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The original documents are located in Box B48, folder "1966: Unidentified Flying Objects
(folder 25)" of the Gerald R. Ford Congressional Papers at the
Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.
Copyright Notice
The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of
photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Gerald Ford donated to the
United States of America his copyrights in all of his unpublished writings in National Archives
collections. Works prepared by U.S. Government employees as part of their official duties are in
the public domain. The copyrights to materials written by other individuals or organizations are
presumed to remain with them. If you think any of the information displayed in the PDF is subject
to a valid copyright claim, please contact the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.
1966: Unidentified Flying Objects, May (folder B48-25)
Gerald R. Ford Congressional Papers
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I |BRARY
LEGISLATIVE
UFO
(CHAMPE, C.)
RE: ANTI CRAVITY INFO
May 16, 1966
Mr. Clark N. Champe
619 - 18th Street
Manhatean Beach, California 90266
Dear Mr. Champe:
I wish to acknowledge and thank you for your letter of May 9th
entdoming material on anti-gravity research. While I was inter-
ested to glance through this, my main concern has been so urge
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
that a Congressional investigation be held to look into all the
possibilities.
As you may know, a contract is to be let to a certain university
this fall when teams will start to work on the study on a part-
time basis, with a report that will be available to the public.
Although this is not what I called for, it is a good first step.
Thank you for your material.
Kindest personal regards.
Sincerely,
Geradd R. Ford, M.C.
GRF:jb
May 9, 1966
Congressman Gerald R. Ford,
You have indicated an interest in UFO investigations.
I am therefore sending you a copy of a report which I
wrote entitled "Anti-Gravity Research" It is an invest-
igation into the state-of-the-art of gravity control.
I believe that anti-gravity is used as the means of
propulsion by the UFOs, enabling them to make sharp turns
at high speed and extremely rapid accelerations with no
stress to the vehicle or possible crew members.
You may be interested inthe last half of the intro-
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
duction to my report which explores the vast changes in the
transportation industry which would be brought about by the
introduction of a gravity-control propulsion system.
Thank you for your time.
Sincerely,
Clark N Champe
Clark N. Champe, B.S.A.E.
619 18th Street
Manhattan Beach,
California 90266
Price: $1.00
I
ANTI-GRAVITY RESEARCH
Contains gravity theories, matter and energy concepts, nuclear
and universe structure theories, etc., from hundreds of the latest
anti-gravity research reports.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I IBRARY
©
C. Champe 1966
mal
C. Champe
Box 303
Manhattan Beach,
California
90266
ANTI-GRAVITY RESEARCH
INTRODUCTION
Gravity control is at the forefront of scientific research today. This docu-
ment contains summaries compiled from hundreds of the latest reports by
the world's leading gravity researchers, It contains gravity theories,
matter and energy concepts, nuclear and universe structure theories, etc.
It should provide an excellent mental exercise to jog your own brain into
producing ideas which may lead to the actual gravity mechanism.
It is hoped that this book will be of some help in the dispersion of gravity
knowledge SO that this field can be furthered more quickly and lead to a
breakthrough in the utilization of gravity as a space propulsion method.
During the author's 12 years of independent gravity research, he has never
failed to find this to be a fascinating field. In the opinion of the writer,
gravity control will be possible within the next 10 years. This prediction
was derived from noting the rapid acceleration of present day scientific
technology. Innovations are not increasing at a linear rate, but more on an
exponential rise. Murtaugh proficies that a gravity control machine or some
new means of propulsion (possibly using lasar technology) will be invented
by the early 1970's. He arrived at this date from observing the fact that we
will need a new type of propulsion, and the economic incentive will be of
sufficient magnitude to support a rapid development of a new technology.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
In this report, you will find no formulas pertaining to the measurement of the
gravity field. Any physics book can give you that information. You will find
no "pat answers" herein, because as of yet there are none. We are not
trying to discover how to measure gravity, we are trying to discover what it
is, what causes it, what is its mechanism, how can it be controlled?
Consequently, this report contains a vast number of theories as to the mech-
anism of the gravity effect or some related phenomena which may shed light
on the gravity research. You will find many theories which are in direct
conflict with each other in this report. This must be. Any one of these
theories may lead a researcher onto the right path which will give as a
result, gravity control. Somewhere a shred of evidence exists which will
tie some loose ends together and we will grasp the final product.
The more we study gravitation, the more there grows upon us the feeling
that there is something peculiarly fundamental about this phenomena to a
degree that is unequaled among other natural phenomena, Its independence
of the other factors that effect other phenomena and its dependence only upon
mass and distance suggest that its roots avoid things superficial and go down
deep into the unseen, to the very essence of matter and space.
You will note that theories pertaining to an ether are included herein. This
is because the writer feels that ether theories are not yet a dead issue.
Many effects can be readily understood and accepted if an ether concept is
used for visualization.
As a noteworthy item, the assumption of an ether capable of absorbing a
certain minute quantity of energy can be used to predict two effects derived
initially from other considerations. These two effects are: (1) The extra
shift of the elliptical orbit of the planet Mercury predicted from the relativity
equations, and (2) The red shift of the spectural lines of distant galaxies
usually attributed to an expanding universe.
Also, consider this; calculation shows that the centrifugal force of the earth
in its orbit would require a steel cable 5000 miles in diameter to keep it
from flying into space. And yet space, "empty space" holds the sun and the
earth together.
Any universe model (be it based on relativity, ether, or something else) is
used basically to set up a mathematical "game" which is manipulated to fit
the external facts. We then attempt to play this "game" as far as it will go
watching for new phenomena along the way.
Therefore, it makes no difference which universe model is used to derive
the equations that will enable us to design a practical gravity control space
drive. The end result is the same.
A vehicle powered by a gravity control method would actually have only one
item different from present day space craft. This of course, is the propul-
sion system. All other technologies, life support, navigation, structural
materials, etc. would be direct derivations from those in use today. But
what a propulsion system! According to many physicists it would not only
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
drive the vehicle it would also eliminate inertial effects on the vehicle and
the crew! This would mean unlimited accelerations in any direction includ-
ing small-radius turns. For a tight turn, a force field would exactly
counterbalance the centrifugal force SO that neither the vehicle nor the
passengers would be subject to uncomfortable strains.
High accelerations could be used to attain relativistic speeds within a
reasonably short time thereby making possible space travel not only to
distant solar systems within our own Milky Way galaxy, but exploration of
at least some of our nearby neighboring galaxies. Since the speeds would
be near that of light, these giant steps could be easily made within the life-
span of one generation of crew members. However, it must be realized that
the earth would have gone through many generations by the time the excursion
had returned, and some precautions will be necessary to provide for this
time difference. As an example, a crew member may want to have his
immediate family with him on a trip to insure reasonable adjustment to
earth life on his return.
But what of the effect of gravity control machines here on earth? As a
starter, all other forms of transportation would become obsolete. As
efficient 3-dimensional travel becomes practical, automobiles, trucks, rail-
roads, ships and even airplanes would be considered impractical. Highways,
bridges, railroad tracks, harbors and airports as we know them would no
longer be needed and therefore would vanish from our landscape.
Transformation of our cities would be phenomenal and can only be guessed
at. Intra-city transportation would be by air thereby eliminating the need
for streets. No limits on building height would be necessary as deliveries
could be made at any floor with ease. Many factors affecting the location of
cities (such as good highways, waterways, etc.) would no longer prevail as
supplies would be readily available from any part of the country within
minutes and with great efficiency. Indeed, cities might not remain at
ground level at all. Power would be no problem, with anticipated energy
from thermonuclear fusion.
True suburban living would become a reality with most families owning a
high-speed gravity propulsion machine, able to land in any small cleared
area with little noise and great safety. A typical commuter might live
200 miles or more from work in a secluded mountain setting of his choice.
After morning breakfast, he would stroll to his back yard, hop into his anti-
gravity car and be at work in a few minutes. In fact, his home itself may
be highly mobile with the capability of quickly moving from area to area
which today's trailer homes only hint at. Picture a home capable of being
moved from a seashore to a favorite mountain lake and then to a spot along
a quiet river or a secluded desert hideaway all within minutes after the
thought occurred to you. This is well within the capability of a home built
around a gravity control propulsion unit. Close contact with friends and
relatives would still be maintained with the anticipated advancements in the
art of communications. This is an exciting future to look forward to.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD BRARY
At the beginning of this report are noted a few experiments which have
been performed and which apparently showed some form of gravity
control. These might be kept in mind as we delve into the various
theories on the chance that something will mesh together and help us
find our goal of a practical anti-gravity vehicle.
***
In 1959, Dr. M. Pages proposed a theory (at the International Congress
of Satellites and Missiles) wherein gravity is not caused by the attrac-
tion of the Earth, but is caused by the repulsion of the cosmos.
Accordingly, the force which we call gravitation, he calls "sheer con-
centrated protonic energy". He supports his theory with a design of
an anti-gravity machine which liberates itself from the force of
gravity by an electric field rotating at the speed of light around the
vehicle. This rotating field also suppresses mass inertia. This prin-
ciple was tested successfully on small pieces of mica.
* * *
An experiment was performed by Majorana in which he surrounded
a measured mass with a sphere containing ten tons of mercury. He
noted an apparent loss in weight of the experimental mass and con-
cluded that the loss was due to an absorbtion of gravity waves by the
dense mercury.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
***
Another experiment involving mercury entailed a test set-up wherein
two weights were balanced on an extremely accurate scale balance.
Underneath one of the weights, a quantity of mercury was caused to
OScillate by a high-capacity pump. With the pump in operation, the
balance indicated a minute loss in weight of the mass located above
the mercury. The ratio of input energy (via the pump) to weight loss
was impractically large.
* * *
The Foucault pendulum exhibits an effect such that the plane of the
pendulum swing does not change. The apparent rotation of the plane
is actually caused by the rotation of the Earth beneath the pendulum.
However, during a total solar eclipse, M. Allias found that the pendu-
lum swing shifted approximately 15 centesimal degrees exactly at the
start of the eclipse. Near the end of the eclipse, the plane again
shifted and returned to the normal periodic cycle it had been following
previous to the eclipse. This gives a very definite impression of a
screen effect.
