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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Tony Snow Subject Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
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FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Snow, Tony, Files
Subseries:
Subject File, 1988-1993
OA/ID Number:
13899
Folder ID Number:
13899-016
Folder Title:
State of the Union Research
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18
29
2
7
STATE OF THE UNION
393
The committee was established in
members, visitors, and reporters. A spe-
1967 in response to public outcry at a
cial escort committee, dispatched by
series of congressional scandals. The
the Speaker, greets the president and
first chairman was Illinois Democrat
accompanies him down the aisle.
Melvin Price. The House gave the panel
The president's speech is usually
only a limited mission at first: to write a
interrupted several times with ap-
code of conduct. Approved in 1968, the
plause. On rare occasions members of
code expanded the committee's respon-
an opposing party groan to indicate
sibility, giving it authority to enforce
their disagreement with a statement.
the new rules.
More typical is the reaction of the Dem-
But the code was couched in gen-
ocratic-controlled Congress to Republi-
eral terms and FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE
can President Ronald Reagan in 1988.
was confined to sources, not amounts,
Even when he was criticizing Congress
of income. The House and Senate each
for its catchall spending bills, and heft-
revamped its code in 1977, and in 1978
ing a forty-three pound stack of docu-
Congress applied ethics codes to the en-
ments to demonstrate their unwieldi-
tire federal government.
ness, the legislators reacted with
Although the House usually goes
applause and cheers.
along with the recommendations of the
The nation's first two presidents,
ethics committee, it has acted indepen-
George Washington and John Adams,
dently. In 1983 the committee recom-
delivered their annual messages as
mended that two legislators be repri-
speeches to Congress. The third presi-
manded because of improper relation-
dent, Thomas Jefferson, chose in 1801
ships with teenage pages; the House
to avoid what was an elaborate, formal
opted for the stiffer penalty of
ceremony, complete with a chair called
censure.
"the president's throne." Instead he
had his private secretary carry the mes-
sage to Capitol Hill.
No president addressed Congress
State of the Union
again until 1913, when Woodrow Wilson
renewed the custom of delivering the
message in person, a decision that was
Early each year the president ad-
quite controversial. He eventually ap-
dresses a joint session of Congress,
peared before Congress twenty-six
spelling out his legislative program and
times, a record that still held in 1988.
goals for the year in a State of the
Since Wilson's time, only President
Union message. The annual address is
Herbert Hoover has declined to visit
the traditional way presidents comply
Capitol Hill at all
with a constitutional directive to "from
President Lyndon B. JOHNSON in
time to time give to the Congress In-
1965 shifted the time of the State of the
formation of the State of the
Union address from midday to evening,
Union
a move designed to attract the large
The evening session of Congress,
television audience during prime time.
usually in late January, brings a rare
The next year Republicans got a half-
mood of pageantry to the House cham-
hour slot from each network to offer
ber, which is seldom so filled with peo-
their own assessment of national affairs.
ple. Seated in the front rows are the
By 1976 television time was available to
Supreme Court justices, wearing their
the opposing party immediately follow-
judicial robes, and members of the pres-
ing the State of the Union broadcast.
ident's cabinet. Nearby are foreign dip-
In 1986 the State of the Union ad-
lomats. Galleries are packed with family
dress was postponed for the first time.
394
STATES AND CONGRESS
State of the Union, 1974
The House and Senate meet in joint session early
each year to hear the president deliver his State
of the Union address. In this 1974 picture,
President Richard Nixon hands a copy of his
address to Vice President Gerald R. Ford. Half
hidden behind Ford is House Speaker Carl Albert.
Before the year was over, Nixon had resigned,
and Ford had succeeded him as president.
On the morning of President Reagan's
governing is called federalism, with a
scheduled January 28 address to Con-
national government, fifty state govern-
gress, the space shuttle Challenger ex-
ments, and thousands of local govern-
ploded, taking the lives of all seven crew
ments operating at different levels. By
members. Reagan delayed the speech
the 1980s the federal government
until February 4.
clearly dominated the relationship; sev-
eral Supreme Court decisions had en-
hanced federal authority, as had the
enormous flow of federal money to state
States and Congress
and local governments.
State and local officials found it
almost impossible to refuse their share
Their relationship uneasy from the
of tax dollars, even when the money
beginning, Congress and the states have
came with rules and regulations that
never agreed on how to share-or di-
encroached on their autonomy. Con-
vide-responsibility for governing the
gress, for its part, became accustomed
nation.
in the 1960s and 1970s to setting na-
The ongoing conflict, which
tional goals and giving other govern-
erupted once into civil war, has
ments money to carry them out.
spawned numerous political disputes.
By the 1980s constraints on the
Certain areas, such as national defense,
federal budget made that pattern in-
are clearly in the federal domain. But
creasingly difficult to sustain. Sweeping
the Constitution left many gray areas,
new programs simply were not possible,
with no clear rules about what level of
and existing policies were at risk. Con-
government was in charge. Often the
gress continued to set national goals but
Supreme Court has been forced to ref-
could no longer be counted on to couple
eree, deciding whether the federal gov-
the rules with federal money-"car-
ernment or the states are ultimately re-
rots"-for state and local governments
sponsible.
to use in carrying them out. Governors
The sharing of responsibility for
and mayors, who developed an exten-
THOUGHTS ON THE STATE OF THE UNION
THOUGHTS ON THE STATE OF THE UNION
Notable Quotes
Lessons from Past State of the Unions
The Importance of Ideals
Presidential Approval Ratings
Dates of State of the Unions
Lists of Firsts
Bibliography
"
the one great public document of the United States which is
widely read and discussed. Congressional debates receive scant
notice, but the President's message is ordinarily printed in full
on nearly every metropolitan daily, and is the subject of general
editorial comment throughout the length and breadth of the land.
It stirs the country; it often affects Congressional elections;
and it may establish grand policy. "
Charles Beard
LESSONS FROM PAST STATE OF THE UNIONS
As a result of perusing many articles I found these points of
interest on the State of the Union.
o As evidenced in past State of the Unions, the
administration's agenda is shaped by crisis items. If
there is no front page crisis, there is an opportunity
for the President to set the priorities of the Nation.
O There are two different approaches to the State of
the Union address: first, the Christmas list of
proposals which is a longer speech where every
Congressman calls and volunteers his input. The other
approach is a shorter thematic and inspirational
speech. With the shorter speech the President
submits a Christmas list of proposals. Thus he
satisfies those who want to submit proposals and
he also sustains the public's interest.
O Reagan found exceptional people and made them heroes
by describing their feats in his address. This
maneuver inspired the public and stimulated more
patriotism.
O Reagan moved issues that caused Congressional
resistance off of his agenda. From 1986-87, time
dedicated to Reagan's social agenda in the State of the
Union addresses dropped from 14 to 7% (after he lost
seats on the hill).
O Reagan hardly mentioned women and civil rights in his
State of the Unions (only 377 words in 7 years or
1.1171% of all seven State of the Unions).
O A study conducted by Journalism Quarterly "asserts
press influence on the president's address and holds
that the empirical relationship between the president's
address and subsequent press coverage is spurious."
O In a study conducted by Presidential Studies
Quarterly, it was demonstrated that presidents who are
better teachers are better leaders.
-
O Summary of Reagan's State of the Union Priorities
1) In 1981 the state of the domestic economy
was the number one priority. The importance
of domestic affairs diminished over the
years. 44% of all Reagan's State of the
Unions focused on domestic issues.
2) During his administration Reagan's
domestic agenda was curbed and international
affairs became a larger priority. 30% of all
Reagan's State of the Unions were designated
to international affairs.
3) The Iran-Contra affair affected the
priorities in 1987 State of the Union.
4) Reagan's social agenda received special
emphasis in election years. In social issues,
his focus was on moral issues.*
5) Reagan focused on U.S./U.S.S.R. relations
rather than any other region of the world
i.e. avoided the Middle East.
6) In economic affairs Reagan's focus was on
budget and spending.
*The importance of moral issues featured in next section.
QUOTES
"All this will not be finished in the 100 days. Nor will it be
finished in the first 1,000 days, nor in the life of this
Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime of this
planet
"
John F. Kennedy
"But I have promises to keep and miles to go before I sleep."
Robert Frost
President Kennedy quoted
this remark at the close
of many meetings.
"Sometimes people call me an idealist. That is why I know I am
an American."
Woodrow Wilson
"We have every right to dream heroic dreams believe in
ourselves and believe in our capacity to perform great deeds,
believe that together with God's help we can and will resolve
the problems which now confront us
And
after
all,
why
shouldn't we believe that? We are Americans."
Ronald Reagan
"Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political
prosperity, religion and morality
are
indispensable
support
reason and experience forbid us to expect that national
morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle."
George Washington
"The Founding was an act of panoramic idealism and unbounded
hopefulness and optimism. It is this idealism and optimism that
distinguishes America from Europe; it is the basis for what is
known as 'American exceptionalism. "
Steven Hayward
Policy Review
"
America is alarmingly optimistic, compassionate, incredibly
generous It was a spiritual wind that drove Americans
irresistibly ahead from the beginning.
Luigi Barzini
"The American sees in his glorious past a prologue to an even
more glorious future. "
Steven Hayward
Policy Review
"The American sound is hopeful, big-hearted, idealistic, daring,
decent and fair."
Ronald Reagan
"the distinguishing feature of America -- expansion, growth,
perennial rebirth, and new opportunity."
Frederick Jackson Turner
"...the torch has been passed to a new generation of
Americans...
"
John F. Kennedy
"Can we forge...a grand and global alliance, north and south,
east and west, that can assure a more fruitful life for all
mankind?"
John F. Kennedy
Devise
"United, there is little we cannot do in a host of new co-
operative ventures."
John F. Kennedy
on famine in Kasai
"To those people in the huts and villages of half the globe
we
pledge our best efforts to help them help themselves
"
John F. Kennedy
"If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot
save the few who are rich."
John F. Kennedy
Quotes on "City on a hill" theme
FDR?
"rendez vous with destiny"
keeping alight the "the torch of freedom"
"the last best hope of mankind"
Cmola
Ronald Reagan
PUBLIC VALUES AND PRESIDENTIAL RHETORIC
According to a study published by Presidential Studies Quarterly,
there are five core values that every President (Democrat or
Republican) has incorporated into his speeches. These core
values are:
a) Puritan and Pioneer Morality
b) Peace
c) Patriotism
d) Effort and Optimism
e) Progress and Change
The following are key points regarding the public value system
and presidential rhetoric.
Presidents "sell and defend their programs and behavior
through their conceptions of the American public and
its values (Presidential Studies Quarterly).
Words like "Morality," "Peace," and "Patriotism" have
been used with different meanings for different
presidents. "Morality" has been used to begin
Affirmative Action and to attack it. ''Peace' and
'Patriotism' were used to begin the War in Vietnam, to
criticize it, to sustain it, and to end it."
Presidents have been most influential when addressing
bipartisan issues. "Therefore it should be politically
wise to stress common national problems or values
rather than partisan ones addressing the nation. In the
cauldron of American democracy the use of transcendent,
ambiguous, inoffensive, but inspiring values can more
successfully unite the political masses than can
specific, divisive, potentially polarizing partisan
values."
Although agenda priorities have changed since the 40's
only one change has been in made in the five core
values. Peace became an important and respectable ideal
after Kennedy's American University speech in 1963.
Presidents have not always succeeded in presenting new
unpleasant ideas i.e. Carter's 'national malaise' and
Nixon's Cambodian incursion speech. Presidents usually
and more successfully say what the public wants to
hear. And when presidents introduce unpleasant ideas
they are more successful when they wrap them in
familiar rhetoric within the "consistent set of value
priorities."
"Ultimately this study suggests that the relationship
between presidential values and public priorities is
highly interdependent, and that a change in individual
presidents, or parties, or eras will not noticeably
change the criteria by which national policies are
advocated."
Attached is a more extensive list of values to which
the public responds.
TABLE I
Steele and Redding's "American Values"
PUR'TAN AND PIONEER MORALITY
The world 8 seen in terms of good and evi. Virtues such as honesty.
simplicity, courage, orderliness, humility, responsibility, and coopera-
tion are stressed. Actions need to be justified with a moral purpose
VALUE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Every person is a unique, autonomous person worthy of concern and
possessing intrinsic dignity which should not be violated.
ACHIEVEMENT AND SUCCESS
The accumulation of wealth is a measure of personal ment. Business
success IS capecially valued. Success a equated with morality Means
can be justified by goals or results.
CHANGE AND PROGRESS
Human nature can be improved The present a better than the past, and
the future will be better than the present. Change 13 necessary and
beneficial.
ETHICAL EQUALITY
All individuals are spiritually and ethically equal in the sight of God and
the law, regardless of material differences.
EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY
Each individual, regardless of circumstance of birth, has the opportunity
to nse in the economic and social system.
EFFORT AND OPTIMISM
Optimistic action can overcome any problem Hard work is inherently
good, apart from its consequences. "Doing something" = good. idlaness
is bed. Since hard work will overcome problems. optimism is advisable
EFFICIENCY, PRACTICALITY AND
Activity. when guided by reason, emphasizes getting things done
PRAGMATISM
through the choice of the most effective means. Abstraction and long-
range planning are devalued.
REJECTION OF AUTHORITY
A deep aversion to coercive restraint by established social organizations
or personal authorities.
SCIENCE AND SECULAR
Behef in an ordered universe that can be understond. predicted, and
RATIONALITY
controlled by rationality.
SOCIALITY
Emphasis on getting along with a group. Also emphasizes being loved
or being lovable, but not necessarily giving love.
MATERIAL COMFORT
An unlimited desire for material comforts. Happiness is material.
QUANTIFICATION
Size is equated with goodness. Bigger is better, quantity is preferred
over quality.
EXTERNAL CONFORMITY
Adherence to the group pattern or norm is routine or automatic without
regard to situational necessities. This includes role-playing. coopers-
tion, and a compulsive need to be popular.
HUMOR
Humor is characteristically equalitarian in nature. "Poking fun* at one-
self, or one's opponents is a leveling influence.
GENEROSITY AND
A universal concern for others. Generosity, humanitarianism. helpful-
CONSIDERATENESS
ness. compassion, and 0 "missionary spirit" are good.
PATRIOTISM
Loyalty 10 the tradition and values of Amenca rather than undifferents-
ated. egocentric nationalism. A willingness to defend the United States.
COMPARATIVE DATA
415
ment of Article 2, section 3 of the Constitution,
Monroe
Lincoln
which provides that the President "shall from
Dec. 2, 1817
Dec. 3, 1861
time to time give to the Congress Information
Nov. 16, 1818
Dec. 1, 1862
of the State of the Union." The term "State
Dec. 7, 1819
Dec. 8, 1863
of the Union Message" came into use on
Nov. 14, 1820
Dec. 6, 1864
January 6, 1941; before then, the messages
Dec. 3, 1821
were generally called "annual messages."
Dec. 3. 1822
A. Johnson
William Henry Harrison and James Abram
Dec. 2, 1823
Dec. 7. 1824
Dec. 4, 1865
Garfield did not prepare annual messages.
Dec. 3, 1866
Harrison served only 32 days and Garfield
only 199 days.
J. Q. Adams
Dec. 3, 1867
Dec. 9, 1868
George Washington did not prepare a mes-
Dec. 6, 1825
sage during the calendar year 1789, but deliv-
Dec. 5, 1826
ered two messages in 1790, one on January 8
Dec. 4, 1827
Grant
and one on December 8.
Dec. 2. 1828
Dec. 6, 1869
Until the administration of Franklin Delano
Dec. 5, 1870
Jackson
Roosevelt in 1933, there were 141 messages. Of
Dec. 4, 1871
these 125 were delivered in December, 1 in
Dec. 8, 1829
Dec. 2, 1872
January, 1 in September, 3 in October, and 11
Dec. 6, 1830
Dec. 1, 1873
Dec. 6, 1831
in November.
Dec. 7, 1874
Dec. 4, 1832
Dec. 7, 1875
Since the inauguration date was changed to
Dec. 3, 1833
Dec. 5. 1876
January, 41 messages have been made in Jan-
Dec. 1, 1834
uary and 2 in February.
Dec. 7, 1835
Hayes
The longest State of the Union message was
Dec. 5, 1836
sent to Congress in 1946 by President Harry S.
Dec. 3, 1877
Truman and consisted of more than 25,000
Van Buren
Dec. 2, 1878
words.
Dec. 5, 1837
Dec. 1, 1879
It is generally conceded that most presiden-
Dec. 3, 1838
Dec. 6, 1880
tial speeches are prepared by writers, presum-
Dec, 2, 1839
ably carrying out the wishes and thoughts of
Ded. 5, 1840
Arthur
the executives. It is estimated that President
Dec. 6, 1881
Lyndon Baines Johnson's speech of January 8,
Tyler
Dec. 4, 1882
1964, consisting of 3,059 words, required the
Dec. 7, 1841
Dec. 4, 1883
services of about twenty-four writers, who took
Dec. 6, 1842
Dec. 1, 1884
about six weeks to draft the speech, with ten
Dec. 5, 1843
to sixteen major revisions.
Dec. 3, 1844
Cleveland-
1st Administration
Polk
Dec. 8, 1885
STATE OF THE UNION MESSAGES
Dec. 2, 1845
Dec. 6, 1886
Dec. 8, 1846
Washington
Dec. 6, 1887
Dec. 7, 1847
Dec. 3, 1888
Jan. 8, 1790
Dec. 3, 1793
Dec. 5, 1848
Dec. 8, 1790
Nov. 19, 1794
Oct. 25, 1791
Dec. 8, 1795
Taylor
B. Harrison
Nov. 6, 1792
Dec. 7, 1796
Dec. 4, 1849
Dec. 3, 1889
Dec. 1, 1890
J. Adams
Fillmore
Dec. 9, 1891
Nov. 22, 1797
Dec. 3, 1799
Dec. 2, 1850
Dec. 6, 1892
Dec. 8, 1798
Nov. 22, 1800
Dec. 2, 1851
Dec. 6, 1852
Cleveland-
Jefferson
Pierce
2nd Administration
Dec. 8, 1801
Dec. 3, 1805
Dec. 5, 1853
Dec. 4, 1893
Dec. 15, 1802
Dec. 2, 1806
Dec. 4, 1854
Dec. 3, 1894
Oct. 17, 1803
Oct. 27, 1807
Dec. 31, 1855
Dec. 2, 1895
Nov. 8, 1804
Nov. 8, 1808
Dec. 2, 1856
Dec. 7, 1896
Madison
Buchanan
McKinley
Nov. 29, 1809
Dec. 7, 1813
Dec. 8, 1857
Dec. 6, 1897
Dec. 5, 1810
Sept. 20, 1814
Dec. 6, 1858
Dec. 5, 1898
Nov. 5, 1811
Dec. 5, 1815
Dec. 19, 1859
Dec. 5, 1899
Nov. 4, 1812
Dec. 3, 1816
Dec. 3, 1860
Dec. 3, 1900
416
COMPARATIVE DATA
STATE OF THE UNION MESSAGES
Every Bill which shall have passed the
-Continued
House of Representatives and the Senate,
shall, before it becomes a Law, be pre-
T. Roosevelt
Jan. 7, 1943
sented to the President of the United
Dec. 3, 1901
Jan. 11, 1944
States; if he approve he shall sign it, but
Dec. 2, 1902
Jan. 6, 1945
if not he shall return it, with his Objections
Dec. 7, 1903
Truman
to that House in which it shall have origi-
Dec. 6, 1904
nated, who shall enter the Objections at
Dec. 5, 1905
Jan. 22, 1946
large on their Journal, and proceed to re-
Dec. 3, 1906
Jan. 6, 1947
consider it. If after such Reconsideration
Dec. 3, 1907
Jan. 7, 1948
two thirds of that House shall agree to
Dec. 8, 1908
Jan. 5, 1949
pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with
Jan. 4, 1950
Taft
the Objections, to the other House, by
Jan. 8, 1951
which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and
Dec. 7, 1909
Jan. 9, 1952
if approved by two thirds of that House,
Dec. 6, 1910
Jan. 7, 1953
it shall become a Law. If any Bill
Dec. 5, 1911
Eisenhower
shall not be returned by the President
Dec. 3, 1912
Feb. 2, 1953
within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after
Wilson
Jan. 7, 1954
it shall have been presented to him, the
Jan. 6, 1955
Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as
Dec. 2, 1913
Dec. 8, 1914
Jan. 5, 1956
if he had signed it, unless the Congress by
Dec. 7, 1915
Jan. 10, 1957
their Adjournment prevent its Return, in
Jan. 9, 1958
which case it shall not be a Law.
Dec. 5, 1916
Dec. 4, 1917
Jan. 9, 1959
Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to
Dec. 2, 1918
Jan. 7, 1960
which the Concurrence of the Senate and
Dec. 2, 1919
Jan. 12, 1961
House of Representatives may be necessary
Dec. 7, 1920
(except on a question of Adjournment)
Kennedy
shall be presented to the President of the
Harding
Jan. 30, 1961
United States; and before the Same shall
Dec. 4, 1921
Jan. 11, 1962
take Effect, shall be approved by him, or
Dec. 8, 1922
Jan. 14, 1963
being disapproved by him, shall be repassed
by two thirds of the Senate and House
Coolidge
L. B. Johnson
of Representatives, according to the Rules
Dec. 6, 1923
Jan. 8, 1964
and Limitations prescribed in the Case of
Dec. 3, 1924
Jan. 4, 1965
a Bill.
Dec. 8, 1925
Jan. 12, 1966
Dec. 7, 1926
Jan. 10, 1967
The Constitution thus provides not only for a
Dec. 6, 1927
Jan. 17. 1968
regular veto, which Congress may override by
Dec. 4, 1928
Jan. 14, 1969
a two-thirds majority of both Houses, but also
for a "pocket veto"-if the President opposes a
Hoover
Nixon
bill sent to him ten days before the adjourn-
Dec. 3, 1929
Jan. 22, 1970
ment of Congress, he can, instead of vetoing
Dec. 2, 1930
Jan. 22, 1971
it, merely ignore it, or "pocket" it, and prevent
Dec. 8, 1931
Jan. 20, 1972
it from becoming a law.
Dec. 6, 1932
Feb. 2, 1973
The following list shows the number of bills
Jan. 30, 1974
vetoed by each President. Noted in parenthesis
F. D. Roosevelt
Ford
after each total are the figures comprising the
Jan. 3, 1934
Jan. 15, 1975
total: first, the number of regular vetoes; sec-
Jan. 4, 1935
Jan. 19, 1976
ond, the number of pocket vetoes; third, the
Jan. 3, 1936
Jan. 12, 1977
number of vetoes sustained by Congress; and
Jan. 6, 1937
fourth, the number passed over his veto.
Jan. 3, 1938
Carter
Jan. 4, 1939
Jan. 19, 1978
Washington-2 (2, 0; 2, 0)
Jan. 3, 1940
Jan. 23, 1979
J. Adams-0
Jan. 6, 1941
Jan. 23, 1980
Jefferson-0
Jan. 6, 1942
Jan. 16, 1981
Madison-7 (5, 2; 7, 0)
Monroe-2 (1, 1; 1, 1)
THE PRESIDENTIAL VETO
J. Q. Adams-0
Jackson-12 (5, 7; 12, 0)
Article I, section 7 of the Constitution con-
Van Buren-0
tains the following provisions:
W. H. Harrison-0
PRESIDENT REAGAN'S STATE OF THE UNION ADDRESSES
Jan. 26, 1982
Jan. 25, 1983
Jan. 25, 1984
Feb. 6, 1985
-
Feb. 4, 1986
Jan. 27, 1987
-
Jan. 25, 1988
OPINION ROUNDUP
(Applamic pu
REAGAN AND HIS
Houthis
PREDECESSORS
pelps-
Question: Do you approve or disapprove of the way (name of President) is handling his job as president?
Percent
100
Approval
70
Truman
(4/45)
Elsenhower
Esenhower
(1/53)
Kennedy
(1/61)
Johnson
(11/63)
Nixon
(1/69)
Ford
(8/74)
Carter
(1/77)
Reagan
(1/81)
8
Johnson
Month took office
-
-
59%
71%
-
51%
50
After
1st month
-
68%
-
79%
61
50
71%
55
Reagan
After
2nd month
-
59
73%
80
63
55
72
60
After
3rd month
87%
74
83
75
61
48
63
67
40
After
4th month
-
74
76
73
65
42
64
68
After
5th month
-
-
74
77
63
39
63
58
Truman
After
6th month
-
71
71
75
65
39
67
60
30
After
7th month
75
-
73
74
62
37
66
60
After 8th month
-
75
75
-
58
39
59
52
After 9th month
-
65
76
-
56
51
51
56
20
Nixon
After 10th month
63
-
77
-
68
52
56
54
After 11th month
-
60
78
-
59
-
57
49
After 12th month
50
68
77
69
61
46
52
47
0
After 13th month
-
71
78
69
56
47
50
47
60th
61
62
63
64
65
66
57
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
5
After 14th month
-
68
79
71
53
44
48
46
Month took office
After 15th month
43
-
77
-
56
41
41
44
After 16th month
-
64
73
69
59
39
43
45
After 17th month
-
61
71
67
55
46
42
44
After 18th month
32
-
69
64
55
48
39
41
After 19th month
-
71
66
70
56
50
43
42
Truman
Elsenhower
Kennedy
Johnson
Reagen
After 20th month
-
65
67
69
Nixon
48
42
Ford
Carter
-
48
After 21st month
35
64
62
65
58
47
49
42
After 53rd month
51
50
44
58
After 22nd month
48
57
-
65
57
45
50
43
After 54th month
63
41
39
63
After 23rd month
60
63
74
63
52
-
51
41
After 55th month
43
36
65
After 24th month
-
69
76
64
56
-
43
35
After 56th month
-
59
40
33
60
After 25th month
-
71
70
63
50
-
37
40
After 57th month
45
57
35
27
63
After 26th month
54
66
67
61
50
-
42
41
After 58th month
-
-
27
65
After 27th month
-
68
66
56
50
-
40
41
After 59th month
-
42
29
63
After 28th month
-
69
64
57
49
53
32
46
After 60th month
-
58
43
26
64
After 29th month
55
-
61
54
48
-
29
47
After 61st month
37
54
44
27
After 30th month
-
72
61
51
50
-
29
42
After 62nd month
37
50
59
26
63
After 31st month
71
63
48
49
-
32
43
After 63rd month
46
54
-
26
62
After 32nd month
-
56
56
-
-
30
48
After 64th month
43
53
26
68
After 33rd month
-
58
47
52
-
31
46
After 65th month
-
54
25
64
After 34th month
77
58
46
49
38
53
After 66th month
39
52
24
63
After 35th month
-
75
-
44
50
54
54
After 67th month
-
56
24
After 36th month
36
77
-
49
50
58
55
After 68th month
-
54
After 37th month
-
76
44
52
-
55
55
After 69th month
36
58
63
After 38th month
39
72
46
53
39
54
After 70th month
26
52
After 39th month
-
69
45
-
39
52
After 71st month
-
57
48
After 40th month
-
45
62
-
38
54
After 72nd month
28
57
49
After 41st month
-
-
49
57
31
54
After 73rd month
24
59
After 42nd month
-
69
45
-
21
52
After 74th month
25
58
After 43rd month
-
67
51
-
32
54
After 75th month
29
62
49
After 44th month
47
-
57
After 76th month
31
60
After 45th month
69
-
39
-
I
58
After 77th month
32
60
53
After 46th month
-
75
38
62
-
61
After 78th month
29
61
51
After 47th month
57
79
38
59
34
59
After 79th month
23
66
After 48th month
-
73
42
67
64
After 49th month
-
72
46
65
60
After 50th month
57
72
49
-
56
After 51st month
I
67
41
48
52
After 52nd month
-
62
44
55
pase
:Trum an
Eisenhower
Kennedy
Johnson
Nixon
Ford
Carter
Reagan
After 80th month
-
66
-
-
-
-
-
49
After 81st month
25
66
-
-
-
-
-
-
After 82nd month
-
64
-
-
-
-
-
-
After 83rd month
-
76
-
-
-
-
-
49
After 84th month
-
66
-
-
-
-
-
49
After 85th month
28
64
-
-
-
-
-
-
After 86th month
32
64
-
-
-
-
-
50
After 87th month
-
65
-
-
-
-
-
50
After 88th month
-
65
-
-
-
-
-
48
After 89th month
-
57
-
-
-
-
-
51
After 90th month
32
63
-
-
-
-
-
51
After 91st month
-
61
-
-
-
-
-
-
After 92nd month
31
65
-
-
-
-
-
53
After 93rd month
-
58
-
-
-
-
-
54
After 94th month
-
59
-
-
-
-
-
-
After 95th month
-
59
-
-
-
-
-
TK
After 96th month
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
TK
Note: In months in which more than one approval poll was
conducted, the last results of the month are presented.
Source: Surveys by the Gallup Organization, latest that of
September 25-October 1, 1988.
Question: Do you approve or disapprove of the way (name of President) is handling his job as president?
Percent
100
70
Eisenhower
60
Johnson
50
Reagan
40
Truman
30
Nixon
20
0
60th 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81
Month took office
INDEX BY YEARS
737
Methodist College-Cokesbury College-Abing-
1789
don. Md.-opened-Dec. 6
Money-Continental coin-copper Fugio-au-
Army-army organization under the Constitution
thorized-July 6
-act enacted, April 30
Army-medical corps-Richard Allison appoint-
Music Book-secular songbook-A. Reinagle-
ed surgeon-Sept. 29
published-Philadelphia, Pa.
Army Officer-commander-in-chief of the U.S.
Play (drama)-native American play successfully
Army-Josiah Harmar-September
acted on a regular stage-Royall Tyler-The
Attorney General-Attorney General-E. J. Ran-
Contrast
dolph-Sept. 26
Playwright-playwright (professional)-William
Attorney of the United States-Attorney General
Dunlap-comedy written
of the United States-Samuel Sherburne, Jr.-
Prison Reform Society-formed-Philadelphia.
appointed-Sept. 26
Pa.-May 8
Bibliography-bibliography of Americana in
Ship-ship to carry the United States flag around
English-published
the world-Columbia-sailed-Boston. Mass.
Book Publisher of denominational books-New
-Sept. 30
York City-May
Ship-steamboat to carry a man-John Fitch-
Cabinet of the United States-Cabinet-April 30.
Aug. 27
Catholic Diocese-established-Baltimore, Md.-
Slavery-law (federal) prohibiting slavery in a
April 6
territory of the United States-Northwest Terri-
Catholic Periodical-Catholic magazine-pub-
tory-enacted July 13
lished-Boston. Mass.-April 23
State-state to ratify the federal Constitution-
College-Catholic college-Georgetown College
Delaware-Dec. 7
-established-Washington, D.C.-Jan. 23
Territorial Expansion-acquisition of land by the
Comb-of ivory-manufactured-Centerbrook.
Conn.
federal government
Unitarian Minister-Unitarian minister-James
Comptroller-Comptroller of the United States
Freeman-Boston, Mass.-ordained-Nov. 18
Treasury-Nicholas Eveleigh-served-Sept.
11
Congress (U.S.)-Congress of the U.S.-New
1788
York City-March 4
Algebra Book-algebra book by a native-born
Congress (U.S.)-congressional act-June 1
American-published-Newburyport Mass.
Congress (U.S.)-congressional act declared un-
Cloth-sailcloth factory-Boston, Mass.
constitutional by the Supreme Court of the U.S.
Constitution of the United States-printed copies
-Sept. 24
of the Constitution-Constitution ratified—
Congress (U.S.)-joint meeting of the Senate and
June 21
the House of Representatives-April 6
Cotton-cotton goods to be trademarked-Bever-
Congress (U.S.)-House of Representatives-
ly, Mass.-June 6
clerk of the House of Representatives-John
Cotton Mill-cotton mill-established-Beverly,
Beckley-began service April 1
Mass.
Congress (U.S.)-House of Representatives-
chaplain of the House of Representatives-Wil-
Dictionary-dictionary published in the United
liam Linn-began service May 1
States-Worcester, Mass.
Congress (U.S.)-House of Representatives-
Dictionary-pocket dictionary published in the
committee of the House of Representatives-
United States-William Perry-Royal Stan-
appointed-April 2
dard English Dictionary-Worcester, Mass.
Congress (U.S.)-House of Representatives-con-
Election-federal election in the United States—
tested election-April 13
authorized-Sept. 13
Congress (U.S.)-House of Representatives-
Horse-horse (trotting horse)-imported--Phila-
House of Representatives-assembled-March
delphia, Pa.
4
Music Book-secular songbook by a native
Congress (U.S.)-House of Representatives-ser-
American-published-Philadelphia, Pa.
geant at arms-Joseph Wheaton-began ser-
Naval Officer-naval chaplain (Continental navy)
vice April 8
-B. Parks-appointed-Oct. 28
Congress (U.S.)-House of Representatives—
Shaker Society-organized Shaker community-
Speaker of the House-F. A. Muhlenberg
New Lebanon, N.Y.
Congress (U.S.)-Senate-president pro tempore
Ship-ship built on the Pacific coast-Northwest
of the United States Senate-John Langdon-
America-begun-June 11
April 6
Ship-steamboat patent-Isaac Briggs-Georgia
Congress (U.S.)-Senate-Senate-Senate meet-
-Feb. 1
ing-New York City-March 4
Wool-worsted mill operated by waterpower-
Constitution of the United States-printed copies
Hartford, Conn.
of the Constitution-Constitution declared in
effect-March 4
738
FAMOUS FIRST FACTS
Constitutional Amendment (U.S.)-constitutional
Senate Journal-published-New York City
amendments-submitted to the states-Sept. 25
Senator (U.S.)-Catholic senator-Daniel Carroll
Constitutional Amendment (U.S.)-proposed
-March 4
amendment to the Constitution
State Department (U.S.)-State Department (U.S.)
