1918, until December 14, 1922. The succeeding dem-
among
central and western Europe. The Polish Army recon-
German fight
ocratic elections led to the formation of a constitutional
quered Central Lithuania with Wilno (Lithuanian Vil-
spirations did
Sejm, which operated both as the constituent and legisla-
nius), western White Ruthenia, western Wolhynia, and
no had envis-
tive assembly (1919-22) after the passing of the "Little
East Galicia before the armistice of October 12, 1920.
of Poland.
Constitution" on February 20, 1919. The strongest par-
The Soviet government finally recognized this boundary
he
himself
ties in the country were the National Democrats and the
unconditionally in the Peace of Riga on March 18, 1921.
the
eastern
Peasants (PSL), the latter for the most part cooperating
incentive
with the National Democrats. The left-wing parties com-
POLAND BETWEEN THE WARS, 1921-39
manded only about one-quarter of the votes. The Com-
The constitution of March 17, 1921, established a parlia-
evolution
munist Workers' Party of Poland was founded on De-
in
ment consisting of two houses, the Senate and the Sejm.
roclamations
cember 16, 1918, and Workers' Councils were set up in
The political forces in the country had splintered up into
govern-
November 1918. The Councils were broken up by the
numerous parties and groups, and this proved a hindrance
to inde-
government in June 1919, and this established and se-
to the development of a stable, unified parliamentary
alliance
cured a "bourgeois democracy" in Poland as opposed to
government.
the "Soviet democracy" in Russia.
corps
were
Domestic policy. Between 1922 and 1926 Poland was
my between
The Treaty of Versailles. At the Paris Peace Confer-
governed by frequently changing cabinets that were
recruited a
ence the Polish delegation demanded the surrender of
based mainly on a coalition between the National Demo-
on August
the formerly Prussian sector, Upper Silesia, and southern
crats, the Christian Democrats, and the moderate Peasant
Committee
The
East Prussia (Mazuria) from Germany. The largest part
Party. The primary task of these governments was to
of
the
Nation
of the province of Poznań was already under Polish
attempt to eliminate the inflation that the destruction of
Pilsudski
and
Come
authority because the December 1918 Polish uprising
World War I and the subsequent conflicts had caused.
Auxilia-
against the Germans in Poznań had engulfed almost the
The government stabilized the situation through the in-
the Central
entire province. The Treaty of Versailles, signed on June
troduction of a new currency, the złoty, on February 1,
were in-
28, 1919, awarded Poland the main part of the Prussian
1924. But the new currency was in danger again by 1925,
Polish
self-
sector, providing the desired direct access to the Baltic
installation
Sea, even though the port of Gdańsk (Danzig), to which
mainly as the result of a tariff war instigated by the
7,
came
the Poles had laid claim, became a "Free City." The
Germans. The financial crisis that followed led to high
too
plebiscite in Mazuria, held on July 11, 1920, resulted in a
unemployment and severe unrest among the working
the
Central
heavy defeat for Poland, partly because of the Polish-
people. This, in turn, gave the Communist Party a steadi-
ly rising influence, even though it had been declared ille-
Revolu-
Soviet war, and it brought only a few border regions
gal in 1923. Pilsudski had not been active on the political
The
nciple of the
under Polish authority. The Polish population in Upper
as stated by
Silesia rebelled three times against the German adminis-
scene since 1923, but these new developments compelled
Pilsudski
tration. In the plebiscite of March 20, 1921, 682 com-
him to organize a military coup on May 12-15, 1926, in
coup
row Wilson
order to take power. Supporting their former leader with
tions), gave
munes voted for Poland and 792 for Germany, but the
Poles secured preponderance in the southeastern plebi-
a general strike, the PPS played a decisive role in Pilsud-
e. President
ski's victory.
Polish
scite area, which was industrially the most important. The
new frontier of October 20, 1921, divided this area: Po-
The Pitsudski government. Pilsudski headed the gov-
sea in his
land was awarded 76 percent of the coal production, 22
ernment from 1926 to 1930. His rule was a moral dicta-
1918. This
out of 37 blast furnaces, and nine out of 14 steel works,
torship with only a formal preservation of parliamentary
the future
fance, Great
with about 990,000 people. Populated by Poles, Czechs,
authority. His administration aimed at the "moral clean-
Powers
and Germans, the former Duchy of Cieszyn was the sub-
sing" of society in Poland and at eliminating some of the
nations" in
ject of controversy between Poland and Czechoslovakia.
widespread corruption. Pilsudski relied mainly on the
On July 28, 1920, it was divided, but in a manner that left
army and the conservative nobility of eastern Poland for
Brest, Belo-
his support. Between 1926 and 1927 a right-wing op-
uary-March
a considerable Polish minority in the Czechoslovakian
sector.
position emerged, led by Dmowski. Pilsudski confronted
Kingdom of
Territorial disputes. Poland owed its rapid eastward
them with his Non-Party Block for Cooperation with the
apportioned
Polish pop-
expansion to its quickly recruited and effective army.
Government (BBWR), which was a loose organization
8. This in-
Evacuation of the territories occupied in the east by the
held together only by Pilsudski's personality. At any rate,
German troops had to be completed by the beginning of
in the elections to the Sejm held on March 4, 1928, the
collapse of
February 1919, but every strip of land left by the Ger-
BBWR succeeded in obtaining one quarter of all the parlia-
mans was promptly taken over by the Red Army. Thus,
mentary seats, though a contributing factor for this polit-
of a Polish
er 28, 1918,
between November 1918 and February 1919, that army
ical success was the increasing economic prosperity of
1926-29.
November
moved westward from the Dnieper to the Bug River line.
Piłsudski decided that it was imperative to throw back
The Great Depression. The crisis in the world econo-
epublic was
he German
eastward the forces aiming at imposing a foreign form of
my began to affect Poland in October 1929. Unemploy-
from his
government on restored Poland. The central part of his-
ment hit about 893,000 workers, excluding agricultural
he took
PARK
toric Lithuania was occupied by the Poles in April 1919.
workers-or approximately one-third of those employed
11, 1918.
received
On July 27 the Supreme Council approved a demarcation
in 1931. Production sank between 1931 and 1933 to only
and Lub-
and
line between Poland and Lithuania, leaving Wilno on the
46 percent of the 1913 level. Under the pressure of the
Polish side. In eastern Galicia the West Ukrainian Peo-
general misery and need, the PPS, the Polish Peasant
November
ple's Republic had been established in November 1918,
Party (PSL), and some others united on November 1,
the
day
of
but Polish troops occupied it in June-July 1919. In addi-
1929, to form a left-wing opposing coalition (Centrolew,
the Sec-
tion, the Polish Army extended its sphere of influence
or Centre-Left). Pilsudski employed harsh measures
over the largest part of White Ruthenia and over the
against his opponents, ordering the arrest of about 70
of Poland
politicians. The Sejm elections of November 1930 gave
652 Poland, History of
the BBWR its desired majority, but the genuine political
position toward Poland that Adolf Hitler now dispensed
parties now practically. disappeared from the political
with all caution. His proposals for a global solution were
scene. Pilsudski governed from 1930 to 1935 without
aimed at placing Poland in a situation of complete de-
holding an official public political office. His authority
pendence on Germany so that he would be able to make
was based on the support given by the civil service and by
Poland into a base for his planned attack on the U.S.S.R.
his officers' corps and, in particular, the support of the
Observing the guarantee of March 31, 1939, the British
colonels trained in the legions. Pilsudski tried to master
government under Neville Chamberlain gave Poland dip-
the economic crisis through a program of non-interven-
lomatic, but no military or financial, assistance. This did
tion and thrift, but he was largely unsuccessful.
nothing to prevent the Germans from attacking Poland
The 1935 constitution. A constitutional reform was in-
or to stop the outbreak of World War II. Hitler, on
troduced on April 23, 1935, strengthening the executive
August 23, 1939, concluded with Stalin a nonaggression
branch of government and giving the head of state the
pact containing a secret protocol dividing Poland into
power to enact important laws without the approval of
German and Soviet spheres of interest, circumscribed by
Parliament.
the Narew, Vistula, and San rivers. This "Fourth Parti-
Pitsudski's successors. Pilsudski died on May 12, 1935,
tion of Poland" proved to be the decisive factor leading to
and the resulting struggle for power, complicated by
the outbreak of World War II.
strikes and demonstrations, soon reduced all parliamenta-
ry activity to a complete farce.
POLAND DURING WORLD WAR II, 1939-45
Opposition groups. The elections held in September
Defeat by Germany. The fall of Poland came unex-
1935 and November 1938 showed this only too well, and
pectedly fast during the September campaign of 1939.
a large part of the population and most of the opposition
Warsaw capitulated on September 27, 1939, after the de-
parties boycotted them. There were violent demonstra-
feat of the Polish Army. The last organized Polish resis-
tions and strikes in 1936 and 1938, and the beginnings of
tance ended on October 5, 1939. Following German de-
a popular front, bringing left and left-centre parties to-
mands, the U.S.S.R. ordered two army corps to invade
gether, could be noted. The established radical workers'
eastern Poland on September 17, 1939, breaking its earlier
parties, the PPS and the KPP, found a new ally in the
agreements of 1921 and 1932. On September 28, 1939,
Peasant Party, which had now also become radical under
Hitler and Stalin again agreed on a new partition of
Dissolu-
its new leader Stanislaw Mikołajczyk. Joseph Stalin's re-
Poland along the Narew, Bug, and San rivers. Hitler's
The
tion of the
action to these signs of national unity was to have the
plans for the creation of a Polish puppet state did not
sion of
Commu-
Comintern dissolve the Communist Party of Poland in
materialize because no collaborator could be found. On
Poland
nist Party
1938, branding its leaders as provocateurs and capitalist
October 12, 1939, Hitler gave the order to annex outright
of Poland
agents. On the right wing, the National Radical Camp
the former Prussian section, parts of Mazovia, eastern
(ONR) generated some Fascist groups, but they were dis-
Great Poland with Lódź, and a border strip in Little
solved in 1934 and received hardly any support. Founded
Poland.
by the government on March 1, 1937, the Camp of Na-
Soviet annexations. The regions in the Soviet sphere of
tional Unity (OZN) remained an authoritarian association
interest were incorporated into the U.S.S.R. with the
that-like the BBWR-had no real social or political plat-
added help of supervised plebiscites held between Octo-
form.
ber 22 and November 2, 1939. In contrast with German
Social problems. The important social questions of
procedure, the U.S.S.R based its decisions, at least for-
Poland remained unsolved in the time between
mally, on the "right for self-determination of the nation-
World Wars I and II. Any permanent solution was beyond
alities," hoping in this way to get its demands internation-
the reach of the country's economic resources. The surplus
ally legalized. The annexation carried out by the U.S.S.R.
in the agrarian population could only have been elim-
put the British government into an embarrassing situa-
inated by a comprehensive program of industrialization,
tion. On the one hand, it had guaranteed the security of
but there was no capital to do this. Nevertheless, the
Poland, while, on the other hand, it did not want to risk a
agrarian reform based on the laws of July 15, 1920, started
conflict with the U.S.S.R. It was for this reason that on
the distribution of approximately one-tenth of all arable
October 26, 1939, the British foreign minister Lord Hali-
land. Industrialization made some progress with, for exam-
fax pointed to the fact that the westward extension of the
ple, the energetic promotion of the chemical industry and
Soviet boundary approximated the earlier Curzon line of
the building of the "coal-railroads" from Upper Silesia to
December 8, 1919, and of July 11, 1920. He was the first
the Baltic Sea coast, but the funds necessary for invest-
European statesman to do so, but this explanation be-
ment in these enterprises stretched Poland's national
came the basis for the later establishment of the bound-
economy to its limits. The entire 1938 production barely
ary between Poland and the U.S.S.R. at the end of World
reached the 1913 level. Poland remained an agrarian
War II.
country, and about two-thirds of its total population
Polish government-in-exile. The forming of a Polish
depended either directly or indirectly on its agricultural
"government-in-exile" in France, based on the 1935 con-
produce. Only one-quarter of the country's inhabitants
stitution, assured the survival of the Polish Republic. Its
received their income from industry.
leading statesman and supreme commander was Władys-
Foreign policy. In its foreign policy, Poland attempted
law Sikorski. The Polish government-in-exile moved to
to strengthen its position through alliances with France
the United Kingdom after the defeat of France in June
and Romania (1921). Endangered by political and mili-
1940. A civil and military resistance movement was also
tary cooperation between Germany and the U.S.S.R., as
formed in occupied Poland in September 1939.
well as by their concerted policy aiming at the revision of
German repression. From the very beginning, in Oc-
existing frontiers, Poland found itself in a hazardous po-
tober 1939, the occupational policy of the Germans was
sition after the treaties of Locarno (1925) and the
designed to completely eradicate Polish culture. Almost
April 1926 treaty negotiated by Gustav Stresemann and
the entire Polish school system was suppressed. Mass
Georgy Vasilyevich Chicherin of the Soviet Union stating
executions of Polish intellectuals were carried out, and
that German-Soviet relations should continue to be based
the infamous concentration camp of Oświęcim (Ausch-
Beck's
on the 1922 Treaty of Rapallo. Acting under Pilsudski's in-
witz) was set up. The intention was to Germanize the
nonaggres-
struction, Józef Beck, Polish foreign minister, concluded
territory, and mass deportations of Poles and mass set-
sion pacts
a nonaggression pact with the U.S.S.R. in 1932, and a
tlings of Germans in their place were supposed to accom-
similar one with Germany in 1934-the latter preserving
plish this. Germans from the Baltic states and eastern
both Poland's alliance with France and its freedom of
Poland were transferred to the western Polish lands in-
action as a member of the League of Nations. This safe-
corporated into the German Reich. The Soviet govern-
guarded Poland's position, at least for a short time
ment also participated in mass deportations of the Polish
(1934-38). But the German Reich had by now annexed
inhabitants from the eastern parts of their country incor-
Austria and the largest part of Czechoslovakia, and it
porated into the U.S.S.R.
established control over the Slovakian and Lithuanian
Alliance with the U.S.S.R. The German attack on the
republics. This placed it in such a strategically favourable
U.S.S.R. on June 22, 1941, changed the situation drasti-
Poland, History of 653
dispensed
cally for Poland. Stalin agreed to the annulment of the
aircraft crash at Gibraltar. Stanislaw Mikołajczyk,
"Fifth Polish Partition" agreemént between the Ger-
leader of the Polish Peasant Party (PSL), succeeded
were
de-
man and the Soviet governments of 1939, but he declined
him as premier. Ignoring the Polish government's views
make
the restitution of the Polish-Soviet border of 1921. In
concerning the territorial problems, Franklin D. Roose-
to
U.S.S.R.
his debatè with the British foreign minister, Anthony
velt and Winston Churchill agreed at the Teheran Con-
the
British
Eden, on December 16, 1941, he proposed the Curzon
ference (November 28-December 1, 1943) to Stalin's
Line as the basis for the future Polish-Soviet boundary.
demand that the Curzon Line be the new Soviet-
dip-
did
German policy of extermination. The extermination
Polish frontier.