* * *
The ether may behave like an elastic solid for vibrations so rapid as
those of light, but yielding like a fluid to the much slower progressive
motions of the planets.
Bjerknes showed that two spheres which are immersed in an incom-
pressible fluid, and which pulsate (i. e., change in volume) regularly,
exert on each other (by the mediation of the fluid) an attraction,
determined by the inverse square law, if the pulsations are coinci-
dental; and exert on each other a repulsion, determined likewise by
the inverse square law, if the phases of the pulsations differ by half a
period. If the phases differ by a quarter period, there is no action.
If the spheres instead of pulsating, oscillate to and fro in straight
lines about their mean positions, the forces between them are pro-
portional in magnitude and the same direction, but opposite in sign to
those which act between two magnets oriented along the directions of
oscillation.
The results obtained by Bjerknes were extended to the case of two
spheres pulsating in an elastic medium. For this system, Bjerknes'
results are reversed, the law being now that of attraction in the case
of unlike phases, and of repulsion in the case of like phases; the
intensity is as before proportional to the inverse square of the
distance.
A theory of gravitation has been based by Korn on the assumption that
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
gravitating particles resemble slightly compressible spheres
immersed in an incompressible perfect fluid; the spheres execute
pulsations whose intensity corresponds to the mass of the gravitating
particles, and thus forces of the Newtonian kind are produced between
them.
A bar magnet might be regarded as vibrating tangentially, the direc-
tion of vibration being parallel to the axis of the body. A cylindrical
body carrying a current will have its surface also vibrating tangen-
tially; but in this case the direction of vibration will be perpendicular
to the axis of the cylinder. A statically electrified body, on the other
hand, may be regarded as analogous to a body whose surface vibrates
in the normal direction.
We must now proceed to consider those models in which the ether is
represented as composed of more than one kind of constituent. Of
these, Maxwell's model formed of vortices and rolling particles may
be taken as the type. Another device by FitzGerald was constituted
of a number of wheels, free to rotate on axes fixed perpendicularly in
a plane board; the axes were fixed at the intersections of two systems
of perpendicular lines; and each wheel was geared to each of its four
neighbors by a rubber band. Thus all the wheels could rotate without
any straining of the system, provided they all had the same angular
velocity; but if some of the wheels were revolving faster than others,
the rubber bands would become strained.
A strain on the bands represents dielectric polarization (i. e. an
electric field), the line joining the tight and slack sides of any band
being the direction of the field.
Such a model is capable of transmitting vibrations analogous to those
of light. For if a group of wheels be suddenly set in rotation, those in
the neighborhood will be prevented by their inertia from immediately
sharing in the motion; but presently the rotation will be communicated
to the adjacent wheels (by the flexible rubber bands), which will trans-
mit it to their neighbors; and so a wave of motion will be propagated
through the medium. The motion constituting the wave is readily seen
to be directed in the plane of the wave, i. the vibration is trans-
verse. The axes of rotation of the wheels are at right angles to the
direction of propagation of the wave and the direction of polarization
of the bands is at right angles to both these directions.
Models of types different from the foregoing have been proposed,
which involve the idea of vortex motion. One of the greatest achieve-
ments of Helmholtz was his discovery that vortex rings in a perfect
fluid are types of motion which possess permanent individuality
throughout all changes, and cannot be destroyed, so that they may be
regarded as combining and interacting with each other, although each
of them consists of a motion pervading the whole of the fluid. The
energy of the fluid can be expressed in terms of the positions and
strengths of the vortices.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD BRARY
As Helmholtz showed, vortex filaments interact mechanically like
linear electric circuits (but with attraction replaced by repulsion and
vice versa), the strengths of the vortices corresponding to the cur-
rent strengths, and the velocity of the fluid in the neighborhood of the
filaments corresponding to the magnetic force; magnetic poles would
be represented by sources and sinks in the fluid.
The individuality of vortices suggested a connection with the atomic
theory of matter. The earliest attempts to build up a general physical
theory on the basis of vortex motion were made by Thomson (Kelvin)
and were suggested by a display of smoke rings which he happened to
see in a lecture room. He used vortices in the first place to illus-
trate the properties of matter rather than of the ether, and pointed out
that if the atoms of matter are constituted of vortex rings in a perfect
fluid, the conservation of matter may be immediately explained. The
mutual interactions of atoms may be illustrated by the behavior of
smoke rings, which after approaching each other closely are observed
to rebound; and the spectroscopic properties of matter may be referred
to the possession by vortex rings of free periods of vibration.
A further rocommendation of the vortex-atom hypothesis was that it
seemed to throw some light on the mode of propagation of gravity,
which since LaPlace's investigations on the subject had been believed
to be instantaneous. For the actions between two vortex rings in a
perfect liquid are not propagated from one to the other: they are due
to the fact that each vortex ring is accompanied by motion throughout
the liquid, so that each may be regarded as extending over the whole
of space, and involving all the others; and the effects are simultane-
ous everywhere.
At first an objection to the vortex theory was that the virtual inertia
of a vortex ring increases as its energy increases; this fact, however,
fits in with later discoveries regarding the connection of mass and
energy, and would therefore now be regarded as highly favorable. It
is doubtful however whether vortex atoms would be stable. Kelvin
concluded that they would probably not be.
***
Ether has absolute continuity. Matter is discontinuous; it consists of
portions with vast gaps between.
There is some connection between matter and ether, because a parti-
cal cannot vibrate or move without disturbing the medium in which it
exists.
Sound travels four times faster in water than air due to higher incom-
pressibility. In ether, waves travel 1, 000, 000 times as quickly;
hence the ratio of elasticity to density in the ether must be very high.
It is calculated that the specific gravity of ether is 10¹² and the
elasticity is 10³³.
The ether has two properties, an electric property and a magnetic
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
property, the one corresponding to elasticity and the other to density.
Elasticity gives it a recoil property, density gives it an inertia
property.
Moving matter has extra mass associated with it, and that kind of
temporary mass can be shattered off into radiation by an ordinary
encounter with other matter or fields of force. Indeed, that is how
all radiation is generated.
In a radio antenna, the electrons are rushing along and being reflected.
They are thus put into a state of large scale oscillation, and the waves
emitted are comparable to the dimensions of the antenna. Short waves
such as we call "light", are generated by oscillations of molecular
dimensions, and x-rays are generated by oscillations or collisions of
atomic dimensions, or sometimes even of the still smaller dimensions
of an electron. There is no other way of generating radiation: it is
all generated by sudden changes in the speed of particles, and is an
outcome of their close relation or interaction with the ether. The
ether seemingly stands by always ready to pick up any loose energy
and broadcast it with the speed of light.
That one body may act upon another at a distance, through a vacuum,
without the mediation of anything else by and through which their
action may be conveyed from one to another, is to me so great an
absurdity that I believe no man, who has in philosophical matters, a
competent faculty of thinking, can ever fall into it. - Newton!
The whole mass of any body is just the mass of ether surrounding the
body which is carried along by the Faraday tubes associated with the
atoms of the body. In fact, all mass is mass of the ether; all momen-
tum, momentum of the ether; and all kinetic energy, kinetic energy of
the ether. This view, it should be said, requires the density of the
ether to be immensely greater than that of any known substance. -
Sir J. J. Thomson.
Electric particles are of two kinds, the positive kind and the negative
kind (so-called). No importance need be attached to the idea of
positive and negative, except that they are opposite in sign, and can
therefore neutralize each other. Whether they ever do really neu-
tralize each other we do not know; discharge through vacuum is
extremely difficult, perhaps impossible. It seems unlikely that things
which differ in potential by a million volts can approach within ultra-
microscopic distance and retain their charges without loss: yet as a
rule they do. However, this may be under unusual circumstances,
the oppositely charged particles we know attract each other, and when
they come very close together they practically blot out each other's
field at a distance, so as to form a manner of neutral combination.
By orbiting, the negative particles around the positive, a neutral
group is formed (orbiting force keeping them apart?). (What causes
the electrons, free to begin with, want to orbit?).
Particles are probably composed of ether in a certain special condi-
tion. For instance, they are subject to gravity, whereas the rest of
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
the ether is not. Matter could be likened to a knot in a string. The
knot has properties but still is a string. The knot can be untied but
only from one end of the string.
It is postulated that ether is just as dense as any modified (particalized)
portion of it can be. The modification into matter does not increase
the fundamental density. Density would cause inertia, not resistance
to motion. Viscosity causes resistance to motion and ether has none.
Possibly, ether pressure (a function of elasticity) holds an electron
together against the mutual repulsion of its parts.
A charged body has additional mass by virtue of its extra energy.
The whole mass of an electron is accounted for by its electric field.
Not so with a proton. It seems extra full, while an electron seems
empty.
There is a fundamental difference between electric and magnetic lines
of force. The main difference is that an electric line of force has two
ends, a positive end on a proton and a negative end on an electron; a
magnetic line of force has no ends, it is always a closed loop. We
can think of this loop being expanded out when a piece of iron is mag-
netized; from small molecular sized loops, to a large macroscopic
loop.
A magnet can "create" magnetism in another magnet without loss, but
an electrical charge cannot be transferred without a "loss" from the
original source.
An electron at rest has no magnetic field; it has a field of electric
force, lines of which radiate from it in all directions. When it
moves, its line of motion is surrounded by magnetic rings. It does
not generate those loops, it rearranges pre-existent loops in the
ether. When the motion of an electron is stopped quickly, the mag-
netic rings do not shrink, they rather expand; the electric and the
magnetic fields which had previously existed quietly together, now
combine into an ether disturbance. They travel out, not as a series
of waves, but a pulse, a shell of wave, rapidly expanding with the
speed of light.
The magnetic ring around a moving electron may be made of circula-
ting ether, and the energy is represented by this circulation. This
might be detected by light traveling through the circulating ether. In
one direction, it should be retarded. This has been tried but with no
results. However, if ether is as dense as is calculated, the circula-
tion would be very small and still carry a lot of energy. Hidden
away in the constitution of ether is a fundamental and absolute speed,
a speed not of linear velocity but of internal circulation.
