Ask the Scholar
Document scope · 1 page
Scholar
Ask about this object, its catalog metadata, its source description, or the page inventory.
For page-specific OCR and visual context, open one of the page chats.
Scholar Source Context
Document identity
localId
471801032
label
1969: Unidentified Flying Objects - Information (folder B156-23)
core
doc
dtoType
document
citationUrl
pageCount
1
Source metadata
id
471801032
contentType
document
title
1969: Unidentified Flying Objects - Information (folder B156-23)
citationUrl
collections
Gerald R. Ford Congressional Papers
Legislative Issues Files
subjects
Unidentified flying objects
thumbnailUrl
largeImageUrl
imageCount
1
hasImages
yes
source
import
hasTranscription
no
Source extras
naId
471801032
coverageEndDate
logicalDate
1969-01-01
year
1969
coverageStartDate
logicalDate
1969-01-01
year
1969
levelOfDescription
fileUnit
recordType
description
ocrSource
nara-archive
Single page context
seq
1
pageIndex
0
type
document
mediaId
4085bd4390757d00
ocrText
The original documents are located in Box B156, folder "1969: Unidentified Flying Objects
(folder 23)" of the Gerald R. Ford Congressional Papers at the
Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.
Copyright Notice
The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of
photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Gerald Ford donated to the
United States of America his copyrights in all of his unpublished writings in National Archives
collections. Works prepared by U.S. Government employees as part of their official duties are in
the public domain. The copyrights to materials written by other individuals or organizations are
presumed to remain with them. If you think any of the information displayed in the PDF is subject
to a valid copyright claim, please contact the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.
1969: Unidentified Flying Objects - Information (folder B156-
23)
Gerald R. Ford Congressional Papers
Do not
Send this
To anybody
IT IS mr.
Ford's COPY
SYMPOSIUM ON UNIDENTIFIED
FLYING OBJECTS
HEARINGS
BEFORE THE
COMMITTEE ON
SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS
U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
NINETIETH CONGRESS
SECOND SESSION
JULY 29, 1968
[No. 7]
Printed for the use of the Committee on Science and Astronautics
SYMPOSIUM ON UNIDENTIFIED
FLYING OBJECTS
HEARINGS
BEFORE THE
COMMITTEE ON
SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS
U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
NINETIETH CONGRESS
SECOND SESSION
JULY 29, 1968
[No. 7]
Printed for the use of the Committee on Science and Astronautics
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
97-818
WASHINGTON : 1968
CONTENTS
STATEMENTS
Page
COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS
Dr. J. Allen Hynek, head, Department of Astronomy, Northwestern
University, Evanston, III
3
GEORGE P. MILLER, California, Chairman
Prof. James E. McDonald, Department of Meteorology, University of
OLIN E. TEAGUE, Texas
Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.
JAMES G. FULTON, Pennsylvania
18
JOSEPH E. KARTH, Minnesota
CHARLES A. MOSHER, Ohio
Dr. Carl Sagan, associate professor of astronomy, Center for Radiophysics
KEN HECHLER, West Virginia
RICHARD L. ROUDEBUSH, Indiana
and Space Research, Cornell University
86
EMILIO Q. DADDARIO, Connecticut
ALPHONZO BELL, California
Dr. Robert L. Hall, head, Department of Sociology, University of Illinois,
J. EDWARD ROUSH, Indiana
Chicago, Ill
100
THOMAS M. PELLY, Washington
JOHN W. DAVIS, Georgia
DONALD RUMSFELD, Illinois
Dr. James A. Harder, associate professor of civil engineering, University of
WILLIAM F. RYAN, New York
California
EDWARD J. GURNEY, Florida
113
THOMAS N. DOWNING, Virginia
JOHN W. WYDLER, New York
Dr. Robert M. L. Baker, Jr., senior scientist, System Sciences Corp., 650
JOE D. WAGGONNER, JR., Louisiana
North Sepulveda Boulevard, El Segundo, Calif
126
GUY VANDER JAGT, Michigan
DON FUQUA, Florida
LARRY WINN, JR., Kansas
GEORGE E. BROWN, JR California
JERRY L. PETTIS, California
WILLIAM J. GREEN, Pennsylvania
D. E. (BUZ) LUKENS, Ohio
PREPARED PAPERS
EARLE CABELL, Texas
JOHN E. HUNT, New Jersey
JACK BRINKLEY, Georgia
Dr. Donald H. Menzel, Harvard College Observatory
198
BoB ECKHARDT, Texas
Dr. R. Leo Sprinkle, Division of Counseling and Testing, University of
ROBERT O. TIERNAN, Rhode Island
Wyoming
206
BERTRAM L. PODELL, New York
Dr. Garry C. Henderson, senior research scientist, Space Sciences, General
CHARLES F. DUCANDER, Executive Director and Chief Counsel
Dynamics
210
JOHN A. CARSTARPHEN, Jr., Chief Clerk and Counsel
Dr. Stanton T. Friedman, Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory
213
PHILIP B. YEAGER, Counsel
Dr. Roger N. Shepard, Department of Psychology, Stanford University
223
FRANK R. HAMMILL, Jr., Counsel
Dr. Frank B. Salisbury, head, Plant Science Department, Utah State
W. H. BOONE, Chief Technical Consultant
University
235
RICHARD P. HINES, Staff Consultant
(III)
PETER A. GERARDI, Technical Consultant
JAMES E. WILSON, Technical Consultant
HAROLD A. GOULD, Technical Consultant
PHILIP P. DICKINSON, Technical Consultant
JOSEPH M. FELTON, Counsel
RICHARD E. BEEMAN, Minority Staff
ELIZABETH S. KERNAN, Scientific Research Assistant
FRANK J. GIROUX, Clerk
DENIS C. QUIGLEY, Publications Clerk
(II)
SYMPOSIUM ON UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECTS
MONDAY, JULY 29, 1968
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,
COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE AND ASTRONAUTICS,
Washington, D.C.
The committee met, pursuant to notice, at 10:05 a.m., in room 2318,
Rayburn House Office Building, Hon. J. Edward Roush (chairman
of the symposium) presiding.
Mr. ROUSH. The committee will be in order.
Today the House Committee on Science and Astronautics conducts
a very special session, a symposium on the subject of unidentified
flying objects; the name of which is a reminder to us of our ignorance
on this subject and a challenge to acquire more knowledge thereof.
We approach the question of unidentified flying objects as purely
a scientific problem, one of unanswered questions. Certainly the rigid
and exacting discipline of science should be marshaled to explore
the nature of phenomena which reliable citizens continue to report.
A significant part of the problem has been that the sightings re-
ported have not been accompanied by so-called hardware or materials
that could be investigated and analyzed. So we are left with hypo-
theses about the nature of UFO's. These hypotheses range from the
conclusion that they are purely psychological phenomena, that is,
some kind of hallucinatory phenomena; to that of some kind of
natural physical phenomena; to that of advanced technological ma-
chinery manned by some kind of intelligence, that is, the extrater-
restrial hypotheses.
With the range in mind, then, we have invited six outstanding
scientists to address us today, men who deal with the physical, the
psychological, the sociological, and the technological data relevant
to the issues involved. We welcome them and look forward to their
remarks. Additionally we have requested several other scientists to
make their presentations in the form of papers to be added to these
when published by the committee.
We take no stand on these matters. Indeed, we are here today to
listen to their assessment of the nature of the problem: to any tenta-
tive conclusions or suggestions they might offer, SO that our judg-
ments and our actions might be based on reliable and expert informa-
tion. We are here to listen and to learn.
Events of the last half century certainly verify the American
philosopher, John Dewey's conclusion that "Every great advance
in science has issued from a new audacity of imagination." With an
open and inquiring attitude, then, we now turn to our speakers for
the day.
(1)
2
3
They will include: Dr. J. Allen Hynek, head of the Department of
Professor, Astronomy, 1950-56, Ohio State University.
Astronomy, Northwestern University; Dr. James E. McDonald, senior
Instructor, Physics and Astronomy, Ohio State University, 1935-41; Asst. Prof
physicist, the Institute of Atmospheric Physics, the University of
1941-45 Associate Professor 1946-50.
Arizona; Dr. Carl Sagan, Department of Astronomy and Center for
Asst. Yerkes Observatory, University of Chicago, 1934.
Astronomer, Perkins Observatory, Ohio State, 1935-56.
Radiophysics and Space Research, Cornell University; Dr. Robert
Assistant Dean of the Graduate School 1950-53.
L. Hall, head of the Department of Sociology, University of Illinois
Supervisor of Technical Reports, Applied Physical Laboratory, Johns Hopkins
at Chicago; Dr. James A. Harder, associate professor of civil engineer-
University, 1942-46.
ing, University of California at Berkeley, and Dr. Robert M. L. Baker,
Visiting Lecturer, Harvard University, 1956-60.
Civilian with U.S. Navy 1944.
Jr., Computer Sciences Corp. and Department of Engineering, UCLA.
Scientific Societies: American Association for the Advancement of Science;
Gentlemen, we welcome your presentations. We ask you to speak
Astronomy Society (secretary).
first, Dr. Hynek, followed by Dr. McDonald, and then Dr. Sagan. This
Specialty Astrophysics.
afternoon Dr. Hall will commence our session, followed by Dr. Harder
Fields of Interest Stellar spectroscopy F type stars; stellar scintillation.
and then Dr. Baker. The subject matter of the presentations determines
STATEMENT OF DR. J. ALLEN HYNEK, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF
the order in which you speak. We hope at the end of the day to allow
the six of you to discuss the material presented among yourselves and
ASTRONOMY, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, EVANSTON, ILL.
with the committee in a kind of roundtable discussion.
Dr. HYNEK. Thank you.
Mr. Chairman-the chairman of our full committee, Mr. George
Miller.
My name is J. Allen Hynek. I am professor of astronomy at North-
western University, Evanston, Ill., where I serve as chairman of the
Chairman MILLER. I want to join in welcoming you here. I want
department of astronomy and director of the Lindheimer Astronomi-
to point out that your presence here is not a challenge to the work
cal Research Center. I have also served for many years, and still do.
that is being done by the Air Force, a particular agency that has to deal
with this subject.
as scientific consultant to the U.S. Air Force on Unidentified Flying
Objects, or UFO's. Today, however, I am speaking as a private citizen
Unfortunately there are those who are highly critical of the Air
and scientist and not as a representative of the Air Force.
Force, saying that the Air Force has not approached this problem
We are here today, I gather, to examine whether the UFO phenom-
properly. I want you to know that we are in no way trying to go into
enon is worthy of serious scientific attention. I hope my comments
the field that is theirs by law, and thus we are not critical of what the
may contribute to your understanding of the problem and help lead to
Air Force is doing.
its eventual solution.
We should look at the problem from every angle, and we are here
The UFO problem has been with us now for many years. It would
in that respect. I just want to point out we are not here to criticize the
be difficult to find another subject which has claimed as much atten-
actions of the Air Force.
tion in the world press, in the conversation of people of all walks of
Thank you.
life, and which has captured the imagination of SO many, over SO long
Mr. ROUSH. I think it is only appropriate that Dr. Hynek be intro-
a period of time. The word UFO, or flying saucer, can be found in
duced by our colleague, Mr. Rumsfeld.
the languages and dictionaries of all civilized peoples, and if one
Mr. Rumsfeld.
were to collect all the words that have been printed in newspapers
Mr. RUMSFELD. Thank you, Mr. Chairman.
magazines, and books in the past two decades, it would be a stagger-
It is a pleasure to welcome all the members of this distinguished
ing assemblage. The bibliography of the subject recently compiled at
panel, and particularly to welcome Dr. Allen Hynek, who is a son
the Library of Congress is a most impressive document, and illus-
of Illinois, and presently serves in the Department of Astronomy and
trates that the UFO became a problem for the librarian even before
Director of the Lindheimer Astronomical Research Center. Dr. Hynek
it did for the scientist.
is a member of a number of scientific societies, and has served in the
As we all know, the scientific world is a world of exact calculations.
Government service as well as in the academic community. As his
of quantitative data, of controlled laboratory experiments, and of
Congressman I am delighted he has been invited to appear on this
seemingly well-understood laws and principles. The UFO phenom-
panel, and we certainly look forward to his comments.
enon does not seem to fit into that world; it seems to flaunt itself
Thank you, Mr. Chairman.
before our present-day science.
Mr. ROUSH. Dr. Hynek, the floor is yours.
The subject of UFO's has engendered an inordinate emotional reac-
(The biography of Dr. Hynek is as follows:)
tion in certain quarters and has far more often called forth heated
DR. J. ALLEN HYNEK
controversy rather than calm consideration. Most scientists have pre-
ferred to remain aloof from the fray entirely, thereby running the
Born in Chicago, III., 1910. B.S. University of Chicago, 1931; Ph.D. (astrophysics)
risk of "being down on what they were not up on," as the old adage
1935.
goes.
Professor Astronomy, Chairman of the Department and Director of Dearborn
Observatory, Northwestern University, 1960 to present.
It is unlikely that I would have become involved in the study of
Chief of the Section, Upper Atmosphere Studies and Satellite Tracking and Asso-
the UFO phenomenon had I not been officially asked to do SO. I prob-
ciate Director, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, 1956-60.
ably would have-and in fact did for a time-regarded the whole
4
5
subject as rank nonsense, the product of silly seasons, and a peculiarly
American craze that would run its course as all popular crazes do.
of the almost total lack of quantitative data-of all those things whic
I was asked by the Air Force 20 years ago to assist them, as an
are part and parcel of the working environment of the scientist.
I was aware that in order to interest scientists, hard-core data we:
astronomer, in weeding out those reports arising from misidentifica-
tion of planets, stars, meteors, and other celestial objects and events.
needed, and, while the store of unquestionably puzzling reports fro
In the course of doing my "homework" I found that some 30 percent
competent witnesses continued to grow the wherewithal to obta
of the then current cases very probably had astronomical causes, but
such hard-core data which would, once and for all, clinch the matte
my curiosity was aroused by some of the patently nonastronomical
was not forthcoming. Thus my scientific reticence was based on
carefully weighed decision.
reports.
These were ostensibly being explained by the consultant psycholo-
In attempting analysis of the UFO problem today, I pay partic
gist, but I frequently had the same feeling about the explanations
lar attention to reports containing large amounts of informatic
offered for some of these cases that I have had when I have seen a
which are made by several witnesses, if possible, who as far as I CE
magician saw a woman in half. How he did it was beyond my own
ascertain, have unimpeachable reputations and are competent. F.
field of competence, but I did not question his competence. Yes, I
example, I might cite a detailed report I received from the associa
was quite sure that he did not actually saw the woman in half
director of one of the Nation's most important scientific laboratorie
My curiosity thus once aroused led me to look into reports other
and his family.
than those of a purely astronomical nature, and in the course of years
Reports such as these are obviously in a different category from I
I have continued to do SO. I have pondered over the continuing flow
ports which, say, identify Venus as a hovering spaceship, and th
of strange reports from this and a great many other countries, for
add to the frustrating confusion.
it is a gross mistake to think that the United States has any exclusive
On the other hand, when one or more obviously reliable persons I
claim to the UFO phenomenon.
ports-as has happened many times-that a brightly illuminat
Those reports which interested me the most-and still do-were
object hovered a few hundred feet above their automobile, and th
those which, apparently written in all seriousness by articulate indi-
during the incident their car motor stopped, the headlights dimmed
viduals, nonetheless seemed SO preposterous as to invite derisive dis-
went out, and the radio stopped playing, only to have these functio
missal by any scientist casually introduced to the subject. Such
return to normal after the disappearance of the UFO, it is clear
another matter.
baffling reports, however, represent a relatively small subset of reports.
I did not-and still do not-concern myself with reports which arise
By what right can we summarily ignore their testimony and imp
from obvious misidentifications by witnesses who are not aware of the
that they are deluded or just plain liars? Would we SO treat these sar
many things in the sky today which have a simple, natural explana-
people if they were testifying in court, under oath, on more munda
matters?
tion. These have little scientific value, except perhaps to a sociologist
or an ophthalmologist; it matters not whether 100 or 100.000 people fail
Or, if it is reported, as it has been in many instances over the wor
to identify an artificial satellite or a high-altitude balloon.
by reputable and competent persons, that while they were sitti:
The UFO reports which in my opinion have potential scientific
quietly at home they heard the barnyard animals behaving in a great
value are those-and this may serve us as a working definition of
disturbed and atypical manner and when, upon investigating, four
UFO's—are those reports of aerial phenomena which continue to
not only the animals in a state of panic but reported a noiseless-
defy explanation in conventional scientific terms. Many scientists, not
sometimes humming-brightly illuminated object hovering nearb
familiar with the really challenging UFO data, will not accept the
beaming a bright red light down onto the surroundings, then clear
necessity for a high order of scientific inquiry and effort to establish
we should pay attention. Something very important may be going
the validity of the data-and therefore such detailed, conscientious,
Now, when in any recognized field of science an outstanding eve
and systematic inquiry has yet to be undertaken.
takes place, or a new phenomenon is discovered, an account of it
We cannot expect the world of science to take seriously the fare
quickly presented at a scientific meeting or is published in a respect
offered at airport newsstands and paperback shelves.
appropriate journal. But this is certainly not the case with unust
I have been asked by some why, as consultant to the Air Force for
UFO reports made by competent witnesses.
SO many years, I did not alert the scientific world to the possible ser-
There appears to be a scientific taboo on even the passive tabulati
iousness of the UFO problem years ago. The answer is simple; a
of UFO reports. Clearly no serious work can be undertaken until su
scientist must try to be sure of his facts. He must not cry "wolf"
taboos are removed. There should be a respectable mechanism for t
unless he is reasonably sure there is a wolf.
publication, for instance, of a paper on reported occurrences of electi
I was painfully aware, and still am, of the amorphous nature of
magnetic phenomena in UFO encounters.
the UFO data, of the anecdotal nature of UFO reports, of the lack of
It would be foolhardy to attempt to present such a paper on UF(
followup and serious inquiry into reports (which would have re-
to the American Physical Society or to the American Astronomi-
quired a large scientific staff and adequate funding), of the lack of
Society. The paper would be laughed down, if all that could be p
hardware, of the lack of unimpeachable photographic evidence, and
sented as scientific data were the anecdotal, incomplete, and nonqua
titative reports available. Consequently reports of unexplainable UI
cases are likely to be found, if at all, in pulp magazines and pap
6
7
backs, of which the sole purpose of many seems to be, apart from
credulous. making a fast buck for the authors, to titillate the fancy of the
serious study possible, however, requires recruiting competent scien
tists, engineers, and technical people, as well as psychologists anc
Indeed, in such newsstand publications three or four UFO reports
sociologists.
are frequently sensationalized on one page with gross disregard for
This in turn requires not only funds but a receptive scientific
accuracy and documentation; the result is that a scientist-if he reads
climate. Many scientists have expressed to me privately their interes
them at all-is very likely to suffer mental nausea and to relegate the
in the problem and their desire to actively pursue UFO research a
whole subject to the trash heap.
soon as the scientific stigma is removed. But as long as the unverified
This is the first problem a scientist encounters when he takes a look
presumption is strongly entrenched that every UFO has a simple
at the UFO phenomenon. His publicly available source material is
rational everyday explanation, the required climate for a proper ano
almost certain to consist of sensational, undocumented accounts of
definitive study will never develop.
what may have been an actual event. Such accounts are much akin, per-
I recall an encounter I had sometime ago with the then chief scientis
haps, to the account we might expect from an aborigine encountering
at the Pentagon. He asked me just how much longer we were "goin;
a helicopter for the first time, or seeing a total eclipse of the sun. There
to look at this stuff.' I reminded him that we hadn't really looked at 1
is nowhere a serious scientist can turn for what he would consider
yet-that is, in the sense, say, that the FBI looks at a kidnapping,
meaningful, hard-core data-as hard core and quantitative as the phe-
bank robbery, or a narcotics ring.
nomenon itself permits at present.
Up to this point I have not discussed another major impediment t.
Here we come to the crux of the problem of the scientist and the
the acceptance of the UFO phenomenon as legitimate material fo
UFO. The ultimate problem is, of course, what are UFO's; but the im-
scientific study. I refer to the adoption of the UFO phenomenon b;
mediate and crucial problem is, How do we get data for proper sci-
certain segments of the public for their own peculiar uses. From th
entific study? The problem has been made immensely more difficult
very start there have been psychically unbalanced individuals an
by the supposition held by most scientists, on the basis of the poor
pseudoreligious cultist groups-and they persist in force today-
data available to them, that there couldn't possibly be anything sub-
who found in the UFO picture an opportunity to further their OW.
stantial to UFO reports in the first place, and hence that there is no
fanciful cosmic and religious beliefs and who find solace and hop
point to wasting time or money investigating.
in the pious belief that UFO's carry kindly space brothers whose sol
This strange, but under the circumstances understandable attitude,
aim is a mission of salvation.
would be akin to saying, for instance, let us not build observatories and
Such people "couldn't care less" about documentation, scientifi
telescopes for the study of the stars because it is obvious that those
study, and careful critical consideration. The conventions and meet
twinkling points of light up there are just illusions in the upper
ings these people hold, and the literature they purvey, can only b
atmosphere and do not represent physical things.
the subject of derisive laughter and, I must stress, it is a most seriou
Fortunately, centuries ago there were a few curious men who did
mistake for anyone to confuse this unfortunate aspect of the tota
not easily accept the notion that stars were illusory lights on a crystal-
UFO phenomenon with the articulate reports made by people who ar
line celestial sphere and judged that the study of the stars might be
unmistakeably serious and make their reports out of a sense of civi
worthwhile though, to many, a seemingly impractical and nonsensi-
duty and an abiding desire to know the cause of their experience.
cal venture. The pursuit of that seemingly impractical and possibly
It may not be amiss here to remark in passing that the "true be
unrewarding study of astronomy and related sciences, however, has
lievers" I have just referred to are rarely that ones who make UF(
given us the highly technological world we live in and the high stand-
reports. Their beliefs do not need factual support. The reporters C
ard of living we enjoy-a standard which would have been totally im-
the truly baffling UFO's, on the other hand, are most frequently dis
possible skies. in a peasant society whose eyes were never turned toward the
interested or even skeptical people who are taken by surprise by a
experience they cannot understand.
Can we afford not to look toward the UFO skies; can we afford to
Hopefully the time is not far off when the UFO phenomenon ca
overlook a potential breakthrough of great significance? And even
have an adequate and definitive hearing, and when a scholarly pape
apart from that, the public is growing impatient. The public does not
on the nature of UFO reports can be presented before scientific bodie
want another 20 years of UFO confusion. They want to know whether
without prejudice. Despite the scientific attitude to this subject in th
there really is something to this whole UFO business-and I can tell
past, I nevertheless decided to present a short paper on UFO's to
you definitely that they are not satisfied with the answers they have
scientific body in 1952, following a scientific hunch that in the UF
been getting. The public in general may be unsophisticated in scientific
phenomenon we were dealing with a subject of great possibl
matters, but they have an uncanny way of distinguishing between an
importance.
honest scientific approach and the method of ridicule and persiflage.
In my paper (JOSA 43, pp. 311-314, 1963), which I should like t
As scientists, we may honestly wish to see whether there is any
have read into the record, I made reference to the many cases in 195
scientific paydirt in this international UFO phenomenon. But to dis-
and earlier which were nonastronomical in nature and did not seem t
cover this paydirt we must devote serious study to UFO's. To make
have a logical, ready explanation.
8
9
(The document referred to is as follows:)
I did wonder of course, as to how they were disposing of the nonastronomical
cases. How did they explain the incident in which a pilot, co-pilot, and stewardess
[From Journal of the Optical Society of America, April 1953]
followed some rapidly moving dark objects which were silhouetted against the
sunset sky and which disappeared presumably because of their superior speed?
UNUSUAL AERIAL PHENOMENA
But my faith in the psychologists was unshaken-and when the Air Forces an-
J. A. HYNEK, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
nounced that Project Grudge had been dissolved, I assumed that my colleagues
had been successful and had even solved the case in which several observers
(Received December 22, 1952)
watched an object, hollow in the middle, travel at a constant slow rate, taking
15 minutes to make the journey across the sky from north to south.
Over a period of years, diverse aerial sightings of an unusual character have
After the project dissolved, Wright Field continued to take care of the slow
been reported. On the assumption that the majority of these reports, often made
but steady flow of reports as a part of their regular intelligence function. This
in concert, come from reputable persons, and in the absence of any universal
spring I became curious and requested permission, through official channels, to
hypotheses for the phenomena which stimulated these reports, it becomes a mat-
look through the crop of reports that had accumulated since my official connec-
ter of scientific obligation and responsibility to examine the reported phenomena
tion with Project Grudge had terminated. As I looked through the welter of
seriously, despite their seemingly fanciful character. Accordingly, several hun-
fanciful tales, inaccurate reporting, of misobservation of natural objects. I
dred serious reports of "unidentified aerial objects" have been studied in detail
could not help, as an astronomer, recalling another wave of stories-stories of
in an attempt to get a pattern classification. It appears that those reported
stones that fell from heaven. Because of poor reporting and poor imagery, sci-
phenomena which do not admit of a ready and obvious explanation exhibit fairly
entific progress in meteorites had been held back for a good century. What a
well-defined patterns and that these are worthy of further study. One pattern in
difference in imagery there is between "a stone falling from the sky" and "the
particular, that of a hovering nocturnal light, does not appear to be readily ex-
interception by the earth of a particle pursuing an orbit around the sun." The
plainable on an astronomical basis or by mirages, balloons, or by conventional
use of improper and inaccurate description of what actually happened kept
aircraft.
meteorites in the category of old wives' tales and out of the niche that celestial
Perhaps the most bizarre phenomenon of our times is the continued popular
mechanics had made ready for them a century before ! In 1801, Thomas Jefferson
interest in flying saucers. The term flying saucer, of course, dates back to the
said that he would sooner believe that two Yankee professors had lied than that
treatment by the press of the now famous triggering incident of June 24, 1947,
stones had fallen from heaven. And the French Academy of Sciences branded
another date which might well be said to live in infamy, when a lone pilot, Mr.
stories of meteorite falls as fanciful and absurd and dismissed a bona fide mete-
Arnold, reported "nine peculiar-looking aircraft" without tails, which flew in a
orite whose fall had been sworn to-as an ordinary stone that had been struck
chain-like line and "swerved in and out of the high mountain peaks." The un-
by lightning. Perhaps the moral of this is: Beware the ready explanation!
fortunate newspaper term, flying saucer, as you well know, captured both the
Now, it is clear that stories of real flying saucers, visitors from space. and
press and the public imagination. One can speculate as to the turn of events, and
strange aircraft violating the laws of physics are as reprehensible to the scientist
the amount of newsprint that might have been conserved, had Mr. Arnold de-
of today as stones that fell from heaven were to the scientist of yesteryear. But,
cided to stay on the ground that day !
of course, stones did not fall from heaven-that was poor reporting and a wrong
Nevertheless, in the past five years, flying saucer has become a standard term
slant on a perfectly natural phenomenon. And we don't have space ships that dis-
in our language, with about as broad a definition as it has been the lot of any
regard physical laws. But, do we have a natural phenomenon?
term to carry. We can define a flying saucer as any aerial phenomenon or sight-
The steady flow of reports, often made in concert by reliable observers, raises
ing that remains unexplained to the vicwer at least long enough for him to write
questions of scientific obligation and responsibility. Is there, when the welter of
a report about it. Lest anyone misunderstand what shall be meant by "flying
varied reports are shorn of, in the words of Pooh Bah, all "Corroborative detail
saucers" in this paper, this definition must be emphasized.
to lend artistic verisimilitude to an otherwise bald and unconvincing narra-
Each flying saucer, SO defined, has associated with it a probable lifetime. It
tive"-any residue that is worthy of scientific attention?
wanders in the field of public inspection like an electron in a field of ions, until
Or, if there isn't, does not obligation still exist to say SO to the public-not
"captured" by an explanation which puts an end to its existence as a flying
in words of open ridicule, but seriously, to keep faith with the trust the public
saucer.
places in science and scientists?
Thus flying saucers spawned by the planet Venus have generally a short life-
The Air Forces are attempting to give all reports a fair hearing, in view of the
time. In almost no time an astronomer comes along and makes a positive identi-
above. They are having all reported data reduced to punch cards SO that in a
fication, and another flying saucer is shattered. We can expect a host of Venus-
month or SO it will be possible to compare quickly reports made by people facing
inspired flying saucers when this planet is low in the western sky after sunset.
west on clear Tuesday afternoons with those made on non-inversion Friday
It reaches greatest eastern elongation this year on January 31, 1953, and on
nights by pilots going south. In any event, if significant correlations between
March 8 attains its greatest brilliance. We can confidently predict a swarm of
various sets of sightings exist, this method should bring them out.
flying saucers from Venus!
In coming down to cases, to illustrate what constitutes at present the best
The lifetime of a bailoon-sponsored flying saucer is often longer, but before
evidence for unusual aerial phenomena, the examples submitted for examination
long someone like Dr. Liddell comes along and shoots it down. And Dr. Menzel
are presented without an all-embracing explanation for them. These are pre-
has as his flying saucer ammunition a large variety of optical effects, the lethal-
sented in conformance with the school that believes that good observations and
ness of which requires separate field tests.
discussion of observations come before theory. It is hoped, however, that out of
My concern is with flying saucers of long lifetime-those which have not, as
this discussion there may come a positive approach and, if these sightings do
vet, been "captured" or demolished by an explanation. Let us further limit them
represent heretofore inadequately studied natural phenomena, that these ex-
to those that have been observed by two or more people, at least one of whom
amples will stimulate their serious study; if, on the other hand, no natural
is practiced in the making of observations of some kind, that is, to pilots, con-
phenomena are involved, then an obligation exists to demonstrate explicitly how
trol tower operators, weather observers, scientific workers, etc. Also, let us
the following specific reports can be explained in terms of balloons, mirages, or
limit cases to sightings lasting a minute or more, again for obvious reasons.
conventional aircraft.
The Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, where the responsibility for the inves-
The chosen recent examples represent a definite pattern, and for each of the
tigation of unidentified aerial objects has rested for the past several years.
following there are many other similar examples in the files.
asked me in 1948 to help identify reports that had an astronomical basis. It
One of these patterns might be called "Nocturnal Meandering Lights." Reports
was a relatively simple task to go through about 200 reports and pick out prob-
falling into this category are characterized by the sighting of a bright star-like
able astronomical causes. Indeed, some of the most weird reports could be dis-
light, perhaps of -2 or -3 stellar magnitude which floats along without sound,
missed with clear conscience by the statement that no astronomical explanation
frequently hovers, reverses its field without appearing to turn, and often abruptly
is possible for this incident, thus leaving these unsolved cases to the psychologists.
speeds up. The light is most frequently described as a yellow amber or orange,
10
11
changing to blue or red occasionally, and changing in brightness markedly.
Sometimes the description states that the light went out as if someone had pushed
like a permanent echo. It stayed on the scope for 1½ minutes. These pips were at
no time caused by malfunction of the radar set.
a button; at other times the light is reported only as variable. A very character-
istic statement by those making the reports is: "I have never seen anything
It was daylight when it (the object) seemed to fade both visually outdoors
and electronically indoors."
like this in my whole life." The desire to identify these sightings as balloons is
thwarted by the tactics observed.
And another sighting-in Northern Michigan-on July 29 of last year, a pilot
chased a brilliant multicolored object close to the horizon, and due north. He
As an example of a report of this kind, let us take one that came in from
flew at 21,000 feet, followed the object for over a half-hour but could not gain
Florida this past July. On one night several airmen independently observed a
on it. Radar operator reported contact with the object for about thirty seconds.
light approach at a very slow speed, come to a halt nearly overhead, then reverse
And ground control interceptor station reported blips too. In this case, it seems
direction with no apparent turn. On two other nights, three other lights
certain that our harried pilot was pursuing Capella Reference to a star map
appeared in other sections of the sky, of similar appearance, but maneuvering
will show that at his latitude, at the time of his sighting, Capella was at lower
more rapidly. They were observed for some 10 minutes by 9 airmen, including
culmination, that is, at the lowest point of its swing around the pole just
a control tower operator, an aircraft dispatcher, and two pilots from Wright
skirting the horizon. I have seen it at that position myself in Canada, and,
Field.
can vouch for the fact that its blue, yellow, and red twinkling can be spectacular.
In the words of one of the men, "For the next fifteen minutes we watched
Unfortunately, neither Capella nor any other star can explain many other
this light and speculated on what it might be. It was not a sharp light like a
nocturnal meandering lights. But there is no question in my mind, just to make
bare bulb but more like a light shining through frosted glass. No shape of any
this point exceedingly clear, that there exists a relatively simple, natural
kind was discernible. It appeared to blink, but with no regularity whatever."
explanation for them, perhaps even ordinary aircraft under special test condi-
Also this past July at an air base in New Mexico, a similar sighting was made.
tions. The chief point here, is to suggest that nothing constructive is accom-
Paraphrasing from sworn statements made by observers, "Our station was noti-
plished for the public at large-and therefore for science in the long run-
fied that an unconventional aircraft had been picked up with both electronic
by mere ridicule and the implication that sightings are the products of "bird-
and visual contact. Our station made electronic contact with the object and two
brains" and "intellectual flyweights." In short, it would appear that the flying
of our men and I had gone outside the building and saw it hovering under a
saucer situation has always been a problem in science-public-relations, and
cloud layer to the east of us. It appeared as a large light, at an uncertain dis-
that fine chance has consistently been missed to demonstrate on a national
tance, and was hovering at the time. A minute or SO later, it moved rapidly
scale how scientists can go about analyzing a problem. A lot is said about the
toward the north for a short distance and stopped as suddenly as it had begun
proper interpretation of science to the public, but the only answer they receive
to move."
to a question about which they are more widely concerned than perhaps any
And from another statement, "Our scope operator at that time reported a
other in this century, is ridicule. Ridicule is not a part of the scientific method
strange target about thirty miles east of our station. Two of us went outside
and the public should not be taught that it is.
and sighted a very bright light traveling at what we estimated to be around
Let me quote an additional report, to show that the original flying disks,
200 miles an hour. The light went out at least two times but did not stay out
as distinct from wandering lights, are still with us.
more than two or three minutes. The light seemed to have a floating effect and
On the day that our pilot chased Capella, a radio from Seattle announced
made no sound. At one time around seven or eight smaller lights could be seen.
that flying saucers were seen heading toward Montana. At an airport in Mon-
The object seemed to drop to about 10 or 12 thousand feet and then climbed to
tana several pilots gathered outside the hangars to wait and watch. A perfect
about 25,000 taking a northern course."
set-up for suggestibility-and yet, quoting from one of the many signed state-
Radar observations as well as visual observations are involved in this problem.
ments, "Objects were seen that resembled flat disks reflecting sun's rays. One
Early last month shortly before dawn colored lights were observed in the sky
of the objects hovered from three to four minutes, while the other three circled
southeast of the radar station. At the same time and the same azimuth, unidenti-
around it like satellites. Then the stationary object moved southeast to dis-
fied targets appeared on the scope. Only a very slight temperature inversion
appear, while the three satellites moved due west and disappeared-at very
was present, 1° at 25,000 feet. No more than two lights appeared at one time.
high speeds
They were observed to be moving in a rather erratic pattern and changing colors
And from another observer "After watching for approximately five minutes
occasionally. The last thirty minutes of observation revealed the lights remain-
I was able to see what appeared to be a disk, white or metal in color approach-
ing yellow-prior to that they were red, green, and blue. They moved in no
ing from the west. As it moved directly overhead it turned generally north at
apparent formation but mostly appeared in one area and disappeared in another,
a 90° turn, then slowing down and then making several more 90° turns and
when either the light went out or the objects dived behind clouds. They were
proceeding east. After seeing this I knew what I was looking for and was able
starlike objects and appeared to develop long, white vapor trails, when they
to pick up at least five more of these objects. Being skeptical, I did my best
to see them as either dandelion seeds 'or other small particles clo'se to the sur-
dived. They were motionless at times and moved rapidly at other times. This
corresponded to similar movements observed on the radar scope.
face of the earth rather than large objects at extreme distance. However, after
One white light went out as it changed direction and continued as a black
keeping them in sight long enough to study their appearance they definitely
seemed to be very high. I won't make an estimate of the height since I did not
silhouette against the dawn sky. Observation was for a period of about an hour
know their size. All of these appeared in the west and proceeded east at what
and was made by two airmen and a radar operator-all three observers were
appeared to be an extremely high rate of speed."
experienced aircraft control and warning operators. Objects were observed
I submit that this Air Force lieutenant was not incompetent, but rather
20 to 40° above horizon. Radar gave distances of 50 to 80 miles. This implies
that his manner of reporting-as far as it went-was commendable and that
a height of about 40 miles. There was no air traffic on radar within 100 miles.
his report, made in good faith, is therefore entitled to a hearing without
Quoting from the observer's statement, "receiving a call concerning a strange
prejudice or ridicule, but also, without fanfare, hysteria, and fantastic news-
light in the sky, I went out and scanned the sky in several directions before I
paper publicity.
saw a light. My first glimpse was a very bright blue light, but it lasted only
about a minute, then it faded into a light green. It moved in a slow orbit.
I cautioned against the then prevalent attitude of ridicule, pointing
I was startled at first So I closed my eyes and opened them again. The light
out that the UFO phenomenon, which had generated vast public
was still there. I stared at it a few minutes and now the light seemed more
interest, represented an unparalleled opportunity to demonstrate to the
yellow than before.
I did not think anyone would believe me, SO I went inside the building and
public the operation of the scientific method in attacking a problem,
relieved the radar scope operator. I found a target at 123°, 53 miles. After
and that "ridicule is not a part of the scientific method and the public
that it appeared as a permanent echo. In about two minutes, it disappeared
should not be taught that it is."
:and almost immediately another pip appeared, at 134°, 73 miles. It also seemed
In those years and the following ones I repeatedly asked for the
upgrading of the method of reporting UFO's to the Air Force. In
12
13
1960, in a hearing before Congressman Smart and his committee I
fine brain teasers and could easily be made the subject of profitable discussio
urged "immediate reaction capabilities" in the investigation of UFO
among physical and social scientists alike.
reports. The recommendation was applauded but not funded.
(5) The Air Force has no evidence that UFO's are extra-terrestrial or I'C
As the scientific climate grew more receptive in giving the UFO
resent advanced technology of any kind. This is a true statement but is wide
phenomenon a scientific hearing, I published a letter in "Science"
interpreted to mean that there is evidence against the two hypotheses. As long
there are "unidentifieds," the question must obviously remain open. If we kne
(Oct. 21, 1966), not without difficulty, in which I pointed out the
what they were, they would no longer be UFO's—they would be IFO's. Identifi
following general misconceptions regarding UFO's. I should like to
Flying Objects If you know the answer beforehand, it isn't research. No tru
have that letter made a part of the record.
scientific investigation of the UFO phenomenon has ever been undertaken. A
we making the same mistake the French Academy Sciences made when the
(The letter referred to is as follows:)
dismissed stories of "stones that fell from the sky"? Finally, however, meteorit
were made respectable in the eyes of science.
UFO's MERIT SCIENTIFIC STUDY
(6) UFO reports are generated by publicity. One cannot deny that there is
positive feedback, a stimulated emission of reports, when sightings are wide
Twenty years after the first public furor over UFO's (called "flying saucers"
publicized, but it is unwarranted to assert that this is the whole cause of hi;
then) reports of UFO's continue to accumulate. The Air Force has now decided
incidence of UFO reports.
to give increased scientific attention to the UFO phenomenon. Thus I feel under
(7) UFO's have never been sighted on radar or photographed by metcor
some obligation to report to my scientific colleagues, who could not be expected
satellite tracking cameras. This statement is not equivalent to saying that rad:
to keep up with SO seemingly bizarre a field, the gist of my experience in "monitor-
meteor cameras, and satellite tracking stations have not picked up "oddities"
ing the noise level" over the years in my capacity as scientific consultant to the
their scopes or films that have remained unidentified. It has been lightly assum
Air Force. In doing so, I feel somewhat like a traveler to exotic lands and far-
that although unidentified, the oddities were not unidentifiable as convention
away places, who discharges his obligation to those who stayed at home by telling
objects.
them of the strange ways of the natives.
For these reasons I cannot dismiss the UFO phenomenon with a shrug. T
During my long period of association with the reports of strange things in the
"hard data" cases contain frequent allusions to recurrent kinematic, geometr
sky, I expected that each lull in the receipt of reports signaled the end of the
and luminescent characteristics. I have begun to feel that there is a tendency
episode, only to see the activity renew; in just the past two years it has risen to a
20th-century science to forget that there will be a 21st-century science, and indee
new high. Despite the fact that the great majority of reports resulted from mis-
a 30th-century science, from which vantage points our knowledge of the univer
identifications of otherwise familiar things, my own concern and sense of per-
may appear quite different. We suffer perhaps, from temporal provincialism,
sonal responsibility have increased and caused me to urge the initiation of a
form of arrogance that has always irritated posterity.
meaningful scientific investigation of the residue of puzzling UFO cases by
J. ALLEN HYNEK,
physical and social scientists. I have guardedly raised this suggestion in the
Dearborn Observatory, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.
literature and at various official hearings, but with little success. UFO was a
term that called forth buffoonery and caustic banter; this was both a cause and
One great misconception is that only UFO buffs report UFO
an effect of the lack of scientific attention. I speak here only of the puzzling
quite the opposite is the case, as is the misconception that the mc
reports; there is little point to concern ourselves with reports that can be easily
baffling reports come from unreliable, unstable, and uneducated peop
traced to balloons, satellities, and meteors. Neither is there any point to take
account of vague oral or written reports which contain few information bits. We
Most reports of this baflling sort which I at least receive in my ma
need only be concerned with "hard data," defined here as reports, made by several
are remarkably articulate.
responsible witnesses, of sightings which lasted a reasonable length of time and
Other misconceptions are that UFO's are never reported by scie
which were reported in a coherent manner.
tifically trained people, are never seen at close range, have never be
I have strongly urged the Air Force to ask physical and social scientists of
stature to make a respectable, scholarly study of the UFO phenomenon. Now
detected on radars, and have never been recorded by scientific camer:
that the first firm steps have been taken toward such a study, I can set forth
It is well to remind ourselves at this point of the definition of
something of what I have learned, particularly as it relates to frequently made
UFO: those aerial phenomena reports which continue to defy expl
misstatements about UFO's. Some of these statements which lead to mis-
nation in conventional scientific terms, even after appropriate stuc
conceptions are:
There is no point to be interested in anything else; lights at nig
(1) Only UFO "buffs" report UFO's. The exact opposite is much nearer the
truth. Only a negligible handful of reports submitted to the Air Force are from
which might be aircraft, balloons, meteors, or satellite re-entries
the "true believers," the same who attend UFO conventions and who are mem-
all these fit more readily into the category of IFO's or identified flyi
bers of "gee-whiz" groups. It has been my experience that quite generally the
objects.
truly puzzling reports come from people who have not given much or any thought
to UFO's.
In other words, only truly unidentified cases should be of intere
(2) UFO's are reported by unreliable, unstable, and uneducated people. This
The Air Force has its own definition of an unidentified case, and
is, of course, true. But UFO's are reported in even greater numbers by reliable,
has many hundreds in its files. The Air Force calls a sighting uniden
stable, and educated people. The most articulate reports come from obviously
fied when a report apparently contains all pertinent data necessa
intelligent observers; dullards rarely overcome their inherent inertia toward
to suggest a valid hypothesis concerning the cause or explanation
making written reports.
(3) UFO's are never reported by scientifically trained people. This is un-
the report but the description of the object or its motion cannot
equivocally false. Some of the very best, most coherent reports have come from
correlated with any known object or phenomena.
scientifically trained people. It is true that scientists are reluctant to make a
It is most logical to ask why do not the unidentified in the A
public report. They also usually request anonymity which is always granted.
Force files call forth investigative efforts in depth and of wide sco]
(4) UFO's are never scen at close range and are always reported vaguely.
When we speak of the body of puzzling reports, we exclude all those which fit
The answer is compound: the Air Force position is that there is
the above description. I have in my files several hundred reports which are
evidence that UFO's represent a threat to the national security CC
sequently it follows that it is not their mission to be scientifica
1J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 43, 311 (1953).
curious about the hundreds of unidentified cases in their own files.
97-S1S-6S-2
14
15
It may be that, properly investigated, many of the Air Force un-
identifieds would turn out to be IFO's after all, but it is illogical to
quately studied, using all methods available to modern science, and
conclude that this would be true of all unidentified reports. As long
that the investigation be accorded a proper degree of scientific respect-
as unidentified cases exist, thus bona fide UFO's according to defini-
ability and an absence of ridicule SO that proper investigations can be
tion, we don't know what they are, and these should represent a re-
carried out unhampered by matters not worthy of the ideals of scien-
markable challenge to science and an open invitation to inquiry.
tific endeavor. I might suggest that this could be accomplished by the
But SO powerful and all-encompassing have the misconceptions
establishment, by the Congress, of a UFO Scientific Board of Inquiry,
among scientists been about the nature of UFO information that an
properly funded, for the specific purpose of an investigation in depth
amazing lethargy and apathy to investigation has prevailed. This
of the UFO phenomenon.
apathy is unbecoming to the ideals of science and undermines pub-
Secondly, I recommend that the United States seek the cooperation
lic confidence.
of the United Nations in establishing a means for the impartial and
Now it is of interest to report that in just the past few years, prob-
free interchange among nations of information about, and reports of,
ably because of the persistent flow of UFO reports from this and
unidentified flying objects-a sort of international clearinghouse for
many other countries (one could base his whole plea for a major in-
the exchange of information on this subject. For, since the UFO
vestigative effort solely on the reports of the years 1966 and 1967)
phenomenon is global, it would be as inefficient to study it without
there has been a growing but unheralded interest on the part of more
enlisting the aid of other nations as it would be to study world meteor-
and more scientists, engineers, and technicians in doing something
ology by using weather reports from one country alone.
positive about the UFO problem. To this growing body of qualified
Now, it may be well to remind ourselves at this point, that the UFO
people it seems increasingly preposterous to allow another two decades
problem may not lend itself to an immediate solution in our time.
of confusion to exist.
The problem may be far more complex than we imagine. Attempts to
The feeling is definitely on the increase that we should either fish
solve it may be no more productive than attempts to solve the problem
or cut bait, that we should mobilize in earnest adequate groups of
of the Aurora Borealis would have been 100 years ago.
scientists and investigators, properly funded, adopt a "we mean busi-
The cause of northern lights could not have been determined in the
ness" attitude, or drop the whole thing. My recommendation is to fish.
framework of the science of 1868. Scientific knowledge in those days
As a scientist I can form conclusions from and act upon only reliable
was not sufficient to encompass the phenomenon.
scientific data. Such data are extremely scarce in the UFO field for
Similarly, our scientific knowledge today may be grossly insufficient
reasons already pointed out: it has never been considered worthwhile
to encompass the problem posed by UFO's. A profound scientific
to improve the data-gathering process because the whole subject has
obligation exists, nonetheless, to gather the best data possible for
been prejudged. Even as a scientist, however, I am permitted a scien-
scientific posterity.
tific hunch, and that hunch has told me for some time, despite the
To summarize: in the course of 20 years of study of UFO reports
tremendous muddiness of the scientific waters in this area, the con-
and of the interviewing of witnesses, I have been led to a conclusion
tinued reporting from various parts of the world of unidentified flying
quite different from the one I reached in the very first years of my
objects, reports frequently made by people of high repute who would
work. At first I was negatively impressed with the low scientific con-
stand nothing whatever to gain from making such reports, that there
tent of UFO reports, with the lack of quantitative data, with the
is scientific paydirt in the UFO phenomenon-possibly extremely
anecdotal nature of the reports, and especially with the lack of hard-
valuable paydirt-and that therefore a scientific effort on a much
ware, of unimpeachable photographs, and with the lack of instru-
larger scale than any heretofore should be mounted for a frontal at-
mental recordings.
tack on this problem.
I am still aware of the paucity of truly hard-core data-but then,
In saying this I do not feel that I can be labeled a flying saucer
no effort has really been made to gather it. Nonetheless, the cumulative
"believer"-my swamp gas record in the Michigan UFO melee should
weight of continued reports from groups of people around the world
suffice to quash any such ideas-but I do feel that even though this
whose competence and sanity I have no reason to doubt, reports in-
may be an area of scientific quicksand, signals continue to point to a
volving close encounters with unexplainable craft, with physical effects
mystery that needs to be solved. Can we afford to overlook something
on animals, motor vehicles, growing plants, and on the ground, has led
that might be of great potential value to the Nation?
me reluctantly to the conclusion that either there is a scientifically
I am reminded of the old story of the member of Parliament who
valuable subset of reports in the UFO phenomenon or that we have
visited Faraday's laboratory where he was at work on early experi-
a world society containing people who are articulate, sane, and reputa-
ments on electrical induction. When asked of what possible value all
ble in all matters save UFO reports.
this might have, Faraday replied, "Sir, someday you may be able to
Either way, I feel that there exists a phenomenon eminently worthy
tax it.
of study. If one asks, for what purpose, I can only answer-how does
Apart from such inducements, I have the following recommenda-
one ever know where scientific inquiry will lead. If the sole purpose of
tions to make: first, that a mechanism be set up whereby the problem
such a study is to satisfy human curiosity, to probe the unknown, and
posed by the reports from all over the world, but especially by those
to provide intellectual adventure, then it is in line with what science
in the United States, from people of high credibility, can be ade-
has always stood for.
16
17
Scientific inquiry has paid off, even though pioneers like Faraday,
Each of you are experts in one or more disciplines. I am sure there
Curie, Hahn, Pasteur, Goddard, and many others little realized where
are a number of things on your shopping lists for additional funding.
the paths they blazed would lead. As far as UFO's are concerned, I
I would be interested to know how this effort that is proposed here
believe we should investigate them for the simple reason that we want
might fit into your lists of priorities.
to know what lies behind this utterly baffling phenomenon-or even
Thank you, Mr. Chairman.
more simply, we want to find out what it's all about.
Mr. ROUSH. Thank you, Mr. Rumsfeld.
Thank you.
Mr. Miller.
Mr. ROUSH. Thank you, Dr. Hynek.
Chairman MILLER. Doctor, you mentioned a number of things-pop-
Although we have reserved the latter part of the afternoon for our
ulation studies at least. A great many of these are carried out not by
roundtable discussion, the Chair is well aware the Members of Con-
Government directly, but in the National Science Foundation or
gress, because of other duties, may not find it possible to be here
through the National Academy of Sciences or scientific bodies them-
during that time.
selves.
If any of my colleagues do have questions and can keep them brief,
Do you think, I merely offer this as a suggestion, perhaps the sci-
which I realize is impossible, I will entertain those questions at this
entific community try to encourage NSF or the scientific societies
time. But keep in mind that we have two more papers this morning,
dealing in this field to take the initiative in doing this, rather than to
and three this afternoon.
wait for Government to take the initiative?
Mr. HECHLER. Mr. Chairman.
Dr. HYNEK. I know, of course, most of the bodies you have men-
Mr. ROUSH. Mr. Hechler.
tioned are funded by the Government anyway. Most or a great part
Mr. HECHLER. First I would like to commend you, Mr. Roush, for
of our scientific research today has to be SO funded. Private sources
your initiative in setting up this symposium.
are certainly not sufficient. And, therefore, I think it is rather aca-
I would like to ask you, Dr. Hynek, whether you consider this sci-
demic, really, to worry too much about who does it. It is more a ques-
entific board of inquiry which you outlined as a sort of a one-shot
tion of who is going to pay for it.
thing which would make its report, or do you consider this to be a con-
We have a rather interesting situation here, as Congressman Rums-
tinuing body that could examine, as the Air Force has, reports and
feld has already pointed out. This is one of those strange situations
analyze them? And with this question, I would like to ask if your
in which the cart is sort of before the horse. Generally this results
assumption is that the Air Force, because of its emphasis on national
in the scientific laboratories and the results of the studies of scientists
security, has really not measured up to a thorough scientific analysis
finally come to the public attention, but here we have the other situa-
of UFO's?
tion. It is the public pressure, the public wants to know actually, more
Dr. HYNEK. Well, in answer to the first part of that question, sir,
than the scientists, at the moment. So you are facing public pressures,
I would say I don't believe in a problem as complex as this the one-
even, definitely more than scientific pressures at the moment.
shot approach would be sufficient. I think there should be this board
Chairman MILLER. Unfortunately in some of our problems, for ex-
of inquiry which should be a continuing board in the same sense that
ample the NASA problems, where the public is indifferent, the matter
we have, I presume, boards of study for world population problems, of
of waste disposal, pollution, health, and these things. They are quite
pollution problems, of world health, and so forth.
indifferent to them, and it takes a lot of effort to get them interested in
The letter that came with the invitation to speak here, strongly
them sometimes.
stated that we would not discuss the Air Force participation in these
The committee has studied this on several occasions, but we have
matters, and I would like to therefore not speak to that point.
generally had a group of the scientific community behind us to give
Mr. ROUSH. Mr. Rumsfeld.
pressure, to bring pressure, to get some of these things done.
Mr. RUMSFELD. Because of the fact it does look as though we will
Dr. HYNEK. I think we will see, sir, in this testimony today that
have a busy afternoon on the floor, I very likely will not be present
you will find a corps of scientists stand ready to do this. In fact, as
for the remainder of the discussion. I would like to express the hope
I mentioned in my testimony, I have private information from a very
the other members of the panel might at some point comment on the
large number of scientists who are interested.
two recommendations that Dr. Hynek has set forth in his paper. Fur-
Chairman MILLER. I think this one of the values of the symposium.
ther, I would hope that each member of the panel, during the after-
Mr. ROUSH. Are there other questions or comments?
noon session, might address himself to the questions of priorities.
(No response.)
Assuming that there is some agreement with Dr. Hynek's conclu-
Our next participant is Dr. James E. McDonald. Dr. McDonald is
sion that this is an area worthy of additional study, then the question
presently with the University of Arizona. He is a senior physicist,
for Congress, of course, becomes what is the priority ? This is a rather
Institute of Atmospheric Physics, the University of Arizona, and has
unique situation in that it is a scientific question that has reached the
had a long and distinguished career as a scientist.
public prior to the time that anything beneficial can even be imagined.
Dr. McDonald, we are pleased to have you as one of our participants
In many instances a scientific effort is not widely known to the public
until it is successful.
You may proceed.
18
19
(The biography of Dr. McDonald follows:)
had no idea that the actual UFO situation is anything like what it
DR. JAMES E. McDoNALD
really appears to be.
Born: Duluth, Minn., May 7, 1920.
There is a certain parallel between Dr. Hynek's slow recognition of
Home Address: 3461 East Third St., Tucson, Ariz.
the problem and my slow recognition of the problem. I have been
Education:
curious about UFO's in a casual way for 10 or 20 years and have even
University of Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska, B.A. (Chemistry) 1942.
checked cases in the southern Arizona area off and on rather casually,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. (Meterology) 1945.
mainly encountering sincere laymen who do not recognize an aircraft
Iowa State University, Ames, Ia., Ph.D. (Physics) 1951.
Professional Career:
strobe light, or Venus, or a bright fireball, when they see them. It is
Instructor, Dept. of Physics, Iowa State University, 1946-49.
quite true that many persons misidentify natural phenomena; and
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Physics, Iowa State University, 1950-53.
my experience was mainly but not entirely limited to that sort of case.
Research physicist, Cloud Physics Project, University of Chicago, 1953-54.
About 2 years ago I became more than casually curious for several
Associate Professor, Dept. of Physics, University of Arizona, 1954-56, Pro-
fessor, 1956-57.
reasons that are not too relevant here, and began to spend much more
Associate 1954-57. director, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, University of Arizona,
time and very quickly changed my notions about the problem. I visited
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, saw their very impressive and sur-
Professor, Dept. of Meteorology, and Senior Physicist, Institute of Atmos-
pheric Physics, 1958 to present.
prising UFO files, the pattern of which is entirely different from what
Other activities:
I had imagined.
U.S. Navy, 1942-45, naval intelligence and aerology.
At the same time, I contacted a number of private investigating
Member, Panel on Weather and Climate Modification, National Academy
UFO groups, one of the best and most constructive located here in
of Sciences, 1965-present.
Washington, the National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phe-
Member, ESSA-Navy Project Stormfury Advisory Panel, 1966-present.
Member, present. American Meteorological Society Commission on Publications, 1966-
nomena; contacted another one of the large national groups, the Aerial
Phenomenon Research Organization, and found again somewhat to
Member, Advisory panel for weather modification, National Science Founda-
my surprise, that these amateur groups operating on a shoestring basis,
tion, 1967-present.
Professional memberships:
and frequently scorned by us scientists, were, in fact, doing really a
American Association for Advancement of Science, American Meteorological
rather good investigative job within their resources, and had com-
Society, Sigma Xi, American Geophysical Union, Royal Meteorological
piled in their files, for instance in NICAP, on the order of 10,000 or
Professors. Society, Arizona Academy of Science, American Association of University
12,000 cases, many of which I have subsequently checked, and all of
Personal Married, 1945, Betsy Hunt six children.
which imply a problem that has been lost from sight, swept under the
Fields of special interest Atmospheric physics, physics of clouds and precipita-
rug, ignored, and now needs to be very rapidly brought out into the
tion, meterological optics, atmospheric electricity, weather modification,
open as a problem demanding very serious and very high-caliber
unidentified aerial phenomena.
scientific attention.
I wish to emphasize that. We must very quickly have very good
STATEMENT OF DR. JAMES E. McDONALD, SENIOR PHYSICIST,
people looking into this problem, because it appears to be one of very
INSTITUTE OF ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS, AND PROFESSOR, DE-
serious concern. We are dealing here with inexplicable phenomena,
PARTMENT OF METEOROLOGY, THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA,
baffling phenomena, that will not be clarified by any but the best
TUCSON, ARIZ.
scientists.
The scope of my remarks this morning, and the scope of my more
Dr. McDoNALD. Thank you, Mr. Roush.
detailed remarks in my prepared statement which has been submitted,
I am very pleased to have this chance to make some comments and
deal with two broad areas:
suggestions based on my own experience to the committee, and I do
I have been asked to summarize the results of my interviewing of
wish to commend the Committee on Science and Astronautics for tak-
witnesses in the last 2 years, what I found, the problems I have en-
ing this first, and I hope very significant step, to look at the problem
countered and SO on; and, secondly to address myself to the categories
that has puzzled many for 20 years.
of past explanations of UFO sightings, that hinge on my own field of
As Dr. Hynek has emphasized in his remarks, it is one of the diffi-
atmospheric physics.
culties of the problem we are talking about today that the scientific
Let me turn very briefly to my experience. In the past 2 years I
community, not just in the United States but on a world basis, has
have been able to devote a substantial part of my time to this problem.
tended to discount and to regard as nonsense the UFO problem. The
I have mainly concentrated on witnesses in UFO sightings that have
fact that SO much anecdotal data is involved has understandly discour-
already been checked by some of the independent groups; that is, I
aged many scientists from taking seriously what, in fact, I believe is a
was no longer, in the last 2 years, dealing with original raw data
matter of extraordinary scientific importance.
where it was primarily misidentified phenomena, but rather, I was
I have been studying now for about 2 years, on a rather intensive
dealing with presifted, presorted data, leaning very heavily on groups
basis, the UFO problem. I have interviewed several hundred wit-
like NICAP and APRO, and other groups in this country and other
nesses in selected cases, and I am astonished at what I have found. I
groups abroad for my leads and background material.
20
21
I have also had a chance to interview 75 or 80 witnesses in Aus-
Turning to some of the highlights of my interviewing experience,
tralia, New Zealand, and Tasmania, when I was down in that area
I first mention the "ridicule lid." We are not dealing with publicity
last summer. There were various kinds of atmospheric explanations
seekers. We are not, and I here concur with Dr. Hynek's remarks,
that had been invoked in Australian cases. I must say that many of
we are not dealing with religiosity and cultism. Those persons aren't
them are just as reasonable from the scientific point of view as many
really the least bit interested in observations. They have firm convic-
that we have heard in this country. But primarily I found in Aus-
tions entirely independent of observations. They do not cause noise
tralia that the nature of the sightings is similar to those in the United
that disturbs the real signal at all.
States, disk-like objects, cigar-shaped objects, objects without wings,
General Samford of the Air Force put it well, 16 years ago.
without evident means of propulsion, frequently hovering without any
General Samford, then Director of Intelligence, said, and I would
sound, sometimes making sounds, hovering over cars, stopping cars,
concur 100 percent, "Credible observers are observing relatively in-
as Dr. Hynek has pointed out, causing interference with the ignition
credible objects." That was said 16 years ago, and it is still occurring.
system, evident. and the same kind of public reluctance to report was very
I will touch in a moment or two on a sighting in Mr. Pettis' district
that very well illustrates that, a sighting this year in Redlands, Calif.,
I want to emphasize, as one of the very important misconceptions
which I think Dr. Harder may be able to tell still more about.
that has been fostered, that instead of dealing with witnesses who
Another characteristic in interviewing the witnesses is the tendency
are primarily looking for notoriety, who want to tell a good story,
for the UFO witness to turn first not to the hypothesis that he is
who are all out to gain attention, it is generally quite the opposite.
looking at a spaceship, but rather it must be an ambulance out there
And this is true in Australia, too. People are quite unwilling to tell
with a blinking red light or that it is a helicopter up there. There is
you about a UFO sighting, afraid acquaintances would think they
a conventional interpretation considered first; only then does the
have "gone around the bend," as Australians put it. Over and over
witness get out of the car or patrol car and realize the thing is stopped
you encounter that. People are reluctant to report what they are
in midair and is going backwards and has six bright lights, or some-
seeing. There is a real ridicule lid that has not been contrived by
thing like that. Only after an economical first hypothesis does the
any group, it just has evolved in the way the whole problem has
witness, in these impressive cases, go further in his hypotheses, and
unfolded. This is not entirely new in science. It has occurred before.
finally realize he is looking at something he has never seen before.
I am sure a number here at the speakers' table are familiar with
I like Dr. Hynek's phrase for this, "escalation of hypotheses." This
an interesting chapter in science years ago when meteorites, out of
tendency to take a simple guess first and then upgrade it is SO char-
which NASA and many scientists around the world now get a very
acteristic that I emphasize it as a very important point.
large amount of useful scientific information, were scorned and
Then, looking at the negative side, all of us who have checked
scoffed as unreal. It was regarded as nonsense that peasants were
cases are sometimes in near anguish at the typical inability of the
telling stories about stones falling out of the sky. The efforts of a
scientifically untrained person to estimate angles, to even understand
few scientists to take a look at the problem and to get some initial
what you are asking for when you ask for an angular estimation.
data simply were ignored until a very unusual but very real event
We are all aware of the gross errors in distances, heights, and speeds
occurred in northern France, a meteorite shower. So they sent an
SO estimated.
eminent academician out to have a look at what these people were
And I would emphasize to those who cite jury trial experience that
talking about, and by golly, the peasants appeared to be right. Every-
the tendency for a group of witnesses to an accident to come in with
body in the village, the prefect of police, the local administrators,
quite different accounts, must not be overstressed here. Those wit-
all the peasants, had seen stones fall out of the sky, and for the first
nesses don't come in from, say, a street corner accident and claim they
time the French Academy deigned to take a look at the problem.
saw a giraffe killed by a tiger. They talk about an accident. They are
Meteoritics was born.
confused about details. There is legally confusing difference of timing
Here we now face a very similar situation in science. We have
and distance, and SO on; but all are in agreement that it was an auto
tended to ignore it because we didn't think it made sense. It definitely
accident.
defies any explanation, and hence the situation has evolved where
So also when you deal with multiple-witness cases in UFO sight-
we can't get going because we aren't already going.
ings. There is an impressive core of consistency; everybody is talking
The scientific community as a whole won't take this problem seri-
about an object that has no wings, all of 10 people may say it was
ously because it doesn't have scientific data. They want instrumental
dome shaped or something like that, and then there are minor dif-
data.
ferences as to how big they thought it was, how far away, and SO on.
Why don't they have instrumental data Because the scientists don't
Those latter variations do pose a very real problem. It stands as a
take it seriously enough to get the scientific data. It is like the 20-year-
negative factor with respect to the anecdotal data, but it does not
old who can't get a job because he lacks experience, and he lacks
mean we are not dealing with real sightings of real objects.
experience because he hasn't had a job. In the same way you find the
Then there is the very real but not terribly serious problem of the
scientist wishing you would give him good hard meter readings and
hoaxers, fabricators, liars, and SO on. You do encounter cases from
magnetometer traces. and SO on but we don't have it yet because the
time to time where you end up thinking, well, this person has some
collective body of scientists, including myself, have ignored UFO's.
22
23
reason to have invented the whole story. Sometimes it is fairly ap-
parent. Sometimes it takes a lot of digging to prove it.
civilization, why no contact? This is a question that comes up again
I might say here that the independent investigative groups have
and again, since most persons who know enough about the UFO prob-
done an excellent job. It takes a knowledge of human characteristics,
lem to realize there must be something there, cannot, in their first view
not scientific expertise to detect lies and hoaxes.
of the problem, visualize a visitation from elsewhere, surveillance, or
with witnesses that you are not dealing with somebody already
Then there is the problem that you always have to be sure in talking
what have you, without contact.
I want to return to that point later, but I wish to emphasize that
enthusiastic about UFO's. You have to try to establish, and this is very not
that is a fallacious question. If we were under surveillance from some
always easy, whether he has prior knowledge of the whole UFO litera-
advanced technology sufficiently advanced to do what we cannot do
ture. Are you dealing with somebody who is just telling you again
in the sense of interstellar travel, then, as Arthur Clarke has put it
what he has read in a recent magazine in the barber chair?
quite well, quoted in Time magazine the last week, we have an odd
I emphasize that my experience is that again and again you find
situation. Arthur Clarke points out that any sufficiently advanced tech-
themselves. Then they suddenly became very, very concerned, as one
people who were not really interested in UFO's until they saw one
nology would be indistinguishable from magic. How well that applies
to UFO sightings. You have a feeling you are dealing with some very
more member of the public who has become a UFO witness; and in
high technology, devices of an entirely real nature which defy explan-
this body of citizens there are some very distressed persons who wish
ation in terms of present-day science. To say that we could anticipate
that the scientific community, or the Government, were doing some-
the values, reasons, motivations, and SO on, of any such system that has
thing about this problem.
the capability of getting here from somewhere else is fallacious.
The types of objects that are being seen, and I state the word
That is a homocentric fallacy of the most obvious nature, yet it is
"objects" not "hazy lights," are spread over quite a range of types, a
asked over and over again.
baffling range.
In my prepared statement I will be able to cover more of these
I want to use that word many times, because it speaks for
points, of course.
perience. of The UFO problem is baffling. But there is a predominance my ex-
The heart of the problem lies in citing cases, and I have investigated,
without wings, appendages, tails, and that sort of thing. Typically,
disc-shaped objects and elongated cigar-shaped objects, objects
personally, on the order of 300 cases dealing with key witnesses. I
have looked as carefully as I can for all reasonable explanations.
wingless objects, disc- and cigar-shaped.
There are many cases that fall apart when you investigate them.
Then there are far too many that resist the best analysis that many
the world, and have been for a number of years. My direct interviews
The same type of observations have been coming from all parts of
of us have been able to subject them to.
with a witness in Australia speak for that global pattern.
Let me just cite briefly, to take a recent case rather than an old
Another characteristic that emerges is a quite fluctuatory frequency
one, the instance at Redlands, and perhaps Dr. Harder can fill you in
of sightings. Right now, in the past few months, there have not been
in more detail.
very many really impressive cases that have come up; but last fall,
On February 4 of this year, at 7:20 in the evening, over a residential
for example, England had a wave of sightings which was
area in that city of population 30,000, a disc was seen. Twenty wit-
dented in the English experience, that led, for example, to unprece- a BBC
nesses interviewed by University of Redlands' investigators, described
documentary that has just been produced. It led also to a recently
it as having "windows" or "ports" or something of that sort. They in-
published study, that I got only a couple of weeks ago from the Stoke-
terviewed a little over half a dozen of them and all saw something on
on-Trent area in Staffordshire, 70 sightings in about a 21/2-month
the bottom that they described as "looking like jets."
physicist from that very area. As he points out, these are no-nonsense
period in this area. It happens that one of my colleagues is an English
This object was hovering at an estimated height of about 300 feet.
The estimates vary, but it came out about 300 feet. The citizens had
ghosts in the sky.
people who are not airy-fairy types that would be on LSD, or seeing
gone out in the street because dogs were barking and, because they
had heard an unusual noise, and pretty soon there were people all up
He is puzzled, and I am puzzled.
and down the street. It was estimated that more than 100 witnesses
Well, there are many questions that are asked by skeptical scien-
were involved, and 20 were directly interviewed.
tists, skeptical members of the public; and skepticism, as Mark Twain
Here was an object seen by many persons. It hovered, then shot up
said, is what gets you an education.
to about double the height, hovered again, and moved down across
There are questions like. "Whv aren't UFO's seen abroad? "Why
Redlands a short distance, hovered once again, and then took off
aren't UFO's seen by airline pilots?" "Why aren't UFO's seen by
rapidly to the northwest.
This case has not received any scientific attention beyond this in-
tracked bv radar? "Why don't weather observers and meteorolo-
crowds of people rather than by lone individuals "Why aren't they
vestigation by Dr. Philip Seff and his colleagues. It has not received
gists see UFO's?"
public notoriety. This was, in fact, only reported in a short column in
"Why aren't there sonic booms, or why aren't there crashed UFO's?"
the local paper and not on the wires anywhere. That happens over and
Finally, a very frequently raised question, "If the UFO's are from
over again.
Here, for example, are the reports for one month of last fall,
somewhere else, if they are really devices that represent some high
clipping-service coverage on the things that get local coverage, but
24
25
don't get on the wires, because in the present climate of the opinion,
wire editors, like scientists, Congressmen, and the public at large, feel
cluded some of the leading citizens in the town. It was reported
sure there is nothing to all this, and they don't put them on the wires.
nationally at that time but was soon forgotten.
You have to go right to the local town to get press coverage in most
I have interviewed one of the witnesses in a Washington State
cases.
sighting, at Longview, Wash., July 3, 1949. An air show was being
The Redlands, February 1968, case illustrates that very well. Once
held and someone spotted the UFO because there was a sky-writing
in a while a case will get on the wires and receive national attention,
aircraft overhead that some people were watching. They spotted the
but by and large, one just doesn't read about these cases in other parts
first of three disc-like objects that came over Longview that morning.
of the country, because wire services don't carry them.
The person whom I interviewed is a former Navy commander, Moul-
Let me tell you another case that answers the questions: "Why
ton B. Taylor. He was the manager of the air show, so he got on the
aren't there multiple witnesses? "Why aren't they seen in cities?'
public address system and got everybody to look at this object before
"Why aren't these ever seen in the daytime?"
it crossed the skies. It was fluttering as it went across the sky. There
It is true that there is a preponderance of nighttime sights. Maybe
were pilots, engineers, police officers, and Longview residents in the
this is merely a matter of luminosity.
audience. Many had binoculars. Taylor estimated it to be about 10
It is also true that there seem to be more reports from rather re-
minutes of arc in diameter. Because the aircraft was still skywriting
mote areas, say desert areas or swampy areas, than in the middle of
people continued to watch the sky. Two successive objects of the
cities. But there are city observations. And it is also true there are
same type flew over in the next 20 minutes. A total of three objects
more individual witness cases than sightings by large crowds. But in
came over, and they were from three different directions: one from
every instance there are striking exceptions to this.
the north, one from the northwest, and one almost from the west,
In New York City, on November 22, 1966, a total of eight witnesses,
quite clearly ruling out an explanation like balloons, which became
members of the staff of the American Newspaper Publishers Associa-
the official explanation. There were no balloon stations anywhere near
tion, were the witnesses in a good case. I interviewed William Leick,
Longview, Wash., as a matter of fact, and the balloon explanation is
of that staff, the manager of the office there. I heard about it through
quite inadequate.
a NICAP report. It did not appear in the papers, as I will mention.
Here we have a case of over a hundred witnesses to the passage of
William Leick had been looking out the window, saw an object over
a wingless object moving at relatively high velocity. When the second
the U.N. building. It was hovering, and as he talked to a colleague he
and third objects went over, someone had the presence of mind to
realized there was something odd about it, SO they walked out on the
time the fluttering rate-it was 48 per minute.
terrace. Soon they had six others out on the terrace. This was at 4 :30
Here again we have a multiple-witness case, a daytime sighting case,
in the afternoon. It was kind of a cushion-shaped object, as he de-
and one which you can't quickly write off.
scribed it, and had no wings. It was rocking a little from time to time,
If time permitted I would talk about a number of radar cases. One
blinked in the afternoon sun a little bit, had kind of an orange glow.
of the most famous is the Washington National Airport sighting. On
All eight were watching, and after it hovered for several moments it
July 19, 1952, CAA radars and Andrews Air Force radars tracked un-
rose vertically and then took off at high speed. There is an example
knowns moving at variable speeds from 100 miles an hour to over 800
of midtown sighting in New York where the witnesses are staff mem-
miles an hour, and a number of airline pilots in the air saw these, and
bers of a responsible organization. Leick, himself, had been trained
were in some instances vectored in by the CAA radar people, and then
in intelligence, in World War II. There is no reason at all to think
saw luminous objects in the same area that they showed on radar up
he and his colleagues would invent this.
near Herndon and Martinsburg.
They did call a New York paper, but to say they weren't the least bit
I talked to five of these CAA people. One can still go back and check
interested. There was no report published in a New York paper. Next
these old cases, I emphasize. I also talked to four of the airline pilots
they called a local Air Force office but no one came to investigate it. It
who were in the air at the time. I have gone over the quantitative as-
came to my attention because one of the members of the staff knew of
pects of the official explanation that this was ducting or trapping of the
NICAP and sent NICAP a report.
radar beams. That is quite untenable. I have gone over the radiosonde,
This sort of thing has happened over and over again. The ridicule
computed the radar refractive index gradient, and it is nowhere near
lid keeps these out of sight; too many of them are occurring to delay
the ducting gradient.
any longer in getting at this problem with all possible scientific
Also, it is very important that at one time three different radars,
assistance.
two CAA and one Andrews Air Force Base radar, all got compatible
A famous multiple-witness instance occurred in Farmington,
echos. That is extremely significant.
N. Mex., on March 17, 1950. I interviewed seven witnesses there. A very
And finally from a radar-propagation point of view, the angles of
large number of objects were involved. There were several different
propagation, radar and visual, were far above any values that would
groups of objects, all described as disc-shaped objects. They were ex-
permit trapping, which makes this a case which is not an explained
plained as Skyhook balloons, officially, SO I checked into that.
case. It was an instance of unidentified aerial objects over our Capital,
I believe.
I finally established that there was no Skyhook balloon released
anywhere in the United States on or near that day. The witnesses in-
One could go on with many cases. I want to just briefly touch two
categories of atmospheric explanations that have been rather widely
discussed, and close with that.
26
27
Meteorological optics is a subject that I enjoy and have looked into
amined hundreds of cases and rejected the alternative hypothesis as
over the years rather carefully, and I must express for the record my
capable of accounting for them.
very strong disagreement with Dr. Donald H. Menzel, former director
I am afraid that this possibility has sufficiently good backing for it,
of Harvard Observatory, whose two books on the subject of UFO's lean
despite its low a priori ability, that we must examine it. I think
primarily on meteorological explanations. I have checked case after
your committee, with its many concerns for the entire aerospace pro-
case of his, and his explanations are very, very far removed from
gram, as well as our whole national scientific program, has a very
what are well-known principles and quantitative aspects of meteor-
special reason for examining that possibility. Should that possibility
ological optic objects. He has made statements that simply do not fit
be correct, if there is even a chance of its being correct, we ought to
what is known about meteorological objects.
get our best people looking at it. Instead, we are collectively laughing
I would be prepared to talk all day on specific illustrations but time
at this possibility.
will not permit more.
To meet Mr. Rumsfeld's request, let me remark on Dr. Hynek's
Secondly, there has more recently been a suggestion made by "Avia-
two recommendations. I strongly concur in the need for some new
tion Week" Senior Editor Philip J. Klass, that the really interesting
approach. I am sure Dr. Hynek was not suggesting there be one single
UFO's are atmospheric-electrical plasmas of some type similar to ball
UFO committee. In fact, he said, "not a one-shot approach." A plu-
lightning, but perhaps something different, something we don't yet
ralistic approach to the problem is needed here.
understand but are generated by atmospheric processes.
The Defense Department is already supporting some work on it.
The first time anyone tried the ball lightning hypothesis was in Air
NASA definitely has a need to look at this problem. We have to pay
Force Project Grudge, back in 1949. The Weather Bureau was asked
to do a special study of ball lightning. I recently got a declassified copy
very approaches. serious attention to the problem and get a variety of new
of that, and the Air Force position at that time, and since then was
The other point Dr. Hynek mentioned was that we try to look at
that ball lightning doesn't come near to explaining these sight-
this on a worldwide basis. This is crucially important. We are dealing
ings. I concur in that. When you deal with multiple-witness cases in-
with a real problem here, and I insist it is a global problem. We can
volving discs with metallic luster, definite outline, seen in the day-
study it in the United States, but if we ignore what is happening in
time, completely removed from a thunderstorm, perhaps seen over
France and England-one of the greatest UFO waves that ever
center Manhattan, or perhaps in Redlands, Calif., they are not ball
occurred was in France-would be a serious mistake. I strongly urge
lightning or plasmas.
that your committee consider holding rather more extensive hearings
In weather completely unrelated to anything that could provide a
in which a larger segment of the scientific community is given the
source of energy, the continuous power source required to maintain a
opportunity to talk pro and con on the issue, hearings aimed at getting
plasma in the face of recombination and decay of a plasma, Klass'
a new measure of scientific attention to this important problem.
views just do not make good sense.
Thank you.
It is just not reasonable to suggest that, say the BOAC Strato-
Mr. ROUSH. Thank you, Dr. McDonald, for your presentation.
cruiser that was followed by six UFO's for 90 miles up in the St.
As we explained awhile ago, we are pressed for time. We are enter-
Lawrence Valley in 1954 was followed by a plasma, or that these people
taining questions from members of the committee.
in Redlands were looking at a. plasma, or that the 20 or so objects that
Mr. Bell.
went over Farmington were plasmas.
Mr. BELL. Dr. McDonald, I want to compliment you on your inter-
One of the most characteristic features of a plasma is its very short
esting statement. But what leads you to believe that whatever these
lifetime and exceedingly great instability, as some of your members
phenomena are, they are extraterrestrial?
will know from your contact with fusion research problems. The diffi-
What facts do you have?
culty of sustaining a plasma for more than microseconds is a very great
Dr. McDoNALD. May I say I wouldn't use the word "believe." I
difficulty. To suggest that clear weather conditions can somehow cre-
would say the "hypothesis" that these are extraterrestrial surveillance,
ate and maintain plasmas that persist for many minutes, and fool
is the hypothesis I presently regard as most likely.
pilots with 18,000 flight hours into thinking that they are white- and
As I mentioned, it is not hard facts in the sense of irrefutable proof,
red-domed discs, to take a very famous case over Philadelphia where
but dealing with case after case wherein the witnesses showed credi-
the pilot thought he was about 100 yards from this dome-disc, is un-
bility I can't impugn. That impresses me. These are not at all like
reasonable. It is not a scientifically well-defended viewpoint.
geophysical or astronomical phenomena; they appear to be craft-like
To conclude, then, my position is that UFO's are entirely real and
machine-like devices. I would have to answer you in terms of case
we do not know what they are, because we have laughed them out of
after case that I and others have investigated, to make all this clear.
court. The possibility that these are extraterrestrial devices, that we are
It is this very large body of impressive witnesses' testimony, radar-
dealing with surveillance from some advanced technology, is a possi-
tracking data on ultra-high-speed objects sometimes moving at over
bility I take very seriously.
5,000 miles an hour, UFO's, combined radar-visual sightings, and just
I reach that hypothesis, as my preferred hypothesis, not by hard
too much other consistent evidence that suggests we are dealing with
fact, hardware, tailfins, or reading license plates, but by having ex-
machine-like devices from somewhere else.
28
29
Mr. BELL. Have there been pictures taken?
It is accessible in the sense that if I want to pay $90 for Xeroxes I
Dr. McDoNALD. Yes; there have been pictures taken.
can now get it. It is not published in the sense of being available to
For instance, a photograph taken in Ohio, by an Air Force photo
every library in the country. My Reference 7, which NICAP just pub-
reconnaissance plane May 24, 1954. I recently have looked a little more
lished, is available to scientists all over the country. It is a matter
closely at the data. This was explained as an undersun, but that idea
of the Air Force having a policy of not publishing such items, and
is subject to quantitative observation. The angles just do not fit. There
they were classified. I think the Moss committee and NICAP are to
is a very important case at Edwards Air Force base with two wit-
be highly praised to get out in the open Reference 7.
nesses, where they got photographs of the object. Unfortunately, in
Mr. DOWNING. Is there a reason why this is classified?
this case I have not seen the photo, but I have talked with the persons
Dr. McDoNALD. There is an understandable reason why the Air
who took it. There are photographs, but not nearly as many as we
Force has had to classify this. An unidentified area object on pre-
would like. We would like to have lots of them. In a case in Corning,
sumption is hostile until proved otherwise. So there has been this un-
Calif., a police officer, one of five witnesses, had a loaded camera in
fortunate, but entirely understandable measuring of these two areas.
his patrol car, 20 paces from where he watched the object, didn't even
The national defense mission of the Air Force has necessitated they
think of getting his camera. He said he was too flabbergasted to think
have some part of the UFO problem inevitably, and they got it in the
of it. That is a part of the problem.
first instance. They have long since told us there is no hostility here,
Mr. ROUSH. Mr. Hechler.
hence the scientific curiosities going unattended because it doesn't
Mr. HECHLER. Have you examined any reports of communication
fall under the defense mission, in other words to be transferred into
by these objects?
NASA, NSF ,)or something like that. That does not mean the Air Force
Dr. McDoNALD. Yes; the problem of contact is very important.
won't continue to watch unidentified objects on the millisecond basis.
There is one category of contact, not in the sense of shaking hands, but
But they not need worry about this other part of the problem. I think
rather light response. I have a file on several of these, and I'm looking
it is understandable, but needs changing.
for more. For instance, in Shamokin, Pa., Kerstetter is the name of the
Mr. ROUSH. Mr. Pettis.
witness, he works for a bank in Shamokin. I talked to the president of
Mr. PETTIS. Mr. Chairman, Doctor.
the bank as to his reliability and got very good recommendations. Last
I was a little bit interested in your observations about this UFO
year, he and his wife and family were in a car near a mountain ridge
sighting in my hometown of Redlands.
in Shamokin, saw a thing hovering over the mountain, like the flash-
I might observe that Redlands is a rather conservative community,
ing lights of a theater marque. He had a flashlight. He didn't know
when people in Redlands say they saw something, they saw something.
Morse code, but it really didn't matter. He sent light flashes in various
I did not happen to be in Redlands that particular date, SO I did not
orders and he got lights back from the thing. That same thing hap-
see this.
pened in Newton, N.H., in August of last year, where several persons
But I would like to observe this, that having spent a great deal of
saw an object coming overhead. The same thought occurred to them
my life in the air, as a pilot, professional and private pilot, I know
and they signaled with a flashlight. It wasn't Morse, it was dot dash
that many pilots and professional pilots have seen phenomena that
dot, then dash dash dash, and it came back with no failure, replicated
they could not explain.
light signals. The same thing happened in West Virginia, where a
These men, most of whom have talked to me, have been very reticent
pharmacist, named Sommers, did it with his headlights. When I was
to talk about this publicly, because of the ridicule that they were afraid
in Australia, I talked about some hunters out hunting kangaroo. A
would be heaped upon them, and I'm sure that if this committee were
disk came over, one said "give them Morse"; the flash came back
ever to investigate this, or bring them in here, there probably would
faithfully, and they left in a hurry. Is that contact? I don't know.
have to be a closed hearing, Mr. Chairman.
Nobody got any intelligence out of it either way, if you will pardon the
However, there is a phenomena here that isn't explained.
whimsy. It would be terrible if in fact this was surveillance and our
I think probably we ought to do a little looking into this, is my per-
technology was represented by the Eveready flashlight. [Laughter.]
sonal opinion.
We may be flunking our exam.
Mr. Roush. Mr. Ryan.
Mr. ROUSH. Mr. Downing.
Mr. RYAN. Yes, thank you, Mr. Chairman.
Mr. DOWNING. I'm interested in your testimony. On page 10 of
First I should like to commend you, Mr. Roush, for your interest
your written statement, you say it is unfortunate no acceptable version
in the subject matter, and the chairman of the full committee for hav-
of Reference 6 exists, though it has managed to get it into the status
ing arranged for hearings into this problem.
of limited acceptability.
I think it is important that this committee not waive its jurisdiction,
Why is this not available?
but that it explore very carefully the proposals that have been made
Dr. McDoNALD. Well, that was an Air Force document. This was
by the witnesses here, and that it have a continuing field of explora-
completed in 1949. These were classified until just a few years back.
tion into this whole question. I want to commend Dr. McDonald for
No one could get access to them, because they were under DOD classi-
having been persistent in presenting his views to the various members
fication. But the 12-year rule expired, and Dr. Leon Davidson managed
of the committee, helping to bring about these hearings.
to get a copy.
97-818-68-3
30
31
I wondered, Dr. McDonald, if you would care to evaluate the re-
search project at the University of Colorado, and comment on that?
period unidentified. Then they identify them. But here is an impres-
Mr. ROUSH. Mr. Ryan, may I just say we had agreed that this was
sive number of both military and civilian radar sightings that defy
not the place to discuss that particular project, and that the purpose
radar explanation in terms of unknown phenomena. Most of these de-
of the symposium was not to go into the activities of another branch of
ficiencies are well understood, SO one can be fairly sure that many of
government, but rather to explore that as a scientific phenomena.
these unidentified radar cases have no conventional explanation.
I'm sure that Dr. McDonald would be very happy to confer with you
In a case where a P-61 flew over Japan, back some years ago, made
privately on this, but if you could show some restraint here, the Chair
six passes at an unidentified object is was getting radar returns on,
would be real grateful to you.
and the pilot saw it visually. Here you are dealing with an unknown.
Mr. RYAN. Well, let me rephrase my question.
Then there was a case in Michigan where a ground radar detected an
In view of the fact that there has been a study conducted by a proj-
object at 600 miles an hour coming in over Saginaw Bay. The pilot
ect in the Air Force, and the University of Colorado, do you believe
got a radar return, and also saw a vast luminous object; the object
there Government? is anything further that should be done by any branch of the
turned in a very sharp 180-degree turn and went back, and eluded the
F-94. Here you are dealing with a case where radar propagation
Dr. McDoNALD. Emphatically, yes.
anomalies will not explain it. There was one radar in the airplane at
Mr. RYAN. What would you recommend?
20,000 feet and one radar on the ground, both showing the object. There
Dr. McDoNALD. I think that we need to get a much broader basis of
are many cases like that which I could enlarge on.
investigation of UFO's, as I did say, a few moments ago, it would be
Mr. RYAN. Let me ask a further question: In the course of your
very salutary to have a group in NASA looking at this problem, and
investigation and your study of UFO sightings, have you found any
to have some NASA support of independent studies. It would be very
cases where contemporaneously with the sighting of UFO's alleg-
good for the National Science Foundation to support, say, some uni-
edly, there were any other events which took place, which might or
versity people interested in it. It would be good to have the Office of
might not be related to the UFO's!
Naval Research et cetera involved.
Dr. McDoNALD. Yes. Certainly there are many physical effects. For
We don't deal with many other important problems, space, or molec-
instance, in Mr. Pettis' district, several people found the fillings in
ular biology or health without a pluralistic approach, a multiplicity of
their mouth hurting while this object was nearby, but there are many
research programs. I don't want to touch a frayed nerve here. This
cases probably on record of car ignition failure. One famous case,
problem of duplication is sometimes lamented. But by and large I
was at Levelland, Tex., in 1967. Ten vehicles were stopped within a
think you will agree we would gain from having a lot of different peo-
short area, all independently in a 2-hour period, near Levelland, Tex.
ple with slightly different points of view going at every problem. At
There was no lightning or thunder storm, and only a trace of rain.
the moment everything is focused through one agency, and every-
There is another which I don't know whether to bring to the com-
thing now hinges on that one particular program you have asked me
mittee's attention or not. The evidence is not as conclusive as the car
programs. about, and my answer was, we very definitely need some independent
stopping phenomenon, but there are too many instances for me to
ignore. UFO's have often been seen hovering near power facilities.
project. I am on record elsewhere than here in my specific views on that
There are a small number but still a little too many to seem pure
fortuitous chance, of system outages, coincident with the UFO sight-
Mr. RYAN. Looking back at page 14, you wrote a letter to the Na-
ing. One of the cases was Tamaroa, Ill. Another was a case in Shelby-
tional Academy of Sciences, concerning this project. Have you had
ville, Ky., early last year. Even the famous one, the New York blackout,
any reaction from the National Academy of Sciences?
involved UFO sightings. Dr. Hynek probably would be the most ap-
Dr. McDoNALD. Yes, I received a leter from Dr. Seitz, saying for
propriate man to describe the Manhattan sighting, since he inter-
the time being we must let the Colorado project run its course. That
viewed several witnesses involved. I interviewed a woman in Seacliff,
was the gist of the answer.
N.Y. She saw a disk hovering and going up and down. And then
Mr. ROUSH. I would appreciate it, if we dispensed with that. Let
shooting away from New York just after the power failure. I went
me say that the National Academy is undertaking an evaluation of the
to the FPC for data, they didn't take them seriously although they
University of Colorado project, and this will be published.
had many dozens of sighting reports for that famous evening. There
Mr. RYAN. I'm suggesting maybe this committee should make an
were reports all over New England in the midst of that blackout,
investigation of the University of Colorado project.
and five witnesses near Syracuse, N.Y., saw a glowing object ascend-
here. Chairman MILLER. That is something we don't have authority to do
ing within about a minute of the blackout. First they thought it was
a dump burning right at the moment the lights went out. It is rather
Mr. RYAN. To what extent, Dr. McDonald, have sightings been
puzzling that the pulse of current that tripped the relay at the Ontario
picked up by radar, and what extent of those that have been picked up
Hydro Commission plant has never been identified, but initially the
been explored?
tentative suspicion was centered on the Clay Substation of the Niagara
Dr. McDoNALD. Well, there are many such sightings, I dare say
Mohawk network right there in the Syracuse area, where, unidentified
there are thousands of military radar sightings that were for the short
aerial phenomenon has been seen by some of the witnesses.
32
33
This extends down to the limit of single houses losing their power
years now with the dramatic goal of a search for life in the universe, I submit
when a UFO is near. The hypothesis in the case of car stopping is that
that the topic of today's Symposium is eminently deserving of your attention.
there might be high magnetic fields, d.c. fields, which saturate the
Indeed, I have to state, for the record, that I believe no other problem within
core and thus prevent the pulses going through the system to the
your jurisdiction is of comparable scientific and national importance. Those are
strong words, and I intend them to be.
other side. Just how a UFO could trigger an outage on a large power
In addition to your Committee responsibilities with respect to science and the
network is however not yet clear. But this is a disturbing series of
aerospace programs, there is another still broader basis upon which it is highly
coincidences that I think warrant much more attention than they
appropriate that you now take up the UFO problem Twenty years of public
have SO far received.
interest, public puzzlement, and even some public disquiet demand that we all
push toward early clarification of this unparalleled scientific mystery. I hope that
Mr. RYAN. As far as you know, has any agency investigated the
our session here today will prove a significant turning point, orienting new
New York blackout in relation to UFO?
scientific efforts towards illumination of this scientific problem that has been
Dr. McDoNALD. None at all. When I spoke to the FPC people, I
with us for over 20 years.
was dissatisfied with the amount of information I could gain. I am
SCOPE AND BACKGROUND OF PRESENT COMMENTS
saying there is a puzzling and slightly disturbing coincidence here.
I'm not going on record as saying, yes, these are clear-cut cause and
It has been suggested that I review for you my experiences in interviewing
effect relations. I'm saying it ought to be looked at. There is no one
UFO witnesses here and abroad and that I discuss ways in which my professional
experience in the field of atmospheric physics and meteorology illuminates past
looking at this relation between UFO's and outages.
and present attempts at accounting for UFO phenomena. To understand the basis
Mr. Roush. Our time is really running short, Mr. Ryan.
of my comments, it may be helpful to note briefly the nature of my own studies
Mr. RYAN. One final question. Do you think it is imperative that
on UFOs.
the Federal Power Commission, or Federal Communications Com-
I have had a moderate interest in the UFO problem for twenty years, much
as have a scattering of other scientists. In southern Arizona, during the period
mission, blackout? investigate the relation if any between the sightings and the
1956-66, I interviewed, on a generally rather random basis, witness in such
local sightings as happened to come to my attention via press or personnal com-
Dr. McDoNALD. My position would call for a somewhat weaker
munications. This experience taught me much about lay misinterpretations of
adjective. I'd say extremely desirable.
observations of aircraft, planets, meteors, balloons, flares, and the like. The
frequency with which laymen misconstrue phenomena associated with fireballs
Mr. ROUSH. Thank you.
