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[Corrections, Board of] - Coordinated California Corrections: Institutions, July 1971 (6 of 6)
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[Corrections, Board of] - Coordinated California Corrections: Institutions, July 1971 (6 of 6)
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Ronald Reagan Presidential Library
Digital Library Collections
This is a PDF of a folder from our textual collections.
Collection: Reagan, Ronald: Gubernatorial Papers,
1966-74: Press Unit
Folder Title: [Corrections, Board of] -
Coordinated California Corrections:
Institutions, July 1971 (6 of 6)
Box: P34
To see more digitized collections visit:
https://reaganlibrary.gov/archives/digital-library
To see all Ronald Reagan Presidential Library inventories visit:
https://reaganlibrary.gov/document-collection
Contact a reference archivist at: [email protected]
Citation Guidelines: https://reaganlibrary.gov/citing
National Archives Catalogue: https://catalog.archives.gov/
- 19 -
taught in the California institutions. It is clear also, from the stand-
point of time, that some of the courses have doubtful benefits. There
are courses in the system which require enrollment for two years or longer,
and some which handle only a few students at a time when many need and
await training. Short-term courses, which can appreciably help large num-
bers of people, are optimum and should be preferred when instructional
offerings are planned.
Two general conclusions are also in order: (1) greatest benefits
for most inmates occur when vocational training emphasizes broad and basic
skills and principles, rather than specific and narrow skills which have
restricted labor markets; (2) training should be tied in closely with the
employment opportunities of the community, and, therefore, must be kept
current.
A recently completed study showed that only 35% of California's
prison vocational trainees were employed while on parole at the occupation
for which they were trained in prison. Many of these parolees were dis-
appointed that their training did not give them jobs with pay as high as
they anticipated. A large number asserted that they valued their training
in that it helped them use their time constructively in prison, and gave
them skills they felt proud to have mastered. Fewer parolees asserted
that the training gave them a means of earning a good living. From their
high rates of job attrition, it was evident that much of their non-use of
new skills was due to the retention of a short-run perspective towards
work; they had not acquired a deep commitment to an occupational career
just by the learning of new skills.
A prime lesson to be acquired from this research is that such follow-
up of prisoners receiving vocational training should become routine for
continuous guidance of prison training programs. Efficient forms can be
developed for feedback information from parole officers on parole jobs
of trainees. Data from such forms can be tabulated by the Research Division
and transmitted to the prison training staff. Such response from parole
officers would be stimulated by communications to them on the releasee's
training record in prison. With such mutual feedback, training staff would
be less in the dark about the value of their efforts. Any evidence of gross
deficiency in using a type of training could then result in more intensive
follow-up of trainees from a given trade by vocational education specialists.
The specialists would identify the precise nature of training inadequacies,
and would evaluate alternative possible remedies.
The second lesson to be gained from this research is, of course,
that training alone is not sufficient for post-release employment. Relevant
counseling, placement assistance and especially, work furloughs, should all
be tested further as procedures for promoting full utilization of vocational
training by those with job problems.
Related to this issue is the work furlough program presently operated
by the Department of Corrections. At present, the Department has approxi-
mately 180 work-furloughees assigned to those institutions whose physical
locations make work furlough programs possible. There is ample evidence
- 20 -
as to the value of work furlough. 8 The Department of Corrections is to be
commended for having initiated work furlough and is encouraged to expand
the concept.
Greater enrollment in educational programs should be encouraged.
Unless there is great expansion in correctional industries, it appears
that many inmates will remain less than fully occupied. Probably the best
relief for this situation, and the one which has the richest potential, is
expansion of educational programs. This would require additional staff in
some facilities, and additional space and equipment in others. Federal
funding is helpful here, and California should make certain that it is
getting its share. Generally speaking, every man not having some market-
able job skill, if he can be motivated at all, should receive skills
training appropriate to his ability. Also, if he can progress in general
education in prison, he should be given every encouragement to do so. In
order to interest those not inclined toward further training, inmates now
in educational programs should be encouraged to recruit others. New courses
should be promoted by counselors and other staff, and in prison news media
and posted announcements as well. Monetary payments and other tangible
rewards and recognition for course completions, however, can be the most
effective incentives in adult prisoner education.
V. TREATMENT PROGRAMS AND SERVICES
Counseling
Counseling programs are found in all California institutions. They
are important in giving inmates an opportunity to air their feelings and
work out their emotional problems, as well as for handling a variety of
personal difficulties (e.g. financial, legal or family problems on the
outside) which may otherwise be neglected. They also facilitate post-
release planning and communication with relatives. Finally, counselors
provide progress reports and recommendations on inmates for institution
officials and for the parole decision-makers, the Adult Authority. If
counseling helps an inmate learn to get along with others or resolve his
feeling about authority, for example, it may contribute as much or more
to his post-release employment success as the most thorough trade training.
Counseling in California prisons is more extensive than intensive.
Counselors typically have caseloads of hundreds, which preclude individual
counseling and limit involvement even in group work. Some counseling is
done by correctional officers. This is a commendable practice except that
some inmates claim that they are counseled mainly by new officers, apparent-
ly as a staff training or indoctrination method. This probably has more
value for the officers than it does for the inmates. Some group therapy
is also available, but this is limited by the size of the professional staff.
Intensive group or individual counseling seems to be rare outside of psy-
chiatric settings and a few special short-term situations.
- 21 -
During the 1950s and early 1960s California prisons became well-
known for their group counseling programs. These were extensively pub-
licized in national correctional meetings and publications, where they
were presented as rehabilitation programs. With the growth of correc-
tional research in the late 1950s, government and foundation grants as
well as State funding were devoted to the expansion of group counseling,
and to an assessment of its rehabilitative effectiveness. This research
applied to both the group counseling by briefly trained line staff sched-
uled only about once a week and to intensive daily sessions involving
different sized groups, with professional and line staff, that became
known as "therapeutic communities". The measurements, however, proved
disappointing. What became evident from the research and had been
pointed out earlier by some observers, was that such counseling programs
tended mainly to serve institution management functions and readily be-
came largely irrelevant to rehabilitation needs. However, they did per-
mit free and orderly discussion and resolution of grievances and tension
among inmates and staff. But most of the successful ventilation of emo-
tions in these groups, and the constructive discussion, revolved around
institution life. When discussion dealt with the outside world there
prevailed a mixture of fantasy, rationalization for crime and anti-authority
ideologies, with conversation dominated by the most aggressive and unreal-
istic spokesmen for these anti-rehabilitative points of view.
At the same time that California invested in the promotion of group
counseling as rehabilitation, it largely ignored research evidence on the
rehabilitative effectiveness of some other types of counseling for some.
inmates. The PICO (Pilot Intensive Counseling Organization) Project dem-
onstrated by a rigorously controlled experiment in 1960 the differential
effectiveness of counseling on different inmates. This experiment involved
assignment of one trained counselor (generally a clinical psychologist or
psychiatric social worker) to every 25 inmates during, on the average, the
last nine months of their confinement. Those inmates selected in advance
as "amenable" to counseling because they seemed bright, verbal and anxious
to change, had appreciably less post-release reconfinement on criminal
charges if assigned to these special counselors when in prison that if
without counselors. On the other hand, for those considered "non-
amenable" to counseling because they seemed indifferent or opposed to
counseling and not anxious to change, greater post-release reconfinement
on criminal charges occurred for those assigned the added counselors than
for those without such counselors. Reconfinement costs saved by reduction
of subsequent criminality in the amenables more than paid for the cost of
one counselor per 25 inmates for nine months. 10 Analogous conclusions had
emerged earlier from research in a Naval prison, 11 and are suggested by the
one positive rehabilitation effect demonstrated for group counseling: that
inmates of middle risk categories--not the best and not the worst types by
usual recidivism rates--had less than the rest of their risk group's post-
release criminality rate if they were in counseling groups for a long period
with no change in the staff member assigned to their group. 12 Similar re-
sults also were found in Massachusetts prisons. 13 All these data suggest
that counseling can be rehabilitative if readily available to those inmates
who want it, and if provided in a manner that fosters a close relationship
between the inmate and the counselor. However, counseling usually is irrel-
- 22 -
evant or even has negative effects if it is a prescribed program replacing
other programs and is forced on inmates not seeking it.
Some California prisons have facilitated this constructive counseling
aid by scattering the offices of counselors in the cell-houses or other in-
mate residences, instead of concentrating them in an office building where
inmates can see staff only by special appointment. In the cell-houses one
can overhear evidence of an affectionate personal relationship, such as an
inmate calling to a counselor, "Hey Louie, I gotta see ya'." One can infer
that the counselor is more likely to see inmates only when they are amen-
able to counseling aid, and will learn much more about the inmates' prison
experiences in this type of arrangement, than he would in the seclusion of
an office elsewhere. More of this type of ready access to counseling and
familiarity with the counselor should be provided for those inmates anxious
to have it.
The counseling staff in each California institution should be in-
creased toward the recommended American Correctional Association ratio of
one counselor for every hundred and fifty men. In several of the institu-
tions, there are counselors who handle between three hundred and four hun-
dred men each. This is too large a caseload even for group work, and it is
especially inadequate for personal counseling. It is impossible for the
counselor to know many men in a caseload of this size. With the excessive
caseloads prevailing in some institutions, the number and length of con-
tacts are insufficient. More staff is required if the condition is to be
improved.
It is not suggested that one counselor to a hundred and fifty inmates
is always the correct ratio. Certain types of people require greater at-
tention and a more richly staffed counseling program is necessary to provide
it. More important, in situations where inmates are released temporarily
to the community, as in work furlough or community correctional centers,
counseling is most strategic to rehabilitation. Here the counselors are
dealing with problems feared or experienced in the community where reha-
bilitation must occur, and they are problems which are immediate.
More sub-professionals should be added as associate counselors to do
many aspects of the counselor's job. In California, some specially-trained
sub-professionals are now used in counseling, and this effort is to be com-
mended. The training of correctional officers for individual counseling
functions should be expanded, since California's experience at its conser-
vation centers with this plan seems to be satisfactory. These men can
handle the routine problems of most inmates, as well as prepare routine
reports and inquiries. When their background is similar to that of the
inmates they frequently can gain rapport more readily than professional
counselors. This relieves the professional counselor of many of the time-
consuming tasks and frees his time for more in-depth counseling.
No ratio of counselors to prisoners will provide adequate counsel-
ing services in some prisons, because work other than counseling, espe-
cially writing reports, is a major responsibility of the counselor's job.
In California much less time should be spent by the counselors in preparing
- 23 -
reports for the Adult Authority. This time can be better used in the coun-
seling of inmates. It is difficult to alter this simply by issuing an order,
however, as these reports are tangible products in which the counselors take
pride and which the Adult Authority views as essential. The reports tend
to be the only part of the counselor's work which is visible to his supe-
riors, and on which he is evaluated; his communications with inmates are
not observed, and their rehabilitative or anti-rehabilitative effects are
not readily known.
Actually, most of the information in progress reports to the Adult
Authority already exists in the inmate's file. Many of the progress re-
ports repeat what was previously communicated to the Adult Authority in
prior reports. Improving case records for both information to decision-
makers on current individual cases and for evaluation of policy on large
numbers of past cases requires a collaborative effort by research, classi-
fication, counseling and paroling officials. Much of the information most
useful to them all (e.g., on criminal record, work record, drug and alcohol
record, educational record, etc.) can be standardized in a limited number
of categories of minimal ambiguity and maximum relationship to post-release
behavior, drawing on the base expectancy and analogous follow-up research
already completed in California. A face sheet prepared at Reception can
summarize all of the most relevant pre-prison information in an efficient
"check-off" format, which modern copying equipment can duplicate as often
as necessary, so it never has to be written up again in subsequent reclas-
sification and parole considerations. A "comment" space can be left on
any such form for any brief remarks staff may feel are important to qualify
the standardized categories checked off to describe an individual. Similar-
ly efficient "check-off" forms can also be developed for describing pro-
gress in the institution, supplemented by narrative remarks.
Efficient and scientifically tested case record and report proce-
dures release much counselor time from paperwork to work with inmates. The
information that "check-off" forms in most instances contain is more use-
ful than that in traditional lengthy narrative reports because the effi-
cient forms employ a standardized language among the many who use them,
because information is found more quickly in them than in verbose narra-
tions, and because errors are found and corrected more quickly than they
are in prose essays. Such forms have been developed in the Washington State
Department of Institutions and the New York State Narcotic Addiction Control
Commission. At first their use was resisted by clinically-oriented case-
workers enamored of their literary creativity, but they soon became popular
among all service-oriented staff. They have also proved invaluable for
research on factors relating programs to outcome for particular types of
cases. 14
Clinical Services
Clinical services include the activities of psychologists and psy-
chiatrists in the diagnosis and treatment of mental abnormality and dis-
turbance. The trend in corrections is away from the attribution of mental
disorder to the majority of offenders, but there are those who show demon-
- 24 -
strable abnormality and others for whom this is a definite possibility.
Conventional programming will not reach those whose problems are symptom-
atic of deep disturbance. The California Department of Corrections pro-
vides special services for these people. The institution at Vacaville
is specifically charged with handling these disturbed persons, and is
available for transfer of inmates from the rest of the system. Other
institutions, with a few exceptions, have staff psychiatrists or at least
some type of contractual service with community psychiatrists. The Depart-
ment has difficulty hiring psychiatrists for some institutions primarily
because of their locations. This is especially a handicap since the De-
partment must take care of its own psychotics. The practice of trans-
ferring such patients to the Department of Mental Hygiene, found in other
states, is not operative in California.
Additional beds and staff should be provided for the psychiatric
program. Space is not now available for the medical-psychiatric housing
of all inmates needing it. Earlier plans for a new medical-psychiatric
facility have been abandoned by the Department. The estimate is that
4,000 inmates in the prison system would benefit from this type of program,
but Vacaville has only 1,400 beds. 15
There are unquestionably many mentally ill people confined in Calif-
ornia prisons and this situation will worsen. This is partly the result
of a recent change in mental health laws allowing more mentally sick pa-
tients to be diverted from the Mental Hygiene Department to the Department
of Corrections. These mentally ill persons are now found in large numbers
in several institutions. Some are actually in the general group, and others
are confined in segregation areas. Of these, some are acutely ill and in
need of intensive care and treatment.
The most desirable solution to this problem would be the construction
of a new specialized facility for these people. If the inmate census moves
up again, and a new institution must be built, it should be of this type.
If this is impossible, then the Department of Corrections must consider
the utilization of some beds in its present secure structures. This might
require the movement of some inmates out of the general population of a
high security institution, providing beds can be freed for this purpose.
If the total inmate count of the Department is reduced, as will be suggest-
ed, this conversion of some existing facility to a specialized mental treat-
ment facility might prove feasible. While this move would no doubt require
some expenditure for remodeling and, of course, for professional personnel,
it will make room for many of the psychiatric patients who are not being
given the attention the Department recognizes they need.