This
of the Polish intellectuals and the mass deportation of
To consolidate his diplomatic victory at Teheran, Stalin
Poland
Hitler,
on
Poles from western Poland (already "incorporated" into
instructed the PPR (of which Gomułka became secretary
aggression
the Third Reich) to the so-called General Gouverne-
general in November 1943) to form the National Home
ment was vigorously pursued. The Polish citizens of
Council (Krajowa Rada Narodowa, or KRN), which
into
scribed
by
Jewish descent were deported to extermination camps,
would become the government of the Polish People's
such as Auschwitz and Treblinka, where they were killed,
Republic with Bolesław Bierut, an old Comintern hand,
Parti-
leading
to
along with the Jews of the greater part of Europe.
as president. That was done in the night of December
Neither the belated ghetto risings of Warsaw; Białystok,
31.
and Wilno (April-September 1943) nor the special ac-
Even before the severing of diplomatic relations with
tions taken by the Polish underground were effective
the legal Polish government, Stalin ordered the organiza-
enough to halt this extermination. According to the most
tion of a new Polish army, and by March 1944 the 1st
unex-
1939.
careful estimates, about 3,350,000 Polish citizens of Jew-
Army came into existence. Its first commander was Gen.
of
the
de-
ish descent were slaughtered. Millions of ethnic Poles
Zygmunt Berling, a Polish officer who refused to follow
Anders, but the majority of officers in command of
resis-
were sent to forced labour camps in Germany, and hun-
de-
dreds of thousands were executed.
divisions, regiments, and battalions were detailed from
to
invade
(Ha.Ro.)
the Red Army. On July 21, 1944, a Polish Committee
earlier
Stalin's Polish policy. In September 1939 both Hitler
of National Liberation (PKWN), commonly referred to
its
28,
1939,
and Stalin hoped that a Polish national state would never
as the Lublin Committee, was established as an execu-
of
rise again. When the Germans invaded the Soviet Union,
tive branch of the KRN. On July 21 the 1st Belorussian
Hitler's
however, Stalin had to reverse his Polish policy. On July
Army Group under Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky,
The tr
not
sion ₫
30, 1941, he re-established diplomatic relations with the
into which the 1st Polish Army was incorporated,
did
found.
On
Policy
Polish government in exile in London. A military con-
crossed the Curzon Line. Two days later it liberated
Lublin, where the Lublin Committee launched a mani-
outright
vention was signed in Moscow on August 14 on organiz-
eastern
ing a Polish army in Russia.
festo in which it declared itself to be "the sole legal Pol-
in
Little
There were at that time hundreds of thousands of
ish executive power." A week later Rokossovsky ap-
Polish deportees on Soviet territory; in addition, in
proached the Vistula River near Warsaw. At the same
of
September and October 1939 the Red Army had cap-
time Radio Moscow was broadcasting in Polish to the
sphere
with
the
tured about 230,670 Polish soldiers, from privates to
population of Warsaw and calling for a general uprising
Octo-
generals. To command the new Polish army, Stalin
against the Germans. Foreseeing such an eventuality,
German
freed from imprisonment a Polish officer, Gen. Wła-
Gen. Kazimierz Sosnkowski, who had succeeded Sikor-
for-
dysław Anders. Both Sikorski and Anders knew that
ski as commander in chief. of the Polish armed forces,
least
nation-
some 15,000 Polish prisoners, including 8,400 officers,
on July 7 warned Gen. Tadeusz Komorowski (called
hternation-
were interned at the Soviet prison camps at Kozelsk,
General Bór), commander of the 300,000-strong Home
U.S.S.R.
Starobelsk, and Ostashkov. Great, however, was Anders'
Army (Armia Krajowa, or AK), that considering its
situa-
surprise and anxiety when he was told that he could
poor armament he should not order a general anti-
security
of
count on only 448 officers picked from the three camps
German insurrection but that it was imperative that the
to
risk
and grouped in April 1940 at Gryazovets.
Poles gain control of an important city before the entry
a
that
on
By December 1941 Anders had put together two divi-
of Soviet troops. On July 25, however, Mikołajczyk in-
Lord
Hali-
sions. Finding that he could not organize a really na-
formed Jan Stanisław Jankowski, delegate general of the
of
the
tional Polish army, Anders suggested to Sikorski that his
Polish government in German-occupied Poland, that he
line
of
units be transferred to the West. During 1942, as a result
had full powers to order an uprising in Warsaw. Under
The
the
first
of an agreement between Stalin and Churchill, 75,000
this decision, General Komorowski ordered his Warsaw
Warsaw
be-
Polish soldiers were evacuated from the Soviet Union to
units (40,000 men in all) to start fighting on August 1.
uprising
the
bound-
the Middle East.
As soon as Stalin learned of the uprising, he ordered
of
World
As early as November 1941 a small group of Polish
Rokossovsky to stop the offensive and let the Poles feel
Communists was parachuted into German-occupied Po-
their dependence on the actions of the Soviet army.
a
Polish
land, where they contacted a few members of the old
After 63 days of struggle, Komorowski had to surrender
1935
KPP (dissolved in March 1938); Władysław Gomułka
on October 2. The AK lost 10,200 men in combat and
con-
epublic.
Its
was one of them. In January 1942 the Communist Party
13,900 were missing. Of the 950,000 civilian popula-
Władys-
of Poland was revived in Warsaw under the name Polish
tion of Warsaw, about 700,000 were evacuated by the
moved
to
Workers' Party (Polska Partia Robotnicza, or PPR)
Germans and some 200,000 perished in the fighting.
in
June
which in May 1942 formed a nucleus of the People's
Immediately after surrender Hitler ordered the total
was
also
Army (AL).
destruction of the Polish capital. On January 17, 1945,
On April 13, 1943, the Germans announced the dis-
the Red Army "liberated" Warsaw's empty ruins.
in
Oc-
Katyn
covery in the Katyn Forest, on the upper Dnepr, of
The winter offensive of three Soviet army groups, in-
was
mass graves of Polish officers with their personal papers
cluding two Polish armies of five divisions each, lib-
Almost
in their pockets. The names published by the Germans
erated by March 1945 almost all the lands east of the
Mass
were those of Kozelsk inmates, and the latest entries
Oder-Neisse Line. In the meantime, at the Yalta Con-
out,
and
in their notebooks dated from April 1940. Two days
ference (February 4-11), Roosevelt and Churchill sac-
(Ausch-
later the Soviet government alleged that Polish prison-
rificed the legitimacy of the Polish government in exile
manize
the
ers of war, who in 1941 had been engaged in "construc-
in London to Stalin by consenting to the formation of
set-
tion work" west of Smolensk, had been executed by the
a Provisional Polish Government of National Unity,
mass
Germans. On April 17 the Polish government asked the
which should include the members of the Lublin ad-
to
accom-
eastern
International Committee of the Red Cross to examine
ministration as well as "other Polish democratic leaders
lands
in-
the situation on the spot. Eight days later the Soviet
from within Poland and from abroad."
govern-
government, accusing the Poles of "contact and accord
Formation of the People's Republic. On Dec. 31,
the
Polish
with Hitler," severed diplomatic relations with the Pol-
1944, the Lublin Committee was reorganized as a pro-
incor-
ish government in London for the second time.
visional government. On April 21 its chairman, Edward
During these fateful weeks Sikorski was in the Middle
Osóbka-Morawski, a left-wing Socialist, signed in Mos-
on
the
East inspecting the II Polish Army Corps under Anders.
cow a Polish-Soviet alliance treaty. The Polish Govern-
Returning to London, Sikorski was killed on July 4 in an
ment of National Unity was finally constituted in Mos-
drasti-
654 Poland, History of
cow on June 28, 1945. Among its 21 members there
procession of 50,000 persons demanded bread, freedom,
were only five newcomers, the most important being
free elections, and the departure of the Russians. This
Mikołajczyk, who became vice premier. The acting
revolt was quelled by force; more than 50 people were
president of the republic was Bierut. This government
killed and many wounded.
was transferred to Warsaw, and on July 5 the British
When the Central Committee met on October 19 to
and U.S. governments recognized it while withdrawing
elect a new Politburo, Khrushchev arrived in Warsaw
recognition from the government in London.
uninvited. At the same time Soviet divisions were march-
On August 2, 1945, at Potsdam, U.S. Pres. Harry S.
ing on Warsaw. Having elected Gomułka a member, the
Truman, the new British prime minister, Clement (later
Central Committee decided that the old Politburo-but
Lord) Attlee, and Stalin issued a declaration establish-
with Gomułka-would discuss Polish-Soviet relations
Poland's
ing a de facto western frontier of Poland along the
with Khrushchev. The meeting took place in the night
new
Oder-Neisse Line. Poland took over the administration
of October 19-20. Gomułka succeeded in convincing
frontiers
of lands held by the Germans to the east of that line,
Khrushchev that the PZPR Politburo wished to keep Po-
with the exception of the northern part of East Prussia
land within the Communist camp but as an equal mem-
with Königsberg (renamed Kaliningrad), which was in-
ber, and Khrushchev returned to Moscow. On October
corporated in the Soviet Union. Gdańsk was again a
21 a new Politburo was elected and Gomułka became
part of Poland. The Potsdam agreement authorized Po-
first secretary again. He promised to end the compulsory
land to transfer to the zones of Allied occupation about
collectivization of agriculture and to reduce the rigour
3,300,000 Germans (about 4,000,000 had fled westward
of press censorship. He also released Cardinal Wyszyński
earlier, dreading the advancing Soviet armies). On Au-
from confinement. In November Rokossovsky returned
gust 16, 1945, in Moscow, a Polish-Soviet treaty con-
to Moscow with 12 other Soviet officers.
firmed Poland's eastern frontier along the Curzon Line.
During his 14-year reign Gomułka abandoned the prin-
In the east Poland lost 179,460 square kilometres
ciple of collective leadership, becoming an authoritarian
(69,290 square miles) to the Soviet Union. In the west
martinet. He picked fresh quarrels with the Roman Cath-
it gained at Germany's expense 102,555 square kilo-
olic Church and imposed economic measures that the
metres (39,596 square miles).
workers resented as exploitative. To balance the invest-
The Bierut era. The sovietization of Poland was
ments expenditure for the years 1971-75, he announced
Stalin's constant aim, and Bierut was his obedient ser-
on December 12, 1970, considerable price increases on
vant. First, he postponed the general elections while the
46 items of basic foodstuffs, fuel, and clothing. Two days
Baltic
secret police, supervised by the Soviet Gen. Ivan V.
later workers from Gdańsk, Gdynia, and Szczecin ship-
riots
Serov, made mass arrests of prominent political and mili-
yards went on strike, and riots occurred. Gomułka used
tary leaders. Farms of more than 50 hectares (123.6
force against the "counterrevolution": at least 45 work-
acres) were expropriated and at a stroke the landed
ers were killed by militia and more than 1,100 workers
gentry was pauperized. All industrial establishments em-
and militiamen were injured.
ploying more than 50 workers were nationalized.
Ironically this bloody tragedy occurred shortly after
The PPR, PPS, and the Democratic Party were combined
a great success in the field of foreign policy. On De-
in the Democratic Bloc. As Mikołajczyk's PSL refused to
cember 7, 1970, Chancellor Willy Brandt of the Federal
join the bloc, Bierut started a ruthless intimidation cam-
Republic of Germany signed in Warsaw a treaty declar-
paign against its supporters. Nevertheless, at the general
ing that the existing German-Polish border along the
elections of January 19, 1947, the PSL received about
Oder-Neisse Line "forms the western state frontier of
84 percent of all votes; the "official" results, however,
Poland" (the German Democratic Republic had recog-
gave the Communist-controlled bloc 382 seats out of a
nized this reality in June 1950).
total of 444. The new Sejm elected Bierut president of
The Gierek era. On December 20, at a session of the
the republic, and Józef Cyrankiewicz, a pragmatic So-
Central Committee, Gomułka and his supporters were
cialist, became premier. Mikołajczyk, accused of being
ejected from the Politburo. Edward Gierek, the party
"an ally of foreign imperialists," fled to England in the
first secretary in the highly industrialized province of
autumn. In December 1948 the PPS was eliminated by
Katowice, assumed the party's leadership as first secre-
its compulsory merger with the PPR, and the Polish
tary of the Central Committee. Three days later Piotr
United Workers' Party (Polska Zjednoczona Partia
Jaroszewicz, a deputy premier from 1952, succeeded
Robotnicza, or PZPR) was born.
Cyrankiewicz as chairman of the Council of Ministers.
During 1948 Gomułka opposed the collectivization of
The new government started well. Gierek's decision to
agriculture in Poland, and in consequence he was dis-
rebuild the Warsaw Royal Castle, destroyed in 1944 on
missed from the party and the government and later
Hitler's order, roused the patriotic feelings of the nation.