(meteors brighter than magnitude -5), led me to devote special study to
Thank you, Dr. McDonald.
meteor physics; other topics in my own field of atmospheric physics also drew
my closer attention as a result of their bearing on various categories of UFO
PREPARED STATEMENT ON UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECTS
reports. This period of rather casual UFO-witness interviewing on a local basis
proved mainly educational; yet on a few occasions I encountered witnesses of
James E. McDonald, Senior Physicist, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, and
seemingly high credibility whose reports lay well outside any evident metero-
Arizona Professor, Department of Meteorology, The University of Arizona, Tucson,
logical, astronomical, or other conventional bounds. Because I was quite unaware,
before 1966, that those cases were, in fact, paralleled by astonishing numbers of
INTRODUCTION
comparable cases elsewhere in the U.S. and the rest of the world, they left me only
moderately puzzled and mildly bothered, since I came upon relatively few im-
I should like first to commend the House Committee on Science and Astronautics
pressive cases within the environs of Tucson in those dozen years of discursive
for recognizing the need for a closer look at scientific aspects of the long-stand-
study. I was aware of the work of non-official national investigative groups like
ing puzzle of the Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOs). From time to time in the
NICAP (National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena) and APRO
history of science, situations have arisen in which a problem of ultimately
(Aerial Phenomena Research Organization) ; but lacking basis for detailed per-
enormous importance went begging for adequate attention simply because that
sonal evaluation of their investigative methods, I simply did not take their
problem appeared to involve phenomena SO far outside the current bounds of
publications very seriously. I was under other misimpressions, I found later, as
scientific knowledge that it was not even regarded as a legitimate subject of
to the nature of the official UFO program, but I shall not enlarge on this before
serious scientific concern. That is precisely the situation in which the UFO prob-
this Commitee. (I cite all of this here because I regard it relevant to an apprecia-
lem now lies. One of the principal results of my own recent intensive study of
tion, by the Committee, of the way in which at least one scientist has developed
the UFO enigma is this: I have become convinced that the scientific community,
his present strong concern for the UFO problem, after a prior period of some
not only in this country but throughout the world, has been casually ignoring
years of only mild interest. Despite having interviewed a total of perhaps 150-
as nonsense a matter of extraordinary scientific importance. The attention of
200 Tucson-area witnesses prior to 1966 (75 of them in a single inconclusive
your Committee can, and I hope will, aid greatly in correcting this situation.
case in 1958), I was far from overwhelmed with the importance of the UFO
As you will note in the following, my own present opinion, based on two years
problem.
of careful study, is that UFOs are probably extraterrestrial devices engaged in
A particular sighting incident in Tucson in early 1966, followed by the widely-
something that might very tentatively be termed "surveillance."
publicized March, 1966, Michigan sightings (I, too, felt that the "swamp gas"
If the extraterrestrial hypothesis is proved correct (and I emphasize that the
explanation was quite absurd once I checked a few relevant points), led me
present evidence only points in that direction but cannot be said to constitute
finally to take certain steps to devote the coming summer vacation months to a
irrefutable proof), then clearly UFOs will become a top-priority scientific prob-
much closer look at the UFO problem. Within only a few weeks in May and
lem. I believe you might agree that, even if there were a slight chance of the
June of 1966, after taking a close look at the files and modes of operation of both
correctness of that hypothesis, the UFOs would demand the most careful atten-
tion. In fact, that chance seems to some of us a long way from trivial. We share
private and official (i.e., Project Bluebook) UFO investigative programs, after
seeing for the first time press-clipping files of (to me) astonishing bulk, cover-
the view of Vice Adm. R. H. Hillenkoetter, former CIA Director, who said eight
ing innumerable intriguing cases I had never before heard of, and (above all)
years ago, "It is imperative that we learn where the UFOs come from and what
after the beginning of what became a long period of personal interviewing of
their purpose is (Ref. 1)" Since your Committee is concerned not only with broad
key witnesses in important UFO cases, I rapidly altered my conception of the
aspects of our national scientific program but also with the prosecution of our
scientific importance of the UFO question. By mid-1966, I had already begun
entire space program, and since that space program has been tied in for some
what became months of effort to arouse new interest and to generate new UFO
investigative programs in various science agencies of the Federal government
34
35
and in various scientific organizations. Now, two years later, with very much
bearing in the hundreds of cases I have now personally investigated. Misinter-
more background upon which to base an opinion, I find myself increasingly more
preted natural phenomena (Hypothesis 3) do explain many sincerely-submitted
concerned with what has happened during the past twenty years' neglect, by al-
UFO reports; but, as I shall elaborate below, efforts to explain away almost
most the entire scientific community, of a problem that appears to be one of ex-
the entirety of all UFO incidents in such terms have been based on quite un-
tremely high order of scientific importance.
acceptable reasoning. Almost no one any longer seriously proposes that the
truly puzzling UFO reports of close-range sighting of what appear to be ma-
THE UNCONVENTIONAL NATURE OF THE UFO PROBLEM
chines of some sort are chance sightings of secret test devices (ours or theirs)
the reasons weighing against Hypothesis 4 are both obvious and numerous. That
To both laymen and scientists, the impressive progress that science has made
some still-not-understood physical phenomena of perhaps astronomical or metero-
towards understanding our total environment prompts doubt that there could
logical nature can account for the UFO observations that have prompted some
be machine-like objects of entirely unconventional nature moving through our
to speak in terms of extraterrestrial devices would hold some weight if it were
atmosphere, hovering over automobiles, power installations, cities, and the like,
yet all the while going unnoticed by our body scientific. Such suggestions are
true that we dealt therein only with reports of hazy, glowing masses comparable
hard to take seriously, and I assure you that, until I had taken a close look at
to, say, ball lightning or if we dealt only with fast-moving luminous bodies racing
the evidence. I did not take them seriously. We have managed to SO let our
across the sky in meteoric fashion. Not so, as I shall enlarge upon below. Jumping
preconceptions block serious consideration of the possibility that some form of
to Hypothesis 6, it seems to receive little support from the many psychologists
alien technology is operating within our midst that we have succeeded in simply
with whom I have managed to have discussions on this possibility; I do not omit
ignoring the facts. And we scientists have ignored the pleas of groups like
it from consideration, but, as my own witness-interviewing has proceeded, I
NICAP and APRO, who have for years been stressing the remarkable nature of
regard it with decreasing favor. As for Hypothesis 8, it can only be remarked
the UFO evidence. Abroad, science has reacted in precisely this same manner,
that, in all of the extensive literature published in support thereof, practically
ignoring as nonsensical the report-material gathered by private groups operating
none of it has enough ring of authenticity to warrant serious attention. A bizarre
outside the main channels of science. I understand this neglect all too well; I
"literature" of pseudo-scientific discussion of communications between benign
was just one more of those scientists who almost ignored those facts, just one
extraterrestrials bent on saving the better elements of humanity from some dire
more of those scientists who was rather sure that such a situation really could
fate implicit in nuclear-weapons testing or other forms of environmental con-
not exist, one more citizen rather sure that official statements must be basically
tamination is certainly obtrusive on any paperback stand. That "literature" has
meaningful on the non-existence of any substantial evidence for the reality
been one of the prime factors in discouraging serious scientists from looking into
of UFOs.
the UFO matter to the extent that might have led them to recognize quickly
The UFO problem is SO unconventional, involves such improbable events, such
enough that cultism and wishful thinking have essentially nothing to do with the
inexplicable phenomenology, SO defies ready explanation in terms of present-day
core of the UFO problem. Again, one must here criticize a good deal of armchair-
scientific knowledge, has such a curiously elusive quality in many respects, that
researching (done chiefly via the daily newspapers that enjoy feature-writing
it is not surprising (given certain features in the past twenty years' handling of
the antics of the more extreme of such groups). A disturbing number of promi-
the problem) that scientists have not taken it very seriously. We scientists are, as
ment scientists have jumped all too easily, to the conclusion that only the nuts
see UFOs.
a group, not too well-oriented towards taking up problems that lie, not just on
the frontiers of our scientific knowledge, but far across some gulf whose very
The seventh hypothesis, that UFOs may be some form of extraterrestrial de-
breadth cannot be properly estimated. These parenthetical remarks are made here
vices, origin and objective still unknown, is a hypothesis that has been seriously
to convey, in introductory manner, viewpoints that will probably prove
proposed by many investigators of the UFO problem. Although there seems to be
to be correct when many more scientists begin to scrutinize this unprecedented
some evidence that this hypothesis was first seriously considered within official
and neglected problem. The UFO problem is, if anything, a highly unconventional
investigative channels in 1948 (a year after the June 24, 1947 sighting over Mt.
problem. Hence, before reviewing my own investigations in detail, and before
Rainier that brought the UFO problem before the general public), the first open
examining various proposed explanations lying within atmospheric physics, it
defense of that Hypothesis 7 to be based on any substantial volume of evidence
may be well to take note of some of the principal hypotheses that have been pro-
was made by Keyhoe (Ref. 3) in about 1950. His subsequent writings, based on
posed, at one time or another, to account for UFOs.
far more evidence than was available to him in 1950, have presented further ar-
guments favoring an extraterrestrial origin of UFOs. Before I began an inten-
SOME ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
sive examination of the UFO problem in 1966, I was disposed to strong doubt
that the numerous cases discussed at length in Keyhoe's rather dramatically-
In seeking explanations for UFO reports, I like to weigh witness-accounts in
written and dramatically-titled books (Ref. 4) could be real cases from real
terms of eight principal UFO hypotheses:
witnesses of any appreciable credibility. I had the same reaction to a 1956 book
1. Hoaxes, fabrications, and frauds.
(Ref. 5) written by Ruppelt, an engineer in charge of the official investigations
2. Hallucination, mass hysteria, rumor phenomena.
in the important 1951-3 period. Ruppelt did not go as far as Keyhoe in suggesting
3. Lay misinterpretations of well-know physical phenomena (meteorolog-
the extraterrestrial UFO hypothesis, but he left his readers little room for doubt
ical, astronomical, optical, aeronautical, etc.).
that he leaned toward that hypothesis. I elaborate these two writers' viewpoints
4. Semi-secret advanced technology (new test vehicles, satellites, novel
because, within the past month, I have had an opportunity to examine in detail
weapons, flares, re-entry phenomea, etc.).
a large amount of formerly classified official file material which substantiates to
5. Poorly understood physical phenomena (rare atmospheric-electrical or
an almost alarming degree the authenticity and hence the scientific import of the
atmospheric-electrical effects, unusual meteoric phenomena, natural or arti-
case-material upon which Keyhoe and Ruppelt drew for much of their discus-
ficial plasmoids, etc.).
sions of UFO history in the 1947-53 period (Refs. 6 and 7). One of these sources
6. Poorly understood psychological phenomena.
has just been published by NICAP (Ref. 7), and constitutes, in my opinion, an
7. Extraterrestrial devices of some surveillance nature.
exceedingly valuable addition to the growing UFO literature. The defense of
8. Spaceships bringing messengers of terrestrial salvation and occult
the extraterrestrial hypothesis by Keyhoe, and later many others (still not
truth.
within what are conventionally regarded as scientific circles), has had little im-
Because I have discussed elsewhere all of these hypotheses in some detail
pact on the scientific community, which based its write-off of the UFO problem
(Ref. 2), I shall here only very briefly comment on certain points. Hoaxes and
on press accounts and official assurances that careful investigations were turn-
fabrications do crop up, though in percentually far smaller numbers than many
ing up nothing that suggested phenomena beyond present scientific explana-
UFO scoffers seem to think. Some of the independent groups like APRO and
tion. Hypothesis No. 7 has thus received short shrift from science to date. As
NICAP have done good work in exposing certain of these. Although there has
one scientist who has gone to some effort to try to examine the facts. I say that
been a good deal of armchair-psychologizing about unstable UFO witnesses, with
this has been an egregious, if basically unwitting, scientific error-an error that
easy charges of hallucination and hysteria, such charges seem to have almost no
must be rectified with minimum further delay. On the basis of the evidence I
36
37
have examined, and on the basis of my own weighing of alternative hypotheses
(including some not listed above), I now regard Hypothesis 7 as the one most
Air Force Intelligence, put it in a 1952 Pentagon press conference "Credible ob-
likely to prove correct. My scientific instincts lead me to hedge that prediction
servers have sighted relatively incredible objects."
just to the extent of suggesting that if the UFOs are not of extramundane origin,
Not only is the charge of notoriety-seeking wrong, not only is the charge of
then I suspect that they will prove to be something very much more bizarre,
hyperexcitability quite inappropriate to the witnesses I have interviewed, but SO
devices. something of perhaps even greater scientific interest than extraterrestrial
also is the easy charge that they see an unusual aerial phenomenon and directly
leap to some kind of "spaceship hypothesis." My experience in interviewing wit-
nesses in the selected sample I have examined since 1966 is that the witness first
SOME REMARKS ON INTERVIEWING EXPERIENCE AND TYPES OF UFO CASES ENCOUNTERED
attempts to fit the anomalous observation into some entirely conventional
category. "I thought it must be an airplane." Or, "At first, I thought it was an
1. Sources of cases dealt with
auto-wrecker with its red light blinking." Or, "I thought it was a meteor-until
1966, I have interviewed about 200-250 more. The basis of my post-1966 inter-
Prior to 1966, I had interviewed about 150-200 persons reporting UFOs; since
it stopped dead in midair," etc. Hynek has a very happy phrase for this very
typical pattern of witness-response: he terms it "escalation of explanation", to
witnesses, whose sightings I heard about essentially by chance. Almost all of
viewing has been quite different from the earlier period of interviewing of local
denote the often rapid succession of increasingly more involved attempts to ac-
count for and to assimilate what is passing before the witness' eyes, almost in-
post-1966 interviews have been with witnesses in cases already investigated my by
variably starting with an everyday interpretation, not with a spaceship hypoth-
one or more of the private UFO investigatory groups such as NICAP or APRO,
esis. Indeed, I probably react in a way characteristic of all UFO investigators;
or by the official investigative agency (Project Bluebook). Thus, after 1966, I
in those comparatively rare cases where the witness discloses that he immediately
was not dealing with a body of witnesses reporting Venus, fireballs, and aircraft
interpreted what he sighted as an extraterrestrial device, I back away from what
prior of checks I was taking advantage of had already culled out and rejected most
strobelights, because such cases are SO easily recognizable that the groups whose
is likely to be a most unprofitable interview. I repeat: such instances are really
quite rare; most of the general population has soaked up a degree of scientific
such irrelevant material. Many of the cases I checked were older cases, some
conventionalism that reflects the net result of decades, if not centuries of scien-
investigatory groups here and in other parts of the world (especially the
over 20 years old. It was primarily the background work of the many independent
tific shaping of our views. I might interject that the segment of the population
drawn to Hypothesis 8 above might be quick to jump to a spaceship interpreta-
that Australian area where I had an opportunity to interview about 80 witnesses)
tion on seeing something unusual in the sky, but, on the whole, those persons
made possible my dealing with that type of once-sifted data that yields
convinced of Hypothesis 8 are quite uninterested in observations, per se. Their
scientifically interesting information SO quickly. I wish to put on record up
conviction is firm without bothering about such things as observational matters.
indebtedness to these "dedicated amateurs", to use the astronomer's genial my
At least that is what I have sensed from such exposure as I have had to those
term; their contribution to the ultimate clarification of the UFO problem will be-
who support Hypothesis 8 fervently.
come recognized as having been of basic importance, notwithstanding the scorn
3. Credibility of witnesses
with which scientists have, on more than one occasion, dismissed their efforts.
Evaluating credibility of witnesses is, of course, an ever-present problem at
Although I cite only the larger of these groups (NICAP about 12,000 members,
the present stage of UFO studies. Again, from discussions with other investi-
APRO about 8,000), there are many smaller groups here and abroad that have
gators, I have concluded that common sense and previous everyday experience
done other a most commendable job on almost no resources. (Needless to add, there are
with prevaricators and unreliable persons lead each serious UFO investigator
aspects.) small groups whose concern is only with sensational and speculative
to evolve a set of criteria that do not differ much from those used in jury instruc-
tions in our courts (e.g., Federal Jury Instructions). It seems tedious to enlarge
2. Some relevant witness-characteristics
here on those obvious matters. One can be fooled, of course; but it would be
By frequently discussing my own interviewing experience with members of
rash indeed to suggest that the thousands of UFO reports now on record are
those non-official UFO groups whose past work has been SO indispensable to
simply a testimony to confabulation, as will be better argued by some of the cases
own studies, I have learned that most of my own reactions to the UFO witness- my
to be recounted below.
interview problem are shared by those investigators. The recurrent problem of
4. Observational reliability of witnesses
meaningful estimates of angular size, angular elevation, and angular displace-
securing unequivocal descriptions, the almost excruciating difficulty in securing
Separate from credibility in the sense of trustworthiness and honesty is the
question of the human being as a sensing system. Clearly, it is indispensable to
ments from laymen, the inevitable variance of witness-descriptions of a shared
be aware of psychophysical factors limiting visual discrimination, time estima-
observation, and other difficulties of non-instrumental observing are familiar to
tion, distance estimation, angular estimation, etc. In dealing with the total
all who have investigated UFO reports. But SO also are the impressions of wide-
sample of all observations which laymen initially label as UFOs, such factors
spread concern among UFO witnesses to avoid (rather than to seek) publicity
play a large role in sorting out dubious cases. In the type of UFO reports that
over their sightings. The strong disinclination to make an open report of an ob-
are of primary significance at present, close-range sightings of objects of large
servation of something the witness realizes is far outside the bounds of accepted
size moving at low velocities, or at rest, and in sight for many seconds rather
experience crops up again and again. In my interviewing in 1947 sightings, done
than fractions of a second, all of these perceptual problems diminish in sig-
as a crosscheck on case material used in a very valuable recent publication by
nificance, though they can never be overlooked.
Bloecher (Ref. 8), I came to realize clearly for the first time that this reluctance
A frequent objection to serious consideration of UFO reports, made by skeptics
was not something instilled by post-1947 scoffing at UFOs, but is part of a broadly
who have done no first-hand case investigations, is based on the widely discrepant
disseminated attitude to discount the anomalous and the inexplicable, to be un-
accounts known to be presented by trial-witnesses who have all been present at
willing even to report what one has seen with his own eyes if it is well outside
some incident. To be sure, the same kind of discrepancies emerge in multiple-
normal experience as currently accepted. I have heard fellow-scientists express
witness UFO incidents. People differ as to directions, relative times, sizes, etc.
dismay at the unscientific credulity with which the general public jumps to the
But I believe it is not unfair to remark, as the basic rebuttal to this attack on
conclusion that UFOs are spaceships. Those scientists have certainly not inter-
UFO accounts, that a group of witnesses who see a street-corner automobile col-
viewed many UFO witnesses; for almost precisely the opposite attitude is over-
lision do not come to court and proceed, in turn, to describe the event as a
whelmingly the characteristic response. In my Australian interviewing, I found
rhinoceros ramming a baby carriage, or as an airplane exploding on impact with
the same uneasy feeling about openly reporting an observation of a well-defined
a nearby building. There are, it needs to be soberly remembered, quite reasonable
UFO sighting, lest acquaintances think one "has gone round the bend." Investiga-
bounds upon the variance of witness testimonies in such cases. Thus, when one
tors in still other parts of the world where modern scientific values dominate
finds a half-dozen persons all saying that they were a few hundred feet from
world-views have told me of encountering just this same witness-reluctance. The
a domed disk with no resemblance to any known aircraft, that it took off with-
charge that UFO witnesses, as a group, are hyperexcitable types is entirely in-
out a sound, and was gone from sight in five seconds, the almost inevitable varia-
correct. I would agree with the way Maj. Gen. John A. Samford, then Director of
tions in descriptions of distances, shape, secondary features, noises, and times
38
39
cannot be allowed to discount, per se, the basically significant nature of their
collective account. I have talked with a few scientists, especially some
(b) Close-range sightings of wingless discs and cigar-shaped objects.-This
which chologists, whose puristic insistence on the miserable observing equipment with psy-
category is far more interesting. Many are daytime sightings, many have been
the human species is cursed almost makes me wonder how they dare
made by witnesses of quite high credibility. Structural details such as "ports"
a busy traffic intersection. Some balance in evaluating witness perceptual limita- cross
and "legs" (to use the terms the witnesses have adopted to suggest most closely
tions is surely called for in all of these situations. With that balance must
what they think they have seen) are described in many instances. Lack of
healthy skepticism as to most of the finer details, unless agreed upon by several go a
wings and lack of evident means of propulsion clearly rule out conventional
independent witnesses. There is no blinking that anecdotal data are less than
aircraft and helicopters. Many are soundless, many move at such speeds and
ideal; at but sometimes you have to go with what you've got. To make a beginning
with such accelerations that they defy understanding in terms of present
UFO study has required scrutiny of such anecdotal data the urgent need is
technology. It is to be understood that I speak here only of reports from what
to get on to something much better.
I regard as credible observers.
5. Problem of witness' prior knowledge of UFO phenomena
(c) Close-range nighttime sightings of glowing, hovering objects, often with
blinking or pulsating discrete lights.-In these instances, distinct shape is not
In interviewing UFO witnesses, it is important to try to ascertain whether the
seen, evidently in many cases because of the brilliance of the lights. Less
witness was, prior to his reported sighting, familiar or unfamiliar with books and
significant than those of the preceding category, these nonetheless cannot be
of writings on UFOs. Although a strong degree of familiarity with the literature
accounted for in terms of any known vehicles. Frequently they are reported
UFOs does not negate witness testimony, it dictates caution. Anyone who has
hovering over vehicles on the ground or following them. Sometimes they are
will done a lot of interviewing at the local level, involving previously unsifted
be familiar with occasional instances where the witness exhibited such cases,
reported hovering over structures, factories, power installations, and the like.
obvious enthusiasm for the UFO problem that prudence demanded rejection an of
Soundlessness is typical. Estimated sizes vary widely, over a range that I do
his account.
not believe can be accounted for simply in terms of the known unreliability of
However, in my own experience, a much more common reaction to questions
distance and size estimates when one views an unknown object.
that concerning pre-sighting interest in UFO matters is some comment to the effect
(d) Radar-tracked objects, sometimes seen visually simultaneously by ob-
to the witness not only knew little about UFOs beyond what he'd happened
servers on the ground or in the air.-In many of these cases, the clues to the
read in newspapers, but he was strongly disinclined to take the whole business
non-conventional nature of the radar target is high speed (estimated at thou-
seriously. The repetitiveness and yet the spontaneity with which witnesses of
sands of miles per hour in certain instances) ; in others, it is alternate motion
seeming high credibility make statements similar to, "I didn't believe there
and hovering; in still others, it has been the unconventional vertical motions
feature of the interview-experience of all of the investigators with whom I have
anything to all the talk about UFOs until I actually saw this thing," is a notable was
that make the radar observations significant. Clearly, most important are those
instances in which there was close agreement between the visual and the radar
talked. Obviously, an intending prevaricator might seek to deceive his inter-
unknown. There are far more such cases than either scientists or public would
rogator by inventing such an assertion but I can only say that suspicion of being
guess.
SO duped has not been aroused more than once or twice in all of the hundreds of
Those four categories do not exhaust the list by any means. But they constitute
own instances, I have lost interest in a case because of a witness openly stressing his
witnesses I have interviewed. On the other hand, I suppose that, in several dozen
four commonly encountered categories that are of interest here. Examples will
be found below.
prior and subsequent interest in the extraterrestrial hypothesis.
7. Commonly encountered questions
Occasionally is one encounters witnesses for whom the chance of prior knowl-
As Mark Twain said, "Faith is a great thing, but it's doubt that gets you an
Rev. edge SO low as to be almost amusing. An Anglican missionary in New
education."
witnesses N. E. G. Cruttwell (Ref. 9), who has done much interviewing of Guinea, UFO
There are many questions that one encounters again and again from persons
the in his area, has described testimony of natives who come down
who have done no personal case-checking and who maintain a healthy skepticism
yet hunting, who natives who could not read UFO reports in any language of the wallaby-
mission area from their highland home territory only when they are into
about UFOs. Why don't pilots report these things if they are buzzing around in
our skies? Why aren't they tracked on radar? Why don't our satellite and astro-
munications-shortcut the of picking up a bowl or dish from a nearby table to com-
come around, in their descriptions of what they have seen, to the world,
nomical tracking systems get photos of UFOs? Why are they always seen in out-
shape they are seeking to describe in native tongue. Little chance suggest of bias
of-the-way rural areas but never over large cities? Why don't large groups of
gained from reading magazines in a barber-chair in such instances.
people ever simultaneously see UFOs, instead of lone individuals? Why don't
astronomers see them? Shouldn't UFOs occasionally crash and leave clear-cut
6. Types of UFO accounts of present interest
physical evidence of their reality? Or shouldn't they at least leave some residual
tive listing of categories of UFO phenomena: much of what might be made clear
The scope of the present statement precludes anything approaching an exhaus-
physical evidence in those alleged instances where the objects have landed?
Shouldn't they affect radios and produce other electromagnetic effects at times?
at great length will have to be compressed into my remark that the scientific
If UFOs are a product of some high civilization, wouldn't one expect something
world at large is in for a shock when it becomes aware of the astonishing
of the nature of inquisitive behavior, since innate curiosity must be a common
nature terse of the UFO phenomenon and its bewildering complexity. I make that
denominator of anything we would call "intelligence"? Why haven't they con-
tacted us if they're from somewhere else in the universe and have been here for
demands UFO that I make clear that my two years' study convinces me that in the
comment well aware that it invites easy ridicule; but intellectual honesty
at least two decades? Is there any evidence of hostility or hazard? Are UFOs
problem lie scientific and technological questions that will challenge the
seen only in this country? Why didn't we see them before 1947, if they come from
examining the facts.
ability of the world's outstanding scientists to explain-as soon as they start
remote sources? And SO on.
In the following sections, I shall show how some of these questions do have
(a) the Lights in the night sky.-("DLs" as they are called by the NICAP staff.
quite satisfactory answers, and how some of them still defy adequate rebuttal.
on basis that the profusion of reports of "damnable lights" meandering or
I shall use mostly cases that I have personally investigated, but, in a few in-
hovering the or racing across the night sky in unexplainable manner are of
stances (clearly indicated), I shall draw upon cases which I have not directly
most common, yet one of the least useful and significant categories of one UFO
checked but for which I regard the case-credentials as very strong.
reports.) Ultimately, I think their significance could become scientifically
S. Useful source materials on UFO's
substantial UFO when instrumental observing techniques are in wide use to monitor very
Hoping that Committee staff personnel will be pursuing these matters further,
movements. But there are many ways that observers can be misled by
I remark next on some of the more significant items in the UFO literature. All
lights in the night sky, SO I shall discuss below only such few cases as of
of these have been helpful in my own studies.
extremely unconventional nature and where the protocols of the observations are
One of the outstanding UFO references (though little-known in scientific cir-
are unusually strong.
cles) is The UFO Evidence, edited by R. H. Hall and published by NICAP
(Ref. 10). It summarizes about 750 UFO cases in the NICAP files up to about
40
41
1964. I have cross-checked a sufficiently large sample of cases from this reference
to have confidence in its generally very high reliability. A sequel volume, now
I hold no brief at all for the latter in terms of my present knowledge and inter-
in editorial preparation at NICAP, will cover the 1964-68 period. Reference 8, by
viewing experience. But occupants there seem to be, and contact of a limited
Bloecher, is one of the few sources of extensive documentation (here primarily
sort may well have occurred, according to certain of the reports. I do not regard
from national newspaper sources) of the large cluster of sightings in a period of
myself as very well-informed on this point, and will say little more on this
just a few weeks in the summer of 1947; its study is essential to appreciation
below.)
of the opening phases of the publicly recognized UFO problem. Reference 7 is
It is, of course, somewhat more difficult to assess the reliability of foreign
another now-accessible source of extremely significant UFO documentation; it
UFO references. Michel (Ref. 13) has assembled a day-by-day account of the
is unfortunate that no generally accessible version of Reference 6 exists, though
remarkable French UFO wave of the fall of 1954, translated into English by the
the Moss Subcommittee, through pleas of Dr. Leon Davidson, has managed to get
staff of CSI (Civilian Saucer Intelligence) of New York City, a now-inactive
it into a status of at least limited accessibility. I am indebted to Davidson for
but once very productive independent group. I have spoken with persons having
a recent opportunity to study it for details I missed when I saw it two years ago
first-hand knowledge of the French 1954 episode, and they attest to its astonish-
at Bluebook headquarters.
ing nature. Life and The New Yorker published full contemporary accounts at
The 1956 book by Ruppelt (Ref. 5) is a source whose authenticity I have
the time of the 1954 European wave. An earlier book by Michel (Ref. 14), also
learned, through much personal cross-checking, is far higher than I surmised
available in English, deals with a broader temporal and geographic range of
when I first read it a dozen years ago. It was for years difficult for me to believe
European UFO sightings. A just-published account of about 70 UFO sightings
that the case-material which he summarized could come from real cases. Refer-
that occurred within a relatively small area around Stoke-on-Trent, England,
ences 5 and 6, plus other sources, do, however, now attest to Ruppelt's generally
in the summer and fall of 1967 (Ref. 15) presents an unusual cross-section of
high reliability. Similarly Keyhoe's books (Refs. 3 and 4) emerge as sources of
sightings that appear to be well-documented. A number of foreign UFO journals
UFO case material whose reliability far exceeds my own first estimates thereof.
are helpful sources of the steady flow of UFO reports from other parts of the
As a scientist, I would have been much more comfortable about Keyhoe's books
world, but a cataloging will not be attempted here. Information on some of these,
had they been shorn of extensive direct quotes and suspenseful dramatizations;
as well as on smaller American groups, can be found in the two important books
but I must stress that much checking on my part has convinced me that Keyhoe's
by Vallee (Refs. 16 and 17).
reportorial accuracy was almost uniformly high. Scientists will tend to be put
Information on pre-1947 UFO-type sightings form the subject of a recent study
off by some of his scientific commentary, as well as by his style; but on UFO
by Lore and Denault (Ref. 18). I shall return to this phase of the UFO problem
case material, his reliability must be recognized as impressive. (Perhaps it is
below; I regard it as being of potentially very great significance, though there
well to insert here the general proviso that none of these sources, including my-
is need for far more scholarly and scientific research before much of it can be
self, can be expected to be characterized by 100 per cent accuracy in a problem
safely interpreted. Another source of sightings of which many may ultimately be
as intrinsically messy as the UFO problem; here I am trying to draw attention
found to fall within the presently understood category of UFO sightings is the
to sources whose reliability appears to be in the 90+% range.)
writings of Charles Fort (Ref. 19). His curious books are often drawn upon for
A useful collection of 160 UFO cases drawn from a wide variety of sources has
material on old sightings, but not often duly acknowledged for the mine of infor-
been published by Olsen (Ref. 11), 32 of which he obtained directly from the
mation they comprise. I am afraid that it has not been fashionable to take Fort
official files of Project Bluebook, a feature of particular interest. A book devoted
seriously; it certainly took me some time to recognize that, mixed into his vol-
to a single short period of numerous UFO observations within a small geographic
uminous writings, is much that remains untapped for its scientific import. I
area, centering around an important sighting near Exeter, N.H., is Fuller's
cannot imagine any escalated program of research on the UFO program that
Incident at Exeter (Ref. 12). Having checked personally on a number of features
would not have a subgroup studying Fortean reports documented from 19th
of the main Sept. 3, 1965, sighting, and having checked indirectly on other as-
century sources.
pects, I would describe Reference 12 as one of the significant source-items on
To close this brief compilation of useful UFO references, two recent commen-
UFOs.
taries (not primarily source-references) of merit may be cited, books by Stanton
Several books by the Lorenzens, organizers of APRO, the oldest continuing
(Ref. 20) and by Young (Ref. 21).
UFO investigating group in this country, contain valuable UFO reference mate-
Next, I examine a number of specific UFO cases that shed light on many of
rial (Ref. 13). Through their writing, and especially through the APRO Bulletin,
the recurrent questions of skeptical slant often raised against serious considera-
they have transmitted from South American sources numerous unusual sightings
tion of the UFO problem.
from that country. I have had almost no opportunity to cross-check those sight-
ings, but am satisfied that some quite reliable sources are being drawn upon. An
WHY DON'T PILOTS SEE UFO'S?
extremely unusual category of cases, those involving reports of humanoid oc-
cupants of landed UFOs, has been explored to a greater extent by APRO than
This question may come in just that form from persons with essentially
by NICAP. Like NICAP, I have tended to skirt such cases on tactical grounds;
no knoweldge of UFO history. From others who do know that there have been
the reports are bizarre, and the circumstances of all such sightings are auto-
"a few" pilot-sightings, it comes in some altered form, such as, "Why don't airline
matically charged in a psychological sense not found in other types of close-
and military pilots see UFO's all the time if they are in our atmosphere?" By way
range sightings of mere machine-like devices. Since I shall not take up below
of partial answer, consider the following cases. (To facilitate internal reference,
this occupant problem, let me add the comment that I do regard the total number
I shall number sequentially all cases hereafter treated in detail.)
of such seemingly reliable reports (well over a hundred came just from cen-
1. Case 1. Boise, Idaho, July 4, 1947
tral France in the outstanding 1954 sighting wave in that country), far too great
Only about a week after the now-famous Mt. Rainier sighting by private pilot
to brush aside. Expert psychological opinion is badly needed in assessing such
Kenneth Arnold, a United Air Lines DC-3 crew sighted two separate formations
reports (expert but not close-minded opinion). For the record, I should have to
of wingless discs, shortly after takeoff from Boise (Refs. 8, 10, 22, 23). I located
state that my interviewing results dispose me toward acceptance of the existence
and interviewed the pilot, Capt. Emil J. Smith, now with United's New York
of humanoid occupants in some UFOs. I would not argue with those who say that
office. He confirmed the reliability of previously published accounts. United Flight
this might be the single most important element of the entire UFO puzzle; I
105 had left Boise at 9:04 p.m. About eight minutes out, en route to Seattle,
would only say that most of my efforts over the past two years, being aimed
roughly over Emmet, Idaho, Co-pilot Stevens, who spotted the first of two
at arousing a new degree of scientific interest among my colleagues in the physi-
groups of objects, turned on his landing lights under the initial impression the
cal sciences, have led me to play down even the little that I do know about
objects were aircraft. But, studying them against the twilight sky, Smith and
occupant sightings. One or two early attempts to touch upon that point within
Stevens soon realized that neither wings nor tails were visible on the five objects
the time-limits of a one-hour colloqúium taught me that one loses more than
ahead. After calling a stewardess, in order to get a third confirming witness,
he gains in speaking briefly about UFO occupants. (Occupant sightings must be
they watched the formation a bit longer, called Ontario, Oregon CAA to try to
carefully distinguished from elaborate "contact-claims" with the Space Brothers;
get ground-confirmation, and then saw the formation spurt ahead and disappear
at high speed off to the west.
42
43
Smith emphasized to me that there were no cloud phenomena to confuse them
Discussion. This case has been the subject of much comment over the years,
here and that they observed these objects long enough to be quite certain that
and rightly SO. Menzel. (Ref. 24) first proposed that this was a "mirage", but
they were no conventional aircraft. They appeared "flat on the bottom, rounded
gave no basis for such an unreasonable interpretation. The large azimuth-change
on top", he told me, and he added that there seemed to be perceptible "roughness"
of the pilots' line of sight, the lack:of any obvious light source to provide a basis
of some sort on top, though he could not refine that description. Almost imme-
for the rather detailed structure of what was seen, the sharp pull-up, and the
diately after they lost sight of the first five, a second formation of four (three
high flight altitude involved all argue quite strongly against such a casual dis-
in line and a fourth off to the side) moved in ahead of their position, again
position of the case. In his second book, Menzel (Ref. 25) shifts to the explana-
travelling westward but at a somewhat higher altitude than the DC-3's 8000 ft.
tion that they had obviously seen a meteor. A horizontally-moving fireball under
These passed quickly out of sight to the west at speeds which they felt were far
a cloud-deck, at 5000 ft., exhibiting two rows of lights construed by experienced
beyond then-known speeds. Smith emphasized that they were never certain of
pilots as ports, and finally executing a most non-ballistic 90-degree sharp pull-up,
sizes and distances, but that they had the general impression that these dics-like
is a strange fireball indeed. Menzels 1963 explanation is even more objectionable,
craft were appreciably larger than ordinary aircraft. Smith emphasized that he
in that he implies, via a page of side-discussion, that the Eastern pilots had
had not taken seriously the previous week's news accounts that coined the since-
seen a fireball from the Delta Aquarid meteor stream. As I have pointed out
persistent term, "flying saucer." But, after seeing this total of nine unconventional,
elsewhere (Ref. 2), the radiant of that stream was well over 90° away from
high-speed wingless craft on the evening of 7/4/47, he became much more
the origin point of the unknown object. Also, bright fireballs are, with only
interested in the matter. Nevertheless, in talking with me, he stressed that he
rare exceptions, not typical of meteor streams. The official explanation was
would not speculate on their real nature or origin. I have spoken with United
shifted recently from "Unidentified" to "Meteor", following publication of Men-
Air Lines personnel who have known Smith for years and vouch for his complete
zel's 1963 discussion (see Ref. 20, p. 88).
reliability.
Wingless, cigar-shaped or "rocket-shaped" objects, some emitting glowing
Discussion.-The 7/4/47 United Air Lines sighting is of historic interest be-
wakes, have been reported by other witnesses. Thus, Air Force Capt. Jack
cause it was obviously given much more credence than any of the other 85 UFO
Puckett, flying near 4000 ft. over Tampa in a C-47 on August 1, 1946 (Ref. 10,
reports published in press accounts on July 4, 1947 (see Ref. 8). By no means
p. 23), described seeing "a long, cylindrical shape approximately twice the size
the most impressive UFO sighting by an airliner crew, nevertheless, it is a
of a B-29 with luminous portholes", from the aft end of which there came a
significant one. It occurred in clear weather, spanned a total time estimated at
stream of fire as it flew near his aircraft. Puckett states that he, his copilot, Lt.
10-12 minutes, was a multiple-witness case including two experienced observers
H. F. Glass, and the flight engineer also saw it as it came in to within an esti-
familiar with airborne devices, and was made over a 1000-ft. altitude range
mated 1000 yards before veering off. Another somewhat similar airborne sight-
(climb-out) that, taken together with the fact that the nine objects were seen
ing, made in January 22, 1956 by TWA Flight Engineer Robert Mueller at night
well above the horizon, entirely rules out optical phenomena as a ready expla-
over New Orleans, is on record (Ref. 27). Still another similar sighting is the
nation. It is officially listed as a Unidentified.
AAL case cited below (Sperry case). Again, over Truk Is., in the Pacific, a
Feb. 6, 1953, mid-day sighting by a weather officer involved a bullet-shaped
2. Case 2. Montgomery, Alabama, July 24, 1948
object without wings or tail (Ref. 7, Rept. No. 10). Finally, within an hour's
Another one of the famous airline sightings of earlier years is the Chiles-
time of the Chiles-Whitted sighting, Air Force ground personnel at Robins AFB,
Whitted Eastern Airlines case (Refs. 3, 5, 6, 10, 23, 24, 25, 26). An Eastern DC-3,
Georgia, saw a rocket-like object shoot overhead in a westerly direction (Refs.
en route from Houston to Atlanta, was flying at an altitude of about 5000 ft.,
3, 5, 10, 6). In none of these instances does a meteorological or astronomical
near Montgomery at 2:45 a.m. The pilot, Capt. Clarence S. Chiles, and the co-pilot,
explanation suffice to explain the sightings.
John B. Whitted, both of whom now fly jets for Eastern, were experienced fliers
3. Case 3. Sioux City, Iowa, January 20, 1951.
(for example, Chiles then had 8500 hours in the air, and both had wartime
Another of the many airline-crew sightings of highly unconventional aerial
military flying duty behind them). I interviewed both Chiles and Whitted earlier
devices that I have personally checked was, like Cases 1 and 2, widely reported
this year to cross-check the many points of interests in this case. Space precludes
in the national press (for a day or two, and then forgotten like the rest). A
a full account of all relevant details.
check of weather data confirms that the night of 1/20/51 was clear and cold at
Chiles pointed out to me that they first saw the object coming out of a distant
Sioux City at the time that a Mid-Continent Airlines DC-3, piloted by Lawrence
squall-line area which they were just reconnoitering. At first, they thought it
W. Vinther, was about to take off for Omaha and Kansas City, at 8:20 p.m. CST.
was a jet, whose exhaust was somehow accounting for the advancing glow that
In the CAA control tower, John M. Williams had been noting an oddly maneuver-
had first caught their eyes. Coming almost directly at them at nearly their flight
ing light high in a westerly direction. Suddently the light abruptly accelerated,
altitude, it passed off their starboard wing at a distance on which the two men
in a manner clearly precluding either meteoric or aircraft origin, SO Williams
could not closely agree: one felt it was under 1000 ft., the other put it at sev-
alerted Vinther and his co-pilot, James F. Bachmeier. The incident has been
eral times that. But both agreed, then and in my 1968 interview, that the object
discussed many times (Ref. 4, 5, 10, and 28), but to check details of these reports,
was some kind of vehicle. They saw no wings or empennage, but both were
I searched for and finally located all three of the above-named men. Vinther
struck by a pair of rows of windows or some apparent openings from which
and Bachmeier are now Braniff pilots, Williams is with the FAA in Sacramento.
there came a bright glow "like burning magnesium." The object had a pointed
From them I confirmed the principal features of previous accounts and learned
"nose", and from the nose to the rear along its underside there was a bluish
additional information too lengthy to recapitulate in full here.
glow. Out of the rear end came an orange-red exhaust or wake that extended
The essential point to be emphasized is that, shortly after Vinther got his
back by about the same distance as the object's length. The two men agreed that
DC-3 airborne, under Williams' instructions to investigate the oddly-behaving
its size approximated that of a B-29, though perhaps twice as thick. Their un-
light, the object executed a sudden dive and flew over the DC-3 at an estimated
certainty as to true distance, of course, renders this only a rough impression.
200 ft. vertical clearance, passing aft and downward. Then a surprising ma-
There is uncertainty in the record, and in their respective recollections, as to
neuver unfolded. As Vinther described it to me, and as described in contemporary
whether their DC-3 was rocked by something like a wake. Perception of such
accounts, the object suddenly reversed course almost 180°, without slowing down
an effect would have been masked by Chiles' spontaneous reaction of turning
or slewing, and was momentarily flying formation with their DC-3, off its port
the DC-3 off to the left as the object came in on their right. Both saw it pass aft
wing. (Vinther's dry comment to me was: "This is something we don't see air-
of them and do an abrupt pull-up; but only Whitted, on the right side, saw the
planes do.") Vinther and Bachmeier agreed that the object was very big, per-
terminal phase in which the object disappeared after a short but fast vertical
haps somewhat larger than a B-29, they suggested to newspapermen who in-
ascent. By "disappeared", Whitted made clear to me that he meant just that;
terviewed them the following day. Moonlight gave them a good silhouetted view
earlier interrogations evidently construed this to mean "disappeared aloft" or
of the object, which they described as having the form of a fuselage and un-
into the broken cloud deck that lay above them. Whitted said that was not so;
swept wing, but not a sign of any empennage, nor any sign of engine-pods,
the object vanished instantaneously after its sharp pull-up. (This is not an iso-
propellers, or jets. Prior to its dive, it had been seen only as a light; while
lated instance of abrupt disappearance. Obviously I cannot account for such
pacing their DC-3, the men saw no luminosity, though during the dive they
cases.)
saw a light on its underside. After about five seconds, the unknown object
44
45
began to descend below them and flew under their plane. They put the DC-3 into a
of the windshield as a point. The object moved past this member at about 50
steep bank to try to keep it in view as it began this maneuver; and as it crossed
under them, they lost it, not to regain sight of it subsequently.
degrees per second. This object was peculiar in that it had what can be described
as a halo around it with a dark undersurface. It crossed rapidly and then slowed
There is much more detail, not all mutually consistent as to maneuvers and
down and started to climb in lazy circles slowly. The pattern it made was like
directions, in the full accounts I obtained from Vinther, Bachmeier, and
Williams. The dive, pacing, and fly-under maneuvers were made quickly and at
a falling oak leaf inverted. It went through these gyrations for a couple minutes
and then with a very rapid acceleration disappeared to the east. This object Dick
such a distance from the field that Williams did not see them clearly, though
he did see the object leave the vicinity of the DC-3. An Air Force colonel and
and I watched for approximately five minutes."
his aide were among the passangers, and the aide caught a glimpse of the
Shortly after, still another unknown object shot straight across the sky from
unknown object, but I have been unable to locate him for further cross-check.
west to east, but not before Kaliszewski succeeded in radioing theodolite ob-
Discussion.-The erratic maneuvers exhibited by the unknown object while
servers at the University of Minnesota Airport. Two observers there (Douglas
under observation from the control tower would, by themselves, make this a
Smith, Richard Dorian) got fleeting glimpses of what appeared to them to be
better-than-average case. But the fact that those maneuvers prompted a tower
a cigar-shaped object viewed through the theodolite, but could not keep it in view
due to its fast angular motion. In my conversations with Kaliszewski about these
operator to alert a departing aircrew to investigate, only to have the object
dive upon and pace the aircraft after a non-inertial course-reversal, makes this
sightings, I gained the impression of talking with a careful observer, in full
accord with impressions held by three other independent sources, including Air
an unusually interesting UFO. Its configuration, about which Vinther and
Bachmeier were quite positive in their remarks to me (they repeatedly em-
Force investigators.
Discussion.-The October 10 sighting is officially categorized as "Aircraft,"
phasized the bright moonlight, which checks with the near-full moon on 1/20/51
and the sky-cover data I obtained from the Sioux City Weather Bureau), com-
the October 11 main sighting as "Unidentified." When I mentioned this to Kalis-
bines with other features of the sighting to make it a most significant case.
zewski, he was unable to understand how any distinction could be SO drawn be-
The reported shape (tailless, engineless, unswept aircraft of large size) does not
tween the two sightings, both of which he felt matched no known aeronautical
match that of any other UFO that I am aware of; but my exposure to the be-
device. Clearly, objects performing such intricate maneuvers are not meteors,
wildering range of reported configurations now on record makes this point less
nor can they be fitted to any known meteorological explanations of which I am
difficult to assimilate. This case is officially carried as Unidentified, and, in a
aware. Instead, these objects seem best described as devices well beyond the
1955 publication (Ref. 29), was one of 12 Unidentifieds singled out for special
state of 1951 (or 1968) technology.
comment. A contemporary account (Ref. 28), taking note of a then recent pro-
5. Case 5. Willow Grove, Pa., May 21, 1966
nouncement that virtually all UFOs are explainable in terms of misidentified
Skipping over many other pilot observations to a more recent one which I
Skyhook balloons, carried a lead-caption. "The Office of Naval Research claims
have personally checked, I call attention to a close-range airborne sighting of a
that cosmic ray balloons explain all saucer reports. If so, what did this pilot
domed-disc, seen under midday conditions by two observers. One of them, Wil-
see?" Certainly it would not be readily explained away as a balloon, a meteor,
liam C. Powell, of Radnor, Pa., is a pilot with 18,000 logged flight hours. He
a sundog, or ball lighting. Rather, it seems to be just one more of thousands of
and a passenger, Miss Muriel McClave, were flying in Powell's Luscombe in the
Unidentified Flying Objects for which we have no present explanations be-
Philadelphia area on the afternoon of 5/21/66 when an object that had been
cause we have laughed such reports out of scientific court. Bachmeier stated
first spotted as it apparently followed an outbound flight of Navy jets from
$
to me that, at the time, he felt it had to be some kind of secret device, but, in the
Willow Grove NAS made a sharp (non-banking) turn and headed for Powell's
ensuing 17 years, we have not heard of any aircraft that can execute instan-
plane on a near-collision course. As the object passed close by, at a distance that
taneous course-reversal. Vinther's comment to me on a final question I asked as
Powell put at roughly 100-yards, they both got a good look at the object. It was
to what he thinks, in general, about the many airline-pilot sightings of uni-
circular in planform and had no wings or visible means of propulsion, both wit-
hallucinations." dentified objects over the past 20 years, was: "We're not all having
nesses emphasized to me in interviews. The upper domed portion they described
as "porcelain-white", while the lower discoid portion was bright red ("dayglow
4. Case 4. Minneapolis, Minn., October 11, 1951
red" Powell put it). It was slightly below their altitude as it passed on their
There are far more private pilots than airline pilots, SO it is not surprising
right, and Powell pointed out that it was entirely solid, for it obscured the dis-
that there are more UFO sightings from the former than the latter. An engineer
tant horizon areas. His brief comment about its solidity and reality was, "It
and former Air Force P-38 pilot, Joseph J. Kaliszewski, flying for the General
was just like looking at a Cadillac." He estimated its airspeed as perhaps 200
Mills Skyhook balloon program on balloon-tracking missions. saw highly uncon-
mph, and it moved in a steady, non-fluttering manner. He estimated its diameter
ventional objects on two successive days in October, 1951 (Refs. 5, 7, 10). Both
at perhaps 20 feet. Miss McClave thought it might have been nearer 40 feet
were reported through company channels to the official investigative agency
across. Each put the thickness-to-diameter ratio as about one-half. After it passed
(Bluebook), whose report (Ref. 7) describes the witnesses as "very reliable"
their starboard wing, Powell could see it only by looking back over his shoulder
and as "experienced high altitude balloon observers." On October 10, at about
through a small aft window, but Miss McClave had it in full view when suddenly,
10:10 a.m., Kaliszewski and Jack Donaghue were at 6000 ft. in their light plane,
she stated to me, it disappeared instantaneously, and they saw no more of it.
climbing toward their target balloon, when Kaliszewski spotted "a strange ob-
Discussion.-Powell flies executive transports for a large Eastern firm, after
ject crossing the skies from East to West, a great deal higher and behind our
years of military and airline duty. I have discussed the case with one of his
balloon (which was near 20,000 ft. at that time). When I interviewed Kaliszew-
superiors, who speaks without qualification for Powell's trustworthiness. At a
ski, he confirmed that this object "had a peculiar glow to it, crossing behind and
UFO panel discussion held on April 22, 1967 at the annual meeting of the Ameri-
above our balloon from east to west very rapidly, first coming in at a slight dive,
can Society of Newspaper Editors, Powell was asked to summarize his sighting.
leveling off for about a minute and slowing down, then into a sharp left turn
His account is in the proceedings of that session (Ref. 30). I know of no natural
and climbing at an angle of 50 to 60° into the southeast with a terrific accelera-
phenomenon that could come close to explaining this sighting. The visibility was
tion." The two observers had the object in view for an estimated two minutes,
about 15 miles, they were flying in the clear at 4500 ft., and the object passed
during which it crossed a span of some 45° of the sky. No vapor trail was seen,
nearby. A pilot with 18,000 hours flight experience is not capable of precise
and Kaliszewski was emphatic in asserting that it was not a balloon, jet, or con-
midair distance and speed estimates. but his survival has probably hinged on
ventional aircraft.
not commonly making errors of much over a factor or two. Given the account
The following morning, near 0630, Kaliszewski was flying on another balloon
and accepting its reliability, it seems necessary to say that here was one more
mission with Richard Reilly and, while airborne north of Minneapolis, the two
case of what Gen. Samford described as "credible observers seeing relatively
of them noticed an odd object. Quoting from the account submitted to the official
incredibile objects". I felt that Powell's summary of his sighting at the ASNE
agency (Ref. 7, Rept. No. 2)
meeting was particularly relevant because, in addition to my being on the panel
"The object was moving from east to west at a high rate and very high. We
there, Dr. D. H. Menzel and Mr. Philip J. Klass, both strong exponents of meteoro-
tried keeping the ship on a constant course and using the reinforcing member
logical-type UFO theories, were present to hear his account. I cannot see how one
could explain this incident in terms of meteorological optics nor in terms of ball
07
68
46
47
lighting plasmoids. Here again, we appear to be dealing with a meaningful obser-
vation of some vehicle or craft of non-terrestrial origin. Its reported instan-
probably stems chiefly from pilot reluctance to report. Both he and Adickes,
taneous disappearance defies (as does the same phenomenon reported by J. B.
like most other pilots I have asked, indicated they were unaware of any airline
Whitted and numerous other UFO witnesses) ready explanation in terms of
regulations precluding reporting, however. I mentioned to Adickes that there is
present-day scientific knowledge. Powell reported his sighting at Willow Grove
indirect indication in one reference (Ref. 5) that the official explanation for
NAS, but it engendered no interest.
this sighting was "blast-furnace reflections off clouds." He indicated this was
6. Case 6. Eastern Quebec, June 29, 1954.
absolutely out of the question. It is to be noted that here, as in many other
pilot sightings, an upper bound, even if rough, is imposed on the range to the
about which a great deal is on record, through contemporary press
A case in which I have not been able to directly interview any witnesses, but
unknown by virtue of a downward-slanting line of sight. In such instances,
meteor-explanations are almost automatically excluded. The Goshen case has
staff through the pilot's subsequent report, and through recent interviews accounts, by BBC
no evident meteorological, astronomical, or optical explanation.
A members, occurred near Seven Islands, Quebec, just after sunset on 6/29/54.
BOAC Stratocruiser, bound from New York to London with 51 passengers,
8. Case 8, Newport News, Va., July 14, 1952
followed for 18 minutes (about 80 miles of airpath) by one large object and was six
Another case in which experienced pilots viewed UFOs below them, and hence
smaller objects that flew curious "formations" about it. The pilot of the Strato-
had helpful background-cues to distance and size, occurred near 8:12 p.m. EST,
cruiser with was Capt. James Howard, a highly respected BOAC flight officer still
July 14, 1952. A Pan American DC-4, en route from New York to Miami, was
ing of both passengers and crew, gave statements as to the unprecedented nature
BOAC. At the time, he had had 7500 flight hours. About 20 witnesse, includ- flying
at 8000 ft over Chesapeake Bay, northeast of Newport News, when its cockpit
crew witnessed glowing, disc-shaped objects approaching them at a lower altitude
1954). these objects (Refs. 4, 10, and Associated Press wire stories datelined June 30,
(estimated at perhaps 2000 ft). First Officer Wm. B. Nash, at the controls for
Capt. Koepke (who was not on the flight deck during the sighting) and Second
Discussion.-The flight was at 19,000 ft in an area of generally fair
Officer Wm. H. Fortenberry saw six amber-glowing objects come in at high
obvious with good visibility, attested by Howard and by weather maps for that weather, day. No
velocity and execute a peculiar flipping maneuver during an acute-angle di-
long-duration relative sighting. The objects were dark, not glowing, and their this
optical or electrical explanation seems capable of accounting for
rection-change. Almost immediately after the first six reversed course, two other
apparently identical discs shot in under the DC-4, joining the other six. I am
ena could to the sunset point precludes sundogs as an explanation. Mirage phenom- position
omitting here certain other maneuver details of significance, since these are on
tematic not account for the eighty-mile persistence, nor for the type of
record in many accounts (4, 5, 10, 11, 25). Although I have not interviewed Nash
regular shape-changes described by the witnesses, nor for the sys-
(now in Germany with PAA, and Fortenberry is deceased), I believe that there
from formations taken up by the satellite objects as they shifted geometrically
has never been any dispute as to the observed facts. Nash has stated to T. M.
time to time. Just before an F-86 arrived from Goose AFB at Howard's positions
Olsen (author of Ref. 11) that one of the most accurate accounts of the facts
object. at that moment, said the small objects seemed to merge into the
objects request, First Officer Boyd and Navigator George Allen, who were watching the
has been given by Menzel (Ref. 25), adding that Menzel's explanation seems
entirely out of the question to him. A half-dozen witnesses on the ground also
of Then the large object receded rapidly towards the northwest and larger
saw unknowns at that time, according to official investigators.
sight in to a matter of seconds. Such a maneuver of a number of satellite was out
The objects had definite edges, and glowed "like hot coals", except when
seeming UFO merge with or to enter a larger object has been reported in objects other
they blinked out, as they did in unison just after the first six were joined by
incidents around the world.
the latter two. When the lights came back on, Nash and Fortenberry saw them
7. Case 7. Goshen, Ind., April 27, 1950
climbing westward, eight in line, north of Newport News. The objects climbed
above the altitude of the DC-4 and then blinked out in random order and were
involved Another the early airline sighting that seemed worth personally
seen no more
(Refs. crew and passengers of a TWA DC-3 on the evening cross-checking of
Discussion.-Menzel explains this famous sighting as resulting from a search-
the 4, 5, 10, 23). I have interviewed both the pilot, Capt. Robert 4/27/50
light playing on thin haze layers, an almost entirely ad hoc assumption, and one
first copilot, Capt. Robert F. Manning, and confirmed all of the principal Adickes, features and
that will not account for the amber color, nor for the distinct edges, nor for the
was at reported about in detail in a magazine account by Keyhoe (Ref. 31). The DC-3
final climb-out of the objects. The rapid motion, abrupt course-reversal, and the
Manning a glowing red object aft of the starboard wing, well to their Manning
spotted 2000 ft., headed for Chicago, when, at about 8:25 p.m.,
change from negative to positive angles of elevation of the line of sight to the
unknowns seem to preclude any meteorological-optical explanation, and there is,
sent to me a copy of notes that he had made later that night at rear. his
of course, no possibility of explaining cases like this in terms of ball lightning,
Chicago hotel. Quoting from the notes:
meteors, balloons, or many of the other frequently adduced phenomena. Nash
"It was similar in appearance to a rising blood red moon, and appeared
has stated that he feels these were "intelligently operated craft." This case
for closing about with us at a relatively slow rate of convergence. I watched its to be
is officially "Unidentified."
Adickes' two minutes, trying to determine what it might be. I then approach
9. Many other pilot sightings, both recent and old, could readily be cited. Not
was bearing of about 100 degrees and slightly lower than we object was It.
at a relative Gloria Henshaw, and pointed it out to her. At that time the rang for our
hostess, attention to the object asking what he thought it was. He attracted
only civilian pilots but dozens of military pilots have sighted wholly unconven-
tional objects defying ready explanation (see esp. Ref. 10 and Ref. 7 for many
such instances). Thus, the answer to the question, "Why don't pilots see UFOs?"
Manning's alert account then notes that Capt. Adickes sent the stewardess away."
seemingly holding its position relative to us, about one-half mile were.
is: "They do."
to DC-3 to the passengers (see Keyhoe's account, Ref. 31), and then banked back
WHY ARE UFO'S ONLY SEEN BY LONE INDIVIDUALS? WHY NO MULTIPLE-WITNESS
in his 4/27/50 starboard notes: to try to close on the unknown object. Manning continues the
SIGHTINGS?
west it increased north, toward the airport area of South Bend. It seemed to descend just as
"As of we turned, the object seemed to veer away from us in a direction
It is true that there are more single-witness UFO reports than multiple-witness
cases. But, to indicate that by no means all interesting UFO reports entail lone
its velocity, and within a few minutes was lost to our
witnesses, consider the following examples:
collected Discussion-Although, in my interview, I found some differences sight in
1. Case 9. Farmington, N.M., March 17, 1950
positive it shape of the object, as remembered by the two TWA pilots, the re-
In the course of checking this famous case that made short-lived press head-
pressed by was no aircraft, both emphasized its red glow, and both both were
lines in 1950, I interviewed seven Farmington witnesses out of a total that was
seen anything its high speed departure. Manning remarked to me that he'd were im-
contemporarily estimated at "hundreds" to "over a thousand." (Refs. 5, 25) It
query, that the else like it before or since; and he conceded, in to never
became clear from my interviewing that the streets were full of residents look-
decreased number of airline reports on UFOs in response recent years my
ing up at the strange aerial display that day. It was not only a multiple-witness
case, but also a multiple-object case. My checking was done seventeen years after
48
49
the fact, SO the somewhat confused recollective impressions I gained are not sur-
The crowd's attention to events in the sky did not lapse when the first object
prising. But that unidentified aerial objects moved in numbers over Farmington
was lost from view, and, about nine minutes later, someone spotted a second
on 3/17/50 seems clear. One witness with whom I spoke, Clayton J. Boddy, esti-
mated that he had bserved a total of 20 to 30 disc-shaped objects, including one
object, whereupon the event was again announced via the public address system.
Still a third object was brought to the attention of the crowd in the same
red one substantially larger than the others, moving at high velocity across
manner at 11:25. The second object came out of the north, the third came from
the Farmington sky on the late morning of 3/17/50. John Eaton, a Farmington
almost due west. In the third case, someone thought of timing the oscillation
realtor, described being called out of a barbershop when the excitement began
and seeing a high, fast object suddenly joined by many objects that darted after
frequency (all three exhibited the same unconventional oscillation, with sun-
it. Eaton sent me a copy of an account he had jotted down shortly after the inci-
glint perceptible in certain of the instances of tipping, Taylor mentioned). The
dent. A former Navy pilot, Eaton put their height at perhaps 15,000 ft. "The
oscillation frequency was clocked at 48 per minute. In the official report are
object that has me puzzled was the one we saw that was definitely red. It was
height estimates and some disparate comments on color, etc., from several other
seen by several and stated by all to be red and travelling northeast at a terrific
witnesses, as well as remarks on other sightings in the same area on the same
speed." Eaton also spoke of the way the smaller objects would "turn and appear
day. Full details cannot be recounted here, for reasons of space limitation.
to be flat, then turn and appear to be round," a description matching an oscil-
Taylor, in his statement submitted to official ingestigators, said:
lating disc-shaped object. No one described seeing any wings or tails, and the
"My experience in radio control of pilotless aircraft and guided missiles
emphasis upon the darting, "bee-like" motion was in several of the accounts I
for the Navy at NAMU during the war, and over 20 years of aircraft study,
obtained from witnesses. I obtained more details, but the above must suffice
does not permit my identification of the objects which were seen. They definitely
here for a brief summary.
were not balloons, birds, common aircraft, parachutes, stars, meteors, paper,
Discussion.-This once-headlined, but now almost forgotten multiple-witness
clouds, or other common objects. They moved in a regular motion either straight
case has been explained as resulting from the breakup of a Skyhook balloon (Ref.
or in curved lines. They were all at approximately the same altitude, but
25). Skyhooks do shatter at the very low temperatures of the upper troposphere,
moved on different courses as indicated on the sketch. The oscillations were
clearly visible and timed on the 3rd sighting
*
and occasionally break into a number of smaller pieces. But to suggest that such
fragments of transparent plastic at altitudes of the order of 40-50,000 ft. could
Discussion.-The official explanation for this case is "Balloons". I obtained
be detected by the naked eye, and to intimate that these distant objects of low
information on upper winds over that part of Washington on that day (700 and
angular velocity could confuse dozens of persons into describing fast-moving disc-
500 mb charts), and the flow aloft between 10,000 and 20,000 ft was from the
shaped objects (including a large red object) is simply not reasonable. However,
southwest. The objects, all reported as about the same angular size, came from
to check further on this, I contacted first Holloman AFB and then the Office of
three distinctly different directions, all within a period of less than an hour. This
Naval Research, who jointly hold records on all Alamogordo Skyhook releases.
immediately casts very strong doubt on the balloon hypothesis, as does the flipping
No Skyhooks or other experimental balloons had been released from the Hollo-
motion, the sunglint, and, above all, the fact that no pilot balloon stations were
located close upwind of Longview. Furthermore, a typical pilot balloon of about
man area or any other part of the country on or near the date of this incident.
1 meter diameter could be no higher than about 2500 ft altitude to subtend as
A suggestion that the witnesses were seeing only cotton-wisps was not only
large an angle as 10 minutes of arc. Taylor's report (official files) gave transit
local journalist to comments casually made by a law enforcement officer and
unreasonable. given the witness accounts, but was in fact tracked down by a
times of 2-3 minutes for the unknowns to cross the Longview sky, and, during
such a time interval, the normal ascent rate of a pilot balloon would carry it up
overheard by another reporter. From my examination of this case, I see no ready
by 1200-1800 ft. To then fit the angular-size requirements would clearly require
explanation for the numerous disc-shaped objects moving in unconventional
that the balloons have been released at some nearby location, which fails to match
manner and seen by large numbers of Farmington residents on 3/17/50.
known pibal-station locations at that time. Furthermore, surface winds were from
2. Case 10. Longview, Wash., July 3, 1949
the west, and winds a short distance above the ground were southwesterly, as
Many of the UFO cases I am citing are drawn intentionally from earlier
indicated by pulpmill smoke-drift described in Taylor's report. This, plus the
real and scientifically significant phenomenon has been with us for a disturb-
years, in order to illustrate that the evidence for the existence of a quite
previously cited upper-flow directions, contradict the balloon hypothesis for all
three directions of arrival, particularly those coming from north and northwest.
ing number of years. I discuss next a case on which I hold copies of material
To hypothesize that these were, say, Skyhook balloons coming from three differ-
from the official investigative files, copies that state that this incident
ent (unknown) sites, at three different high altitudes, but all SO arranged that
"observed by 150 other people at an Air Show", in addition to the reporting was
the apparent balloon diameter came out at about the same 10 minutes of arc
witness, Moulton B. Taylor. I have interviewed Mr. Taylor and have obtained
each time is scarcely reasonable. In all, I can only regard the balloon explanation
D. strong recommendations of his reliability from a former superior officer, Adm.
as untenable.
S. Fahrney, under whom Taylor served in Navy guided missiles work prior
Disc-shaped objects have been sighted in dozens of instances, including Arnold's
to the incident. Taylor is an aeronautical engineer, and was airport manager
6/24/47 Mt. Rainer sighting. In many, though not all, the odd flipping or flutter-
at Longview, in charge of an air show that was to be held on the afternoon
ing motion has been described by witnesses (Refs. 8, 10). What the dynamical
of 7/3/49, the day of the incident in question. A skywriting Stearman was at
signficance of this might be is unclear. We know no more about this in 1968
10,000 ft. at 10:40 a.m., laying down "Air Show Today", and hence holding
than we knew in 1947, because such observations have been ignored as nonsense-
the attention of a number of the personnel already at the airport, when the
or misidentified balloons.
first of three unidentified objects flew over at high altitude. Alerted by one of
3. Case 11. Salt Lake City, Utah, Oct. 3, 1961
the persons who first spotted the object coming from the northwest, Taylor
A midday sighting of a lens-shaped object involving one airborne witness and
got on the public address system and announced to all persons at hand that
seven witnesses on the ground became headline news in Salt Lake City (Ref. 32).
they should look up to see the odd object. Many had binoculars, and
Accounts of the incident have been summarized elsewhere (Refs. 2, 10, 13, 25).
the over 150 persons present were police officers, city officials and a number among
A private pilot, Mr. Waldo J. Harris, was taking off on Runway 160 at Utah
of Longview's leading citizens, Taylor emphasized. The object was observed
Central Airport at almost exactly noon on 10/2/61 when he noted what he at first
all by a number of experienced pilots; and, according to official file summaries,
idly viewed as a distant airplane. He noted it again in the same area just after
agreed that the object was shaped much like a discus. It seemed to have
becoming airborne, once more after gaining some altitude, and then became some-
to metallic luster and oscillated periodically as it crossed the sky from northwest
what puzzled that it had not exhibited any appreciable change of position. About
southeast until lost in mill-smoke. Taylor described the motion as a "sculling
then it seemed to tilt, glinting in the noonday sun, and exhibiting a shape unlike
or falling-leaf motion rather than a movement through the axis of the disc."
any aircraft. To get a better view, Harris climbed towards the southeast and
Its angular size he estimated as about that of a pinhead at arm's length, or
found himself at its altitude when he was somewhat above 6000 ft. By then it
about that of a DC-3 at 30,000 ft., both of which come out to be near 10 minutes
appeared as a biconvex metallic gray object, decidedly different from conven-
of arc (one-third of moon's diameter).
tional aircraft, S0 he radioed back to the airport, where eventually seven persons
were taking turns viewing it with binoculars. I have interviewed not only Harris,
50
51
but also Jay W. Galbraith, operator of the airport, who, with his wife, watched
the object, and Robert G. Butler, another of those at the airport. As Harris
sound. An F-84 aircraft was scrambled but a thirty minute search of the area
attempted to close in, he got to a minimal distance that he thought might have
produced negative intercept results."
been approximately two or three miles from the object, when it abruptly rose
The official summary also notes that the "winds were generally from 240°
vertically by about 1000 ft, a maneuver confirmed by the ground witnesses. They
below an overcast at 13,000 ft. Thus the object would appear to move against
indicated to me that it took only a second or perhaps less to ascend. Just before
the wind since it must have been below the clouds. There was no air traffic re-
the abrupt rise, Harris had been viewing the object on an essentially dead-level
ported in the area."
line of sight, with distant Mt. Nebo behind it, a significant feature of the case,
No radar sites in the area had unusual returns or activity, according to the
as will be brought out in a moment.
same report.
Before Harris could close his distance much more, the object began moving
Discussion.-This green disc, moving against the wind below an overcast and
off to the southeast at a speed well above his light-plane top speed. It was soon
seen by over sixty witnesses, is an official Unidentified.
an estimated ten miles or SO away, but Harris continued his attempt to close.
5. Case 13. Savannah River AEC Plant, Summer, 1952
However, after seeming to hover a short time in its new location, it began rising
A rather illuminating multiple-witness case was called to my attention by
and moving westward, at an extremely rapid speed, and passed out of sight aloft
John A. Anderson, now at Sandia Base, New Mexico, but in 1952 working as a
to the southwest in only a few seconds. Some, but not all of the ground witnesses,
young engineer in the Savannah River AEC facility near Aiken, S.C. After a
observed this final fast climb-out, I was told. Military jets were called, but the
object had gone before they arrived.
considerable amount of cross-checking on the part of both Anderson and myself,
the date was inferred to be late July, 1952, probably 7/19/52. The circumstance
Both Harris and the ground observers using binoculars attested to lack of
giving a clue to the date was that, at about 10:00 a.m. on the day in question,
wings or tail, and to the biconvex side view. Harris said he had the impression
its surface resembled "sand-blasted aluminum," but his closest view was about
Anderson, along with what he estimated at perhaps a hundred other engineers,
2-3 miles away, and its estimated size was put at about 50-60 ft diameter (and
scientists and technicians from his group were outside watching a "required
only a tenth as thick), SO the impression of surface texture must be regarded as
attendance" skit presented from a truck-trailer and commemorating the 150th
anniversary of the founding of the DuPont company, July 18, 1802. Anderson in-
uncertain. All witnesses confirmed that the object "wobbled" during its hover-
ing. Jay Galbraith said that, when Harris' Mooney Mark 20A was only a speck,
dicated that some less than absorbed in the skit first spotted the unidentified
they could see the disc rather easily by naked eye, suggesting that its size may
object in the clear skies overhead, and soon most eyes had left the skit to watch
have been substantially larger than Harris' estimated 50 ft. Galbraith's recol-
more technically intriguing events overhead. A greenish glowing object of no
lection of its final departure was that it climbed at a very steep angle, perhaps
discernible shape, and of angular size estimated by Anderson to be not over a
within about 20° of the vertical, he thought. Butler also recalled the final
fifth of full-moon diameter, was darting back and forth erratically at very high
departure and stressed that it was a surprisingly steep climb-out, quite beyond
speed. Anderson had the impression it was at great altitude, but conceded that
any known jet speed. All remarked on 10/2/61 being a beautifully clear day.
perhaps nothing but the complete lack of sound yielded that impression. It was
Discussion.-Once again we deal with observed performance characteristics
in view for about two minutes, moving at all times. He stressed its "phenomenal
far beyond anything of which we have present knowledge: a wingless device
maneuverability"; it repeatedly changed direction abruptly in sharp-angle man-
that can hover, shoot straight up, and move fast enough to pass out of sight in a
ner, he stressed. The observation was terminated when the object disappeared
over the horizon "at apparently tremendous velocity."
matter of a few seconds does not correspond to any known terrestrial craft. The
official explanation was originally that Harris saw Venus. From astrnomical
Discussion.-Anderson said that the event was discussed among his group
data, one finds that Venus was in the Utah sky at noon in early October, but lay
afterwards, and all agreed could not possibly have been a conventional air-
in the southwest, whereas everyone's line of sight to the object lay to the
craft. He remarked that no one even thought of suggesting the unreasonable
southeast. Furthermore, Harris' statement that at one stage he viewed the disc
notion that it was an hallucination or illusion. Despite searching local papers
against a distant mountain would contradict such an explanation. Finally, it is
for some days thereafter, not a word of this sighting was published, and no fur-
well known to astronomers that Venus, even at peak brilliance, is not very easily
ther information or comment on it came from within the very security-conscious
spotted in daytime, whereas he had no difficulty relocating it repeatedly as he
AEC plant. He was unaware of any official report.
flew. Menzel (Ref. 25) proposed that it was merely a sundog that Harris and
Months after hearing of this from Anderson, in one of my numerous rereadings
the others were observing, and this was subsequently adopted as the official
of Ruppelt's book (Ref. 5), I came across a single sentence in which Ruppelt,
explanation. But sundogs (parhelia), for well-known reasons, occur at elevation
referring to the high concentration of reports in the Southeast around Septem-
angles equal to or slightly greater than the sun, which lay about 40° above the
ber of 1952, states that: "Many of the reports came from people in the vicinity
southern horizon at noon in Salt Lake that day. Such a solar position would
of the then new super-hush-hush AEC facility at Savannah River, Georgia."
imply that a sundog might have lain to the southeast (22° to the left of the sun),
Whether one of those reports to the official investigative agency came from
but at an elevation angle that completely fails to match Harris' dead-level view-
within Anderson's group or other Savannah River personnel on the 7/52 incident
ing (against a distant mountain, to further embarrass the sundog hypothesis).
is unknown. If not, then we may have here a case where dozens of technically-
Finally. to check the witness' statements about cloud-free skies, I checked with
trained personnel witnessed an entirely unexplainable aerial performance, yet
the Salt Lake City Weather Bureau office, and their logs showed completely
reported nothing. Anderson knew of no report, and was unaware of any assem-
clear skies and 40 miles visibility. Sundogs cannot occur without ice crystal
bling of witness-information within his group, SO the evidence points in the
clouds present. The only weather balloon released that morning was sent un
direction that this event may have gone unreported. If, as Anderson is inclined
at 10:00 a.m.: but in any event, one would have to write off almost all of the
to think, this event was on July 19, 1952, it occurred only about twelve hours
observed details to propose that this incident was a misinterpretation of a
before the famous Washington National Airport radar-visual sightings; but this
date remains uncertain.
weather balloon. As I see it the 10/2/61 Salt Lake City sighting is just one more
of the hundreds of very well-observed cases of machine-like craft exhibiting
6. Case 14. Trinidad, Colo., March 23, 1966
"flight performance" far beyond the state and present-day technology.
A daytime sighting by at least a dozen persons, in several parts of town, oc-
4. Case 12 Larson AFB, Moses Lake, Washington, January 8, 1953
curred near 5:00 p.m. on 3/23/66 in Trinidad, Colo. Following up a report in
NICAP's recent publication of long-inaccessible official report-summaries
the APRO Bulletin on this interesting case, I eventually interviewed ten wit-
(Ref. 7) makes readily available to interested scientists a large number of fas-
nesses (seven children of average age near 12, and five adults). This case came
cinating UFO reports. Many are in the multiple-witness category. for example.
just a few days after the famous "swamp gas" UFO incidents in southern Michi-
the dawn (0715 PST) sighting at Larson AFB where "over sixty varied military
gan, which made headline news all over the country. As APRO noted in its
and civilian sources observed one green disc-shaped object. The observations
account, the Trinidad case seems in several respects a distinctly better case, yet
continued for fifteen minutes during which time the object moved in a south-
went essentially unnoted outside of Trinidad. (Press reporting of UFO sightings
westerly direction while bobbing vertically and going sideways. There was no
leaves very much to be desired; I concur in the cited APRO comment. However,
52
53
press shortcomings in the UFO area are only secondary factors in the long failure
east. It then hovered a short time and moved off with acceleration to the
to get this matter out into the open.)
northwest.
The witness-variance that skeptics like to cite is fairly well illustrated in the
Discussion.-The Redlands University trio inquired concerning radar detection,
results of my ten interviews. I wish space permitted a full exposition of what
but were informed that the nearest radar was at March AFB, Riverside, and the
each witness told me, for it would not only attest to that well-known variance
beam clearing intervening ridges could not detect SO low a target over Redlands.
but would also illustrate the point made earlier, namely, that despite those
An interesting aspect of press coverage of UFOs, a very characteristic aspect, is
bothersome differences in details, there nevertheless comes through a consistent
illustrated here. The local Redlands-area papers carried only short pieces on the
core of information on observations of something that was of scientific interest.
event; beyond that no press coverage occurred, as far as I have been able to
Mrs. Frank R. Hoch paid no attention when her son first tried to call her out
ascertain.
to see something in the sky. Knowing it was kite season, dinner preparations
Evidently even the state wires did not carry it. (I think this fact deserves very
took precedence, and she told the 10-year-old boy to go ride his bike. The second
strong emphasis. One has to see national clipping-service coverage, drawing upon
time he was more insistent, and she went outside to look. Two objects, domed
many small-town papers, to gain even a dim glimpse of the astonishing number of
on the top but nearly flat on the bottom, shaped like a cup upside down, having
UFO reports that occur steadily, but go unreported on state and national wires
no rim or "sombrero brim", she said, were moving slowly westward from Fisher's
SO that none but very diligent UFO investigators have any appreciation of the
Peak, which lies just south of Trinidad. Her son, Dean, told her he had seen three
true frequency of UFO sightings. This is no "press clampdown", no censorship;
such objects when he tried to get her to come out earlier. (Mr. Louis DiPaolo, a
wire editors simply "know" that there's nothing to all this nonsense about UFOs.
Trinidad postman whom I interviewed, had also seen three objects.)
A local story will be run simply for its local interest, but that interest falls off
Interestingly, when Mrs. Hoch saw the objects, one was between her and the
steeply with radial distance from the observation site.) Thus, we must confront
ridge, the other just above the low ridgeline. The ridge is about a half-mile from
a situation, developed over 20 years, in which over a hundred citizens in a city
the Hoch residence. A photo of the ridge, with roughly-scaled objects sketched
of about 30,000 population can see an utterly unconventional aerial machine just
on it, suggests an angular diameter of perhaps a degree (object size of order 100
overhead and, almost by the time the dogs have stopped barking, press and
ft), in disagreement with her earlier angular estimates. It was clear that Mrs.
officialdom are uninterested., Dr. Seff told me just last week that he had en-
Hoch was, as are most, unfamiliar with angular-size estimating. The objects,
countered a Redlands University coed who had seen the object (he hadn't inter-
Mrs. Hoch said, moved up and down in bobbing manner as they progressed slowly
viewed her previously), and she seemed still terrified by the incident. I believe
westward along the ridgeline. Occasionally they tilted, glinting in the late
that your Committee must recognize an unfilled scientific obligation to get to the
afternoon sun as if metallic. No sound was mentioned by any witness except
bottom of such matters.
one young boy whose attention was drawn to the object by a "ricocheting sound",
8. Many other multiple-witness cases could be cited, some from my own inter-
as he put it. DiPaolo's observations were made with 7x35 binoculars; he also
viewing experience, far more from other sources within this country and abroad.
described the objects as metallic in appearance and shaped like a saucer upside
An October 28, 1954 sighting in Rome was estimated to have been viewed by thou-
down. His attention had been called to it by neighborhood boys playing outside.
sands of people, one of whom was U.S. Ambassador Clare Booth Luce (Ref. 10)
Mrs. Amelia Berry, in another part of Trinidad, evidently saw the objects some-
with her embassy staff. Mrs. Luce said it had the shape of a silver dollar and
what earlier, when they were farther east, circling near Fisher's Peak, but she
crossed the skies in about 30 seconds. A now-famous group of sightings of June
was uncertain of the precise time. She saw only two, and remarked that they
26/27, 1959, near Boianai, New Guinea, was observed by several dozen witnesses,
seemed to "glitter", and she described them as "saucer shaped", "oblong and
the principal one of whom I interviewed in Melbourne, in 1967, Rev. Wm. B. Gill.
narrow". Mrs. J. R. Duran, horseback-riding with a 12-year-old son on the op-
Bloecher (Ref. 8) describes a number of mid-1947 incidents where the witness-
posite (north) side of town also saw two objects, "flat on the bottom, and domed
totals ranged from dozens up to well over a hundred persons. Hall (Ref. 10)
on top. silvery", when her son called them to her attention. She described them
cites more recent instances. Many other sources could be cited to show that the
as "floating along slowly, bobbing up and down, somewhat to the west of Fisher's
intimation that UFOs are never seen except by lone individuals driving along
Peak." She, like the other witnesses, was positive that these were not airplanes.
some remote back road (a frequent setting, to be sure!) does not accord with
No one described anything like wings or tail. A number of witnesses were SO
the actual facts. Multiple-witness UFO cases are impressively numerous.
close that, had this been an unconventional helicopter, its engine-noise would
have been unmistakable.
WHY AREN'T UFO'S EVER SEEN IN CITIES? WHY JUST IN OUT-OF-THE-WAY PLACES?
Discussion.-Notwithstanding differences in the witness accounts (more of
which would emerge from a more complete recounting), the common features of
One cannot study the UFO problem long without being struck by the pre-
the observers' descriptions would seem to rule out known types of aircraft,
ponderance of reports that come from somewhat remote areas, non-urban areas.
astronomical, meteorological, and other explanations.
Similarly, one cannot escape the conclusion that more UFOs are reported at
night than in day. For the latter, luminosity and its obvious effect on probability
7. Case 15, Redlands, Calif., February 4, 1968
of chance visual detection may go far towards explaining the diurnal variation
A still more recent multiple-witness case of great interest was well-documented
of UFO sightings (though I suspect that most students of the problem would
by three University of Redlands professors shortly after it occurred on the eve-
conclude that there is a real excess of nighttime occurrences for quite unknown
ning of 2/4/68. APRO plans a fairly detailed summary-report. Dr. Philip Seff
reasons). Why, some ask with respect to the geographical distribution, don't the
kindly sent me a copy of the witness-testimony he and his colleagues secured in
UFOs, if real and if extraterrestrial, spend most of their time looking over our
interviewing about twenty out of an estimated hundred-plus witnesses to this low-
cities? That's what we'd do, if we got to Mars and found huge urban complexes,
altitude sighting in a residential area of Redlands. Because I understand that
some skeptics insist.
Dr. Harder will be giving a fairly detailed report of this case to your Committee.
It is surprising to find scientists who do not see through the transparency of
I shall give only a much-abbreviated version. At 7:20 p.m., many persons went
that homocentric fallacy. If it were true that we were under surveillance from
outdoors to investigate either (a) the unusual barking of neighborhood dogs,
some advanced civilization of extraterrestrial origin, the pattern of the observa-
or (b) a disturbing and unusual sound. Soon many persons up and down several
tions, the motivation of the surveillance, and the degree of interest in one versus
streets were observing an object round in planiform, estimated at perhaps 50-60
another aspect of our planet could be almost incomprehensible to us. Aboriginal
feet in diameter, moving slowly towards the east-northeast at an altitude put by
natives under anthropological observation must find almost incomprehensible
most witnesses as perhaps 300 feet. Glowing ports or panels lay around its upper
the motives behind the strange things that the field-teams do, the odd things in
perimeter and "jet-like" orange-red flames or something resembling flames
which they are interested. But the cultural and the intellectual gulf that would
emanated from a number of sources on the undersurface. A number of odd
separate us from any intelligent beings commanding a technology SO advanced
psysiological effects were remarked by various witnesses. and the animal-re-
that they could cross interplanetary or interstellar distances to inspect us would
actions were a notable feature of this case. The object at one point rose abruptly
be a gulf vastly greater than that which separates a Harvard field-anthropologist
by some hundreds of feet before continuing its somewhat "jerky" motion to the
from a New Guinea native. And, for this reason, I think one must concede that,
within the argumentation carried out under tentative consideration of an extra-
54
55
terrestrial hypothesis for UFOs, incomprehensibility must be expected as almost
President?" don't they land on the White House lawn and shake hands with the as,
inevitable. "Why Hence there is more whimsy than good reasoning in queries such
two incidents occurred just after 11:00 p.m. on two successive nights, Friday
2/5/60 and Saturday 2/6/60, over or near the intersection of Sunset Blvd. and
La Brea Ave., i.e., in the heart of downtown Hollywood. I have gone over the
tion, "Why aren't they ever seen over or in cities?" They are.
Nevertheless, the evidence affords a fairly definite answer to the skeptics' ques-
site area with one of the principal investigators of these incidents, Mrs. Idabel
Epperson of LANS, have examined press accounts (Ref. 35) that dealt (very
superficially) with the event, and have studied correspondence between the
1. Case 16. New York City, November 22, 1966
LANS investigators and official agencies concerning this case. The phenomenol-
follows: A report in a 1967 issue of the NICAP UFO Investigator (Ref. 33) reads as
ogy is far too complex to report in full detail here; even the 21-page single-
spaced LANS report was only a digest of results of all the NICAP witness-
November 22, 1966. Witnesses included at least eight employees of the American seen on
"A UFO over the United Nations in New York City was reportedly
interviewing carried out to substantiate the events. The LANS report sum-
marizes object-descriptions given by eight witnesses Friday night and eighteen
floor Newspaper Publishers Association, who watched from their offices on the 17th
witnesses Saturday night, several of them police officers.
of 750 Third Avenue at 4:20 p.m. on a bright, sunny day. The UFO was a
Cars were stopped bumper-to-bumper, according to employees of several busi-
rectangular, cushion-shaped object
River, then hovered over the UN Building (which)
came
southward
nesses on the Sunset-La Brea intersection in the midst of the main events, with
over
the
East
people gaping at the object overhead. Persons on hotel and apartment rooftops
ship on agitated water."
It fluttered an bobbed like a
were out looking at the bright "cherry-red, circular light" that figured in both
Witnesses mentioned were D. R. McVay, assistant general manager of ANPA
incidents. On the two successive nights, the red object first appeared at about
phoned the ANPA offices and spoke at some length with Mr. Leick about the
and Mr. W. H. Leick, manager of the ANPA's Publications Department. I tele-
11 :15 p.m., and on both nights it stopped and hovered motionless for periods of
about 10 minutes at a time. The angular estimates of the size of the red light
sighting. He confirmed that eight or nine persons went out on the 17th floor ter-
varied, but seemed to suggest a value of one-fourth to one-third of the lunar
race, watching the object hover over the UN Building (as nearly as they
diameter, say 5-10 minutes of arc. Almost all agreed that the light was sharp-
a estimate) for a number of minutes as it rocked and reflected the sun's could with
edged rather than hazy or fuzzy. The usual witness-variances are exhibited in
called if they reported it to any official channels, and he said that A. A. asked
Leick golden glint before rising and moving off eastward at high speed. rays I
the total of about two dozen persons interviewed, e.g., some thought the light
pulsated, others recalled it as steady, etc., but the common features, consistent
be in a New York office of the Air Force and was assured that an officer LaSalle
throughout almost all the testimony, bespeak a quite unusual phenomenon.
the next day to interview them. But no one ever came. Leick added would
On Friday night, the red light was first seen directly overhead at Sunset and
weren't they also phoned a New York newspaper "which shall go unnamed," but that
La Brea. Two service-station attendants at that intersection, Jerry Darr and
their interested." It got to NICAP almost by accident, and NICAP sent "they up
Charles Walker, described to LANS interviewers how, " hundreds of people
standard witness-questionnaires which Leick said they all filled
saw it-everybody was looking" as the light hovered for at least five minutes
of "If that had really happened, why wouldn't hundreds to thousands some-
thing "Why like: no UFOs near cities?", I find that his almost invariable retort is asks,
Discussion.-When an incident such as this is cited to the skeptic who out.
over a busy drive-in there. Ken Meyer, another service station attendant a third
of a mile to the north, estimated it hovered for about 10 minutes. Harold Sher-
man, his wife, and two others watched it in the later phases (also described
latter persons have reported it?" There are, I believe, two factors that
by the above-cited witnesses) as it resumed motion very slowly eastward. After
whose situation. vision First, consider the tiny fraction of persons on explain the
proceeding east for a distance that witnesses roughly estimated at a block or
aloft, is directed upwards at any given moment. In absence any of loud city street
two, it veered southeastward and passed out of sight. (It is not clear whether
In addition most urbanites don't spend any large amount of time scanning the noises
it was occulted by buildings for some witnesses, or diminished in intensity, or
detection to infrequency of sky-scanning, another urban obstacle skies.
actually passed off into the distance.) No sound was heard over street-noise
trees cut is typically restricted vision of the full dome of the sky; buildings to UFO
background.
farmer, down the field of view in a way not SO typical of the view afforded or
The following night, an object which appeared to be the same, to those several
studies. the forest ranger, or a person driving in open country. Finally, in the
witnesses who saw both events, again showed up overhead, this time first seen
of a "report". The first becomes the second only if a witness takes "sighting" the
and it is always necessary to draw sharp distinction between a UFO
about one block farther east than on Friday night. Triangulation based on
notifying It a newspaper, a law-enforcement office, a university, or some step
estimates of angular elevations as seen from various locations was used to
ness to parts be of the world, that psychological factors centering around in
many agency. is abundantly clear, from the experience of UFO investigations official
approximate the height above ground. LANS concluded that, when first seen,
it lay about 500-600 ft. above the intersection of Sunset and Sycamore. A number
very unusual event. Again and again one learns of a UFO sighting on a
ridiculed deter most witnesses from filing any official report unwilling-
of witnesses observed it hovering motionless in that position for about 10 min-
utes. Then a loud explosion and brilliant bluish-white flash was emitted by the
directly, from someone who knows someone who once mentioned that he'd quite in-
object, the noise described by all witnesses as unlike any sonic boom or ordinary
something rather unusual. On following such leads, one frequently seen
explosion they had ever heard. The sound alerted witnesses as far away as
channels extremely significant sightings that were withheld from official comes upon
Curson and Hollywood Blvd., i.e., Tom Burns and two friends who asked LANS
because of the "ridicule lid", as I like to term it, that imposes reporting a filter
interviewers not to use their names. Condensing very greatly here the descrip-
screening out a large number of good sightings at their source.
tions given to the interviewers by independent witnesses who viewed the "explo-
Returning to the 11/22/66 New York City report, I must say that, between
sion" from various locations scattered over a circle of about a 1-mile radius yields
the information NICAP secured from the witnesses and my own direct
a summary-description as follows: What had, just before the explosion, looked
conventional under viewing circumstances that would seem to rule out reliable obvious
observers versations with Leick. I accept this as a quite real sighting, made by con-
much "like a big red Christmas ball hanging there in the sky", was suddenly the
source of a flash that extended downward and to the west, lighting up the
straight explanations. When the object left its hovering location, it
ground all around one interviewed (Soe Rosi) on La Brea Ave. A "mushroom-
colleagues upward rapidly. before heading east, Leick said. Although he and rose
shaped cloud", with coloration that impressed all who saw it, emerged upward
the UN may well have erred in their slant-range estimate which it his
and soon dissipated. Concurrently, as the red light extinguished, an object de-
to rule Building. their description of its shape and its maneuvers would put appear over
scribed by most, but not all, witnesses as long and tubular shot upwards. Angular
out helicopters, aircraft, balloons, etc.
estimates implied an object a number of tens of feet long, 70 ft. from Harold
Sherman's rough estimates.
2. Case 17. Hollywood, Calif., February 5-6, 1960
Clearly, it is difficult to explain how an object of such size could have
A still more striking instance in which entirely unconventional objects
materialized from a light at 500 ft. elevation and subtending an angle of only
hibited observed by many city-dwellers, where low-altitude objects hovered and were
10 minutes of arc, unless it had been there all along, unseen because of the
fully baffling phenomena, is a central Hollywood case that was rather ex-
brilliance of the red light beneath it. Or perhaps the angular-size estimates are
checked by LANS, the Los Angeles NICAP Subcommittee (Ref. 34). care- The
in error. Some witnesses followed only the tubular ascending object, others saw
56
57
only something that "spiraled downwards" beneath the explosion source. No
witness seemed certain of what it was that came down some spoke of "glowing
In fact, UFO sightings with equally peculiar phenomenology are SO much a
embers"; no one gave indication of following it to ground.
part of the total record that this Hollywood incident is not as unparalleled as it
Glossing over other details bearing on this "explosion" at an estimated 5-600
might first seem. In Hobard, Tasmania, I interviewed an electrical engineer who,
ft. above Sunset and Sycamore, witnesses next became aware that the just-
along with a fellow engineer also employed by the Tasmanian Hydroelectric
extinguished red light had evidently reappeared in a new location, about a block
Commission, observed phenomena occurring in broad daylight over and near the
to the west. Police officers Ray Lopez and Daniel Jaffee, of LAPD, located at
River Derwent at Risdon that have the same "absurd" nature that one meets
the corner of Sunset and La Brea, heard the explosion and looked up, seeing
in the Hollywood case. The wife of a Texas rancher described to me an incident
the light in its new location "directly overhead", as did many others at that
she witnessed in Juarez, Mexico, with about the same absurdity-quotient. We
intersection who then watched the red light hovering in its new location for
simply do not understand what we are dealing with in these UFO phenomena;
about 8 minutes. (Space precludes my giving all pertinent information on time-
my present opinion is that we must simply concede that, in the Hollywood case,
estimates as set out in the 21-page LANS summary. For example, a good time-fix
we are confronted with decidedly odd UFO phenomena, in a decidedly urban
on the explosion came from the fact that E. W. Cass, a contractor living almost
locale.
a mile west, was just winding his alarm clock, looking at it, when flare-like
There appears to have been no official investigation of these striking events
illumination "lit up the whole bedroom", just at the indicated time of :30. He
(Ref. 35), and local newspapers gave it only the briefest attention. In the New
went out, watched the hovering red light in its new location, and added further
York City case cited above, the particulars were phoned to a large New York
details I shall omit here. Others took their time clues from the fact that 1:30
paper, but the paper was not interested, and no account was reported. Similarly
commercials had just come on TV when they heard the peculiar explosion and
in the 2/4/68 Redlands case, the local papers felt it warranted only an extremely
hastened outside to check, etc.)
brief article. This pattern is repeated over and over again; newspapermen have
The red light, now over Sunset and La Brea, was roughly triangulated at about
been led to believe that UFOs are really no more than occasional feature-story
1000 ft up, a figure in accord with several witness comments that, when it re-
material. On rare occasions, for reasons not too clear to students of the UFO
appeared some 4-5 seconds after the "explosion", it lay not only somewhat west
problem, some one case like the Michigan incident of 1966 will command national
of its first location, but noticeably higher. After hovering there for a time in-
headlines for a day or two and then be consigned to journalistic limbo. This, in
ferred to be eight minutes, it began slowly drifting eastward, much as on the
company with scientific rejection of the problem, plus official positions on the
previous night when much less spectacular events had occurred. Larry Moquin,
matter have combined to keep the public almost entirely unaware of the real
one witness who had taken rather careful alignment fixes using rooflines as an
situation with respect to frequency and nature of UFO incidents. For emphasis,
aid, remarked that, at this stage, La Brea and Sunset was filled with watchers
let me repeat that I do not see design in that, nothing I construe as any well-
"Everybody was standing outside their cars looking up-cars were backed up
planned attempt to keep us all uninformed for some sinister or protective reason.
in the streets-and everyone was asking each other, "What is
The longer I reflect on the history of the past handling of the UFO problem, the
After moving slowly but steadily (observers mentioned absence of bobbing,
more I can see how one thing led to another until we have reached the intolerable
weaving, or irregularity in its motion) for about a block east, to its first loca-
present situation that SO urgently calls for change.
tion it turned sharply towards the north-northeast, accelerated, and climbed
3. Case 18. Baytown, Texas, July 18, 1966
steeply, not stopping again until at a very high altitude well to the north. From
crude triangulation, LANS investigators inferred a new hovering altitude of over
Baytown, Texas, on Galveston Bay, has a population near 30,000. Several
persons evidently saw an interesting object there at about 9:00 a.m. on 7/18/66.
rough. 25,000 ft, but it is clear from the data involved that this estimate is extremely
My original source on this case was an article that appeared in the 10/8/66
Discussion.-Although I have done no personal witness-interviewing to date
Houston Post from NICAP files. The article, by Post reporter Jimmie Woods,
in the 2/60 Hollywood case, I can vouch for the diligence and reliability with
represents one of those rare UFO feature stories in which fact is well blended
which the LANS group pursues its case-studies. The large number of interviews
with human interest, as I found when I subsequently interviewed one of the
secured and the degree of consistency found therein seem to argue that some
principal witnesses, W. T. Jackson, at whose service station he and assistant
extremely unusual devices maneuvered over Hollywood on the two nights in
Kelly Dikeman made the sighting. Both were inside the station when Jackson
question. Unless one simply rejects most of the salient features of the reports.
spotted the object hovering motionless about 100 yards away. (The Post said
it is quite clear that no meteorological or astronomical explanation is at all
1000 yards, but Jackson pointed out that Woods interviewed him while he was
reasonable. Nor does any conventional aircraft match the reports.
waiting on customers at the station and the reporter didn't get all of it correct.)
The question that arises almost immediately is that of a practical joke, a hoax.
Jackson explained to me that the object "lay right over the Dairy Queen."
However, the resources required to fabricate some device yielding the complex
He described it as a white object that "looked like two saucers turned together
behavior (stop motionless, move against wind, explosively emit secondary de-
with a row of square windows in between", and he thought it might have been
vices, and finally, in the 2/6 event, climb to rather high altitude) would scarcely
50 feet in diameter. He called Dikeman over, and they both looked at it for a
be available to college pranksters. The phenomena go SO far beyond the
few seconds and then simultaneously started for the door to get a better look.
balloon level of hoaxing that one must have some much more elaborate hoax gas-
Almost at that moment it started moving westward. Dikeman was at the door
hypothesis to account for the reported events. Balloons must drift with the winds,
before Jackson and had the last view of it as it passed over a water tower,
and the LANS group secured the local upper-wind data for both nights, and there
beyond buildings and a refinery and was gone, "faster than any airplane." Jack-
is no match between the reported motions and the winds in the surface-1000-ft
son described it as pure white, and definitely not spinning, since he saw clearly
layer. And, in any event, the alternation between hovering and moving, plus
the features that he termed "windows." Jackson kept the incident to himself
the distinct direction-shifts without change of apparent altitude, cannot be
for a time; when it got out, two nurses who were unwilling to give him their
squared with balloon-drift. This would mean that some highly controlled device
names because "they didn't want to be laughed at" stopped at his station and
was involved, capable (in the 2/6 incident) of hovering in an almost precisely
told him they had seen it from another part of Baytown.
stationary position relative to the ground (Moquin sighted carefully, using struc-
Discussion-"Swamp gas" explanations were then still featured in press dis-
tural objects to secure a fix when the red light lay right over La Brea and Sun-
cussions of UFOs, and Jackson volunteered the comment that there are no
set, and perceived no motion for many minutes). Yet the Weather Bureau was
swamps nearby and that it was "too high for any gas formations" he knew of.
reporting 5 mph winds from the southwest at 1000 ft (triangulated altitude when
"It damned sure wasn't no fireball," Jackson told the Post reporter, and also
hovering there). Only if one hypothesized that this was an expensively elaborate
commented, "Feller, when you set there and count the windows it ain't no damn
experiment in psychological warfare could one account for financial resources
reflection." I received similar salty commentary on various hypotheses when I
needed to build a device capable of simulating some of these phenomena. Such
spoke with Jackson. No sound was heard, yet, as Jackson put it, "if it had been
a hypothesis seems quite unreasonable in the 100-megaton age where ever-present
any kind of jet, we'd have been deafened.' As in many other cases, a distinctly
pyrotechnics. realities of weaponry pose more psychological strains than Disney-like
machine-like configuration, definite outlines, secondary "structural" features here
termed "windows", add up to a description that does not suggest any misin-
58
59
terpreted natural phenomenon. That it hovered within a city of moderate size
WHY DON'T ASTRONOMERS EVER SEE UFO'S?
with only a total of two declared and two other undeclared witnesses is not
I have had this question put to me by many persons, including a number of
entirely difficult to understand when one has interviewed large numbers of
astronomers. Once I was speaking to a group from an important laboratory of
witnesses for whom the likelihood of ridicule was an almost sufficient deterrent
astronomy when the director asked why astronomers never see them. In the
to open reporting.
room, among his staff, were two astronomers who had seen unconventional ob-
4. Case 19. Portland, Oregon, July 4, 1947
jects while doing observing but who had asked that the information they had
In the course of cross-checking a sampling of the 1947 cases that went into
given me about their sightings be kept confidential. I understand such strictures,
Bloecher's study (Ref. 8), the numerous daytime sightings in central Portland
but some of them make things a bit difficult. This phenomenon of professional per-
on 7/4/47 seemed worth checking, especially because many of the reports came
sons seeing unidentified objects and then being extremely loath to admit it is far
from police and harbor patrolmen. Here again, we deal with a case for which
more common than one might guess. After hearing of an evidently very significant
there are SO many relevant details available that space precludes an adequate
sighting by a prominent physical scientist who was hiking in some western moun-
summary (see Ref. 8). I spoke with Sheriff's Deputy Fred Krives who, along
tains when he spotted a metallic-looking disc, examined it with binoculars, and
with several other deputies, had seen some of the many objects over Portland
saw it shoot up into the air (according to my second-hand report from a profes-
from the Court House across the Columbia River in Vancouver, Wash. Krives
sional colleague), I tried for months to secure a direct report of it from him
recalled that over half a dozen deputies were outside looking at what they esti-
he was unwilling to discuss it openly with me. NICAP has had reports from
mated to be about 20 disc-shaped objects in several subgroups racing across the
prominent executives in large technical corporations who insisted that, just be-
sky at an estimated height of perhaps 1000 ft., heading to the southwest.
cause of their positions, their names not be used publicly. Similar instances could
Both from contemporary press accounts and my own checks, it became evident
be cited almost ad infinitum. The very types of witnesses whose testimony would
that more than one formation of discs flew over Portland that day. Harbor Patrol
carry greatest credence often prove to be the most reluctant to admit their sight-
Capt. K. A. Prehn, whom I located by telephone, told me that he had been called
ings; they seem to feel they have the most to lose. Within a day of this writing,
outside by another officer who spotted objects moving overhead towards the
I spoke to a veteran airlines pilot about a sighting in which he was involved
south. Their speed seemed comparable to that of aircraft, their outlines were
about a decade ago. After the official "explanation" was publicized, he decided
quite sharp, and they looked metallic as they flashed in the sun. They occasional-
he'd never report another one. I predict that social psychologists are going to have
ly wobbled, and their path seemed to be slightly irregular. Other officers with
a field day, in a few years, studying the "pluralistic ignorance" that led SO many
whom I spoke sighted discs from other parts of the Portland area; one of them,
persons to conceal SO many sightings for SO long.
Officer Walter Lissy, emphasized that he recalled them as zig-zagging along at
Returning, however, to the question of why astronomers never see UFOs, a
"terrific speed." Another officer, Earl Patterson, told me of seeing a single object
relevant quantitative consideration needs to be cited at once. According to a re-
that "made sudden 90-degree turns with no difficulty." I also obtained letter
cent count, the membership of the American Astronomical Society is about 1800
accounts from others in the Portland area who saw disc-like objects that day.
by contrast, our country has about 350,000 law-enforcement officers. With almost
Here was an early instance of unidentified objects maneuvering in full daylight
200 times as many police, sheriffs' deputies, state troopers, etc., as there are pro-
over a major city.
fessional astronomers, it is no surprise that many more UFO reports come
Discussion.-The July 4, 1947 sightings (for which Bloecher gathered press
from the law-enforcement officers than from the astronomers. Furthermore, the
accounts for more than 80 from various parts of the U.S.) were made the sub-
notion that astronomers spend most of their time scanning the skies is quite in-
ject of a good deal of press ridicule, as Bloecher's study makes clear. However,
correct; the average patrolman almost certainly does more random looking
after interviewing a number of the witnesses to the Portland sighting concern-
about than the average professional astronomer.
ing their recollections of what they saw that day, I see no basis at all for reject-
Despite these considerations, there are on record many sightings from as-
ing these sightings. The official explanation for the Portland observations is
tronomers, particularly the amateurs, who far outnumber the professionals. A few
"Radar Chaff," based evidently (Ref. 6) on a report that some aircraft had made
examples will be considered.
a chaff-drop in that area sometime on that day. "Chaff" is metal-foil cut into
1. Case 20. Las Cruces, N.M., August 20, 1949
short strips, typically a few inches in length, ejected from military aircraft
A good account of the sighting by Dr. Clyde Tombaugh, discoverer of the planet
to jam radar. The strips float down through the air, intercepting and returning
Pluto, is given by Menzel (Ref. 25). From my own discussions with Dr. Tom-
the radar pulses. To suggest that numerous police officers would confuse strips
baugh, I confirmed the main outlines of this incident. At about 10 :00 p.m. on
of foil, SO small as to be invisible beyond a few hundred yards, with maneuver-
8/20/49, he, his wife, and his mother-in-law were in the yard of his Las Cruces
ing disc-like objects seems unreasonable. I doubt that anyone who had talked
home, admiring what Tombaugh described as a sky of rare transparency, when
directly to these officers could have seriously proposed such an explanation.
Tombaugh, looking almost directly towards zenith, spotted an array of pale
Herein lies a difficulty: In an overwhelming majority of cases, official explana-
yellow lights moving rapidly across the sky towards the southeast. He called
tions have been conceived without any direct witness-interviewing on the part of
them to the attention of the two others, who saw them just before they dis-
those responsible for conceiving the explanations.
appeared halfway to the horizon. The entire array subtended an angle which Tom-
5. Perhaps, for present purposes, the foregoing cases will suffice to indicate
baugh put at about one degree, and it took only a few seconds to cross 50 or 60
that there have been significant UFO incidents in cities. Many other examples
degrees of sky. The array comprised six "windowlike" rectangles of light, formed
could easily be cited. Elsewhere (Ref. 2) I have discussed my interviews with
into a symmetric pattern; they moved too fast for aircraft, too slowly for a
witnesses in a case at Beverly, Mass., on the evening of April 22, 1966, where
meteor, and made no sound. Menzel quotes Tombaugh as saying, "I have never
three adult women and subsequently a total of more than half a dozen adults (in-
seen anything like it before or since, and I have spent a lot of time where the
cluding two police officers) observed three round lighted objects hovering near a
night sky could be seen well."
school building in the middle of Beverly. At one early stage of the sightings, one
Discussion.-Dr. Menzel explains this phenomenon as resulting from reflection
of the discs moved rapidly over the three women, hovering above one of them at
of lights from the ground, possibly "the lighted windows of a house" reflected
an altitude of only a few tens of feet and terrifying the hapless women until
by an inversion or haze layer aloft. The movement he explains as resulting from
she bolted. This case was quite thoroughly checked by Mr. Raymond E. Fowler,
a ripple on the haze layer. Such an "explanation" is not merely difficult to under-
one of NICAP's most able investigators, who has studied numerous other UFO
stand it is incredible. For an "inversion layer" to produce such a near-normal
incidents in the New England area.
reflection of window lights would demand a discontinuity of refractive index SO
I interviewed witnesses in a most interesting sighting in Omaha in January
enormously large compared with anything known to occur in our atmosphere
1966, where a stubby cigar-shaped object had been seen by a number of persons
as to make it utterly out of the question. However, it has been just such casual
on the northwest side of the city. Urban UFO cases in other parts of the world
ad hoc explanations as this by which Menzel has, in his writings, used meteorolog-
are also a matter of at least journalistic if not yet scientific record. To sum up,
ical optics to rationalize case after case with no attention to crucial quantitative
though non-urban reports are definitely more numerous, urban reports do indeed
details. It is a simple matter to show that even inversions of intensity many
exist.
