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Black History Month, 2/25/91 [OA 6855] [2]
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Black History Month, 2/25/91 [OA 6855] [2]
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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Speech Backup Chronological Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
S; 1999-0285-F
S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
Subseries:
Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13747
Folder ID Number:
13747-007
Folder Title:
Black History Month, 2/25/91 [OA 6855] [2]
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Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
G
26
21
2
7
February 19, 1991
MEMORANDUM FOR BETH HINCHLIFFE
FROM:
BOB SIMON
as
SUBJECT:
AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF BENJAMIN O. DAVIS, JR.
Davis was born in Washington, D.C. His father was in the Army
for 50 years, retiring as a brigadier general. For most of
his Army career, Davis, Sr. was the only black officer in the
Army. Davis, Jr. spent part of his childhood in Tuskegee,
where his father was professor of military. science.
Segregation was strictly enforced off campus and the KKK was
actively lynching blacks. One night, the Klan planned a march
protesting a decision to hire blacks at the new black veterans
hospital. All blacks were instructed to stay indoors with
their lights off. Davis, Sr. refused to cower. The whole
family was on their porch with lights ablaze as the white-
robed Klansman filed by without incident.
After high school, Davis wanted to by a pilot, but there were
almost no black pilots in the U.S. He thought he might have
to become an engineer and move to South America to escape
segregation and pursue a worthwhile career.
Davis, Jr. received a West Point appointment from the only
black Congressman in the country at that time (1932). His
father wrote to him: "I feel you have the makings of a good
cadet and officer
Remember twelve million people [the
black population of America] will be pulling for you with all
we have. " Davis, Jr. noted, "In climbing through the Army's
ranks from 1989 to 1932, my father had overcome what seemed
almost impossible odds. In spite of the attitudes of whites
towards all people of color, he had managed to buck the system
and accomplish his goals. He had made life easier for me.
Now it was my turn to make things better for those who would
come after me. I was determined to succeed."
At West Point, Davis was "silenced." The other cadets never
spoke a word to him during his four years as a student apart
from official business. After the recognition ceremony at the
end of plebe year, many upper classmen congratulated him. But
after that, he reverted to being an. invisible man. No white
student would room with him or eat with him.
At graduation from West Point, Davis received a standing
ovation. The Davises were now the only black officers in the
Army.
Davis asked to join the Air Corps but was rejected because of
his race. However, in 1941, the Army decided to conduct an
"experiment" to see if blacks could be trained to fly. Davis
was chosen to be the commander of the unit, based at Tuskegee.
In building the new training base, the Army provided for
segregated restrooms and water fountains.
Davis' wife Agatha wrote a long poem highly critical of the
segregation at the Tuskegee training center, but it ended on
a positive note:
We
are doing a patriotic job on the side of right
In an effort to win the Double V for which we fight.
We hope that after war will come a fair and lasting peace
All hostility between the blacks and whites will cease.
It always makes me glow to think of the day there will be
A world of brother-loving men, all men equal and free.
Hate and force will be gone & tolerance will take their pace,
Twill matter not if you belong to the black or white
race.
The all-black 99th Fighter Squadron and the 332 Fighter Group
had one of the best records of all Air Forces in Europe. They
fought in North Africa and Italy, and flew missions all over
central and eastern Europe, even one harrowing 1600-mile
mission to bomb Berlin. The units became known as specialists
in precision bombing and escorting bombers. After hundreds
of escort missions, the squadrons never lost a single bomber
to enemy fighters. Davis personally flew 60 missions and won
the Silver Star.
One downed pilot, Lt. Herbert Clark, evaded capture for eight
months behind enemy lines. He continued the fight by leading
a partisan band that conducted raids against the Germans in
Northern Italy.
THE WHITE HOUSE
R ADM WALTER S. DAVIS, JR.
600H CARRIER TASK FORCE
CMDR
GROUP 6
VADM JOSEPH REASON
CMDR NAVAL SURFACE
LANTFLT
NAUY SWITCH
637,3350 Army
CHFINFO 703-697-5342
5-0231
301-509-4660
813-830-5895 Centern PA
697-0218/a
697-7589
Army
697-6103
Col. Allred, USA
AF
Dep Condi
Col. Leonard M. Randolph, Jr. surgeon services /Prof.
1st Tactifal Wing
Col. John D. Hopper, Jr.
Dep. Crds. for 634MAinft
Wifng
June 30 / Administration of George Bush, 1989
lieve strongly that apartheid is wrong and
rather viewed as a determined effort to
that it must end. We want to see the cre-
bring it to an end.
ation of a nonracial and democratic South
We will also work closely with our allies,
Africa as a result of negotiations among le-
particularly the British, Japanese, West Ger-
gitimate representatives of all of South Afri-
mans, and Portuguese, to develop mutually
ca's people. We support the beginning of a
supporting policies and cooperative pro-
process leading to a peaceful transition to
grams to resolve the political impasse cre-
democracy.
ated by apartheid and to assist in the ad-
To achieve our goal, we intend to expand
vancement of black South Africans. These
our assistance to black South Africans to
nations have important historical, cultural,
help them both economically and politically
and economic ties with South Africa, and
so they can play their rightful role in deter-
their wisdom and influence need to be
mining the future of their country. We will
brought to bear on the problems of South
work with the Congress to increase present
Africa and the region.
programs and develop new ones to assist
Again, it has been an honor to be with
black South Africans in the critical areas of
Mrs. Sisulu here today. Her struggle and
human rights, education, employment,
that of her husband, Walter, who remains in
housing, and community development.
prison, and her children, remind us of the
Such programs should not be misunder-
price of freedom and the hope which her
stood as our acquiescing in apartheid, but
example inspires in all of us.
Nomination of Jane A. Kenny To Be Director of ACTION
June 30, 1989
The President today announced his inten-
and ACTION Drug Alliance. Ms. Kenny
tion to nominate Jane A. Kenny to be Di-
joined ACTION in July 1986, serving as Di-
rector of ACTION. She would succeed
rector of VISTA. Prior to this, she was Di-
Donna M. Alvarado.
rector of the Executive Secretariat at the
Ms. Kenny currently serves as Deputy Di-
General Services Administration. She
rector of ACTION, the Federal domestic
served in the Office of Vice President
volunteer agency in Washington, DC, and
George Bush for 4 years, most recently
also serves as Acting Associate Director of
serving as Special Assistant to the Vice
the Office of Domestic and Antipoverty
President. Ms. Kenny has served as a staff
Operations. In November 1988 she was ap-
assistant at the National Association of
pointed Deputy Director of the Office of
Schools of Public Affairs and Administra-
Domestic Operations and administered the
tion, and as a management analyst in the
ACTION programs, including the Foster
Department of Justice in Washington, DC.
Grandparent, Senior Companion, and Re-
Ms. Kenny graduated from the College of
tired Senior Volunteer Programs (RSVP);
New Rochelle (B.A., 1967) and American
Volunteers In Service to America (VISTA);
University (M.P.A., 1977).
Remarks at a White House Ceremony Commemorating the 25th
Anniversary of the Civil Rights Act
June 30, 1989
Well, thank you for that warm reception,
just delighted that you joined us for this
and welcome to the White House. We're
important occasion. And of course, I'm very
834
Administration of George Bush, 1989 / June 30
pleased to see several of our Cabinet mem-
people with honorable intentions struggled
bers here, leaders of the United States Con-
with issues as old as the Republic and as
gress here. I'm particularly pleased to see
young as the movement's leadership. The
our Attorney General, Dick Thornburgh,
breakthrough came when the Senate finally
and, I might say, Bill Lucas, a friend of
invoked cloture, ending the longest debate
mine of longstanding, our nominee at Jus-
in its history and a 74-day filibuster. And
tice-both of whom, I can tell you, are fully
the result was a statutory package-soon to
committed to the vigorous enforcement of
be bolstered by voting rights and open
civil rights.
housing legislation-that stands as a land-
And I might say I am just delighted that,
mark in the civil rights movement.
among others representing the fine work of
But it wasn't the year's only milepost.
the Southern Christian Leadership Confer-
That same summer, the brutal murder of
ence, we have their president, the Rever-
three young civil rights workers, so singu-
end Joseph Lowery, with us over here
larly appalling in its savagery, shocked the
today. I don't know who the man sitting on
conscience of this nation and became criti-
his right is, but I'll try to-[laughter]. Jesse
cal to our country's progress on civil rights.
[Jackson], you know the ground rules.
[Laughter] But let me be very clear: I'm
Twenty-five years later, these mileposts are-
delighted you are here. It's most important
important symbols of how far we've come
as a nation and reminders of how far we
that you be here today, too, sir.
We gather today not only to commemo-
must still go.
rate an anniversary but to celebrate a
It's appropriate today that we rededicate
movement and to rededicate our efforts to
ourselves to that most American of dreams:
the unfinished work of that movement.
a society in which individuals are judged
Some of America's mileposts are easy to
not "by the color of their skin, but by the
date. In 1776, America invented itself, a
content of their character." That means
nation founded upon an idea-the self-evi-
vigilant and aggressive enforcement of all
dent truth that all men are created equal.
civil rights laws. It means the sensitive ap-
And nearly a century later, our nation
plication of those laws when competing
fought its bloodiest war that the promise of
rights of innocent persons are at stake. The
that Revolution might be extended to all
law cannot tolerate any discrimination, and
people. But for many Americans, another
my administration will not tolerate abuse of
hundred years were to pass before the
that principle.
promise would even begin to become a re-
And while celebrating our achievements
ality.
and recommitting ourselves to their preser-
Like the first American Revolution, it
vation, we must recognize that the full
began with the quiet courage of ordinary
promise of the civil rights movement has
citizens. Perhaps it began on December 1,
still not been achieved. The hard lesson of
1955, when Rosa Parks refused to give up
the passing years is that it has not been
her rightful place on a Birmingham bus. Or
enough to wage a war against the old forms
maybe, maybe it was October 1, 1962,
of bigotry and inequality. The lives of the
when James Meredith took destiny into his
disadvantaged in this country are affected
hands and registered at the University of
by economic barriers at least as much as by
Mississippi. But by the summer of '64, the
the remnants of legal discrimination. And
revolution had a name. It was called the
for that reason, I continue to support af-
civil rights movement, and that year
firmative action and minority outreach pro-
marked a watershed for many Americans.
grams. And as I've stated before, we must
The previous August had seen 250,000
move beyond the protection of rights to the
gathered-just beyond those windows-to
creation of opportunity.
hear Martin Luther King, Jr., proclaim a
Creating opportunities for all Americans
dream that was due every American. And
will require both public and private leader-
the following year would see the march on
ship. And it's time to move forward on a
Selma, and Watts would burn.
broader front. And we will be satisfied with
But in 1964, the debate raged. Good
nothing less than equal opportunity for all
835
June 30 / Administration of George Bush, 1989
Americans and the removal of final barriers
we've seen much progress. It is time now to
to self-reliance. And that's why-that my
move forward on a broader front, to move
Message on th
administration has proposed new initiatives
forward into the century's final decade with
June 30, 1989
in education, the key to opportunity, to
a civil rights mission that fully embraces
boost programs such as Head Start, merit
every deserving American, regardless of
Like most of yo
schools, adult literacy and, of course, histori-
race-whether women, children, or the
celebrating Indepe
cally black colleges and universities. And
aged; whether the disabled, the unem-
Our Fourth of July
we've asked Congress for emergency urban
ployed, or the homeless. And for all these
a day of enjoymen
grants to help free our youth from a new
reasons, I'm proud today to honor this
and friends, a day
form of enslavement: the slavery of drug
year's anniversary by calling on Congress,
way, with picnics,
addiction.
respectfully, to join me in a new partner-
But as you celeb
On other fronts, we're supporting land-
ship to reauthorize the Civil Rights Com-
take a moment SOI
mark new legislation to extend the Nation's
mission, with the goal of launching a re-
civil rights guarantees to those more than
the fireworks light
newed civil rights mission.
36 million Americans with disabilities,
what this day me:
Launching a civil rights mission that can
fortunate we Am
bringing them into the mainstream of
keep pace with a fast-changing world and
American society. And last week we added
Fourth of July in
work force will require commitment, coop-
birth of our nation.
our voice to those calling for passage of the
eration and, yes, creative thinking. And
Hate Crimes Act. My administration's com-
new era, an era t
beyond government, and even beyond the
prehensive crime package isn't just about
that proved that
law enforcement. Earlier this week, I spoke
private leadership of dedicated representa-
govern themselves
about the impediments to providing equal
tives such as those here in this room,
Today, 213 years
opportunities for women-if a justifiable
achieving the long-delayed dream of civil
fear of violent crime leaves them concerned
rights for every citizen will require full sup-
about walking to a campus library at night
port from our businesses, our schools, and
or reluctant to work late hours for fear of
families.
Statement on {
getting out of the parking lot safely.
As President Kennedy proclaimed in a
And new programs in civil rights also
call to conscience when he proposed the
Appropriations
means anticipating the future, a future in
landmark legislation in 1963, even the most
Correcting En:
which more than 80 percent of those enter-
comprehensive of laws could never meet
June 30, 1989
ing the work force will come from the
the challenge of civil rights. The problem,
ranks of women, minorities, and immi-
he declared, "must be solved in the homes
grants. The challenge of the future will not
of every American in every community
Today, I have sig
across our country." And in this, I ask you
the Dire Emergen
be just finding jobs for our people but, if
and every American for a renewed commit-
priations and Trans:
you look at the demographics, finding
people for our jobs.
ment to this just cause.
tals, and Correcting
And the work force of the future can also
And I thank you for coming to the White
of 1989.
benefit from the unique abilities of persons
House today and for honoring the history of
The bill provides
with disabilities. The time-tested laws that
this movement-a movement in which
several mandatory p
give civil rights protections can and ought
many of you here in this room today were
erans Compensation
to be extended to persons with disabilities.
in the very forefront of leadership for that
Food Stamps; Guai
This will involve, of course, a careful bal-
movement. Thank you for coming. Now
Foster Care; and fir
ance between the needs of persons with
we've got some work to do in the 25 years
bill also provides
disabilities and the needs of business to
ahead. Thank you all very, very much.
several discretionary
make real progress towards opening the
erans Medical Care:
doors of the workplace.
Note: The President spoke at 2:05 p.m. in
U.N. Peacekeeping
In the 25 years since the summer of '64,
the East Room at the White House.
I am especially p.
provide the long O'
ing for our Nation
for the Veterans
The additional funds
836
Marli Coetzee
Plus: Stanley Kauffmann
NOS THIS "WW SAWS E AB en
5 5 black fighters of the Civil War the
The 54th Massachusetts and the
Sakharov's legacy C 'White nationalism. in the schools? East Bloc boondoggles
ABV88
UBLIC
CHECKEN RESEARCH
ONE
JANUARY 8 &15, 1990 $2.95
= 5
NEW THE REPUBLIC
A Weekly Journal of Opinion
Editor-in-Chief and Chairman
JANUARY 8 & 15, 1990
FOUNDED 1914
MARTIN PERETZ
WASHINGTON, D.C.
Editor
ISSUES 3,912 & 3,913
HENDRIK HERTZBERG
Literary Editor
LEON WIESELTIER
Managing Editor
DOROTHY WICKENDEN
Senior Editors
FRED BARNES. ANN HULBERT.
MICKEY KAUS. MICHAEL KINSLEY,
MORTON KONDRACKE. ROBERT WRIGHT
Editor, New Republic Books (Basic Books)
BILL NEWLIN
Cover photo by Marie Cosindas.
Economics
Articles on pages 22 and 28.
ROBERT KUTTNER
Films
Theater
STANLEY KAUFFMANN
ROBERT BRUSTEIN
4 MICHAEL KINSLEY TRB: A LIBERAL TAX CUT Your taxes just went up again. It's time for
Music
Poetry
Democrats to do something about it.
EDWARD ROTHSTEIN
RICHARD HOWARD
Art
Architecture
6 CORRESPONDENCE Cocaine, Nicaragua, Shira, &c.
MARK STEVENS
HERBERT MUSCHAMP
Contributing Editors
7 THE EDITORS SAKHAROV With the loss of the prophet of glasnost, has Russia gained a
ROBERT COLES. HENRY FAIRLIE.
liberal tradition? PANAMA COCKED HAT Early indications suggest that Bush's military
JAMES K. GLASSMAN, CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER.
intervention was a good idea. NOTEBOOK Bork worship, Quayle revisionism; &c.
VINT LAWRENCE. LOUIS MENAND. ADAM MICHNIK.
ROBERT B. REICH. JONATHAN RIEDER.
12 FRED BARNES WHITE HOUSE WATCH: MR. POPULARITY Bush keeps boosting his approv-
MAGGIE SCARF. RONALD STEEL,
RICHARD L. STROUT. E. V. THAW. ANNE TYLER.
al rating by breaking all the rules about how Presidents are supposed to act.
NICHOLAS VON HOFFMAN,
13 STEPHEN COHEN PRAGUE POSTCARD: ROSES IN THE SNOW With Vaclav Havel and the
MICHAEL WALZER. C. VANN WOODWARD
Associate Editor
students in the lead, Czechoslovakia's Civic Forum emerges victorious.
JACOB WEISBERG
14 JACOB WEISBERG BLOC PARTIES Washington's consultants and lobbyists are just
Editorial-Corporate Coordinator
LAURA E. OBOLENSKY
thrilled about Eastern Europe's emerging democracies.
Assistant to the Editors
16 ANGELA STENT DOCTRINAL DISCORD What has to be called the Gorbachev Doctrine is
JUNE HALEY
a calculated risk that has scrambled all of Moscow's calculations.
Assistant Editors
KAREN LEHRMAN, LEONA HIRAOKA ROTH
18 SCOTT MCCONNELL AND ERIC BREINDEL INCLUSION ILLUSION The Sobol report
Production Manager
BRUCE STEINKE
on New York's 'white nationalist' school curriculum won't help minorities a bit.
Assistant Production Manager
22 JAMES M. MCPHERSON THE 'GLORY' STORY The film about the 54th Massachusetts,
KRISTIN CONRADI
the black regiment that fought heroically at Fort Wagner, fudges a few historical details
Production Associate
ERIC V. PETERSON
but articulates well some larger truths about what happened in the Civil War.
Literary Assistant
28 STANLEY KAUFFMANN ON FILMS: COMRADES IN ARMS Glory, a full-bodied, bloody,
SARA MOSLE
moving account of a black regiment in the Union Army.
Reporter-Researchers
DANIEL GROSS. DAVID P. HAMILTON.
30 MARK STEVENS ON ART: CHURCH'S CHURCH Frederic Church, an American master of
WESTON KOSOVA
excess, discovered spiritual ecstasy and kitsch in his art.
President
33 EDWARD ROTHSTEIN DREAMS OF DISAPPEARANCE The eccentric vision of Elias
JEFFREY L. DEARTH
Publisher
Canetti, obsessed by power and by the lure of escape.
JOAN M. STAPLETON
36 NICHOLAS CHRISTOPHER POEM Scarlet Lake
Associate Publisher
TOM HICKS
39 J. M. COETZEE TOO LATE THE LIBERAL Save the Beloved Country by Alan Paton
Controller
JEAN GANDY
41 ROBERT ALTER-THE METAMORPHOSIS The Storyteller by Mario Vargas Llosa, translated
Advertising Manager
by Helen Lane
JENNIFER BARRETT
Circulation Director
43 JEFFERSON MORLEY FELIX'S FRIENDS Shadow Warrior: The CIA Hero of a Hundred Untold
PATTY JONES
Battles by Felix I. Rodriguez and John Weisman
Accounting Manager
CHRISTINA R. OVERHOLSER
46 HENDRIK HERTZBERG WASHINGTON DIARIST: WAR STORIES Yet more on Glory, plus a
Advertising Assistant
holiday Bennett-bashing and Atwater-induced cognitive dissonance.
DARLENE BUSCAGLIO
Accounting Assistant
THE NEW REPUBLIC. Vol. 202, Numbers 2 &3, Issues 3,912 & 3.913. January 8 & 15, 1990. (Printed in the us. on December
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JANUARY 8 & 15, 1990 THE NEW REPUBLIC 3
The 54th Massachusetts and the Civil War.
THE 'GLORY' STORY
By James M. McPherson
an Movies Teach History?" asks the title of a
scope and purpose of the Civil War. The original war
"C
recent New York Times feature article. The
aims of Abraham Lincoln's Administration had been
answer for Glory is yes. It is not only the first
to suppress an insurrection in 11 Southern states and
feature film to treat the role of black soldiers
to restore them to their old place in the Union. The
in the American Civil War; it is also the most powerful
North conceived of this as a limited war that would
and historically accurate movie about that war ever
not fundamentally alter the American polity or soci-
made. If it wins a deserved popularity, it will go far to
ety-including slavery. Four slave states had remained
correct the distortions and romanticizations of such
loyal to the Union. In 1861-62 they would not have
earlier blockbuster films as Birth of a Nation (1915) and
supported a war to abolish slavery. Neither would the
Gone with the Wind. Celebrating their 50th anniversary
Democrats, who constituted nearly half of the North-
on the screen, Scarlett O'Hara and Rhett Butler are still
ern voters. And the Constitution that the North was
teaching false and stereotyped lessons about slavery
fighting to defend guaranteed the protection of slav-
and the Civil War to millions of viewers. Glory will
ery in states that wanted it. Therefore, despite Lin-
throw a cold dash of realism over the moonlight-and-
coln's personal abhorrence of slavery, he could not
magnolias portrayal of the Confederacy. It may also
willfully turn this war for the Union into a war against
help to restore the courageous image of black soldiers
slavery. Nor could his War Department accept black
and their white officers that prevailed in the North
volunteers in the Union Army in 1861, for to do so
during the latter war years and early postwar decades,
would have sent a signal that this was to be an aboli-
before the process of romanticizing the Old South ob-
tion war.
scured that image.
By 1862, though, it was becoming such a war by the
Glory tells the story of the 54th Massachusetts Volun-
actions of slaves themselves and of the Lincoln Ad-
teer Infantry from its organization in the winter of 1863
ministration and Congress, and by the accelerating
to the climactic assault of July 18, 1863, against Fort
momentum of the conflict. It had become a total war,
Wagner, a massive earthwork guarding the approach to
not merely a militia action to suppress insurrection.
Charleston. The Union military and naval effort to cap-
Thousands of slaves flocked to Union Army posts
ture Charleston failed in 1863. So did this assault
when Northern troops invaded portions of the South.
on Fort Wagner led by the 54th, which suffered nearly
Abolitionists and radical Republicans insisted that
50 percent casualties in the attack. One of them was
they must be granted freedom. The success of Con-
Col. Robert Gould Shaw, killed while leading his men
federate military offensives in 1862 convinced Repub-
over the parapet. But if in this narrow sense the attack
licans, including Lincoln, that the North could not win
was a failure, in a more profound sense it was a success
the war without mobilizing all its resources and strik-
of historic proportions. The unflinching behavior of the
ing against Southern resources used to sustain the
regiment in the face of an overwhelming hail of lead
Confederate war effort. The most important such re-
and iron answered the skeptic's question, "Will the
source was slavery, for slaves constituted the majority
Negro fight?" It demonstrated the manhood and cour-
of the South's labor force. In the summer of 1862
age of the race to millions of white people in both North
Congress enacted legislation confiscating the property
and South who had doubted whether black men would
of Confederates, including slaves. Lincoln followed
stand in combat against soldiers of the self-styled mas-
this with the Emancipation Proclamation to free the
ter race.
slaves, invoking his power as commander in chief to
The events that led to this epochal moment in Afro-
seize enemy property used to wage war against the
American history represented a radical evolution of the
United States. The Proclamation also stated that
blacks would be "received into the armed services of
JAMES M. MCPHERSON is the author of Battle Cry of Free-
the United States."
dom: The Civil War Era (Oxford University Press), which
These events underlay the decision of Governor
won the Pulitzer Prize for history in 1989.
John Andrew of Massachusetts to organize a black reg-
22 THE NEW REPUBLIC JANUARY 8 & 15, 1990
iment, which became the 54th Massachusetts. A bold
fore the immense strength of the works stopped
Civil War.
experiment, black soldiers could be made acceptable
them. (The portrayal of this attack in Glory is the
in the context of the time only if they were command-
most realistic combat footage in any Civil War movie
ed by white officers. Andrew was determined to ap-
I have seen.)
point officers "of firm antislavery principles
superi-
A war correspondent for the New York Tribune vividly
or to a vulgar contempt for color." In Robert Gould
described the battle to Northern newspaper readers.
Shaw, son of a prominent abolitionist family, he found
The 54th's attack did more than prove that Fort Wag-
his man. As black volunteers came into training camp
ner was impregnable to infantry assault; it disabused
near Boston during the spring of 1863, Shaw shaped
hundreds of thousands of Northerners of their stereo-
them into a high-morale outfit eager to prove their
types. "Who asks now in doubt and derision, 'Will the
mettle.
Negro fight?' commented one abolitionist. "The an-
In May 1863 the 54th completed its training and
swer is spoken from the cannon's mouth
it comes to
marched through Boston to embark for the front (a
us from
those graves beneath Fort Wagner's walls,
scene nicely depicted in Glory). About the same time
which the American people will surely never forget."
the New York Tribune, the leading Northern newspaper
ne original war
"Through the cannon smoke of the dark night," said
and a supporter of arming blacks to fight for the Union
tion had been
the Atlantic Monthly, "the manhood of the colored race
and freedom, observed that most Yankees now en-
ern states and
shines before many eyes that would not see." For
dorsed that radical
he Union. The
the New York Tribune,
policy, but many still
var that would
the assault resolved
wondered whether
polity or soci-
any lingering doubts:
blacks would make
had remained
"It made Fort Wagner
good soldiers. "Loyal
'ould not have
such a name to the col-
whites have generally
ther would the
ored race as Bunker
become willing that
of the North-
Hill had been for nine-
they should fight," de-
the North was
ty years to the white
clared a Tribune edito-
tection of slav-
Yankees."
rial, "but the great
White officers of the
e, despite Lin-
majority have no faith
he could not
54th represented the
that they will do so.
0 a war against
elite of New England
Many hope they will
it accept black
society. Some, includ-
prove cowards and
, for to do so
ing Shaw, were Har-
sneaks-others great-
to be an aboli-
vard alumni and sons
ly fear it."
of prominent families.
The 54th was not
ch a war by the
Several-also includ-
the first black regi-
e Lincoln Ad-
ing Shaw-were com-
ment organized, or
bat veterans of white
le accelerating
the first to see combat.
me a total war,
regiments during the
To test the waters on
S insurrection.
first two years of the
this issue, the War
n Army posts
Department quietly
THE CHARGE AT FORT WAGNER. JULY 18. 1863
war. Anti-slavery in
S of the South.
LITHOGRAPH BY CURRIER & IVES (THE BETTMANN ARCHIVES)
conviction, they had
allowed Union com-
insisted that
willingly risked stigma
manders of forces occupying portions of the lower Mis-
access of Con-
and ridicule to cast their lot with a black regiment.
sissippi Valley, the Kansas-Missouri border, and the
vinced Repub-
Shaw's death made a deeper impression on Yankee
South Carolina sea islands to begin organizing black
1 could not win
culture than that of any of the other 35,000 men from
regiments in the fall of 1862. Four of these regiments
rces and strik-
New England killed in the Civil War. The clergyman
had fought in actions connected with the Vicksburg
to sustain the
Henry Ward Beecher wrote that Shaw's martyrdom had
campaign during May and June 1863, winning plaudits
ortant such re-
regenerated Boston's past glory as America's cradle of
for their performance. But these events had received lit-
:d the majority
freedom: "Our young men seemed ignoble; the faith of
tle publicity in the Northern press.
old heroic times had died
mmer of 1862
but the trumpet of this war
The recruitment of black combat troops was still
g the property
sounded the call and Oh! how joyful has been the sight
regarded as a risky experiment when the 600 men of
icoln followed
of such unexpected nobleness in our young men."
the 54th moved out at dusk on July 18 to the attack
on to free the
Ralph Waldo Emerson and James Russell Lowell ex-
der in chief to
on Fort Wagner. During the next few hours they
tolled Shaw in verse. Lowell wrote:
more than justified the experiment. Forced by the
ar against the
Right in the van,
ocean on one side and swamps on the other to ap-
o stated that
On the red rampart's slippery swell,
proach the fort along several hundred yards of nar-
ned services of
With heart that beat a charge, he fell
row beach, the regiment moved forward steadily
Foeward, as fits a man;
of Governor
through bursting shells and murderous musketry,
But the high soul burns on to light men's feet
losing men every step of the way but continuing
Where death for noble ends makes dying sweet.
ize a black reg-
right up the ramparts and breaching the parapet be-
continued on page 26
JANUARY 8 & 15, 1990 THE NEW REPUBLIC 23
The Confederate defenders of Fort Wagner stripped
ed in nearly every Northern newspaper. "Some of the
ters
Shaw's body and dumped it into an unmarked mass
commanders of our armies in the field who have given
que
grave with the bodies of the men of the regiment who
us our most important successes," wrote Lincoln,
"Ca
had been killed in the attack. When the Union com-
"believe the emancipation policy, and the use of col-
"me
mander sent a flag of truce across the lines a day later
ored troops, constitute the heaviest blow yet dealt to
the
to request the return of Shaw's body (a customary
the rebellion." This was a reference to Gen. Ulysses
thai
practice for high-ranking officers killed in the Civil
S. Grant, who in a recent letter to Lincoln had en-
per
War), a Confederate officer replied contemptuously,
dorsed the value of black regiments. Addressing him-
tori
"We have buried him with his niggers." This produced
self to anti-emancipation Democrats, Lincoln contin-
or
bitterness as well as more poetry in the North, the best
ued: "You say you will not fight to free negroes.
"th
of which was perhaps these lines by an obscure bard:
Some of them seem willing to fight for you," that is,
the
They buried him with his niggers!
for the Union.
goa
A wide grave should it be.
uct,
They buried more in that shallow trench
he performance of the 54th at Fort Wagner
trul
Than human eye could see.
T
not only advanced the liberation of slaves; it
stei
Ay, all the shames and sorrows
also helped to liberate Lincoln from the con-
are
of more than a hundred years
stitutional and political constraints that had
acc
Lie under the weight of that Southern soil
earlier inhibited the President from making this
Despite those cruel sneers.
war for the Union a war against slavery-an institu-
Several weeks after the battle, Union forces finally
tion that Lincoln had often branded a "monstrous in-
occupied Fort Wagner after a punishing naval bom-
justice." In a moving peroration of this public
bardment had compelled the Confederates to evacuate
letter written a month after Fort Wagner, Lincoln
it. When a Union officer offered to search for Shaw's
wrote that when final victory brought a new birth
tion
grave to recover his body, Shaw's father wrote an elo-
of freedom to the re-United States, "there will
vie
quent letter to stop the enterprise: "We hold that a
be some black men who can remember that, with si-
soul
soldier's most appropriate burial-place is on the field
lent tongue, and clenched teeth, and steady eye, and
OCE
where he has fallen." The most fitting marker for Shaw
well-poised bayonet, they have helped mankind on to
nor
and the soldiers of the 54th is Augustus St. Gaudens's
this great consummation; while, I fear, there will be
Ge
superb bas-relief sculpture on Boston Common show-
some white ones, unable to forget that, with malig-
bui
ing Shaw in the foreground on his horse while his
nant heart, and deceitful speech, they have strove to
rea
soldiers march alongside with shouldered rifles and
hinder it."
S
heads held high in pride-surely the noblest of the
Glory does not go into detail about the impact of the
be
thousands of Civil War monuments in this country.
battle of Fort Wagner on Northern opinion; it is
gar
sketchy on the political context of the black soldier
ear
he apotheosis of Shaw and his men in July
issue; it does not mention the draft riot. The 54th
Do
T
1863 came just after the terrible four-day
continued to serve through the war, fighting in sever-
scr
draft riot in New York City. The riot had
al more battles and skirmishes. The movie, though,
aq
been fueled in part by the hostility of Irish-
ends with the attack on Fort Wagner. That is appro-
ins
Americans to blacks and to being drafted to fight in
priate, for Shaw is the central figure in the film. His
Ro
a war to free the slaves, who they feared would come
death makes a fitting climax to the drama whose ten-
the
North to compete for jobs and social space. Black
sions build steadily to that moment of consummation.
his
New Yorkers were the chief victims of the rioters. On
If the 54th had done nothing else in the war, this
(th
July 15 the mob beat to death the nephew of one of
would have elevated it to the deserved status of most
ear
the 54th's sergeants, Robert Simmons; three days lat-
famous of the 166 black regiments in the Union
OV
er Simmons was mortally wounded in the attack on
Army. If it is not literally true, as the caption appear-
er
Fort Wagner.
ing on the screen at the end of the movie would have
ele
The draft riot occurred in the context of opposition
it, that the bravery of the 54th at Fort Wagner caused
lou
by Northern Democrats to the Lincoln Administra-
Congress to authorize more black regiments-that
pai
tion's war policies, including emancipation, black sol-
had happened months earlier-the example of the
see
diers, and the draft. Democrats had done much to stir
54th did help to transform experiment into policy. It
get
up the racial hatreds manifested by the rioters, who
also helped to earn a front-line combat role for many
]
chanted the anti-war and anti-black slogans of the
other black regiments instead of the rear-area role as
are
"Copperhead" wing of the party. Few Republican
service and labor battalions that had been their origi-
En
commentators failed to juxtapose the draft riot with
nal purpose. A central theme of Glory is Shaw's deter-
nai
the heroic conduct of the 54th at Fort Wagner, and to
mined fight to win a combat assignment for the 54th,
Ma
point to the moral: black men who fought for the
so it can earn respect for black manhood and over-
Joh
Union deserve more respect than white men who riot-
come the stereotype of shiftless, cowering, comic
de
ed against it.
darkies.
ie
Lincoln himself made this point in a public letter to
Glory portrays this theme with sensitivity and dra-
die
a political meeting in August 1863, which was reprint-
matic power-even though many scenes and charac-
rec
26 THE NEW REPUBLIC JANUARY 8 & 15, 1990
Some of the
ters that convey it are fictional. This raises the
had always been free. Some of them came from prom-
D have given
question posed by Richard Bernstein's Times article
inent Northern black families; two of Frederick Doug-
ste Lincoln,
"Can Movies Teach History?" He observes that
lass's sons were among the first to sign up. The older
use of col-
"more people are getting their history, or what
son, Lewis, was sergeant-major of the regiment from
yet dealt to
they think is history, from the movies these days
the start. The young adjutant of the regiment, wound-
Gen. Ulysses
than from the standard history books." For every
ed in the assault on Fort Wagner, was Garth Wilkin-
oln had en-
person who has read one of the several excellent his-
son James, brother of William and Henry James. A
ressing him-
tories of black soldiers in the Civil War, a hundred
dramatic and important story about the relationship
coln contin-
or more will see this movie. That being true, does
of Northern blacks to slavery and the war, and about
ee negroes.
"the filmmaker, like the novelist, have license to use
the wartime ideals of New England culture, could
ou," that is,
the material of history selectively and partially in the
have been constructed from a cast of real, historical
goal of entertaining, creating a good dramatic prod-
figures. The story also might have included Sergeant
uct, even forging what is sometimes called the poetic
Simmons, his nephew, and the draft riot.
Fort Wagner
truth, a truth truer than the literal truth?" asks Bern-
of slaves; it
stein. In other words, "Does it matter if the details
ut the story that producer Freddie Fields, di-
om the con-
are wrong if the underlying meaning of events is
B
rector Edward Zwick, and screenwriter Kevin
its that had
accurate?"