(1951) arrested. Bierut, now both president and party
The West German Bundestag on May 17, 1972, ratified
leader, asked Marshal Michał Zymierski, a prewar Pol-
the Oder-Neisse treaty, and the Holy See soon afterward
ish officer, to resign as minister of defense and com-
adjusted the external borders of the new western and
mander in chief because Stalin wanted this post for
northern Polish bishoprics with the internationally rec-
Rokossovsky (who, as Konstanty Rokossowski, held it
ognized frontier. The years 1971-73 were the years of
from November 1949 till 1956).
Gierek's "specific economic manoeuvre." Assuming that
On July 22, 1952, the Sejm approved a Soviet-type
prosperity in the West would continue, he sought for-
constitution. The president of the republic was replaced
eign credits to buy plant for the long-overdue modern-
by a Council of State, and Bierut became premier. In
ization of Polish industry. Because wages in Poland were
September 1953 he ordered the internment of Cardinal
lower than in the West, and energy and raw materials
Stefan Wyszyński, Roman Catholic primate of Poland,
were abundant and cheaper, it seemed reasonable to ex-
who opposed the government's interference in church
pect a competitive edge for Polish exports in Western
affairs. Bierut abandoned the premiership in March
markets and repayment of the debts from hard currency
1954, and Cyrankiewicz returned to that post. In Feb-
profits. Unfortunately a severe recession that affected
ruary 1956 Bierut attended the 20th congress of the
the developed market economy in 1974 reduced the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union in Moscow, at
chances for success of Gierek's imaginative plan.
which N.S. Khrushchev denounced Stalin's crimes. This
Higher prices had become an economic necessity, but
speech fell on Bierut like a thunderbolt. He died on
when on June 24, 1976, Jaroszewicz announced in the
March 12 in Moscow.
Sejm increases averaging 60 percent on many staples,
The Gomulka era. On March 20 the PZPR Central
industrial workers went on strike. The protest move-
Protest
Committee elected as its first secretary Edward Ochab,
ment was so strong that the following day Jaroszewicz
strike
who, apparently immediately, and in conjunction with
told the nation on television that the bill was being with-
The
Cyrankiewicz, began to plan for the return of Gomułka.
drawn. There was no bloodbath similar to that of
Poznań
While they were still in the planning stage, an event of
December 1970, but the regime was shaken. Hundreds
general
historic significance overtook them on June 28: indus-
of protesters were summarily tried and sentenced to
strike
trial workers in Poznań started a general strike, and a
prison. A group of Polish intellectuals appealed to the
Polar Biomes 655
dom,
This
Sejm for clemency and for a free flow of information
to avert further such disasters.
THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
were
Pope John Paul II, former Cardinal Karol Wojtyła,
Fossil evidence indicates that in earlier geological ages
19 to
archbishop of Kraców, the first Polish and the first
many parts of the Arctic and Antarctic had temperate or
non-Italian pope since 1523, visited his native country
warmer climates favouring quite luxuriant tree growth.
arsaw
arch-
in June 1979. It was a triumph for him and for the Cath-
Over millions of years the change to relative barrenness
the
olic faithful of Poland, while the Communist government
has occurred probably both through variations in world
but
garnered some praise for civility and restraint. During
climate (the ice caps are no more than 4,500,000 years
the nine days of his visit the Pope spoke on 32 separate
tions
old) and through the drifting of landmasses poleward
occasions, sometimes to gatherings of more than a million
night
from lower latitudes. In any case the polar regions today
enthusiastic people.
(K.M.S.)
ncing
-especially the Antarctic-are characterized by ex-
Po-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The standard work for the political his-
tremely harsh climates. Precipitation is generally so low
nem-
tory of Poland until 1936 is The Cambridge History of Po-
-often only a few centimetres (a centimetre is about 0.4
tober
land, 2 vol. (1941-50). Contributions by leading Polish his-
inch) a year-in the highest latitudes that, coupled with
torians are included in ALEKSANDER GIEYSZTOR et al., History
the low temperatures and permanently frozen subsoil,
came
of Poland (1968), which covers events until 1939. For an
there prevails a desert-like barrenness. Nevertheless, the
Desert-
sory
evaluation of Polish history from the Catholic point of view,
availability of snow meltwater, often throughout the
like
gour
see OSKAR HALECKI, La Pologne de 963 a 1914 (1933; Eng.
vnski
trans., A History of Poland, rev. ed., 1960). Still absolutely
short growing season, and the long-lasting summer day-
barrenness
rned
necessary for the social sciences and the development of eco-
light favour some limited plant growth.
nomics in Poland is JAN RUTKOWSKI, Historia gospodarcza
The Arctic. The highest latitudes in the north are OC-
prin-
Polski, 2 vol. (1947-53). For a concise history of the de-
cupied by the Arctic Ocean, the farthest north land being
arian
velopment of Polish government, Historia ustroju Polski w
in Greenland and the Arctic Islands of Canada. To the
Cath-
zarysie by STANISLAW KUTRZEBA, completed by ADAM VETU-
south stretch islands or major landmasses, which in
the
LANI, 8th ed. (1949), is still basic. Polish church history is
many sectors of the northern polar cap extend into the
synthesized in Kościól W Polsce, 2 vol. (1968-69), written by
vest-
sub-Arctic and then temperate zones, thus affording more
a group of researchers of the Catholic University of Lublin
nced
or less continuous dispersal routes for plants and animals
under the editorship of JERZY KLOCZOWSKI. Important for the
S on
founding of the Polish state is WITOLD HENSEL, Polska przed
from the south. The Arctic Ocean is deep, but the surface
days
tysiącem lat, 3rd ed. (1967; Eng. trans., The Beginnings of
is largely covered by floating ice. The land area is com-
Baltic
ship-
the Polish State, 1960). The following monographs in West-
monly rugged, with widespread mountain ranges and
riots
used
ern languages are currently available: JEAN FABRE, Stanislas-
glaciers descending to the sea-especially in Greenland,
ork-
Auguste Poniatowski et l'Europe des lumières (1952); R.H.
occupied by the world's second-largest ice cap (see ARC-
kers
LORD, The Second Partition of Poland (1915); MARIAN KU-
TIC ISLANDS; ARCTIC OCEAN).
KIEL, Czartoryski and European Unity, 1770-1861 (1955);
The Antarctic. The highest latitudes in the south are
R.F. LESLIE, Polish Politics and the Revolution of November
after
occupied by the continent of Antarctica, which is largely
1830 (1956) and Reform and Insurrection in Russian Poland,
De-
1856-1865 (1963); HANS ROOS, Geschichte der polnischen
covered under the world's greatest ice cap. Only on pro-
leral
Nation (1961; Eng. trans., A History of Modern Poland,
jecting mountains (nunataks) and limited ice-free tracts
clar-
1966); M.K. DZIEWANOWSKI, Poland in the Twentieth Century
near the shores can land plants grow. The continent is far
the
(1977); J.K. ZAWODNY, Death in the Forest: The Story of
more isolated than is any Arctic land, being fully 800
r of
the Katyn Forest Massacre (1962) and Nothing But Honour:
kilometres (500 miles) from the nearest continental land-
cog-
The Story of the Warsaw Uprising, 1944 (1978); NORMAN
mass, though scattered and usually small sub-Antarctic
DAVIES, White Eagle, Red Star: The Polish-Soviet War, 1919-
islands exist and very probably act as "stepping stones"
the
20 (1972); J.B. DE WEYDENTHAL, The Communists of Poland
for some limited plant and animal dispersal. Neverthe-
(1978). Outstanding on the subject of the founding of the
vere
less, for practical purposes the Antarctic is isolated by
Second Republic is TITUS KOMARNICKI, Rebirth of the Polish
arty
Republic (1957).
formidable sea barriers that have made it extremely diffi-
of
cult for colonization by plants and animals since the last
(Ha.Ro./K.M.S.)
cre-
glacial period (see ANTARCTICA).
iotr
Polar Biomes
THE BIOTIC COMPONENT
ded
The polar regions comprise the Arctic, in the north, and
S.
Arctic and Antarctic plants and animals are extremely
the Antarctic, in the south, and although these two are
to
well adapted to their harsh and inhospitable environ-
often confused they are indeed poles apart as regards
on
ments. The form of adaptation is often similar in both
their animal and plant associations, or biomes. The few
ion.
polar regions, but rather few species are common to
fied
similarities that exist result chiefly from coldness, wide-
the two. While their terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems
ard
spread aridity, and level of latitudes. (Because of the
(ecological communities considered as a unit together
and
latitude, day and night practically divide the year in both
with the nonliving factors of their environment) are
Richness
the Arctic and Antarctic: the sun is continuously above
rec-
widely different, the far more prolific marine ecosystems
of life
of
the horizon in summer and below it in winter.) Even the
are comparable; indeed in both the Arctic and the Ant-
in polar
that
criterion of coldness is elicited mainly in contrast with
arctic, it is chiefly in the seas that life abounds.
seas
for-
more hospitable regions, for in the Arctic there is prob-
Vegetation. Polar food cycles, from plant producers
ably no lowland area that does not enjoy for at least
through various animal consumers, are relatively simple,
one month in each year a mean temperature appreciably
ere
with few organisms linked together. Unfavourable cli-
ials
above the freezing point, while in the Antarctic only the
matic and soil conditions combine to limit severely plant
offshore islands and the coast of Graham Land on the
ex-
growth in the Antarctic. But in the Arctic, vegetation is
lound-
Antarctic Peninsula are favoured with this warming.
ern
often fairly luxuriant in the southern tundra ranges,
ncy
its
Because the arbitrary latitudinal Arctic and Antarctic
and its component plants are very diverse-as also are
of
ted
circles have no meaning as natural boundaries for plants
the dependent animal species. Of Arctic flowering plants
polar
the
ions
and animals, biologists regard the polar regions in gen-
and ferns, about 1,000 different species are known from
eral as lying poleward of the limits of tree growth. One
regions north of the tree line. Some of these are con-
but
generally recognized natural boundary of the Antarctic is
fined to the Arctic, but the vast majority range far south-
the
the Antarctic Convergence-a delimitation in the sea,
ward-especially on mountains, in characteristic Arctic-
where cold surface-water layers spreading northward
les,
Alpine distribution. The more primitive "lower" plants
Protest
from the Antarctic continent meet with and sink below
ve-
are less known but probably include almost as many
icz
strike
warmer mixed sub-Antarctic waters. This boundary em-
species of mosses as of vascular plants and some 300
th-
braces to its south some of the sub-Antarctic islands,
species of liverworts. Lichens are probably at least as
of
such as Heard Island and South Georgia.
numerous as the mosses, and the fungi are surely far
eds
In this article, biomes are taken to be more or less
more so, fully 850 species of fungi having been recorded
to
climax formations of plants and animals-apart from
from Greenland alone. Arctic algae are very numerous
the
recent introductions and other disturbances caused by
-probably more than 2,000 different species. a consider-
man-considered together and comprising the biota.
able number of which are limited to the Arctic Ocean. The
Kos US ko
Kościuszko
Kościuszko
be-
tolerable, however, he joined the Liberal Re-
of the small gentry, was a notary and cultivated
lecided
publican movement in 1872 and supported,
part of the estate of Count Flemming. An aged
life
though reluctantly, Horace Greeley. Again in
uncle taught the youthful Kościuszko drawing,
lership
1876 he asserted his political independence as
mathematics, and French. Alone he read Plu-
17,
well as his steadfast devotion to the principles
tarch and became enamored of the heroes of an-
Engel-
of the liberal movement by advocating the can-
tiquity. In his thirteenth year his father died
to
the
didacy of Samuel Tilden against Hayes. Dis-
and he was sent to the Jesuit College at Breesc;
appointed by the course of events following the
there he remained until he entered the Royal
and
election of 1876, he retired from his former active
School at Warsaw in 1765. Four years later he
course
participation in politics and devoted the remain-
graduated with the rank of captain and received
Ky.
ing years of his life almost exclusively to literary
a scholarship to France where, at Mézières, he
work. It was then that he wrote his valuable
studied engineering and artillery. Returning to
but
historical study entitled Das Deutsche Element
Poland in 1774, he found few opportunities for
in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika
his talents; and after an unfortunate love affair
paigns
(1880). A keen observer of men, a profound
with Ludvika Sosnowska, in the course of which
ointed
and sympathetic student of American institu-
he almost lost his life at the hands of her father's
which
tions, politics, and life in general, and a man of
retainers, he returned to Paris. There the an-
calm judgment, he was exceptionally qualified
nouncement of the American Revolution stirred
state
to write the history of one of the great con-
his imagination: he borrowed money and came
preme
stituent parts of the composite American popu-
to America. He arrived in Philadelphia in Au-
of
lation during a period the greater part of which
gust 1776 and applied to various committees
the
he had followed as an eye witness. His object
for appointment to service. The Pennsylvania
inated
was "to show how strongly and to what extent
Committee of Defense employed him, with Payne
he
the arrival of the Germans in large numbers
and De Lisle, to draw up plans for fortifying
since 1818 had influenced this country politically
the Delaware River. The success of this work
lavery
and socially." He was one of the first thus to
gained him a commission as colonel of engineers
recognize the importance of the ethnic problem
in the Continental Army (Oct. 18, 1776). In
of
the
in American historiography.
the spring of 1777 he joined the Northern Army
he
While it may be regretted that Körner did not
under General Gates at Ticonderoga, where he
blican
include the German immigration of 1848 and the
advised the fortification of Mount Defiance. The
his
subsequent years in his history, the omission is
failure to fortify this hill and its occupation by
he
partly compensated for by his autobiography
Burgoyne lost Ticonderoga to the Americans.
the
which he finished shortly before his death. Al-
Kościuszko's choice of battlefields and his erec-
aham
though these reminiscences were written at the
tion of fortifications contributed greatly to the
law
suggestion of his children and, therefore, record
brilliant victory of the American forces over
many matters pertaining to his immediate family,
Burgoyne at Saratoga. In the spring of 1778 he
ecog-
they unfold at the same time a fascinating pic-
was placed in charge of the building of fortifica-
had
ture of the cultural and political life of the nation
tions at West Point, where he remained from
of
and the important part which the German ele-
March 1778 to June 1780. During his residence
him
ment played in it during the nineteenth century.
at West Point he formed an intimate friendship
His
[The chief source of information is Körner's auto-
with Gates, and when the latter became com-
biography published under the title, Memoirs of Gustave
mander in the South, he asked to have Kościuszko
a
Koerner, 1809-1896: Life Sketches Written at the
accompany him as chief of engineers. Before
to
Suggestion of His Children (1909), ed. by Thomas J.