Cotton Mill-cotton mill-established-Charles-
-established-July 27
ton. S.C.
Supreme Court (U.S.)-Chief Justice of the Su-
Drawback Legislation-tariff act-July 4
preme Court-John Jay-Sept. 24
Flour Mill-flour mill-of importance-designed
Supreme Court (U.S.)-Supreme Court Justice
-Oliver Evans
who was nominated but who did not serve-R
Holiday-Thanksgiving Day-designated by
H. Harrison-Sept. 24
presidential proclamation-Oct. 3-for Nov. 26
Supreme Court (U.S.)-Supreme Court of the
Horse-Morgan horse-foaled-Randolph. Vt.
United States-appointments made
Insurance Treatise-English reprint-published-
Tariff-tariff legislation-enacted-July 4
Philadelphia, Pa.
Temperance Society-temperance organization
Internal Revenue Commissioner-Tench Coxe-
(local)-formed-Litchfield County. Conn.
Commissioner of Revenue-Sept. 11
Treasury Department (U.S.)-Register of the
Justice Department (U.S.)-office of Attorney
Treasury-Joseph Nourse-began service,
General created-Sept. 24
Sept. 12
Land Office-"Great American Wilderness"-
Treasury Department (U.S.)-Secretary of the
Canandaigua, N.Y.
Treasury-Alexander Hamilton-Sept 11
Lawbook-law compilation of federal session
Treasury Department (U.S.)-Treasury Depart-
laws-published
ment (U.S.)-organized-Sept. 2
Law Reports-E. Kirby-Reports of Cases-pub-
lished-Litchfield, Conn.
War Department (U.S.)-War Department (U.S.)
Lighthouse-lighthouse built after American in-
-authorized-Aug. 7
White Lead Manufacturer-Samuel Wetherill-
dependence-legislation-Aug. 7
Loan-loan to the United States-negotiated by
Philadelphia, Pa.
Alexander Hamilton-Sept. 13
1790
Map-road map-published-New York City
Money-trade tokens-issued-"Motts. N.Y."-
Actor-actor of American birth-appeared-
New York City
March 13
Navigation Act-navigation act (U.S.)-approved
Bible-Catholic Bible-printed-Philadelphia,
-July 20
Pa.
Newspaper-political newspaper-Gazette of the
Birds-partridge propagation-Beverly. N.J.
United States-published-New York City-
Bond-bonds-of the U.S. Government-author-
April 15
ized-Aug. 4
Novel-American novel published in America-
Book-book entered for copyright-Pennsylvania
The Power of Sympathy-published-Boston.
-June 9
Mass.
Button-pewter or block tin buttons-manufac-
Pension-pensions paid by the United States
tured-Waterbury, Conn.
Government-authorized-Sept. 29
Catholic Bishop-Catholic bishop appointed to
Periodical-children's magazine-published-
serve in the U.S.-John Carroll-consecrated-
Hartford, Conn.
Dorset, England-Aug. 15
Pharmacy Professor-pharmacy professor-S. P.
Census-census of the United States-authorized
Griffiths-Philadelphia, Pa.
-March 1-enumerated-Aug. 1
Post Office-Post Office Department of the United
States-established-Sept 22
Coast Guard (U.S.)-Coast Guard-revenue cut-
Postmaster-postmaster general of the United
ter service-organized-Aug. 4
States-Samuel Osgood-Sept. 26
Congress (U.S.)-Congress of the United States-
Presbyterian General Assembly-Philadelphia,
first session in Philadelphia. Pa.-Dec. 6
Pa.-May 22
Congress (U.S.)-House of Representatives-fli-
President (U.S.)-President elected-George
buster of "dilatory tactics"-June 11
Washington-inaugurated-April 30
Copyright Law-copyright law of the U.S.-enact-
President (U.S.)-President to receive the unani-
ed-May 31
mous vote of the presidential electors-George
Cotton Mill-cotton mill to spin cotton yarn suc-
Washington
cessfully-Pawtucket, R.I.-Dec. 20
President (U.S.)-President to tour the country-
Dictionary-agricultural dictionary-The New
George Washington-Oct. 15
England
Farmer-published-Worcester.
Presidential Inaugural Ball-New York City-
Mass.
May 7
Diplomatic Service-consul under the Depart-
"Presidential Mansion"-New York City-April
ment of State-Samuel Shaw-Feb. 9
23
Diplomatic Service-consuls of the United States
Representative (U.S.)-Catholic representative-
appointed after the adoption of the constitution
began service March 4
Drill-dental drill-invented-John Greenwood
INDEX BY YEARS
795
Bank-bank for blacks operated by blacks—
Telautograph-telautograph-invented-Elisha
chartered-Richmond. Va.-March 2
Gray-patented. July 31
Bank-bank for blacks privately operated by
Time Recorder-dial time recorder-invented-
blacks-organized-Washington, D.C.-Oct.
Alexander Dey
17
Time Recorder-employees' time recorder-pat-
Baseball Team-baseball teams to go on a world
ented-W. L Bundy-Auburn. N.Y.-Nov. 20
tour-Oct. 20
Typewriter Ribbon-typewriter "copy" ribbon-
Camera-roll-film camera-patented-George
patented-J. L. Wortman-Philadelphia, Pa.-
Eastman
Jan. 24
College-papal seminary-Pontifical College
Union Labor Party-convention-Cincinat
Josephinum-established-Worthington Ohio
Ohio-May 15
-Sept. 1
United Labor Party-formed-Cincinnati. Ohio-
Corporation Course-industrial corporation
May 16
course-University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Neb.
County-county created by federal legislation-
1889
Latah County, Idaho-authorized May 14
Crematory-crematory (state)-authorized-
Agriculture Bureau-agriculture bureau-made
New York-May 21
an executive department-Feb. 9
Door (revolving)-patented-T. Van Kannel-
Agriculture Department (U.S.)-Secretary of the
Philadelphia, Pa.-Aug. 7
Department of Agriculture-N. J. Colman-ap-
Election Law-Australian ballot system-adopt-
pointed-Feb. 13
ed-Kentucky-Feb. 24
Aluminum-aluminum-C M. Hall-patented
Electric Meter-patented-O. B. Shallenberger-
process-April 2
Rochester, Pa.-Aug. 14
Bacteriology Laboratory-bacteriology laborato-
Ferryboat-double-deck ferryboat-launched-
ry-Hoagland Laboratory-New York City-
Bergen-Newburgh, N.Y.-Oct. 25
opened-Feb.
Health Laboratory-health laboratory (munici-
Bank-bank for blacks operated by blacks-
pal}-Providence, R.I.-established-Jan. 1
opened—Richmond. Va.-April 3
Holding Company authorization (state)-enacted
Bicycle-bicycle with a back-pedal brake-pat-
-New Jersey-April 4
ented-Dec. 24
Hotel-hotel transported-Brighton Beach Hotel.
Bicycle Race-women's six-day bicycle race-
Brooklyn, N.Y.-April 3-July 29
Madison Square Garden. New York City-Feb.
Incubator for Infants-constructed-New York
11-16
City
Brokerage-investment trust-New York Stock
Locomotive-electric freight locomotive-built-
Trust formed-April 11
Pullman, Ill.-tested-May 1
Business School-business high school-author-
Mayor-woman mayor elected with an all-wom-
an council-M. D. Lowman-Oskaloosa, Kans.
ized-Washington. D.C.-June 11
Clarinet-made of metal-patentod-Aug. 27
-April
Monument-monument to George Washington
Conference-Pan American Conference-Wash-
(national)-Washington, D.C.-opened to pub-
ington, D.C.-Oct. 2
lic-Oct. 9
Dam-dam disaster of great consequence-
Motorboat-storage-battery motorboat-Magnet
Johnstown, Pa.-May 31
-built-Newark, N.J.
Electric Power Plant-alternating-current hydro-
Naval Officer-naval chaplain who was Catholic
electric power plant to operate over a long dis-
-C. H. Parks
tance-June 2
Pen-ball-point pen patent-J. J. Loud-Wey-
Elevator-electric elevator successfully operated
mouth, Mass.-Oct. 30
-installed-New York City
Presidential Candidate-black presidential candi-
Fellowship-fellowship (graduate) awarded by a
date nominated-Frederick Douglass-Chica-
women's college-Bryn Mawr College-Bryn
go, Ill.-June 23
Mawr, Pa.-June 6
Psychology Professor-J. M. Cattell-Phila-
Football Dummy-used-New Haven, Conn.
delphia, Pa.
Freemasons-Grotto-forned-Hamilion N.Y.-
Rodeo-competition-Prescott. Ariz.-July 4
Sept. 10
Saxophone-manufactured-Elkart, Ind.
Golf Match-mixed foursome-Yonkers. N.Y.-
Seismograph-exhibited-Lick Observatory-
March 30
Mount Hamilton, Calif.-June 1
High School-county high school-Dickinson
Ship-battleship of importance-Maine-keel
County Community High School-opened-
laid-Oct. 17
Chapman, Kan.
Ship-torpedo boat of importance-Cushing
Historical Society-historical society (general)-
-keel laid-Bristol, Pa.
American Historical Association-incorporat-
Straws (artificial)-for drinking-patented--M. C.
ed-Jan. 4
Stone-Washington, D.C.-Jan. 3
Holiday-national holiday-April 30
796
FAMOUS FIRST FACTS
Library-children's department in a library-
Architect-woman architect-L. B. Bethune—
Minneapolis Public Library-Minneapolis.
elected to membership in American Institute of
Minn.
Architects-Sept. 15
Lithuanian Church-organized-Plymouth. Pa.-
Building-steel-frame residence-built-Brook.
Oct. 27
lyn, N.Y.
Medical Clinic-medical clinic (general)-Johns
Business School-business high school-opened
Hopkins Medical School-Baltimore, Md.-
-Washington. D.C.-Sept. 22
opened-Oct.
Button-buttons of freshwater pearl-Muscatine.
Medical Instruction-bacteriology courses in a
Iowa
college-University of Michigan-Ann Arbor,
Census-census compiled by machines-June 1
Mich.-Jan.
Dairy School-of collegiate rank-University of
Wisconsin-Madison, Wis.-Jan. 3
Niagara Falls-utilization of Niagara Falls water-
Dam-rock-filled dam-Castlewood, Colo.-
power (large-scale)-Cataract Construction
Company incorporated-June 13
opened-Nov.
Deaf-School-lipreading school for adults-es-
Novel Course-lecture course on the English nov-
tablished-New York City
el-University of Pennsylvania-Philadelphia,
Decalcomanias-manufactured-Thomas Burke
Pa.
-Philadelphia, Pa.
Photograph-photograph (taken in the U.S.) on
Election Law-corrupt election practices law
which a meteor was found-Cambridge. Mass.
(state)-New York State-enacted-April 4
-Aug. 10
Electric Transmission-alternating-current power
Political Science Society-political and social
transmission-Telluride, Colo.
science society (national)-American Acade-
Employment Service-state employment service
my of Political and Social Science-organized
-Ohio-April 28
-Philadelphia, Pa.-Dec. 14
Execution-electrocution of a human being-An-
Railroad-daily railroad service to the Pacific
burn Prison-Auburn, N.Y.-Aug. 6
coast-through service without a change-Nov.
Football Game-Army-Navy football game-
17
West Point, N.Y.Nov. 29
Sanitary District-Chicago, Ill.-authorized-
Golf Course-golf course (nine holes)-complet-
Nov. 5
ed-Newport, R.I.
Sewing Machine-electric sewing machine-
Hammer (pneumatic)-invented-C. B. King-
manufactured-Singer Manufacturing Compa-
Detroit, Mich.
ny-Elizabethport, N.J.
Leather-chrome tanned leather successfully
State-state named for a native-born American-
marketed-R. H. Foerderer-Philadelphia, Pa.
Washington-admitted to Union-Nov. 11
Library Society-state library society-Albany.
State-states admitted to the Union simulta-
N.Y.
neously-North and South Dakota-Nov. 3
Meat Inspection Legislation (federal)-enacted-
Stock Quotation Board-stock quotation boards
Aug. 30
Milk Tester-of value-invented-S. M. Babcock
-manufactured-New York City
Narcotics Legislation-narcotic regulation (feder-
Tabulating Machine-patented-Herman Hol-
al)-enacted-Oct. 1
lerith-New York City-Jan. 8
Navy-naval militia (state)-Massachusetts-or-
Telephone-automatic telephone system (suc-
ganized-March 18
cessful)-A. B. Strowger-patent application-
Niagara Falls-utilization of Niagara Falls water-
March 12
power (large-scale)-ground broken-Oct. 4
Telephone-coin telephone-patented-Willian
Opera-light opera presented in 2 cities on the
Gray-Aug. 13
same day by the same company-The Gondo-
Tennis Match-professional lawn tennis contest
liers-Francis Wilson's Company-New York
(international)-Newport, R.I.-Aug. 29
City and Philadelphia-April 17
Time Recorder-dial time recorder-patented-
Pan American Union-established-Washington
A. Dey-Sept. 24
D.C.-April 14
Tour of the World-tour of the world made by a
Paper—crepe paper-manufactured-Brooklyi
woman traveling alone-E. Cochrane (Nellie
N.Y.
Bly)-started-Nov. 14
Polo Club-polo association (national)-U.S.
Trust-antitrust law (state)-general law-enact-
Polo Association-formed-New York City-
ed-Kansas-March 9
June 6
Tuberculosis Circular-issued-New York City-
Prizefight-state legislation concerning prizefight-
July
ing-Louisiana-enacted-May 12
Sewage-sewage disposal by chemical precipita-
tion-Worcester, Mass.
1890
Ship-battleship of importance-Maine-
Animal Husbandry-animal husbandry professor
launched-Nov. 18
-J. A. Craig-University of Wisconsin-Madi-
Ship-navy vessel equipped to lay mines-Bal-
son, Wis.
timore-commissioned-Jan. 7
INDEX BY YEARS
847
Post Office-airplane post office-dedicated-
Autogiro-autogiro patent-Juan de la Cierva-
May 15-Washington, D.C.
granted posthumously-assigned to Autogiro
Prizefighter-pugilist to hold three titles simulta-
Company of America-April 25
neously-H. J. Armstrong-Aug. 17
Autogiro-autogiro rotary-wing aircraft fellow-
Radar-passenger ship equipped with radar-
ship-student enrolled-New York City-Sept.
New York-in service-Feb. 26
8
Radio Facsimile Transmission-radio facsimile
Automobile-air-conditioned automobile-Pac-
broadcasting on the regular broadcast band-
kard-exhibited-Chicago. Ill.Nov. 4
began-Des Moines, Iowa-Feb. 4
Automobile-miniature automobile manufac-
Radio Station-municipal school-owned ultra-
tured in the U.S.-Crosley-offered for sale-
high-frequency radio station-Cleveland. Ohio
April 28
-licensed-Nov. 21
Aviation-Flights (transatiantic)-Atlantic Ocean
Railroad Car-car with fluorescent lighting-in
scheduled air service-inaugurated-May 20
service-Sept. 2
Aviation-Flights (transatlanti-transatlant
regular commercial airplane service-began-
Recreational Ranching Course-in a college-
June 28
Laramie, Wyo.-degree conferred-June 6
Aviation-License-airplane instructor's license
Representative (U.S.)-woman representative
-Civil Aeronautics Authority-A. 1. Banks-
who was not sworn in-E. H. Gasque of South
Sept. 27-issued to a woman-E. P. Kilgore-
Carolina-began service Sept. 13
Oct. 13
Saint (Catholic)-Saint (Catholic) who was a citi-
Aviation-Passenger-woman flown in a U.S.
zen-F. X. Cabrini-beatified-Nov. 13
Army plane from one country to another-left
Ship-seaplane tender designed and built for the
New York City-Dec. 7
U.S. Navy-keel laid-April 25
Aviation-Passenger-woman to fly entirely
Ski Lift-aerial tramway-Franconia, N.H.-
around the world by commercial heavier-than-
opened, June 17-dedicated June 28
air plane-completed trip-June 19
Skimobile-in operation-North Conway, N.H.-
Baseball Player-baseball player to play in more
Dec. 27
than 2,100 games-H. L Gehrig-2.130th game.
Submarine-submarine refloated-Squalus-
April 30
launched-Portsmouth, N.H.-Sept. 14
Building-building devoted entirely to highway
Tape Recording-radio broadcast from a tape re-
traffic-completed-Saugatuck. Conn: July 1
cording-New York City-Aug. 26
Cans-disposable can for dispensing liquids
Television-electronic television system-pat-
under pressure-J. S. Kahn-patented Aug. 22
ented-V. K. Zworykin-Dec. 20
Catholic Beatification-Catholic beatification of
Television-Telecast-book review to be tele-
an American Indian-Rome. Italy-May 19
vised-New York City-May 3
College-woman dean of a graduate school-
elected-New York City-Jan. 4
Television-Telecast-motion picture (full-
length) telecast-The Return of the Scarlet
Congress (U.S.)-House of Representatives
Pimpernel-May 31
-page (female)-served-Washington. D.C.-
Jan. 3
Television-Telecast-play to be televised with
Degrees (academic and honorary)-Doctor of
its original Broadway cast-Susan and God
Philosophy in Accounting degree-Urbana. III.
-New York City-June 7
-conferred-June 12
Tennis Player-lawn tennis champion to win four
Degrees (academic and honorary)-Master of He-
major titles-J. D. Budge-New York City-
brew Literature degree awarded a woman-
Sept. 24
New York City-May 28
Theater-television theater-licensed-Boston,
Electric Power-electric power generated by COS-
Mass.-July 13
mic rays-Hayden Planetarium. New York City
Toothbrush-with synthetic bristles-marketed
-April 30
Voice Mechanism-voice mechanism capable of
Electric Starting Gate (racetrack)-installed-In-
creating the complex sounds of speech-public-
glewood. Calif.-May 8
ly exhibited-Philadelphia. Pa.-June 5
Federal Crop Insurance Corporation-indemnity
Woman-woman of American descent to become
payment-J. F. Biggs-Floydada. Tex.-April
a queen-married-King Zog of Albania-April
14
27
Federal Security Agency-established-April 25
Federal Works Agency-established-July 1
Flea Laboratory-San Francisco. Calif.-opened
-Jan. 1
1939
Hall of Fame-hall of fame (baseball)-dedicated
-June 12
Airmail Service-airmail transatlantic service-
Helicopter-helicopter (direct-lift aircraft)-suc-
inaugurated-May 20
cessful-constructed-Stratforl. Conn.
Airmail Service-autogiro mail delivery regular
Impregnation-impregnation [artificial)-Cam-
service-Philadelphia. Pa.-July 6
bridge, Mass.
848
FAMOUS FIRST FACTS
Judge-woman judge (black)-J. M. Bolin-ap-
Television-Telecast-operetta to be televised—
pointed-New York City-July 22
New York City-June 20
Locomotive-rack-rail diesel-electric locomotive
Television-Telecast-play to be televised as a
-in service-July 16
full-hour program-New York City-June 29
Motion Picture-motion picture to gross more
Television-Telecast-President to appear on
than $70 million-Gone With the Wind-pre-
television-F. D. Roosevelt-April 30
miere in Atlanta, Ga.-Dec. 15
Television-Telecast-prizefight to be televised
Museum-museum devoted exclusively to paper-
-New York City-June 1
making-opened-Cambridge, Mass.-June 5
Television-Telecast-surgical-operation class-
Newspaper-offset-printed daily newspaper-
room-instruction telecast-Brooklyn. N.Y.-
World-Opelousas, La.-operations began.
March 21
Dec. 24
Television-Telecast-telecast (long-distance)
Nylon-nylon yarn manufacture (commercial)-
received in an airplane-Oct. 17
Seaford, Del.-Dec. 15
Television-Telecast-telecast produced for a tri-
Pinball Game-pinball legislation enacted by a
city gathering-Schenectady, N.Y.-Dec. 8
major city prohibiting the machines-Atlanta,
Television-Telecast-telecast (public) over tele-
Ga.-effective-July 1
phone wires-New York City-May 20
Postal Service-coin-operated mailbox-in-
Television-Telecast-tennis tournament to be
stalled-New York City-May 17
televised-Rye, N.Y.-Aug. 9
President (U.S.)-President to hold an airplane pi-
Visiting Celebrities-King and Queen of Great
lot's license-D. D. Eisenhower-license issued
Britain-arrived-Niagara Falls, N.Y.-June 7
Public Buildings Administration-approved-
Vitamin-synthetic vitamin K-produced-Cam-
April 3
bridge, Mass.-Aug. 1
Radar-battleship equipped with radar-New
Water Ski Association (national)-American
York-tested-Jan.
Water Ski Association-formed-Trenton. N.J.
Radio Instruction-radio college course-offered
-April
-New York City
Water Ski Tournament (national)-Jones Beach
Railroad Car-train with fluorescent lights-in
State Park, N.Y.-June 22
service-April 30
Woman-woman presidential campaign CO-
Ski School-indoor ski school-R. H. Johnson-
manager-R. H. M. Simms-Dec. 2
opened-Boston, Mass.-Oct. 16
Snow Cruiser (automobile)-demonstrated-
1940
Chicago, Ill.Oct. 22
Air Defense Command (U.S.)-created-Feb. 26
Strike-anti-sit-down-strike decision (federal)-
Air Raid Shelter-air raid shelter-completed-
Feb. 27
Fleetwood, Pa.-Nov. 1
Submarine-submarine refloated-Squalus-
Aquatic Mammals-born in captivity-porpoise
foundered-off Portsmouth, N.H.-May 23-
-Marineland, Fla.-Feb. 14
raised, Sept. 13
Archival Administration-American University-
Suture-fiberglass sutures-used-R. P. Scholz-
Washington, D.C.-training program offered—
St. Louis, Mo.-July 19
Sept. 25
Telephone-telephone weather-forecasting ser-
Army Officer-brigadier-general (black)-B. O.
vice-inaugurated-New York City-April 8
Davis-appointed-Oct.25
Television-Telecast-baseball game (collegiate)
Army Parachute Troops-training started-July 1
televised-New York City-May 17
Art Course-industrial camouflage course-Kan-
Television-Telecast--baseball games (major-
sas City. Mo.-Oct. 15
league) televised-New York City-Aug. 26
Automobile Tire-synthetic rubber tire-exhibit-
Television-Telecast-beauty contest telecast-
ed-Akron, Ohio-June 5
New York City-June 22
Aviation-Airplane-naval patrol bomber-
Television-Telecast-bicycle race telecast-
launched like a ship-Mars-keel laid-Bal-
New York City-May 20
timore, Md.-Aug. 22
Television-Telecast-fashion show telecast-
Aviation-Airplane-plastic-bonded airplane-
New York City-May 17
built-Van Nuys, Calif.-July
Television-Telecast-football game (collegiate)
Aviation-Airport-airport (federally owned and
to be televised-New York City-Sept. 30
operated)-cornerstone
laid-Washington.
Television-Telecast-football game (profession-
D.C.-Sept. 28
al) to be televised-Brooklyn, N.Y.-Oct. 22
Aviation-Flights-all-blind distance flight by the
Television-Telecast-king and queen to be tele-
U.S. Army-New York City-Langley Field, Va.
vised-New York City-June 10
-April 6
Television-Telecast-motion picture premiere
Aviation-Flights-stratoliner commercial flight
festivities to be televised-New York City-
-July 8
Dec. 19
Aviation-License-Civil Aeronautics Adminis-
Television-Telecast-musical comedy telecast
tration-honorary license-to Orville Wright-
(one-hour)-New York City-July 25
Aug. 19
JANUARY 20
St Agnes Eve, popularly the day upon which a woman could divine her
future husband; subject of a poem by John Keats. Rio de Janiero Foundation Day,
Brazil. National Heroe: Day, Cape Verde Islands. National Heroes Day,
Guinea-Bissau. Army Day, Republic of Mali. Presidential Inauguration Day,
USA (every four years). Feasts of SS: Fabian, pope and martyr;
Sebastian, martyr; Euthymius the Great, abbot; Fechin, abbot.
First assembly of the Commons as an agreed representational body (according
to Sir William Dugdale), 1265. T The first Secretary of State for the Colonies is
appointed in Britain, 1768. 1 The London Docks are opened, 1805. 9 Chile
victorious over Peru and Bolivia at the battle of Yungay, 1839. 1 Adrianople is
taken by the Russians, 1878. I British-Chinese Treaty of Peking, 1925. 1 Edward
VIII ascends the throne in Britain upon the death of George V, 1936. 1 Assassina-
tion of Mahatma Gandi in India, 1948. 1 Inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower
as US President, 1953. 1 The South Pole is reached by the British contingent of
the Commonwealth Transantarctic Expedition under the leadership of Vivian
Fuchs, 1958. 9 Inauguration of John F. Kennedy as US President, 1961.
1 Inauguration of L. B. Johnson as 36th President of US, 1965. 9 Inauguration of
Richard M. Nixon as President of the US, 1969. 1 Four members of the RAF's
Red Arrow aerial display team are killed in a mid-air collision in Gloucestershire,
1971. Я British and French authorities abandon the Channel Tunnel proposal,
1975. I Press censorship is brought to an end in India and many political
prisoners are released, 1977. 1 Inauguration of Jimmy Carter as President of
US, 1977.
BORN: Theobald Wolfe Tone, Irish Nationalist, fought against British rule in
Ireland and enlisted French support, Dublin, 1763. André-Marie Ampère,
physicist, Lyon, 1775. Johannes Jensen, poet and novelist, The Long Journey,
Denmark, 1873. Federico Fellini, film director, La Dolce Vita, Italy, 1920.
Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin, US astronaut, New Jersey, 1930.
DIED: David Garrick, actor and theatre manager, 1779. Sir John Soane,
architect, London, 1837, John Ruskin, art critic, teacher and reformer, The
Stones of Venice, Modern Painters, near Coniston, Lancashire, 1900. Dmitri
Mendeleyev, chemist, formulated the periodic table of chemical elements,
St Petersburg, Russia, 1907. Charles Doughty, writer, Travels in Arabia Deserta,
1926. King George V of England (reigned 1910-36), 1936. Robinson Jeffers, poet,
Tamar and Other Poems, 1962. Edmund Blunden, poet and literary critic,
Undertones of War, 1974.
[34]
INDEX BY DAYS
901
JANUARY 20
1789 Novel-American novel published in
America-Power of Sympathy-adver-
1778 Court-Martial-military court-martial-
tised
Cambridge, Mass.
1812 Bridge-"Y" bridge-authorized-Zanes-
1783 Treaty-treaty between the United States
ville, Ohio
Government and a nation with which it had
been at war-hostilities ceased-Great
1847 Senator (U.S.)-senator who served a term
of less than 6 weeks-Pierre Soule of Loui-
Britain
siana-began service
1809 Geology Book-geology book-of impor-
tance-William Maclure-read before
1853 Envelope-envelope folding machine-
American Philosophical Society-Phila-
patented-R. L. Hawes
1865
Oil-oil well drilled by torpedoes
delphia, Pa.
1880 Sewage-separate system of sewage dis-
1820 Agricultural "Board" (state)-New York
State board formed
posal-started-Memphis. Tenn.
1894 Medal-Medal of Honor action-medal
1869 Woman-woman congressional hearing
awarded to B. J. D. Irwin
witness-E. C. Stanton
1918 Air Force-air force aviation unit-landed
1885 Railroad-switchback railway-roller
-Ponta Delgada, Azores
coaster patent-L. A. Thompson-Coney
1927 Opera-opera broadcast over a national
Island, N.Y.
network from an American opera house-
1919 Ship-destroyer of the U.S. Navy named
Chicago, III.
for a Confederate officer-Buchanan-
1937 Automobile License (federal)-common
commissioned
carrier license-effective
1929 Motion Picture-talking picture taken out-
1937
Legislature-unicameral legislature (state)
doors (full-length)-In Old Arizona-
-first appropriation bill-Nebraska
released
1941 Magnesium-magnesium commercial pro-
1937 President (U.S.)-President inaugurated on
duction-Freeport, Tex.
Jan. 20-F. D. Roosevelt
1947
Army Officer-army officer to occupy both
1937 President (U.S.)-President whose mother
the nation's highest military post and the
saw her son inaugurated President of the
highest nonelective civilian post-Chief of
United States for a second term-F. D.
Staff G. C. Marshall-became Secretary of
Roosevelt
State
1943 Ship-ship transported overland across
1954 Automobile-gas-turbine automobile-
the Rocky Mountains-Brennan-commis-
publicly introduced-New York City
sioned
1954 Submarine-atomic-powered submarine-
1947 Christmas Carols Association (national)-
Nautilus-launched-Groton, Conn.
organized-St. Louis, Mo.
1954 Submarine-submarine of the U.S. Navy
1952 Bullfight-woman bullfighter (profession-
christened by a President's wife-Nautilus
al)-Patricia McCormick-debut
-M. G. D. Eisenhower-Groton, Conn.
1953 Television-Telecast-telecast transmit-
1961
Cabinet (U.S.)-Cabinet member who was
ted to Canada-from Buffalo, N.Y.
a brother of a President-R. F. Kennedy-
1954 Radio Station-black network-National
took office
Negro Network-formed
1971 Representative (U.S.)-representative of
1959 Attorney General-state attorney general
Puerto Rican ancestry-Herman Badillo of
(woman)-A. X Alpern-commissioned-
New York-sworn in
Harrisburg, Pa.
1966 Medicare-medicare identification card—
JANUARY 22
presented to H.S. Truman-Independence,
Mo.
1673 Postal Service-postal route-service be-
1967 Hospital-general hospital to adopt the So-
gan-Boston-New York City
1814
cial Security account number as a number-
Freemasons-Knights Templar Grand En-
ing system for medical records-Altoona,
campment-New York City
Pa.
1879 Senator (U.S.)-senator to serve three
1969 Rowing-transatlantic solo trip by row-
states-James Shields-elected
boat-John Fairfax-left Canary Islands
1881
Monument-obelisk to be brought to the
1975 College-college commencement exercises
United States-erected on pedestal-New
York City
within a prison-Jackson, Mich.
1895 Manufacturers' Association-National As-
sociation of Manufacturers-organized-
JANUARY 21
Cincinnati, Ohio
1677 Medical Book-medical pamphlet-pub-
1931
Autogiro-autogiro of the U.S. Government
lished-Boston, Mass.
-ordered from Pitcairn Aircraft Company,
1781 Diplomatic Service-consular officer de-
Inc.-Philadelphia, Pa.
tailed for duty in the Department of Foreign
1932 Reconstruction Finance Corporation-au-
Affairs-Thomas Barclay-appointed
thorized
January the Twentieth
We perish, we disappear, but the march of time goes on forever.
Many famous men are reported as having died on this dayemperors and
cardinals, an archbishop and an architect, writers and actors-here they are
for those who are curious about the dates upon which men die:
Cardinal Bembo in 1547,
Rodolph II, Emperor, in 1612,
Charles, first Duke of Manchester, in 1722,
Sir James Fergusson in 1759,
David Garrick 'who never had his equal as an actor' in 1779,
John Howard in 1790. He was a great philanthropist.
Sir John Soane, the architect and founder of the Soanean Museum
at Lincoln's Inn Fields, in 1837,
Cadell, the Scots publisher, at Edinburgh in 1849,
Sothern, the actor, in 1881,
John Ruskin in 1900,
R. D. Blackmore, author of Lorna Doone, in 1900, and
King George V in 1936.
Two birthdays may be noted—
Frederick, Prince of Wales, at Hanover in 1707,
Jean Jacques Barthelemy at Casis in 1716.
A number of curious happenings are related on this day-
One king was deposed and another ascended a throne-
a foreign Prince was naturalized a British subject.
In all their incongruity they are at one in this that they occurred
on January the Twentieth.
ENGLAND'S FIRST PARLIAMENT, 1265,
EDWARD II WAS DEPOSED, 1327,
ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY KILLED HIS PARK KEEPER
BY MISTAKE IN 1621,
PRINCE ALBERT WAS NATURALIZED A BRITISH SUBJECT
IN 1840,
HONG KONG WAS CEDED TO GREAT BRITAIN IN 1841,
LEFT-HANDED PERSONAL SALUTE WAS ABOLISHED BY
ADMIRALTY IN 1923,
EDWARD VIII ACCEDED TO THE THRONE IN 1936,
MR. CHURCHILL INVITED NEUTRALS TO JOIN IN THE WAR
IN 1940.
[21]
ers attacked the
1806
Britain took possession of the Cape Colony
(South Africa)
Prussia
1807
Robert E. Lee, Civil War general, born
3 first met
(Southern U.S. holiday)
1809
Edgar Allan Poe, writer, born
San Jose,
1813
Sir Henry Bessemer, steel-making inventor,
ided
born
awaii
1839
Paul Cezanne, French artist, born
in-orator, born
1855
Mescalero Apaches ambushed the First Dragoons
1 in Australia
of the U.S. Cavalry in New Mexico
the first U.S.