60
61
orders of magnitude larger than have ever been observed yield reflectivities (at
ular magnification, the light exhibited finite angular diameter, SO a telescope was
the kind of near-normal incidence involved in Tombaugh's sighting) that are only
used to examine it. In the telescope, it appeared as a composite of four smaller
a tiny fraction of one per cent (Ref. 36). In fact, I see no way of accounting for
objects. There was a central sphere around which, "at a distance of two diam-
phenomena. the Tombaugh observation in terms of known meteorological or astronomical
eters, were three sphere resembling the one in the center." The outer spheres
slowly rotated around the central sphere as the array gradually moved across
2. Case 21. Ft. Sumner, New Mexico, July 10, 1947
the sky, diminishing in size as if leaving the Earth. After about 20 minutes'
observation, the astronomers noted the outer spheres moving away from the cen-
A midday sighting by a University of New Mexico meteoriticist, Dr. Lincoln
tral object, and by about 10:00 p.m., the entire group had moved SO far away that
La Paz, and members of his family was summarized by Life magazine years ago
they were no longer visible.
(Ref. 37) without identifying La Paz's name. Bloecher (Ref. 8) gives more details
Discussion. I have no first-hand information on this report, of course. The
and notes that this is officially an Unidentified. (At 4:47 p.m. MST on 7/10/47,
group of objects was seen at an angular elevation of about 60 degrees, far too
four members of the La Paz family nearly simultaneously noted "a curious bright
high to invoke any mirage-effects or other familiar refractive anomalies. Further-
object almost motionless" low on the western horizon, near a cloudbank. The
more, the composite nature of the array scarcely suggests an optical distortion of
object was described as ellipsoidal, whitish, and having sharply-outlined edges. It
the telescope, a possibility also rendered improbable from the observed angular
wobbled a bit as it hovered stationary just above the horizon, then moved up
velocity and apparent recessional motion.
wards, passed behind clouds and re-emerged farther north in a time interval
which La Paz estimated to be SO short as to call for speeds in excess of conven-
5. Case 24. Kislovodsk, Caucasus, August 8, 1967
tional aircraft speeds. It passed in front of dark clouds and seemed self-luminous
Zigel, who is affiliated with the Moscow Aviation Institute, reports in the same
by contrast. It finally disappeared amongst the clouds. La Paz estimated it to be
article (Ref. 38), a sighting at 8:40 p.m., 8/8/67, made by astronomer Anatoli
perhaps 20 miles away, judging from the clouds involved; and he put its length
Sazanov and colleagues working at the Mountain Astrophysical Station of the
at perhaps 100-200 ft.
USSR Academy of Sciences, near Kislovodsk. Sazanov and ten other staff mem-
Discussion. This observation is attributed by Menzel (Ref. 24, p. 29) to "some
bers watched an "asymmetric crescent, with its convex side turned in the direc-
sort of horizontal mirage, perhaps one of a very brilliant cloud shining like silver
tion of its movement" moving eastward across the northern sky at an angular
in the sunlight-a cloud that was itself invisible because of the darker clouds
elevation of about 20 degrees. Just ahead of it, and moving at the same angular
in the foreground." As nearly as I am able to understand that explanation, it
speed was a point of light comparable to a star of the first magnitude. The
seems to be based on the notion that mirage-refraction can neatly superimpose
crescent-like object was reddish-yellow, had an angular breadth of about two-
the image of some distant object (here his "brilliant cloud") upon some nearer
thirds that of the moon, and left vapor-like trails aft of the ends of the crescent
object in the middle distance (here his "darker clouds"). That is a fallacious
horns. As it receded, it diminished in size and thus "instantly disappeared".
notion. If any optical distortions did here bring into view some distant bright
Discussion.-If we may accept as reliable the principal features of the sighting,
cloud, it would not be possible to receive along immediately adjacent optical
how might we account for it? The "faintly luminous ribbons" trailing from the
paths an image of the intermediate clouds. Furthermore, the extremely unstable
horns suggest a high-flying jet, of course; but the asymmetry and the reddish-
lapse rates typical of the southwestern desert areas under afternoon conditions
yellow coloration fail to fit that notion. Also, it was an object of rather large
produce inferior mirages, not superior mirages of the looming type here invoked
angular size, about 20 minutes of arc, SO that an aircraft of wingspan, say. 150
by Menzel. Rapid displacements, vertically and horizontally, are not typical of
feet would have been only about five miles away whence engine-noise would have
mirage sighting. phenomena. Hence Menzel's' explanations cannot be accepted for this
been audible under the quiet conditions of a mountain observatory. More sig-
nificant, if it had been an aircraft at a slant range of five miles, and at 20 de-
3. Case 22. Harborside, Me., July 3, 1947
grees elevation, its altitude would have been only about 9000 ft above the ob-
servatory. For the latitude and date. the sun was about ten degrees below the
An observation by an amateur astronomer, John F. Cole, reported to official
western horizon, SO direct sun-illumination on the aircraft at 9000 ft above ob-
investigative offices near the beginning of the period of general public awareness
servatory level would be out of the question. Hence the luminosity goes unex-
of the UFO problem, involves an erratically maneuvering cluster of about 10
plained. Clearly, satellites and meteors can be ruled out. The astronomers'
objects, seen near 2:30 p.m. EDT on 7/3/47 on the eastern shore of Penobscot Bay.
observation cannot be readily explained in any conventional terms. Zigel remarks
Hearing a roar overhead, Cole looked up to see the objects milling about like a
that the object was also seen in the town of Kislovodsk, and that another reddish
moving swarm of bees as they traveled northwestward at a seemingly high speed,
crescent was observed in the same area on the evening of July 17, 1967.
as nearly as he could judge size and distance. The objects were light-colored,
and no wings could be discerned on most, although two appeared to have some
6. Case 25. Flagstaff, Ariz., May 20, 1950
passed out of sight.
sort of darker projections somewhat resembling wings. In 10-15 seconds they
Near noon on 5/20/50, Dr. Seymour Hess observed an object from the grounds
of the Lowell Observatory. Although Hess' principal field of interest has been
Discussion. This is one of several dozen cases admitted to the Unidentified
meteorology, we may here consider him an astronomer-by-association, since he
category in one of the earliest official reports on UFOs (Ref. 6). I have tried,
was at Lowell doing work on planetary atmospheres, on leave from Florida State
unsuccessfully, to locate J. F. Cole. An account of the case is given by Bloecher
University. Spotting an unusual small object moving from SE to NW, he had
(Ref. 8). It might be remarked that "swarming bee" UFO observations have
time to send his son after binoculars, which he used in the later portions of his
cropped up repeatedly over the years, and from all over the world.
observation. He said it looked somewhat disc-shaped, or perhaps somewhat like
a tipped parachute. It had no wings or visible means of propulsion. Dr. Hess
4. Case 23. Ogra, Latvia, July 26, 1965
indicated to me that he probably had it in sight a total of about three minutes,
An astronomer whom I know recently toured a number of observatories in the
during which it passed directly between him and a cloud, before disappearing
USSR, and brought back the word that a majority of Russian astronomers have
(into a cloud Hess feels, though this point was not certain). From meteorologi-
paid little attention to Russian UFO reports (details of which are quite similar
cal data bearing on the cloud-base height, Hess deduced that the cloud bases lay
to American UFO reports, my colleagues established), a frequently-cited reason
12,000 ft above terrain (vs. Weather Bureau visual estimate of 6000 ft above
being that the American astronomer, Menzel, had given adequate optical explana-
terrain). The zenith angle was about 45 degrees, so the slant range would have
tions of all such sightings. I must agree with Dr. Felix Zigel who, writing on
been 17,000 ft or 8,000 ft, depending on which cloud height is accepted. For its
the UFO problem in Soviet Life (Ref. 38), remarked that Menzel's explanation
3 minutes estimated angular diameter (dime at 50 ft. Hess estimated), the
in terms of atmospheric optics "does not hold water." It would, for example, be
diameter would then come out of the order of 10 to 15 feet. His subjective im-
straining meteorological optics to try to account in such terms for a sighting by
pression was that it was possibly smaller than that.
three Latvian astronomers whose report Zigel cites in his article. At 9:35 p.m. on
Discussion.-The possibility that this might have been a balloon or some other
7/26/65 while studying noctilucent clouds, R. Vitolniek and two colleagues vis-
freely drifting device comes to mind. However, Hess noted carefully that the
ually observed a starlike object drifting slowly westward. Under 8-power binoc-
clouds were drifting from SW to NE, i.e., at right angles to the object's motion.
97-818-68-5
62
63
He estimated its speed to be in the neighborhood of 100 to 200 mph, yet no engine
noises of any kind were audible. It appeared dark against the bright cloud
and appeared "almost round, a solid dull pure white color, with a thin white
background, but bright when it was seen against blue sky. No obvious explana-
mist completely edging each object." The first object moved into the optical
tion in conventional terms seems to fit this sighting.
field and curved upwards to the west, with the theodolite oriented to about 53
7. Many other sightings by both professional and amateur astronomers could
degrees elevation, 157 degrees azimuth. About 20 seconds later, a second object
be listed. Vallee (Ref. 17) discusses in detail a November 8, 1957 observation
entered the field and moved in and out of the field erratically two times, to
by J. L. Chapuis of Toulouse Observatory in France of what appeared through
rejoin the first object. Brown was able to track the pair thereafter, as they
a small telescope to be a yellowish, elliptical body, with distinct outlines, leaving
jointly changed both azimuth and elevation. Because he had a stopwatch at
hand for the baloon observation (which he did not complete because of follow-
a short trail behind it. It was seen by other observers in three separate locations,
executed maneuvers entirely excluding meteoric origin, and was regarded as an
ing the unknown objects), he was able to determine that he followed the pair
unexplainable phenomenon by all of the witnesses. Hall (Ref. 10) lists nine
of objects for five minutes (1350 to 1355), until he lost sight of them against a
cirrus cloud deck to the SSW. At the termination of the observation, his instru-
examples of astronomer sightings of unidentified objects, several of which are
quite striking. Ruppelt (Ref. 5) remarks that an astronomer working under con-
ment was pointed to 29 degrees elevation, 204 degrees azimuth.
Discussion-This case is carried as Unidentified in the official files (see Ref.
tract to the official UFO investigatory program interviewed 45 American astrono-
7 for official summary). At times these objects lay near the sun's position in
mers during the summer of 1952, of whom five (11 per cent) had seen what they
regarded to be UFOs. Although the sample is small, that percentage is well
the sky, which might suggest forward-angle scattering of sunlight by airborne
above the population percentage who say they have seen UFOs, which suggests
particles. However, initially, the objects were detected at angular distance of
that perhaps astronomers may sight more UFOs than they report as such. In-
about 40 degrees from the solar position, which would not yield appreciable low-
deed, with the recent publication of Ref. 7, further interesting information on
angle scattering. Furthermore, if these were airborne scatterers, they would
almost certainly be separated by random turbulence within as long a period as
that 1952 poll is now at hand. The contract astronomer wrote at that time (Ref. 7,
Rept. 8), " certainly another contributing factor to their desire not to talk
five minutes, yet the observer's report indicates that they maneuvered together
about these things is their overwhelming fear of publicity. One headline in the
within angular separations of the order of the roughly one-degree field of such
theodolites. The fact that the second object did go out of the field only to return to
nation's papers to the effect that "Astronomer Sees Flying Saucer' would be
the vicinity of the first object strains the airborne-particle hypothesis. Thus the
enough to brand the astronomer as questionable among his colleagues." Unfortu-
official categorization of Unidentified seems reasonable here.
nately, we scientists are by no means as open-minded and fearlessly independent
as we are sometimes pictured. It is often quite difficult to persuade a scientist
3. Case 28. Upington, Cape Province, December 7, 1954
to let his confidential report of a UFO sighting become a fully open UFO report:
R. H. Kleyweg, Officer-in-Charge of the Upington Meteorological Station,
and my own experience suggests that perhaps astronomers, as a group, are just
had just released a balloon for upper-wind measurement and was shielding his
a bit more sensitive on this score than other scientists. At any event, perhaps
eyes from the sun trying to spot the balloon to get his theodolite on it. Seeing an
the above-cited cases will suggest that some astronomers have seen unidentified
object east of the sun, moving slowly to the west, he thought it was his balloon
fiying objects.
and got the theodolite on it, only to find that it was white, whereas he had re-
leased a red balloon. An account in the Natal Mercury, January 28, 1955, quoted
METEOROLOGISTS AND WEATHER OBSERVERS LOOK AT THE SKIES FREQUENTLY.
Kleyweg as saying that it seemed "like a half-circle with the sun reflecting off
WHY DON'T THEY SEE UFOS?
the sloping top." He had no difficulty following it for about three minutes, but
then it began to accelerate and, after another minute, he was unable to track
1. Case 26. Richmond, Va., April 1947
fast enough to keep it in optical view (Ref. 10).
To begin an answer to that rhetorical question, we might consider an observa-
Discussion.-Kleyweg was quoted in the cited press source as saying. "I have
tion made by a weather observer at the Richmond, Va., U.S. Weather Bureau
followed thousands of meteorological balloons. This object was no balloon." A
station, about two months before the first national publicity concerning UFOs.
South African student doing graduate work in my Department, Petrus DuToit,
Walter A. Minczewski, whom I located at the same Weather Bureau office where
has confirmed this sighting, having had an account of it directly from Kleyweg.
he made the sighting in 1947, was making a pilot balloon observation, when
An accelerating airborne half-circular object with sloping top seems best cate-
he spotted a silvery object that entered the field of his theodolite (which was
gorized as an unidentified flying object.
trained on the balloon he had released). In the account that Minczewski sent
me, he stated that "the bottom was flat and the top was slightly dome-shaped";
4. Case 29. Arrey, New Mexico, April 24, 1949
and when he tried to see it with naked eye, he could not spot it. (Typical pilot
Charles B. Moore, Jr., was with four enlisted Navy personnel making a pilot
balloon theodolites have magnifications of about 20 to 25, and angular fields
balloon observation preparatory to release of a Skyhook balloon at the White
that are usually about a degree across.) It was a "clear bright morning" when
Sands Proving Ground in the middle of the morning of 4/24/49. The balloon
he spotted the object, and it lay to his NNE at an elevation of about
was airborne and was under observation by one of the men when Moore became
45 degrees. Whether Minczewski really saw the upper surface or formed his
aware that a white object which he took to be the balloon was in a part of the
mental impressions without realizing that the theodolite may have inverted the
sky well away from where the theodolite operator had this instrument trained.
image is now unclear, and my questioning did not settle that point.
As Moore has explained directly to me in discussing this famous case, he thought
Discussion.-A report of this sighting is in the official files, a circumstance
the operator had lost the balloon. Moore took over, swung the 25-power scope
which greatly surprised Minczewski, since he had discussed it only with his fel-
onto the "balloon" he had spotted, and found that it was in fact an ellipsoidal
low workers. In the ensuing two decades, he has never again seen anything like
white object moving at a rapid angular velocity towards the NE. With stop-
it. Clearly, the probability of an object crossing the small angular field of a
watch and recording forms at hand, it was possible for the team of five men to
meteorological theodolite is quite low, if only chance were involved here. He
secure some semi-quantitative data on this sighting; Moore disengaged the
tried to track it but lost it. due to its high angular velocity, after about five or
vernier drives to track manually, and followed the object as it sped from the
six seconds, he recalled. No obvious conventional explanation suggests itself
southwest into the northeast skies. At its closest approach, it was moving at
for this early sighting.
about 5 degrees/sec. Just before Moore lost it in the distance to the northeast,
its angular elevation began to increase, as if it were climbing, a quite significant
2. Case 27. Yuma, Ariz., February 4, 1953
point. The object had a horizontal length about two to three times greater than
Weather Bureau observer S. H. Brown was tracking a pilot balloon at 6000
its vertical thickness. Moore never got a sufficiently clear view to identify any
ft over Yuma at 1:50 p.m. MST on 2/4/53 when first one and then a second
finer details if any were present. Another balloon was immediately released to
unidentified object moved across his theodolite field, somewhat as in the pre-
check the slim possibility that a high-speed jet from SW to NE might have
ceding case. I obtained an account of this sighting from V. B. Cotten, Meteorolo-
carried some airborne object across the sky; but the winds were blowing more
gist-in-Charge at the Yuma station. The full account is too long for recapitula-
or less at right angles to the object's path to the 93,000 ft. level, and were rather
tion here. Both objects appeared to be of the order of a minute of are in diameter
weak (Ref. 10). The angular diameter of the object was estimated at about a
64
65
minute of are (which in the 25-power theodolite would appear to Moore as about
three-fourths the apparent size of the moon).
His account emphasizes that the boundaries of the object (s) were definite and
Discussion.-Moore's sighting is carried as Unidentified in official files. Menzel
sharp, not diffuse. Villela's account indicates that a total of six persons were
(Ref. 24) says of it:
above-decks and saw this striking phenomenon. It is to be emphasized that, in
"This incident, kept in the classified files for more than two years, presents
the estimated 10 seconds that this lasted, the object was moving below a cloud
no serious difficulty to the person who understands the optics of the earth's
deck that lay only about 1500 feet above the sea, SO that, for the reported eleva-
atmosphere. The air can, under special conditions, produce formations similar to
tion angle of about 50 degrees, the slant range from observers to object was
lenses. And, just as a burning glass can project the sun into a point of light, so
perhaps of the order of 2000 ft. Villela had the subjective impression that the
can these lenses of air-imperfect though they are-form an image. What Moore
egg-shaped initial form was about as big as a small airplane.
saw was an out-of-focus and badly astigmatic image of the balloon above."
Discussion.-In a recent book aimed at showing that a majority of the most in-
It would be interesting to hear Menzel present a quantitative defense of that
teresting UFOs are an atmospheric-electrical plasma related to ball lightning,
astonishing disposition of this interesting sighting. Here five witnesses, with aid
Philip J. Klass (Ref. 39) cites the preceding case as a good example of the sort
of a tracking device giving better than rough angular-coordinate information on
of observation which he feels he can encompass in his "plasma-UFO" hypothesis.
the movements of an unknown object, observe the object move through an are
To the extent that he treats only the breakup into two parts, he has some ob-
of over 90 degrees that took it into a part of the sky about that same large
servational basis for trying to interpret this as something akin to ball lightning.
angular distance from the real balloon's location, and Menzel adduces a "lens
But almost at that point the similarity ends as far as meteorologically recog-
of air" to explain it away. Astronomers find atmospheric scintillation a very
nized characteristics of ball lightning go. The highly structured nature of the
serious observational problem because stellar images are often erratically shifted
object and its rays, its size, its horizontal trajectory, its presence in a foggy area
by tens of seconds of arc from their mean position as a result of atmospheric
with low stratiform clouds free of thunderstorm activity scarcely suggest any-
turbulence effects. In the 5/24/49 Moore sighting, Menzel is proposing that the
thing like ball lightning. Nor does this account suggest any meteoric phenomenon
atmosphere carried a refracted image of the balloon northeastward at a steady
at sub-cloud altitudes. I would regard this as just one more of a baffling array
rate of excursion that finally totalled several thousand times the magnitude of
of inexplicable aerial phenomena which span SO wide a range of characteristics
refractive angular image-displacements known to occur with bad seeing. I feel
that it is taxing to try to invent any single hypothesis to rationalize them all.
obliged to repeat an observation I have made before: If the transmission pro-
The full spectrum of UFO phenomena will, I predict, come as a shock to every
perties of the Earth's atmosphere were as anomalous as Menzel assumes in his
scientist who takes the necessary time to look into the wealth of reports accumu-
handling of UFO observations, he and his collegaues would be out of business.
lated in various archives over the past two decades and more. Official assertions
The official categorization of Unidentified for the Moore sighting seems in-
to the effect that UFO reports in no way defy explanation in terms of present
escapable. It might be added that, over the years, there have been very many
scientific and technological knowledge are, in my opinion, entirely unjustified.
UFO observations of significant nature from the vicinity of White Sands Prov-
The Villela sighting seems a case in point. And meteorologists do see UFOs, as
ing Ground, many involving instrumental tracking, many made by experienced
the foregoing cases should suggest.
observers. A long and impressive list of them could easily be compiled, yet all
have been slowly lost from official cognizance by a process that is character-
DON'T WEATHER BALLOONS AND RESEARCH BALLOONS ACCOUNT FOR MANY UFOS?
istically at the heart of response to the UFO problem.
Probably the most categorical statement ever made attributing UFO observa-
5. Case 30. Admiralty Bay, Antarctica, March 16, 1961.
tions to balloons appeared in a Look magazine article by Richard Wilson in
This listing of UFO sightings by meteorologists could be extended very con-
February 1951, entitled, "A Nuclear Physicist Exposes Flying Saucers." Dr.
siderably by drawing on my file of such cases. To cite just one more that also
Urner Liddel, then affiliated with the Navy cosmic ray research program using
indicates the global scale of the UFO phenomena, a very unusual luminous un-
the large Skyhook balloons, was quoted as saying, "There is not a single reliable
identified aerial object seen by a meteorologist and others aboard the U.S.S.
report of an observation (of a UFO) which is not attributable to the cosmic bal-
Glacier at about 6:15 p.m. on 3/16/61 in the Antarctic will be mentioned. I have
loons." When one considers the large number of UFO reports already on record
quite recently received, through French UFO investigator René Fouéré, a rather
by 1951 in which reliable airlines pilots, military personnel, and other credible
detailed summary of this sighting by Brazilian meteorologist Rubens J. Villela,
witnesses have observed unidentified objects wholly unlike a high-altitude,
whose earlier account I had seen but paid little attention to (Ref. 10). The point
slowly drifting pear-shaped Skyhook balloon, that assertion appears very curious.
I had missed, prior to reading Villela's detailed description of the circumstances
Nevertheless, that many persons have misidentified Skyhook balloons and even
of the sighting, was the very important feature of a low cloud overcast present
the smaller weather balloons used in routine meteorological practice is unques-
at about 1500 ft above the sea. With three shipmates on the flying bridge, Villela
tioned. A Skyhook seen against the twilight sky with back-illumination vields
suddenly saw
a strangely luminous, hovering object which many observers, especially if
"a multicolored luminous object crossing the sky,"
equipped with binoculars, were unprepared to identify correctly in the 1946-51
period when Skyhook operations were tied up with still-classified programs. To
an object which for a moment they took to be an unusual meteor.
this extent, Liddel's point is reasonable; but his sweeping assertion fails to fit
"It was egg-shaped, colored mainly reddish at first, and traveled slowly from
the facts, then or now.
Actually, in official case-evaluations. one finds Skyhook balloons invoked
NE to SW at about 50 degrees above the horizon, on a straight horizontal trajec-
relatively infrequently compared with "weather balloons." But in many of the
tory. From its frontal part, several multicolored, perfectly straight 'rays' CX-
latter cases, the balloon hypothesis is strained beyond the breaking point. The
tended backwards, diverging outwards at an angle; the colors of these rays
official criterion used (Ref. 7, p. 135) is extremely loose:
changed continually, predominantly green, red, and blue. Most striking of all, it
"If an object is reported near a balloon launch site within an hour after the
left a long trail of orange color in the form of a perfectly straight tube which
scheduled launch times, it is classed as a balloon"
gave the distinct impression of being hollow, faintly comparable to a neon light,"
with no specification of heights, shapes, distances, etc. Using such a criterion. it is
Villela stated in his summary.
easy to see why SO many "balloon" explanations figure in the official summaries.
Then,
There are even "balloon" UFOs whose speed, when inferred from the report. comes
"Suddenly the object divided in two. It was not an explosion, it was a controlled
out supersonic The tiny candles or flashlight bulbs hung on pilot balloons for
division in two equal parts, one behind the other, each egg-shaped as before and
nighttracking have been repeatedly made the basis for explanations of what wit-
each radiating outwards its V-shaped lateral rays. Then the object shone with
nesses described as huge luminous objects at close range. Within only days of this
a slightly stronger light, changing color to blue and white, and disappeared
writing, I have checked out such a case near Tucson where four adult witnesses
completely. That's it-just disappeared, abruptly."
saw, on July 2, 1968, a half-moon-shaped orange-red object hovering for several
minutes at what they estimated to be a few hundred feet above terrain and
perhaps a few miles away over open desert. They watched it tip once, right
66
67
itself, then accelerate and rise over a mountain range and pass off into the
2. Case 32. Odessa, Wash., December 10, 1952
distance in some ten seconds. Because a weather balloon had been released
earlier (actually about an hour and forty-five minutes earlier) from the Tucson
According to an official case-summary (Ref. 7, Rept. 10), two airmen in an
airport Weather Bureau station, the official explanation, published in the local
F-94 "made visual and radar contact with a large, round white object larger
press, was that the witnesses had seen a "weather balloon". A pilot balloon of
than any known type of aircraft" near 1915 PST on 12/10/52 near Odessa.
the small type (30-gram) used in this instance rises at about 600 ft/min, the
The radar operator in the F-94 had airborne radar contact with the object
tiny light on it becomes invisible to the naked eye beyond about 10,000 ft slant-
for 15 minutes, and during that same interval, ground radar was also track-
range, and the upper-level winds weren't even blowing toward the site in ques-
ing it. The summary states that "the object appeared to be level with the inter-
tion. Also the angular size estimated for the observed reddish half-moon was
cepting F-94 at 26,000 to 27,000 ft," and it is pointed out that "a dim reddish-
about twice the lunar diameter, and some said about four times larger. A pilot
white light came from the object as it hovered, reversed direction almost in-
balloon light would have to be within about 20-30 feet to appear this large.
stantaneously and then disappeared." It is stated that the skies were clear above
Yet such a case will enter the files (if even transmitted to higher echelons) as
3000 ft. The official evaluation of this incident is "Possible Balloon", although
a "balloon", swelling the population of curious balloon-evaluations in official
the report notes that no upper-air research balloon was known to be in the
files.
area on this date. The principal basis for calling it a balloon was the observers'
description of "large, round and white and extremely large", and it was re-
1. Case 31. Ft. Monmouth, N.J., September 10, 1951
marked that the instrument package on some balloon flights is capable of yield-
It is clear from Ruppelt's discussions (Ref. 5) that a series of radar and
ing a radar return.
visual sightings near Ft. Monmouth on 9/10/51 and the next day were of critical
Discussion. To conclude that this was a "Possible Balloon" just on the basis
importance in affecting official handling of the UFO problem in the ensuing
of the description, "large, round and white and extremely large", and thereby
two-year period. Many details from the official file on these sightings are now
to ignore the instantaneous course reversal and the inability of a 600-mph
available for scientific scrutiny (Ref. 7). Here, a sighting by two military airmen
jet to close with it over a period of 15 minutes seems unreasonable. We may
flying in a T-33 near Ft. Monmouth will be selected from that series of events
ignore questions of wind speeds at the altitude of the object and the F-94 be-
because the sighting was eventually tagged as a weather balloon. As with any
cause both would enjoy the same "tail-wind effect". In 15 minutes, the F-94
really significant UFO case, it would require far more space than can be used
would be capable of moving 150 miles relative to any balloon at its altitude.
here to spell out adequately all relevant details, SO a very truncated account
On the other hand, airborne radar sets of that period would scarcely detect
must be employed. While flying at 20,000 ft from a Delaware to a Long Island
a target of cross-section represented by the kinds of instrument packages hung
airbase, the two men in the T-33 spotted an object "round and silver in color"
on balloons of the Skyhook type, unless the aircraft were within something
which at one stage of the attempted intercept appeared flat. The T-33 was put
like 10 or 15 miles of it. Yet it is stated that the F-94 was pursuing it under
into a descending turn to try to close on the object but the latter turned
radar contact for a time interval corresponding to an airpath ten times that
tightly (the airmen stated) and passed rapidly eastward towards the coast of
distance. Clearly, categorizing this unkown as a "balloon" was incompatible
New Jersey and out to sea. A pair of weather balloons (probably radiosonde
with the reported details of the case.
balloons but no information thereon given in the files) had been released from
On the other hand, there seems no reason to take seriously Menzel's evalua-
the Evans Signal Laboratory near Ft. Monmouth, and the official evaluation
tion of this Odessa F-94 sighting (Ref. 25, p. 62). Menzel evidently had the full
indicates that this is what the airmen saw.
file on this case, for he adds a few details beyond those in Ref. 7, details similar
However, it is stated that the balloons were released at 1112 EDST, and the
to those in Ruppelt's account of the case (Ref. 5) :
sighting began at about 1135 EDST with the T-33 over Point Pleasant. N.J. In
"Dim reddish-white lights seemed to be coming from 'windows', and no trail
that elapsed time, a radiosonde balloon, inflated to rise at the 800-900 ft/min
or exhaust was visible. The pilot attempted to intercept but the object performed
rate used for such devices, would have attained an altitude of about 17-18,000
amazing feats-did a chandelle in front of the plane, rushed away, stopped, and
ft, the analysis notes. From this point on, the official analysis seems to be built
then made straight for the aircraft on a collision course at incredible speed."
on erroneous inferences. The airmen said that, as they tried to turn on the
He indicates that after the pilot banked to avoid collision he could not again
object, it appeared to execute a 120-degree turn over Freehold, N.J., before
locate it visually, although another brief radar contact was obtained. Having
speeding out over the Atlantic. But from the upper winds for that day, it is
recounted those and other sighting details, Menzel then offers his interpre-
clear that the Ft. Monmouth balloon trajectory would have taken it to the
tations:
northeast, and by 1135, it would have been about over the coast in the vicinity
"In the east, Sirius was just rising over the horizon at the exact bearing of
of Sea Bright. Hence, at no time in the interval involved could the line of sight
the unknown object. Atmospheric refraction would have produced exactly the
from T-33 to balloon have intersected Freehold, which lies about 15 miles WSW
phenomenon described. The same atmospheric conditions that caused the mirage
of the balloon release-point. Instead, had the airmen somehow seen the radio-
of the star would have caused anomalous radar returns."
sonde balloon from Pt. Pleasant, it would have lain to about their N or NNE
Now stars just above the viewer's horizon do scintillate and do undergo
and would have stayed in about that sector until they passed it. Furthermore,
turbulent image-displacement, but one must consider quantitative matters. A
the size of the balloon poses a serious difficulty for the official analysis. Assum-
refractive excursion of a stellar image through even a few minutes of are would
ing that it had expanded to a diameter of about 15 feet as it ascended to about
be an extremely large excursion. To suggest that a pilot would report that Sirius
the 18.000-ft level, it would have subtended an are of only 0.6 min. as seen from
did a chandelle is both to forget realities of astronomy and to do injustice to
the T-33 when the latter passed over Pt. Pleasant. This angular size is, for an
the pilot. In fact, however, Menzel seems to have done his computations incor-
unaided eye, much too small to fit the airmen's descriptions of what they tried
rectly, for it is easily ascertained that Sirius was not even in the Washington
to intercept. In a press interview (Ref. 40), the pilot, Wilbert S. Rogers of
skies at 7:15 p.m. PST on 12/10/52. It lay at about 10 degrees below the east-
Columbia. Pa., said the object was "perfectly round and flat" and that the
ern horizon. A further quite unreasonable element of Menzel's explanation of
center of the disc was raised "about six feet" and that it appeared to be moving
the Odessa case is his easy assertion that the radar returns were anomalous
at an airspeed of the order of 900 mph. The entire reasoning on which the
results of the "atmospheric conditions". Aircraft flying at altitudes of 26,000
balloon evaluation is elaborated fails to fit readily established points in the
ft do not get ground returns on level flight as a result of propagation anomalies.
official case-summary.
These extreme forcings of explanations recur throughout Menzel's writings;
Discussion. The possibility that a pilot can be misled by depth-perception
one of thier common denominators is lack of attention to relevant quantitative
errors and coordinate-reference errors to misconstrue a weather balloon as a
factors.
fast-maneuvering object must always be kept in mind. But in the Ft. Monmouth
3. Case 33. Rosalia, Wash., February 6, 1953
instance, as in many others that could be discussed in detail, there is a very
Another official case-summary of interest here is cited by Menzel (Ref. 25,
large gap between the balloon hypothesis and the facts. The basic sighting-report
here is quite similar to many other daytime sightings by airborne observers who
p. 46). Keyhoe (Ref. 4), who studied the case-file on it much earlier. gives
similar information, though in less detail. A B-36, bound for Spokane was
have seen unconventional disc-like objects pass near their aircraft.
over Rosalia, Wash., at 1 :13 a.m. when, as Menzel describes it,
69
68
Discussion.-I am still in the process of trying to locate Kratovil to confirm
"the pilot * * * sighted a round white light below him, circling and rising at a
sighting details but the fact that four newspaper accounts for that day give the
speed estimated at 150 to 200 knots as it proceeded on a southeast course."
same information about the major points probably justifies acceptance of those
Menzel states that the B-36
points. From upper-wind data for that area and time, I have confirmed the
"made a sharp descending turn toward the light, which was in view for a
period of three to five minutes."
presence of fairly strong flow from the WSW aloft, whence Kratovil's press
comment, "If this was a weather balloon, it's the first time I ever saw one
The light was blinking, and Keyhoe mentions that the blink-interval was esti-
mated at about 2 seconds.
traveling against the wind," seems reasonable. The cruising speed of a Constella-
tion is around 300 mph, SO during the reported 10 minutes' duration of the crew's
Menzel concurs in the official evaluation of this as a "weather balloon", noting
that a pilot balloon had been released at Fairchild AFB at 1:00 a.m., and
sighting, they moved about 50 miles relative to the air, SO it would have been
remarking that the
impossible for them to have kept a weather balloon in sight for this long.
Furthermore, it was about 1.5 hours after scheduled balloon-release time, SO that
"winds aloft at altitudes of 7,000 to 10,000 ft. were from the northwest with a
even a small balloon would have either burst or passed to altitudes too high to
speed of about fifty knots."
be visible. Finally, with flow out of the southwest sector from surface to above
He says that
20,000 ft., any balloon from Grenier AFB would have been carried along a
"computations showed that the existing winds would have carried the balloon to
trajectory nowhere near where the TWA crew spotted the "large, white-colored,
the southeast, and it would have been over Rosalia, which is 12.5 nautical miles
disc-like object" overhead.
southeast of Fairchild, in about fifteen minutes."
5. In my files are many other "balloon" cases from the past twenty years, cases
In fact, Rosalia lies 33 statute miles SSE of Fairchild, or about twice as far as
that ought never have been SO labelled, had the evaluators kept relevant quan-
Menzel indicates. The net drift of the balloon cannot be deduced simply from
titative points in mind. To ignore most of the salient features of a sighting in
the winds in the 7-10,000-ft. layer; and, in fact, an examination of the upper-wind
order to advance an easy "balloon" explanation is only one more of many different
data for that area on February 6 indicates that the winds at lower levels were
ways in which some very puzzling UFO observations have been shoved out of
blowing out of the southwest. The trajectory of the balloon would have taken it
sight.
WHY AREN'T UFO'S EVER TRACKED BY RADAR?
initially east-northeast, then east, and finally curving back to the southeast as
it got up to near the 10,000-ft. levels. By that time, it would have been already
The skeptic who asks this question, and many do, is asking a very reasonable
east of Spokane, nowhere near Rosalia.
question. With SO much radar equipment deployed all over the world. and
The small light (candle or flashlight bulb) used on night pibal runs is almost
especially within the United States, it seems sensible to expect that, if there are
invisible to the naked eye beyond a few miles' distance. (A 1-candle source at
any airborne devices maneuvering in our airspace, they ought to show up on
3,000 ft. is equivalent to a star of about the first magnitude. At 6 miles, then, one
radars once in a while. They do indeed, and have been doing SO for all of the two
finds that the same source equals the luminosity of a sixth-magnitude star, the
decades that radar has been in widespread use. Here, as with SO many other
limit of human vision under the most favorable conditions. For a pilot, looking
general misconceptions about the true state of the UFO problem, we encounter
out of a cockpit with slight inside glare to spot a 1-candle source against a dark
disturbingly large amounts of misinformation. As with other categories of UFO
background would require that the source be only a few miles away.) At some
misinformation, the only adequate corrective is detailed discussion of large
Spokane. 30 miles, the B-36 pilot could not have seen the small light on a ballon east of
numbers of individual cases. Only space limitations preclude discussion of dozens
of striking radar-tracking incidents involving UFOs, both here and abroad;
Menzel states that
they do exist.
"the balloon carried white running lights which accounted for the blinking
1. Case 35. Fukuoka, Japan, October 15, 1948.
described, and the circling climb of the UFO is typical of a balloon's course."
A very early radar-UFO case, still held as an official Unidentified, involved an
Neither inference is supportable. The light used on pilot balloons is a steady
attempted interception of the unknown object by an F-61 flying near Fukuoka.
source; only if one were right above it, with its random swing causing
Japan, at about 11:00 p.m. local time on 10/15/48. The official file on this incident
intermittent occultation. would one ever perceive blinking. But then, flying at
is lengthy (Ref. 42) ; only the highlights can be recounted here. The F-61 (with
B-36 speeds, the pilot would have swept over the sector of perceptible occultation
pilot and radar operator) made six attempts to close with the unknown, from
in only a matter of seconds. Yet here the pilot watched it for a reported 3-5
which a radar return was repeatedly obtained with the airborne radar. Each time
minutes. Furthermore, "circling climb" cannot be called "typical of a balloon's
the radarman would get a contact and the F-61 pilot tried to close, the unknown
course." The balloon trajectory is controlled by the ambient wind shears and
would accelerate and pass out of range. Although the radar return seemed
only with unusually strong directional shears would a pilot flying a straight
comparable to that of a conventional aircraft,
course perceive a pilot balloon to be "circling."
In all, there appear to be SO many serious difficulties with the balloon
"the radar observer estimated that on three of the sightings, the object traveled
statement: explanation for the Rosalia sighting that it is not possible to accept Menzel's
seven miles in approximately twenty seconds, giving a speed of approximately
1200 mph."
In another passage, the official case-file remarks that
"Thus all the evidence supports ATIC's conclusion that the UFO was a weather
balloon."
"when the F-61 approached within 12,000 feet, the target executed a 180° turn
and dived under the F-61,"
4. Case 34. Boston, Mass., June 1, 1954
adding that
At 0930 EDST, a Paris-New York TWA Constellation was passing near Boston
"the F-61 attempted to dive with the target but was unable to keep pace."
when the cockpit crew spotted "a large, white-colored disc-like object" overhead
The report mentions that the unknown
(Ref. 41). Capt. Charles J. Kratovil, copilot W. R. Davis, and flight engineer
"could go almost straight up or down out of radar elevation limits,"
Harold Raney all watched it for a total time of 10 minutes as they flew on their
and asserts further that
own southwestward course to New York. They would occasionally lose it behind
overlying clouds. Knowing that they were flying into headwinds, they concluded
"this aircraft seemed to be cognizant of the whereabouts of the F-61 at all
that it could not be any kind of balloon, SO they radioed the Boston airport
times
control tower, which informed him that jets were scrambled and saw the object,
The F-61 airmen, 1st Lt. Oliver Hemphill (pilot) and 2d Lt. Barton Halter
but could not close with it.
(radarman) are described in the report as being
After landing in New York, Capt. Kratovil was informed that official spokesmen
"of excellent character and intelligence and are trained observers."
had attributed the sighting to a "weather balloon" released from Grenier AFB,
Hemphill, drawing on his combat experience in the European theater, said
in New Hampshire.
that
"the only aircraft I can compare our targets to is the German ME-163."
70
71
The airmen felt obliged to consider the possibility that their six
intercepts first involved more than one unknown. Hemphill mentions that, attempted in the
attempted intercept,
speed objects over the Cape. On January 1, 1967, in a transoceanic shortwave
broadcast from South Africa, the authenticity of this report was confirmed,
unable "the target put on a tremendous burst of speed and dived so fast that we were
though no additional data beyond what had been cited earlier were presented.
to stay with it."
In the six passes, the target's altitude varied between 5,000 and 15,000 ft., and its
After this head-on intercept, Hemphill did a chandelle back to his original
closest approach varied between 7 and 10 miles. Speeds were estimated at over
6000-ft altitude and tried a stern interception,
1200 mph, well beyond those of any aircraft operating in that area at that time.
visually by myself,"
"but the aircraft immediately outdistanced us. The third target was spotted
Discussion.-This report, on which the available information is slim, is cited
to indicate that not only visual sightings but also radar sightings of seemingly
Hemphill's signed statement in the case-file continues.
unconventional objects appear to comprise a global phenomenon. By and large,
aircraft by a I full moon. I realized at this time that it did not look like under-
cast "I had an excellent silhouette of the target thrown against a very reflective
foreign radar sightings are not readily accessible, and not easily cross-checked.
Zigel (Ref. 38) briefly mentions a Russian incident in which both airborne and
Station was familiar with, so I immediately contacted my Ground any Control type
ground-based radar tracked an unidentified in the vicinity of Odessa, on April 4,
1966, the ground-based height-finding radar indicating altitudes of well over
statement which informed him there were no other known aircraft in the area. Hemphill's
100,000 ft. Such reports, without accessory information, are not readily evaluated,
of course.
adds further that,
roughly "The fourth target passed directly over my ship from stern to bow at a
4. Case 38. Washington, D.C., July 19, 1952
attempted aircraft; just enough to know he had passed on. The fifth and sixth targets of the
twice that of my aircraft, 200 mph. I caught just a fleeting glance speed of
By far the most famous single radar-visual sighting on record is the one which
occurred late in the evening of July 19, and early on July 20, 1952, in the vicinity
out of our range." radar interceptions, but their high rate of speed put them immediately were
of Washington, D.C. (Refs. 2, 4, 5, 10, 24, 25). A curiously similar incident oc-
curred just one week later. The official explanation centered around atmospheric
might in have been a separate object.) A sketch of what the object looked like as if it
(Note the non-committal terminology that treats each intercept target
effects on radar and light-propagation. Just before midnight on July 19/20, CAA
radar showed a number of unidentified targets which varied in speed (up to about
seen estimated silhouette against the moonlit cloud deck is contained in the file. It when
800 mph) in a manner inconsistent with conventional aircraft. A number of ex-
to be about the size of a fighter aircraft, but had neither was
perienced CAA radarmen observed these returns, and, at one juncture, com-
wings but nor tail structures. It was somewhat bullet-shaped, tapered towards discernible the
patible returns were being received not only at the ARTC radar but also on the
rear, with a square-cut aft end. It seemed to have "a dark or dull finish".
ARS radar in a separate location at Washington National Airport, and on still a
Discussion. Ground radar stations never detected the unknown that
third radar at Andrews AFB. Concurrently, both ground and airborne observers
have visually been and contacted by airborne radar. The report indicates that this was seen
saw unidentifiable lights in locations matching those of the blips on the ground
due to effects of "ground clutter", though the F-61 was seen intermit- may
radar.
tently on the ground units. The airmen stated that no exhaust flames or trail
Discussion.-I have interviewed five of the CAA personnel involved in this case
seen from this object with its "stubby, clean lines". The total duration of were
and four of the commercial airline pilots involved, I have checked the radiosonde
cases attempted intercepts is given as 10 minutes. We deal here with one of the six
data against well-known radar propagation relations, and I have studied the CAA
visual wherein radar detection of an unconventional object was supported many
report subsequently published on this event. Only an extremely lengthy discussion
what is observation. That this is carried as Unidentified cannot surprise by
would suffice to present the serious objections to the official explanation that this
have been surprising is that SO many other comparable instances are on one;
complex sighting was a result of anomalous radar propagation and refractive
ing intensive study.
ignored as indicators of some scientifically intriguing problem record, demand- yet
anomalies of the mirage type. The refractive index gradient, even after making
allowance for instrument lag, was far too low for "ducting" or "trapping" to
2. Case 36. Nowra, Australia, September, 1954
occur; and, still more significant, the angular elevations of the visually observed
unknowns lay far too high for radar-ducting under even the most extreme
The UFO case to command general press attention in the Australian
conditions that have ever been observed in the atmosphere. Some of the pilots,
seems to have been a combined radar-visual sighting wherein the pilot of a Hawker area
directed by ground radar to look for any airborne objects, saw them at altitudes
Seafury him from Nowra Naval Air Station visually observed two unknown objects
well above their own flight altitudes, and these objects were maneuvering in
near revealed as he flew from Canberra to Nowra (Ref. 43). Press descriptions
wholly unconventional manner. One crew saw one of the unknown luminous
saucers" only that the pilot said "the two strange aircraft resembling
objects shoot straight up, and simultaneously the object's return disappeared
were capable of speeds much beyond his Seafury fighter. He saw flying them
from the ARTC scope being watched by the CAA radar operators. The official
flying nearby and contacted Nowra radar to ask if they had him on their
suggestion that the same weak (1.7°C) low-level "inversion" that was blamed for
described they informed him that they had three separate returns, at which juncture scope;
the radar ducting could produce miraging effects was quantitatively absurd, even
the unidentified objects. Under instructions from the Nowra radar he
if one overlooks the airline-pilot sightings and deals only with the reported
test the scope-identity of his aircraft VS. the unknowns. As he executed scope. the
confirmed operator, he executed certain maneuvers to identify himself on the This
ground-visual sightings. From the CAA radar operators I interviewed, as well
as from the pilots I talked to about this case, I got the impression that the
tion of maneuvers, the two unknowns moved away and disappeared. No explana-
propagation-anomaly hypothesis struck them as quite out of the question, then
in this incident was offered by Naval authorities after it was widely reported
and now. In fact, CAA senior controller Harry G. Barnes, who told me that the
Australian and New Zealand papers about three months after it occurred.
scope returns from the unknowns.
Discussion.-It is mildly amusing that the press accounts indicated that
abruptly reported flying saucers, called Nowra by radio and asked whether the
"the pilot, fearing that he might be ragged in the wardroom on his return if he
"were not diffuse, shapcless blobs such as one gets from ground returns under
anomatous propagation"
radar screen showed his aircraft."
but were strong, bright pips, said that
Only after getting word of three, not one, radar blips in his locality did he
"anomalous propagation never entcred our heads as an explanation."
This is in good accord with my own direct experience in interviewing Australian
the information on the unknowns, whose configuration was not publicly released. radio
Howard S. Conklin, who, like Barnes, is still with FAA. was in the control tower
UFO witnesses in 1967; they are no more willing than Americans to be ridiculed
that night, operating an entirely independent radar (short-range ARS radar). He
for seeing something that is not supposed to exist.
told me that what impressed him about the sighting that night was that they were
in radio communication with airlines crewmen who saw unidentified lights in the
3. Case. 37. Capetown South Africa, May 23, 1953
air in the same area as unknowns were showing up on his tower radar, while
In November 1953, the South African Air Force released a brief announcement
simultaneously he and Joseph Zacko were viewing the lights themselves from the
concerning radar-tracking of six successive passes of one or more unknown high-
tower at the D.C. Airport. James M. Ritchey, who was at the ARTC radar with
72
73
Barnes and others, confirmed the important point that simultaneous radar fixes
and pilot-sightings occurred several times that night. He shared Barnes' views
an unknown moving at speeds estimated at about 7000 mph. It is an interesting
that the experienced radar controllers on duty that night were not being fooled by
case, one that came to light for somewhat curious reasons. A low overcast pre-
ground returns in that July 19 incident. Among the airlines crewmen with whom
cluded any visual sightings from control tower personnel, SO this is not a radar-
I spoke about this event was S. C. Pierman, then flying for Capitol Airlines. He
visual case. I found no conventional explanation to account for it.
was one of the pilots directed by ground radar to search in a specific area for air-
It has to be stressed that there are many ways in which false returns can be
borne objects. He observed high speed lights moving above his aircraft in direc-
seen on radarscopes, resulting not only from ducting of ground returns but also
tions and locations matching what the CAA radar personnel were describing to
from interference from other nearby radars, from internal electronic signals
him by radio, as seen on their radars. Other airline personnel have given me
within the radar set, from angels and insects (weak returns), etc. Hence each
similar corroborating statements. I am afraid it is difficult to accept the official
case has to be examined independently. After studying a number of official
explanations for the famous Washington National Airport sightings.
evaluations of radar UFO cases, I get the impression that there would probably
be more radar Unknowns if there were less tendency to quickly explain them
5. Case 39, Port Huron, Mich., July 29, 1952
away by qualitative arguments that overlook pertinent quantitative matters. Even
Many of the radar cases for which sighting details are accessible date back to
at that, there are too many conceded unknowns in official files to be ignored.
1953 and preceding years. After 1953, official policies were changed, and it is not
A famous case in UFO annals involved a B-29 over the Gulf of Mexico, where
easy to secure good information on subsequent cases in most instances. A radar
several unknowns were tracked on the airborne scopes and were seen simul-
case in which both ground-radar and airborne-radar contact were involved OC-
taneously by crewmen, moving under the aircraft as they passed by (Refs. 4, 10,
curred at about 9:40 p.m. CST on 7/29/52 (Refs. 4, 5, 7, 10, 25). From the official
25). This one is still carried as Unidentified in official files. Still another famous
case summary (Ref. 7) one finds that the unknown was first detected by GCI
combined radar-visual case, which Hynek has termed "one of the most puzzling
radar at an Aircraft Control and Warning station in Michigan, and one of three
cases I have studied," occurred between Rapid City and Bismarck on August 5,
F-94s doing intercept exercises nearby was vectored over towards it. It was
1953. It involved both ground and airborne radar and ground and airborne visual
initially coming in out of the north (Ref. 5, 25), at a speed put at over 600 mph.
sightings, but is far too long and complex to recapitulate here.
As the F-94 was observed on the GCI scope to approach the unknown, the latter
Perhaps the above suffices to indicate that UFOs are at times seen on radar and
suddenly executed a 180° turn, and headed back north. The F-94 was by then
have been SO seen for many years. The question of why we don't hear a great deal
up. to 21,000 ft., and the pilot spotted a brilliant multicolored light just as his
about such sightings, especially with newer and more elaborate surveillance
radarman got a contact. The F-94 followed on a pursuit course for 20 minutes
radars, is a reasonable question. Some of the answers to that one are posed by
(Ref. 7) but could never close with the unknown as its continued on its north-
the statement of Dr. Robert M. L. Baker, Jr., in these proceedings. Other parts
bound course. At the time of first radar lockon, the F-94 was 20 miles west of
of the answer must be omitted here.
Pt. Huron, Mich. The GCI scope revealed the unknown to be changing speed
erratically, and at one stage it was moving at a speed of over 14000 mph, according
WHY AREN'T THERE NUMEROUS PHOTOS OF UFO'S IF THEY REALLY EXIST?
to Menzel (Ref. 25), who evidently drew his information from the official files.
Ruppelt (Ref. 5) states that when the jet began to run low on fuel and turned
Here is a question for which I regard available answers as still unsatis-
back to its base, GCI observed the unknown blip slow down, and shortly after it
factory. I concede that it does seem reasonable to expect that there should, over
was lost from the GCI scope.
the past 20 years, be substantially more good photos than are known to exist.
Discussion.-This case is still carried as an official unknown. The case sum-
Although I do not regard that puzzle as satisfactorily answered, neither do I
mary (Ref. 7) speculates briefly on whether it could have been
think that it can be safely concluded that the paucity of good photos disproves
the reality of the UFOs. Many imponderables enter into consideration of this
"a series of coincident weather phenomena affecting the radar equipment and
question.
sightings of Capella, but this is stretching probabilities too far."
Menzel, however, asserts that the pilot did see Capella, and that the airborne
1. Some general considerations
and ground radar returns
If one had reliable statistics on the fraction of the population that carried
loaded cameras with them at any randomly selected moment (I would guess it
"were merely phantom returns caused by weather conditions."
would be only of the order of one per cent) and had figures bearing on the proba-
No suggestion is offered as to how any given meteorological condition could
bility that a UFO witness would think of taking a photo before his observation
jointly throw off radar at the ground and radar at 21,000 feet, no suggestion is
terminated, then these might be combined with available information on num-
offered to account for 180° course-reversal exhibited by the blip on the GCI scope
bers of sightings to attempt crude estimates of the expected number of UFO
just as the F-94 came near the unknown, no suggestion of how propagation
photos that should have accumulated in 20 years. Then one would need to
anomalies could yield the impression of a blip moving systematically northward
weight the data for likelihood that any given photo would find its way to some-
for 20 minutes (a distance of almost 100 miles, judging from reported F-94
one who would make it known in scientific circles, and then this figure might be
speeds), with the F-94 return following along behind it. With such ad hoc
compared with the very small number of photos that appear to stand the test of
explanations, one could explain away almost any kind of sighting, regardless of its
the exceedingly close scrutiny photos demand.
content. I have examined the radiosonde sounding for stations near the site and
A general rule among serious UFO investigators with whom I have been in
time of this incident, and see nothing in them that would support Menzel's inter-
touch is that the UFO photo is no better than the photographer (Hall). Many
pretations. I have queried experienced military pilots and radar personnel, and
hoax photos have been brought forth. A UFO photo can be sold; this attracts
none have heard of anything like "ground returns" from atmospheric conditions
hoax and fraud to an extent not matched in anecdotal accounts. Many photos
with aircraft radar operated in the middle troposphere. If Menzel is not consider-
have been clearly established as fraudulent in nature; far larger numbers seem
ing ground-returns, in the several cases of this type which he explains away with
SO suspicious on circumstantial grounds that no serious investigator gives them
a few remarks about "phantom radar returns", then it is not clear what else he
more than casual attention.
might be thinking of. One does have to have some solid target to get a radar return
An interesting, even if very crude check on the likelihood of securing photos of
resembling that of an aircraft. Refractive anomalies of the "angel" type have
UFOs from the general populace is afforded by fireball events. On April 25, 1966,
very low radar cross-section and would not mislead experienced operators into
a fireball rated at about magnitude -10, arced northward across the northeastern
confusing them with aircraft echoes.
U.S. From the total geographic area over which this fireball was visually
6. Many other cases might be cited where UFOs have appeared on radar
detected, the population count is about 40 million persons. According to one
under conditions where no acceptable conventional explanation exists. Ref. 7
account (Ref. 43), 200 visual accounts were turned in, and I infer that only 6
has a number of them. Hall (Ref. 10) has about 60 instances in which both
photos were submitted. The fireball was visible for a relatively long time as
radar and visual sightings were involved. A December 19. 1964 case at Patuxent
meteors go, about 30 seconds, and was, of course, at a great altitude (25 to 110
River NAS is one that I have checked on. It involved three successive passes of
km). That 6 photos were submitted (at time of publication of the cited article)
74
75
from a potential population of sighters of 40 million might seem to argue that
3. Case 41. Edwards AFB, May 3, 1957
perhaps we really cannot expect to get many photos of UFOs. However, one of
Occasionally, one could argue, UFOs ought to come into areas where there
the principal reasons for citing the foregoing is to bring out the difficulties in
were persons engaged in photographic work, who were trained to react a bit
drawing any firm conclusions. A phenomenon lasting 30 seconds scarcely permits
faster, and who would secure some photos. One such instance evidently occurred
the observer time to collect his wits and to swing into photographic action if he
at Edwards AFB on the morning of 5/3/57. I have managed to locate and in-
does have a loaded camera. UFO sightings have often extended over much longer
terview three persons who saw the resultant photos. The two who observed the
than 30 seconds, by contrast, affording far better opportunity to think of snapping
UFO and obtained a number of photos of it were James D. Bittick and John R.
a photo. But, on the other hand, sighting a UFO in daytime at close range,
Gettys, Jr., both of whom I have interviewed. They were at the time Askania
judging from my own witness-interviewing experience, is a far more disconcerting
cameramen on the test range, and spotted the domed-disc UFO just as they
and astonishing matter than viewing a brilliant meteor. Thus one can go back
reached Askania #4 site at Edwards, a bit before S :00 a.m. that day. They im-
and forth, with SO little assurance of meaningfulness of any of the relevant
mediately got into communication with the range director, Frank E. Baker,
weight factors that the end result is not satisfactory. I simply do not know what
whom I have also interviewed, and they asked if anyone else was manning an
to think about the paucity of good UFO photos, though I do feel uncomfortable
Askania that could be used to get triangulation shots. Since no other camera
about it.
operators were on duty at other sites, Baker told them to fire manually, and
2. Case 40. Corning, Calif., July 4, 1967
they got a number of shots before the object moved off into the distance. Bittick
A case that may shed at least a bit of light on the paucity of photos involves
estimated that the object lay about a mile away when they got the first shot,
a multiple-witness sighting near dawn at Corning, Calif., on 7/4/67. I have
though when first seen he put it at no more than 500 yards off. He and Gettys
interviewed four witnesses who sighted the object from two separate locations
both said it had a golden color, looked somewhat like an inverted plate with a
involving lines of sight at roughly right angles, serving to confirm the location
dome on top, and had square holes or panels around the dome. Gettys thought
of the object as almost directly over Highway 5 just west of Corning. Jay
that the holes were circular not square. It was moving away from them, seemed
Munger. proprietor of an all-night bowling alley, was having coffee with two
to glow with its own luminosity, and had a hazy, indistinct halo around its rim,
police officers, Frank Rakes and James Overton, when he spotted the object
both mentioned. The number of shots taken is uncertain; Gettys thought per-
through the front window of his place. All three rushed out to the parking lot
haps 30. The object was lost from sight by the time it moved out to about five
to observe what they described as a large flattened sphere or possibly football-
miles or SO, and they did not see it again. They drove into the base and processed
shaped object, with a brilliant light shining upward from the top and a dim-
the film immediately. All three of the men I interviewed emphasized that the
mer light shining down from the underside. The dawn light was such that the
shots taken at the closer range were very sharp, except for the hazy rim. They
object was visible by reflected light even though the object's beams were dis-
said the dome and the markings or openings showed in the photos. The photos
cernible. It appeared at first to be hovering almost motionless at a few hundred
were shortly taken by Base military authorities and were never seen again by
feet above ground, and all three felt it lay about over Hwy. 5 (which estimate
the men. In a session later that day, Bittick and Carson were informed that
proved correct from sightings made on the highway by the independent wit-
they had seen a weather balloon distorted by the desert atmospheric effects,
nesses). Their estimates of size varied from a diameter of maybe 50 feet to about
an interpretation that neither of them accepted since, as they stated to me, they
100 ft. It was silent. and the three men all emphasized to me that the quiet
saw weather ballons being released frequently there and knew what balloons
morning would have permitted hearing any kind of conventional aircraft engines.
looked like. Accounts got into local newspapers, as well as on wire services (Ref.
All three said they had never before seen anything like it. Munger decided to
44). An Edwards spokesman was quoted in the Los Angeles Times as saying,
phone his wife to have her see the thing, and by the time he came back out from
"This desert air does crazy things." An INS wire-story said, "intelligence officers
phoning, the object had moved southward along the highway by about a quarter
at Edwards
would say almost nothing of the incident."
of a mile or SO. At about that juncture, it began to accelerate, and moved off al-
Discussion.- have not seen the photos alleged to have been taken in this
most horizontally, passing out of sight to the south in an additional time esti-
incident, I have only interviewed the two who say they took them and a third
mated at about 10-20 seconds.
person who states that he inspected the prints in company with the two Askania
This case is relevant to the photo question since Officer Overton was on duty
operators and darkroom personnel. I sent all of the relevant information on this
and had in his patrol car both binoculars and a loaded camera. When I asked
case to the University of Colorado UFO project, but no checks were made as a
him why he didn't try to get a picture of the object. he admitted that he was
result of that, unless done very recently. It would be rather interesting to see
SO astonished by the object that he never even thought of dashing for the camera.
the prints.
I asked Munger to go through the motions that would yield a time esitmate
4. Photographic sky-survey cameras might be expected to get photos of UFOs
of the period he was inside phoning. to get a rough notion of how long Overton,
from time to time. However, one finds that, in many sky-photography programs
along with Rakes, looked at it without thinking of the camera. The time was
in astronomy, tracks that do not obviously conform to what is being sought,
thus estimated by Munger as about a minute and a half, possibly two minutes.
say meteor-tracks, are typically ignored as probable aircraft. Indeed, a very
Discussion. It may be hazardous to try to draw any conclusions from such a
general pattern in all kinds of monitoring programs operates to bias the system
case. but I do think it suggests the uncertainty we face in trying to assess the
against seeing anything but what it was built to see. Nunn-Baker satellite cameras
likelihood of any given witness getting a photo of a UFO he happens to see. A
are only operated when specific satellites are computed to be due overhead. and
colleague of mine at the University of Arizona was out photographing desert
then the long axis of the field is aligned with the computed trajectory. Anything
flowers on a day when a most unusual meteorological event occurred nearby-
that crosses the field and leaves a record on the film with an orientation markedly
a tornado funnel cam'e down from a cloud. Despite having the loaded camera at
different from the predicted trajectory is typically disregarded. Photographic,
hand, despite having just been taking other pictures, and despite the great rarity
radar, and visual observing programs have a large degree of selectivity inten-
of Arizona tornadoes, that colleague conceded that it wasn't till much later
tionally built into them in order not to be deluged with unwanted "signals".
that the thought of getting a photo rose to consciousness, by which time the fun-
Hence one must be rather careful in suggesting that our many tracking systems
nel was long since dissipated.
surely ought to detect UFOs. There's much evidence to suggest that, if they did,
In the Trinidad, Colo., case of March 23, 1966 (Case 14 above), Mrs. Frank
the signal would be ignored as part of a systematic rejection of unwanted data.
R. Hoch pointed out to me that she had loaded still and movie cameras inside
Even in the practices of the GOC (Ground Observer Corps), some units received
the house. yet never thought about getting a photo. Again. the reason cited was
instructions to report nothing but unidentified aircraft. (But, for examples of
the fascination with the objects being viewed. I think this "factor of astonish-
some UFOs that did get into the GOC net, see Hall, Ref. 10.)
ment" would have to be allowed for in any attempt to estimate expected num-
Although I am aware of a few photos allegedly showing UFOs, for which I
bers of photos. but I would be quite unsure of just how to evaluate the factor
have no reason at present to doubt the authenticity (for example a series of
quantitatively.
snapshots taken by a brother and sister near Melbourne, Australia, showing a
somewhat indistinct disc in various positions), I must emphasize that the total
76
77
sample is tiny. Compared with that, I have seen dozens of alleged UFO photos
question have reported mild, or in a very few instances, substantial injury as the
which I regard as of dubious origin. Other UFO photos of which I am aware are
result of some action of an unidentified object. However, I know of only two
still in process of being checked in one way or another.
cases for which I have done adequate personal investigation. in which I would
To summarize, I do have the impression that we ought to have more valid
feel obliged to describe the actions as "hostile". That number is SO tiny compared
UFO photos than the small number of which I am aware.
with the total number of good UFO reports of which I have knowledge that I
would not cite "hostility" as a general characteristic of UFO phenomena.
IF UFO'S ARE REAL, SHOULDN'T THEY PRODUCE SOME REAL PHYSICAL EFFECTS?
One may accidentally kick an anthill, killing many ants and destroying the
ants' entrance, without any prior "hostility" towards the ants. To walk acci-
Again, the answer is that they do. There are rather well-authenticated cases
dentally into a whirling airplane propeller is fatal, yet the aircraft held no
spanning a wide variety of "physical effects." Car-stopping cases are one impor-
"hostility" to the unfortunate victim. In the UFO phenomena, we seem to con-
tant class. UFOs have repeatedly been associated with ignition failures and
front a very large range of unexplained, unconventional phenomena and if
light-failures of cars and trucks which came near UFOs or near which the
among them we discern occasional instances of hazard, it would be premature to
UFOs moved. I would estimate that one could assemble a list of four or five
adjudge hostility. Yet, as long as we remain SO abysmally ignorant of over-all
dozen such instances from various parts of the world. Interference with radios
nature of the UFO problem, it seems prudent to make all such judgments tenta-
and TV receptions have been reported many times in connection with UFO
tive. If UFOs are of extraterrestrial origin, we shall need to know far more than
sightings. There are instances where UFOs have been reported as landing, and
we now know before sound conclusions can be reached as to hazard-and-hostility
after departure, holes in the ground, or depressions in sod, or disturbed vegetation
matters. For this reason alone, I believe it to be urgently important to accelerate
patterns have been described. In many such instances, the evident reliability of
serious studies of UFOs.
the witnesses is high, the likelihood of hoax or artifice small. A limited number
In the remainder of this section, I shall briefly cite a number of types of cases
of instances of residues left behind are on record, but these are not backed up by
that bear on questions of hazard:
meaningful laboratory analyses, unfortunately.
A physical effect that does not typically occur under conditions where the
1. Car-stopping cases
description of events might seem to call for it, relates to sonie booms. Although
In a two-hour period near midnight, November 2-3, 1957, nine different vehicles
there are on record a few cases where fast-moving UFOs were accompanied by
all exhibited ignition failures, and many suffered headlight failures as objects
explosive sounds that might be associated with sonic booms. there are far more
described as about 100-200 ft long, glowing with a general reddish or bluish glow,
instances in which the reported velocity corresponded to supersonic speeds, yet
were encountered on roads in the vicinity of the small community of Levelland,
that the reporting witnesses were located back within the "Mach cone" of the
no booms were reported. A small fraction of these can be rationalized hy noting
Tex. (Ref. 10, 13, 14). This series of incidents became national headline news
until officially explained in terms of ball lightning and wet ignitions. However. on
departing UFO; but this will not suffice to explain away the difficulty. One feels
checking weather data, I found that there were no thunderstorms anywhere close
that if UFOs are solid objects, capable of leaving depressions in soil or railroad
to Levelland that night, and there was no rain capable of wetting ignitions. Al-
been repeatedly asserted by credible witnesses), they should produce sonic
ties when they land, and if they can dash out of sight in a few seconds (as has
though I have not located any of the drivers involved, I have interviewed Sheriff
Weir Clem of Levelland and a Levelland newspaperman, both of whom investi-
there booms. This remains inexplicable; one can only lamely speculate that perhaps
gated the incidents that night. They confirmed the complete absence of rain or
lightning activity. The incidents cannot be regarded as explained.
perhaps the answer involves some entirely different consideration.
are ways of eliminating sonic booms that we have not yet discovered;
This class of UFO effect is by no means rare. In France in the 1954 wave of
then there appear to be many odd types. Repeatedly, tingling and numbness have
If we include among "physical effects" those that border on the physiological,
UFO sightings, Michel (14) has described many such cases involving ignition-
failure in motorbikes, cars, etc. Similar instances were encountered in my
been described by witnesses who were close to UFOs; in many instances outright
checks on Australian UFO cases. There are probably of the order of a hundred
paralysis of a UFO witness has occurred. These effects might, of course. be
cases on record (see Ref. 10 for a list of some dozens). In only a very few cases
purely psychological, engendered by fear; but in some instances the witnesses
has there been any permanent damage to the vehicle's electrical system. In the
seem to have noted these effects as the first indication that anything unusual was
Levelland case, for example, as soon as the luminous object receded from a
occurring. A number of instances of skin-reddening, skin-warming, and a few
given disturbed vehicle, its lights came back on automatically (in instances where
instances of burns of very unusual nature are on record. These physiological
the switches had been left on), and the engines were immediately restartable.
effects are sufficiently diverse that caution is required in attempting generaliza-
The latter point in itself makes the "wet ignition" explanation unreasonable, of
tion. than Curiously, a peculiar tingling and paralysis seem to be reported more widely
course.
any other physiological effects. A person who is almost unaware of the
It is unclear how such effects might be produced. One suggestion that has been
ramifications of the UFO evidence may think it absurd to assert that
made as to ignition-failure is that very strong magnetic fields might SO saturate
have been paralyzed in proximity to UFOs; the skeptic might find it inconceiv- peonle
the iron core of the coil that it would drive the operating point up onto the knee
from able that such cases would go unnoticed in press and medical literature. Far
of the magnetization curve, SO that the input magnetic oscillations would produce
it, I regret to have to sav. on the basis of my own investigations. I have
only very small output effects. Only a few oersteds would have to be produced
encountered cases where severe bodily damage was done, or where evident hazard
right at the coil to accomplish this kind of effect, but when one back-calculates,
SO much faster than sympathy that it was regarded wiser to quietly forget the
of damage was involved, vet the witness and his family found ridicule mounting
allowing for shielding effects and typical distances, and assumes an inverse-
third-power diple field, the requisite H-values within a few feet of the "UFO
whole thing. At an early stage of my investigations I would have regarded that
diple" end, to speak here somewhat loosely, come out in the megagauss range.
quite unbelievable; UFO investigators with longer experience than mine will smile as
Curiously, a number of other back-calculations of magnetic fields end up in this
them could cite specific illustrations to make all this much clearer, but will omit
at I that statement, but probably they will smile with a degree of understanding.
same range; but obviously terrestrial technologies would not easily yield such
intensities. Clear evidence for residual magnetization that might be expected
for space-limitations, except for a few remarks in the next section.
in the foregoing hypothesis does not exist, SO far as I know. The actual mechan-
ism may be quite unlike that mentioned.
IS THERE ANY EVIDENCE OF HAZARD OR HOSTILITY IN THE UFO PHENOMENA?
How lights are extinguished is even less clear, although. in some vehicles,
relays in the lighting circuits might be magnetically closed. The lights pose more
Official statements have emphasized, for the past two decades. that there is
mystery than the ignition. Such cases do not constitute very disturbing questions
no evidence of hostility in the UFO phenomena. To a large degree. this
of hazard or hostility. One might argue that highway accidents could be caused
conclusion seems indicated in the body of evidence gathered by independent same
by lighting and ignition failures; however, more serious highway-accident
There investigators. The related question as to potential hazard is perhaps less clear.
dangers are implicit in other UFO cases where no electrical disturbance was
are on record a number of cases (I would say something like a few dozen
caused. Many motorists have reported nearly losing control of vehicles when
cases) wherein persons whose reliability does not seem to come into serious
UFOs have swooped down over them; this hazard is distinctly more evident
78
79
hazards we might term "car-buzzing" instances that have involved road-accident instances
of than what hazard from the car-stopping phenomenon. Indeed. the number of
4. Rare instances suggesting overt hostility
tion of is large enough to be mildly disturbing, yet I know of no official
In my own investigative experience, I know of only two cases of injuries
involved this facet of the UFO problem either. An incident I learned of in Australia recogni-
suffered under what might be describable as overt hostility, and for which
such fright on the part of the passengers of the "buzzed" vehicle that
present evidence argues authenticity. There are other reports on record that
A they jumped out of the car before it had come to a stop, and it went into a ditch.
might be construed as overt hostility, but I cannot vouch for them in terms of
tions, I shall not cite other such cases, though it would not be difficult to assemble
similar instance occurred not long ago in the U.S. For reasons of space-limita-
my own personal investigations.
In Beallsville, Ohio, on the evening of March 19, 1968, a boy suffered moder-
a list that would run to perhaps a few dozen.
ate skin burns in an incident of puzzling nature. Gregory Wells had just stepped
2. Mild radiation exposure
out of his grandmother's house to walk a few tens of yards to his parents' trailer
when his grandmother and mother heard his screams, ran out and found him
By "radiation" here, I do not mean exposure to redioactivity or to other nuclear
rolling on the ground, his jacket burning. After being treated at a nearby hos-
radiations, but skin irritations comparable to sunburn. etc. I have interviewed
pital, he described to parents, sheriff's deputies, and others what he had seen. Hov-
number of persons who have experienced skin-reddening from exposure to a
ering over some trees across the highway from his location, he had seen an oval-
(visible) radiations near UFOs. Rene Gilham. of Merom. Indiana, watched a
shaped object with some lights on it. From a central area of the bottom, a tube-
UFO hovering over his home-area on the evening of Nov. 6. 1957, and received
like appendage emerged, rotated around, and emitted a flash that coincided
mild skin-burns, for example. I found in speaking with him that the symptoms
with ignition of his jacket. He had just turned away from it and SO the burn
were gone in a matter of days, with no after-effects. The witnesses in a car-
was on the back of his upper arm. In the course of checking this case, I inter-
stopping incident at Loch Raven Dam, Md., on the night of Oct. 26, 1958, who
viewed a number of persons in the Beallsville area, some of whom had seen a long
were close to a brightly luminous. blimp-sized object after getting out of their
cylindrical object moving at very low altitude in the vicinity of the Wells' prop-
stopped car, experienced skin-reddening for which they obtained medical atten-
erty that night. There is much more detail than can be recapitulated here. My
tion. Without citing other such instances, I would say that these cases are not
conversations with persons who know the boy, including his teacher, suggest
suggestive of any serious hazard, but they warrant scientific attention.
no reason to discount the story, despite its unusual content.
3. More serious physical injuries
After checking the Beallsville incident, I checked another report in which
burn-injuries of a more serious nature were sustained in a context even more
James Flynn, of Ft. Myers. Fla., in a case that has been rather well checked
strongly indicative of overt hostility. I prefer not to give names and explicit
by both APRO and NICAP investigators, reportedly suffered unusual injuries
citation of details here, but I remark that there appears to me, on the basis of
and physical effects when he sought to check what he had taken to be a mal-
my present information and five interviews with persons involved, to be basis
functioning test vehicle from Cape Canaveral that had come down in the Ever-
for accepting the incident as real. Partly because of its unparalleled nature,
glades, March 15, 1965. I have spoken with Flynn and others who know him and
and partly because some of the evidence is still conflicting. I shall omit details
believe that his case deserved much more than the superficial official attention
and state only that the case, taken together with other scattered reports of in-
it received when he reported it to proper authorities. He was hospitalized for
juries in UFO encounters, warrants no panic response but does warrant far
about a week, treated for a deep hemorrhage of one eye (without medical
more thorough investigation than any that has been conducted to date.
evidence of any blow). and suffered loss of all of the principal deep-tendon
reñexes for a number of days, according to his physician's statement, published
5. UFOs and other electromagnetic disturbances
by APRO (Ref. 45).
There are SO many instances in which close-passage of an unidentified flying
An instance of more than mere skin-reddening, associated with direct contact
object led to radio and television disturbance that this particular mode of electro-
with a landed unidentified object. reportedly occurred in Hamilton, Ontario,
magnetic effect of UFOs seems incontrovertible. One would require nothing more
March 29, 1966. Charles Cozens, then age 13, stated to police and to reporters
than broad-spectrum electromagnetic noise to account for these instances, of
and recounted to me in a telephone interview with him and his father) that he
course.
had seen two rather small whitish. luminous objects come down in an open field
There is a much smaller number of instances, some of which I have checked,
in Hamilton that evening. He moved towards them out of curiosity, and states
in which power has failed only within an individual home coincident with
that he finally moved right up beside them, and touched the surface of one of
nearby passage of a UFO. Magnetic saturation of the core of a transformer might
them to see what it felt like. It was not hot, and seemed unusually smooth. One
conceivably account for this phenomenon.
of the two small (8 ft by 4 ft plan form. 3-4 feet high) bun-shaped objects had
Then there are scattered instances in which substantial power distribution
a projection on one end that the boy thought might have been some kind of
systems have failed at or very near the time of observation of aerial phenomena
antenna, SO he touched it. only to have his hand flung back as a spark shot out
similar, broadly speaking. to one or another UFO phenomenon. I have personally
from the end of the projection into the air. He ran, thinking first to go to a
checked on several such instances and am satisfied that the coincidence of UFO
nearby police substation. But. on looking over his shoulder after getting to the
observation and power outage did at least occur. Whether there is a casual
edge of the field and seeing no objects there, he decided the police might not
connection here, and in which direction it may run, remains quite uncertain.
believe him and ran to his home. His parents, after discussing the incident at
Even during the large Northeast blackout, November 9, 1965. there were many
some length with the frightened boy, notified police, which is how the incident
UFO observations, several of which I have personally checked. I have inquired
became public knowledge. Two others in Hamilton saw that night seemingly
at the Federal Power Commission to secure data that might illuminate the basic
similar objects, but airborne rather than on the ground. Cozens was treated for
question of whether these are merely fortuitous, but the data available are in-
a burn or sear on the hand that had been in contact with the projection at the
adequate to permit any definite conclusions. In other parts of the world, there
moment the spark was emitted. On questioning both the boy and his father, I
have also been reports of system outages coincident with UFO sightings. Again,
was left with the impression that, despite the unusual nature of the report, it was
the evidence is quite unclear as to casual relations.
described with both straightforwardness and concern and that it must be given
There is perhaps enough evidence pointing towards strong magnetic fields
serious consideration. Clearly one would prefer a number of adult witnesses to
around at least some UFOs that one might hypothesize a mechanism whereby
an individual boy yet I believe the case will stand close scrutiny.
a UFO might inadvertently trigger a power outage. Perhaps a UFO, with an
There are a few other such reports of moderate injury reportedly sustained
accompanying strong magnetic field, might pass at high speed across the con-
in direct physical contact with landed aerial objects for which I do not yet feel
ductors of a transmission line, induce asymmetric current surges of high transient
satisfied with the available degree of authentication. It would be very desirable to
intensity, and thereby trip circuit breakers and similar surge-protectors in such
conduct far more thorough investigations of some foreign cases of this type, to
a way as to initiate the outage. There are some difficulties with that hypothess,
check the weight of the evidence involved. That only a very small number of
of course; but it could conceivably bear some relation to what has reportedly
such cases is on record should be emphasized.
occurred in some instances.
80
81
I believe that the evidence is uncertain enough that one can only urge that
yet the objects which he saw (nine fluttering discs) changed angular elevation,
competent scientists and engineers armed both with substantial information
moved across his view through an azimuthal range of about 90 degrees, and were
on UFO phenomena and with relevant information on power-system electrical
seen by him during the period when he was climbing his own plane through an
engineering, ought to be taking a very close look at this problem. I am unaware
altitude interval that he estimates to be of the order of 500 to 1000 ft. Anyone
of any adequate study of this potentially important problem. Note that a prob-
familiar with mirage optics would find it utterly unreasonable to claim that
lem, a hazard, could exist in this context without anything warranting the
such an observation was satisfactorily explained as a mirage. Similarly, as has
label of hostility.
been noted above, the 1948 sighting by Eastern Airlines pilots Chiles and
Whitted, once explained by Menzel as a "mirage", involves quantitative and
observational factors that are not even approximately similar to known mirage
MISAPPLICATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS IN PAST UFO EXPLANATIONS
effects. There are some extremely rare and still not well-explained refractive
1. General comments
anomalies in the atmosphere, such as those that have been discussed by Min-
Since the bulk of UFO reports involve objects reportedly seen in the air, it is
naert, but good UFO observations are SO much more numerous than those types
not surprising that many attempts to account for them have invoked principles
of rare anomalies that it is quite out of the question ot explain the former by
of atmospheric physics. Over the past twenty years, many of the official explana-
the latter.
tions of important UFO sightings have been based on the premise that observers
Sundogs, or parhelia, are a quite well-understood phenomenon of meteoro-
were misidentifying or misinterpreting natural atmospheric phenomena. Dr.
logical optics. Refractions of the sun's rays on horizontally falling tabular ice
D. H. Menzel, former director of Harvard Observatory, in two books on UFOs
crystals produce fuzzy, brownish-colored luminous spots at about 22 degrees to
(Ref. 24, 25), has leaned very heavily on atmospheric physics and particularly
the left and right of the sun when suitable ice-crystal clouds are present. Rarer
meteorological optics in attempting to account for UFO reports. More recently,
phenomena, produced by the moon rather than the sun, are termed paraselenae.
Mr. Philip J. Klass, Senior Avionics Editor of Aviation Week, has written a
Sundogs are relatively common, but it is probably true that many laymen are
book (Ref. 36) purporting to show that most of the really interesting UFO
not really conscious of them as a distinct optical phenomenon. For this reason, it
reports are a result of unusual atmospheric plasmas similar to ball lightning.
might seem sensible to suggest that some observers have been misled by think-
Over the years, many others have made similar suggestions that the final ex-
ing that sundogs were UFOs. However, anyone with the slightest knowledge of
planation of the UFOs will involve some still not fully understood phenomenon
meteorological optics talking directly to such a witness would, within only a
of atmospheric physics.
few moments of questioning, establish what was involved. Instead of dealing
As a scientist primarily concerned with the field of atmospheric physics, these
with anything like a sharp-edged "object", one would quickly find that the
suggestions have received a great deal of my attention. It is true that a very
observer was describing a very vague spot of light which he saw to the left or
small fraction of all of the raw reports involve misidentified atmospheric phe-
right of the sun, probably very near the horizon. To blandly suggest, as Menzel
nomena. It is also true that many lay observers seriously misconstrue astronomi-
has done, that Waldo Harris in the 10/2/61 sighting near Salt Lake City was
cal (especially meteoric) phenomena as UFOs. But, in my opinion, as has been
fooled by a sundog is to ignore either all of the main features of the report or
emphasized above and will be elaborated below, we cannot explain-away UFOs
to ignore all of what is known about sundogs.
on either meteorological or astronomical grounds. To make this point somewhat
Undersuns, sub-suns, can be seen rather frequently when flying in jet air-
clearer, I shall, in the following, remark on certain past attempts to base UFO
craft at high altitudes. They are a reflection phenomenon produced by horizon-
explanations on meteorological optics, atmospheric electricity, and radar pro-
tally floating ice crystals, which reflect an image of the sun (or at night the
pagation anomalies.
moon) and can give surprisingly sharp solar images in still air where turbulence
2. Meteorological optical explanations
does not cause appreciable tilting of the ice crystals. Here again, it is probably
Mirages, sundogs, undersuns, and various reflection and refraction phenomena
true that many laymen may be sufficiently unaware of this optical phenomenon
associated with ice crystals, inversions, haze layers, and clouds have been in-
that they could be confused when they see one. But, as with sundogs, the
voked from time to time in an attempt to account for UFO observations. From
stringest quantitative requirements on the location of this optical effect relative
my study of the past history of the UFO problem and from an examination of
to the sun would permit any experienced investigator to quickly ascertain
recent "re-evaluations" of official UFO explanations, I have the strong impres-
whether or not an undersun was involved in this specific sighting. The effect
sion that many alterations of explanations for classic UFO cases that have been
involves specular reflection of the sun's rays, whence the undersun is always seen
made in the official files in the last few years reflect the response to the writings
at a negative angle of elevation in which the observer's line of sight to the
of Menzel (especially Ref. 25). I have elsewhere (Ref. 2) discussed a number of
undersun is just as far below the horizon as the sun momentarily lies above
specific examples of what I regard unreasonable applications of meteorological
that same observer's horizon. Clearly, many of the UFO cases that have been
optics in Menzel's writings. Some salient points will be summarized here.
cited in examples given above do not come anywhere near satisfying the angular
A principal difficulty with Menzel's mirage explanations is that he typically
requirements for an undersun. In my own experience, I have already come
overlooks completely stringent quantitative restrictions on the angle of elevation
across two or three reports, out of thousands that I have examined, where I
of the observer's line of sight in mirage effects. Mirage phenomena are quite
was led to suspect that the observer was fooled by an undersun.
common on the Arizona desert, but both observation and optical theory are
"Reflections off clouds" have been referred to repeatedly in Menzel's writings,
in good accord in showing that mirage effects are confined to lines of sight that
never with any quantitative discussion of precisely what he means. But the
do not depart from the horizontal by much more than a few tens of minutes
impression is clearly left that many observers have been and are continuing to
of arc. Under some extremely unusual temperature conditions in the atmosphere
be fooled by some kind of cloud-reflections. Aside from the above-described
(high latitude regions, for example), one may get miraging at elevation angles
undersun, I am unaware of any "cloud-reflection phenomenon" that could
larger than a degree, but these situations are extremely rare, it must be em-
produce anything remotely resembling a distinct object. Clouds of droplets or
phasized. In Menzel's explanations and in certain of the official explanations,
ice crystals do not provide a source of specular reflection (except in the case of
however, mirages are invoked to account for UFOs when the observer's line of
horizontally-floating ice crystals observed from above with a bright luminary,
sight may depart from the horizontal by as much as five to ten degrees or even
such as sun or moon, in the distance-undersun). What Menzel could possibly
more. I emphasize that this is entirely unreasonable. If it were the case that all
have in mind when he talks loosely about such cloud reflections (and he does SO in
UFOs were reported essentially at the observer's horizon, then one would have
many different places in his books), I cannot imagine.
to be extremely suspicious that we were dealing with some unusual refraction
Inversions are invoked by Menzel, and in official evaluations, to account for
anomalies. However, as has been shown by many cases cited above and has been
certain UFO sightings. Inversions produced by radiational cooling or by atmos-
long known to serious investigators of UFO phenomena, no fixed correlation
pheric subsidence are relatively common meteorological phenomena. In some
exists. Some of the most interesting UFOs have been seen at close range di-
cases, quite sharp inversions with marked temperature differences in rather
rectly overhead, quite obviously ruling out mirage explanations. The 1947 sight-
small vertical distances are known to occur. It is such inversion layers that are
ing by Arnold near Mt. Rainer is explained officially and by Menzel as a mirage,
responsible for some of the most striking desert mirages of the looming type.
82
83
To experience a looming mirage, the observer's eye must be located in the atmos-
or "trapping" is generally quite well understood. As with mirages, the allowed
pheric layer wherein the temperature anomalously increases with height (in-
angle of elevation of the radar beam can only depart from zero by a few tens
version layer), and the miraged target in the object-field must also lie in or near
of minutes of arc for typically occurring inversions and humidity gradients.
the inversion layer. Inversion layers are essentially horizontally, and the actually-
Ducting with beam angles in excess of a degree or so woulld require unheard
encountered values of the inversion lapse rates are such that refraction anoma-
of atmospheric temperature or humidity gradients. Care must be taken in inter-
lies are confined to very small departures from the horizontal, as noted above
preting that statement, since beam-angles have to be distinguished from angles
of elevation of the beam axis. For the latter reason, a beam-axis elevation of,
under remarks on mirages. All of these points are well-understood principles of
meteorological optics. However, Menzel has attempted to account for such UFOs
say, two degrees still involves emission of some radar energy at angles SO low
as Dr. Clyde Tombaugh saw overhead at Las Cruces in August 1949 in terms of
that some may be trapped, yielding "ground returns" despite the higher eleva-
"inversion" refraction or reflection effects. Since I have discussed the quantita-
tion of the axis. All such points are well described in an extensive literature
tive unreasonableness of this contention elsewhere, I will not here elaborate the
of radar-propagation physics.
In addition to trapping and ground return effects, spurious returns can come
point, except to say that if inversions were capable of producing the optical
disturbances that Menzel has assumed, astronomers would long since have given
from insects, birds, and atmospheric refractive-index anomalies that generate
radar echoes termed "angels". These are low-intensity returns that no experi-
up any attempt to study the stars by looking at them through our atmosphere.
enced operator would be likely to confuse with the strong return from an air-
Other atmospheric-optical anomalies have been adduced by Menzel in his
craft or other large metallic object.
UFO discussions. He has repeatedly suggested that layers of haze or mist cause
Also, other peculiar radar effects such as interference with other nearby
remarkable enlargement of the apparent images of stars and planets. By enlarge-
sets, forward scatter from weak tropospheric discontinuities (see work of
ment, he makes very clear that he means radial enlargements in all directions
Atlas and others), and odd secondary reflections from ground targets need to
such that the eye sees not a vertical streak of the sort well-known to astronomers
be kept in mind.
as resulting from near-horizon refraction effects, but rather a circular image of
When one analyzes some of the famous radar-tracking cases in the UFO
very large angular size. Menzel even describes a sighting that he himself made,
literature, none of these propagation anomalies seem typical as accounting
over Arctic regions in an Air Force aircraft, in which the image of Sirius was
for the more interesting cases. (Several examples have already been discussed,
enlarged to an angular size of over ten minutes of are (one-third of lunar
(cases 32, 35, 36, 37, 38, and 39).)
diameter). I have discussed that sighting with a number of astronomers, and not
one is aware of anything that has ever been seen by any astronomer that approxi-
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
mates such an instance. In fact, it would require such a peculiar axially-
symmetric distribution of refractive index, which miraculously followed the
In summary, I wish to emphasize that my own study of the UFO problem
speeding aircraft along as it moved through the atmosphere, that it seems quite
has convinced me that we must rapidly escalate serious scientific attention to
hopeless to explain what Menzel has reported seeing in terms of refraction effects.
this extraordinarily intriguing puzzle.
Since Dr. Menzel's writings on UFO's have evidently had, in some quarters,
I believe that the scientific community has been seriously misinformed for
a marked effect on attitudes towards UFOs, I regard that effect as deleterious.
twenty years about the potential importance of UFOs. I do not wish here to
If I felt that we were dealing here with just a slight difference of opinion about
elaborate on my own interpretation of the history behind that long period of
rather controversial scientific matters on the edge of present knowledge. I would
misinformation I only wish to urge the Committee on Science and Astronautics
withhold strong comment. However, I wish to say for the record, that I regard
to take whatever steps are within their power to alter this situation without
the majority of Dr. Menzel's purported meteorological-optical UFO explanations
further delay.
as simply scientifically incorrect. I could, but shall not here, enlarge upon
The present Symposium is an excellent step in the latter direction. I strongly
similar critique of official explanations that have invoked such arguments.
urge your Committee that further efforts in the same direction be made in
the near future. I believe that extensive hearings before your Committee, as
3. Atmospheric electricity
well as before other Congressional committees having concern with this problem,
One phenomenon in the area of atmospheric electricity to which appeal has
are needed.
been made from the earliest years of investigations of the UFO phenomena
The possibility that the Earth might be under surveillance by some high
is that of ball lightning. For example, a fairly extensive discussion of ball
civilization in command of a technology far beyond ours must not be overlooked
lightning was prepared by the U.S. Weather Bureau for inclusion in the 1949
in weighing the UFO problem. I am one of those who lean strongly towards the
Project Grudge report (Ref. 6). It was concluded in that report that ball light-
extraterrestrial hypothesis. I arrived at that point by a process of elimination
ning was most unlikely as an explanation for any of the cases which were
of other alternative hypotheses, not by arguments based on what I could call
considered in that report (about 250). Periodically, in succeeding years, one
"irrefutable proof." I am convinced that the recurrent observations by reliable
or another writer has come up with that same idea that maybe people who
citizens here and abroad over the past twenty years cannot be brushed aside as
report UFOs are really seeing ball lightning. No one ever tried to pursue this
nonsense, but rather need to be taken extremely seriously as evidence that some
idea very far, until P. J. Klass began writing on it. Although his ideas have
phenomenon is going on which we simply do not understand. Although there is no
received some attention in magazines, there is little enough scientific backup
current basis for concluding that hostility and grave hazard lie behind the UFO
to his contentions that they are quite unlikely to have the same measure of
phenomenology, we cannot be entirely sure of that. For all of these reasons,
effect that Menzel's previous writings have had. For that reason, I shall not
greatly expanded scientific and public attention to the UFO problem is urgently
here elaborate on my strong objections to Klass' arguments. I spelled them
needed.
out in considerable detail in a talk presented last March at a UFO Symposium
The proposal that serious attention be given to the hypothesis of an extrater-
in Montreal held by the Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute. Klass has
restrial origin of UFOs raises many intriguing questions, only a few of which
ignored most of what is known about ball lightning and most of what is known
can be discussed meaningfully. A very standard question of skepticism is "Why
about plasmas and also most of what is known about interesting UFOs in
no contact?" Here, the best answer is merely a cautionary remark that one would
developing his curious thesis. It cannot be regarded as a scientifically significant
certainly be unjustified in extrapolating all human motives and reasons to any
contribution to illumination of the UFO problem.
other intelligent civilization. It is conceivable that an avoidance of premature
4. Radar propagation anomalics
contact would be one of the characteristic features of surveillance of a less ad-
vanced civilization; other conceivable rationales can be suggested. All are specula-
In the past twenty years, there have been many instances in which unidenti-
tive, however; what is urgently needed is a far more vigorous scientific investiga-
fied objects have been tracked on radar, many of them with concurrent visual
tion of the full spectrum of UFO phenomena, and the House Committee
observations. Some examples have been cited above. It is always necessary to
on Science and Astronautics could perform a very significant service by taking
approach a radar unidentified with full knowledge of the numerous ways in
steps aimed in that direction.
which false returns can be produced on radar sets. The physics of "ducting"
84
85
REFERENCES
1. NICAP Special Bulletin, May, 1960: Admiral Hillenkoeter was a NICAP
28. Flying, June 1951, p. 23.
Advisory Board member at the time of making the quoted statement.
29. Davidson, L., 1966: Flying Saucers: An Analysis of the Air Force Project
2. McDonald, J. E., 1967 Unidentified Flying Objects: Greatest Scientific
Bluebook Special Report No. 14, Ramsey, New Jersey, Ramsey-Wallace Corp.
Problem of our Times, published by UFO Research Institute, Suite 311, 508 Grant
30. American Society of Newspaper Editors, 1967 Problems of Journalism,
Street, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 15219.
Proceedings of the 1967 Convention of the ASNE, April 20-22, 1967, Washington,
3. Keyhoe, D. E., 1950: Flying Saucers Are Real, Fawcett Publications, New
D.C., 296 pp.
York, 175 pp.
31. Keyhoe, D. E., 1950 Flight 117 and the Flying Saucer, True Magazine,
4. Keyhoe, D. E., 1953 Flying Saucers From Outer Space, New York, Henry
August 1950, p. 24.
Holt & Co., 276 pp.
32. Salt Lake Tribune, Tuesday, October 3, 1961, p. 1.
315 pp.
Keyhoe, D. E., 1955 Flying Saucer Conspiracy, New York, Henry Holt & Co.,
33. UFO Investigator, Vol. 3, No. 11, Jan.-Feb. 1967.
34. LANS, 1960: Report on an Unidentified Flying Object Over Hollywood,
Keyhoe, D. E. 1960 Flying Saucers Top Secret, New York, G. P. Putnam's
California, Feb. 5, 1960 and Feb. 6, 1960, Los Angeles NICAP Subcommittee, 21
Sons, 283 pp.
pp., mimeo.
5. Ruppelt, E. J., 1956 The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects, Garden
35. UFO Investigator, Vol. 1, No. 12, April 1961.
City, New York, Doubleday & Co., 243 pp. (Paperback edition, Ace Books, 319 pp.)
36. McDonald, J. E., 1968: UFOs-An International Scientific Problem, paper
6. Project Grudge, 1949: Unidentified Flying Objects, Report No. 102 AC
presented at a Symposium on Unidentified Flying Objects, Canadian Aeronautics
49/15-100, Project XS-304, released August, 1949. I am indebted to Dr. Leon
and Space Institute, Montreal, Canada, March 12, 1968.
Davidson for making available to me his copy of this declassified report.
37. Darrach, H. B., Jr., and Robert Ginna, 1952: "Have We Visitors from
7. NICAP, 1968 USAF Projects Grudge and Bluebook Reports 1-12 (1951-
Space?", Life Magazine, April 7, p. 80 ff.
1953), declassification date 9 September, 1960. Published by NICAP as a special
38. Zigel, F., 1968 "Unidentified Flying Objects," Soviet Life, February, 1968,
report, 235 pp.
No. 2(137), pp. 27-29.
NICAP. 8. Bloecher, T., 1967 Report on the UFO Wave of 1947, available through
39. Klass, Philip J., 1968 UFOs-Identified, New York, Random House, 290
pp.
9. Cruttwell, N. E. G., 1960 Flying Saucers Over Papua, A Report on Papuan
40. International News Service, datelined Sept. 12, 1951, Dover, Del.
unidentified Flying Objects, 45 pp., reproduced for limited distribution; parts of
41. New York Times, June 2, 1954; New York World Telegram, June 1, 1954;
this report have been reproduced in a number of issues of the APRO Bulletin.
New York Post, June 1, 1954; New York Daily News, June 2, 1954.
10. Hall, R. H., 1964 The UFO Evidence, Washington, D.C., NICAP, 184 pp.
42. Official file on October 15, 1948 Fukuoka case, Project Bluebook.
11. Olsen, P. M., 1966 The reference for Outstanding UFO Sighting Reports,
43. Melbourne (Australia) Sun, December 16, 1954; Melbourne Herald, De-
riderwood, Maryland, UFO Information Retrieval Center, Inc., P. O. Box 57.
cember 16, 1954; Auckland Star, December 16, 1954.
12. Fuller, J. G., 1966 Incident at Exeter, New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons,
44. Los Angeles Times, May 9, 1957; New York Journal-American, May 10,
1957.
251 pp. (Berkeley Medallion paperback, 221 pp.)
13. Lorenzen, C. E., 1966: Flying Saucers, New York, Signet Books, 278 pp.
45. APRO Bulletin, May-June, 1965, p. 1-4.
Books, 215 pp.
Lorenzen, C. E. and L. J., 1967 Flying Saucer Occupants, New York, Signet
Our next participant is Dr. Carl Sagan.
Dr. Sagan is associate professor of astronomy in the Department
Books, 254 pp.
Lorenzen, C. E. and L. J., 1968 UFOs Over the Americas, New York, Signet
of Astronomy and Center for Radiophysics and Space Research in
York, Criterion Books, 285 pp.
14. Michel, A., 1958 Flying Saucers and the Straight-Line Mystery, New
Cornell University, having just recently left Harvard University. He
has written over 100 scientific papers, and several articles for Encyclo-
270 pp. (Paperback edition of an original 1966 book.)
Michel, A., 1967 The Truth About Flying Saucers, New York Pyramid Books,
pedia Britannica, Americana. He is coauthor of several books. Dr.
15. Stanway, R. H., and A. R. Pace, 1968 Flying Saucers, Stoke-on-Trent,
Sagan, we are delighted you are participating with us in this sympo-
England, Newchapel Observatory, 85 pp.
sium this morning and you may proceed.
210 pp. (Paperback edition, Ace Books, 255 pp.)
16. Vallee, J., 1965 Anatomy of a Phenomenon, Chicago, Henry Regnery Co.,
(The biography of Dr. Sagan follows:)
17. Vallee, J., and J. Vallee, 1966: Challenge to Science, Chicago, Henry Reg-
DR. CARL SAGAN
nery Co., 268 pp. (Also in paperback)
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall Inc., 237 pp.
18. Lore, G. I. R., Jr., and H. H. Denault, Jr., 1968 Mysteries of the Skies,
Dr. Carl Sagan is Associate Professor of Astronomy in the Center for Radio-
physics and Space Research at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. He received
19. Fort, C., 1941 The Books of Charles Fort, New York, Henry Holt & Co.,
his A.B. and B.S., an M.S. in Physics and his Ph.D. in Astronomy and Astro-
1125 pp.
physics, all from the University of Chicago. Since then he has held positions
Books, 157 pp.
20. Stanton, L. J., 1966 Flying Saucers: Hoax or Reality?, New York, Belmont
at the University of California, Berkeley; at Stanford University Medical
School (as Assistant Professor of Genetics) and at Harvard University and the
21. Young, M., 1967 UFO: Top Secret, New York, Simon & Schuster, 156 pp.
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Dr. Sagan's major research interests
22. Time Magazine, July 14, 1947, p. 18.
are on the physics and chemistry of planetary atmospheres and surfaces, the
July 1950, p. 17.
23. Fuller, C., 1950 The Flying Saucers-Fact or Fiction?, Flying Magazine,
origin of life on earth, and exobiology. He has played a leading role in establish-
ing, for example, that the surface of Venus is very hot and that major eleva-
24. Menzel, D. H., 1953 Flying Saucers, Cambridge, Harvard University Press,
tion differences exist on Mars, and has been a principal exponent of the view that
319 pp.
organic molecules are to be found on Jupiter. Dr. Sagan has served on many
25. Menzel, D. H., and L. G. Boyd, 1963 The World of Flying Saucers, Garden
advisory groups to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and to
City, New York, Doubleday & Co., 302 pp.
the National Academy of Sciences, as well as such international organizations
Evening Post, April 30, 1949, and May 7, 1949.