The problem of recruiting trained clinical service staff should not
be overlooked. It is surprising that California prisons have been able to
recruit, hire, and retain an many psychiatrists and other professional peo-
ple as they have. But there are personnel shortages in the clinical ser-
vices area. More positions should be authorized and more of these people
employed. To do this, it should be clear that more realistic and competi-
tive remuneration has to be offered clinical personnel.
- 25 -
Religion
The Department has provided excellent facilities for religious wor-
ship in almost all of the institutions. Chaplains of the major faiths are
employed and they can be valuable members of the prison staff. It is rec-
ognized that many prisoners can find religion a source of consolation and
a positive influence toward beneficial change.
Distinctive facilities for congregate worship should be provided in
all institutions which do not now have them. Three institutions do not
have an appropriate place for religious services. Places for worship,
properly designed and furnished, can be an eloquent reminder to the pris-
oner of the existence and inspiration of religious institutions on the
outside.
Libraries
The California Department of Corrections has recognized the value
of library services. All facilities have some library space and several
have a good selection of books. The library is a valuable adjunct of
formal education, and a source of information and recreation to those
who use it. Two recommendations are in order:
1. Although most of the libraries are adequate in size, a few
institutions should be provided with more and better space.
The standards, so far as size is concerned, depend on the
size of the institution. The guide should be "Objectives
and Standards for Libraries in Correctional Institutions,"
a publication of the American Correctional Association which
contains the best thinking in this field.
2. The number and quality of books should be supplemented. In
most of the libraries, the quality of the books, particularly
in the reference areas, is marginal. This condition may be
improved in more than one way. Arrangements might be made,
as in other jurisdictions, to work with nearby community
libraries to obtain a greater supply of books. Some states
use a bookmobile arrangement through the help of the State
Library offices. California prisons get State Library service
upon request, but this is for individual books and materials.
A bookmobile service which circulates among all of the institu-
tions, exchanging books on a regular basis, could supplement
the existing program. The Library Service and Construction
Act should be used more, if possible, for the improvement of
institutional libraries.
Recreation
The Department of Corrections has obviously devoted considerable
attention to the area of recreation, which generally has adequate staff
- 26 -
and good facilities. One institution has no gymnasium, however, and this
is a weakness in its recreational program. It is also suggested that a
larger number of organized and supervised group recreational activities
be developed. Some programs have less structure and supervision at present
than is desirable. Some inmates complain that there is a lack of recre-
ational equipment.
VI. WORK VALUES AND CORRECTIONAL INDUSTRIES
Work Assignments
A major value of work for the prisoners is the opportunity it affords
for inculcation or reactivation of positive attitudes, skills, and habit
patterns. Also, inmate work helps to achieve effective and economical in-
stitutional administration. Work provides great potential for building
morale and is essential in the maintenance of security and discipline. It
has been observed that regular work during imprisonment for even as little
as one year would be the longest work experience most youthful prisoners
have ever had. More important, it has been found that relationships of
inmates with work supervisors are most often cited by successful ex-prisoners
as the primary rehabilitative relationships they experienced in prison. 16
The California Department of Corrections has its share of idle prison-
ers. The exact amount of idleness is impossible to determine, as no studies
or projections of realistic needs for inmate work opportunities are avail-
able. In all large institutions, however, the idleness problem is evident.
It is true that not many employable prisoners are completely idle, but it
is evident that in order to prevent complete idleness of some, there is an
overmanning of work assignments, resulting in the partial idleness or
"featherbedding" for many. While this may be the only immediate alterna-
tive, such a choice is not a good solution to the work problem. Only in
the forestry camps is overassignment of inmates to jobs generally avoided.
This fact is noted here as one disadvantage of the Department's recent
actions to reduce its camp program.
Each institution should undertake manpower utilization studies of
inmate work forces. A plan resulting from such a study would suggest that
one of more of the following courses of action would be feasible to prevent
idleness and provide fuller work assignments. Each institution would:
1. involve more inmates in full-time educational programs.
2. perform additional maintenance and construction work. Much of
this work needs to be done. Prison officials know this, of
course, but in addition to inmates for this work, they must
have adequate maintenance and equipment money.
3. extend services to other agencies in State government in fields
such as dental prosthetics, data processing, silk screen work,
office services, warehousing, auto repair, body bumping and
painting, microfilming, etc.
- 27 -
4. expand present correctional industries and bring in new ones
where justified.
5. expand work furlough, as has been previously suggested.
Some of the above actions require extra-departmental support. Some
would come face-to-face with vested interests, but if California is serious
about improving its prisons and work programs, then the objections must be
contested and the idea of work expansion promoted. It is certain that the
Department would welcome support.
Often the public is not realistic in its evaluation of the difficult
task of changing people who have had little success in life. Many prison-
ers are poorly motivated and do not even wish initially to learn how to
work. Correctional officials recognize this characteristic as one of the
chief obstacles in obtaining cooperation from inmates in working toward
self-improvement.
To help meet this problem, more visible rewards should be tried in
California. The inmate wage scale should be overhauled. Wages are too
low in institutional work assignments and industries to motivate apprecia-
ble work return from inmates. In some cases production incentives would
help, but inmate wages are generally too low.
Industries
California Correctional Industries consists of nine program opera-
tions--woodworking, metalworking, textiles, food processing, laundry,
miscellaneous manufacturing, dairy, other farm, service departments--and
involves nine institutions. Approximately 3,100 inmates and 275 civil
service personnel are employed.
17
A central office staff of 39 provides overall management and coordin-
ation, engineering and marketing services, and sales and sales order pro-
cessing. More than 900 different standard products and a variety of custom-
made items are sold to public agencies. The Department of Corrections is
its own best customer. As in most state-use prison industry, they have only
begun to utilize the potential market of the state colleges and universities.
The industries program operates under the direction of the Correc-
tional Industries Commission, and is composed of the Director of Corrections
who serves as Chairman, two representatives from organized labor, two from
private industry, one from agriculture and one from the general public.
The Department of Corrections' industrial program attempts to accom-
plish three objectives:
1. to contribute to the overall departmental rehabilitation program
by providing work background, skills, and work habits in indus-
trial and agricultural enterprises for inmates who would benefit
from such assignments.
- 28 -
2. to provide constructive employment to inmates as an alternative
to idleness.
3. to reduce costs of maintaining the correctional program by the
sale of products and services to public agencies.
Despite criticisms, California's scheme of correctional industries
appears altogether consistent with the current and emerging correctional
philosophy toward rehabilitation and reintegration of the offender in the
community. Work habits may prove to be more important than skills. Goals
related to improving the financial condition of the inmate and to institu-
tional maintenance and production are considered less important, but never-
theless desirable. Primarily, any industries program should be evaluated
on its contribution to the fulfillment of rehabilitative goals. Procedures
and policies which impede these goals should be corrected or modified. But
if industries in California are to be justified on the basis of their con-
tribution to rehabilitation, it is imperative for them to demonstrate that
they are having a measureable effect in that direction. There should be
greater coordination of vocational training and industries by the Depart-
ment of Corrections, and also closer post-release follow-up of both in
order to provide adequate information regarding their impact.
More markets would be helpful and should be sought for California's
prison industrial program. The small variety and size of current available
markets limit production. The State consumes only a fraction of the many
kinds of goods sold in the public market, and the California Department of
Corrections has pointed out that its share of state consumption is less
than 1%. Recent suggestions for private ownership and management of some
prison industries, and the repeal of Federal laws barring prison-made goods
from interstate commerce, should be studied carefully. Another plan under
discussion deals with community-based correctional industries, and includes
contracts or agreements with existing non-profit organizations for the pro-
vision of sheltered workshop training of parolees. California has already
tried a few experimental programs involving employers and training insti-
tutes in inmate training programs. To reject or accept these new approaches
outright without objective and careful consideration would be unwise. In
any case, all expansion of prison industries to new markets should be con-
centrated in industries which need operations and skills similar to those
required in free world employment.
The role of the Correctional Industries Commission has been a subject
of concern and conflicting views among authorities. The Commission was
created by Statute in 1947, and has, in the majority view, worked well in
coordinating the efforts of correctional industries by involving the com-
mercial sector, organized labor, agriculture, and the general public. The
minority view is that the current Commission set-up is cumbersome, and that
its tasks could be accomplished more expeditiously by the Department itself.
The Prison Task Force feels that, in the final analysis, the Com-
mission does fulfill an important role, and that, by change of name and
expansion of membership, could become even more productive. It is suggest-
ed that the Commission be re-named the Correctional Industries and Training
- 29 -
Commission, and that its membership be expanded to include two persons who
are expert in the field of vocational training; one such member should be
the Chancellor of the California Community Colleges, or his designee; an-
other member, representing secondary schools, should be the California
Superintendant of Public Instruction, or his designee. California has a
nationally-respected network of almost 100 community colleges, and innu-
merable high schools, both of which offer substantial expertise in the area
of vocational training; expertise which would represent valuable assistance
to vocational training and correctional industries.
The Department's administration should indicate full support for
prison industries and more closely integrate industrial operations with
the total institutional programs. Execution of this recommendation would
benefit correctional personnel, both in industries and elsewhere. It is
not likely that the gap is as wide as some staff claim, but the fact that
many believe there is a problem should be weighed. A good degree of coor-
dination is required if industries is really to be a part of the total
institutional program. Greater involvement of industries personnel is
needed in each institution, especially in major decision-making committees.
Training programs should include industrial and non-industrial personnel.
Some of this cooperation occurs now but more is needed in some institutions.
Statements and actions of support from policy-level administrators would
help reduce the isolation of industries. Several issues in closing the
gap between industries and institutions deal with the role of the inmate.
1. The development of favorable work attitudes and useful job skills
is the primary goal of prison industry. Institutional assign-
ment procedures and policies must be compatible with this orien-
tation. In prisons, theideal treatment classification is not
always possible. But while other criteria (custody, institu-
tional needs, discipline) will take precedence over treatment
in certain instances, they should not do so routinely. All
industrial and other personnel must agree that assignments to
industries should be made primarily on the basis of inmate needs.
Complete acceptance of this principle will reduce friction and
ultimately better satisfy all.
2. Inmates assigned to industries should be expected to work ap-
proximately eight hours a day at a good pace. In California,
this performance varies with institution. The institution must
help by doing its best with the inmates' scheduling and activi-
ties. It is a major administrative problem in every prison to
keep work, counseling, education, etc. from interfering with
each other. If prison industries is to realize its goals, in-
terference must be kept to a minimum. Free world jobs do not
allow constant interruptions. Careful scheduling must be fol-
lowed, with other programs generally offered at non-conflicting
times so as not to interrupt work, school, or training schedules.
California's use of counselors in the evenings should be expand-
ed. Inmate call-outs should be controlled and regulated.
- 30 -
At the same time, industries personnel must recognize that they
should support other institutional programs. They must realize
that some of their best inmate employees will move on to other
assignments and degrees of custody. Goals must be common and
shared by all personnel.
3. Production in California industries could be improved. The
slow pace is quite evident in some of the factories and the
work day (actual time worked) is short. Production suffers be-
cause there are few motivating factors encouraging inmates to
work hard. Incentives and rewards based on productivity would
help in this respect. It has been suggested that paid vacations,
participation in social security and unemployment benefits might
be a way of compensating prisoners and increasing the probability
of a successful post-release adjustment. While these suggestions
have not been well-received, it is clear that monetary payment
levels should be high enough to make inmates feel their work is
worthwhile and meaningful. An increase in the California base
pay levels and possibly some incentive pay plans related to pro-
ductivity are in order. Increased inmate savings as a result
of better earnings could decrease the financial assistance need-
ed by inmates after transfer to Community Correction Centers or
to parole, as well as the number of economic post-release crimes
they commit.
An eight hour "pace" under conditions similar to those in free
industry should be the target. The quality of work expected of
inmates is now generally good, and high standards should con-
tinue. The assumption that all this is conditioning for success-
ful adjustment in the free community is logical. Work done at
too slow a pace can undermine its rehabilitative potential. In-
volvement of private industry on an advisory level is useful to
maintain comparability of prison and outside employment prac-
tices. This already is practiced to a large extent in Califor-
nia, but more could be done to approximate outside methods,
technology and work conditions.
Training considerations should be given greater priority by pri-
son industries. It is impossible to determine how much weight
this aspect is given, but nowhere is it given enough. This
point cannot be overemphasized. A system that offers little
opportunity for training or future job placement should be mod-
ified. California's current effort to coordinate industries
with institutional vocational training will be helpful. Correc-
tional industries should allocate time and resources to indus-
trial training.
Until the fund of knowledge on the impact of prison industries
is augmented, it is reasonable to hope that these programs will
develop job skills, shape attitudes favorable to work, and help
people adjust to community life. Meanwhile, it certainly is
desirable to keep prisoners occupied and defraying expenses, if
NO 31 -
possible. Emphasis should not be placed on profit and loss at
the expense of rehabilitative goals. It is unrealistic to ex-
pect prison industries to match the profits of its business
counterparts in the free community, but prison industries should
be businesslike. Questions such as the following should be an-
swered:
Is the central office staff too large?
Is prison industries accepting too many custom jobs which
affect product and profit?
Is the pricing of industries products based on sound busi-
ness practices?
Why has the overhead increased so greatly from 1966 to
1970?
Why are inventories so large?
VII. CUSTODY, SECURITY AND DISCIPLINE
The Department is legally charged with the security and control of
prisoners. Although at times this responsibility appears to be at odds
with the rehabilitative mission, it is doubtful that any correctional ad-
ministration which ignores this charge or treats it lightly will survive.
Nowhere is the prevalence of order over chaos more precarious than in
large penal institutions.
The custodial forces of prison are given the primary responsibility
for preventing escapes and maintaining order. The former task calls for
surveillance to maintain the physical integrity of the perimeter, to ex-
clude weapons or tools for escape, and to detect escape plans. This is a
vital operation but its essence is technical matter of efficient and
diligently conducted routines.
Maintenance of internal order is another matter entirely. It in-
volves proper routines also, but human elements and emotions are much more
involved. This is a crucial matter in California. A large number of vio-
lent incidents, including several homicides, have occurred in the last
year and a number of collective disturbances have also occurred. This has
led to considerable adverse reaction both inside and outside the Department.
There is much tension in some institutions.
Preservation of order is essential. Both staff and inmates have
the right to demand that their safety be assured. No positive programs
can be conducted successfully in an atmosphere of tension, danger, and
actual disruption.
- 32 -
There are a number of specific suggestions in this section aimed at
improving institutional control and reducing incidents of violence. These
suggestions are based on a custodial rationale which may be spelled out
fairly briefly. In institutional control such a rationale may be even more
important than the details, since it is vital that all practices be an in-
tegral part of a reasonable and consistent operational philosophy.
The basic principle is that maintenance of order and control should
be preventive where possible, and should not depend on force or show of
force except when absolutely necessary. Force cannot always be dispensed
with, but if it is used unwisely, it exacerbates rather than alleviates the
problem. Minimization of force is called for, not out of leniency, but
simply for best results in maintaining order.