1861
Georgia seceded from the Union
died
1883
Germany's Cambria hit an iceberg; 389 died
aventor, died
1887
Alexander Woollcott, author, born
lied
1907
Train wreck in Fowler, Indiana
1910
National Institute of Arts and Letters incor-
:I of Germany
porated by an act of Congress
1927
Empress Charlotte, wife of Maxmilian, of
ournal, founded
Mexico, died
leekly Trade
1940
Province of Osorno, Chile created
1943
Princess Margriet of the Netherlands born
Massachusetts
1947
Greek Hemeia hit a mine off Athens and 392 died
ed
1961
Dr. Thomas Dooley, medical missionary to Viet
Nam, died
e South Pole but
1970
Vasant Panchami (Hindu harvest festival in
Surinam)
orn
lorer, born
aris
January 20th
an 3 days of
ns
U.S. Presidential Inauguration Day
d in Lake
St. Agnes Eve
na
Feast of St. Sebastian, invoked against plague
of flood
250 AD
St. Fabian, Pope, martyred
(Basque folk
473
St. Euthymius the Great died (Feast Day)
Idaho
1320
Wladislaus was crowned king of Poland
isconsin
1479
John II, King of Aragon, died
1500
Pinzon discovered Brazil
1612
Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor, died
1615
Portuguese again defeated by the British off
Swally, India
1732
Richard Henry Lee, signer of the Declaration
chum, sons of
of Independence, born
a
1734
Robert Morris, signer of the Declaration of
of Denmark
Independence, born
, martyred bishop,
1779
David Garrick, English actor, died
Finland
1788
The first settlers, mostly convicts, arrived
ia, martyrs
in New South Wales, Australia
named "Augustus"
1795
The French cavalry captured the ice-bound
ster, died
Dutch fleet
1830
Red Jacket, chief of the Seneca Indians, died
vas kidnapped
1840
Adelie Island, Antarctic, discovered by
born
Jules d'Urville
itor, born
1866
Livingstone landed in Zanzibar
1870
Jenny Lind, singer, gave her last performance
1879
New Orleans mint began manufacturing money
1880
Ruth St. Denis, dancer, born
1882
Franklin D. Roosevelt, U.S. President, born
1887
Ships Kapunda and Ada Melmore collided in
Brazil
1891
Mischa Elman, violinist, born
1892
The first real basketball game was played
1894
Harold L. Gray, creator of "Little Orphan
Annie," born
1918
German warship Breslau mined off Imbros
Island
1925
"Ma" Ferguson installed as governor of Texas
1926
Charles M. Doughty, Arabian explorer, died
Patricia Neal, actress, born
1936
King George V of England died of a chill
1939
El Salvador adopted a constitution
1962
Robinson Jeffers, poet, died
1969
Marble Canyon proclaimed a National Monument
1970
Grandmothers' Day in Bulgaria
1971
Meteor 7, U.S.S.R. weather satellite, launched
January 21st
259 AD St. Fructuosus of Tarragona died (Feast Day)
304
St. Agnes, patron of young girls, martyred
(Feast Day) (As St. Inez, patron
of Cumana, Venezuela)
861
St. Meinrad died (Feast Day)
1506
Papal Swiss Guard first entered Rome
1527
Juan de Grijalva, discoverer of Mexico, died
1670
Claude Duval, English highwayman, hanged
1743
John Fitch, steamboat pioneer, born
1785
U.S. treaty signed with the Wyandot, Delaware,
Chippewa, and Ottowa Indians
1793
King Louis XVI of France guillotined
1813
John C. Fremont, California explorer, born
1824
General "Stonewall" Jackson born
1829
Oscar II, King of Sweden and Norway, born
1831
Paterson-Hudson Railroad Company incorporated
1846
The London Daily News first appeared
1851
The first practical envelope-folding machine
was patented
1865
Akron, Ohio, incorporated as a city
1869
PEO Sisterhood founded (Paternal Order of
1873
Eliza H. Bordman Eagles) died, having succeeded in
making Washington's birthday a
U.S. holiday
1879
Cheyenne Indians imprisoned at Fort Robinson
escaped
1906
Aquidaban exploded off Brazil
1776 =
1734. James Watt, Scottish inventor; perfected the steam engine.
1807. Robert E. Lee, General-in-Chief of the Confederate Army
1809. Edgar Allan Poe, poet, critic, short-story writer
1813. Sir Henry Bessemer, inventor of Bessemer process for making
steel
1839. Paul Cezanne, French painter, "the Father of Modern Art"
1839. James M. Guffey, Pennsylvania oil developer
1842. George Trumbull Ladd, founder of psychology laboratory at Yale
1851. David Starr Jordan, first President of Leland Stanford, Jr.
University
1866. Harry Devenport, character actor
1887. Alexander Woollcott, literary critic
1894. Karl Krueger, orchestra conductor
1900. Mady Christians, actress
1905. Oveta Culp Hobby, Director of Women's Army Corps; first Secre-
tary of Health, Education, and Welfare
1906. Millen Brand, novelist (The Outward Room)
1916. Victor Mature, actor
January 20.
1734. Robert Morris, signer of the Declaration of Independence
1804. Eugene Sue, novelist (Mysteries of Paris)
1814. David Wilmot, U.S. Senator; introduced the "Wilmot proviso."
1866. Richard LeGallienne, English writer
1876. Joseph Hofmann; pianist
1880. Ruth St. Denis, dancer
1891. Mischa Elman, concert violinist
1894. Harold Gray, cartoonist ("Little Orphan Annie")
1894. Walter Piston, composer
1896. Paul E. Richter, co-founder of Trans-World Airline
1896. George Burns, comedian
1897. Ivan L. Albright, painter
1897. Rosa Ponselle, soprano
1908. Henry L. Scott, pianist-humorist
1914. Willie Turnesa, golf champion
1926. Patricia Neal, actress, winner of Drama Critic Awards
1940. Carol Heiss, figure-skater
14
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Agenda, Alternatives & Public Policies (Boston: Little Brown &
Co.) John Kingdon
"I do solemnly swear ; " the Story of the Presidential
Inaugurations (New York, Ariel Books) 1966
The President's Agenda (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
1983) Paul Light
Presidential Inaugurations: A Selected List of References,
Library of Congress 1969
Presidential Influence in Congress (San Francisco, CA: W. H.
Freeman & Co. 1980) George C. Edwards
Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership from FDR to Carter
(New York: John Wiley & Sons 1980) Richard E. Neudstat
Presidents, and Public Opinion (New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1973)
The Presidents and the Public, Rhetoric & National Leadership
edited by Craig Allen Smith and Kathy B. Smithh (University
Press of America; 1985)
The Presidency & the Political System (Washington, DC
Congressional Quarterly, 1988) Michael Nelson
Organizing the Presidency (Brookings 1976) Stephen Hess
The White House, an Historic Guide, Mrs John N. Pearce & William
V. Elder III 1963
PERIODICALS
Journalism Quarterly "The State of the Union address and the
press agenda" winter 1980 p. 584-588
Journalism Quarterly Winter 1985 Vol. 62 no.4 p.869-876 "Coverage
of Transitions"
Mass Communication Review Vol. 13(1-3) p.18-24 "1986 Coverage of
Inaugural & State of the Unions" M. McDecitt
National Geographic Magazine "Pennsylvania Avenue, route of
Presidents" January 1957 p.63-95
New York Times Magazine "story of the Poem" (Interview with
Robert Frost) Harvey Shapiro; January 15, 1961, p.6,86
Policy Review "Voice of America: Ronald Reagan & the American
Rhetorical Tradition" summer 1985 p.66-69
Presidential Studies Quarterly fall 1980 Chester (author)
"Inaugural Addresses"
Presidential Studies Quarterly "The Foundation of Presidential
Leadership: Teaching" winter 1981, p.99-105
Presidential Studies Quarterly "Presidential Values and Public
Priorities: recurrent patterns in addresses to the Nation"
fall 1985 p.743-753
Social Sciences Quarterly "Identifying Presidents Domestic
Agendas" March 1983 p.163-172
OTHER
MacNeil Lehrer Report "State of the Union Reaction" January 26,
1983
"The Parameters of Presidential Politics" John Kessel, Paper
delivered at American Political Science Association 1972
Annual Meeting
The Annual Message to the Congress
I shall be happy to submit the matter, with a favorable recom-
mendation, to the Congress at the first opportunity.
Very sincerely yours,
Honorable A. W. Mellon,
Washington, D. C.
235
The Annual Message to the Congress.
January 6, 1937
Mr. President, Mr. Speaker, Members of the Congress of the United
States:
OR the first time in our national history a President de-
F
livers his Annual Message to a new Congress within a
fortnight of the expiration of his term of office. While
there is no change in the Presidency this year, change
will occur in future years. It is my belief that under
this new constitutional practice, the President should in every
fourth year, in so far as seems reasonable, review the existing
state of our national affairs and outline broad future problems,
leaving specific recommendations for future legislation to be made
by the President about to be inaugurated.
At this time, however, circumstances of the moment compel
me to ask your immediate consideration of: First, measures ex-
leg
tending the life of certain authorizations and powers which,
business
under present statutes, expire within a few weeks; second, an
addition to the existing Neutrality Act to cover specific points
raised by the unfortunate civil strife in Spain; and, third, a de-
ficiency appropriation bill for which I shall submit estimates this
week.
In March, 1933, the problems which faced our Nation and
which only our national Government had the resources to meet
were more serious even than appeared on the surface.
It was not only that the visible mechanism of economic life had
broken down. More disturbing was the fact that long neglect of
the needs of the underprivileged had brought too many of our
634
A working session
ngress
The Annual Message to the Congress
a favorable recom-
people to the verge of doubt as to the successful adaptation of our
historic traditions to the complex modern world. In that lay a
challenge to our democratic form of Government itself.
Ours was the task to prove that democracy could be made to
function in the world of today as effectively as in the simpler
world of a hundred years ago. Ours was the task to do more than
to argue a theory. The times required the confident answer of
Congress.
performance to those whose instinctive faith in humanity made
them want to believe that in the long run democracy would prove
superior to more extreme forms of Government as a process of
ongress of the United
getting action when action was wisdom, without the spiritual
sacrifices which those other forms of Government exact.
a President de-
That challenge we met. To meet it required unprecedented
Congress within a
activities under Federal leadership to end abuses, to restore a
of office. While
large measure of material prosperity, to give new faith to mil-
this year, change
lions of our citizens who had been traditionally taught to expect
belief that under
that democracy would provide continuously wider opportunity
should in every
and continuously greater security in a world where science was
review the existing
continuously making material riches more available to man.
future problems,
In the many methods of attack with which we met these prob-
gislation to be made
lems, you and I, by mutual understanding and by determination
to cooperate, helped to make democracy succeed by refusing to
moment compel
permit unnecessary disagreement to arise between two of our
First, measures ex-
branches of Government. That spirit of cooperation was able to
and powers which,
solve difficulties of extraordinary magnitude and ramification
weeks; second, an
with few important errors, and at a cost cheap when measured
specific points
by the immediate necessities and the eventual results.
and, third, a de-
I look forward to a continuance of that cooperation in the next
bmit estimates this
four years. I look forward also to a continuance of the basis of
that cooperation - mutual respect for each other's proper sphere
our Nation and
of functioning in a democracy which is working well, and a com-
resources
to
meet
mon-sense realization of the need for play in the joints of the
surface.
machine.
economic life had
On that basis, it is within the right of the Congress to deter-
hat long neglect of
mine which of the many new activities shall be continued or
abandoned, increased or curtailed.
too many 780280 of our
635
2240
The Annual Message to the Congress
On that same basis, the President alone has the responsibility
for their administration. I find that this task of Executive manage-
ment has reached the point where our administrative machinery
needs comprehensive overhauling. I shall, therefore, shortly ad-
dress the Congress more fully in regard to modernizing and
improving the Executive branch of the Government.
That cooperation of the past four years between the Congress
and the President has aimed at the fulfillment of a twofold policy:
first, economic recovery through many kinds of assistance to agri-
culture, industry and banking; and, second, deliberate improve-
ment in the personal security and opportunity of the great mass
of our people.
The recovery we sought was not to be merely temporary. It
was to be a recovery protected from the causes of previous dis-
asters. With that aim in view - to prevent a future similar crisis -
you and I joined in a series of enactments - safe banking and
sound currency, the guarantee of bank deposits, protection for
the investor in securities, the removal of the threat of agricultural
surpluses, insistence on collective bargaining, the outlawing of
sweat shops, child labor and unfair trade practices, and the begin-
nings of security for the aged and the worker.
Nor was the recovery we sought merely a purposeless whirring
of machinery. It is important, of course, that every man and
woman in the country be able to find work, that every factory
run, that business and farming as a whole earn profits. But Gov-
ernment in a democratic Nation does not exist solely, or even
primarily, for that purpose.
It is not enough that the wheels turn. They must carry us in
the direction of a greater satisfaction in life for the average man.
The deeper purpose of democratic government is to assist as
many of its citizens as possible, especially those who need it most,
to improve their conditions of life, to retain all personal liberty
which does not adversely affect their neighbors, and to pursue the
happiness which comes with security and an opportunity for
recreation and culture.
Even with our present recovery we are far from the goal of
636
ngress
The Annual Message to the Congress
as the responsibility
that deeper purpose. There are far-reaching problems still with
Executive manage-
us for which democracy must find solutions if it is to consider
histrative machinery
itself successful.
herefore, shortly ad-
For example, many millions of Americans still live in habita-
0 modernizing and
tions which not only fail to provide the physical benefits of mod-
ernment.
ern civilization but breed disease and impair the health of future
etween the Congress
generations. The menace exists not only in the slum areas of the
of a twofold policy:
very large cities, but in many smaller cities as well. It exists on
of assistance to agri-
tens of thousands of farms, in varying degrees, in every part of
deliberate improve-
the country.
ty of the great mass
Another example is the prevalence of an un-American type of
tenant farming. I do not suggest that every farm family has the
herely temporary. It
capacity to earn a satisfactory living on its own farm. But many
uses of previous dis-
thousands of tenant farmers, indeed most of them, with some
uture similar crisis -
financial assistance and with some advice and training, can be
- -safe banking and
made self-supporting on land which can eventually belong to
osits, protection for
them. The Nation would be wise to offer them that chance
hreat of agricultural
instead of permitting them to go along as they do now, year after
g, the outlawing of
year, with neither future security as tenants nor hope of owner-
tices, and the begin-
ship of their homes nor expectation of bettering the lot of their
children.
purposeless whirring
Another national problem is the intelligent development of
hat every man and
our social security system, the broadening of the services it ren-
that every factory
ders, and practical improvement in its operation. In many Na-
rn profits. But Gov-
tions where such laws are in effect, success in meeting the expecta-
xist solely, or even
tions of the community has come through frequent amendment
of the original statute.
ey must carry us in
And, of course, the most far-reaching and the most inclusive
or the average man.
problem of all is that of unemployment and the lack of economic
ment is to assist as
balance of which unemployment is at once the result and the
e who need it most,
symptom. The immediate question of adequate relief for the
all personal liberty
unemployed who are capable of performing useful work,
S, and to pursue the
I shall discuss with the Congress during the coming months. The
an opportunity for
broader task of preventing unemployment is a matter of long-
range evolutionary policy. To that we must continue to give our
ar from the goal of
best thought and effort. We cannot assume that immediate indus-
637
The Annual Message to the Congress
trial and commercial activity which mitigates present pressures
justifies the national Government at this time in placing the un-
employment problem in a filing cabinet of finished business.
Fluctuations in employment are tied to all other wasteful fluc-
tuations in our mechanism of production and distribution. One
of these wastes is speculation. In securities or commodities, the
larger the volume of speculation, the wider become the upward
and downward swings and the more certain the result that in the
long run there will be more losses than gains in the underlying
wealth of the community.
And, as is now well known to all of us, the same net loss to
society comes from reckless overproduction and monopolistic
underproduction of natural and manufactured commodities.
Overproduction, underproduction and speculation are three
evil sisters who distill the troubles of unsound inflation and dis-
astrous deflation. It is to the interest of the Nation to have Gov-
ernment help private enterprise to gain sound general price levels
and to protect those levels from wide perilous fluctuations. We
know now that if early in 1931 Government had taken the steps
which were taken two and three years later, the depression would
never have reached the depths of the beginning of 1933.
Sober second thought confirms most of us in the belief that
the broad objectives of the National Recovery Act were sound.
We know now that its difficulties arose from the fact that it tried
to do too much. For example, it was unwise to expect the same
agency to regulate the length of working hours, minimum wages,
child labor and collective bargaining on the one hand and the
complicated questions of unfair trade practices and business con-
trols on the other.
The statute of N.R.A. has been outlawed. The problems have
not. They are still with us.
That decent conditions and adequate pay for labor, and just
return for agriculture, can be secured through parallel and simul-
taneous action by forty-eight States is a proven impossibility. It is
equally impossible to obtain- curbs on monopoly, unfair trade
practices and speculation by State action alone. There are those
638
Congress
The Annual Message to the Congress
igates present pressures
time in placing the un-
who, sincerely or insincerely, still cling to State action as a theo-
f finished business.
retical hope. But experience with actualities makes it clear that
all other wasteful fluc-
Federal laws supplementing State laws are needed to help solve
and distribution. One
the problems which result from modern invention applied in an
es or commodities, the
industrialized Nation which conducts its business with scant re-
gard to State lines.
er become the upward
n the result that in the
During the past year there has been a growing belief that there
ains in the underlying
is little fault to be found with the Constitution of the United
States as it stands today. The vital need is not an alteration of our
S, the same net loss to
fundamental law, but an increasingly enlightened view with
ion and monopolistic
reference to it. Difficulties have grown out of its interpretation;
ured commodities.
but rightly considered, it can be used as an instrument of prog-
speculation are three
ress, and not as a device for prevention of action.
und inflation and dis-
It is worth our while to read and reread the preamble of the
Nation to have Gov-
Constitution, and Article I thereof which confers the legislative
nd general price levels
powers upon the Congress of the United States. It is also worth
lous fluctuations. We
our while to read again the debates in the Constitutional Con-
nt had taken the steps
vention of one hundred and fifty years ago. From such reading,
the depression would
I obtain the very definite thought that the members of that
ning of 1933.
Convention were fully aware that civilization would raise prob-
us in the belief that
lems for the proposed new Federal Government, which they
very Act were sound.
themselves could not even surmise; and that it was their definite
1 the fact that it tried
intent and expectation that a liberal interpretation in the years
to expect the same
to come would give to the Congress the same relative powers over
urs, minimum wages,
new national problems as they themselves gave to the Congress
e one hand and the
over the national problems of their day.
ces and business con-
In presenting to the Convention the first basic draft of the
Constitution, Edmund Randolph explained that it was the pur-
The problems have
pose "to insert essential principles only, lest the operation of
government should be clogged by rendering those provisions
y for labor, and just
permanent and unalterable which ought to be accommodated to
times and events."
h parallel and simul-
in impossibility. It is
With a better understanding of our purposes, and a more in-
hopoly, unfair trade
telligent recognition of our needs as a Nation, it is not to be
ne. There are those
assumed that there will be prolonged failure to bring legislative
and judicial action into closer harmony. Means must be found to
639
The Annual Message to the Congress
adapt our legal forms and our judicial interpretation to the actual
present national needs of the largest progressive democracy in
the modern world.
That thought leads to a consideration of world problems. To
go no further back than the beginning of this century, men and
women everywhere were seeking conditions of life very different
from those which were customary before modern invention and
modern industry and modern communications had come into
being. The World War, for all of its tragedy, encouraged these
demands, and stimulated action to fulfill these new desires.
Many national Governments seemed unable adequately to re-
spond; and, often with the improvident assent of the masses of
the people themselves, new forms of government were set up with
oligarchy taking the place of democracy. In oligarchies, milita-
rism has leapt forward, while in those Nations which have re-
tained democracy, militarism has waned.
I have recently visited three of our sister Republics in South
America. The very cordial receptions with which I was greeted
were in tribute to democracy. To me the outstanding observation
of that visit was that the masses of the peoples of all the Americas
Shength
are convinced that the democratic form of government can be
made to succeed and do not wish to substitute for it any other
form of government. They believe that democracies are best able
Jamoe
to cope with the changing problems of modern civilization within
themselves, and that democracies are best able to maintain peace
among themselves.
The Inter-American Conference, operating on these funda-
mental principles of democracy, did much to assure peace in this
Hemisphere. Existing peace machinery was improved. New in-
struments to maintain peace and eliminate causes of war were
adopted. Wider protection of the interests of the American Re-
publics in the event of war outside the Western Hemisphere was
provided. Respect for, and observance of, international treaties
and international law were strengthened. Principles of liberal
trade policies, as effective aids to the maintenance of peace, were
reaffirmed. The intellectual and cultural relationships among
640
The Annual Message to the Congress
to the actual
American Republics were broadened as a part of the general
essive democracy in
peace program.
In a world unhappily thinking in terms of war, the representa-
world problems. To
tives of twenty-one Nations sat around a table, in an atmosphere
century, men and
of complete confidence and understanding, sincerely discussing
of life very different
measures for maintaining peace. Here was a great and a perma-
invention and
nent achievement directly affecting the lives and security of the
had come into
two hundred and fifty million human beings who dwell in this
encouraged these
Western Hemisphere. Here was an example which must have a
new desires.
wholesome effect upon the rest of the world.
adequately to re-
In a very real sense, the Conference in Buenos Aires sent forth
of the masses of
a message on behalf of all the democracies of the world to those
were set up with
Nations which live otherwise. Because such other Governments
oligarchies, milita-
are perhaps more spectacular, it was high time for democracy to
which have re-
assert itself.
Because all of us believe that our democratic form of govern-
Republics in South
ment can cope adequately with modern problems as they arise,
which I was greeted
it is patriotic as well as logical for us to prove that we can meet
tanding observation
new national needs with new laws consistent with an historic
of all the Americas
constitutional framework clearly intended to receive liberal and
government can be
not narrow interpretation.
for it any other
The United States of America, within itself, must continue the
cracies are best able
task of making democracy succeed.
civilization within
In that task the Legislative branch of our Government will, I am
to maintain peace
confident, continue to meet the demands of democracy whether
they relate to the curbing of abuses, the extension of help to those
on these funda-
who need help, or the better balancing of our interdependent
assure peace in this
economies.
improved. New in-
So, too, the Executive branch of the Government must move
causes of war were
forward in this task, and, at the same time, provide better man-
the American Re-
agement for administrative action of all kinds.
Hemisphere was
The Judicial branch also is asked by the people to do its part
ternational treaties
in making democracy successful. We do not ask the Courts to call
rinciples of liberal
non-existent powers into being, but we have a right to expect
of peace, were
that conceded powers or those legitimately implied shall be made
elationships among
effective instruments for the common good.
641
The Annual Budget Message
The process of our democracy must not be imperiled by the
denial of essential powers of free government.
Your task and mine is not ending with the end of the depres-
sion. The people of the United States have made it clear that
they expect us to continue our active efforts in behalf of their
peaceful advancement.
In that spirit of endeavor and service I greet the 75th Congress
at the beginning of this auspicious New Year.
236 [The Annual Budget Message to the Con-
gress. January 7, 1937
To the Congress of the United States:'
PURSUANT to provisions of law I transmit herewith the Budget of
the United States Government for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1938, together with this message, which is a part thereof. The esti-
mates have been developed after careful analysis of the revenues,
obligations, and reasonable needs of the Government, and I rec-
ommend appropriations for the purposes specifically detailed
herein.
PART I
The programs inaugurated during the last four years to combat
the depression and to initiate many needed reforms have cost
large sums of money, but the benefits obtained from them are far
outweighing all their costs. We shall soon be reaping the full
benefits of those programs and shall have at the same time a bal-
anced Budget that will also include provision for reduction of the
public debt.
The fiscal plans of the Federal Government for these four years
have been formulated with two objectives in mind.- Our first was
to restore a successful economic life to the country, by providing
greater employment and purchasing power for the people, by
stimulating a more balanced use of our productive capacity, and
642
Anatomy of an Enigma:
for
Jimmy Carter's 1980 State
ms
of the Union Address
ns
Dan F. Hahn
and J. Justin Gustainis
the
This essay identifies several "image" problems faced by President Jimmy
Carter during the period leading up to his 1980 State of the Union speech. It is
contended that Carter's address failed to overcome those problems, largely
the
due to a series of rhetorical "errors" contained in the speech.
for
KEY CONCEPTS Jimmy Carter, presidential rhetoric, State of the Union
addresses, political rhetoric, rhetorical criticism, argumentation, U.S.
presidents, media coverage, 1980 presidential campaign.
pe
DAN F. HAHN (Ph.D., University of Arizona, 1968) is Professor and Chairman in the
an
Department of Communication Arts and Sciences at Queens College of the City University of
New York, Flushing, NY 11367. J. JUSTIN GUSTAINIS (Ph.D., Bowling Green State University,
1981) is Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at the State University of New
York, Plattsburgh, Plattsburgh, NY 12901.
ity
I
n his 1980 State of the Union address, President Jimmy Carter said that the
state of the union was bad because the state of the world was bad. Thus, if
America were to put her own house in order, it would be necessary to be
tough with the Soviet Union and to help put the world in order. But, he
suggested, it would not be easy.
15.
Neither was the rhetorical situation faced by Carter an easy one to modify.
an
Given public cynicism about government generally, Carter's own lackluster
performance in office and the ways in which news media portray the modern
presidency (and the effects of such portrayals on public opinion), Carter was
in need of a rhetorical miracle. The 1980 State of the Union speech did not
provide one. This essay discusses the above mentioned factors affecting
Carter's popularity and then considers how, through a series of rhetorical
errors-including the use of absolutes and superlatives, internal contradic-
tions, argumentative deficiencies, stylistic problems and a lack of toughness-
Carter failed to mitigate them.
Carter's Problems
One of the biggest problems which Jimmy Carter faced in his attempts to
create and implement policy was public cynicism about government perfor-
mance. In 1958, dûring the latter part of Dwight Eisenhower's administration,
Communication Quarterly Vol. 33, No. 1, Winter 1985, Pages 43-49
43
60 percent of Americans surveyed indicated that they were "trusting" of
government; only 11 percent saw themselves as "cynical." By 1978, opinions
had shifted drastically. Only 19 percent of Americans who were questioned
regarding their opinions about government described themselves as "trust-
ing"; a characterization of "cynical" was given by 52 percent (Harwood,
Johnson, & Lemann, 1980, p. 7).
Of course, much of this decline in trust could not be blamed on Jimmy
Carter. The Vietnam War and the Watergate scandal had been primary
culprits. But Carter had been unable to reverse the trend, at least partially
because of his own ineptness, including his rhetorical weaknesses (Hahn,
1984). His plan for a tax rebate had been abandoned because of "changed
circumstances"; he characterized his energy program as the "moral equiva-
lent of war" and then saw it mangled by a Congress dominated by his own
party. And, although Carter described America's power as "second to none,"
it apparently was insufficient to deter Iranian militants from taking American
diplomats hostage (Walsh, 1980, pp. 236-237).
Thus, due partly to a general cynicism about government and partly to a
specific cynicism that Jimmy Carter was not up to the job, the American
people did not trust their president to lead them out of the international
wilderness. Time magazine pointed out that many Americans felt that Carter
had been "too soft" in dealing with Iran; the number expressing dissatisfac-
tion had risen from 27 percent in December of 1979 to 44 percent by January
("In a fiercely," 1980, p. 23). A writer for The Washington Post noted that, "for
most of Carter's presidency, it appeared that the country basically did not give
a damn" (Schram, 1980, p. A22). In fact, Lewis Lapham contended that Carter
had been elected not to lead but to "perform the rites of purification." He
argued:
He had a talent for telling fairy tales and cautionary stories, and most people
didn't expect him to do much of importance. By electing him President, the
country thought it had declared a four-year holiday, saying in effect that after
the trouble caused by Richard Nixon, it might be nice not to have any
President at all. It was enough that Mr. Carter merely existed, a passive and
ceremonial figure, representing noble or democratic states of feeling, making
occasional well-photographed gestures signifying his earnest and life-long
commitment to truth, liberty, justice, beauty, equality and the flag. (Lapham,
1980, p. 18)
Carter's task was further complicated by the ways in which modern
Americans tend to view their Presidents in the latter stages of their administra-
tions. Just as the Presidential "honeymoon" (that period immediately follow-
ing the inauguration when the President's popularity reaches great heights,
almost irrespective of his actions) is a recognized phenomenon, so too is the
fact that Presidential popularity inevitably declines over time, and reaches its
lowest levels during the final two years of office (Cronin, 1977, p. 81).
The State of the Union address is, of course, broadcast live on television
and radio during "prime time," and this massive public exposure represents
the final monkey wrench that was waiting to drop into Jimmy Carter's
machinery. As Grossman and Kumar (1981, p. 239) point out, "The President
44
Communication Quarterly Winter 1985
of
and his aides know that a public judgment of his commitments will be made
ions
on the basis of what he says in [the State of the Union] address," for there is a
med
"public expectation that the President show himself as a policy leader." The
rust-
extensive media coverage which the President receives in the modern world
has created a series of extremely high expectations for his performance, both
rhetorically and otherwise. And, since these expectations are so unreasonably
nmy
high much of the time, Presidents often fail to meet them; their standing in
nary
public opinion often suffers as a result (Cronin, 1975, p. 109). Jimmy Carter
was no exception. The situation he faced in January of 1980 called for a
tough-minded and emotionally stirring piece of rhetoric. As is shown below,
ged
the speech that was given failed to meet these criteria.
iiva-
ne,"
Carter's Errors
ican
Despite the problems just outlined, the situation faced by Jimmy Carter as
he prepared his State of the Union address did not lack for opportunities. With
a
the Iranian takeover of the U.S. embassy in Teheran and the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan, Carter was given a chance to move away from symbolism toward
action, while concomitantly moving up in the estimation of his fellow citizens
lac-
and thus in the polls: The people could now find out if the man they had
elected was the right answer to the "Why Not the Best"? question or if "Wee
for
Jimmy" (as James Reston called him) was as ineffectual as his critics had been
give
charging. The 1980 State of the Union speech was one of the first indications
rier
of Carter's response to the situation presented to him by the Iranians and the
He
Russians. It was his chance to convert to toughness, to shed his "Mr. Nice
Guy" image and demonstrate that he was the right man for the job, both then
and for the next four years. To use terms first employed by Bitzer (1968),
Carter was faced with a rhetorical situation, the exigencies of which were
modifiable, if only he could find the right rhetoric.
While Carter's failure to win reelection nine months later can be taken as
indicative of his failure to convert his opportunity into votes, it remains to be
demonstrated whether any of that failure can reasonably be ascribed to
weaknesses in the speech. The assessment argued here is that the speech,
while one of Carter's better efforts, did contain a number of tactical errors. It
was not a giant failure in the "wrong content at the wrong time by the wrong
speaker" mold, but there were a number of deficiences which, added
together, undermined his attempt to portray himself as the right person saying
what needed to be said in the exigencies existing at the moment. Then too, as
suggested earlier, he had other problems to overcome-those involving high
public expectations of presidential media performances and the low public
opinion which often afflicts presidents towards the end of their terms.
its
One error committed by Carter in his State of the Union address was the
use of absolutes and superlatives. Americans have come to expect some
exaggeration from politicians, of course, but those who understood that
Afghanistan had already been a puppet of the Soviets for several years may
have detected a poor fit between Carter's announcement that henceforth
-nt
America was going to "face the world as it is" and his description of the
85
Communication Quarterly Winter 1985
45
Russian use of troops to consolidate its hold there as "this latest Soviet
attempt to extend its colonial domination of others."¹
Carter's most famous superlative in the address was his contention that
the Soviet invasion was "the most serious threat to the peace since the second
world war." Senator Edward Kennedy, Carter's major opponent within his
own party, took issue with that assertion, asking: "Is it a graver threat than the
Berlin blockade. the Korean War, the Soviet march into Hungary and
Czechoslovakia, the Berlin wall, the Cuban missile crisis, or Vietnam?"
Kennedy concluded that, "Exaggeration and hyperbole are the enemies of
sensible foreign policy" ("Transcript of Kennedy's Speech," 1980, p. A12). In
short, Carter's superlatives undermined his assertion of fealty to the facts and
brought into question his ability to assess the world realistically.
The superlatives might, however, have been seen as justifications for a
tough stand-and Carter made some major forays into toughness, saying,
"The United States will not yield to blackmail," and "The Soviet Union must
pay a concrete price for their aggression," and most notably, in laying down a
new Persian Gulf doctrine: "Any attempt by an outside force to gain control of
the Persian Gulf will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the
United States of America. And such an assault will be repelled by any means
necessary, including military force."
But Carter also undermined his new toughness in two ways. First, he
interlaced his speech with calls for caution and restraint-talk of avoiding
bloodshed in Iran and observing the "mutual constraints" of the SALT treaties,
as well as exercising restraint in the use of military force. The situation, Carter
said, called for "careful thought," "steady nerves," "resolute action," "con-
sultation," "close cooperation," "national will," and "diplomatic and political
wisdom." Hahn (1982, p. 41) defines "tough talk" as "strong language in
support of polar positions." Although the positions taken by Carter with
respect to the Soviet Union may have been tough, the toughness was
undermined by his vacillating language. This contrast was not, apparently, lost
on the President's staff. One of Carter's aides, after the speech had been
given, described it as "forcefully ambiguous" ("Carter Takes Charge," 1980,
p. 14).
The second way in which Carter watered down his earlier tough rhetoric
probably had its roots in political considerations. He could not, after all, allow
the new crises to be seen as undermining his previous three years in the
presidency. So, in the latter half of the speech, Carter emphasized the
necessity of continuing his policies, from stressing human rights in interna-
tional relations to cutting bureaucratic paperwork at home. In nine of the
eleven references to his earlier policies, he even employed the phrase, "we
will continue," so that it would be obvious that his administration was on the
right track all along.
But the implied contradiction was obvious. If Carter had been on the right
track, then why did these crises develop? Or, conversely, since the world had
moved into a crisis situation, why should the old policies be continued? Either
way, the call for continuation of the policies seemed to conflict with the
announcement of new crises demanding new policies. While that conflict
46
Communication Quarterly Winter 1985
may have been more apparent than real, and while restraint may have been
the best course of action given the nature of the Iran and Afghanistan crises,
the fact remained that the seeming contradictions between the international
exigencies and Carter's solutions made him appear weak and passive at
precisely the moment when he needed to be perceived as tough and active.
As Schumacher (1980, p. A13) observed, "Critics say the statements [in the
State of the Union address] represent not evolution but inconsistent lurching
from crisis to crisis."