***
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
Dirac conceived the idea that "empty space" is actually tightly packed
with electrons of negative mass that are inaccessible to any physical
observation. We can observe an electron only when it is raised into
the region of positive energy. The removal of an electron from the
continuous distribution forms a "hole" which represents a "positive"
electron, or a positron.
It is easy to see that when the motion of such as "hole" is studied
under the action of any external physical force, a positive mass will
be ascribed to it. For Dirac's ocean of "extraordinary" negative
electrons possessing a negative mass, we conclude that a "hole" in
this distribution must possess a mass opposite to that of the particles
forming it, i. a positive mass. Thus, through double negation,
we find that the "holes" in Dirac's ocean must behave as ordinary
particles carrying a positive electric charge and a positive mass.
From what has been said, we can conclude that in order to form a
positron we have to remove a negative electron from its place in
Dirac's "ocean". But when this electron is removed from the uni-
form distribution of the negative electric charges, it becomes observ-
able as an ordinary negatively charged particle. Thus, the positive
and negative electrons always must be formed in pairs. This process
is called the "creation" of an electron pair. The opposite of the
"creation" of an electron pair is the "annihilation" of a positive
electron is a collision with an ordinary negative electron. Accord-
ingly, the annihilation process occurs when an ordinary negative
electron finds a "hole" and falls into it. In this process, the two
individual particles disappear, giving rise to gamma radiation with a
total energy equivalent to the vanished mass radiating from the place
of encounter. All predictions of this theory stand in perfect agree-
ment with experimental evidence.
Einstein reasoned that: If the forces of gravity can be replaced by the
effect of the acceleration of a moving system, then they cannot be
"real" forces such as the pull of a winch. They must rather represent
some geometrical property of a space-time continuum in which the
motion of material bodies is taking place.
In order to explain the gravitational field which may be present in
one place (near the sun) and practically absent in another (between the
stars), it was necessary to introduce some geometric property which
can vary from place to place. This broughtEinstein to the idea of
curved space varying in curvature.
Einstein argued that the motion of material bodies conventially inter-
preted as being caused by the forces of gravity might simply be due
to the curvature of the four-dimensional space-time continuum in the
vicinity of massive bodies such as our sun.
We can illustrate how a varying curvature can take the place of a real
physical force. Picture a rubber membrane stretched over the top of
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
the water in a swimming pool. Assume a lead ball is thrown onto the
pool cover, creating a depression in one area. If we were to roll a
marble across the membrane, the depression will tend to deflect the
marble's path from a straight line. Indeed, it may "capture" the
marble, causing it to go into some manner of orbit around the lead
ball. If we were to look at the pool from above, we would not notice
the depression and would assume that the motion of the marble were
due to an "attraction" between the marble and the lead ball.
In this illustration, the marble would create its own slight depression
which would correspond to a simulated mass. In both cases, the
slope of the surface of the depressions at any point is representative
of the local force. The depth of the depressions should be relative
to the amount of material that is in each of the bodies.
Of course, a theory is worthless unless it can be used to predict new
effects which can be proved experimentally. Einstein not only was
able to predict new effects, he showed how his theory could account
for an observed abnormality in the orbit of Mercury (i. the
excessive precession of the orbit not accounted for by Newtonian
mechanics). Some effects predicted by the Einsteinian equations
include: (1) The bending of light rays in a gravity field. This was
later observed during a solar eclipse. Light is a form of energy and
therefore must possess mass. Consequently, when light enters a
gravitational field, it will, like any mass, travel in a curve. (2) The
rate of time decreases as the gravity field increases. This effect
was at first too small to detect on our sun, but was observable on
high density bodies known as dwarf stars. Measurements were made
by noting the frequency shifts of atomic radiations. (3) The increase
in mass of a body as it nears the velocity of light. The evidence for
this is well documented from experiments on particle accelerators.
Electrons accelerated to a small fraction from the speed of light have
been noted to increase in mass several thousand times. (4) The
decrease in time rate on a body as it nears the speed of light. This
again has been noted from experiments with particle accelerators.
Nuclear radiations were the source of the measurements.
Einstein sought, in his final years, to derive the complexities of the
entire universe in one unified theory, wherein the macrocosm and
the microcosm - the giant wheeling galaxies of cosmic space and the
micro-structure of the atom and all their various manifestations,
would emerge. Mass and energy, particles and waves, matter and
radiation, electromagnetism and gravitation - all would be accounted
for simply by changes in the structure and density of the primordial
field.
In Einstein's concept of gravity, masses warp the space-time con-
tinuum in the immediate vicinity such that masses "fall" towards
one another.
If masses can warp space, it seems likely that an electromagnetic
field can be set up which could also warp space, straighten it out if
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
originally warped, or warp it in the opposite direction to any degree.
The last two ideas result in gravity nullification and anti-gravity.
This "space-warping" by an electromagnetic field is indicated from
a transformation of the equation E = mc into m = E/c². This later
equation is significant from the standpoint that it says that mass can
be simulated by some form of energy and since mass causes gravity,
some form of energy could likewise create the same effect. But
since energy is a more flexible utensile, we should be able to "create"
gravity in any direction and utilize it as a propulsion system.
Einstein's theory of relativity states that the effects of gravitation
and acceleration are exactly the same. From this, one can realize a
gravitational theory in which "gravity" is said to be produced by
masses expanding in an accelerated manner. Thusly, the Earth,
sun, solar system, galaxy and universe would all be expanding at
some particular rate. Since everything observable would be in this
state, no size changes could be detected. When it is considered that
a charged nuclear particle (an electron, proton, etc.) should be tear-
ing itself apart since like charges repel, an expanding mass can be
readily visualized.
***
Hubble found that the light coming to us from distant galaxies shows
a shift of spectural lines towards the red end of the spectrum. He
also found that this shift increases in direct proportion to the distance
of the galaxies from us. He theorized that this observed red shift
was due to the recession velocities of the light sources, and con-
cluded that our universe is in a state of uniform expansion, with the
mutual recession velocities between any two galaxies in space being
proportional to the distance between them.
Friedmann theorized two types of time behavior of the universe: a
periodic type and an aperiodic one. In the case of the periodic, or
pulsating universe, the distances between neighboring galaxies reach
certain maximum values, after which they will begin to decrease.
The universe will contract until a certain maximum density is reached.
This high-density state is followed again by an expansion to a maxi-
mum distance and then again by a contraction.
The aperiodic or hyperbolic theory shows the universe contracting
from an infinitely thin state, which existed eons ago, until it reaches
a maximum density then bounces again into a state of unlimited
expansion.
Comparing the kinetic energies of galactic recessions with the forces
of gravity acting between them, we find that the velocities with which
galaxies fly away from each other are seven times larger than the
velocity necessary for mutual escape. Thus, we conclude that our
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
universe corresponds to a hyperbolic solution. and that its present
expansion will never stop. There is one possibility which can change
this conclusion. If there are materials scattered through space with
a mass exceeding that of all galaxies by a factor larger than seven,
the conclusion will have to be reversed, and our universe will have
to be considered pulsating. Such a large amount of extra material
cannot exist in intergalactic space in the form of minute particles,
since this would produce reddening of distant galaxies, and would also
result in strong absorbtion lines in the galaxy spectrums.
* * *
It is well known from the theory of electricity that oscillating or
revolving electric charges always emit electromagnetic waves. The
emission of electromagnetic waves must result in the loss of energy
by the emitting particle, so that the electrons in the atom model
should spiral towards the central nucleus and fall into it when all of
their kinetic energy is spent on radiation.
Bohr calculated that the emission of electromagnetic waves (which
in the case of the atom corresponds to light waves of different
lengths) would cause the electrons forming an atomic system to lose
all their energy and fall into the nucleus within one hundred-millionth
of a second. We know that this is not the case.
Bohr therefore stated that in the case of the motion of electrons
within an atom the following postulates must hold. (1) From all the
mechanically possible circular and elliptical orbits of electrons
moving around the atomic nucleus, only a few highly restricted orbits
are "permitted". (2) Circling along these orbits around the nucleus,
the electrons are "prohibited" from emitting any electromagnetic
waves, even though conventional electrodynamics says they should.
(3) Electrons may "jump" from one orbit to another, in which case
the energy difference between the two states of motion is emitted in
the form of a single light quantum. These postulates permitted
Bohr to construct a consistent theory of internal atomic structure.
***
Anti-gravity devices can be readily throrized from Einstein's theory
of gravity. However, major breakthroughs are needed in theories and
materials and energy sources before a practical anti-gravity device
can be constructed.
Gravitational forces exerted by a body depends on both the mass of the
body and its motion according to Einstein. Because of the gravita-
tional effects associated with rotating or accelerated masses, in
theory it is possible to build a machine that will set up a gravitational
field in any direction. This field could then be utilized to counteract
the Earth's gravitational field. As a propulsion unit, gravitational
drive is very attractive from the standpoint of extremely high
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
accelerations without any stresses on the vehicle or its occupants.
Some effects calculated from the Einstein theory are (1) Two pipes
with a high-density liquid flowing at a high velocity through them in
the same direction will repel each other from the gravitational
equivalent of the magnetic "pinch effect", and two large, high-density
rotating gyroscopes will repel each other if they are oriented
properly.
An example of an anti-gravity device would be a unit of accelerated
liquid mass whose flow can bequated to the electric current flow in
a wire-wound torus. In this system, the mass flow through a pipe
wound arround the torus causes a field in the torus. If the flowing
mass is accelerated then this field increases with time and this time-
varying field then creates a bipolar gravitational field.
Unfortunately, in order to generate a force large enough to counter-
act the Earth's gravitational field, we need a mass of nuclear density
accelerated at approximately 10¹² ft/sec2 through a pipe hundreds of
feet in diameter wound around a torus miles in diameter. This would
still only last a small fraction of a second as the mass would rapidly
reach the speed of light.
So, obviously, a system based on this configuration is many decades
in the future if possible at all.
***
Though gravitation is weak, it may play a crucial role in the structure
of an atomic particle. If an elementary particle is a complex struc-
ture of very small size consisting of a core particle surrounded by a
swarm of attendant virtual particles, the gravitational interaction
may be one of the dominant forces acting on very high momentum
particles found at the core.
