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    "title": "Report, October , 1949",
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        "Safety Light Collection",
        "Records Related to Radium Dial Painters"
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    "ocrText": "AN ANALYSIS OF THE MINERAL RADIUM\nRadium, an alkaline earth metal, is one of the\nmost important of the radioactive elements found in nature.\nThis is due to its relatively long life and the fact that\nit 1s the parent of & series of radioactive elements which\nemit minute particles of matter or radiations, useful\nindustrially and therapeutically. Radium was discovered by\nProfessor and Madame Curie in Paris in 1898 as the result\nof attempts to identify the source of invisible radiations\nwhich affected unexposed photographic plates.\nA radioactive element 1s an element which possesses\nthe chemical and physical properties of the normal, stable\nelement, but differs in that & portion of it, as a conse-\nquence of the emission of rays or particles, 1s continually\nundergoing a change, at a fixed and determinable rate, into\nother radioactive elements, until 8 series of disintegrations\nis completed and the final element is non-radioactive. This\nseries of changes is called \"a disintegration series\". In\nit each element is the parent of the one which follows and\nthe child of the one which precedes it. Starting with the\nelement radium, such R. \"disintegration series\", comprising\nnine successive changes, ultimately results in the non-\nradioactive element, lead.\nThis series of disintegrations is the result of\nsap\nthe emission by the parent element and the succeeding\nelements of alpha, beta and games particles or rays.\nThe alpha and beta rays are tiny particles of matter\nwhich may be weighed and measured, while the gamma ray,\nhaving no mass, is & pure ray as distinguished from a\nparticle of matter. The alpha ray has only a slight\npenetrating quality, for it will not even pass through\na cigarette paper. A beta ray has greater penetrating\nquality, as it will pass through a thin wall of glass.\nThe games ray has a very strong penetrating quality,\nand requires B considerable thickness of lead to stop\nit.\nof the 96 known basic elements forming matter,\nradium is number 68. Every element is composed of atoms,\nand, since radioactive characteristics involve atomie\nchanges and atomic changes produce different elements,\nthe atomic structure is important in understanding the\nemergence of new elements in a disintegration series.\nThe atom consists basically of a compact cen-\ntral portion known as the nucleus, composed of positive-\nly charged electrified particles, called protons, and\nneutral particles consisting of closely bound positive\nand negative particles, called neutrons. Revoling about\nthis central nucleus, and not unlike our own solar system,\n-2-\nadp\nare electrons, negatively charged particles equal in num-\nber to the protons in the nucleus. The number of protons\nis constant for the atoms of any given element, determines\nthe chemical chsracteristics of the element, and any change\nin this number produces 6. new element. The emission of\ncharged particles from a redioactive element takes place\nfrom the nucleus of the atom, and the atom from which the\nparticle is emitted becomes an atom of a new element, dif-\nfering in characteristics and properties from the parent\nelement. For example, an alpha particle is itself the\nnucleus of the helium atom carrying a double charge, and\nconsists of two protons and two neutrons. Its emission\nfrom the nucleus of an atom produces & new atom having\ntwo less protons and two less neutrons in the nucleus, and,\ntherefore, also two less electrons in the orbits. Again,\nthe emission of a beta particle (which is a negatively\ncharged particle or electron) from the nucleus results in\nan increase in positive charges in the nucleus and an atom\nof & new element is produced.\nRadium is in the so-called uranium-radium-lead\ndisintegration series, which embraces 15 members and 8\nseparate and distinct elements. Uranium is the original\nparent, radium is the sixth member, and lead the last.\nThe entire series is as follows:\n-3-\nElements of the Radium Family\nOn the basis of ore at radio-\nactive equilibrium containing\n1 gram of radium the following\nquantities of radioactive ele-\nAtomic\nments are present in the ore at\nElement\nNo.