26. Shalett, S., 1949 What You Can Believe About Flying Saucers, Saturday
as COSPAR and the International Astronomical Union. He was a member of
the Committee to review Project Blue Book for the Air Force Scientific Ad-
New York).
27. CSI Newsletter, No. 11, February 29, 1956 (Civilian Saucer Intelligence of
visory Board. A winner of the Smith Prize at Harvard in 1964 and Condon
Lecturer in the State of Oregon in 1968, Dr. Sagan is shortly to assume additional
duties as Editor of the planetary sciences journal, ICARUS. He has been active
in educational innovations, regularly teaches in the South, and is a lecturer
86
87
in the astronaut training program in Houston. In addition to well over a hundred
scientific papers, and several articles written for the Encyclopedias Britannica
a kind of grid, a kind of crisscross pattern, a rectangular area. This
and Americana, Dr. Sagan is co-author of "The Atmospheres of Mars and Venus"
is a photograph taken near Cochran, Ontario, in Canada. What we
(1961), "Planets" (1966), and "Intelligent Life in the Universe." (1966).
are looking at are swaths cut by loggers through the forest. They cut
many swaths in parallel, then another parallel sequence of swaths at
STATEMENT OF DR. CARL SAGAN, DEPARTMENT OF ASTRONOMY,
right angles. Then the snow fell, heightening contrast, SO that is the
CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y.
reason for the tic-tac-toe pattern. The sequence of straight lines there
is anomalous. You would not expect it by geological processes. If you
Dr. SAGAN. Thank you very much, Congressman Roush.
found that on another planet you would begin to expect there is life
As I understand what the committee would like from me, is a dis-
there. This is a photograph at about a tenth of a mile resolution, and
cussion of the likelihood of intelligent extraterrestrial life, and since
is far better than the best photographs we have of Mars. The photó-
this estimate is to be made in this symposium, clearly it is the hypo-
graphs we have of Mars are, of course, better than of any other planet.
thesis that unidentified objects are of extraterrestrial origin which
Therefore, to exclude intelligent life on another planet photographi-
the committee must have in mind.
cally is certainly premature. We could not exclude life on earth with
I'm delighted to tell about contemporary scientific thinking along
this same sort of resolution.
these lines, but let me begin by saying that I do not think the evidence
However, there are other reasons why intelligent life on the other
is at all persuasive, that UFO's are of intelligent extraterrestrial
planets of this solar system are moderately unlikely.
origin, nor do I think the evidence is convincing that no UFO's are
To continue this sequence of photographs, I should say there are
of intelligent extraterrestrial origin.
only about one in a thousand photographs where this resolution of the
I think as each of the preceding speakers has mentioned, but per-
earth gives any sign of life.
haps not sufficiently emphasized, that the question is very much an
The next photograph, however, shows a resolution about three times
open one, and it is certainly too soon to harden attitudes and make any
better. That is a Gemini capsule in the lower left-hand corner and we
permanent contentions on the subject.
are looking at the vicinity of the Imperial Valley in California. You
I find that the discussion, like elsewhere, is best evaluated if we con-
are just on the verge of resolving the contour patterns of fields, for
sider the question of life on earth. I suppose that if you had all your
agricultural purposes.
prejudices removed and were concerned with the question of whether
The next slide shows us an area between Sacramento and San Fran-
the earth was populated by life of any sort, how would you go about
cisco, which has a very clear geometric pattern. It is quite obvious that
finding out?
this is the result of some intelligent activity on the earth.
If, for example, we were on some other planet, let's say Mars, and
You can see an airport, a railway, the monotonous pattern of hous-
looking at the Earth, what would we see? Fortunately we now have
ing developments in the upper right. You can see the patterns of con-
meteorolgical satellite photographs of the earth at various resolu-
tour fields. And this is such a highly geometrized picture, that it is
tions, SO we can answer the question. The first large slide.
clearly the result of some intelligence.
This is a photograph of the earth. That is the full earth, which
However, a photograph taken of this same area, only let's say 100,000
you are looking at which is primarily cloud cover. This is the Pacific
years ago, when there certainly was lots of life on earth, would show
Ocean. You can see southern California in the upper right, and, as ad-
none of these features, because these are all the signs of our present
vertised by the local chamber of commerce, you can see it is cloud free.
technical civilization.
[Laughter.]
So even though the earth was full of life, and human beings were
Dr. SAGAN. Now, it is clear that very little information about the
very much in evidence 100,000 years ago, none of this would be detect-
earth, resolution. much less possibility of life on it, is obtained by a picture at this
able by such photography. To detect individual organisms on earth,
we have to have a photographic resolution about 10 times better than
The next large slide is a TIROS photograph of the earth at about
this, then we occasionally see things like these in the next slide. All
1-mile resolution, that is, things smaller than a mile cannot be seen,
those little dots casting shadows are cows in a field in California.
and very prolonged scrutiny of the entire eastern seaboard of the
There are other ways of detecting intelligent life on the earth. From
United States shows no sign of life, intelligent, or otherwise.
the vantage point of Mars, detecting, say, the lights of cities at night, is
We have looked at several thousand photographs of the earth, and
extremely marginal, and in fact the only way of doing it would be
you may be interested to see that there is no sign of life, not only in
to point a small radio telescope at the earth, and then as the North
New York or Washington, but also in Peking, Moscow, London, Paris,
American Continent turned toward Mars, there would be this blast
and SO on.
of radio emission from domestic television transmission that pro-
The reason is that human beings have transformed the earth at this
longed scrutiny would indicate some sign of intelligent life on the
kind of scale very little, and therefore the artifacts of human intelli-
earth.
gence are just not detectable photographically in the daytime with this
In fact, it is radio communications which is the only reasonable
sort of resolution.
method of communications over very large distances. It is a remark-
The next slide shows one of the few successful finds of intelligent
able fact that the largest radio telescope on the earth at the present
life on earth that we made; down toward the lower left you can see
time, the Arecibo dish in Puerto Rico, is capable of communicating
88
89
with another dish, similarly outfitted if one existed at the incredible
able likely accompaniment of star formation, that the solar system in
distance of 1,000 light years away, a light year being about 6.6 trillion
other words is a fairly common event in the galaxy and is not unique.
miles, and the distance to the nearest star being a little over 4 light
There are laboratory experiments on the origin of life, in which the
years.
early conditions on earth have been duplicated in the laboratory. It
Now, let me then go to the question of the cosmic perspective of
turns out that at least the molecules fundamental to living systems, are
where we are.
produced relatively easy, physics and chemistry apparently made in
We are, of course, sitting on a planet, the third from the Sun, which
such a way that the origin of life may be a likely event.
is going around the Sun, which is a star-like, and the other stars
Beyond that it is difficult to do laboratory experiments, because
visible on a clear night to the naked eye.
evolution takes billions of years, and scientists aren't that patient.
The first small slide will give an impression of what happens when
Therefore, it is just a question of intelligent and knowledgeable
estimates.
you point a moderate telescope in the direction of the center of the
Milky Way Galaxy.
Here, some scientists believe that the evolution of intelligence and
technical civilization is very likely. Others believe it is a very remark-
This is a photograph of a star cloud. You are looking at tens of
able and unusual event and by the merest fluke did it happen here.
thousands of suns here. In fact, the number of suns in our galaxy is
I don't think that this is the place to go into this very difficult ques-
about 150,000 million.
tion in any great detail. Let me merely say that much more important
They are collected into a disk-shaped pattern, shown in the next
than these uncertainties is the question of the life of a technical civil-
slide; the next slide will show a photograph of the nearest galaxy like
ization, judging from the events on the earth, one might say the likeli-
our own. That fuzzy spiral thing in the middle is M-31, that is also
hood of our civilization lasting only a few decades more, might be a
known as the Great Galaxy Andromeda, and if that were a photo-
fairly high probability, and if that is typical of other civilizations,
graph of our galaxy. we would be situated extremely far out, in fact,
then it is clear there aren't any other humans around.
a little far off the slide, very much in the galactic boon docks. The
On the other hand, if civilizations tend to have very long lifetimes,
Sun is nowhere near the center of the galaxy. It is a very out-of-the-
it may be there are large numbers of technical civilizations in the
wav rural location we happen to be in.
Now, in collection of 150,000 million stars in the Milky Way Galaxy,
galaxy. Now, one thing is clear, which is this: If there are other technical
our sun is just one, and there are at least billions of other gallaxies,
civilizations, any random one of them is likely to be vastly in advance
and the last slide, will show you what happens if you point a tele-
of our own technical civilization. For example, we are only 10 or 15
scope away from the obscuring dust and stars in the galaxy. You then
years into having the technology of interstellar communication by
start seeing dozens of other galaxies. everyone of those funny-shaped
radio astronomy. It is unlikely there is any other civilization in the
spiral and irregular-shaped things there, and some of the spherical-
galaxy that is that backward in their technical expertise.
shaped ones, are other galaxies, each of which are containing about
Mr. MILLER. Doctor, didn't Sir Bernard Lovell receive electrical
100 billion stars as well.
pulses he can't explain?
So it. is clear that there are in the accessible universe, some hundreds
Dr. SAGAN. Yes, sir. There are now five objects in the heavens called
of billions of billions of stars. all more or less like our own.
pulsars, which are objects which are sending out radiation which is
Now, if we want to assess the likelihood that there are intelligent
modulated with a frequency of about one per second; also there are sub-
civilizations somewhere in advance of our own, on planets of other
modulations. There are a variety of hypotheses to explain these things,
stars in our own galaxy, we have to ask questions which cover a variety
some of which involve the oscillations of very old stars. There are
of scientific subjects, some of which are fairly well known, some of
certain difficulties with each hypothesis. The first suggestion made by
which are extremely poorly known. For a numerical assessment of
the British at Cambridge, when they encountered this phenomenon was
whether there is likely intelligence in other parts of the galaxy in a
perhaps it was a beacon of some extraterrestrial civilization. That is
form we do not have at present, let me indicate the kinds of things we
not now their favored hypothesis. It is not clear that that is totally
know. It depends on the rate of star formation.
absurd, but in fact the scientific method to be used in that case is rather
It depends on the likelihood that the given star has planets. It de-
similar to the one to be used in this case. That is, it is a puzzling phenom-
pends on the likelihood at least one of those planets is at a position
enon. One therefore excludes all physical explanations that one pos-
from the essential star which is suitable for the origin of life. It de-
sibly can before going to the much more hypothetical possibility of
pends on the likelihood that the origin of life actually occurs on that
intelligence being involved.
planet. It depends on the probability life once arisen on that planet
So, that is the present state of work in that field. For data gathering
will evolve to some intelligence. It depends on the likelihood that in-
to get better information, and the refinement of the purely physical
telligence, once emerged, will develop a technical civilization. And it
hypothesis.
depends on the lifetime of the technical civilization, because technical
Well, I was saying that if there are other civilizations, many of them
civilization of a very short lifetime, will result in very few technical
are likely to be far in advance of our own, and this, therefore, raises the
cvilizations being around at any given time. We know something about
question of how likely it is that they can traverse interstellar space
some of these. There is some reason to believe that planets are a reason-
and come from planets or some other star to here.
90
91
I should first emphasize that the distances between the stars are
So, to conclude what I understand is the main reason why this
absolutely huge. Light, faster than which nothing can travel, takes
committee has asked me to testify, it is not beyond any question of
41/2 years to get from here to the nearest star.
doubt that we can be visited. There are great difficulties from our
Mr. ROUSH. Excuse me, isn't that a rather arbitrary statement?
present point of view. They are not insuperable. And if Dr. McDonald,
Dr. SAGAN. I don't think so. Perhaps you can tell me why you think
for example, were to present me with extremely convincing evidence
it might be, then I can tell you why I think it isn't.
of an advanced technology in a UFO, I could not say to him that is
Mr. ROUSH. In my opening statement I referred to the new audacity
impossible, because I know you can't get from there to here, or I can't
of imagination John Dewey had spoken of. I'm thinking of imagina-
say to him that is impossible because I know there aren't any other
tive terms, not factual terms.
guys up there.
Dr. SAGAN. Let me say in a sentence, why most physicists believe no
On the other hand, I would of course demand very firm evidence
material object can travel faster than light. That takes us into ques-
before I would say, well, that seems to be a very likely hypothesis.
tions of the theory of relativity, which has had previous encounters
So I would like to spend just a few minutes to come more closely to
with congressional committees, and perhaps we don't want to go into
the subject of this symposium.
that in very great detail.
First of all, I think it is clear to the committee, but this point should
But the essential point is, that in making a few, very few assump-
be emphasized very strongly, that there are very intense, predispos-
tions, one of which was, the one we are talking about, nothing goes
ing, emotional factors in this subject.
faster, Einstein was able to then derive a whole body of predictions
There are individuals who very strongly want to believe that UFO's
which are confirmed in vast detail. Therefore, if someone says that is
are of intelligent extraterrestrial origin. Essentially to my view, for
not a good idea, that things can travel faster than light, then they
religious motives; that is, things are SO bad down here, maybe some-
have to come up with a physical theory which explains everything we
body from up there will come and save us from ourselves. This takes
know in a way that is consistent with the idea that you can travel faster
all sorts of subtle and not SO subtle forms. There are also predisposing
than light. No one has succeeded in doing that. Many physicists, have
emotional factors in the other direction; people who very much want
tried. Therefore, the present belief is that you can't. But that, of course,
to believe UFO's are not of intelligent extraterrestrial origins, be-
is a time-dependent statement. It may be that this isn't the ultimate
cause that would be threatening to our conception of us as being the
truth.
pinnacle of creation. We would find it very upsetting to discover that
In physics, as in much of all science, there are no permanent truths,
we are not, that we are just a sort of two-bit civilization.
There is a set of approximations, getting closer and closer, and people
It is clear that the scientific method says you don't take either of
must always be ready to revise what has been in the past thought to
those views, and you simply keep an open mind and pursue whatever
be the absolute gospel truth. If I might say, to revise opinions, is one
facts are at hand with as many diverse hypotheses as possible, and
which is frequent in science, and less frequent in politics. [Laughter.]
try to eliminate each suggested hypothesis, and see if you are lucky
Dr. SAGAN. So, in the context of contemporary science, I'm obviously
with any one.
speaking in that context, one cannot travel faster than light.
I might mention that, on this symposium, there are no individuals
So the distances between the stars are extremely large. Of course,
who strongly disbelieve in the extraterrestrial origin of UFO's and
any contemporary space vehicle would take a ridiculous amount of
therefore there is a certain view, not necessarily one I strongly agree
time to get from here to anywhere else, but we are not talking about
with-but there is a certain view this committee is not hearing today,
contemporary space vehicles. The question, "Is there any conceivable
along those lines.
method of traveling from one place to another very close to the speed
Finally, let me say something about the question of priorities, which
of light, and therefore get reasonable transit times? involves extrap-
Congressman Rumsfeld asked us for, and the question of significance.
olations of technology of a very difficult sort. However, let me merely
Now, the possibility of discovering something about extraterrestrial
say at least some people who have looked into the subject have con-
life, life originated on some other planet, is of the very highest interest
cluded that it is not out of the question, even with contemporary
for biology and in fact for all science. A bona fide example of extra-
principles of science, to imagine vehicles capable of traveling close to
terrestrial life even in a very simple form, would revolutionize biology.
the speed of light, between the stars.
It would have both practical and fundamental scientific benefits, which
This doesn't mean that it happens. There may in fact be insuperable
are very hard to assess, it would truly be immense.
engineering difficulties we don't know about, but there is nothing in
Now, if the answer to this sort of profound scientific question lies
the physics that prohibits interstellar space flight.
right at hand, it would be folly to ignore it. If we are being visited
So any estimate of how likely it is that we would be visited by an
by representatives of extraterrestrial life, just stick our heads in the
extraterrestrial intelligent civilization, depends not only on how many
sand, would be a very bad policy, I think.
of them are there, but on what kind of transport they have, and how
On the other hand, to mount a major effort to investigate these
often they launch their space vehicles, even very optimistic estimates
things, I think requires some harder evidence than is now at hand.
for all these numbers, gives a conclusion that an advance civilization
It is clear that if such an effort were mounted, some information on
comes here very rarely. But I again emphasize the great uncertainty in
atmospheric physics would be forthcoming. I think some information
any of these numerical estimates, as they involve parts of science we
on psychology would certainly be forthcoming. I have the impression
don't know very much about.
92
93
that the capability of human populations to self-delusion, has not been
from the air in daytime, near Mount Rainier, Washington. The observer, a Seat-
accorded appropriate weight in these considerations. There is an inter-
tle resident, dubbed them "flying saucers." The sighting received extensive pub-
esting book published about a century ago by McKay called "Extraor-
licity. Somewhat similar sightings have been reported ever since. The differences
among these observations, however, are as striking as the observations them-
dinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds," which I
selves.
commend to the committee. It goes into such things as alchemy, and
Investigations. Because of its national defense responsibility, the U.S. Air
witchcraft. After all, there have been centuries in which these things
Force investigates reports of unidentified flying object over the United States.
The number of sightings investigated in 1947-65 is shown in the following table.
were considered to be as obviously true as anything, and yet we now
know that this is really nonsense.
Reported sightings of UFO's, 1947-65
So the possibility of these sort of delusions having a kind of con-
Year
Number
Year
Number
temporary guise as UFO's should not be thrown out altogether. I
1947
79
1957
1, 178
do not think that explains most or all of the unidentified settings.
1948
143
1958
473
Since the funds are so painfully tragically short for science today,
1949
186
1959
364
the priority question boils down to this: In the search for extrater-
1950
169
1960
557
1951
121
1961
591
restrial life there is a high risk, high possibility, that is the one we
1952
1, 501
1962
474
are talking about today; namely, UFO's—there is a high risk that
1953
425
1963
399
they are not of extraterrestrial origin, but if they are, we are sure
1954
429
1964
572
going to learn a lot.
1955
404
1965
886
1956
778
Compared to that, there is a moderate risk, significant return pos-
sibility, and that is, looking for life even simple forms on nearby
Source Tacker, Lawrence, J., Flying Saucers and the U.S. Air Force (Princeton, N.J.
(1960), and Library of Congress, Facts About Unidentified Flying Objects (Washington
planets, and searching for intelligent radio communications by the
1966).
techniques of radio astronomy. Here it is clear there will be significant
Evaluation of these reports is difficult. Observations frequently are sketchy,
paydirt of one sort or another for what I gather is a comparable
and different reports of the same phenomenon are often dissimilar, or even irre-
sort of investment.
concilable. Observers tend to exaggerate. Deliberate hoaxes, some involving dou-
ble-exposure photogarphy, have been perpetrated. After allowances are made for
So if Congress is interested, and I'm not sure it is, I think it might
these factors, the accepted scientific procedure is to attempt an explanation of
very well ought to be, but if Congress is interested in a pursuit of the
the observations in terms of phenomena independently observed and understood.
question of extraterrestrial life, I believe it would be much better
Only if an observation is rigorously inexplicable in terms of known phenomena
does the scientist introduces alternative hypotheses for which there is no other
advised to support the biology, the Mariner, and Voyager programs
evidence. Such hypotheses must still be consistent with all other available scien-
of NASA, and the radio astronomy programs of the National Science
tific information.
Foundation, than to pour very much money into this study of UFO's.
The identity of most UFO's has been established as belonging to one of
On the other hand, I think a moderate support of investigations of
the following categories: unconventional aircraft; aircraft under uncommon
UFO's might very well have some scientific paydirt in it, but perhaps
weather conditions; aircraft with unusual external light patterns; meteorolo-
gical and other high-altitude balloons; artificial earth satellites; flocks of birds;
not the one that we are talking about today.
reflections of searchlights or headlights off clouds; reflection of sunlight from
Mr. Chairman that concludes my statement except that I request
shiny surfaces; luminescent organisms (including one case of a firefly lodged
that you include for the record a statement entitled "Unidentified Fly-
between two adjacent panes of glass in an airplane cockpit window) ; optical
ing Objects" that I prepared for the Encyclopedia Americana.
mirages and looming; lenticular cloud formations; ball lighting; sun dogs;
meteors, including green fireballs; planets, especially Venus; bright stars; and
the aurora borealis.
UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECTS*
Radar detection of unidentified flying objects has also occurred occasionally.
(by Carl Sagan)
Many of these sightings have been explained as radar reflections from tempera-
ture inversion layers in the atmosphere and other sources of radar "angels."
Unidentified flying objects (UFO's) is the generic term for moving aerial or
Considering the difficulties involved in tracking down visual and radar sight-
celestial phenomena, detected visually or by radar, whose nature is not immedi-
ings, it is remarkable that all but a few percent of the reported UFO's have been
ately understood. Interest in these objects stems from speculation that some of
identified as naturally occurring-if sometimes unusual-phenomena. It is of
them are the products of civilizations beyond the earth. and from the psychologi-
some interest that the UFO's which are unidentified do not fall into one uniform
cal insights into contemporary human problems that this interpretation provides.
category of motion, color, lighting, etc., but rather run through the same range
Observations. Unidentified flying objects have been described variously as
of these variables as the identified UFO's. In October 1957, Sputnik 1, the first
rapidly moving or hovering; disc-shaped, cigar-shaped, or ball-shaped moving
earth-orbiting artificial satellite, was launched. Of 1,178 UFO sightings in that
silently or noisily; with a fiery exhaust, or with no exhaust whatever; accom-
year, 701 occurred between October and December. The clear implication is that
pained by flashing lights, or uniformly glowing with a silvery cast. The diversity
Sputnik and its attendant publicity were responsible for many UFO sightings.
of the observations suggests that UFO's have no common origin and that the use
Earlier, in July 1952, a set of visual and radar observations of unidentified
of such terms as UFO's or "flying saucers" serves only to confuse the issue by
flying objects over Washington, D.C., caused substantial public concern. Govern-
grouping generically a variety of unrelated phenomena.
ment concern was reflected in the creation in November of that year of a special
In the United States, popular interest in unidentified flying objects began on
panel to evaluate these reports. The panel was established by the Office of
June 24, 1947, when a group of rapidly moving, glistening objects was observed
Scientific Intelligence of the Central Intelligence Agency, and was headed by
the late Professor H. P. Robertson of the California Institute of Technology.
*In Encyclopedia Americana (New York: Grolier) and In Bull. Atom. Sci., 23, (6), 43,
The Robertson panel, after a thorough investigation of the UFO reports to that
1967.
date, concluded that all were probably natural phenomena, wrongly interpreted.
The most reliable testimony is that of the professional astronomer. Professor
Jesse L. Greenstein of Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories (author of the
97-818-68-7
94
95
ASTRONOMY article on pages 90-95) has pointed out that a vehicle 100 feet (30.5
galaxy are correct, there is no reason why the earth should be singled out for
meters) in diameter, at an altitude of 50 miles (80.5 km), would leave a broad
interstellar visits. A greater frequency of visits could be expected if there were
track on photographic plates of the sky taken with large telescopes. This track
another planet populated by a technical civilization within our solar system, but
could be distinguished easily from those of ordinary astronomical objects such
at the present time there is no evidence for the existence of one.
as stars, meteors, and comets. Nevertheless, it appears that such tracks or unam-
Related to the interstellar observer idea are the "contact" tales, contemporary
biguous visual observations of classical UFO's have never been made by profes-
reports of the landing of extraterrestrial space vehicles on earth. Unlike the UFO
sional astronomers.
reports, these tales display a striking uniformity. The extraterrestrials are de-
For example, in the Harvard Meteor Project performed in New Mexico during
scribed as humanoid, differing from man only in some minor characteristic such
the period 1954-58, extensive photographic observations were made by Super-
as teeth, speech, or dress. The aliens-so the "contactees" report-have been ob-
Schmidt cameras. with a 60° field of view. In all, a surface area of about 3.000
serving earth and its inhabitants for many years. and express concern at "the
square miles (7,700 sq km) was observed to a height of about 50 miles (80 km)
present grave political situation." The visitors are fearful that, left to our own
for a total period of about 3,000 hours. Visual and photographic observations
devices, we will destroy our civilization. The contactee is then selected as their
were made which could detect objects almost as faint as the faintest objects
"chosen intermediary" with the governments and inhabitants of earth, but some-
visible to the naked eye. These observations by professional astronomers were
how the promised political or social intervention never materializes.
made in a locale and period characterized by extensive reports of unidentified
Psychological Factors. The psychologist Carl Jung pointed out that the
flying objects. No unexplained objects were detected, despite the fact that rapidly
frequency and persistence of these contact tales-not one of which has been
moving objects were being sought in a study of meteors. Similar negative results
confirmed by the slightest sort of objective evidence-must be of substantial
have been obtained by large numbers of astronomers and help to explain the gen-
psychological significance. What need is fulfilled by a belief that unidentified
eral skepticism of the astronomical community towards flying saucer reports.
flying objects are of extraterrestrial origin? It is noteworthy that in the contact
A series of puzzling and well-published flying saucer sightings in the mid-
tales, the spacecraft and their crews are almost never pictured as hostile. It
1960's again led to the appointment of a government investigating panel, this
would be very satisfying if a race of advanced and benign creatures were devoted
time under the aegis of the Air Force Scientific Advisory Board. It is significant
to our welfare.
that this panel was convened not at the request of the operational or intelligence
The interest in unidentified flying objects derives, perhaps, not SO much from
arms of the Air Force, but in response to a request by the Air Force public
scientific curiosity as from unfulfilled religious needs. Flying saucers serve, for
relations office. The panel, under the chairmanship of Brian O'Brien, a member
some, to replace the gods that science has deposed. With their distant and exotic
of the board, met in February 1966, and restated the general conclusions of the
worlds and their pseudoscientific overlay, the contact accounts are acceptable to
Robertson panel. It was recommended that the Air Force make a more thor-
many people who reject the older religious frameworks. But precisely because
oughgoing effort to investigate selected UFO reports of particular interest,
people desire SO intensely that unidentified flying objects be of benign, intelligent,
although the probability of acquiring significant scientific information (other
and extraterrestrial origin, honesty requires that, in evaluating the observations,
than psychological) seemed small. The O'Brien panel suggested that the Air
we accept only the most rigorous logic and the most convincing evidence. At the
Force establish a group of teams at various points within the United States in
present time, there is no evidence that unambiguously connects the various flying
order to respond rapidly to UFO reports. The panel recommended that each
saucer sightings and contact tales with extraterrestrial intelligence.
team should consist of a physical scientist familiar with upper atmospheric
and astronomical phenomena, a clinical psychologist, and a trained investigator.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
In October 1966 the University of Colorado was selected by the Air Force
Office of Scientific Research to manage the program, and to prepare a thor-
Jung, Carl G., Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies (New
oughgoing analysis of the UFO problem. The National Academy of Sciences
York 1959).
agreed to appoint a panel to review the report when it is completed in early 1968.
Menzel, D. H. and Boyd, L. G., The World of Flying Saucers: A Scientific Exami-
Hypotheses of Extraterrestrial Origin. Repeated sightings of UFO's, and the
nation of a Major Myth of the Space Age (New York 1963).
persistence of the Air Force and the responsible scientific community in explain-
Ruppelt, Edward J., The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects (New York 1956).
ing away the sightings, have suggested to some that a conspiracy exists to con-
Shklovsky, Iosif S., and Sagan Carl, Intelligent Life in the Universe (San Fran-
ceal from the public the true nature of the UFO's. Might not at least a small
cisco 1966).
fraction of the unexplained few percent of the sightings be space vehicles of
Tacker, Lawrence J., Flying Saucers and the U.S. Air Force (Princeton 1960).
intelligent extraterrestrial beings observing the earth and its inhabitants?
Vallee, Jacques, Anatomy of a Phenomenon (Chicago 1965).
It now seems probable that the earth is not the only inhabited planet in the
CARL SAGAN,
universe. There is evidence that many of the stars in the sky have planetary
Department of Astronomy, Cornell University.
systems. Furthermore, research concerning the origin of life on earth suggests
that the physical and chemical processes leading to the origin of life occur
Thank you.
rapidly in the early history of the majority of planets. From the point of view
Mr. HECHLER. Dr. Sagan, there have been some recent experiments
of natural selection, the advantages of intelligence and technical civilization
at Green Bank, W. Va., with its 300-foot telescope, in an attempt to
are obvious, and some scientists believe that a large number of planets within
synchronize this with the Arecibo dish, in such a way as you might in
our Milky Way galaxy-perhaps as many as a million-are inhabited by tech-
nical civilizations in advance of our own.
effect produce almost a 2,000-mile diameter collecting surface for
Interstellar space flight is far beyond our present technical capabilities. but
trying to receive signals from the pulsars.
there seem to be no fundamental physical objections to it. It would be rash to
I wonder if this isn't the type of specific activity in radio astronomy
preclude, from our present vantage point, the possibility of its development by
that could utilize some additional support in order to ascertain the
other civilizations. But if each of, say. a million advanced technical civilizations
truth about terrestrial life and signals therefrom?
in our galaxy launched an interstellar spacecraft each year (and even for an
advanced civilization, the launching of an interstellar space vehicle would not
Dr. SAGAN. Congressman Hechler, as a member of the faculty at
be a trivial undertaking), and even if all of them could reach our solar system
Cornell that runs the observatory, I would find some problem an-
with equal facility, our system would, on the average, be visited only once every
swering that.
100,000 years.
Mr. HECHLER. But not of West Virginia, however?
UFO enthusiasts have sometimes castigated the skeptic for his anthropocen-
trism. Actually, the assumption that earth is visited daily by interstellar space-
Dr. SAGAN. That is right. The study of pulsars, as I indicated to
craft is far more anthropocentric-attaching as it does some overriding signifi-
Chairman Miller, is relevant. The development of a long base-line
cance to our small planet. If our views on the frequency of intelligence in the
parameter of the sort you talked about is of great interest to many
areas of radio astronomy, and conceivably to the area we are talking
96
97
However, there has not been since Project OXMA, which occurred
in Green Bank some 7 years or so ago, any systematic effort in this
I think that it would be rather pointless to then ask, what is the
country to look for signals of intelligent extraterrestrial origin.
color of the horse, what does he eat, how could be have gotten there,
There is at the present time a fairly major effort under way in the
who installed the bath tub The question is is there a horse in the
Soviet Union, but at least in this country there are no such efforts
bath tub This is a question I think we should direct ourselves to first.
directed specifically to this question.
Is there anything to these reports?
It may be if we ever do detect intelligent signals from elsewhere,
Now, coming to the question of the Russian situation, I do know
it will be an accidental byproduct of some other program. There is at
from my visits behind the Iron Curtain, or as they like to speak of it,
the present time no effort to search for extraterrestrial signals.
the Socialist countries, there have been sightings behind the Iron
Chairman MILLER. Are they trying to do things in Australia?
Curtain.
Dr. SAGAN. To the best of my knowledge there is no such work being
In fact, if you were to have good translations, it would be difficult
done.
to distinguish between a UFO report from Russia, from Brazil, from
Chairman MILLER. The Mills-Cross program is also connected with
Argentina, from Japan, or from the United States. There is a rather
Cornell, isn't it?
rough pattern.
Dr. SAGAN. The Cornell-Sydney Astronomy Center, yes, sir.
Now, the Russians, to the best of my knowledge, have given no offi-
Chairman MILLER. Is that all, Mr. Hechler?
cial recognition to the problem, but I do know, from personal infor-
Mr. HECHLER. I was hoping you would suggest something more
mation, that there is sort of a ground-swell interest, or a latent interest,
specific, for our future consideration.
that pops up here and there, but apparently they have as much diffi-
Dr. SAGAN. Let me say, and again let me emphasize that it is by no
culty in getting official recognition as we do.
means demonstrated that radio astronomical searches for extrater-
Mr. ROUSH. I would first point out that I realize that a visit to Russia
restrial intelligence have anything whatever to do with UFO's, but
doesn't necessarily make a person an expert or give him all the infor-
if we were interested, as some of us are, in examining the possibility
mation. A year ago June I did visit Russia. I had conversations with
of extraterrestrial intelligence, sending signals to Earth, then rela-
a few of their people, including. my pronunciation may not be cor-
tively modest programs, of say less than a million dollars, could be
rect, Dr. Millionshchikov and the head of their weather bureau, I
organized, using largely existing instruments with only small modifica-
believe it is Petrov, and several others, and I repeatedly asked the
tions in the things you hook up to the radio telescope, which would
question, "Do you believe in unidentified flying objects?' In each in-
be ideal for this purpose.
stance they merely laughed. That was the response that I got. Since
There are in fact many radio astronomers who are privately inter-
then, however, I have observed there have been papers published in
ested in this sort of thing, but it carries something of the same sort of
Russia discussing the phenomena, and discussing it in scientific terms.
stigma that both the previous speakers mentioned about UFO's. It is
It seems to me that any discussion such as ours today raises the
unconventional. It is in many senses radical. Many astronomers prefer
question of the existence of extraterrestrial life. That is one reason we
to have nothing to do with it.
asked Dr. Sagan to come here. I'm not real sure, Dr. Sagan, whether
Mr. PETTIS. Mr. Chairman.
you stated whether there is or whether there is not extraterrestrial
Mr. ROUSH. Mr. Pettis.
life. I was watching for that, and I don't believe I heard you say it.
Mr. PETTIS. I would like to ask the doctor, or any other member of
Dr. SAGAN. Congressman Roush, I have enough difficulty trying to
determine if there is intelligent life on Earth, to be sure if there is
the panel. Is there any indication that any other Government, par-
ticularly the Russians, are interested in this subject?
intelligent life anywhere else. [Laughter.]
If we knew there was life on other planets, then we would
Dr. SAGAN. I cannot speak about the UFO program. Perhaps Dr.
be able to save ourselves a lot of agony finding out. It is just
Hynek can say something about that.
because the problem is SO significant, and we don't have the answers at
As far as the question that I just mentioned, the radio search for
hand we need to pursue the subject. I don't know. It beats me.
extraterrestrial intelligence, there is a state commission in the Soviet
Mr. ROUSH. I believe you coauthored a book with a Russian, is that
Union, for the investigation of cosmic-radio intelligence. There is a
correct?
fairly major effort that has been mustered for the last few years along
Dr. SAGAN. That is correct.
these lines.
Mr. ROUSH. Does Dr. Shklovskii share your views?
And there is only some information about that; that we have gotten
out of the Soviet Union.
Dr. SAGAN. I think he shares my restraint.
I think both of us would say we think this is an extremely impor-
I don't know anything about their activities on UFO's. Perhaps
Dr. Hynek would like to comment on that.
tant subject, that we are on the frontier of being able to find out, but
that neither of us knows whether there is or isn't life out there. Let
Dr. HYNEK. May I, Mr. Chairman, preface my remark, in answer
me say if it turns out there isn't life on Mars, that is almost as interest-
to that, by pointing out a danger here that we may be putting the cart
ing as if we find there is life on Mars, because then we have to ask,
before the horse in the consideration of extraterrestrial intelligence.
Speaking of horses, suppose someone comes here and tells us, or
what happened different on Mars than on the Earth, so that life arose
here and not there. That will surely give us a very profound entry into
announces to us there is a report of a horse in the bath tub.
the question of follow-up of evolution and the cosmic context.
98
Mr. ROUSH. Suppose we discover there is life on Mars, in some form,
wouldn't this almost cinch your case, and you could say there is extra-
terrestrial life?
Dr. SAGAN. Yes, sir; it certainly would, but not cinch our case about
extraterrestrial intelligence. Conceivably, there might be a low form
on Mars. If there is Martian life, it is of interest how low it is. If there
is intelligence on Mars-but we don't know there is intelligence on
AFTERNOON SESSION
Mars-then we don't have to grasp that evolution process.
Mr. ROUSH. The committee will be in order.
Mr. ROUSH. I would like to finish this morning's session just by
telling of a cartoon I saw which I think Dr. Hynek perhaps saw and
This afternoon we are going to hear first from Dr. Robert L. Hall.
enjoyed as much as I did. It showed a flying saucer hovering over the
Dr. Hall is professor and head of the Department of Sociology at the
Earth, with little green men looking down, and one turned to the other
University of Illinois, and has been since 1965.
and said, "Do you suppose it is swamp gas [Laughter.]
He too has a distinguished career. Dr. Hall, we are glad to welcome
Dr. HYNEK. That is a good statement to close the session on.
you as a participant in this symposium, and you may proceed.
Mr. ROUSH. We shall reconvene at 2 o'clock this afternoon.
(The biography of Dr. Hall is as follows:)
(Whereupon, at 12:15 p.m., the hearing was recessed to reconvene
DR. ROBERT L. HALL
at 2 p.m.)
Born February 25, 1924, at Atlanta, Georgia. Married 3 children.
EDUCATION
Yale University, 1941-42. B.A. 1947.
University of Stockholm, Sweden, 1947-48.
University of Minnesota, 1949-52. M.A., 1950. Ph.D., 1953.
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
1. Instructor, Extension Division, University of Stockholm, Sweden, 1948.
2. Research Assistant, University of Minnesota, 1950-52.
3. Social Psychologist in the Air Force Personnel & Training Research Center,
1952-1957. Engaged in research on performance of bomber crews, the role of the
aircraft commander, and processes of evaluation of small teams.
4. Assistant Professor (1957-1960) and Associate Professor (1960-62) of Soci-
ology. Teaching social psychology, especially the processes of mass communication
and opinion change. Conducting research on social psychological aspects of higher
education and effects of social interaction on the learning process.
5. Program Director for Sociology and Social Psychology, National Science
Foundation, 1962-1965. Administered a program of research grants and related
activities to strengthen Sociology and Social Psychology in universities in the
United States and to bolster understanding in these fields through basic research.
6. Associate Professor of Sociology and Psychology (1965-66) and Professor
of Sociology and Head of the Department of Sociolgy (since 1966), University
of Illinois at Chicago Circle.
PUBLICATIONS
A number of articles in Sociological and Psychological journals and chapters
in professional books. A few selected publications are listed below
Social influence on the Aircraft Commander's role, "American Sociological
Review" 1955, 20, 292-299.
Military Sociology, 1945-1955. "Chapter in Sociology in the United States of
America," ed. by Hans Zetterberg, Paris: UNESCO, 1966.
Group performance under feedback that confounds responses of group mem-
bers. "Sociometry," 1957, 20, 297-305.
The informal control of everyday behavior. Chapter in "Controlling Human
Behavior," ed. by Roy Francis, Social Science Research Center, University of
Minnesota; 1959.
Two alternative learning in interdependent dyads. Chapter 12 in "Mathematical
Methods in Small Group Processes," ed. by Joan Criswell, H. Solomon, and
P. Suppes, Stanford Univ. Press: 1962.
The educational influence of dormitory roommates. "Sociometry," 1963, 26, 294-
318 (with Ben Willerman).
The effects of different social feedback conditions upon performance in dyadic
teams. Chapter in "Communication and Culture," ed. by A. G. Smith, 1966,
353-364.
(99)
101
100
Second, what are the probable consequences from the point of view
STATEMENT OF DR. ROBERT L. HALL, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF
of a sociologist or social psychologist of each of the major
SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, CHICAGO, ILL.
explanations?
And third, I would like to comment quite explicitly on the hypothe-
Dr. HALL. Thank you, Mr. Roush.
First I should like to state a few of the rather well-established facts
sis that mass hysteria and hysterical contagion is common in many of
the cases.
as they would be seen by a social psychologist. I find that when I do
I believe I should start with the mass hysteria hypothesis. To begin
so, there is a great deal of redundancy. You have heard most of these
facts before, SO I will make my presentation brief.
with, I think there is very strong evidence that some of the cases do
Fundamentally what we know that everyone can agree upon is that
result from hysterical contagion in the sense that this has often been
used by social psychologists. Once people are sensitized to the exist-
a great many people all over the world keep reporting some quite
puzzling flying objects. In these reports there are certain recurring
ence of some kind of a phenomenon (whether indeed it really exists
features, and the people SO reporting often have all the characteristics
or not), when there is an ambiguous situation requiring explanation,
of reliable witnesses.
when there is emotion or anxiety associated with this, resulting from
Second, the next main thing we know is that there are several
the uncertainty, there are precisely the conditions that have been
strongly, often bitterly competing systems of belief about how to ex-
observed repeatedly as resulting in what I shall call "improvised
plain these observations, and some rational men seem to fall into line
news." Lacking well-verified facts and explanations, people always
supporting each of these positions.
seem to generate the news and the explanations that will reduce the
This in itself is of course of great interest to a social psychologist.
ambiguity, thereby reduce the anxiety they have about uncertain
Inevitably he is interested in how systems of belief grow and are
situations.
maintained.
There are many well-documented cases of this kind of mass hysteria
The third major factual thing that can be quite well agreed upon
and hysterical contagion. I believe it will be out of place for me to
is that to a very large extent these alternative explanations, these
go into lengthy discussions of these episodes, but I shall comment on
systems of belief, have become rooted in organizations of people who
a few ways in which we can examine the observations of unidentified
have become committed to defending their respective positions. This
flying objects to assess whether this is a reasonable hypothesis for the
greatly complicates the problem of arriving at a generally accepted
hard-core cases.
explanation. In that sense, in addition to any other problems that have
One of the first of these is one thoroughly familiar to attorneys,
been defined here, clearly we have a social psychological problem also.
social psychlogists having no monopoly on an interest in the credibility
These are very briefly the main outlines of the facts as I see them.
of testimony, but this is one of the principal means obviously of
Now, how are these explained?
establishing whether we should reasonably believe certain explanations.
There are certain things that everyone seems to agree upon, or
The criteria, as most of you know, involve such things as the
nearly everyone, I believe. First that a great many of these observa-
established reputation of the witnesses, the quality and details of the
tions can be quite clearly identified as mistakes on the part of the
report, whether there are apparent motives for distortion or prevari-
observer, misidentifications of familiar objects, hoaxes, and a mis-
cation, whether there was preexisting knowledge of the thing being
cellaneous collection of similar things.
reported, whether there were multiple witnesses and whether there
Beyond that point, there comes to be a good deal of divergence in
was contact among these multiple witnesses, whether observation was
explanations, to say the least. Perhaps the major views now can be
through more than one medium (for example, direct visual observation
classified simply as follows: First, that these are technological devices
confirmed by radar) whether there were verifiable effects that could
or vehicles of some sort entering our atmosphere from the outside.
be observed after the reporting by witnesses, recently of the events
Second, that this is some new, as yet ill-understood natural phe-
being reported, the duration of the period in which the witness was
nomena, something like a form of plasma, that we do not understand,
able to observe the phenomenon; how the witnesses reacted, whether
and SO on.
they had intense anxiety and emotion themselves, which might inter-
The third major hypothesis to explain the hard-core cases that are
fere with their observation. and SO forth.
not otherwise agreed upon, is that they too are simply a result of mass
These are some of the major factors, and a closely related factor in
hysteria, and its resulting misidentifications.
assessing the credibility of the testimony is of course an assessment
This hypothesis I will address myself to particularly very soon,
of the care in gathering the testimony by interviewers themselves.
because obviously a social psychologist has a special interest in this
How does the testimony on hard-core UFO cases look with reference
possibility.
to these criteria ? I should say that there is a substantial subset of cases
The three major topics that I believe I should address myself to
which look very good on these criteria, which make it very difficult to
are, first, what has brought about this complicated situation of
say that the witnesses involved were victims of hysterical contagion,
strongly opposed beliefs that seem to resist the factual evidence, and
grossly misinterpreting familiar things.
are not responsive to each other?
For example, there is the Red Bluff, Calif., case in 1960, where two
policemen observed for 2 hours and 15 minutes constantly, apparently
102
103
without tremendous anxiety or concern, an object hovering, moving
In the second place, they have not generally involved a prolonged
about, going through gyrations. Twice it approached their police car.
observation of a phenomenon by people who were calm, not emotion-
When they tried to approach it, it would retreat.
ally upset. A characteristic example of hysterical contagion would be
They radioed in and requested that this object be confirmed on
the recent study by Back and Kerckhoff, supported by the National
radar, and it was confirmed by local radar stations at approximately
Science Foundation. The book reporting on this study is called "The
the same location.
June Bug." It was a case of hysterical contagion among the employees
Ultimately, after a couple of hours of observation, they watched this
of a factory in North Carolina.
object move away, join a second similar object, and then disappear.
It is one of the most thoroughly reported and studied incidents of
They then went to the sheriff's office, where two deputies were present
this sort. It resembles the kind of thing we are talking about in almost
who had also seen this phenomenon, and gave similar descriptions.
no respect. I find it very difficult to find elements in common, other
Now applying the criteria to a case such as this, in most respects it
than the fact that some people believed something that was difficult
is very convincing. These are police officers of good reputation. Their
to verify.
report was prompt, thorough, careful, and in writing-and I have
The employees were convinced that they were being bitten by poison-
read the report in full. There is much detail in it of a sort that could
ous insects, resulting in fainting and other symptoms such as rashes.
be cross-checked with the other witnesses from the sheriff's office. There
All medical officers, all careful research on this, was unable to turn
are no apparent motives for prevarication or distortion. It was a long
up any hard evidence that such an insect was present, or that there was
period of observation.
any standard medical accounting for these symptoms. But these were
I cannot establish very clearly what prior interest or information
people in close constant contact, sharing a particular set of problems
these witnesses had, but I find no indication that they had any. There
and frustrations that raised their level of anxiety.
was confirmation of the observation from more than one medium of
The epidemic can be interpreted as a convenient way of escaping
observation-both visual and radar.
the problem of coping with very difficult circumstances. I have said
This is the kind of case that leads me to regard the hypothesis of
that I think in isolated cases you can find a similar thing in observa-
hysterical contagion as being quite inadequate to account for these
tions of unidentified flying objects, but if we look at the hard-core,
observations. It is not a lone case; there are many others.
well-documented cases, I see practically no resemblance.
There were trained ground observers near White Plains, N.Y., in
Another important thing to note about the witnesses in the best
1954, who observed an object which they described as having the ap-
sightings of UFO's is that very commonly-as has been mentioned, I
parent size of the moon. while simultaneously they saw the moon,
believe, by Dr. McDonald-they first try to explain their observation
which was not full that night. They watched this for 20 or 30 minutes,
in some very familiar terms. This is the well-known and labeled psy-
then it moved away to the southeast.
chological process of "assimilation." People first try to assimilate their
Two radar stations established fixes confirming the visually re-
observation into something understood and known and familiar.
ported location. Jets were scrambled from two bases to intercept. The
This is quite contrary to the kind of argument frequently built
ground observers were able to see the jet trails approaching. Both the
into the hypothesis of hysterical contagion, namely, that character-
pilots of the jets and the ground observers report that as the jets
istically witnesses are eager, are motivated, to see strange objects.
approached, this object changed color and moved up very rapidly and
Another important thing to notice about the witnesses in these cases
disappeared, and at that point radar contact was also lost.
is of course their reluctance to report. We have had some mention of
Once again this is the kind of report that seems to me to fit the
that. This, for one thing, counters the argument of publicity seeking as
customary criteria of credibility to a very considerable degree. It
a motive in some of the best cases. It incidently runs contrary to most
is very difficult to claim that these multiple observers, trained for the
experience of social psycologists engaged in public opinion research,
type of observation they were making. confirmed independently
in polling, and contrary to the experience of experienced precinct
through more than one channel, were victims of hysterical contagion.
workers in politics. Those people who have not tried this kind of
Dr. McDonald, I believe, referred briefly to the Levelland, Tex.
thing expect people not to want to talk to them, but when you start
cases in 1958, of interference with automobile ignition, in which there
ringing doorbells, the striking thing about the American people is it
were 10 separate sightings in that one evening, apparently with no
is often difficult to stop them from telling you what they believe. Yet
opportunity for the citizens involved either to read the news, hear the
in instances of unidentified flying objects, there has often been a
news of this, nor to talk with one another. They uniformly reported
marked reluctance to talk about them.
the same general shape. They uniformily reported-a great many of
I can illustrate this anecdotally simply to make my point. When I
them reported also interference with automobiles ignition and head-
was on the faculty at the University of Minnesota, a student came
lights. This was an effect which at that time had not been observed
to me, having heard that I had some interest in this question. He in-
and publicized a great deal. It subsequently has become publicized.
formed me that his father, a colonel, an artillery colonel in Korea-
Now, how do these cases differ from the well-known, documented
this was at the time of the Korean conflict-had flown over a hill in
cases of mass hysteria and hysterical contagion? In general those
Korea in his observer plane, and found (right next to him virtually)
episodes have not persisted as long as the active interest in unidentified
a characteristic unidentified flying object with the usual kind of con-
flving objects. It lasted a week or a few weeks. and it had not been too
figuration. It had promptly retreated upwards. It had frightened
difficult to find reasonably acceptable explanations.
104
105
him, but he was an experienced and trained observer, SO he took notes
Finally, I want to comment to some extent on the probable conse-
on it; he recorded it. When he returned he was SO ridiculed and laughed
quences of each of the most important explanations that has been
at for a long period of time that he completely gave up trying to have
offered, and what might be done in the public interest in each instance
this taken seriously. He refused to talk about it.
to counter the negative aspect of these consequences.
I urged this student to get his father to report this to some of
Let's suppose to start with that these are extraterrestrial devices of
the private organizations that might take it seriously, and he ap-
some sort visiting our atmosphere. If this is the case, we for one thing
parently was unable to do so. The ridicule suppressed the opportunity
have to concern ourselves with the possible consequences of contact
for this information.
with civilizations which are technologically very advanced and whose
I have encountered similar things in academic colleagues from a
values we know nothing about. It is very tempting to the anthropo-
variety of fields, finding they are very interested and wanting to hear
morphic, to attribute human characteristics to any such life form hy-
about this, but are afraid to talk about.
pothecized, and to imagine, like humans, they might be hostile and
In order to support the hysterical contagion hypothesis, it seems
might cause us some danger.
to me we need to present some plausible evidence:
I know of no hard evidence of danger, of threat, from the cases re-
First, that there is a very ambiguous situation. This we can all agree
ported. But we do not have any inkling, if indeed these are extrater-
upon.
restrial devices, as to their purpose. We have no hard evidence as to
Second, that there is a great deal of anxiety and concern about it.
their purpose, their intent, their motives, SO to speak.
This appears clearly to be the case.
Consequently, I find it extremely difficult to even speculate in an
Third, some plausible evidence of contact among the witnesses,
intelligent way about what might result from contact with them. I
either directly by conversing with one another, or indirectly by being
can say a very great risk of contact, if this is the case, is the risk of
exposed to the same information, the same stimuli. In cases that I
panic, and panic is often very harmful to us mere humans, as in theater
have studied. I find that this third element is the one that is often
fires and so on.
lacking, that there are often witnesses who appear not to have had
Once again from all knowledge in sociology and social psychology,
prior knowledge, not to have had contact with one another, not to
the best way to counter this risk of panic is not to issue reassuring
have been exposed, as far as we can determine, to the same news
statements, but to find sound information in which people have con-
information.
fidence which can reduce their anxiety about the situation, and explain
I might throw in here, in reference to a remark Dr. Hynek made,
it adequately. This to me has been one of the most unfortunate and
that the public is indeed very unwilling to accept the kinds of casual
possibly dangerous aspects of this problem, that the ridicule, the tend-
and bland explanations that have been offered. This has been my
ency not to take the problem seriously, to issue reassurances rather
experience also, and is indeed an index of the amount of concern and
than good information, has in my opinion only maximized the risk of
anxiety about this, it appears to me.
panic, at least under this hypothesis, and I believe under the others
Now I will turn to another subject. I might summarize in one
as well.
sentence that in my eyes the hypothesis that the hard-core cases of
Another risk, if these are extraterrestrial devices is clearly the risk
observed UFO's is hysterical contagion is highly improbable. The
of misinterpreting the devices as hostile devices from another country
weight of evidence is strongly against it.
on earth, which might trigger indeed a devastating nuclear war. Once
Now I would like to address the question of what has brought about
again, the same conclusions follow about the need for good infor-
this situation of strongly opposing beliefs that seem not to become
mation.
reconciled with one another. On this I will have to digress first to
Mr. ROUSH. Might not another conclusion be that if there should be
explain briefly what I mean by a system of beliefs in social psychology.
something to this, again, if there should be perhaps it would bring all
Perhaps the best way to explain that is to say that just as nature
the people of the world together for a better understanding, a common
abhors a vacuum, nature abhors an isolated belief. Neither a belief
purpose, and a common stand, which probably would relieve us of
nor the person who holds it can normally persist very long in isola-
some of our own anxieties?
tion. The beliefs become organized in such a way that, for one person,
Dr. HALL. This is indeed within the range of possibility, though I
his various beliefs support one another, and people gather together
hesitate to speculate on the probability.
in organizations to lend each other support in their beliefs. This is
Mr. ROUSH. You don't have to speculate. Go ahead.
the sense in which we have highly developed systems of belief which
Dr. HALL. The final comment about probable effect, if these are in-
come to resist change, to resist evidence.
deed extraterrestrial devices, is of course the possibility of learning
The circumstances under which systems of belief such as this char-
something of great technological value from them. The possible value
acteristically arise are, as I mentioned in passing before, a situation
of contact for purposes of advancing our knowledge of our technology.
of ambiguity about a matter of importance on which there is not
Let's turn then to another hypothesis, which is this is a natural phe-
reliable, verified information in which people have confidence. Clearly
nomenon which we do not understand, something like plasma. In
the antidote is simple. It is to get good, reliable information which
this case, I think we have precisely the same risk of panic through mis-
people have confidence in.
interpretation resulting in precisely the same recommendation for
This is probably the only way to weaken the irrational elements
the need for understanding to reduce the risk of panic.
that are strongly resistant.
107
106
to me would be to take the 100 or 200 cases per year that seem to be
I think we have precisely the same risk of misinterpretation as hos-
tile aircraft, with again the same resulting recommendation.
reliably reported and reasonably well documented, and to study them
carefully for recurring patterns, with emphasis on the way they react
I think we have again the same possible great value from under-
to their environment, the way they react to light sources, the way they
standing the phenomenon in order to advance our knowledge.
The third major hypothesis, explanation, which I cited above, is
react to presence of humans and SO on.
The second form of research would be, I think to study explicitly
that even the most solid and plausible cases reported are results of
mass hysteria and hysterical contagion. I simply note that if this is the
those portions of the problem that do result from mass hysteria, ap-
case, I regard it as prima facie evidence that we badly need to improve
parently. These need to be studied intensively, quite apart from the
our understanding of mass hysteria, of the process of belief formation,
question of the physical phenomena, to improve our understanding of
of the means by which we might control the kinds of anxiety that
mass hysteria and panic, and its possibly dangerous consequences.
In doing this I think it is terribly important that particular observa-
produce this problem.
tions be studied by the scientists of a variety of disciplines, that the
In this situation there is still the dangerous risk of panic, even if
study of the hysteria hypothesis not be separated from the others. If
there is no physical phenomenon underlying these reports. There is
it is, there is a tendency to make this hypothesis the garbage can for
still the risk of misinterpretation of hostile aircraft, and I would sub-
otherwise unexplained sightings.
mit that there is still the great potential benefit from studying it
The third type of study that seems to me terribly important, but my
thoroughly and scientifically, in this case the gain being a gain in socio-
logical and psychological knowledge, which would be of obvious im-
colleagues at the table can speak with more authority than I, is the sys-
tematic gathering of new cases with good scientific instrumentation,
portance if all of this is caused simply by mass hysteria.
the kind of work in quantitative evidence that would give us much
I have a few conclusions and recommendations which I have written
out. I will try to tie these to what others have said as I go along.
more to go on.
The third recommendation I had to suggest was that possibly in
My first conclusion would be that no matter what explanation you
addition to a careful scientific investigation and study of this phenom-
accept, we have here a rare opportunity for gaining some useful knowl-
enon, it might be fruitful to set up formally an adversary proceeding
edge by a thorough detached study of UFO reports, and a systematic
modeled after our system of jurisprudence. There is a tendency for us
gathering of new information, hopefully with good instrumentation,
academics to sit on fences as long as we possibly can, and I think that
and good, well-trained interviewing teams.
if there were several teams of investigators who were assigned the
My second conclusion would be that hysteria and contagion of be-
responsibility much the way a prosecuting attorney or defense attorney
lief can account for some of the reports, but there is strong evidence
is, assigned the responsibility to make the strongest possible case for
that there is some physical phenomena underlying a portion of the
one of the systems of explanation, that this would challenge the others,
reports.
and force them to find more solid evidence.
Third, I would conclude that because of the lack of trustworthy in-
It would try to benefit from some of the valuable features We have
formation the systems of conflicting beliefs has been built up to ac-
in our system of jurisprudence.
count for a very ambiguous set of circumstances. Each of these posi-
That concludes my presentation, except to comment briefly on how
tions is sometimes defended beyond the point of rationality.
this relates to the suggestion of my colleagues. I would certainly en-
Fourth, I would repeat my earlier statement as a conclusion, that
thusiastically agree with Dr. Hynek's suggestion of a board of inquiry,
whether or not there is a physical phenomenon underlying a portion
or some competent group to study the phenomenon.
of the reports, we clearly have a social psychological problem of sub-
I would certainly agree with Dr. McDonald's view that a variety of
duing these irrational systems of belief, defense of beliefs, of lowering
approaches would be fruitful, that a single study has many disadvan-
the anxiety about these reports, and of reducing the ambiguity about
tages. I have taken an interest for a number of years in the problems
their nature.
of the support of academic institutions by Government, and I think
The recommendations that I had written out were two-excuse me,
that we are most likely to proceed to some good knowledge rapidly if
were three, and overlap considerably with the comments of my col-
we don't put all our eggs in one basket.
leagues. I would say that the most important matter is to promote the
I certainly agree with Dr. Sagan's view that there are these very
fullest possible free circulation of all the available information about
intense predisposing emotional factors for each of these beliefs. Some-
this phenomena. This should help reduce risks of panic and other
how we need to weaken those.
dangerous irrational actions. It should help to weaken these systems of
Finally, on the idea of UN cooperation, this had not occurred to me,
belief, the irrational elements in them. Here I would say indifference,
but I think it is an excellent idea. If it is possible to establish some
or disinterest on the part of national leaders can retard our learning
detached international agency that can bring about free, open flow of
about this phenomenon, and open interest and encouragement can help.
information, and some cooperation internationally in investigating
I believe you are performing a fine service in having this kind of
this, it would be helpful.
open inquiry. This whole matter badly needs to be treated as something
Thank you, Mr. Roush.
deserving serious study.
Mr. ROUSH. Thank you, Dr. Hall.
The second recommendation I have to make concerns some general
Are there questions?
lines of research that would seem to me called for. One of these seems
108
109
(The prepared statement of Dr. Hall follows:)
organized into social groups in which members support one another's beliefs.
Hence a particular belief, such as the belief that there is no new physical phe-
PREPARED STATEMENT BY ROBERT L. HALL
nomenon underlying UFO reports, is intricately tied in with two systems-a
From the point of view of a social psychologist, UFO reports present us with
system of related beliefs by the same person, and a social system of people who
share similar beliefs. Many social psychologists have analyzed and documented
a most interesting and challenging situation. To a social psychologist the known
facts appear to be facts about people and the things that they are saying and
this kind of phenomenon (e.g., Festinger, 1957 ; Simmons, 1964 Smith, Bruner,
and White, 1956).
doing. First, many people, all over the world, including reliable and knowledge-
In circumstances such as those described, the ambiguous situation is often
able witnesses, keep reporting puzzling flying objects, and the reports have cer-
associated with widespread anxiety, and the belief systems which arise char-
tain recurrent features. Second, several competing systems of belief have grown
acteristically contain elements of hysteria which may increase the likelihood
up to explain these reports, with some rational men supporting each of several
different explanations. Third, as any sociologist would predict, the systems of
of panic or other irrational action (see Smelser, 1963). New beliefs which are
improvised to reduce the ambiguity often are assimilated into preexisting belief
belief have, to a large extent, become rooted in complex organizations of people:
systems, such as the beliefs of religious cults, SO that, in effect, the ambiguous
some organizations have been created to defend a particular position about
situation is used to manufacture support for preexisting beliefs. Once a situation
UFOs; some organizations whose main purposes are remote from UFOs have
of competing belief systems is established, probably the only way to modify it
been drawn into the controversy and found themselves committed to defending
a position.
very much is by attacking the conditions which brought it about-that is, the
lack of authoritative, trusted information.
Nearly all rational observers appear to be agreed that the great majority
My second major question, stated above, was: "Is the mass hysteria hy-
of reported sightings of unidentified flying objects (UFOs) can be explained
pothesis a plausible one, and can it account adequately for the known facts?"
as misidentifications of familiar phenomena, with an occasional hoax contribut-
First, let me reiterate the facts which we are trying to explain: numerous
ing to the confusion. However, there are approximately 100 to 200 cases per
reliable reports, and recurrent features in these reports. When a large number
year, based upon apparently sound testimony, with recurrent features of appear-
of people report observations that share many details of appearance and be-
ance, movement, and reaction to the environment. Strong disagreement arises
over these cases.
havior, one of three things must be the case either they are observing the same
phenomenon, or they have been exposed to the same sources of information which
One major area of disagreement is the question whether any novel physical
have influenced them to expect to see certain things, or they have been in mutual
phenomenon underlies these reports or whether they are simply a miscellaneous
contact and influenced one another in some fashion. If the mass hysteria hypoth-
collection of familiar phenomena, misidentified because of mass hysteria and
esis is to be held plausible, we need to show that separate people reporting the
misperceived as having recurrent features because of a process of hysterial
same details have been in touch with each other or with some common source
contagion. Among those who believe that there is a physical phenomenon, there
of information. The independence of the separate observers becomes a crucial
are, in turn, several alternative explanations as to what it is. A substantial num-
question.
ber argue that there are technological devices or vehicles entering our atmos-
In determining the plausibility of this hypothesis, a second major concern
phere from the outside. A substantial number argue that there is a novel natural
is the credibility of testimony. Much of our legal system is based upon the assump-
phenomenon, as yet ill understood, such as a form of plasma or "ball lightning."
tion that we can, under appropriate conditions, accept human testimony as factual.
There are other explanations supported by some people, such as the belief that
Social psychologists are certainly not alone in having developed criteria for
"space animals" are swimming around in our atmosphere, or that these objects
assessing the credibility of testimony; attorneys are thoroughly familiar with
are secret devices manufactured somewhere on earth. In my judgment these
such criteria. In assessing testimony we customarily consider such questions
last two explanations fit the available evidence SO poorly that I shall not deal
about the witness as his reputation in his community. whether he has any apparent
with them further. We might, then, label the three major hypotheses: (1) Mass
motive for prevarication or distortion, whether he has previous familiarity with
hysteria and contagion; (2) Extraterrestrial devices; (3) New natural phenom-
the things reported. In addition we consider internal characteristics of his
enon.
report, such as the recency and duration of the events reported, the number
My comments, as a social psychologist, will be organized around three major
and type of specific observable details reported as apart from reports that are
questions: (1) What has brought about this situation of competing systems of
primarily interpretations, the inclusion of details that are independently varifi-
belief, strongly held and often unresponsive to the observed facts, and how can
able (such as physical effects). Also testimony is, of course, more credible if
we modify the situation? (2) Is the mass hysteria hypothesis a plausible one,
there are multiple witnesses, especially ones who are completely independent of
and can it account adequately for the known facts? (3) For each of the major
one another; if there have been different means of observation (e.g., both visual
explanations, what would be the probable consequences if the explanation were
and auditory, or unaided observation and observation through instruments) ;
true, and what actions or precautions might be taken in the public interest?
and if the testimony is gathered by qualified, careful interviewers.
How did the present situation come about? Much sociological research on
In my judgment there are many reports of UFOs that meet the above criteria
rumor and belief systems indicates that ambiguity about an important matter
begets improvised news. To the extent that trusted information is not available.
quite well-better, indeed, than many court cases which a judge and jury
accept. In some of these cases, no familiar explanation can be found that fits the
systems of belief are generated to fill the gap. A recent scholarly work by
evidence. I shall digressibriefly to describe a few cases.
in situations of tension when ordinary communication channels are not arises oper-
Shibutani describes a rumor as a kind of improvised news which
Consider the case of two police officers near Red Bluff, California, on August
13, 1960. They saw a large object descending and at first thought it was an air-
ating adequately." (Shibutani, 1966, p. 57). Shibutani further argues that people
liner about to crash. They jumped from their patrol car and noticed that the
are always being confronted with new circumstances which are not clearly and
object made no discernible noise. They watched it descend to an estimated 100 or
adequately treated by trusted channels of information, and therefore rumors
200 feet, then reverse itself at high speed, and finally stop and hover at an
are a normal and important part of men's efforts to adapt to their environment
estimated 500 feet. They described details of shape, color, and movement. They
(p. 161, 182-183). Alternative explanations of UFO reports have arisen because
radioed the sheriff's office to contact a local radar base and were informed that
of a lack of sound, authoritative information in which people have confidence.
the radar base reported an unidentified radar return at the same location as their
This is a normal and usual reaction to such situations of ambiguity.
visual observation. They reported details of the object's behavior and their own.
In order to complete my answer about how the present situation came about,
I must digress briefly to explain what I mean by a "system of belief.' Just as
They tried to approach the object and it retreated when they remained stationary,
the object approached their car. They reported that the object retreated when
nature abhors a vacuum, nature abhors an isolated belief. Neither a belief nor
they turned on the patrol car's red light. After prolonged observation the object
the person who holds it can normally persist long in isolation. Each person's
beliefs tend to become organized into an interdependent system of beliefs which
began to move away, and they followed slowly. They saw it join another similar
object and finally disappear over the horizon. Altogether they watched the object
support one another. Also people who share important beliefs typically become
for about two hours and fifteen minutes. Their report was prompt, thorough and
97-S18-68-s
110
111
written, and contained details which are contained in many other UFO reports.
the task. We must also be concerned with the risks of panic resulting in people
Immediately after losing sight of the object, the officers returned to the sheriff's
hurting one another, even if the assumed extraterrestrial visitors mean no harm.
office and met two deputies who reported the same observation. The officers were
This risk could be markedly reduced by preparing the public for the eventu-
men of good reputation, and there is no indication of prior interest in UFOs nor
ality-by treating it as a serious possibility that must be discussed. The greatest
prior knowledge of the kinds of details reported (e.g., the red light beam emitted
risk of panic would come from a dramatic confrontation between the assumed
by the object and radio interference each time it came near). These men have
"visitors" and a collection of humans who were unprepared and had been told
subsequently been contacted by people with scientific training and have con-
that their leaders did not believe such visitors existed. Another risk is that we
firmed various details of their report.
might misinterpret such devices as weapons of another country and thereby
Another case of interest occurred near White Plains, New York, in late sum-
accidentally trigger nuclear war. If these are extraterrestrial devices, we have,
mer, 1954, and was reported by James Beatty, an experienced ground observer
of course, a great opportunity to learn from their technology, which would
corps supervisor in an Air Force Filter Center. At about 9:50 p.m. an observer
appear to be very advanced in certain respects by our terrestrial standards.
team about 20 miles southeast of Poughkeepsie saw an object similar in apparent
Second, let us suppose that this is a novel natural phenomenon which we do
size to the moon. At the same time they could see the moon, which was not full.
not understand. Under this assumption we still run the risk of panic if a crowd
They watched the object for about 20 or 30 minutes and then it moved slowly
of people are confronted with a case of the phenomenon without any prepara-
southeastward. According to the report of the supervisor, two radar stations
tion. We still run the risk of misinterpreting an occurrence as a hostile weapon
had fixes corresponding to the visual sighting, and jets were scrambled from
system. Also, it is a reasonable assumption that we might reap scientific and
two airbases. As the jets approached the object, both the pilots and the ground
technological benefit from understanding such a puzzling thing that appears
observers report that the object changed color, moved upward at very high speed,
to involve some kind of concentration of energy.
and disappeared. At this point radar contact was lost, too.
Third, let us suppose that the whole persistent business of UFO reports
In the vicinity of Levelland, Texas, on the night of November 2-3, 1957, there
over the years is strictly a social psychological phenomenon-a new and extreme
were ten separate sightings by several people, including police officers, over a
case of mass hysteria and hysterical contagion. In this event the underlying
period of approximately 2½ hours. The descriptions were similar in several im-
anxiety must indeed be massive and the risk of panic accordingly very great
portant details of visual appearance. Several observers independently reported
unless we can introduce trusted information and reduce the ambiguity and
that their cars' engines and headlights quit working when the object was close.
anxiety. Under this assumption-if atmospheric and astronomical observations
This kind of effect has been frequently reported but had not been publicized
can be SO badly misinterpreted and SO badly reported by many people of good
prior to this group of reports in Levelland. In most instances it is clear that the
reputation and good education-then I would judge that we run great risk of
witnesses around Levelland were going about their usual business and were
misinterpreting those same phenomena as hostile weapons, and we must pre-
surprised by the sighting; they had not been alerted to watch for a strange object.
pare for this risk. Most important, if this whole business is a social psychological
These are only three cases out of many (see Hall, 1964, and U.S. Air Force,
phenomenon, then this is prima facie evidence of the urgent need to improve
1968). They are reported only sketchily here, but much more detail is available
our understanding of the processes of mass hysteria, belief formation, and means
(see Hall, 1964). I introduce them only to illustrate the kinds of evidence avail-
of controlling the kinds of anxiety that generate such a problem. In this event
able relevant to the hypothesis of mass hysteria to account for UFO sightings.
the UFO reports present an unsurpassed natural laboratory for research on
I am forced to the conclusions that there are many sightings by multiple ob-
mass hysteria. human response to ambiguity, standards for assessment of human
servers and that many observers are reliable and independently report similar
testimony, and other related matters.
details. In many instances it appears highly unlikely that they could have been
exposed to similar detailed information in advance (e.g., the electrical interfer-
CONCLUSIONS
ence effects at Levelland).
Social psychologists have studied a number of cases of mass hysteria and hys-
1. No matter which explanation is correct, we have a rare opportunity for
terical contagion (Cantril, 1940; Johnson, 1945; Kerckhoff & Back, 1968; Medalia
gaining useful knowledge by a thorough, detached study of UFO reports and
& Larsen, 1958). In my judgment the "hard-core reports of UFOs do not resem-
a more systematic gathering of new evidence.
ble those documented cases. Those cases were generally short-lived-a day, a
2. Hysteria and contagion of belief can account for some of the reports of
week, or at most a few weeks; UFO reports have persisted for decades, at least,
UFOs, but the weight of evidence suggests strongly that there must be some
despite much ridicule and very little recent press coverage of serious cases. The
kind of physical phenomenon which underlies a portion of the reports.
documented cases of mass hysteria have not involved calm, prolonged observa-
3. Because of the lack of trustworthy information about UFO reports, systems
tions such as the police officers near Red Bluff, California. The documented
of conflicting belief have been built up to account for this ambiguous set of
cases have had some plausible indication that the people involved have been in
circumstances, and each position is sometimes defended beyond the point of
touch with one another (Kerckhoff & Back, 1968) or previously exposed in com-
mon to the information that they incorporate into a report (e.g., Johnson, 1945;
rationality. 4. Whether or not there is a physical phenomenon underlying a portion of the
Medalia & Larsen, 1958). The documented cases have not been worldwide, as
reports, we now have, in addition to any other problem, a social psychological
are UFO reports. They have not involved phenomena that were simultaneously
problem of subduing irrational defense of beliefs. lowering anxiety about the
observed through such different media as direct visual contact and radar contact.
reports. and reducing ambiguity about the causes of the reports.
In documented cases of mass hysteria I do not know of evidence of people r.e-
5. Our lack of understanding of UFO reports forces us to run unnecessary
luctant to report; in UFO sightings there are numerous such cases. The hypothesis
risks of panic and of accidental triggering of nuclear war.
of mass hysteria does not, in my judgment, fit the "hard-core" reports very satis-
factorily.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The third, and last, of the three major questions which I raised at the begin-
ning was: For each of the major explanations, what are the likely consequences,
1. The most important and urgent matter is to promote the fullest possible cir-
and what actions or precautions might we take in the public interest?
culation of all available information about UFOs and to encourage systematic
First, let us suppose that there are extraterrestrial devices entering our
gathering of new evidence. This should help to reduce the risks of panic and
atmosphere from the outside. We must then concern ourselves with the possible
other dangerous irrational actions. This should also help to weaken the irrational
consequences of contact with technologically advanced civilizations whose values.
elements incorporated into opposing systems of belief. Indifference or disinterest
or intentions, or motives are totally unknown to us. It appears to me an almost
on the part of national leaders can retard our learning about the phenomenon at
impossible task to predict the probable effects of contact between our earthly
hand; open interest and encouragement can help. The whole matter needs to be
civilization and another civilization without making some clearcut assump-
treated as something deserving serious study.
tions about their values and motives. I have not been able to find any rational
2. At least three lines of serious research should be undertaken (a) For the
basis for defending particular assumptions of this kind, and I shall not attempt
100 to 200 cases per year that are reliably reported and well documented, we need
to study carefully reports of recurring patterns of behavior by the phenomenon,
112
113
Those establishing independence or non-independence of separate emphasis
upon including its apparent reaction to other events in the environment with
Specialty Engineering Science
controlling to improve our understanding of mass hysteria toward to be studied
intensively portions of the problem that result from mass hysteria need witnesses. (b)
Fields of Interest Hydraulic systems analysis; surface water hydrology;
analog simulation.
new monitoring cases and observing should be developed SO as to add systematic well means
of its potentially dangerous consequences. (c) Some the end of
STATEMENT OF DR. JAMES A. HARDER, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
observers. with specific reports of details obtained independently from documented different
OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT
attorneys adversary proceeding, modeled after our system of justice. Just as up a formal
3. Serious consideration might be given to the idea of setting
BERKELEY, CALIF.
strongest best case for defense, we might have a staff assigned to and others
to build the assigned to build the best possible case for the prosecution courts have
Dr. HARDER. Thank you, Mr. Chairman.
If each had possible to case for each of the three major explanations of UFO build the
Your committee has asked me to comment on the problem of pro-
force clearer confront the others and answer their criticisms, we would probably reports.
pulsion as raised by some reports, and to whatever potential benefits
a focus on the crucial points that need to be settled.
there might be to the aerospace programs from an intense scrutiny of
UFO My closing comment returns to my starting point. The situation that
UFO phenomena.
opportunity, reports is an exciting and challenging one which presents we scientific face in
no matter whose interpretation and explanation you a may rare accept.
I am very glad for this opportunity to present to your committee
some of my views on the problems of unidentified flying objects and
REFERENCES
to indicate some of the areas in which I think a closer investigation
Bauer, Soviet R. Union. A. and Gleicher, D.B., 1953. Word-of-mouth communication in the
of this problem might provide us with scientific clues that would
Cantril, 1940. H., 1940. The invasion from Mars. Princeton Princeton University Press,
Public Opinion Quarterly, 17, 1953. 297-310.
give us important impetus to basic and applied research in the United
States.
Festinger, 1957. L., 1957. A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston Row-Peterson,
As Dr. Hall has said, there have been strong feelings aroused about
UFO's, particularly about the extraterrestrial hypothesis for their
Johnson, Hall, R. H. D. (ed.), 1964. The UFO evidence. Washington, D.C.
origin. This is entirely understandable, in view of man's historic
mass hysteria. M., 1945. The "phantom anaesthetist" of Mattoon N.I.C.A.P., a field 1964. of
record of considering himself the central figure in the natural scene;
Kerckhoff, A. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1945. study
Crofts, 1968. C., and Back, K., 1968. The June bug. New York Appleton-Century- 40, 175-186.
the extraterrestrial hypothesis tends inevitably to undermine the col-
lective ego of the human race. These feelings have no place in the
Medalia, lusion N. the Z., and Larsen, O. N., 1958. Diffusion and belief in
scientific assessment of facts, but I confess that they have at times
1958, 23, 180-186. Seattle windshield pitting epidemic. American Sociological a collective Review, de-
affected me.
Shibutani, and New T., York 1966. Bobbs-Merrill, Improvised news: 1966. a sociological study of rumor. Indianapolis
Over the past 20 years a vast amount of evidence has been accumu-
lating that bears on the existence of UFO's. Most of this is little
Simmons. Problems, J. 11, L., 1964, 1964. 250-256. On maintaining deviant belief systems a case study. Social
known to the general public or to most scientists. But on the basis
Smelser, 1963. N., 1963. Theory of collective behavior. New York Free Press of Glencoe,
of the data and ordinary rules of evidence, as would be applied in
civil or criminal courts, the physical reality of UFO's has been proved
Smith, New York M. B., Bruner, J. S., and White, R. W., 1956. Opinions and Personality.
beyond a reasonable doubt. With some effort, we can accept this on an
John Wiley & Sons, 1956.
intellectual level but find a difficulty in accepting it on an emotional
U.S. Washington, Air Force, 1968. Projects Grudge and Bluebook Reports 1-12 (1951-1953)
D.C. N.I.C.A.P., 1968.
level, in such a way that the facts give a feeling of reality. In this
respect, we might recall the attitude many of us have toward our own
Mr. ROUSH. Our next participant is Dr. J.A. Harder.
deaths: We accept the facts intellectually, but find it difficult to accept
Dr. into Harder, we are delighted that you can participate. We
them emotionally.
Dr. ting Harder another area here now. Again, as with the other are get-
Indeed, there are flying saucer cultists who are as enthusiastic as
even has a distinguished career behind him and probably gentlemen, an
they are naive about UFO's-who see in them some messianic sym-
more distinguished career ahead of him.
bols-they have a counterpart in those individuals who exhibit a mor-
Dr. Harder, will you proceed.
bid preoccupation with death. Most of the rest of us don't like to think
(The biography of Dr. Harder is as follows:)
or hear about it. This, it seems to me, accurately reflects many of our
attitudes toward the reality of UFO's-natural, and somewhat
DR. J. A. HARDER
healthy, but not scientific.
Born Fullerton, Calif., 1926.
In my remaining statements you will note that I have tacitly as-
1962 to present; of Civil Engineering, University of California, mechanics), 1957
Associate B.S. California Professor Institute of Technology, 1948 Ph.D. (fluid
sumed the reality of UFO's as a hypothesis underlying my assessment
Engineer, 1952-57; Assistant Professor, Hydraulic Engineering, 1957-62; Berkeley, Resident
of the importance of this subject for scientific study.
1948-50; Design Engineer, soil conservation service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
1. THE UFO PROPULSION PROBLEM
U.S. Navy, 1944-45.
By way of introducing the propulsion problem of UFO's, I will
of Scientific Science, Society Societies: of Civil Fellow Engineering of the American Association for the Advancement
review a sighting near the city of Corning, in northern California,
during the night of August 13, 1960, by two California highway
114
115
patrolmen. During that night, and several succeeding nights, there
Officer Scott and myself, after our verification, continued to watch the object.
were many reports of UFO's over northern California, but this par-
On two occasions the object came directly towards the patrol vehicle. Each time
ticular event is important not only because of the fact that it has been
it approached the object turned, swept the area with a huge red light. Officer
well authenticated but because of the relatively long time and close
Scott turned the red light on the patrol vehicle towards the object and it im-
nature of the observations. My condensed description that follows is
mediately went away from us. We observed the object use the red beam approxi-
from the official report filed the next day by the two officers (see ap-
mately 6 or 7 times, sweeping the sky and ground areas. The object began mov-
ing slowly in an easterly direction and we followed. We proceeded to the Vina
pendix I and II) from a half-hour taped interview conducted 3 days
Plains Fire Station where we again were able to locate the object. As we watched
later by myself and Dr. Carl Johannessen, of the University of
it was approached by a similar object from the south. It moved near the first
Oregon; from a letter written by Officer Charles A. Carson to Walter
object and both stopped, remaining in that position for some time, occasionally
N. Webb, Charles Hayden Planetarium, Boston, Mass., dated Novem-
emitting the red beam. Finally both objects disappeared below the eastern hori-
zon. We returned to the Sheriff's Office and met Deputy Fry and Deputy Mont-
ber 14, 1960; and from a telephoned interview conducted by Dr. James
gomery, who had gone to Los Molinos after contacting the radar base. Both had
McDonald with Mr. Carson on October 27, 1966.
seen the U.F.O. clearly and described to us what we saw. The night jailer also
was able to see the object for a short time, each described the object and its
APPENDIX I
maneuvers exactly as we saw them. We first saw the object at 2350 hours and
observed it for approx. 2 hours and 15 minutes. Each time the object neared us
ADDITIONAL WITNESSES TO THE EVENTS OF AUGUST 13, 1960
we experienced radio interference.
Sir, we submit this report in confidence, for your information, we were calm
Fry and Montgomery, traveled to Los Molinos, somewhat northeast of the first
When Officer Scott radioed the Tehama County Sheriff's Office, two deputies,
after our initial shock and decided to observe and record all we could of the
object.
sighting, from which point they observed the UFO simultaneously, though at a
CHARLES A. CARSON, No. 2358.
greater distance, with Scott and Carson. The night jailer, from a point further
S. E. SCOTT, No. 1851.
north, saw it, and marched his several prisoners out onto the roof of the jail,
each of whom saw it. Subsequently, due to newspaper publicity, Carson received
Officers Scott and Carson were searching for a speeding motor-
Highway 99E. After Scott and Carson returned to the Sheriff's Office, they called
a number of letters from motorists who had seen the object while traveling along
cyclist along Hoag Road, east of Corning, Calif., between U.S. High-
way No. 99W and 99E when they saw what at first appeared to be
the radar base again, and talked with the operator while all of them listened
a huge airliner dropping from the sky. This was at 11:50 p.m. They
in on various extensions. He described to them some of the movements of the
object as he had observed it on the radar screen; these corresponded to the move-
stopped and leaped from the patrol car in order to get a position on
ments they had observed.
what they were sure was going to be an airplane crash. From their
position outside the car the first thing they noticed was an absolute
Captain Blohl, Area Commander at Red Bluff, stated that both Scott and Carson
Several months later, in a personal interview conducted on January 3, 1961,
silence. Still assuming it to be an aircraft with power off, they con-
had worked for him for three or four years, and that he had the highest regard
for their honesty and devotion to duty. They were not publicity minded, he said.
tinued to watch until the object was probably within 100 to 200 feet
Of Scott, he remarked, "Scotty would rather take a knife or a gun away from
off the ground, whereupon it suddenly reversed completely, traveling
a man than make a speech." In the unwanted publicity that was forced upon
at high speed back up the 45-degree glide path it had been taking, and
them, Blohl stated that their story stood up unaltered-that there were no
gaining about 500-feet altitude.
baubles during question periods.
This observation was from a distance of one-half to 1 mile. They
APPENDIX II
said it was about the size of a DC-6 without wings; Officer Carson
REPORT OF OFFICERS CARSON AND SCOTT TO STATE HIGHWAY PATROL AREA
later made a sketch which shows an elliptical object 150 feet long and
40 feet high.
COMMANDER
It was a very clear night, with no clouds, and as the object hovered
To: Area Commander, Red Bluff.
AUGUST 13, 1960.
for about a minute they got a good look at it. It was obviously not an
From C. A. Carson, No. 2358, S. E. Scott, No. 1851.
Subject Unidentified Flying Object.
aircraft of any design familiar to them, they said. It was surrounded
by a white glow, making the object visible. At each end there were
SIR Officer Scott and I were eastbound on Hoag Road, east of Corning look-
ing for a speeding motorcycle when we saw what at first appeared to be a huge
definite red lights, and at times five white lights were visible between
airliner dropping from the sky. The object was very low and directly in front
the two red lights. They called the night dispatching office at the
of us. We stopped and leaped from the patrol vehicle in order to get a position
county sheriff's office and asked that other cars be sent, and that all
on what we were sure was going to be an airplane crash. From our position
other cars in the area be alerted. They also asked the radar base be
outside the car the first thing we noticed was an absolute silence. Still assuming
notified.
it to be an aircraft with power off we continued to watch until the object was
probably within 100' to 200' of the ground when it suddenly reversed completely,
The object then drifted westward toward them, losing altitude,
at high speed and gained approx. 500' altitude. There the object stopped. At this
and got within some 150 yards of them, easy pistol range, before drift-
time it was clearly visible to both of us, and obviously not an aircraft of any
ing eastward again. During this time it performed aerial feats that
design familiar to us. It was surrounded by a glow making the round or oblong
object visible. At each end, or each side of the object, there were definite red
seemed unbelievable. It was capable of moving in any direction-up,
lights. At times about 5 white lights were visible between the red lights. As we
down, back, and forth. At times the movement was very slow, and
watched, the object moved again and performed aerial feats that were actually
at times completely motionless. It could move at extremely high speeds,
unbelievable. At this time we radioed Tehama County Sheriff's Office requesting
and several times they watched it change direction or reverse itself
they contact the local radar base. The radar base confirmed the U.F.O.-com-
pletely unidentified.
while moving at unbelievable speeds.
116
117
As the object moved away from them toward the east, they followed
at a judicial distance, encouraged by the expectation that they were
or cloud then decreased in apparent diameter, as if it were traveling
to be joined by other officers. At that time they also radioed the
away from him, and disappeared in another few minutes. During this
Tehama County Sheriff's Office requesting that they contact the local
time Webb repeatedly took off his glasses and then put them back
radar base. By telephone the radar operator confirmed the UFO and
on, noting each time that the rings appeared only when he was wearing
stated that it was unidentified.
the glasses. He did not know what to make of the sighting, but took
The two officers drove the next day to the local radar base, were
notes, including the fact that it was about 10 in the morning. The date
refused permission to talk to the radar operator that had been on
was May 5, 1953.
duty, and were given what Carson described as the "ice water treat-
One of the first things to note about the situation as described in
ment" by the commanding officer.
the account is that the dark rings were observed with polaroid glasses,
There follow many interesting details of their hide-and-seek chase
but not without them. The second thing is that, from the orientation
with the object over the next 2 hours along the back roads of northern
of the observer relative to the position of the sun at that time of day,
California, trying to get close enough to this thing to get a better
the blue scattered light from the part of the sky that formed the back-
observation. It seemed always to know they were there and always
ground for the object was polarized.
To this fortunate circumstance we must add the fact that Mr. Webb
kept about half a mile away.
was curious about clouds, the effect of viewing them with polarized
However, when we restrict our attention to the propulsion problem,
the significant facts are: (1) there was no observable noise, (2) the
light, and took notes of what he observed. He did not, however, realize
UFO could hover-seemed to float as if it were in water-and move
that he was observing the rotation of the plane of polarization of the
in any direction without altering its orientation, (3) it could sustain
blue light in the vicinity of the object. This was the interpretation I
very high accelerations and move very rapidly, (4) it was able to
made some 8 years later upon reading his account.
hover or to move relatively slowly for at least 2 hours under circum-
Mr. WYDLER. How would you define UFO's as you are using it in
this paper before us.
stances that precluded suspension by aerodynamic lift forces.
Dr. HARDER. I don't know how I could define it without being cir-
What can we learn about the propulsion of UFO's from the infor-
cular.
mation provided by the observations of these two police officers?
Mr. WYDLER. That is the conclusion to which I came.
Mainly, it is negative information. From the silence it seems impos-
You state on the very first page or you more or less say you are
sible that it could have been supported by a jet or rocket reaction.
going to tacitly assume the reality of UFO's, merely an "unidentified
There are further considerations involving specific impulse, energy,
flying object. I think we can assume their reality without worrying
et cetera, that we need not go into here, that provide compelling
much about it. It is only if they have some particular interplanetary
arguments against any conventional way of counteracting the earth's
significance that might become a real problem, the way we look at it,
gravitational field. There remains a slight possibility of developing
isn't that so? We all agree there are unidentified flying objects.
sufficient reactive force by expelling relativistic neutrinos, for they
I think you are defining them as interplanetary. I don't see you
would not be intercepted by the earth under a UFO and would not
be noticed.
really come out and say that, but I think you hinted at it.
Dr. HARDER. Well, if my interpretation of these rings is correct,
Expelling neutrons would have this same advantage, but in the
it is certainly nothing we have been able to accomplish on earth.
quantities required they would induce far more radioactivity than
has ever been measured at sites where UFO's have come close to the
Mr. WYDLER. Are you saying, when you use this term, for the pur-
ground or have been reported to have landed.
poses of your statement, in your testimony, you are assuming they are
of an interplanetary nature?
Fortunately, there has been at least one observation that tends to
Dr. HARDER. Yes, that is right.
provide a bit of positive information. Mr. Wells Allen Webb, an
Mr. WYDLER. Allright.
applied chemist with a master of science degree from the University
Dr. HARDER. In my statement, which is available to the transcriber,
of California, was 1 mile north of Spain Flying Field, 7 miles east
I have gone through a little bit of argument suggesting why the outer
of Yuma, Ariz., just off U.S. Highway No. 80, when his attention
of the three rings represents light that had been rotated through 90
was drawn to the sky to the north by some low-flying jet aircraft.
degrees, SO it would not pass through the polarizer, if it is polarized
Then he noticed a small white cloud-like object in an otherwise cloud-
glasses. The next ring represented light that had been rotated 90 plus
less sky.
180 degrees. If you have polaroid glasses and look at the right part
He watched for about 5 minutes as it traveled eastward; as it
of the blue sky, any afternoon, you can seen that the light is polarized,
reached a spot north-northeast of his location, it abruptly altered
shape from being oblong and subtending about half the angle of the
and as you rotate your polaroid glasses there is an alternate darkening-
full moon-about 15 minutes of arc-to be circular and subtending
lightening, as you go through 180 degrees.
We can assume, to begin with, that the plane of the polarizer in his
about 5 minutes of arc. Webb was wearing polaroid glasses and noted
glasses was parallel to the plane of the undisturbed polarized light
that there appeared around the object a series of dark rings, the outer-
most of which was about six times the diameter of the central white
from the general direction of the object. If then something affected
the light SO as to turn its plane of polarization through 90 degrees,
or silvery object, or about the diameter of the full moon. The object
the portion that had been originally polarized would not pass through
118
119
the glasses. Likewise, for light that had had its plane of polarization
relativity, in the past decade. There are theoretical grounds for believ-
turned through 90 plus 180 degrees, 90 plus 360 degrees, and SO on,
ing there must exist a second gravitational field, corresponding to the
there would be a partial extinction of light.
magnetic field in electromagnetic theory, and that the interaction be-
On this basis, the outer dark ring was due to the rejection by the
tween these two fields must be similar to that between the electric and
polarizing filter of the glasses of light which had had its plane of polar-
magnetic fields.
ization turned through 90 degrees, the next outermost band by light
This interaction and its exploitation forms the basis for our modern
that had been turned through 270 degrees, et cetera.
electrical generators and motors. Without the interaction, we would
This interpretation is strengthened by Webb's observation that the
be back to the days of electrostatic attraction and of permanent mag-
dark rings were narrower than the brighter areas between them; this
nets-two phenomena that can produce only very weak forces when
is what should be expected on the basis of the above explanation.
operating individually. Some day perhaps we will learn enough to ap-
What hypotheses can be constructed that might account for this
ply gravitational forces in the same way we have learned to apply
unusual observation? There are at least two that have interesting
electromagnetic forces. This will depend upon advances in many fields
implications for the propulsion problem. First by the Faraday effect,
of science. Some of the things required will be enormously increased
a magnetic field parallel to the path of the light could so rotate the
sources of power from atomic fusion; very intense magnetic fields and
plane of polarization. A quick calculation using the properties of the
current densities, perhaps from superconducting sources; and ex-
atmosphere shows that a field of 200,000 gauss, operating over a dis-
tremely strong materials to contain mechanical forces. Some of these
tance of 130 feet-40 meters-could turn the plane 90 degrees; this
advances are approaching, or are on the horizon. Others we have yet
is indeed a very intense and extensive magnetic field and, of course,
to see clearly.
would only account for one ring. Three rings would require a million
May I close this part of our discussion by recalling the statement
gauss-over the same distance.
that the most important secret of the atomic bomb was that it worked.
We have been able to achieve these field strengths in the laboratory
This gave the crucial impetus to other nations in their own efforts to
for only fractions of seconds over very small distances. However, the
duplicate the research of the United States. In the UFO phenomena
principal argument against this hypothesis is the conclusion that
we have demonstrations of scientific secrets we do not know ourselves.
were such a field brought at all close to the surface of the earth its
It would be a mistake, it seems to me, to ignore their existence.
effect would be to induce very strong remnant magnetism in nearly
I have further comments on UFO's and high-strength materials, but
every piece of iron within several hundred yards. This has not been
perhaps the committee would rather interrupt at this point before I
found.
go on to that second subject?
We have been able to achieve that kind of field strength for frac-
Mr. ROUSH. Any questions?
tions of seconds only over short distances on earth, or at least we, on
I think you better go ahead, Dr. Harder, because if we get started
earth.
questioning it is impossible to stop these people.
However, there has been a suggestion made earlier that a very strong
Mr. BOONE. Mr. Chairman, may I ask one question
magnetic field might SO saturate certain iron cores of electrical ma-
Mr. ROUSH. Go ahead, Mr. Boone.
chinery as to explain some of the observed phenomena of electrical
Mr. BOONE. Have you concluded that what you have just told us is
malfunctioning.
true, we should not ignore their existence?
Despite the above-described observation, there is little reason to be-
Dr. HARDER. I have no doubt of the veracity of the observer who
lieve that magnetic fields, of themselves, could be of much use in pro-
saw this thing in the sky; I know him personally.
pelling a spacecraft, although there has been much uninformed specu-
Mr. BOONE. I didn't question the observer, I questioned your remark,
lation about this in popular UFO publications. The simple reason is
and the magnetic, if you will, electromagnetic interactions, and so
that we cannot produce a north pole without at the same time produc-
forth, when you said we undoubtedly must admit the existence of
ing a south pole. This is a consequence of fundamental theory. Such a
these-I am sorry I can't quote you exactly. But your last sentence
dipole cannot exert a force in conjunction with a uniform magnetic
there is what I refer to.
field, such as the earth may be assumed to have in a given locality,
It does seem like an obvious conclusion resulting from all the pre-
though it can produce a force in a nonuniform field.
vious remarks you said about some supernatural, if you will-
To go beyond the above discussion would be rather speculative, but
Dr. HARDER. Oh, heavens, I never suggested that, I hope.
it is just here that we find a stimulus and challenge to scientific theory.
Mr. BOONE. Well, let me say, science fiction propulsion system, then.
It is almost circular to say that when we find a phenomenon we under-
Dr. HARDER. Well, sir, what we have been discussing this morning,
stand but vaguely we have also found a means of advancing our un-
and this afternoon, is perhaps closer to science fiction than anything.
derstanding; this has been particularly true in astronomy.
I hope it is more science than fiction, however.
Concerning the propulsion of UFO's, a tentative hypothesis would
Mr. ROUSH. Go ahead, Dr. Harder.
be that it is connected with an application of gravitational fields that
Dr. HARDER. The instances in which physical fragments of UFO's
we do not understand.
have been found are disappointingly few. To my knowledge, there
Gravitation remains one of the enigmas of modern science, although
is only one well-authenticated finding, and that was in Brazil, in
there have been some advances in its understanding, beyond general
120
121
1957. The story of its discovery is contained in chaper 9 of the Great
superstrength in materials that are larger than the tiny fibers we have
Flying Saucer Hoax, written by Dr. Olavo T. Fontes.
produced so far.
Briefly, several small metallic fragments were recovered by some
Needless to say, if we persist in denying the reality of UFO's we
fishermen near the coastal town of Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, after they
will not be looking for such samples, and may indeed reject them as
saw what they described as a brillant explosion of a flying disc. Some
having no importance when they are brought to our attention.
of the fiery fragments were extinguished in the water near the shore,
That is the conclusion of my prepared statement. I would like to
where they were recovered.
comment on some of the suggestions as asked by Congressman Rums-
Fontes acquired three of the fragments that weighed less than a
feld earlier.
tenth of an ounce each, and had one of them analyzed at the Mineral
I conclude in some of my colleagues' recommendations that a mul-
Production Laboratory in the Brazilian Agriculture Ministry. The re-
tiple-faceted exploration be made of this subject, preferably at sev-
sults of the first analysis was that the substance was magnesium of an
eral institutions simultaneously.
unusually high degree of purity, and that there was an absence of any
I have some suggestions as to how we could acquire additional
other metallic element.
scientific data even at the present time.
On the basis of the first examination a second spectrographic test
This is a three-point program which involves first the establish-
was conducted, using the utmost care and the most modern instruments.
ment of an early warning network, which the Colorado project be-
The second report was again marked by references to the "extreme
gan last February. Then to take advantage of one of the character-
purity" of the sample. Even impurities that are sometimes detected
istics of UFO sightings: that they, in many instances, are seen on one
due to contamination from the carbon rod used as an electrode were
or two successive nights.
absent. A further test, using X-ray diffraction, failed to turn up any
We could have prearranged instrument packages which are ar-
other metallic component.
ranged for instant transportation to locations where UFO's have
One of the pieces was flown to California and was analyzed. I have
been sighted. If the budget for such a program were low, you might
the report here. They used neutron activation analysis and discovered
be able to borrow such things and have them ready at various uni-
a total of one-tenth of 1 percent of other metallic elements than
versities where the instruments were otherwise occupied for research.
magnesium, 500 parts per million zinc, that included zinc, which is
That would be the second point of this investigation.
interesting, and small amounts of barium and strontium.
The third point would be the cooperation of the Air Force for
Certainly this metal is of extraordinary purity, certainly far beyond
logistics and high-speed transport to crucial areas on a 24-hour basis.
the capacity of fishermen at Ubatuba to produce.
Now, that three-point program may well bring to us physical data
What could be the use of such high-purity magnesium in the con-
that SO far has appeared only in anecdotal, still from essential ama-
text of a spacecraft? One clue lies in its crystalline structure. It is
teurs who happened just accidentally to be at the right place. It was
close packed hexagonal structure, and is in this regard similar to the
truly a fortunate accident when Mr. Webb was there to make the
high-strength metals beryllium and titanium. Hexagonal crystals have
observation I described earlier.
but one slip plane, and this tends to make them brittle but strong.
Mr. ROUSH. Does that conclude your statement
One of the reasons for slip along crystal planes is that local im-
Dr. HARDER. That concludes my statement.
perfections in the crystal, or foreign atoms, create lines of stress con-
PREPARED STATEMENT OF DR. JAMES A. HARDER
deformation. centration that move rapidly through the crystal, producing
I am very glad for this opportunity to present to your Committee some of my
If these imperfections, or dislocations, could be eliminated, the theo-
views on the problem of Unidentified Flying Objects and to indicate some of the
retical strength of the crystal lattice itself might be approached. This
areas in which I think a closer investigation of this problem might provide us
with scientific clues that would give an important impetus to basic and applied
strength is on the order of millions of pounds per square inch for any
research in the United States.
materials. Carefully prepared 1/4-inch diameter glass rods, etched
There have been strong feelings aroused about UFO's, particularly about the
to remove microscopic surface cracks and then laquered, have
extra-terrestrial hypothesis for their origin. This is entirely understandable, in
withstood stress of 250,000 psi for 1 hour. Fused silica fibers have been
view of man's historic record of considering himself the central figure in the
stressed to 2 million psi.
natural scene: the extra-terrestrial hypothesis tends inevitably to undermine
the collective ego of the human race. These feelings have no place in the scientific
Thus, foreign atoms within a crystal lattice are focal points for dis-
assessment of facts, but I confess that they have at times affected me.
locations-points of stress concentration where the crystal lattice itself
Over the past twenty years a vast amount of evidence has been accumulating
tears and slips. We can imagine that a high-purity crystal, free of
that bears on the existence of UFO's. Most of this is little known to the general
public or to most scientists. But on the basis of the data and ordinary rules of
surface and internal imperfections, would achieve fantastic strengths.
evidence, as would be applied in civil or criminal courts, the physical reality
Indeed, with the advent of iron whiskers, and boron fiber reinforced
of UFO's has been proved beyond a reasonable doubt. With some effort, we
composites, we are already approaching some of these strengths, but
can accept this on an intellectual level but find a difficulty in accepting it on
only for extremely small diameter fibers.
an emotional level, in such a way that the facts give a feeling of reality. In
Should, by any good fortune, further samples of UFO material be
this respect, we might recall the attitude many of us have towards our own
deaths: We accept the facts intellectually, but find it difficult to accept them
found, there may be further clues that would spur on research into
emotionally.
high-strength materials, and perhaps give us hints of how to achieve
Indeed, there are flying saucer cultists who are as enthusiastic as they are
naive about UFO's-who see in them some Messianic symbols-they have a
122
123
counterpart in those individuals who exhibit a morbid preoccupation with death.