There appears to be a tendency in certain of California's more secure
institutions to place heavy reliance on forceful and severe disciplinary
measures. These measures may be self-defeating. Prisoners, probably more
than men in other institutions, will try to preserve identity and pride.
If the game is implicitly defined as one of threatened force or penalty,
prisoners will often play by those rules, including some men who might have
preferred and been dependable in a more reasonable relationship based on
mutual trust. Not only does control by force and threat of force foster
rebelliousness, but it reduces the inclination among prisoners to be in-
volved in positive programs and to cooperate with staff in anything. This
may be happening in some--not all--California institutions.
Reference to force should not be misinterpreted to mean that prison-
ers are deliberately brutalized. There are as many safeguards against such
practices in California as in any correctional system. Unquestionably, a
few employees will at times exceed their instructions and go farther than
necessary in handling a disciplinary problem. There is, however, no De-
partmental design or plan to brutalize, but, to the contrary, the Depart-
ment remains alert to any possible mistreatment of inmates by staff, and,
if such mistreatment is found, corrective action is taken. However, a few
of the prisons manifest a kind of "institutional lag"; while the growing
emphasis by the Department has been placed on the goal of rehabilitation,
some custodial practices have not kept pace with this emphasis.
Principles of Maintaining Order
Custody operates in three ways to maintain order and reduce danger-
ous incidents. It uses prevention, intervention and disciplinary sanction.
Custodial operations in California need improvement in all three of these
areas.
Prevention. A show of potential force can assist in preventing some
problems, but a demonstration of confidence is better. Officers show con-
fidence by mingling unarmed with inmates in the yard rather than by stand-
ing armed and out of reach. Mingling does not invite a hostile return.
Strong positive programs involving inmates, and the building of personal
- 33 -
ties between inmates and staff, are the best means of preventing disorder.
At the same time, it should be recognized that some prisoners will respond
only to power, but in no California institution is that true of most in-
mates most of the time.
Intervention. When incidents occur such as fights or assaults, they
must be stopped. Here, too, a minimum of force should be used and it should
be used selectively. Where good relationships have been established, a fight
may often be stopped by a verbal order.
Discipline. Discipline for rule infractions should not be harsher
than necessary. For serious rule violations, this means segregation. There
has never been good reason to believe that long periods of segregation pre-
vent future infractions. Actually, the opposite effect, or defiance, may
be the consequence.
It is not implied that the above principles are novel or unknown to
California prison administrators. It is suggested, however, that closer
adherence to them should occur in some of the institutions. In many Calif-
ornia prisons the relationship between custodial staff and prisoners is
good, but in others improvements are both possible and necessary. This is
said in full recognition of the fact that some violent and dangerous men
must be dealt with. However, experience has shown that force or severity
of discipline do not guarantee maximum protection for inmates and staff.
Obviously, the kind and degree of security and custody depends on the
type of institution, with tighter controls found in the walled and fenced
institutions, as long as they hold high custody risk inmates. Generally
speaking, no inmate should be housed in a facility operated with more physi-
cal and managerial security than he requires. Ideally, the graduation of
a completely free environment should be accomplished as rapidly as possible.
Custody and Security Modifications
The following observations apply primarily to the California prisons
with physically secure perimeters. Some of the recommendations which follow
could be discarded or ignored if one of the major recommendations of this
Report were followed: the closing of San Quentin and Folsom prisons. Since
it is not certain that this recommendation will be acted upon in the near
future, the alternative suggestions which follow apply largely to these old
plants.
Inside gun towers and gun walks. These methods of control are rap-
idly disappearing from the American prison scene. Not only do armed men,
prominently posted inside an institution, create a possibility that weapons
will be misused or fall into the wrong hands, but the psychological barrier
between officer and inmate is made more formidable and pronounced. It in-
evitably adds to the impression of the "keeper" and the "caged."
- 34 -
Unquestionably, armed men in towers and armed men patrolling an in-
stitution give some members of the staff a sense of security. What these
people do not perceive is that relationships and understanding will never
improve under such conditions and terms. An impasse is made manifest;
rigid demarcations are established with no means to change them. With the
existence of gun walks, there is literally no common ground. Were most of
these post officers required to be with the inmates, their attitudes con-
cerning their own safety should change and it is reasonable to assume that
their concern, patience, and performance would be enhanced. Detachment
might be replaced with involvement.
The physical characteristics of the two institutions where these
features are found present so many supervision problems that modification
rather than complete elimination is suggested. Closed-circuit T.V. scanning
could provide surveillance of the several critical areas, and officers could
be dispatched to any trouble spot directly through the institution or by the
gun walks. Many gun towers within the prison compound could be eliminated
or manned only in emergencies.
Unneeded structures. Razing structures that are not needed would
allow armed surveillance to be moved back to the wall posts where it is
needed for escape prevention. This should certainly be done with the con-
demned industrial building at one institution, the removal of which would
help unclutter the yards and improve vision.
Staffing patterns. Custodial officers should be in constant contact
with inmates. Well-trained custodial personnel can have a positive influ-
ence on many inmates. To accomplish this objective, custodial personnel
must be used judiciously, since there is rarely an excess of this category
of staff. As many employees as possible should be on duty during the hours
of peak inmate activity.
California institutions operate with 8 A.M. to 4 P.M.; 4 P.M. to
12 midnight; and 12 midnight to 8 A.M. shifts. This requires the night
shift to get things moving in the morning--unlock, supervise breakfast, etc.
A full, or near full, complement is needed to do this. It is suggested
that a lightly manned 10 P.M. to 6 A.M. shift, during which the institution
is secured, might be more effective and suitable. More personnel could be
available for the remaining two shifts when activities are at a peak. Eve-
ning activities, if curtailed because of custodial staff shortage, could
then be increased accordingly. Staffing patterns should be re-evaluated.
Many custodial officers have office assignments; the gun walks and inside
gun towers also take a large number of men. Unquestionably, more officers
could be placed in positions of direct contact with inmates through a shift
in assignments.
Handling violent prisoners. In California, as in most state prison
systems, gas is used to control severely recalcitrant inmates. California
authorizes this general practice on the ground that it reduces injuries to
- 35 -
inmates and staff. This is in some cases plausible and defensible. Whether
too great a reliance is placed on the use of gas can only be determined by
the careful analysis of each incident.
There seems to be an aversion on the part of most California offi-
cials to the use of mace, though it has been used successfully elsewhere.
Where gas must be used, mace might fit some situations better for it does
not contaminate large areas, and does not affect innocents for days after-
wards. The use of gas is a source of much resentment among inmates, and as
such tends to generate further incidents. In some cases, use of gas is
symptomatic of a tendency for staff to use force at a distance. It may
sometimes be a first rather than last resort, discouraging reflection on
more permanently effective responses.
Weapons control. Weapons are used to prevent escapes and as a last
resort in emergencies to protect both inmate and employee. Their visible
presence on the wall may forestall escapes; inside, their visibility may
actually detract from maintenance of order, as just argued. But any prison
security plan must include appropriate weapons.
Weapons arsenals should be well kept, readily accessible, and ade-
quate in size. Some California arsenals do not meet these standards. They
are too small, and poorly located. Some are so small that officers cannot
be equipped within the arsenal. Where California's arsenals are sub-stan-
dard, they should be modernized. At two of the prisons, space between the
front sally port gates could be remodeled to provide an armory while sim-
ultaneously being used as a gate control station, as recommended in the
following section.
Traffic and key control. Prisoners are used in two institutions to
keep open inner main traffic gates. This practice invites trouble. In-
mates are used, in addition to the officer who is present, because these
main gates are old and manually operated. The best solution would be to
remodel these archaic sally ports by providing gates electrically-operated
from a security bubble. The officer in the bubble would control both the
vehicle and foot traffic gates at one institution; at the other, vehicle
gates are in another area and would not be involved. The armory could be
located behind this bubble, since the area between. the gates is secure. As
mentioned, inmates are involved in key handling in some institutions. This
is usually required by the condition of gates and cell locks. If the plants
were new with modern equipment, inmates would not need to be utilized. Also,
a simplification of custody procedures through a "systems analysis" of this
area might allow for removal of inmates from these and other security sen-
sitive jobs which many now hold. In any case, new cell locking systems
should be installed to replace those now obsolete.
Contraband weapon control. California prisons have seen much vio-
lence in the recent past. Whatever the causes, weapons are used by inmates
to injure and kill. Weapons are made and found in every American prison.
- 36 -
The best that can be done is to limit their number stringently. This can
only be effected through vigilant supervision, good tool control, and strict
enforcement. Tools and machines are used to make weapons. Industrial op-
erations must, therefore, be given close surveillance. At one institution,
industrial operations are found at two ground levels, which complicates
tool control. It appears possible there, within existing structures, to
consolidate all industrial operations in one area and one level.
Counts. Counts must be made. This is the only known method of de-
termining if the institution's responsibility for the confinement of pris-
oners is being met. A good counting system is fast, accurate, and not too
discommoding. California's count method, at least as observed in two in-
stitutions, was discarded by Michigan over fifteen years ago. The system
was found to be too easily circumvented, and did not allow ready identifi-
cation of unaccounted for prisoners. Essentially, this procedure counts
all heads, adds them together and hopes the final total will be correct.
If it is not correct, a slow and laborious person-by-person count for iden-
tification purposes must follow. This method is especially suspect when
inmate clerks are involved. It also takes a good deal of time, which should
be devoted to constructive inmate activities. The method of taking count
should be updated; the "total count" method should be discontinued.
Emergency preparation and training. Each institution must maintain
a comprehensive and objective riot control plan. Not all California prisons
have updated plans. It is recommended that riot control plans at all insti-
tutions be reviewed and rehearsed.
The plan should be carefully developed by the staff of each institu-
tion, and tailored to the unique characteristics of the facility. Training
should be routinely given in the general principles of riot control and to
familiarize all personnel involved with the specific plan for their insti-
tution. These plans should then be tested by complete drills, including
the call-in of off-duty personnel. Until this simulation is held, no one
will be aware of the shortcomings of any paper plan. It is a mistake to
believe that because every disturbance is different in some ways, no general
plan is feasible. Naturally, plans must be flexible and contain alternative
actions. But there are basic categories of response to every large distur-
bance. These involve personnel, equipment, standing orders, and a detailed
analysis of the entire physical plant.
In a collective disturbance the objective is to restore order as
quickly and smoothly as possible. A good plan is the best way to protect
lives of inmates and staff. It is a precautionary, and possibly a preven-
tive measure. Staff who know they are prepared to handle emergencies will
react more calmly and efficiently to possible trouble.
Disciplinary hearing and reports. Disciplinary actions are initiated
by reports. Some of the California prison staff expressed the belief that
the report system needs examination. It appeared to them that relatively
- 37 -
insignificant and minor rule violations are sometimes used as the basis of
unwarranted parole rejection by the Adult Authority. In this connection,
it is recommended that as many rule violations as possible be handled by
the line officer and supervisor. 18 If the matter is serious enough to go
to the disciplinary committee, the committee should still have the authority,
after hearing the case, to withhold the report from the offender's official
prison record. Whatever the disposition, the inmate should be advised.
This change would get to the heart of individualized discipline. Some
cases would not warrant this action, but some men would respond positively
to it where it is appropriate.
Isolation, segregation and adjustment centers. Prevention is better
than punishment, but a prison cannot operate without appropriate discipline
for disruptive behavior when other measures have failed. The long-run ef-
fects of disciplinary policies are hard to assess. As might be expected,
this is an emotionally-laden area where there are strong and divided opin-
ions on this subject, and where reliable data are scarce. It is clear that
as in the other phases of institutional order, good discipline must be fair
and consistent, and take account of individual differences so far as possi-
ble. How effective are California's disciplinary policies and practices?
The number of individuals "locked up" (1,224 on January 7, 1971) 19 suggests
there are problems. This is a very high percentage compared with other
jurisdictions. If this tactic resulted in quiet and orderly institutions,
it might be defended. But this is not the case. California has unique pro-
blems, but they do not fully explain the frequency and types of serious in-
cidents. It is reasonable to ask whether the disciplinary policies may not
be exacerbating rather than improving the situation.
At times drastic actions, such as long lockups, are necessary. The
question is whether lockups are being used too frequently and what are the
long-term consequences of this practice? There is a human tendency to apply
increasing amounts of the remedy at hand when a little of it has not done
the job. Lockup may have become a prescription too readily used so that
the cure has become the cancer. Perhaps a cycle has been created that is
difficult to break.
Segregation and isolation are found in all correctional systems. The
difference appears to be in the degree of use. Thirty days confinement to
an isolation cell is excessive. It is inconsistent with California's philo-
sophy, and its value has not been demonstrated. It embitters those who are
locked up rather than deterring them. It is true that most of the isola-
tion sentences are less than the thirty day limit. But 29 day terms are
fairly common. It is recommended that the maximum time institutions can
assign in isolation be shortened to ten days. 20 Longer terms should require
the Director's approval. Ten days should usually have as much effect as a
longer period, which may have negative results. Other jurisdictions have
moved toward shorter isolation time, and disciplinary problems have not in-
creased.
- 38 -
Adjustment centers. The California adjustment center program ordin-
arily involves much longer lockup periods than does isolation. In these
centers a large number are locked up for periods of several months and be-
yond. The original concept of the adjustment center appeared to be sound
These facilities were conceived of as segregated institutional areas for
the housing and intensive treatment of problem inmates. In theory, this
represented a progressive development in that it called for use of admin-
istrative segregation as a treatment rather than simply as a disciplinary
measure. But like many new correctional conceptions, it was not sufficient-
ly supported by resources, information, and programs. The term "adjustment
center" is now only an euphemism in at least three of California's institu-
tions. Even at the other centers, the value of their programs has not as
yet been established; at two centers, however, there appears to be genuine
intensive programming and an effort to move men out of the centers as quick-
ly as possible. So long as some centers are nothing more than long-term
segregation units without significant programming, little change in the
occupants can be expected. Once a man gets started on the adjustment cen-
ter cycle it is hard to get him out of it. He picks up a label which tags
him as a threat and he is so judged by staff and other inmates. His file
gets thick with unfavorable appraisals. The long periods in marked isola-
tion are likely to send him from bad to worse; this seems likely in view
of the adverse effects of the centers on the behavior of incarcerated men.
The objections to the existing program do not solve the genuine and
important concern of management with discipline and control in the insti-
tutions. Segregation facilities cannot be dispensed with entirely. To
date no one has suggested a workable plan to control certain inmates. The
individual who wishes to destroy everything about him and demonstrates this
desire repeatedly, the person who preys sexually on other inmates, the chron-
ically assaultive person, and those who actively incite others to violence
must be restricted. The administrator would be justly subject to great
criticism if he made no effort to segregate the dangerous inmate.
The need is for balance in order to reduce any excesses or negative
features of the centers. The following suggestions may apply:
1. The Director should issue a new policy statement, giving renewed
emphasis to the importance of developing and using alternatives
to long-term lockup.
2. The Department should initiate a special, intensive orientation
and training program for all institutional personnel on this
issue.