\nRadistion\nHalf Life\nany one point of time\nUranium I I (Uranium 238)\n92\nAlpha\n4.67 X 109 yrs.\n3000kilograms\nUranium x1 (Thorium 234)\n90\nBeta\n24.6 days\n0.04 milligrams\nUranium I2 (Protosctinium\n234) 91\nBeta\n1.15 min.\n0.0013 micrograms\nUranium II (Uranium 234)\n92\nAlpha\n2 X 10⁶ yrs.\n1.18 kilograms\nIonium (Thorium 230)\n90\nAlpha\n6.9 x 10⁴ yrs.\n41 grams\n**\nRadium (226)\n88\nAlpha\n1590 yrs.\n1 gram\nRadon (222)\n86\nAlpha\n3.85 days\n6.25 micrograms\nRadium A (Polonium 218)\n84\nAlpha\n3.0 min.\n0.0034 \"\nRadium B (Lead 214)\n82\nBeta*\n26.8 min.\n0.030\n#\nRadium C (Bismuth 214)\n83\nBeta&Gamma\n19.5 min.\n0.022\nIf\nRadium C' (Polonium 214)\n84\nAlpha\n1\nVery small\n10,000 sec.\nRadium D (Lead 210)\n82\nBeta&Ganna\n16 years\n918 milligrams\nRadium 8 (Bismuth 210)\n83\nBeta\n5.0 days\n8.1 micrograms\nRadium Pre (Polonium 210)\n84\nAlpha\n140 days\n0.22 milligrams\nRadium G (Lead 206)\n82\nStable\n* Evidence of weak Gamma radiation, but not used.\n** Evidence of weak Beta and Gamma radiation, but not used.\n-4-\nadp\nUnder the heading \"Flement\", the original name is\nfirst given, followed, in parentheses, by the more accurate\nname; the number following indicates the atomic weight of the\nelement in the physical scale of element weights. Thus radium\nA is not radium at all but is the form of the element polonium\nhaving an atonic weight of 218, and commonly known as polonium\n218. The designation alpha, beta and gamma indicates the type\nof the particle or ray emission of the respective element.\nAs the table indicates, radium itself emits only\nthe alpha particle in usable quantity, while the other radia-\ntions are emitted by the decay elements, which are separate\nelements differing in chemical and physical properties from\nradium. Due to the disintegration caused by the ray emission,\none-half of any given quantity of & radioactive element changes\ninto the next succeeding element over & given, though varying,\nperiod of time, known as the \"half life\". Thus, in the above\ntable, one-half of a given quantity of radium changes into radon\nover a period of 1590 years. The radon 8.9 it comes into exist-\nence immediately starts to disintegrate and one-half the radon\npresent at any one time becomes radium A (polonium 218) in only\n3.85 days. This division of the element continues into the next\nsucceeding element over varying periods of time, as shown in the\ncolumn captioned \"Half Life\". Thus, there is a constant activi-\nty within the series, resulting in the appearance of new elements\nin accordance with a definite and known time schedule.\nThe final column in the table above indicates the\nquantity at any one point of time of the several elements\n-5-\net\nin the ore, assuming the ore is at radioactive equilibrium.\nRadioactive equilibrium exists when all of the radioactive\nelements in the disintegration series are breaking down as\nrapidly as they are being formed. Thus, ore containing one\ngram of radium would contain 3,000 kilograms of uranium I\n(uranium 238), .04 milligrams of uranium X1 (thorium 234), etc.\nThe minerals containing uranium, and, therefore,\nradium, are pitchblende (originally discovered in Czechoslo-\nvakia) and carnotite (in the western United States). In\n1920, a rich grade of pitchblende was found in the Belgian\nCongo, and, in the early 1930's, another was discovered\nin the Great Bear Lake region of Northwestern Canada.\nSince the early 1940's, virtually the entire world's supply\nof radium has come from uranium ores mined in Canada and\nthe Belgian Congo.\nThe actual weight of radium present in the ore\nis exceedingly small. There is only one part radium to\neach 3,000,000 parts of uranium I (uranium 238). The method\nof extracting the radium consists of four major steps origi-\nnally worked out by Madame Curie. As the process exists today,\nthe chemical treatments involved are directed toward the ex-\ntraction of the element barium, since barium appears in work-\nable quantities, has chemical properties almost identical to\nradium, and carries the radium with it throughout the initial\nprocessing. First, the uranium ore is treated with sulphuric\nacid which dissolves the uranium, and the radium and barium\n-6-\net\nin the form of insoluble sulphate salts are removed from the\nsolution; second, these sulphate salts are treated to remove\ncertain impurities and are then converted into an acid soluble\nform and additional impurities are removed; third, these salts,\nwith the impurities removed, are converted into radium and\nbarium chloride or bromide salts; and, finally, the radium\nand barium are separated by a process of fractional crystal-\nlization, resulting in a radium bromide salt of approximately\n90 to 98% purity. This bromide salt is in the form of a white\ncrystalline powder.