McCormack. H. A. Rattermann's German biography,
Kościuszko could join the army, however, Gates,
with
Gustav Körner, Deutsch-Amerikanischer Jurist, Staatz-
following the battle of Camden, was removed
with
mann, Diplomat und Geschichtschreiber (1902), is based
essentially upon Körner's "Memoirs," the manuscript
and was replaced by Nathanael Greene [q.v.].
of which was placed at the author's disposal by the
During the winter of 1780-81 Kościuszko ex-
family. Other sources include: J. M. Palmer, Bench
pain
and Bar of Ill. (1899), vol. I; Newton Bateman and
plored the Catawba River. During Greene's
others, Hist. Encyc. of Ill. and Hist. of St. Clair Coun-
masterly retreat before Lord Cornwallis in the
he
ty (1907), vol. I; St. Louis Globe-Democrat, Apr. IO,
campaign of 1781 Kościuszko was in charge of
the
1896.]
J.G.
transportation. During the winter of 1782 he
thnic
KOŚCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ ANDRZEJ
was stationed near Charleston, S. C., where he
BONAWENTURA (Feb. 12, 1746-Oct. 15,
was more conspicuous as an officer of cavalry
took
1817), Revolutionary soldier and Polish patriot,
than as an engineer. He was among the first of
was born in the Palatinate of Breesc in the Grand
the Continentals to enter Charleston after its
Duchy of Lithuania (now Palatinate of Polesie,
evacuation by the British. He returned north
in-
Poland). His father, an impoverished member
with Greene in the spring of 1783 and at New-
497
Koyl
KoyL
burgh, N. Y., was one of. the founders of the
instructor in physics and efectrical engineering
Society of the Cincinnati. On Oct. 13, 1783,
at Swarthmore College. City June 5, 1888, he
Congress made him a brigadier-general.
patented a parabolic semanhare for use in rail-
In July 1784 he left New York for Paris and
way signaling, and the following year was award-
from there went to Poland. After four years of
ed the John Scott Legacy Visdal of the Franklin
rural retirement, in October 1789 he became
Institute for this invention- In 1890 he began
major-general of the Polish army. During the
the practice of engineering in New York City.
spring of 1792 he led his tiny army in its brave
During this period he was 505 some time presi-
resistance against the Russians; when the King
dent of the National Switch ST, Signal Company,
succumbed to Russian intrigue, Kościuszko re-
as well as the National [-ying Company. In
signed his commission and determined to return
1895-96 he was scientific assistant to the com-
to America. He went to France but in March
missioner of street cleaning of New York City,
1794 returned to Poland to lead the famous rising.
and in this capacity did notaible work, becoming
After several brilliant successes he became dicta-
an authority upon the disposal of municipal
tor, promulgated a series of liberal reforms, but
wastes.
at last, in October 1794, was defeated and cap-
While at Johns Hopkins be had become in-
tured by the Russians in the battle of Macie-
terested in municipal water treatment and he
jowice. After two years of captivity he was re-
later became a pioneer in the treatment of indus-
leased by Czar Paul I and in August 1797 he
trial water supplies. In 1950 he was engaged by
and several companions reached Philadelphia.
the Great Northern Railroad 25 engineer of water
Congress appropriated over fifteen thousand dol-
service to lessen, if possible, the cost to the road
lars which was due him and made him a land
of procuring non-alkaline water for use in the
grant of five hundred acres in Ohio. While in
locomotive boilers. He was "xtraordinarily suc-
America he visited Gates, Gen. Anthony W.
cessful in this undertaking and developed many
White, and Jefferson. The traditional friend-
ingenious schemes for softening water. Through
ship between Washington and Kościuszko has
his efforts he was able to effect a further saving
no historical foundation; their infrequent rela-
of about $4000 per locomotive per year, by sys-
tions were very formal. In May 1798 he secret-
tematic removal of injuries matter from the
ly left America and returned to France. In 1800
water before it was put into the boilers.
at the request of Gen. William R. Davie he wrote
This work continued to interest Koyl and in
in French his Manoeuvres of Horse Artillery, a
1920 he became engineer of water service for the
translation of which was published in New York
Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul Railroad. His
in 1808. He continued his brave but futile ef-
activities involved not only consideration of the
forts for Polish freedom until his death in Swit-
location and design of suitable water-supply and
zerland in 1817. The funds arising from the sale
treatment plants, but also the important feature
of his Ohio lands were used to found the Colored
of intensive education and check of employees
School at Newark, N. J., one of the first educa-
in the proper handling of the work. Here again
tional institutions for negroes in America.
he was remarkably successful, and he continued
[Memorial Exhibition Thaddeus Kościuszko (1927),
his association with this railroad for the remain-
catalogue of the memorial exhibition at the Anderson
der of his life. He was a frequent contributor
Galleries, New York, containing unpublished letters,
introduction, etc.; Monica M. Gardner, Kościuszko
to technical journals on subjects in his special
(London, 1920) C. A. Manning, "Kościuszko et les
fields, among his notable papers being the fol-
États-Unis,' in Le Monde Slave (Paris, Nov. 1925)
J. Michelet, La Pologne Martyr (Paris, 1863) Karl
lowing: "Municipal Refuse Disposal," a letter
Falkenstein, Thaddäus Kościuszko (ed. of 1834) S.
discussing a paper by J. T. Fetherston (Trans-
Kunasiewicz, T. Kościuszko w Ameryce (Lwow, 1876).]
actions of the American Society of Civil Engi-
F.M-n.
neers, vol. LX, 1908) ; "Provention of Pitting
KOYL, CHARLES HERSCHEL (Aug. 14,
in Locomotive Boilers by Exclusion of Dissolved
I855-Dec. 18, 1931), civil engineer, was born
Oxygen from Feedwater" (Journal of the Ameri-
in Amherstburg, Ontario, the son of Rev.
can Water Works Association, August 1929)
Ephraim Lillie and Frances (Culp) Koyl. His
"The Preparation of Water for Railroad Use"
early life was spent in Ontario, and in 1877 he
(Ibid., July 1930).
graduated from Victoria College, Coburg. He
Koyl was married at Washington, D. C., Nov.
continued his education at Johns Hopkins Uni-
6, 1885, to Georgiana Thatcher Washburn. Af-
versity, where, after two years' study, he was
ter her death, he married Adele T. Sanford, Apr.
made a fellow in physics. After teaching mathe-
27, 1901. He died at Evanston, Ill.
matics and physics at various places in the
[Who's Who in Engineerims, 1031; Who's Who in
United States and Canada, in 1887 he became
America, 1928-29; Jour. of the Franklin Inst., Jan.,
498
DR. Rice
BOBBLACKWELL
395.5112
3912
NSC redraft: 4/4/89
ENDING THE DIVISION OF EUROPE
Draft Presidential Speech
DETROIT
In my inaugural address I spoke of the new breeze of freedom
gaining strength around the world. "In man's heart,' I said, "if
not in fact, the day of the dictator is over. The totalitarian
era is passing, its old ideas blown away like leaves from an
ancient lifeless tree."
I spoke of the spreading recognition of the free market, and
the creative genius of the individual, as the true sources of
DEMOCRATIC IDEA/
prosperity. I spoke of the power of the idea of democracy -- of
free speech, free elections, and the exercise of free will X
unhampered by the state.
A Movement of Opportunity for Europe
8
her
the
of denocracy
offrewiden
We should not be surprised that those ideas have new
relevance today in Europe toDay that continent so central to
force
the nomeland of Philosopher's hadno,
whose iDeAS have FOUND such In American 660
history, the world's history, and the history of those very
ideas.
An INAUSION of ARMIES canbe RESISTED,
ViCTOR Hugo" but not An IDEA whose time has come.
Bhild
Liberty and democracy are ideas whose time has come to
Eastern Europe.
Amost half is century 2 and
For over 40 years the suppression of freedom in Eastern
baster STET
Europe, sustained by the preponderant military power of the
Soviet Union, has truelly and artificially divided the continent
REND APPRT NATION from nation, neighlor from nerpor, 1
This art. dunion isa source 56
brothnioth
The result has been continual confrontation and tension, for
American
Europe, for our country, and for the world. As East and West
from wother sow
we MUST run
today seek to reduce arms, they cannot forget that the true
to he Founs in weapons
source of danger is not the arms, which are just the symptom, but
the imposition of an alien political system in Eastern and
Central Europe sustained by force and intimidation.
How can there be stability and security in Europe so long as
nations and peoples are denied the right to determine their Alline
future -- a right explicitly promised them by the agreements
among the victorious powers at the end of World War II? How can
OF
there be stability and security in Europe so long as nations that
which one RANKED away this
are
used to be leading industrial powers ) are continually impoverished
by a discredited ideology and stifling dictatorship? How can
there be stability and security in Europe so long as the gap
between the two halves -- political, economic, technological,
moral -- is growing?
Today, the winds of change are sweeping across the entire
continent -- a resurgence of Western Europe and its institutions
the
of unity; a reawakening of yearnings in Eastern Europe for
democracy, independence, and economic progress. Soviet policy,
3
to he fully
too, shows signs of change, though these have not yet been
finally tested.
East and West are negotiating on a broad range of issues,
from arms reduction to the environment. But the Cold War began
in Eastern Europe; if it is to end, it must end in Eastern
Europe.
Thirty-six years ago, President Eisenhower spoke [addressed
justafter
this same forum] at a similar moment of opportunity, Stalin
had
just
P.E.Sand
P.E.
"Now a new leadership has assumed power in the Soviet
Union [he said]. Its links to the past, however
strong, cannot bind it completely. Its future is, in
great part, its own to make.
...
Recent statements and
gestures of Soviet leaders give some evidence that they
recognize this critical moment.
"We welcome every honest act of peace.
"We care nothing for mere rhetoric.
"We are only for sincerity of peaceful purpose attested
by deeds."
That momit
4
The opportunity then proved short-lived. But our hope
opportun 159
remains, and the moment beckons again.
Poland and United States Policy
The United States has never accepted the legitimacy of
Europe's division. We accept no spheres of influence denying
nations their sovereign rights.
The American people want to see East and Central Europe free
they
and prosperous, and at peace. Prudently and realistically we
have sought to promote an evolution in this direction, pursuing
the opportunities afforded by the Helsinki accords and the
deepening process of East-West interchange they began.
In recent years, we have developed relations with each
country in the region on a step-by-step basis, at whatever pace
that country could accept. We looked for progress in its
international posture and internal practices -- in human rights,
cultural openness literalty consular and emigration issues, control of
narcotics trafficking, opposition to terrorism, and other areas
of concern to us.
Now some regimes area are testing the limits of the new
Soviet tolerance and seeking to win popular legitimacy through
reforms. In Hungary, a new leadership is experimenting with
5
reforms that may permit a political pluralism that only a few
years ago would have been unthinkable. And in Poland, on April
, Solidarity leader Lech Walesa and Interior Minister Kiszczak
signed agreements that, if honestly implemented, will be a
watershed in the postwar history of Eastern Europe.
Seven years ago, millions of Americans lit candles in
support of Poland's freedom, in the hope that the darkness of PolanD's long
repression would some day be lifted and that Solidarity would
resume its rightful place in Polish life.
According to the Roundtable agreements, among the many steps
to be taken, the free trade union Solidarity will be formally
restored, a free opposition press will be legalized, independent
political and other free associations will be permitted, and
elections for a new Polish Senate will be held. MOLD
A MODERN FRENCH WRITER ONCE obsened that
com is not Another Form of eco, It is the death
Poland faces, and will continue to face for some time,
of eas. of
In Polorad
severe economic problems. Decades of structural distortion and
institutionalized inefficiency -- the inevitable product of a
Communist system -- have taken a terrible toll on Poland's well-
nond mon
being. Economic recovery will be slow and verying difficult.
There must be economic reforms that undo the structural
distortions and give free rein to the enterprising implire and creative
spirit of the Polish people. This will not be painless. But
6
which
Poland's new political reforms, making is the people a partner, will
make economic recovery possible. To gain the support of Polish
society, economic reforms cannot be promulgated by diktat; they
must be developed cooperatively, utilizing to the full the
greater degree of democracy established by the Roundtable
agreements. Patience and sacrifice will be necessary. There are
no guarantees or easy successes.
The Polish people understand the magnitude of the challenge.
(SUPPORTOF the Ano
Democratic forces in Poland have asked for the West sthelp.
H.
the West will RESPOND,
believe the West should respond.
my As has
(AMA
We have just completed, in the National Security Council, a
ies
thorough review of our policy toward Eastern Europe, and Poland
in particular.
NOT ACT unconditionally
I have carefully considered ways we could help, and pitfalls
to be avoided. We will not repeat the mistakes of the 1970's by
throwing money at a problem, or rewarding mere promises rather
fallow a CONDITIONS To our)
than actions. We will not take uncondi ional steps, offer untied
w/orting
MUST
aid, or extend unsound credits. We have to remember that, even
as Poland takes steps of political reform, it is still a member
of the Warsaw Pact and we will take no steps that compromise our
Amounthe
security of the West,
Fore
CANAMO MUST ANSWER the 7 CALL to Freedom
But we can and should respond. The Congress, the Polish-
American community, U.S. labor leaders, the American people, and
MUST
MUS
our allies and the international financial institutions, should
in CONCERT
IF democrancy is take root oner time,
work together to support democracy in Poland as political, and
economic reforms take root over time.