3. The wardens should immediately screen the cases of all men housed
in adjustment centers to determine if any alternative placement
is possible. The Director's Office should review these recom-
mendations.
4. Initial placements in the adjustment centers should not be made
without the approval of the warden or superintendent. The in-
stitutional Disciplinary Committee should submit a factual re-
- 39 -
port to the warden, with corroborated evidence where possible,
and a rationale for the recommended action. The inmate should
have the right to a hearing before the committee within three
days of the report. Staff representation in behalf of the inmate
should be tried.
5. Every 30 days (instead of the present 90) the Disciplinary Com-
mittee should review each adjustment center case. At this time
the inmate should appear before the Committee. When an inmate
is detained beyond thirty days, the Office of the Director should
be advised and the case reviewed in the central office.
6. The Disciplinary Committee should have the authority to release
men from the adjustment center at any time. In the interest of
efficiency, the size of the committee should be reduced to three
persons with the program administrator acting as one member of
the committee, during the review of adjustment center cases.
7. The original concept of the adjustment center should be restored
by increasing treatment efforts in all of these facilities.
8. Adjustment centers should be closed if the number of men housed
in them is reduced. It is conceivable that some of these units,
after thorough physical revamping (removal of heavy wiring, solid
doors, etc.) could be used for regular housing.
The above suggestions which deal with classification, screening, and
review processes would simplify present procedures. The aim is to fix re-
sponsibility and authority in these matters and to provide for greater ac-
countability and flexibility. This should help insure that those who do
not belong in the centers are not kept there.
VIII. INMATE CARE POLICIES: QUALITIES OF PRISON LIFE
It is unnecessary to dwell upon the stark nature of most penal in-
stitutions. With a prison go many undesirable things. Life in correctional
institutions can often be destructive. The loss of freedom and independence,
the everyday routine, and the lack of privacy result in a de-personalized
human environment.
Institutional designs, particularly old institutions, create even
more stress on prisoners. The aim at all times should be to make improve-
ments whenever humanly possible. Conditions which make life more bearable
must be diligently sought. The California Department of Corrections dis-
plays this concern through such programs as family visiting, the 72-hour
pass, generally good visiting situations and fairly liberal privileges in
general. The Department's compassion is commendable. Yet in the future
it is probable that today's effort to normalize life in prison will be
looked upon as a mere beginning. Today's efforts by California's institu-
tions are hampered by their size, traditions, legal restrictions, long sen-
- 40 -
tences and other hindrances. Suggestions in this area which may be helpful
are:
Clothing
California's clothing regulations should be liberalized. There is
no good reason why inmates must wear institutional uniforms. Colorfast,
pre-shrunk, washable garments are readily available in a variety of materi-
als, colors and prices. "Civilian" clothing boosts morale and helps "de-
institutionalize" the prison. Clothing could be brought in by families or
sold in the inmate canteen, and regulations controlling prices and quality
could be established.
Mail
Full and complete censorship of mail, which is retained in some in-
stitutions, is unnecessary and should be abandoned in favor of a spot-type
censorship or some other modified form. There is no clear relationship be-
tween the type of institution and the degree of censorship. This seems un-
necessary. The rationale that the outgoing mail is read by night shift
officers and therefore is not an inconvenience is hardly a defense for the
practice. It is senseless to do pointless things. If an inmate wishes to
convey an illicit message to a correspondent, he will not normally put it
in an outgoing letter which is to be read, but will find other means. In-
coming mail must be opened and examined for contraband, of course, for the
security of the institution, but the practice of reading everything that
goes in and out is unnecessary and wasteful, and fosters inmate resentment.
Visiting
Visiting arrangements and schedules should be changed in some of the
institutions. At the two reception centers for men, there is visiting by
"phone". This is a highly strained situation which makes it impossible for
more than one member of the family at a time to talk with the newly-arrived
prisoner. The explanation given is that new admissions are not well known
and an open type of visit might present hazards. This position is hard to
defend and is inconsistent with experience elsewhere. In institutions of
two or three thousand population, it is doubtful that the visiting-room
officer knows each inmate well. Visiting is probably more important at the
outset of the inmate's prison life than at any other time. Restricting
communication to the use of these awkward instruments is a highly unsatis-
factory arrangement. It creates a negative impression of the Department
and its administration with the inmate and his family.
Generally the Department's visiting conditions and regulations are
liberal. Many institutions have open areas arranged so that families can
sit and visit with their inmate relatives, and in some they may share pic-
nic lunches. This kind of arrangement should be expanded to most of the
other institutions, at least for minimum security prisons.
- 41 -
Almost all institutions permit visits five days a week, but there is
one notable exception where a shortage of staff is said to allow only three
days of visits. The condition should be corrected so that inmates there
can receive the same visiting privileges as inmates of other institutions.
In all places, visiting opportunities should be maximized on weekends, usu-
ally the only free time available to potential visitors who are employed.
Family or conjugal visiting, tested boldly and successfully by the
Department at its Tehachapi institution, should now be expanded to all in-
stitutions. It is receiving favorable mass media and legislative support,
impressing almost everyone as both humane and rehabilitative, as well as a
source of improved inmate morale. Expansion should still be somewhat cau-
tious, building on experience at Tehachapi, whose staff might well be in-
volved in training others in the administration of this program.
Telephone arrangements which permit collect calls to families and
friends should be installed in more of the housing units in selected insti-
tutions. This feature exists in one major institution and some camps. It
is being used in a few other states with excellent success. There is no
good reason why pay phones or some similar arrangement could not be initiat-
ed in all of the minimum, and at least some of the medium security institu-
tions. Such a program costs the Department nothing and elevates inmate
morale.
Living Arrangements
The Department should move firmly in the direction of the elimination
of all double cells. At the time of this survey, the Department of Correc-
tions was closing what amounted to a full institution and had cut back some
of the forestry camps. It is understood that this is an economy measure;
but it is disturbing to realize that the doubling-up situation, which is
very bad in California and involves over 3,8000 men, 21 will not be improved
at all. There is no need to dwell on the evils of putting two men into
cells scarcely large enough for one. Aside from the homosexual implica-
tions, forcing men to pair up in a small cubicle, double-bunked, in which
there is hardly room for one to turn around, is inhumane. The closing of
any institution is debatable strategy when it results in the perpetuation
of conditions elsewhere that are inhumane and should not be tolerated. It
is argued that the population in walled institutions cannot be reduced be-
cause beds there are needed for the dangerous type of inmate now received.
However, the validity of this contention needs to be demonstrated before
it can be accepted as conclusive. As the Department has argued for years,
California's prison system will remain far from ideal as long as it culti-
vates the illusion that physical restrictions rather than absorbing programs
and good staff maintain order in an institution.
Basic amenities need to be better provided in living quarters. Many
men are living in cells which have only cold water. In several places all
cell furnishings and fixtures are inadequate and tawdry. Living units in
the older walled institutions, and in some not SO old, could benefit from
brighter colors. Bed blankets need not be grey.
- 42 -
In general, a systematic program aimed at enhancing the esthetics of
the institutions would be worthwhile. Some changes would require a fair
amount of expense, but others very Tittle. Bright colored paint is not any
more costly than dull; it has been used effectively in certain places but
not in others. Better lighting can enhance interior areas. (In older in-
stitutions, this is badly needed and would be expensive). Treating hard
surfaces to cut down noise is also desirable. Modesty toilet panels, con-
sistent with security, might be provided in group areas. Inmate-staff com-
mittees are useful sources of suggestion for esthetic decisions. Such com-
mittees improve relationships between the staff and inmates involved, and
give inmates more motivation to maintain the appearance of beautified facil-
ities.
The implementation of humanitarian measures, major and minor, often
involves small things which make life more liveable. This is not simply
generosity. When men dislike their surroundings, they react predictably,
in prison and after they leave.
Staff and Inmate Relationships
Collaborative relationships between staff and inmates should be de-
veloped as much as possible wherever this is at all compatible with other
prison functions. As mentioned earlier, interviews with ex-offenders suc-
cessful in legitimate post-prison careers indicated that they regarded per-
sonal relationships with certain staff, particularly their work supervisors,
as the most important rehabilitative influence. Comparison of inmate-staff
and inmate-inmate relationships in different institutions of many types re-
veals that control of inmates by other inmates hostile to staff objectives
varies inversely with social distance between inmates and staff. 22 When
staff are not readily accessible to inmates, and not trusted, manipulative
inmates can effectively claim to have "inside dope" and contacts to control
the prison life of other inmates, peddle this alleged information and in-
fluence, and promote an inmate code of minimal cooperation with staff.
Inmate advisory councils exist in a few California prisons, with
council members elected by the other inmates for a specified time under a
variety of representation formulas. There is some staff fear of manipula-
tive inmate cliques controlling the councils. Staff clearance or a good
disciplinary record is sometimes required for eligibility to council member-
ship.
In some Federal prisons a more persistently satisfactory system of
organizing an inmate role in institution management is to have inmates and
staff on all regular committees in charge of some aspects of prison life.
These may include committees on sanitation, safety, decoration, and athle-
tics--which affect the conditions of inmate life, and in which inmate cus-
tody or the confidentiality of information on individual inmates is not
jeopardized. Inmates can be informed of budget limitations to which the
committees are restricted, and can often make more useful contributions to
committee work than many staff. More importantly, inmates feel a responsi-
bility for the successful accomplishment of committee objectives, and iden-
tify with staff.
- 43 -
The most important source of good relationships between inmates and
staff is still their daily face-to-face interaction. The best foundation
for good relationships between inmates and staff exists when: (1) inmates
are treated individually and collectively with respect, courtesy, and good
humor; (2) inmates receive opportunities and privileges within the prison
system, irrespective of race, creed or national origin; (3) staff show a
sincere concern about the inmates; (4) inmates can readily and calmly com-
municate with staff; (5) inmates are given the maximum tolerable opportunity
to make decisions for themselves in their daily activities instead of hav-
ing to take orders without question on every detail.
There is no panacea for every type of tension that prison life can
generate--especially the recurrently disruptive homosexual, ethnic and po-
litical tensions--but the five principles above, plus dispersion and absorp-
tion of troublemakers in constructive programs, are the best ways of keep-
ing these tensions minimal.
IX. SUPPORTIVE SERVICES
While the primary business of a corrections system centers on the
handling and treatment of its charges, many supportive services are re-
quired to accomplish this; some are essential to doing the job, others fa-
cilitate it. Personnel services are an example of the former, research the
latter. It is important to examine California's use of some of those ser-
vices which have much to do with the type and quality of overall performance.
Personnel and Training
If correctional programs are to be sound, they must be well staffed.
Personnel throughout the system must be qualified and carefully selected.
Capable employees are not obtained by accident; they must be sought through
effective recruiting and they must be prepared for career advancement through
an ongoing training program. To retain competent people in correctional
service, job satisfaction and promotional opportunities must be available.
The State of California has many essential elements for the develop-
ment of high caliber personnel, including a merit system, good employment
conditions, recruitment, employee development programs, and generally ade-
quate salaries. The organization of the Department is along modern lines,
and there are no major staff shortages. The Department seems to be suffi-
ciently autonomous and independent to be administered soundly.
What a corrections department emphasizes is often revealed by its
distribution of personnel. If a department is overcommitted to the cus-
todial function, for example, it will have a relative excess of security
employees. This is not evident in the California Department. That it
emphasizes rehabilitation is reflected in the number and quality of treat-
ment personnel.
- 44 -
A good staff is developed by good training. There must be both ini-
tial and in-service training for all personnel. The Department's training
funds have been depleted somewhat by a recent legislative action, of doubt-
ful value, requiring almost all institutional employees to receive training
in the use of gas. Only selected persons need this; training funds could
be better used for other matters. In addition, the type and quality of in-
service training varies considerably from one institution to another, de-
pendent on institutional leadership. Only where training receives high
priority is a satisfactory job done. The central office should play a more
prominent role in deciding who is to be trained and what the content of the
training courses should be, to insure that they are adequate at all insti-
tutions. It should clearly define the role of the training officer, since
this role differs from one institution to another, and some training offi-
cers assume the job without any special preparation. Another suggestion is
that more training should be developed for other than custodial personnel.
Some of the other classes of employees complain that they are included in
neither planning nor training, and that training needs of the total insti-
tution are not met.
Ideally, there should be State coordinated correctional training
centers established to provide year-round, comprehensive programs to train
all correctional workers and administrators.
The Department has recognized the value of more minority representa-
tion in the field of corrections, and has increased the number of its minor-
ity employees in recent years. The increase has been small, but it repre-
sents a hard effort at a task that is much more difficult than is realized
by those who have never tried to do it. Not only is corrections lumped
with law enforcement by members of minority groups, but the geographical
location of institutions is often a drawback. In the past years there was
little effort to recruit minorities in any phase of law enforcement, crim-
inal justice, and corrections, so the tradition is lacking. The central
office has assigned staff to attempt to recruit minority group employees
and has instructed the institutions to do the same. Responsibility for
such recruitment effort should be fixed in one person at every prison. The
institutions do not have personnel officers who, in most other organizations,
would be responsible for recruitment and hiring and who ordinarily would be
asked to work on this task. Instead, the responsibility has usually been
diffused, often to all department heads. Therefore, results depend upon
the interest, enthusiasm, and energy of too many people--some busily occu-
pied with other responsibilities. If the head of the institution cannot
personally oversee the matter, he should designate one person or a small
group representing different minorities to assume this responsibility.
Medical Services
Prison medical services are vital, and concentrated attention must
be given to the development of a good program. California has tried to do
this, and any general criticism of its total medical service program is un-
warranted. The medical care and attention given the average California
prison inmate is unquestionably better than that received by the average
citizen.
- 45 -
Each institution has a good dispensary, adequate to its needs, or a
complete hospital. Although medical staff is hard to get and there are
several vacancies, these facilities are reasonably well-manned. Outside
consultants are widely used. The range of medical services is excellent.
In one major respect, the services are more expensive than need be.
More of the prisons have complete hospitals than is necessary. At the time
of inspection, there were only a few bed patients in several of the hospitals.
The Department should consolidate its hospital services. A plan
should be developed to replace some of the hospitals with dispensaries so
that when geographically feasible, some hospitals can serve several insti-
tutions. To keep hospitals fully modern, heavy money outlays must be made
almost annually. To staff each hospital adequately, certain basic person-
nel must be employed. An arrangement almost equally efficient and certain-
ly more economical than the present one would be to make an institutional
hospital responsible for major medical care for two or three nearby insti-
tutions. Several hospitals in the Department can then become dispensaries
with attendant savings. Serious illnesses and major surgery can be handled
by transfer as needed.
It is also suggested that in some locations, community hospitals
should be used in emergencies or as the need arises. This arrangement would
save money. It gives institutions having only dispensaries ready hospital
coverage. The inevitable criticism of prison medical services would be
lessened. No money would be saved, however, if the present practice of
custodial coverage at the community hospital in virtually every case is
continued. This practice is unnecessary and should be used only for seri-
ous offenders.
The renovation of the hospital at San Quentin should be completed.