\nThe only method of determining the quantity of\nradium present in the radium bromide salts is by measuring\nthe intensity of the emitted radiations. The redium in the\nbromide salts emits only the alpha radiation, the intensity\nof which does not permit of sccurate measurement because\nthe alpha ray has only a very slight penetrating power. But\nthe gamma rays, which have a strong penetrating power, permit\nof accurate measurement, and accordingly, the quantity of\nradium is determined by measuring the gamma radiation from\nthe decay elements in equilibrium with the radium. The\ngamma ray is not emitted in the series of disintegrations\nuntil redium C (bismuth 214) is reached. Starting with\nradium in the form of the bromide salts, the next element\nis radon, a gas, and unless the bromide salts are sealed\nthe gaseous radon will be dissipated in the air, thus\n-7-\npreventing the accumulation of the decay elements. So, as\na first step in measuring the amount of radium present, the\nbromide salts are enclosed in & sealed tube or container, thus\nretaining the radon gas and assuring the accumulation of the\nelements of the disintegration series and the ultimate appear-\nance of bismuth 214. This process of disintegration to a point\nwhere the gamma rays are emitted at maximum intensity requires\nabout 30 days, and, accordingly, the bromide salts, after seal-\ning in tubes, are allowed to \"age\" for approximately that period.\nAt the end of the 30 days, the intensity of the gamma radiation\nis measured, and by this measurement the quantity of radium\npresent in the bromide salts is determined with accuracy.\nThus when the radium reaches the stage of radium\nsalts in & sealed tube, it for the first time emerges as a\nform of radium which can be measured and valued, and so is\nsusceptible of being sold and purchased in trade. But in\nthis form the radium salts have no \"use\" of any character.\nThat which is useful 1s not the radium or the radium salts\nbut the radiations which radium and its succeeding decay\nelements emit in the form of particles or rays, controlled\nby means of & proper container or carrier désigned to make\navailable the selected ray for the particular use desired.\nSince use of any character depends upon the controlled radia-\ntions, the presence of a container or carrier is essential as\na condition of any use. Aside from affording protection from\n-8-\ndangerous exposure of the personnel involved in the use,\nthe function of the container or carrier is two-fold, to\nfix the quantity of the radium and its decay elements need-\ned in the particular use and to screen and control the\ncharacter of the desired radiation. These require a high\ndegree of precision in the process.\nThe Major Uses of the Rediations.\nThe classes of uses to which the radiations are\nput, mainly seven in number, indicate the essential fune-\ntion of the carrier or container in rendering the radiations\nuseful:\n1. Radium needles, emitting only gamna and hard\nor penetrating beta radiations. The needles vary from 3/4\ninch to 1 inch in length. They may be used either intern-\nally or externally for the treatment of various types of d1-\nseased tissue, such as cancer or similar growths. Treatment\ninvolves insertion of the needle into the diseased tissue and\nexposure of such tissue to regulated amounts of beta and gasina\nradiation of known penetrating power. The control of quality\nof radiation must be obtained by the proper design and dimen-\nsions of the needle. The needles consist of a pointed hollow\nmetal cylinder, usually platinum or platinum-iridium, filled\nwith a radium salt. The wall thickness is closely controlled\nso that only gamma radiation and beta radiation of & known\n-9-\nand desired minimum energy is capable of penetrating the wall.\nThe length and diameter of the internal cavity are also varied\ndepending upon whether a short, compact, or long, narrow source\nof radiation is required. After filling, all needles must be\nsealed to prevent escape of radon gas, since beta and gamma ray\nemission is dependent upon retention of radon and the succeeding\ndecay elements.