0.00
The Poles are taking concrete steps that deserve support. I
have decided on some specific steps, carefully chosen to
recognize reforms underway and to encourage the reforms yet to
come:
00
-- As Polish society opens up, the United States will pursue
imaginative exchange, educations, cultural, and training
programs to reach out and support the emerging private
sector.
The Administration will encourage business and private non-
profit groups to put together creative programs to swap
Polish debt for investment equity and for charitable,
humanitarian, and environmental projects.
We will (offer to begin negotiations for a private business
propose
--
agreement with Poland, intended to facilitate cooperation
between U.S. firms and Poland's private businesses. Both
sides could benefit.
8
When Solidarity is legal again, I will ask Congress for
legislation to provide Poland access to our Generalized
System of Preferences (GSP), which eliminates tariffs on
some products from developing countries.
We will seek legislation to authorize the Overseas Private
Investment Corporation (OPIC) to operate in Poland. OPIC
can benefit both Poland and U.S. investors.
The United States will continue to consider, on their
merits, supporting viable private sector loans by the
International Finance Corporation, a World Bank affiliate.
We will work with our allies and friends to develop
sustainable new schedules for Poland to repay its debts.
The US believes that
clear the way for
yes X the Roundtable accords are implemented, Poland will be
on astand byarangement.
able to work with the International Monetary Fund and the
to develop
a
that will support sound, new, market - criented economic policies
program
World Bank on programs that support sound, new, market-
oriented economic policies
Hisesp. gratifying fon me to interns
the
the changes tahin place in Blood
For me, this new development brings special gratification.
When I visited Poland in September 1987, I told Chairman
Jaruzelski and Lech Walesa that the American people and
government would respond quickly and imaginatively to a
9
significant internal reform of the kind we see now. Both sides
valued that assurance. And I will keep my word.
If Poland's experiment succeeds, other countries may follow.
While the countries of Eastern Europe differ, and we must still
the nations of EE offers Z
all
differentiate among them, Poland holds a. lesson 5 for others one,
Fml
There will be no internal progress without significant political
They Scront
and economic liberalization the West will provide help in step
with such steps of liberalization Our European allies share
va philo stranding
this philosophy.
Ending Europe's Division
This is a moment for America to renew its historic
commitment to seek-an end the division of Europe. Such a goal
will require not simply arms reductions -- though we will pursue
these with all our energy. It will require a major step forward
in the political relations between East and West, the political
MOTIVATE
conditions that underlie the military deployments.
most
The West need 15 no longer hesitate to describe its vision of
esp.
that DIVIDE
Europe's future: We see the elimination of all barriers to free
the viatorious
movement of people, goods, and ideas -- most notoriously the
the
Berlin Wall but all the barriers along the dividing line. We
see East European peoples free to choose their system of
government and to vote for the party of their choice in regular,
10
contested elections. We see East European countries free to
choose their own peaceful course in the world, including ties
with Western Europe. We see an Eastern Europe in which the
Soviet Union has definitively and authoritatively renounced all
right to intervene militarily and all excuses for doing so -- a
convincing repudiation of the Brezhnev Doctrine. [ LET thE S.U,
four left the cim specte of fear, fear of asolher Budapist,
Dear of authar Progre-Fano OTHER
The Soviet Union can be assured, in turn, that a free, party?
democratic Eastern Europe as we envision it would threaten no (one)
and no country. Such an evolution would imply, and reinforce,
the further improvement of East-West relations in all dimensions
-- arms reductions, political relations, trade -- in ways that
enhance the safety and well-being of all of Europe. There is no
other way.
Soviet leaders talk of a "Common European Home," suggesting
a new approach to European security. But they frequently say it
must be built on "existing realities." That's the catch. The
denial of self-determination and democracy in Eastern Europe is
an "existing reality" that we cannot accept and that offers no
hope for peace, security, and cooperation in Europe. Nor is it
consistent with the letter and spirit of the Helsinki accords or
the United Nations Charter.
Next month, at a Summit of the North Atlantic Alliance, the
leaders of the Western democracies will discuss these issues.
11
They are not a bilateral matter between the United States and the
Soviet Union -- though there will be occasions for us to raise
our concerns with the Soviets. They are, rather, the concern of
a
all the Western allies, calling for common approaches. But it is
high time we put these issues at the top of our common agenda,
lest a lack of vision fritter away a historic opportunity and
allow others -- dangerously to shape Europe's future according
more omious
to a very different vision.
We may be at a turning point in Europe's postwar history --
but we will see our vision realized only if we have the
discipline and courage to do what have is right. It is the unity and
This opens
strength of the democracies that brought us to this point; this
is not the moment to relax those policies.
)
We must maintain and modernize our forces, while we pursue
arms reduction. We must wield our economic and technological
assets in the service of our political objectives, not squander
them in a way that lets our adversaries evade their hard choices.
There is so much to be gained. If we are wise, and strong,
and united, we can be the generation that made Europe free.
Thank you.
NSC redraft, 4/4/89
SUPPORTING DEMOCRACY IN POLAND
Draft Presidential Statement
Seven years ago, Americans lit candles in support of
Poland's freedom, in the hope that the darkness of repression
would some day be lifted and that Solidarity would resume its
rightful place in Polish life.
This week, Poland took a great stride forward. In Warsaw,
Solidarity leader Lech Walesa and Interior Minister Kiszczak
signed agreements that, if honestly implemented, will be a
watershed in the postwar history of Eastern Europe.
According to the Roundtable agreements, among the many steps
to be taken, the free trade union Solidarity will be formally
restored, a free opposition press will be legalized, independent
political and other free associations will be permitted, and free
national elections for a new Polish senate will be held.
These agreements do not bring full democracy. But the
degree of pluralism and of freedom that they institutionalize
will take Poland far from totalitarianism.
The Roundtable agreements are inspiring testimony to the
indomitable spirit of the Polish people; to the strength and
wisdom of Lech Walesa and Solidarity; to the spiritual guidance
of the Catholic Church; and to the realism of the Polish
authorities.
2
Poland has started on an uphill road of peaceful change. It
represents a historic opportunity, but major challenges remain.
The legacy of mistrust and bad faith cannot be erased
overnight. Many are skeptical about whether the Polish
authorities will keep their word as people begin to test their
new freedoms to the full. So, steps toward democracy must be
taken and not reversed. Agreements must be implemented.
Disputes must be worked out fairly.
Second, Poland faces, and will continue to face for some
time, severe economic problems. Structural reforms are needed to
undo the institutionalized waste and mismanagement that are the
product of the Communist system, and to give free rein to the
enterprising and creative spirit of the Polish people. Patience
and indeed sacrifice will be necessary in the short run if the
benefits of freedom are to be fully realized. That is why the
political reforms -- making the Polish people partners -- are so
important. But there are no guarantees and there will be no easy
successes.
The Polish people understand the magnitude of the challenge.
Poland's democratic forces have asked for the West's help. While
they pursue democratization and economic reform, their friends
should stand with them, not just in words, but in actions.
The United States Government has just completed a thorough
review, in the National Security Council, of our policy toward
Eastern Europe, and Poland in particular. I have considered ways
we could help, and pitfalls to be avoided. We will not repeat
3
the mistakes of the 1970's by throwing money at a problem, or
rewarding promises rather than actions. We will not take
unconditional steps, offer untied aid, or extend unsound credits.
And even as Poland takes steps of political reform, it is still a
member of the Warsaw Pact, and we will take no steps that
compromise our security.
But we can and should respond now. The Congress, the
Polish-American community, U.S. labor leaders, the American
people, and our allies and international financial institutions
should work together to support the cause of democracy in Poland
as political and economic reforms take root over time.
Specifically:
-- As Poland opens up, the United States will pursue
imaginative exchange, educational, cultural, and training
programs to reach out and support the emerging private
sector.
--
My administration will encourage business and private non-
profit groups to put together creative programs to swap
Polish debt for investment equity and for charitable,
humanitarian, and environmental projects.
-- We will offer to begin negotiations for a private business
agreement with Poland, to facilitate cooperation between
U.S. firms and Poland's private businesses.
-- When Solidarity is legal again, I will ask Congress for
legislation to provide Poland access to our Generalized
4
System of Preferences (GSP), which eliminates tariffs on
products from developing countries.
-- I will seek legislation to authorize the Overseas Private
Investment Corporation (OPIC) to operate in Poland. OPIC
can benefit both Poland and U.S. investors.
-- The United States will continue to consider, on their
merits, viable private sector loans by the International
Finance Corporation, a World Bank affiliate.
-- We will work with our allies and friends to develop
sustainable new schedules for Poland to repay its debts.
[-- As the Roundtable accords are implemented, Poland will be
able to work with the International Monetary Fund and the
World Bank on programs that support sound, new, market-
oriented economic policies.]
For me, this development brings special gratification. When
I visited Poland in September 1987, I told Chairman Jaruzelski
and Lech Walesa that the American people and government would
respond quickly and imaginatively to a significant internal
reform of the kind we see now. Both sides valued that assurance.
And I will keep my word.
We recall the words of the Polish fighters for independence:
"For your freedom and ours." We know that Poland's struggle for
democracy is our struggle too. If Poland's experiment succeeds,
other countries may follow. A cornerstone for true, sustainable,
and democratic stability in Europe will have been laid.
5
America today renews its historic commitment to see the
division of Europe ended. The winds of change are sweeping
across Europe -- a resurgence of Western Europe and its
institutions of unity; a reawakening of yearnings in Eastern
Europe for freedom, democracy, independence, and prosperity.
Soviet policy, too, shows signs of change, though these have not
yet been finally tested. As East and West seek to reduce arms
and the danger of war, they cannot forget that the true source of
tension and instability in Europe is not the arms but the
continuing, cruel, and unacceptable division of the continent
imposed by Soviet power.
The Cold War began in Eastern Europe; if it is to end, it
must end there as well.
While all the countries of that region differ, they all
deserve better than the dead hand of a discredited system imposed
upon them. Perhaps Poland will mark a new beginning for all of
Eastern Europe. The American people surely hope so, and will
engage constructively, creatively, and generously toward that
end.
Associated Press
President Bush greeting the crowd from the steps of City Hall in Ham-
tramck, Mich. Applauding was Edmund Cardinal Szoka of Detroit.
Bush Unveils Aid Plan for Poland
Linked to Recent Liberalization
By BERNARD WEINRAUB
Special to The New York Times
HAMTRAMCK, Mich., April 17 -
Poland, which is burdened by $39 bil-
Declaring that "the winds of change
lion in foreign debt, included these
are shaping a new European destiny,"
measures:
President Bush today announced an
9Elimination of tariffs on selected
economic aid program for Poland that
Polish imports through the General-
acknowledges Warsaw's recent agree-
ized System of Preferences, a move
ment to allow free elections.
that is subject to Congressional ap-
In a speech intended to link a modest
proval. This system of preferential tar-
package of American economic bene-
iffs is traditionally used by the United
fits to political change not only in Po-
States to assist less developed nations.
land but throughout Eastern Europe,
9A program of American guaran-
Mr. Bush said the "stirrings" toward
teed loans through the Overseas Pri-
open political expression in the Soviet
vate Investment Corporation, also sub-
bloc were viewed by the United States
ject to Congressional approval, to
"with prudence, realism and pa-
stimulate private investment in Po-
tience." [Excerpts, page A12.]
land. The corporation is intended to
"If Poland's experiment succeeds,
stimulate private enterprise abroad
other countries may follow," Mr. Bush
through United States Government
told an enthusiastic audience of thou-
sands that crammed the rain-soaked
Continued on Page A12, Column 1
streets outside the City Hall of this
largely Polish-American community,
which is surrounded by Detroit.
Polish Accord 'a Watershed'
He cited as "a watershed in the post-
war history of Eastern Europe" the
agreement this month calling for the
first free and open elections in Poland
since World War II and providing for
the Solidarity trade union to regain
legal status.
As the measures were announced, a
Warsaw court offically restored the
union's legal status in fulfillment of the
agreement between the Government
and union leaders, (Page A12.1
The President provided few specific
figures in his speech. But the eight-
point economic package he outlined for
Bush Unveils Program of Economic Aid to Poland
Continued From Page Al
The accord on
to applause from the flag-waving
crowd after he said, in Polish, "Nieck
free elections and
zyje Polska Let Poland live.
guarantees of investments and credits.
During his visit to Hamtramck (pro-
9An initiative by the Commerce De-
nounced ham-TRAM-ick), he had lunch
partment, the Small Business Adminis-
Solidarity's
with Polish-American community
tration and American business organi-
leaders. The menu included dill pickle
zations to expand the role of American
status is cited.
soup, veal cutlet, stuffed cabbage, kiel-
companies in Poland's relatively small
basa and kapusta pierogi (dumplings),
nalesniki (blintzes), walnut torte, Pol-
private sector.
ish vodka and coffee.
9Efforts by the Administration to
age hinged on, among other things, the
explore new exchanges, training and
ability of Polish officials to reach an
educational programs to support the
agreement with the I.M.F. that would
private sector in Poland.
"Improve their economic performance
Solidarity Is Hopeful
9A call for debt-for-equity trades
to get loans." Asked if this meant more
Special to The New York Times
under which American investors, in-
capitalist ventures, Mr. Scowcroft nod-
WARSAW, April 17 - Asked about
cluding commercial banks, would pur-
ded in agreement."
the proposals put forward by President
chase a portion of an outstanding Pol-
Marlin Fitzwater, the White House
Bush, Bronislaw Geremek, a Solidarity
spokesman, said that in the aftermath
adviser, said today, "We are waiting
ish bank debt, usually at a discount.
of the Polish agreement, Mr. Bush was
for this speech with hope, because we
9Collaboration with the "Paris
considering a trip to Poland, but he
think the changes in Poland, this demo-
club," a group of major industrialized
said there were no plans yet.
cratic change, should be helped by a
nations, "to develop sustainable new
Bush Visited In 1987
clever, intelligent Western economic
schedules for Poland to repay its debt,
policy."
easing a heavy burden so that a free
Mr. Bush recalled that he visited Po-
Such help should include relief for
market can grow." Of its $39 billion
land as Vice President in September
Poland's foreign debt burden, he said,
debt, Poland owes $26 billion to West-
1987. "I told Chairman Jaruzelski and
as well as an "intelligent policy" of in-
ern industrialized nations and Japan,
Lech Walesa that the American people
vestment and joint ventures between
and Government would respond
mostly to West Germany. About $2.4
Polish and Western companies. He said
quickly and imaginately to significant
he was not yet familiar with the details
billion is owed to the United States.
internal reform of the kind that we now
of Mr. Bush's speech, however.