What can we learn about the propulsion of UFO's from the information pro-
Most of the rest of us don't like to think or hear about it. This, it seems to me.
vided by the observations of these two police officers? Mainly, it is negative in-
accurately reflects many of our attitudes towards the reality of UFO's-natural,
formation: From the silence it seems impossible that it could have been sup-
and somewhat healthy, but not scientific.
ported by a jet or rocket reaction. There are further considerations involving
In my remaining statements, you will note that I have tacitly assumed the
specific impulse, energy, etc., that we need not go into here, that provide com-
reality of UFO's as a hypothesis underlying my assessment of the importance of
pelling arguments against any conventional way of counteracting the earth's
this subject for scientific study.
gravitational field. There remains a slight possibility of developing sufficient
reactive force by expelling relativistic neutrinos, for they would not be inter-
I. THE UFO PROPULSION PROBLEM
cepted by the earth under a UFO and would not be noticed. Expelling neutrons
would have this same advantage, but in the quantities required they would induce
By way of introducing the propulsion problem of UFO's. I will review a sight-
far more radioactivity than has ever been measured at sites where UFO's have
ing near the City of Corning in northern California during the night of August
come close to the ground or have been reported to have landed.
13, 1960, by two California Highway patrolmen. During that night and several
Fortunately, there has been at least one observation that tends to provide a
succeeding nights there were many reports of UFO's over northern California,
bit of positive information. Mr. Wells Allen Webb, an applied chemist with a
but this particular event is important not only because of the fact that it has
master of science degree from the University of California, was one mile north
been well authenticated (see Appendix I p. 114) but because of the relatively
of Spain Flying Field, seven miles east of Yuma, Arizona, just off U.S. Highway
long time and close nature of the observations. My condensed description that
80, when his attention was drawn to the sky to the north by some low-flying
follows is from the official report filed the next day by the two officers (see
jet aircraft. Then he noticed a small white cloud-like object in an otherwise
Appendix II p. 114) ; from a half-hour taped interview conducted three days
cloudless sky. He watched for about five minutes as it traveled eastward; as it
later by myself and Dr. Carl Johannessen of the University of Oregon; from a
reached a spot north northeast of his location, it abruptly altered shape from
letter written by Officer Charles A. Carson to Walter N. Webb (Charles Hayden
being oblong and subtending about half the angle of the full moon (about 15
Planetarium. Boston, Massachusetts) dated November 14. 1960; and from a
minutes of arc) to being circular and subtending about 5 minutes of arc. Webb
telephoned interview conducted by Dr. James McDonald with Mr. Carson on
was wearing polaroid glasses, and noted that there appeared around the object
October 27, 1966.
a series of dark rings, the outermost of which was about six times the diameter
Officers Scott (Stanley E. Scott) and Carson (Charles A. Carson) were search-
of the central white or silvery object, or about the diameter of the full moon.
ing for a speeding motorcyclist along Hoag Road, east of Corning, California,
The object or cloud then decreased in apparent diameter, as if it were traveling
between U.S. Highway 99W and 99E, when they saw what at first appeared to
away from him, and disappeared in another few minutes. During this time Webb
he a huge airliner dropping from the sky. This was at 11 :50 p.m. They stopped
repeatedly took off his glasses and then put them back on, noting each time that
and leaped from the patrol car in order to get a position on what they were sure
the rings appeared only when he was wearing the glasses. He did not know what
was going to be an airplane crash. From their position outside the car the first
to make of the sighting, but took notes, including the fact that it was about 10
thing they noticed was an absolute silence. Still assuming it to be an aircraft
in the morning. The date 5 May 1953.
with power off, they continued to watch until the object was probably within
One of the first things to note about the situation as described in the account
one hundred to two hundred feet of the ground, whereupon it suddenly reversed
is that the dark rings were observed with polaroid glasses, but not without them.
completely, traveling at high speed back up the 45 degree glide path it had been
The second thing is that from the orientation of the observer relative to the
taking, and gaining about 500 feet altitude. This observation was from a distance
position of the sun at that time of day, the blue scattered light from the part
of one-half to one mile. They said it was about the size of a DC-6 without wings
of the sky that formed the background for the object was polarized. To this
Officer Carson later made a sketch which shows an elliptical object 150 feet long
fortunate circumstance we must add the fact that Mr. Webb was curious about
and 40 feet high. It was a very clear night, with no clouds, and as the object
clouds, the effect of viewing them with polarized light, and took notes of what
hovered for about a minute they got a good look at it. It was obviously not an
he observed. He did not, however, realize that he was observing the rotation of
aircraft of any design familiar to them, they said. It was surrounded by a white
the plane of polarization of the blue light in the vicinity of the object. This was
glow, making the object visible. At each end there were definite red lights, and
the interpretation I made some ten years later upon reading his account.
at times five white lights were visible between the two red lights. They called
We can assume, to begin with, that the plane of the polarizer in his glasses was
the night dispatching office at the County Sheriffs Office and asked that other cars
parallel to the plane of the undisturbed polarized light from the general direc-
be sent, and that all other cars in the area be alerted.
tion of the object. If then something affected the light SO as to turn its plane of
The object then drifted westward towards them. losing altitude, and got within
polarization through 90 degrees, the portion that had been originally polarized
some 150 yards of them ("easy pistol range") before drifting eastward again.
would not pass through the glasses. Likewise, for light that had had its plane of
During this time it performed "aerial feats" that seemed unbelievable: It was
polarization turned through 90 plus 180 degrees, 90 plus 360 degrees, and SO on,
capable of moving in any direction-up, down, back and forth. At times the
there would be a partial extinction of light. On this basis, the outer dark ring was
movement was very slow, and at times completely motionless. It could move at
due to the rejection, by the polarizing filter of the glasses, of light which had
extremely high speeds, and several times they watched it change directions or
had its plane of polarization turned through 90 degrees, the next outermost
reverse itself while moving at unbelievable speeds.
band by light that had been turned through 270 degrees, etc.
As the object moved away from them towards the east, they followed at a ju-
This interpretation is strengthened by Webb's observation that the dark rings
dicial distance, encouraged by the expectation that they were to be joined by
were narrower than the brighter areas between them; this is what should be
other officers. At that time they also radioed the Tehama County Sheriffs Office
expected on the basis of the above explanation.
requesting that they contact the local radar base. By telephone the radar opera-
What hypotheses can be constructed that might account for this unusual ob-
tor confirmed the UFO and stated that it was unidentified. (Note: The two of-
servation? There are at least two that have interesting implications for the pro-
ficers drove the next day to the local radar base, were refused permission to talk
pulsion problem. First, by the Faraday effect, a magnetic field parallel to the path
to the radar operator that had been on duty, and were given what Carson de-
of the light could SO rotate the plane of polarization. A quick calculation using
scribed as the "ice water treatment" by the commanding officer.)
the properties of the atmosphere shows that a field of 200,000 gauss, operating
There follow many interesting details of their hide-and-seek chase with the
over a distance of 130 feet (40 meters) could turn the plane 90 degrees; this is in-
object over the next two hours. However, when we restrict our attention to the
deed a very intense and extensive magnetic field, and of course, would only ac-
propulsion problem, the significant facts are: (1) there was no observable noise,
count for one ring. Three rings would require a million gauss over the same dis-
(2) the UFO could hover ("seemed to float as if it were in water") and move in
tance. We have been able to achieve these field strengths in the laboratory for
any direction without altering its orientation, (3) it could sustain very high
only fractions of seconds over very small distances. However, the principal argu-
accelerations and move very rapidly, (4) it was able to hover or to move rela-
ment against this hypothesis is the conclusion that were such a field be brought
tively slowly for at least two hours under circumstances that precluded suspen-
at all close to the surface of the earth its effect would be to induce very strong
sion by aerodynamic lift forces.
124
125
remnant magnetism in nearly every piece of iron within several hundred yards.
local imperfections in the crystal, or foreign atoms, create lines of stress con-
This has not been found.
centration that move rapidly through the crystal, producing deformation. If
Despite the above-described observation, there is little reason to believe that
these imperfections, or dislocations, could be eliminated, the theoretical strength
magnetic fields. of themselves, could be of much use in propelling a spacecraft,
of the crystal lattice itself might be approached. This strength is on the order
although there has been much uninformed speculation about this in popular UFO
of millions of pounds per square inch for many materials. Carefully prepared 1/4
publications. The simple reason is that we cannot produce a north pole without
inch diameter glass rods, etched to remove microscopic surface cracks and then
at the same time producing a south pole. This is a consequence of fundamental
lacquered, have withstood stresses of 250,000 psi for one hour (C. J. Phillips,
theory. Such a dipole cannot exert a force in conjunction with a uniform magnetic
American Scientist, V. 53, no. 1, p. 32). Fused silica fibers have been stressed to
field. such as the earth may be assumed to have in a given locality, though it can
2,000,000 psi.
produce a force in a nonuniform field.
Thus, foreign atoms within a crystal lattice are focal points for dislocations-
To go beyond the above discussion would be rather speculative, but it is just
points of stress concentration where the crystal lattice itself tears and slips.
here that we find a stimulus and challenge to scientific theory. It is almost circu-
We can imagine that a high-purity crystal, free of surface and internal imper-
lar to say that when we find a phenomena we understand but vaguely we have
fections, would achieve fantastic strengths. Indeed, with the advent of iron
also found a means of advancing our understanding; this has been particularly
whiskers, and boron fiber reinforced composites, we are already approaching
true in astronomy. Concerning the propulsion of UFO's, a tentative hypothesis
some of these strengths, but only for extremely small diameter fibers.
would be that it is connected with an application of gravitational fields that we
Should, by any good fortune, further samples of UFO material be found, there
do not understand.
may be further clues that would spur our research into high-strength materials,
Gravitation remains one of the enigmas of modern science, although there have
and perhaps give us hints of how to achieve super-strength in materials that
been some advances in its understanding (beyond general relativity) in the past
are larger than the tiny fibers we have produced so far. Needless to say, if we
decade. There are theoretical grounds based on general relativity for believing
persist in denying the reality of UFO's, we will not be looking for such samples,
there must exist a second gravitational field, corresponding to the magnetic field
and may indeed reject them as having no importance when they are brought to
in electromagnetic theory, and that the interaction between these two fields must
our attention.
be similar to that between the electric and magnetic fields. This kind of interac-
tion and its exploitation forms the basis for our modern electrical generators and
Mr. ROUSH. Are there questions?
motors. Without the interaction, we would be back to the days of electrostatic at-
Well, if not, let's go to our next participant. Our next participant is
traction and of permanent magnets-two phenomena that can produce only very
Dr. Robert M. L. Baker, Jr.
weak forces when operating individually. Someday perhaps, we will learn enough
Dr. Baker, again we recognize your own eminence in your field,
to apply gravitational forces in the same way we have learned to apply electro-
magnetic forces. This will depend upon advances in many fields of science Some
and we are very happy to have you here as a participant in this sym-
of the things required will be enormously increased sources of power from atomic
posium. You may proceed.
fusion very intense magnetic fields and current densities, perhaps from super-
(The biography of Dr. Baker, Jr., is as follows:)
conducting sources: and extremely strong materials to contain mechanical forces.
Some of these advances are approaching, or are on the horizon. Others we have
DR. ROBERT M. L. BAKER, JR.
yet to see clearly.
May I close this part of our discussion by recalling the statement that the most
Dr. Baker is a 36 year old scientist who received his BA with Highest Honors
important secret of the atomic bomb was that it worked. This gave the crucial
in Physics and Mathematics at UCLA in 1954, and was elected to Phi Beta
impetus to other nations in their own efforts to duplicate the research of the
Kappa. In 1956 he was granted a MA in Physics, and was the recipient of the
United States. In the UFO phenomena we have demonstrations of scientific
UCLA Physics Prize. In 1958 Dr. Baker received a PhD in Engineering, which
secrets we do not know ourselves. It would be a mistake, it seems to me, to ignore
was the first of its kind to be granted in the nation with a specialty in
their existence.
Astronautics.
II. UFO's AND HIGH-STRENGTH MATERIALS
With respect to his academic background, Dr. Baker was on the Faculty of
The instances in which physical fragments of UFO's have been found are dis-
the Department of Astronomy at UCLA from 1959 to 1963. Since that time he
appointingly few. To my knowledge, there is only one well-authenticated finding,
has been on the Faculty of the Department of Engineering at UCLA where he
and that was in Brazil in 1957. The story of its discovery is contained in Chap-
currently offers courses in astronautics, fluid mechanics, and structural me-
ter 9 of The Great Flying Saucer Hoax (Coral E. Lorenzen, The Willeam-
chanics.
Frederick Press. New York, 1962) written by Dr. Olavo T. Fontes.
Dr. Baker is an internationally recognized expert in various fields of science
Briefly, several small metallic fragments were recovered by some fishermen
and engineering. He was a research contributor to the development of prelim-
near the coastal town of Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, after they saw what they de-
inary orbit determination procedures utilizing radar data, astrodynamic constants,
scribed as a brilliant explosion of a flying disc. Some of the fiery fragments were
near free-molecular flow drag-all utilized in the nation's space programs. He has
extinguished in the water near the shore, where they were recovered. Fontes
also developed unique theories in the area of hydrofoil marine craft design.
acquired three of the fragments that weighed less than a tenth of an ounce
In private industry Dr. Baker has initiated, supervised, and conducted research
each. and had one of them analyzed at the Mineral Production Laboratory in
programs in astronautics, physics, fluid mechanics, mathematics, and computer
the Brazilian Agricultural Ministry. The results of the first analysis was that
program design. He has contributed to problem definition and analysis of scien-
the substance was magnesium of an unusually high degree of purity, and that
tific and engineering problems in both industrial and military projects.
there was an absence of any other metallic element (Lorenzen, ibid., p. 99).
Dr. Baker's industrial career began in 1954 as a consultant to Douglas Aircraft
On the basis of the first examination a second spectrographic test was conducted,
Company. Between 1957 and 1960 he was a Senior Scientist at Aeronutronic-
using the utmost care and the most modern instruments. The report was again
Philco-Ford. While in the Air Force during 1960 and 1961, he was a project
marked by references to the "extreme purity" of the sample. Even impurities
officer on a number of classified Air Force projects. Between 1961 and 1964
that are sometimes detected due to contamination from the carbon rod used as
he was the head of Lockheed's Astrodynamics Research Center, where he di-
an electrode were absent. A further test, using X ray diffraction, failed to turn up
rected the efforts of approximately 25 scientists in various scientific areas. In
any other metallic component.
1964 Dr. Baker joined the Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC), first as As-
What could be the use of such high-purity magnesium in the context of a
sociate Manager for Research and Analysis, and later as the Senior Scientist of
spacecraft? One clue lies in its crystalline structure: It is close packed hexag-
CSC's System Sciences subdivision. In this latter capacity he is currently in-
onal, and is in this regard similar to the high-strength metals beryllium and
volved in several Air Force, Navy, and NASA projects.
titanium. Hexagonal crystals have but one slip plane. and this tends to make
them brittle but strong. One of the reasons for slip along crystal planes is that
126
127
Dr. Baker represented the United States Air Force at the International Astro-
nautical Federation meeting in Stockholm, Sweden in 1961, represented the
Several appendixes accompany this report. The first two are in
United States at the International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
response to Congressman Roush's invitational letter of July 10, 1968,
European Conferences in 1962 and in 1965 and was an invitee to the Astronomi-
and consist of my biographical sketch and a listing of my bibliography,
cal Councile of the Academy of Sciences of USSR in Moscow in 1967. He was
respectively. The third appendix relates directly to my specific
voted an Outstanding Young Man of the Year by the Junior Chamber of Com-
merce in 1965. From 1963 to 1964 he was the National Chairman of the Astro-
recommendations, and was included with the kind permission of Dr.
dynamics Technical Committee of the American Institute of Aeronautics and
Sydney Walker III. The fourth appendix presents three reprints of
Astronautics and is currently a member of Computer Sciences Technical Com-
articles (Baker (1968a) and (1968b) and Walker (1968)) that are
mittee.
pertinent to the subject matter of this report.
Dr. Baker has been the Editor of the Journal of the Astronautical Sciences
since 1963. He was the joint editor of the Proceedings of the 1961 International
Astronautical Federation Congress and the senior author of the first textbook
PART I. ANALYSES OF ANOMALISTIC OBSERVATIONAL PHENOMENA
on astrodynamics: An Introduction to Astrodynamics published in 1960. Dr.
Baker is the author of four books and over 70 technical papers (see Appen-
UTAH AND MONTANA FILMS
dix 2).
Dr. Baker's professional society memberships include the American Associa-
My initial contact with anomalistic observational phenomena-
tion for the Advancement of Science, Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi, Sigma Pi
Sigma, American Astronautical Society (Fellow), British Interplanetary So-
AOP-came in 1954 when I was a consultant to Douglas Aircraft Co.
ciety (Fellow), American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (Associate
in Santa Monica, Calif., serving as special assistant to Dr. W. B.
Fellow and member of the Computer Sciences Technical Committee), British
Klemperer, director of Douglas' research staff. The data consisted of
Astronomical Society (Fellow), American Astronomical Society, American Physi-
two short film clips: one taken in Montana-termed by us as the Mon-
cal Society, and Meteoritical Society.
His active security clearance is top secret.
tana film-and one taken in Utah-called by us the Utah film. These
films were provided to us by the Air Technical Intelligence Center—
STATEMENT OF DR. ROBERT M. L. BAKER, JR., SENIOR SCIENTIST,
ATIC, now the Foreign Technology Division-FDT-at Wright-
COMPUTER SCIENCES CORP., EL SEGUNDO, CALIF., AND FACULTY,
Patterson Air Force Base; 35-millimeter prints were furnished by
Green-Rouse Productions of Samuel Goldwyn Studios.
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING, UCLA
Both films had been taken by apparently reliable and unbiased men
Dr. BAKER. Fine, thank you, Mr. Roush.
using amateur movie cameras and, in each case, there was a credible,
I should like to preface my remarks by stating my preference for the
substantiating witness present. The films exhibited the motion of
term "anomalistic observational phenomena," as opposed to the term
rather fuzzy white dots, but the Montana film was remarkable in that
"unidentified flying objects."
foreground was visible on most of the frames.
Mr. ROUSH. I observed you were going to say that and I wonder
Preliminary analysis excluded most natural phenomena. More de-
tailed study indicated that the only remaining natural phenomenon
about some of my Hoosiers back home using those terms.
Dr. BAKER. It comes trippingly off the tongue.
candidate for the Utah film was birds in flight, and for the Montana
film it was airplane fuselage reflections of the sun. After about 18
Mr. ROUSH. It might not only cause some Hoosiers but some laymen
months of rather detailed, albeit not continuous, study using various
some problems. It might be easier to say UFO's. You may go ahead.
Dr. BAKER. I call it AOP.
film-measuring equipments at Douglas and at UCLA, as well as anal-
ysis of a photogrammetric experiment, it appeared that neither of
From the data that I have reviewed and analyzed since 1954, it is
these hypothesized natural phenomena explanations had merit, and
my belief that there does exist substantial evidence to support the
a report was published by me (Baker (1956)) and forwarded to Brig.
claim that an unexplained phenomenon-or phenomena-is present in
Gen. Harold E. Watson, commander, ATIC. Since the description of
the environs of the earth, but that it may not be "flying," may not
the circumstances of the filmings and the analyses of the data pro-
always be "unidentified," and, perhaps, may not even be substantive
vided on the films is rather lengthy, and have since been published
"objects." In the following statement I will-
in the open literature,¹ it does not seem unreasonable to repeat the
(1) Present a summary of the analyses that I have accom-
analyses here.
plished to date-those that have led me to believe that anomalistic
FLORIDA FILM
phenomena exist;
(2) Explain the probable inadequacy of our current terrestrial
During the course of this study we also had the opportunity to view
sensors in observing and/or defining the characteristics of the
some gun-camera photographs taken over Florida. Unfortunately, we
anomalistic phenomena;
could not retain this film, and did not have time available to accom-
(3) Suggest a number of tentative hypothetical sources for the
plish a comprehensive analysis. Like the Montana and Utah films, this
phenomena, and the justification for their scientific study;
film also exhibited only white-dot images; however, since a foreground
(4) And, finally, I will make specific recommendations con-
was present, a competent study could have been carried out. Dr.
cerning the necessity for new types of closely related observational
Klemperer and I agreed on the preliminary conclusion-not supported
and study programs which might be implemented in a fashion
by detailed analyses-that, again, no natural phenomenon was a likely
that would permit the detection and quantitative analysis of the
source for the images.
anomalistic phenomena.
1 For the Utah film, see Baker and Makemson (1967) : for the Montana film, see Baker
(1968a). This latter reference is included in app. 4 to this paper.
128
129
VENEZUELA FILM
have also had the opportunity to view approximately a half dozen
In June of 1963 I received a movie film clip from a Mr. Richard Hall
other films, purportedly of "UFO's." The images on these films
that had purportedly been taken from an aircraft (DC-3) near Angel
appeared possibly to be the result of natural phenomena, such as reflec-
Falls, Venezuela, at about 12:15 p.m. This film clip was 8-millimeter
tions on airplanes, atmospheric mirages, optical flares, birds, balloons,
color film, exposed at 16 frames per second and showed a very bright
insects, satellites, et cetera. For example, a recent (February 1968) set
yellow, slightly pear-shaped object that disappeared in a cloud bank
of two films were taken, using professional motion picture equipment,
after about 60 or 70 frames. At the time I was the head of the Lockhead
by a Universal Studio crew on location. Although rather peculiar in
Aircraft Co.'s Astrodynamics Research Center. We had developed a
appearance, the objects thus photographed could have conceivably been
small group of photogrammetrists consisting of Dr. P. M. Merifeld
the result of airplane reflections.
and Mr. James Rammelkamp, and were able to undertake a study of
To this date my analyses of anomalistic motion picture data have
the film. Initially, Merifeld and Rammelkamp found little of interest
been rather ungratifying. Although I am convinced that many of the
on the film. After their preliminary examination, I expended con-
films indeed demonstrated the presence of anomalistic phenomena, they
siderable effort in further analysis. Again, I was only able to draw the
all have the characteristic of rather ill-defined blobs of light, and
conclusion that the yellow object was no known natural phenomenon:
one can actually gain little insight into the real character of the
but we could make a quantitative determination of angular rates and
phenomena. For example, linear distance, speed, and acceleration can-
accelerations, and the bounds of distance, linear velocity, and accelera-
not be determined precisely, nor can size and mass. As I will discuss
tion, the film was lost (except for a microphotograph exhibiting the
in a moment, this situation is not particularly surprising, since, with-
object on one frame). There was, however, no question in my mind as
out a special-purpose sensor system expressly designed to obtain in-
to the anomalistic character of the images.
formation pertinent to anomalistic observational phenomena, or a gen-
eral-purpose sensor system operated SO as not to disregard such data,
CALIFORNIA FILM
the chance for obtaining high-quality hard data is quite small.
In January 1964, Mr. Zan Overall showed me three cinetheodolite
PART 2. INADEQUACIES OF EXISTING SENSOR EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS
films which had been taken simultaneously by three different cameras
of a Thor-Able Star launching at Vandenberg AFB (project
The capabilities of astronomical optical sensors have been dealt with
A4/01019). These films depicted a white object moving vertically
in a thorough fashion by Page in 1968. The Prairie Network for
(relative to the film frame) against a clear, blue-sky background. The
Meteor Observations (McCrosky and Posen (1968)) is a good example
object was about as bright as the booster's second-stage exhaust, and
of a wide-coverage optical system, but as is SO often the case, and as
passed the booster at about one-third degree per second. Rough esti-
Page (1968) pointed out. 66% * * R. E. McCrosky of the Smithsonian
mates of the direction of the Sun-based on shadows on early frames—
Astrophysical Obvervatory informed me that no thorough search (for
and the winds aloft-indicated by the motion of the rocket's exhaust
anomalistic data) has been carried out." Even so, some astronomical
plume)-were made. These, together with the brightness of the object
photographs are bound to exhibit anomalistic data. Again quoting
and its rate of ascent, seemed to rule out balloons, airplanes, lens flare,
from
Page
(1968),
"*
*
*
W. T. Powers of Northwestern University
mirages, et cetera. Since one of the cinetheodolites was at a site some
Astronomy Department informed me that 'several' of the Smith-
distance from the other two, a parallax determination of the actual
sonian-net photographs show anomalous trails." As I have already
distance and speed of the object could be determined rather easily.
pointed out (Baker (1968b) to be found in appendix 4), the majority
Because the films were on loan from the Navy, I was unable to carry
of our astronomical equipment (e.g., conventional photographic tele-
out the necessary study and a determination of the precise character
scopes, Baker-Nunn cameras, meteor cameras, Markowitz Dual-rate
of the phenomenon (natural or anomalistic) could not be made. In
Moon Cameras, et cetera) are special purpose in nature, and would
1967, I discussed the matter with Prof. William K. Hartmann of the
probably not detect the anomalous luminous phenomena reported by
University of Arizona, and Prof. Roy Craig of the University of
the casual observer if they were indeed present. Their photographic
Colorado. At that time, they were involved in the Colorado UFO
speed, field of view, et cetera, impose severe restrictions on their ability
Study Group, and indicated that they would attempt to obtain the film
to collect data on objects other than those they have been specifically
for further analysis. Although I am confident that they made a con-
designed to detect. As already noted in the quotes from Page (1968),
scientious effort to obtain the films, apparently they were unsuccessful
even if such data were collected, the recognition of their uniqueness
(as of 6 months ago, at least).
or anomalous character by an experimenter is improbable. Examples
abound, in the history of clestial mechanics, of minor planets being
PROBABLY NONANOMALISTIC FILMS
detected on old astronomical plates that had been measured for other
purposes, and then abandoned.
In addition to the foregoing film clips-which seemed to involve
data that were the result of anomalistic phenomena-the Montana film
Our radar and optical space surveillance and tracking systems are
in my opinion, certainly was anomalistic and all of the other films
even more restrictive and thus, even less likely to provide information
except for the California film, most probably were anomalistic-I
on anomalistic phenomena than are astronomical sensors. The Signal
Test Processing Facility (STPF) radar at Floyd, N.Y. is a high-
130
131
performance experimental radar having a one-third degree beam
width. For lockon and track, an object would have to be pinpointed
the data base or classified as "unknowns," or "uncorrelated targets,"
to one-sixth degree, and even if the radar did achieve lockon, an
filed, and forgotten.
erratically moving object could not be followed even in. the STPF
There is only one surveillance system, known to me, that exhibits
radar's monopulse mode of operation. For this reason only satellites
sufficient and continuous coverage to have even a slight opportunity
having rather well-defined paths (i.e., ephemerides), which have been
of betraying the presence of anomalistic phenomena operating above
precomputed, can be acquired and tracked.
the Earth's atmosphere. The system is partially classified and, hence,
Our three BEMEWS radars propagate fans of electromagnetic
I cannot go into great detail at an unclassified meeting. I can, however,
energy into space. If a ballistic missile or satellite penetrates two of
state that yesterday (July 28, 1968) I traveled to Colorado Springs
these fans successively, then it can be identified. Since astrodynamical
(location of the Air Defense Command) and confirmed that since this
laws govern the time interval between detection fan penetrations for
particular sensor system has been in operation, there have been a
"normal" space objects, all other anomalistic "hits" by the radar are
number of anomalistic alarms. Alarms that, as of this date, have not
usually neglected, and even if they are not neglected, they are usually
been explained on the basis of natural phenomena interference, equip-
classified as spurious images or misassociated targets, and are stored
ment malfunction or inadequacy, or manmade space objects.
away on magnetic tape, and forgotten.
One space surveillance site operates a detection radar (FPS-17)
PART 3. HYPOTHETICAL SOURCES FOR ANOMALISTIC OBSERVATIONS AND
and a tracking radar (FPS-79). If a new space object is sensed by the
JUSTIFICATION FOR THEIR STUDY
detection radar's fans, then the tracking radar can be oriented to
achieve lockon. The orientation is governed by a knowledge of the
In Baker and Makemson (1967), I discussed the usual candidates
appropriate "normal" object's astrodynamic laws of motion, or by an
for the natural sources of anomalistic observations. For example, some
scanning radars-such as airport radars-pick up anomalistic returns
assumption as to launch point. Thus, if an unknown is detected, and
if it follows an unusual path, it is unlikely that it could, or would, be
termed "angels." A variety of explanations have been proposed, vari-
tracked. Furthermore, the director of the radar may make a decision
ously involving ionized air inversion layers, etc. (see Tacker (1960))
that the unknown object detected is not of interest (because of the
and even insects (see Glover, et al. (1966) With respect to human
location of the FPS-17 fan penetration or because of the lack of prior
observation of anomalistic luminous phenomena, some rather strong
information on a possible new launch). In the absence of detection
positions have been taken by such authorities as Menzel (1953), who
fan penetration (the fan has a rather limited coverage), the FPS-79
feels that the predominant natural phenomenon is atmospheric mi-
tracking radar is tasked to follow other space objects on a schedule
rages; by Klass (1958a), who feels that the predominant natural phe-
provided by the Space Defense Center, and again there is almost no
nomenon is related to ball lightning triggered by high-tension line
likelihood that an anomalistic object could, or would, be tracked.
coronal discharge, jet aircraft, electrical storms, etc.; by Robey (1960),
The NASA radars, such as those at Millstone and Goldstone, are
who feels that the observations are of "cometoids" entering the earth's
atmosphere, etc. The list of hypothetical sources for anomalistic ob-
not intended to be surveillance radars, and only track known space
objects on command. Again the chances of their tracking anomalistic
servational phenomena is long indeed, but from the photographic data
that I have personally analyzed, I am convinced that none of these ex-
objects are nearly nil. The new phased-array radar at Eglin AFB
planations is valid.
(FPS-85) has considerable capability for deploying detection fans
The analyses that I have carried out to date have dealt with observa-
and tracking space objects in a simultaneous fashion. Such versatility
raises certain energy-management problems-that is, determining how
tional evidence that I term "hard data"-that is, permanent photo-
graphic data. Although I will not discuss in detail the analyses of
much energy to allocate to detection and how much to tracking-but
this sensor might have a capability (albeit, perhaps, limited) to detect
eyewitness reports (which I term "soft data"), Powers (1967), Mc-
Donald (1967), Hynek (1966), and others have concluded that over-
and track anomalistic objects. The problem is that the logic included
in the software associated with the FPS-85's control computers is not
whelming evidence exists that a truly anomalistic phenomenon is
present.
organized in a fashion to detect and track anomalistic objects (I will
indicate in a moment how the logic could be modified). Furthermore,
Of course, there are numerous others who have come to a completely
the FPS-85, like the other surveillance radars is usually tasked to
opposite conclusion; in fact, it becomes almost a matter of personal
preference: it is possible for one to identify all of the anomalistic
track a list of catalogued space objects in the Space Defense Center's
data as very unusual manifestations of natural phenomena. No mat-
data base and the opportunity to "look around" for anomalistic objects
is quite limited.
ter how unlikely it is, anything is possible-even a jet plane reflecting
There are a number of other radar surveillance systems such as
the sun in direct opposition to the laws of optics. I'm sometimes re-
minded of the flat earth debates that I organized 10 years ago in my
a detection fence across the United States. In the case of this fence,
elementary astronomy courses at UCLA. Some students became SO in-
we have a situation similar to BMEWS, in which the time interval
between succesive penetrations (in this case separated by an orbital
volved in justifying their positions-either flat or spherical-that they
would grasp at even the most improbable argument in order to ration-
period for satellites) must follow prescribed astrodynamical laws.
alize their stand.
If they do not, then the fence penetrations are either deleted from
1 Except in app. 3 to this report-a paper supplied by Dr. Sydney Walker III, concerning
132
133
Mr. ROUSH. Dr. Baker, I'm sorry to interrupt, but I'm going to have
would form an important adjunct to any serious study of anomalistic
a brief recess here.
phenomena (see Walker (1968) included in app. 4 of this report).
Dr. BAKER. Certainly.
The soft data must involve some useful information content, and it
Mr. ROUSH. There is a motion to recommit the military construction
would be extremely unrealistic to neglect it entirely. For this reason,
bill, and I would like to vote on it. None of my colleagues are here
I have included appendix 3 by Dr. Walker, which presents a logical
right now, SO we will declare a very brief recess, and I shall return as
procedure for establishing a credibility level for observers. Walker's
quickly as I can.
report of a hypothetical case integrates the results of general medical,
(Whereupon a short recess was taken for a floor vote.)
neuroopthalmologic, neurologic, and psychiatric evaluations, and de-
Mr. ROUSH. The committee will be in order.
velops a logical basis for assigning an overall credibility score.
Dr. Baker, you may proceed.
Dr. Robert L. Hall is, of course, eminently qualified to comment on
Dr. BAKER. Thank you.
the question of eyewitness testimony at this seminar.
Personally, I feel that it is premature for me to agree that the hard
If serious studies can be initiated, with the objectives of detecting,
and soft data forces the scientific community to give overriding at-
analyzing, and identifying the sources of anomalistic observational
tention to the hypothesis that the anomalistic observations arise from
phenomena, then I feel that the following scientific benefits can be
manifestations of extraterrestrial beings. On the other hand, I strong-
expected:
ly advocate the establishment of a research program in the area of
(1) Meteoritics.-Although there are a number of excellent meteor
anomalistic phenomena-an interdisciplinary research effort that pro-
observation nets operating today, data collected on erratically moving
gresses according to the highest scientific standards; that is well
phenomena (including rapid determination of the location of any
funded; and that is planned to be reliably long term. The potential
"landings" or impacts) would add significantly to the coverage and
benefit of such a research project to science should not hinge solely on
analyses of meteorites and, possibly, entering comets. Furthermore,
the detection of intelligent extraterrestrial life; it should be justified
the timely recovery of meteoritic debris at the subend point of fireballs
by the possibility of gaining new insights into poorly understood
would be most valuable.
phenomena, such as ball lightning, cometoid impact, and spiraling
(2) Geology.-It has been pointed out by Lamar and Baker (1965),
meteorite decay.
that there exist residual effects on desert pavements that may have
There is practical value in such research for the Military Establish-
been produced by entering comets. Furthermore, any geological or
ment, as well. Let us suppose that something similar to the "Tunguska
material evidence of the impact or "landing" of extraterrestrial ob-
event" of 1908 occurred today, and that it was Long Island in the
jects would be of great interest. As Dr. John O'Keefe (1967), Assist-
United States, rather than the Podkamenaia Tunguska River Basin
ant Chief, Laboratory for Theoretical Studies of NASA GSFC indi-
in Siberia that was devastated by a probable comet impact. Would
cated "Would it not be possible to get some scraps of these ("UFO")
we misinterpret this catastrophic event as the signal for world war
objects for examination? For instance, a scrap of matter, however
III? What if another "fireball procession," such as occurred over
small, could be analyzed for the kind of alloys interrestrial foundries.
Canada on February 9, 1913, repeated itself today, and the low-flying
A piece of a screw, however small, would be either English, Metric,
meteors were on nearly polar orbits that would overfly the continental
or Martian. I am impressed by this because I looked at some tens of
United States. Would we interpret the resulting surveillance data as
thousands of pictures of the Moon and found that the very small
indicating that a fractional orbital bombardment system (FOBS) had
amount of chemical data has more weight in interpreting the past
been initiated in Russia My knowledge of our Air Force sensors, both
history of the Moon than the very large amount of optical data. It
current and projected (see Baker and Ford (1968)). indicates that
doesn't seem possible that objects ("flying saucers") of this size can
they are sufficiently sophisticated so that they would probably not
visit the Earth and then depart, leaving nothing, not even a speck,
react prematurely and signal a false alarm-although a careful study
behind. We could analyze a speck no bigger than. a pinhead very.
of this point should be made. On the other hand, there may exist other
easily." I concur with O'Keefe's remarks, and if there exist "landings"
anomalistic sources of data that might give rise to a false alarm and
associated with the anomalistic phenomena, then a prompt and ex-
perhaps provoke us either to deploy our countermeasures, or even to
tremely thorough investigation of the landing site must be accom-
counterattack.
plished before geological/material evidence is dispersed or terrestrial-
Before I enumerate the specific benefits this research might confer
ized.
upon various scientific disciplines, allow me to digress briefly on the
(3) Atmospheric physics.-One of the great mysteries today in the
subject of soft data. The primary reason that I have avoided the in-
formation, movement, and explosion of ball lightning. As Singer
troduction of soft data into my photographic studies and have not
involved myself in the analysis of eyewitness reports (such as the
(1963) noted:
excellent ones given by Fuller (1966)), is that I have been unable to
The specific properties of ball lightning, which present particular difficulty
develop a rational basis for determining the credibility level for any
in experimental duplication, are formations of the sphere in air (at near-at-
mospheric pressure and at a distance from the source of energy) and its extensive
given human observer. Although they lie outside the field of my own
motion. It is evident that additional clarification of both theoretical and experi-
scientific competence, I feel that credibility evaluations of witnesses
mental aspects is needed.
134
135
With respect to "plasma UFO's" Mr. Philip J. Klass (1968b) com-
area of forecasting the social characteristics of an advanced extrater-
ments that:
restrial civilization. Philosophers, social scientists, and others usually
If conditions-all of the conditions-needed to create plasma-UFO's near high-
undertake studies of rather theoretical problems. (See Wooldridge
tension lines or in the wake of jet aircraft occurred readily we should have mil-
(1968) and Minas and Ackoff (1964). If only a quantitative index or
lions of UFO reports and the mystery would have been solved long ago. But the
comparative rarity of legitimate UFO sightings clearly indicates that the ball-
indices of social advancement could be developed that, say, would dif-
lightning related phenomenon is a very rare one.
ferentiate us from the Romans in our interpersonal and intersociety
Even if ball lightning is not the primary source of anomalistic data
relationships (for example, tendencies toward fewer crimes of vio-
(and I am not at present convinced that it is), any program investi-
lence, fewer wars, etc.), then we might be better equipped to make
gating anomalistic observational phenomena would surely shed sig-
rational extrapolations from our own to an advanced society. In fact,
nificant light on the ball-lightning problem.
such as index, if it could be developed might even be beneficial in guid-
(4) Astronomy.-I have already noted the possibility of cometary
ing our existing earth-based society.
entry, a study of which would be valuable to the astronomer. If as
(7) Serendipity.-In addition to the value of anomalistic phe-
some respected astronomers believe, the anomalistic observational phe-
nomena studies to these specific scientific disciplines, there is always
nomena (including perhaps, "intelligent" radio signals from inter-
serendipity. Any scientific study of this nature is potentially capable
stellar space) are the results of an advanced extraterrestrial civiliza-
of giving substantial dividends in terms of "spin-off." For example in
tion, then the study of the phenomena would become a primary con-
improved techniques in radar and optical sensor design and control;
cern of the entire human race. The implications for astronomy are
in giving a reliable quantitative credibility level to witness' statements
overwhelming.
in court; or in deciphering and/or analyzing anomalistic radio signals
(5) Psychiatry and psychology.-Since bizarre events have been re-
from interstellar space.
ported, the study of eyewitness credibility, under stressful circum-
PART 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
stances of visual input, if possible. As I will recommend later: if a
competent, mobile task force of professionals could be sent into action
For the past 16 years I have seriously (albeit sporadically) fol-
as soon as anomalistic events are detected, then reliable evaluation of
lowed the analyses of "UFO" or "flying saucer" reports-both scien-
eyewitness reports (soft data) in relation to the actual hard data ob-
tific and quasi-scientific. It is my conclusion that there is only SO
tained, could be accomplished. Even if the event was only a spectac-
much quantitative data that we can squeeze out of vast amounts of data
ular fireball, or marsh gas, the psychiatric/medical examination of eye-
on anomalistic observational phenomena that has been collected to
witnesses would still be more informative.
date. I believe that we will simply frustrate ourselves by endless argu-
(6) Social science.-Although not classified as a physical science,
ments over past, incomplete data scenarios; what we need is more
there appears to be a challenge here for the social sciences. It has been
sophisticated analyses of fresh anomalistic observational data. We
my contention throughout this report that it is not a prerequisite to
must come up with more than just a rehash of old data.
the study of anomalistic observational phenomena to suppose that they
I emphasize that it is very unlikely that existing optical and radar
result from extraterrestrial intelligence.
monitoring systems would collect the type of quantitative data that is
Nevertheless, it still is an open possibility in my mind. It seems
required to identify and study the phenomena. Moreover, we current-
reasonable, therefore, to undertake a few contingency planning
studies. In order to extract valuable information from an advanced
ly have no quantitative basis upon which to evaluate and rank (ac-
cording to credibility) the myriad of eyewitness reports. Thus con-
society, it would seem useful to forecast the approximate characteris-
tinuing to "massage" past anomalistic events would seem to be a waste
tics of such a superior intelligence-or, if not necessarily superior, an
of our scientific resources. In balance, then, I conclude that:
intelligence displayed by an industrial, exploratory culture of substan-
(1) We have not now, nor have we been in the past, able to achieve
tially greater antiquity. There exist dozens of treatises on technologi-
a complete-or even partially complete-surveillance of space in the
cal forecasting; one can key estimates of technological advancement
vicinity of the earth, comprehensive enough to betray the presence
to speed of travel, production of energy, productivity, ubiquity of
communications, etc. There have been many debates on the technical
of, or provide quantitative information on, anomalistic phenomena.
capabilities or limits on the capabilities of advanced extraterrestrial
(2) Hard data on anomalistic observational phenomena do, in fact
societies (for example, see Markowitz (1967) and Rosa, et al. (1967))
exist, but they are of poor quality, because of the inadequacies of
equipment employed in obtaining them.
Often intermixed with these technological capabilities arguments,
however, are very dubious comments concerning the psychological
(3) Soft data on anomalistic phenomena also exist, but we have
motivations, behavioral patterns, and unbased projections of the social
no quantitative procedure to evaluate their credibility and develop
motivations of an advanced society. Hypothetical questions are often
clear-cut conclusions on the characteristics of the anomalistic phe-
nomena.
raised such as,' * * * if there are flying saucers around, why don't
they contact us directly ? * * * I would if I were investigating an-
(4) It follows from the scientific method that an experiment or
other civilization." Such comments are made on extremely thin ice,
experiments should be devised, and closely related study programs be
for, to my knowledge, no concerted study has been carried out in the
initiated expressly to define the anomalistic data better.
136
137
(5) In order to justify such an experiment and associated studies,
it is not necessary to presuppose the existence of intelligent extra-
terrestrial life operating in the environs of the earth, or to make
technique introduced in recent years offers more promise for space
dubious speculations either concerning "their" advanced scientific and
surveillance. In my view, the scientific principles underlying the pro-
engineering capabilities or "their" psychological motivations and be-
posed surveillance system are sound, and a developmental measure-
ments program should be initiated.
havioral patterns.
In the light of these conclusions, I will make the following recom-
(4) The software designed for the FPS-85 phase-array radar at
mendations:
Eglin Air Force Base be extended in order to provide a capability
(1) In order to obtain information-rich hard and soft data on
to detect and track anomalistic space objects. The relatively inex-
anomalistic phenomena, an interdisciplinary, mobile task force or
pensive modification could include the implementation of tracking
team of highly qualified scientists should be organized. This team
techniques such as those outlined in Baker (1967). It should, however,
should be established on a long-term basis, well funded, and equipped
be clearly borne in mind that only a limited amount of tracking time
to swing into action and investigate reports on anomalistic phenomena
(about 30 percent) could be devoted to this endeavor, because of the
immediately after such reports are received. Because of the relatively
overriding importance of the surveillance of manmade space objects
which is the basic responsibility of this radar.
low frequency of substantive reports (see p. 1968), immediate results
should not be anticipated, but in the interim periods between their
(5) Various "listening post" projects should be reestablished (us-
investigations in the field, their time could be productively spent in
ing existing instruments) in order to seek out possible communica-
making thorough analyses of data collected by them previously, and
tions from other intelligent life sources in the universe. See, for ex-
in "sharpening up" their analysis tools.
ample, Shklovskii and Sagan (1966), chapters 27, 28, 30, and 34.
(2) In concert with the aforementioned task force, a sensor sys-
(6) Technological and behavioral pattern forecasting studies should
tem should be developed expressly for detecting and recording anom-
be encouraged in order to give at least limited insight into the gross
alistic observational phenomena for hard-data evaluation. The sys-
characteristics of an advanced civilization. These studies (probably
tem might include one or more phased-array radars (certainly not
not Government funded) should include the social-psychological im-
having the cost or capability of the FPS-85, but operating in a limited
plications of anomalistic observational phenomena, as well as the
fashion that would be similar to the FPS-85). A phased-array radar
psychological impact upon our own culture that could be expected
would have the advantage over a conventional "dish" radar in that
from "contact" with an advanced civilization. (See ch. 33 of Shklov-
skii and Sagan (1966).)
it could track at high rates and divide its energy in an optimum fash-
ion between detection and tracking. The control system would be
(7) Studies should be initiated in the psychiatric/medical problems
unique, and would necessitate the development of a sequential data-
of evaluating the credibility of witness' testimony concerning bizarre
processing controller that would increase the state variables describing
or unusual events. (See app. 3 of this report.)
the object's path from a six-dimensional position and velocity estima-
tion to a 12-dimensional acceleration and jerk estimation (Baker
PART 5. AFTERWARD
(1967) in order to follow erratic motion.
In addition, the data base would have to be especially designed, to
All of the foregoing recommendations involve the expenditure of
funds, and we are all well aware of the severe limitations on the fund-
avoid manmade space objects and (if possible) airplanes, birds, com-
mon meteors, etc. It should, however, be designed to detect and track
ing of research today. On the other hand, I feel that one of the traps
nearby cometoids, macrometeorites (fireballs), ball lightning, and any
that we have fallen into, SO far, is reliance on quick-look, under-
other erratic or anomalistic object within its range. Optical cameras
manned and underfunded programs to investigate a tremendous
(including spectrographic equipment) should be slaved to the radar,
quantity of often ambiguous data. I would discourage such programs
in order to provide more comprehensive data. Because of the afore-
as being diversionary, in regard to the overall scientific goal.
mentioned low frequency of anomalistic data, alarms from the system
The goal of understanding anomalistic phenomena, if attained, may
should not occur very frequently and could be communicated directly
be of unprecedented importance to the human race. We must get a
to the recommended task force.
positive scientific program off the ground; a program that progresses
(3) A proposed new-generation, space-based long-wave-length in-
according to the highest scientific standards, has specific objectives,
frared surveillance sensor system should be funded and the associated
is well funded, and long term.
software should be modified to include provisions for the addition of
Thank you.
anomalistic objects in its data base. The specific sensor system cannot
(The appendixes and attachments to Dr. Baker's statement follow:)
be identified for reasons of security, but details can probably be ob-
PART 1
tained from the Air Force. This sensor system, in particular, could
provide some data (perhaps incomplete) on anomalistic objects which
ABSTRACTS FROM BAKER (1956) RELATED TO THE UTAH FILM-ANALYSIS OF
exhibit a slight temperature contrast with the space background, on
PHOTOGRAPHIC MATERIAL
a basis of noninterference with its military mission. The system rep-
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ANALYSIS OF THE "UTAH" FILM TRACKING UFO'S
resents a promising technological development, and no other novel
Several Unidentified Flying Objects (UFO's) were sighted and photographed
at about 11 MST on July 2, 1952 by Delbert C. Newhouse at a point on State
Highway 30, seven miles north of Tremonton, Utah (latitude 41° 50', longitude
97-818
138
139
112° 10'). Mr. Newhouse, a Chief Warrant Officer in the U.S. Navy,* was in
transit from Washington, D.C. to Portland, Oregon.
camera was kept stationary the average angular velocities for the object moving
He, his wife and their two children were making the trip by car. Shortly
across the field are 0.039 and 0.031 radians per second. The angular velocities in
after passing through the city of Tremonton, his wife noticed a group of strange
these sequences sometimes vary erratically from 0.07 to 0.01 radians per second.
shining objects in the air off towards the eastern horizon. She called them to her
This variation may be attributed in part to camera "jiggling" and in part to the
husband's attention and prevailed upon him to stop the car. When he got out,
object's motion. The decrease in average angular velocity could be due to the
he observed the objects (twelve to fourteen of them) to be directly overhead and
object's having regressed between filmings just as was reported by Newhouse.
milling about. He described them as "gun metal colored objects shaped like two
Also the average image diameter decreases about 30% over the entire film, in-
saucers, one inverted on top of the other." He estimated that they subtended
dicating a possible over-all regression of the objects.
"about the same angle as B-29's at 10,000 feet" (about half a degree-i.e., about
The following tabulation indicates the hypothetical transverse component of
the angular diameter of the moon). Next, he ran to the trunk of his car, took out
relative velocities and accelerations at various distances. It is noted that the
his Bell and Howell Automaster 16mm movie camera equipped with a 3" tele-
transverse velocity may be only a fraction of the total velocity SO that the
numbers actually indicate minimum values.
photo lens, loaded it, focused it at infinity and began shooting. There was no
reference point above the horizon SO he was unable to estimate absolute size,
speed or distance. He reports that one of the objects reversed its course and pro-
If the object's
Its transverse
Its transverse ac-
Velocity of
ceeded away from the rest of the group; he held the camera still and allowed
distance was-
velocity was-
celeration was-
single object was-
this single object to pass across the field of view of the camera, picking it up later
in its course. He repeated this for three passes.
100 ft
0.65 ft./sec. or 0.44 m.p.h
0.36 ft./sec.1 or 0.11g.
3.8 ft./sec. or 2.7 m.p.h.
During the filming, Newhouse changed the iris stop of the camera from f/8 to
1,000 ft
6.5 ft./sec. or 4.4 m.p.h.
3.6 ft./sec.1 or 0.11 g
39 ft./sec. or 27 m.p.h.
2,000 ft
f/16. The density of the film can be seen to change markedly at a point about 30%
13 ft./sec. or 8.8 m.p.h
7.2 ft./sec.¹ or 0.22 g
8 ft./sec. or 54 m.p.h.
1 mile
23 m.p.h
0.56 g
135 m.p.h.
through the sequence. The camera was operated at 16 fps.
5 miles
115 m.p.h
2.8 g
670 m.p.h.
The color film (Daylight Kodachrome) after processing was submitted to
10 miles
230 m.p.h
5.6 g
1,300 m.p.h.
his superiors. The Navy forwarded the film to the USAF-ATIC where the film
was studied for several months. According to Al Chop (then with ATIC and
The objects in the "Utah" and "Montana" films can only be correlated on the
presently with DAC) Air Force personnel were convinced that the objects were
basis of two rather weak points. First, their structure, or rather lack of it,
not airplanes; on the other hand the hypothesis that the camera might have been
is similar. Thus as shown in the "blow-ups" there are no recognizable differences
out of focus and the objects soaring gulls could neither be confirmed nor denied.
Mr. Chop's remarks are essentially substantiated by Capt. Edward Ruppelt,
between them*. Second, the objects on the "Montana" film are manifestly a
single pair; on the "Utah" film perhaps 30% of the frames show clusters of
reference (1) then head of Project "Blue Book" for ATIC.
objects seemingly also grouped in pairs.
A 35mm reprint of the Newhouse "Utah" film was submitted to Douglas Air-
.The weather report was obtained by the author from the Airport Station at
craft Company for examination. Visual study of the reprints on the Recordak and
Salt Lake City. The nearest station with available data is Corinne which
astronomical plate measuring engine revealed the following: The film com-
reported a maximum temperature of 84°, a minimum of 47° and no precipitation.
prises about 1,200 frames; on most of the frames there appear many round white
A high pressure cell from the Pacific Northwest spread over Northern Utah
dots, some elliptical. The dots often seem clustered in constellations, or forma-
during July 2, the pressure at Tremonton would have a rising trend, the visibility
tions which are recognizable for as long as seventeen seconds. A relative motion
good, and the winds relatively light. The absence of clouds and the apparently
plot (obtained from an overlay vellum trace on the Recordak) of two typical
excellent visibility shown on the films would seem to be in agreement with
formations are presented. The objects seem to cluster in groups of two's and
this report. Through use of References (2) and (3), the Sun's azimuth N132°E
three's. On some frames they flare up and then disappear from view in 0.25 sec-
altitude 65° was computed. No shadows were available to confirm the time of
onds or less and sometimes they appear as a randomly scattered "twinkling" of
filming.
dots. The dot images themselves show no structure; they are white and have no
The image size being roughly that of the Montana film (a few of the objects
color fringes. Examination under a microscope shows the camera to be well
being perhaps 10% larger than the largest on the Montana) the same remarks
focused as the edges of the images are sharp and clear on many of the properly
as to airplane reflections apply, i.e., they might have been caused by Sun
exposed frames (of the original print). Angular diameters range from about
reflections from airplanes within one to three miles to the observer, although
0.001,6 to 0.000,4 radians. Their pattern of motion is essentially a curvilinear
at these distances they should have been identified as conventional aircraft by
milling about. Sometimes the objects appear to circle about each other. There are
the film or the observer. No specific conclusions as to Sun reflection angles
no other objects in the field of view which might give a clue as to the absolute
can be drawn since the line of motion of the objects cannot be confirmed. How-
motion of the cluster.
ever, the reported E to W motion of the UFO's and their passing overhead
In the overlay trace, the frame of reference is determined by a certain object
coupled with the SE azimuth of the Sun would make the achievement of
whose relative motion during a sequence of frames remains rather constant. This
optimal Sun reflections rather difficult.
object is used as a reference point and the lower edge of the frame as abscissa.
That the images could have been produced by aluminum foil "chaff"** seems
Assuming the camera to have been kept reasonably uncanted, the abscissa
possible, at least on the basis of the images shown, as very intense specular
would be horizontal and the ordinate vertical. In the overlay trace, the particular
Sun reflections from ribbons of chaff might flare out to about the size of the
frame itself is used as the reference. Assuming the camera was held steady (there
UFO's.
is an unconscious tendency to pan with a moving object) the coordinate system
Examination of film frames obtained from the photogrammetric experiment-
is quasi-fixed. It is realized that both of these coordinate systems are in ac-
reference Analysis of Photographic Material, Serial 01, Appendix II, show
tuality moving, possibly possessing both velocity and acceleration.
that no significant broadening is produced by flat white diffuse reflectors such
No altitude or azimuth determination can be made because of lack of back-
as birds, bits of paper, etc. at f/16 under the conditions of the filming. Actual
ground. The only measurable quantities of interest are therefore the relative
measurements show a slight "bleeding" or flaring of about 10% to 20%.
angular distances between the objects and their time derivatives. Graphs of
The rectangular flat white cardboards of the aforementioned experiments repre-
two typical time variations of relative angular separation and velocity are in-
sented very roughly the configuration of birds. The light reflected by such a
cluded (in Baker and Makemson (1967)). The relative angular velocity is seen
surface is probably greater than that from a curved feather surface of a bird.
to vary from zero to 0.006,5 radians per second. The relative angular acceleration
had a maximum value of 0.003,6 radians per second squared. Supposing the
*The images on the "Utah" film appear to be a little brighter. However, possible varia-
tions in development techniques would not allow quantitative analysis in this regard.
Navy. *At the time he had already logged some 2,200 hours as a chief photographer with the
**Bits of aluminum foil dumped overboard by planes. often utilized as a countermeasure
against antiaircraft radar. This material might possibly be in the form of large ribbons
several feet long and several inches across.
140
141
One figure shows the appearance of one and two foot birds* as they might appear
on a 16mm frame taken with a 3" telephoto lens f/16 at a distance of 1,200',
It has been suggested that spurious optical reflections or light leaks in the
at 3,000' and at 3,300'. Many of the images on the "Utah" film have an angular
camera might be responsible. Examples of such effects have been examined and
diameter of 0.001, 2 radians (some as large as 0.001,16 radians), thus they might
found to be quite different from the UFO's (in the Utah Film).
be interpreted as one foot (wing span) birds at 600' to 800', two foot (wing span)
The evidence remains rather contradictory and no single hypothesis of a natural
birds at 1,200' to 1,600' or three foot (wing span) birds at 2,400' to 3,200'. At these
phenomenon yet suggested scems to completely account for the UFO involved.
distances, it is doubted if birds would give the appearance of round dots; also
The possibility of multiple hypotheses, i.e. that the Utah UFO's are the result of
they would have been identifiable by the camera if not visually. However, actual
two simultaneous natural phenomena might possibly yield the answer. However,
movies of birds in flight would have to be taken to completely confirm this con-
as in the case of the "Montana" analysis, no definite conclusion (as to a credible
clusion. The following type of gulls have been know to fly at times over this
natural phenomenon) could be obtained.
locality California Herring Gull (a common summer resident), Ring-Billed Gull
and the Fork-Tailed Gull, see Reference (4).
REFERENCES
The images are probably not those of balloons as their number is too great
and the phenomenon of flaring up to a constant brightness for several seconds, and
(1) The "American Nautical Almanac" 1950.
then dying out again cannot well be associated with any known ballon
(2) H. O. No. 214, "Tables of Computed Altitude and Azimuth for Latitudes
observations.
40° to 49°."
Certain soaring insects-notably "ballooning spiders" (References (5) and
(3) J. Veath, J. G. "200 Miles Up," Ronald Press Company, N.Y. Second Edition,
(6)) produce bright-moving points of light. The author has witnessed such a
1955, p. 111.
phenomenon. It is produced by Sun reflections off the streamers of silken threads
(4) Kaiser, T. R., "Meteors," Pergamon Press, 1955.
spun by many types of spiders. Caught by the wind, these streamers serve as a
(5) La Paz, L. "Meteoroids, Meteorites, and Hyperbolic Meteor Velocities,"
means of locomótion floating the spider high into the air. They occasionally have
Chapt. XIX of the Physics and Medicine of the Upper Atmosphere.
the appearance of vast numbers of silken flakes which fill the air and in some
(6) O. C. Farrington, "Meteorites," Chicago, 1915.
recorded instances extend over many square miles and to a height of several
(7) "Measurement of Birds." Scientific Publications of the Cleveland Museum
hundred feet. The reflection, being off silk threads, is not as bright as diffuse
of Natural History, Vol. II, 1931.
reflection from a flat white board. Thus no flaring of the images could be
(8) Kartright, F. H., "The Ducks, Geese and Swans of North America," Ameri-
can Wild Life Institute, 1943.
expected. The author noted that the sections of the "web" that reflected measured
from 1/4" to ½" for the largest specimens. Thus the images might be attributed
(9) Headley, F. W. "The Flight of Birds," Witherly and Co., 326 Holborn,
London, 1912.
to ballooning spiders at distances of 50 to 100 feet. However, these web reflections
ordinarily show upon only against a rather dark background and it is doubted if
(10) Menzel, D. H., "Flying Saucers," Harvard University Press, 1953.
their intensity would be great enough to produce the intense UFO images against
(11) Mees, C. E. K. "The Theory of the Photographic Process," Revised Edition,
MacMillan Co., N.Y., 1954.
a bright sky.
Besides the above remarks, pertinent to the actual images, several facts can be
(12) Danjon, A., Conder, A. "Lunettes et Telescopes," Paris, 1935.
gleaned from the motion of objects. The observations are not apt to support the
(13) Kuiper, G. P., "The Atmospheres of the Earth and Planets," University
of Chicago Press, 1951.
supposition that the objects were conventional aircraft as the maneuvers are too
erratic, the relative accelerations probably ruling out aircratf at distances of
(14) Ruppelt, E. J., "The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects," Doubleday
and Co., 1956.
over five miles. Several observers familiar with the appearance of chaff have seen
the film and concluded that the persistence of the nontwinkling constellations,
PART 2.-PHOTOGRAPHS OF FRAMES FROM THE MOVIE FILMS THAT DR.
their small quantity, and the reported absence of aircraft oberhead makes chaff
BAKER ANALYZED
unlikely. Furthermore, the single object passing across the field of view would
be most difficult to explain on the basis of chaff. These same remarks would apply
also to bits of paper swept up in thermal updrafts.
The relative angular velocity might be compatible with soaring bird speeds at
distances of less than one mile, the angular velocity of the single object could be
attributed to a bird within about one thousand feet. There is a tendency to pan
with a moving object-not against it- SO the velocities in the table probably
represent a lower bound. The motion of the objects is not exactly what one would
expect from a flock of soaring birds (not the slightest indication of a decrease
in brightness due to periodic turning with the wind or Aapping) and no cumulus
clouds are present which might betray the presence of a strong thermal updraft.
On the other hand the single object might represent a single soaring bird which
broke away in search of a new thermal-quite a common occurrence among
gulls-see Reference (7).
That the air turbulence necessary to account for their movement if they were
nearby insects (even the single object's motion !) is possible, can be concluded
from examination of Reference (8). However, if the objects were nearby spider
webs the lack of observed or photographed streamers is unusual. Furthermore,
the fact that they were visible from a moving car for several minutes is hard to
reconcile with localized insect activity.
The phenomenon of atmospheric mirages, Reference (9), might conceivably
account for the images. Such a hypothesis is hampered by the clear weather con-
ditions and the persistence and clarity of the images. Also no "shimmering" can
be detected and the motion is steady. Again the object which breaks away would
be difficult to explain.
*The dimensions refer to wing spread. The actual exposed white area of a bird is usually
less and depends upon the perspective of the observer. This difference has been roughly
accounted for in the data given, however, if the body were the principal reflector the
distance given should be reduced by a factor of 2 or 3.
Blow Up of a Frame from the Utah Film Showing a Typical Formation
of the Objects
142
143
Blow Up of a Frame from the Utah Film Depicting One of the Pairs of Objects
Microphotograph of One of the Frames of the Argentina Film that Exhibits the
Luminosity of the Yellow, Pear-Shaped Anomalistic Object
Blow Up of a Frame from the Montana Film Depicting the Two Objects
144
145
13) Markowitz, W. (1967) Science, Vol. 157, pp. 1274-1279.
REFERENCES
14) McDonald, J. (1967) "The UFO Phenomenon - A New Frontier
Awaiting Serious Scientific Exploration, " (An article on an interview
1) Baker, R.M.L., Jr. (1956) "Analysis of Photographic Material
with Dr. McDonald by Nyla Crone) Arizona Daily Wildcat, April 6,
Serial 01 and 02, Douglas Aircraft Report dated 24 March and
pp. 6 to 8.
26 May 1956.
15) Menzel, D.H. (1953) Flying Saucers, Harvard University Press,
2) Baker, R.M.L., Jr. (1967) Astrodynamics: Applications and
Cambridge, Mass.
Advanced Topics, Academic Press, New York, pp. 112-115 and
pp. 376 to 392.
16) Minas, J.S. and Ackoff, R.L. (1964) "Individual and Collective
Judgements,' Chapt. 17 in Human Judgements and Optimality,
3) Baker, R.M. L., Jr. (1968a) "Observational Evidence of Anomalistic
Edited by M.W. Shelly, II and G. L. Bryan, John Wiley and Sons,
Phenomena, Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. XV,
New York, pp. 351-359.
No. 1, pp. 31-36.
17) O'Keefe, J.A. (1967) Letter dated October 26.
4) Baker, R.M. L., Jr. "Future Experiments on Anomalistic
Observational Phenomena, " Journal of the Astronautical Sciences,
18) Page, T. (1968) "Photographic Sky Coverage for the Detection
Vol. XV, No. 1, pp. 44-45.
of UFO's, Science, Vol. 160, pp. 1258-1260.
5) Baker, R.M.L., Jr. and Ford, K.C. (1968) "Performance Analysis
19) Powers, W.T. (1967) "Analysis of UFO Reports, Science,
of Space-Population Cataloging Systems (U), " Secret, SAR,
7 April, 1967, p. 11.
NOFORN Report completed under Air Force Contract F04701-68-C-0219,
22 April 1968.
20) Robey, D.H. (1960) "A Hypothesis on the Slow Moving Green
Fireballs, " Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 17,
6) Baker, R.M. L., Jr. and Makemson, M.W. (1967) An Introduction
No. 11.
to Astrodynamics, Second Edition, Academic Press, New York,
pp. 328-330.
21) Rosa, R.J., Powers, W.T., Valee, J.F., Gibbs, T.R.P.,
Steffey, P.C., Garcia, R.A. and Cohen, G. (1967) Science,
7) Fuller, J.G. (1966) Incident at Exeter Putnam, New York.
Vol. 158, pp. 1265-1266.
8) Glover, K.M., Hardy, K.R., Konrad, T.G., Sullivan, W.N.
22) Shklovskii, L.S. and Sagan C. (1966) Intelligent Life in the
and Michaels, A.S. (1966) "Radar Observations of Insects in
Universe, Holden-Day, Inc. San Francisco.
Free Flight, Science, Vol. 154, pp. 967-972.
23) Singer, S. (1963) in Problems of Atmospheric and Space Electricity,
9) Hynek, J.A. (1966) Science, Vol. 154, p. 329.
edited by S.C. Coroniti, Elsevier Publishing Company, New York,
p. 463.
10) Klass, P.J. (1968a) UFO's Identified, Random House, New York.
24) Tacker, L.J. (1960) Flying Saucers and the United States Air
11) Klass, P.J. (1968b) Letter dated May 29, 1968.
Force, Van Nostraud, Princeton, New Jersey.
12) Lamar, D. L. and Baker, R.M.L., Jr. (1965) "Possible Residual
25) Walker, S., III (1968) "Establishing Observer Creditability:
Effects of Tunguska-type Explosions on Desert Pavements,
A Proposed Method, II Journal of the Astronautical Sciences,
Presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Meteoritical Society
Vol. XV, No. 2, pp. 92-96.
in Odessa, Texas, October 21 to 24.
26) Wooldridge, D.E. (1968) Mechanical Man: The Physical Basis of
Intelligent Life, McGraw-Hill, New York, Chapt. 19.
146
147
APPENDIX 1
00015
"Recent Advances in Astrodynamics, " (with Samuel Herrick), Jet Propul-
sion, 28, No. 10, 1958, 649-654.
July 1968
00016
"Ephemeral Natural Satellites of the Earth, Science, 128, 1958, 1211.
00017
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ROBERT M. L. BAKER, JR.
"Gravitational and Related Constants for Accurate Space Navigation, "
University of California, Los Angeles, Astronomical Papers, No. 24, 1,
1958, 297-338. (Same as Item 00006).
00001
"Elements of Churm's Objects" (with M. W. Corn, G. L. Matlin, and
Silvia Rachman), Minor Planets Circular, 1100, July 15, 1954.
00018
"Precision Orbit Determination, (with L. Walters and E. Durand), Aero-
nutronic Systems, Inc. Report U-306, December 16, 1958.
00002
"Optimal Thrust Angle Program for Transit Between Space Points," Douglas
Aircraft Company Report SM19180, July 1, 1955.
00019
"Note on Interplanetary Navigation, 11 Jet Propulsion, 28, No. 12, 1958,
834-835.
00003
"Keplerian Missile Trajectories Modified by Initial Thrust and Aerodynamic
Drag, Douglas Aircraft Company Report SM-19234, August 1, 1955.
00020
"Accuracy Required for a Return from Interplanetary Voyages, " J. British
Interplanetary Soc., May-June, 1959, 93-97 (similar to Item 00011), Vol. 17,
00004
"Approximation to Missile Trajectories on a Rotating Earth, 11 Douglas
#3.
Aircraft Company Report SM-19235, May 7, 1956.
00021
"The Application of Astronomical Perturbation Techniques to the Return from
00005
"Satellite Librations" (with W. B. Klemperer), Astronautica ACTA, III,
Space Voyages, " ARS Journal, March 1959, 29, No. 3, 207-211.
Fasc. 1, 16-27, 1957.
00022
"Sputtering as it is Related to Hyperbolic Meteorites, J. Applied Physics,
00006
"Units and Constants for Geocentric Orbits" (with Samuel Herrick and C. G.
30, No. 4, April 1959, 550-555.
Hilton), American Rocket Society Reprint No. 497-57; Proceedings of the
8th International Astronautical Congress, Barcelona, 1957, 197-235.
00023
"Transitional Aerodynamic Drag of Meteorites, " Astrophysical Journal, 129,
No. 3, May 1959, 826-841.
00007
"Orbits" (with Samuel Herrick) Aviation Age, March 1958, 70-77, Vol. 28, #9.
00024
"The Sky is No Limit for Opportunities in Astrodynamics, 11 IRE Student
00008
"Transitional Correction to the Drag of a Sphere in Free Molecule Flow"
Quarterly, May 1959.
(with A. F. Charwat), The Physics of Fluids, 1, No. 2, 1958, 73-81.
00025
"Efficient Precision Orbit Computation Techniques, (with G. Westrom,
00009
"Drag Interactions of Meteorites with the Earth's Atmosphere, " disserta-
C. G. Hilton, R. Gersten, J. Arsenault, and E. Browne) ARS Reprint, 1959.
tion submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of PhD at UCLA, May,
(No. 869-59).
1958, xii + 183 pp.
00026
"Three-Dimensional Drag Perturbation Technique, " UCLA Astrodynamical
00010
"Passive Stability of a Satellite Vehicle, " Navigation, 6, No. 1, Spring 1958,
Report #4, July 1, 1959.
64-5.
00027
"Astrodynamics, " (with Samuel Herrick) Astronautics, 4, No. 11, pp. 30,
00011
"Navigational Requirements for the Return from a Space Voyage, " Naviga-
180-1, 1959.
tion, 6, No. 3, Autumn 1958, 175-181.
00028
"Effect of Accommodation on the Transitional Aerodynamic Drag of Meteorites, "
00012
"Practical Limitations on Orbit Determination, " Institute of Aeronautical
Astrophysical Journal, 130, No. 3, 1024-1026, November 1959.
Science Preprint No. 842, July 8-11, 1958, 10 pp.
00029
"Training in Astronautics, " Space, December 1959.
00013
"Astrodynamics and Trajectories of Space Vehicles, " Space Technology
Lecture Series, sponsored by the Long Island IRE and the American Rocket
Society, November 13, 1958.
00014
"Encke's Method and Variation of Parameters as Applied to Re-entry Tra-
jectories, " American Astronautical Society Reprint No. 58-36, August 19,
1958, 13 pp. and Journal of the American Astronautical Society, 6, No. 1,
1959.
148
149
00030
New York, October 1960, 358 + xxi.
An Introduction to Astrodynamics (with Maud Makemson) Academic Press,
00044
"Preliminary Results Concerning Range-Only Orbit Determination, 11 Pro-
00031
"Librations on a Slightly Eccentric Orbit, " ARS Journal, 30, No. 1,
ceedings of the First International Symposium on Analytical Astrodynamics,
124-26, January 1960.
p. 61, June 29, 1961.
00032
00045
"Plane Librations of a Prolate Ellipsoidal Shell, " ARS Journal, 30, No. 1,
"Perturbations, " pp. 4-16 - 4-18; "Orbit Determination, 11 pp. 8-34 - 8-38;
126-128, January, 1960.
"Navigation, pp. 27-33 - 27-34, Handbook of Astronautical Engineering,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1961.
00033
"Lunar Guidance, " (with Maj. J. Schmitt and C. C. Combs) in SR-183
00046
Lunar Observatory Study Vol. II (S), ARDC Project No. 7987, Task No.
"State of the Art - 1961 Astrodynamics, Astronautics, Vol. 6, No. 12,
December 1961.
19769, AFBMD TR 60-44, pages П-3 to II-43, April 1960.
00047
00034
"Orbit Determination from Range and Range-Rate Data, " ARS Preprint
"Review of Methods of Celestial Mechanics, by Dirk Brouwer and G. M.
1220-60, May 1960.
Clemence, and Review of Physical Principles of Astronautics by Arthur
I. Berman, 11 The Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. VIII, No. 4
00035
Winter 1961.
October 1960 29-68.
"Astrodynamics, " in Space Trajectories (Academic Press, New York),
00048
"Astrodynamics" Chapter in McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and
00036
"Three-Dimensional Drag Perturbation Technique, " ARS Journal, 30,
Technology, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1962.
No. 8, 748-753, 1960. (Same as 00026)
00049
"Determination of the Orbit of the Russian Venus Probe, " (with B.C.
00037
"Review of Perturbations of Orbits of Artificial Satellites Due to Air Resis-
Douglas, David Newell, A. K. Stazer, R. L. Held and M. Lifson). ARS
tance, ARS Journal, July 1960, 703-704, Vol. 30, No. 7.
Journal, pp. 259-260, February 1962.
00038
00050
"Review of Dependence of Secular Variations of Orbit Elements on Air
"A Note on the Determination of Orbit from Fragmentary Data, " (with
Resistance, ARS Journal, July 1960, 675, Vol. 30, No. 7.
B. C. Douglas and Mary P. Francis). Lockheed Astrodynamics Research
Report #1, LR 15379, April 1962.
00039
"Efficient Precision Orbit Computation Techniques (revised) ARS Journal,
00051
30, No. 8, 740-747, 1960.
"Review of Introduction to Space Dynamics by W. T. Thomson, " Review
of An Introduction to Celestial Mechanics by Theodore E. Sterne, " Review
00040
"State-of-the-Art-1960 Astrodynamics, " Astronautics, 5, No. 11, 30, 1960.
of Fundamentals of Celestial Mechanics, by J. M. A. Danby, " The Journal
of Astronautical Sciences, Vol. IX, No. 4, Winter 1962.
00041
"Novel Orbit Determination Techniques As Applied to Air Force Systems, "
00052
paper presented to the Seventh Annual ARDC Science and Engineering Sym-
"Influence of Planetary Mass Uncertainty on Interplanetary Orbits, " ARS
Journal, No. 12, Vol. 32, December 1962.
posium Boston, Massachusetts, November 30, 1960.
00042
00053
1960 Advances in Astrodynamics, " ARS Journal, December 1960 (expanded
"Elimination of Spurious Data in the Process of Preliminary and Definitive
version of Item 00038).
Orbit Determination, " Dynamics of Satellites Symposium (Paris, May 28-30,
1962), Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1963.
00043
"Analysis and Standardization of Astrodynamic Constants, " (with Makemson
00054
and Westrom), Journal of the American Astronautical Society, VII, No. 1.
"Utilization of the Laplacian Method from a Lunar Observatory, " Icarus,
Vol. 1, No. 4, January 1963.
00055
"Lunar Radio Beacon Location by Doppler Measurements, " (with T. P.
Gabbard), AIAA Journal, Vol. 1, No. 4, April 1963.
150
151
00056
"Review of Space Mechanics, by W. C. Nelson and E. E. Loft, " Journal
00069
Proc. of COSPAR/IUTAM/IAU Symp. Springer/Verlag,
of Astronautical Sciences, Winter 1963.
1966 (Same as 00067)
00057
"A Bibliography of General Perturbation Solutions of Earth Satellite Motion, 11
00070
An Introduction to Astrodynamics - 2nd Edition, Academic Press,
by Taylor Gabbard Jr. and Eugene Levin. Astronautics and Aerospace
New York, 1967. (With M. W. Makemson)
Engineering, November 1963.
00071
Astrodynamics - Applications and Advanced Topics, Academic Press,
00058
"Review of Introduction to Celestial Mechanics, by S. W. MCuskey, "
New York, 1967.
Journal of Astronautical Sciences, Winter 1963.
00072
"Recent Advances in Astrodynamics, 1961, 11 (with Mary P. Francis),
00059
"Review of Space Flight Vo. II Dynamics, by Kraft Enricke, " Journal of
UCLA Astrodynamical Report #13, January 1962. (Similar to 00046)
Astronautical Sciences, Winter 1963.
00073
"Review of Theory of Orbits by V. Szebehely, 11 Journal of The
00060
"Influence of Martian Ephemeris and Constants on Interplanetary Trajectories,"
Franklin Institute, Vol. 284, No. 6, December 1967.
Chapter in Exploration of Mars, American Astronautical Society, 1963.
00074
"Observational Evidence of Anomalistic Phenomena, " 1968,
00061
"Orbit Determination by Linearized Drag Analysis, 11 (with Kurt Forster).
Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, Volume XV, No. 1, pp. 31-36.
AIAA Preprint No. 63-428, presented to AIAA Astrodynamics Conference
August 19-21, 1963, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
00075
"Future Experiments on Anomalistic Observational Phenomena, 11
1968, letter to editor, Journal of the Astronautical Sciences,
00062
"Extension of f and g Series to Non-Two-Body Forces, 11 AIAA Preprint No.
Volume XV, No. 1, pp. 44-45.
64-33. Presented at the Aerospace Sciences Meeting, New York, New York,
January 20-22, 1964, also AIAA Journal, July, 1964.
00076
"Astrodynamics, " 1968, in Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Physics,
Pergamon Press.
00063
"Review of Orbital Dynamics of Space Vehicles, " by Ralph Deutsch,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Journal of Astronautical Sciences, Spring 1964.
00077
"Performance Analysis of Space-Population Cataloging Systems (U), "
1968, Secret, SAR, NOFORN Report completed under Air Force
00064
"An Introduction to Astrodynamics, " (with Maud Makemson) Academic Press,
Contract F04701-68-C-0219. (With K. C. Ford), April 22, 1968.
New York, October 1960, third printing, 1963), Fourth Printing in preparation.
00078
"Hydrofoil Sailcraft Water Conveyance Optimum Lift-off Speed, 11
00065
"1964 State of the Art in Astrodynamics, " AIAA Annual Meeting, Wash., D.C.
1968, Science, in press.
June 19 - July 2, 1964, AIAA Preprint No. 64-535. (Also lecture given at
Univ. of Wash., Seattle, May 29, 1964, and at Boeing Scientific Research
00079
"Preliminary Orbit Determination for High-Data-Rate Sensors, 11
Laboratory, June 1, 1964).
1968, Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, Volume XV, No. 5.
00066
"Space Mechanics, 11 Chapter in Space/Aeronautics. Research and Development
00080
"Surveillance System Sensor Mis-Association of One Object with
Tech. Handbook, 1964/1965, pp. 11-13, published by Conover-Mast, 1964.
Another, 11 1968, to be published.
(New York).
00067
"Radiation on a Satellite in the Presence of Partly Diffuse and Partly Specular
Reflecting Body, " presented at the Joint Symposium on the TRAJECTORIES OF
ARTIFICIAL CELESTIAL BODIES AS DETERMINED FROM OBSERVATIONS;
Paris, France, April 20-23, 1965.
00068
"Possible Residual Effects of Metoer and Comet Explosions on Desert Pave-
ments, 11 with Donald L. Lamar; presented at the 28th Meteoritical Society
Meeting, Odessa, Texas, October 1965.
152
153
APPENDIX 2
THE APPLIED ASSESSMENT OF CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INTEGRITY; A METHOD FOR
I.
Statement of Reason(s) for Evaluation of the Subject
ESTABLISHING THE CREDITABILITY OF EYE WITNESSES AND OTHER OBSERVERS
The subject, Mr. C. F. McC. (Project #704), is a 37 year-old white
by
Catholic single male who is a Tucson bank official. He was referred to us for
screening on 17 November 1967 by the Tucson Police Department, following his
Dr. Sydney Walker III
17 November 1967 (AM) report that he had seen a large, luminous disc in the
northeastern sky for several minutes at 3 AM, the same date. His evaluation
took place on 18 and 19 November 1967 as part of the Research Project on
THE APPLIED ASSESSMENT OF
Anomolistic Phenomena.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INTEGRITY:
A METHOD FOR ESTABLISHING THE CREDITABILITY
OF EYE WITNESSES AND OTHER OBSERVERS
II.
General Medical Evaluation
I.
Statement of Reason(s) for Evaluation of the Subject
A. Past History
II.
General Medical Evaluation
Medical History: The subject says his general state of health has always been
A. Past History (medical, family, social)
good, that he has no current physical complaints and has not seen a physician
B. Review of Systems (i.e. cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, etc.)
in the past five years.
C. Physical Examination
Childhood diseases: Measles, mumps, chicken pox before the age
D. Selected Laboratory Studies (hematologic, urinary, biochemical)
of six. No complications.
E. Summary of Positive Findings
Hospitalizations and Operations: a) Tonsillectomy in 1938 with
F. Probability (discussion plus creditability score) of Influence of
a two day hospitalization, and no complications; b) Appendectomy in 1943 with
General Medical Status on Observer Creditability
four day hospitalization, and no complications.
Past illnesses: He denies having had a) tuberculosis b) venereal
III. Neuro-ophthalmologic Evaluation
diseases c) pneumonia d) heart, kidney, and gastrointestinal problems e) neuro-
A. "Eye" History
logic or psychiatric difficulties.
B. Qualitative Ophthalmologic Examination: detailed, descriptive report
Drugs: Only medication at the present time are non-proprietory
C. Quantitative Neuro-ophthalmologic Investigation
sleeping pills ("Sleep Eze"). He has not ever been exposed to any toxic substances,
1. Photographs (color) of exterior eyes (gross)
has never had to take any medication over a long period, and has never used any of
2. Goniometry
the popular addicting drugs.
3. Visual Acuity (quantitated)
4. Color Vision (quantitated)
Family History: Father died in 1947 at age 58 from a "stroke". Mother died in
5. Photographs (color) of the fundi (retina, optic nerve, etc.)
1959 at age 70 of unknown causes. She had had "asthma" for a number of years.
6. Visual Fields by perimetry (quantitated)
There are six siblings, ranging in age from 29 to 43 (two older brothers and four
7. Ophthalmodynomometry (quantitated)
sisters). All are alive and in good health. There is no family history of diabetes,
8. Opticokinetic examination
hypertension, malignancy, epilepsy, migraine headache, psychosis, or tuberculosis.
D. Summary of Positive Findings
All of the males in the subjects! immediate family (father, brothers, and subject
E. Probability (discussion plus score) of Influence of Neuro-ophthalmoligic
himself) have been heavy drinkers.
Status on Observer Creditability
Social History: Mr. McC. presently works forty-four hours per week as a junior
IV. Neurologic Evaluation
executive for a local bank where he has been for the past five years. He lives
A. Neurologic History
alone in a boarding house. He has never married and presently doesn't date. His
B. Neurologic Examination
present residence in Arizona started approximately twelve years ago following hi S
C. Pertinent Laboratory Studies (biochemical, toxic metals, etc.)
honorable discharge from the Army. During his two years in the Military Service,
D. Summary of Positive Findings
he worked in the finance office and achieved the rank of Corporal. The patient
E. Probability (discussion plus score) of Influence of Neurologic Status
has smoked from one to two packs of cigarettes per day for the past twelve years
on Observer Creditability
and admits to daily "social drinking" (for clarification, see Section V.
Psychiatric Anamnesis).
V.
Psychiatric Evaluation
A. Anamnesis: Detailed History plus Exploration of Attitudes and
B. Review of Systems
Feelings (via interview)
B. Mental Status Examination
Head: No history of trauma, loss of consciousness, headaches, or light-headedness.
C. MMPI Testing (for corroboration and additional information about
Eyes: No double vision, blurred vision, flashing lights, spots, or halos around
personality)
lights. No history of trauma or previous infection or excessive tearing. Recent
D. Summary of Positive Findings: Psychiatric Evaluation and Character
onset of photophobia so troublesome that he wears sunglasses all the time on bright
Assessment (with supportive data)
days.
E. Probability (discussion plus score) of Influence of Psychiatric
Status on Observer Creditability
VI. Integration of Findings and Composite Assessment of Central Nervous
System Functioning
A. Summary of Specific Abnormalities with a Discussion of Their Relation
to Each Other and Their Multifactorial Contribution to Observer
Creditability (plus an Overall Creditability Score)
97-818
154
155
Ears: No pain or discharge. No previous infections or traums. No ringing,
dizziness, or decrease in acuity.
Heart and Vessels: Maximum pulse at 5th intercostal space; regular rhythm; no
Mouth: No difficulty with chewing or swallowing; no burning or biting of the
murmurs. There is no evidence of varicosities, stasis, or ischemia.
toneue. No history of dental problems.
Abdomen: Moderate protrusion of abdomen with liver edge felt in right upper
Nose: No nosebleeds, trauma, difficulty with smelling or post-nasal discharge.
quadrant, 2 cm. below the costal margin (sharp edge, non-tender, non-nodular).
Neck: No history of trauma, difficulty swallowing; no limitation of motion, no
No other organomegaly or masses. No rebound or direct tenderness. Normal bowel
pain, sense of fullness, uncontrolled movements, or stiffness.
sounds. No ascites or costovertebral angle tenderness.
Cardiorespiratory: No difficulty breathing, shortness of breath or chronic cough,
Rectal: No hemorrhoids or masses, or tenderness. Good sphincter tone; stool
no bloody sputum, night sweats, palpitation, or exertional dyspnea. No light-
guaiac negative.
headedness on getting up, no chest pain.
Genitourinary: Normal uncircumcized male phallus; no evidence of scars or chancres.
Gastrointestinal: No nausea, vomiting, constipation, or diarrhea. No abdominal
Testes are descended bilaterally, of normal consistency and non-tender.
pain, no history of bloody stools or changes in color of stool. No history of
Extremities: No limitation of motion or deformity. No inflammation or ulceration.
hemorrhoids or rectal surgery.
No clubbing or peripheral edema.
Genitourinary: No dysuria, pyuria, or hematuria. No nocturia, no costovertebral
Neurological: See Section IV. (Neurologic Evaluation).
angle tenderness. No penile discharge or sores.
Endocrine system: No polydipsia or polyuria. Recent waning of appetite, however,
D. Selected Laboratory Studies
associated with his depression of the past two months. No history of increase of
Normal
Subject
hat, shoe, or ring size. No excessive sweating, heat intolerance, or loss of hair.
Hematology:
Sexual difficulties described in Section V (Psychiatric Anamnesis).
Hematocrit
40 54%
42%
Allergic and Immunologic: The subject denies sensitivity to any foods or drugs.
Hemoglobin
14 - 18 Gm.%
14.5%
He has had no rashes of a protracted nature. He has been immunized for smallpox,
RBC
4.5 - 6.2 mill/cu.mm
5.5 mil/cu.mm
tetanus, diphtheria, and polio (without adverse reactions).
Sed. Rate
less than 10mm/hr.Wintrobe
18mm/hr.
White blood cell count
5 - 10,000 cu./mm.
12,000 cu/mm
C. General Physical Examination
Segmented neutrophiles
40 60 %
45%
Band neutrophiles
O 5%
4%
General Appearance: The subject is of medium build, weighs 149 lbs. and is five
Lymphocytes
20 40 %
40%
feet eleven inches tall. He has dark brown hair, is light-complaxioned, appears
Monocytes
4 8 %
7%
well-nourished and hydrated.
Eosinophiles
1 3%
4%
Vital Signs: Blood pressure: 140/80 right arm, 145/85 left arm. (On standing
Basophiles
0 1 %
0
the pressure in each arm dropped 10 mmHg. immediately and then returned to normal).
Myelocytes
0
0
Temperature: 98.6; Respirations: 20 per minute; Pulse: 90 per minute and regular.
Skin: His face is ruddy with mild malar telangiectasia bilaterally. There is no
Non-specific Chemistries:
evidence of jaundice, cyanosis, or pallor. Hair distribution and texture is
Sodium
136 - 145 mEq/L.
135 mEq./L.
normal. His nails are of good texture and clean. No scars or other skin lesions
Potassium
2.5 - 4.5 mEq/L.
3.0 mEq./L.
are present.
Chloride
100 - 106 mEq/L.
98 mEq./L.
Head: Normocephalic; no exostoses, tenderness, or bruits.
Carbon Dioxide content
24 - 29 mEq/L.
29 mEq./L.
Eyes: No ptosis, exophthalmous, enophthalmous or scleral pigmentation. Mild
conjunctival injection bilaterally (for detailed examination and review, see
Liver Function Tests:
Section III. Neuro-ophthalmology).
Bilirubin (Van den Bergh)
Nose: No inflammation or discharge; both nostrils patent; no sinus tenderness.
Direct
0.1 - 0.4 mg./100 ml.
0.7 mg./100 ml.
Ears: Normal external configuration, no tophi discharge or tenderness. Both
Indirect
0.2 0.7 mg./100 m.
0.9 mg./100 ml.
external canals clear; tympanic membranes are glistening.
Alkaline phosphatase
2 - 4.5 (Bodansky units)
5.8
Mouth: No fissures, inflammation or ulceration around the lips. Oral mucosa
Albumin/Globulin
3.5 - 5.5Gml/1.5 - 3Gml
3.2/3.6Gm.%
is clear and pink. Teeth are in good repair. Tongue shows moderate degree of
cigarette stain. Papillae appear normal.
Endocrine Studies:
Throat: No ulceration; moderate injection of posterior pharynx (consistent with
PBI
4 - 8 microgram/100ml.
6.2 microgm/100ml.
heavy smoking). No tonsils present.
T-3 Uptake
10.3 - 14.3 units
11.9 units
Neck: Supple; trachea midline; carotids of good quality bilaterally without thrills
Glucose (Folin)
80 - 120mg./ml.
100mg./ml.
or bruits. No venous distension, masses, or tenderness.
Cholesterol
150 - 280mg./100ml.
205mg./100ml.
Thorax: Symmetrical; breasts normal for male without masses or axillary adenopathy.
No increase in A-P diameter; fair diaphragmatic excursion.
Renal:
Lungs: Few dry, basilar rales which cleared upon coughing. Otherwise, clear. No
Blood Urea Nitrogen
8 - 20 mg./100ml.
11mg./100ml.
fremitus, ronchi, or hyperresonance.
Urinalysis:
Grossly amber and clear. Specific gravity: 1.015.
pH: 5.5; albumin: negative; glucose: negative; acetone: negative.
156
157
Microscopic:
III. Neuro-ophthalmologic Evaluation
WBC/HPF - 0-2
RBC/HPF - 0-1
A. "Eye" History
No casts seen. Amorphous urates (moderate amount) present.
Subject denies previous history of transient blindness, blurred
vision, double vision, spots or shadows before his eyes or protracted pain in
E. Summary of Positive Findings
his eyes. His last eye evaluation was 20 years ago. This was during high
school and was prompted by headaches when reading. Reading glasses were pre-
1. History of chronic alcoholism and heavy smoking.
scribed at that time and he wore them for approximately eight months and then
2. Recent photophobia.
discarded them. He denies any eye problems since that time. He states that
3. Hepatomegaly, with ruddy complexion with malar telangiectasia.
both his parents wore glasses only for reading and that none of his siblings
4. Effects of smoking: tobacco-stained teeth, injected posterior
wear glasses. He states also that his father developed glaucoma at age 55 and
pharynx, and basilar rales.
was required to use eye drops to keep it under control.
5. Abnormal liver function studies: Bilirubin elevated in both
direct and indirect fractions; elevated alkaline phosphatase; decreased albumin
There is no history of trauma or infection in the past five years.
and elevated globulin (reversed A/G ratio).
On questioning, the patient acknowledges a mildly irritating tearing which he has
noticed for six to eight weeks, associated with a slight mistiness of his vision.
He also has been wearing sunglasses on bright days for the same period because
F. Discussion and Creditability Score
the sunlight hurts his eyes.
The subject has definite changes of early alcoholic cirrhosis.
B. Qualitative Ophthalmologic Examination
At this point in time the toxic effects of his liver pathology would be expected
to functioning. be exerting only a mildly adverse influence on overall central nervous system
Subject is right eye dominant. There is no evidence of structural
abnormality, trauma, or ptosis (see photo in Section III C 1). The palpebral
fissure is of normal shape and size. The cornea is clear bilaterally but the
Such effects, however, would serve to aggravate any already existing
conjunctivae show a moderate degree of injection, without discoloration. The
neurological and/or psychological problems.
sclerae are also clear without abnormal vessels or pigmentation. The iris is
bilaterally brown. The pupils are symmetrically round, equal, and both 4 mm.
Creditability Score 75%.
in diameter. They reacted to light sluggishly and responded to accommodation
directly and consensually (see Fig. #1). The extra-ocular muscles function
normally. There is no image separation upon red glass testing. There was no
nystagmus either horizontally or vertically.
Funduscopic examination reveals a poor red reflex bilaterally.
There are no apparent floaters or other opacities in the vitreous. The disc
shows sharp margins bilaterally but the normal physiologic cupping is absent.
There is a pale quality to the nerve head. Both retinae show a confluent
mottling which completely obscures the macula. There are no hemorrhages or
exudates. The arteriovenous ratio is approximately 5 to 1.
Gross confrontation shows no apparent field cuts and no extinction
to bimanual visual stimuli.
C. Quantitative Neuro-ophthalmologic Investigation
1. Photographs of exterior eyes (gross):
(Taken with a Zeiss 1.5 F. lens from 15 cm. using strobescopic lighting). The
conjunctival injection is visible; the absence of pigmentation, the state of
the pupils, and the axis of the eyes are clearly visible.
158
159
5. The fundus photos were taken with a Zeiss fundus camera
containing a built-in strobescopic light source. The pupils were dilated with
1% Neo-Synephrine. The previously noted defects of absent cupping, mottled
photos. retinitis, and arteriovenous disproportion are readily documented in these
2. Goniometry: The intraocular pressures have been measured with
a Schioetz Tonometer. The readings were taken three times, on 19 November 1967,
at 10:30 AM (two days after the subject had seen the light).
Right Eye
Left Eye
#1
18
20
#2
21
17
#3
19
19
These consistently normal pressures would dictate against the presence of
glaucoma.
3. Visual Acuity: Using the modified Snellen Charts, the right
eye showed an acuity of 20/30 and the left eye of 20/35.
4. Color Vision: (Measured with the American Optical Pseudo-
isochromatic Plates in 60 footcandles of light): moderate red-green dyschroma-
nopsia was revealed about which the patient claimed he had no previous awareness.
DEMONSTRATION SERIES
DIAGNOSTIC SERIES
C.F.MEC.
Four plates. Do NOT score.
Protan
Deutan
SCREENING
7
O
A
O.K
SCREENING SERIES
SERIES
8
(Symbol location in this series
X
X
ANALYSIS
Mild
varies in different books.)
R-G
9
A
OK
Normal
Defect
Test
Repetition
10
o
x
Defective:
Plate Symbol
No.
11
x
O.K
B-Y
o
O.K
R-G
X
X
1 X,O
B-Y
12
A
OK
Defect
Medium
R-G
13
O
A
DIAGNOSTIC
OK
Defect
2 O.A
SERIES
6. Perimetry was pervformed with a Matalene hand perimeter,
14
A
O.K
x
OK
ANALYSIS
using both a white (5mm.) and red (5mm.) test object. The patient was tested
both at 50 and 10 footcandles of illumination. The fields show bilateral
Strong
15
x
OK
O
O.K
R-G
TYPE:
Defect
16
o
OK
A
OK
3 Д,Х
Protan
TOTAL
5
5
Deutan
Tritan
Tetartan
Tritan
4 O.A
O.K
Medium
17
o.k.
Tetartan
A
X
R-G
O.K
B-Y
Unclassified
X
Defect
Defect
18
X
or
O
D.K
50
Strong
19
O
O.K
1
U.K. EXTENT
B-Y
Defect
20
A
2.1
X
O.K
Mild
Medium
x
X
6 x
V.
3-8
TOTAL
0
0
STORE
160
161
centrocecal scotomata larger for the red object than for the white. There is a
Adapted. to the "Meyrowitz" 90 Perimeter 75
superior temporal quadrant defect bilaterally of approximately 30° with the red
Eye
Right
object stimulus which is not present with the white object. In reduced illumi-
60"
120°
nation the subject is completely unable to see any of the test objects.
45°
7. Ophthalmodynomometry was performed with a Cuilbert-Routit
135
dynomometer (using 1% Pontocaine anesthetic) with direct vision of the end
point O.D.: 70/30 units; O.S.: 65/30 units. There were no carotid bruits or
50
30'
thrills; the simultaneous systemic blood pressure was 140/80 sitting and 130/80
150
1
standing.
40
8. Opticokinetics (using a one meter by ten centimeter red back-
30
15
ground cloth with a 10 cm X 8 cm. white check) was performed at a distance of
165
20
one meter horizontally bilaterally and vertically. The nystagmus response in
all directions was normal.
50
60
70
80
0"
40
30
20
20
SO
40
0
50
180
D. Summary of Positive Findings
10
1. A history of 6 - 8 weeks of tearing, misty vision, and
20
345
photophobia.
195
30
2. A pale optic nerve with absent cupping; sluggishly reacting
pupils; impaired red light reflex.
40
3. Confluent retinal mottling, obscured macula, mild red-green
'330'
dyschromanopsia.
210
50
4. Bilateral centrocecal scotomata; bilateral superior temporal
60
quadrantanopsia (for red stimulus only. Vision in decreased light (10 foot-
315
candles): grossly impaired to absent.
225
70
300
E. Discussion and Creditability Score
240
285
RET MARKIR
225
The definite retinitis, field defects for red vision, and red-green
270
dyschromanopsia, along with a history of tearing, misty vision, and photophobia
Adapted to the "Meyrowite" 90 Persineter
are all consistent with the diagnosis of tobacco-alcohol amblyopia (Ref. 1). This
condition is also supported by the findings in the General Medicine Evaluation,
Eye
Left
60°
where other effects of excessive smoking and alcoholism are evident.
120
The subject's retinal pathology is severe; in terms of the specific
45"
135
event he claims he saw, it is extreme. His "sighting" is highly unlikely because
he attaches both color and shape to it in the face of specific defiencies in each
of these areas. His attestation about seeing the object best when looking
50
30*
150
straight at it (see Psychiatric Anamnesis) is uncreditable because his central
40
macular vision has been so severely compromised by retinitis. It is conceivable
that what actually happened is that he 1) received a transient visual stimulus
30
15
(i.e., car or airplane lights) which 2) set off some abnormal receptor firing
165
in a damaged retinal area and 3) in turn was misperceived.
20
Creditability score 5%.
50
60
0"
80
70
60
50
40
30
30
-10
20
30
40
180
,
20
345
195
so
40
'330'
210
50
Ref. 1 Walsh, F.B.: Clinical Neuro-ophthalmology Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore
60
1957, p. 1182.
315
225
70
300
240
285
255
RED MARKER
270'
162
163
IV.
Neurologic Evaluation
Sensory Examination: There is no impairment of vibration sense, position, pain,
A. Neurologic History:
or light touch.
Deep Tendon Reflexes:
Subject is right-handed and denies any degree of ambidextry. He
Pectoral (C6-8): +2 bilaterally
denies periods of euphoria, uncontrolled behavior or delirium. He denies recent
Biceps (C5-6): +3 bilaterally
changes or difficulty with dressing, eating, or writing. He states that he does
Radial Pronator (C6-7): +2 bilaterally
not feel that he has recently become clumsy or weak. He said he had never had
Triceps (C7-8): +3 bilaterally
the experience of deja-vu episodes or of performing acts over which he had no
Finger Flexion (C7-T1): +2 bilaterally
control and no unpleasant tastes or odors that he couldn't explain. He states
Deep abdominal (T6-12): +2 bilaterally
that he is not aware of any increased difficulty in expressing himself or under-
Pubo-adductor (L2-4): +1 bilaterally
standing the speech of others. He has no problem with calculation or with seeing
Patellar (quadriceps) (L2-4): +3 bilaterally
objects as smaller or larger than they really were. He is not aware of any
Hamstring (sciatic nerve) (L4-S2): +2 bilaterally
difficulty with color vision, flashing lights, or other forms of visual hallucina-
Ankle jerk (gastrocnemius) (S1-2): +2 bilaterally
tions.
Gluteal (L4-S2) +2 bilaterally
He admits to headaches which occur after he has been drinking
Superficial Reflexes:
heavily; these have been decreasing in frequency. He states that he has never
Plantar reflex: both great toes are unequivocally down-going (flexon).
lost consciousness (with associated tongue biting, incontinence, or period of
Chaddock, Oppenheim, and Gordon reflexes are also down-going.
confusion upon awaking). He denies trauma or infections of his head, eyes, ears,
Superficial Abdominals react equally bilaterally.
or neck.