\n2. Radon Seeds. The radon seed is a small hollow\nradon gas filled gold tube from 1/32nd inch to 1/16th inch\nin dismeter. The radon seed is used as & substitute for the\nradium needle and like the radium needle it emits gamma and\nbets radiations. The seeds are used usually for internal ap-\nplication on diseased tissue. They are inserted by incision,\nthe incision is closed and the application is thus permanent.\nThe wall thickness is so controlled as to give mechanical\nstrength and yet a minimum shielding for the beta ray. The\nradon gas is under high pressure so as to provide high con-\ncentration of radiation with B minisum volume. The choice\nof the metal container is important where the seeds are used\nas permanent implants in the tissue.\n3. Bets plaques for treatment of skin diseases.\nAs the name indicates, these plaques are designed to provide\nan intense source of beta radiation with a minimum of gamma\nradiation. They consist of a flat container, either circu-\nlar or rectangular, usually with & surface area of one to\n-10-\nfour square centimeters. One surface, behind which the\nradium salt mixed with a binder is applied, consists of a\nthin metal face or window usually about one-tenth millimeter\nthick. The thickness of this face is varied to control the\nquality of the radiation emitted. Uniformity of distribu-\ntion of the radium salt, to prevent internal absorption,\nand control of the binder, are important in obtaining radia-\ntion control. Containers must be gas tight to prevent radon\nloss and the face must be of a metal which has mechanical\nstrength when produced in form of an extremely thin sheet.\nPlaques are applied directly to skin, eye or other parts of\nbody and radiation covers wide area with shallow penetration.\n4. Gamma ray radiography capsules. These capsules\nare used for the detection of flaws in metal plates, casting,\nand welds. The technique is similar to x-ray radiography,\nand results in & photograph or shadowgraph of the flaw. The\neffectiveness of the radiographic technique depends upon the\npresence of an intense, constant source of gamma radiation of\nminimum physical dimensions, extreme compactness, proper\ngeometric shape, and uniform radiation intensity. These pro-\nperties are obtained by conversion of the radium bromide salt\ninto a chemical form occupying the minimum volume for & given\nradium concentration, compressing to reduce the volume further,\nsealing into an air tight metal capsule of suitable geometric\nform thereby assuring the retention of radon gas and the other\ndecay elements, and finally, sealing the capsule into an outer\n-11-\nadp\ncontainer of such shape as to assure uniformity of radia-\ntion strength.\nThe chemical and mechanical steps necessary in\nthe processing involve dissolving the soluble redium bronide\nsalt in water, adding & soluble sulphate salt to form in-\nsoluble radium sulphate, filtration or evaporation of the\nsolution, and the drying and complete dehydration of the\nradium sulphate. The dried salt is then put into & pro-\nperly designed metal container, usually a cylinder having\na dismeter equal to its height, and then densely packed\nor compressed. The container is then soldered or brazed\nto make it air tight and inserted into at larger container\nof aluminum or steel which may be spherical, egg-shaped,\nhexagonel, or some other regular geometric form. The outer\ncontainer is designed to facilitate manipulation and. also to\nassure unifors radiation intensity.\nMinimum volume of radiation source is important\nbecause of the need of using as close to a point source as\npossible in order to improve the sharpness of the picture.\nUniform radiation emission is important to achieve uniform\nexposure of the photographic film. Air and gas tight seal-\ning 1s essential to retain the radon and thus the decay element\nbismuth 214 which emits the gamma ray, and such sealing must be\nperfect to assure constancy of radiating strength after radio-\nactive equilibrium is reached. Immediately after the espsule\n-12-\nis prepared, little or no game radiation is emitted since\nat that time there are only negligible quantities of the\ngamma ray emitting element present. A period of thirty\ndays must elapse before the meximus quantity of this ele-\nment comes into existence and maximum games ray strength\nis reached.