A section of Mach's principle states: Inertial forces originate in the
acceleration of a particle relative to distant matter. Mach apparently
had in mind a type of instantaneous action at a distance as the means
by which very distant matter would produce this force. It would be
more in keeping with modern notions of the nature of forces if the
inertial force could some day be traced to a purely local interaction
with the paticles of a quantized field. This field would be assumed to
have its source in all the matter of the universe. A particle at rest
at the origin of a coordinate system in which distant galaxies are
moving uniformly away from the origin would feel no force by reason
of symmetry. However, an acceleration destroys this symmetry,
and it would be expected that this distant accelerated matter would be
a source of a gravitational field.
The Earth may be affected by the distribution of matter in the uni-
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
verse. Inertial forces might be considered as interactions with this
distant matter.
The only relativistic means available to us for producing interactions
between widely separated bodies are the long-range fields. The
prototype of such fields is electromagnetism. The electrostatic
interactions between widely separated charged bodies is well known;
so is the fact that electromagnetic waves exist, propagating with the
velocity of light.
The principles of relativity and quantum mechanics provide us with a
rigid classification for long-range fields. All such fields may be
divided into two classes, boson and fermion. The necessity for inter-
changing pairs of fermions makes it unlikely that long-range inter-
actions will occur through a fermion field.
When we are limited to boson fields there is a further classification
provided by relativity. All such fields may be classified as scalar,
vector, tensor, and higher-rank tensor. We shall assume that
higher-rank tensors will not occur on the grounds that the mathema-
tics are extraordinarily complex. The tensor field already provides
enough mathematical difficulties. There is a long-range vector field
that is associated with electromagnetism. Similarly, a long-range
symmetric tensor field is believed to exist in the form of the
gravitational field.
It is in connection with the tensor field that a direct relationship
between inertial forces and the distribution of distant matter appears.
It is found that the interaction of a tensor field with a particle leads
to two different types of forces. One is a force proportional to the
acceleration (inertial force). The other type of force is quadratic
and is recognized as a gravitational force. Both types of forces may
be called gravitational. Through the use of coordinate transformation,
inertial forces may be converted into gravitational forces of opposite
sign.
If it is only the position of matter relative to other matter that is
significant, an absolute coordinate system in space should be without
significance. If all coordinate systems (including time as a fourth
coordinate) are of equal value, the mathematical tool appropriate for
treating physical problems, including geometry, is the tensor cal-
culus, since it is designed to treat geometry analytically but without
reference to a specific coordinate system.
***
Hoyle is an originator of a theory of continuous creation, which holds
that the universe is still being formed by particles that appear out of
nothing in empty space. His new theory stems from the Mach
principle (the mass of every object in the universe is affected by its
interaction with every other object).
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
The new theory explains why gravity is always a force of attraction,
never of repulsion. Einstein arbitrarily assigned a minus sign to a
key quantity in his equations. Hoyle shows why the sign must be
minus. Hoyle's theory also explains why galaxies in distant parts of
the universe can, theoretically, move away from the Earth faster
than the speed of light - a limit that Einstein said could not be
exceeded. Hoyle argues that it is wrong to compare the speed of
light in one locality with the speed of an object in another locality.
As Hoyle sees it, a universe with nothing in it is impossible. There
must be at least two particles, each to give mass to the other. The
masses, and therefore the gravity of the sun and the Earth are partly
due to each other, partly to more distant objects such as the stars
and galaxies.
***
Half of the galaxies in the universe may be anti-matter, the other
half ordinary matter. But the radiation that comes from them will
reveal nothing unusual about them. Only when galaxies of hostile
types happen to collide will their matter interact violently. This
may be the source of energy of quasars (cosmic sources of extremely
high energy outputs). The principle of equivalence (shown so far to
be accurate to a high degree of accuracy) may be affected if there
were more anti-matter around.
***
Zwicky has discovered that Newton's universal law of gravitation is
not universal, but that it breaks down if the interacting bodies are
separated by distances greater than about five million light years.
Until recently, no real evidence was ever presented that Newton's
law holds for separations of masses which are greater than about
a light year, or for bodies located outside a radius of 700 light years
from Earth.
From counts of galaxies in many galaxy clusters, it was possible to
determine the following:
I. Many of the galaxy clusters are spherically symmetrical,
with axial fluctuations lying well within the limits expected.
2. The 500 brightest galaxies of a cluster show a radial
distribution which is adequately represented by equations
for an isothermal gas sphere.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
3. There appears to be a marked separation of bright and
faint member galaxies in a cluster, an effect which is
expected to exist in stationary swarms.
4. The structural features are the same for spherically
symmetrical clusters at all observable distances.
These four observations prove that Newton's law, with a fixed value
for the universal gravitational constant, adequately describes the
interactions between large masses such as galaxies, if these masses
are not separated by distances greater than the radii of large clusters
of galaxies, about three million light years.
Some strong evidence has come to light which indicates that the law
breaks down when the interactions between clusters of galaxies,
rather than galaxies, are examined.
If the law is universal, we should expect the clustering of galaxies
to be unlimited. Actually, however, the largest spherically sym-
metrical clusters found among the 10, 000 clusters searched are very
similar, and all are of about the same size and population. Thus,
there seems to be a limit to the size and population of stationary and
geometrically well-organized clusters.
If the law is universal, we should also expect to find clustering of
clusters of galaxies. Investigations have shown, however, that
this is not the case.
It has been observed that the 100 nearest clusters are distributed
in space with remarkable uniformity. There is no close pair or
multiples among them. In sharp contrast to this is the fact that
there is hardly a single galaxy among the 100 nearest or brightest
which is not bunched with other galaxies in groups of two or more.
It has been demonstrated that the 10,000 observable galaxy clusters
are distributed uniformly and randomly, both in breadth over the
sky, as well as in actual depth of space, as if they were completely
noninteracting objects. As a result of these observations, we must
conclude that Newton's law of gravitation seriously breaks down
when the interacting masses are separated by distances greater than
about five million light years.
Assuming this lack of interaction at great distances to be true, we
are faced with several serious consequences. First, the general
theory of relativity will require some revision since the theory is
based on field equations which are adjusted, at their limits, to
Newton's law. Secondly, all conclusions about the evolution of the
universe and its supposed expansion will need reanalysis.
***
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
Dicke is performing a new version of the Eotvos experiment which
has substantially higher accuracy. As the original Eotvos experi-
ment, this test is to check once again the principle of equivalence
(gravitation and acceleration effects are the same). Basically, it
compares the acceleration of two materials towards the sun. An
accuracy of one part in 10" has been obtained so far.
At least four important conclusions could be drawn from an experi-
ment showing that objects accelerate equally regardless of com-
position; First, that single neutrons and hydrogen atoms (or
electron-proton pairs) would be expected to fall with the same
acceleration; Second, that the strong nuclear forces that bind the
nucleus of the atom together, although quantitatively different in
light elements and in heavy elements, have no effect on acceler-
ation; Third, that the greater electrostatic energy associated with
the nuclei of heavy elements has no effect; Fourth, that the velocity
of electrons occupying the inner shells of heavy elements, although
higher than those in light elements, have no effect.
***
Assume a 3-dimensional rod passing through a fluid 2-dimensional
plane; the rod slightly sloping from a perpendicular direction to
the plane. As the rod passes through the plane, on the perpendicu-
lar, an observer within the 2-dimensional plan sees only a circular
mass moving along in his 2-dimensional world.
Therefore, projecting this idea into our world of 3-dimensions,
making the rod 4-dimensional extending into the "time" dimension,
we see that possibly all that has ever come into being or will come,
co-exists, which passing slowly on, leaves in our consciousness,
limited to a narrow space and a single moment of "time" a record
of change.
***
Assume the universe to be composed of an extended gaseous medium.
Then assume a disturbance like a sound wave passing through the
gas as condensations and rarefactions. A condensation, because
of the concentration of mass within it exerts a greater gravitational
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I IBRARY
attraction on neighboring particles than a similarly sized volume
of undisturbed medium. When this phenomenon happens on a
universe-sized scale, the gravitational forces may become very
important. The attraction within each condensation becomes so
strong that there is no subsequent rarefaction. When this happens,
the extended medium is said to be gravitationally unstable.
According to Jeans, it will then collect into many big chunks.
The size of a condensation is proportional to the wavelength of the
disturbance, since the latter is the distance covered by a con-
densation and a rarefaction. Jeans found a formula for the shortest
wavelength of density fluctuation, >₀, that will cause instability
in an extended medium. Any disturbance that has a wavelength
equal to or greater than ¹⁰ will produce a collapse of the extended
medium.
The first fragmentation of the gaseous medium that was to become our
Milky Way system could not have resulted in stars; but in much more
massive condensations. The large masses suggest conglomerations
that later evolved into star clusters. Perhaps the clumps that were to
become globular clusters first separated out this way when the material
of our galaxy was still in a spherical shape. They would contract under
their own gravity and become denser. Then a second fragmentation
might occur in accord with Jean's criterion. Because of the higher
densities of the contracting clouds, their breakup would result in
smaller masses, perhaps comparable with a star's mass.
While fragmentation is going on, the atoms in the galactic gas suffer
numerous collisions. If the primeval galaxies did have net angular
momentum, the collisions would gradually tend to change its shape
from a sphere to a disk as seen in spiral galaxies.
***
A comparison between the observed and predicited position of the
planet Jupiter shows they do not quite agree. It is possible that the
fundamental theory of Newton may not be exactly right. Jupiter
sometimes appears to be ahead of where it should be, sometimes
behind. The difference changes regularly with time and goes through
a complete cycle once every 12. 4 years. The magnitude is small:
about 600 miles. No clear indication of a similar effect has been
found in the other outer planets, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I IBRARY
* **
Einsteins principle of equivalence is true for electromagnetic waves
such as radio and light. The equivalence principle states that there is
no difference between the force of gravity and the force produced by
acceleration. Early experiments proved the equivalence principle for
material bodies, but only recently has the effect of gravity on light,
radio waves and gamma rays been detected in the laboratory. If
gravity and acceleration are equivalent, Einstein concluded that a
gravitational field should lower the frequency of light rays escaping
from a gravitational field. This effect, called the gravitational red
shift, had not been conclusively measured before.