The state of the project makes any discussion of the wisdom of major reno-
vations at this institution academic. Roughly three-fourths of the work
has been completed, and the money should be provided to complete the pro-
ject. 23
The Department Director of Medical Services reports that Vocational
Rehabilitation money is not being used to supplement the medical budget.
It is urged that this be done. Other states have obtained these funds to
improve the quality of medical services, especially in the areas of pros-
thetics, corrective surgery, and diagnostic evaluation.
Food Service
Mass feeding, in the armed services, prisons or elsewhere, invariably
results in some complaints. Food prepared in large quantities cannot sat-
isfy individual ethnic, religious, or family habits and tastes. Reasonable
criticism is minimized, however, if meals are adequate in quantity, quality,
variety, sanitation, and nutrient value.
California accomplishes this by adhering to recognized principles
and standards of food service, including menu planning, central purchasing,
- 46 -
cost control, maintenance of sanitation practices, and enunciated standards
for preparation and service. All this is facilitated by a food administra-
tor, in the central office, who supervises and reviews the food program.
Technical printed material is distributed to the institutions to help up-
grade knowledge and skills.
One criticism of the Department's food service applies to the sur-
roundings in which meals are prepared and served. This is directly attri-
butable to the often mentioned ill-planned, antiquated structures in the
system. In these facilities the dining rooms are unattractive and the kitch-
en layouts are inefficient and hard to supervise or keep sanitary. Their
use of dining room tables for card playing and other games between meals
impedes maintaining them in a desirable condition.
Surroundings have an enormous influence on morale. Projects to make
the food service areas more attractive should be developed, as responsibili-
ties of inmate-staff committees. Lighter colors, background music, planters,
murals are all possible ways to normalize eating conditions and to make meals
more pleasant.
Research and Data Processing
Research and data processing will be considered together since they
are administratively in the same unit and their functions are closely re-
lated. The statistics section is directly under the Department's Director
of Research.
The principal function of a statistics section is to provide descrip-
tive information about the agency's operations. Usually this is done on a
routine basis. The research component's activities on the other hand, are
primarily evaluative and analytical. There can be no neat line between these
functions, however, as research uses statistical outputs, and may refine
statistical categories.
The products of California's statistics and research sections have a
deservedly high reputation. In both quantity and quality they are unexcell-
ed by other states. The information turned out shows an efficient return
on the investment, so it is not an indictment of the existing activities
to point out that more needs to be done. The investment should be system-
atically and intelligently increased. Until this is done, the Department's
management will be forced to rely too much on intuitive and educated guessing.
Without the facts, the Department is unable to refute charges and criticisms
which may be shallow and unjustified, and it cannot properly answer legiti-
mate questions. Nor can it rationally defend its own needs or plans for the
future. These problems are not hypothetical. Claims are now being publish-
ed to the overall effect that none of the Department's programs has any re-
habilitative value. Without better data, these charges cannot be adequately
disputed. The Department should know what works and what does not, for dif-
ferent types of inmate. Some programs should be discontinued in favor of
others. Resources are too limited to invest them in programs of question-
able value.
- 47 -
Statistics-data processing. The California statistical reports are
designed to be of practical use to the administrator. Data collection and
processing procedures appear to be clear and thorough. Confidence may be
placed in the accuracy of reports which are the end result of this process.
The reports and tabulations are clearly presented--simple but not over-
simplified.
There are, nevertheless, many descriptive tabulations the administra-
tor needs which cannot be provided with the present system. No reports can
be given on program involvement, either in summary form, or by way of track-
ing individuals through the system. "Program" here should be broadly con-
strued as referring to treatment, work, custodial, and residential status.
Program levels cannot be monitored nor programs evaluated. There is also no
satisfactory way to answer many of the routine administrative questions which
may arise: e.g., "How many men are there--today--in trade training courses?
What are their characteristics? What percent complete trade courses? How
many parolees use such training?" These are significant questions; they can
only be answered at present by special studies or by manual routines. With-
out such answers many administrative decisions must be made on the basis of
guesswork. As already indicated in the section on counseling, the conver-
sion of narrative reporting to precoded check-off forms will result in bet-
ter information for both statistics and case decisions.
The existing "unit records" type system should be replaced with a
computerized information system which emphasizes program type data for man-
agement purposes. A change of the kind recommended is not simply, nor pri-
marily, a matter of "adding a computer." It is a mistake to start delib-
eration with the hardware. Normally, the place to start is with a thorough
study of management decisions, categories of data, and their relationship
to decision outcomes and to the kinds of reports needed. California is for-
tunate in that the groundwork for this planning has been laid by its "Cor-
rectional Decisions Information Project" (CDIP), which is soon to issue a
final report. Lacking this report, any endorsements must be tentative.
However, it appears likely that the recommendation being made here could
very well be implemented by adopting the CDIP plans which concern manage-
ment functions. 24 Given high priority needs for construction and increas-
ing operating costs, it is understandable that expansion of information
systems tends to be deferred. However, the continued assigning of low pri-
ority to records-keeping and information systems will mean that twenty years
from now everyone will still be in the dark about what really works and what
does not. There will still be the need for the development of an adequate
system of information. It should be recognized that a truly productive data
system can suggest efficiencies which may defray much of the system cost and
which will put the whole corrections endeavor on a sounder financial basis.
Research. A review of California research reports indicates a high
level of professional quality and a genuine concern that research should
have practical value. The practice, sometimes seen in agency research sec-
tions, of producing reports for someone's thesis rather than to assist the
agency, is not present.
- 48 -
The highest priority for research is also the development of an auto-
mated management information system. Such a system is not limited to the
production of routine reports. Evaluative results can be obtained on re-
quest from an automated information source once it is operational, which
would now take months of laborious data compilation to accomplish. This
facilitation of research is greatly needed. When programs are condemned
for lack of efficacy, it usually only means that no effectiveness has been
demonstrated. This may be mostly due to limitations of resources for eval-
uation. Evaluations done "manually" characteristically take one or more
persons from six months to several years to complete. They cannot econom-
ically include extremely large samples. Under these constraints, it is
obvious that most programs go unevaluated most of the time, and that those
which are evaluated would need to make a large impact to show up as worth-
while. 25
The only feasible solution appears to be to move to automated tech-
niques. The automated data system which has already been recommended should
be designed to include follow-up data along with current data on programs
and offenders, so that separate programs may be evaluated as to their rela-
tive effectiveness for different types of offenders in the long run. Cost-
effectiveness estimates of the long-run economic consequences of specific
programs for different types of offenders should also be undertaken, as this
is probably the most persuasive type of budget justification data.
A somewhat different kind of research, done only on a limited scale
in California Corrections, is systems analytic research. Hard core opera-
tions research techniques have done little in the past to improve treatment
programs in any human services agency, but there is promise of increasing
efficiency by studying logistic and administrative operations. Greater use
of systems techniques should produce savings which can be put into program
improvements.
An additional type of corrections research involves setting up ex-
perimental programs. This is the only rigorous way to test a new technique
or concept, and it is not always very expensive. It is mostly a matter of
limiting a new program at first to a fraction of those considered eligible
for it, selecting this fraction randomly, then comparing the subsequent rec-
ords of those selected with the records of those not selected. Without such
experiments, many promising ideas will never be properly examined for value.
At least some such experimentation should be ongoing--a little less sporadic
than it has been--in the California system. Some funds expended for tradi-
tional programs of unknown value should be diverted into rigorously examined
experimental pilot programs. LEAA money may be available for this kind of
effort.
X.
ADMINISTRATION AND ORGANIZATION
The California Department of Corrections has the essential elements
of sound administration. The enabling legislation is broad and flexible.
The Department is headed by a professional administrator, and there appears
to be no unwarranted political interference.
- 49 -
The Department's administration has a clearly enunciated and progres-
sive statement of philosophy. There are rules and regulations to guide all
institutional personnel. Procedures manuals have been prepared to guide
staff. Planning and research functions are ongoing and considered impor-
tant by the Department.
The operating budget of the Department has been generally adequate.
This is not to suggest that the Department has received all the money it has
needed, particularly in the areas of maintenance and capital outlay. Calif-
ornia's present financial circumstances must certainly have major effects on
the Department's planning and operations.
The Department is staffed by qualified people selected upon a merit
basis. Career personnel from all divisions are eligible for promotion to
all levels of management. Lateral moves in the interest of executive de-
velopment are common.
The principle of "line and staff organization" is followed. There is
division of functions among the staff. The role of the technical specialist,
and there are a good number of them, is recognized, and they are used to pro-
vide specialized guidance and counsel. They do not issue direct orders.
Patently, the Department desires to be progressive. A willingness to
take risks is displayed. Examples include: the 72-hour pass, family visit-
ing programs, and the community centers.
Any department, controlling nearly 40,000 offenders and with 7,000
employees, necessarily has some administrative concerns. Consistency of
philosophy, policies, and practices throughout an organization of this di-
mension is extremely difficult to maintain. Some of the differences among
institutions, however, might be reduced. More specific and definite Depart-
ment-wide standards need to be implemented in certain areas. Policy state-
ments should be reviewed and simply written to eliminate ambiguities.
While institutions can be handicapped if regulations and guidelines
are too detailed and restrictive, some of the suggestions made in this Re-
port might not have been in order had all institutions met similar standards
of practice. For example, there were good in-service training programs in
some places, but not in others. Adjustment center programs and policies
vary more than can be accounted for by differences in the inmate populations,
in physical plant, or custody level; they could be corrected by applying
sound policies more uniformly. The guidelines provided in classification
manuals and directives are often worded in such a qualified and general man-
ner that they can be cited to justify poor as well as sound practices. Where
the institutional administration is highly competent this presents little
problem, but where it is less adequate, standards of performance are usually
lower.
A related problem in institutional - central office relationships may
be that too many layers of authority, individuals and committees, are in-
volved. For example, the admission policy and criteria for the adjustment
centers could conceivably involve the following committees: Adjustment
- 50 -
Center Committee, Segregation Unit Committee, Institution Classification
Committee, Disciplinary and/or Classification Committee of any program unit,
and the Adjustment Center Segregation Unit Sub-Classification Committee. 26
There is the danger that Departmental policies may sometimes misfire in
practice when responsibility becomes this diffuse.
The classification and transfer procedure personnel involvements are
just as numerous. This complex machinery diffuses both control and respon-
sibility and presents communication problems in general. It may widen the
gap between policy and performance.
The lines and responsibilities of administration should be simplified.
XI. PHYSICAL PLANT
Most American prisons have major physical plant deficiencies. They
are either poorly located, too big, too old, or atrociously designed. The
size and location of prisons are often politically determined.
There are few prison facilities with a readily perceptive harmony of
design between the buildings and the philosophy of rehabilitation. The un-
happy practice of adding beds to already badly designed institutions to save
money is common. Such additions are often made to institutions too big to
begin with.
Not surprisingly, the oldest institutional plants are usually worst.
They are not functional, and today's programs do not fit into them. Simple
conforts are often missing. Control measures, such as good locking mecha-
nisms, are usually lacking. Sanitation, simply because of the age of the
institution, is a struggle to maintain. Since there is never enough main-
tenance money for prisons, the deterioration is accelerative. Major re-
modeling is seldom attempted, often because its cost would be prohibitive
if adequate, and often an adequate remodeling is impossible because of the
terrain in the location of other structures.
The unfortunate end result of all this is that a correctional admin-
istration like California's, which tries to be progressive, has to live with
a legacy of inadequately designed institutions which imposes almost insur-
mountable obstacles to achievement of that aim. These handicaps do not go
away; they increase with age.
Changes in Plant Use
Some California institutions are such classic examples of prison ob-
solescence it is hard to believe much good can be accomplished within their
perimeters. There are many serious problems. The following recommendations
are of major import:
- 51 -
1. At the time of inspection, the California Men's Colony, West
Facility, was scheduled to be closed. It is old, of frame con-
struction, and a serious fire hazard. It should never be re-
occupied.
2. Manifestly, San Quentin and Folsom should be abandoned. 27 Several
recommendations calling for improvements in these institutions are
made in this Report. These were included only because there seems
little certainty that these facilities will be closed in the near
future. They should be closed. So long as they exist, they im-
pede California's correctional efforts and tarnish its image.
They are immense, yet do not have adequate space for modern pro-
grams. They are not secure or safe. Decent living conditions
are almost unattainable in them, and they are ugly and depressing.
Any major remodeling, in either facility, would cost many millions
of dollars. If there is a choice between remodeling and a new
facility, the latter choice is by far the better.
3. In the event California builds more prisons, they should be small
in size, located in metropolitan areas, and unlike any of its de-
signs to date. One wonders, when the problems and rehabilitative
results are measured, if large institutions really do save money.
The "telephone pole" design institution, of which California has
several, is impractical and oppressive to the senses, with its
long corridors, repeated doorways, shut-in atmosphere and great
size. Some of California's staff, so long conditioned to compro-
mising by necessity, speak of another California Men's Colony,
East Facility, as the best answer to any needed future construc-
tion. This is an institution of 2,400 men, broken up into four
sections of 600 men each. It is self-deccption to believe that
in all important respects this is like having four small insti-
tutions. Men's Colony, East Facility, is a better design than
its predecessors, but still has serious imperfections. For ex-
ample, major trouble, highly contagious in prisons, would prob-
ably not be contained by this kind of plant, where the housing
sections are contiguous and visible to each other. Also, as in-
mates point out, some buildings (gymnasium, library) used in com-
mon by all four sections are only available once or twice a week
to each inmate. California should not be content to settle for
this type of compromise construction when it has seen what prob-
lems physical plants can present.
4. As will be indicated in the next chapter, California is beginning
to catch up with some other states and with Federal prisons in
the use of community-based penal institutions. The latter are
sometimes called "halfway houses," though this designation is
also applied to residences for parolees and even to homes for
homeless prison and jail dischargees. There are important dif-
ferences in the functions and the administrative problems of
these diverse types of residential institution, despite their
- 52 -
all being labeled "halfway house". Further confounding of prac-
tices with much different implication occurs in California be-
cause of "work furlough". As discussed earlier, "work furlough"
includes 72-hour leaves shortly before parole to enable a pris-
oner to make home and job arrangements, and it also refers to
daily release from prison to work at a job in a nearby community,
starting a few months before parole. In most prison systems
where these practices exist, the former is just called "furlough"
and the latter called "work release".
Community-Based Institutions
The chart on the following page indicates that only two of all Depart-
ment of Corrections' institutions (San Quentin and California Men's Colony)
are conveniently near, i.e., within ten miles of, major population centers.
While this poses serious handicaps to effective reintegration, it can be
partially overcome by developing small, community-based facilities and pro-
grams, notably work furlough and pre-parole residential centers.
There are two major functions of work furlough, in its "work release"
form, of departing daily to a job. These are: (a) for diagnosis, to im-
prove judgment of a prisoner's readiness for parole by observing his behav-
ior on daily release to the community instead of in a unnatural setting of
a prison; (b) for treatment, to accustom him to life outside of prison on a
more gradual basis than occurs if he is abruptly released to almost complete
freedom by parole or by discharge at prison. Work release has been severely
limited in scope by the fact that prisons are usually located in semi-rural
or rural areas where there are not many jobs, and community conditions are
significantly different from those of the metropolitan areas to which most
of the prisoners will return when paroled.