Jarre chose to tell is equally important-and,
making this
in that sense of "the underlying meaning of
-an institu-
lory does confront the literal-minded histori-
onstrous in-
G
events," equally true. This is a film not simply
an with this question on several occasions.
about the 54th Massachusetts, but about blacks in the
this public
Most of the details are right. And when they
Civil War. Most of the 178,000 black soldiers (and
ier, Lincoln
are wrong, there is often a rational explana-
10,000 black sailors) were slaves until a few months,
a new birth
tion that minimizes the distortion. Knowledgeable
even a few days, before they joined up. They fought
"there will
viewers will note that in the movie the 54th charges
for their freedom, for the freedom of their families,
hat, with si-
southward against Fort Wagner, with the Atlantic
their people. This was the most revolutionary feature
idy eye, and
ocean on its left, when in reality the assault went
of a war that wrought a revolutionary transformation
inkind on to
northward. The reason is the configuration of the
in America by freeing four million slaves and uproot-
here will be
Georgia beach where the set of Fort Wagner was
ing the social structure of half the country. Arms in
with malig-
built, which required a southward assault. Does it
the hands of slaves had been the nightmare of South-
ve strove to
really matter?
ern whites for generations. In 1863 the nightmare
Some errors in the film are inexplicable, though,
came true. It achieved a new dignity, self-respect, and
mpact of the
because they seem to serve no purpose. The 54th be-
militancy for the former slaves who fought for the
binion; it is
gan organizing in February 1863, not three months
Union. It helped them achieve equal citizenship and
lack soldier
earlier. In his brief cameo role, black leader Frederick
political rights-for a time-after the war.
t. The 54th
Douglass is presented as a venerable sage whose
That is the real story told by Glory. That is why
ing in sever-
screen appearance is modeled on a photograph taken
most of the soldiers are depicted as former slaves. It
vie, though,
a quarter century later when Douglass was in his 70s
is a story of their transformation from an oppressed
at is appro-
instead of the vigorous 45 he was in 1863. The real
to a proud people. It is a story told skillfully through
he film. His
Robert Gould Shaw received the offer of command of
several of the fictional events in the film-the incident
whose ten-
the 54th by letter from Governor Andrew borne by
of the racist quartermaster who initially refuses to dis-
asummation.
his father to Shaw in winter camp with his regiment
tribute shoes to Shaw's men; the punishment of Trip
he war, this
(the 2nd Massachusetts) in Virginia. Rob discussed it
by whipping for going AWOL; the regiment's dramatic
atus of most
earnestly with his father, wrestled with his conscience
refusal on principle to accept less pay than white sol-
the Union
overnight, declined, then changed his mind a day lat-
diers, which launched an ultimately successful move-
tion appear-
er and accepted. In the movie, Shaw is attending an
ment to shame Congress into equalizing the pay of
would have
elegant drawing-room party in Boston while on fur-
black soldiers (this actually happened, but at Shaw's
gner caused
lough when Andrew offers the command; without a
initiative, not Trip's); the religious meeting the night
ments-that
pause, Shaw accepts. Literal history in this case would
before the assault on Fort Wagner.
nple of the
seem to have offered greater dramatic possibilities for
It is a story told symbolically in one of the most
to policy. It
getting at a deeper truth than the cinematic version.
surreal and, at first glance, irrelevant scenes in the
ole for many
Except for Shaw, the principal characters in the film
movie, when Shaw gallops his horse along a path
area role as
are fictional: there was no real Maj. Cabot Forbes; no
flanked by stakes, each with a watermelon (in Febru-
1 their origi-
Emerson-quoting black boyhood friend of Shaw's
ary in Massachusetts?) jammed on its top. Shaw slash-
haw's deter-
named Thomas Searles; no tough Irish Sergeant-
es right and left with his sword slicing and smashing
or the 54th,
Major Mulcahy; no black Sergeant and father-figure
every watermelon. The point becomes clear when we
d and over-
John Rawlins; no brash, hardened Private Trip. In-
recall the identification of watermelons with the darky
ring, comic
deed, there is a larger fiction involved here. The mov-
stereotype. If the image of smashed watermelons in
ie gives the impression that most of the 54th's sol-
Glory can replace that of moonlight and magnolias in
ity and dra-
diers were former slaves. But in fact, the regiment was
Gone with the Wind as America's cinematic version of
and charac-
recruited mainly in the North and most of the men
the Civil War, it will be a great gain for truth.
JANUARY 8 & 15, 1990 THE NEW REPUBLIC 27
The screenplay by Kevin Jarre is based
BOOKS
on two books, Lay This Laurel by Lincoln
Kirstein (yes, that Kirstein) and One Gal-
lant Rush by Peter Burchard. Also, there
are several quotations from Shaw's let-
ters to his parents, read on the sound
TheArts
track by Matthew Broderick, who plays
Shaw.
The cinematographer was Freddie
Francis, the Englishman who did Sons and
*321. Stephen
Lovers and The French Lieutenant's Woman
Hawking offers a
and who fixes surely the visual quality
convincing big pic
ture of the origins
that certifies each scene-some se-
of the cosmos.
quences in pouring rain, for instance,
Hardcover: $18.9
QPB:$9.50
and a deadly battle in the woods where
the dewy freshness of the air makes the
STILL MARRIE
fight more terrible. The easy comparison
GARRISON KEILLO
for Francis's work is with Mathew Bra-
dy's, but I think this is off kilter, not be-
Stanley Kauffmann on Films
cause Brady shot in black and white but
because Francis works with a history of
photography behind him, a history that
*447. A hilarious net
is in the viewer's eye as well. This was not
collection fromt
author of Lake
available to the relative newcomer Bra-
Wobegon Days.
Comrades in Arms
dy. Francis's realism, in carefully graded
Hardcover: $18.95
colors, is not Brady's magnificent, ever-
QPB:$9.50
surprising journalism but unobtrusively
n Boston Common in 1897
to celebrate the fire of the past-thus
sophisticated art.
O
the city dedicated a monu-
inevitably to imply the ironies of
The director was Edward Zwick,
The
Elements
ment by Augustus St. Gau-
what followed-some gifted people have
whose only previous theater feature was
of Editing
dens to Col. Robert Gould
made Glory (Tri-Star). The film tells the
the amusing About Last Night
and
who
A Modern
Guide for
Shaw and the men of the 54th Massachu-
story of Shaw, a 24-year-old captain
was one of the creators of the TV series
Editors and
Journalists
setts Volunteer Infantry. It was a black
when he was wounded at Antietam in
"thirtysomething." Whoever it was-
regiment in the Union Army, and he was
1862, who was commissioned to form
Fields, I suppose-who took a chance on
Arthur Plotnic
their white commander. He and nearly
the 54th Massachusetts of black volun-
Zwick, to direct a film that was several
109.A
half of his men were killed in the assault,
The Ele
teers and to lead them: and the story of
universes away from what he had previ-
Elemen
on Fort Wagner, near Fort Sumter, in
that regiment through its formation, its
ously done, should be congratulated.
Elemen
July 1863. William James spoke at the
training, its harassments within the
The decision had to be something of a
3-ve
QPI
monument's dedication:
Union Army itself, its first engagements,
risk, but by and large, Glory proves that it
The republic to which Robert Shaw and a
to Fort Wagner. The film has a major and
was right.
TIME COMPLI
quarter of a million like him were faithful
a minor flaw; nonetheless it is power-
The very first sequence sets the tone
unto death is no republic that can live at
ful-poignant in detail and, more impor-
and texture: a series of shots of a Union
YOURSEI
ease hereafter on the interest of what they
tantly, in spirit.
Army camp, with soldiers lounging,
have won. Democracy is still upon trial.
The producer, Freddie Fields, was ap-
laundering, playing, and so on-with no
Then James specified the institutional
parently the originating force behind
sound except the film music. Zwick
and commercial comforts that cannot
the enterprise and apparently deserves
wanted to do more than establish peri-
*117. Over 1600
"save us from degeneration if the inner
much credit for the fact that Glory is not a
od, he wanted to show at once the men
problem solving dr
mystery is lost."
ings with explanate
mere exploitation of a historical circum-
within the history, show them realisti-
on everv aspect of
In 1963, the 100th anniversary of Fort
stance with modern relevance, not a
cally but with a hint of reverence. Aided
home repair.
Wagner, Robert Lowell wrote "For the
made-for-TV thesis tract, but an authen-
by his editor Steven Rosenblum, whose
Hardcover: $24.9
QPB:S12.95
Union Dead," a wintry view of the monu-
tic, patient, bloody, and moving work.
skill becomes more and more impres-
ment and the city, a wintrier view of the
BREATHING
fate of James's "inner mystery." Cold
practicalities have chilled the spirit;
change has flooded through Boston.
even through the Common, where a
FILMS WORTH SEEING
ANNE TYLER
huge garage is being excavated and
where the poet sees
Enemies, A Love Story. New York, 1949. A Jewish survivor of Nazi lerror and three
230 A story about
Colonel Shaw
women from the same background. Romantic, funny, wry. Paul Mazursky directed a
marriage and what
and his bell-cheeked Negro infantry
wonderful cast with understanding. (Reviewed 1/1/90) Henry V. The young British
means to spenda
lifetime with another
on St. Gaudens' shaking Civil War relief,
actor Kenneth Branagh has adapted and directed and stars in a version of the Shake-
person.
propped by a plank splint against the
Hardcover: $18.95
speare play that challenges the Olivier film yet is very much itself. For the most part,
QPB:$9.95
garage's earthquake.
Branagh succeeds stirringly. (12/4/89) My Left Foot. Christy Brown, an Irish victim of
The change is more than physical. Sur-
cerebral palsy, who wrote and painted with his left foot, did an autobiography that now
Selection: Eac
veying the grubby scene and breathing
makes a salty. non-maudlin, highly moving film, crammed with fine acting.
-it will be ship
the altered air, Lowell writes: "Their
(11/27/89) Mystery Train. If you like Jim Jarmusch work, this will really test you. A
at all, complete
monument sticks like a fishbone/ the
fied date. (A sh
spare account of three sets of lives that cross in a seedy Memphis hotel. A piece of daring
city's throat."
Return Privil
yet gratifying minimalism. (12/11/89) -SK
tion without h
To refresh us about the inner mystery.
Cancellations
QPB. We may
one book in ar
28 THE NEW REPUBLIC JANUARY 8 & 15, 1990
sive as complications follow, Zwick
diers have struggled to become free
Trip, the bitterly percipient Denzel
is part of the
stamps the opening moments with
men-most of them are ex-slaves-and
Washington character-is not a reproof
ing, though
grave simplicity.
they want the double chance: to affirm
of the 54th Massachusetts but of what
spects from
Antietam, the enlistment of the blacks,
their manhood and to strike at the king-
came after. (Trip would have agreed with
sublime. Frc
the vicissitudes of the training camp,
dom of slavery they have escaped.
Walt Whitman, who admired the black
ably talented
Zwick handles them all firmly. A few time
Possibly the film's best achievement is
troops that he saw and said, "The Negro
votary of the
lapses jar. But his intimate scenes, in the
in making credible this urgency to fight.
will get his due from the Negro-from no
quickly mast
soldiers' tents, catch the abutment of dif-
If you have ever seen a modern audience,
one else.")
ments of 19
fering men; his encounters between offi-
particularly of young people, at an older
After the Fort Wagner battle, the Con-
cers have the right edge of rivalry under
film in which men talk about wanting to
federates showed their contempt for
the discipline; his battle scenes have the
fight in a war and being willing, if need
Shaw, the white officer who led black
special horror of the Civil War. Anyone
be, to die, you will know how extraordi-
troops, by throwing his body in a com-
who has visited the battlefields has seen
nary it is that Zwick and colleagues make
mon ditch with his soldiers. (A touch too
№
the appalling closeness of the opposing
the soldiers' sentiments compelling
neatly, Trip's body falls next to his.) His-
lines. (For some of the spectacular
Glory contains no scenes of battle as
tory tells us that, later on, when disinter-
scenes, Zwick had the participation of
glory: it is all brutal killing with gun and
ment was proposed, Shaw's father de-
Quality Paper
I've listed belo
Civil War buffs, who regularly re-enact
bayonet. The film isn't warmongering;
clined. Lowell again:
required to buy
occasions in that history.)
it's the depiction of oppressed men with
Shaw's father wanted no monument
least six month
All but one of the cast are excellent.
the means at hand to end oppression.
except the ditch,
membership. t
Jarre has written four principal black
That the Civil War ended slavery but not
where his son's body was thrown
1
roles, soldiers in the regiment who epito-
racial injustice-something foreseen by
and lost with his "niggers."
mize much of conditions before the war
and of what is now happening around
Name
them. Zwick has cast the parts wisely and
Address
has helped his actors. Andre Braugher as
the well-educated Boston black who is
Mark Stevens on Art
City
the first to volunteer; redoubtable Mor-
How members
gan Freeman as the seasoned, wise ex-
1. QPB Review
slave; Jihmi Kennedy as the country
times a year (ab
reviews a new
boy, candid and sweet, whose previous
2. Selection: If
shooting experience has been squirrel
Church's Church
will be shipped
hunting (although he squints the wrong
or more of the
eye when he aims his rifle!); and, the
indicate your d
enclosed and D
boldest of the four, Denzel Washington
he catalog of the Frederic
Although they have removed some of
3. Bonus book:
as the runaway slave with the whip-
T
Church show at the Na-
the funkier stuff, notably the drapes and
book or set you
scarred back, proud and full of hate,
tional Gallery in Washing-
the Presidents, the organizers of the ex-
who enlisted without illusion and fights
ton contains a wonderful
hibition in Washington have nonetheless
with a kind of relief. All these are vivid
photograph that recalls the original in-
fashioned an evocative re-creation of this
men, not the trite composites of an
stallation, in 1859, of Heart of the Andes.
original setting. One can almost see the
is seated on
army-film group. Cary Elwes, as the
This spectacular landscape painting,
picture as Americans did around the
painting is an
white officer who is second in com-
which includes everything from the tini-
time of the Civil War. And the truly mar-
of nature's di
mand; incises a man struggling with a
est birds to the most distant mountains,
velous and complicated thing is that one
man appears
new idea and mastering it.
and ranges from the green heat of the
hardly knows whether to laugh or to fall
white. There i:
But the casting of Broderick as Colo-
tropics to the blue chill of mountain
to one's knees. Without question the pic-
trace of utop
nel Shaw, unlike the choice of Zwick to
snow, was set into an imposing wooden
ture (which belongs to the Metropolitan
Church may
direct, is a gamble that fails. Broderick,
edifice so that viewers could indulge the
Museum in New York) has miraculous
bridge will CO
trying hard, has neither the style nor the
illusion of looking through a window into
elements: the progression of tone, the
that was a radi
weight for the role. He is the only one on
the landscape. On either side some
rendering of detail, the layering of space
Every eleme
whom a uniform looks like a costume. He
drapes were pulled back, giving the im-
from near to far, and above all, the god-
born of intens
misses the quintessence of the role-the
pression also of a stage. Portraits (not by
like sensation that one has been invited
see many deta
son of Boston Brahmin abolitionists who
Church) of three American Presidents
to the Creation. At the same time the
sense an ency
feels noblesse oblige to put his life at the
rose above the painting like a benedic-
painting is show-biz, kitsch, greedy for
clude all the
service of his beliefs. Lowell says of him:
tion. In the center was George the Father.
detail, anxious to impress, overproud of
There is never
He rejoices in man's lovely,
Contemporary accounts report that
its spirituality, and painfully innocent.
description: CI
peculiar power to choose life and die-
the lighting in the room was kept low,
In other words, made in America.
sibility of the t
when he leads his black soldiers to death,
except on the painting, and that visitors
Church is a great but powerfully flawed
of the miser. M
he cannot bend his back.
spoke in whispers. Some brought opera
artist; and the ways in which he is flawed,
presentation (
Broderick conveys little of this quality.
glasses. It cost a quarter to see this pic-
no less than those in which he excelled,
middle distan
Less important but quite unhelpful is
ture; the show was, among other things,
help make him one of the essential
quite seem sul
James Horner's music. Mostly it repeats
a big commercial hit, taking in more than
Americans. He is as important in this
every kind of sp
one theme in numerous variations; occa-
$3,000 during its three-week run and
symbolic way as any 19th-century Ameri-
is beyond our
sionally a swelling boys' choir is added.
proving popular with a broad spectrum
can writer. He presumed to create a new
In a way, Cl
The economical strength of the film it-
of the public. Most who came spoke of
world and, in doing so, he seemed to
great enginee
self has at times to withstand assault
the experience in reverential tones, for
bring together every important vice and
wonderful bri
from the lush sound track.
the setting of the painting not only re-
virtue in the American soul.
century Americ
The core of the film is the black men's
sembled a window and a theater but also
A student of Thomas Cole, who taught
sess unreachab
eagerness to fight. What they suspect is
an altar from which one might, under the
that landscape must convey an idea as
technically diffi
that the regiment has been formed mere-
presiding spirit of the Presidential patri-
well as portray a fact, Church began by
nearly impossi
ly to provide a labor force. These sol-
archs, worship Nature in the New World.
imitating his master's work. Like Cole, he
lessness on a tv
30 THE NEW REPUBLIC JANUARY 8 & 15, 1990
the basis of his successful fund-raising speech for
Republican presidential candidate Barry Goldwa-
ter in 1964.
Reagan's highly dramatized versions of events
in his life were interspersed with shrewd observa-
tions about his career. He said, for instance, that
See REAGAN, B2, Col. 1
Former president Ronald Reagan.
Dissecti
Washi
NEW DELHI-A
from far corners of t
United States, have
to attend what orgar
tional conference on
Prakash Kothari,
chief sponsor of the
tenor by saying he
Chap
ey, gu
Chapt
"That
idea. What is Chapt
"When you can't 1
you go into bankrup
"Okay, what do W
"We need a banke
us millions of dollar:
won't be able to pay
BY GERALD MARTINEAU-THE WASHINGTON POST
"I want to be the
Scott Whitehurst, Brian Evaret Chandler and David Rainey in "Black Eagles."
"I wouldn't be to
isn't able to collect
banker could get int
Theater
water with the Fed
Insurance Corporat
"What can they d
At Ford's, Fledgling Black Eagles'
banker?"
"They can send a
regulator to look at
want the opportunity to kill for their
craft and ground transportation
"Does the regula
By Lloyd Rose
bank?"
country is relevant with a ven-
units and performed the consider-
Washington Post Staff Writer
"No, he is always
geance. It's a shame that the play it-
able feat of sinking a destroyer with
late to do anybody
It's an ill war that blows nobody
self is listless, not up to Lee's usual
machine gun fire alone. In short,
"What can I play!
good. "Black Eagles," Leslie Lee's
work and certainly not up to its
they proved the armed forces bigots
"How about the 1
historical play about the Tuskegee
great subject.
wrong. Despite this, they had to en-
Everyone needs a 1
Airmen that opened last night at
During World War II, the Tuske-
dure the indignity of segregation un-
into Chapter 11. It'
Ford's Theatre, benefits from its un-
gee Airmen-known to the white
til 1948, when the Air Force became
job because the law
settling timeliness. With men flying
brass as an "experiment"-flew
the first branch of the services to in-
keep the creditors
bombing missions in the Persian
more than 15,000 combat sorties
tegrate. In 1945, a riot erupted over
his client's knees, a
Gulf, and considerable African
and 200 successful bomber escort
the segregated officers club at Free-
paid first."
American opposition to the war,
missions. They destroyed or did
man Army Air Field in Indiana,
"I don't want to I
Lee's story about black pilots who
damage to hundreds of German air-
See THEATER, B10, Col. 1
B10 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 7, 1991
R
THE WASHINGTON POST
6
Black Eagles' at Ford's
Bettelheim Aca
THEATER, From B1
Historian Bruce Catton has made the point that
Of Plagiarism
the presence of black soldiers in the Union Army
which resulted in the replacement of Col. Robert
made it difficult to disenfranchise them as citizens
Selway as commander with then-Col. (now retired
Associated Press
once the Civil War was over. Military historian
Lt. Gen.) Benjamin O. Davis Jr.
SAN FRANCISCO, Feb. 6.-The
John Keegan has called war "a form of masculine
In a recent interview with The Washington
Bettelheim, a pioneer in treating mental
self-expression," and for the Tuskegee Airmen,
Post, Davis gave a stoic account of his ordeal at
children, plagiarized the work of anothe
being a warrior involved not only "proving" them-
West Point and in the military-the fact, for ex-
his popular book about children and fa
selves, as white men felt called to, but also prov-
noted folklore expert said today.
ample, that no one at the academy spoke to him
ing themselves to white men. Against all of this
Bettelheim took whole passages of
outside of the lines of duty and instruction for his
you have the opinion of many blacks today that
Enchantment" from a book by psychiatr
whole four years there. There is nothing like this
military service is not a triumph of integration but
Heuscher but did not give him credit
awful, shameful tale in "Black Eagles." The men
a form of social oppression. None of these com-
Dundes, a professor at the University (
sit around and discuss their anger at the segrega-
plexities is present in "Black Eagles."
at Berkeley.
tion, they jaw and joke and quarrel, they let the
The production has had some recent cast re-
Dundes, an admirer of Bettelheim, S
two white officers who come by to integrate on
placements, and on Tuesday night it felt under-re-
"devastated" by his inadvertent discover
their own know that Things Are Not Right, and
hearsed. Undoubtedly the cast will settle into a
it could diminish the importance of the
later, with these officers, they run offstage to at-
comfortable ensemble as the run continues. And
psychoanalyst's work.
tempt to enter that segregated officers club. They
presumably the sound will be adjusted so that it
But Heuscher said he was "very skep
also fly missions and rejoice in their victories:
Dundes's allegation. When he read B
doesn't overwhelm the actors' voices. The play
"Praise God, I had my first friggin' kill!
Praise
1976 book, Heuscher saw similarities
unfolds on a terrific set by Charles McClennahan:
1963 work but didn't think his work had
God, that's what this friggin' war's about!"
a Quonset hut whose proportions and perspec-
"There were some areas where we WE
Though Lee shows what the men are up
tives also suggest an airstrip, and whose revolving
similarly about some of the tales. [But
against, he never gives any sense of their taking
overhead fans echo the movement of propellers.
feeling he happened to think the same
control of their own destinies, except in that at-
In the play's last scene, set in 1989, a group of
said Heuscher. What he himself wrote
tack on the officers club; he doesn't even show
reunited Eagles toasts Gen. Colin Powell. It's a
particularly original," Heuscher added.
that the attack resulted in Selway's replacement
jingoistic moment-a real theater moment-but
But Dundes said there were too man
by Davis. Nor do the men interact with any com-
it underscores the play's simple view of the armed
of important parallel passages for th
plexity: The characters are ill-differentiated, de-
services as basically a good place for black Ameri-
coincidental or an example of two people
fined by gimmicks (one has a ventriloquist's dum-
cans. When one of the men, faced with segrega-
the same conclusion.
my, one is a poet etc.) The characters in the
tion, wonders whether they're on the right side,
Bettelheim, a student of Sigmund 1
movie "Glory" were stock, but each had his indi-
another has the last, word with, "We're on the
survivor of Nazi death camps, killed h
vidual response to military service, and you won-
right side. They just don't know it yet." It's a good
March in a Maryland nursing home at the
dered what was going to happen to them. Charles
line, but it sweeps a lot of issues under the carpet.
His doctor said he had been depressed si
Fuller gave the sociological observations of "A
ing a stroke a short time earlier.
Soldier's Play" a dramatic engine in the form of a
Black Eagles, by Leslie Lee. Conceived and directed by
Bettelheim taught that violent fantasie
murder mystery. But Lee can't get any plot go-
Ricardo Khan. Set, Charles McClennahan; lights, Shir-
of a healthy child's psychology. In "Th
ley Prendergast, sound, Rob Gorton; music design, Rob-
Enchantment," he argued that fairy tales
ing, and his characters react to their war pretty
ert La Pierre; costumes, Beth A. Ribblett. With Graham
the struggle for identity children wage ag
much identically: They want to prove themselves,
they want to fight, they want to kill.
Brown, Norman Bush, Brian Evaret Chandler, Milton
parents.
Elliott, Larry Green, Michael Barry Greer, Kevin Jack-
The book, which won the National Bc
There were ironies and ambiguities in the situ-
son, Lawrence James, Illeana Douglas, Damien Leake,
and the National Book Critics Circle
ation of the Tuskegee Airmen. War, though terri-
David Rainey, Raymond Anthony Thomas, Scott White-
probably the best-known book to take a
ble, is not an entirely unbeneficent social force.
hurst. At Ford's Theatre through March 3.
alytic study of fairy tales, said Dundes.
"Thumbs up!
A smart funny mov
-ROGER EBERT/"SISKEL & EBER
RIP-ROARING."
"Alice' is a delight.
-larry Frascella. US MAGAZINE
Allen & Co. make 11
believe that fairy 1
HAMLET
can still happen."
DAVID ANSEN/NEWSWEEK
PG
AN
ORiON PiCTURES RELEASE
Now Showing
BROS
© 1990 ORION PICTURES CORPORATION All RIGHTS RESERVED
WASHINGTON D.C.
now showing
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MARYLAND
MARYLAND
CINEPLEX ODEON
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GINERLEX ÖDEON
OFFICIAL TRANSCRIPT
PROCEEDINGS BEFORE
SPEECH
GENERAL COLIN L. POWELL. USA
CHAIRMAN, JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF
and
PRESENTATION OF THE
UDC PRESIDENTS DISTINGUISHED SERVICE AWARD
TO GENERAL POWELL
February 27, 1990
University of the District of Columbia
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1
SPEECH
2
GENERAL COLIN L. POWELL, USA
3
CHAIRMAN, JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF
4
5
and
6
PRESENTATION OF THE
7
UDC PRESIDENT'S DISTINGUISHED SERVICE AWARD
8
TO GENERAL POWELL
9
10
11
University of the District of Columbia
12
13
Tuesday, February 27, 1990
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
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SPEECH
2
GENERAL POWELL: Thank you very much, Mr.
3
President. It is a great pleasure for me to be here at
4
the University of the District of Columbia as you
5
commemorate Black History Month, and I want to say a
6
special word of greeting to all the ROTC cadets I see
7
here.
8
As I was driving along Van Ness Street in my
9
fancy armored limousine, I saw the brothers and sisters
10
hustle along at double time trying to get here.
11
(Laughter.)
12
I am glad you all made it. You all don't look
13
too winded, and I think you are probably ready for the PT
14
test when it comes up.
15
I was tempted to get out and run with you, but
16
security wouldn't let me do that.
17
(Laughter.)
18
I always like to point out when I am around an
19
ROTC group that, as was mentioned in my flyer, read by
20
your president, I am a graduate of the ROTC program, four
21
years of ROTC, four-and-a-half years of college, but we
22
won't talk about that, just four years of ROTC.
23
I am also proud of the fact that of the things I
24
have been able to do with my life, and the things people
25
say behind my name in introductions such as you just
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heard, of the 12 chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, I
2
am the first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff who is
3
a graduate of the ROTC program.
4
(Applause.)
5
And looking at the fine young men and women I
6
see in front of me, I am absolutely positive that I will
7
not be the last chairman to be a graduate of the ROTC
8
program.
9
I want to thank your president for that very
10
fine introduction. He and I have a couple of things in
11
common: We are both from New York, we are both out of the
12
South Bronx section of New York.
13
I kidded him earlier, I said, you had some money
14
in your family, I see you went to Fordham University, and
15
I went to CCNY. And he said, oh, no, I had a baseball
16
scholarship, that's how I went to college.
17
(Laughter.)
18
But nevertheless, two guys from the South Bronx,
19
both of whom have done reasonably well in their careers, I
20
can say to you that in this room today however, a
21
university president has a lot more power than a four-
22
star general any day of the week. Right, President?
23
(Laughter.)
24
It really is a pleasure to be here. It is a
25
pleasant break from what I would be otherwise doing back
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at the Pentagon: worrying about budgets, analyzing the
2
dramatic events that are taking place throughout the world
3
that reference was made to a few moments ago, as we look
4
at what is happening in the Soviet Union, as we look at
5
what is happening in South Africa, as we look around the
6
world, as we look in our own hemisphere in Nicaragua and
7
see those dramatic, historic forces at work.
8
Or I just might be worrying about the future. of
9
the armed forces. As we go into this new era of hope and
10
peace, how do we restructure our armed forces, make them
11
smaller, spend less of the taxpayer dollar; but at the
12
same time, make sure that in the process of doing that,
13
the armed forces that remain is a good one, one consisting
14
of proud volunteers who, even if the Soviet Union may be
15
imploding upon itself, understand that the world is still
16
in some danger and that
who
17
There is still instability in the world and r are
18
willing to serve their nation with pride, with the nation
19
returning that pride to our service men and service women,
20
the kind of service men and service women that you can
21
call upon to do an operation such as we did in Panama a
ago
22
few months and bring democracy to that nation.
23
So while we see these historic forces around the
24
world at work, moving the world in the right direction
25
toward peace, democracy and freedom, we have to remember
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that it has to be supported and undergirded by armed
2
strength, as one of the elements of national strength that
3
the United States enjoys.
4
Our political strength, our moral strength, our
5
economic strength and the strength of our arms has helped
6
move the Soviet Union in the direction it is now going,
7
and we have to make sure they keep moving in that
8
direction and never turn around and look baek and see the
9
United States with its guard down, not willing to pay the
10
cost of our collective security -- the collective security
11
that involves our alliances in both the Atlantic and the
12
Pacific.
13
That's what I would be doing if I was back at
14
the Pentagon, worrying about those kinds of issues, and
15
they consume a great deal of my time.
16
So this is a pleasant break to be here with you
17
and talk about something and reflect on something a little
18
bit different than my daily work and my daily activity,
19
and that is to talk about Black History Week.
20
One question one might ask is: Why have it? We
21
may have needed it once, many years ago when Carter G.
22
Woodson first came up with the idea, but why continue to
23
observe it after all these years? Is it still necessary
24
or is it just an anachronism that is no longer necessary?
Month
25
There is no "White History Week,' why a Black
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Month
1
History Week? Why go through this after more than 50
2
years? Hasn't the purpose been served? Haven't we made
3
enough out of this issue?
4
And the reason why it is still necessary in my
5
judgment is a sad reason, and the reason is that for the
6
first 300 years of African-American experience in this
7
beloved, great country of ours, our history was denied to
8
us.
9
We had no history. Those who had responsibility
10
for our destiny in those years didn't want us to have a
11
history. They told us it wasn't important. They didn't
12
record it. They didn't record it and it wasn't important
13
to them because it wasn't a pleasant history.
14
Slavery does not make for pleasant history. The
15
systemic denial of human rights does not make for a
16
pleasant history. Slaves, masters say, don't deserve a
17
history.
18
Oppressors throughout the world -- even today,
19
oppressors always try to eliminate the history of those
20
being oppressed.
21
The Soviet empire tried to eliminate the history
22
of all of those republics that are now rising up and
23
demanding their freedom. Oppressors always try to
24
eliminate the history of those oppressed.
25
Why do they do that? Because a history is
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1
important to a people. Without a history, the people do
2
not know where they have been or why they are where they
3
are or where they need to be going into the future.
4
A history provides roots. A history provides a
5
reason for being, it provides a purpose. A history gives
6
you pride in the contributions and sacrifices of those who
7
went before you. A history tells you who you are, tells
8
us who we were.
9
It is the basis to understand where we are today
10
and it's the basis to point a direction for the future.
11
But beyond that, having a history, practicing that
12
history, studying that history, gives us the basis for
13
hope, for hope.
14
For most of the African-American experience in
15
this country, that hope had to be denied. It had to be
16
suppressed. But not to know because your
history
because
17
to
has been denied to you is not not to have a history.
18
Carter G. Woodson knew that. He knew that we
19
would need this history. He knew that it had to be
20
recorded. He knew that it had to be taught. He knew that
21
it had to be passed on.
22
So, in the early part of this century, he made
23
that his life's work, and it is a work that we must
24
continue. And the history of the negro in America,
25
as he called it, is a rich history, a rich history
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and a troubled history, but it is our history.
2
And no where is that history richer than in
3
American military history, and in my career I have studied
4
black contributionSto American military history, and it is
5
a very important contribution, a contribution that we all
6
should be very proud of.
7
The Massachusetts Militia of "Glory" fame -- and
8
for those of you who haven't seen that movie, you have got
9
to seeit. You've simply got to see it if you want to know a
10
little bit more about the contributions that have been
11
made by African-Americans to our country.
12
But the history even began long before "Glory"
13
and the Civil War. It goes well back to the earliest days
14
of our country, back to the early 17th Century, to Crispus
Attucks
15
Atticus who was the first black man to die to gain freedom
16
for our nation, to the Buffalo Soldiers that I talk about
17
all the time, the 9th and 10th Calvary who, right after
18
the Civil War for the first time, were allowed to serve in
19
times of relative peace and not just being called up as
20
they had been called up during the Revolution or the War
21
of 1812 when there was dying to be done.
22
And when the dying was done, blacks were no
23
longer allowed to serve their nation and were then
24
subsequently denied again the rights that had been
25
promised to them if they had been willing to serve and
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fight for their country.
2
It's a history that takes us through World War I
3
and World War II and Dory Miller, that brave seaman who
4
was one of the first men to engage our enemy in combat in
5
World War II.
6
It's the story of the 369th Infantry of World
7
War I fame. It is the story of the Tuskegee Airmen that
8
all of you know about. Heroes, we have had-heroes in
9
every conflict this nation has ever been involved with.
10
We have gained honor in war as you saw in Glory, but
11
regrettably that same honor did not follow us back in
12
peacetime.
13
In my office at the Pentagon, on the second
14
floor, right at the eye level as you look out the Pentagon
15
-- I have it as nicely decorated as the government will
16
allow me to. It is a spacious office, but on the walls, I
17
just have a few paintings.
18
Two paintings in particular that I enjoy and
19
have on the walls have to do with black military history.
20
One of them is a marvelous painting of the 10th Calvary in
21
action with Lieutenant Henry O. Flipper on a horse leading
22
patrol.
23
Lieutenant Flipper was the first black graduate
24
of West Point, and after serving well out in the west for
25
a few years, he was drummed out of the army on trumped up
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charges, and after being drummed out of the army he then
2
went on to a very distinguished career in civilian life,
3
both in government and in private life, and many, many
4
years later he was reinstated in the army.
5
But I keep that picture on my wall of Lieutenant
6
Flipper leading the band of Buffalo Soldiers as they
7
helped settle the Great Plains.
8
And on another wall in my office I have another
9
painting that was given to me by the 24th and 25th
10
Infantry Regiment Association, for those two regiments,
11
two other black regiments that were put into our structure
12
in the post-Civil War period.
13
That painting shows those two black regiments at
14
San Juan Hill during the Spanish-American War, charging up
15
that hill. You have seen many pictures in our history
16
books of Teddy Roosevelt and the Rough Riders taking San
17
Juan Hill, but if all the truth be told, if all the
18
history be known, all four black regiments that were
19
serving in our Army at that time were there in Cuban and
20
went up that hill with Teddy Roosevelt.
21
I keep those two paintings on my wall, one right
22
over the sofa where I greet foreign visitors and another
23
one on a wall right behind me. And when foreign visitors
24
come from around the world and they come into my office
25
and we are making small talk and we take a photo
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1
opportunity before we sit down to have our business
2
meeting, they will turn and look at that painting.
3
And invariably they will be curious about it and
4
ask me what it is commemorating, and I will describe
5
Lieutenant Flipper of the 10th Calvary and the
6
circumstances under which black soldiers served, settling
7
the West in those days, fighting Indians, trying to extend
8
this nation's destiny out to the Pacific, but at the same
9
time being denied the opportunity to benefit from that
10
destiny, to benefit from that gain.
11
And my visitors tend to get a little
12
uncomfortable as they hear about that, and I say don't be
13
uncomfortable, this is American history. This is African-
14
American history. It is of a time past. It is time that
15
belongs in the past, but it is our history and we are
16
proud of it.
17
We are proud of it. We are proud of the fact
where
we have
18
that we live in a country that we have over the years, gone
19
through a period of slavery to a period where blacks were
20
allowed to serve initially with some reservation, all
21
through the wars of the 20th Century until today, when you
22
can sit in my office and look at that 1875 history of the
23
10th Calvary and the 1898 history of the 24th and 25th
24
Regiments in Cuban.
25
And you can look at that and sit here now in the
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Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who
2
is also African-American. Understand what you see when
3
you are in America and you see this kind of growth, when
4
you see this ability for Americans to learn from their
5
past mistakes and continue moving into the future.
6
Lieutenant Flipper looks back across the room at
7
me all day long when I am alone and there are no guests.