9Support for conditional new loans to
see," he said, referring to Gen. Woj-
Mr. Walesa was quoted as saying in
Poland from the International Mone-
ciech Jaruzelski, the Communist lead-
Gdansk: "Bush is a great man and he
tary Fund. But Mr. Bush indicated that
er, and Lech Walesa, the Nobel Peace
knows Polish issues very well. This is
these loans would be oriented toward
Prize winner and founder of Solidarity.
quite big as an initial proposal. Let's
market-oriented economic policies."
"Both of them valued that assur-
wait for the next step."
The I.M.F. is considering an immediate
loan of $300 million, while the World
ance," he said. "So it is especially
The state television reported Mr.
Bank tentatively plans $250 million in
gratifying for us today to witness the
Bush's speech on its regular nightly
its first round of loans.
changes now taking place in Poland
news program, without giving details.
and to announce these new changes in
A Government spokesman, Ryszard
9Consideration of private-sector
U.S. policy. The United States of Amer-
Straus, said there would be no official
loans by the International Finance Cor-
poration to support Poland's private
ica keeps its promises."
response to the American proposals
sector. The corporation, a World Bank
Mr. Bush ended his 22-minute speech
until Tuesday.
subsidiary, backs private enterprise in
developing countries, approved a loan
of about $14 million for Poland last fall.
Earlier, Administration officials said
that World Bank loans to Poland might
amount to about $1 billion, annually
within three or four years.
A White House spokesman, Roman
Popadiuk, said the benefits from tariff
relief could range from $3.5 million to
$25 million, depending on the types of
products selected and how quickly and
aggressively Poland makes use of its
new opportunities to export to the
United States.
The United States imported $417 mil-
lion in merchandise from Poland last
year, largely ham, fish, textile and
steel. It exported $304 million in
gooods, mostly grain.
No Unconditional Help
Mr. Bush said his proposals for as-
sisting Poland and restoring its bat-
tered economy were contingent on the
Warsaw Government's political and
economic moves.
"We will not act unconditionally," he
said. "We will not offer unsound
credits. We will not offer aid without re-
quiring sound economic practices in re-
turn. We must remember that Poland
is still a member of the Warsaw Pact.
We must take no steps that compro-
mise the security of the West."
Although Mr. Bush said the United
States "has never accepted the legiti-
macy of Europe's division," he went on
to declare that Warsaw was "now tak-
ing concrete steps that deserve our ac-
tive support."
Brent Scowcroft, the national se-
curity adviser, who traveled to Michi-
gan with Mr. Bush, said the aid pack-
Excerpts From Speech
By Bush on Polish Aid
Following are excerpts from President Bush's address today in Ham-
tramck, Mich., as recorded by The New York Times through the facilities of
Cable News Network.
Americans are not mildly sympa-
Poland, to the benefit of both Polish
thetic spectators of events in Poland.
and U.S. investors.
We are bound to Poland by a very
9We will propose negotiations for a
special bond, a bond of blood, of cul-
private business agreement with Po-
ture and shared values. And SO it is
land to encourage cooperation be-
only natural that, as dramatic change
tween U.S. firms and Poland's pri-
comes to Poland, we share the aspira-
vate businesses. Both sides can bene-
tions and excitement of the Polish
fit.
people.
9The United States will continue to
In my inaugural address, I spoke of
consider supporting, on their merits,
the new breeze of freedom gaining
viable loans to the private sector by
strength around the world. In man's
the International Finance Corpora-
heart, I said, if not in fact, the day of
tion.
the dictator is over. The totalitarian
9We believe that the roundtable
era is passing, its old ideas blown
agreements clear the way for Poland
away like leaves from an ancient
to be able to work with the Interna-
leafless tree.
tional Monetary Fund on programs
that support sound, market-oriented
economic policies.
How can there be stability and se-
qWe will encourage business and
curity in Europe as long as nations,
private nonprofit groups to develop
which once stood proudly at the front
innovative programs to swap Polish
rank of industrial powers, are Impov-
erished by a discredited ideology and
stifling authoritarianism? The United
States - and let's be clear on this -
has never accepted the legitimacy of
'Help from the
Europe's division. We accept no
spheres of influence that deny the
West will come in
sovereign rights of nations.
And yet the winds of change are
concert with
shaping a new European destiny.
Western Europe is resurgent. And
liberalization.'
Eastern Europe is awakening to
yearnings for democracy, independ-
ence and prosperity.
debt for equity in Polish enterprises,
and for charitable, humanitarian and
Some regimes are now seeking to
environmental projects.
win popular legitimacy through re-
9We will support imaginative
form. In Hungary, a new leadership is
educational, cultural and training
experimenting with reforms that
programs to help liberate the crea-
may permit a political pluralism that
tive energies of the Polish people.
only a few years ago would have been
absolutely unthinkable. And in Po-
land on April 5, Solidarity leader Lech
If Poland's experiment succeeds,
Walesa and Interior Minister Kiszc-
other countries may follow. And while
zak signed agreements that, if faith-
we must still differentiate among the
fully implemented, will be a water-
nations of Eastern Europe, Poland of-
shed in the postwar history of East-
fers two lessons for all. First, there
ern Europe.
can be no progress without signifi-
cant political and economic liberali-
zation. And second, help from the
I have decided, as your President,
West will come in concert with liber-
on specific steps to be taken by the
alization.
United States, carefully chosen to
recognize the reforms under way,
and to encourage reforms yet to come
Next month, at a summit of the
now that Solidarnosc is legal:
North Atlantic Alliance, I will meet
91 will ask Congress to join me in
with the leaders of the Western
providing Poland access to our Gen-
democracies. The leaders of the
eral, our Generalized System of
Western democracies will discuss
Preferences, which offers selective
these concerns. And these are not
tariff relief to beneficiary countries.
bilateral issues just between the
qWe will work with our allies and
United States and the Soviet Union.
friends in the Paris Club to develop
They are, rather, the concern of all -
sustainable new schedules for Poland
the Western allies, calling for com-
to repay its debt, easing a heavy bur-
mon approaches. The Soviet Union
den so that a free market can grow.
should understand, in turn, that a free
91 will also ask Congress to join me
democratic Eastern Europe as we en-
in authorizing the Overseas Private
vision it would threaten no one and no
Investment Corporation to operate in
country.
THE OF OF UNUM THE UNITED
THE TRIP OF
THE PRESIDENT
TO
HAMTRAMCK, MICHIGAN
April 17, 1989
SCHEDULE
THE WHITE HOUSE
3
WASHINGTON
SCHEDULE OF THE PRESIDENT
FOR
HAMTRAMCK, MICHIGAN
MONDAY, APRIL 17, 1989
EVENTS:
Address to Citizens of Hamtramck, Michigan
Luncheon with Members of the American Polish Community
DRESS:
Men
- Business Suit
Women
- Day Dress
CONTACTS:
Office of Presidential Advance
John G. Keller, Jr. - 202/456-7565
Trip Coordinator
Kathy Kamionek - 202/456-7565
Detroit, Michigan Signal - 313/567-7701
ADVANCE:
Gordon James
- LEAD
John Hutchison
- PRESS
Jim Burke
- USSS
Harris Millerd
- WHCA
Sean Byrne
- MIL. AIDE
Rick Betz
- AFI
WEATHER:
Cloudy/Mid 50's
SCHEDULE OF THE PRESIDENT
FOR
HAMTRAMCK, MICHIGAN
MONDAY, APRIL 17, 1989
GUEST AND STAFF INSTRUCTIONS:
8:45 am
Vans depart West Basement en
route Andrews Air Force Base.
9:15 am
Guests and Staff with own trans-
portation should arrive Andrews
Air Force Base.
9:25 am
Those manifested on Marine One
should proceed to board.
9:30 am
THE PRESIDENT boards Marine One and departs White
House en route Andrews Air Force Base.
c
MARINE ONE MANIFEST:
THE PRESIDENT
A. Card
B. Scowcroft
S. Studdert
M. Fitzwater
T. McBride
Mil. Aide
Doctor
2 USSS
(Flying Time: 10 Minutes)
9:40 am
THE PRESIDENT arrives Andrews Air Force Base and
proceeds to board Air Force One.
9:45 am
THE PRESIDENT departs Andrews Air Force Base en
route Detroit, Michigan.
(Flying Time: 1 Hour 15 Minutes)
( Interchange: None)
(Time Change: None)
(Food Service: Continental Breakfast)
11:00 am
THE PRESIDENT arrives Selfridge Air Force Base,
Detroit, Michigan.
Met by:
The Honorable James Blanchard
Governor of Michigan
Brigadier General David T. Arendts
Wing Commander, Selfridge Air National Guard Base
The Honorable John Engler
Senate Majority Leader, Michigan
The Honorable Paul Hillegonds
House Republican Leader, Michigan
Ms. Ronna Romney
National Committeewoman, Michigan/
Co-Chair Bush Campaign, Michigan '88
Mr. L. Brooks Patterson
Co-Chair Bush Campaign, Michigan '88
Mr. Chuck Yob
Finance Co-Chair Bush Campaign, Michigan '88
Mr. William Lucas
Former Gubernatorial Candidate, Michigan
Mr. John Rakolta, Jr.
President, Walbridge Aldinger
11:10 am
THE PRESIDENT boards Motorcade and departs
Selfridge Air Force Base en route Hamtramck,
Michigan.
Page Two
,
MOTORCADE ASSIGNMENTS:
Lead
G. James
Spare
T. McBride
Doctor
LIMO
THE PRESIDENT
B. Scowcroft
A. Card
Follow Up
Control
J. Swift
S. Studdert
Mil. Aide
Support
M. Fitzwater
Official Photographer
Medic
WHCA
Camera I
Staff Van
Remaining Staff
Guest Van
Remaining Guests
Press Van I
B. Zanca
Press Van II
Press Van III
(Drive Time: 30 Minutes)
GUEST AND STAFF INSTRUCTIONS:
Upon arrival at Hamtramck City Hall,
Guests and Staff will be escorted to
the Guest and Staff Viewing Area.
Page Three
Please board Motorcade no later than
12:30 pm for transport to Under the
Eagle Restaurant.
11:40 am
THE PRESIDENT arrives Hamtramck City Hall,
Hamtramck, Michigan and proceeds to Holding Room.
Met by:
The Honorable Robert Kozaren
Mayor of Hamtramck
Cardinal Edmund Szoka
Archbishop of Detroit
The Honorable Walter Paruk
District Court Judge
Mr. Edward J. Moskal
National President, Polish American Congress
Mr. Paul C. Odrobina
Hamtramck City Council Chairman
Mr. Nick Frontczak
Hamtramck City Council Member
Ms. Helen Justewicz
Hamtramck City Council Member
Mr. Edward Rojek
Hamtramck City Council Member
Mr. Sam Iaquinto
Hamtramck City Council Member
Mr. Bob Cwiertniewicz
Aide to the Mayor of Hamtramck
Mr. Joseph Grzecki
City Treasurer
Mrs. Ethel Fiddler
City Clerk
Page Four
11:43 am
THE PRESIDENT arrives Holding Room.
11:50 am
THE PRESIDENT departs Holding Room and proceeds to
Off-Stage Announcement Area.
11:51 pm
THE PRESIDENT arrives Off-Stage Announcement Area
and holds briefly.
EVENT:
ADDRESS TO CITIZENS OF HAMTRAMCK, MICHIGAN
OPEN PRESS
OFF-STAGE ANNOUNCEMENT
REMARKS
11:52 am
THE PRESIDENT is announced onto Dais and
remains standing.
11:54 am
THE PRESIDENT participates in traditional Polish
Welcoming Ceremony conducted by Mayor Kozaren and
Gabriela and Emilia Juocys.
11:55 am Invocation will be given by Cardinal
Szoka.
11:56 am
THE PRESIDENT is introduced by Councilman
Paul Odrobina for Remarks.
11:58 am
THE PRESIDENT Remarks.
Page Five
12:18 pm
THE PRESIDENT concludes Remarks, departs Dais, and
proceeds to Holding Room.
12:20 pm
THE PRESIDENT arrives Holding Room.
12:30 pm
THE PRESIDENT departs Holding Room and proceeds
to Motorcade.
12:35 pm
THE PRESIDENT boards Motorcade and departs
Hamtramck City Hall en route Under the Eagle
Restaurant.
MOTORCADE ASSIGNMENTS:
Lead
G. James
Spare
T. McBride
..
Doctor
LIMO
THE PRESIDENT
A. Card
B. Scowcroft
Cardinal Szoka
Follow Up
Control
J. Swift
S. Studdert
Mil. Aide
Support
M. Fitzwater
Official Photographer
Medic
WHCA
Camera I
Staff Van
Remaining Staff
Guest Van
Remaining Guests
Page Six
Press Van I
B. Zanca
Press Van II
Press Van III
(Drive Time: 5 Minutes)
GUEST AND STAFF INSTRUCTIONS:
Upon arrival at Under the Eagle Restaurant,
Guests and Staff will be escorted to the
Luncheon.
Please board Motorcade no later than
1:10 pm for transport to Selfridge Air
Force Base.
12:40 pm
THE PRESIDENT arrives Under the Eagle Restaurant
and proceeds inside to Seat.