The idea of having a prison system include small residences in the
centers of the large cities, to which its prisoners would in a few months be
paroled, was pioneered in several cities in the early 1960s by the U. S. Bu-
reau of Prisons. In such centers - as in those this Federal agency has op-
erated for nearly a decade in East Los Angeles and also, for a few years,
within the Long Beach YMCA - the residents go out daily to seek jobs and to
work at them. Residents are gradually given more frequent leaves for family
visiting and for recreation. Most important, counseling is focused on the
real and immediate problems of life in the community, rather than--as in
prison--on adjustment to institutional life or on plans or concerns about a
"hypothetical" future. Finally, those in the community residential centers
who misbehave may be dealt with promptly. Depending on the severity and
cause of their infractions, they may be denied recreational passes, be trans-
ferred temporarily to jail, or have their parole date deferred, and--if the
deferral is for an appreciable period--be sent back to prison. Thus, in these
community centers there can be an immediate diagnosis, counseling, and if nec-
essary, disciplinary reaction.
The first community residences of the California Department of Correc-
tions were created primarily for parolees, rather than for prisoners. This
- 53 -
CHART I.
Institutions
Department of Corrections
California Conservation Center
Susanville
Folsom State Prison
Folsom
California Medical Facility
Sacramento
Vacaville
Deuel Vocational Inst
Sonora
Sierra Conservation Center
Quentin State Prison
Tracy
Jamestown
San Francisco
Salinas
Fresno
Correctional Training Facility
California Mens Colony
San Luis Obispo
Bakersfield
California Correctional Institution
Tehachapi
Santa Barbara
California Institution for Men
Southern Conservation Center
Chino
California Institution for Women
California Rehabilitation Center
Corona
Los Angeles
San Diego
California Correctional Institutions for Adults
California Conservation Center, Susanville ** About 310 miles northwest of San Fran-
cisco via Reno: medium-minimum security: 1.200 inmates. special training for inmates
slated for later assignment to an outlying 80-man conservation camp; dormitory hous-
ing; Merle R. Schneckloth, superintendent.
Folsom State Prison, Folsom -- About 15 miles east of Sacramento on High way 50;
state's second oldest prison; cell housing; maximum security; 2,400 inmates; Walter
E. Craven, warden.
California Medical Facility, Vacaville -- On Highway 80 between San Francisco and
Sacramento; psychiatric programming for 1,400 inmates; state's northern reception
center; cells and domitories; L. J. Pope, M. D., superintendent.
Deuel Vocational Institution, Tracy -- On Highway 50 about 60 miles east of Oakland;
medium security; for younger offenders and hard-to-manage juveniles; 1,650 inmates;
cell housing, emphasis on academic and vocational training; L. N. Patterson, super-
intendent.
San Quentin State Prison, near San Rafael -- A half hour drive from San Francisco via
Highway 101, state's oldest and largest prison; medium-close security; 3,900 inmates;
cell housing; L. S. Nelson, warden.
Sierra Conservation Center Near Sonora and west of Yosemite Park; medium-minimum
security; 1,200 inmates; pre-camp training; dormitory housing; Howard Comstock, sup-
erintendent.
Correctional Training Facility, Soledad -- Just off Highway 101 about 25 miles south
of Salinas; a three-unit medium-minimum security institution; 3,400 inmates, each unit
a separate program but joint use of central services; cells and dormitories; C. J.
Fitzharris, superintendent.
California Mens Colony -- On Highway 1 near San Luis Obispo; a two-part institution;
minimum security unit for old men; medium security facility divided into four 600-man
sections under separate program administrators; total of 3,700 inmates; cells and
dormitories; II. V. Field, superintendent.
California Correctional Institution, Tehachapi About 50 miles southeast of Bakers-
field via Highway 466; a two unit medium-minimum security institution for 1,400 in-
mates, heavy emphasis on group living; dormitory housing; G. P. Lloyd, superinten-
dent.
California Institution for Men, Chino About 60 miles east of Los Angeles;minimum
security; 1,300 inmates; unarmed perimeter; location of state's southern reception
center; E. J. Oberhauser, superintendent.
Southern Conservation Center, Chino -- Medium-minimum security; 550 inmates; pre-
camp training; dormitory housing; W. T. Stone, superintendent.
California Institution for Women, near Chino -- State's only facility for women felons;
reception center, psychiatric unit; housing in individual rooms, cottage style design;
900 inmates; Mrs. Iverne Carter, superintendent.
California Rehabilitation Center, Corona -- Inpatient treatment for narcotic addicts in
the state's civil committment program; 2,400 residents includes 325 women; heavy
emphasis on group counseling; dormitory housing; Roland Wood, superintendent.
- 54 -
may have been a serious handicap. A person not yet on parole who gets into
the community corrections center before parole compares himself with his
reference group of inmates still in prison, and therefore, feels rewarded
and obligated by the community center. Conversely, the parolee restricted
to such a center compares himself with the reference group of less-restricted
parolees and resents restrictions there. California's early experience was
with a Federally funded parole residential unit, in East Los Angeles, for
narcotic parolees. It was not spectacularly successful. 28
The State's subsequent experiences with parole residences have been
better, although these centers still have the rehabilitative handicap of
collecting the most difficult parole cases in one place. Since 1970, the
Central Correctional Center in Los Angeles, California, has followed the
Federal pattern, now duplicated by several states, of having a community
residence primarily for a cross section of prisoners in their last few
weeks or months before parole. It also may briefly shelter a few parole
emergency residents, but it functions primarily to assist a cross section
of male and female prisoners to prepare for parole in the Los Angeles area.
It has already repeatedly demonstrated clearly rehabilitative advantages,
especially with difficult cases, during an umusually stressful period of
release from prison (aggrevated by high unemployment rates in the community).
Experience in various parts of the United States has shown that com-
munity correctional centers can operate successfully in a variety of rela-
tively small sizes and in diverse physical settings, including leased or
purchased small hotels, leased sections of large hotels, sections of resi-
dential YMCAs, a few units of a large apartment building and separate family-
type houses. No exact figures can be given for the number of community-based
facilities the California system needs or can use, but it is clear that the
most important type of facility expansion needed by the Department is in a
variety of small community correction centers to facilitate release in all
major cities of the State. 29
XII. SOME DISTINCTIVE PROBLEMS
Any discussion of the present California system should recognize the
problems that are more or less distinctive of this State.
First, as mentioned in the Introduction, no other state approaches
California in number of incarcerated felons. This large number is due partly
to the size of the general population and the State's high crime rate, but
it also results from the long prison terms. A recent inquiry of five com-
parable states 30 revealed that none has median terms as long as those in
California. California generally keeps men about fifty percent longer than
do these other states. Size of the total prisoner population creates a
variety of administrative problems and adds directly to operating expense.
Second, the size of the individual institutions is very great. Most
states have no prison with as many as 1,800 inmates; none has more than two,
except California, which has eight.
- 55 -
Third, California's correctional system, perhaps because of the State's
political climate, is obliged to operate in a flood of publicity. While pub-
lic concern and awareness are essential, prison operations tend to be sensa-
tionalized to an unwarranted extent. In a system of this size more incidents
will occur than in a small system, and each gets considerable publicity, es-
pecially when it evokes a barrage of claims and charges. Such publicity
makes minor events generate tremendous external and internal pressure for
policy change. Isolated occurrences may thereby dominate the prison system
for long periods without reference to the system's total condition and needs.
Little can or should be done to restrict publicity itself, but the publicity
an event receives should not determine its impact on routine procedures.
A fourth matter of current importance is the probation subsidy act.
While this legislation has reduced prison intake, the intake is now alleged
to contain a higher proportion of assaultive individuals and multiple offend-
ers. The true nature of this intake change is not clear, although the in-
crease in problem cases has been emphasized by Department personnel, and it
is partly substantiated by research. Crimes against persons increased apprec-
iably between 1960 and 1968 as a proportion of all grounds for commitment to
prison. There was also an increase of commitments to prison of persons with
three or more prior jail or juvenile commitments. Finally, there was a mark-
ed increase of persons admitted to prison when 20 to 25 years of age--the
peak age range for assaultive crimes--even though median age of new prison-
ers admitted remained constant at just under 32 from 1960 to 1968. 31
It is especially clear that the prison intake has been reduced in num-
bers, far below what had been expected. At present, then, a major problem
arises in planning for the future. Probation subsidy has been expanding, but
it may be nearing its potential limit and it could even be eliminated entirely
if local or legislative dissatisfaction grows. In short, it is a program which
has given the Department of Corrections a much needed breather from new con-
struction, but which now has an uncertain future.
Reduction in the Median Term
The probation subsidy experience has shown that many men can be kept
out of prison entirely. A logical corollary would seem to be that many men
would benefit from less imprisonment. The gap which now tends to exist be-
tween no prison at all and several years of confinement seems indefensible.
There are many advantages to reducing prison terms. Putting these together
suggests the possibility of a broad-scale restructuring of the California
penal system which cannot be accomplished in any other way.
If prison terms were cut back to a median of two years or less, in-
stead of the present 35 months, the count would be cut by at least 8,000 men.
The population would be more amenable to programs of rehabilitation not only
because of the smaller number, but also because of the shorter terms. The
following specific results could be accomplished:
1. Double celling would be eliminated--a decline of 2,000 would com-
pletely eliminate the need for double cells.
- 56 -
2. The walled institutions could be reduced to manageable size and
their worst living units closed. There are several alternatives:
both Folsom and San Quentin could be closed, one closed and the
other cut back, or both reduced to a more reasonable size. These
alternatives are listed in what is probably decreasing order of
cost savings but increasing order of operational convenience.
Secure housing will always be needed for some men, but this should
be available at other California institutions once the prison pop-
ulation is reduced.
3. Camps could be used more widely. When terms are shorter, a larger
proportion of men are near their out dates and hence not so escape-
prone; they can be given camp placement. It has already been sug-
gested that more educational services be introduced into some of
the camps. This would answer one major objection to them from a
rehabilitation standpoint.
4. Community programs could be expanded. This is a distinct need,
and it would be more prominent with a larger proportion of the
prisoners near their release date.
5. Idleness could largely be eliminated. A reduction of institutional
population would reduce the labor force without proportionately
reducing the amount of work to be done.
6. Incidents would be reduced. Much of the frustration and pressure
comes from the long terms. The dissatisfaction California pris-
oners most often express is with the indeterminate sentence, for
knowledge that imprisonment will be for an unknown number of years
is extremely frustrating. The uncertainty would not be so hard to
accept if most men could see a high probability of release in a
few years. A man with a chance to get out soon, if he stays out
of trouble, is much more likely to avoid trouble. Also, the re-
duced count would contribute to keeping order simply by reducing
crowding and the trouble it engenders.
7. Treatment programs could be made more intensive. A small part of
the savings in operating costs from a reduced population would
provide much better treatment programs. School waiting lists
would be eliminated. Caseloads for counselors would automatically
be reduced. Additional space could be devoted to psychiatric beds.
Shortening of terms of confinement is a course of action which all re-
sponsible authorities should work for in California. Those problems now most
urgent would be greatly ameliorated, and at a cost savings.
Neither of two apparent alternatives to this plan are without problems:
1. Modernizing the present system through replacement. The cost, at
over $20,000 a bed for replacement of the walled prisons, would
be enormous. At this rate gradually replacing the 2,800 bed fa-
cility at San Quentin would cost an estimated $56,000,000. Even
- 57 -
then, there is nothing to suggest that new cells would alleviate
many of the existing problems.
2. Marked further expansion of probation. It is suggested that
counties could, to the degree possible, supplement probation with
local community-based institutions, to handle those offenders for
whom state prison is not necessary. However, these local insti-
tutions would have to develop more effective programs and provide
various degrees of custody. Facilities for State charges need to
be smaller and better tied to the communities, but there is also
need for them to be under central professional administration and
program diversification.
It is held, however, that for those offenders who have not yet been
committed to State institutions, there is merit in the development of locally-
operated, community-based programs and institutions. It is believed that the
best treatment for such individuals can be provided at the local level, and
that such effective local intervention should divert offenders from the State
system.
In summary, the best solution (and there is almost no second best)
calls as a first step for the drastic reduction of prison terms back toward
what is elsewhere more customary. It is evident that long prison terms have
not made California any more "crime free."
This change is urgently needed. It should be emphasized that reducing
the count by shortening terms will work to the advantage of prison program-
ming--short termers can be handled more readily and with less secure measures
than the same number of long termers; it will give those committed to prison
more exposure to programs which can do positive good--the illiterate can be
taught to read and write; the unskilled can learn a trade; more of the men-
tally disturbed can receive psychiatric treatment; counseling can be inten-
sified.
It has not been suggested that the indeterminate sentence be scrapped.
Flat sentences do not necessarily solve problems, as other jurisdictions have
discovered. The solution lies in using the indeterminate sentence more wisely,
by a change in parole policy rather than a new criminal code. In no other
way can affirmative action be brought to bear on SO many California prison
problems so economically, so quickly, or so feasibly.
- 58 -
Department of Corrections, Memorandum to R. N. Procunier, et al,
from Marie Vida Ryan, July 31, 1970, State of California.
²Department of Corrections, Training Programs Index, State of Calif-
ornia.
³Study Staff Questionnaire of California Institutions, December 5,
1970.
4 John M. McKee, "Methods of Motivating Offenders", in Proceedings of
the 97th Annual Congress of Correction, American Correctional Association,
(Washington, 1968).
⁵Study staff observations of prison education programs in other states,
notably Wisconsin, reinforce this observation.
6In respect to this issue, a representative of the California Depart-
ment of Human Resources Development reported to the study staff, "Three-
fourths of the men I have interviewed have a strong need of further or ini-
tial vocational training, due to either a total lack of skills, or having
been trained in a trade that is in surplus in the current labor market."
7 Robert M. Dickover, Verner E. Maynard, and James A Painter, A Study
of Vocational Training in the California Department of Corrections, Research
Report No. 40, Department of Corrections, State of California, (Sacramento,
January 1971).
8 Fred T. Hoover, Work Furlough Practices in California, 1968; San
Mateo County Sheriff's Department, (Redwood City, August 1968); California
Taxpayers Association, Work Furlough Programs in California Counties 1967-68:
A Workload Study, State of California (Sacramento, June 1968), California
Council, National Council on Crime and Delinquency, Work Furlough-A Time-
Tested and Tax Saving Program for your Community, (Oakland, April 1966).
⁹Robert M. Harrison and Paul F. C. Mueller, Clue-Hunting About Group
Counseling and Parole Outcome, California Department of Corrections, Research
Report No. 11, (Sacramento, 1964); David Ward, "Evaluation of Correctional
Treatment: Some Implications of Negative Findings," Proceedings of the First
National Symposium on Law Enforcement, Science and Technology (Washington,
D.C.: Thompson Book Co., 1967).