8
This painting is directly across from my desk and every
9
time I look over and I see him and I glance to the right
10
and see those regiments charging up San Juan Hill, it
11
reminds me once again of the contributions made by all
12
those who went before me.
13
But beyond that, it reminds me that I am in the
14
present and I have to look to the future. I have to look
15
to the future, recognizing what was done for me in the
16
past, and make sure that those who come after me, whether
17
it's in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps or any
18
other part of American life, build on the history, build
19
on the sacrifices and contributions of those who went
20
before them.
21
People say to me, gee, you are the first black
22
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. You were the first
23
black National Security Advisor to the President of the
24
United States. So you had it made and obviously there is
25
a meritocracy in the Army anyway. You are not black, you
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1
are not white, you are just green. So all of this really
2
doesn't matter anymore, you have made it.
3
When I say to them, it is wrong, wrong, I am
4
black. I am not green; I am black. I have been black all
5
of my life. I have had to fight the prejudice that came
6
my way all my life. I am now Chairman of the Joint Chiefs
7
of Staff. I am still black. You put it in your stories
8
because I hope there is some young man or woman, boy or
9
girl, somewhere in the country, somewhere in the inner-
10
city or out in the countryside who will look at me and
11
say, if that brother, born in Harlem, coming out of the
12
South Bronx, can make it to where he made it, so can I.
13
(Applause.)
14
I also want each and every one of you to
15
understand and put into your mind and put into your heart
16
that all those who came before us did not make those
17
sacrifices -- they didn't march, they didn't break new
18
grounds SO we could have the first black Chairman of the
19
Joint Chiefs of Staff or so that we could have the first
20
black governor of Virginia, or the first black mayor of
21
New York or the first black this or the first African-
22
American that.
23
What they did, and their only dream, was to make
24
sure that some day in the future, this country would live
25
up to its dream that all the "firsts" would be gone, that
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no citizen of this country of whatever race, color, creed
2
and background would be denied their ambition, would be
3
denied their own dream.
4
Dr. King and Carter G. Woodson and all the
5
military friends of mine who went before didn't do this
6
just SO I could be number one in this, that, the other.
7
They did it SO that we would advance the dream to the
8
point where there are no other firsts, where every person
9
is limited only by their willingness to work hard and by
10
their own dreams and by their own ambition.
11
We are not there. There is still racial
12
intolerance in this country. There is still pressure to
13
deny opportunity to people. There is still the denial of
14
the education that every American must have. There is
15
still denial of economic opportunity which must become a
16
reality for all Americans.
day
17
How can I feel proud and good on a, like today
18
when as was mentioned a few moments ago, you read
19
statistics which tell you that 25 percent of all young
20
black men have had some trouble with the law, they are
21
either in jail or on probation or in some way in the legal
22
system. This cannot make any American, black or white
23
feel good.
24
So the challenge is still before us. We have to
25
remember the past. We have to continue to struggle until
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we reach the dream -- the dream that all of our
2
forefathers spoke of.
3
For the young people in this room, a special
be
4
burden falls on you. I will 1 gone in a couple of years and
5
I retire in exactly three years and about six days and a
6
day tomorrow.
7
(Laughter.)
8
And then I will go, and I- will be-retired
9
somewhere, telling somebody else how to run the Army from
10
retirement. You will be here. You will be making your
11
mark. We will be counting on you. You will be looking
12
back at that point of almost 400 years of history,
13
military history and just the history of African-
14
Americans in this country.
15
A lot is expected of you. You simply have got
16
to give it your very best. You have got now to develop
17
those habits of working hard, those habits of commitment,
18
those habits of self-esteem, hope in your heart, pride in
19
your heart and knowledge that if you work hard enough, if
20
you apply yourself, if you take advantage of every
21
opportunity that this beloved country has laid out there
22
for you, there is no limit to what you can do. There is
23
no limit to where you can go.
24
But it takes sacrifice. It takes the sacrifice
25
of avoiding temptation. It takes the sacrifice of
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avoiding drugs. People say to me, how come the military
2
is doing so well with drugs. I say we don't tolerate
3
them. No drugs. You play drugs, you are out.
4
They said are you serious? I say, let me tell
5
you how serious I am. The day after I was announced by
6
the president to be the next chairman of the Joint Chiefs
7
of Staff, I was back at my headquarters in Atlanta,
8
starting to clean up my desk.
9
I was Commander-in-Chief, Forces Command at that
10
time. I commanded a million soldiers in the active Army
11
and the Army National Guard all over the country. Good
12
job. Good job.
13
(Laughter.)
14
While I was sitting there, starting to think
15
about becoming the Chairman and giving up command of those
16
million soldiers, a young lieutenant came to my door. And
w
17
my secretary talked in and said, the lieutenant is here to
18
see you. I said what does he want?
19
He said, it's your turn. My turn for what? He
20
said, your name came up on the roster. I said the roster
21
for what? I am the general.
22
(Laughter.)
23
They said urinalysis testing.
24
(Applause.)
25
Your name is on the roster in that company, and
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we do it randomly and when your name comes up, you've got
2
to do it. So I did it. That young lieutenant, trained
3
well, knew his job, cut no slack, administered the test to
4
me the way he would any other soldier down to the last
5
private in the Army.
6
And I waited patiently three days to make sure
7
it was okay.
8
(Laughter.)
9
And it was, and I became the Chairman of the
10
Joint Chiefs of Staff.
11
(Applause.)
12
The point is, in the military we have a zero
13
tolerance policy. We educate our young soldiers, sailors,
14
airmen, marines when they come in. We tell them that we
15
have zero tolerance. We educate them again after they
16
have been in awhile. We let them know what will happen.
17
We perform that kind of testing to catch and then if you
18
catch you are in trouble. If you deal, you go to jail.
19
(Applause.)
20
Now it's that kind of policy and that kind of
21
zero tolerance of drugs that we have to take out of the
22
Army and put in throughout our society, because if you
23
want to know what the number one problem is facing young
24
African-Americans in this country, young male African-
25
Americans in this country, it is the temptation, the
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destructive influence of drugs.
2
It is killing a generation of young men and
3
young women that we cannot afford to lose. Ehem.] If we
4
lose them, we have betrayed our history. We have betrayed
5
the sacrifice of all of those who went before.
6
For this young group, I ask you to take that
7
message into your heart. I ask you to communicate that
8
message to everybody you meet. I ask you to take that
9
message back into your community. It is a crime against
10
all Americans and it is a particular crime against
11
African-Americans.
12
We simply must wipe out drug use in this country
13
or we are never going to be able to live out the dream
14
that is waiting there before us.
15
(Applause.)
16
I also reemphasize to all the need to apply
17
yourself in college, to apply yourself in high school.
18
Take advantage of the opportunities that are going to be
19
coming your way. People sometimes say to me, well, you
20
don't have to worry about that anymore. You are never
21
subjected to racism.
22
I say, oh, yes, I am, even as Chairman of the
23
Joint Chiefs of Staff and as National Security Advisor, it
24
comes to you in curious ways. People don't say things to
25
me they don't want to say.
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1
But it still comes to you in these little
2
indirect ways. I will tell you just a quick story. When
3
I was made National Security Advisor to the President,
4
about a week after I was appointed, I was in the Roosevelt
5
Room at the White House, just 10 steps away from the Oval
6
Office and I was giving a press conference to a number of
7
editors from this big newspaper chain, and they were
8
mostly white editors and there was one African-American
9
editor.
10
The questions were pretty straightforward about
11
things happening in the world and the Soviet Union and
12
elsewhere. And the black editor raised his hand and he
13
said, I would like to ask you a question, general. He
14
said, are you really the guy in charge of the National
15
Security Council?
16
(Laughter.)
17
I thought to myself, brother, you could have
18
gone all day with asking that question, and he said, do
19
you really have that access to the President? Do you
20
really have everybody come through you before those major
21
national security issues go to the President of the United
22
States?
23
So I found it a curious question, but I answered
24
it and said yes. One, the people I work for know the
25
importance of this job. It isn't a job you put somebody
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1
into as a token or because it is a throw-away job. It is
2
a critical job.
town
3
And two, I have been around this
time
a
long
1
4
time and I know how to do my job, and I know how to handle
rookie
5
anybody who tries to hit and run. I am not a 1 rooky in
6
this business.
7
So he thanked me for the answer and it seemed to
8
be satisfactory and about a month later I saw him at a
over
9
private social function, and I called him ^ and I said, why
10
did you ask such a question? He says because I was the
11
only one in the room who dared ask it, but everybody else
12
in the room thought it.
13
(Applause.)
14
That didn't offend me or trouble me. I didn't
15
wear a chip on my shoulder after that or read racism into
16
that kind of a situation. It just said to me; Colin, it
17
just demonstrates the fact that you got to just keep doing
18
the very best you can. You can't afford to do any less
19
and don't ever let yourself do any less.
20
Let the fact that you are from the streets of
21
New York, let the fact that you are African-American, let
22
your color, the kind of hair you have be somebody else's
23
problem. Don't let it be your problem. Let it be
24
somebody else's problem.
25
(Applause.)
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1
I believe the challenge for every one of you
2
here is to make sure that you keep it somebody else's
3
problem. All you have to do is do the very best you can
4
and never do any less; you can't do any more -- if you
5
have that attitude, if you have pride in your heart and
6
remember the history and remember where you came from and
7
remember where we are going in this great country, I
8
guarantee that success will be yours.
9
Thank you.
10
(Applause.)
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
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February 19, 1991
MEMORANDUM FOR BETH HINCHLIFFE
FROM:
BOB SIMON
PR
SUBJECT:
FACTS ABOUT THE BLACK EAGLES
In May 1943, the 99th attacked the Italian island of
Pantelleria as a prelude to the invasion of Sicily. In two
weeks, the island's resistance gave up. This marks the first
time in history that air power alone had destroyed all enemy
resistance.
Captains Wendell Pruitt and Gwynne Pierson strafed and sank
an enemy destroyer, an almost impossible task for fighter
planes.
O
Lt. Col. Edward Gleed, commander of the 301st Fighter Squadron
and decorated combat pilot, said, "When we were in training
at Tuskegee and in combat, we never gave it a thought that we
were making history. All we wanted was to learn to fly as
Army Air Corps pilots, fight for our country and survive."
Black airmen destroyed 111 enemy planes in the air, and
destroyed or damaged 273 more on the ground. They flew 1500
missions and over 15,000 sorties. They won over 100
Distinguished Flying Crosses and over 700 Air Medals.
May 16 / Administration of George Bush, 1990
Nomination of Russell Flynn Miller To
Mr. Davis has been a major figure in the
Be Inspector General for the Federal
entertainment world. His legacy of humor
Emergency Management Agency
and songs, as well as charity work, will con-
May 16, 1990
tinue to be a part of future generations.
The President and Mrs. Bush extend their
The President today announced his inten-
sympathy and condolences to Mr. Davis'
tion to nominate Russell Flynn Miller to be
family and friends.
Inspector General for the Federal Emer-
gency Management Agency. This is a new
position.
Mr. Miller currently serves as a consultant
for the Central Intelligence Agency. Prior
to this, he was assistant director in the
Remarks at a Meeting With the
office of security for the office of the Presi-
Commission on Civil Rights
dent-elect, 1988-1989, and he worked for
May 17, 1990
the Bush-Quayle campaign, 1988. He was a
private consultant, 1986-1988. In addition,
Welcome to the Rose Garden and to the
Mr. Miller worked in several capacities with
White House. Thank you all very much for
the United States Synthetic Fuels Corpora-
coming. To the Attorney General and Sec-
tion, including Deputy Inspector General,
retary Cavazos and Secretary Sullivan,
1985-1986, and Director of Investigation in
thank you for joining us; Director Newman,
the Office of the Inspector General, 1981-
the same. And to Senators Dole, Hatch, and
1985. Mr. Miller worked for the Reagan-
Garn, Congressman Ham Fish, thank you
Bush Presidential campaign, 1979-1980.
very much for being with us today. To
Prior to that he was a career officer in the
Chairman Fletcher, an old friend and a
Operations Directorate at the Central Intel-
man I'm very proud of, welcome, sir. To
Commissioners Buckley, Ramirez, Reden-
ligence Agency.
Mr. Miller received a bachelor of arts
baugh, Wilfredo Gonzalez and the State Ad-
visory Committee Chairpersons and to the
degree from the University of Iowa and a
distinguished leaders—I see Ben Hooks
bachelor of laws degree from Drake Univer-
here and others of the civil rights communi-
sity College of Law. He was born October
ty across this great country-it is-and I
25, 1921, in Panora, IA. Mr. Miller served in
mean it-an honor to have you here today.
the U.S. Army, 1943-1945, and in the U.S.
I think we've made it a moment that's
Army Reserve, 1946-1966. He is married,
very hopeful worldwide. In a minute from
has four children, and resides in Potomac,
now, I'll be meeting in this marvelous Oval
MD.
Office with Chancellor Kohl, talking about
the dramatic changes that have taken place
in the world. There is a time when the
thundering cry for freedom is being heard
Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater
and answered from Panama, hopefully in
on the Death of Sammy Davis, Jr.
Johannesburg, to Warsaw. And around the
world, peoples are warring against tyranny,
May 16, 1990
citizens struggling against State control,
economies weary of bureaucratic central
The President and Mrs. Bush are deeply
planners-all are looking to America as
saddened by the death of Sammy Davis, Jr.
reason for hope, the bright star by which to
The Bushes are longtime admirers of Mr.
chart their course to freedom. And so, it's
Davis, who has given a lifetime to bringing
all the more crucial now that we look care-
joy to others through his special entertain-
fully to the kind of country we are, to the
ment and good will. The President and Mrs.
state of democracy here in the Land of Lib-
Bush telephoned Mrs. Davis on Saturday,
erty. And we're called upon to ensure that
May 12, to extend their best wishes and
this democracy means opportunity for all
prayers.
who call it home.
778
Administration of George Bush, 1990 / May 17
Few have worked harder to deliver the
This nation's progress against prejudice-
omise of democracy, to make an enduring
from the '64 act to the Voting Rights Act to
eam a living reality, than the men and
the Fair Housing and Age Discrimination in
omen assembled here today in this Rose
Employment Acts-it's all hinged on the
arden. And particularly, I want to give
principle that no one in this country should
edit again to these men and women
be excluded from opportunity. And so,
anding behind me.
we're committed to enacting new measures
From its earliest origins, the Commission
like the Hate Crimes Statistics Act, the
n Civil Rights has been an independent,
HOPE [Homeownership and Opportunity
ipartisan voice for justice. And the Com-
for People Everywhere] initiative of hous-
hissioners, the Directors, the Advisory
ing, a revitalized enforcement of restric-
Committees all share a cultural diversity
tions against employment bias. This admin-
nd an intellectual and moral conviction
istration seeks equal opportunity and equal
hat are truly America's best. And these
protection under the law for all Americans,
nen and women have earned our admira-
goals that I know are shared by Senator
ion, and today they deserve our thanks.
Kennedy and Representative Hawkins, and
Joining a new Chairman-and as I said,
certainly by the four distinguished Mem-
ny friend of many years, Art Fletcher-are
bers of Congress with us here today.
:wo outstanding additions: Carl Anderson
And so, we've supported efforts to ensure
and Russell Redenbaugh. I know Bob Dole
an individual's ability to challenge discrimi-
shares my admiration for Russell, a man of
natory seniority systems. We've also moved
impressive credentials, who knows, as all
to stiffen the penalties for racial discrimina-
Americans should know, that physical dis-
tion in setting or applying the terms and
ability will not be a barrier to service in this
conditions of employment. And today, as
administration. That's why I remain firmly
we work to ensure that America represents
committed to the landmark Americans for
democracy's highest expression, I want to
Disabilities Act to help ensure equal rights
begin by offering three principles that must
and opportunities for these Americans. And
guide any amendments to our civil rights
today I'd like to announce a new member
laws. These principles are firmly rooted in
of the Civil Rights Commission, Mr. Charles
the spirit of our current laws. After the ex-
Pei Wang, President of the China Institute
tensive discussions that we've had this
in America, an outstanding new addition.
week, I think they're principles on which
Over the last few days, I've met to discuss
all of us, including the leadership on the
pending civil rights legislation with leaders
Hill, can agree. And so, I will enthusiastical-
representing America's rich tapestry of cul-
ly support legislation that meets these prin-
tural, religious, and ethnic diversity. And I
ciples.
got, as I knew I would, a lot of sound
First, civil rights legislation must operate
advice. Much of which I can accept.
to obliterate consideration of factors such as
[Laughter] But these leaders, this Commis-
race, color, religion, sex, or national origin
sion, the Congress, and this administration,
believe me, all share a common conviction
from employment decisions. So, in essence,
for equal opportunity. It's a responsibility
we seek civil rights legislation that is more
that I've tried to take very seriously, espe-
effective, not less. The focus of employers
cially now, when our most vital export to
in this country must be on providing equal
the world is democracy. And we must make
opportunity for all workers, not on develop-
sure that we as a nation continue to lead by
ing strategies to avoid litigation.
example. We must see that true affirmative
No one here today would want me to sign
action is not reduced to some empty slogan
a bill whose unintended consequences are
and that this principle of striking down all
quotas because quotas are wrong and they
barriers to advancement has real, living
violate the most basic principles of our civil
meaning to all Americans. We will leave
rights tradition and the most basic princi-
nothing to chance and no stone unturned as
ples of the promise of democracy. America's
we work to advance America's civil rights
minority communities deserve more than
agenda.
symptomatic relief. And we want to eradi-
779
May 17 / Administration of George Bush, 1990
cate the disease, and that will require sys-
ownership of public housing, tax credits for
ecutive director of t
tematic solutions, strategies that transcend
child care to give parents more flexibility
for the Advancem
statistics.
and choice, policies that underwrite pros-
Chancellor Helmut
We should empower and ennoble our mi-
perity by encouraging capital flow to busi-
public of Germany
nority communities. We should seek system-
nesses in poor neighborhoods. The door is
Dorothy Haight.
atic change that allows every American to
open wider now than it ever has been. To-
excel. During these meetings this week, I
gether, I believe we can open it still wider.
invited the civil rights leadership to work
Today an expanding economy is working
with me to craft a bill that moves us to-
in the service of civil rights. And so, let's
wards this goal. After these consultations, I
not set the clock back. Let's look past the
am confident that this can be done. I want
differences that divide us to the shared
principles and the better natures that we
Statement by Pre
to sign a civil rights bill, but I will not sign a
have within us. To the civil rights leader-
on Armenia's Exp
quota bill. I think we can work it out.
The second, civil rights legislation must
ship assembled here today-Dorothy,
Appreciation to J
reflect fundamental principles of fairness
excuse me, I didn't see you earlier-and so
Bush for Their E
that apply throughout our legal system. In-
many-I'm in real trouble if I single them
Efforts
dividuals who believe their rights have
out here. Look, I have offered you my hand
May 17, 1990
been violated are entitled to their day in
and my word that together we can and will
court, and an accused is innocent until
make America open and equal to all. Now,
On behalf of
proved guilty. In every case involving a
this administration is committed to action
Soviet and Counci
civil rights dispute, constitutional protec-
that is truly affirmative, positive action in
bassador Yuri Dub
tions of due process must be preserved.
every sense, to strike down all barriers to
and certificates of
And third, Federal law should provide an
advancement of every kind for all people.
and his son, Geo
adequate deterrent against harassment in
We will tolerate no barriers, no bias, no
for "the sincere S
the workplace based on race, sex, religion,
inside tracks, no two-tiered system, and no
the Armenian pe
or disability and should ensure a speedy
rungless ladders. And I'm willing to take
misfortunes and t
end to such discriminatory practices. Our
the time to make sure that this is done
fered during the
civil rights laws, however, should not be
right, simply because it's worth doing right.
ing earthquake
turned into some lawyer's bonanza, encour-
Now is the time, really, to extend a hand to
human lives anc
aging litigation at the expense of concilia-
all that are struggling and to devote our
towns." The cert
tion, mediation, or settlement.
energies to a broader agenda of empower-
menian people
Let me add that Congress, with respect,
ment, that all might join in this new age of
onstration of hum
should live by the same requirements it
freedom.
tion was made to
prescribes for others. In '72, the Civil
I am delighted that you all came here.
dor Dubinin du
Rights Act of '64 was justly applied to exec-
Thank you for bringing honor to this pres-
White House on
utive agencies and State, local governments;
tigious Rose Garden and to paying tribute
The earthquak
and Congress, however, is not yet covered.
to our Commission here, in which I have
cember 7, 1988
This is not an assault on Congress. I'm just
great confidence and in which I take great
among the volt
trying to-I've got about-[laughter]-but
pride. Thank you all very, very much.
the fourth airlift
seriously, this inconsistency should be reme-
national medica
died to give congressional employees and
applicants the full protection of the law to
Note: The President spoke at 10:02 a.m. in
Connecticut, to
send a strong signal that it's both the execu-
the Rose Garden at the White House. In his
1988. The air!
tive branch and Congress that are in this
remarks, he referred to Attorney General
100,000 pounds
together. And the Congress should join the
Dick Thornburgh; Secretary of Education
toys for the C
executive branch in setting an example for
Lauro F. Cavazos; Secretary of Health and
Bushes visited t}
these private employers.
Human Services Louis W. Sullivan; Office
the Armenian C
Now, we seek strategies that work, put-
of Personnel Management Director Con-
veyed a messa
ting power where it belongs: in the hands
stance B. Newman; Arthur A. Fletcher,
American peop
of the people. That means new ideas, like
Esther G. Buckley, Blandina C. Ramirez,
and especially
giving poor parents the power of an alter-
Russell G. Redenbaugh, Wilfredo J. Gonza-
holiday season.
native choice in where to send the kids to
lez, and Carl A. Anderson, Chairman and
provided disaste
school so that all can have access to the
Commissioners of the Commission on Civil
for Internation:
best. It means more tenant control and
Rights, respectively; Benjamin L. Hooks, ex-
U.S. Foreign Di
780
THE WHITE HOUSE
Office of the Press Secretary
For Immediate Release
July 18, 1990
REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT
TO NATIONAL COUNCIL OF LA RAZA
The Omni Shoreham Hotel
Washington, D.C.
1:17 P.M. EDT
THE PRESIDENT: Thank you all very much. Well, thank you
so much for that welcome. I'm delighted to be here, and I had a
little visit in the hall with the jefes, Raul and Tony -- (laughter)
-- and Rita, Patricia, gave me the warm welcome. And I rode over
here with Dr. Cavazos, our Secretary of Education, who is with us,
and of whom I'm very, very proud. (Applause.) And, of course, I'm
delighted to see Lou Sullivan, who's doing a superb job over at HHS,
a major position in our administration. (Applause.)
I shouldn't quote Larry Cavazos, but he says, you know
it's a strange world. He says, here I am Secretary of Education for
the United States and I just met with the Minister of Education from
Mexico. The Minister from Mexico's name is Bartlett; the Secretary
from the United States' name is Cavazos. So I tell you -- (laughter
and applause) -- things are really moving.
But again, I'm very proud of him. And I am grateful for
this opportunity to appear before this distinguished group, to greet
the National Council of La Raza; and pleased to see so many
distinguished leaders from America's Hispanic service, education and
business communities, all gathered here in our nation's capital.
And I want to thank the person whose brilliance,
foresight and tenacity made this July gathering in Washington
possible. I'm talking about the man who invented air conditioning.
(Laughter.) It is hotter than blazes out there. (Laughter and
applause.) And I'm delighted to be here. (Applause.)
Something about me, I'll tell you. It was hotter than
blazes in Houston last week. We should have known it was coming
because the weatherman that we consulted was the same guy who set up
our summit with Gorbachev at Malta. (Laughter.) Some of you may
remember that one.
But today, I did want to drop in; I'm on my way out to
California in just a little bit. (Applause.) But to welcome you to
Washington, and really to tell you how important I believe and our
administration believes your efforts are.
I mentioned Dr. Cavazos, and, of course, Lou Sullivan.
But I also wanted to salute an old comrade of mine in Congress, now a
Secretary, Manuel Lujan, from New Mexico -- (applause) -- the
Secretary of the Interior. But he and Larry, outstanding Cabinet
secretaries, they do represent not only the new energy, and I would
say leadership, Hispanic-Americans are bringing to our country, but
also two of the most important priorities: The protection and use of
our natural resources, and the excellence in education -- the quest
for all-across-the-board excellence in education.
And, indeed, our administration has made educational
assistance for Hispanic-Americans one of the top priorities of our
campaign to revive national educational excellence. And you heard
MORE
- 2 -
from Larry yesterday in some detail, I understand. But, look, we
will seek and we will demand educational excellence for all America.
And that means reforms like giving parents a choice in their
children's education and educational excellence for all Americans.
(Applause.)
Let me just touch -- without being redundant here and
repeating what Dr. Cavazos has said -- on just a few of our most
important efforts. Last December, we launched a new effort,
specially designed to assist Hispanic-Americans, and developed in
part with the assistance and advice that we received from many right
here at this table and in this room today. They helped us develop --
you all, helped us develop this program. And I directed our
Secretary of Education to form what we call the Hispanic Education
Task Force. And it is aimed not only at identifying educational
obstacles, but also -- and I'd say this is more a part of it --
educational opportunities.
Larry has told me that the work of the Task Force is well
underway, seeking new ways to improve federal education programs that
basically serve Hispanic-Americans and seeking ways to make them
better. We need to focus on finding solutions.
And you, who are a proud part of the La Raza tradition,
have also been one of those solutions. Efforts like Project Second
Chance, the Family Reading Program -- and I wish Barbara Bush were
here to -- (applause) -- I wish Barbara were here to tell you how
moved she is by that effort on a nationwide basis -- and Project
EXCEL; all designed to help Hispanic community organizations become
effective partners with the schools. And they're already making a
difference for thousands of young Americans. And, look, I view it as
a national goal that this unacceptable dropout rate for Hispanic kids
come down, way down below the national average. (Applause.)
I don't want to overstay my welcome. I was told to have
very brief remarks, and our time today is short. And if I'm not out
of the hotel by 2:00 p.m., they'll probably charge me for an extra
room. (Laughter.) So another day you know. (Laughter.)
Let me just address briefly one of the most important
priorities of our administration and this is a current subject:
helping to build a better America where the doors of opportunity are
open to every citizen and every child.
And I hope you know where I have stood and always stand
on the civil rights matters. And the Civil Rights Commission has
been reauthorized. I think that's proper. The Hate Crimes
Statistics Act is now the law of the land. And I will sign another,
I would say, historic piece of legislation next week. And I'm
talking about the Americans with disabilities act. (Applause.)
And for the past several months, we have been working
diligently to make another civil rights law a reality. And I met
with many of you at the White House back May -- several of you --
Mario Moreno of MALDEF, Mexican American Legal Defense and Education
Fund, you know him. Jesse Quintero of LULAC was there. Raul was
there. But I told Raul that I wanted to sign the civil rights bill
of 1990, and not a quota bill of 1990.
Morris Abram, a very respected American now serving as an
ambassador over in Geneva, but really I think it's fair to say known
as a champion of civil rights, recently wrote me about the bill
that's before the Congress right now, urging me to oppose the bill as
currently written. And he told me, look -- here's this quote: "All
my life, even in the darkest days of segregation in Georgia I fought
against the principle of color preference, then known as white
supremacy." " This bill, he pointed out, would "achieve precisely what
the '64 Civil Rights Act stood four-square against."
And he recalled Frederick Douglass' famous statement of
1871. And here was that quote: "Equality of numbers has nothing to
do with equality of attainment." And we all know quotas aren't
MORE
- 3 -
right. They are not fair. They divide society instead of bringing
people together. And as leaders and representatives of the
Hispanic-American community, I owe it to you to see that this
legislation does not say to the young kids, you only fit in if you
fit into a certain numbered quota. That is not the American dream.
And I gave Raul a commitment back in May that I want
desperately, I want very much to sign a civil rights bill. And I did
then, and I still do.
And yesterday's announcement marked only the end of a
chapter, not the end of a campaign, because today I just met with
some on the Republican side of the aisle. Talks are still going on.
And we renew the fight for a civil rights bill that I can sign. But
I want to ask for your help to make the changes. And we're talking
now about legal changes -- they' relatively small -- to make the
changes needed to ensure that a bill does not result in quotas that
could somehow inadvertently work to the detriment of the very kids
you all are trying to help. Changes needed to ensure a bill that
will protect the rights of all Americans, and injure the rights of
none.
From the time it was first launched in '68, your National
Council, Council of La Raza, has played a unique role in helping to
improve opportunities for Americans of Hispanic descent. And I think
that the success -- I know sometimes you see only the problems out
there, and it's proper you keep them in focus -- but I think the
success of your efforts is evident in the many success stories that
are represented throughout this room. And so I came over here today
to salute you for the important work that you do. By working today
for Hispanic-Americans, you're building a better tomorrow for all
Americans.
As President of the United States, I want to do my part.
I want a lead for equity. I want a lead in the field of education.
And I, again, am grateful for the support I receive there. I want to
take the crusades that Dr. Sullivan is involved in to get better
health care out there for our people and be as of the much leadership
and support for those initiatives as I possibly can.
And some of you know that with me this is more than a
passing interest. And I would just say to you keep up the good work
for La Raza. It inspires the American people. And I want to do my
part.
Thank you all. And God bless you. Thank you very, very
much. (Applause.)
END
1:36 P.M. EDT
Administration of George Bush, 1989 / Mar. 9
ke with eloquence
this fight. But first and foremost, the killing
Bring them to justice. Nobody-nobody but
sponsibility main-
must stop. And we must repeat it until
nobody is going to beat the DEA.
lled casual cocaine
we're hoarse, repeat it until we're heard,
May God bless you all, and thanks for
death of her hus-
from the Apollo Theatre to the halls of Con-
what you're doing for the United States.
of our request will
gress to anyone who doesn't seem to under-
lucation, to let the
stand what it is you are up against out there
Note: The President spoke at 4:19 p.m. in
: they take and the
on the street. The killing must stop!
the auditorium at the Drug Enforcement
ay and to tell our
And what happened on the streets of
Administration. He was introduced by
rong.
Staten Island last week was a horrible trage-
Robert Stutman, Special Agent in charge of
e light at the end
dy which means-you knew it all along-
the New York City field office. In his open-
seem to be some
that you have an important task ahead. The
ing remarks, the President referred to New
the door. At the
cowards who murdered Everett Hatcher
York City Police Commissioner Benjamin
n one Wednesday
should be given no rest. But be careful out
Ward and William J. Bennett, Director-des-
light performances
there. Remember the tearful salute of 9-
ntaneous antidrug
year-old Zachary, and find these criminals.
ignate of National Drug Control Policy.
and then support-
d. And things like
se of government
because attitudes
Remarks at the United Negro College Fund Dinner in New York,
ge, and they are
New York
erican people are
way.
March 9, 1989
g to change over-
e Attorney Gener-
Thank you, Michael Jordan, for that intro-
another executive director of the UNCF,
gh], returns today
duction. Barbara and I are delighted to be
Art Fletcher, who's here somewhere. But
cials in Colombia,
with you, speaking before the olives, the
we had good representation. And you talk
ill and I will meet
celery, the raw carrots. [Laughter] But
about the hard sell, they're still doing it.
gets back. I think
we've got to get back to Washington fast-
[Laughter]
rrow at the White
[laughter]-the Senate is still in session, and
Tonight, flanked by old friends and, in a
this trip. And I
our dog is pregnant. [Laughter]
real sense, family-because my brother,
ave also served or
I want to just add my voice of congratula-
John, is active in this crusade, and I consid-
in South America,
tions to Gus Hawkins and Larry Rawl and
er many of you here family-I am grateful
eased cooperation
Paul Simon. You honor three good people.
for your company. During my student days
And I want to thank Hugh Cullman, who
at Yale, I first saw the fund invest in higher
Vice President 8
gives so much of himself to the United
education and in America. And then, as
American Presi-
Negro College Fund, and, of course, salute
now, it insisted that excellence become a
r problem. You're
Chris Edley, a friend of longstanding. You
way of life and a higher learning a bequest.
ren't for the rich
know, Paul Simon once wrote a song called
And as an undergraduate, I came to grasp
wouldn't have the
simply, "Old Friends." And I'm delighted to
what Churchill talked about when he said,
see that the nar-
see my old friends Bill and Vi Trent here
"Personally, I am always ready to learn,
ir own kids, their
with us tonight.
though I do not always enjoy being taught."
lombia, where the
You know, as Michael said, my association
[Laughter]
were mowed down
with the UNCF got started there at Yale
Well, for nearly half a century, this fund
University in '48. And Bill Trent came up
has taught so that America could learn, and
far from won. But
to New Haven and talked to a lot of young
the gentler impulses of mankind was high
And we in Wash-
idealistic people about his vision for higher
on the teaching agenda. And you have
understand, to
education, and he did a superb job. And so
helped society's disadvantaged cast off de-
support your work
today, when he and Vi flew up with me on
spair and poverty. And through such friends
I, the Johnny Kon
Air Force One, I had this great feeling of
as Bill Trent and now Chris and then Fred-
the new seizure
nostalgia. And his 79th birthday I think is
erick D. Patterson-and, yes, he is still
apartment build-
tomorrow, but in any event, it's great to be
sorely missed-you have endorsed liberty,
om the crack lords
with this old friend way down on the end of
opportunity, and the dignity of work
're all important to
the line. Also with us on Air Force One was
But most of all, you really have shown
201
Mar. 9 / Administration of George Bush, 1989
how the conscience and education can ful-
Secretary because when as president of
fill the promise of America: to right wrong,
Morehouse Medical School he was working
to love freedom, to demand equality for all
my wife to death as a board member. And
And for that, I congratulate you. And yet I
it's rumored I just wanted him to get out of
challenge you, too. Black and white, togeth-
there to let up on her-not true. [Laughter]
er-we know that America will not be a
As you know, in September 1981, Presi-
good place for any of us to live until it is a
dent Reagan signed that Executive Order
good place for all of us to live.
12320, committing the Federal Govern.
Most Americans, I'm convinced, believe
ment to increase its support of historical
that government can be an instrument of
black colleges and universities. And our
healing. There are times when government
goal was to identify and eliminate unfair
must step in where others fear to tread. My
friends, I share those beliefs, and as Presi-
barriers to participation in federally spon-
sored programs. And our means was to in-
dent, I will act on them.
volve the private sector and to motivate the
I'm delighted that my Secretary of Edu-
cation, our distinguished Secretary of Edu-
27 Federal agencies which provide nearly
all the Federal funding.
cation Larry Cavazos, is with us here to-
night, sitting over here. For America, it
And did it work? Did it ever-in fiscal
seems to me, means pride-individually,
'81, historical black colleges received $545
culturally, racially. And America means, in
million; fiscal year '87, $684. And moreover,
the words of Dr. King, that "injustice any-
research and development, which includes
where is a threat to justice everywhere.
funds for nonscientific institutional develop-
And it does mean opportunity for those
ment, comprised nearly half of all funding
who need jobs and who dream of owning
for historically black colleges. Our White
homes. And it means the hope that tomor-
House Science and Technology Advisory
row will be brighter than today. How can
Committee fostered science, math, and en-
we best inspire that hope and secure the
gineering programs and curricula. And this
promise of America? I do believe that the
comprehensive HBCU effort has attacked
answer is in education. Education knows no
the four horsemen of the American night:
barriers, accepts no limits. Education is a
illiteracy and inequality, indigence and fear.
ladder; it embodies self-respect, not de-
Great beginnings-crawling before we walk
pendency. Education can give minorities a
and then run. Great beginnings, and now
greater voice and then make sure that that
let's build on them. And we have done
voice is heard.
much, but there remains so much more left
Since 1944, when Dr. Patterson founded
to do.
the UNCF, your voice has resounded from
My friends, 8 weeks ago I think it was,
colleges like Tuskegee and Morehouse and
there in the White House complex, I met
Spellman and Fisk. And I'm going to hurt a
with the presidents of many of the colleges
lot of feelings here tonight, because I was in
represented here tonight to probe exactly
a receiving line, and I was so impressed
where we are going and how. And we dis-
with the names that came flowing back as I
cussed faculty development and merit
met the presidents of these distinguished
scholarships, community college grants and
universities. Black colleges have ennobled
institutional planning. And from that meet-
such Americans as Leontyne Price, Frank
ing, and others like it, came six new initia-
Yerby, Azie Taylor Morton, and our next
tives which will help do nationally what you
Secretary of Health and Human Services,
have done historically: enrich education SO
my dear friend, Dr. Lou Sullivan, who is
that education can enrich our lives. And
here with us tonight.
after listening to your presidents, I pro-
It is said that the woman who Time calls
posed that Congress fund $60 million over
the Silver Fox-{laughter}-was responsible
4 years in endowment-matching grants. We
for Lou Sullivan's being appointed to this
put our money on the table. And now I
Cabinet, and I'll give her some credit.
want to challenge the private sector. It's a
[Laughter] I want to gun down the rumor,
beginning. We need the help of the private
though, that I appointed Lou Sullivan to be
sector; the time has come.