Met by:
Mrs. Teresa Peczeniuk
Owner, Under the Eagle Restaurant
Mrs. Zuzana Slupek
Mother of Owner, Under the Eagle Restaurant
EVENT:
LUNCHEON WITH MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN POLISH
COMMUNITY
POOL COVERAGE
12:42 pm
THE PRESIDENT arrives Seat and participates in
Luncheon.
Page Seven
1:10 pm
THE PRESIDENT concludes participation in Luncheon
and proceeds to Motorcade.
1:15 pm
THE PRESIDENT boards Motorcade and departs Under
the Eagle Restaurant en route Selfridge Air Force
Base.
MOTORCADE ASSIGNMENTS:
Lead
G. James
Spare
T. McBride
Doctor
LIMO
THE PRESIDENT
A. Card
B. Scowcroft
Sen. Engler
Follow Up
Control
S. Studdert
Mil. Aide
Support
M. Fitzwater
Official Photographer
Medic
WHCA
Camera I
Staff Van
Remaining Staff
Guest Van
Remaining Guests
Press Van I
B. Zanca
Press Van II
Press Van III
(Drive Time: 30 Minutes)
Page Eight
1:45 pm
THE PRESIDENT arrives Selfridge Air Force Base
and proceeds to board Air Force One.
Met by:
Brigadier General and Mrs. David T. Arendts
(Barbara)
Wing Commander, Selfridge Air National Guard Base
Captain John T. Williams
Selfridge Air National Guard Base, Naval Commander
Lt. Colonel Donald E. Odell, USAF
Selfridge Public Affairs Officer
(Recipient of Prisoner of War Medal - Vietnam)
Lt. Colonel Clayton T. Gadd
Selfridge Air Force Reserve Commander
1:50 pm
THE PRESIDENT departs Detroit, Michigan en route
Andrews Air Force Base.
(Flying Time: 1 Hour 5 Minutes)
(Interchange: None)
(Time Change: None)
(Food Service: Sandwiches/Snacks)
2:55 pm
THE PRESIDENT arrives Andrews Air Force Base
and proceeds to board Marine One.
3:00 pm
THE PRESIDENT departs Andrews Air Force Base
en route White House.
Page Nine
MARINE ONE MANIFEST:
THE PRESIDENT
A. Card
B. Scowcroft
S. Studdert
M. Fitzwater
T. McBride
Mil. Aide
Doctor
2 USSS
(Flying Time: 10 Minutes)
3:10 pm
THE PRESIDENT arrives White House.
Page Ten
:
SCENARIOS
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
VISIT OF THE PRESIDENT
TO
HAMTRAMCK, MICHIGAN
MONDAY, APRIL 17, 1989
EVENT:
Address to Citizens of Hamtramck, Michigan
TIME:
11:50 a.m. - 12:20 p.m.
DATE:
Monday, April 17, 1989
LOCATION:
Hamtramck City Hall
ATTENDEES:
5000
PRESS:
Open
SCENARIO:
The pre-program will include ethnic music by a
Polka band, local Polish dancers, and the Hamtramck
Senior High School Band. Some local dignitaries
will be introduced prior to the arrival of THE PRESIDENT. The
backdrop will be the City Hall building with a large banner saying
"Hamtramck, A Touch of Europe in America." Flanking the stage
will be two large Solidarity banners above two large Polish Flags
hanging above bleachers occupied by 230 of the local dignitaries
and citizens in native costume. One banner will be in English and
the other in Polish.
THE PRESIDENT arrives Hamtramck City Hall and is met by The
Honorable Robert Kozaren, Mayor of Hamtramck; Cardinal Edmund
Szoka, Archbishop of Detroit; The Honorable Walter Paruk, District
Court Judge; Mr. Edward J. Moskal, National President, Polish
American Congress; Mr. Paul C. Odrobina, Hamtramck City Council
Chairman; Mr. Nick Frontczak, Ms. Helen Justewicz, Mr. Edward
Rojek, and Mr. Sam Iaquinto, Hamtramck City Council Members;
Mr. Joseph Grzecki, City Treasurer; Mrs. Ethel Fiddler, City
Clerk; Mr. Bob Cwiertniewicz, Aide to the Mayor of Hamtramck. THE
PRESIDENT proceeds to holding room. THE PRESIDENT arrives holding
room. THE PRESIDENT departs holding room and proceeds to
off-stage announcement area. THE PRESIDENT arrives off-stage
announcement area and holds briefly. Already on stage will be
Cardinal Szoka, Mayor Kozaren, Mr. Moskal, and Mr. Odrobina. THE
PRESIDENT is announced onto Dais and remains standing. Mayor
Kozaren will welcome THE PRESIDENT by introducing two young Polish
girls, Gabriela and Emilia Juocys, to conduct a traditional Polish
welcoming ceremony with a bread-cross filled with salt.
Cardinal Szoka gives a brief invocation. THE PRESIDENT is
introduced for Remarks by Mr. Odrobina. THE PRESIDENT Remarks.
Upon conclusion of Remarks, THE PRESIDENT departs Dais and
proceeds to holding room. THE PRESIDENT departs holding room and
proceeds to motorcade. THE PRESIDENT boards motorcade and departs
Hamtramck City Hall en route Under the Eagle Restaurant.
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
VISIT OF THE PRESIDENT
TO
HAMTRAMCK, MICHIGAN
MONDAY, APRIL 17, 1989
EVENT:
Luncheon with Members of the American Polish
Community
TIME:
12:40 p.m. - 1:10 p.m.
DATE:
Monday, April 17, 1989
LOCATION:
Under the Eagle Restaurant
PRESS:
Pool Coverage
SCENARIO:
THE PRESIDENT arrives Under the Eagle Restaurant
and is met by Mrs. Teresa Peczeniuk, Owner, Under
the Eagle Restaurant; Mrs. Zuzana Slupek, Mother
of Owner, Under the Eagle Restaurant (only speaks Polish). THE
PRESIDENT will be escorted inside restaurant to his seat and join
the invited guests already in place, who are all prominent
community leaders. The Pool Press will be in place for a short
photo opportunity and will then be escorted out of the dining
room. Lunch is served. Cardinal Edmund C. Szoka gives an
invocation. Upon conclusion of the lunch, THE PRESIDENT departs
dining room and proceeds to motorcade. THE PRESIDENT boards
motorcade and departs Under the Eagle Restaurant en route
Selfridge Air Force Base.
DETROIT, MICHIGAN
Selfridge Air National Guard Base
Arrival/Departure Diagram
Monday, April 17, 1989
Hangar
Hangar
Hangar
Hangar
Base Ops
7
32
Hangar
15
5
9
Crowd
Press
Press Buses
Motorcade
AGE
Limo
AF-1
Hangar
Press
20
Plane
Hangar
21
KEY:
THE PRESIDENT
HAMTRAMCK, MICHIGAN
Address to Citizens of
Hamtramck, Michigan
Hamtramck City Hall
Monday, April 17, 1989
Motorcade
Toilets (2)
Limo
Holding
Room
XXXX
Staff
Holding
Staff
Viewing
Bleacher
Bleacher
Band
Audience
Entertainment
Stage
Press
......
Toilets (4), Vendors
From Magnetometers
KEY:
THE PRESIDENT
PRESS
GUESTS & STAFF
X GREETER
HAMTRAMCK, MICHIGAN
Address to Citizens of Hamtramck, Michigan
Hamtramck City Hall
Dais Seating Diagram
Monday, April 17, 1989
Paul
Cardinal
THE
Edward
Mayor
Odrobina
Szoka
PRESIDENT
Moskal
Kozaren
Podium
Audience
KEY:
THE PRESIDENT
HAMTRAMCK, MICHIGAN
Under the Eagle Restaurant
Lunch with Polish Leaders
Monday, April 17. 1989
Motorcade
Limo
Holding
Room
7
6
8
5
Senior Staff
9
4
Holding
10
3
2
12
I
13
22
14
21
15
20
16
19
17
18
Staff Holding
Press Pool
Ground Floor
Second Floor
Motorcade
1. THE PRESIDENT
12. Chief of Staff John Sununu
2. The Honorable Paul C. Odorina
13. Ms. Dianne M. Odrobina
3. Cardinal Edmund Szoka
14. Honorable Robert Kozaren
4. Mr. Wlodzimierz Zmurkiewicz
15. Mrs. Virginia Sikora
5. Mr. Kazimierz Olejarczyk
16. Mr. David Jaye
6. Mr. Wallace Ozog
17. Mr. Frank Stella
7. Mr. Mitchell Odrobina
18. M:. Carl Marlinga
KEY:
8. Mrs. Casmira Odrobina
19. T.B.D.
THE PRESIDENT
9. Rev. Stanley E. Milewski
20. T.B.D.
PRESS
10. Mr. Ronald Kowalski
21. Mr. Wilhelm Wolf
GUESTS & STAFF
11. Mr. Edward Moskai
22. Mrs. Ewa Matuszewski - Juocys
X
GREETER
PRESIDENTIAL REMARKS: HAMTRAMCK
CITY HALL
MONDAY, APRIL 17, 1989/NOON
THANK YOU PAUL. CARDINAL SZOKA (SHA-KA). BoB,
THANK YOU FOR THAT PRESENTATION. IT'S GOOD TO SEE THE
MICHIGAN DELEGATION HAS TURNED OUT FOR THIS EVENT.
BREAD AND SALT ARE BOTH OF THE EARTH, AN ANCIENT SYMBOL
OF A LIFE LEAVENED BY HEALTH AND PROSPERITY.
- 2 -
IN THIS SAME SPIRIT, I WISH YOU ALL THE SAME. Now, IF
I MAY, I WANT TO ADDRESS THE HEALTH AND PROSPERITY OF A
WHOLE NATION -- THE PROUD PEOPLE OF POLAND.
AMERICANS ARE NOT MILDLY SYMPATHETIC SPECTATORS OF
EVENTS IN POLAND. WE ARE BOUND TO POLAND BY A VERY
SPECIAL BOND, A BOND OF BLOOD, OF CULTURE AND SHARED
VALUES. So IT IS ONLY NATURAL THAT, AS DRAMATIC CHANGE
COMES To POLAND, WE SHARE THE ASPIRATIONS AND
EXCITEMENT OF THE POLISH PEOPLE.
- 3 -
IN MY INAUGURAL ADDRESS, I SPOKE OF THE NEW BREEZE
OF FREEDOM GAINING STRENGTH AROUND THE WORLD. "IN
MAN'S HEART," I SAID, "IF NOT IN FACT, THE DAY OF THE
DICTATOR IS OVER. THE TOTALITARIAN ERA IS PASSING, ITS
OLD IDEAS BLOWN AWAY LIKE LEAVES FROM AN ANCIENT
LIFELESS TREE."
I SPOKE OF THE SPREADING RECOGNITION THAT
PROSPERITY CAN ONLY COME FROM A FREE MARKET AND THE
CREATIVE GENIUS OF THE INDIVIDUAL.
- 4 -
I SPOKE OF THE NEW POTENCY OF DEMOCRATIC IDEAS -- OF
FREE SPEECH, FREE ELECTIONS AND THE EXERCISE OF FREE
WILL.
WE SHOULD NOT BE SURPRISED THAT THE IDEAS OF
DEMOCRACY ARE RETURNING WITH RENEWED FORCE IN EUROPE --
THE HOMELAND OF PHILOSOPHERS OF FREEDOM WHOSE IDEALS
HAVE BEEN so FULLY REALIZED IN AMERICA.
- 5 -
VICTOR Hugo SAID: "AN INVASION OF ARMIES CAN BE
RESISTED, BUT NOT AN IDEA WHOSE TIME HAS COME." MY
FRIENDS, LIBERTY IS AN IDEA WHOSE TIME HAS COME IN
EASTERN EUROPE
.
FOR ALMOST HALF A CENTURY, THE SUPPRESSION OF
FREEDOM IN EASTERN EUROPE, SUSTAINED BY THE MILITARY
POWER OF THE SOVIET UNION, HAS KEPT NATION FROM NATION,
NEIGHBOR FROM NEIGHBOR.
- 6 -
As EAST AND WEST SEEK TO REDUCE ARMS, IT MUST NOT BE
FORGOTTEN THAT ARMS ARE A SYMPTOM, NOT A SOURCE, OF
TENSION. THE TRUE SOURCE OF TENSION IS THE IMPOSED AND
UNNATURAL DIVISION OF EUROPE.
How CAN THERE BE STABILITY AND SECURITY IN EUROPE
AND THE WORLD AS LONG AS NATIONS AND PEOPLES ARE DENIED
THE RIGHT TO DETERMINE THEIR FUTURE -- A RIGHT
EXPLICITLY PROMISED THEM BY AGREEMENTS AMONG THE
VICTORIOUS POWERS AT THE END OF WORLD WAR Two?
- 7 -
How CAN THERE BE STABILITY AND SECURITY IN EUROPE AS
LONG AS NATIONS, WHICH ONCE STOOD PROUDLY AT THE FRONT
RANK OF INDUSTRIAL POWERS, ARE IMPOVERISHED BY A
DISCREDITED IDEOLOGY AND STIFLING AUTHORITARIANISM?
THE UNITED STATES HAS NEVER ACCEPTED THE LEGITIMACY OF
EUROPE'S DIVISION. WE ACCEPT NO SPHERES OF INFLUENCE
THAT DENY THE SOVEREIGN RIGHTS OF NATIONS
YET THE WINDS OF CHANGE ARE SHAPING A NEW EUROPEAN
DESTINY. WESTERN EUROPE IS RESURGENT.
- -8-
EASTERN EUROPE IS AWAKENING TO YEARNINGS FOR DEMOCRACY,
INDEPENDENCE AND PROSPERITY. IN THE SOVIET UNION
ITSELF, WE ARE ENCOURAGED BY THE SOUND OF VOICES LONG
SILENT, AND THE SIGHT OF THE RULERS CONSULTING THE
RULED. WE SEE "NEW THINKING" IN SOME ASPECTS OF SOVIET
FOREIGN POLICY. WE ARE HOPEFUL THAT THESE STIRRINGS
PRESAGE MEANINGFUL, LASTING AND MORE FAR-REACHING
CHANGE.