As a final demonstration of this "lack of fit," one may compare the first few
paragraphs of the speech with the last few. In the introduction, Carter laid out
the problems: "turmoil," "strife," "change," "challenges," "terrorism," "an-
archy," "attempted subjugation," and "threats to peace." And, in the conclu-
sion, he provided his vision of America's future: "strong," "free," "at peace,"
"with equal rights," "jobs," "good health," "good education," "a clean and
bountiful life," "secure," with "justice, tolerance and compassion." The
formidable challenges depicted in the beginning of the speech were coun-
tered, not with a tough new foreign policy, but with the mushiness of the
American dream. Carter had lapsed from national leader to national dreamer.
Another type of lapse by Carter might be called "argumentative inadequa-
cy." When putting forth a new policy, a President is normally expected to
argue for it, to give reasons why it should be adopted. Such argumentation
need not be highly detailed, but it should be easy to follow. Causes and effects
need to be clearly related. The nature of the change, and the reasons for it,
should be persuasively stated. And, if possible, the dovetailing of the new
policy with American experience and values should be demonstrated.
In his State of the Union address, Jimmy Carter did very few of these
things. He did establish a need for change, and he did announce a new
doctrine. But he did not demonstrate how or whether the new doctrine would
work, nor did he place it in the framework of past American policy.
Rather, perhaps because his own thought processes were honed by his
engineering years, Carter tended to provide lists. and leave the listeners to
establish the relationships and rationales on their own. Thus, in this speech,
1
he presented seven lists: a list of three basic developments which created the
contemporary challenges, a list of five goals which he would continue to
pursue, a four-part historic list of American-Soviet confrontations organized
by decades in chronological order, beginning with the 1940's, a list of six ways
in which America will continue to work for world peace, a list of five actions
that will be undertaken to strengthen the national economy, a list of eight
visions of the American future and a list of three things which all Americans
could do together to make these visions realities.
In no case were Carter's lists expanded upon, defended or in any way
argued for in subsequent paragraphs; in only one instance, in reference to the
need to continue supporting human rights in international relations (point four
of list four), was an item on one of the lists argued for within the confines of
the list-making. In short, his lists consisted of 33 unsupported assertions and
one supported one. Whether these 34 items were meant to be the meat of his
argument or mere byproducts offered as addenda to the argumentation found
Communication Quarterly Winter 1985
47
with our children. In fact, a case could be made that Carter response was so
soft that Reagan was able to soften his pro-military force stance enough to
escape his "trigger happy" image and still come off as much tougher than the
he
incumbent.
he
Conclusion
To the extent that a specimen of rhetoric may be measured by its effects,
his
Jimmy Carter's 1980 State of the Union address was a failure. It did not
convince the Iranians to return the hostages, did not influence the Russians to
withdraw from Afghanistan, and did not persuade the American people that
Jimmy Carter was tough enough to be allowed to direct America's fight against
as
her enemies for another four years.
Thus, several months later, amid the wreckage (both literal and figurative)
of the abortive attempt by American commandos to rescue the hostages from
Iran, a widely held conclusion was that the episode was "just the sort of
tragically flawed comedy of errors the public had come to expect from its
president-a nice try, too bad the little guy couldn't pull it off" (Walsh, 1980,
p. 236).
NOTE
this
'All subsequent quotations from Carter's speech are taken from "Transcript of President's State of the
Union Address to Joint Session of Congress," The New York Times, January 24, 1980, p. A12.
REFERENCES
the
Bitzer, L.F. (1968). The rhetorical situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric, 1, 1-14.
Carter takes charge. (1980, February 4). Time, pp. 12-17.
Cronin, T. E. (1975). The state of the presidency. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co.
the
Cronin, T. E. (1977). The presidency and its paradoxes. In T. E. Cronin & R. G. Tugwell (Eds.), The
presidency reappraised (2nd ed., pp. 69-85). New York: Praeger Publishers.
Grossman, M. B., & Kumar, M. J. (1981). Portraying the president: The White House and the News Media
(Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Press).
Hahn, D.F. (1982). The semi-tough language of the 1980 presidential campaign. The Pennsylvania Speech
Communication Annual, 38, 41-45.
rult
Hahn, D. F. (1984). The rhetoric of Jimmy Carter, 1976-1980. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 14,
265-288.
Harwood, R., Johnson, H. & Lemann, N. (1980). On the eve. In R. Harwood (Ed.): The pursuit of the
presidency 1980 (pp. 3/62). New York: Berkeley Books.
In a fiercely hawkish mood. (1980, February 11). Time, pp. 22-23.
Lapham, L. H. (1980). King Frederick's mules. Harper's, pp. 12-22.
Schram, M. (1980, January 25). Carter speech: Outtlanking, undercutting rivals. The Washington Post, p.
A22.
Schumacher, E. (1980, January 24). For Carter, a shift in view on Russians. The New York Times, p. A13.
Transcript of Kennedy's speech at Georgetown University on campaign issues. (1980, January 29). The New
York Times, p. A12.
Transcript of the President's State of the Union Address to joint session of Congress. (1980, January 24). The
New York Times, p. A12.
Walsh, E.J. (1980). Carter. In R. Harwood (Ed.), The pursuit of the presidency 1980 (pp. 232-252). New
York: Berkeley Books.
in
Communication Quarterly Winter 1985
49
3m 3pm. Dwall.
7.20
track have down.
sen him to ground.
fugition
MR. N. is lake for Liven appointment
in Miami
Dwight D. Eisenhower, I957
I 8
with our friends
the purposes and
7
Ч
Statement by the President on the
promptly to send a
Resignation of Sir Anthony Eden.
the cooperation we
Fanuary 9, I957
I HAVE JUST BEEN INFORMED of the official announce-
burdens and indeed
ment of the resignation of Sir Anthony Eden as head of Her
the area will not
Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom.
Sir Anthony is an old and good friend. During the days of
ossly distorting our
World War II and since, there have been few periods when he
seen our nation's
and their fortitude
and I were not engaged in the study of some problem common
to our two countries. Through the years I have developed for
egardless of hostile
him a great respect and admiration.
in the cause of
As Foreign Minister and then as Prime Minister, Sir Anthony
has been a dedicated leader in the cause of freedom. He is a
Var II, been meas-
staunch believer in the need for unity among the community of
of the precious
free nations, especially between his country and ours.
great areas of the
Mrs. Eisenhower and I extend to him and to Lady Eden our
be thrown away.
President and the
hopes that Sir Anthony will soon fully recover his health so that
serve the vital in-
he may have many useful years of happiness ahead.
gain our national
8
Ч
Annual Message to the Congress on the State
respect for the
vever great, how-
of the Union. Fanuary 10, 1957
o this purpose we
ourselves.
[Delivered in person before a joint session ]
EISENHOWER
To the Congress of the United States:
I appear before the Congress today to report on the State of
Ist
sess.).
the Union and the relationships of the Union to the other nations
as reported from the
the
Congressional
of the world. I come here, firmly convinced that at no time in
p.
181).
the history of the Republic have circumstances more emphati-
cally underscored the need, in all echelons of government, for
vision and wisdom and resolution.
You meet in a season of stress that is testing the fitness of polit-
17
8
Public Papers of the Presidents
ical systems and the validity of political philosophies. Each stress
stems in part from causes peculiar to itself. But every stress is a
reflection of a universal phenomenon.
In the world today, the surging and understandable tide of
nationalism is marked by widespread revulsion and revolt against
tyranny, injustice, inequality and poverty. As individuals, joined
in a common hunger for freedom, men and women and even
children pit their spirit against guns and tanks. On a larger
scale, in an ever more persistent search for the self-respect of
authentic sovereignty and the economic base on which national
independence must rest, peoples sever old ties; seek new alliances;
experiment-sometimes dangerously-in their struggle to satisfy
these human aspirations.
Particularly, in the past year, this tide has changed the pattern
of attitudes and thinking among millions. The changes already
accomplished foreshadow a world transformed by the spirit of
freedom. This is no faint and pious hope. The forces now at
work in the minds and hearts of men will not be spent through
many years. In the main, today's expressions of nationalism
are, in spirit, echoes of our forefathers' struggle for independence.
This Republic cannot be aloof to these events heralding a new
epoch in the affairs of mankind.
Our pledged word, our enlightened self-interest, our character
as a Nation commit us to a high role in world affairs: a role of
vigorous leadership, ready strength, sympathetic understanding.
The State of the Union, at the opening of the 85th Congress
continues to vindicate the wisdom of the principles on which this
Republic is founded. Proclaimed in the Constitution of the Na-
tion and in many of our historic documents, and founded in devout
religious convictions, these principles enunciate:
A vigilant regard for human liberty.
A wise concern for human welfare.
A ceaseless effort for human progress.
Fidelity to these principles, in our relations with other peoples,
has won us new friendships and has increased our opportunity for
18
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957
8
Each stress
service within the family of nations. The appeal of these prin-
every stress is a
ciples is universal, lighting fires in the souls of men everywhere.
We shall continue to uphold them, against those who deny them
ndable tide of
and in counselling with our friends.
revolt against
At home, the application of these principles to the complex
ividuals, joined
problems of our national life has brought us to an unprecedented
men and even
peak in our economic prosperity and has exemplified in our way
On a larger
of life the enduring human values of mind and spirit.
self-respect of
Through the past four years these principles have guided the
which national
legislative programs submitted by the Administration to the Con-
new alliances;
gress. As we attempt to apply them to current events, domestic
uggle to satisfy
and foreign, we must take into account the complex entity that
is the United States of America; what endangers it; what can
ged the pattern
improve it.
hanges already
The visible structure is our American economy itself. After
y the spirit of
more than a century and a half of constant expansion, it is still
forces now at
rich in a wide variety of natural resources. It is first among na-
spent through
tions in its people's mastery of industrial skills. It is productive
of nationalism
beyond our own needs of many foodstuffs and industrial-products.
independence.
It is rewarding to all our citizens in opportunity to earn and to
eralding a new
advance in self-realization and in self-expression. It is fortunate
in its wealth of educational and cultural and religious centers. It
our character
is vigorously dynamic in the limitless initiative and willingness
fairs: a role of
to venture that characterize free enterprise. It is productive of a
understanding.
widely shared prosperity.
85th Congress
Our economy is strong, expanding, and fundamentally sound.
on which this
But in any realistic appraisal, even the optimistic analyst will
tion of the Na-
realize that in a prosperous period the principal threat to efficient
nded in devout
functioning of a free enterprise system is inflation. We look back
on four years of prosperous activities during which prices, the
cost of living, have been relatively stable-that is, inflation has
been held in check. But it is clear that the danger is always
present, particularly if the government might become profligate
other peoples,
in its expenditures or private groups might ignore all the possible
opportunity for
results on our economy of unwise struggles for immediate gain.
19
I 8
Public Papers of the Presidents
This danger requires a firm resolution that the Federal Gov-
ernment shall utilize only a prudent share of the Nation's re-
sources, that it shall live within its means, carefully measuring
against need alternative proposals for expenditures.
Through the next four years, I shall continue to insist that the
executive departments and agencies of Government search out
additional ways to save money and manpower. I urge that the
Congress be equally watchful in this matter.
We pledge the Government's share in guarding the integrity
of the dollar. But the Government's efforts cannot be the entire
campaign against inflation, the thief that can rob the individual
of the value of the pension and social security he has earned during
his productive life. For success, Government's efforts must be
paralleled by the attitudes and actions of individual citizens.
I have often spoken of the purpose of this Administration to
serve the national interest of 170 million people. The national
interest must take precedence over temporary advantages which
may be secured by particular groups at the expense of all the
people.
In this regard I call on leaders in business and in labor to think
well on their responsibility to the American people. With all
elements of our society, they owe the Nation a vigilant guard
against the inflationary tendencies that are always at work in a
dynamic economy operating at today's high levels. They can
powerfully help counteract or accentuate such tendencies by their
wage and price policies.
Business in its pricing policies should avoid unnecessary price
increases especially at a time like the present when demand in
so many areas presses hard on short supplies. A reasonable profit
is essential to the new investments that provide more jobs in an
expanding economy. But business leaders must, in the national
interest, studiously avoid those price rises that are possible only
because of vital or unusual needs of the whole nation.
If our economy is to remain healthy, increases in wages and
other labor benefits, negotiated by labor and management, must
20
Dwight D. Eisenhower, I957
8
Federal
Gov-
be reasonably related to improvements in productivity. Such
Nation's
re-
increases are beneficial, for they provide wage earners with greater
measuring
purchasing power. Except where necessary to correct obvious
injustices, wage increases that outrun productivity, however, are
insist
that
the
an inflationary factor. They make for higher prices for the public
search
out
generally and impose a particular hardship on those whose welfare
urge that the
depends on the purchasing power of retirement income and sav-
ings. Wage negotiations should also take cognizance of the right
the
integrity
of the public generally to share in the benefits of improvements
be
the
entire
in technology.
the
individual
Freedom has been defined as the opportunity for self-discipline.
earned
during
This definition has a special application to the areas of wage
fforts
must
be
and price policy in a free economy. Should we persistently fail
citizens.
to discipline ourselves, eventually there will be increasing pressure
ninistration
to
on government to redress the failure. By that process freedom
The national
will step by step disappear. No subject on the domestic scene
antages which
should more attract the concern of the friends of American work-
of
all
the
ing men and women and of free business enterprise than the forces
that threaten a steady depreciation of the value of our money.
labor to think
With
all
vigilant guard
Concerning developments in another vital sector of our econ-
at
work
in
a
omy-agriculture-I am gratified that the long slide in farm in-
They can
come has been halted and that further improvement is in prospect.
encies by their
This is heartening progress. Three tools that we have devel-
oped-improved surplus disposal, improved price support laws,
necessary price
and the soil bank-are working to reduce price-depressing govern-
demand
in
ment stocks of farm products. Our concern for the well-being of
asonable profit
farm families demands that we constantly search for new ways
jobs
in
an
by which they can share more fully in our unprecedented pros-
the national
perity. Legislative recommendations in the field of agriculture
possible only
are contained in the Budget Message.
Our soil, water, mineral, forest, fish, and wildlife resources are
in wages and
being conserved and improved more effectively. Their conserva-
agement,
must
tion and development are vital to the present and future strength
21
8
Public Papers of the Presidents
of the Nation. But they must not be the concern of the Federal
Government alone. State and local entities, and private enter-
prise should be encouraged to participate in such projects.
I would like to make special mention of programs for making
the best uses of water, rapidly becoming our most precious natural
resource, just as it can be, when neglected, a destroyer of both
life and wealth. There has been prepared and published a com-
prehensive water report developed by a Cabinet Committee and
relating to all phases of this particular problem.
In the light of this report, there are two things I believe we
should keep constantly in mind. The first is that each of our
great river valleys should be considered as a whole. Piecemeal
operations within each lesser drainage area can be self-defeating
or, at the very least, needlessly expensive. The second is that
the domestic and industrial demands for water grow far more
rapidly than does our population.
The whole matter of making the best use of each drop of water
from the moment it touches our soil until it reaches the oceans,
for such purposes as irrigation, flood control, power production,
and domestic and industrial uses clearly demands the closest kind
of cooperation and partnership between municipalities, States
and the Federal Government. Through partnership of Federal,
state and local authorities in these vast projects we can obtain
the economy and efficiency of development and operation that
springs from a lively sense of local responsibility.
Until such partnership is established on a proper and logical
basis of sharing authority, responsibility and costs, our country
will never have both the fully productive use of water that it SO
obviously needs and protection against disastrous flood.
If we fail in this, all the many tasks that need to be done in
America could be accomplished only at an excessive cost, by the
growth of a stifling bureaucracy, and eventually with a dangerous
degree of centralized control over our national life.
In all domestic matters, I believe that the people of the United
22
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957
8
of the Federal
States will expect of us effective action to remedy past failure in
private enter-
meeting critical needs.
projects.
High priority should be given the school construction bill.
ms for making
This will benefit children of all races throughout the country-
recious natural
and children of all races need schools now. A program designed
stroyer of both
to meet emergency needs for more classrooms should be enacted
blished a com-
without delay. I am hopeful that this program can be enacted
Committee and
on its own merits, uncomplicated by provisions dealing with the
complex problems of integration. I urge the people in all sec-
S I believe we
tions of the country to approach these problems with calm and
at each of our
reason, with mutual understanding and good will, and in the
le. Piecemeal
American tradition of deep respect for the orderly processes of
self-defeating
law and justice.
second is that
I should say here that we have much reason to be proud of the
grow far more
progress our people are making in mutual understanding-the
chief buttress of human and civil rights. Steadily we are moving
drop of water
closer to the goal of fair and equal treatment of citizens without
hes the oceans,
regard to race or color. But unhappily much remains to be done.
er production,
Last year the Administration recommended to the Congress
the closest kind
a four-point program to reinforce civil rights. That program
palities, States
included:
hip of Federal,
(1) creation of a bipartisan commission to investigate asserted
we can obtain
violations of civil rights and to make recommendations;
operation that
(2) creation of a civil rights division in the Department of
Justice in charge of an Assistant Attorney General;
per and logical
(3) enactment by the Congress of new laws to aid in the en-
forcement of voting rights; and
ts, our country
(4) amendment of the laws SO as to permit the Federal Gov-
vater that it SO
ernment to seek from the civil courts preventive relief in civil
flood.
rights cases.
to be done in
I urge that the Congress enact this legislation.
ve cost, by the
th a dangerous
Essential to the stable economic growth we seek is a system of
of the United
well-adapted and efficient financial institutions. I believe the
23
8
Public Papers of the Presidents
time has come to conduct a broad national inquiry into the nature,
performance and adequacy of our financial system, both in terms
of its direct service to the whole economy and in terms of its
function as the mechanism through which monetary and credit
policy takes effect. I believe the Congress should authorize the
creation of a commission of able and qualified citizens to under-
take this vital inquiry. Out of their findings and recommenda-
tions the Administration would develop and present to the
Congress any legislative proposals that might be indicated for the
purpose of improving our financial machinery.
In this message it seems unnecessary that I should repeat rec-
ommendations involving our domestic affairs that have been
urged upon the Congress during the past four years, but which,
in some instances, did not reach the stage of completely satis-
factory legislation.
The Administration will, through future messages either di-
rectly from me or from heads of the departments and agencies,
transmit to the Congress specific recommendations. These will
involve our financial and fiscal affairs, our military and civil
defenses; the administration of justice; our agricultural economy;
our domestic and foreign commerce; the urgently needed increase
in our postal rates; the development of our natural resources; our
labor laws, including our labor-management relations legislation,
and vital aspects of the health, education and welfare of our
people. There will be special recommendations dealing with
such subjects as atomic energy, the furthering of public works, the
continued efforts to eliminate government competition with the
businesses of tax-paying citizens.
A number of legislative recommendations will be mentioned
specifically in my forthcoming Budget Message, which will reach
you within the week. That message will also recommend such
sums as are needed to implement the proposed action.
24
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957
8
into the nature,
Turning to the international scene:
n, both in terms
The existence of a strongly armed imperialistic dictatorship
in terms of its
poses a continuing threat to the free world's and thus to our own
etary and credit
Nation's security and peace. There are certain truths to be re-
Id authorize the
membered here.
itizens to under-
First, America alone and isolated cannot assure even its own
d recommenda-
security. We must be joined by the capability and resolution of
present to the
nations that have proved themselves dependable defenders of
ndicated for the
freedom. Isolation from them invites war. Our security is also
enhanced by the immeasurable interest that joins us with all
ould repeat rec-
peoples who believe that peace with justice must be preserved,
that have been
that wars of aggression are crimes against humanity.
ears, but which,
Another truth is that our survival in today's world requires
completely satis-
modern, adequate, dependable military strength. Our Nation
has made great strides in assuring a modern defense, so armed in
ssages either di-
new weapons, so deployed, so equipped, that today our security
its and agencies,
force is the most powerful in our peacetime history. It can pun-
ons. These will
ish heavily any enemy who undertakes to attack us. It is a major
ilitary and civil
deterrent to war.
ultural economy;
By our research and development more efficient weapons-
needed increase
some of amazing capabilities-are being constantly created.
al resources; our
These vital efforts we shall continue. Yet we must not delude
tions legislation,
ourselves that safety necessarily increases as expenditures for mili-
welfare of our
tary research or forces in being go up. Indeed, beyond a wise
ns dealing with
and reasonable level, which is always changing and is under con-
public works, the
stant study, money spent on arms may be money wasted on sterile
betition with the
metal or inflated costs, thereby weakening the very security and
strength we seek.
ill be mentioned
National security requires far more than military power. Eco-
which will reach
nomic and moral factors play indispensable roles. Any program
recommend such
that endangers our economy could defeat us. Any weakening of
action.
our national will and resolution, any diminution of the vigor and
initiative of our individual citizens, would strike a blow at the
heart of our defenses.
The finest military establishment we can produce must work
25
8
Public Papers of the Presidents
closely in cooperation with the forces of our friends. Our system
of regional pacts, developed within the Charter of the United
Nations, serves to increase both our own security and the security
of other nations.
This system is still a recent introduction on the world scene.
Its problems are many and difficult, because it insists on equality
among its members and brings into association some nations tra-
ditionally divided. Repeatedly in recent months, the collapse of
these regional alliances has been predicted. The strains upon
them have been at times indeed severe. Despite these strains
our regional alliances have proved durable and strong, and dire
predictions of their disintegration have proved completely false.
With other free nations, we should vigorously prosecute meas-
ures that will promote mutual strength, prosperity and welfare
within the free world. Strength is essentially a product of eco-
nomic health and social well-being. Consequently, even as we
continue our programs of military assistance, we must emphasize
aid to our friends in building more productive economies and in
better satisfying the natural demands of their people for progress.
Thereby we shall move a long way toward a peaceful world.
A sound and safeguarded agreement for open skies, unarmed
aerial sentinels, and-reduced armament would provide a valuable
contribution toward a durable peace in the years ahead. And
we have been persistent in our effort to reach such an agreement.
We are willing to enter any reliable agreement which would re-
verse the trend toward ever more devastating nuclear weapons;
reciprocally provide against the possibility of surprise attack;
mutually control the outer space missile and satellite development;
and make feasible a lower level of armaments and armed forces
and an easier burden of military expenditures. Our continuing
negotiations in this field are a major part of our quest for a con-
fident peace in this atomic age.
This quest requires as well a constructive attitude among all
the nations of the free world toward expansion of trade and in-
26
Dwight D. Eisenhower, I957
9 8
Dur system
vestment, that can give all of us opportunity to work out economic
he
United
betterment.
he
security
An essential step in this field is the provision of an administra-
tive agency to insure the orderly and proper operation of existing
scene.
arrangements under which multilateral trade is now carried on.
equality
To that end I urge Congressional authorization for United States
tra-
membership in the proposed Organization for Trade Coopera-
collapse
of
tion, an action which will speed removal of discrimination against
upon
our export trade.
strains
We welcome the efforts of a number of our European friends
and
dire
to achieve an integrated community to develop a common market.
false.
We likewise welcome their cooperative effort in the field of atomic
meas-
energy.
welfare
To demonstrate once again our unalterable purpose to make
of
eco-
of the atom a peaceful servant of humanity, I shortly shall ask
as
we
the Congress to authorize full United States participation in the
emphasize
International Atomic Energy Agency.
and
in
World events have magnified both the responsibilities and the
progress.
opportunities of the United States Information Agency. Just
world.
as, in recent months, the voice of communism has become more
unarmed
shaken and confused, the voice of truth must be more clearly
a
valuable
heard. To enable our Information Agency to cope with these
And
new responsibilities and opportunities, I am asking the Congress
agreement.
to increase appreciably the appropriations for this program and
would
re-
for legislation establishing a career service for the Agency's over-
weapons;
seas foreign service officers.
attack;
The recent historic events in Hungary demand that all free
elopment;
nations share to the extent of their capabilities in the responsibility
forces
of granting asylum to victims of Communist persecution. I re-
continuing
quest the Congress promptly to enact legislation to regularize the
for
a
con-
status in the United States of Hungarian refugees brought here as
parolees. I shall shortly recommend to the Congress by special
among
all
message the changes in our immigration laws that I deem neces-
and
in-
sary in the light of our world responsibilities.
27
I 8
Public Papers of the Presidents
The cost of peace is something we must face boldly, fearlessly.
Beyond money, it involves changes in attitudes, the renunciation
of old prejudices, even the sacrifice of some seeming self-interest.
Only five days ago I expressed to you the grave concern of
your Government over the threat of Soviet aggression in the Mid-
dle East. I asked for Congressional authorization to help counter
this threat. I say again that this matter is of vital and immediate
importance to the Nation's and the free world's security and peace.
By our proposed programs in the Middle East, we hope to assist
in establishing a climate in which constructive and long-term
solutions to basic problems of the area may be sought.
From time to time, there will be presented to the Congress
requests for other legislation in the broad field of international
affairs. All requests will reflect the steadfast purpose of this Ad-
ministration to pursue peace, based on justice. Although in some
cases details will be new, the underlying purpose and objectives
will remain the same.
All proposals made by the Administration in this field are based
on the free world's unity. This unity may not be immediately ob-
vious unless we examine link by link the chain of relationships that
binds us to every area and to every nation. In spirit the free
world is one because its people uphold the right of independent
existence for all nations. I have already alluded to their economic
interdependence. But their interdependence extends also into
the field of security.
First of all, no reasonable man will question the absolute need
for our American neighbors to be prosperous and secure. Their
security and prosperity are inextricably bound to our own. And
we are, of course, already joined with these neighbors by historic
pledges.
Again, no reasonable man will deny that the freedom and
prosperity and security of Western Europe are vital to our own
prosperity and security. If the institutions, the skills, the man-
power of its peoples were to fall under the domination of an
28
Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957
8
idly, fearlessly.
aggressive imperialism, the violent change in the balance of world
e renunciation
power and in the pattern of world commerce could not be fully
g self-interest.
compensated for by any American measures, military or economic.
ve concern of
But these people, whose economic strength is largely dependent
on in the Mid-
on free and uninterrupted movement of oil from the Middle East,
to help counter
cannot prosper-indeed, their economies would be severely im-
and immediate
paired-should that area be controlled by an enemy and the move-
rity and peace.
ment of oil be subject to its decisions.
hope to assist
Next, to the Eastward, are Asiatic and Far Eastern peoples,
and long-term
recently returned to independent control of their own affairs or
t.
now emerging into sovereign statehood. Their potential strength
the Congress
constitutes new assurance for stability and peace in the world-if
f international
they can retain their independence. Should they lose freedom
ose of this Ad-
and be dominated by an aggressor, the world-wide effects would
though in some
imperil the security of the free world.
and objectives
In short, the world has so shrunk that all free nations are our
neighbors. Without cooperative neighbors, the United States
field are based
cannot maintain its own security and welfare, because:
inmediately ob-
First, America's vital interests are world-wide, embracing both
lationships that
hemispheres and every continent.
spirit the free
Second, we have community of interest with every nation in
of independent
the free world.
their economic
Third, interdependence of interests requires a decent respect
tends also into
for the rights and the peace of all peoples.
These principles motivate our actions within the United Na-
e absolute need
tions. There, before all the world, by our loyalty to them, by
secure. Their
our practice of them, let us strive to set a standard to which all
our own. And
who seek justice and who hunger for peace can rally.
May we at home, here at the Seat of Government, in all the
bors by historic
cities and towns and farmlands of America, support these prin-
ciples in a personal effort of dedication. Thereby each of us can
e freedom and
help establish a secure world order in which opportunity for
ital to our own
freedom and justice will be more widespread, and in which the
skills, the man-
resources now dissipated on the armaments of war can be released
mination of an
for the life and growth of all humanity.
29
I 8
Public Papers of the Presidents
When our forefathers prepared the immortal document that
proclaimed our independence, they asserted that every individual
is endowed by his Creator with certain inalienable rights. As we
gaze back through history to that date, it is clear that our nation
has striven to live up to this declaration, applying it to nations as
well as to individuals.
Today we proudly assert that the government of the United
States is still committed to this concept, both in its activities at
home and abroad.
The purpose is Divine; the implementation is human.
Our country and its government have made mistakes-human
mistakes. They have been of the head-not of the heart. And
it is still true that the great concept of the dignity of all men, alike
created in the image of the Almighty, has been the compass by
which we have tried and are trying to steer our course.
So long as we continue by its guidance, there will be true
progress in human affairs, both among ourselves and among those
with whom we deal.
To achieve a more perfect fidelity to it, I submit, is a worthy
ambition as we meet together in these first days of this, the first
session of the 85th Congress.
DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER
NOTE: This is the text of the docu-
I, 85th Cong., Ist sess.).
ment which the President signed and
The Address as reported from the
transmitted to the Senate and the
floor appears in the Congressional
House of Representatives (H. Doc.
Record (vol. 103, p. 387).
30
EE reform:
We will never coupon,
our purciples
We
-
2014
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2015
FIRST ANNUAL MESSAGE
private soldier. Wealth was not struck at when the President was
assassinated, but the honest toil which is content with moderate gains
WHITE HOUSE, December 3, roor.
after a lifetime of unremitting labor, largely in the service of the pub-
To the Senate and House of Representatives:
lic. Still less was power struck at in the sense that power is irrespon-
The Congress assembles this year under the shadow of a great calam-
sible or centered in the hands of any one individual. The blow was
ity. On the sixth of September, President McKinley was shot by an
not aimed at tyranny or wealth. It was aimed at one of the strongest
anarchist while attending the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, and
champions the wage-worker has ever had; at one of the most faithful
died in that city on the fourteenth of that month.
representatives of the system of public rights and representative gov-
Of the last seven elected Presidents, he is the third who has been
ernment who has ever risen to public office. President McKinley filled
murdered, and the bare recital of this fact is sufficient to justify grave
that political office for which the entire people vote, and no President
alarm among all loyal American citizens. Moreover, the circumstances
not even Lincoln himself was ever more earnestly anxious to repre-
of this, the third assassination of an American President, have a pecul-
sent the well thought-out wishes of the people; his one anxiety in every
iarly sinister significance. Both President Lincoln and President Gar
crisis was to keep in closest touch with the people - to find out what
field were killed by assassins of types unfortunately not uncommon in
they thought and to endeavor to give expression to their thought, after
history; President Lincoln falling a victim to the terrible passions
having endeavored to guide that thought aright. He had just been re-
aroused by four years of civil war, and President Garfield to the revenge-
elected to the Presidency because the majority of our citizens, the ma-
ful vanity of a disappointed office-seeker. President McKinley was
jority of our farmers and wage-workers, believed that he had faithfully
killed by an utterly depraved criminal belonging to that body of
upheld their interests for four years. They felt themselves in close and
criminals who object to all governments; good and bad alike, who are
intimate touch with him. They felt that he represented so well and so
against any form of popular liberty if it is guaranteed by even the most
honorably all their ideals and aspirations that they wished him to con-
just and liberal laws, and who are as hostile to the upright exponent of
tinue for another four years to represent them.
a free people's sober will as to the tyrannical and irresponsible despot.
And this was the man at whom the assassin struck! That there
It is not too much to say that at the time of President McKinley's
might be nothing lacking to complete the Judas-like infamy of his act,
death he was the most widely loved man in all the United States;
he took advantage of an occasion when the President was meeting the
while we have never had any public man of his position who has been
people generally; and advancing as if to take the hand out-stretched to
so wholly free from the bitter animosities incident to public life. His
him in kindly and brotherly fellowship, he turned the noble and gener-
political opponents were the first to bear the heartiest and most gener-
ous confidence of the victim into an opportunity to strike the fatal blow.
There is no baser deed in all the annals of crime.
ous tribute to the broad kindliness of nature, the sweetness and gentle-
ness of character which so endeared him to his close associates. To a
The shock, the grief of the country, are bitter in the minds of all
standard of lofty integrity in public life he united the tender affections
who saw the dark days, while the President yet hovered between life
and home virtues which are all-important in the make-up of national
and death. At last the light was stilled in the kindly eyes and the
character. A gallant soldier in the great war for the Union, he also
breath went from the lips that even in mortal agony uttered no words
shone as an example to all our people because of his conduct in the
save of forgiveness to his murderer, of love for his friends, and of un-
most sacred and intimate of home relations. There could be no per-
faltering trust in the will of the Most High. Such a death, crowning
sonal hatred of him, for he never acted with aught but consideration
the glory of such a life, leaves us with infinite sorrow, but with such
for the welfare of others. No one could fail to respect him who knew
pride in what he had accomplished and in his own personal character,
him in public or private life. The defenders of those murderous
that we feel the blow not as struck at him, but as struck at the Nation
criminals who seek to excuse their criminality by asserting that it is
We mourn a good and great President who is dead; but while we mourn
exercised for political ends, inveigh against wealth and irresponsible
we are lifted up by the spléndid achievements of his life and the grand
heroism with which he met his death.
power. But for this assassination even this base apology cannot be
urged.