202
Administration of George Bush, 1989 / Mar. 9
president of
And secondly, if excellence breeds
als-all of this isn't enough; it never is As
e was working
achievement, that excellence should be re-
Americans, we never are satisfied. We know
member. And
warded in grade schools, in high school, and
that when a dream comes true it gives rise
m to get out of
at our colleges and university. And so, I
to even bigger and better dreams. And so,
rue. [Laughter]
want Congress to create a $500 million pro-
my appeal tonight is that we work to build
er 1981, Presi-
gram to reward America's merit schools,
a better America. I feel deeply in my heart
ecutive Order
the schools which improve the most.
about the United Negro College Fund. And
deral Govern-
And thirdly, I want it to create special
I came up to tell you, at this highly success-
rt of historical
Presidential awards for the best teachers in
ful dinner that Hugh and Chris and Michael
ties. And our
every State.
and others here at this dais and all of you
iminate unfair
And next, I want to see the expanded use
out there worked so hard on to make so
ederally spon-
of magnet schools to give parents and stu-
successful, I want to help. I want the United
ans was to in-
dents the freedom of choice.
States Government to help. And Barbara
motivate the
And I've also proposed a new program to
and I as individuals want to join you in this
provide nearly
encourage alternative certification: to allow
enormous power of the private sector to do
talented Americans from every field to
all we can to help you achieve your goals
ever-in fiscal
teach in America's school classrooms. Con-
and your ideals.
received $545
sider that today, in many areas, a John
And thank you all, and God bless you.
And moreover,
Updike or an Alex Haley could not qualify
vhich includes
to teach high school creative writing. There
Note: The President spoke at 7:51 p.m. in
ional develop-
is something wrong, and we've got to
the Imperial Ballroom at the Sheraton
of all funding
change that system. My point is that when
Center Hotel. In his remarks, he referred to
S. Our White
rules are so inflexible that creativity and
Michael H. Jordan, Hugh Cullman, Christo-
logy Advisory
talent and imagination aren't welcome in
pher S. Edley, William Trent, and Frederick
math, and en-
our schools it's time to change those rules.
D. Patterson, member of the board of direc-
cula. And this
And finally, through a new program of
tors, chairman of the board of directors,
has attacked
National Science Scholars, I seek to give
president and chief executive officer, first
nerican night:
America's youth a special incentive to excel
executive director, and founder of the
ence and fear.
in science and math. The National Science
United Negro College Fund, respectively.
efore we walk
Foundation predicts a shortage of 400,000
Representative Augustus F. Hawkins of
ngs, and now
scientists by the year 2000. Through excel-
California; Lawrence G. Rawl, chairman of
e have done
lence in education, we must and will re-
Exxon Corp.; and entertainer Paul Simon
uch more left
verse that trend. And I see the historical
were given the Frederick D. Patterson Dis-
black colleges as an enormous resource to
tinguished Leadership Award. Following
do just exactly that.
his remarks, the President returned to
think it was,
mplex, I met
And yet I recognize that these propos-
Washington, DC.
f the colleges
probe exactly
And we dis-
and merit
Statement on the Failure of the Senate To Approve the Nomination
ge grants and
of John Tower as Secretary of Defense
m that meet-
ix new initia-
March 9, 1989
ally what you
education so
John Tower has devoted his life to service
He is and will remain my friend.
ir lives. And
of country. Whether in the U.S. Senate, at
I have read Senator Tower's statement
dents, I pro-
the arms control negotiating table, or in the
regarding the decision of the Senate and
million over
privacy of his counsel to Presidents, he has
find its dignity and lack of rancor to be
ig grants. We
always held the interests of this nation
typical of the man whose leadership, knowl-
And now I
above all else. John Tower has been stead-
edge, and experience would have benefited
sector. It's a
fast in his advocacy of a strong defense and
the Department of Defense and the Nation.
of the private
consistent in support of the many principles
Instead of the recompense of a grateful
for which he fought throughout his career.
nation, John Tower's lot in the past weeks
203
Aug. 7 / Administration of George Bush, 1989
covery and adventure, that is surely draw-
Note: The President spoke at 10:44 a.m. at
ing us to a new destiny on new and far
Fort A.P. Hill. In his remarks, he referred to
distant worlds. You are privileged to be the
G. William Swisher, Jr., chairman of the
generation that will witness the first large
National Jamboree; Ben H. Love, chief
movement of men and women into space.
Scout executive of the Boy Scouts of Amer-
And as this happens, I know that the Boy
ica; former Scout Curtis Hawkins; entertain-
Scouts of today will be in the lead. Thank
er Calvin Grant; and Col. John R. Bour-
you for inviting me to your Jamboree. God
geois, USMC, Director of the U.S. Marine
bless you, God bless the Boy Scouts of
Corps Band.
America, and God bless the United States of
America. Thank you all.
Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on the Execution of
Lieutenant Colonel William R. Higgins
August 7, 1989
The Federal Bureau of Investigation
Note: Lt. Col. William R. Higgins, USMC,
today released the results of forensic exami-
chief of the U.N. peacekeeping force in
nations of the videotape purported to be of
southern Lebanon, was kidnaped on Febru-
Lieutenant Colonel Higgins. Mrs. Higgins
ary 17, 1988, and executed by pro-Iranian
was informed of the results by the Com-
terrorists on July 31, 1989. After examining
mandant of the Marine Corps, General Al
a videotape released by the terrorists, FBI
Gray. President Bush called Mrs. Higgins at
forensic experts and pathologists concluded
about 2 p.m. to offer his support and en-
that, although a positive identification
couragement. The President said the U.S.
could not be made, the person depicted in
Government will continue to do all it can to
the videotape probably was Lieutenant
obtain a full accounting of what happened
Colonel Higgins and that he was "within a
to her husband.
reasonable degree of medical certainty"
dead.
Remarks at the National Urban League Conference
August 8, 1989
Thank you very much, Dr. Watson. And
plane. Our Secretary of Defense, Dick
to you, my friend John Jacob, thank you,
Cheney-seeing what he can do in terms of
sir-Tony Burns, the chairman, and all the
search assets.
other Urban League leaders. I single out
I think it says a lot about Mickey that he
my Cabinet-mate, Secretary Kemp. I'm de-
was on his sixth humanitarian mission to
lighted that you're here, Jack. Thank you
help feed the hungry in that part of the
all.
world, and so, I would just like to join you
You know, Jack told me coming over that
all in what you did this morning to say that
you had a moment of silence-a prayer,
our thoughts and prayers are with him. I
really, for Mickey Leland, my fellow Hous-
talked to Alison, his wife, late this morn-
tonian. And let me just say that we have
ing-earlier this morning, I guess. She's
been in touch with the Government of
strong, has a lot of hope. And we all pray
Ethiopia and the United Nations to learn
that he's safe and that he and the others
the whereabouts of Congressman Leland's
with him on that humanitarian mission will
1068
Administration of George Bush, 1989 / Aug. 8
be found and that they'll all be safe. And
we must continue the crusade for equality.
we will, I can tell you as President, do all
Just over a week ago, a collection of schol-
we can to learn what has happened.
ars released a monumental study called "A
I want to speak to you today about the
Common Destiny: Blacks and American So-
state of urban America, about the future
ciety." It offers detailed evidence of the
that I see for American cities and for the
progress our nation has made in the past 50
many millions of Americans who make
years in living up to American ideals. But
them their home. In many respects, let's
the study makes clear that our work is far
face it, urban America offers a bleak pic-
from over. The great gulf between black
ture: an inner city in crisis. And there is too
and white America has narrowed, but it's
much crime, too much crack, too many
not closed. And closing that gulf, eliminat-
dropouts, too much despair, too little eco-
ing it for all time, is the next chapter we
nomic opportunity, too little advancement,
must write in the unfolding history, the un-
and-the bottom line-too little hope. But
finished history, of civil rights. And that
there's something else that's true about our
chapter will be written because today, as in
inner cities, something we can't overlook,
the past, advancing the cause of equal
something the Urban League has worked
rights is in keeping with our highest ideals.
tirelessly to strengthen; and that's a core
It's the right thing to do.
community that is simply too strong to suc-
Think back to 1954, the Court's decision
cumb, a community where there is too
in favor of Linda Brown; a year later, an-
much faith, too much pride, too strong a
other decision, Rosa Parks' refusal to go to
sense of family not to fight back-whatever
the back of the bus; the 1960's, the passage
their challenge, whatever the odds.
of the Civil Rights Act, the Voting Rights
But the challenge for urban America is a
Act, Fair Housing; and in this decade, the
challenge for all America. It's a challenge
elevation of Dr. Martin Luther King to a
for my administration. It's a challenge every
American must embrace. The condition of
place of honor among American heroes. It
our inner cities isn't a matter of charts and
was the right thing to do. And today, when
our challenge is securing true equality for
graphs and these cold statistics. It's more
than an exercise in sociology or public
every American, once again, we will suc-
ceed because it's the right thing to do.
policy. It's a question of how people live
Discrimination-of course it still exists.
their lives, a question of human dignity; and
it's a challenge that I take to heart. Your
Race hate, born of ignorance and inhuman-
problems are my problems; your hopes, the
ity, still exists. The day of the poll tax is
hopes all Americans hold dear. Today I
over. The day of Jim Crow is gone. Today
offer you my hand, and I offer you my
bigotry and bias may take more subtle
word: Together we will make America open
forms; but they persist, and as long as they
and equal to all. And together we must and
do, my work is not over; your work is not
will find a way to stop the decline in our
over; our work is not over.
inner cities, to restore hope, and make the
Before I go on, I want to make sure ev-
nineties a decade of urban renaissance.
eryone in this room knows just exactly
And whether we succeed depends on
where I stand and just where my adminis-
how well we meet three key tests. First, we
tration stands. My administration is commit-
must strike down barriers to advancement
ted to reaching out to minorities, to striking
and opportunity for American minorities—
down barriers to free and open access. We
and strike them down for good. And
will not tolerate discrimination, bigotry, or
second, we must create conditions for urban
bias of any kind, period, just as Dr. Watson
growth and economic revival, conditions
said.
that leave no one behind. And finally, we
Now, we've all spent a lot of time over
must secure the most fundamental right of
the past two decades debating the best
all: the right of young and old alike of any
means of ending unequal treatment. And
race to walk any street without fear.
we've argued-I've even argued with John
Let me start with equal opportunity. Not
Jacob; you try that one on for size-we've
just in urban America but across this nation,
argued, society's argued, about affirmative
1069
Aug. 8 / Administration of George Bush, 1989
action, about quotas, about goals and time-
And back in April, I signed an Executive
tables, about set-asides and 8-A firms. Well,
order that will strengthen our nation's his-
while society's been debating these impor-
torically black colleges and universities and
tant issues, society's also been changing.
expand opportunities for their students and
The economy's been changing. Our world,
their graduates.
the world our children will inherit, is
In many urban schools, the key is creat-
changing. And part of the change is the
ing a sound learning environment, one that
progress we have made-hard-fought
keeps the dropouts in and keeps the drugs
changes in which the Urban League can
out. And that's why I've called for the cre-
take pride. Part of the change is simply a
ation of urban emergency grants to help
matter of the dynamics at work in our
clean up schools hit hardest by the drug
world.
scourge. Education is the way to turn
Take the economy: We're used to think-
dreams into reality, and even in the inner
ing of unemployment as a case of too many
city, every kid has a dream.
people and too few jobs. I remember play-
And opportunity means job training,
ing musical chairs when I was a little kid-a
building the employment skills and basic
game of musical chairs. And all too often,
literacy ability that everyone needs to get
it's the minorities left standing when the
and keep a job. For 6 years now, the Job
music stops. In the 1990's, into the next
Training Partnership program has been
century, our problem-our nation's prob-
lem-will be just the opposite: more than
equipping the disadvantaged youth to enter
the work force, to start that climb up out of
enough jobs and too few people qualified to
fill them.
the poverty trap. JTPA-it works. The proof
The last of the baby boom generation are
is its 68-percent success ratio, and we're
in their thirties. And there's been a slow-
working to make the program even strong-
er. Last month we introduced amendments
down in the number of new workers that
=
are entering our economy, and that's going
to the Job Training Partnership Act to
10
to continue into the 1990's. Talk to any de-
target it more tightly on at-risk youth, kids
mographer, and they'll tell you that's true.
with the most urgent need for job training.
New works will be in demand-new work-
But growth creates jobs, and the future of
of
ers-and the simple fact is that 8 out of
urban America depends on bringing growth
every 10 new workers will be women, mi-
to our inner cities. One entrepreneurial
norities, and immigrants. Think about what
answer to inner city poverty-and I salute
that means. Think about it: For every child
my Secretary of HUD for being in the fore-
growing up today-black or white and, yes,
ground on this one-is enterprise zones.
urban or rural-there will be a job waiting.
Enterprise zones can be a source of jobs,
The question, our challenge, is whether
growth, and advancement. And the payoff
they'll have the education and the skills
isn't simply economic. When you create
that they need to seize that opportunity.
jobs, you create hope. We've debated the
And that's the new frontier for civil rights.
idea of enterprise zones long enough. And
Opportunity means education. The jobs
I've asked Congress to create at least 50
open to the 21st century worker are going
enterprise zones between now and 1993,
to require higher skills. And never has edu-
and now is the time for action.
cation been more important than for the
But enterprise zones are meaningless if
next generation, for the first-grader-
we don't create economic incentives for
today's first-grader-who is a member of
urban expansion. And that's why I've also
the high school class of the year 2001. The
called on Congress to enact changes in the
package of education initiatives that I sent
Tax Code that will make enterprise zones
to the Congress this spring will make a dif-
magnets for capital, magnets for job cre-
ference for urban America and for Ameri-
ation. And I'm talking about incentives to
can minorities. And I've called on Congress
increase investment, to open a flow of seed
to provide a $250 million increase in funds
capital into urban areas. And if we're going
for Head Start, a key program in getting
to make inner cities attractive to new cap-
disadvantaged children ready for school.
ital, individuals who invest in enterprise
1070
Administration of George Bush, 1989 / Aug. 8
zones should get an immediate tax savings.
is on your block, and when the stray bullet
And we've also got to reward risk-taking.
from a drug war shootout kills some mother
I've proposed a zero capital gains rate for
sitting on her porch, and when parents and
eligible business investments in enterprise
teachers and churches struggle to teach the
zones. If you take your capital and go there
values of honesty and hard work and then
to invest, you ought to have that as an in-
find themselves up against the fast-money
centive to put the business where the jobs
lure of the drug trade, there's a certain
must be for outside-[applause]. It should
hopelessness.
be a powerful incentive for outside inves-
But our children can live and learn in
lors and a rate of return fitting for urban
peace. Urban communities can thrive again.
entrepreneurs.
And that's why we've got to combat drug
And I'm talking about incentives for
violence, and that's why we've got to elimi-
working people. We want to establish
nate fear, and that's why we've got to
what's known as a refundable wage credit
create a climate of hope. The Federal Gov-
for low-income employees in enterprise
ernment is doing its part. We're going to do
zones. In many cases, this credit will cut the
more. We've taken forceful action to speed
taxes of low-income workers to zero. And
up the eviction process for drug dealers in
for some low-income families who already
America's public housing. And in less than a
owe little in taxes, a refundable credit will
month, we'll unveil a new national drug
not only take them off the Federal income
strategy, our comprehensive battle plan to
tax rolls; it will put money in their pockets.
wage the long, hard fight against illegal
Opportunity, education, advancement,
equality: each is essential. But we can't talk
drugs.
about the future we want to see for urban
And there's a message that I want to send
America without talking about the number-
today, all out across this country, to all law-
one threat in our inner cities today. You
abiding Americans: The war on drugs is a
know what that is, every one of you: illegal
battle that can't simply be waged from
drugs. And you know the simple truth: Our
Washington, DC. When I was in Chicago
inner cities cannot become centers of op-
last month, I asked this nation's Governors
portunity as long as they are battle zones in
to pass laws in each of their States that
a drug war.
parallel the tough Federal stand that we've
A little over a week ago, our Secretary of
taken against illegal drugs. And today I ask
HHS, Dr. Louis Sullivan, released the
each of you to do the same at the local
newest statistics-maybe some of you all
level, in urban America. Let's put more
saw it in the paper-the newest statistics on
police on the streets, tougher laws on the
illegal drug use in America. The statistics
books, build the jail cells that we need to
show two trends, one positive and one pro-
put drug criminals where they belong-
foundly, earthshakingly disturbing. Overall
behind bars-and, in my view, keep them
use of cocaine has declined by almost half-
there. Let's not point the finger or look for
testimony to the years of dedication and
scapegoats. Let's enlist every asset that we
hard work of parents, educators, religious
have, form a united front, and fight this war
and community leaders, all determined to
together.
end this plague. But our greatest challenge
There are some who say-and you've
is yet to come. Frequent cocaine use-fre-
heard it-the state of urban America is
quent use-is up sharply.
hopeless. The National Urban League
And that means while our message is get-
doesn't believe that. I say they're wrong.
ting across to the casual user, hardcore
We've got to see past the stories on the 6
drugs, drugs like this insidious crack co-
o'clock news and past the statistics. We've
caine, are tightening their grip. And that's
got to see the potential for progress; we've
grim news, that's bad news for the United
got to see the face of hope in our inner
States of America, because crack, crime,
cities.
and violence-they're the unholy trinity in
And, now, I'm not afraid to say we've got
our inner cities. And urban communities
hard work ahead of us: We've got to wage
suffer the most. And when the crackhouse
war on poverty and wage war on despair
1071
Aug. 8 / Administration of George Bush, 1989
and wage war on the hopelessness that robs
simply, it is the right thing to do.,
us of our future. And I want to tell all of
you, God bless you, and God
balances Amc
you here today: I'm not going to relax in
United States of America. Thank
any.
competit
your
this job, or rest, until I know that I have
In particula
very much.
done everything in my power to ensure
miltee chairr
that we succeed, that every child in our
Note: The President spoke at 2:25
Representative with us today
inner cities has a shot at a good job, that
the Washington Convention Center.
111 extraordi
every kid stays in school and gets a quality
remarks, he referred to Bernard
and they we
education-yes, lives in decent housing in a
John Jacob, and M. Anthony Burns,
and Represer
neighborhood free of drugs, fear, and vio-
lence. We've got to work together to
vice chairman, president and chief
helped make
achieve these goals. I know we will, and I
tive officer, and chairman of the
Natio
of course. Ser
Urban League, respectively, and
noned earlier
know why. John, you know why. Jack
Kemp, Dr. Watson, you know why. Every-
of Housing and Urban Development
hers of the b.
Kemp.
from both sic
one here today knows why: Because,
the cause of ti
And then tl
Secretary, Nic
forts have be
Remarks on Signing the Financial Institutions Reform, Recover
has been tru
those of Dire
and Enforcement Act of 1989
the head of t'
August 9, 1989
hon Richard
I'd be remis
Well, Secretary Brady and Secretary Jack
vent. And the crisis has been told
others on the
Kemp, Chairman Greenspan, Senators
retold: The Federal insurance fund
agencies and
They, too, de:
Riegle and Gramm, and Congressmen
unable to make good on its commitments
And becaus
Wylie and Gonzalez, and other distin-
the public or to close insolvent institution
and so many
guished Members of the House and Senate,
and-their losses mounting-hundreds
us the tools 1
ladies and gentlemen, and friends: Thomas
bankrupt institutions were allowed toicon
and our finar
Jefferson once observed that "the care of
tinue operating.
and stable. W
human life and happiness, and not their de-
On February 6, I announced a plan.to
mg. we will b
struction, is the first and only legitimate
change all that: to protect insured depos
nate the on:
object of good government." And today we
tors and to responsibly finance the closing
tirms and to
gather here to sign legislation, the Financial
or other resolution of all insolvent institu-
insured funds
Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforce-
tions. And we sought to abolish lax regula-
Foward tha
ment Act of 1989, which reaffirms those
tions, to increase penalties for wrongdoing
the agency (
words.
and to reform the financial system And
pervision. An
This legislation comes to grips with the
above all, we sought to protect those who
will operate a
problems facing our savings and loan indus-
have relied on government to faithfully ful
ment, ensurir
try. It'll safeguard and stabilize America's
fill its obligations.
always come
financial system and put in place perma-
I take a special pleasure in the historics
completely no
nent reforms so these problems will never
legislation that I will sign here this mom-
deposits in I
happen again. And moreover, it says to tens
ing. For the Task Group on Regulation of
tions of the 1
of millions of S&L depositors: You will not
Financial Services, which I was proud to
nation Insura
be the victim of others' mistakes. We will
chair, began the effort to strengthen our
zuaranteed b
financial system. And its work, and that
the United S
see-guarantee-that your insured deposits
are secure.
many others, was debated and refined by
here symbol.
And this, of course, was government's
the United States Congress-and you see lt
commitment
intent when, in 1933, it created the Federal
here, all 371 pages of it. And, no, the bill
Good steps
Deposit Insurance [Corporation]. And yet as
not perfect, but it is a first step, a crucial
legislation g
step, toward restoring public confidence.
today. penalt;
that system incurred massive loans over the
H.R. 1278 is responsive and responsible,
and directors
past couple of decades, the fund designed
to protect depositors itself became insol-
and for that I salute the Congress. This
.00 reased up
1072
Draft
PRESIDENT BUSH'S RECORD OF SUPPORT FOR CIVIL RIGHTS
The President has a record of strong support for civil
rights dating back more than 40 years. At Yale University,
in 1948, he headed up a fundraising drive for the United
Negro College Fund.
While living in Houston in the 1960s, he sponsored a black
girls' softball team and, during his tenure as county
Republican chairman, Mr. Bush placed all the GOP's money
into a black-owned bank.
In 1968, during his first term in Congress, then
Representative Bush was one of two southern Republicans in
the House to vote for a 1968 open-housing bill.
As Vice President he worked to extend the 1965 Voting Rights
Act, legislation aimed at getting federal aid to schools
known for their discriminatory actions.
Today, twenty months into the Bush administration, several
legislative initiatives have become law, including the
extension of the tenure of the Civil Rights Commission and
the Hate Crimes Act.
The President is also determined to help eliminate bias and
bigotry by removing barriers to opportunity. He has asked
Congress to increase funding for several important programs.
The requested budgets for Head Start and aid for
historically black colleges and universities have increased
by $500 million and $60 million, respectively. The
president's new HOPE initiative, a program aimed at giving
all people basic shelter and affordable housing, is budgeted
at $4 billion over three years.
In regards to other areas concerning civil rights, the
president has proven to be an impassioned supporter. He was
a proponent of the Americans With Disabilities Act,
potentially the most definitive equal rights legislation in
25 years. Also, on many occasions, he has condemned attacks
on the civil rights of AIDS patients.
As recently as the 12th of September, President Bush signed
a proclamation designating September 12th through the 15th
of 1990 as "The National Historically Black Colleges Week."
This proclamation is a show of support on the part of the
President, noting the importance of educational choice and
diversity which Black colleges and universities offer.
Eneyclopedia of Black annica
DAVIS, BENJAMIN OLIVER, SR.
was dropped from the staff. Subsequently, Davis
general in the Air Force. In 1965 Davis was pro-
became involved in an alleged kidnapping
moted to lieutenant general, the rank he held on
attempt of three San Quentin prisoners from the
his retirement from the Air Force in 1970. After
Marin County Civic Center; she was accused of
serving as director of public safety in Cleveland,
planning the incident and supplying the gun that
Ohio, during that year, Davis was appointed
killed four people during the incident. Charged
assistant secretary in charge of civil aviation
with murder, kidnapping, and conspiracy, Davis
security of the U.S. Department of Transporta-
was finally incarcerated. However, in 1972, after
tion. See also DAVIS, BENJAMIN OLIVER, SR.
16 months in jail, she was tried and acquitted of
the charges. A celebrity, Davis travelled to the
Brigadier Gen.
Soviet Union and several other communist coun-
Benjamin O. Davis,
tries, and lectured in the United States. Her pub-
Sr., (right) pins the
Distinguished
lications include: If They Come in the Morning:
Flying Cross on his
Voices of Resistance (1971); the pamphlet Lec-
son, Col. Benjamin
O. Davis, Jr., in
tures on Liberation (1972); Angela Davis: With
Italy during World
My Mind on Freedom, An Autobiography (1974).
War II. Awaiting
their turn to be
decorated are other
officers of the
332d Fighter
DAVIS, AUTHUR P. (1904-
),
educator,
Group: Capt. Joseph
author; born in Hampton, Va. Davis received a
D. Elsberry of
Langston, Okla., 1st
B.A. degree (1927), a M.A. degree (1929), and his
Lt. Jack D.
Ph.D. degree (1942) from Columbia University.
Holsclaw of
Spokane, Wash.,
His teaching career began in 1927 at North Caro-
and 1st Lt. Clarence
lina College at Durham (now North Carolina
D. Lester of
Chicago, III. (U.S.
Central University). Davis later taught at Virgin-
Air Force photo.)
ia Union University and at Hampton Institute
(Hampton, Va.), and he became professor of
English at Howard University (Washington,
DAVIS, BENJAMIN OLIVER, SR. (1877-1970),
D.C.) in 1969. He coedited, with Sterling Brown
Army officer, educator, government official; born
and Ulysses Lee, The Negro Caravan (1941).
in Washington, D.C. Father of Gen. Benjamin O.
Davis contributed many book reviews and arti-
Davis, Jr., of the U.S. Air Force, Davis attended
cles to professional journals, and he wrote sev-
Howard University (Washington, D.C.), after
eral books, including From the Dark Tower:
which he enlisted as a private in the Regular
Afro-American Writers, 1900 to 1960 (1975).
Army in 1899 (after a year in the infantry during
the war with Spain). He served for two years in
the Philippines, and in 1901 he was commis-
DAVIS, BENJAMIN OLIVER, JR. (1912-
),
sioned a second lieutenant in the cavalry. In the
Air Force officer; born in Washington, D.C. The
following years, Davis served in various posts in
son of Gen. Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., Davis grad-
the United States, until he was sent to Monrovia,
uated from the U.S. Military Academy at West
Liberia, as military attaché, a post he held until
Point in 1936, the fourth black student ever to do
1912. He joined and rejoined the faculty of Wil-
so. He transferred to the Air Corps when he
berforce University (Wilberforce, Ohio) several
received his wings in 1942. Davis became com-
times throughout his career, teaching military
mander of the 99th Fighter Squadron, which
science both there and at Tuskegee Institute (Tus-
fought in North Africa, Sicily, and Northern Italy
kegee Institute, Ala.). Rising in rank through the
during World War II, and after that, he com-
years, Davis was promoted to major during World
manded the 332d Fighter Group. By the end of
War I and to full colonel in 1930. He was further
the war, he had won the Silver Star and the Dis-
promoted to brigadier general under President
tinguished Flying Cross. Subsequently, Davis
Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940, the first Afro-
was appointed commander of the 51st Fighter-
American to attain that rank in the Army. After
Interceptor Wing during the Korean War in 1952,
his retirement in 1941, Davis was recalled to
and later he became director of operations and
active duty to serve as special adviser to the com-
training of the Far East Air Forces In 1954 he was
mander of the European Theater (ETO) during
made a brigadier general, becoming the first black
World War II and as assistant to the inspector gen use
in
D.C. Retired from Anmed Forces
in 1948.
303
AVIATORS
AVIATORS Eugene Jacques Bullard, born in
of East Orange. N.J. Terry had been a stunt flyer
Columbus, Ga., in 1894, was one of the first Afro-
before the war and taught flying at A & T college,
Americans who sought to break the racial barrier
in Greensboro, N.C., under the Civilian Pilot
and enter the field of aviation. Failing in the
Training (CPT) program in 1940-41. One of his
United States, he went to France and joined the
first graduates was the college's youthful dean of
Foreign Legion in 1914. Eventually, he became a
men, William H. Gamble. Another CPT flight pro-
pilot in the Lafayette Escadrille, gaining fame as
gram was conducted at West Virginia State Col-
one of the Lafayette Flying Four. He returned to
lege where there were several graduates, includ-
the United States in 1940 and died in 1961.
ing a young Ph.D. on the faculty of mathematics,
Between the end of World War I and 1939, 23
William S. Claytor. There were also CPT pro-
blacks were licensed to fly private craft and 4 to
grams at three other black colleges, then segre-
fly commercial craft. One of the private-craft
gated. There were programs at Howard Univer-
sity, Washington, D.C.; Hampton Institute,
Hampton, Va.; and Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee,
Far left: This group
Ala. Charles "Chief" Anderson, another of the
of Harlem aviators
four commercially licensed black pilots before
assembled in 1935
in the interest of
World War II was in charge of the CPT program
aiding Emperor
at Tuskegee Institute. (One of his students was
Haile Selassie in
the Italo-Ethiopian
Daniel "Chappie" James, a fighter pilot in World
War. (U.S.
War II who later became a four-star general in the
Information
Agency. National
United States Air Force.)
Archives.)
Born in 1907, "Chief" Anderson was a native
of Pennsylvania. However, he remained a per-
manent resident at Tuskegee long after the Army
Air Force closed the base. He also remained an
excellent pilot of his own personal plane after he
had passed his seventieth birthday. With an
extensive knowledge of Afro-Americans in avia-
tion, Anderson preserved memories of his former
students and pilot friends, including "Chappie"
James. One of his fondest recollections was of a
goodwill flight to Trinidad in the early 1930s
flyers was Hubert Julian, a flamboyant pilot
with a former student and friend, Albert E. For-
known as the "Black Eagle." During the Italo-
sythe. Another one of Anderson's recollections
Ethiopian War (1935), he went to Ethiopia and
was of the time that he obliged Eleanor Roosevelt
offered his services to the emperor Haile Selas-
by taking her on a flight over the Tuskegee area
sie. On his return to the United States, he made
in a Piper Cub. Mrs. Roosevelt and President
many lecture tours, but he was not accepted for
Franklin D. Roosevelt were visiting Tuskegee at
flight duty in the United States Army Air Force
the time, preparatory to the decision of the army
during World War II.
to put an air base nearby in order to train black
Other black private-craft flyers in the 1930s
pilots for World War II.
formed a group known as the Negro Airmen Inter-
After the war began, Robert Terry went to the
national, Inc., in Chicago, Ill., in 1933 under the
air base at Tuskegee, serving as a civilian instruc-
leadership of Ed Gibbs. About the same time in
tor in the pilot training program, and was later
Chicago, some of the earliest black pilots, or stu-
commissioned. Two of his students, Sam Bruce
dent pilots, were accommodated at a black-oper-
and Graham Smith, preceded him there as the
ated flying school and local airport (Harlem).
first pilot-training students, receiving their
One of the four commercially licensed pilots in
"wings" in the 99th Pursuit Squadron, which
the country before World War II was Robert Terry
became the famous 332nd, commanded by Ben-
145
AVIATORS
jamin O. Davis, Jr. Bruce was later killed in his
these was Warren Wheeler of Durham, N.C., who
fighter plane (a P-40) over Sicily, and Smith was
became a pilot for Piedmont Airlines at the age
reported missing in the Korean War.
of 22. In 1969, Wheeler began his own airline
James O. Plinton, Jr., another pilot with a com-
(Wheeler) at the Raleigh-Durham Airport.
mercial license, also went to the Tuskegee air
Although he did not fly for a commercial air-
base as a flight instructor. He became the first
line, one Afro-American commercially licensed
black to serve as a top executive (vice president)
pilot, William M. Dandridge, maintained a life-
of a major airlines (Eastern) in 1971.
long interest in flying that went back (though not
Certainly, World War II provided the first
service-connected) to his days as a commissioned
important entry of blacks into aviation. After the
officer in World War II. Of the 49,694 airplane
This picture was
war, however, commercial flying remained
pilots in the nation in 1970, however, only 162
taken by the
almost exclusively closed to black pilots, and
were black (5 of these were women), according to
parents of Jill
Brown immediately
flight activity among black pilots decreased. By
census reports. One of the women flyers, Jill
after her solo flight
the time of the civil rights movement of the late
Brown of Millersville, Md., later gained distinc-
in 1967. (Courtesy
of Elaine and
1960s, however, a few black pilots were serving
tion when she became the first Afro-American
Gilbert Brown.)
as flight officers on commercial lines. One of
woman to serve as a captain on a major commer-
cial airline (Texas International). See also JAMES,
DANIEL "CHAPPIE"; PLINTON, JAMES O., JR.; WARS.
REFERENCES: Very little attention has been given to the subject
of black aviators. In the 1970s, however, two biographies, one
on Jacques Bullard (Carisella, P.J., Black Swallow of Death,
1972) and the other on Hubert Julian (Nugent, John Peer,
Black Eagle, 1971), appeared, showing increasing interest in
the subject. (An early reference by Charles E. Francis, The
Tuskegee Airmen: The Story of the Negro in the U.S. Air
Force, 1955, is concerned almost entirely with combat activ-
ity.) Also, an article in the Charlotte Observer, Feb. 5, 1978,
featured Warren Wheeler; and Ebony magazine, in the same
year, carried a feature on Jill Brown.
146
May 10 / Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1987
Remarks at the Dedication of Tuskegee University's General Daniel
"Chappie" James Center in Alabama
May 10, 1987
The President. Thank you, Dr. Payton. It's
And with us today is Air Force General
an honor for me to dedicate this aerospace
Bernard Randolph, who I've nominated to
science and health education center to the
receive his fourth star. His contributions to
memory of one of Tuskegee's finest and one
America today are possible because of men
of America's best, General Daniel "Chap-
like Chappie James and the Tuskegee
pie' James. Chappie James was a hero of
Airmen. The lessons Chappie taught the
three wars. He flew 101 combat missions in
Tuskegee Airmen were of great service to
Korea, where at one point he force-landed
our country. Today it's most fitting, then,
behind enemy lines, and 78 combat mis-
that we dedicate this center to carry on
sions over North Vietnam. Nearby, we can
that spirit. The James Center will help train
see-and we just came by-one of the jet
young men and women in the discipline of
planes that he flew in Vietnam. He rose
aerospace science and health education.
through the ranks of the United States Air
And we expect from the ranks of these stu-
Force in the Military Airlift Command and
dents will come young leaders who will
the North American Air Defense Com-
follow the proud traditions of this universi-
mand. As Commander of NORAD, all
ty, men and women who will be a lasting
America depended on his judgment and his
tribute to Chappie James and all that he
courage for our defense and survival.
stood for.
Chappie's mother told him at a young
Chappie, who fought in war and in peace
age that there was an Eleventh Command-
to make this a better, freer country, once
ment: "Thou shalt not quit." He took that
said: "This is my nation. I love her. If I see
to heart. And Chappie James is one of the
Miss Liberty ill, I'll hold her hand. If she is
very few officers ever to attain the rank of
in the hospital, I'll bring her roses." Well,
four star general. He had 4 stars on his
now, let his spirit hold the hand of these
shoulder and 50 stars in his heart. Chappie
students and guide them through the chal-
James was an unabashed patriot; his expres-
lenges of higher education and through the
sions of affection and dedication to the
frustrations of life.
cause of freedom stirred the hearts of his
I am most proud to dedicate this center
countrymen. He loved America, and Amer-
in honor of a darned good pilot and a re-
ica loved Chappie James.
vered military officer and a truly great
This unique individual began his career
American.
here at Tuskegee. This is where he earned
Reporter. Mr. President, [former Assistant
his degree. This is where he trained young
to the President for National Security Af-
men how to fly and how to fight. And these
fairs] Bud McFarlane says you ordered
warriors put his lessons to good use, de-
contra aid at a time when Congress had
stroying 261 enemy aircraft and wreaking
banned such aid. What do you have to say
destruction and havoc upon the enemy.
about that?