Experimenters found that gamma rays were raised in frequency when
falling in a gravity field, and lowered in frequency when rising against
the force of gravity.
Also, the red shift predicted by Einstein's general theory of relativity
has been confirmed directly on the sun, Previous measurements had
not been sufficiently precise to separate this shift from other effects,
such as those caused by changes in temperature or pressure. Measure-
ments on stars such as the companion to Sirius had a large margin for
error.
***
The gravitational waves sent out by such large bodies as the sun and
other stars are much too small to be detected in the near future. How-
ever, a double star has been found which has the shortest period of
rotation known - 81 minutes. One is a dense white dwarf, the other is
not observable optically. The stars are believed rotating around a
common center so fast - 1, 500, 000 mph - that energy is radiated as
gravitational waves. This presents a possibility for detection of the
waves.
***
Schiff accounts for gravitation by assuming that is comes from the
exchange of neutrinos between any kinds of matter. Neutrinos are
nature's "ghost" particles, having no electric charge and virtually
zero mass.
Scientists have suggested that gravitational force might resemble
electromagnetic or nuclear forces in that the last two arise from the
exchange of some kind of particle between the interacting objects.
Electromagnetic forces arise from the interchange of light quanta, or
photons, between electrons or protons, and nuclear forces arise from
the interchange of pi mesons between neutrons or protons. Previously,
the idea that gravitational forces could arise from the interchange of
neutrinos could not be made consistent with Eotuos experiment
(weight/mass = 1). Schiff modified the theory to account for this.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I IBRARY
***
Shaw tested for a temperature effect on gravity to an accuracy of two
parts in one million per degree centigrade. He found no connection.
Comets heat up considerably when passing close to the sun so they
should deviate from their predicted course if their were
some
connection
between temperature and gravity. This test is of an even higher
degree of accuracy than Shaw's.
Many crystals exhibit different physical properties in different
directions. Experiments have been made to see whether or not
crystals show any change in weight when they are differently oriented
with respect to the Earth. This has produced negative results to one
part in one billion. Weighing pieces of steel in a magnetized and in
an unmagnetized condition has also given negative results.
***
The irregularity in the orbit of the planet Mercury can be explained by
the assumption of a belt of diffuse attracting matter surrounding the
sun equatorially. But such matter, in quantity sufficient to produce
this effect, would undoubtedly be visible.
The stars are steadily converting their mass into radiant energy and
the sun actually radiates four million tons of its substance into space
every second. The Earth and the planets intercept a minute fraction
of this radiation, the bulk of which travels on into space. Similarly,
the radiation from billions upon billions of other suns has been pouring
into space, so that "space" is never really empty. What effect, if
any, does this large amount of ejected matter play in the mechanism
of gravity? Also, does this ejected mass reform again to create new
galaxies and suns and planets?
***
Radiant energy travels through space in discontinuous units called
"quanta." This "step-function" quanta is produced by electrons falling
from one given orbit to another given orbit. Since the orbits are fixed
in relation to the atom, only a discrete level of energy can be given
off when the electron changes orbits. Only one sixteenth of the
radiation frequency range takes the form of visible light. Any attempt
to explore the universe in terms of what our eyes can see would be
futile. The entire frequency range must be studied in order that we
may have available all necessary information.
***
From the observation that light is attracted by a gravitational field,
it is not difficult to understand that the total of all the matter in the
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I IBRARY
universe will produce a combined distortion on space SO that we have
the conception of a universe which is closed in upon itself; a ray of
light will travel in a great curve and should, theoretically, return to
its point of origin.
***
Antiparticles, that is particles that are related to normal particles by
the "charge conjugation" operator of quantum theory, have positive
mass and, hence, would be useless for employment in gravity shields.
But this does not exclude the possibility of elementary particles of
negative mass (whose antiparticles would possess negative mass as
well), although such particles have not yet been discovered.
According to Newton's second law (F = ma), force and acceleration
point in opposite directions for a particle of negative mass. Particles
having masses of the same sign will attract each other gravitationally,
whereas particles of opposite masses will repel each other. Hence,
all "accelerations" of particles of whatever mass will point toward
particles of positive mass and away from particles of negative masses.
If two particles having masses of opposite sign and equal magnitude
act on each other purely gravitationally, then the particle of negative
mass will chase the particle of positive mass, both their accelerations
pointing in the same direction.
* * *
Gravitational waves can possibly be divided into discrete energy
packets, or quanta as electromagnetic waves are.
Dirac obtained a solution whereby he quantized the gravitational-field
equation and showed that the energy of gravity quanta, or "gravitons,"
is equal to Planck's constant, h, times their frequency- the same
equation that gives the energy of light quanta or photons. However,
the spin of the graviton is twice the spin of the photon.
The interactions of matter fall into distinct classes: (1) Nuclear
forces; (2) strong interactions, which include electromagnetic forces;
(3) weak interactions such as the "beta decay" of a radioactive
nucleus, in which an electron and a neutringare emitted; (4) gravi-
tational interactions, which are much weaker than the ones called
"weak."
The strength of an interaction is a function of the rate of the emission
or absorbtion of its quantum. As an example, a nucleus takes about
10
second to emit a photon. In comparison the beta decay of a
neutron takes about 10³ seconds. It can be calculated that the time
necessary for the emission of a graviton by a nucleus is 10⁶⁰ seconds,
or 10⁵⁷ times slower than the weak interaction.
Neutrinos are particles with an extremely low probability of interaction
since they have no charge and no mass. In the weak interactions,
neutrinos are emitted together with other particles. A process
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
involving only neutrinos has not been detected but they may occur,
possibly on the same time scale as the gravitational interaction. A
pair of neutrinos would furnish a spin of two (the same as the
graviton). It is therefore speculated that there is a connection between
neutrinos and gravity.
The true relation between gravitational and electromagnetic forces
will probably be found through an understanding of the elementary
particles. We must understand why there exist particles with only
certain inertial masses and not others. Also the relation between the
masses and the electric and magnetic properties of the particles must
be determined.
The calculation of the relative strength of the elctrostatic and gravi-
tational forces between a pair of particles (assume pi mesons) shows
that the ratio equals the square of the charge on an electron divided
by the square of the mass of the particles times the gravitational
constant (e²/m²G). For two pi mesons the value is 10⁴⁰. Any theory
relating electromagnetism and gravity must explain this ratio.
Dirac has proposed that the large ratio of electric to gravitational
forces is characteristic of the present age of the universe. He assumes
as a unit time the time required for light to traverse the radii of the
average particle. The radii is assumed to be 3 X 10-13 centimeter
and since the velocity of light is 3 X 10¹⁰ centimeter per second, the
elementary time unit is 3 X 10-13 divided by 3 X 10ʳ⁰ or 10⁻²³ second.
The age of the universe expressed in terms, of this elementary time
unit is about 10⁴⁰! Dirac then claims that gravity is decreasing as
the universe expands and the matter is rarefied.
***
Gravitational polarization, which could make possible a gravity
"shield" requires that there be two types of matter, some with positive
gravitational mass and some with negative gravitational mass. As of
yet particles with negative mass are unknown. The mass of antimatter
or antiparticles has proved to be of a positive sign thereby providing no
help for a gravity "shield."
***
The Foucault pendulum exhibits an effect such that the plane of the
pendulum swing does not change. The apparent rotation of the plane
is actually caused by the rotation of the Earth beneath the pendulum.
Therefore the pendulum arc should show an apparent rotation of one
cycle every 24 hours.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
Maurice Allias conducted some remarkable experiments with some
pendulums during which a cycle was found which was between 24 and
25 hours long. Allias's experiments were performed with a high
degree of accuracy with continuous readings of about a month and in
two widely separated locations.
Also, during a total solar eclipse, the plane of the pendulum swing
was noted to shift approximately 15 centesimal degrees exactly at the
start of the eclipse. Near the end of the eclipse, the plane again
shifted and returned to the normal periodic cycle it had been following
previous to the eclipse. This gives a very definite impression of a
"screen" effect.
The abnormalities noted in the pendulum experiment are possibly
closely related with the abnormalities encountered in a number of
observed dynamic phenomena, which have yet to be explained:
(1) Abnormalities in the tide theory.
(2) Size of the deviations to the south noted on falling bodies.
(3) Variations in the amplitude of the deviations to the east noted on
falling bodies.
(4) Abnormalities noted in the action of terrestrial rotation on the
flow of liquids.
(5) Abnormalities noted in the motion of the horizontal gyroscope.
(6) Various abnormalities noted in the geophysical measurements,
ascribed until now to experimental errors.
(7) Abnormalities is the oscillation of a pendulum noted by Pasteur.
To these abnormalities, which are dynamic, add the static types:
(1) An apparent excess of gravity over the ocean and a deficiency above
the continents.
(2) The abnormalities in the experiments of Newtonian attraction.
There is some absorbtion of gravity (experiments by Majorana), but
also - and mainly a variation of the Newtonian force according to
the medium where it is acting (Cremieu claimed that gravity forces
act as though gravitation measured in water were greater than that
computed by Newton's equation).
The accuracy of verification of the laws of gravitation are presently:
(a) Astronomical - three parts in 106
(b) Mechanics on Earth's surface (pendulum) one part in 105.
These figures are of the order of magnitude of the abnormalities
noted in these pendulum experiments. From this, it will be seen that
the abnormalities that have been found do not run contrary to the
earlier experimental data, either on the surface of the Earth or even
in the field of astronomy.
In the present status of known data, the abnormalities observed can be
accounted for only by considering the existence of a new field.
***
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
Stanyukovich has theorized that lowering the temperature of matter to
absolute zero would lead to a considerable decrease in gravitational
forces and possibly their disappearance, thereby creating "weightless
matter. "
He has also constructed a theory in which the gravitational field of
ponderable masses is caused by superhigh-frequency (multi-billion-
cps) vibrations of matter and by the ejection - from the vibrating body -
of energy in the form of gravitational quanta or "gravitons." He
states that this gravitational radiation would be more intense at high
temperatures and, conversely, reduced virtually to zero at low
temperatures, near absolute zero.