\nThe finished capsule 10 usually designed so that\nremote handling is possible and needless exposure of per-\nsonnel avoided. This may involve a magnetic eapsule or\na capsule with provision for attachment of & chain or long\nhandled support.\n5. Neutron sources utilizing alpha radiation.\nThese sources consist of an intimate sixture of finely pow-\ndered beryllium metal and metallic redium or radium salt,\nsealed in & heavy walled, gas-tight metal container. Neu-\ntrons, that 1s, neutral particles which penetrate heavy\nmetals with ease and which also penetrate the nucleus of\nan atom, causing fission or disruption of the atom, are\nsmitted by beryllium when bombarded by alpha particles.\nIn preparing 4: neutron source, several steps are\nrequired. First, the soluble radium bromide salt is dissolv-\ned in water. Then either of two methods may be followed. A\nfinely divided beryllium powder may be added to the solution\nand the water removed by evaporation, thus depositing the\nradium salt on the beryllium crystals. Or, to the radium\n-13-\nsdp\nbromide solution a soluble sulphate salt any be added, caus-\ning the radium bromide to change into radium sulphate - an\ninsoluble salt. If the latter method be followed, the radium\nsulphate is removed from the water by filtration, is dried,\nand added to the beryllium powder.\nNext, the radium coated beryllium powder is placed\nin a metal capsule having an internal cavity which confines\nthe powder in B. minimum space and of dimensions approaching\n& point source, and & threaded eap is inserted into the cap-\nsule which is soldered or sealed air and gas tight. Efficiency\nof source is dependent upon purity of beryllium powder, parti-\ncle size of powder, uniformity of distribution of radium or\nradium salt, and type of radium salt.\nThese sources are used as & source of neutron radia-\ntion for producing artificially radioactive elements. in ex-\nperimental work, such as the adaption of atomic energy for\npeacetime uses, and for producing radioactive elements useful\nin the field of medicine, such as radioactive iodine; they are\nalso used for the \"logging\" of oil wells, that 1s, the location\nof oil bearing strata. The industrial use of the alpha ray in\nneutron sources, primarily in the well logging industry, re-\nquires about the same quantity of radioactive material annually\nas does the use of the gamma ray in gamma ray radiography, dis-\ncussed above.\n-14-\nFor many of the purposes for which neutron sources\nare employed, it is essential or desirable that the alpha,\nbeta and gamma radiations be screened to the maximum practic-\nable extent. The container thus serves not only to maintain\nthe precisely measured quantities of radium and beryllium in\nclose proximity to produce the desired volume of neutrons but\nalso to screen as far as practicable undesirable radiations.\n6. Luminous compound using the alpha radiation.\nIn this compound the radium salt is distributed in & thin\nlayer over a surface of crystalline zine sulphide phosphor\npowder so that no shielding other than the internal shield-\ning of the radium salt exists, thus permitting the alpha\nradiation to impinge directly on the phosphor surface. It\nis this resction of the alpha radiations upon the sine sulphide\ncompound which produces the effect of luminosity. The compound\nis used for the illumination of clock, watch and instrument\ndials, pointers and various instrument components. This is\nthe compound which the Radium Company produces under the\ntrade name of \"Undark\".\n7. Alpha Radium Foils commonly known as radio-\nactive foils. These foils are a series of thin metal sheets.\nThe first or base sheet is of silver, about 5/1,000 of an inch\nthick. Upon the silver is welded a series of gold foils, the\nfirst of which 1s non-radioactive gold, the second, gold 1m-\npregnated with radium salts, and the third, a non-redioactive\n-15-\ngold. These layers run from 2/100,000 to 4/100,000 of en inch\nin thickness. In preparing the foils, the following steps are\ninvolved: the soluble radium bromide salt is dissolved in\nwater, & soluble sulphate salt is added to the solution to\nproduce insoluble radium sulphate which is removed by filtra-\ntion or by the evaporation of the water and is then dried.\nThe dried radium sulphate is added to a finely divided gold\npowder and the powder containing the radium sulphate is com-\npressed into a block. A sandwich consisting of a layer of\nsilver, & layer of gold, a layer of gold containing radium\nsulphate, and another layer of gold is prepared, and made into\n& single compact unit by heat and pressure. This unit is then\nrolled until the silver and various gold layers reach the dimen-\nsions described above. Over the entire foil is plated B layer\nof nickel which is from 2/100,000 to 4/100,000 of an inch in\nthickness.