They served their country with valor and
The President. I'm not going to take any
distinction. As you may be aware, in 1944, I
questions now on things like that. We're
narrated a film about the Tuskegee Airmen.
here for a different purpose. And let's, just
I was presently in uniform serving with the
for a few moments, decide that there's
Army Air Corps at the time, but my past
enough controversy, and we'll leave it in
occupation caught up with me, and I was
Washington for today.
given the opportunity to do that narration.
And I'm proud that in a small way I was
Note: The President spoke at 10:42 a.m. at
able to contribute to the change in climate
the center. He was introduced by Dr. Benja-
that gained public acceptance for black
min Franklin Payton, president of Tuskegee
pilots.
University.
488
Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1987 / May 10
Remarks at the Tuskegee University Commencement Ceremony in
Alabama
May 10, 1987
The President. Thank you, President
to Dulles International Airport, he struck
Payton, Governor Hunt, Senator Heflin,
up a conversation with the cabbie. And the
Congressman Nichols, Mrs. James, the dis-
young man happened to mention that he
tinguished faculty members and honored
would be graduating in a few weeks. And
guests, graduates to be, and, of course,
the diplomat asked what kind of work he
proud parents. It's an honor for me to be
intended to pursue. "I don't know," replied
here, sharing this special day with you. And,
the cabbie, "because I haven't decided yet."
President Payton, after having had you and
Well, once at Dulles, the diplomat caught a
Mrs. Payton on our campus a few weeks
plane which was taking him straight to the
ago, let me say, Nancy and I are honored
Soviet Union, to Moscow. And arriving
by the invitation to be on yours. She sends
there, he got in a taxicab and started the
her greetings. You know, the First Lady
long ride in, and he, speaking fluent Rus-
doesn't work for the Government-well,
sian, struck up a conversation with that
she doesn't get paid by the Government,
cabbie. And asked, the cabbie, too, by coin-
but she works for the Government. And
cidence said he too would soon be graduat-
she's home, packing for a trip they're send-
ing. And when the diplomat asked him
ing her across the country on.
what line of work he planned to pursue, the
This is a most fitting day for a graduation
cabbie replied, "I don't know; they haven't
ceremony because it coincides with the day
decided yet." [Laughter]
we give thanks to the individuals to whom
Well, in a free society, as that story sug-
we really owe everything, people who sacri-
gests, the individual makes the ultimate de-
ficed and sometimes themselves went with-
cision as to the direction of his or her life.
out so that we could have happier and
This freedom is one of the greatest sources
more complete lives. Today we remember
of strength from which this or any country
and give thanks to our mothers. I'd like to
can draw, a wellspring of hope that can be
ask every woman who has a child graduat-
seen in the optimism of free people. And
ing today to stand, if they would. [Ap-
looking at your faces today, one cannot but
plause] Ladies, we honor your children
have confidence in you and in our country's
today for their outstanding accomplishment,
future. Your generation of Americans will
but we know that you deserve our acco-
usher the world into a new era of freedom
lades, as well. God bless you, and thank you
and progress, a time when our technology
all for all you've done to bring this happy
and our creativity will carry us beyond any-
day about.
thing that we can now imagine. Already
And speaking of mothers, Mrs. Punch,
computers are expanding our productivity
would you come up here on the platform
and opening doors of opportunity only
for a moment? I know Tuskegee students
dreamed of a short time ago. Small busi-
have had a special one here on campus for
nesses, for example, have computer facili-
40 years. She's retiring this year. Mrs.
ties formerly reserved for giant corpora-
Punch, love and thanks are yours today.
tions.
And Nancy and I would like to give you
When I was attending college-now, I
something on behalf of all of us.
know many of you probably think that that
Mrs. Punch. Thank you, Mr. President.
was back when there were dinosaurs roam-
The President. Today you young people
ing the Earth-|laughter]-actualy, they
end one phase of your life and begin an-
weren't; it was about the time when Moses
other. Your parents, your teachers, all of us,
was parting the Red Sea. [Laughter] Seri-
are genuinely excited for you.
ously, the goals Americans set for them-
There's a story of a diplomat who caught
selves in the days of my youth seem so
a taxi in Washington, and on the long ride
modest: indoor plumbing, electricity, a
489
May 10 / Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1987
family car, having a telephone or a radio
Luther King. The civil rights movement
crystal set. Traveling to distant cities was
earned the respect and gratitude of all good
rare; traveling overseas was within reach of
and decent Americans, even some who may
only a few. For my family, even going to a
at first have had reservations about what
movie was not always within reach.
was happening. Yet changes in the law-
Today we explore technology that might
and the political struggle itself-brought
someday conquer the remaining threats to
social progress that enormously strength-
our health and increase our longevity.
ened the moral foundation of the United
While jet airliners carry passengers, even
States.
those of modest means, from coast to coast
The political and legal battle is obviously
and overseas, our engineers are busy devel-
not over. We must remain vigilant, inside
oping crafts that one day will take off from
and outside of government. We must main-
a runway and carry us into space, aerospace
tain our moral solidarity against intolerance
planes that will deliver us anywhere in the
and racial hatred. We cannot shrug off inci-
world in just a few hours' time. Discoveries
dents of racial violence or interracial crime.
in the field of superconductivity are coming
Yet today, if black Americans are to
so rapidly that research results are often out
progress socially and economically, if they
of date before they're in print. Scientists are
are to be independent and upwardly
bringing us to the day of pollution-free elec-
mobile, it is imperative that they be part of
tric cars and magnetic trains that carry
the great technological and scientific
cargo and travelers at speeds of 300 or 400
changes now sweeping our country and the
miles per hour.
world. And it's just as vital for America that
During my teens, one in four Americans
all her citizens march into the future to-
was still on the farm; more often than not,
toiling to achieve extremely limited produc-
gether.
tion. It took one farmer then to feed four
If there's any lesson now being learned, it
Americans in those days. Today that same
is that there is a relationship between
farmer can feed 60 Americans and 15 for-
human freedom and the progress of man.
eigners. Those were also the days when
The discrimination and prohibitions suf-
most people, trying to earn a meager living,
fered by minorities in this country were un-
shut their eyes to the injustices suffered by
doubtedly some of the greatest impedi-
minority citizens. It was Thomas Jefferson
ments to the forward thrust of our nation.
who once said, "I like dreams of the future
One need only look at the invaluable scien-
better than the history of the past." Well,
tific contributions, especially in the area of
Americans have never lacked vision, never
agriculture, made by George Washington
lacked the desire or the courage to attempt
Carver, to wonder what more he might
great deeds.
have accomplished had he not been over-
After the Second World War, during an-
coming prejudice as well as conducting sci-
other time of tremendous economic and
entific experiments. An American pioneer
technological progress, our society moved
in heart surgery was Dr. Daniel Hale Wil-
forward to make a long-overdue commit-
liams, a black physician. Another black phy-
ment to extend freedom to those who had
sician, Dr. Charles Drew, discovered a
been denied, to make real the dream of a
method of storing blood plasma. How many
land of freedom and justice for all. In the
of our countrymen would have lived longer,
1950's and 1960's, great strides were made
more productive lives had these outstand-
through political action. The legal sanctions
ing citizens been freer to reach their poten-
of bigotry and discrimination were torn
tial?
away, laws protecting the civil rights of all
The United States, in all these cases and
Americans were put in place, and racism
so many more, did not know what it was
was, in effect, outlawed. These great
losing. Ironically, today America often isn't
achievements did not come easy. They
aware of what it's gaining by having opened
were the result of the struggle and commit-
doors that were long closed. Our citizens
ment of generations and the outstanding
may know of the three black astronauts
leadership of individuals like Dr. Martin
now in line for becoming [upcoming] shut-
490
Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1987 / May 10
tle missions. Yet how widely known is it
tivity and talents of its citizens.
that a large portion of NASA's work force is
Our administration is moving aggressively
black, including 422 engineers and scien-
in a number of fronts. We have an agenda
tists? One of them, David Hedgly, was re-
that is aimed not only at overcoming the
sponsible for a breakthrough in computer
problems of today but also preparing the
graphics a few years ago, solving a problem
ground for black economic independence in
that had confounded the scientific establish-
the technological era that we're entering.
ment for years. The press release announc-
We threw out the old, inefficient CETA
ing the accomplishment did not-as was
[Comprehensive Employment Training Act]
proper-mention his race. Dr. Jewell Plum-
program and put in its place the Job Train-
mer Cobb is president of California State
ing Partnership Act, which provides more
University at Fullerton. She's a distin-
training for every dollar spent. It was
guished scientist who's known for her work
Booker T. Washington who said: "The
in cell physiology.
world cares very little about what a man or
There's nothing wrong with the attention
woman knows; it is what the man or
focused on black athletes and entertainers; I
woman
can
do
Well, our new training
would be the last one to play down the role
programs are designed to provide market-
of entertainers. [Laughter] However, I
able, up-to-date skills.
think it's high time the media and the rest
We've done our best to put in place
of America began paying more attention to
spending and tax policies that will keep our
those black citizens who are prominent in
economy healthy and growing. Certainly,
other professions, as well. We must be con-
cerned about the perception children of
black unemployment has remained far too
every race are developing about themselves
high and is totally unacceptable, yet there
and about others. Certainly, problems in
are some figures that give us hope. Black
the black community cannot be covered up
employment has increased 1.8 million since
or ignored; yet rather than dwelling almost
1980, and today more black Americans are
exclusively on the negative, let's make cer-
working than ever before and a higher per-
tain our children see stories of black suc-
centage of the black work force is em-
cesses and triumphs. And there are many
ployed than at any time in this decade.
Since the economic recovery began, about
from which to choose.
Today there are some 843,000 minority-
one in seven of all new jobs being created
owned businesses in the United States. Over
has gone to black Americans. I care deeply
and above what they buy and sell in the
about the unemployed. I saw my father
private sector, the Federal Government is
suffer from the pain of not being able to
doing an unprecedented $61/2 billion in
support his family. I witnessed what it did
business with them. Black entrepreneurs
to him and his self-respect and to my
often overcome great adversity. Their sto-
mother. And it's not something I or anyone
ries lift the human spirit and give credit to
in the administration take lightly. And I can
individuals who should serve as role models
assure you, we won't be satisfied till every
for our children. Coming up, for example, is
American who wants a job has a job and is
National Small Business Week. An engineer-
earning a decent living.
ing and technical services company named
Our preparation for the next century
Analysis Group Incorporated, has been se-
goes far beyond our efforts to build an
lected for distinction. The president of the
economy that will provide jobs for the un-
company, Arthur Paul, received his bache-
employed. By our campaign for excellence
lor's and master's in engineering from
in education, we have not been offering
Howard University and his doctorate from
easy answers in this regard; instead, we set
the University of Virginia. As our country
out to mobilize the public, to get the
moves into the 21st century, it's crucial that
people involved in their local schools and in
more young black Americans follow the
the education of their children, to encour-
path of Dr. Paul and of our black scientists,
age them to insist on high standards and
physicists, and mathematicians. America
discipline. And let's not kid ourselves-we
must not be denied the benefits of the crea-
can't expect children to excel in an environ-
491
May 10 / Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1987
ment of drugs and permissiveness. All
other area of study. Furthermore, among
Americans should stand shoulder to shoul-
your faculty and staff, in keeping with the
der against this evil that undermines the
standards established by Dr. Carver, are
moral fiber of the Nation and attacks our
some of the best higher education has to
youth. It's time to get drugs off our campus-
offer in electrical, mechanical, chemical,
es and out of our schoolyards. We want to
and aerospace sciences. Tuskegee has a tra-
make certain that by the time young people
dition of top-quality scientific research from
get to college, they're of sound mind, good
its earliest days.
character, and have the basic educational
Dr. Carver once said: "Race and creed
skills to carry them into any field they
find no recognition in the eyes of the Deity
choose.
when He bestows His generous gifts." Dr.
We're also engaged in an effort to en-
Carver not only said that; he proved it. Tus-
courage them as to what choice to make. At
kegee made history with its agricultural re-
the college level, we're helping to provide
search, which continues even now to be a
incentives for black Americans to choose
source of pride. Yet let me suggest that this
math, engineering, and the sciences. And
fame may someday be surpassed by contri-
next year, in response to our direction, the
butions your institution will make in the
National Science Foundation-whose
field of aerospace engineering.
budget is being doubled-will move to
Audience member. Yeah!
ensure the widest participation in the sci-
ences. This includes funding comprehensive
The President. He's ready. [Laughter]
projects to improve the teaching of science
This potential is the reason the George C.
and engineering to pre-college and under-
Marshall Flight Center and other similar or-
graduate students in minority schools.
ganizations, as well as private corporations,
And this isn't just a job for the Govern-
are humming around here. This is the
ment. One of the goals we've set for our-
reason NASA donated to this institution
selves in recent years has been to enlist the
some of its most sophisticated aviation-relat-
citizenry and private corporations in such
ed computers last year. And, of course, it is
community-building programs. Today there
the reason that you have received $9 mil-
are partnerships between Texas Engineer-
lion in support from the Department of
ing Experiment Station and Prairie View
Education for the opening of this Aerospace
A&M University, between Lawrence Berke-
Science and Health Education Center, this
ley Laboratory and Jackson State Universi-
center I was honored to inaugurate shortly
ty, and others that provide hands-on engi-
before joining you here today. This center,
neering and scientific experience to minori-
of course, is dedicated to the memory of
ty students. We're doing our best to encour-
one of this country's great patriots, a hero
age these partnerships, whether they take
of three wars, America's first black four-star
the form of apprentice programs or consult-
general, Daniel "Chappie" James. He has
ing arrangements or joint research. In the
been mentioned here repeatedly. As a
public sector, the full support of our admin-
youth he washed airplanes for 25 cents. He
istration has been thrown behind the effort
earned his degree here at Tuskegee and
to greatly strengthen the research capabili-
helped train the famous Tuskegee Airmen,
ties of black institutions of higher learning.
pilots who during the war destroyed 261
In 1986, 27 Federal agencies and depart-
enemy aircraft and won a basketful of Dis-
ments invested more than $600 million in
tinguished Flying Crosses.
our nation's historically black colleges,
Some of you may be aware that back in
much of it in the form of research grants
1944, in the midst of that great conflict, I
and projects.
narrated a film about these brave pilots. I
One example: Tuskegee competed for,
can't tell you how proud I am to be an
and won, a $21/4-million Navy contract to
honorary Tuskegee Airman. And if they
help in the development of automobile, air-
hadn't made me wear this robe, you'd have
craft, and spacecraft engine components.
seen I was wearing the button in my lapel.
More of Tuskegee's students are enrolled in
[Laughter] The skill and courage of these
engineering and architecture than any
individuals, Chappie James and the Tuske-
492
Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1987 / May 10
gee Airmen, is part of an heroic tradition,
with a minor in laser physics, from the Air
from the Revolutionary War, when some
Force Institute of Technology. I might add
5,000 black Americans fought gallantly for
that he was at the White House on the day
our country's independence, to Pearl
we announced the initial grant for the
Harbor, where a black seaman named
Chappie James Center here in Tuskegee.
Dorie Miller was one of the first Americans
These Americans in the military service
to bring down an enemy aircraft. Dorie
of the United States do us proud because of
Miller, the Tuskegee Airmen, and others
their achievements and because they, like
who fought and often paid the supreme sac-
the brave men who went before them, are
rifice for their country did so in a segregat-
willing to put their lives on the line to
ed military. Their courage and patriotism
defend our country. With us today are 27
undoubtedly helped bring an end to this
newly commissioned ROTC second lieuten-
outrage.
ants who will soon be joining the ranks.
Today one of the greatest strengths of our
Would they please stand? [Applause] You
military is that it is one of the most success-
young people are a great source of pride to
fully integrated institutions in the country,
all of us-your families and your fellow stu-
an open door of opportunity to all citizens.
dents and your countrymen. I know I speak
Over 10 percent of the Army's officers are
for all of us here when I tell you that we're
black, as are 34 percent of its sergeants.
confident that you will never let us down.
Blacks are in more positions of managerial
And let me pledge to you, we will never let
and command authority in the military than
you down. As an old ex-second lieutenant of
in business, education, journalism, or any
horse cavalry, I consider it an honor to
other part of government. Chappie James'
mother once predicted: "Someday there
salute you. Thank you.
I'd like to close with one story. Being
will be so many black people doing so many
things that are noteworthy that it will no
from this campus, you know of Chappie and
longer be newsworthy." Nowhere is it more
the Tuskegee pilots. I'd like to speak with
apparent than in the Armed Forces.
you of a man whose name is not so well
Twenty-nine of the Army's active-duty
known as these-Ensign Jesse Brown, the
generals are black. There have been two
first black naval aviator. He was a husband
black four-star generals: Chappie James in
and a father, a deeply religious man, an
the Air Force and Roscoe Robinson, Jr., in
individual who studied engineering at Ohio
the Army. And in fact, I have nominated
State and left college to become a naval
another black general, Bernard Randolph,
aviator. He loved to fly. In December 1950,
for his fourth star. It's now pending con-
Ensign Brown was a member of Fighting
gressional approval. Again, Chappie was
Squadron 32, aboard an aircraft carrier
right, and his mother was right. This offi-
somewhere off Korea. He flew 20 close air-
cer's race no longer even makes the news.
support missions, providing cover for our
By the way, General Randolph is with us
outnumbered marines at the Chosin Reser-
today, as you've just seen. And so, General,
voir. The battle was fierce; our men on the
congratulations!
ground were in a desperate situation.
The military is seen by many as an
On December 4th, 1950, Ensign Brown's
avenue for advancement, a job where indi-
aircraft was hit while making a strafing run
vidual merit will be recognized and reward-
against the enemy. With tremendous skill,
ed. The technological training and skill de-
he managed to crash land on a rough, boul-
velopment provided in the military is some
der-strewn slope. He survived the crash,
of the best in the country. And that could
waving to his friends as they circled over-
mean learning about car and truck engines.
head. They knew he was in trouble when
It could also mean learning to build bridges
he remained in the cockpit even as smoke
or space stations. Astronaut Guy Bluford
began to billow from the wreckage. Finally,
was an ROTC graduate who went into the
a fellow member of his squadron could
Air Force after receiving a B.S. from Penn
stand it no more. As the others attacked
State. While in the service, he earned his
and held off advancing enemy troops, Lieu-
doctorate degree in aerospace engineering,
tenant (jg.) Thomas Hudner ignored the
493
May 10 / Administration of Ronald Reagan, 1987
dangers of the mountain terrain and enemy
printed in the ship's paper, they wrote:
I look that good
troops and made a deliberate wheels-up
"We bid farewell to a Christian soldier, a
[Laughter]
landing. He ran to Ensign Brown's plane,
gentleman, shipmate, and friend. He was a
Mr. Hope. You 1
now erupting in flames, and found his
credit not alone to the Navy but to our
back, we're set.
friend alive, badly injured, and trapped in
country. His courage and faith in Almighty
The President. F
the cockpit. Lieutenant Hudner shoveled
God shone like a beacon for all to see. Hail
something to all th
snow with his hands to keep Jesse from the
and farewell."
is that I'm sure t
flames, burning his own hand badly in the
Today, you become part of the continu-
this has been a ca
process. Finally, over the battle-scarred ter-
ing saga, the history shaped by individuals
days, on holidays
rain, came a marine helicopter. Lieutenant
like Dr. Carver, Chappie James, and Ensign
back to the draft c
Hudner, joined by a crewman from the hel-
Jesse Brown. What you do with your lives
you were out en:
icopter, struggled desperately to get Jesse
will keep America shining like a beacon of
uniform. And then
out.
opportunity and freedom for all to see.
went wherever
Now, I would like to tell you that they
Thank you for letting me be with you here
women were to br
both made it and that, over the years, they
today. Good luck in the years ahead, and
to them. And you
have been best of friends, sharing family
God bless you all.
and now we're at
outings, caring about one another. But that
doing it. And I th
was not to be. Ensign Jesse Brown died on
Note: The President spoke at 11:35 a.m. in
But also, I would
that slope in Korea. When he risked his life
the auditorium at the General Daniel
your audience: No
for those besieged marines, Jesse Brown
"Chappie" James Center. He was introduced
has made me more
didn't consider the race of those he sought
by Dr. Benjamin Franklin Payton, presi-
men and women
to protect. And when his fellow pilots saw
dent of Tuskegee University. Dr. Payton
Bob, they are the
him in danger, they did not think of the
also presented the President with an honor-
Mr. Hope. Well
color of his skin. They only knew that
ary doctor of laws degree. The President
ready down there
Americans were in trouble. Ensign Brown
presented flowers to Pauline Punch, who
that? You ready?
was posthumously awarded the Distin-
served as secretary and executive assistant
[At this point, th
guished Flying Cross, the Air Medal, and
to three Tuskegee University presidents. Fol-
Birthday.
the Purple Heart; Lieutenant Hudner, the
lowing the ceremony, the President went to
Congressional Medal of Honor. But perhaps
Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery,
Want to than
the most moving tribute was paid by
AL, for lunch at the Base Operations Build-
coming. You've gi
Ensign Brown's shipmates. In a memorial
ing. He then traveled to Fayetteville, NC.
Where are you off
The President. B
I can do it to a mu
Mr. Hope. You
Remarks at Bob Hope's 40th Anniversary Salute to the United
the same time. [La
The President. V
States Air Force in Fayetteville, North Carolina
button-I have ju
May 10, 1987
University for the
there, and where
eral Daniel "Cha
Mr. Hope. All I want to do, Mr. Presi-
Mr. Hope. Yes-the seat of government
honored today.
dent-I just want to welcome you. And I
would have icing all over it, huh? [Laugh-
Mr. Hope. No kic
just want to tell you that they've been wait-
ter] But you know, it's great to have you
ing, you know. They publicized that you
here. I'm just sorry Nancy isn't with you.
were going to be here, so they've been
The President. Well, I was going to ask
waiting. And they've been waiting. They
her, but I was afraid she'd just say no.
started at 10 o'clock this morning, and
[Laughter]
they've been waiting for you. And I can't
Mr. Hope. I want to tell you, Mr. Presi-
tell you how happy I am that you're here,
dent, with all the travel and all the work
but I thought with this particular crowd
you've done, you look just great.
that you might drop in by parachute.
The President. Well, Bob, you look great,
The President. Well, Bob, I'll leave that to
too.
the experts. If I tried that, I might have
Mr. Hope. You do—
landed on your birthday cake. [Laughter]
The President and Mr. Hope. Well, I hope
494
732
Perspectives on Black Education
Milestones in Blach Education
CHRONOLOGY OF BLACK EDUCATION
1634 French Catholics are instrumental in providing
instruction for laborers in Louisiana. The French and
and writing."
school for "instruction of Negroes in reading, catechizing,
Spanish had liberal attitudes toward slaves. Many were
respected for their worth and given privileges as freemen.
1738 Moravians establish a mission exclusively for blacks.
Estevanico, an enlightened slave sent by Niza, the Spanish
A mission for blacks was established by the Moravian
adventurer, to explore Arizona, was a favored servant of
brethren at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. A painting of some
this class. French Jesuits, among them missionary Paul
converts prior to 1747 shows, among others, two blacks,
LeJeune, promote educational opportunities for blacks.
Johannes of South Carolina and Jupiter of New York.
1685 Virginia laws prohibiting slaves from attending
1743 A school for black youths opens in Charlestown,
Quaker meetings for the purpose of instruction are
South Carolina. Mr. Garden's school for training black
denounced by the Reverend Morgan Goodwyn in a sermon
youths opened in Charlestown. in September 1743.
preached in Westminster Abbey, London.
Supported almost entirely by the people of Charlestown,
1695 Reverend Samuel Thomas of Goose Creek Parish,
the school exerted a profound influence throughout the
South Carolina, instructs blacks in reading and writing.
province. Individual missionaries saw an earnest desire
Enlisting community support, he is able to educate many
among black parents to have their children instructed.
blacks in his parish.
Fifty-five children were taught during the day and 15
adults in the evening. Mr. Bray died in 1756.
1700 A monthly meeting for blacks is established by
William Penn. Penn advocated the emancipation of slaves
1745 French Code Noire makes it incumbent upon masters
so they might have the opportunity for improvement.
to enlighten their slaves in order that they might grasp the
principles of Christianity.
Many colonists were teaching slaves and free blacks.
1747 Presbyterians begin religious instruction of blacks in
1701 Chief Justice Sewall of Massachusetts publishes an
Virginia. In 1740. Hugh Bryan. a wealthy Presbyterian,
anti-slavery pamphlet, The Sewall pamphlet represented
showed interest in the education of blacks and by 1755
the first direct attack on slavery in New England. One of
was operating a school for slaves.
the few Puritans to espouse the black cause, Sewall urged
emancipation and education. Earlier, Cotton Mather and
1749 Reverend Thomas Bacon preaches four sermons in
other Massachusetts Puritans made efforts to organize
Talbot County, Maryland, declaring that next to one's
black people when they founded the Society of Negroes in
children. slaves enjoyed certain rights. including the right
1693. Later, in 1717. Mather began an evening school for
to knowledge and enlightenment.
Indians and blacks.
1750 Anthony Benezet opens an evening school for
1701 The Church of England organizes the Society for the
Philadelphia blacks in his home. Quakers made the most
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts for the purpose
conscientious efforts to fight slavery and educate blacks,
of converting and educating black slaves. Although
permitting them to attend Quaker meetings in the face of
merchants and other vested interests pressured religious
great opposition. After teaching blacks in his home for 20
groups in America to sanction slavery. the churches
endorsed policies of Christianization, which proved to be
the first great step in providing educational opportunity for
blacks. Dr. Thomas Bray, sent to Maryland by the Bishop
of London in 1669, exerted a profound influence in the
conversion and education of blacks.
1704 Catechizing school at Trinity Church in New York
City is founded under the direction of Elias Neau.
Instruction was given regularly at this church until 1712,
when blame for a local slave uprising was attributed by
some masters to Neau's work. While enrollment was
temporarily curtailed, instruction continued until the middle
of the century, despite Neau's death in 1722.
1724 A document encouraging the Christian education of
Indian. black, and mulatto children is circulated in Virginia.
The document stated that slaves should be educated and
that baptized children who understood the Christian religion
should receive exemption from taxes until the age of 18.
The first New York African Free School opened its doors in
1728 Nathaniel Piggott announces that he is opening a
1787. School No. 2 is shown here.
Perspectives on Black Education
/
733
Benezet opened a free school for them in Philadelphia
was made president of the Abolition Society of Philadelphia,
Moses Patterson. Upon Benezet's death, money he
which in 1774 founded a successful school for blacks.
as used for the continuation of the school, known
1777 New Jersey begins educating black children. By
fter as Benezet House. Benezet, a French Protestant
1801, schools are in operation in Salem, Burlington, and
uted on account of his religion, had moved from
Trenton.
: to England and later to Philadelphia. He declared
1787 New York African Free School is established by the
had "found among Negroes a variety of talents as
Manumission Society. Beginning with 40 students, it
gst a like number of whites." Besides fighting for the
encountered opposition, but grew when New York required
ration of the condition of blacks, he published some
masters to teach the children of slaves to read Scripture. By
erica's first textbooks and urged religious equality.
1820 more than 500 black children were enrolled.
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel sends
1788 New Jersey passes an act making the teaching of
Ottolenghi to convert and educate blacks in Georgia.
slaves to read compulsory under a penalty of five pounds.
nghi, a convert from Judaism and a native of Italy,
1 in Georgia in July 1751. He "promised to spare no
1791 Thomas Jefferson writes to Benjamin Banneker, a
to improve the young children" and asked God's
black mathematician and astronomer. Jefferson declared
igs on his educational efforts. which included reading
that he wished to see blacks improve their condition and
igious instruction to blacks. He became so successful
stated that lack of progress was due to the degraded
fluential in the colonies that he was later elected a
condition of the black man in Africa and America. Writing
er of the Georgia Assembly and remained a member
the Declaration of Independence, he had in mind the rights
65.
of blacks as well as whites, and declared that blacks had a
natural right to education and freedom. He advocated the
Benjamin Rush advocates the abolition of the slave
training of slaves in industrial and agricultural schools to
and urges the education of blacks. In An Address to
equip them for a higher station in life.
habitants of the British Settlements of America upon
keeping. Benjamin Rush. a Philadelphia physician
1794 American Convention of Abolition Societies
aker parentage, was in contact with the most
expresses hope that freedmen would participate in the
tened men of his time, and by persuasive argument.
battle for civil rights as fast as they gained their education.
ced the black cause.
1798 A school for black children is established in the home
Benjamin Franklin opens a school for blacks. While
of Primus Hall, a prominent Boston black.
its of government were exposing the inconsistency
1800-1830 Individual schools for blacks are developed by
veholding among a people contending for political
churches. slaveholders. and free blacks. Despite legal
1. and men like Samuel Webster. James Swan, and
restrictions in the South, many blacks did receive some
el Hopkins were attacking slavery on economic
education from their masters and in small clandestine
ds, Benjamin Franklin, Jonathan Boucher, and Dr.
private schools in the new nation. In 1820, for example,
were devising plans to educate slaves for freedom.
Boston opened an elementary school for blacks. In the
min Franklin associated with friends of blacks and
District of Columbia, George Bell, Nicholas Franklin, and
VS Robert Morris and Charles Sumner began
against exclusion of blacks from Boston's
in 1849. Although their test case lost,
usetts passed a law in 1855 which admitted
to the public school system.
734
/
Perspectives on Black Education
Moses Liverpool, former slaves, built the first schoolhouse
Jocelyn. an anti-slavery white minister from New Haven.
for blacks in 1807. Unsuccessful, it opened again in 1818
Vocational education for black youth was discussed at this
under the direction of the Resolute Beneficial Society. an
and ensuing conferences held in Philadelphia. New York,
association of free people of color. Catholics vied with
and Rochester. The conference declared that colleges and
Quakers in admitting blacks to parochial schools.
high schools were needed where youth could be instructed
During these years. a few blacks were beginning to attend
in the manual labor system and the arts of civilized life.
colleges. (In 1826, Edward A. Jones graduated from
Money was raised for a school in New Haven, but the
Amherst and John Russwurm received his degree from
citizens objected and declared that "the founding of colleges,
Bowdoin. They were the first two black college graduates
for colored people was a dangerous undertaking."
in the United States.)
1834 Prudence Crandall is imprisoned and mobbed at
In Philadelphia (1804). African Episcopalians found a
Canterbury, Connecticut. Reaction to the education of
school at the church of the free people of color who are
blacks was manifest when Prudence Crandall, a young
organized by this time. Eleven of the 16 schools in
Quaker who had established a boarding school at
Philadelphia in 1822 were taught by teachers of African
Canterbury. tried to enroll Sarah Harris, a black girl, at her
descent. In 1830. one-fourth of the 1.200 black children in
institution. When whites objected. she dvertised for young
the schools of that city paid for their instruction, where as
women of color. Imprisonment and violence resulted.
in 1825 only 250 students were in attendance.
1840 Blacks attend school with whites in Wilmington,
1830-1860 Educational opportunities for blacks are
Delaware.
curtailed due to a rising fear of the increasing power of
1842 A school for black and Indian boys opens in Ohio.
slaves. This was precipitated by the fear aroused in the
Augustus Wattles, agent of American Anti-Slavery Society,
white population after the slave insurrection led by Nat
and Samuel Emlen, New Jersey philanthropist, open Emlen
Turner in Virginia in 1831. "Black Codes" were then
Institute for Negro and Indian Boys. in Mercer County,
enacted in several states to keep the black "in his place" by
Ohio. The school specialized in the teaching of agricultural
denying him access to educational facilities of any kind.
and skilled crafts.
1831 Vocational education for black youth is proposed by
1848 A black industrial training school opens in
a black convention. The First Annual Negro Convention
Philadelphia at the House of Industry. By 1851, Sarah
was held in Philadelphia June 6-11, 1831. Delegates
Luciana was teaching 70 youths at the training school and
attended from New York. Pennsylvania, Delaware,
at the Sheppard School, another industrial institution.
Maryland. and Virginia. The idea was suggested by Samuel
Other schools in operation were the Corn Street
Cornish in 1827 and taken up by the Reverend S. A.
Unclassified School (1849). the Holmesburg Unclassified
The Penn School for black children on St. Helena Island. South Carolina. was established and operated by
Quakers after the Civil War.
Perspectives on Black Education
/
735
School (1854), and the Home for Colored Children (1859).
taken courses at the Medical School of New York, the
By this date there were 1,031 pupils in the black public
Castleton Medical School in Vermont, the Berkshire
schools of Philadelphia; 748 in the charity schools; 211 in
Medical School in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, the Rush
the benevolent schools; 331 in private schools. In all,
Medical School in Chicago, the Eclectic Medical School
2,231 were in attendance, whereas 10 years earlier there
in Philadelphia, the Homeopathic College of Cleveland,
were only 1,643. Besides supporting these institutions, the
and the Medical School of Harvard University. Black
blacks of Philadelphia maintained many small schools and
preachers had been educated at the Theological Seminary
a system of lyceums and debating clubs, one of which had
of Charlestown, South Carolina. Vocational schools were
a library of 1,400 volumes.
abundant. Statistics of 1850 and 1860 show that there was
1849 Roberts V. City of Boston. Robert Morris, a prominent
an increase in the number of black mechanics, especially
black lawyer, and Charles Sumner argued that segregation
in Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Columbus, the Western
hurts white and black children alike. The suit was filed in
Reserve. and Canada. But this was probably due to the
Boston by Benjamin F. Roberts on behalf of his daughter,
decreasing prejudice of the local white mechanics toward
Sarah, who had applied under the Equal Education Act of
black artisans fleeing from the South rather than to formal
1845 to attend a white school closer to her home. The court
industrial training.
ruled against Sumner and a local ordinance providing for
1855 The Massachusetts legislature enacts a law providing
the separate education of the races was upheld. During the
that no distinction be made on account of race. color, or
next six years, however, public opinion persuaded the
religion. in admitting scholars to public schools.
Massachusetts legislature to repudiate the court. This was
1864 The Civil War sees mass education of blacks. The
accomplished in 1855 by a law which forbade distinction
Christian Commission sponsored 50 teachers who taught
of race, color, or religion for purposes of admission into
blacks in the Union Army. Chaplains also taught black
the state's public schools.
troops. By the war's end. 20,000 had been taught to read.
1852 Students in the North become converted to the doctrine
1865 The Freedman's Bureau is founded under General
of equality in education through the efforts of President C.
Oliver O. Howard. The Bureau was created by Congress
B. Storrs of Western Reserve College, Hudson, Ohio. By
on March 3. 1865, to cooperate with benevolent and
1852 black students had attended the Institute of Easton,
religious societies in the establishment of schools for
Pennsylvania: the Normal School of Albany, New York:
blacks. John Mercer Langston, black lawyer, and Inspector
Bowdoin College. Brunswick, Maine: Rutland College.
General of Schools in the Bureau, reported in August 1869
Vermont: Jefferson College. Pennsylvania: Athens College.
the existence of many good schools for blacks. By 1870.
Athens, Ohio: Franklin College, New Athens, Ohio: and
the Freedmen's Bureau operated over 2,600 schools in the
Hanover College. near Madison, Indiana. Blacks had
South with 3,300 teachers educating 150.000 students.
Noon recess at the primary school for freedmen. Vicksburg, Misissippi.
736
/
Perspectives on Black Education
A typical classroom in one of the early colleges associated with the United Negro College Fund.
Four thousand schools were in operation prior to the
Alexander Crummell, black theologian and educator, the
abolition of the Bureau.
Academy has five stated objectives: (1) defense of the
1865-1871 Several predominantly black institutions of
black against vicious assaults; (2) publication of scholarly
higher learning are established. During these years, a
work; (3) fostering higher education among blacks; (4)
number of important black institutions of learning were
formulation of intellectual tastes: (5) promotion of
founded. including Virginia Union and Shaw University
literature. science, and art.