10 Stuart Adams, "The PICO Project" in Norman Johnston, Leonard Savitz,
and Marvin E. Wolfgang, The Sociology of Punishment and Corrections, (New
York: John Wiley and Sons, 1st Edition 1962 and 2nd Edition 1970). Also
published as "Interaction Between Individual Interview Therapy and Treatment
Amenability in Older Youth Authority Wards," in Inquiries Concerning Kinds
of Treatment for Kinds of Delinquents, California Board of Corrections,
(Sacramento, 1961).
11
See J. Douglas Grant and Marguerite Q. Grant, "A Group Dynamics
Approach to the Treatment of Nonconformists in the Navy," Annals of The
American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 322 (March 1959),
pp. 126-135.
- 59 -
¹²Harrison and Mueller, op. cit.
13Francis J. Carney, "Correctional Research and Correctional Decision-
Making: Some Problems and Prospects", Journal of Research in Crime and De-
linquency, Vol. 6, No. 2 (July 1969), pp. 110-122.
14 See: Daniel Glaser, "Automated Research and Correctional Practices",
California Youth Authority Quarterly, Vol. 8, No. 4, (Sacramento) pp. 24-31;
Robert M. Carter, Program Evaluation: One Model and a Program Approach (Pre-
sentence Report) for Probation and Parole, Research Report, Vol. 2, No. 3,
Department of Institutions, Division of Research, State of Washington (Olympia,
April 1969).
15 Department of Corrections Memorandum, State of California, (Sacra-
mento, January 18, 1971).
16 Daniel Glaser, The Effectiveness of a Prison and Parole System,
Revised Edition, (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969), Chapter 5; David M.
Lowson, City Lads in Borstal, (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1970).
17 Department of Corrections, Correctional Industries Operations,
State of California (Sacramento, June 30, 1970).
18 An example of a policy useful in this area is the following:
officers and assignment supervisors may be authorized to assign extra-duty
tasks, forfeit recreation privileges, or order top-lock of minor rule vio-
lators without making a formal report and a consequent disciplinary hearing.
Such penalty can involve no more than one 24-hour period and the shift com-
mander or custody supervisor must be informed in each case. The writing of
a formal report for minor infractions should not be considered until the man
has demonstrated an unwillingness to respond to these techniques. The accused
inmate, however, must always have the right to request a formal report and a
disciplinary committee hearing in lieu of this action.
19 Department of Corrections, Memorandum January 7, 1971, State of
California. 241 men serving disciplinary sentences of 30 days or less; 983
men serving for own protection or protection of others.
20 It is understood that this change will be made shortly.
21 Department of Corrections, Memorandum December 3, 1970, State of
California. The Department is now starting an effort to eliminate all double-
celling by the end of the 1971-72 fiscal year, as a response to anticipated
declines in institutional populations.
22 Glaser, The Effectiveness of a Prison and Parole System, op. cit.,
Chapters 5 and 9.
23 Department of Corrections, Memorandum, February 11, 1971, State of
California.
- 60 -
24 California Correctional Information System: Preliminary Informa-
tion System Requirements NIMH Grant 5 R11 MHo2092-02, (Sacramento: Correc-
tional Decision Information Project, April 1967).
25 Without going into great detail, let us assume that graduates of a
given treatment program are followed up and it is found that half do not get
into further trouble. If in fact 10% of those successes are due to the pro-
gram and would have failed without it, a 200-man follow-up (100 "treatment"
and 100 "control" cases) would nevertheless normally not detect this program
impact. That is, the researcher would conclude that there is "no significant
difference" by standard statistical methods. Since that much treatment im-
pact often is unrealistically high to expect from any single corrections
program, since most programs have much different effects for different types
of prisoner, and since 200 is a large sample, it can be seen that it is dif-
icult to prove correctional programs are effective by traditional research
procedures. The point of this example is that one should not necessarily
conclude that a failure to show significant results for a small-scale pro-
gram follow-up means that the program is useless, especially if the follow-
up research cannot use a rigorous experimental design.
26 Department of Corrections, Inmate Classification Manual, State of
California (Sacramento), Chapter V.
27 Additional support for closure of San Quentin and Folsom may be
found in James Robison, Technical Supplement #2, The California Prison,
Probation, and Parole System, 1969, Office of Research, California State
Assembly (Sacramento, 1969), p. 112.
28 Several research reports have been published on this initial ex-
periment. These include: Gilbert Geis, "The East Los Angeles Halfway House
Two Years Later," in Rehabilitating the Narcotic Addict, Vocational Re-
habilitation Administration, H.E.W., (Washington, D.C., 1966), pp. 231-7;
Sethard Fisher, "The Rehabilitative Effectiveness of a Community Correctional
Residence for Narcotic Users", Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology and Police
Science, Vol. 56, No. 2, (June 1965), pp. 190-6.
29 For additional information about California's community correctional
centers, the reader is referred to the Parole Task Force Report, Correctional
System Study, State of California (Sacramento, 1971).
30Illinois, Ohio, New York, Texas, Michigan.
31 Public Systems, Inc., A Study of the Characteristics and Recidivism
Experience of California Prisoners, (San Jose, 1970) Chapter 2.
CHAPTER IV
PROGRAM HIGHLIGHTS FOR PRISONS
The preceding chapter described the current State of California prisons.
It is appropriate now to undertake a national and even international--revie
of recent trends and programs in prisons, and of influential commentary and
proposals on prison change. The observations are submitted in the hope they
may be helpful to California's prison administration. It is also recognized
that some of the trends and programs discussed may already be planned or op-
erational in California.
I.
PRISON MANAGEMENT AND THE TEAM APPROACH
The "team approach" in prison management may well be the trend that
one should note first. Its necessity is perhaps most lucidly indicated by
the following still valid remarks made a decade ago by Clarence Schrag, in
discussing traditional staff relationships in prison policy formation:
"Frequently persons in highest authority are far removed
from the scene of contact between staff members and in-
mates where the relative worthiness of alternative deci-
sions regarding specific situations are based chiefly on
facts reported by subordinates. Therefore, administra-
tive judgments are sometimes jeopardized by the distor-
tions of fact that tend to occur when reports are repeatedly
reviewed, digested, and passed upward through the ranks of
the administrative hierarchy. In addition, the highest
authorities may be among the last persons to learn about
the impact of their decisions upon the relations between
staff members and inmates
Again, the officers who are most immediately affected by
correctional policies are the ones who play the least part
in policy formation. The task of low-ranking officers is
to carry out orders, not to evaluate them. Feedback, such
as criticism of directives received, is minimized, and in
some institutions no official procedure for such reverse
flow of communication is available. When reverse flow of
critical comment is tolerated, it is not treated as a
matter of policy
Probably the most important recent step in team management is the
change from a single classification committee for an entire institution to
separate treatment teams for the various components of the institution.
Traditionally, the warden or an associate warden chairs the classification
committee which consists of heads of each major staff component--the direc-
tor of education, the director of industries, a chaplain, the chief medical
officer, the senior custodial captain, the psychologist or psychiatrist
(if the institution has one) and perhaps one or two others. The mix varies
somewhat in different institutions, and changes over time in each. The
- 62 -
committee meets for a few hours at intervals which vary greatly in different
prisons. Seldom are these conferences more frequent than once a week; often
they are held but once a month and there are postponements even on such
schedules.
At committee meetings a case file is on hand for every inmate to be
considered and every committee member is given a copy of the latest case-
work report on each inmate. For new inmates, the committee decides on an
individual program of assignments to housing, work, education and other
activities, with reception center proposals presumed to be their first con-
sideration. However, institution needs and the committee's judgment of the
inmate also affect its decisions. For inmates not new to the institution,
the committee may consider proposed changes of assignment, transfers to an-
other institution, recommendations to the parole board, or other matters.
Often the committee gives long-term inmates a routine program reviewed
periodically, but it seldom does this as frequently as once a year.
Under this institution classification committee system, caseworkers
usually divide the inmate population by some randomization procedure, such
as each having all inmates with certain last digits in their prison number,
a procedure scattering their caseload all over the institution and minimiz-
ing the proportion whose prison experience they can observe at first hand.
Actually, the caseworkers seldom leave their offices to obtain information:
they receive copies of disciplinary reports, education reports, medical re-
ports, reports on work performance, and so forth. Usually the work and
conduct assessments describe almost all inmates as "good" or "average",
especially--as is often the case-when they are prepared or filed by inmate
clerks. Finally, the caseworker calls in the inmate for an office inter-
view and this interview is the main basis for his report to the classifica-
tion committee. This report is transmitted to all the top officials forming
the committee, who depend on it for their appraisals of the inmate. Inci-
dently, these reports are also usually their primary basis for appraising
the caseworker, so it is understandable that he often devotes his main at-
tention to polishing the reports rather than to enhancing his influence on
inmates.
As the classification committee considers each inmate, the caseworker
who prepared the report on that inmate is present to summarize his report
orally and to answer questions from committee members. When consensus on
a decision is reached, the inmate is called in and it is discussed--usually
briefly--with him. On some decisions the inmates are not called in. All
of this contributes much to the integration of different staff points of
view, but only in the smallest prisons does it involve, for most inmates,
staff who know them personally. A classification committee often spends
no more than ten or fifteen minutes per year on the average inmate in its
institution.
The classification team system, by contrast, gives each caseworker
a caseload consisting of all inmates in a particular section of the prison's
residential, work or education facilities. If possible, it gives him an
office at his caseload's location. He is part of a team for these inmates,
the team including also the senior line staff of that unit, and lower level
- 63 -
representatives from each of the major staff components--education. medical,
and SO forth. The team may also include or call in line officers dealing
directly with the inmates it is considering, or have a team member consult
these officers outside the meeting. Often a representative of central man-
agement sits in on team meetings, especially when such teams have completely
replaced the institution classification committee. The teams, however, may
coexist with a central committee that considers only those cases on which
a team recommends transfer to another institution or other major action.
The classification team members see each inmate casually almost daily, in
their normal prison life, and know all the inmates and staff in each inmate's
social environment. This places the team members in a much better position
to assess each inmate, to discuss problems with him on the basis of personal
relationships, and to consider his case frequently. The team may be autho-
rized to make most disciplinary as well as classification decisions without
reference to a central committee. This can make large prisons much less im-
personal than they otherwise would be. 2
More team structuring of all unit staff for prison casework decisions
and responsibilities at lower line levels is considered worthy of exploration.
II. INMATE INCENTIVES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Expansion of inmate incentives and responsibilities is the development
most clearly associated with institutional evidence of rapid rehabilitative
change in many inmates. This expansion has both an individual and a group
form. In its individual form--often designated "behavioral modification"--
it is a revival of the nineteenth century "mark system", rendered sophisti-
cated by its new roots in Skinnerian psychology. Programmed education, dis-
cussed in detail in the preceding chapter, is one of its applications.
When this approach is applied to almost all aspects of the inmate's
life, it is often called a "token economy" system. This is best exemplified
at the Robert F. Kennedy Youth Center at Morgantown, West Virginia, and the
E1 Reno (Oklahoma) Reformatory, both in the Federal prison system. Using
plastic "credit cards" or tokens, inmates in these programs are credited with
points analogous to dollars for all education, training and work completed, are
fined for misbehavior, and use their accumulated points to "buy" food, housing,
clothing and recreation. Those without points initially get some "on credit",
which they have to repay when their "earnings" come in; if they run out of
points later they must "go on relief" and are issued without charge only min-
imal and unattractive food, housing and apparel. The objective is to simulate
as closely as possible in the institution the outside world's achievement
motivations, individual responsibility, freedom of choice, and budgeting re-
quirements. While first undertaken at juvenile institutions, it now is being
extended to prisoners in their twenties at E1 Reno and--with Federal research
funds--at Alabama's Draper Rehabilitation Center. Where pioneered in mental
hospitals it has been extended to almost all age levels, and this may follow
in some prisons. 3
- 64 -
The group forms of incentive and responsibility expansion consist of
rewarding or depriving entire groups of inmates, such as dormitory occupants
or work teams, on the basis of the individual behavior of all its members.
This is frequently done through promoting competition between groups for a
limited number of awards, but it can also be done for each group separately,
on the basis of its meeting some specified standard. Such practices of
group rewards and penalties shift from staff to inmate peers the responsi-
bility to see that no inmate shirks his tasks or otherwise misbehaves. The
unit's staff often acquire the role of coach or fellow team-member in rela-
tion to the inmates, helping their unit get benefits (this is similar to
frequent practices in military training).
Group incentives are usually applied to a unit's housekeeping, but
may also extend to other work, to schooling, and to a group's avoidance of
individual disciplinary reports. One staff problem with these group moti-
vation methods is that of seeing that the inmate pressure on those who im-
pair the group's performance record does not become physically violent or
otherwise excessive. Group motivation techniques sometimes convert a dor-
mitory or cellhouse of the most aggressive "troublemakers" into the unit
working hardest to win awards of extra hours, food, television, etc. This
points to another administrative problem with both group and individual
motivation techniques: that of keeping many sources of inmate pleasure--
movies, television, desserts, extra hours, etc.--undistributed in routine
operations, SO that they may be valued as special rewards.
Many object to these special incentive procedures on moralistic grounds.
Some staff argue that if inmates do not take advantage of school and vocation-
al training opportunities made available to them, that is their problem. They
argue that the State's obligation ends when it gives prisoners a chance to
improve themselves. Inmates argue that anything the State provides in the
way of pleasures for prisoners should be equally available to all, and that
the incentive systems for behavioral modification treat them like children
(or more accurately, like trained rats in a psychologist's experiments).
From a public interest standpoint, neither of these arguments is relevant:
what is important is whether or not these systems work. There has not been
adequate long-run follow-up of these methods to assess their recidivism re-
duction value, but there has Deen considerable evidence that they accelerate
prison education and improve conformity of inmates to institutional behavior
standards. California prisons might benefit from greatly improved inmate
incentive and responsibility systems, preferably initiated as well-planned
controlled experiments to test their long-run rehabilitative value.
III. PRISON AND THE COMMUNITY
Making prisons more permeable to outsiders has been a slow but steady
trend for several decades in California and elsewhere. This development
reduces isolation of inmates from the outside world, thus diminishing their
social and psychological difficulties on reentry into the community. Current
and proposed increases in outside visitors to prisons suggests completion of
a cycle in American prison history, possibly including a return to early pat-
terns, subsequently abolished.
- 65 -
The Pennsylvania prisons of the early nineteenth century were dis-
tinguished by a visitors' society of prominent and pious men, seeking to
persuade the offenders to be penitent. Subsequently, prison visiting de-
clined and a more exploitative management, throughout the United States,
brought manufacturers into the prisons to employ the inmates. The manu-
facturer paid the State a fee for this, with the inmates receiving little
or nothing. It was only during the Great Depression of the 1930s that ob-
jection to criminals in prison working, when non-criminals outside were in-
voluntarily unemployed, led to pressure from both business and labor to ban
prison-made goods from public commerce. Federal legislation barring them
from interstate commerce still stands and there are similar laws in most
states.