Motor Function:
Good strength both proximally and distally in upper and lower extremities.
B. Neurologic Examination:
Wrist flexors and extensors are equal bilaterally; grip is strong bilaterally.
Other Cortical Tests:
Mental Status: See Section V (Psychiatric Evaluation).
Frontal Lobe: No suck, grasp, snout, or palmomental reflexes.
Cerebellar Function: Finger-to-nose and heel-to-shin intact; rapid alternating
Temporal Lobe: No hemianopsia on confrontation.
movements are rhythmical and coordinated; no awkwardness or other abnormalities
Parietal Lobe: No stereognosis, bimanual extinction, or impaired 2-point
in any gross or fine movements. Foot dexterity and Figure eight test are performed
discrimination.
without difficulty. No broad-based gait or ataxia noted.
Occipital Lobe: See Section III (Neuro-ophthalmology).
Cranial Nerves:
Autonomic evidence. Function: There is no abnormal sweat level and no flushing is in
I
Olfactory: Each nostril perceived cloves (stimulus was identified
with patients' eyes closed).
II
Optic Nerve: Reported in detail in Section III (Neuro-ophthalmology).
C. Pertinent Laboratory Studies:
III, IV, VI Nerves: See Section III (Neuro-ophthalmology)
V
Trigeminal: All sensory divisions are intact to pin prick. The
Blood:
Normal Value
Subject
corneal reflex is present bilaterally and equally. The masseter and pterygoid
Calcium
9 - 11 mg/100 ml.
9.3 mg/100ml.
muscles show equal strength of good quality. The jaw jerk is normal.
Phosphorous
3 - 4. mg/100 ml.
4.0 mg/100ml.
VII Facial Nerve: There is no asymmetry of the resting facial muscles.
Magnesium
1.5 - 2.5 mEq.
1.6 mEq./L.
There is no weakness or asymmetry upon raiding the eye brows, closing or opening
Barbiturates
the eyes, or showing the teeth. Taste was intact bilaterally for sugar and salt.
a) long-acting
less than 5 mg/100 ml.
none
VIII Acoustic:
b) short-acting
less than 1 mg/100 ml.
none
a) Cochlear Portion: Patient perceives normal conversation without
Dilantin
none
none
difficulty. Weber and Rinne testing show no lateralization. Air conduction is
Bromides
1 - 2 mEq./L.
3 mEq./L.
Carbon Monoxide
greater than bone conduction.
b) Vestibular Portion: There is no abnormal nystagmus, past-
(Carboxyhemoglobin)
less than 5%
none
pointing, or veering when walking.
Urine:
IX, X Glossopharngeal and Vagus Nerves: The palate is midline and freely
movable, with bilaterally equal elevation on stimulation. Gag reflex is intact
Coproporphyrins
none
none
bilaterally. No difficulty in swallowing and no regurgitation occurred when
Uroporphyrins
none
none
Lead
swallowing water.
0 - 0.12 mg/24hr.
none
XI Accessory Nerve: The trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles have
Arsenic
0.1 mg/liter
none
good strength, without fasciculation, atrophy, and spasm.
Mercury
10 microgram/24hr.
none
XII Hypoglossal Nerve: The tongue protrudes in the midline; there is no
Salicylates
none - 30mg/100ml.
none
evidence of atrophy or fasciculation; there is good strength in both directions.
Ethyl Alcohol
none
none
There is no difficulty with articulation and no dysarthria.
Pehnothiazines
none
none
Alkaloid screening
a) atropine
none
none
b) ergotamine
none
none
164
165
Normal Value
Subject
V. Psychiatric Evaluation
Serologic Test:
FTA-ABS
negative
negative
A. Anamesis
(Flourescent Treponemal
Antibody Absorption Test)
The subject was seen for psychiatric evaluation on each of two
Brucella Agglutination
negative
negative
successive days for one and a half hour interviews. The first interview took
Coccidioidomycosis
negative
negative
place 36 hours after he had seen the luminal object. He is aware of why he is
being seen, says he "doesn't mind a bit", but feels nervous because he doesn't
know exactly what he will be "expected to tell" about himself.
D. Summary of Positive Findings
He came to live in the Tucson area 12 years ago because of his
1. Optic Nerve changes: (see Neuro-ophthalmologic Evaluation).
widowed mothers' failing health and a doctors recommendation that she move from
East Boston (where they had always lived) to a drier climate. Since her death
2. Bromides and atropine detected in urine.
9 years ago, he has carried on alone, at first in their apartment and then in a
boarding house where his meals are prepared and his laundry is done for him.
Although he is not enthusiastic about his living arrangement, he seems quite
E. Discussion and Creditability Score:
proud of his association with a branch of the local bank. In the past five
years, he has advanced from assistant bookkeeper to teller to head teller to
Since the head of the optic nerve (disc) is directly visible
the banks' real estate loan section, of which he has been the chief for a week.
for examination, its state is often used as a reflection of the condition
He says that it was five days after he had assumed this new responsibility that
of the other nerves. It can be reasonably conjectured that the same meta-
he saw the "odd light in the sky".
bolic or toxic insults that have produced the abnormal appearance of the
subject's optic nerve are also subtlely influencing his other nervous
He describes the scene as follows: He had been having trouble
system functioning (even although no gross neurologic signs can be elicited).
getting to sleep for two months (doesn't know why) and this particular night
One likely effect of such changes would be increased irritability and assoc-
was no exception. Although he had taken several "Sleep-eze" tablets, he still
iated behavioral effects. These would also be expected to occur as a result
felt edgy and very wide awake at 2:30 AM. So he got up from bed to get a
of the bromide or atropine toxicity (associated with the subject's excessive
cigarette and a shot of bourbon. He then sat facing his closed window and
use of non-proprietary sleeping medication).
gazing out, preoccupied, for about half an hour. He remembers everything seemed
very still and quiet but can't recall what he was thinking about. About 3 AM he
In this case, the subject's abnormal liver function (reversed
became vaguely aware of a new light near the mountains off to his left (north-
A/G ratio, etc.) increases the danger of such toxicity because of his impaired
east).
ability to bind, detoxify, and excrete both bromides and atropine. Halluci-
nations are among the outstanding toxic effects of both these drugs (Ref. 2).
It seemed to be moving toward his direct line of vision and as it
It would thus not be unlikely that the contents of the sleeping pills have
did so became increasingly vivid. The light was a diffuse, pale, yellow-green
not only contributed to the subject's current psychic disequilibrium but
color. It seemed very large (twenty to thirty times the size of an airplane at
have specifically affected his propensity to "see things".
the same distance) and its shape was like that of a humped disc that was flat
at the bottom. At times, it seemed to be hardly moving at all, at others it
Creditability score 75%.
bobbed up and down as if from a breeze. He felt peculiarly drawn to it and
seemed unable to avoid looking at it. When he tried to glance to either side
of it, the disc seemed to fade, and he felt almost as though his direct gaze
was the only thing hodling it there. At the same time, he felt almost as
though he were being called upon by it to stare. Afterwards, upon reflecting,
he decided that it was the unusual nature of the object that had created these
peculiar feelings in him.
After a couple of minutes it seemed less bright and looked like it
was beginning to move away. At that point he felt as though he wanted to follow
it. By the time it had completely faded away, he felt a little sad, lonely,
hopeless, or something, he's not sure which.
It never occurred to him to call anyone else's attention to the
light (probably because of the late hour, he says) and he was surprised to be
asked about that by the police the next day. He says, however, that anyone in
the city who was looking in a northeasterly direction at the right time that
Ref. 2.
Walker, S. Psychiatric Signs and Symptoms Due to Medical
Problems,
CC. Thomas, Springfield, Ill. 1967
166
167
night couldn't have missed that light. Although it was an unusual sight, it
seemed very real to him and is still very vivid in his mind. He had never seen
For three months, he worked as a grocery store clerk (in order to
anything like it before and in fact had never previously had the occassion to
pay his angry landlady for accumulated rent) but found the work intolerably
report anything whatever to the police. He says that the only reason he had
fatiguing and took a switchboard job which he did for the three years prior to
reported seeing the light was a sense of duty, after he had read in the morning
going to the bank.
paper that some one else had also seen an unusual object in the sky on the same
night.
His bank work record has apparently been very good. He has taken
only two sick days in the entire five years and is never late. Frequently, he
The patient was the youngest male and third youngest child among
wakes up in the morning feeling as though he can't make it to work, but his
seven siblings born in Boston into a lower class urban situation, during the
respect for and sense of responsibility to the institution itself (rather than
Depression. His father, Irish by heritage, was an occassional bartender who
to any superior or individual person) always win out.
was rarely home, paid little attention to his children, and is best remembered
as "scarey" because of his violently angry outbursts at the mother when he had
He has no close friends where he works, although he occassionally
been drinking. The patients; early memories include 1) & scene in which his
takes lunch with one of the younger male tellers. His female co-workers irri-
forlorn-looking mother is bending over a tub scrubbing clothes in an icey cold
tate him; they seem coarse and loud. Some of the single women tease him about
kitchen and 2) an episode in which his oldest sister snatched his doll away
having a mistress (which he doesn't), but he doesn't know where they got that
from him but was later made by the mother to return it. It is that same sister
idea. In fact, he doesn't date at all and hasn't for several years now. He
whom he now visits during his vacations; she is married but childless and still
guesses it's because he doesn't seem to come in contact with women who are his
lives in Boston. He would like to live permanently with her, if her husband
type (sweet, quiet, feminine). Nor does he seek out partners for intercourse.
were better dispositioned. His other sisters all have children, and it makes
With considerable embarrassment, he explains that while he was in the Army 13
him nervous to be around them.
years ago, he had tried on three separate occassions to have sexual relations
with a girl he liked but had been unable to sustain an erection. Part of the
He says he always got along better with his sisters than his brothers
problem at the time seemed to be a preoccupation with his mother and how dis-
and has not kept in touch with any of the latter. He has never had many friends;
appointed she would be in him if she knew what he was doing with this girl
even as a boy, he was a "loner" and a "homebody" who was more than once called a
Since then, he has not tried to have intercourse again. He says it is not
"mammas boy" by his peers. He didn't involve himself in school athletics or
because he is afraid of failure or embarrassment, but more because for him it
neighborhood games because he seemed to be so clumsy, but did sell newspapers in
is a dispensible activity.
another part of the city for several years for the sake of the family budget.
His leisure hours were spent reading and re-reading old comic books, making up
The closet he ever gets to a woman is the back row in a local bar
stories about his adventures with Ali (a make-believe playmete from whom he was
where he likes to watch the performance of a certain belly dancer (his mother
inseparable until he was 12), and helping his mother in various ways.
was half Syrian). He doesn't know her personally, but something about her
arouses him. Whenever he masturbates in his room, (approximately once a week),
It is still difficult for him to talk about his dead mother, although
he pictures her face and upper torso in his minds eye; at the same time, he
he says he thinks about her all the time. Painfully, he revealed that he feels
imagines himself removing her round, plastic, chartreuse nipple covers, which
he was never & good enough son to her, that he had wanted to make up to her for
seems to be the one thing that will lead to his having an occassional ejacula-
all her hardships at the hands of his father but that he had never been able to
tion. He has felt very upset with himself for masturbating ever since he first
fill a certain void for her (despite his long-term devotion and protectiveness).
did it at the age of 16. This examiner and his old Army buddy are the only
people to whom he has ever acknowledged any such activity. He says he still
He tends to blame himself in a sense for her death and says that it
cannot help but feel that it is an unnatural, perverted practice. Sometimes
is his fault that she spent her final days so unhappily far away from all her
he wonders whether he is driven to it by a hormone problem or whether it is
other children; apparently, he had insisted that she follow her doctor's advice
because of a mental sickness of some kind. He used to think that he would not
and took her West for the sake of her "asthma" condition. She had died on her
ever be fit to touch a woman if he masturbated. He says he has never been
seventieth birthday. He didn't know the cause. He had come home and found her
involved in any homosexual activity, although his Army buddy had once suggested
it to him.
on the floor of their Tucson apartment near the phone (which was off the hook).
It had been 7 PM when he had arrived, having stopped for a couple of drinks at
the neighborhood bar. He says he still gets sick to his stomach when he thinks
His leisure hours are spent watching TV in the bar or in his room,
about how he was sitting in that bar while she was dying and trying to reach
going to movies, either alone or with someone at the boarding house, and
him.
reading an occassional magazine story. He likes to sunbathe on his porch on
the weekends. He says that he still enjoys making up adventure stories and
He remained in Boston, unemployed, for six months after the funeral,
keeps adding to an on-going serial in which he is the only person living in
during which time he slept a lot, ate little, and hit the bars more often than
a desert oasis where he gets into various predicaments and is rescued and nursed
usual. By the time he could bring himself to face Tucson and the apartment
back to health by lovely, gracious women who happen to pass by. He never dreams,
again, he had lost his accounting job.
he says, and doesn't think he ever has.
168
169
He says he rarely gets angry because he doesn't like the feeling.
Once a man in a bar began saying insulting things to him, unprovoked, and then
Although he was generally unpopular among his schoolmates, he did
took a swing at him but the bartender had intervened. He was just plain scared
very well academically, especially in mathematics. He skipped the third and
in that situation and relieved when the tension had abated. A long time ago he
seventh grades, was first in his boys' parochial high school class and received
had felt like hitting his brother-in-law when the latter had said something or
a full-tuition scholarship to Boston College, where he took business administra-
other cruel to his sister (but instead had walked out of hearing range). He had
tion courses. He never was one to participate in extracurricular activities,
felt intensely, unexplicably angry for several days at age 16 when his father
but always maintained a part-time job and gave his entire earnings to his mother.
died of a stroke; he remembers wishing he could destroy everything in sight by
He does not see himself as particularly religious but is faithful in his mass
kicking and pounding it to pieces.
attendance. He does not expect to ever have a vision, mostly because he believes
himself to be too mediocre a Christian. Twice after his mothers' death he thought
he heard her calling to him in the night and is still not sure that she didn't.
He doesn't see himself as particularly depressed and has no suicidal
thoughts, although he acknowledges that after his mothers' death, he wished
He has no opinions about UFO's; although it interests him to read about them, he
knows no one who has ever seen one.
he could have died with her or instead of her. He never has fantasied actively
taking his own life, however, and feels it would be very wrong to do SO. He
does say he feels nervous a lot, especially in the last two months and that
In part because of the nature of his description of the light in the
certain things upset him more than they used to. For example, noisy laughter
sky (and his associated feelings), the examiner was alerted to his description
at work or in a bar is so unpleasant lately that he usually tries to find an
of the belly dancer's chartreuse nipple coverlets, which apparently have signif-
excuse to leave the room. He feels increasingly impatient, particularly in
icant meaning for him. Attempts to subtlely pursue possible connection here
waiting lines, and says he has jumped from smoking one to two packages of
reveal the following: The subject's recent anxiousness had begun at about the
cigarettes a day. For the first time in his life. he finds himself wishing he
time he learned he was to be promoted, ever since which he had felt lonier than
could take a whiskey break in the middle of the work day; he then gets preoccu-
ever before and once again very desperate about the loss of his mother. He com-
feel. pied with the taste of whiskey and with thoughts of how good swallowing it would
ments that he thinks his mother would have been very pleased and proud of his
success at work, that it would have given her something about which to hold up
her head again. It also would have meant (were she still alive) that he could
After work, he always stops by a certain bar near the house and
provide nicer living quarters for them both. Now that she is dead, however,
has from two to five quiet bourbon and waters before returning home. Now, he
such improvements are unimportant; he feels they would be wasted on himself alone.
stays longer at the bar and arrives at the boarding house well past the dinner
hour. This is because he isn't hungry, usually, is sick of the food, and finds
Along with this loneliness, he acknowledges feeling empty. He says
the commotion at the dinner table disturbing. He does feel he is treated with
he can't get excited about anything (not even the belly dancer) although he feels
more respect and deference at the boarding house than he needs or deserves.
extremely tense and has tried more often lately to get some relief via masturba-
About his insomnia, he says simply that one pill helped until about a month ago
tion. He has been thinking about his mother so .much he acknowledges that her
but that lately he has been taking four or five over a two-hour period with no
image gets confused with that of the belly dancer, even when he tries to concen-
appreciable effect.
trate just on the latters nipple covers.
He claims he has no notion as to why he should be feeling on edge
for these two months, but in the next breath he begins to talk about his bank
B. Mental Status Examination
boss's interest in acquainting him with his daughter. He uncomfortably des-
cribes a scene at the last Labor Day picnic in which the boss brought his
General Behavior and Appearance: The subject presents himself as a well-groomed
daughter around to meet him and then walked off, leaving him stranded with
man of medium build. His dark brown hair is moderately long with side burns and
her for the rest of the afternoon. Thereafter, some of the people at the bank
a small neatly trimmed mustache. He is dressed in a white shirt, tie, and con-
had teased him about his secret romance with her (which was non-existant). He
servative dark blue suit; his shoes are polished. He sat with head down and
senses that his boss now seems less friendly, although the older man made no
steadily smokes throughout the interview. He expresses himself generally well
known attempt to stop his promotion. He has no desire to advance any further
without excessive gestures. He was initially ill at ease and mildly defensive
up the bank totem pole, says he never expected to do even this well, and would
with the interviewer but became more comfortable as the session progressed. He
be more than satisfied with his present post for the duration of his working
was cooperative and he gave the impression of wishing to be highly candid.
days (though he really liked doing bookkeeping better).
Stream of Talk: There is no evidence of blocking or unusual difficulty in
In addition to the information already mentioned, his developmental
choosing words. His vocabulary was moderately well-developed. The subject
history has the following other significant points: he was breast fed for nearly
speaks in a slightly monotonous manner but his speech is halting at only two
two years because his mother couldn't afford to buy store milk. Toilet training
points (when he spoke about feeling quilty about his mother and about mas-
was completed by age 15 months, but he was eneuretic from age two until he was
turbating). He uses no neologism, rhymes, or puns. There was no evidence of
nine. The boys in school found out about it and nicknamed him "Pee-pee".
flight of ideas or clang associations. There is no stuttering, dysarthria, or
mispromunciation; he is able to repeat four tongue twisters without difficulty.
170
171
Mood: The patient appears to be moderately depressed; his posture is slightly
slumped, his expression often dejected, and he sighs frequently. His general
MMPI REPORT
affect borders on being flat but is not otherwise inappropriate. He fails to
show any enthusiasm about anything, claims he. has no special interests or
04301
hobbies. He seems basically apathetic about both his present and future life.
CASE NO: 00000
RPSI NO: 00000
Although constricted but not highly controlled, his anxiety is poorly masked
AGE 37 MALE
when he talks about conflictual material and certain feelings.
Thought Content: Subject is generally guarded about what and how much he says.
THE TEST ITEMS APPEAR TO HAVE BEEN ANSWERED TRUTHFULLY WITH
When put under some stress by the examiner (during a period when he was less
NO EFFORT TO DENY OR EXAGGERATE.
defensive), his associations became briefly mildly loose. His usual preoccupa-
tions center around certain guilt feelings, a yearing for his dead mother, and
THIS PATIENT APPEARS TO BE CURRENTLY DEPRESSED AND ANXIOUS.
(more recently) the desire for whiskey. Although obviously depressed, he denies
HE SHOWS A PATTERN WHICH IS FREQUENT AMONG PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS.
but there is no evidence of any kind of paranoid ideation. The content of his
suicidal preoccupation. He does tend to ruminate about any teasing from women,
FEELINGS OF INADEQUACY, SEXUAL CONFLICTS AND RIGIDITY ARE ACCOM-
PANIED BY A LOSS OF EFFICIENCY, INITIATIVE AND SELD CONFIDENCE.
day-dreams and masturbatory fantasies are described in the anamnesis (see
INSOMNIA IS LIKELY, ALONG WITH CHRONIC FATIGUE. HE IS ANXIOUS,
previous section). The impression that his gaze was somehow holding the odd
TENSE, AND OVERLY SENSITIVE. SUICIDAL THOUGHTS ARE A POSSIBILITY.
light in place in the sky is the only evidence suggesting that he has ever felt
IN THE CLINICAL PICTURE, DEPRESSION PREDOMINATES. PSYCHIATRIC
he had any special powers. Prior to seeing that light, he apparently never
PATIENTS WITH THIS PATTERN ARE LIKELY TO BE IAGNOSED AS DEPRESSIVE
experienced a deja vu, or any illusory or definite hallucinatory phenomenon
REACTION OR ANXIETY REACTION. THE CHARACTERISTICS ARE RESISTANT
(see anammesis regarding hearing dead mother's voice).
TO CHANGE, ALTHOUGH SYMPTOMATIC MAY BE OBTAINED WITH BRIEF
TREATMENT.
Rituals, obsessional thoughts per se are denied, except for his
HE TENDS TO BE PESSIMISTIC AND COMPLAINING, AND IS LIKELY TO
recent, uncontrollable preoccupation at night with his dead mother. He ack-
nowledges a definite fear of flying (to the point that he has never set foot
BE DEFEATIST, CYNICAL, AND UNWILLING TO STICK WITH TREATMENT. HE
in an airplane) and is also afraid of heights.
MAY NEED FREQUENT REASSURANCE ABOUT HIS MEDICAL CONDITION. DY-
NAMICALLY, HE IS A NARCISSISTIC AND SELF-CENTERED PERSON WHO IS
Orientation: Subject is fully oriented as to time, person, and place.
RIGID IN THOUGHT AND ACTION AND EASILY UPSET IN SOCIAL SITUATIONS.
acutely following heavy drinking bouts.
Previous amnesia and disorientation (place and time, only) have occurred only
REPRESSION AND DENIAL ARE UTILIZED AS A DEFENSE AGAINST AN-
XIETY. IN PERIODS OF HEIGHTENED STRESS HIS ANXIETY IS LIKELY TO BE
Intellectual Status: Attention is consistently well-sustained. Memory (in
EXPRESSED IN SOMATIC SYMPTOMS. HE MAY RESPOND TO SUGGESTION AND
which there has been no known change in recent years) is generally above
REASSURANCE.
average. There was no inconsistent historical data which would indicate his
HE IS A SELF CONTROLLED CAUTIOUS PERSON WHO MAY BE SOMEWHAT
remote memory, or intermediate memory, or recent memory as being confabulation
FEMININE INCHIS INTEREST PATTERNS. HE IS IDEALISTIC, SOCIALLY
or perseveration. His 24-hour recall is without disparities after several
PERCEPTIVE AND RESPONSIVE. HE SHOWS SOME SELF AWARENESS, BUT HE
recountings, and immediate recall is normal (he can repeat 6 digits forward
IS SENSITIVE AND PRONE TO WORRY. HE IS VERBALLY FLUENT, PERSUASIVE
and 5 digits backward). Two hours after presentation, he could remember all
four test objects (a pencil, key, blotter, and the color yellow). Simple
AND ABLE TO COMMUNICATE IDEAS CLEARLY.
calculations (multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction) were done
THIS PERSON IS HESITANT TO BECOME INVOLVED IN SOCIAL SIT-
accurately, serial 7's (from 100-0) were done somewhat slowly but without any
UATIONS. HE MAKES AN EFFORT TO CONSCIENTIOUSLY CARRY OUT HIS RE-
errors. General comprehension is at least average; he was able to repeat the
SPONSIBILITIES, BUT HE IS RETIRING AND SOMEWHAT WITHDRAWN FROM IN-
"cowboy story" with only four minor mistakes. His proverb interpretation (with
six proverbs) done very hesitantly but were adequately abstracted.
TERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS.
Judgement: There is no gross impairment in this area (as evidenced by responses
ularly in relation to social situations.
to hypothetical questions) but the interview suggests a mild limitation, partic-
Insight: The subject is not psychologically minded and seems to be both unable
and disinclined to understand the sources of his current anxiety, insomnia, and
general despair. He did communicate a considerable amount of useful psychiatric
data but, in the process of so doing, seemed very unaware of how much he was
NOTE: ALTHOUGH NOT A SUBSTITUTE FOR THE CLINICIAN'S PROFESSIONAL
saying about himself and his feelings.
JUDGMENT AND SKILL, THE MMPI CAN BE A USEFUL ADJUNCT IN THE DIAG-
NOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF EMOTIONAL DISORDERS
172
173
SCALE SCORES FOR MMPI
D. Summary of Positive Findings: Psychiatric Evaluation and Character
Assessment (with supportive data).
CASE NO: 00000
AGE 37 MALE
RPSI NO: 00000
Mr. McC. is an oral character who shows a moderately severe passive-
dependent life style. This is evidenced by the direction of his relationships
(mother-equivalents) and his drinking habits, as well as the content of his
fantasies. He is also a withdrawn chronic depressive in acute exacerbation.
There may be an underlying endogenous element to his depression but it appears
SCALE
?
L
to be primarily reactive and related to the death of his mother.
F
K
HS
RAW
D
HY
0
PD
MF
2
5
PA
16
PT
11
SC
K-c
30
MA
30
SI
0
16
31
11
21
All the psychiatric evidence points to the event of 17 November
2
5
16
19
30
15
30
12
40
T-c
0
22
43
31
53
11
55
323
70
31
15
1967, as an acute illusory phenomenon in which his regressed oral yearning for
82
75
40
57
71
58
79
67
his mother was symbolically represented in the "light". That the object took
45
66
SCALE
ES
MT
the color and shape that it did (like the nipple covers) further demonstrates
A
R
LB
RAW
CA
DY
41
DO
16
RE
13
PR
20
ST
T-c
9
CN
18
so
27
SO-R
his all-pervasive oral fixation.
45
42
17
22
51
59
49
18
34
66
58
59
24
56
54
48
50
73
32
23
E. Discussion and Creditability Score
The subject's retinal pathology is such that he could not have
accurately perceived on direct gaze a greenish, luminous disc in the sky. It
CRITICAL ITEMS
may well be that the initial stimulus for his "vision" was a distant light
which then was grossly distorted by both his abnormal retina and his highly
disturbed emotional state.
CLINICIAN CATED, REQUIRE FURTHER INVESTIGATION BY THE DIRECTION THE
THESE MAY TEST ITEMS, WHICH WERE ANSWERED IN THE INDI-
ISOLATED RESPONSES. IS CAUTIONED, HOWEVER AGAINST OVERINTERPRETATION CLINICIAN. OF
Creditability score 5%.
Rsey
VI. Integration of Findings and Composite Assessment of Central Nervous
System Functioning
133. I HAVE NEVER NDULGED IN ANY UNUSUAL SEX PRACTICES. (FALSE)
A. Discussion and Creditability Score
182. I AM AFRAID OF LOSING MY MIND. (TRUE)
349. I HAVE STRANGE AND PECULIAR THOUGHTS. (TRUE)
Without the benefit of the results of this medical evaluation, one
would probably be inclined to view Mr. McC. as a highly creditable observer. In
156. I HAVE HAD PERIODS IN WHICH I CARRIED ON ACTIVITIES WITHOUT
favor of such an impression are 1) his respectable bank position, 2) his
KNOWING LATER WHAT I HAD BEEN DOING. (TRUE)
general demeanor (which is very appropriate and does not suggest attention-seeking
337. TIME. I FEEL ANXIETY (TRUE) ABOUT SOMETHING OR SOMEONE ALMOST ALL THE
or his actual psychiatric problems), 3) his claim to seeming good health and 4)
the nature and quality of his report of the "light" observed event to the police.
However, on evaluation it was discovered that he was an early
alcoholic cirrhotic who was suffering from early occult alcohol-tobacco amblyopia
such that he could not have perceived the detailed colored nocturnal event he
thought he had seen.
What had actually occurred was the first major hallucinatory
experience of his life. In a twilight state, his eye first perceived some kind
of stimulus from the night time sky which was then transformed into a rather
magnificent symbolic representation of his unconscious wishes and underlying
character pathology. The episode occurred when it did because of the subject's
state of psychic decompensation. His resistance to a transient hallucinatory
experience was lowered by 1) his currently agitated depressed state 2) the
adverse effects of toxins (from drugs and liver) on his central nervous system
and 3) the visual distortions produced by his diseased eyes.
The entire clinical picture is best explained in terms of the
subject's passive-oral-dependent character pathology which is intimately
related not only to his acute emotional state but is the underlying source
of his physical problems (i.e., alcoholic liver and retina, drug toxicity).
This case is thus a good example of multifactional influences on observer
creditability which, in this instance, can be integrated in terms of an
underlying source.
Over-all observer creditability score 5%.
174
175
THE USE OF PROBABILITY SCORING FOR OBSERVATIONAL CREDITABILITY
In order to translate the results of an extensive, multispecialty medical
evaluation into a handy estimate of observer creditability, a percentage-
Biographical Sketch for Dr. Sydney Walker, III cups to
evaluation scoring method has been devised. These "probability of creditability"
July 22, 1968
scores are mainly intended to serve the non-medical expert. They are numerical
statements reflecting the level and quality of observational ability and are based
on all the obtained findings relative to central nervous system integrity.
Sydney Walker III, M.D. is a 36 year old neuropsychiatrist who
The scores will be presented in conjunction with (not in place of) summaries
was born in Chicago, raised in Pasadena, did undergraduate study
of the results of each part of the medical assessment (i.e., medical, neurological,
neuro-ophthalmological, and psychiatric) of an individual observer. A composite
at UCLA, followed by graduate work in physiology and pharmacology,
score will also be offered to suggest the overall level of observational credita-
bility. This final score is based on careful scrutiny, extrapolation, and inter-
and received his medical training at Boston University School of
pretative integration of all the findings at hand, as they would be expected to
influence (in a highly multifactorial way) any reported observations.
Medicine. Following some neurosurgical training, he did university
The nature and extent of an individual's abnormalities will thus be reflected
residencies in both psychiatry and neurology. He has contributed
in his creditability score(s), a scale for which has been set up as follows:
numerous articles in both these specialities and is the author of a
Degree of Impairment
Creditability Score
recently published book, Psychiatric Signs and Symptoms due to
none
95%
Medical Problems, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, 1967.
mild
75%
moderate
50%
His interest in neuro-opthalmology has been more recent and has
severe
25%
extreme
5%
emerged from his research in connection with the preparation of
another monograph, The Neuropsychiatric Evaluation of the Eye
The scores will be variably useful, depending on their applicability to
the situation in question. It is expected that they will be helpful in the
Witness (to be published in late 1968).
screening and selection of candidates for observational jobs (i.e., predictive
evaluations). They will usually be more reliable as measures of creditability,
however, when they are part of a retrospective evaluation that is being done on
an individual who has already reported a particular event. This is because the
examiner-scorer is able to avail himself of specific observational material on
which to "zero in" and check out, including occassional clues to physical and
psychological pathology. In those instances where there are different stories
from several individuals who report having witnessed the same event, the value
of the creditability scoring can be further demonstrated for sorting out con-
flicting data.
It is readily acknowledged that this scoring method is somewhat arbitrary.
Its reliability and reproducibility will depend largely on the sophistication
and the abilities of the scorer. It is essential that the physician doing these
studies have 1) a high-level working knowledge of the four specialties involved,
that he 2) be specifically well-informed in the pertinent interdisciplinary
material related to observational phenomena, and that he 3) be adept in the
matter of investigating, synthesizing, interpreting, and finally applying the
ramifications of his "pure" medical findings to observational situations. It is
further recommended that 4) he himself be thoroughly checked out as a creditable
observer, since this proposed method assessing observers rests heavily on the
physician's own ability to make accurate observations and sound judgements.
It is probably true that, at this point in time, there are few men in
medicine who are adequately trained to do this multispecialty kind of assess-
ment. This is a remediable situation, however, once the projected need for
such professional preparation has been recognized and established.
176
177
The Journal of the Astronautical Sciences Vol. XV, No. 1, PP. 31-36 Jan.-Feb., 1968
APPENDIX 3
Observational Evidence of
Anomalistic Phenomena
Reprints of
"OBSERVATIONAL EVIDENCE OF ANOMALISTIC
Robert M. L. Baker, Jr.2
PHENOMENA"
Abstract
ground reference points marked 3, 5, and 6. This
A summary of the data obtained from a series of analyses
figure is drawn like a panorama on the assumption that
and experiments, which were initially carried out by the all-
the photographer kept his stance without moving ap-
thor under the auspices of Douglas Aircraft Company and
preciably (which was reported by him and was well
and
based upon movie film containing anomalistic data, originally
borne out by the consistence of his perspective). These
provided by the United States Air Force, is presented. It
is concluded that, on the basis of the photographic evidence,
initial measurements were made by the author at
the images cannot be explained by any presently known
Douglas Aircraft Company in 1955-1956.
"FUTURE EXPERIMENTS ON ANOMALISTIC OBSERVATIONAL
natural phenomena. On the other hand, the quality of the
images is insufficient to determine the nature of the anomalis-
Analysis
tic phenomena recorded on the movie film.
The "Montana" film contains six independent data
PHENOMENA"
Introduction
(as functions of time) on about 225 frames (frames 65
to 290), which describe the UFO images, i.e., the two
Two anomalistic unidentified flying objects (UFO's)
degrees of freedom of each dot (as depicted on two-
were sighted and later photographed at about 11:30
dimensional film after the foreground appears on frame
a.m. Mountain Standard Time on August 15, 1950.
by
65) and the apparent diameter of the developed image
by Nicholas Mariana at Great Falls, Montana. Mr.
of each on all 290 frames (no ellipticity could be seen
Robert M. L. Baker, Jr.
Mariana owned and operated a radio station in Mis-
in the images except for occasional image smear due
soula, Montana, and was the owner of the Great Falls
to uneven panning). In the analysis it was convenient
baseball team.
and
to treat the UFO's as it system. The four degrees of
All of the soft-data (eye witness reports of Mr.
freedom chosen for this system were the azimuth and
Mariana and his secretary) indicated that the objects
altitude of the midpoint on the line of centers between
were silvery in appearance with a notch or band at
the images, their angular separation and their inclina-
"ESTABLISHING OBSERVER CREDITABILITY: A PROPOSED
one point on their periphery and could be seen to ro-
tion to the horizon. The inclination to the horizon was
tate in unison, hover, and then with a swishing
found to be very small, the objects appearing to move
sound, floated away to the left (SW)
The hard
almost in a plane parallel to the ground. There is a
METHOD"
data from the film showed inarticulate bright white
slight decrease in the angle of inclination as the objects
dots. Figure 1 shows the manner in which the diameter
regress, but its small value is almost masked by random
by
of the bright dots decreased with time. The objects
errors inherent in the measurements. Figure 3a presents
passed behind it water tower and are exhibited in Fig.
it plot of the angular altitude, h, and the azimuth, A,
Sydney Walker, III, M.D.
2, along with the associated frame number (the frames
of the midpoint of the line of centers after frame 65
below 65 exhibited no foreground). According to Mari-
(i.e., after n measureable foreground appears), and
ana, 35 of the earlier frames, allegedly lost by the Air
Fig. 3b presents the separation distance ratio 0₀/0
Force, showed a larger image, complete with a "ro-
as a function of time, where 0₀ is the initial angular
tating notch." Figure 2 was constructed from iconolog
separation (frame 1) and 0 is the angular separation
measurements (a film viewer with moveable cross hairs
at any given time. In both of these plots some frames
and a digitalized coordinate output) using the fore-
were not measured, e.g., due to obscuration of the
images during water-tower passage, or were missing
1 Manuscript submitted November, 1967. Paper was pre-
sented at an AAS Seminar at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
(there were frames missing between frame numbers
Pasadena. A manuscript on the same subject matter was
177 to 180 on the 35 mm print that was measured for
originally submitted in 1962. The complete revision of this
separation distance, but these were accounted for in
earlier manuscript, after receiving three favorable reviews,
the time scale using the 16 mm original as a basis).
was accepted.
About 225 frames after the foreground (ventilator duct)
2 The Senior Scientist of System Sciences Corporation, a
subdivision of Computer Sciences Corporation, 650 N. Sepul-
appears on the film (i.e., after the 290th frame), the
veda Blvd., El Segundo, Calif. 90245, and the Department
objects can no longer be clearly identified and measure-
of Engineering, UCLA.
ments become very uncertain.
178
179
1.0
LII
FRACTION OF MAXIMUM DIAMETER
0.8
FIGURE 3a
MOTION OF UFO SYSTEM
in
0.6
TT.D
III
11
100
95
90
105
04
II
II
130
125
120
115
140
39
A1173
155
$0
0.2
(a)
ITO
165
160
ALTITUDE
175
190
185
O
215
210
205
200
13*
Measurable Foreground
o
I
2
3
4
5
235
230
223
220
6
7
First Appears on Frame (i)
8
9
10
II
12
245
240
TIME SECONDS
Ann*
1455*
12
:.M
232"
227*
223*
224*
225*
226*
227*
22#*
229.
230*
231°
233*
I.O
1
FRACTION OF MAXIMUM DIAMETER
II
IIII
FIGURE 3b
0.8
InT
SEPARATION DISTANCE OF UFO SYSTEM
III.
III
120
230
A
I
n
III
0.6
220
LIII
C10
200
I
100
4
0.4
IIIII
Measurable Foreground
170
4"
113
First Appears
160
149
150
A
0.2
1:30
120
110
A 165*
0
100
1.10
o
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO
8,
II
12
10
1.0
TIME SECONDS
10
in
FIG. 1. Ratio of time varying value to maximum value of the angular diameters of the images of UFO *1 and UFO #2.
20
1.05
10
1.00-mill
Lindly
2
5
+
a
,
10
"
12
13
14
15
16
TIME (SECONDS)
4°
FIG. 3a. Motion of UFO system in altitude and azimuth.
FIG. 3b. Separation distance of UFO system as function of time.
3"
WATER TOWER
FRAME NUMBERS FOR UFO
distance can be made on the basis of the angular data
telligence officer at Great Falls had dug through huge
75
65
presented by the film.) Figure 4 also shows where
stacks of files and found that only two airplanes, two
BRILLIANT REFLECTIONS
2°
Mariana and his secretary first viewed the "hovering
F-94's, were near the city (Great Falls) during the
and rotating" UFO's near an Anaconda smoke stack.
sighting and that they had landed about two minutes
255 250
After over n decade of speculation and hypothesis
afterwards.
First we studied the flight paths of the
120
75
65
150
140
105
95
B5
checks, all natural phenomena (e.g., birds, balloons,
two F-94's. We knew the landing pattern that was
170
160
125
115
155
145
135
180
115
165
FOR
UFO 2
FRAME
NUMBERS
insects, meteors, mirages, etc.) have been ruled out,
being used on the day of the sighting and we knew when
225
CONCRETE
245
235
VENTILATOR DUCTS
except airplane reflections, on the basis of winds (which
the two F-94's landed. The two jets just weren't any-
0
GRAIN ELEVATOR
185
POWER WIRES
the weather bureau reported as blowing in the opposite
where close to where the two UFO's had been." Figure
TOP OF
direction); the lack of an observable trail (which
4 bears this conclusion out since the objects were in the
GRAIN ELEVATOR
would have betrayed a bifurcated meteor); and bright-
opposite direction from Malstrom Air Force Base and
ness, angular speed, and steady motion, which could
headed away from the air field. The panel, however, did
LOCATIONS IDENTIFIED THUS
not be reconciled with the supposition that they were
not consider this as positive proof for eliminating the
ARE REFERENCE POINTS FOR
ICONOLOG MEASUREMENTS
birds or insects. These same facts, together with the
jet-plane hypothesis.
weather bureau report [1] and the Sun angle, also
seemed to rule out various forms of optical lens flare,
Experiment
TRAVEL OF UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECTS
atmospheric mirages, or cloud reflections. From analyses
Using a camera similar to Mariana's (Revere turret
(MONTANA FILM)
of speed and geometry, which included a knowledge of
type with a 3" focal length telephoto lens), a series of
the Sun's azimuth at the time of the photography (as
photographic experiments were carried out by the
FIG. 2. Motion of unidentified flying objects relative to foreground.
confirmed by the shadows on the film) the images could
author on an array of objects (see Figure 6-22 on page
have been (although not without some stretch of the
321 of reference [3]) at various distances and Sun angles
In Figs. 3a and 3b the dotted lines represent what
imagination) specular Sun reflection from airplane fuse-
and on jet plane reflections. The results of these experi-
would be the locus of the data points if the objects
some other curvilinear motion of the objects. However,
lages. This explanation seemed attractive since it was
ments, however, made the hypotheses of airplane reflec-
any such motion would necessitate the coincidence of
remained the same linear distance apart and moved
azimuth, altitude, and separation, all varying propor-
rumored (although not verified [2]) that two jet air-
tions quite strained.
linearly in a horizontal plane. The headings, , of 169°
tionally in some very peculiar fashion to a tolerance of
planes (F-94's) were landing at Malstrom Air Force
The long persistence of the images would have re-
to 177° are exhibited. All of the data seems to be con-
Base at the approximate time of the sighting. This
quired the airplanes to have moved on a unique
1%. Figure 4 is a map of Great Falls, Montana, and
sistent with the foregoing assumptions and with a head-
includes overlays of the UFO system's motion at various
rumor was reinforced by a presentation by E. J. Ruppelt
parabolic path with Mariana at the focus. Unfortu-
ing of 171°. Of course, one cannot absolutely rule out
hypothetical distances. (No absolute determination of
toa panel of experts in January, 1953 (the panel's mem-
nately, these hypothetical parabolic paths would be
bership was not revealed, but may have been called the
incompatible with the 171° heading defined by the data.
"Robertson panel" [4]). Ruppelt [5] indicates "the in-
In addition, the apparent size of the images (admittedly
180
181
enhanced by flaring, halation, adjacency effects, etc.)
1.5 X 0.4 milliradians or 51 by 11 minutes of arc. The
is also not compatible with the photographic experi-
resolving power of the eye is from 1 to 3 minutes of are
ments, since planes close enough to give rise to the
(the Moon is about 30 minutes of are in angular di-
images shown on the film clip would also exhibit some
ameter). The actual resolving power of the camera
airplane structure as shown in Figure 6-24, page 323 of
used by Mariana (with the 3" telephoto lens and set
reference [3] in which the airplane images are of a size
at f/22) is from 2/3rds to one minute of are even though
and brightness comparable to that of the unknowns.
its theoretical resolving power (exclusive of aberrations)
TO
This figure is a blow-up of a 16 mm frame from a camera
is on the order of 2/3rds of a minute of are (0.19 milli-
of the same type as Mariana's, with the same stop
radians). Thus, theoretically, and as borne out by the
setting and 3" telephoto lens. During the experimental
author's experiments, the F-94's would have been
filming, relative Sun angle, weather, etc., were the same
identifiable even at 6.5 miles. The (0.8) (1.51) = 1.2
as that reported by Mariana and verified by the Mon-
milliradians fuzzy image (as depicted on the film for
tana film itself, except that the jets were on a different
UFO # 1) would have somewhat obscured an airplane
heading-not 171°-in order to obtain optimal Sun
structure at this distance; but the structure would still
reflections. The jet planes shown in the figure were at a
have been recognizable.
distance of 2.5 miles and their structure exhibited
The angular (azimuthal) velocity of the objects was
angular dimensions of about 4 by 1 milliradians, whereas
found to be 0.019, 2 radians/second. Equipped with the
their elliptical, Sun-reficction flare image exhibited
knowledge of the focal length and frame speed (16
angular dimensions of about 6 by 1.4 milliradians.
frames per second) of Mariana's camera and the fore-
Upon close inspection, the flare included a roughly
ground during the filming, the transverse.component of
circular bright nucleus and a comet-like "tail" of lesser
the velocity of the objects can be correlated to their
brightness about 4.4 milliradians long. This comet-like
height above the local terrain (3,312 ft) and distances
Sun flare, which is not exhibited on the Montana film,
from the observer (for the objects when they first
FIG. 4. Map of Great Falls, Montana, including hypothetical UFO paths.
is also generally characteristic of airplane-fuselage Sun
appear on the film). Since only angular distances from
reflections having approximately the same brightness as
one station are available for measurement, their actual
the Montana film objects. Even with the larger comet-
range cannot be determined. On the other hand, Table
like flare, the jets photographed during the photo-
I can be constructed on the basis of a variety of hypo-
graphic experiment are clearly identifiable. Finally,
thetical ranges.
airplanes at the limiting distance for resolution of struc-
The measurements of the diameter of the developed
ture (over 6.5 miles), with the 3" telephoto lens used,
images presented in Fig. 1 are the least accurate of
would have to have been traveling at speeds in excess
all the data because of the smallness of the dimension
of the capability of the F-94's (above 600 mph [6]) in
and the fuzziness of the images. The image of any
order to have been compatible with the angular rates of
brilliant light source as seen by either the eye or a
the images displayed on the film. At 6.5 miles a typical
camera can appear much larger than the source itself.
50 foot airplane (such as an F-94) subtends angles of
This fact had obvious bearing on the analysis of the
TABLE I
Hypothetical Range, Heights, and Speeds
Transverse
Speed at 171°
Speed for
Range
Optimal Sun
(Miles)
Height (Feet)
heading
Comments
Speed (mph)
Reflections
(mph)
(mph)
0.5
690
552
642
Upper limit to bird speed; but birds would have been re-
solved.'
2.0
2,730
1582
1972
3822
Usual F-94 speed in a landing pattern is 130 to 190 mph; but
would easily have been resolved.
6.5
8,860
4702
GOO2
1,1402
Maximum(dive) F-94 speed is 602 mph; but would have been
resolved.
UPODIRECTION
563
950,000
39,000
Low-speed meteors [7]; but would not be detected at this
GREAT FALLS, MONT.
(290 km)
range on a bright day. Atmosphere too thin above 100 km
for bolides or fireballs.
AND VICINITY
2,200
5,610,000
150,000
High-speed meteors [7]; but would not be detected at this
(1,710 km)
range on a bright day. Atmosphere too thin above 100 km
bolides or fireballs.
1 Above the observer-Add 3,312 ft. for absolute altitude.
Includes 20 mph component of head winds.
Ducks, geese, etc. would be flapping or swooping and would not appear like the objects on the film at any distance.
182
183
film and motivated the & photographic experiment con-
(or rumors) of jet aircraft), no clear-cut conclusion as to
The Journal of the Astronautical Sciences Vol. XV, No. 1, pp. 44-45 Jan.-Feb., 1968
ducted by the author during December, 1955.
a natural phenomena can be made and the anomalistic
December, rather than August, was chosen due to the
images, having no real detail, cannot be analyzed
lower latitude of Los Angeles relative to Great Falls
further. These unexplainable images, taken alone, do
and because of the unique (smogless) visibility during
not provide data on mass, shape, size, or linear speed
the course of the experiment. The experiment was
and, indeed like the early single-camera meteor photo-
devised in order to obtain empirical information on the
graphs or even like the early examples of attempts at
effect of distance, lens focal length, iris stop, frame
photography through a microscope, are merely un-
Future Experiments on
gotten. The observation by Mohr [3] in a letter to Science in
1966 gave an account of a "most unusual fly" and described
speed, etc., in the photographic images of various small
resolved blobs and simply indicate the presence of a
Anomalistic Observational
a very remarkable and almost bizarre event that might or
bright sources of reflected sunlight; some 118 combina-
phenomena. In these past, historical instances, supple-
might not have been ball lightning. The Tunguska event of
tions of these variables were examined. The experi-
mentary data and equipment improvement was sought
Phenomena
1908 may well have been a impacting comet [4] and is usually
mental results appeared to indicate that if the first few
after in a systematic fashion even though there was
studied in the context of meteorities [5]. Similarly, the Cana-
frames of the film show Sun reflections from airplanes,
only conjecture as to the exact character of the phenom-
dian fireball procession of 9 February 1913 could have been an
which are optimally oriented with respect to the Sun
ena. See reference [8].
The requirement for additional experiments in the area
ephemeral natural satellite of the Earth [6] or it could have
of anomalistic phenomena is given, based upon the pau-
been something more involved In most such cases, and
(not the 171° heading), then the planes would have
A number of other films have been viewed by the
city of "hard data"; relevant data collected by astrono-
as is also the situation in published UFO studies [7], [8],
been on the order of one to three miles distant from the
author, which purport to be UFO's, and they all seem
mers, meteoriticists, and meteorologists, which would be
[10], information-rich hard-data of high quality are rather hard
camera. If, however, these first few frames represent
to exhibit the common quality of poor image definition.
either over-looked or not detected; and the possible "fil-
to come by. It therefore suggests itself that a special experi-
images of the reflection from airplanes not quite opti-
This situation is not especially surprising since most of
tering" and/or "editing" out of pertinent data by our
mental program is in order. The scientific method usually
them have been taken with amateur equipment or they
various space surveillance systems prior to its evaluation.
dictates experiments in the face of anomalous data and, at the
mally oriented, then the planes could have been closer.
An experiment involving two cameras slaved to a detec-
moment, there seems to be sufficient unexplained anomalous
In either event, their structure would also have been
were accidentally taken from a great distance by cine-
tion radar is outlined broadly and it is concluded that
hard-and-soft data to warrant an experimental program. Sev-
visible. The images were found to be much brighter
theodolites that were not "tracking" them. Like the
such a system should be constructed for use in meteoritic,
eral experiments suggest themselves and might include geologi-
than those that any birds could produce.
Montana film, some of these films definitely cannot be
meteorological, astronautical, psychological, and "UFO"
cal studies, searches for scraps of material evidence, psychiatric-
The brightness of a constant luminosity source, as
explained on the basis of natural phenomena (others
study programs.
medical studies of witnesses, or radar/optical arrays.
The majority of our astronomical equipment (e.g., con-
In broad outline, one recommended experiment would
it recedes from view, gives rise to a photographic image
can be "explained" if one stretches one's imagination).
ventional photographic telescopes, Baker-Num cameras,
involve a large aperture tracking radar that would slave two
whose. diameter varies somewhere between inverse
meteor cameras, Markowitz dual-rate Moon Cameras, etc.)
cinetheodolite-type optical trackers if and when an anomalous
square root of the range to the inverse square of the
References and Notes
are special-purpose by their very nature and would probably
object appeared. The radar "lock-on" and tracking-data-
range. (Ordinarily, however, with the inverse square for
not detect the anomalous luminous phenomenon reported
analysis program would be especially designed to avoid
[1] A copy of the local half hourly surface weather observation
images as bright as the Montana objects.) The effects,
by the casual observer if it were indeed present. Their photo-
satellites and, if possible, common meteors and airplanes,
for August. 15, 1950, was obtained from the Great Falls,
which account for this uncertainty in image-size VS.
graphic speed, field of view, etc. put definite limits on their
but would, for example, detect coinet or macrometeorite
Montana Municipal Airport Station of the Weather
capability to collect data on objects other than those for
entry, ball lightning, and any erratic or anomalous object
range relationship, involve light scattering in the atmos-
Bureau. It shows that the surface wind increased during
which they have been specially designed. Even if such data
within its range (a range that would probably be limited
phere, optical aberrations, flaring at the lens surfaces,
the forenoon to readings between 25 and 28 mph between
were collected, the recognition of their uniqueness or anom-
to 500 km or less). Thus, the system might at least provide
diffraction, turbidity in the film, reflections off the film
9 a.m. and noon, and that it reached 37 mph at 12:30.
alous character by an experimenter is improbable. Examples
accurate positional information that would provide useful
The surface wind direction was constantly from the
backing (halation), and adjacency effects (chemical
abound in celestial mechanics of minor planets being detected
meteoritic data and meteorological data in the absence of
southwest from 10 a.m. until 4 p.m. It was clear (visibility
reactions between over-exposed and under-exposed
on old astronomical plates that had been measured for other
more bizarre phenomena. The cameras (preferably using
of 60 miles), the temperature was 77°F at 11:27, and the
purposes and then abandoned. Tombaugh discovery of
Schmidt-type, Maksutov, or Baker catadioptric type optics
areas on the film). On the basis of Fig. 1, we find a
barometer was at about 30".0.
Pluto storage
and, perhaps, computer-enhanced digitalized pictorial data
decrease in angular diameter of the first object of about
[2] In November of 1955, an inquiry by phone was directed to
known example. The space surveillance systems are almost
[11]) would be on a 5 to 10 km base line (the "lock-on" pro-
62%, and the second about 61%. Under the 171° head-
Colonel Donald M. Hamilton, Commanding Officer of
programmed to overlook anomalous data. Any hard-data
gram for the active skin-tracking radar might follow the
Malstrom Air Force Base. He advised us by letter dated
ing assumption, the initial distance is about 78% less
arising from an object or manifestation that did not move on
modified Leuschner differential-correction system suggested
November 7, 1955, that " as far as I can determine,
than the final distance (at disappearance). Thus, it
a nearly two-body orbit, had a low radar cross section, or
on pp. 114 and 115 of reference [1]) and the system would
there were no jet aircraft based here at that time, so that
followed an erratic path would most probably be filtered out
need to be reliable enough to operate unattended for weeks
would seem that the 171° heading hypothesis is also in
if any were in the air, they would have been transients."
of the system by various data-editing, or data-weighting
at a time. As shown by studies of meteorite and comet flux,
agreement with the film images being the result of a
[3] BAKER, ROBERT M. L., JR. & MAKEMSON, M. W., An In-
procedures [1], which are inherent in most of our sophisticated
such as Hartmann's [12], Shoemaker and Lowery [13], Mc-
constant brightness light source receding from the
troduction to Astrodynamics, Second Edition, (Academic
space surveillance systems.
Crosky [14], and Lamar's [5], a waiting period of a year or
Press, New York, 1967), pp. 319 to 333.
camera. That is, the inverse square distance decreases
A representative space surveillance radar may have a beam
SO is necessary in order to have significant probability of de-
[4] MARKOWITZ, WILLIAM, letters dated November 10 and
width of 16° for detection and require accurate orbital in-
tecting and tracking such natural extraterrestrial objects.
some 61%. Because the relationship of the developed
December 6, 1967. According to Markowitz the panel
formation good to 0.01° for fine tracking. Needless to say,
The question of the proper geographical location of the CX-
image size to source range is not precise and because it
consisted of H. P. Robertson, L. Alvarez, L. V. Berkner,
such radars often miss even well-known spacecraft and would
perimental site would almost be as important as the speci-
is doubtful that we are dealing with constant-
S. A. Goudsmit, and T. W. Page.
be completely inadequate for "locking-on" to a hypothetical
fication of the radar/optical and computer/communications
luminosity isotropic radiators, the third confirmation
[5] RUPPELT, E. J., The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects.
"UFO." To be sure, advanced radar systems are being de-
complex itself. The meteoriticist would probably prefer an
of the 171° heading must be regarded as considerably less
(Doubledav & Company, Inc., Garden City, New York,
veloped for our missile defense systems, such as the ALTAR
area with good atmospheric seeing and of low population
1956), pp. 286 to 288 and p. 292.
precise than the confirmations provided by Figs. 3a and
(AURA Longrange Tracking and Instrumentation Radar),
density such as the Tueson area [15]. The geologist
[6] The maximum speed (achieved during a dive) of the F-94
TRADEX (Target Resolution and Discrimination Ex-
would prefer a location near dry la 105 [16] in order to facilitate
3b.
is 602 mph, its landing speed is 130 mph, and its stalling
periments) and the phasedarray RESER (Re-entry System
the possible recovery of meteoritie or other material, or timely
speed is 108 mph.
Evaluation Radar) system. Although they extend the field
study of manifestations of cometary impact or sub-end-point
Conclusions
[7] MCKINLEY, D. W. R., Meteor Science and Engineering,
of view, they still are developed to filter out anomalous sig-
meteoritic debris [17]. The psychiatrist would be concerned
Because of the conflict between every hypothesized
(McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1961), page
nals. As Chectam [2] points out, "Power and aperture will
with the psychiatric-medical credence levels of eye witness
128.
be programmed after a learning measurement cycle to con-
(soft data) associated with any hard data that might be ob-
natural phenomenon and one or more details of the
[8] BAKER, ROBERT M. L., JR., "Future Experiments on
serve and efficiently distribute available energy when and
tained by the experimental array [18] as well as the general psy-
hard-data, photographic evidence analyzed (in addition
Anomalistic Observational Phenomena," J. Astronaut.
where (re-entry) targets are estimated to exist."
chological analysis of the tendency all over the world to
to the uncertainty of the soft data, reported accounts
Sci. XV, No. 1, January-February, 1968.
Not only are conventional sensors almost insensitive to
believe in saucers and to want them real, [19].
Thus,
he
anomalous data, but observations published by trained
would tend to prefer a site in a moderate population density
scientists, that could be hard-data records of anomalistic
area. The physicist interested in ball lightning might wish
phenomena, are often too quickly categorized and then for-
for a site in which atmospheric electrical disturbances were
184
185
frequent. As Singer noted [20], "The specific properties of
ball lightning, which present particular difficulty in experi-
[4] FESSENKOV, V. C., Physics and Astronomy of the Moon
mental duplication, are formations of the sphere in air (at
(Academic Press, New York, 1962), page 108.
The Journal of the Astronautical Sciences Vol. XV, No. II, PP. 92-96 March-April, 1968
near-atmospheric pressure and at a distance from the source
[5] LAMAR, D. L., AND BAKER, ROBERT M. L., JR., "Possible
of energy) and its extensive motion. It is evident that ad-
Residual Effects of Tunguska-type Explosions on Desert
ditional clarification of both theoretical and experimental
Pavements." Presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of
aspects of this phenomenon is needed." Often marsh gas
the Meteoritical Society in Odessa, Texas, October 21-
24, 1965.
Establishing Observer Creditability:
exhibits bizarre observational data and a location near a
marsh might be useful in the examination of such phenomena.
[6] BAKER, ROBERT M. L., JR., Science, 128, 1211 (1958).
Clearly, an overall reconcilement of these diverse and inter-
[7] BAKER, ROBERT M. L., JR., "Observational Evidence of
Anomalistic Phenomena," J. Astronaut. Sci., XV, No. 1,
A Proposed Method'
disciplinary requirements must be accomplished during the
site (or, perhaps, sites) selection process.
January-February, 1968.
In summary, then, four points are to be made:
[8] BAKER, ROBERT M. L., JR. AND MAKEMSON, M. W., An
1) That we have not now nor have we been able in the
Introduction to Astrodynamics, Second Edition, (Academ-
ic Press, New York, 1967), pp. 325-333.
Sydney Walker III, M. D.²
past to achieve a complete or even partially complete
surveillance of space in the vicinity of the Earth, which
[9] MARKOWITZ, WILLIAM, Science, 157, pp. 1274-1279 (1967).
[10] Ros.\, R. J., POWERS, W. T., VALLEE, J. F., Grass,
Abstract
would betray the presence of any anomalistic phenomena.
truth and progress. On the other hand, the opposite
2) That so-called hard data on anomalistic observational
T. R. P., STEFFEY, P. C., GARCIA, R. A., AND COREN, G.,
Science, Vol. 158, No. 3806, pp. 1265-1265 (1967).
This article is a brief review of the critical chain of linked
position of complete, unquestioning faith in observer
phenomena do, in fact, exist; but that they are of poor
[11] NATHAN, ROBERT, "Digital Video-Data Handling," JPL
processes-anatomic, physiologic, and psychological-which
reports is no better.
quality due to the equipment employed in obtaining them.
Technical Report No. 32-877, 1966.
operate to determine the nature of the observations made
This author suggests an initial attitude of "benevo-
3) That it follows from the scientific method that an
experiment or experiments be devised to define better the
[12] HARTMANN, W. K., Nininger Meteorite Award Paper,
by an individual, whether of an accident, a planned experi-
lent skepticism" because of an acute awareness of the
Publication No. 3, by the Center for Meteorite Studies,
ment, or an extraterrestrial phenomenon such as a "UFO."
anomalistic data.
Arizona State University, May, 1966.
One purpose of such a review is to demonstrate how, through
myriad of individual processes (and maladies) that
4) That, in order to justify such an experiment or ex-
[13] SHOEMAKER, E. N. AND LOWERY, C. J., "Airwaves asso-
the use of proper medical examination, the integrity of the
determine what has been witnessed and how it is
periments, it is not necessary to presuppose the existence
of intelligent extraterrestrial life operating in the environs
ciated with large fireballs and the frequency distribution
observer system can be established in such a way that eye
described. Further, and more importantly it is pro-
of energy at large meteoroids.' Presented at the 29th
witness creditability does not have to be left to the kind of
posed that specific, specialized medical assessment of
of the Earth or to make very dubious speculations [9], [10]
Annual Meeting of the Meteoritical Society in Wash-
speculation in which it SO frequently finds itself today. With-
either concerning "their" advanced scientific and engineer-
ington D. C., November 3-5, 1966.
out some such investigation, it is not known whether the
individual observers is essential to establishing the
ing capabilities or "their" psychological motivations and
(14) McCRosky, R. E., "Orbits of Photographic Meteors,"
reporting observer has, for example, serious visual abnor-
integrity of the observer system. Following careful,
behavioral patterns.
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory Special Report
malities, a brain tumor that causes visual hallucinations, or
clinical investigation, much of the human error in
ROBERT M. L. BAKER, JR.
No. 252, October, 1967, page iv.
character pathology such that he is prone to attract attention
observation can be placed into a perspective which
The Senior Scientist of System Sciences Corporation, a
[15] HARTMANN, W. K., (letter dated September 23, 1967).
to himself by fabricating or frankly lying about what he has
eliminates the "blind faith" in eye-witness testimony
subdivision of Computer Sciences Corporation,
[16] NEAL, J. T., Office of Aerospace Research Report, AF
seen.
650 N. Sepulveda Boulevard,
That such observer evaluations have not been previously
and gives the reported data a confidence proportionate
CRL-65-266, April, 1965.
El Segundo, California, 90245 and the
[17] LAMAR, D., (in conversation on October 6, 1967).
proposed is probably because adequate assessment depends on
to its value.
Department of Engineering, UCLA
[18] WALKER, DR. SYNDEY, III (in conversation on October
incorporating the approaches and tools of several medical
Although it is well-known that specific training can
November 21, 1967
15, 1967) and Psychiatric Signs and Symptoms due to
specialities, rather than one.
serve to increase observational acuity, the basic in-
References
Medical Problems (Charles C Thomas Publisher, Spring-
Introduction and Rationale
dividual ability is variable. People differ considerably
field, Illinois, 1967).
[1] BAKER, ROBERT M. L., JR., Astrodynamics-Applications
in terms of genetic endowment, neurologic integrity,
[19] JUNG, C. G., Flying Saucers, translated by R. F. C. Hull
and Advanced Topics (Academic Press, New York, 1967),
pp. 4 to 10 and 91 to 95.
(Routledge and Kegan Paul, Long, 1959), page X.
Human testimony to events which have been ob-
and personality characteristics and dynamics-all of
[20] SINGER, S., in Problems of Almospheric and Space
served is crucial to science, law, and the national se-
which account for what they see or say they have seen.
[2] CHEETAM, R. P., J. Astronaut. Sci., XIV, No. 5, (1967).
[3] MOHR, F. B., Science, 151, pp. 634-636, (1966).
Electricity, edited by S. C. Coroniti (Elsevier Publishing
curity. Yet the creditability of such testimony is fre-
By applying selected methods used in medicine, par-
Company, New York, 1963), page 463.
quently left either entirely to speculation or, at best,
ticularly in neurology, psychiatry, and neuro-oph-
inadequately ascertained.
thalmology, observers can be clinically evaluated for
One need merely to look at the current controversy
creditability, both predictive and retrospective. Such
and confusion surrounding the issue of unidentified
an approach offers both quantitative and qualitative
flying objects (UFO's) to appreciate the need for care-
assessment of central nervous system functioning as it
ful observer assessment. Only after observer credit-
would be reflected in observational reporting.
ability has been established, can one sort out the "soft
Adequate clinical assessment of an observer must
data" of UFO reports and scrutinize them for scientific
involve cross-disciplinary integration because of the
usefulness [1].
nature of the bodily processes involved in seeing and
One recourse, or course, is to deal only with "hard
reporting an event. In the beginning, the event is per-
data" and to simply refuse to deal in any way with eye
ceived. Usually, this is basically a matter of seeing,
witness reports, contending that such observations are
although other sensory modalities can also be involved.
unlikely because they are too bizarre or have previously
The initial critical consideration, then, is the state of
been reported only by "crazy people." This kind of
the eye (cornea, lens, retina) and its connections with
reaction reflects scientific closed-mindedness. It is
the brain (optic nerve, tract, temporal, parietal, and
apt to be based in prejudice or fear of the unknown
occipital lobes). A careful examination of these strue-
(particularly when that unknown, if taken seriously,
tures (both directly and indirectly) can establish
would threaten one's safety or survival). Such an at-
whether or not it would have been possible for a par-
titude is among those which the scientist who wants
ticular individual to have perceived what he has re-
ported or whether, on the sole basis of the state of his
to be objective will guard against, in the interest of
input apparatus, his observation was distorted.
1 Manuscript submitted February 1968.
Once it has been established that a visual image can
2337 Glendon Ave., Los Angeles, California 90064.
be picked up and transmitted, unmolested and un-
186
187
altered, along normal pathways to the back of the brain
problem [2]. Eye-witness testimony determines in-
warrant particular scrutiny [3]. When diabetes, for
event and the retina, such that part or all of the event
to allow for perception, the next question is how the
dividual life and death decisions in courtrooms. On an
example, is known to be present, the physician will
is obliterated or distorted in various ways. Ophthal-
brain codes it. This involves the ability to deal with
detail, to make associations and spatial relationships,
even grander scale, it shapes far-reaching diplomatic
look for specific related abnormal findings when he
moscopic inspection will yield a great deal of informa-
and military policy. In the laboratory or other sci-
checks the eye and does the neurologic and mental
tion about the anatomic integrity of the retina, but a
and to do other intellectual work, all of which occurs
entific setting, when inaccurate, it can lead to an hor-
status examinations.
complete assessment must also include detailed map-
very rapidly and before the processed material is made
rendous waste of money and professional man-hours.
Since observations usually begin with the eye and/or
ping of both visual fields by perimetry, with attention
available at the tempero-parietal lobe level for com-
In all these situations, we should be demanding to
some other sensory organ, the next step (once adequate
to the size and shape of the blind spot. The observer's
munication or for a reaction of any other kind. A great
know more about the likelihood of a crucial observa-
general medical screening has been done) might natu-
ability to perceive color at the retinal level may be
many pathways and a number of brain areas are opera-
tion before acting on it.
rally be a neuro-ophthalmologic examination. This
challenged with Ischihara charts, which are most pop-
tive in this critical coding step, and a number of prob-
Many people in science, technology and government
would concern itself with the major structures of the
ularly used for detecting color blindness. These charts
lems, both anatomic and physiologie, can affect the
perform basically observational roles. Some of these
visual apparatus and any of their abnormalities which
also will pick up abnormalities in color perception
process, either subtlely or grossly. The responsibility
individuals are in such responsible positions that
might influence accurate reception of the visual images
which are due to drugs, other toxic conditions, and
of the clinician here would be to test cortical integra-
what they think they see or say they have seen, and
[4].
higher, cortical integrative problems.
tive ability with the various neurologic testing tech-
how they respond to it, could profoundly affect the
The cornea, the most external structure, accounts for
The head of the optic nerve (disc) can also be easily
niques available to him. He must also rule out (by
course of human events. (Such a. statement will not
visual distortion through scarring and clouding. These
inspected with the ophthalmoscope, as it sits bare at
careful history, general physical examination, and
seem overdramatic or exaggerated to those readers who
changes are caused by such insults as trauma to the eye,
the back of the eye. The optic nerve is subject to
certain laboratory measures) the innumerable disease
have some knowledge of how, for example, our na-
exposure to toxic fumes, infections, and deficiency or
similar pathologic processes as those mentioned above:
states-toxic, infectious, endocrine, metabolic, de-
tional security system operates.) The choice of these
degenerative diseases. Inspection with an ophthal-
i.e., developmental, inflammatory, metabolic, and
ficiency, and neuropathologic-that can subtlely alter
people on the basis of tenure, military rank or years of
moscope and/or slit lamp will positively establish cor-
toxic. The color, texture and anatomic configuration
cortical functioning and thus interfere with the coding
of an observation.
good conduct seems hardly pertinent, since these
neal integrity.
of the nerve head indicate not only the integrity of the
factors don't necessarily reflect anything about the
The lens of the eye is the main structure for directing
optic nerve at this vital point but also offer highly
The next step in observer evaluation is the psychi-
state of their central nervous system. Given our ex-
light rays from external phenomena to the retina. It
suggestive inferential information about the state of
atric part which, if properly carried out, will probably
treme reliance on some of these individuals, it is sug-
has a wide range of possible variation, on both a genetic
the rest of it, which is not directly visible. In addition,
be the statistically most fruitful for uncovering observer
gested that they be screened for observational in-
basis and, like the cornea, as a result of aging, trauma,
when there is increased intracranial pressure due to
creditability gaps. This is in part because the same
tegrity prior to placement in key positions and that
deficiency diseases and infections. The configuration
any type of brain abnormality, it can be reflected in the
types of disease processes listed above for interfering
they also be given periodic follow-up evaluations.
of the lens, as it is suspended in front of the eye by
appearance of the optic disc.
with cortical integration (coding) also can cause such
All-encompassing medical assessments of observers
delicate muscles, accounts for the sharpness (and shape)
The optic nerves from both eyes join in the area of
mental aberrations as frank hallucinations and delu-
have not, to this author's knowledge, been previously
of the image known as refractive ability.
the pituitary gland and then redivide in such a way
sions or lead a person to fill in with make-believe de-
proposed. This is probably because developing the
The aqueous humor which bathes the lens is of
that fibers from both eyes are represented in the optic
tails (confabulate) the parts of a report that his brain
idea and applying the methods entails a working knowl-
particular concern because of the pressure it exerts
tracts that form. Each tract then travels along either
condition no longer allows him to remember. In addi-
edge of at least three of those medical specialties which
on the rest of the eye. Increased pressure changes in
side of the brain (medial aspect of parietal and tem-
tion, there are the purely psychological problems,
focus on the central nervous system. It also demands
this medium, measurable with a goniometer, are re-
poral lobes) via optic radiations to the occipital cortex.
based in background factors, which lead an observer
an eagerness to integrate certain aspects of each spe-
sponsible for glaucoma which can result in serious
These pathways, although not directly visible, are
to deliberately fabricate or unwittingly distort what
cialty, for purposes of problem-solving. The desired
impairment of visual acuity. After a period of time,
accessible through the use of several maneuvers. Com-
he has seen. If consciously driven, his motivation may
end, in this case, is a more complete understanding of
the increased pressure will also lead to a characteristic
posite findings on neurologic examination, including
be fame, fortune, competitive strivings or some rather
the individual observer.
constriction of the visual fields, which can be estab-
visual field results, are traditionally used, but optico-
specific, complicated need which has been tapped by
Rather than extensively elaborating on the neces-
lished by examination (perimetry).
kinetic studies should also be done because of the
witnessing the event he is reporting. If the distortion
sary examination techniques, the following outline
The vitreous humor fills the eyeball and is the other
abundance of information they can give about the
has its roots at an unconscious level, it is likely that
stresses processes, structures, and diseases that de-
fluid through which the light rays of a visual image must
integrity of the optic radiations. This involves the use
it was triggered by something about the event in re-
termine the nature of reported observations. The spe-
pass before they reach the retina. This medium is
of a moving, checkered tape which the patient watches
lation to the patient's remote past. In the case of a
cifics of the material are intended mostly for the non-
subject to clouding and other signs of early inflamma-
and to which his eyes should involuntarily respond with
functionally psychotic person, the entire observation
medical reader, since the question of observer credit-
tion. "Floaters," which are abnormal proteinaceous
rapid, rhythmic movements (nystagmus) [5]. If, on
may be the product of his own intrapsychic life in-
ability is SO often his business and since he will be the
particles in the vitreous humor, are sometimes mistaken
the basis of these studies, some kind of local pathology
stead of having had anything at all to do with an ex-
one in the position to decide when to request the special
by people as moving objects that are in their outside
or other interfering process is suspected, the physician
ternal event. On the opposite end of the continuum is
assessment.
environment. Again, ophthalmoseopie and slit lamp
can then make use of special x-ray procedures (pneu-
the normal or only mildly neurotic person whose
examination will serve to determine the status of the
moencephalography, arteriography) for looking at the
"hang-ups" are such that they have either not sub-
METHOD
vitreous humor.
areas in question.
stantially affected his report or have only very subtlely
The initial phase of integrated eye-witness assess-
The retina is the structure on which the visual
Once the examining physician has satisfied himself
colored a small detail. It may be just as important to
ment is a general medical evaluation. This involves,
image is actually received; loosely, it can be likened to
as to the status of an observer's visual apparatus (to
ascertain this.
besides the complete physical examination, a careful
camera film. Located in the posterior eyeball, it is
the point where the cerebral cortex takes over), he will
Other aspects of the psychiatric part of observer
history and selected laboratory studies. The rationale
the beginning of the neural perception linkage which
want next to proceed with a detailed neurologic exami-
examinations are the matters of intellectual differences
for beginning in this way is screening, since many dis-
eventually reaches the brain and consciousness. The
nation. His index of suspicion about the presence of
and language factors, both of which would have some
orders of other organ systems are well-known for their
retina is subject to many and varied abnormalities
absence of pertinent central nervous system disease
bearing on the reporter's strengths and limitations as a
adverse effects on central nervous system functioning.
which can severely disturb both visual sharpness
had already been altered by his findings on general
creditable and adequate observer.
Knowledge about the background and current status
(acuity) and range (fields), as well as color perception.
physical evaluation, as well as from the eye exami-
A sound systematic method for ascertaining observer
of the observer's general bodily health will alert the
Retinal pigment accumulation, inflammatory, and
nation.
creditability would have widespread application.
physician to which areas will need further investiga-
other exudates, vascular problems and other types of
There is a clinical format for doing a complete neu-
People in the legal profession grapple daily with this
tion and which of the later, special examinations will
pathology can come between an otherwise observable
rologic examination; it is well-known to neurologists and
188
189
other interested physicians. Certain of the maneuvers,
phase of the assessment where, as in psychiatry a stand-
particularly those which test cortical integrative
ard mental status examination is used for ferreting out
is as well, an obvious positive application for these
Astronautical Sciences, January-February 1968. An Intro-
function, are extremely important in the evaluation
emotional disorders, as well as memory and other in-
assessments. The psychiatric evaluation, for example,
duction to Astrodynamics, Academic Press, 1967, pp.
of an eye-witness. This is because they will indicate
319-333.
tellectual impairment. For example, the schizophrenias
can be useful for further screening for the strengths of
the ability of the observer's cerebral cortex to proc-
2. DE WAELE, J. P., "An Experimental Critique of Testi-
and psychotic depression (which are the more frequent
observer candidates who have already been ruled
mony," Revue de Proit Penal et de Criminologic, 44: 955-
ess what his visual apparatus has fed in-to differ-
functional disorders associated with hallucinations and
medically and neurologically intact. In addition to
980, 1963-65.
entiate various kinds of sensory input, process detail,
delusions) usually have well known clinical char-
making some sound predictions about accuracy of
3. BRAINERD, H., Current Diagnosis and Treatment, Lange
make associations, and integrate spatial relationships.
acteristics and will be obvious to physicians doing
reported observations, the psychiatrist could also
Medical Publ. Los Altos, Calif., 1968.
More specifically, those tests that reflect cortical sen-
4. WALSH, F. B., Clinical Neuro-ophthalmology, 3rd Ed.,
formal mental status testing [8].
explore the candidate's ability to appropriately re-
Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Md. 1957.
sory status are particularly pertinent for eye-witness
It is because of the less florid kinds of psychopa-
spond, under stress, to what he has seen. This aspect of
5. SMITH, J. L., Opticokinetic Nystagmus, C. C. Thomas,
assessment. This is because there are numerous medical
thology that a thorough psychiatric evaluation should
disorders that cause neurologic disruption at the cor-
an individual's make-up is of grave importance (as
Springfield, III. 1966.
be part of an observer creditability assessment. The
6. MERRITT, H. H., A Textbook of Neurology, 4th Ed., Lea and
tical sensory level, resulting in hallucinations, delu-
implied earlier) in some military, security, and other
complexities and vagaries of the human personality
Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa. 1967.
sions, distortions, and confabulations [6].
key positions.
7. WALKER, S., III, Psychiatric Signs and Symploms Due to
can lead to some gross distortions and fabrications
"Organic" hallucinations and distortions often seem
Medical Problems, C. C. Thomas, Springfield, III., 1967.
around an event, particularly when witnessed by people
Bibliography
8. CAMERON, N., Personality Development and Psychopathology.
very real, even afterwards, to one only transiently
who are borderline psychotic, paranoid, sociopathic,
A Dynamic Approach, Houghton, Mifflin, Boston, Mass.
afflicted and are apt to be reported as witnessed events.
hysterical or inadequate personalities. Some of these
1. BAKER, R. M. L., JR., "Observational Evidence of Anoma-
1963.
They can occur in people suffering from acute infec-
people, when stressed, have brief, episodic breaks with
listic Phenomena," and "Future Experiments on Anom-
9. WALKER, S., III, "The Neuropsychiatric Evaluation of
tions, adrenal insufficiency, brain tumors, chronic
alistic Observational Phenomena," Journal of the
the Eye Witness," To be published.
reality in which they are frankly psychotic and halluci-
pulmonary disorders (respiratory acidosis), compli-
nate, yet then resume previous functioning. During a
cations from vitamin deficiences and alcoholism, ab-
sophisticated psychiatric evaluation, the physician
normal calcium metabolism, low blood magnesium
would be likely to recognize a propensity for such
levels, epilepsy (for several reasons), and Sydenham's
episodes. His main job, however, would be to gather
chorea. In addition, there are scores of commonly used
enough information about the observer as a person to
drugs which will produce hallucinations if taken in
be able to check him out generally, psychologically, for
toxic quantities or, by certain people, in prescribed
creditability. This would involve complete develop-
amounts. These include antihistamines, meprobamate
mental and psychosexual history, studying family
("Milltown"), dephenylhydantoins (antiepileptic
relationships (past and present), assessing intellectual
agents), atropine (found in many non-prescription sleep-
ability, elaborating on areas of major conflict, assessing
ing pills), and bromides (as in Bromoselzer). The re-
for characterologic make-up and evaluating for ego-
port of an eye-witness who has been scrutinized for
strength or weakness. In instances where an observer is
these possibilities alone (by history, examination, and
being retrospectively evaluated (i.e., he has already
necessary laboratory data) will understandably assume
reported an event) there should be an intensive effort
more creditability.
made to explore the observer's feelings about what
The possibility that an observation may have been
he has seen and described. Such discussion, when
influenced by an "organic" delusion should also be
properly guided, is likely to uncover inconsistencies
investigated. Frequently, as with the hallucinations,
and other helpful clues, in the case of the noncreditable
there will be clues to this situation from the observer's
observer. Unconscious motivational forces that have
history or from some examination findings. Among
led to inaccurate reporting can sometimes be un-
the underlying medical causes of delusions are trichi-
covered by exploring the observer's fantasy life, listen-
nosis, syphilis, hypothyroidism, calcium disorders,
ing for slips of the tongue, or attempting free associ-
various blood disorders, encephalitis, and pellegra.
ation. In an occasional observer, where substantiation
Some of these same disorders can, of course, also in-
of his creditability is crucial and there is vague reason
rfuence observational reporting through other channels.
to suspect it, a pentathol interview may be indicated.
Confabulation, as a neurologic sign, is particularly
In instances where frank lying about an event is
important to rule out in the eye-witness report because
suspected, the observer can be questioned while moni-
it can be SO deceiving. In fact, it serves as a cover-up
tored by a polygraph. This machine measures some of
for memory impairment by filling in the gaps with
those bodily responses that are under the control of
sundry (but inaccurate) details. Typically, confabula-
the autonomic nervous system which is, in turn,
tion is seen in association with peripheral neuropathy
partly regulated by cortical centers. If the observer
(careful examination is thus apt to alert the physician)
being studied is truly sociopathic and has never de-
and is the result of either a blood disorder or, more
veloped a super-ego, or conscience, the polygraph will
commonly, exposure to toxins [7].
not be able to pick up his lie, since he will have no
Many gross mental aberrations, such as hallucina-
associated conflict on telling it. The lying will be picked
tions and delusions, are not associated with abnormal
up, however, when the polygraph is used on other
physical or neurologic signs and can be causally traced
personality types.
to underlying psychologic disorders. These are likely
Up to this point, this paper has focused on the many
to be recognized and so labelled in the neurologic
factors that interfere with observer creditability. There
190
191
Mr. ROUSH. Thank you, Dr. Baker.
Dr. SAGAN. That is just what I was going to say. Certain velocity
I anticipated we would have difficulty keeping the members of the
and altitude limitations.
committee here at a time when important legislation is considered on
Mr. BOONE. With that I agree. But I don't think we make many
the floor. We thought we would reserve the final few minutes for
sightings at that altitude. We do have a problem here of what you
those of you who have made presentations to discuss among yourselves
want to look at. So in fact I think the thrust of Dr. Baker's argument
questions which may have been aroused by one of your colleagues'
here was that most of the Air Force equipment do not supply the
presentation today.
material you would like to have.
With that in mind, we are going to permit you to have a real free
So you are going to have to go to a much lower altitude, and you
for all. Dr. Sagan.
are going to have to check a much larger number of targets.
Dr. SAGAN. I just wanted to underline one point that Dr. Baker
Dr. SAGAN. I may have misunderstood, but my understanding was,
made, Congressman Roush, in his detailed presentation of the various
since all of these "uninteresting," trajectory objects are thrown away,
Air Force systems. I am afraid that the main point won't come across
we have no way of knowing at the present time whether there are or
to a lay audience, and that is that with relatively little expenditure
are not large numbers of interesting objects at altitudes above 90,000
information. of funds, it would be possible to significantly improve the available
feet.
Mr. BOONE. What this means is you check each one and determine
Apparently what is now happening is that the Air Force surveillance
its trajectory, and then throw it away, SO it no longer becomes a sim-
radar is throwing away the data that is of relevance for this inquiry.
ple task of saying "Oh, I only want to look at the unidentified ones."
In other words, if it sees something that is not on a ballistic trajectory,
I have to check each one, and discard it.
or not in orbit, it ignores it, it throws it in the garbage.
Dr. SAGAN. Isn't that being done already?
Well, that garbage is just the area of our interest. So if some method
Mr. BOONE. No, it doesn't do it below certain altitudes.
could be devised by the Air Force to save the output that they are
Dr. SAGAN. Right.
throwing away from these space surveillance radars, it might be the
Mr. BOONE. All right. Certain targets are picked up at certain
least expensive way to significantly improve our information about
ranges, are they not?
these phenomena.
Dr. SAGAN. Right. So therefore the suggestion is that within the
Mr. ROUSH. Thank you.
altitude range, that is being used anyway by the surveillance radar
Dr. BAKER. Let me just make a comment: That is quite true. At
Mr. BOONE. You complicate the procedure.
the present time our space surveillance sensors are about 200 percent
Dr. SAGAN. Slightly.
overtasked. That means they could make about 50 percent of their
Mr. BOONE. The procedure is used but it involves the software again
time available to us. They task too many space objects, their capacity
which is much more difficult to add to the systems than I believe is
is much greater than the space objects that they are tasked to watch.
being presented. It can be done, there is no question it can be done.
The space population may grow to fill this void, but currently what
Dr. HARDER. I would agree the amount of effort that goes into the
Dr. Sagan says is true, we could as I indicated in conclusion (4)
relative softwares, although by no means a $100 million project, it is
modify our current space surveillance system.
not a very simple project.
It is not an expensive thing to modify existing radars. The FPS-85
Mr. ROUSH. Dr. McDonald, do you have a comment?
itself costs something like $100 million. The software modification
Dr. McDoNALD. Yes. I would underscore another one of the points,
called for here I am sure would be much less.
the general points that Dr. Baker made. I think it addresses itself to
Mr. ROUSH. Dr. Hynek.
the question raised. Both scientists and members of the public are quite
Dr. HYNEK. I would just like to concur in what Dr. Sagan has said.
aware we have many monitoring radar systems, optical and SO on.
I understand there are several hundred UCT's a month, uncorrelated
This question is raised often, why aren't UFO's tracked The point
targets, that because they don't-I understand-which since they do
one is struck with in studying each of these systems in turn is the large
not follow ballistic trajectory, they are tossed out. It would not be
degree of selectivity that is necessarily built into them. Good examples
expensive to introduce a subroutine into the computer to take care of
were cited by Dr. Baker.
these things for a short while. I strongly second Dr. Sagan's and Dr.
It has to be kept well in mind that even systems like SAGE when
Baker's suggestions.
they were developed necessarily had to have programed into them
Mr. BOONE. Mr. Chairman.
certain speed limits both lower and upper, certain safe requirements
Mr. ROUSH. Mr. Boone.
like if the target was on an outbound path it could be ignored. In
Mr. BOONE. I think the gentleman should advise you too, though,
almost every monitoring system you set up, whether for defense or
when you do that, you must make a trajectory determination on each
scientific purposes, if you don't want to be snowed with data, you in-
target including aircraft which may put a terrific burden on the radar
tentionally built selectivity in, and then you do not see what you are
you are insisting on upgrading.
not looking for.
Dr. HYNEK. I will certainly grant that.
Consequently, this point is important, that despite our many sensing
Dr. HARDER. I would only respond to Mr. Boone by suggesting you
and monitoring systems, the fact that they don't repeatedly turn up
could reject all objects that were found, for instance, under 90,000 feet.
192
193
what appear to be similar to UFO's, whatever we define those to be,
is not quite as conclusive as it might seem.
Dr. HARDER. This was done by a neutralization analysis on a very
The second comment I would make concerns Dr. Baker's remark that
tiny slicer. It would be hard to say to what extent over the interven-
we should move: ahead to instrumental techniques and perhaps lessen
ing 9 years there might be some territorialization, but certainly it
attention on the older data.
would not have taken out aluminum or copper. It might have added
I too agree that we have much need to replace what police officers
zinc or barium, although that seems somewhat unlikely.
and pilots saw with good hard instrumental data, the sooner the better,
Dr. SAGAN. So some comparison analysis has been made for example
but there are many fields in which once you get instrumental data,
of the magnesium flares. A magnesium flare has an abundance of im-
purities?
say seismology, and being to learn about the phenomenon you are
Dr. HARDER. It would hardly be 99.9 percent purity.
studying, seismology, astronomy, meteorology, once you understand
Dr. SAGAN. That is what I meant.
these things you do go back to exploit the knowledge that is implicit in
Dr. HARDER. Yes, that is right.
older data. Seismologists do study old earthquake records to improve
Mr. ROUSH. Dr. McDonald.
the seismicity data available. Ecologists do look at old shifts in plant
Dr. McDoNALD. Both Dr. Hall and Dr. Sagan remarked in different
and animal patterns. Astronomers do look at old eclipse information,
contexts on the intense emotional factors that predispose some people
because once you begin to understand a problem, you can then sort
to certain systems of belief, and I would like to remark on that to
out much better the important material.
be sure that some perspective is maintained on that part of the
I would not want to see excluded entirely-in fact, I think it
problem.
would be folly to exclude observations that go back 20 years, and a
In the witnesses I have interviewed-I have intentionally stayed
part of the problem we have not talked about today, still earlier ob-
servations.
away from those who immediately show a very strong interest in a
Dr. BAKER. Yes, I concur in that.
salvation theory, or something like that-so I have cut down my
sample right at the start.
My message there was that if we preoccupy ourselves with continu-
I would want to leave the point strongly emphasized that though
ally going over past history, it is going to be frustrating. I think we
there are a few people, and some of them rather visible and vocal, who
can always use past history in retrospect. In order to go back, as you
are emotional about the problem and tie it to almost religious beliefs,
say, to look at the data and to put it in the proper perspective, when
the body of evidence that puzzles me, that bothers me, and I think
we learn more about the phenomena. So I agree.
demands much more scientific attention, comes from people who are
Mr. ROUSH. Is there any other aspect of previous presentations that
really not at all emotional about it; they are puzzled by it, they are
any of you would like to question
reliable, a typical cross-section of the populace. They have not built
Dr. BAKER. I have a question of Dr. Harder about the Ubatuba
any wild theories on it.
magnesium.
In fact, let me mention one important sighting in New Guinea. I
Was this magnesium terrestrial In other words, it is granted that
didn't interview the witness in New Guinea, but in Melbourne,
Ubatubas couldn't produce it, but could the magnesium have been
Australia. An Anglican Missionary, Rev. William B. Gill, was teach-
produced terrestrially, and if so, in what connection would we pro-
ing the school in New Guinea, and when he and some three dozen
duce and employ such magnesium here on earth?
mission personnel saw an object hovering offshore with four figures
Dr. HARDER. Well, such pure magnesium is indeed produced ter-
visible on top of it, even this minister didn't begin to put any religious
restrially in connection with Grignard reagents, and produced by the
interpretation on it. He said this is what he saw, and The wrote very
Dow Chemical Co., where magnesium is produced in greater purity
careful notes about it. It is that kind of evidence, and not evidence that
actually than this.
comes from people with emotional factors predisposing them to sys-
At the time in 1957, the Brazilians did not have a sample of mag-
tem beliefs that impress me.
nesium from the U.S. Bureau of Standards that was as pure as this
Mr. ROUSH. Let's have the psychologist speak here for just a
Ubatuba magnesium with which to compare it. I might enlarge upon
moment.
the data which was produced, or which was gotten at the request of
Dr. HALL. Thank you.
Dr. Craig, that of the impurities found by the Colorado group, the
I welcome that clarification.
principal one was zinc strontium with barium being a runner-up.
The point I was making was not that the witnesses generally are
These are very curious kinds of alloys from any terrestrial point of
emotional and precommitted to a position at all, but that the people
view.
who are interpreting the evidence after it has been gathered are usually
No detected aluminum, and only three parts per million copper,
precommitted beyond the point of rationality, and it is a very im-
and those are the most likely alloying elements from the terrestrial
point of view.
portant distinction that you brought out.
The primary problem of witnesses, it seems to me, is this reluctance
Dr. BAKER. Would you say that the sample was partially terrestrial-
ized, and it might be the remnants of an ultrapure nonterrestrial
to report based apparently on a feeling that they will be ridiculed-
alloy, or did it appear these particular impurities were in the sample
that their evidence is not welcome-and I guess I·can't resist telling
from the beginning?
the little story from the Wall Street Journal, quite recently, of a
man who had five pet wallabys in Westchester County. A wallaby
194
195
is a miniature kangaroo. These five wallabys escaped, and rather than
as far as UFO's are concerned. They have included Air Force generals
upset people he didn't report this, he waited for people to tell him
and Army generals, and usually they display a great interest. Some-
that they had seen them. And nothing happened for days and days.
times they will say, I don't believe, but my wife does; some will say.
Well, when they were finally relocated and caught then lots of
The other day I was engaged in a colloquy over on the floor of the
people started admitting, yes, they had seen these wallabys, but after
House, not a part of the record, but just as a side conversation, with
all, if you see a tiny kangaroo loping across the road in New Rochelle,
two of my colleagues who sit on this committee.
you are reticent to report it.
(At this point, discussion was off the record.)
Mr. ROUSH. Dr. Hynek again.
Mr. ROUSH. Back on the record.
Dr. HYNEK. I think that is a most interesting point that ties in.
As a result of my experience on this committee I have been privi-
I think sometimes we don't ask ourselves really very fundamental
leged to visit the tracking stations which NASA has throughout the
questions, and that is, how is it that these reports exist in the first
world. Each place I have visited I have asked the question, "Have you
place?
tracked any unidentified flying object?"
It is not just because they are strange, because we don't have reports
Well, it is obvious they apparently don't have the ability to track,
of Christmas trees flying upside down, or elephants doing strange
but the response was "No," everywhere except in South Africa. Then
things in the sky; the reports are strange, but they do have a certain
they said, "Anything we track, which we do not understand, we turn
pattern.
over to the Department of Defense," inferring there were some things
Now, I have often asked myself, well, why do the reports exist in
they did not understand.
the first place? And how many are reported?
The same is true with those places in the world where there is a
Whenever I give a presentation to some group I frequently will
Baker-Nunn camera. I asked the same question of them. For the most
ask them, well, how many of you have seen something in the skies you
part there was a boundless curiosity, but a negative response.
couldn't explain; that is a UFO, or some friend whose veracity you
Dr. HYNEK. I might respond to that, of course, in talking to them,
can vouch for?
you have represented officialdom, and they may themselves be a little
I have been surprised to find that 10 to 15 percent, albeit it is a
afraid to say anything to a Congressman that might get them into
specialized audience, they are there already because they are inter-
trouble.
ested, hence there is a selection factor, but nonetheless I am quite sur-
But I get reports subrosa that are to the effect that people, trackers,
prised that many respond.
and so forth, have seen things, but they would not dare think of re-
Then I ask the second one, Did you ever report it to the Air Force?
porting it.
And maybe one or two will say that they have.
Now, that is hearsay. I am sorry it is not hearsay; it has happened
Now, why, then, should people make reports anyway, since they
to me.
face such great ridicule? They do it for two reasons, those that I have
But it is not what I would call "solid evidence."
talked to: One, is out of a sense of civic duty. Time and again I will
Mr. ROUSH. Just one other comment. I serve on the board of trustees
get a letter saying, I haven't said this to anybody, but I feel it is my
of a college back in Indiana. In the course of a year they had numerous
duty as a citizen to report this. And many letters come to me. In fact,
lectures by outstanding people in their lecture series, quite outstanding
even saying, please do not report this to the Air Force.
people on various subjects, but they scheduled one lecture given by a
The second reason is that their curiosity finally bugs them. They
student at the college on unidentified flying objects. Needless to say,
have been thinking about it and they want to know what it was they
he had the best attendance of the entire series.
saw, and many letters I get will end in a rather plaintive note, can
Dr. Harder.
you possibly tell me, or can you tell me whether it is possible what
Dr. HARDER. Following on something that Dr. Hynek said about
I saw?
the small percentage of actual sightings that are reported, this would
Those two reasons are the "springs" of why the report is made in
suggest that the two instances that I brought out, which to my knowl-
the first place. I don't know how much store can be put in the Gallup
edge are the only extant pieces of what you might call scientific
poll, but I understand when, about 2 years ago a poll was made on
information-information containing information of a scientific
this subject, there was something like-the poll reported 5 million
nature, might well be multiplied by a factor of 10, if it were not for
people, 5 million Americans had seen something in the skies they
this ridicule bit, and furthermore, if it were not the subject of ridicule,
could not explain. Over the past 20 years the Air Force has had some
many people would perhaps take greater care in the observations that
12,000 reports. Therefore, one can logically ask, who is holding out on
they do make, and perhaps come up with similar kinds of anecdotal
the other 4,988,000 reports?
nature of somewhat more importance than just flashing lights.
I think there may be quite a reservoir of reports that simply have
For instance, the plane of polarization or-well, many kinds of
not come out into the open because of this natural reluctance of people
observations came to us. We would have even at this point far more
to speak out.
anecdotal information of a scientific nature and of scientific impor-
Mr. RousH. Dr. Hynek, your experience has been similar to mine,
tance than we now have.
although much more extensive. In the 10 years I have served on this
Mr. ROUSH. I think those of you who have sat on this panel today
committee I have had occasion to ask various witnesses their beliefs
have made perhaps a greater contribution than you realize in adding
196
197
some respectability to the interest the American people have in this
phenomena. Perhaps we can, by further activity on the part of this
This data, which most people have never seen or even heard of, is published in a
document entitled "Project Blue Book Special Report, Number 14" which was
committee, and you on your part, and by the public reading what you
completed in 1955 and has never been made readily available. The low percentage
have said today, cause people to be more responsive and to report what
of Unknowns since that time is the direct result of deception on the part of the
they see. Perhaps we can thereby give an air of respectability to these
U.S. Air Force whose entire approach since that time has been based upon the
sightings which will permit people to go ahead without being embar-
assumption that everything can be identified.
The usual arguments made against "visitations" are based upon false assump-
rassed or ashamed of reporting what they have seen.
tions, wrong (unanswerable) questions and faulty knowledge. "Things cannot
Does anyone else have anything here?
go that fast in the atmosphere-spaceffight is impossible-trips to the stars are
Mr. FULTON. Mr. Chairman, sightings of UFO's in western Pennsyl-
educated non-believer focuses on the irrelevant IFO's and poor sightings typical by
impossible, if they were here they would talk to
us
etc."
The
vania have now increased to the point where interested citizens have
established a UFO Research Institute with a 24-hour answering
incompetent observers and carefully neglects the UNKNOWNS seen by com-,
petent observers. The great probability that there are civilizations thousands,
service, to investigate reports and sightings.
perhaps millions of years, ahead of us and possessing technology about which
In my congressional district, there is the Westinghouse astronuclear
we are probably totally ignorant is neglected. The distressing thought that we,
plant, whose fine work is well known to the members of our committee.
the inhabitants of this planet, might not be worth talking to is pushed aside.
As I have been asked by Mr. Stanton T. Friedman, a nuclear physicist
The most effective filter between the facts as they are and the widespread distri-
bution of those facts has been ridicule. Fewer than 1% of the sightings that
at Westinghouse who makes a hobby of investigating UFO sightings
have occurred have been investigated or reported. Documents containing solid
and publicly speaking on the subject, it is a pleasure to insert a state-
data about UFO's rather than IFO's have been privately published SO that most
ment by Mr. Friedman, "Flying Saucers Are Real" into the record
people have never seen the data that they contain. An entire mythology of false
at this point. He is one of the few observers with the candor to con-
information has been widely distributed instead. Now is the time to break
through the "laughter curtain." Studies done six years ago at the Jet Propulsion
clude and SO state that "the earth is being visited by intelligently
Laboratory showed that trips to the stars in reasonable times are feasible with
controlled vehicles" from outer space.
the knowledge we have today using staged fission or fusion propulsion systems
(Mr. Friedman's statement follows:)
both of which are under development. A tremendously large body of data con-
nected with magnetoaerodynamics even suggests we might be able to build some-
SUMMARY OF "FLYING SAUCERS ARE REAL"
thing very much like the reported UFO's-and also solve many of the problems
of high speed flight and produce the electromagnetic effects SO frequently asso-
By STANTON T. FRIEDMAN, NUCLEAR PHYSICIST
ciated with UFO sightings. "It's impossible" is said instead of "We don't know
how."
After considerable study, first-hand investigation, and review of a great variety
Literally hundreds of reports from all over the world also testify to the
of data, I have concluded that the evidence is overwhelming that the earth is
existence of humanoid creatures associated with UFO's on the ground. Once
being visited by intelligently controlled vehicles whose origin is extraterrestrial.
again ridicule has kept the facts from being known. More than 200 landings
This does not mean that I know why they are here, where they come from, how
have been documented for 1954 alone.
they operate, why they don't seem to be talking to us. It also does not mean that
There are good pictures of UFO's from all over the world-most of which
I believe that everything that people see that they cannot identify is an extra-
have also not received the publicity that they deserve.
terrestrial spaceship. Quite the contrary, I believe that most things that people
A good example of the ridiculousness of the professional skeptics' attitude is
report as UFO's can be identified as relatively conventional phenomena seen
the statement that "life as we know it cannot exist on any other body in the
under unconventional circumstances just as most isotopes cannot fission or fusion,
solar system." It sounds sensible until we note that we expect to send men to the
most chemicals don't cure any diseases, most people cannot run a four-minute
moon and to Mars. The primary attribute of an advanced intelligent civilization
mile, and most women don't look like Brigitte Bardot. The scientific approach to
is its ability to create its own environment almost everywhere such as the bottom
any problem is to sift the information to find that which is relevant to the solu-
of the ocean, in outer space, and on the surface of airless, waterless bodies such
tion of the problem at hand. The fact that most initially strange objects in the sky
as the moon and Mars. For those who believe that the Mariner IV pictures of
and on the ground can be identified is totally irrelevant to the question of the
Mars proved that there isn't life there, it should be pointed out that of 10,000
existence of extraterrestrial spaceships. Also irrelevant are the facts that we
pictures taken of the earth from a satellite with cameras of the same resolving
cannot yet comfortably visit other planets, that some of us might behave differ-
power as those used on Mariner IV, only 1 (one) gave any indication of life
ently from the way our visitors act, that we have not yet publicly been exposed
on earth.
to pieces of such a vehicle, or to an extraterrestrial humanoid on television.