(1865); Fisk University and Lincoln Institute (1866);
Crummell's father was a prince and son of a West African
Talladega College. Augusta (Georgia) Institute, Biddle
tribal chief (Temme tribe). Crummell himself first
University, Howard University, and Scotia Seminary
conceived the idea of an American Negro Academy while
(1867); Tougaloo College (1869): and Alcorn College and
a student at Cambridge University. England. The Academy
Benedict College (1871). Many of these colleges have
was the first body in America to bring together black
changed their names since their founding.
scholars from all over the world. The general purpose of
1867 Establishment of the Peabody Fund. The two million
the organization was to foster scholarship and culture in
dollar Peabody Fund was established for promotion and
the black race and encourage budding black genius. In
encouragement of intellectual, moral, and industrial
March 1897, the year of McKinley's inauguration,
education among the young of the more destitute portions
celebrated black scholars and writers assembled in the
of the southern and southwestern states.
Lincoln Memorial Church and organized into a brotherhood
1872 Alcorn College becomes the first black land grant
of scholars. In attendance was Dunbar, the poet; DuBois,
college. This was made possible under the Morrill Act of
the sociologist; Scarborough, the Greek scholar; Miller,
1862, which provided federal land grant funds for higher
the mathematician; Grimke, the theologian; Cromwell,
education. It was the Morrill Act of 1890, however, which
the historian; and many other noted educators. At
provided that funds for black education be distributed on
Crummell's death on September 12, 1908, DuBois was
a "just and equitable basis." Such legislation, however,
elected president and stated that those with higher education
also served to strengthen the doctrine of "separate but
must take responsibility for uplifting the black race. Many
equal," with the result that the 17 southern states maintained
brilliant papers were published, which are still today the
colleges which came to be known as "Negro land grant
best discussion on Negro suffrage and southern
1881
colleges."
disfranchisement.
Tusheegest897 founded In Washington, D.C. the American Negro Academy
1900 The New York legislature, under the governorship of
is founded. Organized on March 5, 1897, by the Reverend
Theodore Roosevelt, passes an act providing that no one
Perspectives on Black Education
/
737
should be denied admittance to any public school on
tangible factors may be equal, deprives children of the
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
minority group of equal educational facilities." (For fuller
1902 The General Education Board is founded and
discussion see "review" and Supreme Court section.)
supported by John D. Rockefeller. Funds from this
1957 The Little Rock crisis. After a federal court ordered
organization aided black education materially in such
desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas, Governor Orval
categories as endowment, scholarships, teacher training,
Faubus called out the Arkansas National Guard to prevent
and industrial education.
nine black students from éntering Central High School. As
1908 Founding of the Anna T. Jeanes Fund. The Jeanes
a result, President Eisenhower dispatched U.S. troops to
Fund sponsored the Jeanes Teacher Program to improve
Little Rock to enforce the court order, and ultimately
federalized the Arkansas National Guard as well.
the quality of instruction in rural black schools.
1961 New Rochelle: The Lincoln School Case. In this
1908 Berea College V. Kentucky. A Kentucky law had
made segregation mandatory. At issue was whether a
case, Federal District Court Judge Irving A. Kaufman
ruled that the New Rochelle Board of Education had
private college had the right to teach blacks and whites
together. The Supreme Court ruled, on technical grounds,
deliberately created and maintained Lincoln as a racially
against the college.
segregated school. Judge Kaufman ordered the Board to
present a plan to desegregate the predominantly black
1913 The Julius Rosenwald Fund is founded. The Fund
school at all levels. This case marked the first court
provided grants for constructing schools. By 1932, more
decision against de facto segregation in the North.
than 5,000 school buildings in 883 counties of 15 states
had been built under Rosenwald sponsorship.
1964 The Civil Rights Act is passed. This act placed
further legal restrictions on discrimination in education.
1932 Publication of the Journal of Negro Education. This
organ, published at Howard University, has done much to
1965 The Elementary and Secondary School Education
improve educational opportunities for blacks and to
Act is passed. This act provides funds under Title I for
democratize education in general.
promoting racial integration in the public schools of the
United States.
1954 Brown V. Board of Education. This decision by the
U.S. Supreme Court declared segregation in public schools
1966 Federal judge orders Lowndes County school districts
to be unconstitutional. It was based on the theory that "the
to desegregate. Federal District Court Judge Frank M.
segregation of children in public schools solely on the
Johnson, Jr. directed the Lowndes County, Alabama school
basis of race. even though the physical facilities and other
board to install a sweeping desegregation order. All grades
President John F. Kennedy meets with the Presidents of United Negro Colleges.
738
/
Perspectives on Black Education
Neighborhood control of education was the goal of the Ocean Hill-Brownsville Demonstration.
were ordered desegregated within two years. A free choice
school board of Inkster, Michigan. il Detroit suburb, signs
transfer system to any school was to be effected and all
a contract with Local 1068 of the American Federation of
black teachers integrated.
Teachers agreeing that effective education must be
1966 The teaching profession continues to appeal to black
integrated education. Only integrated textbooks are to be
students despite the emphasis on the need to diversify
used in reading and social studies classes.
careers. Secretary of Labor Willard Wirtz declared that
1966 Prince Edward County school board is found guilty
two-thirds of all black college students are preparing to
of contempt. The U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals for the
teach and that many of these students should be preparing
Fourth Circuit finds the Prince Edward County, Virginia
for careers other than in education in order to fill positions
school board guilty of contempt of court for illegally
that are finally becoming available to black applicants.
distributing state funds to be used for tuition in private
1966 The Kennedy plan for urban ghettos. Senator Robert
schools so as to avoid desegregation.
F. Kennedy called for eradication of huge central city
1966 Plaquemine Parish. Louisiana is desegregated. The
ghettos and criticized the deliberate location of public
public schools of Plaquemine Parish. Louisiana are ordered
housing in ghettos. To help desegregate schools, he urged
by a federal district court to desegregate six of 12 grades
a program for boarding children in the suburbs.
through a free choice plan.
1966 The Chester School case. The Court of Common
1966 Integration in Fayette, Mississippi. In Fayette,
Pleas of Dauphin County; Pennsylvania. decides the
Mississippi. 13 black children are enrolled in two formerly
Chester School case. The court upholds the order by the
all-white schools as a result of an agreement between the
Pennsylvania Human Relations Commission that the
school board and the state NAACP headed by Charles
Chester school board stop assigning black teachers and
Evers.
clerks only to all-black schools, and that the board cease
1966 The integration question is raised at I.S. 201 in
refusing to assign white teachers to a predominantly black
Harlem. A community movement in East Harlem calls
school. The court rejects two contentions: (1) that it has
upon the school board to integrate the new. intermediate
authority to act against de facto segregation and (2) that
school I.S. 201 or place its management under effective
the school board has engaged in extensive gerry mandering.
community control.
1966 The Tometz case against the Waukegan school
1967 Civil Rights Commission releases an important study.
board. State Circuit Court Judge Philip W. Yaeger of
The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights releases its study,
Illinois rejects a Waukegan school board motion to dismiss
Racial Isolation in the Public Schools, made in response to
the Tometz case filed against it by a group of black parents.
a November 1965 request by President Johnson.
1966 A Detroit suburb agrees to integrated textbooks. The
1967 The Girard College case. Girard College in
Perspectives on Black Education
/
739
Philadelphia does not have to admit blacks under the
boundaries to bring about racial balance.
state's Public Accommodations Act, according to a ruling
1968 A rise in the population of black students is recorded
by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. This
at predominantly white colleges in North Carolina. Between
part of the opinion thus reverses an earlier ruling by
1963 and 1967, the percentage of black students in
Federal District Court Judge Joseph S. Lord III.
predominantly white colleges and universities increases
1967 The Court of Appeals declares that southern states
from 0.4 to 1.6%, according to the North Carolina Board
are obliged to foster integration. The U.S. Court of Appeals
of Higher Education.
for the Fifth Circuit endorses an earlier ruling that six
1968 "One man, one vote" is applied to school board
southern states have an affirmative responsibility to
election. The U.S. Supreme Court holds that the "one man,
integrate their public schools. In April, the U.S. Supreme
one vote" rule must be applied to elections of school
Court declines to delay the implementation of the Court of
boards and other local agencies. "Units with general
Appeals' order. A federal court strikes down an Alabama
governmental powers over an entire geographic area."
law against the HEW desegregation guidelines as a violation
ruled the court, "must not be apportioned among single-
of the Constitutional supremacy of Congressional
member districts of substantially unequal population."
legislation.
1968 The Supreme Court rules on "open enrollment" or
1967 Final ruling on the Tomet= case by the Illinois
"freedom of choice." The Supreme Court rules
Supreme Court. The Illinois Supreme Court holds
unanimously that "freedom of choice" desegregation plans
unconstitutional the Armstrong law and thus reverses the
(called "open enrollment" in the North) must promise
earlier Tomet= ruling. The statute, enacted in 1963, required
significant progress before being approved. Desegregation
school boards to redistrict attendance boundaries
plans that result in no substantial change of segregation
periodically to reduce segregation and prevent further
will be rejected. School boards are given the affirmative
segregation. The state high court finds the law to be
responsibility of finding realistic plans. The Supreme
arbitrary and unreasonable and in violation of the equal
Court explicitly limits its ruling to southern and border
protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
states that had permitted legal segregation before 1954.
1967 The Supreme- Court upholds a Court of Appeals
1968 In its final ruling, the State Supreme Court reverses
ruling in Oklahoma City Dowell case. The U.S. Supreme
its earlier ruling in the Tometz case. At issue was the 1963
Court refuses to review a Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals
Illinois Armstrong Act which required school districts to
decision in the Oklahoma City Dowell case. thus leaving
change or revise school attendance areas to prevent or end
intact a District Court order of September 5. 1965. The
segregation. In its 1967 ruling. the court invalidated the
1965 order called for sweeping changes in school
law. holding that race could not properly be a consideration
organization: the attendance areas of various schools were
in attendance area revision. Now. however. it determines
to be merged to promote desegregation: a child in a racial
that the "issue here is whether the constitution permits.
majority would be permitted to transfer to a school in
rather than prohibits. voluntary state action aimed toward
which he was in a racial minority: faculties were to be
reducing and eventually eliminating de facto school
desegregated by 1970 so that the racial composition in
segregation. The Armstrong Act was thereupon found to
each school approximated the system-wide composition
be constitutional."
(plus or minus a 10% tolerance).
1968 Deliberate segregation is unearthed in South Holland.
1968 There is a racial imbalance in Massachusetts. the
Legal proceedings continued in the federal complaint of
District of Columbia. and Lansing. The Massachusetts
deliberate segregation against School District No. 151 in
racial imbalance law withstands attack before the U.S.
South Holland. Illinois. In a deposition. Superintendent
Supreme Court. The statute. which requires a school board
Charles B. Watts stated he was present when a school
to take action whenever a school's enrollment exceeds
board member acknowledged that race was taken into
50% nonwhite, is unsuccessfully challenged as
account in locating the site of two schools. Federal attorneys
unconstitutional by Boston school authorities. The Supreme
introduced evidence showing that a white school board
Court rules that the suit failed to raise a substantial federal
member had been allowed to enroll his children in a white
question. In the District of Columbia, the Board of
school.
Education reports on plans to effectuate the court's ruling
1968 The right of an experimental school district-Ocean
in Hobson l'. Hansen. Plans are submitted to the court
Hill-Brownsville Demonstration School District-to
regarding the reduction of racially imbalanced student
transfer or dismiss teachers becomes the central issue in a
bodies and faculties: measures include attendance boundary
continuing confrontation between the United Federation
changes and busing. New teachers are assigned to achieve
of Teachers and black parents constituting the majority of
racial balance. Discussions are held with suburban school
the district's governing board.
officials about attendance of District students in schools
1968 In May, in its final ruling of the Girard case, the U.S.
outside the city. The Ingham County Circuit Court rules
Supreme Court refused to review a lower court ruling that
that the Lansing school board can change attendance
ended a 120-year-old practice of exclusion of black boys
740
/
Perspectives on Black Education
from Girard College. a free boarding school in Philadelphia.
by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Four weeks later, numerous black mothers brought their
desegregate its public colleges and universities. to
youngsters to register for entrance in September.
Pennsylvania. H.E.W. charged, "is operating a system of
1968 U.S. Circuit of Appeals declines to rule on "freedom
higher education that is segregated on a statewide basis."
of choice. "The Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals refused
The state's only predominantly black school, Cheyney
to strike down 42 freedom of choice plans in four southern
State, enrolls 85% black students, which amount to more
states. It ordered federal district courts in the states to
than 4.5 times the number of blacks in all other 13 state
determine by November 4 how effective the plans were.
colleges combined.
The court defined an effective plan as one that produces
integration of faculties, staff, facilities, transportation, and
1970 HEW's office for Civil Rights issues a memorandum,
"Discrimination and Denial due to National Origin. The
school activities along with integration of students.
memorandum reports that states and districts continue to
1968 The U.S. Justice Department intervenes against the
institute practices that discriminate against Spanish-
Ku Klux Klan. The U.S. Department of Justice filed suit
speaking Americans. violating their Title VI of the Civil
against a Ku Klux Klan chapter in Crenshaw County,
Rights Act of 1964, which forbids the discriminatory use
Alabama, charging interference with a court-ordered "free
of national origin as well as race or color. School districts
choice desegregation plan. "The Klan, according to federal
are warned: "where the inability to speak or understand the
complaint, intimidated black parents into withdrawing
English language excludes national origin minority group
their children from white schools.
participation in the education program the districts must
1968 Busing begins in South Holland, Illinois. Federal
take affirmative steps to rectify the language deficiency in
court-ordered desegregation takes effect in South Holland,
order to open its instructional program to these students."
Illinois without incident in September. Nine-tenths of the
1971 Lower courts are urged to support integration. The
white enrollment as of June reentered the desegregated
Supreme Court called upon lower courts to make every
schools. About 800 pupils equally divided between black
effort to achieve the greatest possible degree of
and white were bused daily.
desegregation based on practical realities of local situations.
1968 A federal panel in Illinois refuses to rule on per-pupil
(Swann 1: Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education.)
expenditure disparities between school districts. A three-
1972 New York Regents back busing. New York State
man federal court panel in Illinois refused to rule
Board of Regents backed the use of "judicious and
unconstitutional large per-pupil expenditure disparities
reasonable busing to achieve school integration."
between school districts in the state. One suburb spent
1972 Justice Department lawyers oppose Nixon. In the
$1.283 per high school student, another $919. Plaintiffs
Justice Department, 95 lawyers publicly expressed
contended state laws permitting such disparities violated
opposition to President Nixon's anti-busing legislation.
the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Without doubt. ruled the panel. the educational potential
1973 Denver is challenged to disprove de facto segregation.
of each child should be cultivated to the utmost and the
The Supreme Court emphasized that the differentiating
poorer districts should have more funds, but the allocation
factor between de jure and de facto segregation is purpose
or intent to segregate and demanded that Denver School
of public revenues is a basic policy decision, more
Board prove that it had not intentionally effected a policy
appropriately handled by a legislature than a court.
that created or maintained segregation in the core city
1969 Integration pressure is applied to Los Angeles school
schools. (Keys 1'. School District #1 Denver, Colorado.)
district. Lawsuit filed in Los Angeles Superior Court
asking that the Inglewood Unified School District be
1974 The Court affirmed that minority children may not
ordered to eliminate de facto segregation in school district
be denied a meaningful opportunity to participate in public
educational programs and cited section 601 of the Civil
number 17. The board allegedly refuses even to adopt a
Rights Act of 1964 which bans discrimination based on the
policy statement committing the district to integration.
grounds of "race, color or national origin in any program
1969 Citizens move to bar the erection of a de facto
or activity receiving federal financial assistance.' (Lau V.
segregated high school in Muncie, Indiana. Black citizens
Nichols.
filed suit in federal court, Muncie, Indiana, to bar
construction of a high school in an all-white area. The suit
1974 HEW is pressed to enforce desegregation. HEW's
charged that the resulting exclusion of black children from
Office of Civil Rights is urged to move faster in enforcing
the new facility would be in violation of their constitutional
Title VI of Civil Rights Act of 1964 by taking action to end
rights to equal educational opportunities.
segregation in public education institutions receiving
federal funds. (Adams V. Richardson. )
1969 Mt. Vernon elementary schools are desegregated.
The State Supreme Court of New York upholds a state
1974 A Detroit Metropolitan integration plan is defeated.
order to desegregate the Mt. Vernon elementary schools.
In the Detroit case, in a 5 to 4 ruling, the Supreme Court
reversed a District court plan to link Detroit's 185,000
1969 Pennsyl Ivania'is directed to achieve greater integration
black students with the 53 suburban school districts
of schools of higher learning. Pennsylvania was directed
surrounding the City of Detroit.
Perspectives on Black Education
/
741
District Court in Aberdeen.
1975 Dr. James S. Coleman, a prominent black educator,
issued astudy entitled Recent Trends in School Integration.
The core of the study concluded that integration efforts in
the United States have failed and that modification of
approaches was needed.
1975 U.S. Justice Department files a suit against a Detroit
suburb charging segregation. The Justice Department filed
suit in federal court charging Ferndale, a Detroit suburb, of
operating a racially segregated school system. The suit,
taken on behalf of the Office of Revenue Sharing, is the
first of its kind.
1976 Black conservatives led by Thomas Sowell attack
busing and affirmative action programs as ineffective and
charge that government efforts in this direction benefit
lawyers and government officials advocating busing more
than the black children the policy is supposed to serve.
1976 Integrationists have mixed feelings about the election
of Jimmy Carter to the Presidency. While they prefer him
to outgoing President Gerald Ford, they feel he has been
lukewarm in his support of integration.
1977 Leaders of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People accuse several northern
political leaders of abandoning support for strong measures
against school districts that evade integration.
Racial violence flared in the schools after courts ordered Boston
1977 Joseph Califano, Secretary of Health, Education and
desegregation in 1974.
Welfare. blames an anti-desegregation mood in Congress
for a slowdown in integration efforts.
1974 Boston opposes integration. The city of Boston
1977 A survey by the National Urban League indicates
resisted a court order to desegregate public schools,
that 45% of blacks interviewed. while favoring integration.
succumbing to white demonstrations.
believe that an equal say in control of schools is more
1974 James A. Harris becomes NEA president. The
important.
National Education Association. the nation's largest
1978 The U.S. Civil Rights Commission charges that large
professional organization. elected James A. Harris. a black
areas of the South have still failed to integrate their
schoolteacher from Des Moines. Iowa, as its president.
schools.
1974 Senator Edward Kennedy is prevented from speaking
1978 By a 5 to 4 vote. the Supreme Court rules that Alan
out on Boston desegregation issue. Senator Edward
Bakke. a young white man. is entitled to admission to the
Kennedy of Massachusetts was driven from a speaker's
University of California because the university's
platform by jeers and egg-throwing. while urging whites
affirmative action program for minorities discriminated
to accept the desegregation guidelines established for the
against him. However. the Court also holds that college
Boston school system.
admission affirmative action programs are constitutional.
1975 The Civil Rights Commission cites laxity in the
1979 Stronger federal enforcement of civil rights laws are
enforcement of civil rights laws in education. In a report
stated as a prerequisite. The civil rights commission charges
made public on January 22, the U.S. Civil Rights
that segregation remains most severe in the northeastern
Commission accused the federal government of failing to
states and North Carolina. The remedy, it declares. is
enforce the civil rights laws as they apply to education.
stronger enforcement of civil rights laws and Congressional
Singled out for criticism was the Department of Health,
Education and Welfare.
action to enforce the Department of Health, Education and
Welfare's power to order busing.
1975 In a report issued March 11, the U.S. Commission on
Civil Rights recommended that the federal government
1979 A sharp decline in black high school dropouts is
withhold federal aid from schools that fail to comply with
reported by the Census Bureau, from 35% in 1968 to 24%
desegregation directives within a 90 day period.
in 1976. The white rate remained stable at 14%.
1975 Justice Department charges segregation in Mississippi
1979. The Supreme Court sustains busing as a means to
Colleges. The U.S. Department of Justice charged that
desegregate entire school systems when the policies of
Mississippi's 25 state colleges and universities were
local officials result in a racial imbalance in parts of the
illegally segregated. The charge was submitted to the U.S.
system.
742
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Perspectives on Black Education
1979 The formation of a cabinet level Department of
and colleges that discriminate racially. Stunned by the
Education is assured by a narrow 5-vote margin in the
force of broad-based opposition to its stand. the government
House of Representatives. The first year's budget is to be
refers the matter to Congress and the Supreme Court but
$14 million.
defends its action as one of necessary restraint on the
1979 Signs of trouble in university black studies programs
powers of an administrative agency.
surface, as Harvard's administration recommends its Afro-
1982 Civil rights lawyers assail the Justice Department's
American Studies Department be downgraded. Russell
approval of a Chicago desegregation plan that relies
Adams, a Howard University professor. reports that the
extensively on voluntary student transfers.
number of college-level black studies programs has dropped
1982 Governor Carey of New York criticizes medical
from about 600 in 1961 to 250 in 1975.
schools for a 46% drop in enrollment of minorities since
1979 In Topeka. Kansas, Linda Brown joins other parents
1976.
in bringing an action against the Topeka school system on
1982 Efforts to eliminate the Department of Education
the grounds that it remains segregated 25 years after her
appear to have failed as bipartisan Congressional support
historic victory in Brown 1: Board of Education.
rallies around the beleaguered agency.
1980 Supreme Court Justices Powell. Stewart, and
1983 The U.S. Supreme Court. in Bob Jones Universityv.
Rehnquist express concern that school busing induces
IRS, authorizes the denial of tax-exempt status to an
white flight to the suburbs.
institution that practices racial discrimination.
1980 In separate decisions involving Cleveland, Ohio,
1984 In Grove City College V. Bell. the U.S. Supreme
and New Castle, Delaware. the Supreme Court supports
Court rules that the financial-aid office of Grove City
busing as a means to end segregation. The Justice
College is the only part of the institution subject to federal
Department presses for speedier desegregation in Chicago.
laws protecting women against discrimination because
However. attempts to include suburban schools in Houston
that office is the only part of the college receiving federal
and St. Louis plans are rejected.
funds.
1980 A "Black College Day" attended by 20.000 black
1984, March 29 Dr. Benjamin E. Mays. a national civil
students is held in Washington. D.C. Its purpose is to
rights education figure died in Atlanta, Ga.. at age 89. He
mobilize the public to support historic black colleges.
had served as president of Atlanta's Morehouse College
which have suffered since desegregation opened the
from 1940 to 1967, and often said that one of his greatest
predominantly white colleges to blacks. Tony Brown. a
honors was teaching and advising the late Dr. Martin
black writer, contends that 70% of blacks attending "white"
Luther King, Jr.. who was a student there. Raised on a
colleges do not graduate. Meanwhile, the Justice
farm. Dr. Mays attended college in 1916. and eventually
Department contends that university systems in Texas.
earned a doctorate from the University of Chicago. He
Louisiana, and North Carolina are segregated.
gained international renown as an educator and lecturer
1980 Ronald Reagan is elected president. During his
while dean of the Howard University Divinity School,
campaign he advocated elimination of the Department of
from 1934-1940. During his career. he received 45 honorary
Education, elimination of busing to achieve integration,
degrees in law, divinity and the humanities.
and deep cuts in federal aid to education.
1984, April 14 In order to consolidate community support,
1981 A series of actions to curb busing are undertaken on
Federal Judge Henry Woods orders the merger of the
several fronts. The House and Senate vote to forbid the
mostly black Little Rock School District with the mostly
Justice Department to use busing for integration in any but
white North Little Rock and Pulaski County Districts in
the most limited circumstances; anti-busing steps, of
Arkansas. the judge cited the Little Rock District's inability
questionable constitutionality. are also proposed to limit
to pass a property tax in five years as an indication that
the Supreme Court's power to order busing: and anti-
white voters were unwilling to support a mostly black
busing constitutional amendments are proposed.
school district. The case is to be heard by the Court of
1981 Drastic cuts in federal aid to education programs are
Appeals.
included in the Reagan budget which Congress approves
1986 In February, Federal District Judge Jack Tannerrules
and the President signs. Cuts run the gamut from the
that the state of Washington must pay $482 million over 6
preschool Head Start program to the Pell loans for college
years to bring the pay of 35.000 state workers-mostly
students.
women-up to the level of jobs of similar difficulty and
1981 The Justice Department announces it will no longer
worth held by most men. The ruling is the first major
sue to desegregate entire school districts when only a part
triumph for women fighting for "comparable worth."
of a district discriminates. Instead, litigation is to
1985, May 2 the Ford Foundation announces it will give
concentrate on individual schools that discriminate.
$9 million in fellowships for doctoral studies by blacks
System-wide suits had become a major weapon of
and minorities.
integrationists and had been upheld by the Supreme Court.
1985, August 1 By a vote of 9 to 4, Dr. Laval S. Wilson, 47.
1982 A storm erupts as the Administration reverses its 11-
becomes Boston school system's first black superintendent.
year policy of denying tax exempt status to private schools
His duties include overseeing a student population that is
Perspectives on Black Education
/
743
48% black, 28% white, and 24% other minorities, and
operations in white-ruled South Africa. If the black colleges
which has seen racial discord for more than a decade.
divest themselves economically from those companies,
1985, August 31 The Justice Department announces it no
they clearly stand to lose much more than other, better-
longer requires actual tabulations as proof that the court-
financed institutions.
ordered school desegregations have been met. Instead, the
1986, June Wygant V. Jackson Board of Education, the U.
department says, school districts may be released from
S. Supreme Court in June declares unconstitutional a
such obligations if they can demonstrate that they have
Jackson, Mich. school board plan for laying off teachers
"fully and in good faith" abided by measures outlined in
that gives preference to minority groups: In their decision,
the desegregation plan.
however, the Justices reject the broad position that the
1985, December 11 A group of black educators, politicians
Constitution bars governments from using any racial
and community leaders form "The Select Committee on
preferences in employment that, at the expense of whites,
the Education of Black Youth.' The committee's goal is to
benef members of minority groups who are not personally
reduce dropout rates and increase college attendance of
the victims of discrimination.
black youth. They offer an alternative curriculum for
1986, June 16 The Supreme Court denies the injunction
public school students. called "Foundation for Learning."
requested by black parents in Norfolk. Va., which would
which stresses reading, writing, and speaking skills.
prevent the cessation of busing. The case. however, remains
1986, January 1 In Congress, the House Committee on
eligible for consideration on the high court's docket in the
Government Operations criticizes the Reagan
fall.
Administration in its handling of civil rights complaints
1986, July 4 In Richmond. Va., a 25-year-old school
against schools and colleges. The report recommended
desegregation case requiring busing ends when a federal
that federal anti-discrimination agencies insist that colleges
judge finds no vestiges of state-sanctioned segregation in
do more than offer "good faith" efforts to correct previous
the school system.
racial imparities. The report. based on investigations and
1986, October 7 The famous Brown V. Board of Education
hearings by the Subcommittee on Intergovernmental
of Topeka. Kansas lawsuit is reopened by the original
Relations. cited as an example of the refusal of the Education
plaintiff and others. They contend that the defendant has
Department's Office of Civil Rights to impose a mandatory
neither fully integrated their schools as mandated. nor
cessation of federal funding to school districts and colleges
eradicated elements which permitted racial separation in
which were found discriminatory in their treatment of
previous years. Instead, said Richard Jones, a lawyer for
blacks. women and handicapped persons.
the plaintiffs, the school board has approved racially
1986, February Amendments to the Higher Education
divisive school boundaries. and has allowed white parents
Act authorize the Ronald E. McNair Post-Baccalaureate
to circumvent desegregation efforts through school
Achievement Program and the Special Child Care Services
attendance alternatives.
for Disadvantaged College Students Program.
1986, November 3 The U.S. Supreme Court in Riddick V.
1986, February 6 Federal judges in Richmond. Va., uphold
School Board of Norfolk allows Norfolk to become the
a lower-court decision to end court-ordered busing in
first school district in the U.S. to end court-ordered busing
Norfolk. Va. The decision was seen as reflecting the
of elementary school pupils. At the same time. the Court,
Reagan Administration's proposal that if school districts
in Board of Education of the Oklahoma City Public
demonstrated "good faith" efforts to desegregate, they
Schools V. Dowell, lets stand a U. S. Circuit Court of
would be allowed to choose alternatives to busing, as long
Appeals ruling in Denver in June 1985 that blocked
as resegregation was not a result. Proponents argued that
Oklahoma City's plan to end busing. Although the rulings
busing was driving whites from the city's public schools.
appear contradictory, the likely result is that school districts
Opponents protested that the decision threatened a 30-
will follow Norfolk and try to abandon busing plans.
year effort to integrate the nation's public school system.
1986. November
4
The Norfolk, Va., and an Oklahoma.
and promised to seek an injunction from the Supreme
OK.. school desegregation cases are declined for review
Court.
by the Supreme Court without explanation. The decision
1986, April 23 National Education Association President
meant that busing would end in Norfolk, Va. The second
Mary Futrell declares that the current levels of finances are
case involved a bid by the Oklahoma City School Board to
insufficient to bring needed reform to public schools. Her
end busing of students in grades 1 through 4. Observers
announcement is buttressed by a NEA report that shows a
felt the Supreme Court. by declining to accept these cases,
7.1% increase in school funding in the 1985-85 school
was. choosing to leave the décisions in local disputes to
year - far below the 20% to 25% increase needed for
lower courts rather than set a national standard.
reform.
1986. December 14 A federal district court judge dismisses
1986, April 24 A general mood in America to apply
a 26- year-old desegregation case in Chattanooga. Tenn.,
economic sanctions against South Africa places black
ruling that the local board of education has successfully
college officials in a financial quandary. Many of the
complied with orders to integrate students and faculty.
companies which fund black institutions also have
However. James Mapp, a black real estate agent who
744
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Perspectives on Black Education
initiated the suit in 1960, maintained that some schools
continued to have a student body of entirely one race, even
1987, October 4 In a follow up from a report issued
though blacks compose 51.6% of the school system's
January 1986, the House Committee on government in
23,700 students.
Operations finds that Virginia and nine other Southern
1987, April 1 The United Negro College Fund and the
states have not eliminated racial discrimination in their
National Institution of Independent Colleges and
colleges and universities. The report cited disparities
Universities release a study which finds that black students
between black and white enrollment and retention rates.
are bearing the brunt of federal cut backs. The Findings
enrollment in graduate and professional schools.
shortages of black faculty members and low minority
were based on a survey of the nation's 57 historically black
private colleges.
1987, December 11 William Pratt of D. C. Superior Court
ruled in Adams vs. Bennett that the so-called "Adams"
1987, April 9 College Board President Donald Stewart
decision is no longer enforceable. The Office of Civil
decries the Reagan Administration's efforts to cut federal
Rights is required to obtain desegregation plans from 18
aid to college students, although he praised the president's
states with vestiges of de jure segregation.
Education Secretary William Bennett for calling for more
coherence and rigor in college curriculums.
1988, February 17 A New York Times article finds that
colleges and universities are finding it difficult not only to
1987, April 27 Hunter College anthropologist Johnetta
recruit black students. but to keep them on their rolls.
Cole is named president of Spelman College in Atlanta,
Ga. She also succeeds Donald Stewart as president of the
1988, April 1 University of Maryland at College Park
College Board.
Chancellor Dr. John B. Slaughter announces his resignation
in favor of accepting the post of president at Occidental
1987, April 29 Billionaire John Kluge donates $25 million
College, a small. private college in Los Angeles. Dr.
to Columbia University in New York for a new aid program
Slaughter was the first black to hold a high administrative
for minority students. The funds will allow the university
position at the prestigious Maryland university.
to offer financial aid to more than 60 Kluge Presidential
1988, April 25 the Supreme Court, in a 5-4 decision,
Scholars who are chosen annually by the university provost.
decides to review a pivotal (1976) decision prohibiting
1987, May 20 The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
private schools from discriminating on the basis of race.
releases a report validating the role of desegregation plans.
1988, August 16 Bishop College in Dallas, Texas, which
such as busing, in improving racial balances in public
was founded by freed slaves and was once the largest
schools. The report notes. however. that white enrollment
college west of the Mississippi, closes its doors after 108
in public schools declined during the same period.
years. The college reportedly owed more than $12 million
1987, May 22 The House of Representatives approves a
to creditors.
sweeping education bill, called the School Improvement
1988, September 16 Racial discussions consume residents
Act. which will affect a majority of the nation's elementary
of Hillside, N.J.. a suburb of Newark. The 22,000-member
and secondary school children. The Act consolidates 14
community is at odds over a new plan to achieve racial
programs and renews them until 1993. and is estimated to
balance in elementary schools where some two-thirds of
add $780 million to current budget projections for the
the students are minorities.
programs.
1988, October Congress passes, over President Reagan's
1987, August 7 The NAACP Legal Defense and
veto, the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, which
Educational Fund faults the Department of Education for
failing to enforce desegregation in higher education systems
restores the effectiveness of four civil rights statutes that
prohibit discrimination in federally assisted programs,
in Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Oklahoma and Virginia.
including Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972,
1987, September 17 A federal district judge orders
enforcement of which was limited by the Supreme Court's
increases in property and income taxes to pay for
Grove City College decision.
improvements in the Kansas City, Mo., school system.
1988, November 4 Actor Bill Cosby and wife, Camille,
One such improvement was the creation of magnet schools,
donate $20 million to Spelman College in Atlanta, Ga., the
designed to attract students from suburban and private
prestigious black women 's college. The contribution is
schools elsewhere in the city.
the single largest gift ever made to a black college. Cosby
1987, September 23 Scholastic Aptitude Test results show
said he made the donation with the hope of encouraging
that black students are making gains nationwide; however,
others to support black learning institutions, which are
College Board assessments find that the overall average
seriously underfunded.
school scores of black students have remained unchanged
1988, December 27 Fifteen years atter court-ordered
for the third year in a row.
busing touched off violent opposition and "white flight
1987, September 25 Howard University in Washington,
from the city, Boston approves a new plan to save its
D.C. celebrates its 120th anniversary. The university,
troubled public school system. The plan will allow parents
created by a congressional act in 1867, opened with a
to select a school closer to home, in order to reduce the
single building and four students.
lengthy bus rides of their children.
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO
hip. In this connection, it is useful to recall a
There are other writers who have valuable accounts,
emark of Napoleon's: "There are no bad regi-
including Cassell, Frank A., "Slaves of the Chesapeake Bay
Area and the War of 1812," Journal of Negro History, April
nents, only bad colonels." See also AFRO-AMER-
1972; Fowler, Arlen L., The Black Infantry in the West, 1869-
CAN HISTORY: COLONIAL PERIOD, 1600s-1783;
1891, 1971; Gatewood, Willard B., "Smoked Yankees" and
\FRO-AMERICAN HISTORY: THE WEST; AFRO-
the Struggle for Empire, 1971; Langley, Harold D., "The Negro
in the Navy and the Merchant Service, 1789-1860," Journal
AMERICAN HISTORY: CIVILWAR, 1861-65; AVIA-
of Negro History, October 1967; and Leckie, William H., The
'ORS; CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT.
Buffalo Soldiers: A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the
West, 1967. See also Dalfiume, Richard M., Desegregation of
the U.S. Armed Forces: Fighting on Two Fronts, 1939-1953,
:EFERENCES: Afro-American writers were the first to recog-
1969; Foner, Jack D., Blacks and the Military in American
nize the Afro-American contribution to various American
var efforts. Writers of the nineteenth century-William C.