When we turn from the man to the Nation, the harm done is so great
President McKinley was a man of moderate means, a man whose
as to excite our gravest apprehensions and to demand our wisest and
stock sprang from the sturdy tillers of the soil, who had himself be-
most resolute action. This criminal was a professed anarchist, inflamed
longed among the wage-workers, who had entered the Army as a
by the teachings of professed anarchists, and probably also by the reck-
less utterances of those who, on the stump and in the public press,
2016
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2017
appeal to the dark and evil spirits of malice and greed, envy and sullen
meetings are essentially seditious and treasonable.
hatred. The wind is sowed by the men who preach such doctrines,
I earnestly recommend to the Congress that in the exercise of its
and they cannot escape their share of responsibility for the whirlwind
wise discretion it should take into consideration the coming to this
that is reaped. This applies alike to the deliberate demagogue, to the
country of anarchists or persons professing principles hostile to all gov-
exploiter of sensationalism, and to the crude and foolish visionary who,
ernment and justifying the murder of those placed in authority. Such
for whatever reason, apologizes for crime or excites aimless discontent.
individuals as those who not long ago gathered in open meeting to
The blow was aimed not at this President, but at all Presidents; at
glorify the murder of King Humbert of Italy perpetrate a crime, and
every symbol of government. President McKinley was as emphatically
the law should ensure their rigorous punishment. They and those like
the embodiment of the popular will of the Nation expressed through
them should be kept out of this country; and if found here they should
the forms of law as a New England town meeting is in similar fashion
be promptly deported to the country whence they came; and far-reach-
the embodiment of the law-abiding purpose and practice of the people
ing provision should be made for the punishment of those who stay.
of the town. On no conceivable theory could the murder of the Presi-
No matter calls more urgently for the wisest thought of the Congress.
dent be accepted as due to protest against " inequalities in the social
The Federal courts should be given jurisdiction over any man who
order," save as the murder of all the freemen engaged in a town meeting
kills or attempts to kill the President or any man who by the Constitu-
could be accepted as a protest against that social inequality which puts
tion or by law is in line of succession for the Presidency, while the
a malefactor in jail. Anarchy is no more an expression of social dis-
punishment for an unsuccessful attempt should be proportioned to the
content' than picking pockets or wife-beating.
enormity of the offense against our institutions.
The anarchist, and especially the anarchist in the United States, is
Anarchy is a crime against the whole human race; and all mankind
merely one type of criminal, more dangerous than any other because
should band against the anarchist. His crime should be made an of-
he represents the same depravity in a greater degree. The man who
fense against the law of nations, like piracy and that form of man-
advocates anarchy directly or indirectly, in any shape or fashion, or the
stealing known as the slave trade; for it is of far blacker infamy than
man who apologizes for anarchists and their deeds, makes himself mor-
either. It should be so declared by treaties among all civilized powers.
ally accessory to murder before the fact. The anarchist is a criminal
Such treaties would give to the Federal Government the power of deal-
whose perverted instincts lead him to prefer confusion and chaos to the
ing with the crime.
most beneficent form of social order. His protest of concern for work-
A grim commentary upon the folly of the anarchist position was
ingmen is outrageous in its impudent falsity; for if the political insti-
afforded by the attitude of the law toward this very criminal who had
tutions of this country do not afford opportunity to every honest and
just taken the life of the President. The people would have torn him
intelligent son of toil, then the door of hope is forever closed against
limb from limb if it had not been that the law he defied was at once
him. The anarchist is everywhere not merely the enemy of system
invoked in his behalf. So far from his deed being committed on behalf
and of progress, but the deadly foe of liberty. If ever anarchy is tri-
of the people against the Government, the Government was obliged at
umphant, its triumph will last for but one red moment, to be succeeded
once to exert its full police power to save him from instant death at the
for ages by the gloomy night of despotism.
hands of the people. Moreover, his deed worked not the slightest dis-
For the anarchist himself, whether he preaches or practices his
location in our governmental system, and the danger of a recurrence of
doctrines, we need not have one particle more concern than for any
such deeds, no matter how great it might grow, would work only in the
ordinary murderer. He is not the victim of social or political injus-
direction of strengthening and giving harshness to the forces of order.
tice. There are no wrongs to remedy in his case. The cause of his
No man will ever be restrained from becoming President by any fear as
criminality is to be found in his own evil passions and in the evil con-
to his personal safety. If the risk to the President's life became great,
duct of those who urge him on, not in any failure by others or by the
it would mean that the office would more and more come to be filled by
State to do justice to him or his. He is a malefactor and nothing else.
men of a spirit which would make them resolute and merciless in deal-
He is in no sense, in no shape or way, a " product of social condi-
ing with every friend of disorder. This great country will not fall into
tions," save as a highwayman is produced" by the fact than an un-
anarchy, and if anarchists should ever become a serious menace to its
armed man happens to have a purse. It is a travesty upon the great
institutions, they would not merely be stamped. out, but would involve
and holy names of liberty and freedom to permit them to be invoked in
in their own ruin every active or passive sympathizer with their doc-
such a cause. No man or body of men preaching anarchistic doctrines
trines. The American people are slow to wrath, but when their wrath
should be allowed at large any more than if preaching the murder of
is once kindled it burns like a consuming flame.
some specified private individual. Anarchistic speeches, writings, and
2018
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2019
During the last five years business confidence has been restored, and
the nation is to be congratulated because of its present abounding pros-
this continent, who have built up our commerce, who have developed
perity. Such prosperity can never be created by law alone, although it
our manufactures, have on the whole done great good to our people.
is easy enough to destroy it by mischievous laws. If the hand of the
Without them the material development of which we are SO justly proud
could never have taken place. Moreover, we should recognize the im-
Lord is heavy upon any country, if flood or drought comes, human
mense importance of this material development of leaving as unham-
wisdom is powerless to avert the calamity. Moreover, no law can guard
pered as is compatible with the public good the strong and forceful men
us against the consequences of our own folly. The men who are idle or
upon whom the success of business operations inevitably rests. The
credulous, the men who seek gains not by genuine work with head or
slightest study of business conditions will satisfy anyone capable of
hand but by gambling in any form, are always a source of menace not
forming a judgment that the personal equation is the most important
only to themselves but to others. If the business world loses its head,
factor in a business operation; that the business ability of the man at
it loses what legislation cannot supply. Fundamentally the welfare of
the head of any business concern, big or little, is usually the factor
each citizen, and therefore the welfare of the aggregate of citizens which
which fixes the gulf between striking success and hopeless failure.
makes the nation, must rest upon individual thrift and energy, resolution,
An additional reason for caution in dealing with corporations is to be
and intelligence. Nothing can take the place of this individual capacity;
found in the international commercial conditions of to-day. The same
but wise legislation and honest and intelligent administration can give
business conditions which have produced the great aggregations of cor-
it the fullest scope, the largest opportunity to work to good effect.
porate and individual wealth have made them very potent factors in
international commercial competition. Business concerns which have
The tremendous and highly complex industrial development which
the largest means at their disposal and are managed by the ablest men
went on with ever accelerated rapidity during the latter half of the
are naturally those which take the lead in the strife for commercial su-
nineteenth century brings us face to face, at the beginning of the
twentieth, with very serious social problems. The old laws, and the
premacy among the nations of the world. America has only just begun
to assume that commanding position in the international business world
old customs which had almost the binding force of law, were once quite
which we believe will more and more be hers. It is of the utmost im-
sufficient to regulate the accumulation and distribution of wealth. Since
portance that this position be not jeoparded, especially at a time when the
the industrial changes which have so enormously increased the pro-
overflowing abundance of our own natural resources and the skill, busi-
ductive power of mankind, they are no longer sufficient.
ness energy, and mechanical aptitude of our people make foreign markets
The growth of cities has gone on beyond comparison faster than the
growth of the country, and the upbuilding of the great industrial centers
essential. Under such conditions it would be most unwise to cramp or
to fetter the youthful strength of our Nation.
has meant a startling increase, not merely in the aggregate of wealth,
but in the number of very large individual, and especially of very large
Moreover, it cannot too often be pointed out that to strike with igno-
rant violence at the interests of one set of men almost inevitably en-
corporate, fortunes. The creation of these great corporate fortunes has
dangers the interests of all. The fundamental rule in our national life
not been due to the tariff nor to any other governmental action, but to
the rule which underlies all others is that, on the whole, and in
natural causes in the business world, operating in other countries as
the long run, we shall go up or down together. There are exceptions;
they operate in our own.
and in times of prosperity some will prosper far more, and in times of
The process has aroused much antagonism, a great part of which is
wholly without warrant. It is not true that as the rich have grown
adversity, some will suffer far more, than others; but speaking gen-
richer the poor have grown poorer. On the contrary, never before has
erally, a period of good times means that all share more or less in them.
and in a period of hard times all feel the stress to a greater or less
the average man, the wage-worker, the farmer, the small trader, been
so well off as in this country and at the present time. There have been
degree. It surely ought not to be necessary to enter into any proof of
abuses connected with the accumulation of wealth; yet it remains true
this statement; the memory of the lean years which began in 1893 is
that a fortune accumulated in legitimate business can be accumulated
still vivid, and we can contrast them with the conditions in this very
by the person specially benefited only on condition of conferring im-
year which is now closing. Disaster to great business enterprises can
mense incidental benefits upon others. Successful enterprise, of the
never have its effects limited to the men at the top. It spreads through-
out, and while it is bad for everybody, it is worst for those farthest
type which benefits all mankind, can only exist if the conditions are
such as to offer great prizes as the rewards of success.
down. The capitalist may be shorn of his luxuries; but the wage-
worker may be deprived of even bare necessities.
The captains of industry who have driven the railway systems across
The mechanism of modern business is so delicate that extreme care
2020
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2021
must be taken not to interfere with it in a spirit of rashness or igno-
as to the value of the property in which the capital is to be invested.
rance. Many of those who have made it their vocation to denounce the
Corporations engaged in interstate commerce should be regulated if
great industrial combinations which are popularly, although with tech-
they are found to exercise a license working to the public injury. It
nical inaccuracy, known as "trusts," appeal especially to hatred and
should be as much the aim of those who seek for social betterment to
fear. These are precisely the two emotions, particularly when com-
rid the business world of crimes of cunning as to rid the entire body pol-
bined with ignorance, which unfit men for the exercise of cool and steady
itic of crimes of violence. Great corporations exist only because they
judgment. In facing new industrial conditions, the whole history of
are created and safeguarded by our institutions; and it is therefore our
the world shows that legislation will generally be both unwise and in-
right and our duty to see that they work in harmony with these insti-
tutions.
effective unless undertaken after calm inquiry and with sober self-
restraint. Much of the legislation directed at the trusts would have
The first essential in determining how to deal with the great indus-
been exceedingly mischievous had it not also been entirely ineffective.
trial combinations is knowledge of the facts- publicity. In the inter-
In accordance with a well-known sociological law, the ignorant or reck-
est of the public, the Government should have the right to inspect and
less agitator has been the really effective friend of the evils which he
examine the workings of the great corporations engaged in interstate
has been nominally opposing. In dealing with business interests, for
business. Publicity is the only sure remedy which we can now invoke.
the Government to undertake by crude and ill-considered legislation to
What further remedies are needed in the way of governmental regula-
do what may turn out to be bad, would be to incur the risk of such far-
tion, or taxation, can only be determined after publicity has been ob-
reaching national disaster that it would be preferable to undertake
tained, by process of law, and in the course of administration. The
nothing at all. The men who demand the impossible or the undesirable
first requisite is knowledge, full and complete-knowledge which may
serve as the allies of the forces with which they are nominally at war,
be made public to the world.
for they hamper those who would endeavor to find out in rational fash-
Artificial bodies, such as corporations and joint stock or other associa-
ion what the wrongs really are and to what extent and in what manner
tions, depending upon any statutory law for their existence or privileges,
it is practicable to apply remedies.
should be subject to proper governmental supervision, and full and ac-
All this is true; and yet it is also true that there are real and grave
curate information as to their operations should be made public regularly
evils, one of the chief being over-capitalization because of its many
at reasonable intervals.
baleful consequences; and a resolute and practical effort must be made
The large corporations, commonly called trusts, though organized in
to correct these evils.
one State, always do business in many States, often doing very little
There is a widespread conviction in the minds of the American people
business in the State where they are incorporated. There is utter lack
that the great corporations known as trusts are in certain of their
of uniformity in the State laws about them; and as no State has any
features and tendencies hurtful to the general welfare. This springs
exclusive interest in or power over their acts, it has in practice proved
from no spirit of envy or uncharitableness, nor lack of pride in the
impossible to get adequate regulation through State action. Therefore,
great industrial achievements that have placed this country at the head
in the interest of the whole people, the Nation should, without interfer-
of the nations struggling for commercial supremacy. It does not rest
ing with the power of the States in the matter itself, also assume power
upon a lack of intelligent appreciation of the necessity of meeting
of supervision and regulation over all corporations doing an interstate
changing and changed conditions of trade with new methods, nor upon
business. This is especially true where the corporation derives a por-
ignorance of the fact that combination of capital in the effort to accom-
tion of its wealth from the existence of some monopolistic element or
plish great things is necessary when the world's progress demands that
tendency in its business. There would be no hardship in such super-
great things be done. It is based upon sincere conviction that combina-
vision; banks are subject to it, and in their case it is now accepted as a
tion and concentration should be, not prohibited, but supervised and
simple matter of course. Indeed, it is probable that supervision of cor-
within reasonable limits controlled; and in my judgment this conviction
porations by the National Government need not go so far as is now the
is right.
case with the supervision exercised over them by so conservative a State
It is no limitation upon property rights or freedom of contract to re-
as Massachusetts, in order to produce excellent results.
quire that when men receive from Government the privilege of doing
When the Constitution was adopted, at the end of the eighteenth cen-
business under corporate form, which frees them from individual
tury, no human wisdom could foretell the sweeping changes, alike in
responsibility, and enables them to call into their enterprises the capital
industrial and political conditions, which were to take place by the be-
of the public, they shall do so upon absolutely truthful representations
ginning of the twentieth century. At that time it was accepted as a
First Annual Message
2023
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
2022
matter of course that the several States were the proper authorities to
States to do away with the competition of convict contract labor in the
regulate, so far as was then necessary, the comparatively insignificant
open labor market. So far as practicable under the conditions of Gov-
and strictly localized corporate bodies of the day. The conditions are
ernment work, provision should be made to render the enforcement of
now wholly different and wholly different action is called for. I believe
the eight-hour law easy and certain. In all industries carried on
directly or indirectly for the United States Government women and
that a law can be framed which will enable the National Government to
exercise control along the lines above indicated; profiting by the experi-
children should be protected from excessive hours of labor, from night
work, and from work under unsanitary conditions. The Government
ence gained through the passage and administration of the Interstate-
Commerce Act. If, however, the judgment of the Congress is that it
should provide in its contracts that all work should be done under
lacks the constitutional power to pass such an act, then a constitutional
'fair'' conditions, and in addition to setting a high standard should
uphold it by proper inspection, extending if necessary to the subcon-
amendment should be submitted to confer the power.
There should be created a Cabinet officer, to be known as Secretary
tractors. The Government should forbid all night work for women
of Commerce and Industries, as provided in the bill introduced at the
and children, as well as excessive overtime. For the District of
last session of the Congress. It should be his province to deal with
Columbia a good factory law should be passed; and, as a powerful
commerce in its broadest sense; including among many other things
indirect aid to such laws, provision should be made to turn the in-
whatever concerns labor and all matters affecting the great business
habited alleys, the existence of which is a reproach to our Capital city,
into minor streets, where the inhabitants can live under conditions
corporations and our merchant marine.
The course proposed is one phase of what should be a comprehensive
favorable to health and morals.
and far-reaching scheme of constructive statesmanship for the purpose
American wage-workers work with their heads as well as their hands.
of broadening our markets, securing our business interests on a safe
Moreover, they take a keen pride in what they are doing; so that,
basis, and making firm our new position in the international industrial
independent of the reward, they wish to turn out a perfect job. This
world; while scrupulously safeguarding the rights of wage-worker and
is the great secret of our success in competition with the labor of foreign
capitalist, of investor and private citizen, so as to secure equity as be-
countries.
The most vital problem with which this country, and for that matter
tween man and man in this Republic.
With the sole exception of the farming interest, no one matter is of
the whole civilized world, has to deal, is the problem which has for one
such vital moment to our whole people as the welfare of the wage-
side the betterment of social conditions, moral and physical, in large
workers. If the farmer and the wage-worker are well off, it is abso-
cities, and for another side the effort to deal with that tangle of far-
lutely certain that all others will be well off too. It is therefore a
reaching questions which we group together when we speak of "labor."
matter for hearty congratulation that on the whole wages are higher
The chief factor in the success of each man -wage-worker, farmer,
to-day in the United States than ever before in our history, and far
and capitalist alike must ever be the sum total of his own individual
higher than in any other country. The standard of living is also higher
qualities and abilities. Second only to this comes the power of acting
than ever before. Every effort of legislator and administrator should
in combination or association with others. Very great good has been
be bent to secure the permanency of this condition of things and its
and will be accomplished by associations or unions of wage-workers,
improvement wherever possible. Not only must our labor be protected
when managed with forethought, and when they combine insistence
by the tariff, but it should also be protected so far as it is possible from
upon their own rights with law-abiding respect for the rights of others.
the presence in this country of any laborers brought over by contract,
The display of these qualities in such bodies is a duty to the nation no
or of those who, coming freely, yet represent a standard of living SO
less than to the associations themselves. Finally, there must also in
depressed that they can undersell our men in the labor market and drag
many cases be action by the Government in order to safeguard the
them to a lower level. I regard it as necessary, with this end in view,
rights and interests of all. Under our Constitution there is much more
to re-enact immediately the law excluding Chinese laborers and to
scope for such action by the State and the municipality than by the
strengthen it wherever necessary in order to make its enforcement
nation. But on points such as those touched on above the National
Government can act.
entirely effective.
The National Government should demand the highest quality of
When all is said and done, the rule of brotherhood remains as the
service from its employees; and in return it should be a good employer.
indispensable prerequisite to success in the kind of national life for
If possible legislation should be passed, in connection with the Inter-
which we strive. Each man must work for himself, and unless he SO
state Commerce Law, which will render effective the efforts of different
works no outside help can avail him; but each man must remember also
2024
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2025
that he is indeed his brother's keeper, and that while no man who
refuses to walk can be carried with advantage to himself or anyone else,
tional policy. The first requisite to our prosperity is the continuity
yet that each at times stumbles or halts, that each at times needs to
and stability of this economic policy. Nothing could be more unwise
have the helping hand outstretched to him. To be permanently effect-
than to disturb the business interests of the country by any general
ive, aid must always take the form of helping a man to help himself;
tariff change at this time. Doubt, apprehension, uncertainty are ex-
and we can all best help ourselves by joining together in the work that
actly what we most wish to avoid in the interest of our commercial and
is of common interest to all.
material well-being. Our experience in the past has shown that sweep-
Our present immigration laws are unsatisfactory. We need every
ing revisions of the tariff are apt to produce conditions closely approach-
honest and efficient immigrant fitted to become an American citizen,
ing panic in the business world. Yet it is not only possible, but
every immigrant who comes here to stay, who brings here a strong
eminently desirable, to combine with the stability of our economic sys-
body, a stout heart, a good head, and a resolute purpose to do his duty
tem a supplementary system of reciprocal benefit and obligation with
other nations. Such reciprocity is an incident and result of the firm
well in every way and to bring up his children as law-abiding and God-
fearing members of the community. But there should be a comprehen-
establishment and preservation of our present economic policy. It was
specially provided for in the present tariff law.
sive law enacted with the object of working a threefold improvement
over our present system. First, we should aim to exclude absolutely
Reciprocity must be treated as the handmaiden of protection. Our
not only all persons who are known to be believers in anarchistic princi-
first duty is to see that the protection granted by the tariff in every
ples or members of anarchistic societies; but also all persons who are of
case where it is needed is maintained, and that reciprocity be sought
for so far as it can safely be done without injury to our home indus-
a low moral tendency or of unsavory reputation. This means that we
tries. Just how far this is must be determined according to the individ-
should require a more thorough system of inspection abroad and a more
rigid system of examination at our immigration ports, the former being
ual case, remembering always that every application of our-tariff policy
to meet our shifting national needs must be conditioned upon the car-
especially riecessary.
dinal fact that the duties must never be reduced below the point that
The second object of a proper immigration law ought to be to secure
will cover the difference between the labor cost here and abroad. The
by a careful and not merely perfunctory educational test some intelli-
well-being of the wage-worker is a prime consideration of our entire
gent capacity to appreciate American institutions and act sanely as
policy of economic legislation.
American citizens. This would not keep out all anarchists, for many
Subject to this proviso of the proper protection necessary to our in-
of them belong to the intelligent criminal class. But it would do what
dustrial well-being at home, the principle of reciprocity must command
is also in point, that is, tend to decrease the sum of ignorance, so potent
our hearty support. The phenomenal growth of our export trade em-
in producing the envy, suspicion, malignant passion, and hatred of
phasizes the urgency of the need for wider markets and for a liberal
order, out of which anarchistic sentiment inevitably springs. Finally,
policy in dealing with foreign nations. Whatever is merely petty and
all persons should be excluded who are below a certain standard of
vexatious in the way of trade restrictions should be avoided. The cus-
economic fitness to enter our industrial field as competitors with Amer-
tomers to whom we dispose of our surplus products in the long run,
ican labor. There should be proper proof of personal capacity to earn
directly or indirectly, purchase those surplus products by giving us
an American living and enough money to insure a decent start under
something in return. Their ability to purchase our products should as
American conditions. This would stop the influx of cheap labor, and
far as possible be secured by so arranging our tariff as to enable us to
the resulting competition which gives rise to so much of bitterness in
take from them those products which we can use without harm to our
American industrial life; and it would dry up the springs of the pesti-
own industries and labor, or the use of which will be of marked benefit
lential social conditions in our great cities, where anarchistic organiza-
to us.
tions have their greatest possibility of growth.
It is most important that we should maintain the high level of our
Both the educational and economic tests in a wise immigration law
present prosperity. We have now reached the point in the develop-
should be designed to protect and elevate the general body politic and
ment of our interests where we are not only able to supply our own
social. A very close supervision should be exercised over the steam-
markets but to produce a constantly growing surplus for which we
ship companies which mainly bring over the immigrants, and they
must find markets abroad. To secure these markets we can utilize ex-
should be held to a strict accountability for any infraction of the law.
isting duties in any case where they are no longer needed for the pur-
pose of protection, or in any case where the article is not produced here
There is general acquiescence in our present tariff system as a na-
and the duty is no longer necessary for revenue, as giving us something
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2027
2026
to offer in exchange for what we ask. The cordial relations with
as the standard money and to maintain at a parity therewith all forms
other nations which are so desirable will naturally be promoted by the
of money medium in use with us, has been shown to be timely and judi-
course thus required by our own interests.
cious. The price of our Government bonds in the world's market, when
The natural line of development for a policy of reciprocity will be in
compared with the price of similar obligations issued by other nations,
connection with those of our productions which no longer require all of
is a flattering tribute to our public credit. This condition it is evi-
the support once needed to establish them upon a sound basis, and with
dently desirable to maintain.
those others where either because of natural or of economic causes we
In many respects the National Banking Law furnishes sufficient lib-
are beyond the reach of successful competition.
erty for the proper exercise of the banking function; but there seems
I ask the attention of the Senate to the reciprocity treaties laid before
to be need of better safeguards against the deranging influence of com-
it by my predecessor.
mercial crises and financial panics. Moreover, the currency of the
country should be made responsive to the demands of our domestic
The condition of the American merchant marine is such as to call for
trade and commerce.
immediate remedial action by the Congress. It is discreditable to us as
The collections from duties on imports and internal taxes continue to
a Nation that our merchant marine should be utterly insignificant in
exceed the ordinary expenditures of the Government, thanks mainly
comparison to that of other nations which we overtop in other forms of
to the reduced army expenditures. The utmost care should be taken
business. We should not longer submit to conditions under which only
not to reduce the revenues so that there will be any possibility of a
a trifling portion of our great commerce is carried in our own ships.
deficit; but, after providing against any such contingency, means
To remedy this state of things would not merely serve to build up our
should be adopted which will bring the revenues more nearly within
shipping interests, but it would also result in benefit to all who are in-
the limit of our actual needs. In his report to the Congress the Secre-
terested in the permanent establishment of a wider market for Ameri-
tary of the Treasury considers all these questions at length, and I ask
-can products, and would provide an auxiliary force for the Navy. Ships
your attention to the report and recommendations.
work for their own countries just as railroads work for their terminal
I call special attention to the need of strict economy in expenditures.
points. Shipping lines, if established to the principal countries with
The fact that our national needs forbid us to be niggardly in provid-
which we have dealings, would be of political as well as commercial
ing whatever is actually necessary to our well-being, should make us
benefit. From every standpoint it is unwise for the United States to
doubly careful to husband our national resources, as each of us hus-
continue to rely upon the ships of competing nations for the distribu-
bands his private resources, by scrupulous avoidance of anything like
tion of our goods. It should be máde advantageous to carry American
wasteful or reckless expenditure. Only by avoidance of spending
goods in American-built ships.
money on what is needless or unjustifiable can we legitimately keep
At present American shipping is under certain great disadvantages
our income to the point required to meet our needs that are genuine.
when put in competition with the shipping of foreign countries. Many
of the fast foreign steamships, at a speed of fourteen knots or above,
are subsidized; and all our ships, sailing vessels and steamers alike,
In 1887 a measure was enacted for the regulation of interstate rail-
cargo carriers of slow speed and mail carriers of high speed, have to
ways, commonly known as the Interstate Commerce Act. The cardi-
meet the fact that the original cost of building American ships is
nal provisions of that act were that railway rates should be just and
greater than is the case abroad; that the wages paid American officers
reasonable and that all shippers, localities, and commodities should be
and seamen are very much higher than those paid the officers and sea-
accorded equal treatment. A commission was created and endowed
men of foreign competing countries; and that the standard of living on
with what were supposed to be the necessary powers to execute the pro-
our ships is far superior to the standard of living on the ships of our
visions of this act.
commercial rivals.
That law was largely an experiment. Experience has shown the
Our Government should take such action as will remedy these inequali-
wisdom of its purposes, but has also shown, possibly that some of its
ties. The American merchant marine should be restored to the ocean.
requirements are wrong, certainly that the means devised for the en-
forcement of its provisions are defective. Those who complain of the
management of the railways allege that established rates are not main-
tained; that rebates and similar devices are habitually resorted to; that
The Act of March 14, 1900, intended unequivocally to establish gold
these preferences are usually in favor of the large shipper; that they
2028
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2029
drive out of business the smaller competitor; that while many rates are
too low, many others are excessive; and that gross preferences are made,
vation of our forests is an imperative business necessity. We have
affecting both localities and commodities. Upon the other hand, the
come to see clearly that whatever destroys the forest, except to make
railways assert that the law by its very terms tends to produce many of
way for agriculture, threatens our well being.
these illegal practices by depriving carriers of that right of concerted
The practical usefulness of the national forest reserves to the mining,
action which they claim is necessary to establish and maintain non-
grazing, irrigation, and other interests of the regions in which the
discriminating rates.
serves lie has led to a widespread demand by the people of the West for re-
The act should be amended. The railway is a public servant. Its
their protection and extension. The forest reserves will inevitably be
rates should be just to and open to all shippers alike. The Govern-
of still greater use in the future than in the past. Additions should be
ment should see to it that within its jurisdiction this is so and should
made to them whenever practicable, and their usefulness should be in-
provide a speedy, inexpensive, and effective remedy to that end. At
creased by a thoroughly business-like management.
the same time it must not be forgotten that our railways are the arteries
At present the protection of the forest reserves rests with the General
through which the commercial lifeblood of this Nation flows. Nothing
Land Office, the mapping and description of their timber with the
could be more foolish than the enactment of legislation which would
United States Geological Survey, and the preparation of plans for their
unnecessarily interfere with the development and operation of these
conservative use with the Bureau of Forestry, which is also charged
commercial agencies. The subject is one of great importance and calls
with the general advancement of practical forestry in the United States.
for the earnest attention of the Congress.
These various functions should be united in the Bureau of Forestry, to
which they properly belong. The present diffusion of responsibility is
The Department of Agriculture during the past fifteen years has
bad from every standpoint. It prevents that effective co-operation be-
steadily broadened its work on economic lines, and has accomplished
tween the Government and the men who utilize the resources of the
results of real value in upbuilding domestic and foreign trade. It has
reserves, without which the interests of both must suffer. The scien-
gone into new fields until it is now-in touch with all sections- of our
tific bureaus generally should be put under the Department of Agricul-
country and with two of the island groups that have lately come under
ture. The President should have by law the power of transferring lands
our jurisdiction, whose people must look to agriculture as a livelihood.
for use as forest reserves to the Department of Agriculture. He already
It is searching the world for grains, grasses, fruits, and vegetables
has such power in the case of lands needed by the Departments of War
and the Navy.
specially fitted for introduction into localities in the several States and
Territories where they may add materially to our resources. By scien-
The wise administration of the forest reserves will be not less helpful
tific attention to soil survey and possible new crops, to breeding of new
to the interests which depend on water than to those which depend on
varieties of plants, to experimental shipments, to animal industry and
wood and grass. The water supply itself depends upon the forest. In
applied chemistry, very practical aid has been given our farming and
the arid region it is water, not land, which measures production. The
stock-growing interests. The products of the farm have taken an un-
western half of the United States would sustain a population greater
precedented place in our export trade during the year that has just
than that of our whole country to-day if the waters that now run to
closed.
lems are perhaps the most vital internal questions of the United States.
waste were saved and used for irrigation. The forest and water prob-
Public opinion throughout the United States has moved steadily toward
Certain of the forest reserves should also be made preserves for the
a just appreciation of the value of forests, whether planted or of natural
wild forest creatures. All of the reserves should be better protected
growth. The great part played by them in the creation and mainte-
from fires. Many of them need special protection because of the great
nance of the national wealth is now more fully realized than ever before.
injury done by live stock, above all by sheep. The increase in deer,
Wise forest protection does not mean the withdrawal of forest re-
elk, and other animals in the Vellowstone Park shows what may be
sources, whether of wood, water, or grass, from contributing their full
expected when other mountain forests are properly protected by law and
share to the welfare of the people, but, on the contrary, gives the as-
properly guarded. Some of these areas have been so denuded of
surance of larger and more certain supplies. The fundamental idea of
face vegetation by overgrazing that the ground breeding birds, includ- sur-
forestry is the perpetuation of forests by usé. Forest protection is not
ing grouse and quail, and many mammals, including deer, have been
an end of itself; it is a means to increase and sustain the resources of
exterminated or driven away. At the same time the water-storing
our country and the industries which depend upon them. The preser-
capacity of the surface has been decreased or destroyed, thus promoting
rains. floods in times of rain and diminishing the flow of streams between
2030
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2031
In cases where natural conditions have been restored for a few years,
vegetation has again carpeted the ground, birds and deer are coming
remain, however, vast areas of public land which can be made available
back, and hundreds of persons, especially from the immediate neighbor-
for homestead settlement, but only by reservoirs and main-line canals
hood, come each summer to enjoy the privilege of camping. Some at
impracticable for private enterprise. irrigation works should be
least of the forest reserves should afford perpetual protection to the na-
built by the National Government. The lands reclaimed by them
tive fauna and flora, safe havens of refuge to our rapidly diminishing
should be reserved by the Government for actual settlers, and the cost
wild animals of the larger kinds, and free camping grounds for the ever-
of construction should so far as possible be repaid by the land reclaimed.
increasing numbers of men and women who have learned to find rest,
The distribution of the water, the division of the streams among
health, and recreation in the splendid forests and flower-clad meadows
irrigators, should be left to the settlers themselves in conformity with
of our mountains. The forest reserves should be set apart forever for
State laws and without interference with those laws or with vested
the use and benefit of our people as a whole and not sacrificed to the
rights. The policy of the National Goverument should be to aid irriga-
shortsighted greed of a few.
tion in the several States and Territories in such manner as will enable
the people in the local communities to help themselves, and as will
The forests are natural reservoirs. By restraining the streams in
stimulate irrigation. needed reforms in the State laws and regulations governing
flood and replenishing them in drought they make possible the use of
waters otherwise wasted. They prevent the soil from washing, and so
The reclamation and settlement of the arid lands will enrich every
protect the storage reservoirs from filling up with silt. Forest conser-
portion of our country, just as the settlement of the Ohio and Missis-
vation is therefore an essential condition of water conservation.
sippi valleys brought prosperity to the Atlantic States. The increased
The forests alone cannot, however, fully regulate and conserve the
demand for manufactured articles will stimulate industrial production,
waters of the arid region. Great storage works are necessary to equalize
while wider home markets and the trade of Asia will consume the
the flow of streams and to save the flood waters. Their construction has
larger food supplies and effectually prevent Western competition with
been conclusively shown to be an undertaking too vast for private effort.
Eastern agriculture. Indeed, the products of irrigation will be, con-
Nor can it be best accomplished by the individual States acting alone.
sumed chiefly in upbuilding local centers of mining and other industries,
Far-reaching interstate problems are involved; and the resources of
which would otherwise not come into existence at all. Our people as a
single States would often be inadequate. It is properly a national
whole will profit, for successful, home-making is but another name for
the upbuilding of the nation.
function, at least in some of its features. It is as right for the National
Government to make the streams and rivers of the arid region useful by
The necessary foundation has already been laid for the inauguration
engineering works for water storage as to make useful the rivers and
of the policy just described. It would be unwise to begin by doing too
harbors of the humid region by engineering works of another kind.
much, for a great deal will doubtless be learned, both as to what can
The storing of the floods in reservoirs at the headwaters of our rivers is
and what cannot be safely attempted, by the early efforts, which must
but an enlargement of our present policy of river control, under which
of necessity be partly experimental in character. At the very begin-
levees are built on the lower reaches of the same streams.
ning the Government should make clear, beyond shadow of doubt, its
The Government should construct and maintain these reservoirs as it
intention to pursue this policy on lines of the broadest public interest.
does other public works. Where their purpose is to regulate the flow
No reservoir or canal should ever be built to satisfy selfish personal or
of streams, the water should be turned freely into the channels in the
local interests; but only in accordance with the advice of trained ex-
dry season to take the same course under the same laws as the natural
perts, after long investigation has shown the locality where all the
flow.
conditions combine to make the work most needed and fraught with
The reclamation of the unsettled arid public lands presents a differ-
the greatest usefulness to the community as a whole. There should be
ent problem. Here it is not enough to regulate the flow of streams.
no extravagance, and the believers in the need of irrigation will most
The object of the Government is to dispose of the land to settlers who
benefit their cause by seeing to it that it is free from the least taint of
will build homes upon it. To accomplish this object water must be
excessive or reckless expenditure of the public moneys.
brought within their reach.