Max Plank once said that new truths come to be accepted not because their
While almost everyone has heard of flying saucers and has an opinion about
opponents come to believe in them but because their opponents die and a new
them, most people including the non-believing scientists who have made such
generation grows up that is accustomed to them. Perhaps this is what will
definite statements about their non-existence are ignorant not only of the facts
happen with UFO's.
concerning UFO's but also of the technology that might aid one in understanding
the vehicles' motion, the possibility of interplanetary and interstellar travel, or
Mr. ROUSH. Dr. Baker, and Dr. Hall, Dr. McDonald, Dr. Harder,
the possibility of life on Mars.
Dr. Hynek, and Dr. Sagan, I believe that you people have made a
Sightings of UFO's are relatively common and have occurred all over the
real contribution here, and I think the time will come when certain
world. One out of every 25 adult Americans has seen a UFO. Judging from the
one detailed, official, scientific investigation that has been published, one-fifth
people will look back and read what has been done here today and
of the sightings can be labelled as Unknowns. These Unknowns are completely
realize that we have pioneered in a field insofar as the Congress of
separate and distinct from the 20% of the 2199 sightings which were labeled
the United States is concerned. They will be very mindful that
"Insufficient Information" because some vital piece of data was missing. Many
of the Unknowns are reported by highly trained, competent witnesses who have
something worthwhile was done here today.
close-up sightings lasting for many minutes. UFO's have been observed on radar
As a personal note, I would like to say this has been one of the most
and been subsequently labelled as Unknowns. There have been simultaneous
unusual and most interesting days I have spent since I have been in
radar and visual sightings. Comparisons between Knowns and Unknowns clearly
the Congress of the United States.
showed definite differences in color, shape, size, velocity, maneuverability, etc.
Thank you.
198
199
The committee stands adjourned.
degree of D.Sc. from the University of Denver, his Alma Mater, and their John
(Whereupon, at 4:39 p.m., the committee was adjourned.)
Evans Award in 1965.)
In addition to the six symposium participants, the chairman, Mr.
Dr. Menzel has been a prolific writer. His books, articles, and scientific papers
cover a broad field, and have been translated into many languages. He has even
Roush, invited other scientists to submit written papers expressing
ventured briefly into the realm of science fiction.
their views of unidentified flying objects. Their papers follow as a
His book, "Our Sun," published by the Harvard University Press, is one of the
part of the record of the symposium.
so-called Harvard series on astronomy and a standard reference work, despite
(The biography of Dr. Menzel follows:)
the fact that it is written in popular style for the general public. Two popular
books on the subject of Flying Saucers, the second written with Lyle Boyd and
published in 1963, analyze the various reports and demonstrate conclusively that
DR. DONALD H. MENZEL
these highly controversial "objects" are only various manifestation of different
Dr. Donald H. Menzel, a native of Colorado, received his Ph. D. from Princeton
natural phenomena, not machines from outer space. His first book on Flying
University in 1924. After one year as instructor at the University of Iowa, another
Saucers was translated into Russian. He has lectured extensively on UFO's
around the world, including South America and Mexico.
year as Assistant Professor at Ohio State University, Dr. Menzel went to Lick
Observatory in 1926, as Assistant Astronomer. While at Lick he participated
Dr. Menzel's interest in promoting good writing by scientists, led him to pro-
duce "Writing a Techincal Paper," co-authored by Professor Howard Mumford
in many observing programs with the large telescopic equipment. His major
Jones of the Harvard Department of English and Lyle Boyd, a science editor.
work, however, was in the interpretation of the spectrum of the atmosphere
of the sun, from photographs taken at various total solar eclipses. He participated
He is also author of a "Field Guide to the Stars and Planets," a popular hand-
book for beginning astronomers.
in the observation of two such eclipses, in the years 1930 and 1932.
In the fall of 1932, Dr. Menzel came to Harvard University, where he has been
PREPARED STATEMENT BY DONALD H. MENZEL
ever since, except for three years of service as a Commander in the U.S. Navy,
during World War II. His studies have covered a large number of fields, from
UFO: FACT OR FICTION?
pure physics to pure astronomy. Of special concern has been the sun itself, in
which field he is a recognized authority. His studies have employed a combination
Flying saucers or UFO's have been with us for a long time. June 24, 1968
of observation and theory. In 1936 he was director of the Harvard-M.I.T. eclipse
marked the 21st anniversary of the sighting of nine bright disks moving rapidly
expedition to USSR. In 1945 he directed the joint U.S.-Canadian eclipse expedi-
along the hogback of Mount Rainier. However, similar sightings go far back
tion to Saskatchewan. He has also observed the total eclipses of 1918, 1923, 1954,
in history, where they have assumed various forms for different people. Old
1959, 1961, 1963 and 1967. In an attempt to obtain basic information outside of a
records refer to them as fiery dragons, fiery chariots, wills-o'-the-wisp, jack-o'-
total solar eclipse, Dr. Menzel developed the first coronagraph in the United
lanterns, ignis fatuus, firedrakes, fox-fire, and even the devil himself.
States and established the station at Climax, Colorado, where it is now known
And now a new legend-a modern myth-has arisen to explain a new rash
as the High Altitude Observatory. Originally operated jointly by Harvard and
of mysterious sightings. Certain UFO buffs argue that the peculiar properties
the University of Colorado, this scientific institution is now wholly under the
and maneuvers of these apparitions, as reported by reliable people of all kinds,
jurisdiction of the latter university. The observations of solar activity obtained
are SO remarkable that only one explanation for them is possible. They must
at Climax had an immediate application to problems of solar-terrestrial relation-
be vehicles from outer space, manned by beings far more intelligent than we.
ships, especially on the propagation of radio waves. To expand the work in this
because the operators have clearly built vehicles with capabilities far beyond
field and to provide for more nearly unbroken records of solar activity, after
anything we can conceive of.
World War II, Dr. Menzel suggested that the Air Forces establish a second
On the face of it, this reasoning sounds much like that of Sherlock Holmes.
solar station. After several years of site surveying, Sacramento Peak Observa-
who said on several occasions: "It is an old maxim of mine that when you have
tory was established near Alamogordo, New Mexico on a mountain some 5000
excluded the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the
truth
feet above the Tularosa Basin, overlooking the White Sands Proving Ground and
the Holloman Air Force Base. The large instruments, including the 16-inch corona-
I am willing to go along with this formula, but only after we have followed
graph, were all designed and built under Harvard auspices, collaboratively with
Holmes and excluded every possibility but that of manned UFO's. And we must
scientific personnel from the High Altitude Observatory. In 1956, with Air Force
also show that no further possible solutions exist.
sponsorship, Harvard built a Solar Radio Observatory near Fort Davis, Texas,
The believers are too eager to reach a decision. Their method is simple. They
to record the radio waves of solar origin. The data from these observatories are
try to find someone, whom they can establish as an authority, who will support
revolutionizing our knowledge of the sun and solar activity.
their views. They then quote and often misquote various authorities or one
In 1952 Dr. Menzel became acting Director of Harvard College Observatory
another until they believe what they are saying. Having no real logic on their
and, in 1954, was advanced to the Directorship. He resigned as Director on March
side, they resort to innuendo as a weapon and try to discredit those who fail
31, 1966. In Harvard University he is Paine Professor of Practical Astronomy
to support their view. The UFO magazines refer to me as the arch-demon of
and Professor of Astrophysics. On July 1, 1966 he also accepted appointment as
saucerdom!
Research Scientist on the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory staff. He has
I concede that the concept of manned spaceships is not an absolute impossi-
lectured extensively in Spanish throughout Latin America. In 1963 he was a
bility. Neither are the concepts of ghosts, spirits, witches, fairies, elves, hob-
Visiting Professor at the University of Chile, and served as State Department
goblins, or the devil. The only trouble with this last list is the fact they are
Specialist for Latin America in 1964.
out of date. We live in the age of space. Is it not natural that beings from
From 1954-56 he was President of the American Astronomical Society. He is
outer space should exhibit an interest in us? But, when we consider that these
Vice President of the American Philosophical Society, a member of the National
beings-if indeed they are beings-have been bugging us for centuries, why
Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a large
should one not have landed and shown himself to the President of the United
number of other professional organizations. He is a senior member of the Insti-
States, to a member of the National Academy of Sciences, or at least to some
tute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and a Foreign Associate of the
member of Congress?
Royal Astronomical Society. From 1948-1955 he was President of the Commission
Please don't misunderstand me. I think it is very possible that intelligent
on Solar Eclipses of the International Astronomical Union, and from 1964-1967
life-perhaps more intelligent than we-may exist somewhere in the vast reaches
was President of the Commission on the moon. He is also a member of the Inter-
of outer space. But it is the very vastness of this space that complicates the
national Radio Scientific Union (URSI), and the International Union for Geodesy
problem. The distances are almost inconceivable. The time required to reach
and Geophysics. He has been Chief Scientist of GCA Corporation since 1959.
the earth-even at speeds comparable with that of light-range in hundreds if
He was a member of the Board of Directors of the Association of Universities
not thousands of years for our near neighbors. And it takes light some billions
for Research in Astronomy, Inc. from 1957-1966. (In 1954 he received the honorary
of years to reach us from the most distant galaxies, times comparable with that
200
201
for the entire life history of our solar system. The number of habitable planets
in the universe is anybody's guess. Any figures you may have heard, including
Mirages are not the only apparitions that appear to maneuver. I think I was
mine, are just guesses. I have guessed that our own Milky Way may contain
the first person to point out that a special kind of reflection of the sun (or moon),
as many as a million such planets. That sounds like a lot, but the chances are
sometimes called a sun dog (or moon dog), also can perform evasive action.
the nearest such inhabited planet would be SO distant that if we send out a
Layers of ice crystals are necessary, like those found in cirrus clouds. An aviator
message to it today we should have to wait some 2000 years for a reply.
flying through cirrus sometimes sees a peculiar metallic appearing reflection, a
Alas, the evidence is poor for intelligent life in our solar system, though I
reflection of the sun or moon. He may elect to chase it. The apparition will
do expect some lower forms of life to exist on Mars.
recede if approached, or approach if the pilot reverses his course. The object
With respect to UFO's my position is simply this. That natural explanations
seems to execute evasive action! As the pilot runs out of ice crystals, the UFO
exist for the unexplained sightings. The Air Force has given me full access
will seem to put on a burst of speed and disappear into the distance.
to their files. There is no vast conspiracy of either the Air Force or CIA to
But such behavior does not imply, as the UFO addicts argue, the presence of
conceal the facts from the public, as some groups have charged. The basic
an intelligence pilot to guide it. No It's like chasing a rainbow, which recedes as
reason for continued reporting of UFO's lies in the possibility-just the pos-
you approach it or advances as you move away.
sibility mind you-that some of them may derive from experimentation or secret
As we look over the Air Force files, we find that some 90 per cent of the
space! development by a hostile power. And I don't mean hostile beings from outer
solved cases result from the presence of material objects in the atmosphere. I list
some of these objects. Reflections from airplanes, banking in the sun, simulate
The Air Force has made its mistakes. They never have had enough scientists
saucers. Momentarily, a bright reflection appears and then vanishes. The plane
in the project. They have failed to follow up certain sightings of special im-
is invisible in the distant haze. An imaginative person concludes that an inter-
portance. Their questionnaire is amateurish, almost cleverly designed in cer-
planetary vehicle has come in fast, reversed course, and rapidly receded into
tain cases to get the wrong answer and lose track of the facts. The Air Force
the distance. Often the observers say "It couldn't have been a plane," because
is aware of my criticism and, on a voluntary basis, I have helped them im-
"no noise was heard" or because "it moved too swiftly." And yet careful study
prove the questionnaire. It was not an easy job. Especially when the Air
proves beyond doubt that the object was indeed an aircraft. The brilliant land-
Force individual." rejected some vital questions as "an invasion of the privacy of the
ing lights of a plane can almost dazzle a person on the ground. Sometimes such
lights may appear to be very close-only a few hundred feet away.
From 1947 until 1954 a bewildered group of Air Force personnel tried hon-
You'd be surprised at the variety of mundane objects that people have re-
estly and sincerely to resolve the UFO problem. Many highly reliable persons
ported as UFO's. Balloons, child's balloons, weather balloons lighted or un-
had reported seeing "objects" moving at fantastic speeds, and apparently taking
lighted, and especially those enormous plastic balloons as large as a ten-story
evasive action in a manner impossible for known terrestrial craft. By 1952 a
building, which carry scientific instruments to altitudes of 100,000 feet! Re-
sizable number of those in the Air Force group had concluded that extrater-
flecting full sunlight while the earth below lies in dim twilight, these balloons
restrial vehicles were the only explanation. Some of this unrest leaked out.
shine more brilliantly than Venus! Advertising planes or illuminated blimps
Popular writers exploited these ideas and soon various UFO clubs came into
frequently become UFO's.
existence. In 1953, a committee of scientists, headed by the late H. P. Robert-
Birds, by day or night, often reflect light from their shiny backs. Wind-
son of California Institute of Technology met at CIA to consider a number of
blown kites, hats, paper, plastic sacks, feathers, spider-webs, seed pods, dust
the Air Force's most convincing cases. They immediately solved many of them.
devils have all contributed their share of UFO sightings. Insects single or in
Others could not be solved because of poor or insufficient data. They concluded
swarms. Saucer-shaped clouds, reflections of searchlights on clouds! Special
that all cases had a natural solution. There was no evidence to support the
space experiments, such as rocket-launched sodium vapor releases or balloons
idea that UFO's are vehicles from another world.
from Wallop's Island have also produced spectacular apparitions Ball lightning
Nevertheless, the UFO buffs believe, almost as an article of faith, that "trained
and the Aurora Borealis occasionally contribute.
observers," such as military or airline pilots, could not possibly mistake a
Reflections from power lines, insulators, television antennas, radars, radio
meteor, a planet, a star, a sundog, or a mirage for a UFO. This viewpoint is
telescopes, even apartment windows! These, too, have produced realistic UFO's.
absolutely nonsense and the Air Force files bear witness to its falsity They
I could add to this list almost indefinitely. But the chief point I want to make
contain thousands of solved cases-sightings by "reliable individuals" like the
is that simple phenomena like the above have tricked intelligent people into
pilots: But such persons have made huge errors in identification.
reporting a UFO.
A huge meteor flashes in the sky The co-pilot thinks it is going to strike
But there are a few other phenomena that can produce UFO's of a type that,
the plane and takes evasive action. The pilot disagrees and he is right. The
as far as I know, the Air Force still does not recognize.
UFO proves to be a fireball or meteor a hundred miles away ! Such occurrences
I quote from an article on "Vision" in Volume 14 of the McGraw-Hill Encyclo-
are frequent, not rare. They have even increased with the growing number of
pedia of Science and Technology. any observant person can detect swirling
re-entries and spectacular decay of satellite debris from the space operations
clouds or spots of 'light' in total darkness or while looking at a homogeneous
of the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R.
field such as a bright blue sky." If you want to see flying saucers just look up.
Distances overhead are uncommonly hard to estimate-either on the ground
If you don't see them, you probably are not "observant."
or in the air. A bird's feather, shining brightly in the sun and floating a mere
I see them most clearly in a dark room or on a moonless night with the sky
20 feet overhead may seem to be a distant object moving at very high speed.
even darker with heavy clouds. I find stars somewhat distracting. Just lie down
Conversely, a pilot may think that a bright object on the horizon, in reality a
on your back, open your eyes and see the saucers spin. The show is free. You
star or planet, lies just beyond his wing tip. Sometimes, a layer of warm air,
will almost surely see bright, irregular patches of light form. Most of them seem
sandwiched between 2 layers of cold air, can act as a lens, projecting a pulsing,
grey green, but I occasionally see silver or gold and occasionally red. I can
spinning, vividly colored, saucer-like image of a' planet. Pilots, thinking they
imagine windows in some of them. As you move your eyes they will cavort over
were dealing with a nearby flying object, have often tried to intercept the
the sky. To speed up the action just rub your eyes like a person coming out of
image, which evades all attempts to cut it off. The distance may seem to
a sleep. Occasionally the whole field becomes large and luminous. Now, I ask you.
change rapidly, as the star fades or increases in brightness. Actual "dog
How can you be sure that the UFO reported by an airline pilot is not one of
fights" have been recorded between a confused military pilot and a planet. I
these spurious images? And even if an alerted co-pilot confirms it, he might
myself have observed this phenomenon of star mirage. It is both realistic and
also be responding to a similar effect in his own eyes!
frightening.
The chemistry and physiology of the human eyes are certainly responsible for
Such observations fortified the UFO legend-that these objects "maneuver as
many UFO sightings. The eye responds in different ways to different kinds of
if under intelligent control." But the pilots failed to realize that the "intelligent
stimuli. A sudden burst of bright light, like that from a flash bulb, for example,
control" came from within themselves. And I think that Air Force personnel
exerts an enduring effect on the eye. The light from the flash produces an imme-
of Project Blue Book still do not appreciate this important UFO phenomenon.
diate change in the so-called visual purple of the retina. In a sense the retinal
spot on which the image fell becomes fatigued. For some minutes after the flash
97-818
202
203
be you will be able to see a bright, usually greenish, floating spot, which could
Let mistaken for a UFO by someone unfamiliar with the problem.
My assurance that there must be some mistake in the observation could not
and files Project Bluebook. A child, going to the bathroom turns on a bright the
of me take an actual case, which is typical of a large number actually in
be accepted, because this erratic course of the heavenly body had been seen
by all of them SO plainly that no doubt could exist on the subject. The men
mination. accidentally awakens one of his parents who is blinded by the sudden light illu-
who saw it were not of the ordinary untrained kind, but graduates of West
floating pens glance out of the window. He is startled to see a peculiar spot of
to The light goes off and the parent gets up to investigate and just hap-
Point, who, if any one, ought to be free from optical deceptions. I was con-
fidently invited to look out that night and see for myself. We all watched with
UFO over the trees and making irregular, jerky motions. He watches light the
the greatest interest.
for a minute or two until it finally disappears.
In due time the planet Mars was seen in the east making its way toward the
He cannot be blamed for failing to realize that the erratic and often rapid
south. "There it is was the exclamation.
movements of his UFO are those of the after-image, drifting with the similar
"Yes, there it is," said I. "Now that planet is going to keep right on its
be movements of his own eye. The UFO appears in the direction he happens
course toward the south."
looking. That is all. And yet he may describe it graphically as a luminous to
"No, it is not," said they "you will see it turn around and go down towards
object "cavorting around in the sky."
the north."
Many such stimuli are possible by day or night. Some time ago I was
Hour after hour passed, and as the planet went on its regular course, the
side directly toward the setting sun. When I came to a stop-light and looked out driving the
other watchers began to get a little nervous. It showed no signs of deviating
from its course. We went out from time to time to look at the sky.
realized thing a dirigible, surrounded by dozens of small black balloons. I suddenly some-
window like of the car, I was startled to see a large, black object shaped
"There it is," said one of the observers at length, pointing to Capella, which was
A UFO looking most fixedly. The spots were images where my eye had wandered.
been that they were after-images of the sun. The big one was where I had
now just rising a little to the east of north "there is the star setting."
"No, it isn't," said I; "there is the star we have been looking at, now quite
of buff could have sworn that he was seeing a "mother ship" and a swarm
inconspicuous near the meridian, and that star which you think is setting is
UFO's in rapid flight.
really rising and will soon be higher up."
looked to see a whole flotilla of UFO's flying in formation across the blue sky.
I once had another similar experience. I suddenly glanced up and was surprised
A very little additional watching showed that no deviation of the general
laws of Nature had occurred, but that the observers of previous nights had
the responsible. I quickly retraced my steps and found it: sunlight reflected from
like after-images, but I hadn't been conscious of the visual stimulus. They
jumped at the conclusion that two objects, widely apart in the heavens, were
the same.
shiny surface of the fender of a parked car.
Those words came from a book called "Reminiscences of an Astronomer,"
balloon fixedly at will the full moon for at least 30 seconds and then turn away. A greenish
I am sure that many UFO's still unknowns, belong to this class. Look
published in 1903 by Simon Newcomb, who was in charge of the American
Nautical Almanic office from 1877 until 1897. The event actually occurred in
Venus, any real object. I'm been able to attain the same effect with the planet
for swim over your head and perform maueuvers startling or impossible
1860. The similarity to modern UFO's is overpowering. A star cavorting across
the sky Military officers as responsible witnesses!
such when near maximum brilliance. Yet most observers will swear that
In his delightful book, "Light and Colour in the Open Air," the well-known
nize UFO's are true objects. And the Air Force questionnaire, failing to
Dutch astronomer, M. Minnaert, wrote.
"Moving Stars.
fied would help them to identify it. In fact the words signifying UFO, unidenti- question
that even the existence of this kind of UFO, contains not a single recog-
"In the year 1850 or thereabouts, much interest was aroused by a mysterious
invented this abbreviation. What I am saying is that the UFO's are not unidenti-
flying object, show the state of mind of the Air Force personnel who
phenomenon; when one looked intently at a star, it sometimes seemed to swing
to and fro and to change its position. The phenomenon was said to be observable
of fiable, they are often not flying, and many are not even objects. It is this point
only during twilight, and then only when the stars in question were less than
to solution SO long.
view-to regard the apparitions as actual solid objects-that has retarded
10° above the horizon. A brightly twinkling star was first seen to move with
little jerks, parallel to the horizon, then to come to a standstill for five or six
After-images possess still other complicated characteristics. A colored light
seconds and to move back again in the same way, etc. Many observers saw it SO
tends to produce an after-image with complementary color. A green flash will
plainly that they took it to be an objective phenomenon, and tried to explain
cause defective a red after-image and vice versa. Color-blind persons and persons with
it as a consequence of the presence of hot air striae.
with vision will often experience effects different from those of people
"But any real physical phenomenon is entirely out of the question here. A
normal eyesight.
real motion of 1/2° per second, seen by the naked eye, would easily be magnified
lies within the eye itself. Again, look at some uniformly bright surface-sky
Another optical phenomenon that can produce an illusion of flying objects
to 100° or more, by a moderately powerful telescope; that means that the stars
would swing to and fro and shoot across the field of vision like meteors. And
changes are that you will see an array of dark spots. These specks, which
or ceiling. Relax your eyes. By that I mean focus your eyes on infinity. The
every astronomer knows that this is sheer nonsense. Even when atmospherical
unrest is at its worst the displacements due to scintillation remain below the
seem either to be near like a swarm of gnats or as ill-defined objects at a distance, may
limit of perceptibility of the naked eye. Psychologically speaking, however, the
phenomenon has not lost any of its importance. It may be due to the fact of
imperfections in the cornea, or possibly blood cells on the retina. These, too,
on or in your eye. They may be dust floating on the lens, minute are
there being no object for comparison, relative to which the star's position can
can simulate evasive and erratic movement.
be easily observed. We are not aware that our eye continually performs little
The eyeball jumps a little every time you blink. Walking transmits vibrations
involuntary movements, SO that we naturally ascribe displacements of the image
satellites to the eye at every step. Many individuals think they see stars, planets,
over our retina to corresponding displacements of the source of light.
Here is an example.
oscillating when the movement is actually that of the eye itself. or
"Somebody once asked me why a very distant aeroplane appears invariably
to move with little jerks when followed intently with the eye. Here the same
On our return across Minnesota we had an experience which I have always
psychological cause obviously comes into play, as in the case of the 'moving'
remembered as illustrative of the fallacy of all human testimony about
stars, and 'very distant' seems to point to the fact that this phenomenon, too,
rappings, and other phenomena of that character. We spent two nights ghosts, and
occurs most of all near the horizon.
day at Fort Snelling. Some of the officers were greatly surprised by a celestial a
"And how can we account for the fact that, suddenly and simultaneously,
phenomenon of a very extraordinary character which had been observed for
three people saw the moon dance up and down for about thirty minutes?"
several nights past. A star had been seen, night after night, rising in the east
This is the phenomenon of "Telekinesis," the apparent erratic motion of an
that as usual, and starting on its course toward the south. But instead of continuing
object caused by the erratic motion of the human eye. I have seen a number
course across the meridian, as stars invariably had done from the
of UFO reports in which the observer stated that the object could not have
antiquity, it took a turn toward the north. sunk toward the horizon, and remotest
been a meteor or a satellite because it moved irregularly.
set near the north point of the horizon. Of course an explanation was wanted. finally
For you who wear eyeglasses there is still another way of seeing a UFO.
Look directly at some bright light, with your head turned slightly to the left
204
205
or right. You will probably see a faint roundish out-of-focus spot. This is light
have not excluded all the impossibles. I have shown that the arguments ad-
reflected from the front surface of your eyeball, back to the lens, and then back
vanced in favor of the interplanetary nature of UFO's are fallacious. Their
into the pupil of your eye. A bright source, to one side and slightly behind you,
alleged high speeds and ability to maneuver have completely natural explana-
spectacle lens.
can also reach your eye through reflection from the internal surface of the
tions.
I think the time has come for the Air Force to wrap up Project Blue Book.
To this moment I have not mentioned still another method of detecting
It has produced little of scientific value. Keeping it going only fosters the belief
saucers-one not subject to the vagaries of the human eye. I mean radar, of
of persons that the Air Force must have found something to substantiate belief
course. Radar is a machine. It can't make mistakes. Or at least that is the com-
in UFO's. In making this recommendation I am not criticizing the present or
mon argument advanced by UFO buffs.
recent administration of the project. But it is time that we put an end to chasing
Radar is cursed with all the potential afflictions that any complicated electrical
ghosts, hobgoblins, visions, and hallucinations.
gadget can suffer. But let me mention only one mirage. Let me explain briefly
More than twenty years of study by the Air Force and an additional year of
what a radar does. It sends out a pulse of radio waves. We know the direction,
analysis by the University of Colorado have disclosed no tangible evidence sup-
Northeast for example. We know the elevation above the horizon. An echo re-
porting the popular view that UFO's are manned interplanetary vehicles. An ir-
turns. From the interval between transmission and reception of the pulse, we
responsible press, which has overpublicized the sensational aspects of the pheno-
know how far away the object is that reflected the pulse back to us. We think
menon, has been largely responsible for keeping the subject alive. Both news-
upward. we detect a plane-or a UFO in flight-because the radar directs the pulse
papers and leading magazines must bear the blame for mishandling the news. But
such publications are not scientific journals. They present incomplete data and
We have no way of following the pulse in its path toward the target. A layer
draw sensational conclusions without supporting evidence.
of warm, dry air or even a layer containing a few bubbles of warm air will bend
The question of UFO's has become one of faith and belief, rather than one of
the radar beam back to earth. The reflection may be from a distant building, a
science. The believers do not offer additional clear-cut evidence. They repeat the
train, or a ship. No wonder that planes, sent to intercept radar UFO, find noth-
old classical cases and base the reliability of the sighting on the supposed honesty
ing. In one such case, a well-known writer on flying saucers wrote: "The dis-
of the observer. I have shown that many honest observers can make honest mis-
covery of visible saucers had been serious enough.-The discovery now of in-
takes.
visible flying saucers would be enough to frighten anyone." Small changes in the
The press has recently played up a story to the effect that, even in the U.S.S.R.,
atmosphere can make the UFO seem to maneuver at fantastic speeds, executing
an official UFO investigation has been started, under government sponsorship.
right-angle turns or suddenly vanishing completely from the radar scope. I was
Nothing could be farther from the truth But the newspapers failed to retract
very. familiar with such effects from having worked with them during Naval
after an official statement from the National Academy of the U.S.S.R. appeared
Service in World War II. The greatest radar saucer flap of all times occurred in
in Pravda, to the effect that the reported study was the work of an unofficial and
the hot, dry month of July 1952, when a whole fleet of UFO's were detected by
irresponsible amateur-group.. The Academy statement further disclaimed any
radar at Washington National airport. Subsequent research by the Weather
support whatever for the view that UFO's are other than badly misinterpreted
Bureau completely confirmed what the UFO buffs pointedly refer to as my "Hot
natural phenomena, and certainly not manned extraterrestrial vehicles.
Washington? Air Theory." After all why should one be surprised to find hot air over
I am aware that a small but highly vociferous minority of individuals are
pressing for further studies of UFO's supported-of course-by huge congres-
I know of no reliable case of simultaneous visual and radar sightings. In view
sional appropriations. The heads of a few amateur UFO organizations urge their
of the physical properties of the eye, the surprising fact is that SO few cases have
members to write Congress, asking for investigations of both UFO's and the Air
been reported.
Force. The members have responded enthusiastically, and Congress reacted by
Time will not permit me to elaborate on still other relevant phenomena. For
financing a special study, which led to the project at the University of Colorado.
example the Air Force appears to have neglected completely the psychological
And now, when it seems likely that the report from this study will be negative,
angle of which mass hallucination is just one phase. Back in 1919, in Spain, a
the same vociferous group is again turning to Congress with the same appeal but
not unrelated phenomenon occurred. Thousands of people-reliable people-swore
with no more chance of success. Time and money spent on such efforts will be
that they had seen images of saints rolling their eyes, moving their hands,
completely wasted. Congress should strongly disapprove any and all such pro-
dripping drops of blood, even stepping out of their panels. One person would call
posals, large or small. In this age, despite the doubts expressed by a very small
out, others would imagine they had seen something There are many similar
group of scientists, reopening and reopening the subject of UFO's makes just
events recorded through the ages.
about as much sense as reopening the subject of Witcheraft.
There are hundreds of known hoaxes, such as the ingenious one perpetrated
Within the vast field of atmospheric physics, there exist many imperfectly un-
by students of the University of Colorado. Spurred by the allotment of an Air
derstood phenomena which deserve further study, such as ball lightning and
Force grant for studying UFO's to the University of Colorado, enterprising
atmospheric optics. But any investigations of such phenomena should be carried
pranksters made hot-air balloons from candles and plastic bags, the kind used
out for their own sake, not under the cloak of UFO's.
for packaging dry cleaning. The show was spectacular. And it gave the Uni-
I express my appreciation to Congressman Roush for the invitation to present
versity investigators a good opportunity to see how poor the evidence can be, a
my views on UFO's. I append herewith my telegram to him dated July 24, 1968.
fact well-known to the legal profession. This is still another point that the Air
Force has sometimes failed to realize. Moreover their poor questionnaire only
JULY 24, 1968.
further confused an already confused picture. A recent similar sighting south of
J. EDWARD ROUSH,
Denver, later identified as plastic-bag balloons and candles, produced fantastic
Committee on Science and Astronautics,
reports from "reliable" witnesses.
Rayburn House Office Building,
Several times I have used the phrase "UFO's cavorting across the sky." I did
Washington, D.C.:
SO deliberately because it seems to be a favorite phrase of my good friend Dr.
Received your letter of July and will contribute paper as you suggest. Am
J. Allen Hynek of Northwestern University and consultant to the Air Force
amazed, however, that you could plan SO unbalanced a symposium, weighted by
Project Blue Book. He has sometimes expressed doubts about the UFO because
persons known to favor Government support of a continuing, expensive, and
stars don't "cavort" across the sky. What I have tried to show is that many kinds
pointless investigation of UFOs without inviting me, the leading exponent of
of optical stimuli can produce weird effects.
opposing views and author of two major books on the subject.
With all these kids of phenomena masquerading as UFO's, many of them, like
DONALD H. MENZEL,
those related to physiology of the human eye still practically not investigated, I
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.
think I can reasonably claim, applying the criterion of Sherlock Holmes, that we
206
207
(The biography of Dr. Sprinkle follows:)
Publications:
R. LEO SPRINKLE, PH. D., UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING, LARAMIE, WYO.
"Measured vocational interests and socio-economic background of college stu-
dents." The College of Education Record, University of North Dakota,
Name: Ronald Leo Sprinkle.
1962, 47, No. 4, 54-56.
Born: Education: August 31, 1930, Rocky Ford, Colorado, U.S.A.
"Counselor competence and the nature of man." The College of Education
Record, University of North Dakota, 1962, 47, No. 5, 70-73.
Elementary Education: Washington School, Rocky Ford, Colorado
With Gillmor, D. "A first step in evaluation." The Superior Student. (Inter-
High School: Rocky Ford High School, Rocky Ford, Colorado
University Committee on the Superior Student, Boulder, Colorado) 1964, 6,
Academic scholarship received from the University of Colorado
No. 2, 30-33.
B.A. in Psychology, Education, Sociology, and History, University of Colorado,
"Psychological implications in the investigation of UFO reports." In Loren-
August 1962.
zen, L. J. and Coral E. Flying saucer occupants. N.Y.: A Signet Book, 1967.
M. P. S. (Master of Personnel Service) in Counseling, University of Colorado,
Pp. 160-186.
August 1956.
Professional Research and Writing:
Ph. D. in Counseling and Guidance, University of Missouri, August 1961.
"Permanence of measured vocational interests and socio-economic back-
Professional Experience:
ground": Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, sponsored by Dr. Robert Callis,
1954-1956. Residence hall supervisor, Men's Residence Halls, University of Colorado,
University of Missouri, 1961.
"Student health and demands for academic accomplishment: an attitude
Missouri, 1956-1959.
Instructor-Counselor, Counseling Services, Stephens College, Columbia,
survey of students at the University of North Dakota." Unpublished
manuscript presented at the American Personnel and Guidance Association
Missouri, 1959-1961.
Acting Director of Extra Class Activities, Stephens College, Columbia,
(Commission VIII, Student Health Programs), Boston, Massachusetts,
April 8, 1963.
Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of North Dakota, Grand
"A hypothetical view of communication and human evolution." Unpublished
Forks, North Dakota, 1961-1964.
manuscript presented at the North Dakota-South Dakota Psychological
1962-1963. Assistant Director of Counseling Center, University of North Dakota,
Association Convention, May, 1963.
Received a small grant ($278.00) from the Grants-In-Aid Committee, Society
Director, Counseling Center, University of North Dakota, 1963-1964.
for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, in support of a study to in-
1964-1965. Associate Professor of Guidance Education, University of Wyoming,
vestigate the relation of personal attitudes and scientific attitudes. (Sur-
vey of persons interested in UFO reports.)
1965-67. Counselor and Assistant Professor of Psychology, University of Wyoming,
* (Manuscript has been rejected by the Journal of Social Issues.)
**Military History
1967. Counselor and Associate Professor of Psychology, University of Wyoming.
United States Army, Artillery, 1952-1954 graduated as Honor Student No.
1, Class No. A-5324, 7th Army NCO Academy, Munich, Germany served as
Professional Affiliations
corporal in 194th F.A.Br., Wertheim, Germany.
Member of the American Psychological Association, (Divisions of Counseling
Personal Hobbies:
Life member of the American Personnel and Guidance Association, (Divi-
Psychology, and the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues).
Reading; composing verses and songs; observing and participating in ath-
letics; travel; home work-shop activities.
sions of American College Personnel Association, Association of Counselor
Personal Information:
Education and Supervision, Association for Measurement and Evaluation
Married on June 7, 1952 to Marilyn Joan Nelson (born in Gurley, Nebraska,
in Association). Guidance, and professional member of National Vocational Guidance
on April 28, 1930; and graduated from the University of Colorado with a
B. Mus. Educ. in June 1953) ; oldest son, Nelson Rex Sprinkle, born Febru-
Licensed as Professional Psychologist in Wyoming, January 1, 1966.
ary 20, 1958; younger son, Eric Evan Sprinkle, born on March 22, 1961;
Certified as Counseling Psychologist by the Board of Examiners, North
youngest son, Matthew David Sprinkle, born on May 4, 1964; daughter,
Dakota Psychological Association, May 11, 1962.
Kristen Martha, born on April 16, 1967.
Member of American Association of University Professors.
Member of Psi Chi (Psychology Honorary).
PREPARED STATEMENT BY R. LEO SPRINKLE, PH. D.
Associate Member of Parapsychological Association.
Member of Wyoming Personnel and Guidance Association.
To The Honorable J. Edward Roush, M. C., Ind., Chairman, Symposium on
Member of Wyoming Psychological Association.
Unidentified Flying Objects, The Committee on Science and Astronautics (The
Member of American Society of Clinical Hypnosis.
Honorable George P. Miller, M. C. Calif., Chairman), The House of Representa-
Life Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science.
tives, Washington, D. C. 20515.
Professional Organizational Activities:
From R. Leo Sprinkle, Ph. D., Counselor and Associate Professor of Psy-
State delegate to the annual meeting of the American Association of State
chology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82070.
Psychology Boards, St. Louis, Missouri, August, 1962.
Re Symposium on Unidentified Flying Objects.
Secretary, Board of Examiners, North Dakota Psychological Association
(NDPA), 1962-63.
*Psychological Problems in Gathering UFO Data: a paper presented in a symposium
President, Board of Examiners, NDPA, 1963-64.
sponsored by Division 21, Engineering Psychology, at the American Psychological Associa-
tion convention, Washington, D.C., September 4, 1967.
Member of Commission VIII, Student Health Programs, of the American
*Some Uses of Hypnosis in UFO Research; a paper which will be presented at the
College Personnel Association, APGA, 1962 to present. (Chairman of sym-
annual meeting of the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis; Chicago, Ill.; October 10-13,
posium sponsored by Commission VIII at the APGA Convention, Minne-
1968.
apolis, Minnesota, April 13, 1965.)
208
209
INTRODUCTION
Thank you for your kind invitation (July 22, 1968) to submit a statement to
understanding of these phenomena. If this method is not feasible, then I be-
you and your colleagues in regard to the problem of Unidentified Flying Objects
lieve that a national research center is needed for continuous, formal in-
(UFOs). I recognize some of the difficulties which confront you gentlemen,
vestigation of the physical, biological, psycho-social, and spiritual implications
ticularly in relation to the amount of information which becomes available par- to
of UFO phenomena.
you when you wish to arrive at informed decisions. Also, I recognize some of the
Establishment of a continuing research center could provide for those facili-
difficulties which confront college professors, especially when they try to be lucid
ties, equipment, and personnel to conduct the necessary field work and theoreti-
and brief !
cal investigations of UFO reports. In my opinion, the staff of such a research
Elsewhere, a more extensive attempt has been made to present views on the
center should be encouraged to avail themselves of scholars and experts in
psychological implications of UFO reports. (Sprinkle, R. L., Psychological impli-
various disciplines, including astronomical, mathematical, physical, chemical,
cations in the investigations of UFO reports. In Lorenzen, L. J., and Coral E.,
biological, medical, psychological, sociological, military, technical, legal, polit-
Flying saucer occupants. N.Y. A Signet Book, 1967. Pp. 160-186.) Thus, in sub-
ical, theological, and parapsychological fields of knowledge.
mitting this short statement, the attempt is made to present my personal views
I recognize some of the difficulties which attend such a proposal; I recognize
on the significance of UFO investigations. Hopefully, these personal views can be
some of the arguments which have been, are being, and will be raised against
of some assistance to you in considering the statements being submitted to
such a proposal. However, I trust that you gentlemen are aware that the pres-
symposium. by the distinguished scientists whom you have invited to participate in you the
ent difficulties of enacting such a proposal are inconsequential when compared
to the historical impact created by those persons who dare to exert that leader-
PERSONAL VIEWS OF UFO INVESTIGATION
ship which could determine the powers, purposes, and persons who control the
spacecraft which we call "Unidentified Flying Objects."
I accept the hypothesis that the earth is being surveyed by spacecraft which
Thank you for your attention to these comments. I shall be most happy to
are controlled by representatives of an alien civilization or civilizations. I believe
respond to any question which you may have about these or related views.
of the "spacecraft hypothesis" is the best hypothesis to account for the wide
Respectfully submitted,
evidence of UFO phenomena. (For a more informed description of various range
R. LEO SPRINKLE, Ph. D.
January 1967. Pp. 15-24.)
UFO hypotheses, see Salisbury, F. B., The scientist and the UFO. Bio-Science,
PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES A SURVEY OF PERSONS
I have read thousands of reports and I have talked with hundreds of persons
INTERESTED IN UFO REPORTS*
about their UFO observations; either I must accept the view that thousands of
peoplè have observed physical phenomena, or I must accept the view that some
(By R. Leo Sprinkle, University of Wyoming)
persons have the ability to project mental images in such a manner that other
persons can observe, photograph, and obtain physical evidence of those metal
SUMMARY
images. (For a more extended discussion of these hypotheses, see Jung, C. G.,
A questionnaire survey was conducted among 3 groups: 26 Ph.D. faculty and
Flying Saucers, N.Y. Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1959, Pp. 146-153.)
graduate students in a Psychology Department (Psychology) ; 59 graduate
On two occasions, each time in the presence of a person who shares my claim,
students enrolled in an NDEA Guidance Institute (Guidance) ; and 259 members
I observed unusual aerial phenomena which I could neither identify nor under-
of an organization which is interested in "flying saucers" or Unidentified Flying
stand. My first observation of a "flying saucer" led me to change my position
Objects (UFOs), the National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena
from "scoffer" to that of "skeptic." My second observation of a UFO led me to
(NICAP). It was hypothesized that there would be no differences between the
change my position from "skeptic" to "unwilling believer."
scores of the three groups on the Personal Attitude Survey (Form D, Dogmatism
As a result of my second observation, I began to join organizations (NICAP
Scale, Rokeach, 1960) and the Scientific Attitude Survey (Sprinkle, 1962).
and APRO) and conduct investigations. The Grants-in-Aids Committee of the
The results showed significant differences (P<.001 between the 3 groups with
Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues, a Division of the American
respect to their mean scores on both inventories, with the NICAP group scoring
Psychological Association, provided a small grant, and Richard Hall, former
higher on both "dogmatic" and "scientific" inventories, followed by the Guidance
assistant director of NICAP, cooperated in a study of the attitudes of
group and Psychology group, respectively. Also, the survey showed differences in
interested in UFO reports. (See enclosure.) Later, I became a consultant persons to
regard to social status and education. Psychology and Guidance subjects received
APRO. Mr. and Mrs. L. J. Lorenzen, directors of APRO, encouraged my in-
an Index of Social Status (McGuire & White, 1955) which would classify them
terest in learning more about the psychic aspects of UFO phenomena.
in the Upper Middle Class, while NICAP subjects would be classified mainly in
At the present time, I am conducting a non-supported investigation of
the Upper Middle and Lower Middle Classes. The average years of education
psychological attributes of persons who claim to experience psychic impressions some
were tabulated as follows: Psychology, 18.8 years; Guidance, 17.2 years; and
of UFO phenomena, including their impressions of possible motives of UFO occu-
NICAP, 14.0 years.
pants. As a member of the Parapsychological Association and the American So-
The results suggest that the NICAP group is more "dogmatic" and more
ciety of Clinical Hypnosis, I am interested in the possibility that reliable observa-
"scientific" than the Psychology and Guidance groups. There are two feasible
tions are being made by persons who claim to see UFO occupants and, in some
interpretations of these results: 1) The Scientific Attitude Survey (Sprinkle,
unusual cases, experience "mental communication" with these UFO occupants.
1962) is not useful in assessing "scientific" attitudes, and/or 2) the two inven-
Use of hypnotic techniques with UFO observers seems to be useful procedure,
troies have assessed the tendency of the 3 groups to exhibit the "Yeasay-Naysay"
in some cases, to obtain further information about UFO observations. (See en-
pattern (Couch & Keniston, 1960). The latter interpretation indicates that there
closure "Personal and Scientific Attitudes: A Survey of Persons Interested in
may be more "Yeasayers" (those with an agreeing response set or a readiness
UFO Reports.")
to affirm) in the NICAP group, followed by the Guidance group, and Psychology
CONCLUSIONS
group, respectively.
If these reports by UFO observers are found to be reliable and valid, I believe
REFERENC
we shall enter the threshold of a most exciting and challenging period in man's
Couch, A., & Keniston, K. Yeasayers and naysayers Agreeing response set as
history. In my opinion, the attempt to achieve contact with other intelligent
a personality variable. J. abnorm, soc. Psychol., 1960, 60, 151-174.
civilizations is a goal which is worthy of great personal and social effort.
McGuire, C., & White, G. D. The measurement of social status. Rescarch paper
I plan to do what I can in furthering investigations of these phenomena, in
in Human development, No. 3 (revised), Dept. of Educ. Psychol., Univ. of Texas,
hopes that these efforts can assist the contributions of other investigators.
March 1955.
However, I believe that the mysteries are too deep, the investigations are too
Rokeach, M. The Open and Closed Mind. N.Y. Basic Books, 1960.
difficult, and the implications are too great for these efforts to be made on an
Sprinkle, R. L. Scientific Attitude Survey. (Unpublished attitude inventory),
informal basis. I believe that the establishment of an international research
1962.
center is the most appropriate method to follow in reaching the goal of greater
was sunnorted hv the Grants in Aid Committee. the Society for the Psycho-
210
211
SOME USES OF HYPNOSIS IN UFO RESEARCH
eter/surveying system and leader of the space sciences section of the applied
(By R. Leo Sprinkle, University of Wyoming)
Research Group.
Dr. Henderson is a member of Alpha Chi, the American Geophysical Union,
ABSTRACT
the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, the American Astronautical Society,
offer tions hypotheses (Salisbury, 1967) to account for UFO observations, and which
First, a brief review of UFO literature is presented. References are cited
the Marine Technology Society, the Working Group on Extraterrestrial Re-
sources, and Sciences Subcommittee Chairman of the Marine Geodesy Committee.
of UFO (Sprinkle, reports. 1967) taken by various investigators in regard to the significance posi-
PREPARED STATEMENT BY G. C. HENDERSON
investigation of persons who have observed UFO phenomena. Advantages and the
Second, examples are described in the use of hypnotic techniques in
UFO's DEFINITELY Do NOT Exist-Do THEY?
tion disadvantages of hypnosis are discussed in regard to obtaining further informa-
INTRODUCTION
from UFO observers.
Third, some speculations are offered in regard to the possible
It is not the purpose of this essay to specifically reiterate the feelings of cer-
are of paranormal or ESP processes and the observations of UFO phenomena. relationships Cases
tain members of the scientific community regarding UFO phenomena; rather
experiences of UFO observers.
described which indicate possible relationships of hypnotic and psychic
it is the objective here to briefly review the state of the problem and to analyze
the means at hand of acquiring information which would be sufficiently reliable
phenomena through the use of hypnotic and parapsychological procedures. These
Fourth, some suggestions are presented for further investigation of UFO
to convince the scientific community and others of the hardware existence or
fallacy of the UFO.
procedures observers. may be useful to assess the reliability of information from UFO
Although the common image persists of the scientist as an infallible front
of wisdom and knowledge, the majority of reported activities of scientists
but hypnotic procedures and techniques are only one aspect of these investigations,
proceed of along as many lines as there are interested investigators. Considerations should
In conclusion, the speaker believes that investigation of UFO reports
relating to UFO studies has been nonprofessional by nature, i.e., prominent
scientists have addressed themselves to the problem in a manner which they
would certainly not approach problems within their respective fields. Such
these considerations may be helpful in obtaining and evaluating information
an example is the unfortunate selection of the University of Colorado team
submitted by UFO observers.
headed by a respected scientist, with the result that the squirrel-case atmos-
REFERENCES
phere usually associated with UFO interest has been augmented by built-in
bias and confusion, rather than eliminated by one group of scientists' involve-
APRO Bulletin. Aerial Phenomena Research Organization, 3910 E. Kleindale
ment. One scientist has even published an article in Science (15 September 1967)
Road, Tuscon, Arizona, 85716.
implying that competent scientists would accept magic (or "semi-magic") as
Flying Saucer Review. 49a Kings Grove, London, S. E. 15, England.
an answer to the existence of UFO's, and that our limited capabilities in their
NICAP, The UFO Investigator. National Investigations Committee on Aerial
current stage may be our ultimate technical heritage. Is there not the slightest
Phenomena, 1536 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036.
chance that, even today, there actually remain a few physical phenomena which
Sable, M. H. UFO Guide: 1947-1967. Rainbow Press Company, P.O. Box 937,
we do not understand, or of which we are not even aware-and perhaps a few
Beverly Hills, California 90213, 1967.
we misinterpret, but for which we are shrewdly able to concoct a convenient
15-24. Salisbury, F. B. The scientist and the UFO. Bio-Science, January 1967, pp.
"law" by way of appeasingly sufficient (but not necessary) explanation? If
"others" exist, are they limited to our level of advancement?
Sprinkle, R. L. Psychological implications in the investigation of UFO reports
As noted in the Special Report of the USAF Scientific Advisory Board Ad Hoc
In Lorenzen, L. J. and Coral E. Flying saucer occupants. N.Y. A Signet Book,
Committee to Review Project "Blue Book" (March 1966) some sightings classi-
1967. Pp. 160-186.
fied as "identified" resulted from too meager or too indefinite evidence to permit
(The biography of Dr. Henderson follows:)
positive listing in that category. The keys to scientific achievement have several
notches, but the material is comprised of competent open-mindedness, which
appears to have been all to commonly lacking in the topic of concern. Histori-
DR. GARRY C. HENDERSON, SENIOR RESEARCH SCIENTIST, SPACE SCIENCES,
cally, many of the most astonishing accomplishments have been performed by
FORT WORTH, TEX.
those who persisted even in the fog of ridicule exuded by their capable but
Garry C. Henderson was born in Brownwood, Tex., on October 23, 1935. He
narrow-minded colleagues. Several professional, qualified observers with proper
Tex., in 1960, the M.S. degree from Texas A&M University, College Station, in
received the B.S. degree in mathematics from Sul Ross State College, Alpine,
instrumentation, planning, and time should be able to devise schemes in an un-
biased manner to (1) determine what UFO's ARE NOT, then (2) determine
geophysical oceanography in 1962, and the Ph.D. degree in geophysics from
what, if anything tangible, they ARE.
Texas A&M University in 1965.
He held the post of Research Assistant in the Texas A&M Research Founda-
AVAILABLE INFORMATION
From data interpreter with the LaCoste-Romberg S-9 Sea-Surface Gravity Meter.
tion from 1960-1963. During this time the served as a technician, operator, and
Most thoughtful persons will dismiss the theatrical claims of trips on "saucers,"
February-June 1962 he worked for Dr. G. P. Woollard aboard the NSF
cavorting with little green men, and the like; however, some very plausible
reports from highly trained, capable, and reliable individuals cannot be SO
Polar Research Vessel ELTANIN where he was in charge of testing the S-9
gravity ator meter and interpreting meter performance. He was an IBM 709
readily discarded by anyone willing to admit that there are still a few things we
and senior programmer in the physical sciences for the Texas A&M Data oper-
do not understand. God help us if our military and commercial pilots and radar
Processing Center until the latter part of 1964. He received his Ph.D. while
facilities SO commonly mistake temperature inversions, balloons, atmospheric
in the position of Chief Marine Geophysicist for Oceanonics, Inc., where he
disturbances, the planet Venus, etc. for maneuvering vehicles. Have you ever
worked in techniques, instrumentation, and interpretation in the fields of
tried to convince two veteran pilots that the object they reported sighting on a
vimetry, magnetics, electrical methods, and computer operations. He joined gra-
clear day with CAVU conditions, free of traffic lanes, showing on their radar
the the Applied Research Group of the Fort Worth Division of General Dynamics in
screen, exhibiting high maneuverability, in close proximity, etc., is meteoric
latter part of 1965. Since that time he has been engaged in studies of the
debris? If SO, then the wrong people are being examined.
methodology, instrumentation, and interpretation of geophysical investigations
To my knowledge, all "facts" on UFO's, here and abroad, exist in the form of
on lunar and planetary surfaces, particularly in the fields of gravimetry and
visual sightings and a few, apparently unretouched photographs. Not to dis-
electrical methods. He is currently Project Leader on the lunar surface gravim-
credit the value of unaided observation, but with our degree of technological
sophistication, these are hardly the sort of facts to justify the position of the
212
213
Air Force (and a few scientists) in their proclamations of "non-existence."
posal just for the pure joy of attempting to resolve the problem unless it turns
The public has been led to believe that everything has been done to either prove
out that the UFO's are irrefutably proven to be extraterrestrial in origin, thereby
or disprove the existence of UFO's-rubbish ! Available information of a truly
gaining incentive as a popular curiosity. A Working Group on UFO's could be
reliable nature should tend to increase activity, not place it in neglect, or worse,
painlessly commissioned, much as other working groups comprised of scientists
in ridicule.
and engineers.
Classified (or "unavailable") reports, mostly by the military, rob the public
CONCLUSIONS
and scientific parties who are interested in and willing to participate in the UFO
investigations. How can we even begin to evaluate for ourselves if we must
If there are UFO's in existence here, and IF they are extraterrestrial, by mere
depend nearly 100 percent on information doled out by the news media alone?
intuition I seriously doubt that they would be manned. I know of no animal to
Many scientists communicate with each other on the subject, often at scientific
take the reported g's undergone by some UFO's. In all due fairness to those who
meetings (aside), but this route is hardly sufficient to establish a recognized basis
believe otherwise, we must readily admit that only a. few years ago spacecraft,
for realistic study of the problem.
airplanes, nuclear power, television. human transplants, and many other items
The current USAF trend seems to be merely a statement that UFO's do not
presently taken for granted were "impossible," even deemed foolish for
pose a threat to the security of the United States, and therefore warrant neither
consideration.
credence nor further concern. Similar words come from some of the few Congress-
Conditions in our solar system appear to limit life as we know it (the catch
men with whom I have communicated. The discovery of Noah's Ark in Times
phrase) to Earth, but the probability of almost identical environments just
Square would not necessarily pose a threat to national security either, but it
within the visible universe is extremely high. Even if, for some reason obscure
would certainly be a find worthy of the most intensive investigation whether
to me, life must exist "as we know it," there are, in my opinion, innumerable
certain individuals accepted its existence or not.
possibilities of such existence. Manned travel over the required distances would
take life-support systems, fuel, and means of propulsion beyond our present
REQUIRED INFORMATION
ability to deliver in time for us to realize results; therefore it must be impossible
if we can't do it!
Is it not obvious that what we need to establish the existence or non-existence
Certain publicized activities under contract purport to be concerned with sci-
of UFO's is not merely a review of sighting incidents, but an implemented plan
entific and engineering studies related to UFO's (for example, Raytheon's Auto-
to acquire hard facts? Rapid, accurate reporting of sightings is obviously a
metric Division, Stanford Research Institute, University of California, National
valuable tool in studying UFO phenomena, but many of the most creditable
Center for Atmospheric Research, Ford Motor Company, etc.). These may yield
observers (military personnel and airline pilots, for example) are not only
worthwhile results in the UFO study if the primary goal is not to pursue funded
hesitant to do so, they are understandably adamant when facing the alternatives
research for its own sake, as is too often the case.
of silence versus inviting ridicule, and possibly jeopardizing their positions. The
There is only one concrete proposal which I would extend at this time. Either
obvious addition to gathering interview data is to enlist the aid of the impersonal
we admit (1) that past funds are wasted (2) that our technology is not up to
machine. Evaluate, compile, and catalog reported data according to: time of day
the job; (3) that we can afford to ignore one of the potentially most significant
and year; atmospheric conditions (cloudy, humid, temperature, calm, and other
"phenomena" in the recorded history of the human race; (4) that we will close
easily recountable gross observations); geographic location; approximate size,
our minds to that part of human curiosity which seeks to extend our knowledge;
shape, altitude, velocity, heading, maneuvers; and phenomena reportedly asso-
and (5) that we are willing to make these decisions on the flimsiest of evidence,
ciated with the UFO presence. This can be done with existing information. Up-
i.e., for-the-most-part-personal opinions, OR we will make a long-overdue, con-
date and upgrade the files with new data by soliciting information (particularly
centrated, unemotional effort to ascertain (1) the existence or non-existence of
military and commercial pilots). Then prepare a plan designed by scientists,
hardware UFO's, and if they exist, (2) the origin of UFO's, (3) the means of pro-
engineers, pilots, and perhaps psychologists, on means to acquire instrument
pulsion, navigation, and associated operational characteristics of UFO's, (4) the
observations of UFO's hopefully coupled to visual observations.
intent of the presence of UFO's, and (5) surely a multitude of knowledge, and
Field-instrument packages could easily be placed in areas where UFO sightings
perhaps greatly extended capability which would result from studying a UFO
are most concentrated, perhaps according to the time of day or year, atmospheric
craft and communicating with the occupants, if any.
conditions, or some factor suspected to be related to sighting activity. Such
packages might be composed largely of military "surplus" instrumentation such
(The biography of Mr. Friedman follows:)
as an infrared scanner, an active rf unit, a wide-band electromagnetic detector,
STANTON T. FRIEDMAN
a directional radiation counter and ionization gauge, a high-speed photographic
camera, a three-component magnetometer, and recording environmental devices
Born-July 29, 1934, Elizabeth, New Jersey.
(temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, etc.). If it became advantageous
B. Sc.-Physics, M. Sc.-Physics, University of Chicago 1955, 1956.
to include a higher degree of sophistication, such items as a tracking television
Since -Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory, Pittsburgh; NERVA nu-
camera, a communications telemetry system, a sensitive audio recorder with a
clear rocket Program-Fellow Scientist concerned primarily with radiation shield-
directional antenna might be added. Deployment and maintenance of the field
ing experiments and nuclear instrumentation.
package could easily be performed by military, university, or industrial techni-
1963-1966-Allison Division, General Motors, Indianapolis, Indiana. Military
cians, but all data reduction and interpretation should be done by competent
Compact Reactor program (responsible for all shielding aspects), magnetohydro-
scientists familiar with the respective measuring techniques.
dynamics, desalination, other projects.
We should anticipate gathering sufficient data leading to proof of the existence
1959-1963-Aerojet General Nucleonics, near San Francisco. Development of
or non-existence of UFO's, and, if they are real, the size(s), shape(s), flight
various nuclear systems for space and terrestrial applications; Fusion propul-
characteristics (speed, rates of turn and climb, preferred direction of travel,
sion for space, consultant on radiation shielding.
etc.), possible means of propulsion and navigation, perhaps the establishment
1956-1959-General Electric, Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion Department, Cincin-
of communications, and eventually their origin.
nati. Experimental and analytical aspects of radiation shielding for nuclear
Questions of expense and management responsibilities immediately come to
aircraft.
mind, but I think the government would be surprised how many qualified scien-
Mr. Friedman has a relatively unique background in advanced technology, hav-
tists, engineers, and technicians would be willing to participate on a low-dollar,
ing been actively involved in the development of all of the following advanced
volunteer, "as can" basis in support of such a program. At least an inexpensive
systems: nuclear aircraft, nuclear power for space, terrestrial nuclear power,
newsletter could be distributed to the scientific and pilot groups for comments,
nuclear rockets, fusion rockets.
as a start. Because of the history of wasted funds and unwieldy publicity asso-
ciated with the UFO problem, the public may not be very receptive to such a pro-
214
215
Professional affiliations include the American Physical Society, the American
TABLE 1.-CATEGORIZATION OF UFO SIGHTING REPORTS
Nnclear Society, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, the
Aerial Phenomenon Research Organization, the National Investigations Commit-
Category
Number
Percent
tee on Aerial Phenomena. Mr. Friedman is on the Board of Directors of the UFO
Research Institute of Pittsburgh and on the Standards and Program Committees
of the Shielding Division of the American Nuclear Society.
Astronomical
479
21. 8
Aircraft
474
21. 6
Mr. Friedman has presented papers at technical society meetings and has
Balloon
339
15. 4
chaired sessions at such meetings. He has written numerous classified and un-
Other
233
10.6
classified reports and has published articles on UFOs as well as on radiation
Unknown
434
19.7
Insufficient information
240
10.9
shielding.
Mr. Friedman has made dozens of radio and TV appearances across the United
Total
2,199
100
States and in Canada. These include the Joe Pyne Show (Los Angeles-radio),
Long John Nebel (New York City), the J. P. McCarthy Show in Detroit, all four
1 Data from reference 3.
TV stations in Pittsburgh, and others in Raleigh, Akron, Detroit, Baltimore,
TABLE 2.-QUALITY DISTRIBUTION OF UNKNOWNS 1
Toronto, Waco, Phoenix, Calgary, Albuquerque, etc.
Mr. Friedman, his wife, and three children reside at 702 Summerlea Street in
Quality
Number
Percent of
Unknowns
Percent of
total
group
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
3
Excellent
213
9.7
71
33. 8
PREPARED STATEMENT BY STANTON T. FRIEDMAN
Good
757
34. 5
188
24.0
Doubtful
794
36. 0
103
13.
UFOs AND SCIENCE
Poor
435
19.8
72
16.6
I am grateful to the House Committee on Science and Astronautics for inviting
Total
2,199
100.0
434
19.7
me to present my views on Unidentified Flying Objects.¹ These viewpoints shall be
presented in the form of answers to specific questions with the references, tables
1 Data from reference 3.
and figures presented at the end of the article. A partial list of the technical
organizations to which I have presented a lecture entitled "Flying Saucers are
5. Aren't most of those "unknowns" really sightings for which insufficient
Real". is given in Appendix 1. Appendix 3 is a reprint of an article I wrote.² Ap-
data is available to identify an otherwise conventional object?
pendix 2 is a list of patents of saucer-like vehicles. The viewpoints are mine and
Absolutely not. If there was not enough information available about a sighting
mine alone and are not to be construed as those of any of the organizations to
it was labelled "Insufficient Information" not "Unknown"-again contrary to
which I belong or of my employer, Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory. The
what many people believe about UFOs.
opinions are based upon ten years of study of UFOs and discussions all over the
6. Were there any differences between the Unknowns and the knowns?
U.S. and in Canada on a private level for eight years and a public level since
A "chi square" statistical analysis was performed comparing the Unknowns
late 1966 both in question and answer sessions following my illustrated talks and
in this study to all the "knowns". It was shown that the probability that the
with newspaper, radio, and television reporters with whom I have publicly
unknowns came from the same population of sighting reports as the knowns was
discussed this subject.
less than 1%. This was based on apparent color, velocity, etc. Maneuverability,
1. To what conclusions have you come with regard to UFOs?
one of the most distinguished characteristics of UFOs, was not included in this
I have concluded that the earth is being visited by intelligently controlled
statistical analysis.
vehicles whose origin is extraterrestrial. This doesn't mean I know where they
7. Weren't most sightings of very short duration, say less than a minute?
come from, why they are here, or how they operate.
The average duration of the sightings labelled as "Unknown" was greater
2. What basis do you have for these conclusions?
than that for the knowns. More than 70% of the unknowns were under observa-
Eyewitness and photographic and radar reports from all over the earth by
tion for more than 1 minute and more than 45% for more than 5 minutes.
competent witnesses of definite objects whose characteristics such as maneu-
8. Isn't it true that UFOs have never been sighted on radar?
verability, high speed, and hovering, along with definite shape, texture, and sur-
face features rule out terrestrial explanations.
No, it is not. Ref. 3 specifically mentions radar unknowns. In ref. 4, Edward
3. Haven't most sightings been identified as conventional phenomena?
Ruppelt, former head of the official UFO investigative effort, makes specific
mention of not only "Unknowns" observed on radar but of combined visual and
Yes, of course. However, it is only the unidentified objects in which I am in-
radar "Unknowns". Hynek also mention radar and visual sightings.
terested and on which I base my conclusions. The job of science is to sort data
9. Where can I get more information about "Unknowns"?
and focus on that which is relevant to the search at hand. Fewer than 1% of
Ref. 6 presents an unbiased description of about 160 "Unknowns". Ref. 7 in-
Americans have hemophilia or are 7 feet tall or can run a mile in under 4 min-
cludes data on over 700 Unknowns. References 8 and 9 contain many others.
utes-we certainly don't dispute the reality of hemophilia, Wilt Chamberlain, or
4 minute miles.
10. Why haven't the worldwide Smithsonian Network of Satellite Tracking
4. Are there any good unknowns?
cameras picked up "Unknowns"?
The former head of the film evaluation group concerned with the Smithsonian
Yes, there are very many good unknowns which have been reported and inves-
tigated and undoubtedly very many more which have not been reported because
sky watch said 10 that the purpose of the search was to get data on satellite
of the "laughter curtain". In the most comprehensive detailed scientific investiga-
orbits. If a light source on the film could be shown not to be a satellite then no
further measurements were made. 10% to 15% of the plates showed anomalous
tion ever conducted on this subject, and reported in Reference 3, it was found
that 434 out of 2199 sightings evaluated had to be classified as Unknowns. This
light sources which were not a satellite but were not otherwise identified.
is 19.7% or a far higher percentage than most people have associated with UFOs.
11. How about the other space surveillance radar installations?
The complete breakdown is shown in Table 1. Table 2 shows the breakdown of
Baker in Ref. 11 deals with this question in detail. In summary, the systems
sightings by quality. Fully one third of the 9.7% of the sightings labelled as
are set up to reject signals which refer to anything other than the objects of
Excellent were identified as Unknowns: one fourth of the Good sightings were
interest-typically ballistic missiles coming from certain directions.
labelled Unknown. All it would take to prove the reality of extraterrestrial
12. Aren't the reported maneuvers of UFOs in violation of existing laws of
vehicles is one good sighting not hundreds.
physics?
Footnotes at the end of article.
Footnotes at the end of article.
216
217
be said is we don't know how to duplicate these maneuvers. Piston aircraft can't
Not at all. This argument ("It's Impossible") is used when what should really
ocean, in the void of space and on the surface of the airless, waterless moon and
fly faster than the speed of sound and a conventional dynamite bomb couldn't
Mars. More and more we are also finding that life exists under almost all
circumstances.
have wrecked Hiroshima and a vacuum tube circuit can't fit on the head of a
pin but surely we don't say that supersonic flight, atom bombs and microcircuits
19. If we are being visited why haven't they landed?
violate the laws of nature or physics. Present aircraft can't duplicate UFO
The fact of the matter is that there are many reports of landings. The compre-
hensive study by scientist J. Vallee 20 reviews 200 landings which occurred in
maneuvers; no laws of physics have been violated by UFOs.
1954 alone; many of them with multiple witnesses giving reports of humanoids
13. Haven't astronomers proved that trips to other stars are impossible?
in addition to strange craft either on or just above the ground. Most scientists
Again, the answer is no. The studies 12 that conclude that trips to other stars
have unfortunately not examined this data since it was published in a UFO
are impossible are based upon false or unnecessary assumptions such as, assum-
Journal and laughter comes easier than facing up to the evidence.
ing, that the fiight be at orbital velocity. 13 The one comprehensive study of inter-
20. Has the attitude of the scientific journals and professional community been
stellar 14 travel conducted by a JPL group actually concerned with space hard-
changing?
ware concluded that with present technology trips to nearby stars are feasible
There has been a quiet yet enormous change in the attitude of the technological
with round trip times being shorter than a man's lifetime and without violating
community. I say technological to include the applied scientists and engineers
either fission or fusion propulsion systems.
the laws of physics. They assumed that staged vehicles would be used having
who are far more responsible for the progress of the last 30 years than the
academic scientists who are prone to tell us all that is impossible. Examples of
14. Are fission and fusion propulsion systems actually being developed?
the change include the publication of articles by Science 21 22 25 Astronautics
Both fission and fusion propulsion systems for space travel are under devel-
and Aeronautics,2 the Journal of the Astronautical Sciences 11 27 the American
opment. I have worked on both. The NEVRA program has successfully tested
Engineer 28 Industrial Research, 33 Scientific Research 32 33 Aviation Week
a number of nuclear rocket reactors suitable for use in flight throughout the
and Space Technology. 34 35 In addition, numerous pro-UFO talks have been pre-
solar system. Flight rated systems offering substantial advantages over chemical
sented to local and national meetings of professional groups (see Appendix 1 and
propulsion systems could be ready in less than a decade if the current program
Ref. 36, 37) and the American Association for the Advancement of Science is
at Aerojet General, Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory, and Los Alamos
planning a UFO seminar for a national meeting. The AIAA has even set up a
Scientific Laboratory is supported. References 15 and 16 are good reviews of
UFO Committee.
the nuclear rocket program. The fusion work is not nearly as far along but has
21. Have there really been any electromagnetic effects associated with UFO
been productive at Aerojet General Nucleonics, San Ramon, California. An older
sightings?
review of some of the aspects of this program is given in Ref. 17.
Indeed such reports are numerous, see for example Ref. 38, which includes
15. Are these the only possibilities?
stopping of car engines and headlights, and interference with radio and TV
Not at all. This is one of the major flaws in the "non-believers" arguments;
reception, magnetic speedometers, and watches.
they presume that our technology is the ultimate-a presumption made by each
22. Could these conceivably be related to a propulsion scheme?
generation of scientists in the last 75 years and proved wrong by the next gener-
There is an enormous amount of work available concerned with magnetoaero-
ation of engineers and applied scientists. If there is one thing to be learned from
dynamics. I received a NASA bibliography with more than 3000 references. Ref.
the history of science it is that there will be new and unpredictable discoveries
39 contains abstracts of more than 800 publications dealing with interactions
comparable with, say, relatively, nuclear energy, the laser, solid state physics,
between vehicles and plasmas. Much of this work is classified because ICBM nose
high field superconductivity, etc. It is generally accepted that there are civiliza-
cones are surrounded by plasmas. In any event, there is a body of technology
tions elsewhere which are much more advanced than are we. Look what tech-
which I have studied and which leads me to believe 2 that an entirely new
nological progress we have made in the last 100 years. Who can guess what we
approach to high speed air and space propulsion could be developed using the
will accomplish in the next thousand years—or what others have accomplished
interactions between magnetic and electric fields with electrically conducting
in the thousand or million or billion year start they may have on us. We still
fluids adjacent to the vehicles to produce thrust or lift and reduce or eliminate
don't know about gravity, for example, no less anti-gravity.
such other hypersonic flight problems as drag, sonic boom, heating, etc. These
16. Could UFOs be coming here from our own solar system?
notions are based existing technology such as that included in Ref. 40 through 49
They certainly could. We have no data from any other body in the solar system
though one would expect that a considerable development effort would be
which definitely rules out the existence of advanced civilizations. We frequently
required.
forget that the resolution of present photographs of the other planetary bodies is
23. Have any electromagnetic propulsion systems been operated?
extremely poor. As a matter of fact, there does seem to be a direct correlation
So far as I know no airborne system has been operated which depended on
between the number of sighting reports per unit time and the closeness of Mars to
electromagnetic forces for propulsion. At Northwestern, turning on a magnet
the earth. Both have periodicities of about 26 months.¹⁸ We make certain space
inside a simulated re-entry vehicle with a plasma around it resulted in a change
shots at "favorable times". The reverse may also be true but without the restric-
in the color of the plasma and its location relative to the vehicle. However, an
tions on payload and trajectory placed upon us by our crude, inefficient, space pro-
electromagnetic submarine has actually been built and successfully tested. It is
pulsion systems which no thoughtful engineer considers the ultimate.
described in some detail in References 50-52.
17. Didn't the Mariner IV pictures prove there isn't any life on Mars?
24. Can an EM submarine really be related to a UFO?
The Mariner pictures didn't provide proof of life on Mars but they certainly
Dr. Way's electromagnetic submarine which, incidentally, is silent and would
didn't rule it out and were not intended to. Studies 19 of 10,000 pictures of earth
be quite difficult to detect at a distance is directly analagous to the type of air-
taken from orbit with cameras having resolving power equivalent to those on
borne craft I envision except that the shape of the aircraft would most likely
Mariner IV provided only one picture which could be taken to indicate that there
be lenticular and the electrically conducting seawater would be replaced with an
is life on the planet called earth.
electrically conducting plasma of ionized air.
18. Isn't it true that life as we know it cannot exist on any other body in the
25. Would lenticular vehicles fly?
solar system?
I certainly think SO. We seem to believe that airplanes have the only possible
This statement, though repeated many times, is quite obviously untrue. Con-
shape probably because the Wright brothers plane had the same outline which in
sider for a moment the fact that we intend to send men to the moon and by the
turn was like that of birds. As pointed out by Chatham in Ref. 53, flight is still
end of the century to Mars. We expect these men to stay for a while and to return
only a byproduct of high forward velocity leading to the need for long runways
despite the fact that Mars and them on both supposedly aren't fit for life as we
and high speed landings and takeoff. Present airplanes are quite obviously ineffi-
know it. One characteristic of an advanced technological civilization is the ability
cient in terms of fuel consumption, payload fraction, and volume of air and air-
to provide suitable conditions for life almost anywhere; including under the
port space per passenger. After all the SST will only carry a few hundred passen-
gers though it will occupy the space of a football field capable of holding at least
Footnotes at the end of article.
ten times as many people. Fuel weight is greater than payload weight and neither
Footnotes at the end of article.
218
219
is a very high fraction of system weight. It is interesting to note that most scien-
pearance cannot be predicted and they cannot be reproduced in the lab or in the
tific progress has come from doing things differently rather than using the same
field but they have been observed.
technique-microcircuits aren't just smaller vacuum tubes; lasers aren't just
29. Are there any other references of interest to scientists?
better light bulbs. Many people are not aware that the U.S. Patent Office has
Yes, References 56-62.
granted more than ten patents for what one might honestly call flying saucer
30. Haven't you biased your comments by not discussing at any length the work
shaped craft all of which claim great maneuverability and the ability to rise
of Marcowitz, Menzel, and Klass?
vertically. Some can supposedly hover. None of these use magnetoaerodynamic
The paper by Marcowitz (Ref. 12) and the books by Menzel 63 64 and Klass 65 will
techniques. For those who are interested, the patents are listed in Appendix 3.
undoubtedly be read by scientists of the 21st century as "classics" illustrating a
This list hasn't been up-dated for a couple of years.
non-scientific approach to UFOs by people who, for whatever reason, would not
26. Have any members of your audience seen any UFOs?
examine the data relevant to UFOs or advanced technology. Marcowitz was
I have taken to asking whether any members of my audiences have seen what
totally wrong about fission and fusion propulsion systems, didn't even consider
they would call a UFO. Typically 3-10% are willing to raise their hands and
electromagnetic propulsion, and was obviously unaware of current technology
usually there are others who approach me privately. These data, though limited.
and the data such as I mentioned earlier about UFOs. McDonald 62 has discussed
tend to support the Gallup Poll of 1966 which revealed that 5 million adult Ameri-
Menzels approach in detail, but let me also point out that in Ref. 64, fewer than
cans claimed to have observed a UFO. Interestingly enough the official files con-
30 sightings ever listed as "unknowns" were discussed and no mention was made
tain fewer than 12,000 reports.
of the 434 "Unknowns" of Ref. 3 or even the 71 Excellent Unknowns of this
27. Were these sightings by your audience reported to investigative bodies?
study. I agree with Klass on only one item, many people have observed glowing
In general, no. At Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 25 of the 600 listeners
plasmas; but I believe they were adjacent to vehicles rather than ball lightning
indicated that they had seen something odd but only one had reported what he
or corona discharge. He didn't even consider this possibility despite all his talk
had seen.
about plasmas and despite the enormous amount of plasma-vehicle data which
28. Is there some way to get more data about UFOs besides reading reports?
is available. In summary, I feel that these three gentlemen have made strong
There are several approaches that should be taken.
attempts to make the data fit their hypotheses rather than trying to do the much
(a) Lift the "laughter curtain" SO that more observers are willing to re-
more difficult job of creating hypotheses which fit the data.
port what they see and more scientists will become involved.
(b) Using existing technology establish instrumented investigative teams
FOOTNOTES
and automated observation instrumentation such as that recommended by
1 Letter, the Honorable Edward Rousch, to S. T. Friedman, July 1968.
Dr. Baker before the Committee on Science and Astronautics.
2 Friedman, S. T., "Flying Saucers Are Real," Astronautics and Aeronautics, February
1968, p. 16.
(c) A world wide communication and study effort should be begun.
3 Davidson, L., "Flying Saucers An Analysis of Project Blue Book Special Report No. 14,"
(d) A very large survey should be conducted to determine the character-
1966 $4.
istics of the objects that have been observed. The most comprehensive pic-
4 Ruppelt, E. J., " "The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects," Doubleday, $5.95, 1956
Ace, $0.50.
ture we have of ball lightning resulted from carefully conducted surveys by
5 Hynek, J. A., Saturday Evening Post, December 17, 1966.
McNally 54 and Rayle.56 UFOs in my opinion are definitely not ball lightning
6
Olsen, T., "The Reference for Outstanding UFO Reports," 1966 ; $5.95.
or other natural plasmas but are analagous to ball lightning and earthquakes
7 Hall, R., "The UFO Evidence, 1964, NICAP $5.
8 Vallee, J., "Anatomy of a Phenomenon, 1965 Regnery, $4.95 Ace, $0.60.
in that their appearance cannot be predicted and they cannot be reproduced
9 Lorenzen, C. and J., "UFO's Over the Americas," 1968 Signet, $0.75.
in the lab or in the field but they have been observed.
10 Letter, Robin E. Sanborn (former chief, Film Evaluation Section, Smithsonian Astro-
29. Are there any other references of interest to scientists?
physical Observatory) to Los Angeles Subcommittee, National Investigations Committee
Yes, References 56-62.
on Aerial Phenomena, dated July 5, 1966.
11 Baker, R. M. L., Jr., "Future Experiments onAnomalistic Observational Phenomena,"
30. Haven't you biased your comments by not discussing at any length the
Journal of the Astronautical Sciences, Vol. XV, No. 1. January 1968. 11 44-45.
work of Marcowitz, Menzel, and Klass?
12 Markowitz, "The Physics and Metaphysics of Unidentified Flying Objects," Science,
157, pp. 1274-1279 (1967).
The paper by Marcowitz 12 and the books by Menzel 63 64 and Klass 65 will un-
13 "A Fresh Look at Flying Saucers," Time Magazine, August 4, 1967.
doubtedly be read by scientists of the 21st century as "classics" illustrating a
14 Spencer, D. F. and Jaffe, L. D., "Feasibility of Interstellar Travel," Acta Astronautics,
non-scientific approach to UFOs by people who, for whatever reason, would not
Vol. IX Fasc. 2, 50-58, 1963.
examine the data relevant to UFOs or advanced technology. Marcowitz was
15 Spence, R. W., "The Rover Nuclear Rocket Program," Science, 160 3831, May 31, 1968,
pp. 953-959.
totally wrong about fission and fusion propulsion systems, didn't even consider
16 Schroeder, R. W., "NERVA-Entering a New Phase," Astronautics and Aeronautics
electromagnetic propulsion, and was obviously unaware of current technology
6 5, May 1968, pp. 42-53.
and the data such as I mentioned earlier about UFOs. McDonald 62 has discussed
17 Luce, J. S., Controlled Fusion Propulsion," Proceedings of 3rd Symposium on Ad-
vanced Propulsion Concepts, Vol. 1, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York, 1963,
Menzel's approach in detail, but let me also point out that in Ref. 64, fewer than
pp. 343-380.
30 sightings ever listed as "unknowns" were discussed and no mention was made
18 Salisbury, F. B., "The Possibilities of Life on Mars," Proceedings Conference on the
of the 434 "Unknowns" of Ref. 3 or even the 71 Excellent Unknowns of this study.
Exploration of Mars and Venus, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, August 1965.
19 Kilston, S. N. Drummond, R. R. Sagan, C., "A Search for Life on Earth at Kilometer
I agree with Klass on only one item, many people have observed glowing plasmas
Resolution,' Icarus, Vol. 5, January 1966, pp. 79-98.
but I believe they were adjacent to vehicles rather than ball lightning or corona
20 Vallee, J., "The Pattern of UFO Landings," Flying Saucer Review, Special Issue, "Hu-
discharge. He didn't even consider this possibility despite all his talk about
manoids-A Surveyof Worldwide Reports of Landings of Unconventional Aerial Objects
and Their Alleged Occupants,' October-November 1966; $2.
plasmas and despite the enormous amount of plasma-vehicle data which is avail-
21 Hynek, J. A., "UFO's Merit Scientific Study," Science, October 21, 1966, and Astro-
able. In summary, I feel that these three gentlemen have made strong attempts
nautics & Aeronautics, December 1966, p. 4.
to make the data fit their hypotheses rather than trying to do the much more diffi-
22 Powers, W., "UFO in 1800 Meteor Science, 160, June 14. 1968, p. 1260.
23 Rosa, R. J., Powers, W. T., Vallee, J., Gibbs, T. R. P., Steffey, P. C., Garcia, R. A., and
cult job of creating hypotheses which fit the data.
Cohen, G., Science, Vol. 158, No. 3806, pp. 1265-1266 (1967).
(b) Using existing technology establish instrumented investigative teams and
24 Page, T., "Photographic Sky Coverage for the Detection of UFO's," Science, 160, June
automated observation instrumentation such as that recommended by Dr. Baker
14, 1968. p. 1258.
25 "UFO Project Trouble on the Ground." Science, 161, July 26. 1968, pp. 339-342.
before the Committee on Science and Astronautics.
27 Baker, R. M., Jr., "Observational Evidence of Anomalistic Phenomena," J. Astronaut.
(o) A world wide communication and study effort should be begun.
August 1967.
(d) A very large survey should be conducted to determine the characteristics
27 Baker, R. M., Jr., "Obeservational Evidence of Anomalistic Phenomena," J. Astronaut.
Sci., XV, No. 1, January-February 1968.
of the objects that have been observed. The most comprehensive picture we have
28 Morse, R. F., "UFO's and the Technological Community," American Engineer, 3S 5.
of ball lightning resulted from carefully conducted surveys by McNally 54 and
May 1968, pp. 24-28.
Rayle 55 UFOs in my opinion are definitely not ball lightning or other natural
29 Fowler, R. E., "Engineer Involvement in UFO Investigations," American Engineer,
38 5. May 1968, pp. 29-31.
plasmas but are analagous to ball lightning and earthquakes in that their ap-
30 Moller, P. S., "Engineering Professor Teaches UFO Course at the University of Cali-
fornia," American Engineer, May 1968, pp. 32-34.
Footnotes at the end of article.
31 "UFO Study Credibility Cloud?" Industrial Research, June 1968.
220
221
33 32 Scientific Research, May 13, 1968, p. 11.
34 Scientific Research, May 30, 1968.
ber 1966, p. 130.
10, Klass, P. J., Aviation Week and Space Technology, August 22, 1966, p. 48, see also Octo-
Society of American Military Engineers.
Explanation Morgan, D. L., Jr., "Evaluating Extreme Movements of UFO's p. 54.
36 35 Klass, P. J., Aviation Week and Space Technology. October 3, 1966,
Universal Cyclops Corporation Engineers Meeting.
22nd Annual Frequency Control Symposium.
ASME 37 Meeting, of Effects New York, of Tones May 15-18, on Their 1967, Maneuverability,' Session 10. Design Engineering and Postulating Conference, an
Duke University.
$3.50. Prof. C. A., and Hall, R., "The Challenge of Unidentified Flying 10. Objects," 1961,
neering 38 Maney, ASME Meeting. New York. May 15-18 1967. Sessio
Earley, Conference G. W., "Unidentified Flying Objects: An Historical Perspective," Design Engi-
Wesleyan University.
University of Texas.
Carnegie Mellon University.
Natural 39 Literature Plasmas,' Search No. 541, "Interactions of Spacecraft and Other Moving
University of Illinois, Chicago.
40 Jarvinen, December 1965, Jet Propulsion Laboratory 182 Bodies With
West Virginia University.
NASA-CR-206, P. April O., "On 1965. the Use of Magnetohydrodynamics During High pages, Speed 829 references. Reentry,"
APPENDIX 2
dynamics Conference, March 2-4, 1966.
41 Nowak, R., et al., "Magnetoaerodynamic Reentry," AIAA Paper 66-161, AIAA Plasma-
U.S. PATENTS FOR CIRCULAR AIRCRAFT
tized 43 Ericson, Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1, January 1968. pp. 110-113.
42 Kawashima, Plasma, AIAA N. and Mori, S., "Experimental Study of Forces on a. Body in a Magne-
Patent No.
By
Title
Granted
Control, 'Grumann W., Maciulaitis, A., and Falco, M., "Magnetonerodynamic Drag and Flight
poration Memo, C., RM-4380-NASA. "Magnetohydrodynamic Re-entry Control, January 1965, Rand Cor-
44 Smith, M. Research Department Report, RE 232J, November 1965.
3,067,967 I. R. Barr
Flying machine
Dec. 11, 1962
2,772,057 J. C. Fischer, Jr
45 Cambel, A. B., "The Phenomenological Aspects of Magnetogasdynamic
Circular aircraft and control system therefor
Nov. 27, 1956
2,947,496 A. L. Leggett.
Jet-propelled aircraft
Presented August 1967. at the 10th Midwestern Mechanics Conference, Colorado State University, Re-entry."
Aug. 2, 1960
2,801,058 C. P. Lent
Saucer-shaped aircraft
July 30, 1957
2,876,964 H. F. Streib
Circular wing aircraft
AIAA 47 46 Porter, Journal, R. W., Vol. and 5, No. Cambel, 4, April A. B., 1967, "Magnetic p.p. 803-805. Coupling in Flight Magnetoaerodynamics,"
Mar. 10, 1959
2,997,013 W. A. Rice
Propulsion system
Aug. 22, 1961
3,124,323 J. C. M. Frost
Aircraft propulsion and control
Kranc, during S., Porten, R. W., and Cambel, A. B., "Electrodeless
Mar. 10, 1964
2,876,965 H. F. Streib
pp. Power 813-815. Entry' Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 4, Magnetogasdynamic No. 5, June 1967,
Circular wing aircraft with universally tiltable ducted power- Mar. 10, 1959
plant.
2,939,648 H. Fleissner
48 Seemann, Shock Standoff G. R., Cambel, A. B., "Observations Concerning Magnetoaerodynamic
Rotating jet aircraft with lifting disk wing and centrifuging tanks_ June 7, 1960
3,103,324 N. C. Price
High velocity, high altitude VTOL aircraft.
and No. 3. p.p. 457-465, March Distance, 1966. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. Drag 55,
Sept. 10, 1963
cous May 1966, 952-953. Flow near the Stagnation a
49 Porter, and Inviscid R. W., Cambel, A. B., "Comment
APPENDIX 3
50 Way, paper S., "Propulsion of Submarines by Lorentz Forces in the Sea,"
FLYING SAUCERS ARE REAL
ASME 51 Way, S., 64-WA/ENER-7, "Electromagnetic Winter Meeting, New York City, November Surrounding 29,
SNAME 52 Way, Advanced S., Marine Vehicles Propulsion Meeting, for Norfolk, Cargo Virginia, Submarines.' May Paper 67-363, 1964. AIAA/
There are a few standard responses to any statement that "the earth is being
AIAA 53 Chatham, 3rd Propulsion Devlin, C., Joint "Prospects Specialist for Conference, the Electromagnetic Washington, Submarine, D.C., 22-24, July Paper 1967. 67-432,
visited by intelligently controlled vehicles whose origin is extraterrestrial.'
The simplest is ridicule, coupled with a comment that flying saucers are figments
July 1968, pip. 26-38. G. C., "Towards Aircraft of the 1980's", Astronautics and 7-21, Aeronautics, 1967.
of the imagination, or optical illusions, or motes in the eye, or hoaxes, or misiden-
54 McNally. J. R., "Preliminary Report on Ball Lightning", 2nd
tified conventional phenomena seen under unusual circumstances by untrained
Division 1960. of Plasma Physics, American Physical Society, Gotlinburg, Tennessee, Annual Meeting November of
observers. These, however, are all Identified Flying Objects, and not the Uniden-
57 Salisbury, F. "The UFO From the Designer's Viewpoint" Air Progress, January 1966.
56 55 Berliner, Rayle, W. D., D., "Ball Lightning Characteristics." NASA-TN-D-3188,
tified Flying Objects with which my statement is concerned.
The next simplest response is: "We are certainly not alone in the Universe
58 Zigel, F., B., "The Scientist and the UFO", Bio Science, January October 15-24. 1967.
and surely some civilizations are more advanced than ours, but interstellar travel
59 "Saucers, "Unidentifiable Hoax Flying Objects", Soviet Life, February 1968, 1967, p.p.
44-50. or Hazards", Engineering Opportunities, September 1967, pp. pp. 27-29. 17-24
is not feasible because of the vast distances between such civilizations and the
great quantity of energy and time required for the trip." These critics ignore our
space 61 Report No. 672, August 1967.
60 Kachur, Associates V., "Space Scientists and the UFO Phenomenon, An Informal Survey," Bio-
lack of data on intercivilization distances the possibility of unknown (to us)
p.
69. Hynek, J. A., "How to Photograph a UFO," Popular Photography, 62.3, March 1968,
flight technology, and studies in this area.¹ Another response is that the reported
activity of UFOs is not rational since, if "they" were advanced enough to get
available 64 63 Menzel, D. H., "Flying Suite Saucers, 311, 508. Harvard, Grant Street, 1953. Pittsburgh, Pa., 15219, $1.00.
62 McDonald, from UFOR1 J. E., "UFOs Greatest Scientific Problem of Our Times," October 1967,
here, they would surely try to communicate with us.
These responses avoid coming to grips with the reported data. Those interested
65 Menzel, Klass, P. D. J., H., "UFOs and Boyd, Identified, L., "The 1968. World of Flying Saucers," Doubleday, 1963.
in data-and there is plenty of it 2-13-are advised to consult the References and
derive a hypothesis other than extraterrestrial vehicles to fit the facts, rather
than to try to make the facts fit the hypothesis that "we are not being visited
APPENDIX 1
because-" (in 25 words or less).
S. T. Friedman has talked about UFOs to these groups (partial list) :
A particularly interesting aspect of the data from all over the world is that
Engineering Society of Detroit
electromagnetic effects are frequently observed in association with the presence
Engineering Society of Baltimore
of UFOs, along with the fact that many observations suggest that what is being
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
observed is a "vehicle" having a plasma region adjacent to it-"vehicle" because
Local sections of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics in
of its metal-like surface, large size, maneuvers indicating intelligent control,
Texas; Pittsburgh, San Pennsylvania; Wichita, Kansas; Cumberland, Maryland; Waco,
well-defined shape, surface features such as "port holes, antenna, landing gears,"
Local Antonio, Texas; Raleigh, North Carolina; New York, New York.
lights, etc.; and plasma because of bright glows rather than color, changes in the
burgh, Connecticut. Pennsylvania; Wilmington, Delaware; Salisbury, Maryland; New London, Pitts-
sections of the Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers in
color of the glow associated with changes in velocity, luminous boundary layers,
and appearance on film of regions not seen by the naked eye. The EM effects
include interference with the operation of automobile engines, radios, and head-
Professional Engineers of Western Pennsylvania.
lights; interference with the operation of radio and TV sets, compasses, mag-
American Nuclear Society in Pittsburgh and Las Vegas, Nevada.
netic speedometers, power systems; residual magnetism in metal objects, watches,
Pittsburgh Chemists Club.
etc.13
Computer Simulation Council of Western Pennsylvania.
During the past decade a vast amount of terrestrial technology, much of it
Dravo Corporation Engineers Club, Pittsburgh.
classified, has been developed concerning the interactions of airborne vehicles and
Footnotes at the end of article.
222
223
plasmas.14 The development of lightweight, compact, high-field superconducting
(The biography of Dr. Shepard follows:)
magnets has also led to much work on the potential benefits to be derived from
placing a magnet within a high-speed vehicle to interact with a plasma around
DR. ROGER N. SHEPARD
the vehicle. Such a combination might be used to reduce vehicle heating, control
aerodynamic drag, exert control forces on the vehicle, provide power for its
Roger N. Shepard is professor of psychology at Stanford University. Pre-
operation, open a "magnetic" communications window, and change the vehicle
viously he was professor and then director of the psychological laboratories at
radar profile. In addition, the magnets might be used to provide shielding against
Harvard and, for eight years before that, member of technical staff and then
space radiation. Numerous reports cover such applications. 13-17
department head at the Bell Telephone Laboratories. He obtained his Ph.D. in
A review of this literature and an extrapolation of exsiting technology suggest
experimental psychology from Yale (1955), and has published some 30 tech-
that with considerable effort an entirely new EM approach to hypersonic flight
nical and scientific papers on human perception and memory and on computer
might be developed which, in many respects, could duplicate UFO characteristics.
methods for discovering patterns in large arrays of data. Although he has had
In turn, this leads to the notion that observed UFO behavior is not SO unreason-
a long-standing interest in the problem of UFOs, this is his first paper on this
able as might at first appear to be the case. The measurement of EM parameters
particular subject.
of UFOs could well provide information on both UFO characteristics and new
propulsion.
PREPARED STATEMENT BY ROGER N. SHEPARD
FOOTNOTES
SOME PSYCHOLOGICALLY ORIENTED TECHNIQUES FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
(Items 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 13 available from UFO Research Institute, Suite 311, 508
OF UNIDENTIFIED AERIAL PHENOMENA
Grant St., Pittsgurgh, Pa. 15219.)
ABSTRACT
1. Spencer, D. F. and Jaffe, L. D., "Feasibility of Interstellar Travel," Acta
Astronautica, Vol. IX. Fasc. 2, 50-58, 1963.
Even if our interest is in the study of UFO's as some sort of extraordinary
2. "The UFO Evidence," National Investigations Committee on Aerial
physical phenomenon (whether of natural or, possibly, of intelligent, extra-
Phenomena, 1964.
terrestrial origin), our study cannot ignore the inescapable fact that nearly
3. Olsen, T., "The Reference for Outstanding UFO Sighting Reports," Oct.
all of our evidence comes-not from physical measuring instruments-but from
1966, $5.95.
human observers. So far, however, we have consistently sold the human observer
4. "Project Blue Book: Special Report No. 14," Davidson, 3rd Edition, 1966,
short. Indeed, in neglecting to make use of psychologically oriented techniques
$4.00.
that would more fully enable observers to bring to bear their really rather re-
5. "Humanoids-Worldwide Survey of Landings and Alleged Occupants," Spe-
markable powers of perception and recognition, we may have been forfeiting
cial Issue of Flying Saucer Review, October-November, 1966. $2.00.
the opportunity of obtaining evidence from independent observers that would
6. McDonald, James E., "UFOs: Greatest Scientific Problem of Our Times,"
be sufficiently convergent and well-defined to clarify the true nature of the
Oct. 1967. $1.00.
phenomena.
7. Hynek, J. Allen, "UFOs Merit Scientific Study," Science, Oct. 21, 1966,
and Astronautics & Acronautic, Dec. 1966, p. 4.
The extent to which the apparent unpredictability of UFO Phenomena Hinders
8. Vallee, Jacques, "Anatomy of a Phenomenon," Regnery, 1965, $4.95. Ace
their scientific study
Books, 1966, $.60.
The scientific investigation of a set of phenomena becomes possible whenever
9. Vallee, Jacques and Janine, "Challenge to Science-The UFO Enigma."
those phenomena exhibit some discernible degree of order or pattern. Scientific
Regnery, 1966, $5.95. Also paper, $.75.
study is of course greatly facilitated when, as in astronomy, the order strongly
10. Michel, A., "The Truth About Flying Saucers," Criterion, 1956. $3.95.
emerges in the form of a space-time pattern of the very occurrences themselves.
11. Michel A., "Flying Saucers and the Straight Line Mystery," Criterion,
For, only then, can we arrange to have suitably trained observers suitably "train-
1958. $4.50.
ing" powerful and, hence necessarily, highly directional recording and measuring
12. Ruppelt, E. J., "The Report on Unidentified Flying Objects," Doubleday,
instruments on the right place at the right time.
1956. $2.95.
Indeed, by contrast with astronomical phenomena, those loosely classified
13. Maney, Prof. C. A., and Hall, Richard, "The Challenge of Unidentified
together as "Unidentified Flying Objects" ("UFO's") or (with perhaps some-
Flying Objects," 1961. $3.50.
what less commitment implied as to their real nature) "Unidentified Aerial
14. Literature Search No. 541, "Interactions of Spacecraft and Other Moving
Phenomena" sometimes appear almost inaccessibleto scientific study. Certainly
Bodies with Natural Plasmas," Dec. 1965, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 182 pages,
phenomena that are rare and fleeting are difficult enough but, if in addition
829 references.
they are totally capricious and unpredictable when they do occur, then the sci-
15. Jarvinen, P. O., "On the Use of Magnetohydrodynamics During High
entific method is to no avail and we are reduced to awaiting each new hap-
Speed Reentry," NASA-CR-206, April 1965.
pening in the same primitive state of uncomprehending docility.
16. Nowak, R., et al, "Magnetoaerodynamic Re-entry," AIAA Paper 66-161,
The repeated successes of science, however, have encouraged us always to
AIAA Plasmadynamics Conference, March 2-4, 1966.
search for pattern and order even when none at first appears. And, although a
17. Kawashima, Nobuki and Mori, Sigeru, "Experimental Study of Forces on
scientific study does of course become enormously more difficult when the occur-
a Body in a Magnetized Plasma," AIAA Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1, Jan. 1968, pp.
rences of the phenomena do not fall into any predictable pattern in space and
110-113.
time, it remains a possibility SO long as some regularity exists within the
S. T. Friedman Westinghouse Astronuclear Laboratory
phenomena themselves-whenever they do happen to occur. Thus, in the field
(Ed.-For additional comments on UFOs see the following AIA references:
of psychopathology, even if it were the case that some psychological phenomena
The Wheel in the Middle of the Air, Solomon Golomb, Sounding Board, Au-
(such, say, as psychotic episodes) occurred wholly unpredictably-striking
gust 1966, p. 16 Letters, Nov. 1966, p. 6, George Earley and Brent L. Marsh
any person at any time, quite at random, we could still study the internal pat-
on Saucer Doctrine UFOs-Extraterrestrial Probes? by James E. McDonald,
terns of such episodes when they do strike. We might for example find that.
Sounding Board, Aug. 1967, p. 9 Munday Jr., John C., "On the UFOs," Bul-
when symptom A appears, it is usually accompanied by symptom B, but seldom
letin of the Atomic Scientists, Dec. 1967.
by symptom C, and SO on. This, too, is a kind of predictability and can even
Also see December 8, 1967, issue of Science, No. 3806, pp. 1265 and 1266, Let-
lead to a degree of understanding and perhaps, eventually, to a method of
ters to Ed.)
treatment.
224
225
Similarly, in the case of UFO episodes, it may be possible to discover some
various more-or-less obscure or ill-defined cases falling somewhere within the
regularities or patterns within these episodes even though any clear overall
"triangle." (Indeed, to throw all such intermediate cases together, without ade-
pattern in their mere occurrences (except, possibly for the tendency to unpre-
quate regard for the reliability or credibility of each report-as some investiga-
dicted local concentrations in space and time) continues to elude us. This is not
tors have tended to do for the purposes of compiling over-all statistics concerning
to say that efforts-such as those of Michel (1958) and of Vallee and Vallee
"UFO activity"-can, I think, lead to a largely uninterpretable picture. For,
(1966) detect some overall pattern should not be pursued, but only that
there is then no way of assessing or parceling out the "noise" contributed by
the attempt at a scientific study need not await a positive outcome of those
the contactee, the prankster and, of course, the many well-meaning citizens who,
efforts.
under unusual circumstances, will continue to misidentify familiar phenomena.)
Rather, we stand to learn most from an intensive study into those numerous
The principal sense in which the problem of UFO phenomena is a psychological
cases represented by the remaining "corner" of the triangle in which converging
problem
evidence from apparently involuntary, independent, and responsible witnesses
In the meantime, a scientific study of these phenomena is not impossible-just
strongly points to the occurrence of an objective phenomenon of an unexplained
more difficult. For, we are faced for the most part with a problem-not of mak-
character.
ing physical measurements-but of interpreting verbal reports. We are faced,
The potential contribution of psychological techniques to the study even of purely
in short, with a problem amenable more to the methods of the psychologist
physical phenomena
than to those of the physical scientist.