History: A New Perspective, 1974; and Motley, Mary Penick
Vell, George Washington Williams, and Joseph T. Wil-
(ed.), The Invisible Soldier: The Experience of the Black Sol-
dier, World War II, 1975.
on-wrote about Afro-American military service. More
recently, good accounts are in Blassingame, John W., "Recruit-
nent of Colored Troops in Kentucky, Maryland, and Mis-
WARWICK,
DIONNE
(1941-
),
singer,
souri, 1863-1865," Historian, August, 1967; Chandler, Vera,
actress; born in East Orange, N.J. Warwick
'The Negro in World War II," Negro Yearbook, 1947; Lee,
attended the University of Hartford on a music
Jlysses, The Employment of Negro Troops: United States
Army in World War II, 1966; McConnell, Roland C., Negro
scholarship in 1959. By 1964 she was rated the
Troops in Antebellum Louisiana: A History of the Battalion
top rhythm-and-blues singer in the United
of Free Men of Color. 1968; Quarles, Benjamin, The Negro in
States. With Bert Bacharach conducting, War-
the American Revolution, 1961; and Reddick, Lawrence D.,
"The Negro Policy of the American Army Since World War
wick made her singing debut at Philharmonic
II," Journal of Negro History, April, 1953. A helpful biblio-
Hall in New York City's Lincoln Center in 1966,
graphical (including periodic literature) and biographical
after which she received rave reviews. She made
account (with accompanying photographs) is found in
Greene, Robert Ewell (ed.), Black Defenders of America,
grand tours of the major capitals of the world,
1775-1973: A Reference and Pictorial History, 1974. Though
where her musical style was highly acclaimed.
the author treats all wars since and including the Revolution
Warwick also appeared in Slaves, her first
(except Indian campaigns), his coverage of the Vietnam war
takes up more than one-third of the book.
motion picture.
WASHINGTON, BOOKER T. (BTN)
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (1856-
kegee Institute, Ala.), delivered an address at the
1915), educator; born in Franklin County, Va.
Cotton States Exposition in Atlanta, Ga., that
In the mid-1890s Afro-Americans were in the
became famous as the "Atlanta Compromise."
throes of a national crisis that seemed to threaten
Notwithstanding the refusal of a few Afro-Amer-
their very survival. Hopes that had been inspired
icans to recognize Washington as Douglass' suc-
by emancipation and by Reconstruction lay in
cessor. the Atlanta address did in fact mark his
shambles. Abandoned by the political party of
emergence as the foremost spokesman for Afro-
Abraham Lincoln, black citizens confronted a ris-
Americans. It was clear, however, that even if
ing tide of racism-manifested by increasing
the ultimate goals of Douglass and Washington
incidents of lynching, disfranchisement, and
were similar, their methods and styles were sub-
riots-at a moment when they seemed to be with-
stantially different. In a perceptive analysis of
out a racial spokesman. Their champion of half
these differences, first published in 1903 and
a century, Frederick Douglass, died in February
reflected in later interpretations, Kelly Miller of
1895, and shortly thereafter John M. Langston,
Howard University (Washington, D.C.) conclud-
Blanche K. Bruce, and other notable Afro-Amer-
ed that while the two men were in part products
ican leaders died. The Afro-American press
of their times, they were "also natural anti-
voiced grave concern about the vacuum in lead-
podes." In an "age of moral giants," Douglass
ership in this critical juncture in race relations.
was a leader of heroic proportions who was "like
On September 18, 1895. seven months after
a lion. bold and fearless" in seeking full citizen-
the death of Douglass, ex-slave Booker T. Wash-
ship and integration into American society for
ington, the principal of Tuskegee Institute (Tus-
Afro-Americans. In his pursuit of similar ends
839
BTW followed in the
tradition of Fued Douglas
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO
during an "era of merchant prices," according to
school sporadically in Malden. W. Va., where
Miller, Washington told the world what it was
his mother and stepfather, Washington Fergu-
"disposed to listen to" rather than what it need-
son, had settled after the Civil War. Forced to
ed to hear. His were the methods of a social
work in the coal mines and salt furnaces by his
pacifist for whom an emphasis upon the eco-
exploitative stepfather, young Washington was
nomic uplift of Afro-Americans through indus-
encouraged by his mother to find a better life. He
trial education offered the best way out of their
finally secured a job as a houseboy in the man-
predicament. Washington was more the "mis-
sion of Gen. Lewis Ruffner, Malden's most prom-
sionary seeking material and moral betterment
inent citizen. Here Washington came under the
of an unfortunate people" than the spontaneous
tutelage of the general's wife, a "Yankee woman
leader voicing their highest aspirations in une-
from Vermont," whose lessons in cleanliness,
quivocal terms.
efficiency, and order were, according to Wash-
This familiar statue
ington, as "valuable to me as any education I
of Booker T.
have ever gotten anywhere." Mrs. Ruffner
Washington is a
landmark on the
remembered Washington as the ideal servant,
campus at
eager to please and "always in his place." At
Tuskegee Institute
(Ala.). Washington
least one historian, in analyzing the mature
is shown "lifting
Washington, claims that he "never lost the atti-
the veil of
tude of the favorite slave."
ignorance from his
people." (Courtesy
In 1871 Washington made his way across Vir-
of Prentiss Polk,
Tuskegee Institute.)
ginia to enroll in Hampton Institute (Hampton,
Va.), a school for Afro-Americans founded and
directed by Gen. Samuel C. Armstrong. The son
of missionaries to Hawaii and himself a former
commander of Afro-American troops in the Civil
War Armstrong espoused the cause of industrial philo.
education as the means for assisting black peo- of
ple up the social ladder. He urged Afro-Ameri- Tustleege
1556
cans to accommodate themselves to the new in his
AND
order in the South, a process requiring them to ed at
eschew politics and postpone the attainment of Hamptor
first-class citizenship. Protest and agitation were
to be replaced by an emphasis upon economic
iL
progress. Although his industrial education pro-
gram provided agricultural and mechanical
training, Armstrong viewed it primarily as a
means of endowing a backward people with the
morality, discipline, and character necessary for
advancement in American society. As a result,
Birthof
Born a slave in 1856 on a small plantation in
training at Hampton emphasized cleanliness,
BTW
Virginia, the child who was to become known as
thrift, abstinence, and the dignity of manual
Booker T. Washington was the progeny of the
labor as much as it did the technical aspects of
plantation cook and a local white man. Without
various trades. As a student and later as an
a name other than Booker, he was never certain
instructor at Hampton, Washington came under
of the date of his birth and never knew the iden-
the direct influence of General Armstrong,
tity of his father. Only later when he became
whom he later described as "the noblest, rarest
aware that other children possessed more than a
human being" he had ever known. His experi-
single name did he add Washington to his own.
ences at Hampton provided Washington with
His best-selling autobiography, Up From Slav-
the values and rationale upon which he later
ery (1901), whatever its distortions, not only
acted as the spokesman of Afro-Americans.
reveals much about the formative experiences in
Clearly, Washington did not exaggerate when he
his life but also chronicles his own search for
remarked that Armstrong "made the greatest and
identity. Imbued with a desire to get on in a
Beguming of life
most lasting impression" upon him.
hostile world, Washington was determined to
Upon graduating in 1875, Washington
secure an education and managed to attend
returned home to West Virginia to begin a teach-
840
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO
ing career. Here he applied the lessons he had
tion of Afro-Americans but without making
learned at Hampton. Convinced that "mere book
them dissatisfied with the existing sociopolitical
education" did not meet the needs of his stu-
order. In Washington's opinion, education that
dents, he taught them the proper use of the bath
filled Afro-American citizens with nothing
and the toothbrush. Indeed, he came to believe
more than "a divine discontent" was worse than
that the civilizing influence of the toothbrush
no education at all
was greater than that of academic subjects. Expe-
Beginning with neither capital nor a campus,
riences during 1878 as a student at Wayland
Washington was ever aware of the pressure to
Seminary (Washington, D.C.) strengthened his
demonstrate that "it was possible for Negroes to
belief in the superiority of practical education.
build up and control the affairs of a large educa-
In his opinion, Wayland graduated students
tional institution." Resourcefulness and persis-
who, though versed in Greek and Latin, knew
tence enabled him to meet the challenge with
little of the day-to-day demands of life and were
such success that by 1895 Tuskegee was herald-
little inclined to go "into the country districts of
ed as "the best product of Negro enterprise of the
the South
to take up the work of our people."
century." It was an enterprise that Washington
While in the nation's capital, he had occasion to
supervised and controlled in the manner of a
observe Afro-American urban life in general and
despot. Not the least among the factors in the
the behavior of Afro-American politicians in
development of the school was Washington's
particular; and what he saw alarmed him and
ability to sell the "Tuskegee idea" to Northern
served to reinforce his faith in the formula pre-
philanthropists. First introduced to men of
scribed by General Armstrong.
wealth in the Northeast by General Armstrong,
After a year at Wayland Seminary, Washing-
Washington became a remarkably effective fund
ton accepted an invitation to join the faculty at
raiser, who, skilled in articulating the platitudes
Hampton. During his two years there as an
dear to middle-class white Americans,
instructor, he served first as supervisor of a dor-
impressed Northern industrialists and financiers
mitory for Indian youths and later as director of a
as a conservative, self-made man not unlike
night school for black students who lacked the
themselves. That he was as much an entrepre-
means of paying the cost of their education.
neur as he was an educator served to enhance
General Armstrong, however, worked out an
the impression that he made upon white capital-
arrangement whereby these students were
ists. So complete was the faith of such men as
white
employed by day in one of the industries at
Andrew Carnegie and William H. Baldwin in
Hampton so that they could earn enough money
Washington and his program that they made
supporters of Tisheegle
to pay their tuition. Washington described his
him the arbiter of large-scale white charity.
experience in the night school as having come
The selection of Washington to deliver an
"providentially to help prepare me for my work
address at the Atlanta Exposition in 1895 was a
at Tuskegee."
commentary on the esteem that he enjoyed
In 1881 the opportunity for Washington to
among the "best" white people of the South. The
direct his own institution came when General
formula of race relations proposed in that 20-
Armstrong recommended him for the position of
minute speech before a biracial audience in the
principal of a new school for Afro-Americans at
capital of the New South was a natural product
Tuskegee in Macon County, Ala. For the next 34
of the lessons that Washington had learned from
years Washington sought to gain his goals in
the Ruffners and from General Armstrong and
the Alabama black belt. The monument to his
that he had practiced for the previous 14 years at
efforts was Tuskegee Normal and Industrial
Tuskegee. It embodied what he thought was the
Institute. which in time became the capital of
only feasible option of Afro-American citizens in
black America. Consciously conceived as a repli-
an era of deteriorating race relations and of noisy
ca of Hampton, his school reflected the influence
and unchecked Negrophobia. A classic example
of General Armstrong both in the particulars of
of Washington's skill in walking "the razor's
its curriculum and in its concern for propagating
edge between Negro pride and white prejudice,"
the Protestant ethnic. he mission of Tuskegee
the address emphasized means rather than ends,
was to provide Afro-Americans with the means
the opportunities rather than the grievances of
to become economically self-supporting while
Afro-Americans, and the mutuality of interests
inculcating the virtues necessary for leading
between blacks and whites. He called upon Afro-
"useful. decent" lives. Its educational program
Americans to surmount the obstacles of preju-
dice by focusing their energies upon economic
that way tototal
BTW argued
was designed to improve the economic condi-
equality was
841 thro economics
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO
initiative and self-help, assuring them that the
Americans and occasionally acknowledged the
acquisition of property and "high character"
need for acquiring "culture and taste," his
Practica
would bring the recognition of all other rights.
Edu.
appeals in behalf of vocational training as more
To allay the fears of the whites in his audience,
appropriate for a majority of Afro-Americans in
Washington disparaged the black man's involve-
their "present condition" displayed a disdain for
ment in politics, condemned the migration of
Greek and Latin and other "ornamental
Afro-Americans from "our beloved South," and
gewgaws of life."
repudiated any agitation for social equality.
Washington's public utterances regarding the
Although he urged Afro-Americans to accom-
civil rights of Afro-American citizens were char-
modate themselves to existing circumstances in
acterized by even more ambiguity and ambiva-
the South, he did not, according to William Dean
lence than those on education. Accepting segre-
Howells, counsel "a base submission to the
gation "in all things that are purely social" as
Southern whites, but a manly fortitude in bear-
the price for racial harmony, he urged Afro-
ing the wrongs that cannot be righted and a
Americans to exploit every opportunity open to
patient faith in the final kindliness and ultimate
them within a segregated society. But within the
justice of the Anglo-Americans." With charac-
framework of the "separate-but-equal doctrine,"
teristic optimism Washington closed his Atlanta
Washington sought equality of treatment for
address with a reference to "the higher good"-
members of his race. Typical was his crusade for
the blotting out of racial animosities-that
equality of accommodations on railroads. On the
would accompany the economic evolution of
matter of disfranchisement, he maintained that
black people.
in the South restrictions on voting were neces-
For the remainder of his life, Washington elab-
sary but insisted that such restrictions be
orated upon these views in a plethora of speech-
applied "with equal and exact justice to both
es, books, and articles. The unity, pride, and
races." Granting that mistakes had been made in
"love of race," ethnic characteristics that he
regard to Afro-American suffrage during Recon-
observed among Jews, were, in his opinion, wor-
struction, he nonetheless expressed a belief in
thy of emulation by Afro-Americans. Washing-
universal, free suffrage "as a rule" and admitted
ton urged black businessmen to exploit the Afro-
that any group permanently disfranchised under
American market and encouraged black con-
a republican form of government was "placed at
sumers to patronize black enterprises. In spite of
a serious disadvantage." While he maintained
evidence to the contrary, he persisted in the
that noisy agitation over civil rights would alien-
belief that the economic success of Afro-Ameri-
ate whites and thereby hamper the progress of
cans would dissipate the prejudice of whites. In
Afro-Americans in general, he did not abjure all
the rhetoric of Social Darwinism so fashionable
protest. "When the foundation of our citizenship
in his day, Washington argued that although
is attacked," he declared in 1900, "I think I have
Afro-Americans must begin "at the bottom of
a right to speak." Washington exercised such a
life," they could struggle upward to achieve the
right, albeit unsuccessfully, in appealing to
economic efficiency that underlay "every kind of
southern legislatures to apply voting restrictions
success." For those overwhelmed by the dimen-
equally to both races. The failure of his appeals
sions of the struggle, Washington was always
forced Washington back upon the argument that
ready with fatherly advice. Typical was the
the rights of Afro-Americans would ultimately
counsel he gave in 1903 to a discouraged Tuske-
follow their acquisition of property and charac-
gee alumnus: "You must look on the bright side
ter. The validity of such an argument seemed to
of life and keep up your courage; that goes a long
be exemplified by Washington himself, a black
way in the direction of bringing success."
who in the age of Jim Crow rode in Pullman cars,
Repeatedly, Washington argued that Afro-Amer-
voted, dined with presidents and industrialists,
icans would acquire the rights and privileges of
and had tea with Queen Victoria. While counsel-
other Americans in the same degree that they
ing patience among Afro-Americans, Washing-
made themselves economically indispensable.
ton constantly reminded whites of the responsi-
The means for achieving this condition lay in
bilities of power. Their self-interest, he argued,
industrial education, which, according to Wash-
required them to aid Afro-Americans, since one
ington, "killed two birds with one stone": it
could not "hold another in the ditch without
secured the assistance of whites and did "the
himself staying" there. His public statements on
best possible thing for blacks." While he did not
lynching, which were more consistently outspo-
shut the door upon liberal education for Afro-
ken than those on any other injustice suffered by
842
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO
Washington was a
persuasive public
speaker. (Library
of Congress.)
Afro-Americans, not only refuted the claim that
er. If his behind-the-scenes manipulations to
the rape of white women was the primary cause
perpetuate his own power appeared at variance
for such acts but also emphasized that a disre-
with his homilies about honesty and "high char-
gard for morality and legal procedures in the
acter," his clandestine activities in combating
treatment of Afro-American citizens was more
segregation, peonage, and other Jim Crow con-
harmful to whites than to blacks.
trivances seemed to diverge no less sharply from
The response to his Atlanta address cast
his public image as an accomodationist.
Washington in the role of race leader. In spite of
Undoubtedly, the circumspection, dissimula-
his protests to the contrary, he relished the title
tion, and secrecy that were so much a part of
and skillfully consolidated his position by
Washington's style resulted from the fact that he
acquiring the power that gave it meaning. It was
was a black man in a white man's world, whose
in this capacity as the spokesman of Afro-Ameri-
earliest training had been that of a slave and
cans that the nature of his personality was
house servant.
revealed in all its complexity and diversity. He
In the two decades after 1895, Washington
was a man of many faces, adept at adjusting his
possessed sufficient power to exercise a large
appearance to fit the occasion and the audience.
measure of control over the destiny of the Afro-
Ambitious and calculating, Washington could
American community. So great was his influ-
be as ruthless toward those whom he considered
ence with wealthy industrialists and philan-
his enemies as he was magnanimous to his
thropic boards that his approval was a prerequi-
allies. The secrecy and deviousness that charac-
site for any Afro-American institution to gain
terized his behavior as master of Tuskegee were
their support. As the confidant of presidents
qualities no less evident in his role as race lead-
Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft,
843
WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO
Washington functioned as a political boss who
1900, proved useful not only in advertising and
distributed patronage, constructed alliances,
stimulating Afro-American capitalism but also
BTWpolitical
and rooted out malcontents. Critics were always
in cementing his relations with the black entre-
quick to point out that his performance as the
Power
preneurial class in northern cities. All the while,
"Black Warwick" was wholly inconsistent with
hundreds of Tuskegee alumni, many of whom
his counsel to Afro-Americans regarding the role
were rising young men in Afro-American com-
they should take in politics. Although he uti-
munities throughout the United States, provided
lized this power over political appointments to
Washington with a constant source of reliable
consolidate what was called the "Tuskegee
support. Any serious challenge to his program or
Machine," he also used his influence with politi-
personal prestige was likely to feel the full
cal and governmental figures to advance the
weight of the "Tuskegee Machine." Fully
interests and welfare of Afro-Americans. Either
informed about such challenges through an elab-
publicly or secretly, he waged campaigns
orate and effective system of espionage, Wash-
against the debt peonage system and the lily-
ington used his power to undermine or isolate
white Republican movements in the South,
those engaged in anti-Tuskegee activities.
attempted to secure the appointment of white
Despite the risks involved in defying Wash-
officials (especially judges) who were likely to
ington, opposition to his leadership steadily
give Afro-Americans "a fair chance," and tem-
increased among Afro-Americans who disagreed
pered party platforms and presidential utter-
with him ideologically, resented his power, or
ances on racial questions. Most secret of all was
suffered from not having his favor. The attacks
his role in initiating litigation designed to pro-
leveled against him by such articulate intellec-
BTW
tect the civil rights of Afro-Americans.
tuals as W. E. B. Du Bois and Monroe Trotter
The claim that Washington was a leader of
increasingly placed Washington on the defen-
Afro-Americans selected by whites was in a
sive. Opponents who belonged to that segment
sense valid, but the maintenance of his position
of the Afro-American population that Du Bois
involved a complicated interplay of forces. To be
to
classified as the "talented tenth" characterized
sure, his power was dependent upon the confi-
his educational philosophy as a rationale for
dence that the white community placed in him
perpetuating a racial caste system and assailed
and his program. Such confidence, in turn, rest-
his efforts to force conformity to the Tuskegee
ed in part upon his success in maintaining his
line. They also resented his use of "darkey"
image as a racial spokesman. Yet the power
anecdotes and were repelled by what they con-
bestowed upon him by whites, especially in the
sidered his self-effacing, obsequious manner
distribution of philanthropy and political
toward white southerners. But their basic disa-
patronage, provided means for gaining and sus-
greement with Washington concerned his accep-
taining the support of blacks. With the aid of a
tance of segregation and what they interpreted
select group of trusted allies, Washington pur-
as his compromising stand on the Afro-Ameri-
sued various tactics that resulted in projecting
can's civil rights. According to some critics,
the image and in perpetuating the power he
Washington had bargained away these rights for
desired. A continuous flow of publicity in the
a skimpy mess of pottage in the form of a few
form of inspired editorials, syndicated columns,
"good gifts" from whites. Others claimed that
articles, and books called attention to the practi-
the major fallacy in the Tuskegee approach was
cal achievements and popular acceptance of the
its failure to appreciate the relationship between
Tuskegee program. The editorial allegiance of
economic and political rights. Du Bois in partic-
the Afro-American press to his programs, or at
ular noted the paradox in Washington's attempt
least to him personally, was always a matter of
to transform Afro-American workers into busi-
primary concern to Washington. With a few not-
nessmen and property owners at the same time
able exceptions, those newspapers inclined to
that he called upon them to surrender the bal-
deviate from the Tuskegee line were brought
lot-the very instrument necessary for the
into the fold by persuasion-if possible-and by
defense of their economic interests. Finally,
economic coercion, subsidies, or covert owner-
those whom Washington patronizingly referred
ship-if necessary. Nor did Washington fail to
to as "a small group" of agitators were frustrated
extend his influence among important Afro-
by his inconsistencies and ambiguities and by
American organizations, especially religious
the elusive, indefinite nature of his utterances
denominations and fraternal orders. The Nation-
regarding the ultimate goals of his program.
al Negro Business League, which he founded in
That Washington neither avowed nor dis-
844
WASHINGTON, CHESTER L.
claimed "in distinct terms a single plank in the
ries of the United States. See also AFRO-AMERI-
platform of Douglass" was a persistent source of
CAN HISTORY: RECONSTRUCTION TO REVOLT,
exasperation for his critics.
1877-1977; EDUCATION; Du BOIS, WILLIAM
Despite Washington's frenzied efforts to neu-
EDWARD BURGHARDT; NATIONAL ASSOCIATION
tralize or silence his critics, the opposition to his
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE
leadership gathered momentum throughout the
(NAACP); TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE.
first decade of the twentieth century. The prolif-
eration of racial violence, dramatized by a series
REFERENCES: Barton, Rebecca C., "Up from Slavery" in Wit-
of bloody riots, lent credence to their charge that
nesses for Freedom: Negro Americans in Autobiography,
New York, 1948; Bontemps, Arna, 100 Years of Freedom,
the status of Afro-Americans had steadily deteri-
New York, 1961; Cox, Oliver C., "The Leadership of Booker
orated under his tutelage. His unsuccessful
T. Washington," Social Forces, vol. 30, pp. 91-97, October
attempt in 1906 to alter President Theodore Roo-
1951; Curti, Merle, The Social Ideas of American Educators,
New York, 1935; Farrison. W. Edward, "Booker T. Washing-
sevelt's decision to discharge a battalion of Afro-
ton: A Study in Educational Leadership," South Atlantic
American soldiers accused of shooting up
Quarterly, vol. 41, pp. 313-19, July 1942; Gatewood, Willard
Brownsville, Tex., played into the hands of Du
B., Jr., "Booker T. Washington and the Ulrich Affair," Phy-
lon, vol. 30, pp. 286-302. Fall 1969; Harlan, Louis R., Booker
Bois and other opponents who had organized
T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856-1901,
the Niagara Movement in the previous year. The
New York, 1972; Harlan. Louis R., "Booker T. Washington
climactic challenge to his leadership came in
and the National Negro Business League," in (eds.), Seven
on Black: Reflections on the Negro Experience in America,
1909 with the launching of the National Associa-
Shade, William G., and Roy C. Herenkohl. Philadelphia,
mig NAME
tion for the Advancement of Colored People
1969; Harlan, Louis R., et al. (eds.), The Booker T. Washing-
(NAACP), a biracial organization that included
ton Papers, vols. 1 and 2. Urbana, 1972; Harlan, Louis R.,
"Booker T. Washington and the White Man's Burden,"
his most effective Afro-American critic, Du Bois,
American Historical Review, vol. 71, pp. 440-67, January
as well as several prominent whites who earlier
1966; Harlan, Louis R., "Booker T. Washington in Biographi-
had been sympathetic to Washington. Attempts
cal Perspective." American Historical Review, vol. 75, pp.
1581-99. October 1970: Harlan. Louis R., The Making of a
at a rapprochement between Washington and
Black Leader, 1972; Hawkins, Hugh. Booker T. Washington
the NAACP proved to be abortive. The emer-
and His Critics: The Problem of Negro Leadership, Boston.
gence of the NAACP, followed in 1912 by the
1962; Mathews, Basil, Booker T. Washington, Educator and
Interracial Interpreter, Cambridge. 1948: Meier. August,
election victory of Woodrow Wilson, which
Negro Thought in America. 1880-1915, Ann Arbor, 1963:
sharply curtailed Washington's role as a politi-
Scott. Emmett. and Lyman B. Stowe, Booker T. Washington:
cal boss, seriously eroded Washington's power
Builder of a Civilization. New York. 1916: Spencer. Samuel
R., Jr., Booker T. Washington and the Negro's Place in Amer-
during the last several years of his life.
ican Life. Boston. 1955: Stokes. Anson Phelps, A Brief Biog-
Late in October 1915, while on a speaking tour
raphy of Booker T. Washington, Hampton. 1936: Thorn-
of the North. Washington collapsed in New York
brough. Emma Lou, "More Light on Booker T. Washington
and the New York Age." Journal of Negro History, vol. 63.
City and had to be hospitalized. Apprised of the
pp. 34-49, January 1958: Washington. Booker T., "Is the
seriousness of his condition, he asked to go
Negro Having a Fair Chance?" Century, vol. 85, pp. 46-55,
home. "I was born in the South," he declared, "I
November 1912; Washington. Booker T., My Larger Educa-
tion, Garden City, 1911: Washington. Booker T., "My Views
have lived and labored in the South, and I expect
of Segregation Laws," New Republic, vol. 5. pp. 113-15.
to die and be buried there." He returned to Tus-
December 4. 1915; Washington. Booker T., The Future of the
kegee on November 13, 1915, and on the follow-
American Negro, Boston. 1899; Washington. Booker T., The
Story of My Life and Work. Napierville, 1900; Washington.
ing day died at his home, "The Oaks," on the
Booker T., Up From Slavery, New York, 1901: Washington.
campus. His death brought forth eulogies from
Booker T., Working with the Hands. New York. 1904: and
your
men of all races throughout the United States
Washington. Booker T.. Booker T. Washington Papers,
Library of Congress, Washington. D.C.
and the world. Even such men as Du Bois, who
held him responsible for the deterioration of the
WASHINGTON, CALVIN CARLTON (1909-
),
black man's civil rights, conceded that his lead-
educator: born in Faceville. Ga. Washington
ership had not been wholly barren of positive
received a B.S. degree from Tuskegee Institute
accomplishments in the educational and eco-
(Tuskegee Institute. Ala.) in 1935 and his M.Ed.
nomic progress of his people. Although the gen-
degree from Atlanta University in 1950. After
erous assessments of Washington rendered by
having served as a high school principal (1944-
eulogistic biographers shortly after his death
62), he became president of Rosenwald Junior
have undergone substantial alterations, the sig-
College in 1958. Wasington was also president
nificance of his leadership has never been ques-
of the Florida State Teachers Association
tioned. For nearly two decades Washington was
the preeminent Afro-American, and his reputa-
WASHINGTON, CHESTER L. (1902-
).
edi-
tion and influence extended beyond the bounda-
tor, publisher; born in Pittsburgh, Pa. Washing-
845
WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 30, 1991
The Washington Times
The Black Eagles get their glory
Pioneering
Cha
pilots of
World War II
Well. gan
you about
settled for
things Publi
is saying at
Report's Ed
nothing less
Zuckerman
feud in the
As Web
than success
Alicia Munt
file in Gent
November
U.S. News it
By Hap Erstein
Zuke's behe
THE WASHINGTON TIMES
on Mr. Movi
Moyers was
ove over,
position to
M
"Glory" and
68-story me
"Memphis
Circle in N
Belle." Here
Well. Mr.
come the
Rather Sho
"Black Ea-
in the new
gles."
Miss Mund
Like the first company of black
"Her INB
soldiers in the Civil War, these rel-
Moyers wit
atively unsung members of the
heard of the
Army Air Corps during World War II
since its pu
were the first black U.S. pilots al-
information
lowed to fly in combat. And while the
most credit
heralded flyboys of the Memphis
chilling pic
Belle, dramatically celebrated in the
cause in job
recent movie, had to fly 25 missions
Arts Society
before they could be rotated back
Fact
against Mr.
stateside, Black Eagles flew as many
ment, mad
as 140 without relief.
on him."
Still, if you look in most history
But U.S.
books, there is no mention of this
David Gergi
groundbreaking outfit, or at best
letter that
A
only a footnote. No longer. Beginning
a physical along with about 20 other
quirements so stringent, and they
Tuskegee airmen
U.S. Newsie
this weekend at Ford's Theatre,
[black] Hampton Institute students,"
expected to cut through us like a
Woodrow W.
"left embit
"Black Eagles," a dramatic tribute to
says Philip F. Lee, 73, of Washington,
scythe," according to Harry Shep-
Crockett, Elwood
an objective
Play
their wartime exploits, begins per-
D.C., who served as a trainer of the
pard, 73, of Arlington. That attracted
T. Driver, Philip
"We looks
formances. Next month comes the
Tuskegee airmen. "We'd already
not only the best and the brightest,
F Lee and Harry
before the
autobiography of Gen. Benjamin O.
passed the IQ. They flunked us all on
but the most stubborn. "They got so
Sheppard (above,
we believe
Gen. Davis
Davis Jr. (see story below), the Black
the physical."
determined that they were not going
zfrom left) at
using that
Eagle commander who was the first
black general in the Air Force. And
The Army refused to create a pi-
to fail, it built a cohesion into us that
Ford's Theatre,
as head
Beiser, exe
lot training program for blacks. As a
we didn't have before. With that in
where actors
the Web
now in pre-production is a film on
Eagle
result, "We had to sue the War De-
mind, there was nothing we thought
Raymond
U.S. New
the subject being developed by
partment to even get in the Air
that we couldn't do."
Anthony Thomas
Buskin said
George ("Star Wars") Lucas.
Corps," says Woodrow W. Crockett,
When the airmen got to the prac-
(left) and David
man and Ge
Although some of the black
World War II veterans have ex-
72, of Annandale.
tical flight training, it was obvious
Rainey rehearse
Moyers mat
that they were not given the best
new play "Black
pressed concerns about the accu-
Over the recommendation of his
ter fabricati
planes to learn with. "No, they were
Eagles," about the
racy of the play "Black Eagles," and
top generals, President Franklin
P.S. The $
Roosevelt in 1941 ordered the cre-
hand-me-downs," recalls Mr. Shep-
first black
surface of
although Gen. Davis has refused to
pard. "Some of them that we got, I
American pilots to
York writer
cooperate with Mr. Lucas on his
ation of a combat flight training pro-
gram at Tuskegee, to test whether
remember, we had to practically re-
fly in combat.
movie, they are eager to get their
ple, wrote
blacks were capable of becoming
build them. You had to use what's
cle "substil
story out - to fill in the gaps of our
historical consciousness.
military pilots. This became known
available, but we were the last in
while Robe
as "the Tuskegee experiment," and
line."
tor of the
The so-called Black Eagles were
trained at Tuskegee (Ala.) Institute,
according to the emphatic opinions
"It's just another form of 'back-
Mort boug
but the creation of an all-black pilot
of some of those who went through
of-the-bus," adds Tuskegee airman
bought
History
program did not happen easily. The
it, it was an experiment that the top
Elwood T. Driver, 69, now residing in
Miss Mun
brass wanted to fail.
Reston.
"bleats."
Army stood by a 1925 War College
study that categorically insisted that
However, the brass miscalculated
Just getting the program started
ment was
blacks were mentally inferior to
by making the admissions standards
was difficult enough. But once the
from SO
whites, psychologically unfit for
tough and then planning to fail half
airmen were trained and formed into
mouth that
combat and physically unqualified.
the would-be pilots out of the pro-
FI
IFRS
F2
first black
the wens just
nis
a night training pro-
pard. "Some of them that we got, I
American pilots to
surface of the Morty let
heir
gram at Tuskegee, to test whether
remember, we had to practically re-
fly in combat.
York writer Ken Auletta
blacks were capable of becoming
build them. You had to use what's
ple, wrote that Miss Mu
our
military pilots. This became known
available, but we were the last in
cle "substituted bile for
as "the Tuskegee experiment," and
line."
while Robert Manning. 1
vere
tute,
according to the emphatic opinions
"It's just another form of 'back-
tor of the Atlantic Montl
pilot
of some of those who went through
of-the-bus," adds Tuskegee airman
Mort bought about the ti
The
it, it was an experiment that the top
Elwood T. Driver, 69, now residing in
bought U.S. News, cham
lege
brass wanted to fail.
Reston.
Miss Mundy against The
"bleats." Mr. Manning sa
that
However, the brass miscalculated
Just getting the program started
ment was trustworthy ar
to
by making the admissions standards
was difficult enough. But once the
from SO far down in the I
for
tough and then planning to fail half
airmen were trained and formed into
mouth that you can see di
ed.
the would-be pilots out of the pro-
ook
gram. "They made the entrance re-
see FLIERS, page E2
Photos by Tracy A. Woodward The Washington Times
Just too qui
Davis BIO
Alas, the weekend visit
he ride cost $5, a lot of
Mark Phillips was so hus
T
Tuskegee leader knew
Point in this century.
money to squander in 1926,
But even being in West Point did
that hardly anybody got t
but it indirectly changed
his success or failure
not guarantee that he would be ac-
the soon-to-be-divorced-fi
the face of integration in-
was a fearful legacy
cepted into flight training. "I ap-
Britain's-Princess Anne e
side the military and beyond. For
plied for aviation training in 1935,
Capt. Phillips spent two
when Ben Davis Jr. was in his early
while still a cadet at West Point," he
Montpelier, the Virginia e
teens, his father took him to nearby
fighting-trim Gen. Davis. To get to
recalls. "I was turned down by the
James Madison, now own
Bolling Air Field and bought him a
fly meant tearing down innumer-
office of the Chief of Air Corps, to
National Trust for Histori
ride in an airplane with a barn-
able racial barriers. That is the
my surprise. [The application]
ervation. And what was hi
stormer.
story of his life and of his new auto-
came back with a terse statement
there?
"It's a mystery to me as to why he
biography, "Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.:
that we don't have any black units in
Well, like lotsa folks, Ca
did that," says the retired general
American," published by Smithson-
the Army Air Corps and we don't
lips is a consultant, and he
who commanded the World War II
ian Institution Press.
contemplate having any."
sulting with fellow Brit Ch
Tuskegee airmen, the first black pi-
Being first runs in the family.
After West Point, where he
Scott, executive director 0
lots in combat. "Because $5 was an
His father was the first black gen-
graduated 35th in a class of 276, he
pelier, on how to develop a
important sum of money in 1926,
eral ever in the military, and he was
served as aide to his father. In 1941,
ing course" on the propert
and my father was very conscious
the first black general ever in the
soon after President Roosevelt or-
That's show jumping, dr
of not being wasteful of resources."
Air Force. To attain that position, he
dered the War Department to cre-
And, by the way, Capt. P
That ride "in 1926, reinforced by
suffered four years of abuse and un-
ate a black fighter pilot unit - the
planning a return visit to P
[aviator Charles] Lindbergh's feat
interrupted silence from his fellow
99th Pursuit Squadron the office
pelier as the project devele
Photo by Don Preisler The Washington Times
in 1927, set me afire with a desire to
cadets to emerge as the first black
a plane of the type he used to fly
fly," says the 78-year-old, still
American to graduate from West
see DAVIS, page E2
Hither 'n' you
Au revoir: And former \
House speechwriter Mark
has been lured to Sacrame
unapologetic conductor says today,
duced a mediocre routine, with not
For Mason, Israeli gig was from heart
Guv. Pete Wilson. Mark sig
"was all these opera houses pro-
as director of the guv's ent
speechifying department ji
enough rehearsals, without good
week.
preparation. I think that's absolutely
miliar singsong
"I said, 'How long does it take to
Web query: Who was tha
treason to music and to theater.
By Sheryl Flatow
SPECIAL TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES
delivery, lunching
get to the Hilton?' He said, 'Not more
Young Thang Rep. Charlie
"Therefore, I said if you want to
on a bagel and sar-
than an hour.'
was dancing his feet off wit
go on with this routine with the op-
NEW YORK
dines Monday
"I said, 'Does that mean that for
'n' Mo's Saturday night?
era houses, just get rid of them. If
ackie Mason can joke about it
afternoon at a fa-
an hour I can get killed?' He said,
And the buzz from astrol
the conditions are not there for
J
now, but his three-day good-
vorite New York
'Israelis have faith. This country was
A lunar eclipse today could
really excellent performances, why
will visit to Israel last week
deli. "You can't
built on courage. You can't get that
bad news for Saddam Husse
keep them?"
was no laughing matter.
go anywhere
scared for just an hour.'
was born April 28, 1937.