In the years since World War II there has been an increase in prison
visiting by representatives of religious organizations, self-help groups
(e.g., Alcoholics Anonymous), hobby organizations (e.g. bridge clubs, Toast-
masters) and service clubs (e.g., Jaycees, Kiwanis). All of these efforts
reduce the isolation of prisoners from the outside world and give many of
them contacts after release which launch their socialization into a non-
criminal world. These revivals of prison visiting societies exist in Calif-
ornia as elsewhere, and their growth should be encouraged. Even more im-
pressive is the growth of family visiting, which California is the second
State to adopt. It has long been used in Mississippi, but in a more purely
conjugal form, rather then California's complete family visiting arrange-
ments.
What could bring the cycle completely back to early practices is the
proposal that private corporations contract to run prison industries, reme-
dial education and vocational training. The prison industries suggestions
include payment by the firms of wages comparable to those in their outside
plants, with union membership and seniority rights. The State would then
charge the inmates custodial costs and possibly require an approved allo-
cation of most remaining earnings during imprisonment to savings and/or to
dependents. Firms would obtain space, tax benefits or other inducements to
participate in such undertakings.
The contracted education and vocational training arrangements are
modeled on Jobs Corps and other anti-poverty enterprises, some of which al-
ready have been extended into prisons. These include performance contract-
ing, in which the firm is paid only for the increments in test performance
which result from its efforts.
All such proposals may seem far-fetched in the present climate of
unemployment and business recession. Assuming prosperity returns during
the 1970s, however, and that reduction of U.S. military commitments in-
creases government attention to domestic problems, it is reasonable to con-
sider these types of entry into prisons work by outside agencies. To permit
industrial contracting, legislation may be necessary to modify existing re-
strictions on sale of prison-made goods, but contractor factories could be
constructed adjacent to prisons and employment of inmates be administered
as work release. In any case, California could explore possibilities of
contracting with outside firms to augment the rehabilitative effectiveness
of industries, education and vocational training during imprisonment.
- 66 -
IV. RELEASE FROM PRISON
Graduating release from imprisonment is a long-term trend which has
remarkably accelerated in the past decade and will probably grow even more
rapidly in the 1970s. This began with growth in the proportion of prison-
ers released by parole instead of by discharge at prison, a trend in which
California has long led most other states. It was accelerated by extension
of work release to a large proportion of felony prisoners. This was begun
in 1961 by North Carolina, and was highly publicized. It has been adopted
by many other states--including California--in the ensuing years, and since
1955, by the Federal prisons.
As discussed in some detail in the preceding chapter, the most effec-
tive and complete graduation of release from prison is achieved by community
correction centers in the community of a prisoner's destination upon release,
to which he may be transferred a few weeks or months before his parole.
These facilities already are firmly established as a routine part of the
Federal prison system, they are approaching this status in the District of
Columbia as well as in several state systems, and they are rapidly growing
in others. It seems certain that during the 1970s community correction
centers will become an intrinsic part of most penal systems in states with
large metropolitan areas. Although California has already established some
community correctional centers, the State should plan now for the steady
expansion of such correction centers in all of its major communities.
V. PROGRAM EVALUATION
Routinization of rehabilitation evaluation nas been heralded for
many years, but has been slow in development. One of several major reasons
for this slow growth is the pursuit of police, judicial and correctional
tasks by numerous separate agencies, many in different geographical units
of government.⁴ Evaluation of the rehabilitative effectiveness of any
agency requires the long-run follow-up of its cases through the records of
other agencies that may handle them subsequently, but each agency tends to
evaluate itself only by its performance with offenders during the period
when they are under that agency's control. Thus prisons have been slow in
evaluating their programs by the post-release behavior of their inmates.
When this evaluation has occurred it has usually been on a special project
basis, at high cost and for relatively small samples and short periods,
rather than on a routine bookkeeping basis for all cases.
Improved and more unified electronic data processing of criminal
records has been heavily subsidized by the Federal government in recent
years, primarily through the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration in
such programs as Project SEARCH. While this effort has given highest pri-
ority to accelerating retrieval of individual criminal records for police
purposes, its potential for tabulating criminal career statistics for eval-
uation of legislative, judicial and correctional efforts at crime control
is quite evident. Even when limited to the information included in FBI
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"rap sneets", such a system could readily tabulate many correlates of per-
cent of time reconfined5 for felons released in a past year. This could
provide such information as percent of time reconfined during the three
years following release, for example, of narcotic addicts civilly committed
to a state rehabilitation center as compared with narcotic addicts sentenced
to prison, or of any specific offense group (burglars, robbers, rapists,
etc.) given probation as compared with the same offense group sentenced to
prison, and with each comparison tabulated separately for persons in the
same category of age, criminal record, county of commitment, ethnicity or
time confined before release.
The foregoing types of routine tabulation would be tremendously use-
ful to legislatures, courts and parole boards, as well as to prisons. Data
more specifically relevant to guiding prison policies would accrue if this
unified and computerized criminal record information were linked with rou-
tinely coded data on prison assignment and performance. As indicated in
the preceding chapter, if institution case records were prepared in a large-
ly precoded form, statistical information on prison treatment and perfor-
mance would accumulate automatically, and many treatment personnel could
then deal more with people and less with paper. Linkage of such precoded
prison data with subsequent criminal record information would permit tab-
ulations of percent of time reconfined during the three years after release
of inmates, for example, those assigned to prison industries as compared
to those assigned to full-time school or to those placed on farms or in
forestry camps, and with each comparison tabulated separately for inmates
in the same category of age, prior institutional confinement, criminal
record, educational background and outside work experience. Such routine
tabulations would be of tremendous value for the guidance of classification
decisions and for allocation of prison funds to appropriate programs.
The Bureau of Criminal Statistics in California's Department of Jus-
tice has long held national leadership in the unified collection of criminal
record information. There has been much close collaboration between the
Department of Corrections and the Bureau of Criminal Statistics in some
types of tabulation, but it has not yet been adequately extended to compar-
isons of percent of time reconfined for similar offenders committed to dif-
ferent types of agency, or of such offenders given different treatment with-
in any agency. Evaluative research in California has for too long been
pursued autonomously by the Department of Corrections, Department of the
Youth Authority, and the Bureau of Criminal Statistics, with the latter
much too uninvolved in the tabulations needed to guide correctional policy.
This has resulted in wasting resources and diminishing the usefulness of
evaluative statistics.
It is urged that the State consider:
1. that California's Department of Corrections, Department of the
Youth Authority and Bureau of Criminal Statistics unify their
tabulations of statistics for the evaluation of correctional
policies, including sentencing and parole policies;
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2. that the resulting tabulations use a criterion of percent of
time reconfined, and convert its findings to estimates of the
relative long-run costs and effectiveness of alternative policies;
3. that the Department of Corrections develop precoded case record
forms to serve simultaneously both operational requirements and
evaluative needs, and that information from these forms be in-
tegrated with unified evaluative statistics from the preceding
recommendations.
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FOOTNOTES
¹Clarence Schrag, "Some Foundations for a Theory of Correction", in
Donald R. Cressey, (ed.) The Prison, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winton,
1961), p. 337.
2For further discussion see: Daniel Glaser, The Effectiveness of a
Prison and Parole System, Revised Edition, (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill,
1969), Chapter 8; Charles R. Hagan and Charles F. Campbell, "Team Classifi-
cation in Federal Institutions", Federal Probation, Vol. 32, No. 2 (March
1968), pp. 30-5.
3 See: Teodoro Ayllon and Nathan Azrin, The Token Economy: A Moti-
vational System for Therapy and Rehabilitation, (New York: Appleton-Century-
Crofts, 1968).
⁴For other factors in this slow growth see: Peter G. Garabedian,
"Research and Practice in Planning Correctional Change", Crime and Delin-
quency, Vol. 17, No. 1 (New York: National Council on Crime and Delinquency,
January 1971), pp. 41-56.
⁵Advantages of this measure as a statistical index of rehabilitation,
especially as a basis for cost-effectiveness estimation, are discussed
briefly in Daniel Glaser, "Five Practical Research Suggestions for Correc-
tional Administrators", Crime and Delinquency, Vol. 17, No. 1 (New York:
National Council on Crime and Delinquency, January 1971), pp. 32-40,
especially pp. 33-4.
CHAPTER V
A MODEL FOR PRISON OPERATIONS
General principles that constitute an abstract model for guidance of
prison operations are presented in this chapter as one way of summarizing
the implications of this Report.
I. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
The primary mission of corrections, which it shares with law enforce-
ment, is to reduce crime. The specific goals of prisons are incapacitation,
deterrence, and rehabilitation. Prisons contribute to crime reduction if
the confinement they impose incapacitates persons who otherwise would commit
serious crime, and if rehabilitation occurs during confinement. Deterrence
is achieved more by certainty than by severity of penalties beyond a minimum
severity already exceeded in most prison cases through concern with incapaci-
tation. Therefore, reduction of crime by deterrence depends more on the
efficacy of the police and the courts than on prisons. Incapacitation is
much more readily achieved than rehabilitation, and the necessity for inca-
pacitation is determined by the extent of failure in rehabilitation. There-
fore, the primary problem confronting prison management is that of increas-
ing rehabilitation.
Two major constraints affect the pursuit of prison goals, the need
to be numane and the need to be economical. Prisons must necessarily re-
strain the liberty of those deemed likely to commit serious crimes in the
community. Any further restraint of a prisoner's rights to individual dig-
nity and autonomy must be imposed only to the extent that is absolutely
necessary to assure the rights and security of others, in and out of prison.
The need to be economical should first be balanced against the need
to provide decent and humane living conditions and sustenance. After this
minimal level, economy should ultimately be guided by an estimate of the
total social costs of alternative policies that affect rates of rehabilita-
tion. Every thousand dollars spent for rehabilitative services per prisoner
per year should be weighed against the best available evidence that research
can provide on the extent to which this expenditure will, in the long run,
achieve a thousand dollars worth of social benefits. One should evaluate
rehabilitation expenditures by estimating how much they:
1. reduce the time necessary to incapacitate prisoners;
2. increase the prisoners' employability and payment of taxes after
release;
3. reduce the total social costs of crimes to victims, and the cost
of law enforcement, adjudication, and incarceration, through
reducing recidivism;
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4. reduce the public's cost in supporting the dependents of prisoners,
and the social and psychological harm done to these dependents by
imprisonment of family heads or their spouses.
II. FUNCTIONS
The functions of prisons, to achieve the goals and objectives outlined
above are:
1. To restrict the freedom of inmates by physical barriers and sur-
veillance whenever these are necessary for reasonable assurance
that a prisoner will not escape or endanger prison order, but to
employ no closer degree of custody than this minimum necessity,
and to maintain security by engendering and recognizing trust-
worthiness whenever possible.
2. To make the reception, diagnostic and orientation process for newly
admitted prisoners contribute to rehabilitation by continually
following up cases to check on the relevance of reception reports
and recommendations, and by making the duration of the reception
process no longer than necessary.
3. To operate prison schools so that they provide:
a. individualized instruction that maximizes each prisoner's
rate of learning, while constructively taking into account
the inmate's prior educational experience, his personal
characteristics, and his cultural background;
b. both tangible rewards and, where possible, widely acceptable
credits and diplomas, to an extent that is contingent on the
student's educational progress in prison;
C. group relationships among students and teachers that promote
a climate of learning for all;
d. the foregoing in either full or part-time study, for all
prisoners.
4. To provide vocational training for inmates in all fields in which
their post-release employment or subsidized training opportunities
would be significantly increased by the amount of such education
that can readily be completed during their minimum probable term
of imprisonment, and to provide it in the manner specified by the
preceding statement on prison schools.
5. To make all the work of prison maintenance and industries a part
of vocational training programs wherever this is both feasible
and compatible with the preceding statement on vocational train-
ing.
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6. To collect, analyze and disseminate regularly information on the
post-release utilization of prison education and training.
7. To assign inmates as quickly as possible to the programs which
contribute most to their rehabilitation.
8. To make prompt, personal counseling available to all inmates
when they desire it, from a counselor who is or can readily be-
come familiar with their individual circumstances in and out of
prison, and to supplement this by group counseling whenever this
seems useful for rehabilitation or for increasing inmate adjust-
ment to prison life.
9. To assign classification, planning, and disciplinary responsi-
bility for each inmate primarily to small committees of those
staff who have most daily contact with the inmate, but include
representatives of all major functional components of staff
(e.g., custody, work supervision, counseling, education, etc.).
10. To provide adequate clinical psychological and psychiatric ser-
vices for that minority of inmates whose mental condition clearly
justifies such service.
11. To provide appropriate facilities for congregate worship and the
services of qualified chaplains for inmates of all faiths at
every prison.
12. To provide libraries at each institution, stocked liberally with
good books appealing to a wide variety of inmate interests, and
supervised--at least partly--by trained librarians.
13. To provide inmates with organized recreational activities of
types conducive to legitimate use of leisure time and to parti-
cipate in non-criminogenic recreational groups in the community.
14. To facilitate and encourage inmate involvement in community rec-
reational activity, where practicable, including games, shows,
and contests in prison with guests from outside, and temporary
release of selected inmates for such activities in the free
community.
15. To operate prison industries in a manner which simulates outside
industrial working conditions as closely as possible, but is
integrated in the institution's total rehabilitation effort, so
that its primary objective is to provide the work experience and
training which will contribute most to the post-release employ-
ment of its inmate workers.
16. To maintain custody, order and discipline among prison inmates
by preventive measures, especially reducing hostility of inmates
toward staff and reducing the unity of those inmates who are
hostile, but including also appropriate planning, equipping, and
training for staff control in any potential disturbance.
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17. To encourage and facilitate inmate communication by letter,
phone, and visit with all outside persons not known to be prob-
able collaborators in crime, and to encourage especially communi-
cation with persons believed to have a rehabilitative influence.
18. To provide decent, esthetic, and--when desired by inmates or re-
quired by management--private accommodations for inmates, with
inmate involvement in the decoration and arrangement of their
housing within acceptable limits from the standpoints of cost,
taste, and security.
19. To promote staff-inmate collaboration in decisions on prison life
and friendly personal relationships between staff and inmates, as
long as this is compatible with essential standards of staff ser-
vice, fairness and control.
20. To recruit and continually train competent employees for all re-
quired staff functions.
21. To provide all inmates with the medical and dental care necessary
to keep them in good health and to correct any of their remedi-
able physical defects or handicaps.
22. To serve nourishing and palatable food to all inmates in an at-
tractive manner and setting.
23. To employ an automated management information system yielding
both descriptive and evaluative statistics on inmate and staff
characteristics and activities.
24. To evaluate treatment programs and policies by controlled experi-
ments wherever possible.
25. To issue clear administrative guidelines delineating the responsi-
bilities of all units and positions in as simple and precise a
manner as possible.
26. To graduate the release process by maximum development of com-
munity correctional centers as well as by work release and fur-
loughs.
5.