\nThe radium foils are widely used in industry for\nthe ionisation of air or other gases in order to eliminate\nfrictional static electricity, such as in the textile in-\ndustry, the plastics industry, and in the paper and printing\nindustry, and also for the activation of phosphorescent mater-\nisls, such as in the illumination of reticules, and for any\nother application requiring alpha radiation or the effects\nproduced by alpha radiation, such as in radio tubes. The\ncontainer wall comprising all of the gold layers must be\n-16-\nadp\nthinner than the thinnest commercial gold leaf in order to per-\nmit penetration of the alpha ray, yet gas-tight and strong enough\nmechanically to retain the radium salt.\nIn summary, it will be noted that the various proces-\nsing steps outlined above which are necessary in making avail-\nable the particular radiation desired follow a closely related\npattern. The processing, depending upon the ultimate use, may\ninvolve a chemical processing, a. mechanical treatment, or simply\na physical trensfer and mixture with a special type of carrier.\nBut before the radiations emitted by the radium and its decay\nelements are useful in any way, one or more of these processes\nis inveriably required.\nThe Radium Company's Processing of the Radium Salts\nThe process which the Radium Company employs in mak-\ning the luminous compound known as Undark starts with radium in\nthe form of radium salts, which it purchases in the hermetically\nsealed tubes. The hermetically sealed tube is opened and the\nradium salt is dissolved in distilled water in a. flask. All\nthe air is then eliminated from the flask so as to get rid of\nthe radon gas which has been generated, leaving only the radium\nbromide solution. This is done in order to decrease the hazards\nof handling the radioactive material, and is the standard prac-\ntice employed in all the different methods of processing des-\ncribed above. The radium bromide solution, now virtually free\nof radon gas, is added to zinc sulphide crystals moistened\nwith water. The zine sulphide with added radium bromide\n-17-\nsolution is stirred to distribute the radium salt on the\ncrystals and while stirring is continued a soluble sulphate\nsalt (e.g. ammonium sulphate) solution is added to form an\ninsoluble radium sulphate coating on the zine sulphide\ncrystals. The coated crystals are then dried by evaporat-\ning the water, are screened to break up lumps, and emerge in\nthe form of & light yellow powder. The dry powder is bottled in\n8. simple glass container, usually containing about one gram of\ncompound. Immediately prior to use, the powder compound is\nmixed with an adhesive or lacquer and applied to instruments\nrequiring illumination, such as the dials of clocks, watches\nand other instruments, and pointers, and various instrument\ncomponents. When so applied, the radium salt remains in intim-\nate contact with the sine sulphide and the alpha radiations 1n-\npinge directly upon the sine sulphide crystals, causing the\ncrystals to emit innumerable and incessant points of light,\nthus illuminating the instrument or dial upon which applied.\nThe consistency of the compound, depending upon the special\napplication, may be varied by the use of a lacquer thinner.\nThe radium salts as such have no effect upon the zine sulphide\ncrystals; it is the radiation of the alpha particles continally\ngiven off by the radium salts, which, when coming in contact\nwith the zine sulphide crystals, creates the illumination.\nThe yellow compound salts in a simple glass con-\ntainer are accompanied by 6 separate bottle containing the\n-18-\nadhesive or lacquer. It is desirable to ship the compound\nin small quantities, not more than is required for immediate\nuse, because just as soon as the drying and screening opera-\ntions are completed, the radon gas begins to form and the\nentire processes of decay and change continue, so that with-\nin a relatively few days the compound powder again begins to\nbe hazardous because of the accumulation of radon gas and the\nother decay elements of radium, which emit the more penetrat-\ning and dangerous radiations.\n-19-"
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