In a phone conversation from his
Take, for instance, the story about
without a mask,
"I said, 'If courage is more impor-
Saddam's Uranus is at 9
Paris apartment, Mr. Boulez, 66, re-
the gas masks.
because no one
tant than a gas mask, how come
Taurus, if ya know what I m
frects on his recommendation: The
When the 56-year-old comedian
can predict when.
you've got a gas mask and I should
old Metropolitan Opera actually was
arrived Tuesday in Israel, he was
a gas attack will
have courage? How do you know
blown up to make way for Lincoln
met by a government official who
happen.'
nothing will happen between now
Scribblers' corn
Center. The Paris Opera is reduced
was to accompany him to the Tel
"I said, 'So, do
and
the
Hilton?
Do
to presenting only ballet. with the
Aviv
fic jams snarl roadways to and
cauavie, someumes por
boiler billed as "entirely plausible"
of these tutorials are quite fascinat-
hacker, must imagine himself the
the opportunity to Da
from major airports. Air travel
knowing disdain a
a fictional portent of tomorrow's
ing. Mr. Harrington's straight-
aggregate of these two (although a
stops.
what a movie about 1
headlines, even - by a publisher
ahead prose rings with authority.
photo on the book jacket puts him a
like.
Darius leaves his company's fin-
obviously smitten with Mr.
Salute him for his research; he
good deal closer to Darius): self-
gerprints on the virus, all but en-
Harrington's knack for authentic
would be brilliant writing owner's
educated genius and former Navy
Sean Piccoli is a
suring financial ruin for Whitney
detail.
manuals for the technologically ob-
pilot, each seduced by the miasma
Life section.
FLIERS
BOULEZ
more performed that
I suppose. It's not m
people in Europe do
From page El
From page El
sic.
think the minim
the 99th Pursuit Squadron, they still
pidou and IRCAM in Paris, Mr.
virtues, but they have
sat inactive, waiting for the orders to
Boulez's own brainchild, continue to
tations and the li
be sent overseas to fight. In part, this
present avant-garde works to the
too much. What wa
was because of the Air Corps' failure
world.
the beginning is no I
to find a base in Europe that would
And Pierre Boulez, not so quietly,
positive aspects: You
accept the 99th. Mr. Crockett credits
still creates his own conditions for
repetition forever."
the black press with putting on the
music that is anything but routine.
pressure that got them past these
Much of that music will be avail-
Debussy и
hurdles.
able for the first time on compact
"Well, the black press began to
disc as Sony Classics releases the
Pierre Boulez was
raise hell," he says. "They said,
"Boulez Edition", something Mr.
1925, in the small
'You've just made a token action
Boulez himself calls "a kind of en-
Montbrison. He rem
here. Now you've got a combat-
cyclopedia of the 20th century."
12-tone music for tl
ready outfit, use it.'
"Certainly I think I have made a
1945 in Paris, when
Finally, in April 1943 the squad-
consistent series of recordings: I
"no other music wa
ron shipped out for North Africa,
have recorded all the composers
soon saw other musi
flew to a base near Tunis, and en-
whom I like very much and all their
If anything, his ca
tered combat two months later. The
important works.
study in dialectical
Tuskegee airmen flew more than
simply brought my personality,
Teutonic serialism ai
1,500 missions, both over North Af-
my own view of these composers
istic Gallic trends.
rica and Italy, distinguishing them-
and of these compositions," he says,
Mr. Boulez's cry:
selves beyond all expectations.
stressing that the recordings simply
Ravel initially was
During the course of the war 66
Gen. Benjamin O. Davis Jr., the first black general in the Air Force
show "the way I was feeling at the
cold and clinical. A
of the pilots were killed in combat,
time."
way in divesting Ra
out of a total of 966 Tuskegee airmen.
He adds, "I don't think record-
veneer and stands U
Another 32 were shot down and be-
DAVIS
Medal with Five Oak Leaf Clus-
ings are done for eternity.
one of the initial
came prisoners of war. The airmen
ters and the Croix de Guerre,
"They are good documents of the
Boulez Edition.
are credited with destroying or dam-
From page
time in which you live. When I hear
Heis unstinting in his admira-
aging 409 German aircraft and more
some of these recordings I made 20,
tion for the Tuskegee airmen, but
than 950 units of ground transpor-
25 years ago, I feel as if I am looking
tation. With machine-gun fire they
of the Chief of Air Corps asked
low-key about his personal racial
at old pictures of myself."
Gen. Davis Sr. to release his son
breakthroughs. While he retired
sank a German destroyer, the only
such sinking of the entire war.
to pilot training. "I was sought out
from the Air Force as a three-star
Still, many of their missions were
by them," Gen. Davis Jr. smiles at
general in 1970, having last
The bad wolf
as bomber escorts, protecting Allied
the irony, "having been turned
served as deputy commander-in-
There is as much discussion and
down by them six years earlier."
chief, U.S. Strike Command at
bomber planes from enemy attack.
controversy in music circles about
MacDill Air Force Base, Fla., he
And if there is one distinction that
He breezed through the train-
these "pictures" today as when they
the Black Eagles are proudest of, it
feels strongly that the struggle
ing and was appointed to lead the
were new. Have they aged well?
is that over the 200 escort missions
for racial equality is not over.
unit as it moved overseas to prove
"Let's say I was young, and now I
they never lost a friendly bomber.
"There isn't any doubt about
am not."
its combat abilities to the still
This too is a unique distinction of all
racism continuing," he says so-
The "Boulez Edition" shows the
doubting military establishment.
the U.S. fighter groups.
As it had been throughout most of
berly. "What's the biggest prob-
French conductor's tenacious enthu-
Pierre Boulez
Because the escort planes had a
lem in this nation today? In one
siasm for the music of Arnold
his life, he realized that his suc-
limited fuel capacity and flying
cess or failure would affect how
word - racism. It's not as bad as
Schoenberg. All his major works, in-
of non-French singe
range, they flew in relay, being re-
blacks who followed him would be
it was before Lyndon Johnson,
cluding the opera "Moses und Aron,"
fore had performe
lieved by other escorts before they
treated. "I was made to realize
but you talk about segregation,
the cantata "Gurrelieder" and all the
work considered to
had to turn back for lack of fuel. The
discrimination and denigration,
orchestral music are scheduled for
that whatever you do in pilot
most French in all
Tuskegee airmen gained a reputa-
training and whatever you do
it's all there today."
release.
rich tradition.
tion for sticking with their bombers
later in combat, the roles of
Asked about Desert Storm and
Once regarded as the best sign of
"It's true tha
no matter what. "We never lost a
blacks in the armed services will
the difficulty of becoming a flier,
things to come - though never by
French," Mr. Boule
bomber, because we never relin-
be determined by the quality of
Gen. Davis says, "I am personally
the public the Schoenbergian leg-
"So what? I find
quished our position," says Mr.
your performance," he says.
convinced that there are no road-
acy of serialism and spiraling musi-
view of music absu
Driver. "Sometimes our relief didn't
blocks that would keep a black
cal complexity is now an interesting
"Good music is
show either on time or didn't show
The Tuskegee airmen ex-
man from becoming a pilot." That
chapter in history. For Mr. Boulez, it
wines don't travel.
up at all. Which meant we had to
celled, with heroic achievements
is because of what Gen. Davis
is still very much the present. Cer-
well. Debussy
extend our mission," frequently en-
under Gen. Davis' leadership.
and his Tuskegee airmen proved
tainly electrifying performances
lar is very good
dangering their lives.
When he returned from combat,
more than 45 years ago. "We
such as the "Boulez Edition's"
His recording
The airmen flew as if they were
his uniform was weighed down
turned it around and showed
"Friede auf Erden," Schoenberg's
Melisande" was a
on a personal mission a mission to
with the Silver Star, Distin-
them that we were good enough."
most moving choral score, make a
freed the score of
prove once and for all that black pi-
guished Flying Cross, Legion of
persuasive case.
tradition. It had a W
lots were at least as capable as
Merit with Oak Leaf Cluster, Air
Hap Erstein
"The works of Schoenberg are not
stagings of the wor
whites of fulfilling combat assign-
performed enough," Mr. Boulez says.
ropolitan Opera's
ments. Their fighter group was com-
'His name is something everybody
vival in the 1980s
pletely segregated, as were all of the
Still, although they faced strong
"I'm very worried about youth today
is afraid of, a bad wolf. If you are
Karajan's productic
armed forces in World War II. And
institutionalized discrimination try-
growing up with a lack of heroes," he
acquainted with the works, they are
with the Berlin Ph
because the Army was slow in
ing to fight and fly for their country,
says. "Or they choose the wrong he
wonderful. But you have to know
perhaps the most
readying black replacement pilots,
and while some say that racism is
roes. These men are legitimate he
them to like them."
pated release in the
the Tuskegee airmen remained in
still endemic in American society,
roes, and more people should know
'Pelleas' is al
combat, flying many more missions,
the Tuskegee airmen are not bitter.
about them."
'The Boulez mafia'
dream," Mr. Boulez
far longer than their white counter-
They take pride in their accom-
If they are worried about the
The conductor feels the same way
on the earth. there
parts.
plishments and now direct their ef-
Ford's Theatre play veering into fic-
forts toward today's youth, telling
about some other composers, in-
some part there is
Mr. Driver brushes off a question
tion for the sake of entertainment,
of why they did not fall victim to
their inspirational stories and spon-
the concern is even more extreme
cluding Edgar Varese and Gyorgy
in the music, but
soring scholarships for black stu-
about the upcoming George Lucas
Ligeti, who will turn up in future
very violent. That
battle fatigue. "We weren't going to
releases.
show. I think if you
settle for less than success. We felt
dents to pursue the considerably
film.
that we had to win."
wider opportunities to become mili-
"They've tried to have a film
"These composers are very im-
violence you emas
"I don't like this
The legacy of the Black Eagles,
tary officers and pilots.
made for what? Fifteen or 20 years?
portant, and you cannot understand
they all feel, was a giant step forward
They welcome the chance for
Mr. Crockett asks rhetorically. "But
the life of music today, especially the
bussy without sex.'
toward integration.
wider awareness of their history, but
they always want to put a lot of fic-
trajectories of composers today, if
"We believe that we were the ones
they are wary of commercialization
tion in it. There was more than
you don't know the works of these
Keeping tl
that got integration started," says
and distortion for the sake of enter-
enough fact."
people from the recent past."
The Boulez ve
Mr. Driver. "Not just in the military,
tainment. Mr. Driver saw an earlier
Although Gen. Davis is also eager
That past also includes Puccini
Berg's "Wozzeck"
but everywhere. If it had failed, I
version of "Black Eagles" at the
to have wider awareness of that
and Strauss, contemporaries of
Berry, already out
don't know what the consequences
Crossroads Theatre Company in
chapter of history, when he was ap-
Schoenberg whose popularity riles
is by far the most \
would have been."
New Jersey, and expresses some
proached about acting as an adviser
Mr. Boulez. He once memorably re-
the opera on recor
Although the Black Eagles
reservations about the portrayal.
on the Lucas project, he turned it
ferred to the more recent Dmitri
corrective or alte
earned the right to be thought of as
"What disturbed me was at least
down. "I long ago made the decision
Shostakovich and Benjamin Britten
Boehm's surprising
heroes, they hardly received a he-
one-third of the play was about this
that I would have nothing to do with
as "irrelevant."
of the opera with
roes' welcome when they returned
love affair between this black pilot
it," he says. "Because I knew that I
His view of contemporary com-
Dieskau as the her
stateside from the war.
and this Italian girl," he says, refer-
would be unable to influence him at
posers who don't follow the Schoen-
In musical term
If Mr. Sheppard had to choose one
ring to a fictional subplot. "And a lot
all. I think I know what it's going to
berg party line is equally stern. The
details come in the
word to describe the reaction at
was inaccurate about escorting the
be, and I don't want to be associated
Boulez influence was strongest
perform Schoen
home, it would be "hostile. It was
bombers. And there was a lot of
with it."
when he succeeded Leonard Bern-
stimme, the voca
more hostile now, because we had
dancing and singing, not the real
Ford's Theatre, which has a
stein as director of the New York
speech and song
elevated ourselves to officers' rank,
story."
knack for presenting plays that coin-
Philharmonic in 1969 and followed
score. Mr. Boulez
and they resented that even more."
According to playwright Leslie
cide with current headlines, has
up by organizing the Rug Concerts
speaking violently,
Certainly the barriers did not fall
Lee, who researched the era care-
done it again. While war rages in the
and Domaines Musicales to prop-
pitch.
instantly. Mr. Sheppard can recall
fully and interviewed numerous Tus-
Persian Gulf, "Black Eagles" fo-
agate new music.
"Because I this
the first thing he saw when he dis-
kegee airmen at one of their annual
cuses on the trailblazing ancestors
Philip Glass, now the leading U.S.
matic necessity," th
embarked was two signs directing
reunion conventions, "It is romanti-
of the pilots now in Saudi Arabia.
composer of his generation, remem-
'Wozzeck' is thea
the soldiers where to go. "Coming
cized. Some of the facts are juxta-
The issue of the play's accuracy re-
bers, "It was impossible to get a per-
theater. If you hav
off the gangplank, they said, 'White
posed for dramatic effect," but the
mains to be resolved, but the story of
formance with the Boulez mafia in
ture, in the drama
personnel' and 'Negro personnel.'
essence of the story is true.
the Tuskegee airmen is about to sur-
charge."
goes against the gi
Integration in the armed forces did
Like the airmen themselves. he
face, and America is about to dis-
"Well, I don't think I have a mafia,"
"If you forget :
not occur until President Harry Tru-
was motivated to write the play out
cover some little-known heroes from
Mr. Boulez replies. "And didn't have
you are not doing
man issued such an order in 1949.
of a concern for young black people.
a previous war.
one then. Philip Glass now is much
sic."
governor of Virginia. When Lord Dunmore returned from the expedition against the
Indians, he brought the speech with him, and according to Jefferson, "It became the
theme of every conversation in Williamsburg." It was printed in the Virginia Gazette,
reprinted in papers across the continent and even in publications in Great Britain.
Jefferson reprinted the speech in his Notes on Virginia to refute those Europeans
who "supposed there is something in the soil, climate, and other circumstances of
America, which occasions animal nature to degenerate, not excepting even the man,
native or adoptive, physical or moral." Jefferson offered Logan's speech as proof "of
the talents of the aboriginals of this country, and particularly of their eloquence." He
T he P
asserted "that Europe had never produced anything superior to this morsel of elo-
this Pro
quence."
in a stat
Logan's speech was a regular feature in school reading books of the nineteenth
and Chr
century, and was familiar to generations of American youngsters.
Hum
That
commo
I
appeal to any white man to say, if ever he
and unprovoked, murdered all the relations of
our free
entered Logan's cabin hungry, and he gave him
Logan, not even sparing my women and chil-
by our
not meat: if ever he came cold and naked, and
dren. There runs not a drop of my blood in the
and hav
he cloathed him not. During the course of the
veins of any living creature. This called on me
compac
last long and bloody war Logan remained idle in
for revenge. I have sought it: I have killed many:
unjustly
his cabin, an advocate for peace. Such was my
I have fully glutted my vengeance: for my coun-
from ou
love for the whites, that my countrymen
try I rejoice at the beams of peace. But do not
from the
pointed as they passed, and said, "Logan is the
harbour a thought that mine is the joy of fear.
a Popul
friend of white man." I had even thought to have
Logan never felt fear. He will not turn on his
Brought
lived with you, but for the injuries of one man.
heel to save his life. Who is there to mourn for
Christia
Colonel Cresap, the last spring, in cold blood,
Logan?-Not one.
thing th
tolerable
we are
and wife
THE SLAVES' APPEAL TO THE ROYAL GOVERNOR
proper
also tak
OF MASSACHUSETTS
miles fro
again th
We are a freeborn Pepel and have never forfeited this Blessing by aney compact or
sumtime
agreement whatever.
dragged
Lives are
A Dutch ship brought twenty Africans to Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619; whether they
our dep
were slaves or indentured servants is not known. With the rise of the southern planta-
pable o
tion system in the late seventeenth century, the importation of Africans increased, as
did colonial laws establishing their permanent slave status. During the 350 years of the
slave trade, between nine and twelve million Africans were carried to the Americas
under brutal conditions; about 400,000 of these were brought to North America.
Some colonists opposed slavery, especially Quakers and Mennonites, and leaders
such as Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. Revolutionary appeals
based on the natural rights of man encouraged some slaves to assert that they, too, had
a right to freedom. On May 25, 1774, a group of slaves in Massachusetts addressed the
following appeal to Thomas Gage, the royal governor of the colony.
16
THE AMERICAN READER
ition against the
When the revolution began, the American army excluded blacks. But when the
''It became the
British called on slaves to join their side, the revolutionary army reversed its policy.
Virginia Gazette,
Some 5,000 African Americans, both slave and free, fought in the American army. Many
eat Britain.
gained their freedom as a result of wartime service, and thousands of others escaped
those Europeans
from slavery during the War. Most Africans, however, remained in slavery, a reproach
circumstances of
to the ideals of the new nation.
g even the man,
ech as proof "of
eloquence." He
T
he Petition of a Grate Number of Blacks of
God how can a slave perform the duties of a
$ morsel of elo-
this Province who by divine permission are held
husband to a wife or parent to his child How
in a state of Slavery within the bowels of a free
can a husband leave master to work and cleave
the nineteenth
and Christian Country
to his wife How can the wife submit themselves
Humbly Shewing
to there husbands in all things How can the
That your Petitioners apprehind we have in
child obey thear parents in all things. There is a
common with all other men a naturel right to
great number of us sencear
members
of
the
the relations of
our freedoms without Being depriv'd of them
Church of Christ how can the master and the
omen and chil-
by our fellow men as we are a freeborn Pepel
slave be said to fulfil that command Live in love
ny blood in the
and have never forfeited this Blessing by aney
let Brotherly Love contuner and abound Beare
is called on me
compact or agreement whatever. But we were
yea onenothers Bordenes How can the master
ive killed many:
unjustly dragged by the cruel hand of power
be said to Beare my Borden when he Beares me
e: for my coun-
from our dearest frinds and sum of us stolen
down whith the Have chanes of slavery and op-
ice. But do not
from the bosoms of our tender Parents and from
erson against my will and how can we fulfill our
the joy of fear.
a Populous Pleasant and plentiful country and
parte of duty to him whilst in this condition and
not turn on his
Brought hither to be made slaves for Life in a
as we cannot searve our God as we ought whilst
e to mourn for
Christian land. Thus we are deprived of every
in this situation. Nither can we reap an equal
thing that hath a tendency to make life even
benefet from the laws of the Land which doth
tolerable, the endearing ties of husband and wife
not justifi but condemns Slavery or if there had
we are strangers to for we are no longer man
bin aney Law to hold us in Bondage we are
and wife than our masters or mistresses thinkes
Humbely of the Opinion ther never was aney to
VERNOR
proper marred or onmarred. Our children are
inslave our children for life when Born in a free
also taken from us by force and sent maney
Countrey. We therfor Bage your Excellency and
miles from us wear we seldom or ever see them
Honours will give this its deer weight and con-
again there to be made slaves of for Life which
y compact or
sideration and that you will accordingly cause
sumtimes is vere short by Reson of Being
an act of the legislative to be pessed that we
dragged from their mothers Breest Thus our
may obtain our Natural right our freedoms and
Lives are imbittered to us on these accounts By
our children be set at lebety at the yeare of
whether they
our deplorable situation we are rendered inca-
twenty one for whoues sekes more petequeley
thern planta-
pable of shewing our obedience to Almighty
your Petitioners is in Duty ever to pray.
; increased, as
0 years of the
the Americas
merica.
i, and leaders
onary appeals
they, too, had
addressed the
COLONIAL DAYS AND THE REVOLUTION
17
Autobiography of Gen. B.O. Davis,
Jr.
22
SILENCE
***
1932-36
Set
[Army Corps of] Engineers. If you do that you have the world waiting for
Ame
shortly for Paris, wher
you. Remember twelve million people [the black population of the United
and
visit did not work out.
States] will be pulling for you with all we have. Let me have your notice
O. D
and any other official papers you receive. I will put them with some of my
and Mother Sadie lov
of p
own. Somebody, some day, may wish to write something about us and we
French people had alv
odds
will have the original papers. Two hours before I found your letter I was
about without restricti
talking to a group of colored reserve officers. I was asked if I thought a
mea
kind. It seemed ridicu
young colored man could get into West Point. I told them I felt that when
mine
whites, life outside the
a colored person passed the exam, he would be admitted, that I knew one
deed
while at home it was
young man who I was sure had passed and would go to West Point July 1.
fail I
So you see how I felt about you. When I got your letter I felt like shouting.
Because I would be
W
I shall save this letter of yours. To me it is great.
I
am
indeed
proud
of
my civilian clothes, I g
latio
you, am honored to be,
on my way to West P
Davi
Your loving Dad
homes, no jobs, and no
beco
at the University of C
direc
Conditions of the Poor
rior,
In climbing through the Army's ranks from 1898 to 1932, my father
my paper to be accura:
inate
had overcome what seemed almost impossible odds. In spite of the
humble homes on the
"Sile
attitudes of whites in the United States toward all people of color, he
them about their day-
to 01
had managed to buck the system and accomplish his goals. He had
whom I gave my civil
He g
made life easier for me. Now it was my turn to make things better for
When the big day
those who would come after me. I was determined to succeed.
ride to West Point see!
ques
close
I had to ask my father for $100 to live on during the four weeks
and the green forests
He
before I left Chicago-with the understanding, of course, that I
covered the domed h
ron :
would return what I did not spend! I hoped this would be the last
spectacular, and I felt
toda
time I would have to ask my father or anyone else for money, because
promised to be the gre
over
cadets were paid $65 a month, deposited to their West Point account.
for West Point was un
II. H
Our family's kind of discipline certainly helped me in keeping my
dreamed about the fot
bled
finances straight, although at the time I thought it was funny. An
about the new friend
ian S
incident involving Henry O. Flipper, who in 1877 was the first black
taking orders and livi
in a
cadet to graduate from the Academy, must have had something to do
try." After four years ()
with my father's demand for strict financial accounting. Flipper had
all react to the same or
rope
both
been court-martialed and dismissed from the service for allegedly
and dress the same
Da
mishandling government funds. It was not until President Carter's
unique to contribute I
administration in 1976 that pressure from concerned citizens and
From the attrition stat
acco
Agat
politicians resulted in a review of the case, and Flipper was given an
destined to drop by th
and
honorable discharge decades after his death.
was not in my schem
ble to
Once I got to the Academy on 1 July 1932, I would have no leave
exactly as I had perfor
force
until December 1933, so I wrote to my parents suggesting I visit them
able routine and expe
base,
at Tuskegee before going into "confinement." But they were leaving
hard won that succes
early
activ
by P1
tary
[445] July 2
Public Papers of the Presidents
(BJ
tion of our democratic society. And we are
cate to the Vietnamese people and their
tion, the foundat
fortunate that they are willing to serve that
leaders the resolve, the determination, and
it. The principl
tradition without any hesitation.
the continuing support of the American
Morality forbids
Our first purpose, our constant purpose
people.
tonight forbids it
in everything we seek to do, is honorable
General Taylor, we wish you Godspeed
That law is th
peace. We stand with those who stand
on your journey and in your service.
most careful deb
in defense of their own freedom and inde-
NOTE: The ceremony was held in the early after-
proposed more th
pendence. We work with those who work
noon in the Rose Garden at the White House. In
his opening words the President referred to Gen.
and beloved Pr
in support of peace for the world and prog-
Maxwell D. Taylor, formerly Chairman of the Joint
It received the 1
ress under freedom for human mankind.
Chiefs of Staff, and Dean Rusk, Secretary of State.
than two-thirds
I know that as our Ambassador to Viet-
The text of General Taylor's response was also
Nam you will, Mr. Ambassador, communi-
released.
House and the {
majority of Rept
crats voted for it
It has received
446 Radio and Television Remarks Upon Signing the
tens of thousan
Civil Rights Bill. July 2, 1964
leaders in all part
[ Broadcast from the East Room at the White House at 6:45 p.m. ]
supported by the
ican people.
My fellow Americans:
soldiers in Viet-Nam, each generation has
The purpose of
I am about to sign into law the Civil
been equal to that trust.
It does not re
Rights Act of 1964. I want to take this
Americans of every race and color have
American, so lon
occasion to talk to you about what that law
died in battle to protect our freedom.
of others.
means to every American.
Americans of every race and color have
It does not giv
One hundred and eighty-eight years ago
worked to build a nation of widening op-
citizen.
this week a small band of valiant men began
portunities. Now our generation of Amer-
It does say the
a long struggle for freedom. They pledged
icans has been called on to continue the un-
for happiness, anc
their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred
ending search for justice within our own
dren, shall be his
honor not only to found a nation, but to
borders.
It does say that
forge an ideal of freedom-not only for
We believe that all men are created equal.
equal before God
political independence, but for personal
Yet many are denied equal treatment.
the polling booths
liberty-not only to eliminate foreign rule,
We believe that all men have certain un-
factories, and in
but to establish the rule of justice in the
alienable rights. Yet many Americans do
theaters, and other
affairs of men.
not enjoy those rights.
to the public.
That struggle was a turning point in our
We believe that all men are entitled to
I am taking ste
history. Today in far corners of distant
the blessings of liberty. Yet millions are
under my constitu
continents, the ideals of those American
being deprived of those blessings-not be-
care that the laws
patriots still shape the struggles of men who
cause of their own failures, but because of
First, I will send
hunger for freedom.
the color of their skin.
tion of LeRoy Col
This is a proud triumph. Yet those who
The reasons are deeply imbedded in his-
Community Relat
founded our country knew that freedom
tory and tradition and the nature of man.
Collins will bring
would be secure only if each generation
We can understand-without rancor or
career of distinguis
fought to renew and enlarge its meaning.
hatred-how this all happened.
task of helping con
From the minutemen at Concord to the
But it cannot continue. Our Constitu-
of human relation
commonsense.
842
February 19, 1991
MEMORANDUM FOR BETH HINCHLIFFE
FROM:
BOB SIMON
SUBJECT:
FACTS ABOUT THE BLACK EAGLES
In May 1943, the 99th attacked the Italian island of
Pantelleria as a prelude to the invasion of Sicily. In two
weeks, the island's resistance gave up. This marks the first
time in history that air power alone had destroyed all enemy
resistance.
Captains Wendell Pruitt and Gwynne Pierson strafed and sank
an enemy destroyer, an almost impossible task for fighter
planes.
O
Lt. Col. Edward Gleed, commander of the 301st Fighter Squadron
and decorated combat pilot, said, "When we were in training
at Tuskegee and in combat, we never gave it a thought that we
were making history. All we wanted was to learn to fly as
Army Air Corps pilots, fight for our country and survive."
o
Black airmen destroyed 111 enemy planes in the air, and
destroyed or damaged 273 more on the ground. They flew 1500
missions and over 15,000 sorties. They won over 100
Distinguished Flying Crosses and over 700 Air Medals.
February 19, 1991
MEMORANDUM FOR BETH HINCHLIFFE
FROM:
BOB SIMON
SUBJECT:
AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF BENJAMIN O. DAVIS, JR.
Davis was born in Washington, D.C. His father was in the Army
for 50 years, retiring as a brigadier general. For most of
his Army career, Davis, Sr. was the only black officer in the
Army. Davis, Jr. spent part of his childhood in Tuskegee,
where his father was professor of military science.
Segregation was strictly enforced off campus and the KKK was
actively lynching blacks. One night, the Klan planned a march
protesting a decision to hire blacks at the new black veterans
hospital. All blacks were instructed to stay indoors with
their lights off. Davis, Sr. refused to cower. The whole
family was on their porch with lights ablaze as the white-
robed Klansman filed by without incident.
After high school, Davis wanted to by a pilot, but there were
almost no black pilots in the U.S. He thought he might have
to become an engineer and move to South America to escape
segregation and pursue a worthwhile career.
Davis, Jr. received a West Point appointment from the only
black Congressman in the country at that time (1932). His
father wrote to him: "I feel you have the makings of a good
cadet and officer
Remember twelve million people [the
black population of America] will be pulling for you with all
we have. Davis, Jr. noted, "In climbing through the Army's
ranks from 1989 to 1932, my father had overcome what seemed
almost impossible odds. In spite of the attitudes of whites
towards all people of color, he had managed to buck the system
and accomplish his goals. He had made life easier for me.
Now it was my turn to make things better for those who would
come after me. I was determined to succeed."
At West Point, Davis was "silenced." The other cadets never
spoke a word to him during his four years as a student apart
from official business. After the recognition ceremony at the
end of plebe year, many upper classmen congratulated him. But
after that, he reverted to being an invisible man. No white
student would room with him or eat with him.
At graduation from West Point, Davis received a standing
ovation. The Davises were now the only black officers in the
Army.
Davis asked to join the Air Corps but was rejected because of
his race. However, in 1941, the Army decided to conduct an
"experiment" to see if blacks could be trained to fly. Davis
was chosen to be the commander of the unit, based at Tuskegee.
In building the new training base, the Army provided for
segregated restrooms and water fountains.
Davis' wife Agatha wrote a long poem highly critical of the
segregation at the Tuskegee training center, but it ended on
a positive note:
We
are doing a patriotic job on the side of right
In an effort to win the Double V for which we fight.
We hope that after war will come a fair and lasting peace
All hostility between the blacks and whites will cease.
It always makes me glow to think of the day there will be
A world of brother-loving men, all men equal and free.
Hate and force will be gone & tolerance will take their pace,
Twill matter not if you belong to the black or white
race.
The all-black 99th Fighter Squadron and the 332 Fighter Group
had one of the best records of all Air Forces in Europe. They
fought in North Africa and Italy, and flew missions all over
central and eastern Europe, even one harrowing 1600-mile
mission to bomb Berlin. The units became known as specialists
in precision bombing and escorting bombers. After hundreds
of escort missions, the squadrons never lost a single bomber
to enemy fighters. Davis personally flew 60 missions and won
the Silver Star.
One downed pilot, Lt. Herbert Clark, evaded capture for eight
months behind enemy lines. He continued the fight by leading
a partisan band that conducted raids against the Germans in
Northern Italy.
Negro almanac
Black Servicemen and the Military Establishment
/
847
Black troops of the 93rd Division later fought at
seen soldiers who have performed better in combat." Again,
Bougainville and the Treasury Islands, and joined Mac Arthur
neither proficiency nor praise was sufficient to override rigid
in a historic moment of triumph and national glory when the
patterns of segregation. The "heroes" were returned to their
Philippines were retaken in October 1944. By then, black
all-black units as soon as the crisis passed.
marines had helped win the Battle of Saipan, and black
The 99th Pursuit Squadron remains the most glamorous
engineers had pitched in to build the Burma Road on the
black unit associated with World War II. Commanded by
Asian mainland. Black aviation engineers had built runways
Colonel Benjamin O. Davis, this unit had flown over 500
and landing strips in New Caledonia, the point of origin for
combat missions and more than 3,000 sorties against the
the Air Force escort bombers that struck the Japanese in the
Germans by the summer of 1944. After being attached to the
crucial Battle of the Coral Sea, fought in 1942.
332nd Fighter Group, the record of the unit grew even more
The 92nd also saw combat overseas, although its record
impressive. By the spring of 1945, it boasted of nearly 1,600
was by far the most controversial of all black fighting units.
combat missions and over 15,000 sorties. It destroyed
General Benjamin O. Davis, the Army's first black general,
joined the unit overseas in Italy, where he shot a propaganda
film entitled Teamwork in an effort to prepare the American
public for the advent of black combat troops on the European
firing line. Great Britain's crusty and indomitable leader
Winston Churchill, on hand to offer words of encouragement,
was followed by dozens of white correspondents sent to
improve public relations. Perhaps the most transparent public
relations episode was the "battlefield promotion" invented
by General Mark Clark to demonstrate the vital combat role
already being played by the 92nd when it had not in fact
taken its positions on the Gothic Line. General Clark rashly
promoted First Lieutenant Charles F. Gandy of Washington,
D.C., as a gesture to allay black criticism of the promotion
policies in effect for black officers. Clark simply plucked the
captain's bars off one of his white staff members and placed
them on the shoulders of a man he had designated,
clairvoyantly it seemed, as one who ought to be made
visible.
Other problems of morale, level of training, and competence
were simply overlooked by the high command of the 92nd.
There were some initial combat successes, largely against
light resistance along Highway 12 enroute to the foothills of
the Apennines. Once in the mountains, however, the 92nd
faltered badly. Some ran, some hesitated, some advanced
sluggishly and without any combat crispness and
determination. Still, there were contingents which engaged
the enemy aggressively and fought earnestly to capture key
objectives. Mass frustration, mismanagement, and confusion
keynoted the experience as a whole, however. Lieutenant
Colonel Marcus Ray, a black officer, conceded he was
"heartsick," but was emphatic in denying the 92nd was "a
complete failure as a combat unit."
Other black units performed many missions without any
stigma of controversy. General Eisenhower, watching a
black battalion charge the beach at Normandy, commended
the troops for carrying out their mission "with courage and
determination." General George S. Patton found the all-
black 761st Tank Battalion worthy of fighting in his select
company. "I would never have asked for you," he told them
bluntly, "if you weren't good." The men were good enough
to be on hand for the German capitulation in Austria.
At the Battle of the Bulge, Germany's last-ditch attempt to
drive a wedge into Allied lines, black troops were called into
action on an emergency basis to help withstand a ferocious
Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr., commanding officer of the 99th
Nazi assault. General Lanham commented that he had "never
Pursuit Squadron.
Black Servicemen and the Military Establishment
/
909
OUTSTANDING MILITARY FIGURES
LIEUTENANT GENERAL BENJAMIN O. DAVIS Jr.
1912-
Described by a former instructor as "the closest thing to a
model cadet I ever saw," General Benjamin O. Davis rose to
become the highest ranking black military man in the United
States.
Born in Washington in 1912, Davis was educated in
Alabama (his father taught military science at Tuskegee),
and later, in Cleveland, where he graduated as president of
his class with one of the highest scholastic averages in the
city.
Davis attended Western Reserve University and the
University of Chicago before accepting an appointment to
the U.S. Military Academy in 1932. Davis survived the
silent treatment as a cadet, and graduated 35th in his class of
276.
After serving in the infantry for five years, he transferred
to the Army Air Corps in 1941 and was among the first six
black air cadets to graduate from the Advanced Army Flying
School in 1942.
As Commander of the 99th Fighter Squadron (and later
commander of the all-black 332nd Fighter Group), Davis
flew 60 missions in 224 combat hours during World War II,
winning several medals, including the Silver Star.
Davis became a Lieutenant General in 1965 and closed out
Ensign Jesse L. Brown, a hero of the Korean War. Winner of the
his career as deputy commander of the U.S. Strike Command
Distinguished Flying Cross, Ensign Brown was killed during
at McDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida. In civilian life,
the action which won him the medal.
Davis worked briefly in the administration of Cleveland's
black mayor Carl Stokes, resigning after a policy dispute.
ENSIGN JESSE L. BROWN
1926-1950
Jesse L. Brown was the first black American to become a
naval aviator and the first black naval officer to be killed in
action during the Korean War.
Born in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, he attended Ohio State
University. In October 1948, he qualified as an aviator and
became the first black man to wear the Navy wings. When
the Korean War broke out he entered the combat as a pilot
with the 32nd Fighter Squad and quickly rose to section
leader. For his daring attacks on enemy transportation
facilities and military installations at Wonsun, Songjin, and
Sinanju, he earned the Air Medal. On December 4, 1950, he
was dispatched to fly close air support for the marines
fighting near Chosin Reservoir. As he repeatedly returned to
strafe enemy positions, his low-flying craft was hit by hostile
fire and almost immediately crashed. He died in the wreckage.
Ensign Brown was posthumously awarded the Distinguished
Flying Cross for his exceptional courage, airmanship, and
devotion to duty.
In 1973, he became the first black man to have a naval
vessel named in his honor. The USS Jesse L. Brown,
Commissioned at the Boston Naval Yard, is a new type of
General Benjamin Davis Sr. pins the Distinguished Flying Cross
destroyer escort.
on his son Colonel Benjamin Davis Jr. in Italy, WWII.