Other scientists believe there are energy-carrying gravitational waves
which can be quantized into energy quanta, hypothetically named
"gravitons." However, they consider the amount of energy transported
to be so small as to be a negligible aspect of gravitation. Thus, even
a total elemination of gravitational-wave quanta or "graviton trans-
mutation" could not effect an annihilation of gravitation.
Recent subatomic-physics research has disclosed the existence of an anti-
particle for every particle of ordinary matter; there is then reason to
believe that half the celestial objects in our universe are made of antimatter.
Spectural lines emitted from antimatter stars or galaxies would be of the
same wave length as radiation from their material counterparts, making
them useless for identifying distant antimatter.
Such astral entities as quasars appear to emit enormous quantities of energy
that probably could not be produced by any known nuclear reactions. In
some cases, "total annihilation of matter and antimatter may be the only
possible energy source." Also, the sudden release of great amounts of
energy from a supernova, has never been satisfactorily explained. It
might well be caused by the collision of antimatter and matter stars.
* **
Traveling at close to the speed of light, human impressions of time and
distance would shrink drastically, according to Einsteinian concepts of
relativity. The crew would consequently regard the distance from the earth
to the sun as a mere fraction of a mile. Round trips to distant galaxies
would thus be easily accomplished within a single generation of the crew.
A trip around the entire universe would take, according to the clocks
aboard the high-speed ship, only tens of years. In the meantime, however,
the earth would have had billions of years of existence.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
* * *
Most research to date is trying to find some relationship between gravity
and other forces of nature. Electricity became useful when experimenters
were able to relate it to magnetism, which had seemed until then like an
unrelated force. There may be some sort of gravity-magnetic wave or
gravity-electric wave.
* * *
The velocity of light is known to be reduced when propagating through a
transparent mass such as air, water, or glass. D. Akers has made the
suggestion that the same effect might be noted on gravitational waves.
* * *
In a superfluid (a fluid near a temperature of absolute zero), friction of
motion becomes almost negligible. Theoretically, at absolute zero,
friction of motion becomes zero. The total fluid acts as one molecule. If
an emitter of atoms (ions) is placed in the fluid, the atoms driven off form
vortices which travel theoretically at undiminished velocity at a temper-
ature of absolute zero. In the experiment, 0. 28 degrees Kelvin was
reached and exhibited very low friction.
As energy is supplied to the vortex (force times distance), the vortex
grows in diameter and decreases in velocity along its axis. Stored energy
in a vortex is directly proportional to the axis length, explaining the
growth in diameter. As the vortex increases in diameter, opposite sides
of the vortex can effect each other less, and therefore decrease its velocity
along its axis.
The vortex in the superfluid also exhibited quantum effects, and this was
on a macroscopic scale (vortex diameter approximately 10, 000 times
larger than the distance between two atoms in the fluid). The energy level
of the vortex was of a discrete level. The experimental set-up was not
powerful enough to produce vortex energy levels of a factor of two.
***
The Theory of Relativity indicates that the universe is closed on itself.
That is, a beam of light directed off into space will traverse the universe
and return to the point of origin, from the opposite direction. But there
is nothing to limit the journey to only one cycle. Theoretically, the light
could make an infinite number of round-trips.
Perhaps this explains the super-high energy sources known as quasi-
stellar sources or quasars. Quasars, have energy levels far exceeding
even thermonuclear processes. Also, a disturbance in a quasar travels
much faster than the speed of light through the quasar region.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
Possibly we are seeing the original "big-bang" initiation of the universe,
not only once, but over and over again. This would explain the extremely
high energy levels of the quasars. Also, this would change the size scale
factor so that the speed of light would not be violated.
*
A fundamental characteristic of all forces is that they exist in pairs. One
apparent exception is gravitation.
Each piece of matter contains the so-called "energy of constitution" of the
value mc². This collection of energy/matter can be interpreted as being
of a potential nature. Since the energy release of mass is in the form of
radiation, we then call this particle of energy/matter potential radiation.
Possibly the above knowledge could be linked so that the outwardly directed
potential radiation force of energy/matter is shown to be the counterforce
of the inwardly directed force of gravitation. The author calculates the
gravitational constant G from the potential radiation of a mass and finds
that it agrees extremely well with the experimentally determined value.
* * *
All matter is composed of elementary particles, most of which are charged.
Electric forces between charges and gravitational forces between masses
are both long range, i.e., they fall off with the square of the distance,
rather than exponentially like the short range nuclear forces. Between
two charged elementary particles the electric force is tremendously
stronger than the gravitational force--by a factor of the order of 1040.
Why then do not electric forces predominate on the astronomical and
cosmological scale? The answer is, of course, that electric charges of
both signs appear in nature, that they "shield" one another, so that matter
in the large is electrically neutral.
Gravitation charge or mass, however, is always positive. This is why
gravitation is important on the large scale.
*
Since in a real gravitational field, space-time is curved, the principle of
equivalence cannot apply to large regions of space-time, and the loose
formulation of the principle must be abandoned and replaced by a restricted
and sharpened formulation: the principle of equivalence applies to the
history of a small region of space, which is a thin tube in space-time; any
physical experiment within a thin space-time tube in a gravitational field
gives identical results, to the first order in the small lateral dimensions
of the tube, as the corresponding experiment in a suitable thin tube in flat
space-time free of gravitational fields.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I IBRARY
The concept of a gravitational force disappears in a curved space-time
theory of gravitation, and the gravitational field becomes the geometry of
space-time. How is the gravitational field, the geometry of curved space-
time, determined by its sources, the masses and concentrations of energy
which produce the field? The curvature of space-time gives rise, in a
natural manner, to interesting new possibilities in cosmology. The space
of our universe can be finite in volume without having any boundaries, in
much the same way in which the curved two dimensional surface of a
sphere in ordinary Enclidean space has a finite area.
*
The principal characteristic of electromagnetic radiation is that when
radiation is produced, the radiator loses an amount of energy which is
independent of the location of the absorbers. With gravitational radiation,
on the other hand, it is still not known whether a gravitational radiator
transmits energy whether there is a receiver near or not.
The power radiated by the solar system in the form of gravitational waves
is approximately 1024 times less than that radiated electromagnetically,
and is about one kilowatt. Therefore, it is possible to neglect the action
of gravitational radiation waves in all but purely theoretical calculations.
This result shows that the problem of the motions of systems of gravitating
masses may be considered as a problem in mechanics, disregarding
radiation.
* *
It is theorized that a light ray would be polarized when passing through a
gravitational field (in addition to the well-known "bending"); also, it is
suggested that an electromagnetic field (light) would excite gravitational
waves of the same frequency.
***
The phenomenon of galaxy systems connected by curved ties or arms is
attributed by some physicists to magnetically produceAnon-gravitational
repulsive pressure fields, whereas others view it as a result of a decreas-
ing gravitational constant.
***
The postulated existence of antigravitation leads to a nonconservation of
gravitational energy, that is, a gain "out of nowhere" in each photon cycle.
The assumption that the gravitational charge (that is, equivalent gravita-
tional mass) of a photon is zero, leads to a similar violation of the law of
conservation of gravitational energy.
***
Is the structure of "ball lightning" equivalent to the structure of nuclear
particles?
***
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I IBRARY
As we examine nuclear, electromagnetic, weak and gravitational inter-
actions, we find them to decrease in intensity and increase in universality
in that order.
* * *
If we assume that a nucleon (or any other elementary particle) radiates
gravitational energy, a relativistic examination shows that the radiation
pressure of such quanta is proportional to r-4, but that between two
nucleons which radiate gravitational energy an attraction force proportional
to r-2 must prevail since the distribution of waves becomes unsymmetrical
in that instance and more energy is carried off by the waves that are
radiated away from the two bodies than by those exchanged between the
two bodies.
* * *
The local curvature of space, which is dependent on the mass of the matter
in the immediate vicinity, can ultimately close around itself and isolate its
contents from the rest of the universe, provided that the density of the
matter is high enough. The ultimate radius at which this envelopment
occurs is given by the expression 2GM/c², where G is the gravitational
constant, M is the total mass and C is the speed of light. This radius is
the Schwarzschild singularity, and when it is reached, matter disappears
entirely from view. When matter collapes to this radius, the energy
released is equal to 1/2 MC². This process is estimated to be about
100 times more efficient than any known thermonuclear reaction.
* * *
The magnetic properties of a superconducting metal may be described in
the following manner: At no time can a magnetic field penetrate into the
depth of a superconductor. That property takes place regardless of the
conditions in which the transition to the superconducting state has actually
occurred. Thus, if the cooling of a specimen is performed within a
magnetic field, then at the time of transition the magnetic lines of force
are expelled from the body. The electrical properties (the absence of an
electrical resistance) are merely inescapable consequences of the magnetic
properties.
This consideration might suggest the possibility of a similar expulsion of
the gravitational field from a body but only provided that a fundamental
similarity between the magnetic and the gravitational field were proved to
exist.
Mach's Principle He regarded inertia as a dynamic gravitational effect
due to the interaction of all the masses constituting the universe. Hence
if a pail containing rotating water (and, with it, the earth and the apparently
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
stationary ensemble of stars) is assumed to carry with it the reference
system of coordinates, then the centrifugal force acting on the spinning
body of water is attributed to outside forces. Mach concluded that the
outside forces might be called either inertial or dynamically gravitational,
the latter presumed to be due to an action of the masses of the universe
with respect to which the body of water is spinning. On the other hand,
if the reference system of coordinates is assumed to be fixed onto the
water, then the body of water would have to be viewed as standing still,
but the mass of the pail, the earth and the stars of the universe would spin
about the now relatively stationary body of water and their dynamically
gravitaional pull would result in the formation of the same hollow surface
which, under the previous assumption, resulted from the presumedly
inertial centrifugal action.
*
There is the possibility of a force field of different origin counteracting
the gravitational forces acting on a given body. A metal sphere can be levi-
tated by an electromagnetic field produced by wire loop with little expend-
iture of power if the coil is kept below critical superconductive temperature.