It is the principal purpose of this note to propose that, despite the relatively
Even though our primary interest is, then, on the unexplained objective and
primitive state of development of psychological science, psychological and social
presumably physical phenomena that may give rise to such UFO reports, our
scientists and even, indeed, law enforcement specialists have devised some tech-
problem remains as much a psychological as a physical one. For, the vast bulk
niques that could as well be applied to further the scientific study of UFO's.
of the data upon which we must base our scientific investigation comes-not from
I do not mean to suggest by this that most reports of UFO's can probably be
physical recording or measuring devices-but solely from one or more human
shown to arise from purely psychological aberrations such as illusions, halluci-
observers. Moreover these are observers who were not, evidently, selected for
nations, delusions, after-images, and the like. On the contrary, a careful exami-
their powers of observation or description and who have good reason to be re-
nation of most of the best-documented cases has convinced me-as at least one
luctant as well-particularly in view of the likelihood of ridicule, often en-
psychologist who has studied rather extensively into the fields of normal and
couraged, curiously, by the very investigators who profess to be seeking the
psychopathological perception-that very few such cases can be explained along
truth (cf., Fuller, 1966, pp. 211-220 Weitzel, 1967).
these lines. Indeed, I have the impression that the claims that the UFO's reported
It is here, surely, that we have been most glaringly remiss in our attempts
even by seemingly responsible citizens represent lapses of a basically psycho-
to put the investigation of UFO's on a scientific footing. We have, simply, failed
pathological character have generally come from people who have neglected to
to make anywhere near full use of the one recording and measuring instrument
at our disposal; namely, our unwitting human witness.
study closely either into the literature on psychopathology, or into that on UFO's,
or (in many cases, I fear) both.
Now it is true that one of the more exotic psychological techniques, hypnotic
regression, has already been attempted with interesting-if considerably less
The desirability of separating three psychologically extreme types of UFO
than conclusive results in at least one UFO case of a rather sensational nature
cases
(Fuller, 1967). However, although astonishing claims have sometimes been
I have SO far ignored the reports of the so-called "contactees" and related
made for the kind of detail that can be recovered under hypnosis (e.g., by Mc-
cultists who seem to form a relatively distinct class and who are generally readily
Culloch in von Foerster, 1952, p. 100), the results of controlled experiments on
identifiable without the benefit of extensive psychological training. Insofar as
accuracy of recall have generally been less impressive (Reiff & Scheerer, 1959).
possible, I should also like to disregard the reports of out-and-out hoaxters. Ad-
More reliable, in my opinion, are some techniques based on certain psychological
mittedly, however, these present a somewhat more troublesome problem to
facts of a more mundane but better understood character.
which we must return later-particularly in connection with photographs and
The power of methods guided by recognition rather than description in the
other types of alleged physical evidence.
reconstruction of a fleeting event
Of course there always are ambiguous cases which are difficult to place cer-
tainly within the triangle defined by the three, psychologically distinct "corners"
It is, I suppose, a fact familiar to us all that we can take in and remember much
representing the deluded contactee, the conscious pranksters, and the involuntary
more information than we can readily communicate to others. Contrast, for
but responsible witness of some real but puzzling phenomenon. However, as has
example, how easily we recognize the face of a friend in a crowd with how
often been remarked, the existence of twilight does not deter us from dis-
difficult it is to describe that face SO that any other person could then do it for us.
tinguishing between night and day-nor should it.
Quite generally, our powers of recognition exceed our powers of description (and,
In fact, science generally proceeds most rapidly by focusing first on the purest
indeed, surpass anything that we have yet been able to accomplish by physical
and most clear-cut cases, and by leaving for later any "mop-up" operation of
instrument or machine). In an experiment on recognition memory, I once pre-
dealing with the remaining cases that are to varying degrees complicated, mixed,
sented human subjects with over 600 different pictures, one right after the other,
messy, borderline, or obscure. Thus the social scientist who is primarily inter-
and then found that they could immediately distinguish between those "old"
ested in studying the formation and perpetuation of delusional belief systems
pictures and otherwise completely comparable "new" pictures with median ac-
will do well to focus precisely on the members of the "contactee" cults, the
curacy of over 98% (Shepard, 1967). Even when the test was not given until a
archetypal examples of which are situated in the south-western United States
week later, the discriminations between "old" and "new" pictures were still 92%
and are heavily constituted by persons (often predominantly women rather past
correct. Moreover, the advantage of recognition over verbal description should
middle age) who have relatively little formal education together with a history
become especialy pronounced when the object or event to be remember is un-
of professed beliefs in the mystical, the spiritual, or the occult. Likewise, a
familiar and, so, not uniquely or succinctly "captured" by readily available terms
clinical psychologist interested in the ways in which socially responsible adult
or labels.
behavior emerges or fails to emerge out of the play and testing behavior of
Over and over again, witnesses of "UFO's" have provided descriptions that,
childhood may learn something from an intensive study of any of the almost
while they strongly suggest that a clear view was obtained of some well-defined
canonical cases of adolescent boys who, often in pairs and in accordance with an
but extraordinary object or phenomenon, leave the investigator frustratingly in
almost tiringly regular pattern, attain at least transitory notoriety by submitting
the dark as to its precise appearance or behavior. A closely viewed, "spinning
their photograph of a "flying saucer"-replete with dome, antenna, and, perhaps,
metallic" object is said, for example, to have been "mushroom-shaped" or to have
portholes and fins.
resembled "an inverted top." But what does this mean? What sort of mushroom?
Just so, if we are, as here, primarily concerned with the possibility of unex-
With or without the stalk? And what on earth (!) is referred to, precisely, by
plained but objective phenomena taking place within our atmosphere, then we
"a 30 foot inverted top?"
should eschew not only the two pure sorts of cases just mentioned, but also the
226
227
Some psychologists have been expressly studying the ways in which people
come to describe nearly nondescript objects to others (e.g., Krauss & Wein-
of descent. Still, much more detailed information concerning such things as
heimer, 1964, 1966). Often a person will feel that the ambiguous term he comes
shape could presumably be extracted by techniques (akin to those already used
up with (such, for example, as "an inverted top") does quite well. Possibly this
in criminal cases) designed to take fuller advantage of the witnesses' usually
is because he is picturing some particular interpretation (e.g., a particular toy
untapped but vastly more discriminating powers of recognition.
that he played with as a child). For the listener who does not have that par-
The point, here, is that such more detailed information is needed not merely
for its own sake. It is needed, even before that, because the establishment of the
ticular picture in mind, however, the description may prove either meaningless
very validity of the information in question hinges upon the demonstration of
or, worse, completely misleading (cf., Glucksberg, Krauss, & Weisberg, 1966).
An indication of the same sort of problem is the tendency of witnesses to say
the kind of point-for-point correspondence between reports that becomes possi-
ble only when those reports are sufficiently detailed. If two, unrelated witnesses
things like "it looked about the size of a football." Further circumstances make
both claim to have seen a disk-shaped object at about the same time and place
clear that they must have been referring to its apparent visual size rather than
this is not sufficiently compelling. (Evidently For it has already happened
its real, physical size (which could, after all, hardly be estimated without also
many times.) But, if artists working with the two witnesses, independently,
knowing its real, physical distance). More pertinently here, it appears that they
construct pictures of what appears to be the very same object or, alternatively,
were really talking more about its shape than its size. Possibly, the presence, SO
if the two witnesses independently point to the very same drawing or photo-
to speak, of a very vivid image in the mind of the witness causes him to lose
graph in an array of 50 or more different pictures of such objects, then the
sight of the total inadequacy of his verval encoding of that image.
coincidence becomes more interesting. (And, of course, if the pictures recon-
This problem is already implicitly recognized in certain situations of more ob-
structed or singled out in this way just once turned out to coincide, also, with
viously pressing practical concern. Investigators in cases of homicide do not rest
an actual photograph taken at the time, we should at last have opened the door
content with the weak and fuzzy descriptions typically offered by a witness but,
for the more precise measurements of physical science-including the sophisti-
in addition, may employ a skilled artist (such as Richard Kenehan of the New
cated and powerful photogrammetric methods being developed for the analysis
York Police Department) to work with the witness in an attempt to reconstruct
and interpretation of lunar photographs.)
a usable likeness of the murderer's face. The witness may be asked to select eyes,
The establishment of a pre-tested and standardized procedure for reconstruct-
eyebrows, nose, mouth, or ears from series that are systematically graded in
ing information by the sort of psychologically oriented techniques envisaged
size and shape. The witness can then help to adjust their positions on an outlined
here, moreover, would be incomparably cheaper than the implementation of
face. This will generally provide a sufficiently concrete stimulus to enable the
other more physically oriented schemes that have sometimes been proposed—
witness, finally, to become reasonably explicit about further refinements con-
such as the construction of a far-flung network of automatic radar-and-camera
cerning hair, complexions, lines, scars, asymmetries, and SO on. In a number of
stations. For, instead of having simultaneously to cover all possible sites in
cases (such as the recent one in which Richard Speck was charged with the
advance, we could simply move in to recover the desired information after an
murder of several nursing students in Chicago) a likeness constructed in this way
incident is first reported.
from a single surviving witness has proved remarkably accurate and, in more
There is, however, one unavoidable aspect of the psychologically oriented type
than one instance, has actually led to the apprehension of the criminal (cf.,
of approach proposed here that I, anyway, regard as quite regrettable. To the
Schumach, 1958).
extent that any detailed pictures reconstructed by these techniques are made
This provides perhaps the most directly pertinent substantiation for the one
publically available, we cannot guarantee that pictures obtained from sub-
central point that I want to leave with those concerned with the investigation
sequent witnesses will be suitably independent for our purposes. Consequently,
of UFO's. Briefly, it is this: Even when an event occurs without warning, leaves
rather tight security precautions would have to be imposed on the more detailed
little time for careful observation and, indeed, occasions extreme fear or
reconstructions, if the purely scientific purposes of the investigation are not to
anxiety, the average witness often retains an accurate, almost photographic
be compromised.
record of the event-a record, moreover, that can be largely recovered from him
even though he lacks the words to describe it himself. Possibly then, in allow-
The usc of concrete stimuli to provide a basis for the independent, recognition-
guided process of reconstruction
ing our investigations to depend solely upon our informant's inadequate, his
misleading and, yes, his sometimes even ludicrous choice of words, we have
The need for ensuring independence of information supplied by different wit-
done both him-and ourselves-a telling disservice.
nesses is in fact S0 great that it is doubtful whether much reliance could safely
be placed on different pictures reconstructed with the help of the same artist.
The desirability of establishing a system permitting convergence of independent
Despite the best intentions of the artist, he might unwittingly guide different
reconstructions
witnesses along somewhat similar channels by means of subtle, perhaps uncon-
Admittedly, in the case of UFO's, the value of information provided by a
scious cues (cf., Rosenthal, 1966). Moreover, even if a different artist could be
single, isolated witness-however detailed that information may be-is, by
supplied for each witness, we would still be left with the problem of evaluating
itself, always quite small (except, of course, for the witness himself!). For,
the likelihood that any two pictures constructed in this way could have turned out
from the standpoint of any other person, there is always at least the possibility
as similarly as they did by chance alone.
of hallucination, delusion or, more likely, just plain fabrication. This is amply
For these reasons and for reasons of feasibility, convenience, and economy, it
pointed up by the relative lack of evidential value of the many quite detailed
would be preferable to develop a standardized set of materials containing suit-
photographs purported to have been taken of UFOs by solitary witnesses.
ably representative and graded series of shapes to which each witness could
It is only when there turns up an otherwise inexplicably close correspondence
independently respond. Some such materials would be needed. in any case, in
between the information furnished by two or more independent witnesses that
order to provide stimuli suitable for tapping the witnesses' powers of recognition.
the evidence becomes at all compelling at the public or scientific level. But we
Possibly even separate arrays should be constructed for distinguishable parts
do not provide for even the possibility of a close correspondence unless we elicit
such as "domes" or other projections (just as separate series of eyes, or mouths
sufficiently detaailed information. Thus, when one person reports a "glowing
may be helpful to the witness in criminal cases). By means of suitable standard-
mushroom-shaped object" while another, remote witness refers to the passage
ization and control in the preparation and presentation of such materials, then.
of an "inverted top," we have little basis for evaluating the likelihood that they
we could be reasonably sure that the responses of one witness are not unduly
have both observed a physical object-let alone the same physical object.
influencing the choices of another. Moreover, since each witness would make
Now it is true that certain rather suggestive regularities have already
his choices from a pre-tested, fixed set of alternatives of known size, we would
emerged in the more or less spontaneous reports of observers. Among the very
be in a favorable position to assess the probability that any coincidences of
most common, for example, are the frequent references to disk-like shapes, to
choice might have occurred merely by chance.
extraordinary velocities, to abrupt simultaneous changes of color and direction
All things considered, the best procedure might be to divide the questioning
and, perhaps most strikingly, to the so-called "pendulum" or "falling-leaf" type
of a witness into the following three distinct phases: first, the recording of the
228
229
witness describing what he saw as completely as he can, in his own words, and
without any cues (whether verbal or pictorial) that might bias him in one
direction or another; second, the recording of his responses to the standardized,
pictorial materials; and third (if the case seems to warrant it) the full recon-
struction of a new picture with the help of a suitably trained artist. Such a
new picture, if sufficiently novel or well-defined, might then be incorporated in
future revisions of the materials used for the second phase of the interview.
The effectiveness of the proposed procedure would depend very heavily upon
the amount of thought, care, skill and, above all, pretesting that went into the
preparation of the materials. The arrays of alternative shapes should of course
include all types of shapes that have been clearly described, sketched, or
(allegedly) actually photographed by some previous witness of at least reason-
able reliability. One helpful attempt at systematizing the kinds of shapes that
have been reported has in fact already been published (see Hall, 1964, p. 144).
However, more extensive and refined work would be necessary in order to cover
F
the great variety of reported shapes, and to do this in a sufficiently concrete
by witnesses.
and realistic manner to promote recognition and, possibly, further specification
The use of photographs of alleged UFOs as a source of concrete test materials
Since photographs represent an especially tempting vehicle for the hoaxter
and, in addition, are easily faked, they are individually of little value as evi-
E
E
dence-except in the rare cases in which there were independent, corroborating
eyewitnesses. Photographs purporting to be of UFOs are, however, surprisingly
numerous. (I myself have assembled well over 150 distinct such photographs
merely from published reports.) Moreover, since at least one of these photo-
graphs might be authentic and since we have no sure way of knowing in advance
which one it might be, we can not afford to eliminate any distinct type that
hasn't already been proved to be a fraud. In the meantime, moreover, the other,
spurious photographs can serve (in somewhat the same way as the non-suspects
in a police "line-up") as a means of assessing consistency of choice or, contrary-
wise, mere guessing on the part of different witnesses.
The accompanying figure reproduces drawings in which I have tried to portray,
as accurately as I could, representative objects from 63 of these photographs. The
greater contrast of the drawings renders them more readily duplicatable than
the original photographs. Moreover, I was also able in this way to reduce them
all to uniform size and to eliminate background details which, although useful
for estimating size or gauging authenticity, are only distracting for present
purposes. Some of the photographs are from well documented or widely publi-
cized cases while others are of more obscure or dubious origin. At least two
cases have subsequently been admitted to be hoaxes, while circumstances sur-
B
B
rounding some of the others make them difficult to dismiss in this way.
A
The array is intended only to convey some idea of the variety of shapes that
have appeared, it does not give an adequate impression of the relative frequencies
with which the different shapes have appeared. In fact, the images most com-
monly appearing in my total sample show either a small point, formless blob,
or fuzzy ellipse of light in a night sky, or else a dark, more or less distinct ellipse
(like that shown in D9) against a lighter sky. With very few exceptions, such
as the rocket- or "cigar"-shaped object with "exhaust trail" (G9), which alleg-
edly was photographed over Peru in 1952, the more well-defined objects appear
to be some variant of the "saucer" or "domed disk."
230
231
Nevertheless, the single most striking thing about these pictures-far from
that the evidential value at least of still photographs depends entirely upon the
being any general uniformity in their appearance-is their largely irreconcilable
surrounding circumstances. An isolated photograph about which little is known,
diversity. Whether or not this diversity is interpreted as detracting from their
no matter how impressive it may appear in itself, is essentially worthless-except,
value as evidence, it surely cannot be taken as contributing to that value. It
possibly, in cases in which sophisticated photogrammetric analysis yields further
does, however, serve our immediate, rather different purpose of providing an
detail tending to confirm the verbal account of the photographer. (I have heard
initial sample from which to extrapolate and interpolate an eventual graded
that this as happened in at least one case; viz., that of the controversial series
array of the sort that we seek for purposes of testing witnesses.
of Polaroid photographs-one of which is represented in A8-taken by a Cali-
fornia state highway employee, Rex Heflin, near Santa Ana in August 1965.) The
Some Incidental Comments on the Status of Photographs of Alleged UFOs as a
photographs most worthy of further intensive investigation would seem to be
Source of Evidence Themselves
those for which there also were reported to be many eyewitnesses as well as
Befor leaving the photographs themselves, however, it should be noted that
other, corroborating photographs-as in the celebrated case of the "saturn-
there are a few instances of rather suggestive similarities between these photo-
shaped" object (A1) that was said to have been photographed from an oceano-
graphs. A frequently cited case is the striking resemblance between E6, re-
graphic vessel near the Brazilian island of Trindad in January 1958 (see
portedly taken by a farmer, Paul Trent, as he was returning home with his
Lorenzen, 1966, pp. 145-153, 164-174).
wife near McMinville, Oregon in June 1950, and E7, allegedly taken by a French
military pilot near Rouen, France in March 1954.
The assessment of the representativeness of a set of recognition test-materials
Another example, involving several different sightings, is shown in the upper
Even though an extensive effort is made to represent every sort of shape that
right. G1, G2, and G3 present three successive views of the same object pur-
has been reliably described, sketched, or photographed, the possibility will remain
portedly taken by a photographer, Ed Keffel, of the Brazilian publication "O
that the collection of proposed test materials will not be sufficiently representa-
Cruziero" while he was accompanied by a journalist, Joao Martins, near Rio de
tive. Certain types of completely fraudulent shapes may unnecessarily inflate the
Janeiro in May, 1952. The edge-on view, G1, is almost indistinguishable from
already unwieldly collection and, more seriously, some significant types may still
another photograph, represented in F1, allegedly taken from an Argentine pur-
be missing. There are, however, ways of assessing the representativeness of any
suit plane in late 1954. The "top" view, G2, seemingly resembles F2 (the left
proposed collection of shapes. One is, simply, to have people describe these shapes
edge of which was cut off by the boundary of the orginal photograph), which a
and then to look for any pronounced departures of the relative frequencies of the
15-year-old boy, Michael Savage, claims to have taken near San Bernardino,
various descriptive terms used from the corresponding relative frequencies in
California in July, 1956. It also somewhat resembles the lighted object, F3,
reports issuing from actual sightings of UFOs. My research assistant, Miss
allegedly appearing in a color photograph taken by Joseph Sigel near Waikiki,
Shelley Meltzer, carried out an exploratory attempt at this sort of thing that
Hawaii in June, 1959. And, finally, the "bottom" view, G3, presents the same
may help to illustrate some of the relevant considerations.
general sort of configuration as that shown in G4, which is based upon a photo-
From our total sample of photographs, 75 that seemed suitably representative
graph purportedly taken by Yukuse Matsumura outside his residence in Yoko-
were selected for this preliminary study. These included most of the 63 already
hama, Japan in January 1957 (although the relative dimensions of the features
portrayed in the accompanying figure, but those that were known or strongly
appear slightly different in these last two photographs).
suspected to be fraudulent were eliminated and a number of others of less sharply
There are several other instances in which photographs taken by apparently
defined shape were added (since many reports indicate that the shape was not
unrelated individuals might be of the same object. Another view (not included
clearly visible). Each of 19 subjects, mostly students at Harvard University, then
in the figure) showing more of the "bottom" of the object displayed in E4 re-
looked through one of three subsets of 25 of these photographs and, for each.
sembles the object shown in G5 and, even more closely, an object apparently
attempted to describe the pictured object in their own words. (Immediately fol-
hovering over a seaplane in still another photograph (also not included) of un-
lowing that, each subject then looked through another subset of 25 and, this
known origin. In a number of instances (e.g., F5, 6, and 7 or D6, 7, and 8) the
time, indicated the appropriateness for each photograph of each term in a fixed
degree of correspondence is more difficult to assess owing to the relatively poorer
set that we had listed in advance on a standardized rating sheet. However this
definition of the images.
part of the experiment will not be considered in any detail here.) Of most imme-
Of course even very close similarities do not in themselves guarantee authen-
diate interest are the descriptive labels spontaneously produced in the 19 X 25 or
ticity. Consider, for example, C2 and C3 which are strikingly similar dispite the
475 subject-photograph encounters.
fact that the object in C2 appears over a mountain near Riverside, California
These could now be compared with the descriptive labels appearing in a sample
in the original photograph reportedly taken by a 21-year-old man and two friends
of 206 different representative reports of actual UFO sightings that Miss Meltzer
in 1951, whereas the object in C3 appears over a flock of grazing sheep in the
had alread extracted (for a different purpose) from a number of sources (mostly
photograph submitted by an Australian rancher in 1954. But, since the object
Edwards, 1966; Hall, 1964; Michel, 1967 Olsen, 1966; Ruppelt, 1956; and Vallee,
in C2 has subsequently been admitted to be none other than a 1937 Ford hubcap,
1965). The accompanying table lists those descriptive terms that pertain to visual
the object in C3 is presumably the same. (Another photograph later confessed
appearance but, for purposes of comparison with the mostly black-and-white
to be fraudulent is represented in B6, and somewhat suspicious circumstances
photographs, excludes the many references to (chromatic) color. With one ex-
also surround several other photographs, including those represented in A9, B1,
ception (#33), only terms that appeared at least twice in the sample of 206
B8, B9, C1, and G8.)
actual reports are included, and these arranged in order of decreasing frequency
Perhaps the safest attitude to adopt is that recommended by the National
of occurrence in that sample.
Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena (cf., Hall, 1964, p. 86) ; namely,
232
233
TABLE I
The Use of the Computer in the Design of Recognition Test-Materials and in the
Analysis of Results
(a)
(b)
Our sample of only 206 actual UFO cases is really too small and haphazard
Number of
Number of
Label describing visual appearance
for the purpose of ensuring that all types of reported shapes are adequately
occurrences
occurrences
Appreciable
(excluding chromatic colors)
in 206 actual
in 475 de-
discrepancies
represented in any proposed recognition array. Many descriptive terms that have
UFO cases
scriptions of
repeatedly been used (such as "doughnut," "ring," "mushroom," flattened ball,"
photographs
"double-convex lense," "bullet," "blimp," and "submarine") didn't happen to ap-
pear more than once in our particular sample). Ideally, for this work, one would
1. Disk shaped
27
42
like access to a centralized library of all reasonably documented cases-suitably
2. Circular
24
24
3. Round
coded for retrieval via computer. Indeed, at present the scientific study of the
22
25
4. Metallic
19
41
UFO problem is greatly hampered by the circumstance that the thousands of
5. Domed top
15
21
reported sightings have not been adequately coded or systematized in any uniform
6. Starlike (point of light)
14
6
-
7. Cigar shaped
way and are, in fact, still scattered among such diverse and often mutually
13
1
-
8. Spherical
12
9
hostile organizations as the U.S. Air Force, NICAP, APRO, and the University
9. Ball shaped
11
0
-
of Colorado Project-not to mention a number of more-or-less private files assem-
10. Fiery appearance
11
0 -
11. Trail of vapor or smoke
10
bled by individual investigators both here and abroad.
13
12. Portholes or windows
10
0
-
Recent developments in computer technology-particularly in computer
13. Pattern of lights
9
0 -
14. White filaments emitted
graphics-could be utilized, also, in the construction of arrays of shapes for a
9
0
15. Oval
6
19
recognition test. Thus for any specified shape, the computer (together with suita-
+
16. Flat
6
8
ble graphical output equipment) could automatically generate alternative pic-
17. Elliptical
5
9
18. Dumbbell shaped
tures of the same object as viewed from any desired angle (e.g., Noll, 1965;
5
0
19. Football shaped
4
1
Zajac, 1964) ; and could even generate other test shapes intermediate between
20. White
4
0
that shape and some other specified shape. (In fact, as on-line graphical facilities
21. Saucer shaped
3
12
+
22. Egg shaped
become more widely available, even a relatively unartistic witness, seated in front
3
5
23. Diamond shaped
3
0
of a suilable display device, should be able to reconstruct his own object by tech-
24. Silvery.
3
0
niques of these general sorts.)
25. Saturn shaped
2
7
26. Top shaped
2
For the present, however, perhaps the most promising use of the computer in
5
27. Conical
2
3
this connection would be in finding an optimum arrangement of the alternative
28. Washtub shaped
2
0
test shapes in the recognition array. This is a matter of real concern owing to
29. Two washbowls rim-to-rim
2
0
30. Two plates rim-to-rim
the large number of shapes that should be included. (Even the 63 exhibited in
2
0
31. Long tail
2
0
the above figure fall far short of covering all the varieties that have been sketched
32. Emitting flame
2
0
or described.) If the alternatives could somehow be arranged SO that similar
33. Hat shaped
1
35
+
+
shapes are close together, then the witness could quickly narrow down to the most
Total
265
251
relevant region of the array in order to make his final, most refined discrimi-
nations.
In order to do this we would first need to obtain some measure of the perceived
The two columns of numbers, then, present the resulting frequencies of occur-
similarity between any two shapes. One could of course obtain a direct, subjective
rence (a) in the 206 actual UFO reports and (b) in the 475 opportunities for
judgment of similarity from experimental subjects. However, it might be more
these same descriptive terms to arise in the experiment with the photographs.
convenient to obtain a derived measure of similarity based upon the frequency
Direct numerical comparisons are somewhat hazardous owing to the different
with which different subjects will sort the two shapes into the same pile, or upon
circumstances in which the two sets of descriptive terms arose. In terms merely
the overlap in their application of the same descriptive terms to the two shapes
of opportunities, the numbers in the second column should be about twice as
in the kind of task described in the preceding section (cf., Rosenberg, Nelson, &
large as those in the first. However, the totals for the two columns are nearly
Vivekananthan, in press).
equal and, so, the real encounters evidently were relatively more productive of
Once we have any such measure of similarity for every pair, we can apply
descriptive terms on the average. Numerically small departures or departures in
powerful new computer-based methods for mapping the objects into a two-
which the second number is somewhere between the size of the first number and
dimensional arrangement in such a way that their similarities are preserved, in SO
twice that size are probably not very significant therefore.
far as possible, in the spatial proximities among them (Kruskal, 1964, Shepard.
The remaining positive and negative discrepancies of appreciable size are indi-
1962; Shepard & Carroll, 1966). Moreover, these same methods could yield a
cated by the plus and minus signs in the right-most column. Some of these are
quantitative metric of similarity that would then enable us to specify just how
probably explainable in terms of the two-dimensional, achromatic, and stationary
similar an object identified by one witness is to the object identified by another
character of the photographs (e.g., #10 & 13), or in terms of differences in vocab-
witness. Indeed, they could even tell us something about the basic dimensions
ulary to be expected between the unselected witnesses and the college-educated
along which UFO phenomena differ or, with the help of recently perfected methods
subjects of the experiment (e.g., #9 & 15). Other discrepancies, however, suggest
for "hierarchical clustering" (Johnson, 1967), they could provide an indication
either that some shapes, such as the so-called "cigar" (#7), were not adequately
of the basically different classes into which these phenomena undoubtedly fall.
represented in the sample of photographs, or that some shapes, such as those
Possibly, some of these classes of unidentified aerial phenomena will turn out
most frequently said to resemble a "hat" (#33), are especially likely to have
to be of purely natural origin. I once even ventured to suggest this for certain
been of fraudulent origin. (Among the objects included in the above figure that
puzzling types of cases myself (Shepard, 1967b)-though, admittedly, attempts
were often said to be hat-like are C3, which we already noted is almost certainly
to develop such explanations in terms of known principles of atmospheric physics,
a 1937 Ford hubcap; E4, which doesn't seem to fit very well with the usual
generally. have run into competent and serious criticism (McDonald, 1968). Still.
descriptions of UFOs; and G2, which, although it too doesn't coincide with at
even if some of the phenomena are of natural origin, a more complete and accurate
least my notion of a "flying saucer," does however correspond rather closely
characterization of their appearance and behavior should be of some interest to
with several other photographs.)
the physical scientist-indeed, all the more SO to the extent that they appear to
conflict with known physical principles.
In any case, it appears that techniques now exist that could provide the basis
for a psychologically oriented, but genuinely scientific investigation into uniden-
tified aerial phenomena, whatever their nature may ultimately prove to be.
234
235
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Shepard, R. N., and Carroll, J. D. Parametric representation of nonlinear
The development of some of the techniques described here and the preliminary
data structures. In P. R. Krishnaiah (Ed.), Multivariate analysis: Proceedings
experimental tests of these techniques on UFO materials were carried out as one
of. an international symposium. New York Academic Press, 1966. Pp. 561-592.
part of a more general project on psychological scaling and data analysis sup-
Vallee, J. Anatomy of a phenomenon. New York Ace Books, 1965 (Paperback).
ported by Grant No. GS-1302 from the National Science Foundation to Harvard
Vallee, J., and Vallee, J. Challenge to science: The UFO enigma. Chicago:
University. The author is indebted to the Foundation for its support and, also, to
Regnery, 1966.
Miss Shelley Meltzer for her extensive assistance in the project.
Von Foerster, H. (Ed.) Cybernetics: Transactions of the eighth conference.
New York: Josiah Macy, Jr., Foundation, 1952.
Weitzel, W. Into the middle of hell. Flying saucers: UFO reports #3.
REFERENCES
New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1967. Pp. 38-49.
Edwards, F. Flying saucers-serious business. New York: Lyle Stuart, 1966,
Zajac, E. E. Programmed pictorial displays. Proceedings of the 1964 symposium
(Also Bantam paperback S3378).
on digital computing. Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1964. Pp. 33-44.
Fuller, J. G. Incident at Exeter. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1966, (Also
(The biography of Dr. Salisbury follows:)
Berkeley Medallion Paperback, TM 757, 375).
Fuller, J. G. The interrupted journey. New York Dial Press, 1967, (Also Dell
Frank Boyer Salisbury.
Paperback 4068).
Born Provo, Utah, August 3, 1926. Married 1949; six children.
Glucksberg, S., Krauss, R. M., & Weisberg, R. Referential communication in
B.S. University of Utah 1951; M.A. Utah 1962; Ph.D. California Institute
nursery school children: Method and some preliminary findings. Journal of Dx.
of Technology 1955.
perimental Child Psychology, 1966, 3, 333-342.
Army Air Force 1945.
Hall, R. H. (ED.) The UFO evidence. National Investigations Committee on
Field is plant physiology.
Aerial Phenomena, 1536 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C., 1964.
Assistant Professor of Botany, Pomona College 1954-5.
Johnson, S. C. Hierarchical clustering schemes. Psychometrika, 1967, 32,
Assistant Professor of Botany, Colorado State 1955-61.
241-254.
Full Professor, Colorado State 1961-66.
Krauss, R. M., & Weinheimer, C. Changes in reference phrases as a function of
Professor and Head, Dept. of Plant Science, Utah State University 1966-.
frequency of usage in social interaction: a preliminary study. Psychonomic
Member AAAS; Society of Plant Physiology Ecological Society Astronauti-
Science, 1964, 1, 113-114.
cal Society.
Krauss, R. M., & Weinheimer, S. Concurrent feedback, confirmation, and the
Interests: Physiology of flowering space biology physiological ecology.
encoding of referents in verbal communication. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 1966, 4, 343-346.
The following reprint from Bio-Science, volume 17, No. 1, 1967,
Kruskal, J. B. Multidimensional scaling by optimizing goodness of fit to a
pages 15-24, was submitted by Dr. Frank B. Salisbury, head, plant
nonmetric hypothesis. Psychometrika, 1964, 29, 1-27.
science department, Utah State University, as summarizing his views
Lorenzen, C. E. Flying saucers: the startling evidence of the invasion from
on UFO's.
outer space. New York: Signet, 1966, (Signet Paperback T3058).
McDonald, J. E. UFOs-atmospheric or extraterrestrial? Talk presented to the
Chicago Chapter of the American Meteorological Society, May 31, 1968. (See, also,
his contribution to this volume.)
Michel, A. The truth about flying saucers. New York S. G. Phillips, 1956. (Also
Pyramid Paperback T-1647)
Michel, A. Flying saucers and the straight-line mystery. New York: Criterion
Books, 1958.
Noll, A. M. Stereographic projections by digital computer. Computers and
Automation, 1965, 14, No. 5.
Olsen, T. M. (Ed.) The reference for outstanding UFO sighting reports.
UFOIRC, Inc., Dept. SM 518, P.O. Box 57, Riderwood, Maryland, 21139, 1966.
Reiff, R., and Scheerer, M. Memory and hypnotic age regression. New York:
International Univ. Press, 1959.
Rosenberg, S., Nelson, C., and Vivekananthan, P. W. A multidimensional ap-
proach to the structure of personality impressions. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 1968 (in press).
Rosenthal, R. Experimenter effects in behavioral research. New York: Mere-
dith Publishing Co., 1966.
Ruppelt, E. J. The report on unidentified flying objects. New York Doubleday,
1956. (Also Ace Books paperback G-537)
Schumach, M. Palette-packing cop. New York Times Magazine, August 24,
1958.
Shepard, R. N. The analysis of proximities: Multidimensional scaling with
an unknown distance function. I. Psychometrika, 1962, 27, 125-140. II. Psycho-
metrika, 1962, 27, 219-246.
Shepard, R. N. Recognition memory for words, sentences and pictures. Journal
of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1967, 6, 156-163. (a)
Shepard, R. N. Tornadoes: Puzzling phenomena and photographs. (Letter to
Editor). Science, 1967, 155, 27-28. (b)
236
237
About all we can do at present is to
that the object was not an extraterres-
between stars they could not be visitors
evaluate the reports, although suf-
trial spaceship, or we must show by
from some other planetary system. My
ficient desire might make more than
some sort of scientific logic that it is
initial contact with the UFO problem
this possible (in the Exeter sighting
impossible for extraterrestrial beings
came because of my doubts in relation
described below, observers could have
to visit us.
to the first assumption (Salisbury,
actually waited, fully equipped with
Obviously, we cannot show in every
1962; 1964; 1966).
THE
high-speed cameras and other devices,
case that a purported UFO was not an
Certainly we have no conclusive or
for the return of the objects). Profes-
extraterrestrial spaceship. The data
even compelling evidence that Mars
sor J. Allen Hynek (1966), the Director
may not be available, and the events
might support an intelligent civiliza-
of the Observatory at Northwestern Uni-
cannot be repeated. Furthermore, in
tion. We do, however, have a number
SCIENTIST
versity, and for the past 18 years con-
several instances, very detailed data do
of observations which seem to be in
sultant to the Air Force in their study
exist in relation to a sighting, and yet
agreement with this assumption. The
of UFO sightings, has often stated that
it cannot be rigorously stated that the
network of lines referred to as the
to make progress we must accept the
UFO was not an extraterrestrial ma-
canals still defies explanation in terms
AND
fact that the UFO's do exist as re-
chine.
of nonintelligent phenomena, although
ports. The Air Force and several pri-
Nevertheless, this approach has been
such an explanation may well be ap-
vate groups have accumulated bulging
followed in an attempt to eliminate this
parent when we obtain more data
files of these reports, containing every-
hypothesis, notably by Professor Don-
about Mars. The satellites of Mars,
THE UFO
thing from detailed interviews to the
ald Menzel, Director of the Harvard
with their almost perfectly circular,
remnants of pancakes submitted by a
Observatory (Menzel and Boyd, 1963)
equatorial orbits and their small size
witness who claimed he had received
and by the United States Air Force.
have certain of the characteristics of
them from a space man! These reports
Menzel is aware of the logical limita-
artificial satellites. Brilliant flares of
and the many which will be obtained
tions, but he takes a statistical ap-
light occasionally seen on the surface
in the future (using hopefully better
proach. He reasons that since many
of Mars are too short in duration and
means of information gathering) are
sightings can be positively eliminated
too bluish-white in spectral quality to
Frank B. Salisbury
Utah State University
the data with which we must work,
as extraterrestrial spaceships, those
be similar to our volcanoes, yet they
and the only data so far available.
which cannot could be if only more
are too long in duration to be readily
What can we do with them?
data were available. This is an excel-
explainable as meteorite impacts. An
One obvious approach is to propose
lent example of the inductive form of
occasional associated white cloud
as many possible interpretations as can
reasoning which has been so produc-
would seem to eliminate them as re-
be devised and then to evaluate the
tive in science. Can we confidently
flections. It is even possible, if one is
A phenomenon is abroad in the land.
population has been involved in "good"
to take. UFO sightings are events
data in terms of these hypotheses. The
apply it in relation to the UFO phe-
willing to stretch the imagination a bit,
Since shortly after the beginning of re-
sightings), therefore the phenomenon
which usually cannot be repeated. The
process will be a circular one, in which
nomena? To do so, the cases for which
to find evidences for intelligence in the
corded history, but particularly during
is of obvious sociological importance.
astronomer may also witness such
hypotheses are formulated on the basis
ample data exist and which prove not
Mariner photographs of Mars. These
the past two decades, many people
It could influence the relationships be-
events, e.g., the flares on Mars (Salis-
of the data, and the data are then re-
to be spaceships must be representative
ideas have recently been discussed in
have reported visual observations of
tween nations or programs of space
bury, 1962; Ley Willy and Wernher-
examined in terms of the hypotheses.
of the class as a whole. To many of us
considerably more detail elsewhere
phenomena which they interpret as ob-
exploration. It might even, given the
Von Braun, 1960), but at least he is a
In the following paragraphs, five hy-
this seems unlikely, since other cases
(Salisbury, 1966).
jects so intricate in their structure and
proper circumstances, develop into a
trained observer, and none of his col-
potheses are discussed and then a few
fortified with considerable data cannot
There was an interesting correlation
proficient in their maneuvers that they
panic of severe proportions. There is
leagues are likely to doubt his word.
representative sightings are considered.
be eliminated as extraterrestrial ma-
from 1948 to 1957 in the number of
far surpass the current human tech-
ample justification from the sociologi-
In the case of the UFO's, although
The subject has been reviewed by
chines, and in many ways they appear
UFO sightings per unit time and the
nology. The apparent objects are usu-
cal standpoint for a detailed study of
many observers may be highly trained
several authors in book form, often
to have little in common with the cases
closeness to the planet Mars (Fig. 1).
ally in the sky, but in a few cases they
the UFO phenomenon.
in certain aspects of contemporary
competently, but virtually always with
which can. On purely formal grounds,
This was shown by Vallée and Vallée
are on the ground or landing or taking
My interest developed from the field
modern life, few, if any, could claim
some degree of prejudice (for: Hall,
then, we cannot be absolutely con-
(1962; 1966) to be expected on sta-
off from the ground. Although they
of exobiology. If the UFO's are extra-
much competence as carefully schooled
1964; Keyhoe, 1960; Lorenzen, 1962,
vinced by Menzel's approach.
tistical grounds less than one time in a
may not be flying and they may not be
terrestrial spaceships guided by intelli-
UFO observers! Frequently, they are
1966; Michel, 1958; Vallée, 1965; Val-
It is also logically unreasonable to
thousand. Both Venus and Jupiter are
objects, they are called unidentified fly-
gent beings (as many of their witnesses
not trained to differentiate between
lée and Vallée, 1966 against: Menzel
say with absolute certainty that it is
far more prominent in the skies than
ing objects: UFO's for short.
insist), then they are of the most press-
observation and interpretation, and
and Boyd, 1963).
impossible for extraterrestrial beings to
Mars (both have often been misin-
What is the significance of these
ing interest to the exobiologist. Cur-
often there is a strong tendency for
visit us. Although we know a great
terpreted as UFO's), and yet no such
strange, typically aerial phenomena?
rent speculation about life on Mars
all but close friends to doubt their
I. Extraterrestrial Spaceships
deal about the universe, we do not yet
correlation exists with their apparent
There are many extremely important
(Jackson and Moore, 1965; Salisbury,
word. Here, then, is a phenomenon of
or Other Machines
know enough to make such an all-
brightness in the skies and the number
implications in the area of psychology.
1962, 1966) would be naive indeed if
nature which could, and should, be of
Although earlier observers usually
inclusive negative statement. Never-
of UFO sightings.
Perhaps the most obvious is the pos-
such were the case. Although they
sibility that the UFO's may be purely
extreme interest to the scientist. But it
interpreted the UFO's in terms of
theless, many of the arguments are
Assuming that there is no intelli-
would have virtually no significance to
is a difficult one for even him to study.
miraculous religious events, most UFO
highly compelling, and two are espe-
gence on Mars and that the UFO's
psychological phenomena such as hal-
exobiology if they are not extraterres-
observers during the past 19 years have
cially worthy of our attention.
would have to cross interstellar space,
lucinations. Of much greater impor-
How do we study events which cannot
trial, the possibility that they might be
suggested that the objects which they
The first argument is that the UFO's
can we really state with confidence that
tance, however, could be the psycho-
be repeated and which are recorded
seems great enough to merit at least a
observed were extraterrestrial space-
contravene the laws of nature, or more
this is an impossibility? Do we know
logical questions of interpretation.
only through the minds of observers
preliminary investigation.
ships.
properly, that they are contrary to our
so much? Of course we do not. We
These are valid regardless of what
who can scarcely resist the temptation
experience. It is first assumed that they
are even searching for possible solu-
elicits the response in the witness a
We might well consider the UFO's
Can we eliminate the spaceship hy-
to enlarge their stories and to inter-
real spaceship from Mars or a spot-
from the standpoint of the philosophy
pothesis in any rigorous scientific man-
could not originate within our solar
tions to the problem of interstellar
mingle the facts with their own inter-
light shining on a gossamer cloud.
of scientific method. Even if the sci-
ner? Logically one might think of two
system because only the earth harbors
travel.
The number of witnesses to these
entific community at large were sin-
pretations and psychological responses?
approaches: either we must show in
intelligent life, and then it is reasoned
Perhaps the most compelling "im-
phenomena has increased tremen-
cerely interested in the study of the
An artist's conception of the Boiani, New
each and every instance ever reported
that because of the extreme distances
possibility" argument is the reported
Guines, June 26-27, 1959, sighting. Object is
dously in recent years (probably a siz-
phenomena, it would encounter many
drawn from sketches made by the witnesses at
the time. Note the other two objects hovering
able fraction of 1% of the world's
difficulties in knowing what approach
at a greater distance. Supplied by the Aerial
Phenomena Research Organization (See above).
238
239
see how Newton's laws could be so
the bow and arrow. They have had no
My children woke me at 6:00 a.m.
tail which is observed and with the
terials. In no case, of course, are these
120
03
flagrantly violated, but others (Loren-
contact at all with modern civilization.
in Tübingen, Germany, saying that
nature and reliability of the witnesses.
things by themselves conclusive, since
10
zen, 1962; Michel, 1958; Vallée and
What happens when a jet plane flies
they were watching a hovering UFO
Sometimes other evidence is also avail-
100
virtually any sort of evidence could be
to
Vallée, 1966) have come up with
overhead and one of them observes it?
over the city. I grabbed my binoculars
able.
fraudulently produced. We remain de-
eo
various suggestions. Perhaps inertia is
When he tells of the huge, shiny bird
and watched the brilliant light move
If only a moving light is seen at a
pendent upon the reliability of the wit-
the gravitational interaction between
40
that didn't flap its wings, had no feet,
rather rapidly both toward us and
great distance, one can hardly be
nesses, but sometimes these secondary
so
an object and all other objects in the
made an ear-splitting roar, and even
away from us and even from side to
tempted to run out and meet our big
evidences can contribute to an evalua-
40
25
universe. If this gravitational attrac-
had smoke coming out of its tail, surely
side. After about a minute, I decided
brothers from Mars. Even a disc or a
tion of the sighting.
30
tion could some way be severed (some
his fellows assume that he is crazy.
to make my observations more precise,
20
globe with fairly sharp-appearing edges
Many radar sightings of UFO's are
10
mysterious antigravity shield surround-
Or if the phenomenon becomes so
backed up against a doorway, and
might well be an optical effect of some
on file. In a few cases, a UFO has
1947
ing the spacecraft, for example!), then
1949
1949
1832
1956
1957
common that it must be accepted as
aligned the object with a spot on the
1933
1934
1933
sort. A report is more impressive when
been simultaneously observed by radar
right-angle turns at high speeds might
real, they could hardly be expected to
window frame. Upon doing this, it
the object is seen at close hand, espe-
and by witnesses, both on the ground
Fig. 1. UFO sightings and the oppositions
be feasible. Would the surrounding
deduce from it the conditions of our
stopped moving, and we were soon
cially landed on the ground. A very
and in an aircraft. Menzel and Boyd
of Mars. The dotted line represents "re-
antigravity field also nullify the sound
modern civilization, let alone our mo-
able to identify it as Venus, then the
distinct shape with highly distinct
(1963) have clearly pointed out, how-
liable" sightings in the files of the Aerial
barrier problem? Some think so. I
tives. "Why," they might ask, "don't
morning star. Its laterial motions were
Phenomena Research Organization, 3190
edges, and a solid, often metallic-ap-
ever, that radar evidence is far from
E. Kleindale Road, Tucson, Arizona. They
haven't the faintest idea, but we could
the intelligent beings who guide this
apparently illusions due to our own
pearing surface is described. Windows
positive proof. There are many nat-
were supplied by C. E. Lorenzen, The solid
be wrong about what is impossible.
mighty bird land and trade bone nose-
movements, and its rapid approach and
or other markings may be apparent.
ural atmospheric and other phenomena
line represents sightings assembled from
Second, one might remember that not
pieces with us?" Actually, many of the
retreat were due to a thin, rapidly mov-
Lights are frequently an associated
as well as imperfections in radar
published reports by M. G. Quincy and
all UFO's perform "impossible" feats.
Aborigines, even those who have come
ing layer of mists which caused it to
part of the observation, and sometimes
presented by Jacques and Janine Vallée
instruments which can produce so-
(1962). Quincy showed no records for
The topic is sufficiently interesting if
in contact with civilized men, still in-
change intensity.
(both day and night) the brilliance
called radar angels. We must consider
1964, and these were obtained from
only one UFO proves to be a spaceship
terpret the airplane in a religious con-
Within the last year I have positively
was said to be so high that the ob-
the argument from both sides, however.
Michel (1958). Obviously there is no cor-
from Mars!
text, as witness the establishment of
identified UFO's over Fort Collins,
server found it difficult to continue
Just because radar angels are not nec-
relation between UFO sightings and the
Another argument against the space-
the cargo cults among these peoples
Colorado (pointed out to me usually
looking at the UFO. Occasionally, one
essarily UFO's, we are still not en-
distance to Mars in 1947 and 1957, but the
ship idea concerns the lack of formal
Vallées calculated correlation co-efficients
(Worsley, 1959).
by phone) as a weather kite, the planet
part of the UFO is described as being
titled to conclude that any unusual blip
for the other years and found that the ob-
contact with the UFO occupants. Since
We cannot, then, eliminate the
Venus, and the stars Vega, Capella,
in motion relative to other parts, The
on the screen is a radar angel* We
served correlation would be expected to
visiting spaceships ought to be piloted
spaceship hypothesis, although some
Betelguese, and Sirius. Some of the
rim of a disc may be rotating around
should certainly not conclude that
occur due to chance alone less than one
by some sort of intelligent beings,
of the arguments against it are quite
stars close to the horizon flashed red,
the disc.) "Occupants," both human-
UFO's cannot be extraterrestrial space-
time in a thousand trials (they transposed
wouldn't it be reasonable to expect that
all sightings two months to account for the
impressive. We should, in deference to
green, and white, and only a star
oid and otherwise, have been reported
ships, because if they were, our radar
lag apparent in 1952, 1954, and 1956). It
they would desire contact with other
the scientific method, examine with a
chart and much discussion could con-
in conjunction with UFO's, landed and
net would pick them up. The fact of
is interesting to note that the two sighting
intelligent beings, namely us? Or why
completely open mind any evidence
vince the viewer that he was not ob-
flying. The quality of a sighting is
the matter is, our radar net does pick
curves agree so closely, although they
hasn't a flying saucer landed on the
which might be marshalled in favor of
serving a spaceship.
always enhanced when the time of ob-
up many returns which are not identi-
obviously include many different data. A
United Nations Building to establish
the hypothesis. Let us consider the
In many other cases, data are not
servation is long enough for the ob-
third curve, prepared by E. Buelta in Bar-
fiable in terms of known aircraft (e.g.,
formal diplomatic relations?
celona, Spain, also agrees closely.
four alternatives to it.
quite complete enough to be positive,
server to consciously consider what he
apparent objects moving several thou-
This argument assumes that we can
but one can state with a high degree
is observing while he is observing it.
sand miles per hour through the at-
physical activity of certain UFO's
understand the motives of an extra-
II. Conventional Phenomena
of certainty that a given UFO was
A light that moves by in less than 5
mosphere). Many of these are un-
(Menzel and Boyd, 1963). In several
terrestrial being. Of course we cannot.
Misinterpreted
quite likely such and such a conven-
seconds can hardly produce a very im-
doubtedly radar angels in the true
"good" sightings (those which, for rea-
How could we know the minds of such
Given certain special circumstances,
tional object or phenomenon.
pressive account. In some cases UFO's
sense of the word, but we can't say
sons discussed below, do not readily
beings? To inductively extrapolate
nearly anyone can be confused and
In the most interesting cases, the
have been observed for 1 or 2 hours or
that some are not spaceships from
fit any of the remaining four hypothe-
from our own current sociological ap-
amazed by the appearance of some
sighting seems absolutely to defy expla-
even longer.
Mars!
ses), UFO's have appeared to acceler-
proaches to those of other intelligent
conventional object which under other
nation in these terms.
We are primarily concerned with
A secondary form of supporting evi-
ate at tremendous rates or even make
entities would be to commit the logical
circumstances might cause no bewil-
One important conclusion becomes
witnesses. Their background and train-
dence is that of pattern. While Sagan
right-angle turns while traveling at
sin of extrapolation in a most flagrant
derment whatsoever. What psycho-
apparent: There is a very high noise
ing are especially important, and it is
(1963) fails to see any pattern be-
speeds of several hundred or thousand
manner. It is easy to imagine several
logical factors lead to such misinter-
level in UFO observations. This is ex-
valuable when a single sighting is de-
cause of the noise, other investigators
miles per hour. Although they move in
reasons why the extraterrestrials might
pretations? In various instances, re-
actly what one might expect. People
scribed by more than one witness. The
feel that many patterns can be estab-
the atmosphere at velocities which
not want to contact us. Did they plant
ported UFO's have clearly been dem-
do become excited by news stories and
likelihood of hoax is decreased if the
lished from the reports. Figure I
surely exceed that of sound, no sonic
us here as a colony many thousands
onstrated to be balloons, kites, birds,
thereby predisposed to such experi-
witnesses were unknown to each other
(UFO's and Mars oppositions) is an
booms are heard (they are often essen-
of years ago and are carefully observ-
conventional aircraft, artificial satel-
ences themselves. We cannot, however,
before the sighting.
example of such a pattern. Various
tially silent) nor do they appear to
ing our evolutionary development? Do
lites, planets and stars, meteors, clouds,
from this high noise level write off
In some cases an account may be
other patterns have also appeared.
burn up with frictional heat. The skep-
they envy us for our natural resources
natural electrical effects such as ball
the entire phenomenon as belonging
supported by various forms of supple-
Michel studied the sightings in France
tic says: "Granted that we have a lot
and want to conquer us, although pres-
lightning (Klass 1966), and optical
to this category of conventional ob-
mentary evidence. There are many
in 1954 and found that occasionally
left to learn about our universe, we
ent logistic problems make such an ef-
effects such as reflections, mirages, sun-
jects misinterpreted. Sagan (1963) at-
cases in which photographs have been
(Fig. 2) they appeared to fall upon
surely don't expect the fundamental
fort impossible? Are they waiting for
dogs, and defractions caused by inver-
tempted to do this by pointing out the
taken while a UFO was witnessed by
great circle arcs of the earth's surface
laws to be rejected. That we may re-
us to straighten out our wars and race
sion layers in the atmosphere (see
great diversity which occurs within the
several apparently competent observ-
(Michel, 1958). It is extremely dif-
fine them as Einstein did, it is true, but
problems? Are they simply uninter-
Menzel and Boyd, 1963, and Air Force
sightings. This might well be only the
ers. Holes have been left in the ground
ficult (Menzel, 1964; Vallée, 1964) to
inertia is inertia, and a right-angle turn
ested in us as contemporaries, prefer-
files). Let us consider the level of
noise. Even if spaceships are visiting
where a UFO had supposedly landed,
evaluate the significance of such a pat-
at several thousand miles per hour is
ring to observe us as specimens? Ento-
certainty in classifying a given sighting
us, many people are still seeing con-
or vegetation has been damaged or on
tern. In many cases. the lines could
a simple physical impossibility."
mologists study the honeybees very
here.
ventional objects and interpreting them
fire. Occasionally (rarely), radioac-
be due purely to chance. In the ex-
This may be the most compelling
carefully but make no diplomatic con-
Often, the sighting may be placed
as spaceships.
tivity has been detected. In one case
ample illustrated, however, with six
argument against the spaceship hy-
tact with the queen!
here with absolute certainty. A balloon
The sightings which do not fit well
a fence was magnetized where a UFO
points upon a single line, one can't
pothesis, but there are two counter-
reported as a UFO was never out of
Imgaine the Aborigines of Central
into the conventional-objects-misinter-
had passed over it. Many strange
sight of its launchers. A perplexing
help but be somewhat impressed.
arguments. First, one can simply re-
Australia, who are still in the stone
preted category have certain character-
light in the sky takes form as an air-
samples have been left, such as liquid
If all of these criteria are met for a
ject the above statement. I do not
age and who have not even developed
istics concerned primarily with the de-
plane as its gets closer.
residues, "angel's hair," and other ma-
given UFO report, then it is highly
240
241
tion, but it is a difficult one to apply
blade directly through the neck of an
SWITZ
sages to the souls who presently claim
to situations in which many witnesses
cities observed this strange pheno-
would be difficult to imagine a sighting
assistant in a trance. A block of wood
contact!
menon for a long interval of time on
which fits the above criteria better than
describe with reasonable uniformity a
below the neck was sawed in half
single UFO. In such cases, the psy-
the dates given.
Allestic
this one. It is also difficult to imagine
amidst much noise and flying sawdust.
V. Secret Weapons
VESEL
SELLER
A great attempt was made to con-
that the Fatima "sun" was a secret
TULLE
Bronchis
chological explanation would have to
LONGEAC,
Yet this was admittedly a hoax. Would
It is possible that secret devices
ITALY
fall back on areas such as extra-
sider the scientific accounts of the 19th
weapon being developed by Russia or
it be possible to some way cause an
being tested by earthly governments
sensory perception, which are really
century in terms of the natural uni-
the United States!
illusion in the sky which could com-
are misinterpreted as extraterrestrial
LENEDUACO
not much more respectable in modern
verse. They were referred to as inter-
pletely fool hundreds of witnesses? I
machines. That this explantion might
Some Representative Sightings
science than spaceships from Mars. In
esting cases of ball lightning or bolide
RATONNE
cannot absolutely say that it would not.
account for the phenomenon as a
Since the study of the UFO's must
cases in which radar observes the ob-
meteors. Nevertheless, the descrip-
SPAIN
See
On the other hand, in many cases,pro-
whole is, however, quite unreasonable.
tions are of discs and wheels and the
be based on the reports, let us consider
ject at the same time that it is ob-
ducing such an illusion would appear
To begin with, the performances of the
served visually and/or OF it is photographed,
like, and the behavior follows very
a few sightings exemplifying various
Fig. 2. Eight sightings in France for Sep-
to be almost as great a feat as building
UFO's makes our present rockets ap-
points.
tember 24, 1964 (Michel, 1958) as re-
we would have to postulate that one
closely that of the modern UFO. These
a flying saucer itself.
pear puny indeed. Could any modern
1. The Arnold Sighting, Mt. Rainier,
ported in France-Soir, Paris-Presse, and
mind can project an object into the
"meteors" would move slowly, appear
LaCroix (Sept. 26 and 28). A ninth sight-
One aspect of the UFO story does
government suppress such a capability
Washington, June 24, 1947. Although
ing at Lantefortain-les-Baroches in north-
heavens in such a way that instruments
to hover, change directions, accelerate
seem to be deeply involved in hoax.
for nearly 20 years (since 1947)?
Vallée (1965) calls our attention to a
such as radar and the camera detect it.
at great speeds, have an apparent di-
ern France is not shown on the map.
This is the so-called contactee cult.
Most convincing is the fact that the
fascinating wave of sightings in Scan-
ameter two or three times that of the
Sightings at LePuy and Langeac do not
This would be as exciting as spaceships!
Many people now located over much
UFO phenomenon goes way back into
occur on the line, but the other six fall so
full moon, etc. In one instance, called
dinavia during the summer of 1946, it
Certainly we do not know all there
close to the great circle are indicated that
of the world claim to have had direct
history. UFO enthusiasts, for example,
did not occur to anyone at that time
no deviation can be detected on a Michelin
is to know about the operation of the
ball lightning, an object slowly
contact with the flying-saucer people.
often cite the first two chapters of the
to consider these as extraterrestrial
emerged from the ocean, moved
map with a scale of 1:1,000,000. Circum-
human mind, so this hypothesis cannot
(Adamski and Leslie, 1958; UFO In-
Book of Ezekiel in the Old Testament
against the wind, hovered close to the
spaceships, but only as secret rockets
stances of the six sightings on the line
be completely eliminated. And even if
ternational).
as an excellent example of a flying
being developed by Russia or the
were very briefly as follows: Vichy, after-
ship from which it was observed, and
the UFO's are spaceships, psychologi-
Perhaps the contactee is informed
saucer sighting, (Menzel and Boyd,
noon: Football players practicing in a
then rushed away in the sky and dis-
United States. The current sightings
stadium and spectators saw an elliptical,
cal factors play an important part in
by mental telepathy that he should re-
1963, indicate that it was probably a
date back to that of Kenneth Arnold.
appeared in the southeast (for details,
cigar-shaped object cross the sky swiftly
the phenomenon. Nevertheless, this
port promptly to a certain lonely spot
sundog, but this is a far-fetched ex-
see Vallées book, 1965).
Other better sightings exist for the same
and silently. Gelles, early night: The wit-
hypothesis is not really satisfying.
in the desert. Upon obeying, he is met
planation for the details reported by
period, and even for several days be-
nesses saw a luminous, cigar-shaped object
Probably the most detailed study of the
by a flying saucer whose occupants are,
Ezekiel
Sightings during the early part of
fore (as early as April), but Arnold
cross the sky at fairly high speed and with-
UFO's by a psychologist was carried
this century were relatively few. The
as a rule, beautifully humanoid and
Vallée (1965) documents the sight-
out noise. Ussel, about 11 p.m.: A lumi-
so-called Miracle of Fatima (Vallée,
turned his story over to the newspapers,
nous red object rose above the horizon and
out by Jung (1959). He was able to
who frequently take him into their
ings previous to 1947. He states that
the term "flying saucer" was coined,
dived, at high speed, toward M. Cisterne,
document a great many extremely fas-
1965; Walsh, 1947), which took place
confidence by allowing him to photo-
he has on file more than 300 UFO
and the world's attention was focused
who was driving his tractor back to the
cinating psychological implications of
on October 13, 1917, in a field at Fa-
graph themselves and their craft, invit-
sightings prior to the 20th century, al-
on the phenomenon.
barn. The object approached so closely
the UFO. In his final conclusion, how-
tima, a small village some 62 miles
ing him in for a look at the control
though he apologizes because he has
north of Lisbon, Portugal, is a fascinat-
Arnold saw a formation of silvery
that he jumped from the tractor and lay
terrified in the field. The object hovered a
ever, he could only state that psycho-
panels, and perhaps taking him for a
never had the time to make a thorough
ing tale, to say the least. Today it
discs flying from one peak or ridge to
few yards above the road, and in front of
logical explanations were not sufficient
quick spin, sometimes to Mars or
search. He considers his cases to be
another around Mount Rainier in the
the tractor, remaining motionless for sev-
for the phenomenon as a whole.
only a small sample of those which
would be considered a contactee story,
Venus but best of all to the mys-
state of Washington. By timing the
eral minutes in complete silence. Surround-
might be available. They were care-
since three children were supposedly
IV. Hoaxes or Lies
terious planet on the other side of the
contacted at monthly intervals (always
elapsed period from one landmark to
ings were illuminated with a reddish light.
The UFO then flew over the tractor and
An obvious and straightforward ex-
sun, unobservable from mother earth.
fully chosen for their high quality,
another, he was able to estimate their
on the 13th of the month), beginning
disappeared over the horizon in a few sec-
planation of the UFO's is that the wit-
Everything about these stories seems
roughly conforming to the criteria of
nesses are lying or that the object is a
to cry hoax. The proof is typically a
good sightings described above. Some
in May, by a beautiful, "transparent"
speed at not less than 1,200 miles per
onds. Two other people also saw the ob-
hour. Menzel and Boyd (1963) "ex-
ject, and leaves at the top of an ash tree,
woman dressed in white, who arrived
near where the object reportedly had
hoax. Yet the Air Force, always
series of photographs (which could
60 of these 300 accounts occurred
in a globe of light. Following the first
plain" Arnold's sighting as a mirage
hovered, were dried and curled. Tulle, 11
acutely aware of this possibility, ex-
easily be fraudulent) and copious
previous to 1800, and the remainder
visit, other witnesses besides the chil-
brought about by inversion layers in
p.m.: M. Besse, with the aid of high-
plained only a very small percentage
quantities of pseudoscience. Someone
were recorded during the 19th century.
dren observed strange events (a buz-
the atmosphere which made the peaks
powered binoculars, watched a luminous
of the cases which they investigated in
who had really contacted visitors from
The great majority of these more re-
appear to be separated from the moun-
zing noise, etc.), but only the children
object move rapidly in the sky, changing
this way. Often it is very difficult to
another world should surely be able to
cent accounts were recorded in the sci-
saw the "vision." At the time of the
tains below them. Presumably, their
color from reddish to white and then to
green. Lencouacq, nightfall: A single wit-
imagine that a hoax is involved. The
do better than that. Why should visi-
entific literature, particularly that of
miracle itself, some 70,000 people were
apparent motion would be due to the
ness watched a luminous object arrive at
witnesses give all of the outward signs
tors from another world bother with
astronomy (often in the annals of the
motion of Arnold's airplane. A second
gathered in the field by Fatima to wait
high speed in silence, hover above a
of being extremely sincere: often they
such obscure representatives of the
various astronomical observatories). It
explanation proposed by these authors
meadow, and then leave again at high
is important to emphasize that these
for the promised sign. It had been
is that Arnold saw the lens-shaped
speed. Bayonne, afternoon: Many people
are emotionally upset by their recent
human race, anyway? Their message
raining when suddenly the "sun" ap-
watched three elliptical objects, metallic in
experience. Frequently, their back-
is always that man must cease his wars
are accounts which are not readily ex-
clouds which sometimes occur in the
peared through the dense cloud cover.
appearance, hover in the sky, and then
ground and general competence seem
plainable as natural phenomena.
area. They present pictures of such
or be destroyed, but why should such
Classic, for example, are the observa-
It was a strange sun, however, looking
move away very rapidly.
to argue strongly against the idea of
clouds (which look exactly like lens-
an important message be given to
like a flattened disc with a very definite
hoax. Furthermore, in sightings in
tions in Nuremberg (April 14, 1561)
shaped clouds and not at all like the
likely that we are not dealing with a
someone who is bound to be considered
which hundreds and even thousands of
and in Basale (August 7, 1566) which
contour, not appearing as a dazzling
objects described by Arnold). They
conventional object misinterpreted. The
a liar when he delivers it?
object, but rather having a clear,
detail usually precludes this. In such a
witnesses are involved (and a few such
have been analyzed in some detail by
further cast aspersions upon Arnold's
It is interesting to consider the pos-
changing brightness which one could
sightings are on record), one must re-
Jung (1959). Both of these sightings
reliability as a witness by describing in
case, the UFO could be an extraterres-
sibility that the contactees are genu-
compare to a pearl. The disc began
trial spaceship or it could fit into one
ject the idea that all the witnesses were
involved large inclined tubes in the sky
some detail his subsequent actions in
turning, rotating with increasing speed
lying. If a hoax were involved, it would
ine. When considering the UFO phe-
from which spheres originated, an
attempts to get publicity, etc.
of the categories discussed below.
as the crowd began to cry with anguish.
have to be the object itself.
nomenon, all sorts of wild alternatives
event occurring sometimes in more re-
It then began falling toward the earth
Arnold is supported in his story,
III. Psychological Phenomena
Before completely eliminating this
come to mind. If the extraterrestrials
cent times (Vallée, 1965, cites 13 ex-
however, by the fact that it fits per-
"reddish and bloody, threatening to
Can the UFO's be pure figments of
explanation, we must remember that a
wanted to be ignored by the scientific
fectly into the pattern of sightings dur-
amples between 1959 and 1964).
the mind hallucinations, dreams,
crush everybody under its fiery wake."
hoax can be amazingly effective. I saw
community on earth, they could hardly
ing that period. Various authors (Hall,
and the like? Probably there are cases
Spheres and discs appeared to fight
After an interval of dancing before
the great Blackstone on a stage appar-
1964; Lorenzen, 1962) have summa-
JER which this is the proper explana-
choose a better and more effective way
each other in aerial dances. The in-
ently pass a rapidly moving bandsaw
the crowd, it retreated back through
rized these events, and among them a
than the delivering of profound mes-
habitants of these two relatively large
the clouds and disappeared forever. It
recurring theme is that of formations
242
243
of silvery discs. Such sightings are rare,
or essentially absent, from the reports
short duration of the sighting, how-
of more recent years.
ever, makes one question the absolute
Saldanha landed several weeks later.
ing an automobile wreck. There was a
It is interesting to wonder about how
accuracy of the account. Did some
I have received several reports on the
hemispherical object standing on four
many apparitions of this type were ob-
points develop a bit with discussion and
sighting, including a personal conversa-
legs and suddenly an ear-splitting roar.
served and not reported. My wife's
remembering? Furthermore, the veloci-
tion with Dr. Alavio Fontes, a medical
Thoroughly frightened, he turned and
uncle, Mr. Earl Page, then a resident
ties of the UFO's calculated at between
doctor in Rio de Janeiro who investi-
ran, collided with the hood of his car,
of Kennewick, Washington, had ob-
A
C
6,000 and 12,000 mph through a dense
gated the case exhaustively. These re-
and then threw himself on the ground,
6
served on July 12, 1947, a formation
atmosphere at 2,000 feet and including
ports fully support the version that
noticing again that the object was rising
of six oreight silvery discs pass by his
10
an instantaneous reversal in direction,
virtually all the sailors witnessed the
in a slanting trajectory toward the south-
30°
small airplane at fantastic speed. Mrs.
are, to say the least, extremely difficult
object.
west. As it rose, it displayed a blue
Page and their son were present and
to fit into our present concepts of the
Obviously, our evaluation of the
flame.
3
saw the objects, which "fluttered as a
universe. Light images could perform
story must hinge upon this aspect. The
Upon investigation of the site, four
group for a second or two, and then
4
these maneuvers, but how could they
photographs, although extremely con-
distinct, rather deep impressions were
stabilized alternating between these
perform some of the other maneuvers
vincing, could be fraudulent. To prove
found in the ground where Zamora
reported by the two pilots?
two modes." The Pages were flying
B
this I spent several days in an attempt
claims to have seen the landing gear.
north over Utah Lake. Mr. Page told
This case is presented as an example
to duplicate them and succeeded fairly
Two smaller round depressions were in
6
his story to a few friends who laughed
of the problems met by a UFO re-
well as indicated in Figure 5. We are
the place where a ladder was placed,
at him, and from then on he mentioned
searcher. To solve a sighting such as
still left with the question of the verac-
leading to a marking on the object
it to no one.
this to everyone's satisfaction would re-
ity of witnesses.
which could have been a door. Bushes
Any one of the sightings of forma-
quire turning the clock back.
4. St. George, Minnesota, October
below where the object had been were
tions of saucer-like objects during the
Fig. 3. The action of the Chesapeake Bay
3. Trindade Island, January 16,
21, 1965. Driving home from a hunt-
burning. Detailed investigations were
discs as reported by Nash and Forten-
summer of 1947 could perhaps be dis-
1958. Figure 4 shows a photograph
ing trip, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Strauch
taken by a Mr. Almiro Barauna, a pro-
Fig. 5. A faked photograph made by the
carried out by the Air Force and by
berry. (a) Discs at first approach. (b)
missed from the mind. A large number
They flip over and reverse order. (c) They
author of two UFO's over Horsetooth Res-
and their son Gary (age 16), and Mr.
several private flying saucer investigat-
of independent sightings, however, pro-
change direction, recede, and are joined
fessional photographer, from the deck
ervoir in northern Colorado. Inserts are
and Mrs. Donald Grew, all of Gibbon,
ing groups.
of the Almirante Saldanha, a Brazilian
enlargements to the point of evident grain
duces a pattern which is quite impres-
by two others (from Menzel and Boyd,
Minnesota, sighted a hovering object
The sighting is a good one in terms
1963).
sive,
Navy ship. Several UFO's had been
as in Figure 4. Note that the object ap-
and got out to observe it. Binoculars
of detail and primary evidence. A
seen in the vicinity of Trindade Island
pears dark against the background, an ef-
2. The Chesapeake Bay Case, July
fect impossible to obtain by the usual
were used, and Mr. Strauch took one
landing with observed humanoid "oc-
14, 1952. This is one of the best docu-
(a Brazilian possession off the coast of
double exposure technique. The picture
photograph on an 804 Instamatic
cupants" is also of interest. It is bad
turn; objects seven and eight were by
Africa) during its reactivation as a
mented sightings on record, involving
could have been taken and developed in
Kodak camera using Ektachrome X
in only one respect; namely, that Za-
far the brightest as they approached
naval base in connection with the In-
the presence of witnesses-although they
extremely high speeds and a sharp
film. The photograph is shown in Fig-
mora was the sole witness (one or two
change of direction (Fig. 3). First
the formation; and for a brief interval
ternational Geophysical Year. In the
would not have seen the objects!
ure 6 along with an artist's conception
leads appeared, but other witnesses
Officer William B. Nash and 2nd Offi-
or two all eight blinked out and then
instance reported here, several sailors
of the sighting. The object moved
could never be located), but his ap-
cer William H. Fortenberry were fly-
came back on again. They sped off,
at opposite ends of the ship spotted the
He shot six frames, of which two failed
toward the witnesses almost directly
parent sincerity was impressive. In-
approaching object simultaneously and
to show the object. He explained that
ing a commercial plane from New
climbing to an altitude above that of
overhead, making a high-pitched whin-
vestigators studied the surrounding area
York to Miami, approaching Newport
began to shout the news to everyone
due to the excitement he was bumped
the airplane, and then one by one but
ing sound and traveling at very high
for tracks of possible perpetrators of
News, Virginia. At 8:12 (just after
else. Soon the approximately 100
during these two and that they showed
at random their lights blinked off and
speed. It disappeared in the southeast
a hoax but could find none, although
dark) a brilliant red glow suddenly
the sighting was finished. In repeating
sailors on board, including various offi-
only the deck of the ship and the ocean.
within seconds.
the ground was soft. The sighting is
appeared in the west. It was soon re-
mentally their observation, the pilots
cers, were watching the object. Mr.
A darkroom was improvised below
Much detail was observed, several
typical of many similar reports, par-
Barauna was preparing to take some
deck, the film was developed, and the
solved as six coin-shaped objects flying
estimated that it had lasted only about
witnesses were present, ample time was
photographs and had his camera ready.
minute object on it was identified by
in line formation. They glowed with
12 to 15 seconds.
available, a photograph was taken, and
the sailors (Lorenzen, 1962).
hence this instance meets the criteria
a brilliant orange-red color on top, were
Menzel and Boyd (1963), after con-
This is an excellent sighting because
estimated to be 100 feet in diameter
nicely.
sidering many possible explanations for
of the number of witnesses involved
and 15 feet thick. They moved rapidly
5. Socorro, New Mexico, April 24,
the sighting, concluded that the pilots
and the excellent quality of the pictures
1964. Patrolman Lonnie Zamora was
toward the plane, at one point breaking
must have seen the illuminated discs
(especially the third one, the one shown
slightly in their perfect formation as
following a speeder when he saw a blue
produced by a red searchlight shining
in the figure). Conventional objects
the second and third objects wavered
flame to the southwest. He recognized
through nearly transparent thin layers
can hardly explain the sighting.
slightly and almost overran the leader.
the area as one which contained a dyna-
of haze. Charles Maney (1965) cor-
Menzel and Boyd (1963) and ap-
They turned in unison on edge and re-
mite shack and where teenagers some-
responded with Menzel for several
parently the United States Air Force
versed position in the formation, the
times tried to accelerate their cars up
months, considering all of the possible
consider the sighting to be a hoax. Of
last object moving up to the front posi-
the steep slopes. He decided to investi-
explanations that might come to mind.
the available hypotheses, only this one
tion with the others following. They
gate. Driving over a mesa (Fig. 7), he
and that of extraterrestrial machines
then abruptly reversed direction, mov-
Apparently Menzel would have readily
caught sight of something which he in-
accepted several explanations if Maney
seem to apply. The hoax explanation
terpreted as an automobile standing
ing off somewhat to the right with the
had not one by one clearly demon-
must also probably fail if the object
on end with two children or small
original leader again in the lead posi-
was really witnessed by 100 sailors.
strated their implausibility. The pilots
adults dressed in white clothing and
tion. The turn was executed almost
Menzel and Boyd tell the story differ-
themselves thoroughly rejected Menzel's
standing by it. He radioed Patrolman
like balls bouncing off a wall with no
ently (their version is based on a re-
searchlight hypothesis, saying that they
Sam Chavez, asking for assistance, and
Fig. 6. Bottom: An artist's conception
wavering or are apparent. Two other
Fig. 4. The third (and best) photograph
port from astronomer friends of Menzel
were familiar with such phenomena,
continued down through a gully where
of the Saint George, Minnesota, sighting of
objects raced out from beneath the
of a UFO taken by Almiro Barauna on
in Rio de Janeiro who did not person-
January 16, 1958, near the island of Trin-
ally investigate the incident), saying
he lost sight of the object. Coming up
October 21, 1965. Detail in the object rep-
and this was simply not what they ob-
resents the impression given by the wit-
plane and took up positions seven and
served. The details described above
dade. The insert is an enlargement of the
that only Barauna and two or three of
across the next mesa, he parked and
nesses. Top: A black and white repro-
eight in the formation. They decreased
are certainly difficult to reconcile with
object to the point of evident grain in the
his close friends claim to have seen the
got out of his car, moving toward the
duction of the photograph taken by Mr.
in brilliance just before making the
print. Supplied by The Aerial Phenomena
a searchlight hypothesis. The extremely
Research Organization.
object. Yet newspaper reporters inter-
gully to see the object. It was immedi-
Strauch. Photo and painting supplied by
the Aerial Phenomena Research Organiza-
viewed the sailors after the Almirante
ately apparent that he was not observ-
tion.
244
245
ticularly in France and Brazil, but oc-
casionally also in the United States.
neuvers. Patrolman David Hunt had
busy to remain for periods of weeks
Klass, Phillip J. 1966. Many UFO's are
Paradoxon. Naturwissenschaft und
6. Boiani, New Guinea, June 26, 27,
heard the radio conversation between
to months, local people could be hired
identified as plasmas. Aviation Week
Medizin, 1 (5): 36-50.
1959. Sightings were similar on both
Bertrand and the station in Exeter and
and trained in the proper techniques.
Space Technol., Oct. 3. p. 54.
Salisbury, F. B. 1966. Possibilities of
evenings. On the evening of the 27th,
drove to the site, witnessing the object
Such a procedure might eventually re-
Ley, Willy, and Wernher Von Braun.
Life on Mars. Proceedings of the
Father W. B. Gill, a teacher and mis-
for a few minutes before it disappeared.
ward us with the kind of tangible data
1960. The Exploration of Mars.
Conference on the Exploration of
sionary of the Anglican Church in New
A B-47 flew over shortly after, provid-
with which science is used to dealing.
The Viking Press, New York. 176
Mars and Venus, Virginia Polytechnic
Guinea, came out of the dining hall
ing an extreme contrast to the object
pp.
Institute, Blacksburg, Va., August
at 6:45 p.m., looked up and saw Venus
which they had previously witnessed.
References
Lorenzen, Carol E. 1962. The Great
1965. VI: 1-16.
and then the large sparkling object.
In Fuller's study of the case, he was
Adamski, George and Leslie Desmond.
Flying Saucer Hoax. The William-
UFO International. Published periodi-
While he watched, some 39 others
able to find some 60 different people
1953. Flying Saucers Have Landed.
Frederick Press, New York. 257 pp.
cally by the Amalgamated Flying
joined him (five were teachers, two were
who had witnessed similar objects over
British Book Centre, New York. 232
Lorenzen, Carol E. 1966. Flying Sau-
Saucer Clubs of America, Inc. Inter-
medical assistants, the rest were natives;
a period of several days or weeks in
pp.
cers. Signet Books, New York. 278
national Headquarters: 2004 N.
28 adult witnesses signed a statement)
the fall of 1965. Muscarello was so
Fuller, John G. 1966. Incident at
pp.
Hoover St., Los Angeles, Calif.
The object and two others that hovered
Fig. 7. The terrain of the Socorro, New
impressed by his sighting that he and
Exeter. Putnam & Sons, New York.
Maney, Charles A. 1965. Donald
Vallée, Jacques. 1964. The Menzel-
at a greater distance are shown in the
Mexico, sighting, April 24, 1964. Zamora
his mother waited on a mountainside
Hall, Richard H. (ed.). 1964. The
Menzel and the Newport News
Michel controversy, some further
figure (see p. 15) as an artist's concep-
first sighted the object (at position X)
nearly every evening for 3 weeks fol-
UFO Evidence. National Investiga-
UFO. Fate Magazine, pp. 64-75
thoughts. Flying Saucer Review, pp.
tion (the witnesses had no cameras but
from position A, interpreting it is an auto-
lowing the event. On one of these
tions Committee on Aerial Phe-
(April).
mobile. He parked at position B. The
4-6 (Sept., Oct.).
made pencil sketches during the obser-
evenings, they again witnessed the ob-
square indicates the dynamite shack.
nomena, Washington, D.C. 184 pp.
Menzel, Donald H. 1964. Global
Vallée, J. 1965. Anatomy of a Phe-
vation). As the UFO hovered nearby,
ject. Other people in the area would
Hynek, J. Allen. 1966. UFO's merit sci-
orthoteny, new pitfalls. Flying Saucer
nomenon. Henry Regnery Co., Chi-
man-shaped forms appeared on the "top
to 4:00 a.m.). Patrolman Eugene Ber-
park by high tension lines (in the
entific study. Science, 154: 329.
Review, pp. 3-4 (Sept., Oct.).
cago, III., 210 pp.
deck" and seemed to be working on
trand of Exeter had checked on a
Exeter sightings, the objects were fre-
Jackson, F., and P. Moore. 1965. Pos-
Menzel, Donald H., and Lyle G. Boyd.
Vallée, Jacques, and Janine Vallée.
something. Occasionally, there was a
parked car and found a woman who
quently associated with power lines)
sibilities of life on Mars. In Current
1963. The World of Flying Saucers.
1962. Mars and the flying saucers.
bright blue, thin beam of light which
told him that a huge and silent air-
and watch for the objects, occasionally
Aspects of Exobiology, G. Mami-
Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden
Flying Saucer Review, pp. 5-11
projected toward the sky. The object
borne object had trailed her from the
being rewarded with the sight of one.
kunian and M. H. Briggs (eds.).
City, N.Y. 302 pp.
(Sept., Oct.).
itself had an orangeish cast, and the
town of Epping 9 miles away. The
This sighting is not only a good one
Pergamon Press, Inc., London, New
Michel, Aimé. 1958. Flying Saucers
Vallée, Jacques, and Janine Vallée.
"men" appeared to be dressed in silver
object had brilliant flashing red lights
because of the detail, the number of
York, Germany. Chapter 5.
and the Straight-Line Mystery. Cri-
1966. Les Phénoménes Insolites de
suits of some kind. The most seen at
and kept within a few feet of her car.
witnesses, and the several occasions in-
Jung, C. G. 1959. Flying Saucers.
terion Books, New York. 285 pp.
L'Espace. La Table Ronde, Paris.
one time were four. When one of the
Developing tremendous speed, it had
volving comfortable intervals of time,
Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., Lon-
Sagan, C. 1963. Unidentified flying
321 pp.
figures appeared to glance over the
disappeared among the stars. The
but it adds one other extremely en-
don. 184 pp.
objects. The Encyclopedia Ameri-
Walsh, Wm. Thomas. 1947. Our Lady
crowd, Gill waved his arm, and the
couraging note. If Muscarello and
patrolman could not believe the story
Keyhoe, Donald E. 1960. Flying
cana.
of Fatima. MacMillan Co., New
figure returned the gesture. Gill and
and had not even taken the woman's
other New Hampshire residents could
Saucers Top Secret. Putnam Pub-
Salisbury, F. B. 1962. Martian biology.
York. 228 pp.
some of the natives then raised both
name.
go out and watch for the objects, OC-
lishing Co., Longmans, Toronto. 283
Science, 136: 17-26.
Worsley, Peter M. 1959. Cargo cults.
arms, and two of the figures on the
When Bertrand checked into the
casionally being able to see them, why
pp.
Salisbury, F. B. 1964. Das Mars-
Scientific American, 200: 117-128.
object did the same. The object came
police station, Norman Muscarello had
couldn't properly equipped scientific
lower but did not land. The sighting
just arrived and told his story. He had
investigators do the same? Except for
lasted until 7:20 when the blue spot-
also seen a large dark object with bril-
the Fatima incident, none of the other
light went out and the object moved
liantly flashing lights hover above a
sightings have had much element of
into a cloud.
field through which he had been walk-
predictability. This may be simply
The witnesses, the time, and the de-
ing on his way home. Patrolman Ber-
because we have not taken the time or
tail make this an exceptionally good
trand accompanied him back to the
trouble to really look for it. Yet, it is
sighting, one of the best on record. The
not uncommon to find cases in which
scene. Although nothing could be seen
only available explanation other than
at first, horses on a nearby farm and
an object seen at one time returned on
the spaceship one would seem to be a
dogs in nearby houses began making
a later occasion (e.g., the New Guinea
complex hoax perpetrated by Gill and
instance).
a great deal of noise, and then Musca-
all of his associates.
rello screamed, "I see it, I see it!"
Serious scientific investigation of the
7. Exeter, New Hampshire, Septem-
Patrolman Bertrand turned and ob-
phenomenon might be possible if it
ber 3, 1965. A remarkable sighting
served the brilliant roundish object
were desired by the scientific commu-
occurred rather recently in New Hamp-
moving toward them like a leaf flutter-
nity. If a project could be set up by
shire and was studied and documented
ing from a tree. Its red lights along
a number of scientists, it might be fea-
by several UFO investigators but par-
the sides were so brilliant that the en-
sible to have everything in readiness
ticularly by Mr. John G. Fuller, a
tire area was bathed in light. It came
for another wave of sightings such as
columnist for the Saturday Review. He
within about 100 feet of the two wit-
that at Exeter or the subsequent one
has assembled his results into book
nesses, hovering with a rocking motion,
in the Michigan swamps. When such
form (Fuller, 1966), and a preliminary
absolutely silent. The lights seemed to
a wave appeared (and the proper kind
account was published in Look Maga-
of publicity might help in detecting it-
be dimming or pulsating from left to
zine (February 22, 1966). The sight-
although it could also contribute to the
right and then from right to left, taking
ings are remarkable not only because
generation of a wave of fraudulent
about 2 seconds for each cycle. The
of their nature but in a very real sense
sightings!), the team of researchers
lights were so brilliant that it was diffi-
because of Mr. Fuller's investigation.
might converge immediately upon the
cult to make out the shape of the object
The basic sightings occurred in the
area and carry out some sort of previ-
itself. It darted, turned rapidly, slowed
early morning hours (about 2:00 a.m.
ously planned program of investigation.
down, and performed other such ma-
If the investigators themselves were too
0
2
199
120
Nanies
SWITZ.
0.5
110
L.Geneva
100
1.0
VICHY
90
Atlantic
Ocean
USSEL
GELLES
80
Lyon
1.5
TULLE
Grenobis
70
LONGEAC
Dordogne
ITALY
LE PUYS
60
Bordeaux
2.0
R
50
LENCOUACO
40
Goranne
R.
Nice
2.5
Nimes
30
BAYONNE
Toulouse
La
Marseille
20
3.0
2
SPAIN
Mediterranean Sea
10
0
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
I
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
246
6
05
4
3
2
2
3
A
5
C
6
10
-30°
20
30
4
5
B
3
6
4
N
special
Information
175
A
IN
W
E
B
a
X
U3
or
5
S
)
247
8
clearing House for
Tederal Scientific
+ Technical Difo.
5285 Pori Royal Rd.
& pringfied 22151 Ua,
3.00 a piece
PB 179541
Julton 2915
Sym posium on
UFO
Jock McDoniel 2101
Oakland univ
Pontiac, Mich.
Clearing House for Federal Scientific
and Technical Information
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, Virginia 22151
MINORITY LEADER
United States
house of Representatibes
$3 a piece
Order No. PB 179541
DATELIN
ASHINGTON
"FLYING SAUCER" CURTAIN?
DRINKING-DRIVER ACCIDENTS.
MAKING HOME A SAFE HAVEN.
Some members of the House Committee on Science and
PEOPLE AND QUOTES
Astronautics have the uneasy feeling that the U.S.
Government is not taking a really serious look into the
ELECTION '68
"We must hope that this
riddle of Unidentified Flying Objects. Along with
campaign, with all its noisy de-
equally concerned scientists, they fear that the
bates about unfinished busi-
mystery of the "flying saucers" may be long hidden
ness will somehow lift the na-
behind a curtain of all-too-official ridicule.
tional spirit, will make our
A symposium was recently held on Capitol Hill by the
committee to permit several outstanding scientists to
people eager to get on with the
business of the next four years
speak out. They urged Congress to undertake a far more
-and not embitter them in a
searching investigation of the UFO's than the single
frenzy of charges." President
Air Force project assigned to this mission. Stanton R.
Johnson.
Friedman, a Westinghouse nuclear physicist stated:
"After considerable study, first hand investigation,
POLITICALLY CONSCIOUS
and review of a great variety of data, I have concluded
there was an awakening
that the evidence is overwhelming that the earth is
of political consciousness among
being visited by intelligently controlled vehicles
our young people early in the
whose origin is extraterrestrial."
'60s, and today's new veteran is
The Congressional committee, impressed by the com-
a part of that renaissance." Gen.
mentary of the scientists, has issued a 250-page
Westmoreland, Army Chief of
verbatim report on the symposium in the hope of lending
Staff.
"an air of respectability" to the sightings of "flying
NO JUSTIFICATION
saucers" and to encourage public interest.
"Poverty, discrimination and
deprivation, as evil as they are,
do not justify anarchy or vio-
lence, looting or burning, mur-
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
A Department of Transportation study discloses that
der or assassination." Sen.
heavy-drinking drivers and pedestrians are responsible
for some 25,000 deaths and 800,000 crashes a year on
Daniel K. Inouye (D-Hawaii).
U.S. highways and roads. The accusing finger points
MAIL CALL
"
mostly to the male driver.
mail is much like water
The report also reveals that over the past 35 years,
and electricity-it is necessary
in every area of the country, alcohol has been found
to our way of life and it is never
to be "the largest single factor leading to fatal
missed until it is not there."
crashes.' Other finds: Most drinking-driver crashes
Postmaster General W. Marvin
occur during late afternoon, evenings and nighttime.
Watson.
Saturday is the worst day of the week.
CIVILIZATION
Among specific recommendations of the study is one
"The better and more pro-
calling for development of a constitutionally acceptable
gressive the legal code, and the
system for screening highway users suspected of drink-
degree of respect the people
ing before they are actually arrested in connection
have, then the greater the civ-
with a highway accident or violation. England has
ilization." Dr. Purnendu Kumar
put such a system into effective operation.
Banerjee, Minister of India in
U.S.
CREDIT ERA
Congress has established a new investigative body,
"If this country, for just a
the National Commission on Product Safety, with the
period of 90 days, eliminated
aim of making every U.S. home a haven of safety. Already
credit, it would make 1929 look
the commission has singled out 263 common household
like an age of optimists." Mor-
products which will undergo scrutiny for their potential
ris Rabinowitch, President, Fi-
in injuring unaware householders.
nancial Counsellors, San Fran-
The commission has taken pains to underscore the fact
cisco.
that its listing of items to be investigated does not
WHERE THE ACTION IS
necessarily indicate that the products are unsafe.
"Business
is where the
However, four common household helpers--washing ma-
real action is-social action and
chines, heaters, stoves and power mowers-are involved
creative action." Anthony M.
in some 250,000 home accidents every year, according
Surano, N.J. Savings and Loan
to Public Health Service figures.
Official.
4 THE AMERICAN LEGION MAGAZINE
NOVEMBER 1968
- D ffice copy
DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE of
OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY this
MEMORANDUM report
Please Duplicate
January 29, 1969
Honorable Gerald Ford
House of Representatives
Room H230
ATTN: Dorothy
Attached, as you requested, is a
copy of the Review of the University
of Colorado Report on Unidentified
Flying Objects by the National Academy
of Sciences.
main S Sa
MERVIN G. GETTY, Colonel, USAF
Deputy Chief, Plans Group
Legislative Liaison
Attachment
I
Review of the
University of Colorado Report on Unidentified Flying Objects
by a
Panel of the National Academy of Sciences
The Panel was appointed in the latter part of October and early
November 1968. The charge to the Panel was "to provide an inde-
pendent assessment of the scope, methodology, and findings of the
(University of Colorado) study as reflected in the (University's)
Report. While the Panel largely restricted its review to this
charge, it was thought both appropriate and necessary that the
Panel become familiar with various scientific points of view as
presented in other publications and reports by technically trained
persons.
It was not the task of the Panel to conduct its own study of UFOs
or to invite advocates, scientifically trained or not, of various
points of view to hearings. The task was to study the University's
Report and to assess: First, its scope; namely, did the Report, in
the opinion of the Panel, cover those topics that a scientific study
of UFO phenomena should have embraced? Second, its methodology;
namely, did the Report, in the opinion of the Panel, reveal an ac-
ceptable scientific methodology and approach to the subject? Third,
its findings; namely, were the conclusions and interpretations war-
ranted by the evidence and analyses as presented in the Report and
were they reasonable?
In the course of its review the Panel consulted papers on the same
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
subject by technically trained persons (for example, William
Markowitz, "The Physics and Metaphysics of Unidentified Flying Ob-
jects," Science, 1957 (1967), pp. 1274-79. James E. McDonald,
"Science, Technology, and UFOs," presented January 26, 1968, at a
General Seminar of the United Aircraft Research Laboratories, East
Hartford, Connecticut. James E. McDonald, "UFOs - An International
Scientific Problem," presented March 12, 1968, at the Canadian Aero-
nautics and Space Institute Astronautics Symposium, Montreal, Canada.
James E. McDonald, "Statement on International Scientific Aspects of
the Problems of Unidentified Flying Objects, sent to the United
Nations on June 7, 1967. Donald H. Menzel, Flying Saucers, Harvard
University Press (Cambridge, 1952). Donald H. Menzel and Lyle G.
Boyd, The World of Flying Saucers, Doubleday (New York, 1963).
Report of Meetings of Scientific Advisory Panel on Unidentified
Flying Objects, January 14-18, 1953. Special Report of the USAF
Scientific Advisory Board ad hoc Committee to Review Project "Blue
Book, March, 1966. Symposium on Unidentified Flying Objects, Hear-
ings before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U. S. House
of Representatives, Ninetieth Congress, Second Session, July 29,
1968).
The Panel began its review immediately after the Report became
available on November 15, 1968, by an initial reading of the Re-
port by each member of the Panel during a two-week period. The
Panel convened on December 2 for a discussion of members' initial
assessments, for consideration of the Panel's charge (scope,
methodology, and findings in the Report), and for delineation of
further steps in its review. The latter included the study of
other documents presenting views and findings of technically
trained persons (e.g., the documents cited above), further exam-
ination of the Report's summary and findings, and further directed
study of specialized chapters of the Report by appropriate members
of the Panel. Extensive discussion, both by correspondence and by
telephone, occurred during this period. The Panel met again on
January 6, 1969, to conclude its deliberations and to prepare its
findings, which are presented below.
I. SCOPE
The study by the University of Colorado commenced in October 1966
and continued for about two years. Case studies of 59 reports of
UFOs are presented in detail, with 68 plates; of these, ten reports
predated the project, but were so well documented that they were
included. A chapter is devoted to UFOs in history, one to UFO
study programs in foreign countries, and one to UFOs reported in
the 20 years preceding the study. Ten chapters are devoted to
perceptual problems, processes of perception and reporting, psycho-
logical aspects of UFO reports, optics, radar, sonic boom, atmos-
pheric electricity and plasma interpretations, balloons, instru-
mentation for UFO searches, and statistical analyses. (Twenty-
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
four appendixes add detailed technical background to the study.
Volume 4 concludes with an index of 27 pages.)
In our opinion the scope of the study was adequate to its purpose:
a scientific study of UFO phenomena.
II. METHODOLOGY
As a rule, field trips were made to investigate UFO reports only
if they were less than a year old. The Report states that nearly
all UFO sightings are of short duration, seldom lasting an hour
and usually for a few minutes. Thus most investigations consisted
of interviews with persons who made reports. Three teams, usually
consisting of two persons each (a physical scientist and a psycho-
logist), were employed in field investigations where telephonic
communication with UFO-sighting individuals gave hope of gaining
added information. The aim was to get a team to the site as quickly
as possible after a reported sighting. (It was found that nearly
all cases could be classified in such categories as pranks, hoaxes,
naive interpretations, and various types of misinterpretations. A
few events, which did not fit these categories, are left unexplained.)
2
Materials and conditions amenable to laboratory approaches were
investigated -- e.g., alleged UFO parts by chemical analysis,
automobile ignition failure by simulation studies, and UFO photo-
graphy by photogrammetric analyses. (Of 35 photographic cases
investigated, nine are said to give evidence of probable fabrica-
tion, seven are classified as natural or man-made phenomena,
twelve provided insufficient data for analysis, and seven were
considered to be possible fabrications; none proved to be "real
objects with high strangeness.
Technically trained personnel were utilized by the University.
The University group included a sub-group on field investigations
of UFO reports; their narration and interpretations of cases are
reasonable and adequate. Leading groups were engaged under con-
tract for specialized work -- e.g., Stanford Research Institute
on radar anomalies and a subsidiary of the Raytheon Corporation
for photogrammetric analyses. Divergent views of those few
scientists who have looked into UFOs were taken into account.
The history of the subject was also surveyed, including the ex-
periences in some other nations. Finally, extensive use was made
of many specialists in various public and private laboratories.
The Report makes clear that with the best means at our disposal
positive correlation of all UFO reports with identifiable, known
phenomena is not possible. No study, past, current or future,
can provide the basis for stating categorically that a familiar
phenomenon will necessarily be linkable to every sighting. The
Report is free of dogmatism on this matter. It is also clear,
as one goes through the descriptions of UFO sightings, whether
in the Report or in other literature, that while some incidents
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
have no positive identification with familiar phenomena, they
also have no positive identification with extraterrestrial visitors
or artifacts.
We think the methodology and approach were well chosen, in ac-
cordance with accepted standards of scientific investigation.
III. FINDINGS
The study concludes (a) that about 90 percent of all UFO reports
prove to be quite plausibly related to ordinary phenomena, (b)
that little if anything has come from the study of UFOs in the
past 21 years that has added to scientific knowledge, and (c)
that further extensive study of UFO sightings is not justified
in the expectation that science will be advanced thereby. At
the same time it is emphasized in the Report that (c) is an
opinion based on evidence now available.
The Report's findings and evaluations - essentially eight in
number, presented in its first section -- are concerned with of-
ficial secrecy on UFOs, UFOs as a possible defense hazard, the
3
future governmental handling of UFO-sighting reports, and five
of them relate to the question of what if any further investiga-
tions of UFOs appear warranted in the light of the study. We
paraphrase and summarize these findings and evaluations below,
appending our comments.
1. On secrecy. Is the subject "shrouded in official secrecy?"
The study found no basis for this contention.
We accept this finding of the study.
2. On defense. (a) Is there evidence that UFO sightings may
represent a defense hazard? No such evidence came to light in
the study. This, however, was not an objective of the study and
was properly construed as a Department of Defense matter. (b)
The Report states: "The history of the past 21 years has re-
peatedly led Air Force officers to the conclusion that none of
the things seen, or thought to have been seen, which pass by the
name of UFO reports, constituted any hazard or threat to national
security."
We concur with the position described in (a). As to (b), we
found no evidence in the Report or other literature to contra-
dict the quoted statement.
3. On future UFO sightings. "The question remains as to what,
if anything, the federal government should do about the UFO re-
ports it receives from the general public?" The Report found no
basis for activity related to such sighting reports "in the ex-
pectation that they are going to contribute to the advance of
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
science," but the Department of Defense should handle these in
its normal surveillance operations without need for such special
units as Project Blue Book.
We concur in this recommendation.
4-8. On further investigations. (4) Should the federal govern-
ment "set up a major new agency, as some have suggested, for the
scientific study of UFOs?" The study found no basis for a recom-
mendation of this kind. (5) Would further extensive study of UFO
sightings contribute to science? "Our general conclusion is that
nothing has come from the study of UFOs in the past 21 years that
has added to scientific knowledge." The Report then notes that
specific research topics may warrant consideration: (6) "there
are important areas of atmospheric optics, including radio wave
propagation, and of atomospheric electricity in which present
knowledge is quite incomplete. These topics came to our atten-
tion in connection with the interpretation of some UFO reports,
but they are also of fundamental scientific interest, and they are
relevant to practical problems related to the improvement of safety
4
of military and civilian flying. Research efforts are being car-
ried out in these areas by the Department of Defense, the Environ-
mental Science Services Administration, the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, and by universities and nonprofit re-
search organizations such as the National Center for Atmospheric
Research, whose work is sponsored by the National Science Founda-
tion.
"
The Report also observes (7) that UFO reports and beliefs are also
of interest to "the social scientist and the communications spec-
ialist. In these areas particularly -- i.e., (6) and (7) -- the
study suggests (8) that "scientists with adequate training and
credentials who do come up with a clearly defined, specific pro-
posal" should be supported, implying that normal competitive pro-
cedures and assessments of proposals should be followed here as is
customary.
We concur with these evaluations and recommendations.
IV. PANEL CONCLUSION
The range of topics in the Report is extensive and its various
chapters, dealing with many aspects of the subject, should prove
of value to scholars in many fields. Its analyses and findings
are pertinent and useful in any future assessment of activity in
this field. We concur in the recommendation suggesting that no
high priority in UFO investigations is warranted by data of the
past two decades.
We are unanimous in the opinion that this has been a very credit-
PHOTOCOPY FROM GERALD FORD I BRARY
able effort to apply objectively the relevant techniques of science
to the solution of the UFO problem. The Report recognizes that
there remain UFO sightings that are not easily explained. The
Report does suggest, however, so many reasonable and possible
directions in which an explanation may eventually be found, that
there seems to be no reason to attribute them to an extraterres-
trial source without evidence that is much more convincing. The
Report also shows how difficult it is to apply scientific methods
to the occasional transient sightings with any chance of success.
While further study of particular aspects of the topic (e.g.,
atmospheric phenomena) may be useful, a study of UFOs in general
is not a promising way to expand scientific understanding of the
phenomena. On the basis of present knowledge the least likely
explanation of UFOs is the hypothesis of extraterrestrial visita-
tions by intelligent beings.
-- Gerald M. Clemence, chairman; H. R. Crane, David M. Dennison,
Wallace O. Fenn, H. Keffer Hartline, E. R. Hilgard, Mark Kac,
Francis W. Reichelderfer, William W. Rubey, C. D. Shane, Oswald G.
Villard, Jr.
5