Whatever the nation does for the extension of irrigation should har-
The pioneer settlers on the arid public domain chose their homes
monize with, and tend to improve, the condition of those now living on
along streams from which they could themselves divert the water to re-
irrigated land. We are not at the starting point of this development.
claim their holdings. Such opportunities are practically gone. There
Over two hundred millions of private capital has already been expended
in the construction of irrigation works, and many million acres of arid
2032
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2033
land reclaimed. A high degree of enterprise and ability has been shown
ourselves of the best experience of the time in the solution of its prob-
in the work itself; but as much cannot be said in reference to the laws
lems. A careful study should be made, both by the Nation and the
relating thereto. The security and value of the homes created depend
States, of the irrigation laws and conditions here and abroad. Ulti-
largely on the stability of titles to water; but the majority of these rest
mately it will probably be necessary for the Nation to co-operate with
on the uncertain foundation of court decisions rendered in ordinary suits
the several arid States in proportion as these States by their legislation
at law. With a few creditable exceptions, the arid States have failed to
and administration show themselves fit to receive it.
provide for the certain and just division of streams in times of scarcity.
Lax and uncertain laws have made it possible to establish rights to water
In Hawaii our aim must be to develop the Territory on the tradi-
in excess of actual uses or necessities, and many streams have already
tional American lines. We do not wish a region of large estates tilled
passed into private ownership, or a control equivalent to ownership.
by cheap labor; we wish a healthy American community of men who
Whoever controls a stream practically controls the land it renders
themselves till the farms they own. All our legislation for the islands
productive, and the doctriue of private ownership of water apart from
should be shaped with this end in view; the well-being of the average
land cannot prevail without causing enduring wrong. The recognition
home-maker must afford the true test of the healthy development of the
of such ownership, which has been permitted to grow up in the arid
islands. The land policy should as nearly as possible be modeled on
regions, should give way to a more enlightened and larger recognition
our homestead system.
of the rights of the public in the control and disposal of the public
It is a pleasure to say that it is hardly more necessary to report as to
water supplies. Laws founded upon conditions obtaining in humid
Puerto Rico than as to any State or Territory within our continental
regions, where water is too abundant to justify hoarding it, have no
limits. The island is thriving as never before, and it is being adminis-
proper application in a dry country.
tered efficiently and honestly. Its people are now enjoying liberty and
In the arid States the only right to water which should be recognized
order under the protection of the United States, and upon this fact we
is that of use. In irrigation this right should attach to the land re-
congratulate. them and ourselves. Their material welfare must be as
claimed and be inseparable therefrom. Granting perpetual water rights
carefully and jealously considered as the welfare of any other portion of
to others than users, without .compensation to the public, is open to all
our country. We have given them the great gift of free access for
the objections which apply to giving away perpetual franchises to the
their products to the markets of the United States. I ask the attention
public utilities of cities. A few of the Western States have already
of the Congress to the need of legislation concerning the public lands of
recognized this, and have incorporated in their constitutions the doctrine
Puerto Rico.
of perpetual State ownership of water.
In Cuba such progress has been made toward putting the independ-
The benefits which have followed the unaided development of the
ent government of the island upon a firm footing that before the present
past justify the nation's aid and co-operation in the more difficult and
session of the Congress closes this will be an accomplished fact. Cuba
important work yet to be accomplished. Laws so vitally affecting
will then start as her own mistress; and to the beautiful Queen of the
homes as those which control the water supply will only be effective
Antilles, as she unfolds this new page of her destiny, we extend our
when they have the sanction of the irrigators; reforms can only be final
heartiest greetings and good wishes. Elsewhere I have discussed the
and satisfactory when they come through the enlightenment of the
question of reciprocity. In the case of Cuba, however, there are
people most concerned. The larger development which national aid
weighty reasons of morality and of national interest why the policy
insures should, however, awaken in every arid State the determination to
should be held to have a peculiar application, and I most earnestly ask
make its irrigation system equal in justice and effectiveness that of any
your attention to the wisdom, indeed to the vital need, of providing for
country in the civilized world. Nothing could be more unwise than for
a substantial reduction in the tariff duties on Cuban imports into the
isolated communities to continue to learn everything experimentally,
United States. Cuba has in her constitution affirmed what we desired.
instead of profiting by what is already known elsewhere. We are deal-
that she should stand, in international matters, in closer and more
ing with a new and momentous question, in the pregnant years while
friendly relations with us than with any other power; and we are bound
institutions are forming, and what we do will affect not only the present
by every consideration of honor and expediency to pass commercia
but future generations.
measures in the interest of her material well-being.
Our aim should be not simply to reclaim the largest area of land and
In the Philippines our problem is larger. They are very rich tropical
provide homes for the largest number of people, but to create for this
islands, inhabited by many varying tribes, representing widely different
new industry the best possible social and industrial conditions; and this
stages of progress toward civilization. Our earnest effort is to help
requires that we not only understand the existing situation, but avail
these people upward along the stony and difficult path that leads to self-
2034
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2035
government. We hope to make our administration of the islands hon-
ious, first for their sakes, and next, because it relieves us of a great
orable to our Nation by making it of the highest benefit to the Filipinos
burden. There need not be the slightest fear of our not. continuing to
themselves; and as an earnest of what we intend to do, we point to
give them all the liberty for which they are fit.
what we have done. Already a greater measure of material prosperity
The only fear is lest in our overanxiety we give them a degree of in-
and of governmental honesty and efficiency has been attained in the
dependence for which they are unfit, thereby inviting reaction and
Philippines than ever before in their history.
disaster. As fast as there is any reasonable hope that in a given dis-
It is no light task for a nation to achieve the temperamental qualities
trict the people can govern themselves, self-government has been given
without which the institutions of free government are but an empty
in that district. There is not a locality fitted for self-government which
mockery. Our people are now successfully governing themselves, be-
has not received it. But it may well be that in certain cases it will
cause for more than a thousand years they have been slowly fitting
have to be withdrawn because the inhabitants show themselves unfit to
themselves, sometimes consciously, sometimes unconsciously, toward
exercise it: such instances have already occurred. In other words.
this end. What has taken us thirty generations to achieve, we cannot
there is not the slightest chance of our failing to show a sufficiently hu-
expect to see another race accomplish out of hand, especially when large
manitarian spirit. The danger comes in the opposite direction.
portions of that race start very far behind the point which our ancestors
There are still troubles ahead in the islands. The insurrection has
had reached even thirty generations ago. In dealing with the Philip-
become an affair of local banditti and marauders, who deserve no higher
pine people we must show both patience and strength, forbearance and
regard than the brigands of portions of the Old World. Encourage-
steadfast resolution. Our aim is high. We do not desire to do for the
ment, direct or indirect, to these insurrectors stands on the same foot-
islanders merely what has elsewhere been done for tropic peoples by
ing as encouragement to hostile Indians in the days when we still had
even the best foreign governments. We hope to do for them what has
Indian wars. Exactly as our aim is to give to the Indian who remains
never before. been done- for any people of the tropics- to make them
peaceful the fullest and amplest consideration, but to have it understood
fit for self-government after the fashion of the really free nations.
that we will show no weakness if he goes on the warpath, so we must
History may safely be challenged to show a single instance in which
make it evident, unless we are false to our own traditions and to the
a masterful race such as ours, having been forced by the exigencies of
demands of civilization and humanity, that while we will do everything
war to take possession of an alien land, has behaved to its inhabitants
in our power for the Filipino who is peaceful, we will take the sternest
with the disinterested zeal for their progress that our people have
measures with the Filipino who follows the path of the insurrecto and
shown in the Philippines. To leave the islands at this time would mean
the ladrone.
that they would fall into a welter of murderous anarchy. Such deser-
The heartiest praise is due to large numbers of the natives of the
tion of duty on our part would be a crime against humanity. The
islands for their steadfast loyalty. The Macabebes have been conspicu-
character of Governor Taft and of his associates and subordinates is a
ous for their courage and devotion to the flag. I recommend that the
proof, if such be needed, of the sincerity of our effort to give the island-
Secretary of War be empowered to take some systematic action in the
ers a constantly increasing measure of self-government, exactly as fast
way of aiding those of these men who are crippled in the service and
as they show themselves fit to exercise it. Since the civil government
the families of those who are killed.
was established not an appointment has been made in the islands with
The time has come when there should be additional legislation for
any reference to considerations of political influence, or to aught else
the Philippines. Nothing better can be done for the islands than to in-
save the fitness of the man and the needs of the service.
troduce industrial enterprises. Nothing would benefit them so much as
In our anxiety for the welfare and progress of the Philippines, it
throwing them open to industrial development. The connection be-
may be that here and there we have gone too rapidly in giving them
tween idleness and mischief is proverbial, and the opportunity to do
local self-government. It is on this side that our error, if any, has
remunerative work is one of the surest preventatives of war. Of course
been committed. No competent observer, sincerely desirous of finding
no business man will go into the Philippines unless it is to his interest
out the facts and influenced only by a desire for the welfare of the na-
to do so; and it is immensely to the interest of the islands that he
tives, can assert that we have not gone far enough. We have gone to
should go in. It is therefore necessary that the Congress should pass
the very verge of safety in hastening the process. To have taken a
laws by which the resources of the islands can be developed; so that
single step farther or faster in advance would have been folly and weak-
franchises (for limited terms of years) can be granted to companies
ness, and might well have been crime. We are extremely anxious that
doing business in them, and every encouragement be given to the in-
the natives shall show the power of governing themselves. We are anx-
coming of business men of every kind.
2036
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2037
Not to permit this is to do a wrong to the Philippines. The franchises
recognized as inadequate to supply the base for the construction and
must be granted and the business permitted only under regulations
maintenance of a necessarily American ship canal, is abrogated. It
which will guarantee the islands against any kind of improper exploita-
specifically provides that the United States alone shall do the work of
tion. But the vast natural wealth of the islands must be developed,
building and assume the responsibility of safeguarding the canal and
and the capital willing to develop it must be given the opportunity.
shall regulate its neutral use by all nations on terms of equality without
The field must be thrown open to individual enterprise, which has been
the guaranty or interference of any outside nation from any quarter.
the real factor in the development of every region over which our flag
The signed treaty will at once be laid before the Senate, and if approved
has flown. It is "urgently necessary to enact suitable laws dealing with
the Congress can then proceed to give effect to the advantages it secures
general transportation, mining, banking, currency, homesteads, and the
us by providing for the building of the canal
use and ownership of the lands and timber. These laws will give free
The true end of every great and free people should be self-respecting
play to industrial enterprise; and the commercial development which
peace; and this Nation most earnestly desires sincere and cordial friend-
will surely follow will accord to the people of the islands the best proofs
ship with all others. Over the entire world, of recent years, wars be-
of the sincerity of our desire to aid them.
tween the great civilized powers have become less and less frequent.
Wars with barbarous or semi-barbarous peoples come in an entirely dif-
I call your attention most earnestly to the crying need of a cable to
ferent category, being merely a most regrettable but necessary interna-
Hawaii and the Philippines, to be continued from the Philippines to
tional police duty which must be performed for the sake of the welfare
points in Asia. We should not defer a day longer than necessary the
of mankind. Peace can only be kept with certainty where both sides
construction of such a cable. It is demanded not merely for commer-
wish to keep it; but more and more the civilized peoples are realizing
cial but for political and military considerations.
the wicked folly of war and are attaining that condition of just and in-
Either the Congress should immediately provide for the construction
telligent regard for the rights of others which will in the end, as we
of a Government cable, or else an arrangement should be made by which
hope and believe, make world-wide peace possible. The peace confer-
like advantages to those accruing from a Government cable may be
ence at The Hague gave definite expression to this hope and belief and
secured to the Government by contract with a private cable company.
marked a stride toward their attainment.
This same peace conference acquiesced in our statement of the
No single great material work which remains to be undertaken on
Monroe Doctrine as compatible with the purposes and aims of the con-
this continent is of such consequence to the American people as the
ference.
building of a canal across the Isthmus connecting North and South
The Monroe Doctrine should be the cardinal feature of the foreign
America. Its importance to the Nation is by no means limited merely
policy of all the nations of the two Americas, as it is of the United
to its material effects upon our business prosperity; and yet with view to
States. Just seventy-eight years have passed since President Monroe
these effects alone it would be to the last degree important for us im-
in his Annual Message announced that The American continents are
mediately to begin it. While its beneficial effects would perhaps be
henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by
most marked upon the Pacific Coast and the Gulf and South Atlantic
any European power." In other words, the Monroe Doctrine is a dec-
States, it would also greatly benefit other sections. It is emphatically
laration that there must be no territorial aggrandizement by any non
a work which it is for the interest of the entire country to begin and
American power at the expense of any American power on American
complete as soon as possible; it is one of those great works which only
soil. It is in no wise intended as hostile to any nation in the Old
a great nation can undertake with prospects of success, and which when
World. Still less is it intended to give cover to any aggression by one
done are not only permanent assets in the nation's material interests,
New World power at the expense of any other. It is simply a step,
but standing monuments to its constructive ability.
and a long step, toward assuring the universal peace of the world by
I am glad to be able to announce to you that our negotiations on this
securing the possibility of permanent peace on this hemisphere.
subject with Great Britain, conducted on both sides in a spirit of friend-
During the past century other influences have established the perma-
liness and mutual good will and respect, have resulted in my being able
nence and independence of the smaller states of Europe. Through the
to lay before the Senate a treaty which if ratified will enable us to be-
Monroe Doctrine we hope to be able to safeguard like independence and
gin preparations for an Isthmian canal at any time, and which guaran-
secure like permanence for the lesser among the New World nations.
tees to this Nation every right that it has ever asked in connection with
This doctrine has nothing to do with the commercial relations of any
the canal. In this treaty, the old Clayton-Bulwer treaty, so long
American power, save that it in truth allows each of them to form such
2038
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
as it desires. In other words, it is really a guaranty of the commercial
2039
independence of the Americas. We do not ask under this doctrine for
mercially, and to guarantee the safety of the American people.
any exclusive commercial dealings with any other American state. We
Our people intend to abide by the Monroe Doctrine and to insist
do not guarantee any state against punishment if it misconducts itself,
it as the one sure means of securing the peace of the Western Hemi- upon
provided that punishment does not take the form of the acquisition of
sphere. The Navy offers us the only means of making our insistence
territory by any non-American power.
upon the Monroe Doctrine anything but a subject of derision to what-
Our attitude in Cuba is a sufficient guaranty of our own good faith.
ever nation chooses to disregard it. We desire the peace which comes
We have not the slightest desire to secure any territory at the expense
as of right to the just man armed; not the peace granted on terms of
of any of our neighbors. We wish to work with them hand in hand,
ignominy to the craven and the weakling.
so that all of us may be uplifted together, and we rejoice over the good
It is not possible to improvise a navy after war breaks out. The
fortune of any of them, we gladly hail their material prosperity and
ships must be built and the men trained long in advance. Some aux-
political stability, and are concerned and alarmed if any of them fall
iliary vessels can be turned into makeshifts which will do in default of
into industrial or political chaos. We do not wish to see any Old World
any better for the minor work, and a proportion of raw men can be
military power grow up on this continent, or to be compelled to become
mixed with the highly trained, their shortcomings being made good by
a military power ourselves. The peoples of the Americas can prosper
the skill of their fellows; but the efficient fighting force of the Navy
best if left to work out their own salvation in their own way.
when pitted against an equal opponent will be found almost exclusively
The work of upbuilding the Navy must be steadily continued. No
in the war ships that have been regularly built and in the officers and
one point of our policy, foreign or domestic, is more important than
men who through years of faithful performance of sea duty have been
this to the honor and material welfare, and above all to the peace, of
trained to handle their formidable but complex and delicate weapons
our nation in the future. Whether we desire it or not, we must hence-
with the highest efficiency. In the late war with Spain the ships that
forth recognize that we have international duties no less than inter-
dealt the decisive blows at Manila and Santiago had been launched from
national rights. Even if our flag were hauled down in the Philippines
two to fourteen years, and they were able to do as they did because the
and Puerto Rico, even if we decided not to build the Isthmian Canal,
men in the conning towers, the gun turrets, and the engine-rooms had
we should need a thoroughly trained Navy of adequate size, or else be
through long years of practice at sea learned how to do their duty.
prepared definitely and for all time to abandon the idea that our nation
Our present Navy was begun in 1882. At that period our Navy con-
is among those whose sons go down to the sea in ships. Unless our
sisted of a collection of antiquated wooden ships, already almost as out
commerce is always to be carried in foreign bottoms, we must have war
of place against modern war vessels as the galleys of Alcibiades and
craft to protect it.
Hamilcar-certainly as the ships of Tromp and Blake. Nor at that
Inasmuch, however, as the American people have no thought of
time did we have men fit to handle a modern man-of-war. Under the
abandoning the path upon which they have entered, and especially in
wise legislation of the Congress and the successful administration of a
view of the fact that the building of the Isthmian Canal is fast becom-
succession of patriotic Secretaries of the Navy, belonging to both
ing one of the matters which the whole people are united in demanding,
political parties, the work of upbuilding the Navy went on, and ships
it is imperative that our Navy should be put and kept in the highest
equal to any in the world of their kind were continually added; and
state of efficiency, and should be made to answer to our growing needs.
what was even more important, these ships were exercised at sea singly
So far from being in any way a provocation to war, an adequate and
and in squadrons until the men aboard them were able to get the best
highly trained navy is the best guaranty against war, the cheapest and
possible service out of them. The result was seen in the short war with
most effective peace insurance. The cost of building and maintaining
Spain, which was decided with such rapidity because of the infinitely
such a navy represents the very lightest premium for insuring peace
greater prepareduess of our Navy than of the Spanish Navy.
which this nation can possibly pay.
While awarding the fullest honor to the men who actually commanded
Probably no other great nation in the world is so anxious for peace
and manned the ships which destroyed the Spanish sea forces in the
as we are. There is not a single civilized power which has anything
Philippines and in Cuba, we must not forget that an equal meed of
whatever to fear from aggressiveness on our part. All we want is
praise belongs to those without whom neither blow could have been
peace; and toward this end we wish to be able to secure the same re-
struck. The Congressmen who voted years in advance the money to
spect for our rights from others which we are eager and anxious to
lay down the ships, to build the guns, to buy the armor-plate; the
extend to their rights in return, to insure fair treatment to us com-
Department officials and the business men and wage-workers who fur-
nished what the Congress had authorized; the Secretaries of the Navy
2040
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2041
who asked for and expended the appropriations; and finally the officers
portant to have our Navy of adequate size, but it is even more important
who, in fair weather and foul, on actual sea service, trained and disci-
that ship for ship it should equal in efficiency any navy in the world.
plined the crews of the ships when there was no war in sight all are
This is possible only with highly drilled crews and officers, and this in
entitled to a full share in the glory of Manila and Santiago, and the
turn imperatively demands continuous and progressive instruction in
respect accorded by every true American to those who wrought such
target practice, ship handling, squadron tactics, and general discipline.
signal triumph for our country. It was forethought and preparation
Our ships must be assembled in squadrons actively cruising away from
which secured us the overwhelming triumph of 1898. If we fail to
harbors and never long at anchor. The resulting wear upon engines
show forethought and preparation now, there may come a time when
and hulls must be endured; a battle ship worn out in long training of
disaster will befall us instead of triumph; and should this time come,
officers and men is well paid for by the results, while, on the other hand,
the fault will rest primarily, not upon those whom the accident of events
no matter in how excellent condition, it is useless if the crew be not
puts in supreme command at the moment, but upon those who have
expert.
failed to prepare in advance.
We now have seventeen battle ships appropriated for, of which nine
There should be no cessation in the work of completing our Navy. So
are completed and have been commissioned for actual service. The re-
far ingenuity has been wholly unable to devise a substitute for the great
maining eight will be ready in from two to four years, but it will take
war craft whose hammering guns beat out the mastery of the high seas.
at least that time to recruit and train the men to fight them. It is of
It is unsafe and unwise not to provide this year for several additional bat-
vast concern that we have trained crews ready for the vessels by the
tle ships and heavy armored cruisers, with auxiliary and lighter craft
time they are commissioned. Good ships and good guns are simply
in proportion; for the exact numbers and character I refer you to the
good weapons, and the best weapons are useless save in the hands of
report of the Secretary of the Navy. But there is something we need
men who know how to fight with them. The men must be trained and
even more than additional ships, and this is additional officers and men.
drilled under a thorough and well-plauned system of progressive in-
To provide battle ships and cruisers and then lay- them up, with the
struction, while the recruiting must be carried on with still greater
expectation of leaving them unmanned until they are needed in actual
vigor. Every effort must be made to exalt the main function of the
war, would be worse than folly; it would be a crime against the Nation.
officer- the command of men. The leading graduates of the Naval
To send any war ship against a competent enemy unless those aboard
Academy should be assigned to the combatant branches, the line and
it have been trained by years of actual sea service, including incessant
marines.
gunnery practice, would be to invite not merely disaster, but the bitterest
Many of the essentials of success are already recognized by the Gen-
shame and humiliation. Four thousand additional seamen and one
eral Board, which, as the central office of a growing staff, is moving
thousand additional marines should be provided; and an increase in the
steadily toward a proper war efficiency and a proper efficiency of the
officers should be provided by making a large addition to the classes at
whole Navy, under the Secretary. This General Board, by fostering
Annapolis. There is one small matter which should be mentioned in con-
the creation of a general staff, is providing for the official and then the
nection with Annapolis. The pretentious and unmeaning title of "naval
general recognition of our altered conditions as a Nation and of the
cadet" should be abolished; the title of midshipman," full of his-
true meaning of a great war fleet, which meaning is, first, the best men,
toric association, should be restored.
and, second, the best ships.
Even in time of peace a war ship should be used until it wears out,
The Naval Militia forces are State organizations, and are trained for
for only so can it be kept fit to respond to any emergency. The officers
coast service, and in event of war they will constitute the inner line of
and men alike should be kept as much as possible on blue water, for it
defense. They should receive hearty encouragement from the General
is there only they can learn their duties as they should be learned. The
Government.
big vessels should be manœuvred in squadrons containing not merely
But in addition we should at once provide for a National Naval Re-
battle ships, but the necessary proportion of cruisers and scouts. The
serve, organized and trained under the direction of the Navy Depart-
torpedo boats should be handled by the younger officers in such manner
ment, and subject to the call of the Chief Executive whenever war
as will best fit the latter to take responsibility and meet the emergencies
becomes imminent. It should be a real auxiliary to the naval seagoing
of actual warfare.
peace establishment, and offer material to be drawn on at once for man-
Every detail ashore which can be performed by a civilian should be
ning our ships in time of war. It should be composed of graduates of
SO performed, the officer being kept for his special duty in the sea
the Naval Academy, graduates of the Naval Militia, officers and crews
service. Above all, gunnery practice should be unceasing. It is im-
of coast-line steamers, longshore schooners, fishing vessels, and steam
2042
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2043
yachts, together with the coast population about such centers as life-
saving stations and light-houses.
The process of elimination of the least fit should be conducted in a
The American people must either build and maintain an adequate
manner that would render it practically impossible to apply political or
navy or else make up their minds definitely to accept a secondary
social pressure on behalf of any candidate, so that each man may be
position in international affairs, not merely in political, but in com-
judged purely on his own merits. Pressure for the promotion of civil
mercial, matters. It has been well said that there is no surer way
officials for political reasons is bad enough, but it is tenfold worse
of courting national disaster than to be opulent, aggressive, and un-
where applied on behalf of officers of the Army or Navy. Every pro-
armed."
motion and every detail under the War Department must be made
solely with regard to the good of the service and to the capacity and
It is not necessary to increase our Army beyond its present size at
merit of the man himself. No pressure, political, social, or personal,
this time. But it is necessary to keep it at the highest point of effi-
of any kind, will be permitted to exercise the least effect in any ques-
ciency. The individual units who as officers and enlisted men compose
tion of promotion or detail; and if there is reason to believe that such
this Army, are, we have good reason to believe, at least as efficient as
pressure is exercised at the instigation of the officer concerned, it will
those of any other army in the entire world. It is our duty to see that
be held to militate against him. In our Army we cannot afford to have
their training is of a kind to insure the highest possible expression of
rewards or duties distributed save on the simple ground that those who
power to these units when acting in combination.
by their own merits are entitled to the rewards get them, and that,
The conditions of modern war are such as to make an infinitely heavier
those who are peculiarly fit to do the duties are chosen to perform them.
demand than ever before upon the individual character and capacity
Every effort should be made to bring the Army to a constantly in-
of the officer and the enlisted man, and to make it far more difficult for
creasing state of efficiency. When on actual service no work save that
men to act together with effect. At present the fighting must be done
directly in the line of such service should be required. The paper work
in extended order, which means that each man must act for himself and
in the Army, as in the Navy, should be greatly reduced. What is
at the same time act in combination with others with whom he is no
needed is proved power of command and capacity- to work well in the
longer in the old-fashioned elbow-to-elbow touch. Under such condi-
field. Constant care is necessary to prevent dry rot in the transporta-
tions a few men of the highest excellence are worth more than many
tion and commissary departments.
men without the special skill which is only found as the result of special
Our Army is so small and SO much scattered that it is very difficult
training applied to men of exceptional physique and morale. But now-
to give the higher officers (as well as the lower officers and the enlisted
adays the most valuable fighting man and the most difficult to perfect
men) a chance to practice manœuvres in mass and on a comparatively
is the rifleman who is also a skillful and daring rider.
large scale. In time of need no amount of individual excellence would
The proportion of our cavalry regiments has wisely been increased.
avail against the paralysis which would follow inability to work as a
The American cavalryman, trained to manœuvre and fight with equal
coherent whole, under skillful and daring leadership. The Congress
facility on foot and on horseback, is the best type of soldier for general
should provide means whereby it will be possible to have field exercises
purposes now to be found in the world. The ideal cavalryman of the
by at least a division of regulars, and if possible also a division of na-
present day is a man who can fight on foot as effectively as the best
tional guardsmen, once a year. These exercises might take the form of
infantryman, and who is in addition unsurpassed in the care and man-
field manœuvres; or, if on the Gulf Coast or the Pacific or Atlantic Sea:
agement of his horse and in his ability to fight on horseback.
board, or in the region of the Great Lakes, the army corps when assem-
A general staff should be created. As for the present staff and
bled could be marched from some inland point to some point on the
supply departments, they should be filled by details from the line, the
water, there embarked, disembarked after a couple of days' journey at
men so detailed returning after a while to their line duties. It is very
some other point, and again marched inland. Only by actual handling
undesirable to have the senior grades of the Army composed of men
and providing for men in masses while they are marching, camping,
who have come to fill the positions by the mere fact of seniority. A
embarking, and disembarking, will it be possible to train the higher
system should be adopted by which there shall be an elimination grade
officers to perform their duties well and smoothly.
by grade of those who seem unfit to render the best service in the next
A great debt is owing from the public to the men of the Army and
grade. Justice to the veterans of the Civil War who are still in the
Navy. They should be so treated as to enable them to reach the high-
Army would seem to require that in the matter of retirements they be
est point of efficiency, so that they may be able to respond instantly to
given by law the same privileges accorded to their comrades in the Navy.
any demand made upon them to sustain the interests of the Nation and
the honor of the flag. The individual American enlisted man is proba-
2044
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2045
bly on the whole a more formidable fighting man than the regular of
already had experience under arms, and especially for the selection in
any other army. Every consideration should be shown him, and in
advance of the officers of any force which may be raised; for careful
return the highest standard of usefulness should be exacted from him.
selection of the kind necessary is impossible after the outbreak of war.
It is well worth while for the Congress to consider whether the pay of
That the Army is not at all a mere instrument of destruction has been
enlisted men upon second and subsequent enlistments should not be in-
shown during the last three years. In the Philippines, Cuba, and
creased to correspond with the increased value of the veteran soldier.
Puerto Rico it has proved itself a great constructive force, a most potent
Much good has already come from the act reorganizing the Army,
implement for the upbuilding of a peaceful civilization.
passed early in the present year. The three prime reforms, all of them
of literally inestimable value, are, first, the substitution of four-year de-
No other citizens deserve so well of the Republic as the veterans, the
tails from the line for permanent appointments in the so-called staff
survivors of those who saved the Union. They did the one deed which
divisions; second, the establishment of a corps of artillery with a chief
if left undone would have meant that all else in our history went for
at the head; third, the establishment of a maximum and minimum limit
nothing. But for their steadfast prowess in the greatest crisis of our
for the Army. It would be difficult to overestimate the improvement
history, all our annals would be meaningless, and our great experiment
in the efficiency of our Army which these three reforms are making,
in popular freedom and self-government a gloomy failure. Moreover,
and have in part already effected.
they not only left us a united Nation, but they left us also as a heritage
The reorganization provided for by the act has been substantially
the memory of the mighty deeds by which the Nation was kept united.
accomplished. The improved conditions in the Philippines have ena-
We are now indeed one Nation, one in fact as well as in name; we are
bled the War Department materially to reduce the military charge upon
united in our devotion to the flag which is the symbol of national great-
our revenue and to arrange the number of soldiers so as to bring this
ness and unity; and the very completeness of our union enables us all,
number much nearer to the minimum than to the maximum limit estab-
in every part of the country, to glory in the valor shown alike by the
lished by law. There is, however, need of supplementary legislation.
sons of the North and the sons of the South in the times that tried
Thorough military education must-be provided, and in addition to the
men's souls.
regulars the advantages of this education should be given to the officers
The men who in the last three years have done so well in the East
of the National Guard and others in civil life who desire intelligently to
and the West Indies and on the mainland of Asia have shown that this
fit themselves for possible military duty. The officers should be given
remembrance is not lost. In any serious crisis the United States must
the chance to perfect themselves by study in the higher branches of this
rely for the great mass of its fighting men upon the volunteer soldiery
art. At West Point the education should be of the kind most apt to
who do not make a permanent profession of the military career; and
turn out men who are good in actual field service; too much stress
whenever such a crisis arises the deathless memories of the Civil War
should not be laid on mathematics, nor should proficiency therein be
will give to Americans the lift of lofty purpose which comes to those
held to establish the right of entry to a corps élite. The typical
whose fathers have stood valiantly in the forefront of the battle.
American officer of the best kind need not be a good mathematician;
but he must be able to master himself, to control others, and to show
The merit system of making appointments is in its essence as demo-
boldness and fertility of resource in every emergency.
cratic and American as the common school system itself. It simply
Action should be taken in reference to the militia and to the raising
means that in clerical and other positions where the duties are entirely
of volunteer forces. Our militia law is obsolete and worthless. The
non-political, all applicants should have a fair field and no favor, each
organization and armament of the National Guard of the several States,
standing on his merits as he is able to show them by practical test.
which are treated as militia in the appropriations by the Congress,
Written competitive examinations offer the only available means in
should be made identical with those provided for the regular forces.
many cases for applying this system. In other cases, as where laborers
The obligations and duties of the Guard in time of war should be care-
are employed, a system of registration undoubtedly can be widely ex-
fully defined, and a system established by law under which the method
tended. There are, of course, places where the written competitive
of procedure of raising volunteer forces should be prescribed in advance.
examination cannot be applied, and others where it offers by no means
It is utterly impossible in the excitement and haste of impending war
an ideal solution, but where under existing political conditions it is,
to do this satisfactorily if the arrangements have not been made long
though an imperfect means, yet the best present means of getting
beforehand. Provision should be made for utilizing in the first volun-
satisfactory results.
teer organizations called out the training of those citizens who have
Wherever the conditions have permitted the application of the merit
2046
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2047
system in its fullest and widest sense, the gain to the Government has
the service is now, in the main, efficient, but a standard of excellence
been immense. The navy-yards and postal service illustrate, probably
cannot be permanently maintained until the principles set forth in the
better than any other branches of the Government, the great gain in
bills heretofore submitted to the Congress on this subject are enacted
economy, efficiency, and honesty due to the enforcement of this prin-
into law.
ciple.
I recommend the passage of a law which will extend the classified
In my judgment the time has arrived when we should definitely make
service to the District of Columbia, or will at least enable the President
up our minds to recognize the Indian as an individual and not as a
thus to extend it. In my judgment all laws providing for the tempo-
member of a tribe. The General Allotment Act is a mighty pulveri-
rary employment of clerks should hereafter contain a provision that
zing engine to break up the tribal mass. It acts directly upon the
they be selected under the Civil Service Law.
family and the individual. Under its provisions some sixty thousand
It is important to have this system obtain at home, but it is even
Indians have already become citizens of the United States. We should
more important to have it applied rigidly in our insular possessions.
now break up the tribal funds, doing for them what allotment does for
Not an office should be filled in the Philippines or Puerto Rico with
the tribal lands; that is, they should be divided into individual holdings.
any regard to the man's partisan affiliations or services, with any
There will be a transition period during which the funds will in many
regard to the political, social, or personal influence which he may have
cases have to be held in trust. This is the case also with the lands.
at his command; in short, heed should be paid to absolutely nothing
A stop should be put upon the indiscriminate permission to Indians to
save the man's own character and capacity and the needs of the service.
lease their allotments. The effort should be steadily to make the In
The administration of these islands should be as wholly free from the
dian work like any other man on his own ground. The marriage law.
suspicion of partisan politics as the administration of the Army and
of the Indians should be made the same as those of the whites.
Navy. All that we ask from the public servant in the Philippines or
In the schools the education should be elementary and largely indus
Puerto Rico is that he reflect honor on his country by the way in which
trial. The need of higher education among the Indians is very, very
he makes that country's rule a benefit to the peoples who have come
limited. On the reservations care should be taken to try to suit the
under it. This is all that we should ask, and we cannot afford to be
teaching to the needs of the particular Indian. There is no use in at-
content with less.
tempting to induce agriculture in a country suited only for cattle raising
The merit system is simply one method of securing honest and
where the Indian should be made a stock grower. The ration system,
efficient administration of the Government; and in the long run the sole
which is merely the corral and the reservation system, is highly detri-
justification of any type of government lies in its proving itself both
mental to the Indians. It promotes beggary, perpetuates pauperism,
honest and efficient.
and stifles industry. It is an effectual barrier to progress. It must con-
tinue to a greater or less degree as long as tribes are herded on reserva-
The consular service is now organized under the provisions of a law
tions and have everything in common. The Indian should be treated
passed in 1856, which is entirely inadequate to existing conditions.
as an individual- like the white man. During the change of treatment
The interest shown by so many commerical bodies throughout the coun-
inevitable hardships will occur; every effort should be made to minimize
try in the reorganization of the service is heartily commended to your
these hardships; but we should not because of them hesitate to make
attention. Several bills providing for a new consular service have in
the change. There should be a continuous reduction in the number
recent years been submitted to the Congress. They are based upon the
of agencies.
just principle that appointments to the service should be made only
after a practical test of the applicant's fitness, that promotions should
In dealing with the aboriginal races few things are more important
be governed by trustworthiness, adaptability, and zeal in the perform-
than to preserve them from the terrible physical and moral degradation
ance of duty, and that the tenure of office should be unaffected by par-
resulting from the liquor traffic. We are doing all we can to save our
tisan considerations.
own Indian tribes from this evil. Wherever by international agree-
The guardianship and fostering of our rapidly expanding foreign
ment this same end can be attained as regards races where we do not
commerce, the protection of American citizens resorting to foreign coun-
possess exclusive control, every effort should be made to bring it about.
tries in lawful pursuit of their affairs, and the maintenance of the dig-
nity of the nation abroad, combine to make it essential that our consuls
I bespeak the most cordial support from the Congress and the people
should be men of character, knowledge and enterprise. It is true that
for the St. Louis Exposition to commemorate the One Hundredth An-
2048
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2049
niversary of the Louisiana Purchase. This purchase was the greatest
instance of expansion in our history. It definitely decided that we were
cordance with the plans which its Secretary has presented, for the
to become a great continental republic, by far the foremost power in the
preservation of the vanishing races of great North American animals
Western Hemisphere. It is one of three or four great landmarks in
in the National Zoological Park. The urgent needs of the National
our history - the great turning points in our development. It is emi-
Museum are recommended to the favorable consideration of the Con-
nently fitting that all our people should join with heartiest good will in
gress.
commemorating it, and the citizens of St. Louis, of Missouri, of all the
adjacent region, are entitled to every aid in making the celebration a
Perhaps the most characteristic educational movement of the past
noteworthy event in our annals. We earnestly hope that foreign na-
fifty years is that which has created the modern public library and de-
tions will appreciate the deep interest our country takes in this Exposi-
veloped it into broad and active service. There are now over five
tion, and our view of its importance from every standpoint, and that
thousand public libraries in the United States, the product of this period.
they will participate in securing its success. The National Government
In addition to accumulating material, they are also striving by organi-
should be represented by a full and complete set of exhibits.
zation, by improvement in method, and by co-operation, to give greater
efficiency to the material they hold, to make it more widely useful, and
The people of Charleston, with great energy and civic spirit, are
by avoidance of unnecessary duplication in process to reduce the cost of
carrying on an Exposition which will continue throughout most of the
its administration.
present session of the Congress. I heartily commend this Exposition to
In these efforts they naturally look for assistance to the Federal library,
the good will of the people. It deserves all the encouragement that can
which, though still the Library of Congress, and so entitled, is the one
be given it. The managers of the Charleston Exposition have requested
national library of the United States. Already the largest single col-
the Cabinet officers to place thereat the Government exhibits which
lection of books on the Western Hemisphere, and certain to increase
have been at Buffalo, promising to pay the necessary expenses. I have
more rapidly than any other through purchase, exchange, and the oper-
taken the responsibility of directing that this be done, for I feel that it
ation of the copyright law, this library has a unique opportunity to
is due to Charleston to help her in her praiseworthy effort. In my
render to the libraries of this country to American scholarship-
opinion the management should not be required to pay all these ex-
service of the highest importance. It is housed in a building which is
penses. I earnestly recommend that the Congress appropriate at once
the largest and most magnificent yet erected for library uses. Resources
the small sum necessary for this purpose.
are now being provided which will develop the collection properly, equip
it with the apparatus and service necessary to its effective use, render
The Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo has just closed. Both from
its bibliographic work widely available, and enable it to become, not
the industrial and the artistic standpoint this Exposition has been in a
merely a center of research, but the chief factor in great co-operative
high degree creditable and useful, not merely to Buffalo but to the
efforts for the diffusion of knowledge and the advancement of learning.
United States. The terrible tragedy of the President's assassination in-
terfered materially with its being a financial success. The Exposition
For the sake of good administration, sound economy, and the ad-
was peculiarly in harmony with the trend of our public policy, because
vancement of science, the Census Office as now constituted should be
it represented an effort to bring into closer touch all the peoples of the
made a permanent Government bureau. This would insure better,
Western Hemisphere, and give them an increasing sense of unity.
cheaper, and more satisfactory work, in the interest not only of our
Such an effort was a genuine service to the entire American public.
business but of statistic, economic, and social science.
The remarkable growth of the postal service is shown in the fact that
The advancement of the highest interests. of national science and
its revenues have doubled and its expenditures have nearly doubled
learning and the custody of objects of art and of the valuable results
within twelve years. Its progressive development compels constantly
of scientific expeditions conducted by the United States have been com-
increasing outlay, but in this period of business energy and prosperity
mitted to the Smithsonian Institution. In furtherance of its declared
its receipts grow so, much faster than its expenses that the annual deficit
purpose for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men
has been steadily reduced from $11,411,779 in 1897 to $3,923,727 in
- the Congress has from time to time given it other important func-
1901. Among recent postal advances the success of rural free delivery
tions. Such trusts have been executed by the Institution with notable
wherever established has been so marked, and actual experience has
fidelity. There should be no halt in the work of the Institution, in ac-
made its benefits so plain, that the demand for its extension is general
and urgent.
2050
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
First Annual Message
2051
It is just that the great agricultural population should share in the
States, Mr. William Woodville Rockhill, to whom high praise is due
improvement of the service. The number of rural routes now in oper-
for the tact, good judgment, and energy he has displayed in performing
ation is 6,009, practically all established within three years, and there
an exceptionally difficult and delicate task.
are 6,000 applications awaiting action. It is expected that the number
The agreement reached disposes in a manner satisfactory to the
in operation at the close of the current fiscal year will reach 8,600. The
powers of the various grounds of complaint, and will contribute ma-
mail will then be daily carried to the doors of 5,700,000 of our people
terially to better future relations between China and the powers.
who have heretofore been dependent upon distant offices, and one-third
Reparation has been made by China for the murder of foreigners dur-
of all that portion of the country which is adapted to it will be covered
ing the uprising and punishment has been inflicted on the officials,
by this kind of service.
however high in rank, recognized as responsible for or having partici-
The full measure of postal progress which might be realized has long
pated in the outbreak. Official examinations have been forbidden for a
been hampered and obstructed by the heavy burden imposed on the
period of five years in all cities in which foreigners have been murdered
Government through the intrenched and well-understood abuses which
or cruelly treated, and edicts have been issued making all officials
have grown up in connection with second-class mail matter. The ex-
directly responsible for the future safety of foreigners and for the sup-
tent of this burden appears when it is stated that while the second-class
pression of violence against them.
matter makes nearly three-fifths of the weight of all the mail, it paid
Provisions have been made for insuring the future safety of the for-
for the last fiscal year only $4,294,445 of the aggregate postal revenue
eign representatives in Peking by setting aside for their exclusive use a
of $111,631,193. If the pound rate of postage, which produces the
quarter of the city which the powers can make defensible and in which
large loss thus entailed, and which was fixed by the Congress with the
they can if necessary maintain permanent military guards; by dismant-
purpose of encouraging the dissemination of public information, were
ling the military works between the capital and the sea; and by allow-
limited to the legitimate newspapers and periodicals actually contem-
ing the temporary maintenance of foreign military posts along this line.
plated by the law, no just exception could be taken. That expense
An edict has been issued by the Emperor of China prohibiting for two
would be the recognized and accepted cost. of a liberal -public policy
years the importation of arms and ammunition into China. China has
deliberately adopted for a justifiable end. But much of the matter
agreed to pay adequate indemnities to the states, societies, and indi-
which enjoys the privileged rate is wholly outside of the intent of the
viduals for the losses sustained by them and for the expenses of the
law, and has secured admission only through an evasion of its require-
military expeditions sent by the various powers to protect life and
ments or through lax construction. The proportion of such wrongly
restore order.
included matter is estimated by postal experts to be one-half of the
Under the provisions of the joint note of December, 1900, China has
whole volume of second-class mail. If it be only one-third or one-
agreed to revise the treaties of commerce and navigation and to take
quarter, the magnitude of the burden is apparent. The Post-Office
such other steps for the purpose of facilitating foreign trade as the
Department has now undertaken to remove the abuses so far as is pos-
foreign powers may decide to be needed.
sible by a stricter application of the law; and it should be sustained in
The Chinese Government has agreed to participate financially in the
its effort.
work of bettering the water approaches to Shanghai and to Tientsin,
Owing to the rapid growth of our power and our interests on the
the centers of foreign trade in central and northern China, and an in-
Pacific, whatever happens in China must be of the keenest national
ternational conservancy board, in which the Chinese Government is
concern to us.
largely represented, has been provided for the improvement of the
The general terms of the settlement of the questions growing out of
Shanghai River and the control of its navigation. In the same line of
the antiforeign uprisings in China of 1900, having been formulated in a
commercial advantages a revision of the present tariff on imports has
joint note addressed to China by the representatives of the injured
been assented to for the purpose of substituting specific for ad valorem
powers in December last, were promptly accepted by the Chinese Gov-
duties, and an expert has been sent abroad on the part of the United
ernment. After protracted conferences the plenipotentiaries of the
States to assist in this work. A list of articles to remain free of duty,
several powers were able to sign a final protocol with the Chinese
including flour, cereals, and rice, gold and silver coin and bullion, has
plenipotentiaries on the 7th of last September, setting forth the meas-
also been agreed upon in the settlement.
ures taken by China in compliance with the demands of the joint note,
During these troubles our Government has unswervingly advocated
and expressing their satisfaction therewith. It will be laid before the
moderation, and has materially aided in bringing about an adjustment
Congress, with a report of the plenipotentiary on behalf of the United
which tends to enhance the welfare of China and to lead to a more bene-
2052
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Second Annual Message
2053.
ficial intercourse between the Empire and the modern world; while in
the critical period of revolt and massacre we did our full share in safe-
such grief and regard as to touch the hearts of our people. In the
guarding life and property, restoring order, and vindicating the national
midst of our affliction we reverently thank the Almighty that we are at
interest and honor. It behooves us to continue in these paths, doing
peace with the nations of mankind; and we firmly intend that our
what lies in our power to foster feelings of good will, and leaving no
policy shall be such as to continue unbroken these international rela-
effort untried to work out the great policy of full and fair intercourse
tions of mutual respect and good will.
between China and the nations, on a footing of equal rights and advan-
tages to all. We advocate the open door" with all that it implies;
not merely the procurement of enlarged commercial opportunities on
the coasts, but access to the interior by the waterways with which
China has been so extraordinarily favored. Only by bringing the peo-
ple of China into peaceful and friendly community of trade with all the
peoples of the earth can the work now auspiciously begun be carried to
fruition. In the attainment of this purpose we necessarily claim parity
of treatment, under the conventions, throughout the Empire for our
trade and our citizens with those of all other powers.
We view with lively interest and keen hopes of beneficial results the
SECOND ANNUAL MESSAGE.
proceedings of the Pan-American Congress, convoked at the invitation
of Mexico, and now sitting at the Mexican capital. The delegates of
WHITE HOUSE, December 2, 1902.
he United States are under the most liberal instructions to co-operate
To the Senate and House of Representatives:
with their colleagues in all matters promising advantage to the great
family of American commonwealths, as well in their relations among
We still continue in a period of unbounded prosperity. This pros-
themselves as in their domestic advancement and in their intercourse
perity is not the creature of law, but undoubtedly the laws under which
with the world at large.
we work have been instrumental in creating the conditions which made
My predecessor communicated to the Congress the fact that the Weil
it possible, and by unwise legislation it would be easy enough to de-
and La Abra awards against Mexico have been adjudged by the highest
stroy it. There will undoubtedly be periods of depression. The wave
courts of our country to have been obtained through fraud and perjury
will recede; but the tide will advance. This Nation is seated on a
on the part of the claimants, and that in accordance with the acts of the
continent flanked by two great oceans. It is composed of men the
Congress the money remaining in the hands of the Secretary of State on
descendants of pioneers, or, in a sense, pioneers themselves; of men
these awards has been returned to Mexico. A considerable portion of
winnowed out from among the nations of the Old World by the energy,
the money received from Mexico on these awards had been paid by this
boldness, and love of adventure found in their own eager hearts. Such
Government to the claimants before the decision of the courts was ren-
a Nation, so placed, will surely wrest success from fortune.
dered. My judgment is that the Congress should return to Mexico an
As a people we have played a large part in the world, and we are
amount equal to the sums thus already paid to the claimants.
bent upon making our future even larger than the past. In particular,
the events of the last four years have definitely decided that, for woe
or for weal, our place must be great among the nations. We may
either fail greatly or succeed greatly; but we can not avoid the en-
The death of Queen Victoria caused the people of the United States
deavor from which either great failure or great success must come.
deep and heartfelt sorrow, to which the Government gave full expres.
sion. When President McKinley died, our Nation in turn received
Even if we would, we can not play a small part. If we should try,
from every quarter of the British Empire expressions of grief and sym-
all that would follow would be that we should play a large part ignobly
and shamefully.
pathy no less sincere. The death of the Empress Dowager Frederick of
Germany also aroused the genuine sympathy of the American people;
But our people, the sons of the men of the Civil War, the sons of
and this sympathy was cordially reciprocated by Germany when the
the men who had iron in their blood, rejoice in the present and face
President was assassinated. Indeed, from every quarter of the civilized
the future high of heart and resolute of will. Ours is not the creed
world we received, at the time of the President's death, assurances of
of the weakling and the coward; ours is the gospel of hope and of
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Second Annual Message
2055
2054
triumphant endeavor. We do not shrink from the struggle before us.
the past year has emphasized, in my opinion, the desirability of the
There are many problems for us to face at the outset of the twentieth
steps I then proposed. A fundamental requisite of social efficiency is
century-grave problems abroad and still graver at home; but we
a high standard of individual energy and excellence; but this is in no
know that we can solve them and solve them well, provided only that
wise inconsistent with power to act in combination for aims which can
we bring to the solution the qualities of head and heart which were
not so well be achieved by the individual acting alone. A fundamental
shown by the men who, in the days of Washington, founded this Gov-
base of civilization is the inviolability of property; but this is in no
ernment, and, in the days of Lincoln, preserved it.
wise inconsistent with the right of society to regulate the exercise of
No country has ever occupied a higher plane of material well-being
the artificial powers which it confers upon the owners of property,
than ours at the present moment. This well-being is due to no sudden
under the name of corporate franchises, in such a way as to prevent
or accidental causes, but to the play of the economic forces in this
the misuse of these powers. Corporations, and especially combinations
country for over a century; to our laws, our sustained and continuous
of corporations, should be managed under public regulation. Experi-
policies; above all, to the high individual average of our citizenship.
ence has shown that under our system of government the necessary
Great fortunes have been won by those who have taken the lead in
supervision can not be obtained by State action. It must therefore be
this phenomenal industrial development, and most of these fortunes
achieved by national action. Our aim is not to do away with corpora-
have been won not by doing evil, but as an incident to action which
tions; on the contrary, these big aggregations are an inevitable develop-
has benefited the community as a whole. Never before has material
ment of modern industrialism, and the effort to destroy them would be
well-being been so widely diffused among our people. Great fortunes
futile unless accomplished in ways that would work the utmost mis-
have been accumulated, and yet in the aggregate these fortunes are
chief to the entire body politic. We can do nothing of good in the
small indeed when compared to the wealth of the people as a whole.
way of regulating and supervising these corporations until we fix
The plain people are better off than they have ever been before. The
clearly in our minds that we are not attacking the corporations, but
insurance companies, which are practically mutual benefit societies-
endeavoring to do away with any evil in them. We are not hostile to
especially helpful to men of moderate means-represent accumulations
them; we are merely determined that they shall be so handled as to
of capital which are among the largest in this country. There are
subserve the public good. We draw the line against misconduct, not
more deposits in the savings banks, more owners of farms, more well-
against wealth. The capitalist who, alone or in conjunction with his
paid wage-workers in this country now than ever before in our history,
fellows, performs some great industrial feat by which he wins money
Of course, when the conditions have favored the growth of so much
is a welldoer, not a wrongdoer, provided only he works in proper and
that was good, they have also favored somewhat the growth of what
legitimate lines. We wish to favor such a man when he does well.
was evil. It is eminently necessary that we should endeavor to cut
We wish to supervise and control his actions only to prevent him from
out this evil, but let us keep a due sense of proportion; let us not in
doing ill. Publicity can do no harm to the honest corporation; and
fixing our gaze upon the lesser evil forget the greater good. The evils
we need not be over tender about sparing the dishonest corporation.
are real and some of them are menacing, but they are the outgrowth,
In curbing and regulating the combinations of capital which are, or
not of misery or decadence, but of prosperity-of the progress of our
may become, injurious to the public we must be careful not to stop the
gigantic industrial development. This industrial development must
great enterprises which have legitimately reduced the cost of produc-
not be checked, but side by side with it should go such progressive
tion, not to abandon the place which our country has won in the leader-
regulation as will diminish the evils. We should fail in our duty if
ship of the international industrial world, not to strike down wealth
we did not try to remedy the evils, but we shall succeed only if we
with the result of closing factories and mines, of turning the wage-
proceed patiently, with practical common sense as well as resolution,
worker idle in the streets and leaving the farmer without a market for
separating the good from the bad and holding on to the former while
what he grows. Insistence upon the impossible means delay in achiev-
endeavoring to get rid of the latter.
ing the possible, exactly as, on the other hand, the stubborn defense
In my Message to the present Congress at its first session I discussed
alike of what is good and what is bad in the existing system, the reso-
at length the question of the regulation of those big corporations com-
lute effort to obstruct any attempt at betterment, betrays blindness
monly doing an interstate business, often with some tendency to
to the historic truth that wise evolution is the sure safeguard against
monopoly, which are popularly known as trusts. The expérience of
revolution.
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
2056
Second Annual Message
2057
No more important subject can come before the Congress than
in the slightest degree by a change in the tariff, save as such change
this of the regulation of interstate business. This country can not
interfered with the general prosperity of the country. The only rela-
afford to sit supine on the plea that under our peculiar system of gov-
tion of the tariff to big corporations as a whole is that the tariff makes
ernment we are helpless in the presence of the new conditions, and
manufactures profitable, and the tariff remedy proposed would be in
unable to grapple with them or to cut out whatever of evil has arisen
effect simply to make manufactures unprofitable. To remove the tariff
in connection, with them. The power of the Congress to regulate inter-
as a punitive measure directed against trusts would inevitably result
state commerce is an absolute and unqualified grant, and without limi-
in ruin to the weaker competitors who are struggling against them.
tations other than those prescribed by the Constitution. The Congress
Our aim should be not by unwise tariff changes to give foreign prod-
has constitutional authority to make all laws necessary and proper for
ucts the advantage over domestic products, but by proper regulation
executing this power, and I am satisfied that this power has not been
to give domestic competition a fair chance; and this end can not be
exhausted by any legislation now on the statute books. It is evident,
reached by any tariff changes which would affect unfavorably all do-
therefore, that evils restrictive of commercial freedom and entailing
mestic competitors, good and bad alike. The question of regulation
restraint upon national commerce fall within the regulative power of
of the trusts stands apart from the question of tariff revision.
the Congress, and that a wise and reasonable law would be a necessary
Stability of economic policy must always be the prime economic need
and proper exercise of Congressional authority to the end that such
of this country. This stability should not be fossilization. The coun-
evils should be eradicated.
try has acquiesced in the wisdom of the protective-tariff principle. It
I believe that monopolies, unjust discriminations, which prevent or
is exceedingly undesirable that this system should be destroyed or that
cripple competition, fraudulent overcapitalization, and other evils in
there should be violent and radical changes therein. Our past experi-
trust organizations and practices which injuriously affect interstate
ence shows that great prosperity in this country has always come under
trade can be prevented under the power of the Congress to "regulate
a protective tariff; and that the country can not prosper under fitful
commerce with foreign nations and among the several States" through
tariff changes at short intervals. Moreover, if the tariff laws as a
regulations and requirements operating directly upon such commerce,
whole work well, and if business has prospered under them and is
the instrumentalities thereof, and those engaged therein.
prospering, it is better to endure for a time slight inconveniences and
I earnestly recommend this subject to the consideration of the Con-
inequalities in some schedules than to upset business by too quick and
gress with a view to the passage of a law reasonable in its provisions
too radical changes. It is most earnestly to be wished that we could
and effective in its operations, upon which the questions can be finally
treat the tariff from the standpoint solely of our business needs. It is,
adjudicated that now raise doubts as to the necessity of constitutional
perhaps, too much to hope that partisanship may be entirely excluded
amendment. If it prove impossible to accomplish the purposes above
from consideration of the subject, but at least it can be made secondary
set forth by such a law, then, assuredly, we should not shrink from
to the business interests of the country-that is, to the interests of
amending the Constitution so as to secure beyond peradventure the
our people as a whole. Unquestionably these business interests will
power sought.
best be served if together with fixity of principle as regards the tariff
The Congress has not heretofore made any appropriation for the
we combine a system which will permit us from time to time to make
better enforcement of the antitrust law as it now stands. Very much
the necessary reapplication of the principle to the shifting national
has been done by the Department of Justice in securing the enforce-
needs. We must take scrupulous care that the reapplication shall be
ment of this law, but much more could be done if the Congress would
made in such a way that it will not amount to a dislocation of our
make a special appropriation for this purpose, to be expended under
system, the mere threat of which (not to speak of the performance)
the direction of the Attorney-General.
would produce paralysis in the business energies of the community.
One proposition advocated has been the reduction of the tariff as a
The first consideration in making these changes would, of course, be
means of reaching the evils of the trusts which fall within the cate-
to preserve the principle which underlies our whole tariff system-
gory I have described. Not merely would this be wholly ineffective,
that is, the principle of putting American business interests at least on
but the diversion of our efforts in such a direction would mean the
a full equality with interests abroad, and of always allowing a suffi-
abandonment of all intelligent attempt to do away with these evils.
cient rate of duty to more than cover the difference between the labor
Many of the largest corporations, many of those which should certainly
cost here and abroad. The well-being of the wage-worker, like the
be included in any proper scheme of regulation, would not be affected
well-being of the tiller of the soil, should be treated as an essential
2058
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Second Annual Message
2059
in shaping our whole economic policy. There must never be any
that these rates may be equalized to meet the varying needs of the sea-
change which will jeopardize the standard of comfort, the standard of
sons and of widely separated communities, and to prevent the recur-
wages of the American wage-worker.
rence of financial stringencies which injuriously affect legitimate busi-
One way in which the readjustment sought can be reached is by
ness, it is necessary that there should be an element of elasticity in
reciprocity treaties. It is greatly to be desired that such treaties may
our monetary system. Banks are the natural servants of commerce,
be adopted. They can be used to widen our markets and to give a
and upon them should be placed, as far as practicable, the burden of
greater field for the activities of our producers on the one hand, and
furnishing and maintaining a circulation adequate to supply the needs
on the other hand to secure in practical shape the lowering of duties
of our diversified industries and of our domestic and foreign com-
when they are no longer needed for protection among our own people,
merce; and the issue of this should be so regulated that a sufficient
or when the minimum of damage done may be disregarded for the
supply should be always available for the business interests of the
sake of the maximum of good accomplished. If it prove impossible
country.
to ratify the pending treaties, and if there seem to be no warrant for
It would be both unwise and unnecessary at this time to attempt to
the endeavor to execute others, or to amend the pending treaties so
reconstruct our financial system, which has been the growth of a cen-
that they can be ratified, then the same end-to secure reciprocity-
tury; but some additional legislation is, I think, desirable. The mere
should be met by direct legislation.
outline of any plan sufficiently comprehensive to meet these require-
Wherever the tariff conditions are such that a needed change can
ments would transgress the appropriate limits of this communication.
not with advantage be made by the application of the reciprocity idea,
It is suggested, however, that all future legislation on the subject
then it can be made outright by a lowering of duties on a given product.
should be with the view of encouraging the use of such instrumentali-
If possible, such change should be made only after the fullest consid-
ties as will automatically supply every legitimate demand of productive
eration by practical experts, who should approach the subject from a
industries and of commerce, not only in the amount, but in the char-
business standpoint, having in view both the particular interests af-
acter of circulation; and of making all kinds of money interchangeable,
fected and the commercial well-being of the people as a whole. The
and, at the will of the holder, convertible into the established gold
machinery for providing such careful investigation can readily be
standard.
supplied. The executive department has already at its disposal methods
I again call your attention to the need of passing a proper immigra-
of collecting facts and figures; and if the Congress desires additional
tion law, covering the points outlined in my Message to you at the
consideration to that which will be given the subject by its own com-
first session of the present Congress; substantially such a bill has
mittees, then a commission of business experts can be appointed whose
already passed the House.
duty it should be to recommend action by the Congress after a delib-
How to secure fair treatment alike for labor and for capital, how
erate and scientific examination of the various schedules as they are
to hold in check the unscrupulous man, whether employer or employee,
affected by the changed and changing conditions. The unhurried and
without weakening individual initiative, without hampering and cramp-
unbiased report of this commission would show what changes should
ing the industrial development of the country, is a problem fraught
be made in the various schedules, and how far these changes could go
with great difficulties and one which it is of the highest importance to
without also changing the great prosperity which this country is now
solve on lines of sanity and far-sighted common sense as well as of
enjoying, or upsetting its fixed economic policy.
devotion to the right. This is an era of federation and combination.
The cases in which the tariff can produce a monopoly are so few
Exactly as business men find they must often work through corpora-
as to constitute an inconsiderable factor in the question; but of course
tions, and as it is a constant tendency of these corporations to grow
if in any case it be found that a given rate of duty does promote a
larger, so it is often necessary for laboring men to work in federations,
monopoly which works ill, no protectionist would object to such reduc-
and these have become important factors of modern industrial life.
tion of the duty as would equalize competition.
Both kinds of federation, capitalistic and labor, can do much good,
In my judgment, the tariff on anthracite coal should be removed,
and as a necessary corollary they can both do evil. Opposition to each
and anthracite put actually, where it now is nominally, on the free list.
kind of organization should take the form of opposition to whatever
This would have no effect at all save in crises; but in crises it might
is bad in the conduct of any given corporation or union-not of attacks
be of service to the people.
upon corporations as such nor upon unions as such; for some of the
Interest rates are a potent factor in business activity, and in order
most far-reaching beneficent work for our people has been accom-
2060
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Second Annual Message
2061
plished through both corporations and unions. Each must refrain
from arbitrary or tyrannous interference with the rights of others. Or-
be an advance toward dealing with and exercising supervision over the
ganized capital and organized labor alike should remember that in the
whole subject of the great corporations doing an interstate business;
long run the interest of each must be brought into harmony with the
and with this end in view, the Congress should endow the department
interest of the general public; and the conduct of each must conform
with large powers, which could be increased as experience might show
the need.
to the fundamental rules of obedience to the law, of individual freedom,
and of justice and fair dealing toward all. Each should remember
I hope soon to submit to the Senate a reciprocity treaty with Cuba.
that in addition to power it must strive after the realization of healthy,
On May 20 last the United States kept its promise to the island by
formally vacating Cuban soil and turning Cuba over to those whom
lofty, and generous ideals. Every employer, every wage-worker, must
be guaranteed his liberty and his right to do as he likes with his prop-
her own people had chosen as the first officials of the new Republic.
erty or his labor so long as he does not infringe upon the rights of
Cuba lies at our doors, and whatever affects her for good or for
ill affects us also. So much have our people felt this that in the Platt
others. It is of the highest importance that employer and employee
amendment we definitely took the ground that Cuba must hereafter
alike should endeavor to appreciate each the viewpoint of the other
and the sure disaster that will come upon both in the long run if either
have closer political relations with us than with any other power. Thus
grows to take as habitual an attitude of sour hostility and distrust
in a sense Cuba has become a part of our international political system.
toward the other. Few people deserve better of the country than those
This makes it necessary that in return she should be given some of
the benefits of becoming part of our economic system. It is, from our
representatives both of capital and labor-and there are many such-
who work continually to bring about a good understanding of this
own standpoint, a short-sighted and mischievous policy to fail to rec-
kind, based upon wisdom and upon broad and kindly sympathy between
ognize this need. Moreover, it is unworthy of a mighty and generous
employers and employed. Above all, we need to remember that any
nation, itself the greatest and most successful republic in history, to
kind of class animosity in the political world is, if possible, even more
refuse to stretch out a helping hand to a young and weak sister republic
wicked, even more destructive to national welfare, than sectional, race,
just entering upon its career of independence. We should always
or religious animosity. We can get good government only upon con-
fearlessly insist upon our rights in the face of the strong, and we
should with ungrudging hand do our generous duty by the weak. I
dition that we keep true to the principles upon which this Nation was
urge the adoption of reciprocity with Cuba not only because it is emi-
founded, and judge each man not as a part of a class, but upon his
individual merits. All that we have a right to ask of any man, rich
nently for our own interests to control the Cuban market and by every
means to foster our supremacy in the tropical lands and waters south
or poor, whatever his creed, his occupation, his birthplace, or his resi-
dence, is that he shall act well and honorably by his neighbor and by
of us, but also because we, of of the giant republic of the north, should
make all our sister nations of the American Continent feel that when-
his country. We are neither for the rich man as such nor for the poor
man as such; we are for the upright man, rich or poor. So far as the
ever they will permit it we desire to show ourselves disinterestedly and
effectively their friend.
constitutional powers of the National Government touch these matters
A convention with Great Britain has been concluded, which will be
of general and vital moment to the Nation, they should be exercised
at once laid before the Senate for ratification, providing for reciprocal
in conformity with the principles above set forth.
trade arrangements between the United States and Newfoundland on
It is earnestly hoped that a secretary of commerce may be created,
with a seat in the Cabinet. The rapid multiplication of questions
substantially the lines of the convention formerly negotiated by the
Secretary of State, Mr. Blaine. I believe reciprocal trade relations
affecting labor and capital, the growth and complexity of the organi-
will be greatly to the advantage of both countries.
zations through which both labor and capital now find expression, the
As civilization grows warfare becomes less and less the normal con-
steady tendency toward the employment of capital in huge corporations,
dition of foreign relations. The last century has seen a marked diminu-
and the wonderful strides of this country toward leadership in the
international business world justify an urgent demand for the creation
tion of wars between civilized powers; wars with uncivilized powers
are largely mere matters of international police duty, essential for the
of such a position. Substantially all the leading commercial bodies
welfare of the world. Wherever possible, arbitration or some similar
in this country have united in requesting its creation. It is desirable
method should be employed in lieu of war to settle difficulties between
that some such measure as that which has already passed the Senate
be enacted into law. The creation of such a department would in itself
civilized nations, although as yet the world has not progressed suffi-
ciently to render it possible, or necessarily desirable, to invoke arbitra-
2062
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Second Annual Message
2063
tion in every case. The formation of the international tribunal which
retary of State, asking whether permission would be granted by the
sits at The Hague is an event of good omen from which great conse-
President to a corporation to lay a cable from a point on the Cali-
quences for the welfare of all mankind may flow. It is far better,
fornia coast to the Philippine Islands by way of Hawaii. A state-
where possible, to invoke such a permanent tribunal than to create
ment of conditions or terms upon which such corporation would under-
take to lay and operate a cable was volunteered.
special arbitrators for a given purpose.
It is a matter of sincere congratulation to our country that the United
Inasmuch as the Congress was shortly to convene, and Pacific-
States and Mexico should have been the first to use the good offices
cable legislation had been the subject of consideration by the Con-
of The Hague Court. This was done last summer with most satis-
gress for several years, it seemed to me wise to defer action upon
factory results in the case of a claim at issue between us and our sister
the application until the Congress had first an opportunity to act.
Republic. It is earnestly to be hoped that this first case will serve as
The Congress adjourned without taking any action, leaving the mat-
a precedent for others, in which not only the United States but foreign
convened. ter in exactly the same condition in which it stood when the Congress
nations may take advantage of the machinery already in existence at
The Hague.
Meanwhile it appears that the Commercial Pacific Cable Company
I commend to the favorable consideration of the Congress the
had promptly proceeded with-preparations for laying its cable. It also
Hawaiian fire claims, which were the subject of careful investiga-
made application to the President for access to and use of soundings
tion during the last session.
taken by the U. S. S. Nero, for the purpose of discovering a prac-
The Congress has wisely provided that we shall build at once an
ticable route for a trans-Pacific cable, the company urging that with
isthmian canal, if possible at Panama. The Attorney-General reports
access to these soundings it could complete its cable much sooner
that we can undoubtedly acquire good title from the French Panama
than if it were required to take soundings upon its own account. Pend-
Canal Company. Negotiations are now pending with Colombia to
ing consideration of this subject, it appeared important and desirable
secure her assent to our building the canal. This canal will be one
to attach certain conditions to the permission to examine and use the
of the greatest engineering feats of the twentieth century; a greater
soundings, if it should be granted.
engineering feat than has yet been accomplished during the history of
In consequence of this solicitation of the cable company, certain con-
mankind. The work should be carried out as a continuing policy with-
out regard to change of Administration; and it should be begun under
ditions were formulated, upon which the President was willing to
circumstances which will make it a matter of pride for all Administra-
allow access to these soundings and to consent to the landing and
laying of the cable, subject to any alterations or additions thereto
tions to continue the policy.