Also the radiation pressure of photons ejected by an intense thermonuclear
process can overcome the gravitational force acting on particles and drive
them away from the center of radiation. As an example, comet's tail is
"blown" away from the sun while heavier particles are sometimes
attracted out of comet core into the sun.
*
According to the Stanyukovich hydrodynamic hypothesis, bodies emit
gravitons into their surroundings; when two bodies are in the vicinity
of one another, the graviton density accumulating between them slows
down the emission of gravitons in the interadjacent space, whereupon the
thrust of the graviton radiation over the outer portions of the two bodies
prevails and exerts a resulting force of attraction between the two bodies.
Gravitation can be attributed to the impact of numerous small particles.
All bodies are continuously exposed to impacts by these particles. All
impacts received by a single body in space would balance out, but, when
there are two bodies, there is no longer an equilibrium between the impacts,
since either body shields the other from the impacts of the particles
traveling along the line that connects the centers of the two bodies. There-
upon the two bodies will be pushed together. And, since bodies of greater
mass intercept more particles they experience greater gravitational forces.
* *
The red shift of distant galaxies usually attributed to a Doppler-type
phenomenon resulting from an actual geometrical expansion of the universe,
may in reality be due to various changes in the electromagnetic waves
which are not immediately apparent at short range, but which gain in
importance as the transit distance increases.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
*
When the equations of the gravitational field were in the first approximation
linearized, the equations assumed the aspect of wave equations and yielded
wave solutions for the case of weak gravitational fields. It has since been
reasoned that if these wave solutions correspond to actual energy carrying
waves, the resulting energy density would create a stationary, Newtonian,
gravitational field which would deform the metric of space-time and in
addition there would be gravitational waves propagating with the velocity
of light. It is possible that gravitational waves could be quantitized and
the resulting quanta of gravitons would probably have a zero rest mass of
a spin of 2.
The gravitational field in the main is as unmodifiable and irreducible
feature of curved space-time and stipulates an extremly small energy
transfer between bodies in motion by means of ripples in space-time, an
energy transfer so negligible that it could in no way be used to annihilate
the weight of a body.
Contrast between a space-time continuum and a quantum concept could
possibly be resolved by (1) a hypothesis on the existence of a minimal
discrete time interval; (2) a hypothesis of the existence of a gravitational
mass of which all elementary particles are integer multiples.
It is quite possible that gravity plays a role in the elementary-particle
problem, an assumption which provides one possible reason for quanti-
tizing gravitation.
Connected electron pairs--hence, the phenomenon of superconductivity at
extremely low temperatures- are contingent on the presence of an
attraction, no matter how small, to overcome the repulsive Coulomb
interaction between the electrons. In this particular instance, the question
of gravitational action at intra-pair distances may have a decisive effect
on the delicate force balance obtained there.
It was at first felt that gravitational forces were "too small" to serve as
the stabilizing force in the atomic nucleus, but further developments in
elementary particle physics may change our concepts regarding space
and time at extremely short distances.
In connection with the description of gravitation and electromagnetism in
terms of space-time geometry exclusively, attempts are continuing in the
development of a geometry that will satisfy the requirements of gravita-
tional and unitary theory in the large and that will become quasi-Euclidean
in the ordinary scale of human life and activity.
* * *
Molecules of ammonia have been used to determine whether a suppositional
ether drift affects their natural vibration frequency when the apparatus is
rotated through an angle of 180°. The accuracy of the test exceeds that
of the classical Michelson-Morley experiment by about two orders of
magnitude.
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
*
Alzofon's postulation superficially parallels Stanyukovich's idea of
graviton-emitting pulsation of electrons and other elementary particles.
It follows from the basic premises of the theory that any reduction of the
intensity of the creation and annihilation of charged particles (possibly at
extreme low temperatures) would weaken the gravitational field produced
by the resultant field fluctuation.
* * *
It is suggested that the inertial mass of a body depends not only on its
rest mass but also on its velocity and on the character of its interaction
with other bodies (e.g., on the magnitudes of the interacting electric
charges, whereas it follows from Einstein's gravitational equations that,
except for the dimensional units, the ponderable mass of a body always
equals its rest mass.
* *
How essential is gravitation in the physics of elementary particles? If
gravitational waves exist, then transmutations of gravitons into electrons,
positrons, and photons must also take place. The exceedingly small value
of the universal quantum gravitational length (about 10-³³) cm indicates,
that gravitational forces can hardly be consequential in the structure of
elementary particles.
*
Are gravitational waves merely a "ripple" on the geometrical structure
of space or do they carry energy and transform into ordinary matter?
On the transformation of two neutrinos into gravitons. Any such trans-
mutation is fully contingent on the presence of a real energy-carrying
radiation produced by some portion of the gravitational field.
-
* * *
-
A planet in a gravitational field can be regarded as absorbing gravitational
quanta that aremitted by the central star. These gravitational quanta
carry gravitational momentum and energy, just as electromagnetic quanta
carry electromagnetic momentum and energy. We can visualize the sun
as continually throwing out and reabsorbing gravitational quanta, produc-
ing a steady state of the mean number of quanta present in space. If we
imagine that a planet can absorb quanta only when they are returning to
the sun, we see that an inward force is produced by an enormous number
of tiny impulses. The planet also emits quanta which are absorbed by
the sun. Thus the two bodies attract each other, and energy is conserved.
The force is constant due to a large number of impulses in a short time.
* * *
In an experiment conducted to detect any motion of the earth with respect
to the surrounding "ether" the experimenters observed a change in the
natural vibration frequency of molecules of ammonia when their apparatus
was rotated through an angle of 180°. The actual change observed in the
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
vibration frequency was of the order of 1 cps (for a natural vibration
frequency of 23, 870 mcps) regardless of time of day. From this it is
concluded that the supposed ether drift velocity equals no more than
one one-thousandth of the orbital velocity of the earth.
* * *
TheEotvos experiment was intended to investigate the equivalence of
inertial and gravitational phenomena. A barbell with two balls of equal
weight but made of different materials was supported in a horizontal
position by a point support at its center. The barbell was lined up tan-
gentially to a mid-latitude parallel. It was reasoned that if different
materials had a different ratio of inertial mass to gravitational mass,
a consequent difference in centrifugal force would have changed the
alignment of the barbell relative to its original East-West alignment.
No such effect was observed. The accuracy of the test was one part in 108.
* * *
Einstein's equations have been solved by successive approximations. The
third approximation then gives a small correction to the rest mass, which
is found to be increased by the presence of other bodies. There is also a
second order correction to the acceleration (not explicitly evaluated) which
causes the perihelion advance in the two body problem.
***
It is Einstein's view that matter should not be considered as something
foreign to the metric field itself.
*
Mass cannot be divided from gravity. It is believed that direct energy
conversion holds out hopes for overcoming of gravitational forces through
the release of immense sources of energy.
Proposed methods for the detection of gravitational waves. These are
based on the fact that the space derivatives of the fields of the waves give
rise to a motion of a system of masses relative to each other. Mechanical
resonance or excitation of acoustic vibrations then enables detection to be
accomplished. It is also possible to make direct use of the strains set up
by the space derivatives of the wave field. These strains may result in
electric polarization due to the piezoelectric effect.
* *
Physicists have considered the case of a quantized scalar field acting as
a gravitational field source and derived therefrom a hypothesis of the
mutual annihilation of a scalar particle and antiparticle with the emission
of two gravitons, as well as the reverse process of creation of ordinary
particles and antiparticles by graviton annihilation. The section of the
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
annihilation process is found to be of the order of magnitude of the square
of the gravitational radius of the scalar particle. Rosen contended that
to all appearances a system of masses subject to their own gravitational
field only cannot radiate gravitational waves.
* *
It is possible that gravitational mass causes the formation of a gravita-
tional field and that the gravitational field causes the space-time to curve.
The "general theory of relativity" is more correctly named the "theory of
the curvature of space-time under the influence of gravitation."
***
Each charged particle has its own proper time. Each of the many time
variables constitutes the local time in a point of three dimensional space.
Thus, instead of a three dimensional surface in the point of a three
dimensional space we obtain a space-like variable surface in the four
dimensional world. This surface consists of points which cannot commun-
icate by light signals, since the time distance between two points, multi-
plied by c, is less than their distance in the space.
* * *
There is a need for a maximal distance and a maximal time interval.
Extrapolation of proper ties of space-time beyond these boundaries would
be invalid.
The theory of relativity applies only to the macro world and does not
apply to marginally small distances and time intervals. The theory of
relativity is based on the continuum and hence can be expected to apply
only to those scales in which the continuum concept applies.
Inertial mass changes with the velocity of a body. Since gravitational
mass is equal to inertial mass, it should also change with the velocity
of the body.
There is no reason why phenomena observed in the visible part of the
universe should be attributed to the whole of the boundless cosmos. The
whole universe may not be expanding even though our part is.
There is a hypothesis that all bodies emit "portions" of gravitation and
the intensity of the emission of gravitons per unit of mass depends upon
the tension of the external field of gravitation. Evidently, gravitation
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
field intensity between two bodies will be greater than outside of them.
The same may be said about the pressure of the gravitation field. There-
fore, the energy of gravitons radiation will depend upon the direction in
which they move. When gravitons move into a medium with a great field
counterpressure (that is, between bodies) the energy of radiation will be
lower than when the radiation is emitted into vacuum. Thus, under
unsymmetric radiation (in the sense of distribution of energy) a resultant
force will arise leading to the approximation of attraction of bodies towards
each other.
Besides the reactive force which arises in cases of uneven radiation of
gravitational energy, the difference of pressure forces of the field exerts
its action upon bodies. Since the pressure of the gravitational field between
two given bodies is greater than the pressure of the field outside of them,
these bodies are not only attracted to but also repulsed from each other.
Under ordinary astronomical and physical conditions the forces of repulsion
are insignificant in comparison with the forces of attraction. However, it
may be supposed that in cases of very compact matter (of the order of
1014 grams per cubic centimeter) the tension and pressure of the gravita-
tion field or gravitation medium may also be very great so that the magnitude
of the forces of repulsion becomes comparable with the forces of attraction.