- 9 -
LET NO ONE DOUBT THE SINCERITY OF THE AMERICAN
PEOPLE AND THEIR GOVERNMENT IN OUR DESIRE TO SEE REFORM
SUCCEED IN THE SOVIET UNION. WE WELCOME THE CHANGES
THAT HAVE TAKEN PLACE, AND WE WILL CONTINUE TO
ENCOURAGE GREATER RECOGNITION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, MARKET
INCENTIVES AND ELECTIONS.
EAST AND WEST ARE NEGOTIATING ON A BROAD RANGE OF
ISSUES, FROM ARMS REDUCTIONS TO THE ENVIRONMENT.
- 10 -
BUT THE COLD WAR BEGAN IN EASTERN EUROPE; IF IT IS TO
END, IT WILL END IN THIS CRUCIBLE OF WORLD CONFLICT --
AND IT MUST END. THE AMERICAN PEOPLE WANT TO SEE EAST
AND CENTRAL EUROPE FREE, PROSPEROUS AND AT PEACE. WITH
PRUDENCE, REALISM AND PATIENCE, WE SEEK TO PROMOTE THE
EVOLUTION OF FREEDOM -- THE OPPORTUNITIES SPARKED BY
THE HELSINKI ACCORDS AND DEEPENING EAST-WEST CONTACT.
IN RECENT YEARS, WE HAVE IMPROVED RELATIONS WITH
COUNTRIES IN THE REGION.
- 11 -
IN EACH CASE, WE LOOKED FOR PROGRESS IN ITS
INTERNATIONAL POSTURE AND INTERNAL PRACTICES -- IN
HUMAN RIGHTS, CULTURAL OPENNESS, EMIGRATION ISSUES,
OPPOSITION TO TERRORISM. WHILE WE WANT RELATIONS TO
IMPROVE, THERE ARE CERTAIN ACTS WE WILL NOT CONDONE OR
ACCEPT -- BEHAVIOR THAT CAN SHIFT RELATIONS IN THE
WRONG DIRECTION: HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES, TECHNOLOGY THEFT,
AND HOSTILE INTELLIGENCE OR FOREIGN POLICY ACTIONS
AGAINST US.
= 12 -
SOME REGIMES ARE NOW SEEKING TO WIN POPULAR
LEGITIMACY THROUGH REFORMS. IN HUNGARY, A NEW
LEADERSHIP IS EXPERIMENTING WITH REFORMS THAT MAY
PERMIT A POLITICAL PLURALISM THAT ONLY A FEW YEARS AGO
WOULD HAVE BEEN UNTHINKABLE. AND IN POLAND, ON APRIL
5, SOLIDARITY LEADER LECH WALESA AND INTERIOR MINISTER
KISZCZAK SIGNED AGREEMENTS THAT, IF FAITHFULLY
IMPLEMENTED, WILL BE A WATERSHED IN THE POSTWAR HISTORY
OF EASTERN EUROPE.
- 14 -
AND THEY ARE INSPIRING TESTIMONY TO THE SPIRITUAL
GUIDANCE OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH, THE INDOMITABLE SPIRIT
OF THE POLISH PEOPLE -- AND THE STRENGTH AND WISDOM OF
LECH WALESA . .
POLAND FACES, AND WILL CONTINUE TO FACE FOR SOME
TIME, SEVERE ECONOMIC PROBLEMS. A MODERN FRENCH WRITER
OBSERVED THAT COMMUNISM IS NOT ANOTHER FORM OF
ECONOMICS. IT IS THE DEATH OF ECONOMICS.
- 15 -
IN POLAND, AN ECONOMIC SYSTEM CRIPPLED BY THE
INEFFICIENCIES OF CENTRAL PLANNING, ALMOST PROVED THE
DEATH OF INITIATIVE AND ENTERPRISE. ALMOST. BUT
ECONOMIC REFORMS CAN STILL GIVE FREE REIN TO THE
ENTERPRISING IMPULSE AND CREATIVE SPIRIT OF THE POLISH
PEOPLE.
THE POLISH PEOPLE UNDERSTAND THE MAGNITUDE OF THIS
CHALLENGE. DEMOCRATIC FORCES IN POLAND HAVE ASKED FOR
THE MORAL, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SUPPORT OF THE WEST.
- 16 -
AND THE WEST WILL RESPOND. MY ADMINISTRATION IS
COMPLETING A THOROUGH REVIEW OF OUR POLICIES TOWARD
POLAND AND ALL OF EASTERN EUROPE.
I HAVE CAREFULLY CONSIDERED WAYS THE UNITED STATES
CAN HELP POLAND. WE WILL NOT ACT UNCONDITIONALLY. WE
WILL NOT OFFER UNSOUND CREDITS. WE WILL NOT OFFER AID
WITHOUT REQUIRING SOUND ECONOMIC PRACTICES IN RETURN.
- 17 -
WE MUST REMEMBER THAT POLAND IS STILL A MEMBER OF THE
WARSAW PacT. WE MUST TAKE NO STEPS THAT COMPROMISE THE
SECURITY OF THE WEST.
THE CONGRESS, THE POLISH-AMERICAN COMMUNITY, THE
AMERICAN LABOR MOVEMENT, OUR ALLIES AND INTERNATIONAL
FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS, MUST WORK IN CONCERT IF POLISH
DEMOCRACY IS TO TAKE ROOT ANEW, AND SUSTAIN ITSELF. WE
CAN AND MUST ANSWER THIS CALL TO FREEDOM.
- 18 -
AND IT IS PARTICULARLY APPROPRIATE, HERE IN HAMTRAMCK,
FOR ME TO SALUTE THE MEMBERS AND LEADERS OF THE
AMERICAN LABOR MOVEMENT FOR HANGING TOUGH WITH
SOLIDARITY THROUGH ITS DARKEST DAYS.
THE POLES ARE NOW TAKING CONCRETE STEPS THAT
DESERVE OUR ACTIVE SUPPORT. I HAVE DECIDED ON SPECIFIC
STEPS BY THE UNITED STATES, CAREFULLY CHOSEN TO
RECOGNIZE REFORMS UNDERWAY, AND TO ENCOURAGE REFORMS
YET TO COME ONCE SOLIDARITY IS LEGAL:
- 19 -
-- I WILL ASK CONGRESS TO JOIN ME IN PROVIDING
POLAND ACCESS TO OUR GENERALIZED SYSTEM OF PREFERENCES,
WHICH OFFERS SELECTIVE TARIFF RELIEF TO BENEFICIARY
COUNTRIES.
-- WE WILL WORK WITH OUR ALLIES AND FRIENDS IN THE
PARIS CLUB TO DEVELOP SUSTAINABLE NEW SCHEDULES FOR
POLAND TO REPAY ITS DEBT, EASING A HEAVY BURDEN so THAT
A FREE MARKET CAN GROW.
- 20 -
-- I WILL ALSO ASK CONGRESS TO JOIN ME IN
AUTHORIZING THE OVERSEAS PRIVATE INVESTMENT CORPORATION
TO OPERATE IN POLAND, TO THE BENEFIT OF BOTH POLISH AND
U.S. INVESTORS.
-- WE WILL PROPOSE NEGOTIATIONS FOR A PRIVATE
BUSINESS AGREEMENT WITH POLAND To ENCOURAGE COOPERATION
BETWEEN U.S. FIRMS AND POLAND'S PRIVATE BUSINESSES.
BOTH SIDES CAN BENEFIT.
- 21 -
-- THE UNITED STATES WILL CONTINUE TO CONSIDER
SUPPORTING, ON THEIR MERITS, VIABLE LOANS TO THE
PRIVATE-SECTOR BY THE INTERNATIONAL FINANCE
CORPORATION.
-- WE BELIEVE THAT THE ROUNDTABLE AGREEMENTS CLEAR
THE WAY FOR POLAND TO BE ABLE TO WORK WITH THE
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND ON PROGRAMS THAT SUPPORT
SOUND, NEW, MARKET-ORIENTED ECONOMIC POLICIES.
- 22 -
-- WE WILL ENCOURAGE BUSINESS AND PRIVATE NON-
PROFIT GROUPS TO DEVELOP INNOVATIVE PROGRAMS TO SWAP
POLISH DEBT FOR EQUITY IN POLISH ENTERPRISES; AND FOR
CHARITABLE, HUMANITARIAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS.
-- WE WILL SUPPORT IMAGINATIVE EDUCATIONAL,
CULTURAL AND TRAINING PROGRAMS TO HELP LIBERATE THE
CREATIVE ENERGIES OF THE POLISH PEOPLE.
- 23 -
WHEN I VISITED POLAND IN SEPTEMBER, 1987, I TOLD
CHAIRMAN JARUZELSKI AND LECH WALESA THAT THE AMERICAN
PEOPLE AND GOVERNMENT WOULD RESPOND QUICKLY AND
IMAGINATIVELY TO SIGNIFICANT INTERNAL REFORM OF THE
KIND WE SEE NOW. BOTH OF THEM VALUED THAT ASSURANCE.
So IT IS ESPECIALLY GRATIFYING FOR ME TO WITNESS THE
CHANGES NOW TAKING PLACE IN POLAND, AND TO ANNOUNCE
THESE IMPORTANT CHANGES IN U.S. POLICY. THE UNITED
STATES KEEPS ITS PROMISES.
- - 24 -
IF POLAND'S EXPERIMENT SUCCEEDS, OTHER COUNTRIES
MAY FOLLOW. WHILE WE MUST STILL DIFFERENTIATE AMONG
THE NATIONS OF EASTERN EUROPE, POLAND OFFERS TWO
LESSONS FOR ALL. FIRST, THERE CAN BE NO PROGRESS
WITHOUT SIGNIFICANT POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC
LIBERALIZATION. SECOND, HELP FROM THE WEST WILL COME
IN CONCERT WITH LIBERALIZATION. OUR FRIENDS AND
EUROPEAN ALLIES SHARE THIS PHILOSOPHY.
- 25 -
THE WEST CAN NOW BE BOLD IN PROPOSING A VISION OF
THE EUROPEAN FUTURE: WE DREAM OF THE DAY WHEN THERE
WILL BE NO BARRIERS TO THE FREE MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE,
GOODS AND IDEAS. WE DREAM OF THE DAY WHEN EASTERN
EUROPEAN PEOPLES WILL BE FREE TO CHOOSE THEIR SYSTEM OF
GOVERNMENT AND TO VOTE FOR THE PARTY OF THEIR CHOICE IN
REGULAR, CONTESTED ELECTIONS.
- 26 -
WE DREAM OF THE DAY WHEN EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
WILL BE FREE TO CHOOSE THEIR OWN PEACEFUL COURSE IN THE
WORLD, INCLUDING CLOSER TIES WITH WESTERN EUROPE. AND
WE ENVISION AN EASTERN EUROPE IN WHICH THE SOVIET UNION
HAS RENOUNCED MILITARY INTERVENTION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF
ITS POLICY -- ON ANY PRETEXT
WE SHARE AN
UNWAVERING CONVICTION THAT ONE DAY ALL THE PEOPLES OF
EUROPE WILL LIVE IN FREEDOM.
- 27 -
NEXT MONTH, AT A SUMMIT OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
ALLIANCE, THE LEADERS OF THE WESTERN DEMOCRACIES WILL
DISCUSS THESE CONCERNS. THESE ARE NOT BILATERAL ISSUES
BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND THE SOVIET UNION. THEY
ARE, RATHER, THE CONCERN OF ALL THE WESTERN ALLIES,
CALLING FOR COMMON APPROACHES. THE SOVIET UNION SHOULD
UNDERSTAND, IN TURN, THAT A FREE DEMOCRATIC EASTERN
EUROPE AS WE ENVISION IT WOULD THREATEN NO ONE AND NO
COUNTRY.
- 28 - -
SUCH AN EVOLUTION WOULD IMPLY, AND REINFORCE, THE
FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OF EAST-WEST RELATIONS IN ALL
DIMENSIONS -- ARMS REDUCTIONS, POLITICAL RELATIONS,
TRADE -- IN WAYS THAT ENHANCE THE SAFETY AND WELL-BEING
OF ALL OF EUROPE. THERE IS NO OTHER WAY.
WHAT HAS BROUGHT US TO THIS OPENING? THE UNITY AND
STRENGTH OF THE DEMOCRACIES, AND SOMETHING ELSE -- THE
BOLD NEW THINKING IN THE SOVIET UNION; THE INNATE
DESIRE FOR FREEDOM IN THE HEARTS OF ALL MEN.
- 29 -
WE WILL NOT WAVER IN OUR DEDICATION TO FREEDOM NOW. IF
WE ARE WISE, UNITED AND READY TO SEIZE THE MOMENT, WE
WILL BE REMEMBERED AS THE GENERATION THAT HELPED MADE ALL OF
EUROPE FIND the ITS DESTINY IN FREEDOM.
Two CENTURIES AGO, A POLISH PATRIOT NAMED THADDEUS
Kosciuszko (KOSH-SCHOO-SKOH) CAME TO THESE AMERICAN
SHORES To STAND FOR FREEDOM.
- 30 -
LET US HONOR AND REMEMBER THIS HERO OF OUR OWN STRUGGLE
FOR FREEDOM BY EXTENDING OUR HAND TO THOSE WHO WORK THE
SHIPYARDS OF GDANSK, AND WALK THE COBBLED STREETS OF
WARSAW. LET US RECALL THE WORDS OF THE POLES WHO
STRUGGLED FOR INDEPENDENCE: "FOR YOUR FREEDOM AND
OURS." LET US SUPPORT THE PEACEFUL EVOLUTION OF
DEMOCRACY IN POLAND. THE CAUSE OF LIBERTY KNOWS NO
LIMITS; THE FRIENDS OF FREEDOM, NO BORDERS.
- 31 - -
GOD BLESS POLAND, AND GOD BLESS AMERICA. THANK
YOU.
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