The canal will be of great benefit to America, and of importance to
imposed by the Congress. This was deemed proper, especially as it
all the world. It will be of advantage to us industrially and also as
was clear that a cable connection of some kind with China, a foreign
improving our military position. It will be of advantage to the coun-
country, was a part of the company's plan. This course was, more-
tries of tropical America. It is earnestly to be hoped that all of these
over, in accordance with a line of precedents, including President
countries will do as some of them have already done with signal suc-
Grant's action in the case of the first French cable, explained to
cess, and will invite to their shores commerce and improve their ma-
the Congress in his Annual Message of December, 1875, and the in-
terial conditions by recognizing that stability and order are the pre-
stance occurring in 1879 of the second French cable from Brest to
St. Pierre, with a branch to Cape Cod.
requisites of successful development. No independent nation in
America need have the slightest fear of aggression from the United
These conditions prescribed, among other things, a maximum rate
States. It behoves each one to maintain order within its own borders
for commercial messages and that the company should construct a
and to discharge its just obligations to foreigners. When this is done,
line from the Philippine Islands to China, there being at present, as
they can rest assured that, be they strong or weak, they have nothing
is well known, a British line from Manila to Hongkong.
to dread from outside interference. More and more the increasing
The representatives of the cable company kept these conditions
interdependence and complexity of international political and economic
long under consideration, continuing, in the meantime, to prepare for
relations render it incumbent on all civilized and orderly powers to
laying the cable. They have, however, at length acceded to them,
and an all-American line between our Pacific coast and the Chinese
insist on the proper policing of the world.
During the fall of 1901 a communication was addressed to the Sec-
Empire, by way of Honolulu and the Philippine Islands, is thus pro-
2064
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Second Annual Message
2065
vided for, and is expected within a few months to be ready for busi-
pletely successful. Every effort has also been made to detect and
ness.
punish the wrongdoers. After making all allowance for these mis-
Among the conditions is one reserving the power of the Congress
deeds, it remains true that few indeed have been the instances in which
to modify or repeal any or all of them. A copy of the conditions is
war has been waged by a civilized power against semicivilized or
herewith transmitted.
barbarous forces where there has been so little wrongdoing by the
Of Porto Rico it is only necessary to say that the prosperity of the
victors as in the Philippine Islands. On the other hand, the amount
island and the wisdom with which it has been governed have been
of difficult, important, and beneficent work which has been done is
such as to make it serve as an example of all that is best in insular
well-nigh incalculable.
administration.
Taking the work of the Army and the civil authorities together, it
On July 4 last, on the one hundred and twenty-sixth anniversary
may be questioned whether anywhere else in modern times the world
of the declaration of our independence, peace and amnesty were pro-
has seen a better example of real constructive statesmanship than our
gated in the Philippine Islands. Some trouble has since from
people have given in the Philippine Islands. High praise should also
time to time threatened with the Mohammedan Moros, but with the
be given those Filipinos, in the aggregate very numerous, who have
late insurrectionary Filipinos the war has entirely ceased. Civil gov-
accepted the new conditions and joined with our representatives to
ernment has now been introduced. Not only does each Filipino enjoy
work with hearty good will for the welfare of the islands.
such rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness as he has never
The Army has been reduced to the minimum allowed by law. It
before known during the recorded history of the islands, but the people
is very small for the size of the Nation, and most certainly should be
taken as a whole now enjoy a measure of self-government greater than
kept at the highest point of efficiency. The senior officers are given
that granted to any other Orientals by any foreign power and greater
scant chance under ordinary conditions to exercise commands com-
than that enjoyed by any other Orientals under their own governments,
mensurate with their rank, under circumstances which would fit them
save the Japanese alone. We have not gone too far in granting
to do their duty in time of actual war. A system of maneuvering
these rights of liberty and self-government; but we have certainly
our Army in bodies of some little size has been begun and should
gone to the limit that in the interests of the Philippine people them-
be steadily continued. Without such maneuvers it is folly to expect
selves it was wise or just to go. To hurry matters, to go faster than
that in the event of hostilities with any serious foe even a small army
we are now going, would entail calamity on the people of the islands.
corps could be handled to advantage. Both our officers and enlisted
No policy ever entered into by the American people has vindicated
men are such that we can take hearty pride in them. No better ma-
itself in more signal manner than the policy of holding the Philippines.
terial can be found. But they must be thoroughly trained, both as
The triumph of our arms, above all the triumph of our laws and
individuals and in the mass. The marksmanship of the men must
principles, has come sooner than we had any right to expect. Too
receive special attention. In the circumstances of modern warfare the
much praise can not be given to the Army for what it has done in
man must act far more on his own individual responsibility than
the Philippines both in warfare and from an administrative standpoint
ever before, and the high individual efficiency of the unit is of the
in preparing the way for civil government; and similar credit belongs
utmost importance. Formerly this unit was the regiment; it is now
to the civil authorities for the way in which they have planted the
not the regiment, not even the troop or company; it is the individual
seeds of self-government in the ground thus made ready for them.
soldier. Every effort must be made to develop every workmanlike
The courage, the unflinching endurance, the high soldierly efficiency;
and soldierly quality in both the officer and the enlisted man.
and the general kind-heartedness and humanity of our troops have
I urgently call your attention to the need of passing a bill pro-
been strikingly manifested. There now remain only some fifteen
viding for a general staff and for the reorganization of the supply
thousand troops in the islands. All told, over one hundred thousand
departments on the lines of the bill proposed by the Secretary of
have been sent there. Of course, there have been individual instances
War last year. When the young officers enter the Army from West
of wrongdoing among them. They warred under fearful difficulties
Point they probably stand above their compeers in any other military
of climate and surroundings; and under the strain of the terrible provo-
service. Every effort should be made, by training, by reward of
cations which they continually received from their foes, occasional
merit, by scrutiny into their careers and capacity, to keep. them of
instances of cruel retaliation occurred. Every effort has been made
the same high relative excellence throughout their careers.
to prevent such cruelties, and finally these efforts have been com-
The measure providing for the reorganization of the militia system
2066
THEODORE.ROOSEVELT
Second Annual Message
2067
and for securing the highest efficiency in the National Guard, which
has already passed the House, should receive prompt attention and
sufficient number of the highest type of sailormen, of sea mechanics.
action. It is of great importance that the relation of the National
The veteran seamen of our war ships are of as high a type as can be
Guard to the militia and volunteer forces of the United States should
found in any navy which rides the waters of the world they are un-
be defined, and that in place of our present obsolete laws a practical
surpassed in daring, in resolution, in readiness, in thorough knowledge
and efficient system should be adopted.
of their profession. They deserve every consideration that can be
Provision should be made to enable the Secretary of War to keep
shown them. But there are not enough of them. It is no more pos-
cavalry and artillery horses, worn-out in long performance of duty.
sible to improvise a crew than it is possible to improvise a war ship.
Such horses fetch but a trifle when sold; and rather than turn them
To build the finest ship, with the deadliest battery, and to send it
out to the misery awaiting them when thus disposed of, it would be
afloat with a raw crew, no matter how brave they were individually,
better to employ them at light work around the posts, and when neces-
would be to insure disaster if a foe of average capacity were encoun-
sary to put them painlessly to death.
tered. Neither ships nor men can be improvised when war has begun.
For the first time in our history naval maneuvers on a large scale
We need a thousand additional officers in order to properly man
are being held under the immediate command of the Admiral of the
the ships now provided for and under construction. The classes at
Navy. Constantly increasing attention is being paid to the gunnery
the Naval School at Annapolis should be greatly enlarged. At the
of the Navy, but it is yet far from what it should be. I earnestly
same time that we thus add the officers where we need them, we
urge that the increase asked for by the Secretary of the Navy in the
should facilitate the retirement of those at the head of the list whose
appropriation for improving the markmanship be granted. In battle
usefulness has become impaired. Promotion must be fostered if the
service is to be kept efficient.
the only shots that count are the shots that hit. It is necessary to
provide ample funds for practice with the great guns in time of peace.
The lamentable scarcity of officers, and the large number of re-
These funds must provide not only for the purchase of projectiles,
cruits and of unskilled men necessarily put aboard the new vessels
but for allowances for prizes to encourage the gun crews, and especially
as they have been commissioned, has thrown upon our officers; and
the gun pointers, and for perfecting an intelligent system under which
especially on the lieutenants and junior grades, unusual labor and
alone it is possible to get good practice.
fatigue and has gravely strained their powers of endurance. Nor
There should be no halt in the work of building up the Navy,
is there sign of any immediate let-up in this strain. It must continue
providing every year additional fighting craft. We are a very rich
for some time longer, until more officers are graduated from Annapolis,
country, vast in extent of territory and great in population; a country,
and until the recruits become trained and skillful in their duties. In
moreover, which has an Army diminutive indeed when compared
these difficulties incident upon the development of our war fleet the
with that of any other first-class power. We have deliberately made
conduct of all our officers has been creditable to the service, and the
our own certain foreign policies which demand the possession of a first-
lieutenants and junior grades in particular have displayed an ability
class navy. The isthmian canal will greatly increase the efficiency
and a steadfast cheerfulness which entitles them to the ungrudging
of our Navy if the Navy is of sufficient size; but if we have an in-
thanks of all who realize the disheartening trials and fatigues to
which they are of necessity subjected.
adequate navy, then the building of the canal would be merely giv-
ing a hostage to any power of superior strength. The Monroe Doc-
There is not a cloud on the horizon at present. There seems not
trine should be treated as the cardinal feature of American foreign
the slightest chance of trouble with a foreign power. We most ear-
policy; but it would be worse than idle to assert it unless we intended
nestly hope that this state of things may continue; and the way to
to back it up, and it can be backed up only by a thoroughly good
insure its continuance is to provide for a. thoroughly efficient navy.
navy. A good navy is not a provocative of war. It is the surest
The refusal to maintain such a navy would invite trouble, and if trouble
guaranty of peace.
came would insure disaster. Fatuous self-complacency or vanity, or
Each individual unit of our Navy should be the most efficient of
short-sightedness in refusing to prepare for danger, is both foolish
its kind as regards both material and personnel that is to be found in
and wicked in such a nation as ours; and past experience has shown
the world. I call your special attention to the need of providing for
that such fatuity in refusing to recognize or prepare for any crisis in
the manning of the ships. Serious trouble threatens us if we can not
advance is usually succeeded by a mad panic of hysterical fear once
the crisis has actually arrived.
do better than we are now doing as regards securing the services of a
The striking increase in the revenues of the Post-Office Department
2068
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Second Annual Message
2069
shows clearly the prosperity of our people and the increasing activity
preserved on our national reserves for the people as a whole, should
of the business of the country.
be stopped at once, It is, for instance, a serious count against our
The receipts of the Post-Office Department for the fiscal year end-
national good sense to permit the present practice of butchering off
ing June 30 last amounted to $121,848,047.26, an increase of $10,-
such a stately and beautiful creature as the elk for its antlers or tusks.
216,853.87 over the preceding year, the largest increase known in the
So far as they are available for agriculture, and to whatever extent
history of the postal service. The magnitude of this increase will
they may be reclaimed under the national irrigation law, the remaining
best appear from the fact that the entire postal receipts for the year
public lands should be held rigidly for the home builder, the settler
I860 amounted to but $8,518,067.
who lives on his land, and for no one else. In their actual use the
Rural free-delivery service is no longer in the experimental stage;
desert-land law, the timber and stone law, and the commutation clause
it has become a fixed policy. The results following its introduction
of the homestead law have been so perverted from the intention with
have fully justified the Congress in the large appropriations made
which they were enacted as to permit the acquisition of large areas
for its establishment and extension. The average yearly increase in
of the public domain for other than actual settlers and the consequent
post-office receipts in the rural districts of the country is about two
prevention of settlement. Moreover, the approaching exhaustion of
per cent. We are now able, by actual results, to show that where
the public ranges has of late led to much discussion as to the best
rural free-delivery service has been established to such an extent as to
manner of using these public lands in the West which are suitable
enable us to make comparisons the yearly increase has been upward
chiefly or only for grazing. The sound and steady development of the
of ten per cent.
West depends upon the building up of homes therein. Much of our
On November I, 1902, 11,650 rural free-delivery routes had been
prosperity as a nation has been due to the operation of the homestead
established and were in operation, covering about one-third of the
law. On the other hand, we should recognize the fact that in the
territory of the United States available for rural free-delivery service.
grazing region the man who corresponds to the homesteader may be
There are now awaiting the action of the Department petitions and
unable to settle permanently if only allowed to use the same amount of
applications for the establishment of 10,748 additional routes. This
pasture land that his brother, the homesteader, is allowed to use of
shows conclusively the want which the establishment of the service
arable land. One hundred and sixty acres of fairly rich and well-
has met and the need of further extending it as rapidly as possible.
watered soil, or a much smaller amount of irrigated land, may keep
It is justified both by the financial results and by the practical benefits
a family in plenty, whereas no one could get a living from one hundred
to our rural population; it brings the men who live on the soil into
and sixty acres of dry pasture land capable of supporting at the out-
close relations with the active business world; it keeps the farmer in
side only one head of cattle to every ten acres. In the past great
daily touch with the markets; it is a potential educational force; it
tracts of the public domain have been fenced in by persons having
enhances the value of farm property, makes farm life far pleasanter
no title thereto, in direct defiance of the law forbidding the maintenance
and less isolated, and will do much to check the undesirable current
or construction of any such unlawful inclosure of public land. For
from country to city.
various reasons there has been little interference with such inclosures
It is to be hoped that the Congress will make liberal appropriations
in the past, but ample notice has now been given the trespassers, and
for the continuance of the service already established and for its further
all the resources at the command of the Government will hereafter
extension.
be used to put a stop to such trespassing.
Few subjects of more importance have been taken up by the Con-
In view of the capital importance of these matters, I commend
gress in recent years than the inauguration of the system of nationally-
them to the earnest consideration of the Congress, and if the Con-
aided irrigation for the arid regions of the far West. A good be-
gress finds difficulty in dealing with them from lack of thorough
ginning therein has been made. Now that this policy of national
knowledge of the subject, I recommend that provision be made for
irrigation has been adopted, the need of thorough and scientific forest
a commission of experts specially to investigate and report upon the
protection. will grow more rapidly than ever throughout the public-
complicated questions involved.
land States.
I especially urge upon the Congress the need of wise legislation
Legislation should be provided for the protection of the game, and
for Alaska. It is not to our credit as a nation that Alaska, which
the wild creatures generally, on the forest reserves. The senseless
has been ours for thirty-five years, should still have as poor a system
slaughter of game, which can by judicious protection be permanently
of laws as is the case. No country has a more valuable possession-
2070
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Second Annual Message
2071
in mineral wealth, in fisheries, furs, forests, and also in land avail
tillers of the soil or stock raisers. Their industries may properly be
able for certain kinds of farming and stockgrowing. It is a territory
diversified, and those who show special desire or adaptability for in-
of great size and varied resources, well fitted to support a large perma-
dustrial or even commercial pursuits should be encouraged so far as
nent population. Alaska needs a good land law and such provisions
practicable to follow out each his own bent.
for homesteads and pre-emptions as will encourage permanent settle-
Every effort should be made to develop the Indian along the lines
ment. We should shape legislation with a view not to the exploiting
of natural aptitude, and to encourage the existing native industries
and abandoning of the territory, but to the building up of homes
peculiar to certain tribes, such as the various kinds of basket weav-
therein. The land laws should be liberal in type, so as to hold out
ing, canoe building, smith work, and blanket work. Above all, the
inducements to the actual settler whom we most desire to see take
Indian boys and girls should be given confident command of colloquial
possession of the country. The forests of Alaska should be protected,
English, and should ordinarily be prepared for a vigorous struggle
and, as a secondary but still important matter, the game also, and at
with the conditions under which their people live, rather than for
the same time it is imperative that the settlers should be allowed to
immediate absorption into some more highly developed community.
cut timber, under proper regulations, for their own use. Laws should
The officials who represent the Government in dealing with the
be enacted to protect the Alaskan salmon fisheries against the greed
Indians work under hard conditions, and also under conditions which
which would destroy them. They should be preserved as a permanent
render it easy to do wrong and very difficult to detect wrong. Conse-
industry and food supply. Their management and control should be
quently they should be amply paid on the one hand, and on the other
turned over to the Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Alaska should
hand a particularly high standard of conduct should be demanded
have a Delegate in the Congress. It would be well if a Congressional
from them, and where misconduct can be proved the punishment
committee could visit Alaska and investigate its needs on the ground.
should be exemplary.
In dealing with the Indians our aim should be their ultimate absorp-
In no department of governmental work in recent years has there
tion into the body of our people. But in many cases this absorption
been greater success than in that of giving scientific aid to the farm-
must and should be very slow. In portions of the Indian Territory
ing population, thereby showing them how most efficiently to help
the mixture of blood has gone on at the same time with progress in
themselves. There is no need of insisting upon its importance, for
wealth and education, so that there are plenty of men with varying
the welfare of the farmer is fundamentally necessary to the welfare
degrees of purity of Indian blood who are absolutely indistinguishable
of the Republic as a whole. In addition to such work as quarantine
in point of social, political, and economic ability from their white
against animal and vegetable plagues, and warring against them when
associates. There are other tribes which have as yet made no per-
here introduced, much efficient help has been rendered to the farmer
ceptible advance toward such equality. To try to force such tribes
by the introduction of new plants specially fitted for cultivation under
too fast is to prevent their going forward at all. Moreover, the tribes
the peculiar conditions existing in different portions of the country.
live under widely different conditions. Where a tribe has made con-
New cereals have been established in the semi-arid West. For in-
siderable advance and lives on fertile farming soil it is possible to
stance, the practicability of producing the best types of macaroni
allot the members lands in severalty much as is the case with white
wheats in regions of an annual rainfall of only ten inches or there-
settlers. There are other tribes where such a course is not desirable.
abouts has been conclusively demonstrated. Through the introduc-
On the arid prairie lands the effort should be to induce the Indians to
tion of new rices in Louisiana and Texas the production of rice
lead pastoral rather than agricultural lives, and to permit them to
in this country has been made to about equal the home demand. In
settle in villages rather than to force them into isolation.
the Southwest the possibility of regrassing overstocked range lands
The large Indian schools situated remote from any Indian reserva-
has been demonstrated; in the North many new forage crops have
tion do a special and peculiar work of great importance. But, excellent
been introduced, while in the East it has been shown that some of our
though these are, an immense amount of additional work must be done
choicest fruits can be stored and shipped in such a way as to find a
on the reservations themselves among the old, and above all among the
profitable market abroad.
young, Indians.
I again recommend to the favorable consideration of the Congress
The first and most important step toward the absorption of the
the plans of the Smithsonian Institution for making the Museum
Indian is to teach him to earn his living; yet it is not necessarily
under its charge worthy of the Nation, and for preserving at the
to be assumed that in each community all Indians must become either
National Capital not only records of the vanishing races of men but
2072
THEODORE ROOSEVELT
Third Annual Message
2073
of the animals of this continent which, like the buffalo, will soon
become extinct unless specimens from which their representatives
of the merit system of making appointments in the Government service.
may be renewed are sought in their native regions and- maintained
It should be extended by law to the District of Columbia. It is much
there in safety.
to be desired that our consular system be established by law on a
The District of Columbia is the only part of our territory in which
basis providing for appointment and promotion only in consequence
of proved fitness.
the National Government exercises local or municipal functions, and
where in consequence the Government has a free hand in reference
Through a wise provision of the Congress at its last session the
to certain types of social and economic legislation which must be
White House, which had become disfigured by incongruous additions
essentially local or municipal in their character. The Government
and changes, has now been restored to what it was planned to be by
should see to it, for instance, that the hygienic and sanitary legislation
Washington. In making the restorations the utmost care has been
affecting Washington is of a high character. The evils of slum
exercised to come as near as possible to the early plans and to supple-
dwellings, whether in the shape of crowded and congested tenement-
ment these plans by a careful study of such buildings as that of the
house districts or of the back-alley type, should never be permitted
University of Virginia, which was built by Jefferson. The White
to grow up in Washington. The city should be a model in every
House is the property of the Nation, and so far as is compatible with
respect for all the cities of the country. The charitable and cor-
living therein it should be kept as it originally was, for the same
rectional systems of the District should receive consideration at the
reasons that we keep Mount Vernon as it originally was. The stately
hands of the Congress to the end that they may embody the results
simplicity of its architecture is an expression of the character of the
of the most advanced thought in these fields. Moreover, while Wash-
period in which it was built, and is in accord with the purposes it
ington is not a great industrial city, there is some industrialism here,
was designed to serve. It is a good thing to preserve such buildings
and our labor legislation, while it would not be important in itself,
as historic monuments which keep alive our sense of continuity with
the Nation's past.
might be made a model for the rest of the Nation. We should pass,
for instance, a wise employer's-liability act for the District of Columbia,
The reports of the several Executive Departments are submitted to
the Congress with this communication.
and we need such an act in our navy-yards. Railroad companies
in the District ought to be required by law to block their frogs.
The safety-appliance law, for the better protection of the lives and
limbs, of railway employees, which was passed in 1893, went into
full effect on August I, 1901. It has resulted in averting thousands
of casualties. Experience shows, however, the necessity of additional
THIRD ANNUAL MESSAGE.
legislation to perfect this law. A bill to provide for this passed the
Senate at the last session. It is to be hoped- that some such measure
WHITE HOUSE, December 7,1903.
may now be enacted into law.
To the Senate and House of Representatives:
There is a growing tendency to provide for the publication of masses
The country is to be congratulated on the amount of substantial
of documents for which there is no public demand and for the printing
achievement which has marked the past year both as regards our for-
of which there is no real necessity. Large numbers of volumes are
eign and as regards our domestic policy.
turned out by the Government printing presses for which there is
With a nation as with a man the most important things are those
no justification. Nothing should be printed by any of the Depart-
of the household, and therefore the country is especially to be con-
ments unless it contains something of permanent value, and the Con-
gratulated on what has been accomplished in the direction of provid-
gress could with advantage cut down very materially on all the print-
ing for the exercise of supervision over the great corporations and
ing which it has now become customary to provide. The excessive
combinations of corporations engaged in interstate commerce. The
cost of Government printing is a strong argument against the posi-
Congress has created the Department of Commerce and Labor, includ-
tion of those who are inclined on abstract grounds to advocate the
ing the Bureau of Corporations, with for the first time authority to
Government's doing any work which can with propriety be left in
secure proper publicity of such proceedings of these great corporations
private hands.
as the public has the right to know. It has provided for the expediting
Gratifying progress has been made during the year in the extension
of suits for the enforcement of the Federal anti-trust law; and by an-
other law it has secured equal treatment to all producers in the trans-
THE
WASHINGTON WHITE HOUSE Danoroaty
Date: January 11, 1990
FOR:
Dave Demarest
FROM:
GOVERNOR JOHN H. SUNUNU
Action
Your Comment
Let's Talk
X
FYI
Document Originally
Attached to
Following Page
bcc: The Honorable John H. Sununu
NAM
National Association
of Manufacturers
cc
JERRY J. JASINOWSKI
President
January 8, 1990
The President
The White House
Washington, DC 20500
Dear Mr. President:
It was good of you, and for me a privilege, for the National
Association of Manufacturers to be consulted on your State
of the Union planning.
I have enclosed some brief statements that I hope are helpful.
The first page strikes themes we think important and could
stand alone; the second follows with more specific elaboration
of issues which might amplify the themes; the last articulates
NAM's priorities for the 1990s.
Clearly, the state of the union is good. Just as clearly,
the state of the world is more hopeful now than at any time
in recent memory. As the brief passages enclosed suggest,
America has opened the world to our ideas about freedom and
democracy through our persistence in promoting them. We have
also demonstrated that our market systems and manufacturing
industries have the strength and flexibility to adapt to the
changes that are sweeping the globe.
We can, with equal persistence, open the world further to
our own goods and to our own ideas about commerce and economics.
We are now entering a decade when economic power and
competitiveness will be the prime determinants of our success
and our national security. We must help define this new global
environment by enhancing our own economic strength. More
than anything else, Mr. President, this will require your
setting higher standards of quality and excellence in those
key areas that shape our ability to compete.
In any way we can, American manufacturing will support you
in such an undertaking, first and foremost by doing what we
can do best -- producing quality products at competitive prices.
Best regards,
1331 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Suite 1500-North Lobby
Washington, DC 20004-1703
(202) 637-3106
Fax: (202) 637-3182
1
We live in rare times -- privileged, it seems, to see long-
held hopes being fulfilled. That peoples around the world would
cast off totalitarian chains and assert their rights as free men
and free women to determine their own lives and destinies has long
been our hope as Americans.
Now, nightly, we see it happening.
We live in rare times as well because of the opportunity for
us, in America, to solve many of our most persistent problems.
Building on a solid foundation laid in the 1980s -- almost eight
straight years of economic growth -- we can spark innovation,
continued growth and the job creation that goes with it.
We can fan that spark with:
Technology -- we need to stimulate higher levels of research
and development and greater investment in the equipment and
facilities that comprise the tools of modern research.
Capital -- we need to encourage saving and investment in ways
that can focus family savers on the future and investors on
the longer-term. Lowering capital gains tax rates overall,
but on a scale that taxes longer-held investments less and
shorter-term investments more, is a necessary step.
Quality -- we also need to stress quality in all we do -- in
our products, in our workforce, in our health care system and
in the way we run government.
Trade -- we must also move aggressively to expand our share
of world trade. Clearly, this means opening foreign markets
and vigorous government action against unfair trade practices;
it also means eliminating unnecessary export disincentives in
U.S. policy.
As we have persisted in promoting the export of American
ideas, and found them increasingly accepted despite the barriers
erected by other countries -- so must we now promote the export of
American goods. Our ideas were accepted, finally, because they
proved to be the best. It can be the same for our goods.
For too many years now, and understandably, our national secu-
rity has been defined by our military capability. Always, though,
our economic power has underlain that strength. I can see a future
when this economic power will be the primary definition of our
strength; when it will be the prime guarantor of our national
security.
2
But there is much to do:
--
As always, our workforce comes first. Today's American
workers are good workers; we must give them better training. Their
children are the workers of tomorrow; we must give them better edu-
cation, with more emphasis on basic skills, the sciences, math and
engineering.
--
We must make the marketplace work better through meaningful
reform of product liability laws and anti-trust reform to allow joint
manufacturing operations by U.S. companies. We also need to redouble
our efforts at regulatory reform to unshackle the entrepeneurial forces
in our economy, especially those of small business. I will soon desig-
nate a senior official in the White House office to see that is done.
--
Technology has always been our competitive edge; we need to
hone it, with more rational tax treatment for research and develop-
ment. This means making the R&D tax credit permanent and maintaining
essential R&D funding.
Staying competitive in the world can't be done on the cheap;
it's capital intensive so we need fiscal and monetary policy that can
lower interest rates, keep exchange rates competitive and, over time,
bring deficits down to free capital for productive use. Any savings in
defense should be dedicated to deficit reduction; we need policies that
foster a long-term investment outlook.
-- Incentives to encourage investing for the future are essential,
including creation of a new tax-free savings account, a permanent cut
in the capital gains tax and a start on phased elimination of the double
taxation of corporate dividends. The capital gains reduction should
reward investors who hold assets for the long term.
-- Competition and quality improvements are the key to domestic
challenges as well. Increasing access to health care and lowering its
costs, both matters of urgent necessity, probably admit of no single,
simple solution. Instead of looking for one, we need to stimulate
competition among providers to inspire innovations that can improve
quality and cut costs.
-- We can continue progress on the environment as surely as we
can continue economic growth; they are not incompatible. Sound science,
flexibility in implementation and reasonable regulatory policies
preserve progress on both.
-- Our ability to trade in world markets will be a critical
component of U.S. economic strength and security as we enter the 21st
Century. We should establish a national goal of achieving a trade
surplus by the middle of this decade. To do this, we must do a better
job of promoting our exports, including strengthening our trade finance
system and eliminating unnecessary impediments to U.S. exports.
MAM
QUALITY MANUFACTURING-THE KEY TO GLOBAL
COMPETITIVENESS IN THE 1990s
Manufacturing is the prime source of America's economic power. It is the
wellspring of individual living standards and wealth, and the foundation of our
collective national security. To keep the nation growing stronger economically,
U.S. companies must continue to strive to be world class manufacturers in the
decade ahead. To do so, they must focus relentlessly on making products of the
highest quality at the most competitive price, and on marketing such products
aggressively throughout the world.
In addition to what manufacturers can do, government and society as a whole also
must join in a cooperative effort to enhance the quality of the environment for
manufacturing so that we can be competitive worldwide. Each proposed law or
regulation should undergo a competitive litmus test, to determine whether it
contributes to, or detracts from, U.S. global competitiveness. And each of us
individually-whether as managers, employees, or investors-must direct more of
our attention, resources and creativity to improving long-term economic perform-
ance, and less to short-term gains.
In this context, we believe the following policies are crucial to achieving
quality manufacturing, and thus global competitiveness, in the 1990s:
Building a Quality Workforce. A well-educated workforce can be one of our
most important competitive resources. We therefore must significantly upgrade
the U.S. educational system to turn out graduates who are better suited to the
modern workplace. We need many more fully-trained scientists and engineers, as
well as more emphasis on science and engineering at all points in the education
process. To deal with rapid changes and dislocations in the workplace, existing
workers must be provided with adequate training and retraining assistance.
Making the Marketplace Work. We need to unleash the dynamic entrepreneurial
forces in the nation's economy, in particular those of small manufacturers, a
potent source of new ideas and new jobs. To do so, we must systematically
implement changes that stimulate rather than suppress risk-taking by investors
and entrepreneurs. Desirable stimulative approaches include lowering capital
gains taxes and eliminating double taxation of corporate dividends. One of the
most urgently needed actions in the area of removing disincentives to innovative
manufacturing risk-taking is reform of the product liability tort system.
Winning in the Global Arena. In battling for increased market share both
here and abroad, U.S. manufacturers must install manufacturing processes that
make high-quality, competitively-priced products and further must implement
aggressive marketing strategies to sell those products. Recognizing, however,
that the actions of other governments markedly affect the outcome of global
competition, the U.S. government must help level the playing field wherever it
can. It must seek to open foreign markets to U.S. exports while protecting U.S.
firms from unfair trade practices, through vigorous enforcement of U.S. trade
laws and hard bargaining in trade negotiations. An exchange rate that reflects
competitive fundamentals is also crucially important. U.S. policies that act as
export disincentives should be modified to eliminate the disincentive.
(more)
- 2 -
Sharpening our Technological Edge. Constant innovation is essential to
success. The quest for quality manufacturing and competitiveness requires solid
commitment by U.S. firms to ever-increasing levels of research and development.
Government should provide positive encouragement for cooperative generic R&D
efforts and streamline its procedures to permit more timely commercialization of
technological breakthroughs. Also needed is a stable tax policy that stimulates
higher levels of R&D and increased investment in the equipment and facilities
constituting the nation's research infrastructure.
Capital Competitiveness. Installing the advanced manufacturing technologies
needed to make high-quality, competitive products will require enormous amounts
of reasonably-priced capital. The U.S. tax system needs further overhaul to
reduce its anti-capital, pro-consumption bias and provide better treatment for
both business investment and personal savings. Government must adopt fiscal and
monetary policies that cause interest rates to come down without reigniting
inflation. We also must find ways to reduce volatility in financial markets and
to foster a long-term investment outlook by curbing incentives for nonproductive
corporate restructurings and takeovers.
Quality Health Care at Competitive Prices. The skyrocketing cost of health
care benefits is a major impediment to manufacturing competitiveness. We must
find ways to raise the quality of the care being delivered while moderating its
cost. A key element is improved access to information, enabling both employers
and employees to make more informed buying decisions, and stimulating the kind
of competition among providers that improves quality and cuts costs. Medical
malpractice reform is also needed. Access for those now uninsured is an
important goal but one that should be phased in gradually as the quality and
effectiveness of the health care system are upgraded.
Positive Responses to Environmental Challenges. We must continue to improve
the quality of our environment, but for U.S. businesses to stay competitive we
must permit flexible, cost-effective responses and ensure access to dependable,
reasonably-priced energy. We must maximize the value we get from the resources
expended in this effort by minimizing amounts wasted on administrative detail
and litigation. Governments should not impose costly regulations on the basis
of inconclusive data, but should act only on the basis of reliable scientific
research. Moreover, our government must recognize that global problems cannot
be solved unilaterally-such solutions require multilateral agreement and
cooperation. Industry should develop technologies based on positive approaches,
such as pollution prevention and waste minimization.
Discipline in Public Finance. To provide the economic environment needed
for a thriving manufacturing sector, government must rely less on deficit
financing, which keeps interest rates too high and diverts capital from more
productive uses. The federal deficit must be gradually reduced, with primary
emphasis on restraining the growth of spending rather than on increasing taxes.
Shifting government costs to business through the mandated benefits subterfuge
is no less anticompetitive than a tax increase and likewise should be avoided.
Both entitlement reform and budget process reform are critical to the success of
the deficit reduction effort. Any savings from phasing down defense outlays
should be used to reduce deficits, not transferred to other spending programs.