It is absolutely indisputable that bodies lose mass and energy when they
emit gravitons or gravitation waves. At the same time, two gravitons
may collide and form another pair of "fundamental" particles, for instance,
an electron and a positron. If we accept this view, correction will have
to be made to the equations of all theories of gravitation as a result of
which it appears that the force of gravitation will diminish more rapidly
in proportion to distance. This additional diminishing of forces of gravi-
tation in proportion to distance is quite sufficient to explain Seliger's
paradox (External gravity forces on a star is an infinite amount, so total
force is indeterminant).
Attempts have been made to give a purely geometrical explanation of the
electromagnetic field and to link it to the properties of space-time.
Inasmuch as gravitation appeared to be explained by a transition from the
plane Euclidean space to the curved Riemann space, a possible geo-
metrization of electromagnetism was proposed through a transition to a
twisted space or through the introduction of a complementary, fifth
dimension, or through a generalization of parallel translation, or through
an adoption of a nonsymmetrical space metric.
*
All forms of matter move in space and contribute to the curvature of
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
space-time according to the laws of relativistic quantum theory and the
law of the general theory of relativity.
While a fairly satisfactory classification of particles has been achieved,
a single table of matter still does not exist.
As we know today, all the elementary particles (electrons, atomic nuclei,
etc.) exist in a continuously excited state, and pulsate, i.e., oscillate.
And since their oscillations or pulsations take place in a gravitational and
electromagnetic field, obviously each such pulsation is accomplished by
the emission of a certain amount of energy. Now, this "certain amount"
of energy that is emitted possesses a certain mass. And it is this ele-
mentary "certain amount" of "energy-mass" that we call a graviton.
Let us imagine two spheres some distance apart. Let us think of these
spheres as bodies consisting of pulsating elementary particles--particles
which continuously radiate gravitons in all directions. The flying depar-
ture of each graviton imparts to the body from which the graviton departs,
a reactive "thrust" in the directional sense opposite to the departing
graviton's own sense. But since, as we have noted, gravitons are depart-
ing from or flying out of the body in all directions at once, the body itself
does not feel or show the effect of any such reactive thrust or, to state
the matter more precisely, the many reactive thrusts thus imparted to the
body which impel it in so many different directions at the same time,
simply cancel one another out. Now, if we assume that the number or
quantity of gravitons emitted into a space already relatively saturated with
gravitons will be necessarily smaller than the number or quantity emitted
into an empty space, then, presumably, by moving two bodies closer
together we shall destroy their relative equilibrium, since obviously the
space between the two bodies will become relatively saturated with grav-
itons, and, consequently, the number or quantity of gravitons emitted into
that space will grow smaller. Thereupon, the relative equilibrium of the
two bodies will be destroyed, and they will start to move closer together,
to be drawn toward each other, impelled by the combined reactive impulses
or "thrusts" imparted to them by the "outwardly" departing gravitons.
Physical conceptions of gravitation as a force that is caused by nuclear
radiation should not be considered as seeking to supercede the general
theory of relativity. The general theory of relativity is concerned only
with interactions between huge volumes of matter. Therefore, the con-
ceptions mentioned above tend rather to supplement or complete the
general theory of relativity.
Why should it be, for instance, that bodies are attracted to one another
with a force that is proportional to their masses and not to the square of
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I IBRARY
their masses? Why is it that when the distance between two bodies is
increased by a factor of 2 the force of their gravitational attraction for
each other decreases by a factor of 4 and not by a factor of 9 or 16?
It has become clear that all material bodies and substances of whatever
nature (the sun, earth, all elementary particles, electrons, photons, etc.)
produce in some peculiar way a curvature in space and that is is this
curvature which manifests itself in the form of gravitational force. It is
as though space were "warped" by the presence, let us say, of the sun.
Ant thus the earth, and the other planets too, are forced to move through
just such curved space not through an ordinary Euclidean flat space.
Alzofon seeks to explain the gravitational field as an averaged fluctuating
electromagnetic field generated by the creation and annihilation of charged
particles on a subatomic scale. This can be considered since a given mass
may be electrically neutral on a macroscopic scale, it will not be so on a
subatomic scale. Creation and annihilation processes are incorporated
into physical theory in a fundamental manner by alterming the concept of
a light signal to include these processes as fluctuations. Because the
space-time metric is quadratic, a root mean square effect is generated
which allows description of matter and radiation by a single field. The
force field generated by creation-annihilation processes is shown to be
attractive, proportional to the mass of the source, and inversely pro-
portional to the square of the square of the separation of source and test
body. The law of force changes when the particles approach one another
to within a distance of the order of magnitude of the Compton wavelength.
The red shift observed in the light received from distant galaxies can be
explained in terms of the proposed model in terms of particle creation,
rather than as a Doppler shift.
The following items were considered in this theory:
(1) The gravitational field exists wherever masses exist; no permanent
electric charge need be present, whence it follows that the gravitational
field is different in origin from the electromagnetic field.
(2) The gravitational field is proportional to the mass of the body produc-
ing it, and since all of the mass of any object is concentrated in atomic
nuclei and electrons, it is suggested that processes characterizing these
are responsible for the field.
(3) Processes occurring in the nucleus and in the neighborhood of ele-
mentary particles are distinguished from those producing electro-magnetic
forces in that creation and annihilation of charged particles may occur;
hence, it is suggested that such processes may be responsible for the
gravitational field.
It is proposed here to emphasize further the role of the electromagnetic
field by incorporating another property into its structure. One assumes
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
that the virtual charge creation and annihilation is not a consequence of
the interaction between source and electromagnetic field. Instead, it is
assumed that such processes are an intrinsic part of the motion of the real
electromagnetic field. The average effect of a great number of creations
and annihilations is the electromagnetic field described by the Maxwell
equations and propagated with velocity C (c = 3 x 1010 cm/sec). It is
assumed that creation and annihilation processes proceed without
cessation.
It is suggested that one has now obtained a field which exhibits the proper-
ties of radiation (in the Maxwell sense) and of matter as different aspects
of the same field. Einstein's relation between energy and momentum is
preserved for a particle at rest, and approximately so for particles at
"low" velocities. For energies much greater than the rest mass of the
particle, one must expect to see departures from Einstein's relation owing
to the creation and annihilation processes which then being to dominate
the motion.
The existence of particles as an integral part of the real electromagnetic
field leads to the conclusion that those particles are effectively bound to
the field. Yet it seems likely that there remains a small probability of
the particles leaking away from the bound state. In particular, a ray
traversing interstellar space would thereby lose a measurable energy.
The effect can be calculated and shown to be precisely the same value as
the red shift customarily presumed to indicate an expansion of the universe.
Also, since a light signal is accompanied by a complex structure of virtual
processes, there should be an attractive force between it and a material
body.
The extension of the sub-nuclear gravitational domain is 1 = 10 33
cm,
i.e., the proton and electron are each 100 billion times greater than 1.
Dayton C. Miller, from 1922 to 1926, redid the Michelson-Morley
experiment concluding "there is a positive, systematic ether-drift effect,
corresponding to a constant relative motion of the earth and the ether,
which at Mt. Wilson has an apparent velocity of 10 kilometers per second. 11
The sole reason for the speed of light entering into the equation of velocities
of two physical bodies is required by the universal medium within which
they move. This is ether under the disquise of light velocity.
Einstein's relativistic and Gerber's nonrelativistic theory furnish
identical results. It is simply due to the fact that both theories are based
on the assumption of ether, contained in the relativity implicitly, and
stated by Gerber explicitly.
It would seem that ether gradients in some such form as a variable ether
pressure and density distribution are much more likely to exist in view
of the existing bodies ranging in size from nuclei to galaxies, which can be
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
viewed as singularities in space structure. The origin of matter can,
therefore, be investigated from the standpoint of localized ether stresses,
i.e., ultimate ether quanta which enter into mutual relationship resulting
eventually in such gigantic superstructures as electrons.
Possible structure of ether: The transmission of light shows that the ether
must possess a structure exhibiting properties akin to rigidity and inertia.
The rigidity may be understood hydrodynamically as a vortex circulation
having a velocity of the same order as that of the transversal waves which
the medium transmits. The inertia perceived in matter may then be an
effect of the motion of electrons, atoms, molecules and microscopic
bodies through ether. The granular structure of ether may be of a linear
dimension of the order of 10-30 or 10-33 cm. But how the ether is tied
into knots, we call electrons, remains to be discovered. The assumption
that the formation and the existence of an electron sets up a radial tension
all around it, accounts for gravitational and other phenomena.
In case of galactic and extragalactic distances, Newton's law breaks down
if the vast spacial extensions contain masses of finite density. If, however,
a kind of gravitational absorption in the universal medium as well as in the
interposed celestial bodies takes place, then the difficulties in generaliza-
tion of the gravitational law disappear if the Newton's equation is modified
to read:
where α is the coefficient of gravitational absorption. In that case the
motion of the bodies remains unaffected by very distant masses due to
the complete damping of gravitational waves by means of energy absorption.
In other words, if gravitational absorption exists there should also exist
island universes, a conclusion born out by astronomical observations.
An experiment by Majorana gave a value of α = 2.8 X 10-12 per unit of
mass acted on, per unit of density and per unit of thickness of the shield-
ing mass. This experiment was performed by surrounding a measured
mass with a sphere containing 10 tons of mercury and noting the apparent
loss of weight of the experimental mass.
All the foregoing considerations have now prepared the ground for review-
ing Arthur Korn's theory of gravitation based on the hypothesis of universal
vibrations, a concept which ascribes to matter as property of atomic
interaction due to subnuclear pulsations.
On the basis of the concept of universal vibrations as well as Bjerknes'
experiments it is possible--according to Korn--to establish a theory of
gravitation by making use of hydrodynamic analogy. To this end, Korn
considers the results obtained by Bjerknes' experiments with pulsating
spheres submerged in water. Two such pulsating spheres attract each
other according to an equation analogous to Newton's law of gravitation
providing that the phases of the pulsations are the same.
* * *
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY